HomeMy WebLinkAboutSustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power in Developing Countries 2000Department for International
Development, UK.
PRACTICAL ANSWERS
TO POVERTY
BEST PRACTICES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
OF MICRO HYDRO POWER IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
FINAL SYNTHESIS REPORT
Contract R7215
Smail Khennas and Andrew Barnett
In association with
London Economics &
deLucia Associates, Cambridge Massachusetts, USA
For
The Department for International Development, UK
and
T +~ (o)t781 66uoo
The World Bank
March 2000
The Schumad'ler Cenn for Tldlnoqy and Oeveqlment
BCMlrton Hall, Bourtoe-ott·OUnsmOR, Rqby, Warwkkshfre CV23 9Ql. UK
+44 (oh]ll 66uos lldsOftd&.ofl·uk www.OMWOrld.Of'llltdl
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Place of Micro Hydro
Micro hydro, defined as a plant between I 0 kW and 200 kW, is perhaps the most mature
of the modem small-scale decentralised energy supply technologies used in developing
countries. There are thought to be tens of thousands of plants in the 'micro' range
operating successfully in China 2, and significant numbers are operated in wide ranging
countries such as Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Vietnam and Peru. This experience shows
that in certain circumstances micro hydro can be profitable in financial terms, while at
others, unprofitable plants can exhibit such strong positive impacts on the lives of poor
people and the environment that they may well justify subsidies.
The evidence from this extensive experience shows such wide variation in tem1s of cost,
profitability and impact, that it has often been difficult for investors and rural people to
determine whether, and under what circumstances, this technology is viable and best
meets their needs.
Whilst supplying improved energy services to people for the first time is difficult,
supplying such services profitably to very poor people who live far away from roads
and the electricity grid poses a particularly difficult challenge. This report shmvs that
micro hydro compares well with other energy supply technologies in these difficult
markets. Despite this micro hydro appears to have been relatively neglected by donors,
the private sector and governments in the allocation of resources and attention. In the
past, rural electrification by means of grid extension was the option favoured by donors.
More recently the fashion has switched towards photovoltaics, probably because of its
higher foreign content, and the higher added value returned to the metropolitan
countries.
The relative neglect of micro hydro has also been in part due to the fact that the
circumstances under which it is financially profitable have not been systematically
established, at least not in ways that investors find credible. In addition, while it is
known that the growth and sustainability of the micro hydro sub-sector depends on
certain types of infrastructure and institutional investments, it was often not clear which
elements of this 'enabling environment' were essential, nor how they were best
financed.
1
-In 1979 the total generating capacity of all small plants was 6300 MW. with 40.000 stations built in the period from
1975 to I 979 having an average size of85 kW. Jan Juang. draft document on micro power in China. to be submitted
for an IvtSc dissertation. Oxford University. October 1999.
2 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
This study attempts to rectify these omissions by analysing and then synthesising the
experience of micro hydro over many years, across a broad range of developing
countries. Primary evidence was obtained from Peru, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe and
Mozambique. On the basis of this evidence an attempt has been made to establish 'Best
Practice' in terms of the implementation and operation of sustainable installations.
National teams, usually consisting of an independent consultant and a staff member of
The Intermediate Technology Development Group, carried out the work using a
common methodology developed at the start of the work. National reports were written
separately and were subject to review at national workshops involving the key actors in
the sector.
The microanalysis sought to examine a sample of specific installations. The sample was
drawn from comprehensive databases of micro hydro plants in each of the five
countries. It was selected using a typology which combined end-uses (productive uses.
electricity for lighting, combined end-uses, etc.) with types of ownership (community-
led projects, projects implemented by central bodies such as the utilities, and projects
initiated by private entrepreneurs).
Table 1-1: Summary Table Showing the Sample of Projects Studied In Detail
Community-led Top Down-Private Total
projects led projects Entrepreneur
( utilities )
Shaft power only Zimbabwe ( 1) Mozambique (2) 3
Electricity for Sri Lanka (2) Peru (2) 4
domestic end uses and Kandaloya Pedro Ruiz
services Pathavita Pucara
Lighting and Zimbabwe ( 1) Nepal ( 3) 9
productive uses of Nepal ( 1) Sri Lanka ( 1)
electricity Peru (2)
Sri Lanka ( I)
TOTAL 8 2 6 16
* The numbers in brackets show the number of schemes per country.
Although Zimbabwe and Mozambique have relatively few micro hydro plants
operating, it was decided to include them in the sample to illustrate some of the special
issues that are faced by countries trying to start programmes. The implication of this
experience for other countries is brought together in Section 4.14.
1.2 The Differing Objectives of Micro Hydro Development
One of the most important findings to emerge from the study of this experience is that
micro hydro plants can achieve a wide range of quite different objectives. Much
confusion and misunderstanding arises when all micro hydro plants are treated as a
homogenous category. Analytically it is therefore important to judge the viability of
each micro hydro investment in terms of a specific objective. Similarly in the
fommlation of government or donor policy, it is important not to expect micro hydro to
achieve many, often conflicting, objectives. For instance, it is not possible to provide
Introduction 3
electricity to very poor people in remote locations through micro hydro and make a
return on capital similar to that achieved in London capital markets.
1.3 Technology Demonstration, Social Infrastructure, or Small Enterprise?
The field of micro hydro is 'evolving', particularly in relation to the motivation of
project developers. Recently the majority of initial installations in each country might
be said to be the result of a 'technology push'. That is, plants were installed to test their
technical viability and their acceptability. This experience has established the technical
reliability of the micro hydro systems, reduced their cost, and has resulted in substantial
technical improvement. Micro hydro is now a mature technology that has been greatly
improved by electronic load controllers, low cost turbine designs, the use of electric
motors as generators 3 , and the use of plastics in pipe work and penstocks.
The next group of projects is characterised by investments in micro hydro that were
seen as part of the 'social infrastructure' more akin to the provision of health services,
roads or schools. Due to their social objectives, these experiences have often generated
little information on the capital and operating costs or cash flow returns of the
investment, particularly of a form and quality that would be regarded as reliable by
potential investors in conventional financial institutions. Indeed many of the promoters
of this type of project justify their work solely in terms of contributions to social justice,
the quality of life of marginalized people, and to the environment. In Sri Lanka, for
instance, many micro hydro plants have been installed primarily to "improve the quality
of life by providing electric light 4 ". In Peru the key question for many project
developers was "'how long will the plant last", rather than "'how high is its rate of
return'', or "how quickly the capital will be paid back"5 .
More recently support programmes have returned to what might be called an older
vision what might be considered an earlier approach where micro hydro is seen
primarily in terms of securing livelihoods and for the development of small profit-
making businesses. This can be seen in part as an admission that, like the previous
attempts at rural electrification through grid extension, the sustainability of grant-based
programmes is limited. Methods must be established to attract private capital if these
programmes are to have anything but a marginal impact. Nepal has shown that small,
almost subsistence businesses can survive using micro hydro power to mill grain. Over
900 micro hydro plants had been installed in N epa! by 1996, and over 80% of these
were for grinding grain. In recent years there has been quite a rapid take-up of the small
(I kW) 'peltric' sets for generating small amounts of electricity. Introduced in the early
1990's, there were said to be over 250 operating in the first five years 6 .
These very different starting points, along with the performance indicators used to
evaluate projects, have important implications for what is regarded as a success. Micro
hydro as 'social infrastructure' uses the approaches and indicators appropriate to
schemes for the supply of drinking water, health clinics and schools. Micro hydro as
'physical infrastructure' uses the approaches applied to electric power generation more
generally, and to such investments as the provision of roads and irrigation systems.
'See for instance Nigel Smith .. 'vlotors as Generator.\· fin· .\ficro Hrdro Power. 1994. Intermediate Technology
Publications. London. ISBN 1 R5339 286 3
• Sri Lanka Report. Section 3A.
' Peru Report. Section 1.1.
"Sec Nepal Report.
· 4 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Even more recently micro hydro has been seen in terms of small and medium enterprise
development, and the role that such enterprises can play in 'securing livelihoods'.
There is little to be gained from arguing that one approach is superior to another, as in
all probability each strand has a role to play. But failure to distinguish these very
different motivations has lead to confusion and ineffective policy advice. Each
approach is associated with very different mindsets of the people involved, and the
differing objectives will result in quite different management 7
, allocation of resources,
approaches and even site selection.
1.4 Hard Choices Have To Be Made in the Allocation of Scarce Resources
Investments that are primarily intended to increase the adoption of micro hydro are
likely to need to be financially viable and will therefore be located where there are
concentrations of effective demand, or there are so-called 'anchor customers' who can
pay for the bulk of the power supplied. This might include sales to the grid where
possible and profitable. Programmes that are intended primarily to increase the 'access'
of specific groups of people to improved energy supplies are likely to be located where
poor live. This will frequently be in more remote areas that will not be reached by the
central grid for some time, if ever, where all other options will also be expensive but
where micro hydro is the least cost 11 •
Examples of the strategy to increase sales, regardless of their income or need, can be
found in a number of renewable energy programmes, particularly in photovoltaics.
Here it is argued that increased sales will reduce the cost of production, and more
importantly, enable the overhead costs of providing technical support and supplying
'retail' credit to be spread over a larger number of unit sales. The danger is that some of
the soft money that is intended for social investment is used to subsidise the costs of
these supply options for those who can already afford to pay for it.
A key dimension of the trade-off is that the benefits and burdens of the choices made
fall on different social groups. The people who can pay the full cost of energy supply
often reside in different parts of the country from those with the greatest need. This
means that if concepts of fairness are introduced to government policy or, more
generally, into the allocation of resources, micro hydro is likely to have an important
role in spreading access to electricity, even if the users cannot pay the full cost. The
review of programmes in Nepal and Sri Lanka both suggest that they have both been
explicitly motivated by ideas of social justice and fairness. Certainly rural people in
many countries can be expected to ask why they should not they be entitled to the levels
of subsidy provided to urban dwellers.
Micro hydro developers and the financial institutions that they work with have to make
choices between these two extremes of profitability and social impact. There is likely to
be a middle ground where social impacts can be achieved profitably, but its size is not
yet known. What is clear, is that many rural people will remain without electricity
unless there is some sort of redistribution of income from urban to rural areas.
Sec Peru Report. Section 5.
' Sec Peru Report "'there is no guarantee that electrification exdusiYcly under the private sector would increase the
electrification rate. although it would increase energy consumption ... due to the relatively high con~umption of a
minority"'.
Introduction 5
There is a parallel here with arguments between the advocates of micro hydro and
Ministries of Energy and their conventional utilities. Proponents of micro hydro are
often disappointed that utilities will not take them seriously. Certainly micro hydro
often faces unfair competition from a highly subsidised grid, and from subsidised fossil
fuels. But there is a genuine trade-ofT between maximising the access of people to
'efficient and affordable energy', and doing so in those places where micro hydro (and
other renewable energy) is the least cost. The scarce resource is not energy, but the
capital to make energy accessible. If the objective is to provide electricity to as many
people as possible rather than to distribute electricity evenly across the country, the
most effective way of doing it may well be through extensions of the grid, or more
likely 'intensification' of the use to which the grid is put. Similarly where utilities have
very severe limits on capital, the 'opportunity cost' of capital at the margin rises to very
high levels, explaining perhaps why they then opt for diesel generators rather than hydro
with its higher initial capital cost..
1.5 The Main Forms Of Support Extending the Concept Of
• Intermediation'
The case studies show that a wide range of actions have to be brought together to ensure
the success of micro hydro investments. These actions take place a various levels: at the
micro level of particular investment in a hydro plant at a particular location: at the
macro level of policy fonnulation: and in the design and implementation of programmes
of financial and other support mechanisms.
In undertaking the case studies, it was found that the idea of 'intermediation· offered a
convenient way to group the many hundreds of tasks that were identified as necessary.
This provided considerable analytical insight about how policies might be developed to
ensure that these tasks were indeed perfonned and integrated into the costings. The
approach extends the idea of 'financial intermediation' and considers three additional
fonns of intem1ediation, namely technical intennediation. social intermediation and
organisational intem1ediation.
Financial Intermediation involves putting in place all the elements of a financial
package to build and operate a micro hydro plant. A process sometimes referred to as
'financial engineering'. It covers:
• the transaction costs of assembling the equity and securing loans;
• obtaining subsidies:
• the assessment and assurance of the financial viability of schemes:
• assessment and assurance of the financial credibility of borrower:
• the management of guarantees:
• the establishment of collateral ('financial conditioning'): and
• the management of loan repayment and dividends to equity holders.
Financial Intermediation can also be used to cover whole schemes rather than just
investment in an individual plant. In this way projects can be 'bundled' together to
make them attractive to finance agencies, to establish the supply of finance on a
'wholesale' basis from aid agencies, governments, and development banks, and to
create the mechanisms to convert it into a supply of retail finance (equity finance, and
loan finance at the project level).
6 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Technical Intermediation involves the 'upstream' work of improving the technical
options by undertaking Rand D and importing the technology and know-how, 'down'
through the development of the capacities to supply the necessary goods and services.
These goods and services include: site selection; system design; technology selection
and acquisition; construction and installation of civil, electro-mechanical and electrical
components; operation; maintenance; Trouble Shooting; overhaul; and refurbishment.
Organisational Intermediation involves not only the initiation and implementation of
the programmes, but also the lobbying for the policy change-required to construct an
'environment' of regulation and support in which micro hydro technology and the
various players can thrive. This involves putting in place the necessary infrastructure,
and getting the incentives right to encourage owners, contractors, and financiers.
The case studies show that this organisational inte1mediation is also usefully
distinguished from the Social Intermediation. Social Intermediation involves the
identification of owners and beneficiaries of projects and the 'community development'
necessary to enable a group of people to acquire the capabilities to take on and run each
individual investment project.
1.6 The Importance of the Technology
While the rest of this is report focuses mainly on the 'software' of finance, management
and social development, it would not be right to end this introduction without stressing
the importance of the hardware and engineering skills in the success of micro hydro
development. The experiences reviewed here repeatedly confront the need to get the
technology right, and develop the technical skills necessary to build, mstall, operate and
maintain the equipment and the associated civil works.
A study on the functional status of the state of existing micro hydro plants in Nepal9
emphasises the point. Despite much work on manuals, standards, training, and
correcting faulty engineering and associated errors, the physical assets remain a
substantial cause of failure. A studv on the functional status of the state of existing
micro hydro plants in Nepal 1 0 emph~sises the point that despite much work on manual;,
standards and training, faulty engineering and associated en·ors. the physical assets
remain a substantial cause of failure. Some 30% of the installations were not operating.
due in part to:
• Poor site selection, inadequate/inaccurate surveys, wrong size, poor
installation, faulty equipment:
• Plants affected by floods an(: and slides;
• Poor estimation of hydrology, in part due to surveys being conducted m the
ramy season;
• Uneconomic canal length, bad canal design;
• Neglect of civil works;
• Inability of owners to replace generators after breakdown; and
" Earth Consult (P.) Ltd. 'A Report o( Random Sampli! to Di!termine Actual Slat us of Private Micro Hnlro Pml'er
Plw11s in Nepai'.IC1l\10D-ITDG Nepal. May 1998.
w Earth Consult ( P.) Ltd. >I Report of Ram/om Sample to Determine Actual Status o( Prh·ate Micro Hrdro Po11·er
Plw1ts in Xepal'. ICIMOD-ITDG "icpal. May 1998.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• Wrong estimation of raw materials,
oversized plants, over-estimation of
ignorance of competition with diesel 11 •
Turbine Manufacturing in Sri Lanka
Introduction 7
of demand, of end-use possibilities,
tariff collection, inappropriate rates,
Furthermore, there are still a
number of unresolved technical
issues. In particular there is a
trade-off between the quality
(and therefore the costs) of the
civil works and the resulting
costs of operation and
maintenance. Low cost civil
works tend to be swept away by
the monsoon rains and have to
be substantially repaired each
year. It is not yet clear where
the optimum balance lies
between these two types of
cost 12 •
11 See also Wolfgang Mostert, 'Scaling-up Micro Hydro. Lessons from Nepal, and a few Notes on Solar Home
Systems', Village Power 98 Conference, NRELI World Bank, Washington October 6-8, 1998 .
12 Wolfgang Mostert, personal communication.
2
THE COST OF MICRO HYDRO AND ITS FINANCIAL
PROFITABILITY
2.1 The Cost Per Kilowatt Installed
In the examples examined in the five countries, the capital cost 13 of micro hydro plants, limited
to shaft power, ranged from US$714 (Nepal, Zimbabwe) to US$1,233 (Mozambique). The
average cost is US$965 per installed kW which is in line with the figures quoted in some
studies. The installed costs for electricity generation schemes are much higher. The installed
cost per kW ranged from US$1,136 (Pucara, Peru) to US$5,630 (Pedro Ruiz, Peru) with an
average installed cost of US$3,085. The data for the complete sample and detailed summary of
the financial analyses of the 16 sample projects is provided in the annex to this report.
An important observation is that the cost per installed kilowatt is higher than the figures usually
cited in the literature. This is partly due to the difficulty analysts have in establishing full costs
on a genuinely comparative basis. A significant part of micro hydro costs can be met with
difficult to value labour provided by the local community as 'sweat equity'. Meaningful dollar
values for local costs are difficult to establish when they are inflating and rapidly depreciating
relative to hard currencies. In addition, there is little consistency in the definition of boundaries
of the systems being compared, for instance, how much of the distribution cost, or house
wiring, is included, how much of the cost of the civil works contribute to water management
and irrigation, and so forth.
