HomeMy WebLinkAboutMicro hydro Dev AK 3 of 4 1980CONTENTS
* TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Micro -Hydro Power: Reviewing an Old Concept, prepared
by The National Center for Appropriate Technology for
the U.S. Department of Energy
* PERMITTING AND STATE -SPECIFIC INFORMATION
Authorities of the Federal
William F. Kopfler, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission,
San Francisco
ired by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for
evelopment, by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
rict, Hydropower Planning Section
Alaska State -Specific Information
o Alaskan Permits Applicable to Micro -Hydro Installations
o Alaskan Sources of Financial Assistance
o Alaskan Micro -Hydro Vendors/Consultants/Equipment
Manufacturers
o Pacific Northwest Micro -Hydro Vendors/Consultants/Equipment
Manufacturers
* FEDERAL FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE OPPORTUNITIES
Federal Financial Assistance Opportunities for
Micro -Hydro Facilities, by Frank Brown, Region X,
U.S. Department of Energy
* BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
Micro -Hydro, A Bibliography, prepared by the University
of Idaho, Water Resources Research Institute
electric Power; Selected References, by
, Region X, U.S. Department of Energy
DOE/ET/01752-1
UC-97e
MICRO -HYDRO POWER: REVIEWING AN
OLD CONCEPT
by
Ron Alward
Sherry Eisenbart
John Volkman
with illustrations by
Hans Haumberger
Technical Research Staff
The National Center for Appropriate Technology
P.O. Box 3838 Butte, Montana 59701
Prepared for
United States Department of Energy
Under Contract No. ET-78-S-07-1752
January 1, 1979
CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements ii
Disclaimer iii
Introduction i
Decision Tree
2
Determining the Hydro
8
Potential of Your Site
Equipment
24
Economics
40
Sources for Financial Assistance
45
Regulatory Conflicts
46
Cautions and Suggestions for 50
the Do-It-Yourselfer and
the Self -Installer
Manufacturers and Suppliers 52
Sources of Professional Services 55
Bibliography 56
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This information package was prepared
by members of the Technical Research Staff for
The National Center for Appropriate Technology,
Butte, Montana, under a small grant from the
United States Department of Energy.
The material for the contents of this
booklet was researched, compiled and edited by
Ron Alward, Sherry Eisenbart and John Volkman.
Hans Haumberger did the illustrations and assisted
in the final lay -out.
Other staff members at NCAT assisted in the
work leading to the final report. These include
Bob Corbett, Lea Anne Dumezich and Noel Nedved.
Bill Delp of Independent Power Developers in
Montana and Doug Smith from Hanover, New Hampshire,
provided invaluable assistance in the preparation of
materials. Some of the information contained herein
derives from their considerable experience in the
field of micro -hydro power. In addition, some of the
graphics have been modeled after those in the
Independent Power Developers information brochure
entitled "Hydroelectric Power".
Ron Alward
Sherry Eisenbart
Hans Haumberger
John Volkman
ii
DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared by the Technical
Research Staff of The National Center for Appro-
priate Technology under contract with the U.S.
Department of Energy.
The information contained herein is, to the
best of our knowledge, accurate as of January 1,
1979. Neither The National Center for Appropriate
Technology, The Montana Energy and MHD Research
and Development Institute, nor any of their employees,
contractors or subcontractors, make any warranty,'
express or implied, or assumes any liability or
responsibility for accuracy, completeness or use-
fulness of any information, apparatus, product or
process.
The National Center for Appropriate Technology
is in no way endorsing or disapproving of any product,
process, company or individual.
No part of this report may be used in any way
to promote any product, company, process or indivi-
dual. No portion of this report may be taken out
of context so as to alter any statement.
iii
INTRODUCTION
Today there is a great deal of public interest in renewable energy
sources such as solar, wind, tides, flowing water and biomass for producing
power for home, shop and farm appliances. Many of the technologies for
converting these renewable sources into useful power have been with us for
centuries and are now once again receiving widespread attention. The gen-
eration of power from flowing and falling water is no exception. In fact,
it is one of the world's oldest and most common energy technologies. But
right now hydro power means big dams and large-scale generation facilities
to most people in North America. On a world-wide basis, however, small-
scale, environmentally benign, mechanical and electrical hydro power systems
are much more common. These are the systems for individual homes, farm and
shop use and generally have power outputs less than 100 Kilowatts. For
convenience in terminology, this scale of hydro power is referred to as
micro -hydro.
This information package has been prepared to respond to an increasing
number of requests for information on micro -hydro systems. It is designed
to introduce the reader to all aspects of micro -hydro, from first consid-
eration of the idea through to production of power. We have attempted to
include as much information as necessary to get you started in the process
and to assist you at each step along the way. We are stressing your involve-
ment in the development of your hydro power system, so a major part of the
contents of this brochure only serve to give you guidelines. They do not,
and cannot, provide detailed descriptions of every stage of the process,
since micro -hydro development is very site specific. Each town, municipality
and state has differing regulations, and your personal motivation and economic
situation are probably very different from the next reader.
One of the particular problems we are addressing is where you can go
to get adequate information that will meet your needs -- whether you want to
do it yourself or get someone else to do it for you. The Extension Service
of the Department of Agriculture used to be the 'place to go for this infor-
mation back in the 1920's. They thought of it as part of their job to help
rural dwellers with their energy problems. But R.E.A. took care of that,
putting most farm and home sites on a regional and eventually national
electricity grid. That need, though, has come around again. Now a lot of
the older information is outdated. Newer equipment has come on line;
different manufacturers and suppliers exist. Nevertheless, today if you
go to any major library, including technical and engineering libraries,
very likely the best resources in the field are still going to be books
published prior to the 1930's. That is because of the lack of interest
in micro -scale hydro systems in North America since that time. Some up-to-
date written information does exist, but for the most part it is fragmented.
There are also a number of people around the world who know a lot about
small and micro -hydro systems, but it is difficult for the average person
to find out who these people are and where they can be contacted. This
information package contains a resource directory, which is an attempt to
put you in contact with the literature, plans, people and companies appropriate
to your needs.
-1-
DECISION TREE
Are you interested in using micro -scale hydro power to generate
electrical or mechanical power? To cut your energy bills? To become more,
or completely, independent of the local utility? To become more responsible
for and responsive to the technologies you use? Whatever the reasons, you
have probably already given it some serious thought, but may not know how
to go about determining the feasibility of using hydro power, or who manu-
factures and sells the equipment, or if a permit to develop it is necessary,
and where, and from whom it can be obtained. What are the problems found
along the way and where do you go for help when a problem is encountered?
We have attempted, in this section, to evolve a sort of "decision tree"
to help you find out if you are able to, or want to, and how to, develop
your site for micro -scale hydro power. We have tried to indicate points of
access to and exit from this decision tree. And we have tried to indicate
at what point and how these decisions are made.
As you follow through this section, each step will lead you farther
along the way, or eliminate you from the process. However, we are interested
in leading you to eventual success, so don't get discouraged if the going
gets rough. Once you become involved you will realize that this is not like
operating a car; you don't simply turn the key on. You're in a rediscovered field
and you are a pioneer in its development. So although things may be in a
bit of disarray, and you feel yourself getting bogged down in a water rights
issue or in licensing problems, remember, that in most situations with the
right attitude you can reduce or eliminate the red tape.
There are several avenues to final success and all of them depend on
you and the degree of your involvement in the process. ''You may follow every
step through on the do-it-yourself model, including building your own equip-
ment and hand -holding every official through permit formalities, or you may
hire an attorney or consultant and pay to have it installed. Or, you may try
numerous combinations of these two.
What we want to do here is to give you enough information so that you
are able to make that first decision as to whether it is worthwhile pursuing
the subject any further. And if it is worthwhile, the following pages
provide you with guidelines for each step along the way.
We will put cautions and stop -flags where we think the limits are, and
we'll indicate to you how rough the estimates may be. But one thing we
want to stress is: I4 .it toohs as though there .is any po.6.6ibit ty at aU,
go on to the next step!
If you come out of this process still with us, then go talk to the
equipment suppliers, buy the equipment, or make it, and install it!
-2-
STEP 1. OBTAIN ACCESS TO LAND WITH RUNNING WATER.
The running water may be a spring or a permanent stream (or inter-
mittent if seasonal energy use is considered). If you own the
land, go on to Step 2. If you are thinking of purchasing the land,
or leasing it for long term, then go to Steps 2 through 4 to deter-
mine if it is worth your while to obtain the land.
STEP 2. DETERMINE IF THE RESOURCE MEETS YOUR LIFESTYLE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS.
If there is not enough energy available in your stream to come
close to what you feel are your needs, then there is not much sense
in going any further. On the other hand, your water resource may
contain an excessive amount of developable power and you may only
want to use a part of it. In order to determine the potential
power you have available in the stream, you will have to quantify
the head and flow rate.
To determine the particular head and flow rate of your stream,
turn to the section, Determinin the II o Potential of Your Site,
and pay special attention to t e mindr
imum f ow considerations that
are indicated. In order to find the power output potential from
a typical hydro system installed in your stream, go to the nomo-
graph on Page 21 with your flow rate and head measurements. You
now have an idea of how much power you can get from your water
resource.
Next, you need to determine how much power you require. If you
are considering mechanical shaft power as your end use, e.g., for
sawing, grinding, or whatever, then you need to know the power
requirements of your machinery. If you want to use the energy
available in the water for generating electrical power for domestic,
shop or farm consumption, then you have to determine your electrical
power needs. The best way to do this is to look at your current
electricity bills and get an idea of the number of kilowatt hours
you are using per month. Remember, if you are using electrical
resistance heating, your bills will indicate a significantly higher
electricity consumption during the winter months than during the
summer. Another way to determine your electrical power needs is to
turn to the table of T ical Household Appliance Loads on Page 23 .
This is a table of estimated average monthly power consumptions
for appliances listed. Now compare your power needs with what is
available from your water resource. If your monthly requirements
are greater than the hydroelectric system will generate in a month,
see where you can reduce consumption to try to match the available
power. If your output is greater than the demand, you may have
surplus power for other end uses such as space heating, operating a
small electric kiln, selling to the utility, etc.
-3-
STEP 3.
STEP 4
It is important to note that there is a head and a flow rate
below which there is currently no economic advantage of trying
to obtain electrical power. These minimum heads and flow rates
are difficult to specify because combinations of high values of
one with low values of the other can give some useful power.
For practical purposes in micro -scale hydroelectric systems, any
head less than 10 feet is probably going to be uneconomical to
develop. Similarly, 10 gallons per minute can be considered the
lower limit to the flow rate. However, 10 gallons per minute at
10 feet of head is not going to give any usable electrical power.
The following examples will indicate some minimum energy situations:
A flow rate of 10 gallons per minute at 100 feet of
head will give about 100 watts of useful power -- enough
to light a 100-watt light bulb continuously.
A flow rate of 100 gallons per minute at 10 feet of
head will also deliver about 100 watts of useful power.
DETERMINE IF YOU CAN USE THE RESOURCE.
Do you have a right to use the water or does that right reside
elsewhere? Remember, in many states and particularly in the
East, water rights do not necessarily transfer with land title.