In this study very great care was taken to produce estimates of the actual costs on a rigorously
comparable basis. lt is for example of paramount importance to distinguish between schemes
limited to mechanical power only and schemes which include electricity generation.
As with any de-centralised energy supply system, the comparison of actual costs at the 'micro·
level of individual plants can also be misleading. Successful programmes require investments
in the systems necessary for training, repair, and marketing. The critical issue is that these
tasks exhibit substantial economies of scale in that the cost per micro hydro plant installed falls
as the number of plants increases. Comparisons based on average costs will therefore be
strongly influenced by the number of plants built.
Estimates of these 'macro' costs associated with developing and supporting a programme
sometimes referred to as ''system overhead costs" 14 are also difficult to establish, particularly as
many of the costs associated with Research and Development and the training of engineering
workshops are 'sunk costs' which took place over many years.
1
·' All monetary\ a lues in USS 1998 unless specified.
1 ~ These activities were first identified as "system overhead costs" in the late 1980's. sec A Barnett, The Dij//1.\ion ol Energr
Technologies in the Rurul Area1 o/De\'1::/oping Coumrics: A Snuhesis ol Recelll Erpcrience, World Development Pergamon
Press. Vol. 18. No.4. April 1990. pp.539-553.
9
10 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Table 2-1: Summary of Financial Returns on Sample Micro Hydro Plants After
Financing
Cost per k\V including transmission (US$1998)
Year of Capacit)' Cost per IRR0 % IRR o;., End-uses
Installation kW installed kW ( main end use cited first)
Sri Lanka cur con* cur con
Katcpola 1994 35 $2.181 14.7 8 No rctum Electricity for domestic end
uses and services
Kanda! Oya 1997 10 $3J 15 15 9.3 10 6.9 Electricity for domestic end
uses and services
Pathavita 2 1997 10 $2.203 32 16.3 6 3.1 Electricity for domestic end
uses and services
Seetha Eliya 1983 60 53.761 24 12.4 24 12.4 Tea factory. Electricity for
domestic end uses
Nepal cur con cur con
Barpak 1992 50 $2.345 33 ")"'/ 22.8 17 :Y1echanical power (milling ~/
etc): Electricity for domestic
end uses
Gorkhe 1984-6 25 $714 42 32 17.4 4 Mechanical power (milling
(Rupatar) etc); Electricity for domestic
end uses
Ghandruk 1985-8 50 $2.446 I 0.48 l No retum Electricity for domestic end
uses: Mechanical power
(milling etc);
Gaura 1987 25 $2.277 13.2 3 7.39 NA Mechanical power (milling
etc): Electricity for domestic
end uses
Peru cur con cur con
Atahualpa 1992 35 $2.358 NA 17.5 14.5 Electricity for domestic end
uses and services:
Mechanical power
Yumahual 1998 II $3,371 NA I 7.6 14.6 Electricity for incubating
plant
Pedro Ruiz 1980 200 $5,630 J\A No Return Electricity for domestic end
uses and services
Pucara 1986 2x200 $J.I36 NA 7 3 Electricity for domestic end
uses and services
Zimbabwe cur con cur con
Nyaf'aru 1995 20 $3,307 Grant 11 NA Electricity for domestic end
uses and services
Svinurai 1993 13 $715 Gram 4H 20 Mechanical povvcr only
(grain milling)
Mozambique cur con cur con
Elias 1996 15 $1.200 NA insufticient Mechanical power only
accurate (grain milling)
data
Chitofu 1995 15 $1.233 insufficiem Mechanical power only
accurate (grain milling)
dam
The Cost of Micro Hydro and its Financial Profitability 11
• All currencies in S 1998 unless specified.
• *Calculations carried out in constant dollars 1998.
• In current local currencies apart from Peru and Mozambique which are in current USS.
• N! A applies where the project was funded entirely or to a large extent from non-reimbursable external
sources. the IRR on capital invested is extremely high.
• The results regarding the internal rate of return (IRR) and the return on capital invested refer to
calculations after financing, when loans were taken up.
• IRR for Mozambique were not calculated due insufficient accurate data.
• For schemes where the producer is also the only consumer (ex. Yumahual in Peru. Seethe Eliya in Sri
Lanka) the analysis assumes that the production is sold at the opportunity cost of electricity generated by a
credible alternative. either the grid or diesel.
2.2 Wide Variation in Costs
The variations in capital costs have a number of explanations. While common-sense suggests
that micro hydro is likely to experience some economies of scale in the size of each plant~::>, this
cannot be concluded from this particular sample. The main explanation appears to lie in the
two types of project, namely: schemes designed to provide mechanical power for productive
activities such as agro-processing; and schemes for which the bulk of the production is to
supply electricity for domestic end-uses and services. The investment cost for mechanical
power is relatively low (US$714 to US$1 ,233), as there are no transmission lines, connections,
or generator. The lowest cost per kilowatt installed were found in Gorkhe, originally built to
supply mechanical power, Svinurai, Chifotu and Elias which supply mechanical power only.
Figure 2-1 Installed Cost per kW (US$1998)
6000 US$ perkW
5000
4000
3000 •Meehan power
11t Electricity
2000
1000 • • 0
Electncity generation schemes, as expected have a higher installed cost per kW. there are also
some differences between countries and even within the same country which might be
explained by the following parameters:
1
' Economics of scale arising from the size of each individual plant should not be confused with economies of scale associated
with the size of the programmes supportingmicro hydro expansion discussed in Scdion.., l
12 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
• Site characteristics;
• Transport to site (in Nepal transport is said to constitute 25% of total costs 16 );
• The labour content, and the wide variation between the cost of labour in the countries
studied;
• Standards 17 ;
• Sizing (municipal plants in Peru were often over sized); and
• Transmission and distribution costs.
A major conclusion can be drawn from this: Costs are high~v site specific, are controllable with
good management, proper sizing and appropriate standards.
Two other issues emerge from this analysis of costs. In addition to the costs identified here for
supplying energy, all systems also require substantial investment in end-use technologies to
make the supplied energy useful.
Furthermore, a major advantage of micro hydro is that it can be built locally at considerably
less cost than it can be imported 1 R, and the costs of local manufacture can be reduced still
further by developing local engineering capabilities and advisory services. For instance in Sri
Lanka imported turbine generating sets up to I 00 kW cost approximately Rs.50.000 to
Rs.l50,000 (US$700-US$2.000) per kW, while the local manufacturers are now capable of
delivering them at Rs. I 0,000 to Rs.I5,000 (US$140-US$200) per kW, with marginally reduced
turbine efficiencies 19
.
2.3 How Do the Costs of Hydro Compare with Other Options?
The picture seems quite favourable to micro hydro. When bringing improved energy services
to poor people is the priority, the focus moves to the type of energy services they require and
their locations. If minimum lighting is the only energy end-use required in remote locations,
photovoltaics may be the main alternative, being cheaper than dry cell batteries, and capable of
producing a better light than kerosene. Where falling water is available, micro hydro compares
well with photovoltaics. In Peru the cost of 50-Watt systems (modules, regulator, battery, 3
lamps, other components and installation) is said to be $1,020:10 . In South Africa it is currently
suggested that the unsubsidised delivered cost of Solar Home systems is approximately
US$625 for a 50 Watt system (including battery, controller, wiring and 4 lights), giving a
US$1 0/month break even cost using money at 14% rea1 21 . This is equivalent to about $12.500
per kW and would therefore appear to be much more expensive than the cost of the most
expensive electricity from micro hydro.
Fossil fuels (particularly kerosene) will remain the main alternative to biomass fuel for poor
people, as it can be purchased in the tiny quantities and for the small sums of money that are
most consistent with poor people's cash availabiliti 2 . Micro hydro, like many other
1
'' \Vorld Bank. Rural Energy and Development. page 51.
I' Tampoe notes that early schemes spent about Rs. 2.000-3.000 on household wiring per household but this increased toRs.
4.000-8.000 in later schemes in 1996,7 where the CEB standards v.ere applied (Tampoc. M .. 1998. unpublished report to
ITDG ppl40).
1
' However. very inexpensive (but possibly unreliable) micro hydro equipment is sometimes available from China and other
countries that are keen to obtain foreign exchange at almost any price.
1" Sri Lanka Report Section 5.3.
:o Peru Report.
'1 Personal observation. 1999.
" It is perhaps important to note. in passing. the t~wourable environmental consequences of using kerosene. Professor Kirk
Smith and others have shown that a switch from biomass to kerosene and LPG as a cooking fuel would result in a considerable
The Cost of Micro Hydro and its Financial Profitability 13
decentralised renewable energy options, are characterised by high initial capital costs (certainly
higher than diesel systems) which are offset to some extent by relative low recurrent costs.
This means that 'entry costs' are likely to be beyond the reach of poor people, even if the
lifetime costs of these options is lowest23 .
Diesel is the real bench-mark against which micro hydro has to be judged. One of the
outstanding features of micro hydro is that under the right conditions it can provide the power
(both electric and shaft power) to secure livelihoods through the use of electric motors and
other equipment for production. Here the picture is mixed. A comparison with diesel generator
sets carried out in Peru shows that micro hydro was the least cost option at the sample sites. It
is even more beneficial if the impact on the environment over the lifetime of the project is
included. However, the results depend on the cost of transporting the fuel and the cost of
capital. A study conducted in Nepal by New Era revealed that five out of the 25 micro hydro
plants were not economically viable because diesel generating sets were operating in the
vicinity.
In Sri Lanka the cost of diesel generation is estimated to be about US$1,000 per kilowatt
installed 24 . However, the lack of trained technicians to provide regular maintenance is currently
a major obstacle to their further penetration into the rural environment. Even so, some several
thousands electric generators of less than 75 kV A were imported into Sri Lanka in 1996 at a
cost of over $10 million.
In practice the crucial factor is likely to be the availability and cost of transporting the fuel, and
the extent to which the price of diesel (and the system on which it is transported) is subsidised.
2.4 Micro Hydro can be Financially Profitable
The profitability of the sample projects was measured using both an internal rate of return
(IRR) and a return on capital invested 25 . The consulting firm, London Economics (LE), was
contracted to design a simple spreadsheet model to generate and test the profitability of the
schemes and to assess the quality of the resulting data.
Two types of IRR were calculated:
• In the first calculation all the income is taken into consideration (grants, subsidies
etc.). This is the real return of the investment made by the owner. But with this
method, schemes that were able to attract a high level of subsidy or grant will have a
very high return. When a loan is taken up, the repayment is made according to the
agreement with the financial intermediary, usually a bank.
• In the second case, it has been assumed that grants and subsidies are covered by soft
loans. This indicator shows what the IRR would be in the case where subsidies and
grants are in effect replaced by soft financing facilities.
The two indicators are important because they reflect prevailing and future situations.
reduction in green house gases (GHG) per person meal. This is due to the considerably greater efficiency with which liquid
and gas fuels can be converted into heat for cooking. Burning wood fuel in a normal cooking fire or traditional stove is not
"green house gas neutral"' because of the products of incomplete combustion (Kirk Smith. et al 1998. Report for the US EP i\
Grerm House Gases fi'om Small Scafe Comhustion De1·ice.1 in Developmg Countries Phase IIA Household Stoves in India
(October 12)}.
2' Sec Fig 3.1 and Table 4.1 . World Bank. 1996. Rural Energy and Development.
2" FeasibilitY ofDendro Power Based Electricity Generation In Sri Lanka. Energv Forum. Sri Lanka. 1998.
cc Sec anne~. . ~-
VI Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
All IRR were calculated after financing. When a scheme was almost entirely financed by
grants and subsidies, it has been . assumed that the scheme was financed by a soft loan, at rates
which vary between the countries in which the plant is located. The IRR were calculated in
current and constant US dollars. Assumptions were made about what the inflation rate would
be for the lifetime of those schemes that were implemented only recently .
Experience across the study countries shows a wide range of financial profitabilio/6 and some
interesting common features. The microanalysis reveals that there are plants that can be run
profitably without subsidy. These are the projects with a constant price rate of return of more
than 8%. These plants are Seetha Eliya (12.4%), Barpak (17%), Atahualpa (20.5%) Yumahual
(14%) and Svinurai (20%), plus possibly the two mechanical plants in Mozambique 27 • All
these tend to be the plant installed initially or solely to produce mechanical power for a
profitable end-use such as milling.
Where plants are used exclusively for electric lighting, operating costs can usually be covered
by electricity sales, but the capital costs will have to be subsidised by grants.
The analyses in current prices inevitably have higher IRR than those in constant prices. This is
because tariff setting is often very poor and therefore the price of electricity is not being
adjusted to keep pace with the rate of inflation. An important conclusion of the review is,
therefore, that the financial return of many of the projects could have been improved
considerably if the tariffs had been adjusted merely to keep level with inflation. ·This IS
particularly the case in Seetha Eliya in Sri Lanka and Svinurai in Zimbabwe (see Table 2.1).
Figure 2-2: IRR Without Subsidy
IRR without subsidy
%
60
50 -
40
30 • I RR current
20 • • IRR constant
10
0
At a more fundamental level, variation in financial performance of the projects reviewed was
due to variation in load factor. High load factors were achieved in schemes supplying
mechanical power or electricity to motors rather than those installed primarily for lighting.
Lighting for 4-5 hours a day can theoretically give maximum plant factors in the order of 0.15
to 0.20. This is indeed the typical plant factor for many micro hydro plants examined. In
Nepal 90 % of the schemes are supplying mechanical power. These schemes have a better
profitability and can be financially sustainable in remote locations.
26 As a result of some gaps in the data and assumptions made, the internal rates should be seen a broad indicators and trends,
rather than precise returns actually achieved in each plant. (See annex for details.)
27 Due to insufficient accurate data, we did not include the IRR for the two Mozambican schemes investigated.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
The Cost of Micro Hydro and its Financial Profitability 15
The micro hydro industry appears, therefore, to be faced with a particularly difficult paradox.
Most of the financially viable installations provide mechanical power to productive enterprises,
but the main demand from consumers in a number of countries appears to be for electric
lighting.
Micro hydro is therefore most likely to be profitable or at least financially self-sustaining,
where there is:
• a high load factor (the actual consumption as a proportion of total possible generation),
• a financially sustainable end-use,
• costs are contained by good design and management, and
• effective management of the installations, including the setting and collection of tariffs
that keep pace with inflation.
2.5 Cash Generating End-Uses.
It is a truism to say that MHP is likely to be more financially viable if the electricity generated
can be used to supply power to a profitable cash generating enterprise. The use of a single mill
for a few hours per day can clearly raise plant load factors substantially. Furthermore the
choice of end-uses can have a profound effect on extending the benefits of micro hydro to
households that cannot be connected directly to the system, either for reasons of cost or
location. Such end-uses range from street lighting, access to public television, battery charging
centres, to mills and other forms of agro processing. However, the studies show that such
enterprises are often difficult to develop. Combining new micro hydro installations with new
income generating enterprises that have a daytime use for hydro electricity in remote locations
is difficult not least because local markets are small and isolated.
In discussions of this review in Sri Lanka, for instance, both practitioners and policy makers
were united in expressing their extreme scepticism about the creation of such enterprises. They
argued that:
• Attempts to create electricity using enterprises in the past have tended to increase
social tensions within the village and within the management of the Electricity
Consumer Societies that own the hydro plant. It is seen as offensive that the public
asset of water is being used to increase the power and wealth of an individual.
• Community-owned enterprises, such as rice mllls, have often been too large in relation
to the local small and isolated market, too costly in relation to the capital available in
the village and too difficult to manage in relation to the managerial capacities in the
village. It is to assume away the problems of underdevelopment to assume that such
enterprises will start up spontaneously after the arrival of electricity.
• The support for small and micro enterprises that is offered in Sri Lanka is said to be
limited and could not be assumed to be available to people or groups setting up
businesses to use micro hydro plants.
16 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Mechanical energy for grain milling from a micro hydro plant
Similar problems have been experienced about community-owned enterprises in Nepal,
particularly where villages contain a wide range of castes 28 • However there have been notable
exceptions, particularly in Nepal and Peru were particular entrepreneurs have not only invested
in micro hydro, but they have sold power to their neighbours and started up a number of
businesses29.
2.6 Links To The Grid
Sales to the grid represent a special case of cash generating end-uses. Sales, when power is in
excess, could provide a better load and the potential for reliable cash flow. The opportunities
for selling to the grid are likely to be more feasible at the 'mini', however, than the 'micro'
hydro scale.
In one case in Sri Lanka the high returns to one of the plants (Seetha Eliya) was a consequence
of the high value imputed to the electricity from the micro hydro plant. The plant provided
electricity to the Tea Estate where otherwise only expensive and unreliable power from the grid
would be available. In the case of Peru (Yumahual), the high return is due to the opportunity
cost from of electricity generated by a diesel generator. The cost per kWh from genset is
usually quoted at around 18 US cents per kWh. Of course with such a cost it is likely that the
investor would have opted for other options.
28 Wolfgang Mostert, Scaling-up Micro Hydro, Lessons from Nepal and a few Notes on Solar Home Systems, Village Power 98
Conference NREL/World Bank, Washington October 6-8, 1998
29 See for instance Private Micro Hydro Power and Associated Investments in Nepal: The Barpak Village Case and Broader
Issues, Bir Bahadur Ghale, Barpak Entrepreneur, Ganesh Ram Shrestha, Executive Director, Centre for Rural Technology and
Russell J. De Lucia, Ph.D., President De Lucia and Associates, Inc., Small-Scale Natural Resources and Related Infrastructure
Development, June 1999, Natural Resources Forum, Special Issue.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
The Cost of Micro Hydro and its Financial Profitability 17
In Sri Lanka the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB) introduced the small Power Purchase
Agreements (PPAs) in 1996, and specified the prices they would pay for energy from grid
connected small power producers with generation capacities of up to I 0 MW. These prices are
set by the CEB on the basis of their avoided costs. Consequently the prices vary according to
the time of the year and the availability of water in large hydro reservoirs. These prices do not
reflect the environmental costs and benefits from small hydro development. The profitability
of this option clearly depends on the regulatory framework and the price that the utility is
prepared to pay.