You will have to investigate this before you proceed any further.
Next, if there is a dam nearby or on your property, can you use
it (e.g., buy or lease it)? Can you get a right-of-way for
needed pipeline across adjacent properties? Can you get building
permits if they are required, such as for a small powerhouse,
dam or diversion?
Can you obtain the necessary licenses and permits for the installa-
tion (see the Section on Re ulator Conflicts)? There are numerous
oc licensing and permitting predures you may have to go through.
A lot depends on which State you are located in, whether or not
the water rises and falls on your land, or just passes through,
whether it comes from, goes to, or is in National Forest or
Indian Tribal lands.
The water use permit process can be
investigate the feasibility at this
possible, then go on to Step 4.
CALCULATE THE COSTS OF THE SYSTEM.
long and drawn out, so just
point. If it looks at all
Determine who the equipment suppliers are for your type of water
resource and find out the costs of their equipment. Most equip-
STEP 5.
ment suppliers will be able to give you a rdugh estimate if you
can supply them with the following information:
* Head
* Usable flow rate
* Length of pipe required from take -off to generator
location, or location of dam with respect to generator
location.
* Power demand -- quantity, and what used for.
* Whether you want AC or DC and what you want to do
with any surplus power.
Include the costs of piping, dam repair or construction (if
needed), laying the pipe, electrical set-up and constructing a
small powerhouse to enclose the turbine, generator and electrics.
There are peripheral advantages to a hydro system. These include
using the water for fire suppression, domestic water supply and
irrigation. Can the inclusion of any or all of these offset
other costs you currently have or expect to have? How do these
affect the cost figure associated with the hydro system?
The next question that arises is: Are the above costs reasonable?
This question can only be answered by knowing your own reasons
for getting involved with micro -hydro. Your non -economic reasons
(e.g., environmental, energy independence) may outweigh any other
considerations, but if you are like most of us, economics helps
play a deciding role. To determine if you can afford the money
outlay to put in a hydro system, you will have to look at the
cost of alternatives, Step 5, and if and how the system can be
financed, Step 6.
THE COST OF ALTERNATIVES TO MICRO -HYDRO SYSTEMS.
Are you currently connected to the utility lines? How much are
you paying for your electricity and would it be advantageous,
economically, for you to disconnect and supply all your own power?
You can determine the economic advantage to you, if any, by doing
a calculation similar to that in the section on Economics.
If your site is isolated and the nearest utility lines are a mile
or more away, you might find that the cost of installing a small
hydro power system is very competitive with the cost of line
extension. On the other hand, if you must use some commercial power,
continuously or seasonally, in some cases the so-called "minimum rate
charge" may eliminate a significant cost saving even if you do install
your own micro -hydro system. It is wise to consider all these things.
-5-
STEP 6. METHODS OF FINANCING A MICRO -HYDRO SYSTEM.
The capital costs associated with micro -hydro power systems
are somewhat high. Typically they can run between $750 and
$1500 per kilowatt of installed capacity. Some imported units
can cost up to $2000 per kilowatt. Your method of financing
the project is going to determine what you will actually pay per
kilowatt hour of power used. The section on Economics will help
you in making this calculation.
You can keep the costs down by doing a lot of the work yourself.
You can build and install some of the needed components (all of
them if you are so inclined and have the time). However, be
forewarned -- if you do most of it yourself, such things as
building the various components, this might close off the tradi-
tional sources of financing. Loans are made on the basis of
guaranteed collateral, and this collateral often relates to the
item in question. So, if the item does not have proven value
to the financier, that is, if it cannot be repossessed and
have a guaranteed resale value comparable to the prorated value
of the loan, then it may not be financable.
STEP 7. START THE PERMITTING PROCESS.
If you have successfully arrived at this point, then now is
the time to proceed with obtaining the necessary permits. There
is a lot of red tape and hassle along the way -- but persevere!
If you approach it with a positive attitude, then you should be
successful. Request help from the various officials concerned --
do not go in demanding everything. See the section on Regulatory.
Conflicts for further information.
STEP 8. BUILD OR BUY THE EQUIPMENT.
Some people will be interested in making or refurbishing as much
of their own equipment as possible. They won't be going to the
supplier or manufacturer for the whole package, but will want to
search out plans and specifications from various sources. A list
of these appears in the annotated bibliography under Plans and
Specifications.
For those who want to buy their equipment, a List of Manufacturers
and Suppliers is included in the section of the same title.
Whatever approach you take, it is important to
quality of the materials and equipment you buy
junk on the market. This is a young industry,
modern rebirth, so you will probably encounter
be sure of the
There is some
at least in its
some unscrupulous
entrepreneurs selling basically untested or worthless equipment.
If you are looking to make your system cost effective, you may
be attracted to the lowest cost equipment. This may or may not
be the approach to take in your particular case. The best way to
ensure product quality is to ask the supplier for a list of previous
customers in your area. Go to one of these sites, talk to the users,
and get their opinions on the equipment.
BUY OR OBTAIN GOOD QUALITY PIPE! Do not use seconds. Use gate
valves in your system. A good gate valve takes long enough to shut
off the water passage that it creates very little water hammer
effect. The pressure wave (water hammer) caused by closing off a
high pressure line too quickly can cause severe damage to the pipe.
DO NOT USE BALL VALVES. A good trash screen at the water intake is
also vital to continued system operation.
If you have to build or rehabilitate a dam for your hydro system,
go see an engineer and get some advice. Dams can be hazards (usually
minor in the case of micro -hydro systems) and their soundness
should be ensured.
The powerhouse you build need only be large enough to house the
turbine, generator, electrics and battery storage (if any).
Minimum requirements are that it be weatherproof and have a dry
floor. Nothing sophisticated is required.
Household -size hydro projects are usually most economically
developed as DC -to -AC systems. However, if you are tying in with
an existing utility grid, synchronous generating systems can often
be installed for less per kilowatt.
STEP 9. INSTALL AND CHECK OUT THE EQUIPMENT.
During installation and equipment check-out, it is important that
you follow all the manufacturer's instructions. Do not take any
shortcuts! Remember, that reputable manufacturers have been in
the business for awhile and they know their equipment. If you
encounter any problems, contact the manufacturer. He will deal
with them. It is much to the manufacturer's benefit to see that
the system goes in and functions well.
If you are installing a DC system, install the turbine -generator
set as close to the use point as possible. This will keep electri-
cal transmission line losses to a minimum.
-7-
DETERMINING THE HYDRO POTENTIAL
OF YOUR SITE
* FLOW MEASUREMENT
* HEAD MEASUREMENT
* POWER CALCULATION
To determine the hydro potential of the water flowing from your spring
or in your stream, you must know both the flow rate of the water and the head
through which the water can usefully fall. The flow rate is the quantity of
water, usually measured in gallons or cubic feet, flowing past a point in a
given time. Typical flow rate units are gallons per minute (gpm) and cubic
feet per minute (cfm). The head is the vertical 'height in feet from the
headwater (in the case of a dam) or the point where the water enters the intake
pipe (where no dam exists), to where the water leaves the turbine housing.
FLOW MEASUREMENT
In order to adequately assess the minimum continuous power output to
be expected from your hydro unit, you will have to determine the minimum
quantity of water that will pass through the system. For this reason, it is
important to know both the minimum flow rate of your stream or spring and
what portion of this flow you can use for power generation. The percentage
of the minimum flow you temporarily divert for power generation becomes a
consideration when you are addressing fisheries (fish movement up and down
the stream) and questions of aesthetics. One manufacturer suggests that only
25% of the dry season flow be used for power generation. This, of course,
depends upon your particular case -- whether you are using a run -of -the -river
system or stored pondage, or if your stream is high head with no evident fish
life.
If you are already familiar with the stream's seasonal variations, then
you can limit flow measurements to the few months surrounding the driest,
or lowest flow, period. However, if you don't know approximately when the
flow is the lowest, you will have to make at least once monthly, but prefer-
ably bi-weekly, flow measurements throughout the complete year.
Once your flow data has been compiled, you are in a position to begin
some calculations. Was this a dry year or a wet year? To determine this,
you will have to get further information, usually from the water resources
people in your area. They will have several years' precipitation and snow
pack data available, if not for your immediate location then for some nearby
major drainage basin. You will have to take a look at this information to
see how your measured year fits into the pattern. Once you have determined
whether your year was dry, typical or wet, then make the necessary corrections
to your data to determine the minimum expected flow rates for your stream.
There is something further which should be noted. If your hydro system
will be producing electricity for a household, it will in many instances be
a DC -to -AC conversion system, so you will be concerned only with minimum
flows. A good flow sampling through the dry season (assuming you know what
the dry season is) is usually adequate. However, if you are considering a
system considerably larger than for a single household, then you will likely
be looking at direct AC systems. You might want to do a little bit more with
load projections, particularly with respect to what can be done with the
energy at the time of year it is available. This will require some feeling
for the maximum and mean stream flows as well as the minimum. In addition,
if your system requires a dam, then it becomes vital to know maximum stream
flows in order to adequately size spillways for bypassing excess water in
order to prevent damage to your installation.
How to measure stream or spring flow:
For small mountain streams or for springs, temporarily dam up the
water and divert the entire flow into a container of known size.
Carefully time the number of seconds it takes to fill this container.
For example:
If it takes 40 seconds to fill a 55 gallon barrel, the
flow rate is 1.375 gallons per second, or 82.5 gallons
per minute, or 11 cubic feet per minute.
For larger streams, the float method can be used. If done carefully,
and repeated several times, it can give results accurate enough for
most calculations. In order to use this method, you need to know the
cross -sectional area of the stream and the stream velocity.
The cross -sectional area should be determined at some easily measured
spot in the stream, preferably in the middle of a straight run of the
stream. Measure the width (w) of the stream in feet. Then, using a
stick, measure the depth in feet at equal intervals across the width
of the stream (see Figure A). Record the depth at each interval and
calculate the average depth.
For example:
With a stream cross-
section as in Fig. A,
d = depth
dl =
1.0
feet
d2 =
1.3
feet
d3
= 1.2
feet
d4 =
1.8
feet
d5
= 1.0
feet
d6
= 0.8
feet
d7
= 1.1
feet
d8 =
1.8
feet
d9
= 1.3
feet
d10 =
0.7
feet
Total = 12 feet
Average d = 0 = 1.2 feet
-10-
Next, multiply the width (w) by the average depth (d) to get the cross -
sectional area (A) of the stream in square feet.
For example:
In the above stream, say the width at the point of
making the depth measurements was 8 feet, then the
cross -sectional area (A) is
A = w X d
A = 8 feet X 1.2 feet
A = 9.6 square feet
The stream velocity can be determined by choosing a straight stretch
of water: at least 30 feet long with the sides approximately parallel
and the bed unobstructed by rocks, branches or other obstacles. Mark
off two points, say 30 feet apart, along the stream. On a windless
day, place a float upstream of the first marker, in midstream. A
pop bottle, partially filled with small stones so that it rides with
its neck out of water, is a good float. Carefully time the number
of seconds it takes the float to pass from the first marker to the
second. Repeat this process several times and average the results.
For example:
The average time for a float to travel between two
markers placed 30 feet apart is 15 seconds. The
velocity of the float is thus
30 feet = 2 feet/second
15 sec.
This float velocity does not, however, represent the velocity of all
the water in the stream. The water at the sides and bottom of the
stream flows less quickly than that at the center or near the top
due to stream bed friction and channel roughness. A correction factor,
depending on the roughness or smoothness of the stream bed, is usually
included to give an estimated average stream velocity. This correction
factor can vary from 0.6 for a rocky hill stream, to 0.85 for a stream
with very smooth bed and sides.
For example:
Taking the float velocity commuted above, the stream
velocity (V) for a fairly rough hill stream is
V = 2 feet/second X 0.65 = 1.3 feet/second
or V = 78 feet per minute.
The flow rate of the stream can now be calculated by multiplying the
cross -sectional area of the stream (A) by the stream velocity (V).
-11-
I
SCALE
FIGURE A
FIGURE B
/O EQUALLY SPACED
- NOTCHES
VARYING DEPTHS
-12-
For example:
Flow =AXV
Flow =
9.6 sq
ft
X 78 ft/min
Flow
= 743.8
cubic
feet/min.
Now, depending on what portion of the stream flow you can or want
to use, you can now determine the usable flow. Simply multiply the
stream flow rate you have just calculated by the portion of the flow
you will be using.
For example:
If you will only be using 25% of the minimum stream
flow, and the stream flow you have determined above
is 748.8 cubic feet per minute, then the usable flow
is
Usable Flow = 748.8 cfm X 0.25
Usable Flow = 187.2 cfm
There is a third method for determining stream flow. This is called
the Weir Method. This method is accurate and can be used to measure
the flow rate of any stream. It is particularly advantageous for flow
measurements in shallow streams where a weighted float would have
difficulty floating freely. However, it is also a more complicated
technique for measuring flow.
Essentially, a temporary dam structure is built across the stream
perpendicular to the flow, with a rectangular notch or spillway of
controlled proportions located in the center section. This notch
has to be large enough to take the maximum flow of the stream during
the period of measurement, so make some rough estimate of the stream
flow prior to building the Weir. The notch width (W) should be at
least three times its height (h) and the lower edge should be per-
fectly level. The lower edge and the vertical sides of the notch
should be beveled with the sharp edge upstream. The whole structure
can be best built out of timber with all edges and the bottom sealed
with clay, earth and sandbags to prevent any leakage. A typical Weir
is illustrated in Figure B.
In order to measure the flow of water over the Weir, you have to set
up a simple depth gauge. This is done by driving a stake in the stream
bed at least 5 feet upstream from the Weir, until a pre-set mark in
the stake is precisely level with the bottom edge of the notch. The
depth of water on this stake, above the pre-set mark, will indicate the
flow rate of water over the ',leir. You will need to refer to a "Weir
Table" in order to determine this flow rate. A typical "Weir Table"
follows.
-13-
WEIR TABLE
Depth on Stake
in inches
c.f.m.per inch
of notch width
Depth on stake
in inches
c.f.m.per inch
of notch width
1
0.40
12.5
17.78
1.25
0.55
12.75
18.32
1.5
0.74
13
18.87
1.75
0.93
13.25
13.5
13.75
19.42
19.97
20.52
2 1.14
2.25 1.36
2.5
1.59
14
21.09
2.75
1.83
14.25
14.5
21.65
22.22
3 2.09
3.25
2.36
14.75
22.70
3.5
2.63
15
23.38
3.75
2.92
15.25
15.5
23.97
24.56
4 3.22
4.25
4.5
4.75
3.52
3.83
4.16
15.75
25.16
16
16.25
.16.5
26.36
26.97
5 4.50
5.25
4.84
16.75
27.58
5.5
5.18
17
28.20
5.75
5.54
17.25
17.5
28.82
29.45
6 5.90
6.25
6.28
17.75
30.08
6.5
6.65
18
30.70
6.75
7.05
18.25
18.5
31.34
31.98
7 7.44
7.25
7.84
18.75
32.63
7.5
8.25
19
33.29
7.75
8.66
19.25
19.5
33.94
34.60
8 9.10
8.25
9.52
19.75
35.27
8.5
9.96
20
35.94
8.75
10.40
20.25
20.5
36.60
37.28
9 10.86
9.25
11.31
20.75
37.96
9.5
11.77
21
38.65
9.75
12.23
21.25
21.5
39.34
40.04
10 12.71
10.25
13.19
21.75
40.73
10.5
13.67
22
41.43
10.75
14.16
22.25
22.5
42.13
42.84
11 14.67
11.25
15.18
22.75
43.56
11.5
15.67
23
44.28
11.75
16.20
23.25
23.5
45.00
45.71
12 16.73
12.25
17.26
23.75
46.43
24
47.18
-14-
To use the table, determine the depth of water in inches over the
pre-set stake mark. Take this value to the Weir Table and read off
the flow rate in cubic feet per minute per inch of notch width.
Multiply this volume flow rate by the width, in inches, of your
Weir notch. This will give you the stream flow rate in cubic feet
per minute.
For example:
On a particular stream you have built a Weir with a
notch width of 30 inches. The depth of the water on
the stake above the pre-set marking is 6, inches. On
the Weir Table, read opposite 6.25 inches to the flow
rate of 6.28 cfm per inch of notch width. The flow
rate of the total stream is then
6.28 cfm X 30 in.
or 188.4 cfm
When you have the Weir in place, you can easily take readings at your
convenience. If you are going to use the Weir for any extended period
of time, it is important to frequently ensure the watertightness of
the sides and bottom.
-15-
HEAD MEASUREMENT
The greater the vertical distance that water falls, the more potentially
useful power there is available in the water.
How to measure head:
1. For high head systems, detailed topographical maps of your area
may give some indication of the vertical height difference between
proposed intake and tailwater levels. However, the accuracy of map
reading is limited so this technique should only be used for very
preliminary estimations.
2. For those who are acquainted with photographic surveying techniques,
this method can give fairly accurate results. Pictures taken in the
field can be developed and the elevations scaled on the photographs.
But caution -- this is not a method for amateurs. Photographic
surveying requires some skill and training.
3. Pocket altimeters can give you preliminary estimations of the elevation
difference between intake and tailwater locations on proposed high
head systems. However, the accuracy of measurement is not suitable
for any serious calculations.
There are some larger portable altimeters on the market, which tend
to be very expensive, that can enable you to make elevation measure-
ments within an accuracy of a couple of feet. These instruments are
suitable for engineering calculations; however, they do not give as
precise measurements as do the following three methods.
4. Any good surveyor can be hired to determine the head for you. Ask
the surveyor to simply find the vertical distance between your water
source, or proposed intake location, and the proposed location of the
power plant. Hiring a surveyor is going to be somewhat expensive, so
if this is your only alternative, you want to be reasonably sure that
you intend to carry through with the project. If your head is less
than 25 feet, you need very precise measurements,so a surveyor may be
advisable.
5. If you know how to use standard surveying equipment, for example a
transit or a surveyor's level and leveling rod, borrow or rent the
appropriate pieces and get a friend to help you make the necessary
measurements.
6. Another technique involves a do-it-yourself approach. The equipment
required is a carpenter's level, some sort of stand to raise the level
a few feet off the ground, and a tape measure. You may or may not use
-16-
someone else to assist you. The method is described below in relation
to the following diagram:
a) Set the level on the stand; make sure the level is horizontal
(level) and that its upper edge is either at the same elevation
as the water source, or a known vertical distance above the
water surface.
b) Sight along the upper edge of the level to a spot on a nearby
object (tree, rock, building) that is further down the hill and
which can be reached for measuring.
c) Note this precise spot on the object and mark it (Point A in the
diagram).
d) Move your level and stand down the hill slope and set it up again
so that this time the upper edge of the level is at some Point B
below Point A on the first object, as in the drawing. Mark this
Point B and measure and record the vertical distance A to B. Now
sight along the upper edge of the level in the opposite direction
to another object that is further down the hill.
e) Repeat this procedure until you end up at the same elevation as
the proposed power plant site.
f) If more than one set-up was required, add all the vertical distances
A-B. If your first set-up was above the water surface, subtract the
vertical distance between the water surface and the upper edge of
the level from the sum of the vertical distances. You now have the
total head.
H
SOURCE OF �'
COLLECT/ON �.
Measuring HEAD
MEA5 URING ROD, OR SOME
MEASURABLE OBJECT
4
0
LOCATION OF
HYDROPOWER 517E
FIGURE C
-17-
In undertaking the above measurements there are a few things you should
remember:
-- You do not need to be concerned with horizontal distances
for head determination.
-- Every time you re -set the level, its upper edge should be at
precisely the same level as Point B (sight back to check).
-- You need not travel in a straight line.
Once you have the total, or gross, head, there are various losses to
be considered before you can make any theoretical power calculations. The
net head is required for these calculations.
NET HEAD = GROSS HEAD - LOSSES
Now, losses occur for several reasons. Whenever water flows through a pipe
there are friction losses. These friction losses are greater for increased
flow rates and also greater for smaller pipe diameters. Elbows and bends
in the pipe will also increase friction losses. PVC pipe offers low friction
loss, rarely exceeding 8% of the gross head. Good steel pipe has twice the
friction loss as PVC. Iron, asbestos and concrete pipe all cause higher
losses. Typical PVC pipe losses are indicated in the nomograph on Page 22 .
Any reputable pipe manufacturer or supplier will be able to supply you with
the pipe size and friction loss information for your particular flow conditions.
Other losses that might occur in your hydraulic system depend on the
type of turbine or wheel that you will be using. For example, in an impulse
turbine there is a slight head loss due to the vertical distance between the
nozzle jet and the tailwater. Overshot water wheels also suffer some
inherent loss since the wheel has to run free of, and therefore slightly above,
the tailwater. On the other hand, crossflow, Francis and propeller turbines
with draft tubes have almost no inherent head losses.
POWER CALCULATION
Once you have determined the usable flow rate and the net head for your
particular site, you are in a position to calculate the amount of power you
can expect. You will first have to calculate the theoretically available
power, assuming that 100% of the power available in the water can be usefully
converted.
The theoretical power available (Pth) is given by the following equation:
Pth = 62.4 Q X h
where Q = usable flow in cfm
h = net head, in feet
62.4 = density of water in lbs/cubic foot
This gives Pth in foot-pounds per minute.
No
To convert this to horsepower, the equation
becomes:
Pth = 62.4 Q X h
33b0U—
Q X h
529
To convert to Kilowatts, the same equation
becomes:
Pth = 62.4 Q X h X 0.745
33,000
=Q X h
709
For example:
Using a flow rate (Q) of 5 cfm and a net head (h)
of 100 feet, the theoretical power, in Kilowatts, is
Pth = Q X h
709
5X100
709
= 0.7 Kal
= 700 Watts
The theoretical power available represents more power than you will
get out of your equipment. All of the riachinery and other equipment that you
use to convert the power available in the flowing water to mechanical shaft
or electrical power are less than ION' efficient. As an indication, typical
efficiencies of water wheels and turbines are listed below. More precise
figures are available from the manufacturers.