In 1999 the prices offered for the dry season were 4.6 US cents per kWh and in the wet season
3. 9 US cents per kWh30 . This would appear to be in line with the average cost of production of
a properly run micro hydro plant and with a significant load factor.
Proximity to the grid nonetheless poses its own problems. For many rural people the presence
of grid electricity puts the purpose of a hydro plant into doubt. In Sri Lanka it is feared that
where an Electricity Consumer Society (ECS) is near enough to the grid to make the necessary
connections the ECS members will abandon the MH power and buy directly from the grid at a
price that currently is below the cost of production. Similarly in Nepal a study carried out in
1998 found that 38% of the 60 micro hydro plants reviewed were located within I 0 km of the
grid (particularly in the Central Development Region) and this had an adverse effect on their
business 3 1•
Uncertainty about when the grid will arrive in a village, often as a result of politicians making
false promises prior to elections. considerably increases the risk of investing in a micro hydro
plant. Such risks could be reduced by government or the utility developing a clear plan for grid
extension. and making it publicly available. Similarly where the private sector is involved in
extending central grids near to existing micro hydro plants. it will be important to have a
regulatory framework that requires the grid to buy power from the hydro plant at a reasonable
price. or buy the plant at its depreciated value.
In Sri Lanka it is estimated that in general micro hydro will not be financially viable if the
national grid is available within 4 km to 5 km. The cost of grid extension is cunently estimated
at US$7,200 per km of primary distribution lines.
2.7 Making the "Profitable' Social is Easier than Making the "Social' Profitable!
A clear lesson that emerges from the review at this stage is that projects that start out primarily
with social objectives find it very difficult to add on profitable end-uses. Micro hydro
investments envisaged at the outset as primarily supplying power to a business venture can
more easily add on the provision of a social service such as lighting. or power for schools or
health clinics.
"'Source: Government press notices. Daily News. Sri Lanka. various dates.
'1 Earth Consult (P) Ltd. in 1998.
3.1
3
MEETING NEEDS AND THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF
AFFORD ABILITY
Price and Demand
The cases show that micro hydro can be profitable. but they also shoH' that Hhen it is profitable
it is not necessaril_v also affordable. A recent report from the World Bank confirms the view
held by many people involved in the practical implementation of rural energy schemes when it
says that:
"It is illusory to expect that increasing access to electricity for a significant part (~l
the population traditionalzr excludedji·mn grid based electricity can be .financed
I h h . ,;p on y y t e pnvate sector ·-.
The case studies support this view. Tariffs that are considered high in relation to local
conditions can have a marked effect in choking off demand. In Peru, State owned micro hydro
plants charge $1 0/month, and private companies charge S9/month. It was found that "although
the service is reliable, it is evident that the high rates (three times higher than those paid by
companies run by communities or municipalities) restrict the service coverage''. At these rates
only 50% of households can afford power compared to 70% of households buying from
municipal plants charging lower rates 33 •
A Dutch funded scheme appears to have had a similar experience. The government of the
Netherlands has been particularly innovative and an early supporter of decentralised energy
options. But its assistance to micro hydro development in Peru does not appear to have been
successful. In an effort to push the schemes to a more financially sustainable orientation the
scheme had very few takers prepared to borrow at rates of interest which were similar to the
nom1al (high) commercial rates 3-t.
These experiences lead the Peruvian report to conclude that if the private sector were to take
over all rural electrification, they would tend to select the more profitable markets and expand
only slowly towards users with lower income using less energy. In their experience private
fom1s of ownership tend to be more sustainable in both financial and administrative tem1s, but
tend to neglect service coverage. Similarly, municipal schemes tend to be less financially
sustainable, but when they work properly they tend to have a wider coverage. "5
'2 Best Practice Jfwuw/: Promoting Decentra/ised E/ectri/ication Im·es//lu!/11, ESMAP World Bank. 1999. Page l 0. (See this
page also for char~cterisrics ofSm~rt Subsidy.)
·" See Peru Report. Sccrion 5.
3jTamawiecki. Donald: IYh1· is Dutch Aid lnefkcth·e in Peru:) In Renewable America No.2. September 1997. PUC. Lima.
" Peru Report.
19
20 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
3.2 The Benefits and Burdens of Remoteness
Even if micro hydro were affordable to poor people with easy access to equipment. advice and
credit, it is certainly likely to be more expensive and more difficult for people in isolated rural
communities. This is particularly so for families that earn less than US$500 a year in areas
where municipal resources are scant. They do not have sufficient information and contacts to
identify credit sources, credit terms, existing technical alternatives, etc. These are the typical
and recurrent failures of both markets and policies that affect activities in remote mral areas. In
this context development activities with such populations result in high transaction costs for
both financial institutions and for the suppliers of equipment and technical assistance, making
them unattractive to customers. Consequently, this section of the population is effectively
'excluded' fi·om the market36 .
At the same time this remoteness adds to the costs of all energy supply options, albeit not in the
same way. Remoteness increases the comparative advantage of micro hydro relative to other
options that require transportation of fuels, or frequent visits from urban-based technicians or
revenue collectors.
3.3 The Case for Subsidy
If the price of the energy supplied by micro hydro is too expensive for poor people who need it,
then the issue of subsidies and/or grants cannot be avoided. The political acceptability of
subsidies has undergone wild fluctuations in recent years. All governments provide subsidies,
but it is clear that some have done more hann than good. The essential question that has
emerged from the ideological posturing of recent years is less about the rights and wrongs of
subsidies in principle. but rather whether a particular form of subsidy actually achieves its
intended purpose.
The arguments for using money that is supplied at less than full commercial rates of interest are
ovenvhelming if large numbers of people are to be given access to improved energy services.
This 'soft money' will be required to enable people with insufficient purchasing power to gain
access to electricity, and to other more convenient forms of energy.
In the most general terms, the reasons why agencies of the state, whether national or
multinational, should provide soft money are well known:
• to capture the existence of many positive 'externalities' not reflected in market prices,
such as the benefits of health. education, welfare, and environment:
• to redistribute income from richer to poorer parts of the community for reasons of
equity and or human rights;
• to kick stmt an 'infant' industry by enabling the volume of production to be increased
and skills developed to the extent that unit costs of production fall to levels where rhe
target consumers can afford to buy them on a sustainable basis in the future;
• to remove or reduce the baniers associated with inefficient operation of the market.
Usually including the unequal distribution of information between buyers and sellers.
monopoly elements among both buyers and sellers, and hostile features of the
'enabling' environment, such as the unintended consequences of taxes, subsidies to
competing options, lack of appropriate regulation, inadequate financial and physical
infrastructure. etc.: and
"' Peru. country rcpo11
Meeting Needs and the Circumstances of Affordability 21
• to assist users in overcoming the high initial costs of purchases that are 'least cost'
when considered over the their operational lifetime.
While subsidies to 'pump prime' markets are quite different from those intended to lower the
cost of 'social infrastructure', perhaps the most persuasive argument for subsidising micro
hydro is made in terms of 'levelling the playing field' with other competing options and
concern about 'fairness'. This arguments suggests that:
• micro hydro should receive subsidies that are equivalent to those received by
competing options such as the grid or PV:
• micro hydro needs to be compensated as it is unfairly discriminated against in-so-far
as it does not get the same tax breaks and other concessions as other technologies;
• micro hydro needs to be compensated because the full cost of other options is not
included in the price. For example, the environmental costs of using fossil fuels such
as petrol, or biomass fuels such as woodfuel.
There is also weight in the argument that people in remote locations 'deserve' electricity as
much as poor people in other parts of the country. Furthermore, subsidies to micro hydro may
well be justified because they are the least cost way of achieving other development objectives,
such as motive power to secure livelihoods, lighting for health and education, refrigeration tor
the storage of food or medicines.
3.4 Limitations of Financial Analyses
The aforementioned arguments suggest that in the analysis of competing options, such as on the
basis of 'least cost', conclusions are likely to be misleading if the analysis is restricted to
market prices alone. Clearly if the arguments listed here are accepted, market prices for goods
and services are unlikely to fully reflect their value to poor people or to the nation. Finding the
'true value' of electricity becomes particularly complex if it is to take into account the so-called
'externalities' mentioned earlier. When externalities are considered, gains are made by. for
example, calculating the value of other sources of energy not used (kerosene, dry batteries), and
the improvements made to the quality of life of those people switching to electricity from other
sources of energy. More fundamentally. prices cannot reflect value if the existing distribution
of income is judged to be unacceptable, as this restricts the consumers' communicating their
'willingness to pay' to meet their basic needs, by their 'ability to pay' for them.
Most international financial institutions such as the World Bank accept the validity of these
arguments and make the necessary adjustments by using some form of 'economic' or real
resource cost analysis in combination with financial analyses based on market prices 37 •
However. it is market prices that consumers have to pay to gain access to micro hydro power,
and therefore it is important that the regulatory framework brings market prices closer to
'economic' values, and that subsidies compensate for the remaining 'distortions'.
3.5 Filling the Gap Between Full Cost Finance and Free Grants
Before considering subsidies in more detail, it is important to stress two points that have
emerged in the current debate. Firstly. the ability of governments, aid agencies or charities to
provide subsidies is severely limited in relation to the numbers of people who do not have
access to modem fom1s of energy. Secondly, there is probably more energy-related purchasing
The World Bank"s own approach is set out in L Squire and H.G van der Tak "The Economic
John Hopkins Press.
of Projects .. 1975
22 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
power in poor communities than was previously thought. There is now substantial evidence 38
that people cuJTently excluded from most 'modem forms of energy' do already spend
considerable amounts of money to meet their energy requirements, on charcoal, dry cell and
lead acid batteries, candles and kerosene. and in some locations, on fuel wood.
This variability in the ability of even poor people to pay for energy services suggests that from
a policy perspective it will be important to distinguish at least three types of financial
sustainability. In this \vay subsidies are used to maximise access and are not wasted on people
who already have the ability to pay. This approach fonns the basis of recent changes in the
Peruvian govemment's policies for rural electrification. In this case the National
Electrification Plan established three types of electricity expansion projects, depending on the
economic characteristics of the target market:
Class I Projects: Profitable Projects. These projects are intended to make a profit, and
under the provisions established in the Electricity Concessions Law, any entrepreneur who
identifies a profitable energy project is given the opportunity and the necessary guarantees to
implement it.
Class // Projects: Non-profitable hut sustainable projects. If these projects are
adequately managed they are capable of covering their operating and maintenance costs, even if
they do not make a profit. ln this case, the State tries to implement joint financing programmes
in order to obtain the so-called 'investment commitments' from the private sector. Such
projects include those built \vith State funds but which are subsequently transfeJTed to private
or other companies for their operational phase.
Class III Project~·: Non-profitable and non-sustainable projects. These are projects
aimed at expanding the electrical frontier, for which all that is required is to select
technological alternatives that produce the least operating and maintenance costs 39 .
The experience in Sri Lanka reflects a similar situation where micro hydro schemes that are
designed for industrial activities on the Tea Estates can be highly profitable (i.e. Class I)
because of the size of the costs avoided by not using grid electricity. Schemes that supply
electricity for rural communities are unlikely to be financially viable without soft money. But
even in this sub-market relatively small one-off grants can result in schemes that can be
financially sustainable in this more limited sense (i.e. Class ll)40 .
3.6 Smarter Subsidies
If the case can be made for subsidies, experience suggests that the use of soft money can both
help the expansion of the micro hydro sector and harm it. As always the 'devil is in the detail'
and in the specifics of each context. Hence the phrase 'smart subsidies' 41 has been coined to
put some distance between current fom1s of subsidy and the earlier fmms that were shown to
stultify innovation, destroy markets, and support the already rich. Examples of this were the
subsidies for grid-based electricity, kerosene and diesel.
;~For instance from studies in India. Uganda and Zimbabwe undertaken by the UNDP!World Bank· s ESMAP programme.
w Peru. Section 4.2. However under the current schemes in Peru there is a market segment •v·ho are not being served by the
system~ run by privat.: eonces~ion holders. and which are also not included in the medium-term plans of the small systems or
facilities run bv the State. This b the SCL:ment that is currentlY met bv NGO.
~~~Sri Lanka. S-ection 4. -. -
41 Sec Dr Subodh Mathur. Presentation to the World Bank/NREL Village Power 98 Conference. Washington DC. October
1998 and Best Practice Manual: Promoting Dccentralised Electrification Investment. ESM A P World Bank. 1999 Page I 0.
Meeting Needs and the Circumstances of Affordability 23
The key lesson from past experience appears to be to avoid applying un-ending subsidies to the
recurrent costs (~f micro hydro operation, or more specificafZv do not directly subsidise the
price charged to the energy end-user.
'Smart subsidies' should be designed in such a way as to re-enforce the commercial orientation
of micro hydro schemes to reduce costs and improve service. In most cases this will mean
focussing on reducing the cost of the initial investment thereby increasing the numbers of
people who have access to electricity, rather than continuously subsidising the recurrent cost of
operation42 .
More generally subsidies that are based on rules and are transparent to all parties and well
known before investments have taken place are less likely to result in waste and corruption.
It is also important to consider a wide range of ways in which the costs of the whole micro
hydro development can be reduced, and not just be a subsidy to the providers of finance.
Providing subsidised assistance for the training of turbine manufacturers, or independent on-
site feasibility studies appears to be particularly effective in reducing costs to the user, and in
reducing the risks to the investor.
A particular problem with current subsidies provided by bilateral donors is that they have a
tendency to 'pollute the well' that is, they use their subsidies to spoil the market for others.
This can occur if aid subsidies are available to a particular technology thereby making it very
difficult for other technologies to compete. This again happens where subsidies are tied to a
particular supplier, usually nationals of the donor country, thereby giving them an unfair
advantage. Donor subsidies are currently even being awarded to huge multinational
corporations in a number of areas of renewable energy and in particular countries. which makes
it particularly difficult for smaller local suppliers to compete.
3.7 The Poverty Impact of Micro Hydro
It was not the intention of this study to measure the poverty impact of micro hydro. However
David Fulford, Paul Mosley and others have recently attempted this very difficult task in a
parallel study commissioned by the UK's Department for International Development. As these
authors point out, it is conceptually and empirically difficult to attribute measurable poverty
impacts to relatively small investments, such as micro hydro. This is because in such cases
there are many other circumstances, such as climatic variation and macro economic change that
affect the measurable poverty status of remote communities over any particular time period.
However, these researchers used a 'second best' approach, consisting of tracking, by partial
equilibrium methods, the effects of micro hydro on the incomes of the poor through changes in
entrepreneurs' incomes, labour incomes, consumer real incomes and backward and fonvard
linkages. Foil owing this approach the researchers found:
m relation to the number of' schemes in existence the poverty reduction
pel:formance ol micro hvdro is impressive. particular~r in Nepal and
Ethiopia .... micro hydro is indeed a relativeb· efjicient method (~{poverty reduction.
in terms o( costs per person moved across the poverty line. The poverty gap
measure suggests that micro hydro is also able to reach a number o(lhe extreme~1·
~: Lifdine tariffs may well be an exception to this. but may be justified where the subsidy is essentially paid by ::1 "cross
subsidy" from richer consumers. so preserving the 1dea that the who!~ enterprise covers its operating costs.
2~ Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
poor .... through the channel of wage employment in micro hydro schemes
themselves and linkage activities derived .fi'om those schemes. In addition, we
believe that the estimates of' poverty reduction f/'om micro hydro .. systematically
understate poverty impact, as they exclude a range of Vet)' d[fficult to measure hut
important eflects such as time savings fi'om no longer having to cany kerosene or
otherjitel, improved educationfi·om the availahili~v of' electric light and improved
health and agricultural production f/'om drinking and irrigation ·water made
available out of' channels original~v developedfor micro hydro schemes. "
"On the preliminary data presented here, therefore. there would seem to he
evidence enabling a poverty reduction case to be made for the promotion c?f'micro
hydro. in particular through the polic.v instruments spec(fied. Whether that indeed
turns out to he the case depend.'i on >t>hether the estimates presented here can be
validated by a broader range of data. both fi'om the countries considered here and
elsewhere ". 43 .
3.8 Gender and Micro Hydro
The five country reports provide little or no gender disaggregated information. However one of
the authors had carried out a path-breaking piece of research on the gender related impact of
micro hydro in Sri Lanka in the mid 1990's. This covered a sample of 5 plants, selected to
represent different income levels and end-uses. Unfortunately only one of the sampled plants
was also covered in the more recent survey (Pathavita)44 . A random sample of some 86
connected and unconnected households were investigated (within which a sub-sample of 45
households was selected where both male and female members of the household were
interviewed).
While participation in village activities was generally found to be higher for males than
females, the sample showed a wide variation between the villages in the extent of female
participation in the hydro schemes. As might be expected, those households that are connected
to the hydro system participated considerably more than those that were not. Generally males
dominated the planning and initiation stages of the projects. In some Electricity Consumer
Societies women were ''not regarded as decision makers" while in others they were
encouraged. ECS meetings were frequently held on weekday evenings, which were
particularly difficult for women to attend. Technical issues were frequently regarded as "male".