Typical Efficiency Ranges for Small Water
Wheels and Turbines
Prime Mover Efficiency Range
Water Wheels - Undershot 25 - 45`.,
- Breast 35 - 65%
- Poncelet 40 - 600
- Overshot 60 - 75%
Turbines- Reaction 80%
- Impulse 80 - 35%
- Crossflow 60 - 80%
-19-
To transmit the power from water wheel or turbine to a generator,
alternator, or some mechanical system also entails losses. Belt drives are
95 to 97% efficient for each belt; gear boxes 95% and higher; alternators
and generators 80%. If you use second hand equipment, you can adjust the
efficiency rating down slightly.
Typical overall efficiencies for electrical generation systems can vary
from 50 to 70%, with the higher overall efficiencies occurring in the high
head, high speed impulse turbines. Overall efficiencies of systems using
water wheels are usually well under 50%.
For example:
Using our previous figures, the theoretical power
available (Pth) was 700 Watts. If an impulse turbine,
with efficiency of 80%, is used with a single belt
drive to an 80% efficient alternator, then the useful
power (P) is
P = 700 Watts X 0.8 (turbine) X 0.95 (belt drive)
X 0.8 (alternator)
P = 426 Watts
In summary, here are the steps to follow to determine the hydro
potential of your site:
1. Measure the water flow rate using one of the following:
-- timed container filling method,
-- float method, or
-- Weir method.
2. Determine the usable flow -- that portion of the stream flow
you can use.
3. Measure the total or gross head, preferably with:
-- surveyor's equipment or
-- carpenter's level and stand.
4. Deterrine the net head by subtracting friction and other losses
from the gross head.
5. Calculate the theoretical power available using either
Pth = Q X h horsepower or Pth = Q X�h Kilowatts
S29 709
where Q = usable flow rate in cubic feet per minute
h = net head, in feet.
6. Calculate the useful power available by multiplying Pth by the
efficiency of each piece of machinery linked into the system between
and including the water wheel or turbine and the unit giving out the
useful power.
-20-
NOMOGRAPH TO DETERMINE TYPICAL OUTPUT
POWER FROM A MICRO -HYDRO SYSTEM
(Assumed system efficiency of 530MI)
HEAD l-J --i 1 _
$ $ I N w PIPE CLA55 REQUIRED
I
I
O 00 O m IO " O O O tl 6 0 6 6
GENERATED KW w
POWER
KWHIHONTH x /00 -+
PEAK OUTPUT - 18KW 12 MW 9KM GKW 3KW
I
o 0
GPM
FLOW
GFM-ju!ti�}I,tiit4�11
I
Adapted from: Independent Power Developers'
brochure "Hydroelectric Power".
Once you know the usable flow rate of your stream and the net head, then
you can use a nomograph similar to the one above to determine the power you can
expect from your turbine. For example, suppose you have a usable water flow
rate of 500 gpm through a net head of 50 feet. To determine the power you can
expect from the turbine, locate the flow rate, 500 gpm on the FLOW line, and
the head, 50 feet, on the HEAD line. Join these two points with a straight line.
The point where this line cuts the POWER line is the power output of your turbine.
The POWER line gives three pieces of information. The continuous power output,
in generated kilowatts, is 2.5. This means that your turbine will be putting
out a constant 2.5 KW if the water flow rate conditions stay the same as assumed.
At a continuous power output of 2.5 KW, you can expect to produce nearly 2000
kilowatt hours per month, as indicated on the first scale on the left side of
the POWER line. If you are using a DC system, feeding into storage batteries,
then your system can have a peak power output of 12 KW, as shown by the brackets.
-21-
NOMOGRAPH TO DETERMINE LOSSES DUE
TO FRICTION IN PVC PIPE
VELOCITY
o y o 0 0
o a o o�Q o 0 00�
FRICTION
PIPE SIZE T
FLOW GPM
CFM
4
FEET PER SECOND
8 S S HEAD L055 IN FEET
8 °O ~ P6R 100 FT OF PIPE
d bbld
'-, * IN, 'o `� I- v m w IN '\ (160 P51 PVC PIPE)
g m� h * w ry
Adapted from: Independent Power Developers'
brochure "Hydroelectric Power".
Sample calculation to illustrate use of nomograph:
Suppose you have a water flow rate of 500 gallons per minute through a
6-inch diameter PVC pipe. To determine the head loss due to friction,
locate the flow rate value, 500 gpm, on the FLOW line, and the pipe
diameter, 6 inches, on the PIPE SIZE line. Using a straight edge, draw
a straight line through these two points and continue it to cut the
FRICTION line. The FRICTION line is cut at a value of 1.50, which means
that for the pipe size and flow rate given, there is a head loss due to
friction of about 1.50 feet for each 100 feet of pipe length used in your
system. An extension of this same straight line to intersect the VELOCITY
line indicates that the water is flowing through the pipe at about 5.8 feet
per second.
-22-
TYPICAL HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCE LOADS
POWER AVG. HOURS TOTAL POWER CONSUMP.
APPLIANCE (WATTS) USE/MO. KW HR/MO.
Blender
600
3
2
Car Block Heater
450
300
135
Clock
2
720
1
Clothes Dryer
4600
19
87
Coffee Maker
600-900
12
7-11
Electric Blanket
200
80
16
Fan (kitchen)
250
30
8
Freezer (chest, 15 cu ft)
350
240
84
Hair Dryer (hand-held)
400
5
2
Hi-Fi (tube type)
115
120
14
Hi-Fi (solid state)
30
120
4
Iron
1100
12
13
Light (60-Watt)
60
120
7
Light (100-Watt)
100
90
9
Lights (4 extra, 75-Watt)
225
120
27
Light (fluorescent, 4')
50
240
12
Mixer
124
6
1
Radio (tube type)
80
120
10
Radio (solid state)
50
120
6
Refrig. (standard, 14 cu ft)
300
200
60
Refrig. (frost free, 14 cu ft)
360
500
180
Sewing Machine
100
10
1
Toaster
1150
4
5
TV (black & white)
255
120
31
TV (color)
350
120
42
Washing Machine
700
12
8
Water Heater (40-gal)
4500
87
392
Vacuum Cleaner
750
10
8
Shop Equipment:
Water Pump (2 hp)
460
44
20
Shop Drill (4', 1/6 hp)
250
2
.5
Skill Saw (1 hp)
1000
6
6
Table Saw (1 hp)
1000
4
4
Lathe (2 hp)
460
2
1
-23-
EQUIPMENT
* TURBINES
WATER WHEELS
* SIZING THE SYSTEM
* POWER GENERATION & STORAGE
* LOAD CONTROL & GOVERNORS
* OTHER EQUIPMENT
-24-
TURBINES
A water turbine is basically a device that converts the energy in
falling water into rotating mechanical energy. This energy, available in a
rotating shaft, may either be used directly to operate mill and grinding
equipment or hooked to a generator to produce electricity. Water turbines
take many shapes and have been used around the world for centuries. Although
this section will deal primarily with the generation of electricity, refer-
ences on mechanical applications have been included for those who are interested.
The energy potential that is available at a hydro site is the result of
the combination of the "head" and "flow" that is present. It is possible to
produce a given amount of power with high head and low flow, low head and
high flow, or any combination in between. Sites generally with less than
60 feet of head are referred to as "low head" and those with over 60 feet
are "high head." It is also generally assumed that a head of one meter is
the absolute minimum needed to develop hydro power, but less than 10 feet
(approx. 3 meters) is probably uneconomical to develop.
Because low head projects require large amounts of water and thus
physically large equipment, the resulting unit cost of power generated will
be higher than for high head sites with similar power potential. For this
reason, most micro -hydro systems being developed in the United States are
of the high head type. This is not, however, to say thatlow head sites are
uniformly uneconomical. There are a great many large-scale low head systems
operating around the world.
Water turbines are generally very efficient in converting the energy
available in the water resource into mechanical and electrical energy. In
fact, efficiencies of 70-85% are not uncommon. Some turbine designs are
intended to operate at a specific flow and their efficiency suffers greatly
with any variation, while others are more flexible. Also, because of operating
characteristics, turbines are usually designed for a specific application and
output. You will generally gain nothing by installing a unit that is larger
than your water resource is capable of driving. It is important that you have
a good understanding of both your energy requirements and characteristics of
the water resource, so that the proper equipment can be selected.
-25-
HIGH HEAD
k�,' INSTALLATION
i
OR SPRING
GENERATED ELECTRICITY
FOR 0I5TRIBUTION
MAIN BREAKER X
Adapted from: Independent Power Developers'
brochure "Hydroelectric Power".
-26-
GENERATED ELECTRICITY'
FOR DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM ENCLOSURE
MAIN BREAKER 43OX
INTAKE SOURCE
✓ERTER
10
PIPELINE
,BATTERY BANK
OUTLET
DRAFT TUBE
\ i
LOW HEAD
INSTALLATION
Adapted from: Independent Power Developers'
brochure "Hydroelectric Power".
-27-
Impulse Units In General
Impulse turbines generally use the velocity of the water to move the
runner, rather than pressure, as is in the case with reaction and propeller
designs. Also, because of this, they generally discharge to atmospheric
pressure, there is no suction on the down side of the turbine, and the water
simply falls out the bottom of the turbine housing after hitting the runner.
Impulse units are generally the simplest of all common turbine designs and
are widely used in micro -hydro applications.
The Pelton Wheel:
In general terms, a Pelton Wheel is a disc with paddles or buckets
attached to the outside edge. The water passes through a nozzle and
strikes the paddles one at a time, causing the wheel to spin. The
buckets are shaped so that the water stream is split in half and caused
to change direction, heading back in the opposite direction to the
original water stream for greatest efficiency. The shape and smooth-
ness of the buckets is important. Because the power developed by a
Pelton 11heel is largely dependent on the velocity of the water, it is
well suited for high head/low flow installations. Operating effici-
encies in the 80% range are common and micro units using the Pelton
Wheel are produced by several firms in North America.
0
0
The Turgo Impulse Wheel:
The Turgo unit is a variation and perhaps improvement on the Pelton.
It is made exclusively by Gilkes of England. The Turgo runner is a
cast wheel whose shape generally resembles a fan blade that is closed
on the outer edge. The water stream is applied to one side, goes
across the blades and exits on the other side. The stated advantages
of this design are that power equivalent to the Pelton can be produced
with a smaller wheel at higher speed. Like the Pelton, it is possible
to use more than one water jet on a single wheel in situations where
relatively lower head and higher flow are present. Also as with the
Pelton, the wheel itself is made in relatively few sizes and different
nozzle sizes are used to match the equipment to the site conditions.
The Crossflow Turbine:
A crossflow runner is drum -shaped with the blades fixed radially along
the outer edge. The unit, open in the center, resembles a "squirrel
cage" blower. When looked at from the end as though it were a clock
face, the water enters at 9 o'clock, crosses across the center and
exits at 4 o'clock; thus the name crossflow. Most commercially
available crossflows are made by Ossberger of West Germany or by
someone else under their license. Because of its design, the cross -
flow is said to largely be self-cleaning and is well suited to low head
applications. Ossberger has, in fact, installed them successfully in
situations wiVi only 39 inches (1 meter) of head. The Ossberger cross -
flow uses a metering vane at the intake side and maintains high effi-
ciency over a wide range of flow rates. Because the runner and housing
fit fairly close, a draft tube is used on the down side of the turbine,
allowing some flexibility in installation relative to turbine place-
ment and tail water level. The crossflow is used widely around the
world, although it is less common in the United States.
-29-
Crossflow Turbine
ol
-30-
Reaction Turbines in General
Reaction turbines, while doing the same thing as impulse designs, work
on a different principle. The runner is placed directly in the water stream
and power is developed by water flowing over the blades rather than striking
each individually. Reaction turbines use pressure rather than velocity.
The function is more like that of a centrifugal water pump running in its
reverse mode. Reaction units tend to be very efficient at specific designed -
for situations and their efficiency falls sharply with any variation. The
Kaplan design is intended to address that problem. Reaction units are usually
the ones used in very large installations.
The Francis Turbine:
Francis units are typically installed in very large hydro power develop-
ments. The water is introduced just above the runner and all around it
and then falls through, causing it to spin. Francis units are designed
very specifically for their intended installation, use a complicated
valve system, and thus are not generally used in micro -hydro applications.
-31-
Propeller Turbines:
This design resembles a boat propeller running in a tube and
operates on a similar principle. As with the Francis, the water
contacts all of the blades constantly and it is thus imperative that
the pressure in the cross section of the pipe be uniform. If, for
example, the unit were operating horizontally and the pressure at
the top of the tube were less than at the bottom, the runner would
be out of balance. There are several variations on how the principle
is applied, i.e., the bukb turbine in which the turbine and generator
are a sealed unit placed directly in the water stream; the ztAa62ow
in which the generator is attached directly to the perimeter of the
turbine; the tube turbine in which the penstock bends just before or
after the runner, allowing a straight line connection with the genera-
tor, which is located outside of the pipe. The Kaplan, a variation
on all of these, has adjustable blades on the propeller to allow for
variations in flow rates. Depending on site conditions, the unit can
be installed in any position from horizontal to vertical. The most
common reaction turbine design used in micro -hydro is the tube, some-
times with the Kaplan blade arrangement.
-32-
WATER WHEELS
Water wheels are the traditional technologies used for converting the
energy in flowing and falling water into useful mechanical power. They are
usually large diameter, slow turning wheels that are most suited to generating
mechanical power. This mechanical power can be efficiently used for milling
and grinding processes, operating saws, lathes, drill presses and pumps. Or,
it can be inefficiently but still effectively used for generating electricity
after the rotational shaft speed has been geared up to some suitably higher
rpm. Water wheels offer some advantages over higher speed turbines. First,
it is quite possible for the individual to construct his/her own water wheel
with minimum workshop facilities. Some plans and specifications for water
wheel construction are listed in the Bibliography. Water wheels can offer
high torque and are thus capable of driving heavy, slow turning mechanical
equipment. They will operate in situations of large water flow rate variations
and they require minimal maintenance and repair. In addition, trash racks
and screens are usually not required, since most water wheels can operate with
dirt, stones and leaves entrained with the water. The disadvantages of water
wheels are several. They are significantly less efficient than higher speed
turbines, they operate at slow speed, and they are bulky. As well, in many
areas of North America it is necessary to house them in fairly large structures
or otherwise provide some protection to avoid freeze-up if year-round operation
is required.
Undershot Wheel:
This is the most basic of water wheels. Water passing under the wheel
strikes the blades or paddles, causing the wheel to rotate. It can operate
on a minimum of one foot of head (producing almost no power at this head),
and has a low efficiency. The optimum head range is 6 to 15 feet, with
minimum wheel diameter being about 15 feet.
-33-
Poncelet Wheel:
This is an adaptation of the undershot wheel, in which the blades are
curved to provide more efficient water interaction with the wheel.
This wheel makes use of the velocity of the water which has been held
back and forced through a narrow opening. Minimum diameter of a
Poncelet Wheel is about 14 feet and they usually operate best with
heads of 7 feet or less. Efficiencies are higher than for the under-
shot wheel.
These wheels require a breastworks of concrete fitted close to the rim
of the wheel in order to help retain water in the buckets. The close
clearances necessitate the use of trash racks to keep stones and wood
from entering the system and causing damage.
-34-
Breast Wheel:
Water enters the breast wheel below the top of the wheel and is kept
in the wheel buckets by a close fitting breastworks until it discharges
at or near the lowest point on the wheel. Breast wheels operate best
with heads less than 10 feet,and wheel diameters usually range between
the head and three times the head. High breast wheels (water entering
above the center shaft) have efficiencies that can approach 65%. Low
breast wheels (water entering below the center shaft) usually have
efficiencies between 35 and 40%.
Breast wheels require somewhat complicated, curved breastworks. In
addition, the buckets have to be ventilated to allow air to escape
to the next higher bucket as each bucket fills. The close tolerances
of the breastworks give the same disadvantages in terns of water -borne
debris as for the Poncelet wheel. The complicated construction tech-
niques and the lower efficiencies, particularly in the low breast
wheels, usually make other types of water wheels more attractive.
-- IN Piri
-35-
Overshot Wheel:
Water is supplied by a nearly horizontal chute to the top of the water
wheel. The weight of the water in the rim buckets causes the wheel
to turn. The entering water usually strikes the buckets with a velocity
somewhat greater than the rim speed so as not to be struck by the back
of the buckets and be splashed off the wheel. The water supply, and
thus the power output, is controlled by a hand -operated sluice gate.
Overshot wheels are generally the most efficient of the water wheels.
They can operate on any head above 10 feet. Today, the upper limit
on the head is around 30 feet because of the cost of constructing a
wheel of that diameter.
-36-
SIZING THE SYSTEM
It is important early in your project to examine your power needs
and the characteristics of that need. There are two separate but related
questions here: Total Consumption and Peak Consumption.
THE TOTAL CONSUMPTION IS THE NUMBER OF KILOWATT HOURS USED IN A
GIVEN PERIOD OF TIME, MOST COMMONLY KC0H PER MONTH.
If you are presently getting your power from the utility company, you need
only check a number of past bills to get this information. Keep in mind
that most household consumption varies by the month, season, unusual changes
in weather, or a change in the number of household members. For example,
taking consumption figures for the months of June, July and August may not
reflect true annual averages. If you are building or buying a new home,
you can estimate your power consumption from the Table on Typical Household
Appliance Loads. If more appliance energy consumption information is
required, you can find this in the following books:
Energy Primer Other Homes and Garbage
The need for accuracy in developing these calculations is real, as over or
undersizing the system will result in a system that is either unnecessarily
expensive or does not meet your needs.
THE PEAK CONSUMPTION IS THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
NEEDED AT ANV ONE TIME.
This second vital piece of information can further be explained in that if
all of the electrical items in the house were operating at once, the resulting
power need would be the peak. Do not confuse this with total consumption,
as the situation could exist where a system could meet one need but not the
other. In micro systems the peak will be more likely to cause you problems
than will the total consumption. As with utility power systems, situations
with high peak load relative to the average load will be less efficient and
more costly than situations where consumption is more uniform. When analyzing
your situation, it may be advantageous or necessary to adjust lifestyles to
fit the system rather than buy a system that can cover a high peak consumptive
pattern.
If you have access to the utility grid, it will be possible to purchase
power needed, but not available from your hydro system, from the power
company. It may also be possible to sell your surplus power back to the
utility company, although that situation will depend on local policy of
the power company and the regulatory agencies.
-37-
POWER GENERATION & STORAGE
Mechanical energy is converted to electricity by a generator, similar
to the one found in your car. The electricity can be either Direct Current
(DC) or Alternating Current (AC). Most, but not all, household appliances
run on AC, 110 volts, 60 cycles, and that will be the most useful type of
electricity to have.
If you intend to be completely independent from the power grid, a
aynchnonous geneiLa,ton is used. AC systems in North America operate at a
frequency of 60 cycles per second and any variation from that will affect
the accuracy of clocks, phonographs and the like. In order to generate
power at this frequency, the speed of the synchronous generator must be
very constant and a govennoK is used to control water flow and thus turbine
speed. If you have access to utility power, you can use an aaynchnonoua
genentton with no governor, since it is self-regulating. In either case,
the generator must run at its design speed and thus some kind of speed
increaser is needed between the turbine and generator.
Another option is to generate direct current and either use it as is or
convert it to AC when needed through the use of an .invetteA. A DC -to -AC
system has several advantages, especially in very small systems (less than
5-KW). The excess power generated by a DC system can easily be stored in
batteries, thereby extending the system's peak capacity. DC generators are
not speed -sensitive and no governor is needed. Thus, a small DC system will
generally cost less and serve needs better than a comparable AC system because
a small direct ACunit often cannot cover peak needs. Battery storage systems
in hydro units generally work better than those in wind power systems because
the hydro generator is always putting some power back into the battery set
except in the most extreme cases. This means that a deep discharge condition,
common with wind systems, is very rare. Deep discharge.is a common cause of
battery failure. The storage function does limit the size of a DC system,
as batteries become unwieldly and very costly in systems over 6-K41.
With a DC system, it is possible to use only DC appliances, although
this is obviously somewhat restrictive and may be expensive if all of your
current appliances run on AC. It would, however, save the cost of a DC/AC
inverter. For those seeking a lowest cost option, an all 12-volt DC system
is possible, as there are many appliances available from recreational vehicle
suppliers.
ZZ
LOAD CONTROL & GOVERNORS
The gove4noa, a device that regulates turbine speed through water
flow on synchronous generators, is available from a variety of sources.
It is reliable and accurate, but does introduce additional cost and main-
tenance factors.
In systems with no storage capability, some sort of toad conttAot is
needed. Hydro units that have access to the power grid may consider the
grid as a sort of storage function, i.e., putting your excess into the grid
and buying it back when demand exceeds supply. This concept is currently
being used in some areas, but wider use is still open to questions. Other-
wise, something must be done with excess power and that is the function of
load control units. Such units usually dump excess energy as heat and that
heat can often be put to good use such as supplementary space or water heating.
When demand begins to approach system capacity, it is possible to use a device
that turns key equipment on and off on a priority basis. Non -essential uses
are turned off and critical needs are met.
OTHER EQUIPMENT
Dams/Impoundments:
Although many micro -hydro units operate without dams, it may, in some
situations, be necessary to build such items into the system. If a dam
is required, depending on where you live, you may have to get a registered
engineer to design it or at least approve your plans. Good dam plans
and construction techniques are described in a number of books, among
them: Cloud Burst
Design of Small Dams
Small Earth Dams
Ponds for Water Supply and Recreation
Powerlines:
If the hydro unit is any distance from the house, you will obviously
need powerlines. Keep in mind that the longer the distance, the larger
the wires that will be needed to avoid unreasonable power loss. This
is especially true of 12-volt systems which require very large wire to
avoid excessive losses.
-39-
ECONOMICS
Any analysis of the economics of a micro -hydroelectric system must
begin with a determination of the system's true total cost. An investment
of this size requires that your calculations be as accurate as possible.