The benefits were largely at the household level (lighting, TV and battery charging) for
connected households, but unconnected households benefited by access to TV and the
possibility of hiring lights for special occasions. Women tended to see the benefit of electricity
largely in tenns of reducing their workload, health, reduced expenditures. Whereas the men
saw benefits in terms of leisure, quality of life and the education of children. In connected
households the benefits of lighting ("a public good") were equally distributed between males
and females, but in unconnected households, the males were able to obtain more benefit as the
women were often excluded. Most Perhaps the most important finding was that the impact
upon unconnected households was greatly affected by the choice of end-uses. For example, it
4' ,\licm hnlro generation us instrume/11 o(pol'ertr reduction: Asian achh'l'emcnt and A!rinm potemial. by David Fulford.
Alistair Gill and Paul Mosley. Reports to DFID. Reading University.
41 Kiran Dhanapala, 1'!95. Report on rhe Gender Related lmpacl of Micro Hrdro leclmolu,t,"rl' ur !he Vi!!ugl! Level. Intermediate
Technology. Study Repor1 ~umber 2. 5'! pages,
Meeting Needs and the Circumstances of Affordability 25
is suggested that the addition of a chilli mill would probably produce more benefits to the
excluded group than say the addition of a battery charging station.
The survey showed that typically less than 50% of the households benefited from micro hydro,
re-enforcing village level power structures or increasing friction within the village. This
evidence has implications for poverty alleviation policy. Earlier we saw the impact the chosen
end-use had upon the type and distribution of benefits between households and between men
and women. Together these observations underline the importance of including both women
and non-connected households in the decision-making process if poverty impact is to be
maximised.
In Nepal, an assessment of the impact of Gandruk hydro plant suggested that the advent of
television had a significant 'cultural impact'. Women could see that they, "don't have to remain
as second class citizens"45 .
Jj Socia/ Impacts o!Eiectrification: 1Hicro Hydro in Gandmk. .Vr~pal. by Joshua Thumim. MSc Thesis. 1999. Imperial College
London. In this case only one quarter of the households were electrified. with the richer households consuming more power
than the poorer ones. Thirty households were interviewed (of which some 30'% of the interviews were with women). The data
are not disaggrcgated by
4
INTERMEDIATION IN PRACTICE: EXPANDING THE
USE OF MICRO HYDRO
4.1 Many Dimensions
A variety of approaches have been used to diffuse micro hydro. The chosen strategies vary
according to local circumstances and how long the programmes have been going. ln the early
days the approach typically involved a small group of enthusiasts (usually engineers in NGO)
who raised awareness of the possibilities by building and demonstrating plants, while more
mature programmes involved strong interactions with the main agencies of government and
development assistance. Broadly speaking each strategy involves a combination of the
following five elements:
Project
Promoters:
Financing
Mechanisms
PI ant Owners
I Managers
Technical
Support
Mechanisms
Main End-
uses
• Government owned utilities
• Non-Governmental Organisations
• Equipment manufacturers
• Individual entrepreneurs
• Multilateral or bilateral aid agencies
• Formal development bank loans and grants
• Grants from charities
• Equity from private (local) savings and
contributions in kind
• Utilities
• Municipal authorities
• Existing formal businesses such as Tea Estates
• Individual (village based) entrepreneurs
• Village or community groups
• Change agents (Village Catalysts, barefoot
engineers)
• Engineering workshops
• Existing consulting engineers
• NGO
• Domestic lighting I radios
• Social services (to schools, health centres, street
lights)
• Productive end-uses, usually using motive power
27
28 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
4.2 The Main Diffusion Strategies
The uncertainty surrounding the best method of expanding micro hydro was due to a number of
factors: the situation was changing rapidly; the current strategies were not necessarily fully
documented 46
; and due to the number of different actors involved, each with a different
strategy, some of which were implicit rather than explicit.
In most cases it would appear that the governments in the countries examined do not have
policies specifically for the development of micro hydro. Although some had policies to
encourage rural electrification, these were usually through grid extension. Where there were
policies to support a particular technology, such as solar photovoltaics, these tended to be
driven by external donors.
The main elements of the current expansion strategy can be characterised as follows.
Summary of Strategies to Expand the Use of Micro Hydro Plants in Selected Countries
Peru
Sri Lanka
Nepal
4 " Peru. page 9.
An NGO led strategy based on a revolving fund financed by the Inter-American
Development Bank.
• The Government's Executive Projects Directorate (DEP) created a
strategy for isolated areas (1997 -2000) but in practice this focuses
largely on mini hydro power plants ( 60) and diesel generators (72).
• There is no explicit strategy for the smaller. micro hydro power.
• The regulatory framework is aimed at promoting private investment in
generating and distributing electricity but the Government's clear
preference is to support grid based electrification.
A long standing programme in many phases:
• Initiated in 1979 by the Alternative Energy Unit of the state owned
utility.
• Followed by an NGO-Ied strategy based initially on the refurbishment
and demonstration of MHP in the Teas Estates and subsequently on
workshop training programmes and the creation of village-based
Electricity Supply Committees (#check name)
• A Technical Assistance Committee (subsequently Energy Forum)
provided co-ordination and direction between government, NGO and
private companies.
• The current phase based on World Bank funding of more commercially
orientated approaches through the Energy Services Delivery Project
operated by the Development Finance Corporation of Ceylon.
A long standing programme based on:
• The provision of subsidies to micro hydro through the Agricultural
Development Bank ofNepal (ADB/N).
• Credit support through the ABD/1\.
• NGOs drove the sector, and combined building-up the capability of the
local turbine manufacturers with the development of a number of
Intermediation in Practice 29
technical improvements (the electronic load controller and the use of
electric motors as turbines).
• A significant part of the sector (turbines for milling grain) is financially
self-sustaining, and receives no subsidised support.
• The current phase of the strategy involved the creation of The Alternative
Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) in 1996 as an autonomous body under
the Development Committee Act, and is overseen by the Ministry of
Science and Technology (MST). The mandate of AEPC is to promote
renewal energy technologies to meet the needs in rural areas of Nepal.
DANIDA is assisting those elements of the programme that promote
micro hydro development and PV.
Zimbabwe An NGO led strategy, currently at the early stage of awareness raising and the
construction of demonstration plants.
• An important element of the strategy is the Energy Forum of Zimbabwe
(EFORZ), originally the Hydro Forum. The forum dmws its
membership from interested individuals, NGOs, government
departments, universities, tertiary education institutions, research
institutions and the private sector. EFORZ works closely with
government on policy and planning of micro hydro development.
Mozarnbique An NGO-led strategy, currently at the early stage of awareness raising and
constructing demonstration plants.
• The development of new and renewable sources of energy is a result of
isolated initiatives and no institution has staff oriented solely to these
activities. The Government IS investigating alternative methods of
supplying household and small industrial concerns with energy.
• A local NGO, KMS, funded by FOS-Belgium, is working with ITDG to
rehabilitate a number of schemes to raise awareness and demonstrate the
technology.
4.3 The Key Agents Behind The 'Strategy'
The case studies showed that even the most modest hydro development programme is likely to
involve many stakeholders: government (national and local); utilities; project owners and
operators; aid agencies; financial institutions; equipment manufacturers, assemblers and
suppliers: providers of Technical Assistance; contractors plant owners; community developers
('animators'); communities: and the beneficiaries.
Agents of the state have played a particularly significant, if intermittent role in encouraging
micro hydro. In Nepal, the Agricultural Development Bank appears to have been the lead
institution, drawing on the services of NGOs. In Sri Lanka, the utilities (the Ceylon Electricity
Board) similarly expressed an early interest in micro hydro and then drew on the services of an
NGO and local consultant engineers.
The international financial institutions, both multilateral and bilateral, now appear to be taking
an interest in micro hydro. In the 1960's and 1970's these aid agencies invested heavily in
rural electrification, but this was almost entirely through grid extensions. This experience, and
particularly the sense that rural electrification was a bottomless pit of financially unsustainable
projects, meant that they remained reluctant to fund more recent, decentralised systems.
30 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
However, they have begun to
re-consider decentralised
energy options, prompted no
doubt by their new interest in
·renewable sources of energy47
and by the enthusiasm of
manufacturers of
photovoltaics in industrialised
countries.
In Sri Lanka the World Bank
included micro hydro in its
Energy Services Delivery
loan, which was initially
envisaged to cover only solar
PV. In Nepal substantial
Installation of hydro system in Sri Lanka funding is now coming from
Danida aimed at increasing
the scale of the effort devoted to micro hydro (and PV), and to put the schemes on a more
financially secure basis.
• 4.4 The Issue of Ownership and the Main 'Clients' of the Strategies
The cases show that there is a wide variation in the types of actors that own and operate MHP
and that this determines both what support they require, and also the objectives that they are
attempting to achieve, and even the cost at which they do it.
In Peru the municipal authorities have played a particularly important role in owning and
operating micro hydro installations. This is partly because they are the entity that has access to
government funds and can rais€ local resources through taxation. The municipalities are
usually district or provincial capitals with a population that usually exceeds 500 people (1 00
families). The electricity services managed by them tends to have a greater coverage (higher
electrification coefficient) than those operated by 'peasant communities' or private operators,
because the Mayors tend to justify themselves by providing services to as many families as
possible.
However, this political factor also has negative consequences, as there is a change over of
Micro Hydro operating staff at each change of mayor (re-elected every four years).
Furthermore, access to central government funds means mayors are under no pressure to charge
cost-covering rates for the service and generally politicians are reluctant to raise tariffs. All but
one of the municipal plants reviewed had a negative financial balance and high rates of
outstanding payments (23%) even though rates are relatively low, equivalent to $3.2 per month
peruser.
In Sri Lanka in village hydro schemes, the ownership, management, financial control and load
regulation are carried out by the Electricity Consumer Society (ECS). These are societies
47 Interestingly the enthusiasm for "new renewables" has taken place at time during which lending for conventional scale hydro
electricity has declined rapidly. This probably means that there has been a net fall in donors' contribution to energy supplies
from renewable sources. See, for instance, World Bank Operations Evaluation Department Report No. 17359, Feb. 1998, on
Rene~able Energy, pages 57 and 58.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Intermediation in Practice 31
fonned by the villagers that consume the power delivered by the village hydro plants (see Box).
However, under the more 'commercial orientation' of the World Bank programme, the ECS
were not eligible for loans and have to be converted into limited liability Electricity Consumer
Companies (ECC). An unfortunate consequence of this is, apparently, that the consumers feel
less like 'owners'. There is less motivation to stay with the village hydro scheme or to pay back
the loan, as responsibility lies with the ECC48 .
Where utilities are the owners or substantial contributors to micro hydro, there is a tendency for
the technical standards to be higher, thus raising the cost of supply substantialll9 (see Section
4.13).
Private owners have also played an important ownership role. For instance, Tea Estates have
been particularly important in Sri Lanka, as many of the initial micro hydro plants were located
there and their refurbishment enabled the technology to be demonstrated, and experience to be
gained. However, private companies have had difficulty in getting the necessary approvals to
use publicly owned resources such as river water or the river bank (which in Sri Lanka at least
is usually owned by the state), or the necessary 'way leave' to allow conductors to cross a
public road. Individual owners may face similar constraints, but they have also been important
players and have successfully developed and owned micro hydro businesses (see footnote 29).
The case studies also contain many different fom1s of ownership and different styles (and
quality) of management. This is particularly taken up in the Peru report (Section 5). Generally
the reports do not support the view that there is a relationship between the quality of
management and type of ownership. Small owner operators tend to have weak management
(e.g. in Mozambique), while politically dominated management experienced in Municipal
plants and co-operatives are likely not to raise tariffs with inflation.
Experience around the world suggests that it is possible to have efficient 'business-like·
management, whether the plant is owned by individuals, state-owned utilities, or community
groups. The lesson from big utilities is to ensure that the regulatory authority is able to produce
the incentives necessary for effective management. In the smaller decentralised systems, such
as micro hydro mini grids, this also probably means setting up (corporate) structures that
minimise political interference, and provide clear delegated authority to a management to
achieve clearly stated objectives (related to profitability, coverage and the quality of service).
4.5 Intermediation and the Critical Importance of 'Project Developers'
But perhaps the most important 'agenf in the implementation of strategies for micro hydro has
been the 'project developer'. 'Project developers' are the people or agencies that: identify the
sites; help organise the community into an organisation (such as the Electricity Consumer
Societies in Sri Lanka): act for the community or plant owner to arrange the finance; obtain the
equipment; supervise design and installation: train the operators: and press for change in the
regulatory environment, etc.
-l' The ECC at Pathawita is facing a severe threat to its existence with the national grid penetrating into its area. The loss of
existing consumers and the difficulty of attracting new customers may result in difficulties paying back the 8-ycar loan under
the ESD program.
4
" Tampoe notes that early schemes spent about Rs. 2.000-.:UJOO on household wiring per household but this increased to Rs.
4JJOO-R.OOO in later schemes in 1996'7 \\·here the CEB standards were applied (Tampoc. M .. 1998. unpublished repm1 to
ITDG ppl40).
32 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
NGOs have been major suppliers of 'project development services' as they saw the provision of
these services as a necessary step in demonstrating the technology, or as their contribution to
helping a specific group of marginalized people gain access to improved energy supplies.
However, there are also important cases where individual entrepreneurs have acted as their own
project developers 50 .
Almost regardless of the financing mechanisms or the strategies of governments and aid
agencies, the critical factor in the development of micro hydro programmes has been the
existence of the aforementioned individuals or agencies. They have had the skill to put the
various elements of a micro hydro project together and the tenacity to see it through to
operation. This suggests another key conclusion: the rate at which the micro hydro sector can
be expanded will be dependent on the rate at which such project development capabilities can
be developed, expanded and paid for.
4.6 Transaction Costs and the Cost of Intermediation
While the case studies showed the importance of the various types of intermediation, they also
showed that there was very little knowledge about how much each of them cost. For instance,
the long process of technology development and capacity building took place over many years
and involved substantial investments by the companies involved, institutions such as the
ADB/N, numerous aid agencies and international NGOs. No estimate has been made of the
amount involved. but if micro hydro is to be successful in other countries similar investments
will have to be made.
Similarly the costs of 'animating' the commumt1es to own and operate micro hydro
installations is difficult to establish, but again the investment is likely to be considerable and
the process likely to last many years. with each community.
A key conclusion therefore is that finding the funds to cover the costs of intermediation is
likely to be a key factor in the successful introduction and scaling up of micro hydro
programmes. As with other decentralised energy options, private financial institutions cannot
or will not cover the cost associated with many of the transactions necessary to get these energy
options installed. Indeed many financial institutions will probably have considerable difficulty
even in covering the relatively high transaction costs of 'retailing' their capital resources to the
people who want power from micro hydro plant.
This situation is well illustrated by the case in Sri Lanka. When the World Bank funded the
Energy Services Delivery (ESD) project, the supervision and certification of loans became a
major cost element. Many of these tasks were originally carried out 'for free' by Intermediate
Technology for both village people and financial institutions. With ESD they either had to be
supplied at very much greater cost by local consulting engineers or did not take place at all.
This meant that the draw down of the loan funds was very low until additional funds were
made available through a grant from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). After this point,
it was possible to undertake the tasks associated with loan monitoring, and the establishing of
title to land for the purposes of providing collateral for the loans.
Similarly in Peru relatively few people initially applied for suppmt from the IDS funded
revolving Credit Fund. The 'marketing' programme that was then initiated required a
considerable effort of visits to the target areas. Luckily it was possible to cover the costs of this
with non-reimbursable funds provided by the lOB. In addition it would appear that for every
"'/\particularly interesting example i,c, that ofBir Bahadur Ghalc, from Barpak in Nepal. referred to in footnote 29.
Intermediation in Practice 33
$100 spent on a micro hydro plant in Peru (from grant or loan) an additional $15 is currently
spent on the system over head costs (for a $36,000 plant these costs would be $5,400).
But private entrepreneurs who develop their own projects also incur huge intermediation costs.
The most fully documented case is in Nepal where a private individual took about two years to
develop a basic micro hydro scheme. During the period, according to his own account, he
made 'forty-one trips to Kathmandu to meet with suppliers, government officials, bankers and
others including ITDG in order to build his scheme' 5 1•
Such activities are systematically omitted from the estimation of costs in the comparison of
options for decentralised energy supply (see the earlier discussion in Section 2.1 ). The result is
that no account is taken of the size of a programme that is necessary to capture the economies
of scale associated with the provision of the necessary elements of 'intermediation' (see
footnote 15 ).
In the case studies reported here an attempt was made to identify a11 the activities associated
with the installation and operation of the individual plant (and quantify the associated costs),
and all of the various actors who performed them (manufacturers, contractors, plant owners,
customers and other beneficiaries, government, banks, utilities, and the vanous
'intern1ediators' ).
4. 7 The Size of the Micro Hydro Market and the Sustain ability of Current
Support Mechanisms
The relatively high cost of intermediation frequently means that the tasks of project
development will often fall to NGOs. Certainly it is NGOs that can most easily access the soft
money that these projects will need if poor people are to benefit from them. But it will also
often only be not-for-profit agencies, such as NGOs, that can cope with the high transaction
costs involved. The costs of these 'intem1ediation' activities are frequently absorbed in the
general programme costs of NGOs and cannot be separately identified. Indeed none of the
NGOs investigated could tell the researchers how much they had spent on this type of general
support activity over the many years that they had been involved. This means that NGOs will
not be in a position to scale up their operations, not only because such activities are dependent
on the size of the grants they receive, but also because installing hydro plant is rarely the sole
purpose ofthese NGOs.
This raises the critical questions of whether NGO dominated programmes are in fact
sustainable in the longer term, and whether such programmes can be scaled-up without
adequate funding for more mainstream and commercial project development mechanisms. The
cun·ent reliance on NGOs is often too ad hoc and the programmes too small to capture the
economies of scale, in these 'system overheads' costs. This is likely to prove a difficult barrier
to overcome when the programmes are to be scaled-up and these costs dealt with on a more
commercial basis.
In principle these project development functions could be spun off into separate entities, either
single purpose NGOs or consulting firn1s. But it is precisely these entities that have proven to
be so difficult to fund in the pasr'2 . It is not yet clear whether there will be enough work for
'' See rcf.::rence in foomote 29
'~In one of the most inJH)\ative programmes to create business plans for the renewable energy businesses in Africa (FINESSE)
the main constraint appears to be the lack of institutions who can operate as project developers working between the people
34 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
such businesses to be run on a financially self-sustaining basis. There is great uncertainty about
the size of the micro hydro market, particularly as the demand will be affected greatly by the
level of soft money available and how the money is used.
Many of the estimates of the potential for micro hydro are based on overly simplistic views
about micro hydro potential, based solely on approximations of appropriate sites with falling
water. For instance, in Sri Lanka conservative estimates of the technical potential of MH are
about 80-90 MW. But these estimates do not include the costs of hamessing this potential. As
with other energy resources, such as PV or natural gas, there is rarely a shortage energy, but
rather a shortage of the skills and capital to make use of it.
In Peru market development is said to be limited. This is in part due to the lack of information
on consumers that fall between 'real' markets (profitable and in charge of private concession
holders) and consumers whose only chance of gaining access to electricity (in the medium
term) is a state subsidy. In at least one case, the govemment over estimated the demand and
offered a concession. However, when the grid extension projects were implemented, it was
found that the demand was much lower than anticipated and in some cases non-existent. The
State ended up covering the deficit.
In the case of Sri Lanka an attempt has been made to develop the capacity to perform some
project development tasks as self-sustaining businesses in the fom1 of 'Village Catalysts'.
These people do appear to provide an important function in stimulating demand and providing
some technical input to the projects. However, the new sources of finance (such as the World
Bank financed ESD project) appear to require 'certification' of project designs and the quality
of construction from people more formally qualified than the village catalyst. Either aid
agencies and foreign NGOs will have to adapt their requirements of the people who arrange
loan and subsidy finance or Village Catalysts will have to have their skills enhanced still
further. The issue is one of balance between the cost of high quality intermediation and the
reduction in risk that results from using more skilled people.
In Nepal equipment suppliers themselves perfonn some of the project development tasks. But
here there would appear to be at least the potential for a conflict of interest and lack of
independence in the advice given to the purchaser53 .
The scale and manner in which these 'intermediation services' will be perfom1ed will therefore
depend on the form and scale of the money necessary to pay for them.
4.8 Specific Examples of Intermediation
The case studies show a number of interesting examples of the extent of intermediation.
4. 8.1 Technological Intermediation
A great deal of the current success of micro hydro results from the early attempts to build
technological capability with existing metal workshops in Nepal. The first oil crisis in 1973
stimulated the Nepalese govemment to look for altemative energy sources. A number of
companies that had experience in building the traditional water wheel, graduated to adding
with a need and the people with the finance.
'' Wolfgang Mostert. personal communication.
Intermediation in Practice 35
electricity generation onto improved water turbines 54 . By 1979 ADB/N had established their
Appropriate Technology Units (ATU) to promote micro hydro and other technologies.
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) became involved at this stage and
worked with a number of the existing engineering companies to develop the technology. The
capabilities of the manufactures was further enhances through a series of training programme
starting in 1987 financed by ADB/N and ITDG. This experience was then transferred, and
adapted, to other parts of the developing world 55 .
4.8.2 Socia/ Intermediation and Participative Approaches to the 1~anagement of
Technical Chang£!6
A major theme in the development of micro hydro technology has been the huge effort put in to
'Participative Approaches' to create, nurture and capacitate communities to build, own and
operate micro hydro p1ant. These efforts trace their origins to the more general use of
participatory development methodologies in the implementation of technology based projects.
In Sri Lanka this process evolved into the development of Electricity Consumer Societies
(ECS).
Box 4-l: ELECTRICITY CONSUMER SOCIETIES
The village hydro schemes of Sri Lanka are usually managed by an Electricity Consumer Society
(ECS) or its legal and more recent equivalent. the Electricity Consumer Company (ECC), established
for each project. These innovative mechanisms facilitate the participatory ownership and
management of micro hydro schemes within village communities. Assistance in setting up the ECS
was generally provided by an outside agency (a Non-Government Organisation. such as ITDG). A
Society (ECS) was created in each village before it was able to request technical assistance to
undertake a scheme. The ECS involves all potential beneficiaries of the scheme and becomes the
operational and implementation conduit tor the project. As the scheme moves into the operational
phase it takes on a more managerial and regulatory role, although the structure and composition of the
organisation remained the same.
The ECS became a pivotal institution within the village community. The office bearers would be
selected at an annual general meeting. and sometimes include women. They would manage such
issues as financial control. tariff setting, load regulation, agreeing electricity end-uses. taking action
following breakdowns, and settling disputes arising from electricity usage within the community.
With the advent of bank tinance for micro hydro the ECS had to be fonnalised into Electricity
Consumer Companies in order to become a legal body. with a status of a small company. Any loan
repayment thereby became the sole responsibility of the ECC.
54 Prominent among these were Balaju Yantra Shala (BYS) established in 1960 with the assistance of Swiss De\·clopmcnt
Corporation (SDCl: Bum·al Technical Institute (BTil established with the assistance of United 'Mission to Nepal (CMN).
National Structure ( 1963) Thapa Engineering Works at Butwal (I 972): and The Engineering Company at Kathmandu ( 1973 ).
In 1975 Butwal Engineering Works (BEW). a sister concern of BTL designed and tested the first Pelton turbines. !\cpa] Yarltra
Shala (NYS) also started turbine manufacture in 1975. BEW fabricated the first Crosstlow turbine in 1976. BYS fabri..:ated the
tirst turbine for generating 6 kW in 1978. In the same year Thapa Engineering \Vorks built their first crosstlow turbine.
Kathmandu metal Industries (KMI). and National Structure and Engineering developed and installed the first Multi Purpose
Power Unit (MPPU) to improve the traditional ghatta (water wheel).
" Sec for instance "ivficro Hnlro Design Manual" by Adam Harvey. Andy Brcrwn. Priyantha Hettiarachi and Allen lmcrsin.
IT Publications, London. 1993 228 pp. TSB"i I 115339 I 03 4.
'"These issues arc dealt with at greater length in "Parlicipalin: Planning Guidelines for 0(/~grid E/ectricin· .. October 1999
(this material is available from IT Consultants \\WW.itchl!d.com). It provides evidence of a need for technical and managerial
capacity being built at the project level at an early stage of project planning. Furthermore, unlike in other sectors. participation
in micro hydro appears to need people with technical knowledge such as the "Village Catalysts .. of Sri Lanka.
36 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Similar village committees build and operate many of the hydro schemes examined in Nepal.
They are responsible for the loans, set tariffs, and appoint the staff who operate the plant. In
Peru rural people also had to organise themselves into 'pre-electrification committees' or other
ad-hoc organisations in order to gain formal access to credit. This represents a major
contribution that the IDB/ITDG revolving credit scheme made to building institutions with civil
society in rural areas.
Community participation not only facilitates involvement in the design and operation of hydro
plant, but it also enables costs to be reduced in three ways:
• it allows people to contribute their labour (or other communally owned asset such as
land 57 ) to the scheme. If people are under employed the opportunity cost ofthis labour
can be close to zero, and its use need not involve the transfer of cash. This is often
described as 'sweat equity' in that by contributing its labour the community gains a
share in the ownership of the scheme;
• involvement of the whole community enables the richer elements (richer households,
small mills and shop owners) to carry the bulk of the costs and thereby make a service
available to the poorer people in the community. This can be done either through
actual cross subsidy to the selling price (through a 'lifeline tariff) or by allowing them
into the scheme at the marginal cost of including extra consumers rather than the
average cost:
• increasing the number of people involved in a scheme can reduce the cost to everyone
when micro hydro schemes exhibit economies of scale.
However, while involvement of the community is certainly a necessary condition for the
success of some types of schemes, and can lower costs, the process itself is costly and time
consuming. These costs are associated with understanding the needs of different users (for
instance including both men and women), developing community motivation and 'ownership',
and in training. Such processes may take a number of years and can add significantly to the
costs of the NGO or other agency involved in project development 58 . If a single entrepreneur
or a municipality is able to raise all the capital, it may well be that they can avoid the cost of
community development and still have a successful micro hydro scheme.
4.8.3 Village Catalysts
In Sri Lanka another major element of the participative elements of village hydro programmes
was the training of 'Village Catalysts' (sometimes known as 'barefoot' technologists). Ten
catalysts have been trained. These were usually village level electricians or electrical repair
technicians whose skills were upgraded by ITDG and their services re-orientated toward
operational and maintenance support to village hydro schemes. They met the need to have
'trouble-shooting' capacity located near to the sites. Some catalysts are also capable of
designing and manufacturing Pelton turbines up to 5 kW or so in capacity. In some areas there
is sufficient demand to enable these catalysts to grow into entrepreneurs working
independently. But despite their business-like approach they still perform services free of
charge or at low cost to certain communities due to a sense of personal loyalty. Catalysts also
promote hydro in other villages and are often the first point of contact for potential
beneficiaries and respond to inquiries and demands of Provincial Councils. However, as
''The contribution of land is said to be crucial to the success of schemes in Sri Lanka where the state owns river banks. and
would be unlikely to grant permission for individuals to usc this land for their own profit.
"It has also been suggested that where community assets are used to build a hydro plant. such as the publicly "shared assets·
of the river bank or ri\ cr water. there may be an insistence that I 00% of the households an: connected. This may affect costs.
profitability and timing of the proJect. Diesel generating sets arc said not to suffer from this"" I OO~·o connection rate syndrome··
(Wolfgang Mostert. personal communication).
Intermediation in Practice 37
suggested in Section 4.5, these catalysts cannot perform all the roles of project developer, as
they are not yet perceived as sufficiently credible to financial institutions.
4.8.4 Marketing and the 'Creation' of Demand
The need to stimulate the demand for micro hydro through 'marketing' and publicising the
existence of the necessary funding opportunities is a particularly important element of social
inte1mediation in the examples cited in the Peru case study. This activity was an essential
element in the success of the programme as relatively few people initially applied for support
from the IDB funded, revolving Credit Fund. Even though interest rates and payment
conditions seemed attractive when started, virtually no effective loans were made when the
scheme was first set up. It was therefore necessary to adjust the strategy. Programmes that
included visits of a team of promoters to the target towns to explain the details of the proposed
funding scheme were established, including the participation in local and regional events, use
of the radio and visits of students and others. Over a period of two years ( 1996 and 1997),
nearly 40 visits were made, many of them to areas that involve many hours of travel from the
nearest small town on a bridle path, the only means of access.
4.8.5 Lobbying
In most countries. technical competence in micro hydro has had to be complemented with the
capacity to lobby for micro hydro development and the conditions that would at least give this
technical option a fair hearing in the allocation of resources and in the formulation of policy.
The most formal and successful of this advocacy function is probably the formation in 1990/1
of a Technical Assistance Committee (TAC) Sri Lanka which united a diverse set of
individuals and organisations interested in micro hydro. Participants included representative of
all sectors but, mainly NGO and the private sector. Staff from the utility were also active
members. Its initial strategy was to incorporate micro hydro into the government's Rural
Development plan but later facilitated greater co-ordination among all the actors working on
micro hydro initiatives. More recently the TAC evolved into an 'Energy Forum' that lobbies
for all decentralised and renewable energy options. Similar Forums have proved effective in
Nepal and Zimbabwe and Peru.
4.9 Financial Intermediation and the Main Funding Mechanisms 59
Micro hydro investments are costly and capital intensive. Therefore, access to appropriate
forms of medium I long-tem1 financing is critical. This means financial intem1ediation services
in rural markets -the supply of debt and other financing to both suppliers of electricity (micro
hydro owners) and to electricity users.
There are two broad channels for the flow of financing and related support to investor/owners
and the ultimate energy end-users:
• the first channel is one of direct access by investors to finance the purchase to the
technology and know-how and provide the necessary working capital;
• the second channel is indirect and supplies support through intermediaries who deliver
technical and financial intermediation services to the investor or end-use consumer.
A number of business models employ versions of the indirect channel. For example, rather
than a direct sale, an equipment supplier might provide an owner with a micro hydro turbine
under a lease, or lease towards purchase ('hire purchase') arrangement. But the more common
·"'In addition to evidence provided by the country reports. this section draws heavily on a paper specially commissioned from
Dr Russell delucia.
38 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
of indirect approaches is in the form of a 'utility' or 'energy service company' (ESCO). In the
most straight-forward of these, the owner not only sells electricity to the end-user but provides
finance at least for the customer connection and perhaps end-use equipment (lights, TV etc).
The investor/owner role is maintained for a long period or indefinitely.
The old-fashioned (but still existent) micro hydro grain mills are a form of ESCOs, the
customer pays only for the energy-service (e.g. grain milled) and perhaps even pays in kind (a
small fraction of the milled grain). ln modern variants the customer pays only for energy (e.g.
kWh), or energy-service (lighting or water being pumped).
Box 4-2 presents an indicative menu of the broad types of financing, structures and their
sources. This draws on the body of experience on options that have been successfully used in
OECD countries in supporting market penetration of small energy investments. Increasingly
these options are now being used in a growing number of developing countries. While this
menu is generally representative of the direct project financing approach, in many instances it is
also indicative of the indirect financing approach.
Box 4-2: Indicative Menu of Financing Options (Types and Sources)
Equity Financing with financial resource mobilisation from:
• internal funds from the project sponsor I active investors I users;
• other active investors, such as venture capital funds, or investments by merchant banks;
• supplier (e.g. of equipment) as investor (part or all of equipment costs);
• passive investors through 'private placement' of equity financial-security instruments (e.g.
shares certificate);
• passive investors through public (security-agency-regulated) placement/offering; and
• special categories of above where the investor has additional (non-financial) objectives, such
as targeting environmental/green project or entity investments.
Primary and Secondary (mezzanine*) Debt Financing with financial resource mobilisation from:
• commercial and/or development bank and other Financial Institution providing working
capital and tenn loans (limited recourse or balance sheet);
• complementary and/or alternative (often mezzanine) debt from ·active/directly involved'
equity sources (categories l.(a-c) above);
• export credit agency (ECA) source when equipment is imported;
• investment grade tenn-debt instrument (e.g. bonds) placed through limited offering to sources
for which fiduciary and/or other constraints limit portfolio positions largely to such investment
grade instruments;
• as in (d) but from a broader range of sources through a registered offering;
• 'junk' (non-investment grade) bonds (the more general case) placed to similar sources as in (d)
and (e) but participation of sources for (d) constrained as noted; and
• analogy of !.(f) for debt, sometimes as complementing equity position.
Other Financing/financial Support~ with financial resource mobilisation and/or support from:
• grants/contingent grants, cost shares sometimes for specific costs (e.g. pre-investment studies)
or cost components from public agencies at federal, state or local level;
• depreciation and/or tax credits from federal, state or local authorities, which, in effect, lower
the cost of debt and/or equity financing;
• lease financing from equipment suppliers, or through arrangements with Financial Institutions; and
• myriad guarantees, credit enhancements and/or other suppm1 usually from Development
Finance Institutions' suppm1 by federal, state or local governments; to facilitate one or another
of financing options above, or the creation of subcategory of one of these options such as 'tax-
free' development. pollution control or other special bonds.
Intermediation in Practice 39
Source: modified from tables in previous deLucia and Associates, Inc. reports and papers.
Mezzanine finance is defined as "unsecured, higher yielding loans that are subordinate to banks and secured
loans but rank above equity" (Encarta, 1998).
The most critical question in financial intermediation is who is responsible for transaction
decisions and who bears what risks. If support from an International Financial Institution (IFI) is
to work, experience suggests two very clear lessons. First, given the nature of transaction costs,
this support can only be cost-effective if the Institution 'off-loads' most if not all transactional
responsibilities to intermediaries. The smaller the scale of the investment transaction, the more
necessary is this 'off-loading'. However the IFI must retain the responsibility of the appraisal and
evaluation of the intermediaries, at least those at the highest level.
Secondly, the intermediaries must be responsible for the appraisal of the transaction (the
investment and the credit worthiness of the borrower or end-user), the management of financial
and associated risks, and of course, be responsible for ensuring transaction re-flows (the
repayments).
A recent review of IFI operations in support of micro hydro and other small energy investments
suggests three useful but sometimes overlapping representative categories of financial
intermediaries 60 :
'Classical' Intermediation via Bank or Non-Bank Financial Institutions. Nepal's
Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal is perhaps the most well known example for
financing micro hydro. ADB/N is a government owned bank which serves as an
intennediary for the government's micro hydro (and other) programs; it has also been an
intermediary for various International Financial Institutions. More recently the Sri Lanka
Development Finance Corporation of Ceylon (DFCC) acts as one of the intermediaries
for the funds provided by the World Bank under its Energy Services Delivery loan.