This cost calculation must include not only the turbine and generator, but
also any pipe, cable, buildings, dam, civil engineering work, permits, legal
work and the like. You then have to consider the other options available
for electric power and determine their costs. An important consideration
that might help the economics of developing a micro -hydro system is the other
uses that can be made of the water resource. Fire suppression, domestic
water supply and irrigation might involve additional expenses if they had
to be developed separately. But because there is very little extra cost to
develop these along with a hydro system, they should be figured into your
analysis.. One way to do this is to add the costs of developing alternative
methods of fire suppression, water supply and irrigation to the cost of
obtaining electrical power other than by hydro
One characteristic of many renewable energy resources is that the
"front end costs" are high although the lifecycle costs may be very competitive
with conventional energy sources. Small-scale hydro, for example, is fairly
expensive to purchase, but except for small maintenance costs the system
should provide "free" energy for 10 years or longer. The economic analysis
of hydro must include such lifecycle costs. For those who are developing a
home some distance from existing powerlines, hook-up costs must be considered
when looking at the cost of alternative choices. In many areas of the United
States, power companies charge by distance to hook homesteads up to powerlines;
sometimes as much as $1.50 to $2.00 per foot. A person living 1 mile from
powerlines could thus spend as much as $10,000 to hook-up, thus making the
hydro option very attractive.
The cost for hydroelectric systems is generally in the range of $750 to
$1500 per kilowatt. Variations of cost will depend on any site work that may
be needed, the unit's size (cost per kilowatt will go down as output goes up),
and head (high head units are generally cheaper than low head units of equal
output).
In the event that your site has access to conventional power, and the.
water has no other uses, it may be difficult to justify a micro -hydro unit
on economic terms unless you are willing to take a very long range view.
There are a great many factors that will affect your analysis and any such
calculations must be done on a case -by -case basis. For example:
* Will you base calculations on life of the hydro unit, which
may be 20 years or more, or some shorter period?
* Are you faced with large hook-up charges from the power
company?
,R
* Are tax credits or grants available from the State or Federal .
Government?
* Is your taxable income sufficient to take advantage of the
deductible interest payments on loans?
* How long do you expect to remain at this residence and will the
hydro system have market value when you want to sell?
* Is there any opportunity to sell or barter power with neighbors
or the electric company?
* How much of the installation and maintenance work can you do
yourself?
For a great many people the ideas of self-reliant and self-sufficient
lifestyles are very appealing, irregardless of economic considerations. How-
ever, for most people it is important to separate these ideological considera-
tions from the economic ones. There are a great many people for whom micro -
hydro presents a viable alternative and economic arguments are sufficient.
A SAMPLE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
One realistic way to analyze your electric power options is to.figure
the total cost for each over some period of time and then compute the costs
in current dollars. The following is such an analysis, computed at three
typical interest rates. The following assumptions have been made:
* The hydro system is a 6 KW, DC -to -AC battery storage unit.
* The total cost for the system is $6,000.
* Total maintenance is $1358 over 15 years ($50 per year with
8% annual cost increases).
* The site is near existing powerlines and no hook-up charges are
required.
* Utility power costs start at 4¢ per kilowatt hour and increase
by 10% per year.
* The hydro unit is financed by a 15-year, 10% loan.
* Average monthly consumption is 500 Kilowatt hours.
* The hydro unit is worth $1800 (30% of purchase price) at the end
of the 15-year period.
* No tax deductions or credits are used.
-41-
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Another way of looking at the costs associated with installing, operating and
maintaining a micro -hydro system is to determine how much all of this will cost
you in terms of money spent per kilowatt hour of electricity generated and used.
Independent Power Developers have come up with some graphs that can assist you
in this estimation. These are reproduced on the following pages. The graphs are
set up for various amortization periods, operation and maintenance costs and
interest rates.
go
80
S
Y 70
60
50
O
U
Z 40
0
I•—
W 30
tJ
Z
W
U' 20
10
• 35 YR . AMORT I -
ZATION
OPERATION
M4.INTE NANGE
3%arCAPITAL/YR.
• 10% INTEREST
RATE
i�
LOAD FACTOR
k-O./-
$/INSTALLED KW
The horizontal axis of each graph is the cost of the micro -hydro installation,
given in dollars per installed kilowatt. The vertical axis is the cost of the
electrical power generated in mills per kilowatt hour (10 mills equal one cent).
The family of lines emanating from the lower left in each graph represents lines
of constant load factors. Load factor is simply the average power output of the
generating equipment, divided by its rated power output.
What the load factor lines mean, in essence, is that the more you are able
to use your electrical power, up to the rated capacity of the system, the closer
your system load factor comes to 1.0 and the less per kilowatt hour you spend on
electricity. Micro -hydroelectric systems normally have a load factor range
between 0.6 and 1.0.
-43-
I
0
0
w•
Mol
• 10 YR. AMORTIZATION
OPERATION! t MAINT
5% of CAP/FALlYEA,-
• 8`/ INTEREST RATE
GOAD FACFOR
k = 0.2 —:.,>
0.3
200 400
705
$/INSTALLED KW
W
• IO YR. AMORTIZATION
OPERATION � MAINT.
S% oFC4P/FAL I KEAR
10'/o INTEREST RATE
LOAD FACTOR
k= 0.2-
0.3
Our
O 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
$/INSTALLED KW
SOURCES FOR FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE
At the time of this writing, there are several potential sources for
financial assistance usable in micro -hydro. This area is rapidly expanding
and new programs are likely to be developed.
DOE Small Hydro Proqram
In 1978 Congress produced legislation that will encourage the
development of small-scale hydro (up to 15 MW) on existing dams,
The legislation as written will allow $10 million for feasibility
studies and $100 million for construction. It apparently was not
intended for individual systems, although they are not specifically
excluded. The program may be useful for projects of a neighborhood
or larger scale.
DOE Small Grants Program
The Small Grants Program, designed to encourage the demonstration
of appropriate technologies in general, is administered through
regional Department of Energy offices. The regional offices have
been allowed some flexibility in their administration, and checking
with the office is your area is recommended.
State Grants/Tax Credits
Many states now offer tax credits and/or grants designed to
encourage the development of renewable resources. Many of these
programs specifically reflect solar, but taken in its widest
interpretation, wind and hydro in the broader sense are both solar
energies. Check the legislation in your state to see what inter-
pretation is used. Keep in mind that grant programs are often very
competitive. In the case of the tax credit, you are generally
allowed to deduct some percentage of the system's total cost from
your gross income. Be sure to run a quick calculation using your
own figures to determine the program's effect on the real cost of
your system.
Conventional Bank Loans
One possible source of money is a loan from your local bank. The
interest you pay is deductible, but again be sure to calculate
real effects in your own situation. People that function in a
relatively cash -free economy may derive little benefit from tax
deductions. Also, you may encounter some resistance from the bank,
as they may be uncomfortable about loaning money on something they
don't understand. The development of solar heating systems
encountered a similar problem some years ago. With hydro, this is
likely to be less of a problem in the future. Also, of course be
sure that you are able to afford the monthly payments.
eM
REGULATORY CONFLICTS
A key part of any micro -hydro development program is a study of various
institutional and/or legal barriers that may be present and what can or must
be done to deal with them. There are a wide range of potential problems in
this area, as well as a range of solutions. There may also be some problems
for which there are no solutions, or solutions that are too costly to allow
the project to proceed. It is best to identify those problems very early in
the project time frame and begin what action is needed.
The first step is to determine the ownership of water rights for the
resource being considered. Law pertaining to water rights varies greatly
across the country and a close examination of regulations in your area is
important. Generally, you should not assume that because you own the land
you also own the water that runs across it. In many states, it is possible
to buy land without water rights, as well as buying water rights without
owning the land along it. A property owner downstream may own water upstream
from that property, or the water may be owned by several downstream users,
with each allowed Cu take some percentage of the flow. In many states the
fact that your hydro system will not consume water but only use its energy
makes no difference; you must have legal right to use the water. The water
right for a particular site may go back a great many years and researching
old records may be necessary to determine the true holder of those rights.
Much of the state law regulating water usage was written relative to
its irrigation and domestic use, and thus is not directly applicable to
hydroelectric systems. This may require new legal decisions in some cases
and could mean some hesitancy on the part of regulatory agency personnel.
Do not be discouraged and do not give up because your 6iut nes pone is "no"
A second step is to secure a water use permit, which, in some cases,
may be required from both state and federal agencies. In some states, having
legal right to the water is all that is required. The other situation is
when an additional permit is required, referring to the specific use intended.
Often the actual installation work must begin within some time period or the
permit expires and must be reapplied for. Here again, most water use laws
are oriented toward agricultural uses and questions may arise relative to
their interpretation in the micro -hydro context.
A federal use permit is generally required when the resource or its
development involves federal land, be that Forest Service, Bureau of Land
Management, or whatever. An important point to remember isthat your use is
beneficial and non -consumptive. This is different from agricultural or indus-
trialuses w is may a ene icial but are also consumptive. Be certain to
mention that your intended use is beneficial and non -consumptive, as it should
help in the permit process.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the agency that
issues licenses for non-federal hydroelectric projects. Because most
hydro projects have tended to be very large with significant environmental
issues involved, the FERC licensing process has developed into a lengthy
effort. In September of 1978, reflecting the new interest in small-scale
hydro development, a new short form license application was developed by
FERC. The short form, which covers projects up to 1500 kW, is only two
pages long. However, if the power to be produced by the project would
be consumed at the site, the project may not be subject to licensing by
FERC. In which situation, a declaration of intention should be filed
pursuant to Section 23(b) of the Federal Power Act, and Part 24 of its
Regulations.
The Army Corps of Engineers may have jurisdiction when dredging,
filling, or other construction takes place in a stream. The interpretation
of the applicability of its regulations in this area is the role of the
regional Corps office. In any event, it is best to develop the hydro site
with the least stream alteration possible. The Army Corps of Engineers is
organized by major river basin or drainage areas, and a determination of
what basin you are in is the first step in locating the appropriate Corps
office.
In those situations where a dam is necessary, a permit will be required
from the Crops of Engineers and may be required from state and local agencies
as well. There is often some minimum size in terms of dam height and acres
of water behind it, and units smaller may be exempt from the permit process.
There may also be annual fees, either fixed or variable amount reflecting dam
size. These fees are generally modest and are intended to cover the cost of
inspection programs.
Some states may require that construction plans be done by a registered
engineer, which may be a good idea for those individuals who lack engineering
skills, but will also raise the cost of the project. Generally speaking,
the inclusion of a dam in your hydro project will complicate the effort
substantially and thus should be avoided if possible.
A final area for regulatory concern is environmental impact. This may
include changes in stream flow, blockage of fish movement because of the dam,
flooding of some areas above the dam, and the like. The state agency that is
most likely to be involved in the Department of Natural Resources, Fish and
Wildlife, Conservation or something similar. There may also be federal agencies
-47-
with jurisdiction, depending on local conditions. In the case of dams, you
may be required to install a fish ladder (a water stairway that allows the
fish to move upstream past the dam) and depending on the size and type needed,
they can be very expensive. In some states, people intent on redeveloping
the power potential of an existing dam have been required to put in a fish
ladder even though there had never been one before. Some regulations require
that public hearings be held on the proposed development and from a strictly
administrative standpoint, these can be very time-consuming. As mentioned
above, when planning your hydro project, keep 5tAeam duhnuntuon to an absoZute
m.unimum, and things will go much easier and quicker.