Intermediation via Other Non-Bank Specialised Financial Institutions. Again citing an
example with micro hydro experience, perhaps most well known of such institutions is
IREDA The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Ltd. IREDA was created
in 1987 as a public limited company owned by the Central Government to promote
renewable energy and to serve as a 'channel' for Government and International Financial
Institution external funds. IREDA has supported a number of micro/mini/small hydro
projects.
Intermediation via Non-Financial Institutions. This is an envelope category including
such entities as utilities, ESCOs, special purpose investment entities (e.g. development
authorities, infrastructure funds) and others, including NGOs. An example of this is the
revolving fund operated by ITDG Peru using funds sourced from the Inter American
Development Bank.
The World Bank and other international development finance institutions are increasingly using a
class of intermediaries which are financing funds or facilities whose management is the
responsibility of a local bank or non-bank Financial Institution (or consortium). Such
International Financial Institution operations, referred here as Fund or Facili~v Operations, are
usually designed to provide a mechanism for the International Financial Institution to support
~~uEach of these categories is discussed, along with examples in the aforementioned report (De Lucia and Associates. Inc. July
199X.l which is a\ailable from the World Bank. ·
40 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
private sector involvement in energy and other infrastructure development and to facilitate greater
flow to these investments fi·om the capital markets.
In Nepal where there is a new World Bank. 'Power Development Fund', it will be important to
find a way of handling the transaction costs so that it will be giving extended support to viable
micro hydro investments. Even when such operations exist and 'in principle' are open to
supporting small-scale hydro, transaction costs lead the fund managers to avoid such investments.
Many NGOs have some experience in financial intem1ediation, for example operating savings and
lending societies. While these loans are generally much smaller (and shorter term) than is required
for investment in micro hydro, they may bring important knowledge of the financial strengths and
weakness of certain individuals and groups (the NGOs' existing clients) who are potential
borrowers for micro hydro schemes. Such NGOs might well 'graduate' to greater financial
intem1ediation responsibilities, or amalgamate with larger financial intem1ediaries.
4.10 Current Financing Models for Micro Hydro
The case studies show that in practice many micro hydro plants are financed in the same way as
houses are in developing countries. The funds come from a variety of sources, the investment
is started before all the financing is in place. and construction takes place piecemeal when the
necessary resources come available, often over a very long period. Schemes were generally
implemented using grants or multilateral soft loans obtained by the project developer (usually
an NGO). The exception in the schemes under review was in Nepal, where the ADB/N played
a central role in financial intermediation.
This means that financial intermediation (or financial engineering) has crucial inputs that can
be very costly. It also means that most of the existing financial mechanism targeted at micro
hydro frequently do not provide sufficient funding, and certainly not from a single source.
In Peru, the ITDG!IDB revolving fund was created by the contribution from lOB with a capital
of US$400,000. plus $120,000 for technical assistance. The repayment tem1s to the
intermediary, ITDG, are set at a very low cost with repayments being made in local Peruvian
currency . The funds for technical assistance are a grant and are not reimbursable. The scheme
was designed for loans ranging from US$1 0,000 to $50,000 for each micro hydro power plant.
The repayment was to be over (up to) five years, with an annual interest rate of 8% in U.S.
currency (at this time the commercial current rate of interest in US dollars is at least 12 % per
year).
However, the demand for credit from the revolving fund only became effective when additional
funds were made available from other sources (regional government, poverty relief projects
FONCODES 61 ) and the rural consumers themselves. In Peru it was found that regional and
sub-regional governments are more willing than the central government to support essentially
decentralised schemes of this nature.
An interesting feature of the revolving funds is that ITDG hired an independent Credit
Operator. This is a local entity (in the city of Cajamarca) that was contracted by ITDG to carry
out independent assessments of the credit worthiness of the potential bon·owers, to draw up and
file the relevant credit agreement, disburse the loan and recover it. ln this way, the project
''
1 Compensation Fund for Development
Intermediation in Practice 41
developer, ITDG, was able to concentrate on the promotion, technical assistance and general
supervision of the projects.
By the beginning of 1999 I 5 loans, totalling US$465, 718, had been granted from the revolving
loan. A total investment of $ I, 730,000 had been made for the installation of 15 micro hydro
power plants in small towns in Cajamarca, Apurimac, Amazonas and Lambayeque.
Repayment has been at a high level.
The following tables summarises this scheme:
Table 4-1: Sources of Finance from Micro Hydro Development in Peru
Source Amount o/o
ITDG/IDB Credit $465,718 27
Regional and Sub-regional $418,044 24
Government
FONCODES $328,475 19
Direct contribution of $242,730 14
municipalities and small
businesses
Local contribution (population) $47,330 3
Others(*) $226,852 13
TOTAL $1,729,149 100
*Including technical assistance and promotion funds provided by IDB (up to
USS 1 ::!0 thousand) and other donors.
Table 4-2: Types of Finance from Micro Hydro Development in Peru
Financial Component Use of Funds %of total
costs
Loans Civil works and electro-mechanical 27% equipment
Contribution by Pre-investment and other complementary 14%
municipalities and small expenses
businesses
Grants Technical assistance and promotion (13%) 56% Civil works and distribution lines (43%)
Contribution by local Manpower, matenals 3% people
TOTAL 100%
When a municipality is the owner of the micro hydro funds are sourced from both central
government (transferred to municipalities), and from the local population through taxes.
Indeed municipalities raise commercial loans against the guarantee of a 'retention', that if they
do not service the debt, the payments will be deducted directly by central government from
national tax revenues payable to the municipality.
42 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
In Sri Lanka, until the recent advent of the World Bank financed ESD project, funding for each
project had come from a wide range of sources such as foreign donors, the government's
poverty alleviation programs, local government bodies and charities such as the Rotary Club.
Contributions in kind (sweat equity), mainly for the civil works, were a significant element in
resource mobilisation. The cases showed that this source could be significant: at the
Katepoloya scheme in Sri Lanka this was as high as 44(% 62 of all costs, including labour . More
generally in Sri Lanka beneficiaries provided some 30 % of the total project cost, when sweat
equity is properly casted.
The \Vorld Bank is now the major contributor to village hydro finance in Sri Lanka by means
of its Energy Services Delivery (ESD) project. The ESD provides a credit line to Participating
Credit Institutions (PCis) for medtum and long-term credit for many renewable energy and
demand side management projects. This includes village micro hydro and the rehabilitation of
Tea Estate mini hydro sites. Finance for electricity end-uses at the community level is not
specifically included, though it is implicitly recognised as a part of the project cost. However,
existing micro credit institutions in rural areas (such as Sarvodaya and Sanasa) can provide
both business development support services and micro-finance to new businesses based on
electricity.
The Development Finance Corporation of Ceylon (DFCC) is the main operator of the World
Bank programme and manages the loans to the Participating Credit Institutions. These loans
are usually based on Average Weighted Deposit Rates (A WDR) in the commercial banking
sector and PCI are free to on-lend at market rates. PCis are free to adopt their own eligibility
criteria with no specifications on debt to equity ratios as often the case with previous other
World Bank loans. Nominal market interest rates usually vary but range between 15%-22% in
current prices in local currency (inflation is currently about 7%). Rates are dependent on bank
policies and individual project situations. The loan period is a maximum of 10 years including
a maximum two-year grace period.
Borrowers repay ESD loans to the PCls, and the PCls make repayments in stages to the DFCC
which in tum repays the money to the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) five years after
initially drawing down the funds. The Government then repays the loan to the World Bank
after a time lag.
The ESD provides grant funds for capacity building through training and through technical and
generic market support for renewable energy services, by supporting educational promotion
campaigns for off-grid energy technologies. This activity is subcontracted out to the Sri Lanka
Business Development Centre (SLBDC).
Collateral in the Sri Lankan ESD programme is provided by the project's capital equipment and
land leasehold rights. In such projects, land is often state or Crown land leased on a long-term
basis and then mortgaged. In the event of defaulting, the site and land can be transferred and
sold as a going concem.
As in the case of the Peruvian programme, ESD has required additional grant funds to get their
programmes off the ground. These have been provided mainly through co-financing from the
Global Environment Facility (GEF). These grant initiatives came into effect one year into
project implementation following representation from banks, equipment dealers, and
"2 This figure seems quite high. However in schemes where a great deal of civil work is necessary, in kind contribution from
beneficiaries might be significant.
Intermediation in Practice 43
consultants. In effect hard commercial funds from the private sector are 'leveraged' with softer
public funds in order to cover the 'system overhead costs'.
The grant elements associated with ESD now includes:
• Grant co-:financefor loan applicants. These are $400 for each kilowatt up to $20,000
for micro hydro plant (compared to $100 per 30 Watt Solar Home Systems-SHS );
• Grants for Project Preparation. These cover 95% of costs up to $9,000 for Micro
Hydro (90% up to $6,500 for SHS );
• A campaign to promote ofT-grid electrici(1~
• Grants to the PCU/Or Project Supervision. Currently these are $1,200 for each micro
hydro project ($50/SHS up to $600/sub project);
• Grants for project supervision. These grants enable consultants to verify the design of
micro hydro projects and site specifications before loan disbursements.
• Consumer education and protection facility. This currently applies only to solar home
systems and is a facility to investigate consumer complaints about dealers and to seek
appropriate solutions.
It also appears that additional grant support is required for technical assistance to micro hydro
development through ESD schemes and is currently being arranged through additional soft
funds.
The ESD project started at the end of 1997 and has been in operation almost two years. To date
it has approved around 13 grid connected and 7 off-grid micro hydro schemes.
In Nepal the Government requires commercial banks to invest 7 percent of their total deposits
in the priority sectors. However the Government has to rely on the Agricultural Development
Bank of Nepal (ADB/N) to administer its subsidy scheme for micro hydro. Formal financial
institutions have been reluctant to provide rural credit. Commercial Banks (such as the Nepal
Bank Limited and Rashtriya Banijya Bank) have a strong network of field offices and are able
to provide credit in rural areas. The new joint venture banks have so far failed, however, to
provide such services due to their inexperience in this sector. They mobilise funds through
contractual an·angements with ADB/N.
Subsidies are provided for rural electrification programme through ADB/N. The tem1s of the
subsidy have changed over the years, but currently they are available for systems up to I 00 k W
for water turbine and Pelt!ic sets. The subsidy is available for the electrical components and
varies from 75 percent for remote areas and 50 percent for other hill areas 63 . ln effect this
means that the subsidy is approximately 20-25% of the total investment cost. The micro hydro
subsidy covers generators, load controllers, ballast heaters, earthing set, lighting arrestor, circuit
breakers, drive system and transmission components including transmission cables, poles,
insulators, stay wires and transformers. The subsidy on Peltric set is limited to capacities up to
5 kW. The limiting size of the penstock pipe for Peltric set is set at 100 m in length and 150
mm internal diameter High Density Polyethylene pipe. US S 67/kW is provided for·
transmission poles in remote areas, US$75/kW is provided for other hilly areas. The subsidy
for poles cannot exceed the cost of the turbine in the case of Peltric set. No subsidy is given
specifically for household wiring, but a loan is provided to each household up to US $ 20.
''
1 lnfonmnion supplied by Devendra Prasad Adhhiari. Agricultural Development Bank.
44 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Over the past 12 years ADBN has changed its interest rate for micro hydro development. As a
result of price escalation, the higher cost of borrowing and the higher cost of lending, the rate
has grown in stages from 11 percent to 19 percent. The current ADB/N's interest rates are high
and appear to discourage borrowers.
Normally in Nepal some 20% of the total project cost must be found by the prospective 'owner'
usually in the form of local labour. However in the case of Barpak, the local contribution (for
the civil works) represented only 7%J of the total costs.
Table 4-3: Summary of Current Financing Terms for Micro Hydro
Primary Funds Financing Models
Actors
Peru ITDG Inter American Revolving Fund
Development Bank, Plus grants for project
Local Government, development.
Sri Lanka Utility Multiple sources 'Ad Hoc' multi donor,
Energy Forum local grants, banks.
!TOG World Bank ESD loans
World Bank at 16%
(recently) Grants.
Nepal ADB/N loans ~nd ABD/N and government Loans and Government
Government Subsidy subsidy.
Rural Energy
UNDP funds, plus Development
Programme ADB/N loans, and
contributions from
District and Village
Development
RADC Committees
Government funds
Zimbabwe !TOG ITDG Grants only
Mozambique ITDG and KSM* ITDG Grants only, private
contribution
,. *KSM (Kwasat Stmukat) ts a Mozambtcan NGO.
4.11 Collateral and Guarantees
Securing loans by means of collateral has frequently posed problems in micro hydro
development, particularly in community-owned schemes. As with many project loans. the
project's capital equipment and land leasehold rights are used as collateral. But in the case of
micro hydro in Sri Lanka, land is often state or Crown land that is leased on a long-term lease
and then mortgaged. In the event of defaulting, the site and land can be transferred to another
and sold as a going concern. However, in practice it often takes time and considerable effort to
establish title to the land, and particularly when the loan is to be raised by a limited liability
company rather than the whole community.
Furthermore, the lack of technical expertise within financial institutions means that they are
often unable to effectively monitor the construction and operation of the schemes that act as the
Intermediation in Practice 45
collateral for the loans. This has also handicapped the financing mechanisms of the m1cro
hydro sector in Sri Lanka.
In Peru the risks of loans has been reduced in a number of innovative ways. In one case (the
'Atahualpa' Farming Co-operative) the loan was guaranteed by 'hypothecating' rights to the
income stream from the future sales of milk.
In the case of municipalities the loans are guaranteed by means of an 'intercept', whereby if the
municipality defaults on the loan, the loan repayment is deducted at source from future
transfers of resources from the central government to the municipality.
4.12 'Organisational Intermediation' and the 'Enabling Environment'
The success of micro hydro is clearly context specific. This specificity refers not only to the
location of a particular site (is there enough water and a sufficiently 'concentrated' demand) at
the micro level of analysis, but also at the specifics of the institutional arrangements at the
macro level. The development of micro hydro has required one or more organisations to
develop the national energy context-the 'enabling environment' -in ways that support (or are
at least not hostile to) micro hydro development.
The characteristics of a favourable 'enabling environment' are relatively easy to list, but often
requires huge effort to put in place. They are likely to include:
• A legal framework for contracts and effective means of their enforcement;
• A 'level playing field' in relation to the aid, taxes, subsidies and regulations that are
provided to the main alternatives to hydro (grid electricity, fossil fuels, PV, etc.);
• A transparent policy framework (provided by the government or utility) for the
development of energy options in general and the expansion of the electricity grid in
particular (to reduce the risk of arbitrary or politically motivate expansion of the grid
or other subsidised alternatives, such as PV);
• Capital supply systems (capital markets) able to supply adequate financial resources
(grants, soft and hard loans, equity);
• Reasonable arrangements for collateral;
• Government support to training, R and 0, and 'public goods' such as information
about the resource base;
• Systems for the competitive supply of technical and business support that is suited to
small scale enterprise in rural areas;
• Adequate access to competitively priced micro hydro technology and related
knowledge;
• Sufficient competitive suppliers with the technical capacity to select, design, install,
test, operate, and maintain the plant, equipment and civil works required by m1cro
hydro;
• Systems for defining and enforcing appropriate technical standards; and
• Transparent and fair mechanisms for the sale of micro hydro electricity to the grid.
The following sections describe some of the features of the 'enabling' or indeed 'disabling'
environment that is confronting the expansion of micro hydro in practice. Much of the pre-
existing policy environment was not designed specifically for micro hydro, and whilst it may
have not been actively discriminated against, a large amount of complaints stem from the fact
that governments forget about it as a viable option Many of the negative effects are likely to
be unplanned. For instance governments subsidise grid electricity explicitly and implicitly for
46 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
a variety of reasons, but are unwilling or unable to extend the same concessions to micro hydro.
Diesel engines are imported free of duty but not the technology associated with micro hydro,
and so on.
But those that seek to 'regulate' the development of the micro hydro sector need to keep in
mind that many of the regulations governing rural development merely provide another
mechanism by which those in power can exploit the weak by demanding bribes and other kinds
of 'rent seeking behaviour'.
4.13 The Regulatory Framework
The ad hoc nature of the regulatory framework governing micro hydro is illustrated by the case
of Sri Lanka. The regulatory framework is unclear and is characterised by a multiplicity of
institutions at various levels. The required approvals are illustrated in the following table:
Table 4-5: Approval Required for Micro Hydro Installations in Sri Lanka
Environmental approval or Licence Institution
Letter of Support on general project viability & willingness Ceylon Electricity Board
to purchase electricity (for Grid connected sites) to (CEB)
facilitate other agency approvals
Use of water resources, road development, construction of Divisional Secretary I
buildings & canals Irrigation Engineer etc. or,
Pradeshi Sabha
Letter on site observations & recommendations on Pradeshi Sabha or
environmental impacts based on Environmental Impact Divisional Secretariat to The
Assessment Questionnaire for Micro Hydro ( 1997) Central Environmental
Authority (CEA)
Electricity Licence to generate & sell electricity Chief Electrical Inspector,
Ministry of Irrigation & Power
Investment & Tax concession for large infrastructure Board of Investments
projects
Title or lease or pem1ission on land use Land owner or Divisional
Secretary
In Sri Lanka, the Electricity Utility ( CEB) limits its regulatory role to determining the standards
for connecting private power generation to the national grid. Otherwise there is very limited
regulation in relation to off grid micro hydro. That regulation that does impinge on micro
hydro relates to use of natural resources such as lands, water and forestry resources. Land use
is dependent on property rights where the use of public lands requires local government (at the
level of the Pradeshi Sabha). The same approval is required with use of waterways.