Although it is generally assumed that the power generated by a micro -
hydro system will be used by the individual or family that owns it, there are
efforts around the country to enter the electric generation business on a
small scale. For example, it is now possible to purchase a control unit that
when your demand is greater than the system's output, the balance is purchased
from the power grid assuming you have access to utility power). When, however,
your system is producing more than you need, the control unit feeds the excess
back into the grid and in effect winds the electric meter backwards. This type
of arrangement makes the power grid a sort of storage battery and may allow the
possibility of installing a smaller, less expensive system. It may also affect
the income side of the economic analysis by allowing the sale of small amounts
of power to the grid. Systems of this type are operating in a few isolated
areas and the question is being decided in several others, but generally,
widespread usage is somewhere in the future.
For those people who have more generating capacity than they need, it
may be feasible to sell or barter the power to a nearby neighbor. In some
states the Public Utility Commission will enter the regulatory picture, while
in other areas very small projects Oill be ignored. Also, just as many local
governments operate power companies, it may be possible for several families
living near a hydro resource to form some kind of power co-op to build and
operate the system jointly. Here again, the State Department of Commerce may
have jurisdiction and you may encounter opposition from the local power company.
Electric companies sometimes interpret their monopolistic license as meaning
that no one else can generate power within their service area.
Micro -scale power co-ops and similar arrangements are still very much
in their infancy, but may be a viable option for some people.
By way of summary, some general guidelines for approaching the regulatory
issue may be valuable. First, develop a clear idea of what you want to do,
what the site looks like and how the hydro unit will fit into it. Anticipate
questions and develop sound answers. Be able to explain the project clearly
to people who will hear of micro -hydro for the first time. Because this is a
very new field, you are likely to get a range of fairly negative responses
to your first inquiries. Do not be discouraged, but attempt to determine the
reason behind his/her response, do what is necessary to correct the situation
and continue on.
go
It will be wise to correspond in writing, make copies and keep a file
on all that has transpired. You may want to consult an attorney when dealing
with obtuse legal language.
A final word of caution is that you should start checking out these
regulatory questions very early, before you buy a lot of equipment or other-
wise invest a lot of money. Micro -hydro projects frequently consume one year
from first considering the idea until the first kilowatt is generated.
CAUTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
FOR THE DO-IT-YOURSELFER
AND THE SELF -INSTALLER
The assumption in this section is that you have successfully arrived at
Step 8 in the Decision Tree. Now youare entering the final design and equip-
ment selection stage. The following list of considerations will make installa-
tion much easier and avoid a lot of troubles at some future date.
In the final design stage, ensure that you:
1. Consider your stream bed loading conditions. Silt and rocks
coming down the stream, particularly during periods of high
run-off, can cause intake clogging or even destruction of the
intake pipes.
2. Size the pipe so that it is capable of handling the volume
flow rate that you require. Any responsible pipe supplier can
give you the correct size for the flow conditions you expect.
3. Route the pipeline, fron intake to the turbine, so that it
contains the minimum number of bends. Do not use 450 (or greater)
elbows in the pipeline. Otherwise, there will be too much strain
on the pipe and excessive friction losses.
4. Keep a downhill slope in the pipe at all times (except for the
initial siphon intake, if used) in order to avoid air locks and
silt deposit.
5. Do not let the water velocity in PVC pipe get much above 5 feet
per second. Above this line velocity there are other design
considerations coming into play that the do-it-yourselfer is
not usually prepared to deal with. One of these considerations
is thrust -blocking wherever the pipe bends.
6. Size the pipe in order to maintain about 5 feet/second line
velocity in order to avoid excessive ice build-up in the pipe.
If your line velocity is much less than this and you are installing
the system in an area where winters are severe, then consider
insulating or burying the line.
7. Consider installing a water by-pass before the turbine in case
the water may be needed for fire control.
8. Locate the DC turbine and generator adjacent to the point of use.
This is important in order to keep electrical transmission lines
as short as possible so that line losses are kept to a minimum.
9. Plan to install the system in warmer weather, and not under
freezing conditions if at all possible. You are dealing with a
liquid that freezes at certain times of the year, and if it does
so while you are working with it, it could be dangerous to the
equipment and to yourself.
-50-
When buying or otherwise acquiring your equipment you should:
1. Be sure you deal with a reputable supplier. There is some ,junk
around, so buyer beware!
2. Expect delays in getting quotes and deliveries from equipment
suppliers, since none of them are currently very big and they
are usually quite busy.
3. Obtain pipe that is rated and classed for the pressure rating
it's in. Don't buy seconds.
4. Ensure that you have a good trash control system for the intake.
A screen mesh should be used that has openings smaller than the
minimum nozzle diameter which leads into the turbine. This way
the only solid particles that can come down the pipe will be
small enough to pass through the nozzle without clogging it.
During installation:
1. Be sure you follow the manufacturer's or supplier's instructions
and suggestions.
2. Slow down and do things properly. You are dealing with mechanical
an3 e ec� trical systems. They can cause you a lot of grief unless
treated with respect.
3. Watch for rocks, and be careful placing them, when burying PVC pipe.
4. Use gate vaives wherever valving is necessary. Other kinds of
valving allow you to turn off the water too quickly, causing
dangerous water hammer effects.
5. Use standard house wiring procedures with the electrical hook-up.
Go to your local bookstore and pick up the appropriate electrical
do-it-yourself book. Or, if you feel unsure of your own capability,
go to your local electrician and get him/her to help you.
Once the system is operational, be very sure that you:
Close valves, when you have to, slowly. Take a little time and
screw them closed gradually. Closing a valve too quickly can
cause a shock wave (a high pressure wave) to move through the
water in the pipe. It is going to have some detrimental effect
somewhere along the length of that pipe. This damage is going to
vary depending on the length of the pipe and the velocity of the
water at the point of valve closure. In many cases it will crack
the pipe and you will see a slow leak, or again it could cause a
serious rupture in the pipeline.
-51-
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS
Prime Movers
Independent Power Developers, Inc. Pelton and Propeller Units,
Route 3, Box 285 Complete Systems
Sandpoint, Idaho 83864
The James Leffel Company
Springfield, Ohio 45501
Gilbert, Gilkes & Gordon, Ltd.
Westmoreland, England LA9 7BZ
Small Hydroelectric Systems
P.O. Box 124
Custer, Washington 98240
Ossberger Turbinenfabrik
D-8832 Weissenberg
Pastfach 425
Bayern, West Germany
Escher Wyss, Ltd.
CH-8023
Zurich, Switzerland
Barata Metal Works
J.L. Hgagel (109)
Surabaya, Indonesia
and Engineering PT
Jyoti, Ltd.
Industrial Area
PO Chemical Industries
R.C. Dutt Road
Baroda 390 003, India
Officiene Buehler
Canton Ticino, Switzerland
Westward Mouldings, Ltd.
Greenhill Works, Delaware Road
Gunnislake, Cornwall, England
Campbell Water Wheel Company
420 South 42nd Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Drees & Co. GMBH
4760 Werl/West.
Postfach 43
West Germany
Francis/Propeller/Hoppes Units
Wide range of turbines from
10 KW to multi -megawatt, Turgo
and Kendal
Pelton, with power range 5 to 25 KW
for heads from 50 to 350 feet.
Crossflow (Mitchell or Banki type)
turbines of 1 to 1000 KW.
400 KW mini-straflow
18 KW (plus or minus) Francis
and Crossflow
Francis and Turgo sets from
5 to 25 KW, plus some larger
units
Fiberglass Water Wheels
Water Wheels
Medium to large turbines
-52-
G&A Associates
223 Katonah Avenue
Katonah, New York 10536
Maschinenfabrik Kossler GMBH
A-3151 St. Polten
St. Georgen, Austria
Karlstads Mekaniska Weskstad
Fack S-681 01
Kristinehamn, Sweden
Niagara Water Wheels, Ltd.
706 E. Main Street
Welland, Ontario L3B 3Y4, Canada
AB Bofors Nohab
S-46101 Trollhatten, Sweden
Barber Hydraulic Turbines, Ltd.
Barber Point, P.O. Box 340
Port Colborne, Ontario UK 5W1, Canada
Elektro GMBH
St. Gallerstrasse 27
Winter Thur, Switzerland 8400
Canyon Industries
5346 Mosquito Lake Road
Deming, Washington 98244
Briau SA
BP 43
37009 Tours Cedex, France
Northern Water Power Co.
P.O. Box 49
Harrisville, New Hampshire 03450
Land & Leisure Services
Priory Land
St. Thomas Launceston
Cornwall, England
Alaska Wind and Water Power
P.O. Box G
Chigiak, Alaska 99567
Pumps, Pipe and Power
Kingston Village
Austin, Nevada 89310
Francis units
Small turbine sets of 12 to
1250 KVA rating, plus variety
of larger machines
Range of medium sized horizontal
axis propeller turbines of 50 to
1800 KW
Four models of propeller turbines
with power in range of 20 to 250 KW
Propeller turbines from 100 to
2000 KW
Propeller and Francis turbines
Francis, miniature turbines in
range 50 to 2000 watts
Francis, miniature turbine set
offering 50 to 750 watts
Francis/Propeller turbine sets
to 50 KW
Axial flow propeller turbines with
output range 20 to 250 KW
Propeller turbines
Pelton turbines
Pelton turbines
-53-
Bell Hydroelectric Crossflow turbines
3 Leatherstocking Street
Cooperstown, New York 13326
Balaju Yantra Shala (P) Ltd. Crossflow turbines
Balaju, Katmandu, Nepal
Maine Hydroelectric Development Groups Belfast turbines
Goose River, Maine
Allis Chalmers Large turbines
Hydro Turbine Division
P.O. Box 712
York, Pennsylvania 17405
Miscellaneous Equipment Suppliers
Windworks Gemini Inverter
Box 329, Route 3
Mukwonago, Wisconsin 53149
Lima Electric Company, Inc. AC Alternator
200 East Chapman Road
Box 918
Lima, Ohio 45802
Woodward Governor Company Mechanical Governor
5001 N. 2nd Street
Rockford, Illinois 61101
Natural Power, Inc. Governor
New Boston, flew Hampshire 03070
-54-
SOURCES OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES
P.W. Agnew Research &
Department of Mechanical Engineering Development
The University
Glasgow, Scotland
Dry Buck Ranch Consulting
P.O. Box 5
Banks, Idaho 83602
Guy Immega Consultant/Author
Lacqueti Island
British, Columbia, Canada
Intermediate Technology Group, Ltd. Research &
9 King Street Development
London, England WC2E 8HN
Low Impact Technology Research &
34 Martin Street Development
South Melbourne, Victoria
Australia
David Master Consultant
P.O. Box 302
Milford, New Hampshire 03055
Niagara Water Wheels, Ltd.