Regulation of waterways feeding irrigation channels come under the purview of a separate
entity, the Irrigation Department.
When transmission lines within a village cross public land they do so without any permission
or approvals being sought and with no formalities encountered. If a micro hydro site requires
significant use of public land however, either by a private developer or rural community,
government lease procedures may apply and approvals obtained from both the Minister of
Lands and the President. Private land is frequently used for the construction of micro hydro
Intermediation in Practice 47
powerhouse buildings with little regulation except for verbal agreements with the landowner
who is almost always a beneficiary in the project.
In Sri Lanka, non-state actors have often stepped in to fill gaps left within the state structure.
Developments in micro hydro tend to 'fall out' of the plans and procedures of the formal
electricity generation and distribution systems. While there are specific standards for
construction and installation of all electricity installations in Sri Lanka, they are not strictly
enforced in the village hydro sector, and were not specifically designed for the village energy
use. Construction and safety standards depend entirely on the people involved with the project
and the requirements of the institutions that provide the funds. In order to tackle this problem
the World Bank financed Energy Services Delivery (ESD) programme has commissioned a
study to establish appropriate standards in village-hydro electricity distribution systems 64 .
It is likely that environmental regulation will become an important feature of the regulations
governing micro hydro in Sri Lanka. The Central Environmental Authority (CEA) the main
body overseeing environmental policy and regulatory processes developed an Environmental
Impact Assessment Questionnaire for Micro Hydro in 1997. This has many shortcomings, not
least that it does not distinguish between different scales of micro hydro plant, adding a
considerable burden to very small systems 65 . Implementation is variable, as local government
capacity on environmental issues and regulations is generally weak and unclear. Some
Provincial Councils do have Environmental Officers but they are often marginalized in the
institutional process and have little authority.
The situation regarding private power producers in Sri Lanka is still evolving. Private Power
Producers can only legally sell power to the Ceylon Electricity Board. However there can be
exceptions if specific approval is given, although this permission is rare. Electricity Consumer
Societies (in villages) avoid this problem by selling power only to their members (and
technically they pay a 'membership fee' rather than a 'fee for electricity').
In Peru the regulatory environment also appears to by-pass micro hydro. What exists is a
regulatory framework, largely related to the allocation of concessions aimed at promoting
private investment in generating and distributing electricity. The legislation essentially leaves it
to 'market forces' to select the technologies to be used to generate power and distribute
electricity to areas not covered by the electricity grid. In practice, however, the incentive
structure demonstrates a clear preference to support grid based electrification.
As far as the public sector is concerned, the institutional framework for rural electrification
consists of The Ministry of Energy and Mines. Through its Executive Projects Directorate
(DEP) it is responsible for expanding the electrical frontier throughout the country. A number
of other government institutions are involved, but their role is limited to financing schemes in
rural areas. With the restructuring of the power sector since 1990, several municipalities will
be handing over the electricity sen'ices to concession companies, given the legal, financial and
economic guarantees that make it attractive.
""'These specifications arc based on relevant national and international standards. They specify separate standards for systems
under 5 kW. bctween5 to 15 kW and. systems between 15kW to 50kW (Village Hydro Distribution System Specifications for
the ESD Project. March 1999 Draft version. Intermediate Technology Sri Lanka). These specifications have been in use since
June 1999.
"'Currently even sites 2-3 kW in capacity have to go through the process of filling in these environmental clearance fonns and
getting the necessary approvals from the CEA and Provincial Councils.
48 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Experience with Peru's revolving fund shows that the criteria generally used in larger
construction works in urban areas cannot be applied to micro hydro installations in rural areas.
Technical standards and the costs of equipment, and machinery must be modified for small
projects of this nature to ensure that they are appropriate to their rural surroundings.
In Nepal the Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) is directly responsible for electricity and
supervises the Nepal Electricity (NEA) and Electricity Development Centre (EDC). EDC was
established in 1993 under MOWR to promote private sector participation and license both NEA
and private power producers on behalf of MOWR. The EDC grants licenses for independent
generation and sale to NEA and assists Independent Power Producers through a range of
activities including site identification for small and medium scale projects. EDC supports the
Electricity Tariff Commission (ETC) which was set up in 1993 as an independent body to
regulate electricity tariffs and ultimately to arrange for the power sales between NEA and
private power producers.
The Ministry of Science and Technology (MST) has a mandate to promote national science and
technology and oversees the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC). The mandate of
AEPC is to promote renewal energy technologies to meet the needs in rural areas of Nepal, but
as a technology based organisation it does not become involved in creating appropriate
frameworks for rural tariffs or the organisational frameworks necessary for the creation of
decentralised power companies.
The Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) is a semi-autonomous institution responsible for the
generation and supply of energy. However neither NEA nor any other government authority
appears to be responsible for isolated grids. NEA has been able to cover 15 percent of the total
population through expansions from the national grid. The service provided by NEA is largely
been limited to urban and semi-urban areas. Micro hydro development is governed by two acts
passed in 1992: the Water Resources Act: and the Hydropower Development Policy Act.
Licenses are not required for running water mills, as they are considered a cottage industry. The
Electricity Act of 1993 opened up investment opportunities in the electricity sector from
national, foreign or joint venture companies and made provision for concessional loans to
generate and di.,tribute electricity. The policy has also waived the license fee for surveys,
generation, transmission and distribution and stipulated that the Nepal Electricity Authority
(NEA) will provide compensation to existing private owners and operators of micro hydro
plant if the grid is extended to their customer area.
A particular void in appropriate institutional arrangements concerns the standardisation of the
turbine-related components and quality assurance of the technical performance of the turbines.
The Nepal Bureau of Standard could take a lead role in this.
4.14 The Special Case of Mozambique and Zimbabwe as New Entrants Into The
Micro Hydro Sector
Zimbabwe and Mozambique were included in the case studies to illustrate programmes at the
earliest stages of development. In both countries the first micro hydro power plants were
installed in the 1930s. However, interest in this technology faded with the coming of grid
electricity and the hope that this would be extended to the remotest users. Both economies
have suffered civil war and although Mozambique seemed to be faring better than Zimbabwe in
terms of recent economic growth (at least before the devastating floods in 2000), every sector
of each economy has to compete for the available but inadequate resources. There is therefore
Intermediation in Practice 49
pressure to use the available resources (such as renewable energy resources) more efficiently
and to direct them towards sustainable options in trying to achieve economic growth.
In Zimbabwe the energy sector is going through important change. New policies and strategies
are being fommlated to address needs, meet national objectives, regional and international
obligations. There is also a renewed interest in decentralised (often renewable) energy
resources. Most investment in the energy sector goes to the standard energy options of liquid
fuels, coal and grid electricity, but this investment serves only between I 0%-20% of the
population while the remainder, mainly in the rural areas, do not have access to modem fom1s
of energy.
In both countries the utilities see the expansion of decentralised and small scale energy options
as against their commercial objectives. There has been more activity and interest in small scale
renewables in Zimbabwe than in Mozambique. In Zimbabwe a range of stakeholders including
foreign donors have begun to develop the renewable energy sub-sector, spurred by such
processes as the World Solar Summit Process, and the attentions of the Global Environment
Fund.
Zimbabwe has accumulated some experience on renewable energy technologies among them:
wind; solar PV; solar water heaters; solar dryers; micro hydro; biogas; and, other biomass
technologies. However, in Mozambique very few elements of the 'enabling environment' are
yet in place at the national level for decentralised energy supply to thrive. The government's
ability to fommlate energy policy is professionally weak, and there is a clear need to
systematically review policies relating to energy pricing in general and electricity tariffs in
particular. Policies for supporting and financing small scale renewables also need to become
more consistent. Local financing mechanisms are totally absent, and most of the initiatives in
the small renewables sub-sector have relied on external donor funding.
In both countries the strategy has been to demonstrate what micro hydro technology can do,
using this experience both to gain familiarity with the technologies and to lobby government,
and other agencies, about the role of decentralised (largely renewable) energy technologies.
In Zimbabwe a few plants providing milling services and electricity to remote rural areas have
demonstrated the potential of this technology. Some of the locations have had electricity more
than thirty years ahead of grid electrification, and at a significantly lower cost than competing
options such as diesel engine generator sets or PVs.
Two micro hydro plants were examined in detail in each country. In Zimbabwe they were
located at Nyafaru and Svinurai, and are both community-owned and benefiting from local
subsidies. In Mozambique the two plants selected were at Elias and Chitofu. In contrast these
are both privately owned schemes and were grant financed.
A conventional financial analysis shows schemes intended to produce mechanical power might
be financially profitable whereas there is no return for Nyafaru which main purpose is
electricity generation for domestic end uses. This is mainly due to the high capital costs of the
installation, low tariffs and low plant utilisation, usually at Jess than 50% capacity. In all the
schemes, social objectives dominate the setting of tariffs, and no allowance was made for
depreciation in tariffs. Such schemes cannot be used to model loan finance unless their
utilisation can be increased and the tariffs raised.
50 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
In the Zimbabwe cases each type of consumer pays a different tariff, with households paying
less than more commercial enterprises. Steps are being taken at both Svinurai and Nyafaru
schemes to improve the utilisation of the plant and then increase the tariffs. At Svinurai a
generator awaits commissioning, due to extend power to commercial units at the farm. At
Nyafaru there is a proposal to move down from around 5 Amp miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
to 3.5 Amp MCB, in order to increase the number of users but maintain the same tariff at least
in the short term.
ln both cases the communities and entrepreneurs do not look at the hydro plants as stand-alone
business units, but as part of bigger enterprises. All four plants show cross subsidies at the
local level. However the movement and cost of finance, labour and materials at the local level
are not easy to track. This could be best tackled by building up the capacity to account for such
movements and costs at the local level. Local capacity to account for costs and income should
complement the capacity to operate and manage management such small enterprises. ln the
case of Svinurai this is already happening through the efforts of various stakeholders assisting
in building up the management capacity of the co-operative.
5
BEST PRACTICES: THE LESSONS LEARNED
5.1 The Critical Factors
• Micro hydro programmes and projects need clear objectives. Is the project or
programme:
o An investment in social infrastructure (that will be considered in the same way
as a training scheme, a safe water supply, schooL a health programme?);
o A programme to sell as many micro hydro schemes as possible (regardless on
the users' needs); and
o To create small profit making enterprises that are financially self-sustaining.
• Financially self-sustaining projects have cash generating (usually day time) end-uses to
produce cash flow and increase the use of the plant (load factor). Lighting-only systems
will have the greatest difficulty in achieving financial sustainability.
• Subsidies are likely to be necessary if micro hydro schemes are to substantially improve
the access of poor people to electricity.
• The cost of micro hydro plants is dependent on location and standards although
effective management can contain this.
• The form of ownership of micro hydro plant is probably less important to success than
creating an effective business-like style of management.
• Selecting and acquiring micro hydro technology that is appropriate to the location and
task remains a necessary condition for success (wrongly sized plant and inappropriate
standards remain a constant threat).
5.2 Best Practice and Profitable End-uses
• It is easier to make a profitable micro hydro plant socially beneficial than to make a
socially beneficial plant profitable
• Protitable end-uses are difficult to develop because of the limited size of the local
market and the general difficulty of small and micro enterprise development in remote
locations.
• Financial institutions willing to finance micro hydro should consider funding associated
end-use investments in order to build profitable load.
• [t may well be that micro hydro should be promoted for its role in securing livelihoods,
or developing small enterprises, rather than as an 'energy programme'.
• The choice of end-use can affect those who benefit from micro hydro and will therefore
effect the poverty and gender impacts, even if not all the community has direct access to
the energy.
51
52 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
5.3 Best practice and Tariff Setting
• The financial performance of all micro hydro plant could be improved if the average
tariff was kept in line with local inflation.
• Life line tariffs under which the richer consumers cross subsidise households that
cannot pay will spread the poverty r~ducing benefits of micro hydro -as long as the
total revenue is adequate.
• While there is clear evidence that demand is sensitive to the tariff charged (many
potential users would be excluded by full cost covering tariffs in many locations), there
is also evidence that the ability of some people to pay is higher than originally thought.
5.4 Best Practice for Governments
• Governments need to assign clear responsibilities for micro hydro development and the
development of the necessary 'enabling environment'. Best Practice suggests that this
would ideally be part of assigning more general responsibilities for the provision of de-
centralised energy services to rural (or marginalized).
• Governments need to treat all energy supply options equally ('offer the full menu of
options') and to favour what best meets the needs of the consumer in different locations.
• Governments need to ensure fair competition between competing supply options and
provide equal access to aid and other concessional funds, subsidies, tax breaks and
support.
• Plans for the expansion of the electricity grid should be rule based, and in the public
domain to reduce the uncertainty about when the grid will reach a particular location.
Clear rules should be published regarding the actions the grid supplier must make to
compensate micro hydro owners when the grid arrives (either to buy out the plant at
written down costs or to buy the hydro electricity produced).
• While government finance tends to favour large scale energy investments (in say power
or fossil fuels), micro hydro has the opportunity of utilising local capital (even the
creation of capital through direct labour to build civil works) and it is part of the new
trend towards 'distributed' power with much reduced costs of transmission.
5.5 Best Practice for Regulation
• Regulation should aim to produce a structure of incentives that result in the needs of
consumers being met most cost-effectively. It should be technologically neutral, and at
costs that are in keeping with the scale of the investment and the ability of the various
parties to pay.
• Regulation should be transparent, stable and free from arbitrary political interference so
as to foster competition between suppliers of technology, services and finance.
• Regulation should set standards that are appropriate to the project cost and the ability of
the various actors to pay.
• Quality and safety standards should be enforced to prevent the users being exploited by
shoddy equipment and installations.
• Regulations should be designed so that they do not merely increase the opportunities for
"rent seeking behaviour" of officials.
• Regulations should be set so that: independent power producers can supply power to the
grid at 'realistic' prices; and connection standards are appropriate for the power to be
sold. Rules should be transparent and stable.
Best Practices: The Lessons Learnt 53
5.6 Best Practice in Financing
• Best practice suggests that the expansion of micro hydro will continue to need both 'soft
funds' and funds at commercial rates, particularly if micro hydro is to meet the needs of
people with low money incomes.
• Funding will be needed to cover capital costs, technical assistance and
social/organisational 'intermediation'.
• Micro hydro development will need to leverage funds from many sources including
those for small enterprise development, livelihood development, technical assistance
social infrastructure, as well as the more usual energy and environment sources.
• Micro hydro will need to widen the menu of financing options for acquiring both debt
and equity, including leasing, novel forms of debt guarantee, and novel forms of
collateral (e.g. in Peru the hypothecation of the cash flow from energy end-use, and
municipal loans guaranteed by 'intercept' on revenues from Central government).
• Loan conditions should be simplified, and collateral conditions modified to suit local
conditions for asset (land, equipment) ownership.
• Some financial institutions are likely to require training to understand the special needs
and risks of micro hydro, or to build on analogous experience in other forms of rural
investment.
5.7 Best Practice for Smarter Subsidies
• Subsidies should be designed to achieve clearly stated objectives and should develop
rather than destroy markets.
• A patticular problem with current subsidies provided by bilateral donors is that they
have a tendency to 'pollute the well' that is, they use their subsidies to spoil the
market for others.
• Smart subsidies should:
o follow pre-established rules that are clear, and transparent to all parties;
o focus on increasing access by lowering the initial costs (technical advice, capital
investment) rather than lowering the operating costs;
Provide strong cost minimisation incentives such as retaining the commercial
orientation to reduce costs:
o remain technologically neutral;
o cover all aspects of the project including end-use investments, particularly to
encourage pro-poor end-uses: and
o use 'cross subsidies· within the project to pay for life line tariffs and other 'pro-
poor' recurrent cost subsidies (e.g. enable transfer from richer sections of the
community, and commercial users to marginal connections).
5.8 Best Practice for Donors
• Build programmes on a thorough understanding of what has already been tried before in
the country and elsewhere.
• Adopt funding strategies that enhance (rather than duplicate or destroy) local
capabilities including organisations, regulatory frameworks, and technical capacities.
• Maintain the 'full menu· of options. so as to give micro hydro the same chances for
funding as other decentralised energy supply options.
• Ensure funds build markets rather than destroy them -apply the principles of 'smarter
subsidies'
54 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
• Ensure funds are available for both micro hydro and associated end-uses. Give
particular attention to the encouragement of pro-poor end-uses (and the views of women
as major players in traditional energy systems).
• Ensure funds are available for all aspects of project development.
• Use soft funds to leverage access to large flows of more conventional loan and equity
finance.
• Be transparent to make others aware of what you are doing and try to harmonise
activities with other donors, partners, equipment suppliers, contractors, and government
programmes.
5.9 Best Practice for Project Developers
• Project developers who have the skill and tenacity to put all the elements of a micro
hydro plant together are crucial to the success of programmes, and are likely to be the
main con:-;rraint to programme expansion, particularly if their costs cannot be covered
by grants
• Successful micro hydro programmes will need to be sufficiently large to produce
sufficient work for the project developers and to achieve economies of scale in the
supply of such services -such as where there are a number of plant in the same area
allowing for costs of site visits to be shared by a number of installations.
• Financial institutions and regulatory agencies need to strike a balance between their
need for project developers they regard as credible (speaking English with fonnal
qualifications in engineering and accountancy) and their cost. Best practice probably
requires lower cost project developers with specific practical experience with micro
hydro and the communities that use them.
• The costs of 'intermediation' in project development should be recorded, and attempts
made to cover them directly with grant funding.