Design/Installation
Box 326, Bridge Station
Niagara Falls, New York 14305
Mike Harper, P.E.
Consulting
P.O. Box 21
Construction
Peterborough, New Hampshire 03458
Installation
Doug Smith
Consultant
P.O. Box 43
Hanover, New Hampshire 03759
Tientsin Elector -Driving
Research &
Research Institute
Development
Tientsin, China
Bill Delp Consulting
c/o Independent Power Developers Fabrication
Route 3, Box 285 Installation
Sandpoint, Idaho 83864
-55-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
THE BANKI WATER TURBINE
Prepared and
Published by: School of Engineering
Oregon State University
219 Covell Hall
Corvallis, Oregon USA 97331
This is a short pamphlet which is basically a translation of a German
paper by D. Banki written in 1917. It includes a good section on both
the theory of the Banki crossflow turbine as well as runner construction
details. Some test data is given on a typical turbine. This paper is
only recommended for those serious enough to want to build their own.
The approach is quite scientific.
CLOUDBURST
Edited by Vic Marks
Published by: Cloudburst Press, Ltd. (1973)
Mayne Island
British Columbia, Canada VON 2J0
This book contains an excellent 30-page section on micro -hydro develop-
ment. It goes through the standard techniques of measuring head and
flow, gives good descriptions of do-it-yourself dam building, and tells
you how to build an overshot water wheel and a crossflow turbine. There
is also a fairly good section on water wheel design, describing particular
features of overshot, breast and Poncelet wheel buckets.
A DESIGN MANUAL FOR WATER WHEELS
By W.G. Ovens
Published by: VITA (1975)
3706 Rhode Island Avenue
Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20822
This is a do-it-yourself type booklet intended for use specifically in
developing countries. However, it has obvious application in North
America as well. It deals specifically with design and construction
details of an overshot water wheel for mechanical power.
ENERGY PRIMER
Prepared and Portola Institute (1978 ed.)
Published by: 558 Santa Cruz Avenue
Menlo Park, California 94025
This comprehensive information catalogue focuses on small-scale renewable
energy systems, among which is water. It devotes 22 pages to basic
descriptions of most aspects of harnessing water power. Included are
sections on water rights, environmental considerations, measuring available
water power, building dams, water wheels and turbines. It gives some
construction details on crossflow turbines and the Pelton wheel. Contained
also is a list of over 60 water turbine manufacturers around the world.
-56-
A HANDBOOK OF HOMEMADE POWER
By "Mother Earth News"
Published by: Bantam Books (1974)
This book is available in most bookstores. It includes only a brief
section on hydro power, including plans for a small water wheel.
HARNESSING WATER POWER FOR HOME ENERGY
By Dermot McGuigan
Published by: Garden Way Publishing Co. (1978)
Charlotte, Vermont 05445
This is an excellent book describing all manner of material related to
small and micro -scale hydro. It gives a number of examples of installa-
tions of the various types of water wheels and turbines in the United
Kingdom and the United States. Manufacturers are listed along with
their products and outputs. Equipment costs are often included. It
contains a good bibliography.
HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING
By J.J. Doland
Published by: Roland Press Co. (1954)
New York, New York
This is a good book if you are an engineer and have a background in
hydraulics. It is good on theory and describes practical, but larger,
hydro systems than would be of interest to the homeowner.
LOW-COST DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL WATER -POWER SITES
By H.W. Hamm
Published by: VITA (1967)
3706 Rhode Island Avenue
Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20822
This 43-page booklet gives a lot of good information for every step in
the process of developing small-scale hydro power sites. Descriptions
are included of water wheels, a small 12" diameter crossflow turbine
and the Pelton wheel. Small earth dam construction is also covered.
OTHER HOMES AND GARBAGE
By J. Leckie, G. blasters, H. Whitehouse and L. Young
Published by: Sierra Club Books (1975)
San Francisco, California
This book gives a brief 12-page introduction to micro -hydro power. It
describes techniques of measuring water flow, gives simple dam construc-
tion, and illustrates the basic types of water wheels and turbines. It
is not worth buying this book just for the water power section.
-57-
PRACTICAL WATER POWER ENGINEERING
By W.T. Taylor
Published by: Van Nostrand, USA (1925)
Crosby Lockwood, UK (1925)
This is not necessarily a practical book, particularly when it comes to
construction and installation of water power systems. However, it does
cover, in detail, information on rainfall and run-off, important consid-
erations in determining your stream capacity. Contains good sections on
site selection, reservoir and canals and electrical power transmission.
PRODUCING YOUR OWN POWER
Edited by Carol Stoner
Published by: Rodale Press, Inc.
Emmaus, Pennsylvania
This book deals with a variety of renewable energy systems and includes
a 40-page section on water power. It includes an adequate section on
measuring head and flow and calculating power available. Included is
a five -page piece on determining channel, pipe and other head losses.
Small earth and rock dams are described, as well as typical water wheel
and turbine characteristics and uses. There is also a section dealing
with the VITA hydraulic ram.
USE OF WEIRS & FLUMES IN STREAM GAUGING: TECHNICAL NOTE NO. 117
Published by: World Meteorological Organization (1971)
Publications Center
P.O. Box 483
New York, New York 10016
Describes, in very much detail, techniques for making an accurate
assessment of stream water flow rates.
WATER MEASUREMENT MANUAL
By Bureau of Reclamation (1967)
Available from: Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
This book gives detailed descriptions of a wide variety of techniques
for measuring flow rates with Weirs, flumes, gates, pipes and orifices.
It is somewhat broader in scope than the World Meteorological Organization
book, but no more useful for the micro -scale hydro developer.
WE
DESIGN OF SMALL DAMS
By Department of the Interior (1973)
Available from: Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
This is an excellent book! It is 816 pages long and fairly expensive,
but it may well be worth your while. It describes medium and large -size
earth fill dams -- including all details from site selection, soil
sampling, design considerations and construction techniques. Included
are some excellent sections on environmental impacts and code and
regulation requirements.
PONDS FOR WATER SUPPLY AND RECREATION: AGRICULTURAL HANDBOOK NO. 387
By Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Available from: Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
This book does include most of the information you need to know concerning
small earth -filled dams. It contains good sections on water needs assess-
ment, site selection, drainage areas required for various pond sizes,
spillway requirements, and construction techniques. This book is .not
directly applicable to small-scale dams, since it deals with large farm
ponds built with some heavy equipment; nevertheless, much of the information
is easily transferable.
SMALL EARTH DAMS: CIRCULAR 467
By L.N. Brown
Published by: California Agricultural Extension (1965)
90 University Hall
University of California
Berkeley, California 94720
This circular describes site selection for small dams, construction,
maintenance and management details and has an interesting section on
permits and regulations. It is generally applicable to small earth
dams anywhere, but is specifically related to California experiences.
IM2
Do -It -Yourself Plans and Specifications for water wheel
and turbine construction are included in the following
publications:
A DESIGN MANUAL FOR WATER WHEELS
HANDBOOK OF HOMEMADE POWER
CLOUDBURST
ENERGY PRIMER
LOW-COST DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL
WATERPOWER SITES
THE BANKI-VIATER TURBINE
Overshot Wheel
5-Foot Diameter Wheel
Overshot, Undershot
and Crossflow
Overshot, Crossflow
and Pelton
Crossflow
Crossflow
WATER POWER HYDRAULIC Water Wheels
ENGINEERING, 1899
Reprinted in Alternative Sources of Energy, No. 14
Route 2, Box 90-A
Milaca, MN 56353
REGULATORY AUTHORITIES OF THE FEDERAL
ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION WITH RESPECT TO
HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS*
This paper briefly describes the regulatory jurisdiction of
the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (hereinafter referred
to as "Commission" or "FERC") with respect to hydroelectric
projects. It also gives thumbnail descriptions of the
prescribed application procedures to provide the Commission
with information necessary for issuing permits or licenses
for various categories of projects. Most of the requested
data are necessary to adequately identify the project and to
insure that the applicant has complied with various Federal
statutes.
JURISDICTION
The Commission's jurisdiction stems from the Federal Power
Act (Act). That statute, originally enacted in 1920, requires
the Commission to license any hydroelectric plant which:
(1) is located on Federal land,
(2) is located in or uses water from a navigable
stream,
(3) uses water impounded by a Federal dam.
The Act was amended in 1935 to make plants on almost any
waters jurisdictional if the electric power generated by the
plant is utilized in interstate commerce. As a result, most
newly constructed plants are jurisdictional, unless there
are special circumstances. The Act requires anyone planning
to construct a plant, who is unsure about jurisdiction, to
file what is known as a Declaration of Intention. The
Commission will review the circumstances and advise whether
an application for license should be filed. A petition for
a declaratory order must be filed to determine the jurisdictional
status of an existing plant.
There are some existing and proposed hydroelectric projects
which are beyond the Commission's jurisdiction. For example,
a small plant located totally on private land, serving only
the owner's needs, and not affecting a navigable stream,
might not be jurisdictional. Projects which were built
under other types of permits or licenses prior to passage of
the Federal Water Power Act in 1920 may not be jurisdictional.
Also, projects for which jurisdiction would be based solely
on effects on interstate commerce, and which were built
prior to 1935 and have not been modified since, may not be
jurisdictional —
The remarks herein are prepared by the San Francisco Regional
Office of the FERC and do not represent an official statement
of the Commission.
PERMITS AND LICENSES
The Commission issues permits and licenses. A preliminary
permit is issued to enable the applicant to maintain priority
to a site for hydroelectric development while completing
necessary studies and preparing an application for license.
However, a permit is not a prerequisite for filing an
application for licenseliceng—A permit does not authorize construction.
It has, by law, a maximum term of 3 years.
Licenses authorize construction, operation and maintenance
of a project. They are issued for periods not to exceed
fifty years. Projects are classed as major or minor according
to the installed capacity. A minor project is a development
of 1.5 megawatts (MW) (1500 kilowatts) capacity or less.
Major projects are those above 1.5 MW. The type of license
issued depends upon the size of the project, i.e., major or
minor. There is no minimum capacity specified in the Act
below which a project would be exempt from licensing. The
necessity for licensing is based entirely upon jurisdictional
status as defined above. There is no fee for filing applications
for permits or licenses for hydro projects. Annual charges
for licenses are assessed based upon the annual generation
at the project and the acreage of Federal lands occupied.
Project facilities and operations are inspected by Commission
engineers at least once a month during construction and at
least annually during operation of a project.
APPLICATIONS FOR PRELIMINARY PERMITS
An application for preliminary permit is comprised of an
initial statement and four exhibits. The initial statement
identifies the applicant, gives the name and location of the
proposed project, and the proposed term of permit. The
first exhibit contains a description of the proposed project.
The second exhibit includes a study plan and work schedule
for the investigations and other activities to be carried
out under the permit. The third exhibit consists of a
statement of costs and financing to inform the Commission as
to the financial ability of the applicant to carry out the
necessary activities under the permit. Any tentative information
that is available concerning the ultimate market for project
power should also be provided. The fourth exhibit is a map
or maps showing the geographical location of the project,
the physical interrelationships of its principal features,
and a proposed project boundary.