• Efforts should be made to estimate the realistic size of the market for micro hydro,
taking into account, costs, alternatives, and the likely availability of finance, so as to
determine whether the process of project development can be put on a more sustainable
financial basis (including grants). Additionally the scale of project development
capabilities should be increased sufficiently so as to reduce unit costs by capturing the
economies of scale.
• Technical assistance services should be separated from credit functions to ensure that
sound judgements are made about the financial viability of each project (with or without
subsidies) and credit worthiness of project owners.
• Consideration should be given to productive end-uses from the outset, and treat micro
hydro investment as a small enterprise (regardless of actual ownership structure).
• Endeavour to create a business like management structure, even if co-operative or other
forms ofjoint ownership are used.
• Attempt to institute rules for tariff setting and for inflation adjustments that are
technical and routine rather than arbitrary and politicised (e.g. link the price of
electricity to some other freely traded commodity -such as a staple crop, kerosene, or
candles).
• Successful programmes include activities that stimulate demand for hydro and the
financial and other support activities that are available.
• Successful programmes include activities that lobby for changes in the 'enabling
environment' created by government. financial institutions and donors. These are
Best Practices: The Lessons Learnt 55
probably most effective when operating as an 'Energy Forum' combining the interests
of all people interested in rural, 'alternative', or decentralised energy options.
• Project development would benefit from technical catalysts who can work in close
proximity to villagers at relatively low cost.
5.10 Best Practice for Capacity Building
• There would appear to be no short cuts in developing local capacities. The process
takes a long time and is costly, but without such capacities micro hydro programmes
cannot succeed.
• Local capacities to build micro hydro plants locally appear to substantially reduce costs
• Local capacities to manage, operate and maintain micro hydro plants are a necessary
condition for success and resources will need to be devoted to building this capacity.
5.11 Best Practice for Management of Micro Hydro Plant
• Regardless of ownership structure, it would appear that the successful management of
micro hydro plants requires a 'corporate structure' that minimises political interference
(e.g. from municipal authorities or powerful community members) by providing clear
delegated authority to a management to achieve clearly stated objectives related to
profitability, coverage, and the quality of the service to be provided.
ANNEX
SUMMARY OF THE CASE STUDIES
1. SRI LANKA
1.1 The Sample
There are approximately 130 MHP plants 66 currently in operation in Sri Lanka. Most
are less than 100 kW in capacity. The sample of projects were drawn from a total of
about 70 67 village micro hydro plants and 13 estate MHP sites. There is estimated to be
60 estate MHP plants in operation. This number has been obtained from various
information sources611 as there are no database records for this category of MHP.
Although MH development dates back to the tea plantations in the pre-independence
British colonial era, the availability of data is extremely limited. The recent resurgence
of interest in MH in the 1980's has generated a great deal of experience of improved
technology, but systematic data remains scarce.
Study criteria led to purposive selection of sites for in-depth review and assessment.
The selected sites and the criteria are given in the table below:
Table A-1: Selected Sites and Criteria, Sri Lanka
Site Name District Date Ownership Capacitv Source of Finance End-use
Pathavita 2 Matara 1997 Community IOkW Loan+ Comm. Ironing
centre
Kandaloya Kegalle 1998 Community IOkW Loan + Grant I Fridge &
Comm. icc-making
Katepola Ramapura 1995 ECS* 24 k\V Grant+ Comm. Rice mill
Seetha Matara !9S5 Private 60kW Private+ Bank+ Tea factory
Eliva Grant + liid1ling
* Electnctty Consumer Sonety
Four micro hydro sites representing different financing arrangements and end-uses were
selected to carry out the sample analysis on financial viability of such projects. Three of
the sites have been established only during the last two to three years while the other has
been in operation for 14 years. At the first three sites energy sales to individual
households are not metered; each household pays a fixed monthly fee with the
understanding that the restriction on power use is adhered to.
r>~> Details of these sites arc available through Intermediate Technology Development Group's (!TOG) Sri Lanka
database on MH (referred to us ITSL ). These are listed briefly in the annex.
''
7 This number is derived from !TOG's Sri Lanka database. January 1999. Figures change p..:riodically as more MH
sites enter the pipe lin..: or are implemented and incorporated accordingly into the database. See ann~.'x I for cxceqJts
from this database.
hs For more details sec Country Report for Sri Lanka, December 1999.
57
58 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Figure A-1: Map showing the locations of the case study sites in Sri Lanka
~Mannar
0
'"·><..
i..,
B~y
of
BiflifJ'4f
;~ Trincomale&·
\
Kalpitiya~ ,
&"t,i:' .... ·~
.Anuradhaputa ~
S~;iit ,. · Puttalam .tJf
Negombo_.
Site 1 : Katepola
Site 2: Kandal Oya
1.2 Case Study Details
1.2.1 Site 1: Katepola
MataJe.
'1
1 :;._~icaloa
·:;i,
~\ (~
"%,
.Badu11a 1
Site 3: Pathawlta
Site 4: Seetha Eliya
Katepola, a community-based village hydro project, is predominately financed by
grants, with equity contributions made by villagers in the form of labour and finance.
No commercial loans have been used.
Village Overview
Katepola is a village with a population of 350 families situated in Ayagama secretarial
division in the Ratnapura District. Inhabitants of Katepola are generally in the low-:
income category, earning their living from rubber, cinnamon and paddy cultivation, or
by employment at the Dumbara Estate. The neighbouring village of Katepola,
Umangedara, is home to the first village hydro scheme established by ITDG Sri Lanka.
Project Overview
The Katepola village hydro plant using the flow of Thundola stream, has a capacity of
25 kW. It consists of a stand-alone synchronous generator with an Electronic Load
Controller (ELC), supplying power to 106 houses and a rice-mill.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 59
A significant part of the project cost was born by the ECS, whilst important
contributions in the areas of technical assistance and financial co-ordination were made
by ITDG.
Table A-2: Katepoloya Scheme Profile (US$1998)
I Capacity of MHP:
Start date:
125 kW
1994
Total Capital cost: US$54,529
of which Electromechanical: US$21,664 (39.7 %)
Civil: US$23,874 ( 43.8 %)
Other* ( incl transp/ distrib) US$8,991 (16.5 %)
Grant: US$34.654
Connection charge per HH: US$64 in 1995 then US$174 from 1997
HH allocation in Watts: 200W
Hours of HH usage per day: 5 hours
I Cost per mstalled kW: I US$2,181
Other costs: mainly transport and distribution for electricity generation schemes.
The management, financial control and load regulation is carried out by the Electricity
Consumer Society (ECS) established at the conceptual stages of the project. This is a
society formed by the villagers consuming the electrical power delivered by the village
hydro plant. The office bearers. selected at an annual general meeting are responsible
for the management. which includes taking necessary action for breakdowns and any
other disputes arising from electricity usage within the community.
This village hydro scheme provides electricity to 106 houses; each supplied with 200
Watts of power at a monthly charge of US$1.43 (Rs 100 in 1999) per household. The
scheme also powers a rice mill, which is supported through grant funding from ITDG
and operated solely during the daytime. The mill is supplied with electricity free of
charge while the income from rice milling is credited to the ECS after paying the
operator.
1.2.2 Site 2: Kanda I Oya
This is a community-based project. predominately financed through the Energy Services
Delivery (ESD) scheme, with equity contributions made by villagers in the form of
labour and tinance. There is a great diversity of small-scale end-uses at this site.
Village Overview
Kanda! Oya is a remote rural village located approximately 23 km away from
Yatiyantota, in Y atiyantota divisional secretariat of Ratnapura District. The community
is largely agriculturaL with a reasonable household income. There is a high demand for
electticity for lighting and other household requirements.
Project Overview
The project consists of a I 0 kW stand-alone induction generator with an induction
generator controller (IGC) and presently serves about 88 households. This village
hydro scheme has been financed through the World Bank's ESD project. The scheme is
owned by a limited liability company formed by the membership of Electricity
60 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Consumer Society, consisting of connected households. This is a legal entity set up to
facilitate the management and to support long-term financing and repayment.
Table A-3: Kandal Oya Scheme Profile (US$1998)
lc t fMHP !10 kW apaCI£Y 0 L
Start date: 1997
Total Capital cost: US$31 ,148
of which Electromechanical: US$6,152 (19.8%)
Civil US$9,822 (31.5%)
Other (inclu trans/dist): US$15,174 (48.7 %)
Loan interest: 0.16%
Loan amount: US$8274
Grant component of the loan: US$4468
Repayment period: 5 years
HH allocation in Watts: 100 w
Hours ofHH usageper dav: 5 hours
Tariff per HH/month: US$3.85
Cost per installed kW: US$3,1 15
1.2.3 Site 3: Pathawita 2
This is a community-based project, funded through the ESD project, with equity
contributions trom villagers in the form of labour and money.
Village Overview
Pathawita is a remote village situated in the Matara District of the Southern Province,
about 200 km from Colombo. The village, separated into two major sections by a
mountain. consists of around 200 houses spread over a large area of land. This
dispersal of housing has created major barriers in supplying electricity to the whole
village economically, and with an acceptable voltage profile. The closest access to the
village is through Kotapola and otT Beralapanathara in Kotapola Divisional secretariat.
Project Overview
The site identified for the establishment of a hydro plant had a continuous potential of
10 kW. With the financial assistance of the Rotary Club of Colombo-West, an
induction generator (capacity 5.5 kW) and an induction generator controller made in
China were imported and installed. At the initial stage, the project could supply power
to only 66 houses.
Table A-4: Pathawiata Scheme Profile (US$1998)
Capacity of MHP: IOkW
Start date: March 1997
Total costs: US$22,031
of which Electromechanical: 12,811 (58.1 %)
Civil work: 5.926 (26.1 %)
Other (inc.trans/dist) 3294 (15 %)
Loan interest: 16%
Loan amount: US$8,274
Grant Component of the Loan: US$2.797
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 61
Repayment period: 8 years
HH allocation in Watts: IOOW
Hours of HH usage per day: 5
Tariff /HH/month: US$2
I Cost per installed kW: I US$2,203
A second stage of the project was initiated in a bid to harness the total hydro potential.
Commissioned in November 1997, a new turbine generator with a capacity of I 0 kW
was installed in the place of the previous turbine and generator. This new scheme
supplies power to 103 houses in the village.
The second stage of the project was funded through the World Bank's ESD programme.
ITDG co-ordinated the finances and any technical contributions required, arranging
technical services through the consultancy firm Consultancy and Professional Services
(CAPS).
The loan was granted to a company formed by the village electricity consumers' society
(ECS). Along with the loan of US$8,274 (Rs. 500,000 in 1997), the company received
a grant of US$2,797 (Rs. 169,000 in 1997).
The company charges US$2 (Rs. 140) per month per household, allocating 100 Watts
per household. The operator of the powerhouse receives US$14.3 (Rs. 1 ,000) monthly.
Presently the company is facing a severe threat to its existence with the national grid
penetrating into the areas supplied by the hydro scheme. The immediate problem of
losing its consumer base and in attracting new customers may result in difficulties
paying back the 8 year loan under the ESD program.
1.2.4 Site 4: Seetha Eliya.
Village Overview
This is a private project, with equity and commercial loan financing. Energy is used to
supply the operating requirements of a tea factory. Seetha Eliya micro hydro plant is
situated in Kandilpana, Deniyaya in the Matara District. This is one of the few plants
initiated, constructed and managed by the estate sector in the country. The plant has a
capacity of 60 kW, which falls in a range clearly above the average capacity of village
hydro plants of Sri Lanka.
Table A-5: Seetha Eliya Scheme Profile (US$1998)
Capacity of MHP: 60kW
Start date: 1985
Total costs: US$225,665
Loan interest: 26%
Loan amount: US$98,544
Grant Component of the Loan: 0
Repayment period: 10 years
End-use: Electricity supply for a tea factory
Cost per installed kW: US$3,761
62 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of ~1icro Hydro Power
Project Overview
This plant was constructed by Seetha Eliya Tea Factory with the main intention of
supplying power to the operations of the factory, including lighting. The total cost has
been borne by a loan and an equity investment by the tea factory.
The plant was initiated with the aim of using streams in the land of the Seetha Eliya Tea
Estate, thus relieving the burden of costly electricity bills. Construction of the plant
started in 1983 and the plant was commissioned in 1985. Initially an induction
generator was used; later generation was transferred to a synchronous generator. Unlike
other micro hydro schemes, there was no grant component associated with the loan.
Project financing was done through a commercial loan at an interest of 26%. The
management, financial control and load regulation is carried out by the factory itself.
There is no separate management body for the plant and no separate income stream,
apart from the avoided cost of grid electricity.
A major difficulty faced in the process of construction was getting the required approval
from local authorities. Most of the land within the tea estate has been used for the
project apart from around 0.5 hectares of land, donated by the owner of the estate to
outsiders in return for using their land for the pipelines.
1.3 Financial and Economic Analysis
The key results and findings are presented in Table 6'9
. Two sets of scenario were
considered. ·
Table A-6: Internal Rates of Return and Return on Capital Invested (IRRci)
After Financing (%)
Katepola Kandaloya Pathewita 2 Seetha Eliya
cur const cur const cur const cur const
IRRci 14.7 g 15 9.3 32 16.3 24 12.4
IRR Negative 10 6.9 6 3.1 24 12.4
The community-based projects with financing from the ESD programme (Kandaloya
and Pathewita) have an lRR in constant dollars of around 7% and 3%, while the scheme
with total grant funding (Katepola) has a very low or negative IRR. The privately-
owned project (Seethe Eliya) has a very high IRR, 24% and 12.4% respectively in
current and constant dollars.
The return on capital invested (lRRci) in ESD project-based schemes is around 9% and
16% in constant dollars. The present bank interest rates for cash deposits, and interest
rates for treasury bills vary between 7% to 12% depending on the type of deposit
Considering these rates and the lRRci, it is apparent that projects financed under the
conditions similar to those of the ESD project can be justified not only on social
grounds, as in the case of all village hydro schemes, but also on financial grounds. It
can be seen that IRRs of projects are below the interest rates paid for the loans (16%).
If there is no grant component associated with the project, the community will t1nd it
difficult to pay off the loan solely with the income they receive from the sale of
""Detailed methodology and calculations are available from the country reports.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 63
electricity. Unlike the ESD project-based schemes, the charging rate at Site is not
satisfactory for it to remain financially viable.
Clearly the investment in Seetha Eliya can easily be justified by private sector financing
owing to its high IRR, while Seetha Eliya itself avoids the high cost of grid-supplied
electricity.
In the sensitivity analysis we considered several cases, in particular the impact on the
variations of the capital costs and the financing conditions on the IRR and the IRRci.
Among the series of cases analysed, the most important was the sensitivity of IRR and
lRRci to the capital costs and tariffs. This implies that the profitability and
sustainability of the schemes will depend a great deal on the ability to build low cost
schemes with high plant factors, and deliver services based on realistic tariffs, i.e. a
dynamic policy of tariffs, while taking into consideration the ability of the beneficiaries
to pay.
1.4 Conclusions from Sri Lanka
• Village hydro 70 projects are primarily meant for off-grid rural electrification in
remote locations and they tend to show poor financial viability on their own.
• With a grant component similar to that of the ESD project, these schemes could
be financially viable, but the electricity tariffs need to be kept at a reasonable
level as in the case of Kandaloya site.
• Within the community-owned village hydro (VH), small-scale individual end-
use activities such as battery charging and ice-making are more sustainable
than large community-owned end-use activities such as rice milling.
• Private, productive end-use activities such as electricity use in a tea factory
make MH schemes very attractive in terms of their financial viability.
• Extension of the national grid into areas where village hydro schemes have
already been established jeopardises cost recuperation, contributing to poor
sustainability of these projects due to their customer base being affected.
• It is worthwhile exploring the possibility of grid connection of such micro
hydro projects as an end-use where excess energy can be sold.
""The concept ofvillagc hydro \\'as introduced by ITSL and refers not only to the implementation of the scheme. but
also to the involvement of the local population from the decision-making process until the management.
64 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
2. NEPAL
2.1 The Sample and Assumptions
The study areas include three MHPs located in the hilly regions of Nepal in the Western
Development Region in the districts of Gorkhe, Kaski and Baglung where about 134
MHP plants of more than 10 kW capacity (about 37%) are located. One MHP has been
considered from Illam District of Eastern Development Region where there were 35
MHP (about 10%) above 10 kW capacity. Attention was given to the selection of plants
with electrification as well as processing facilities where power has been generated
using cross flow and Pelton turbines.
. Figure A-2: Map showing the locations of the case study sites in Nepal
··,.._
.... ,... f'"-·/'"'A,,,,,h ..... ,_,
~-/_/-':, "\ _,.)
/ ,j
(.
/
IN 0 I A
' ; Bltganj ., .. _.,,,!_,
CHINA
<'\ R:'!.~ge
. ,; .,...,
~Mount "·
Everest J
/
""··'.,_ .... /'> .Janakpur . BANGL
... "" ...... ,_, -
Site 1: Barpak Site 2: Gorkhe Site 3: Ghandrak
The general characteristics of the selected plants are as presented in the table below.
Table A-7: Selected Sites and Criteria, Nepal
Region Scheme Owner Capacity Turbine End-uses
(kW)
Western Barpak Community 50 Pelton Milling Lighting Other
Western Gorkhe Private 25 Pelton Milling Lighting Other
Western Ghandruk Private 50 Pelton Milling Lighting Other
E astern Gaura Private 2 5 Cross flow Milling Li ghting Other
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 65
2.2 Case Study Details
2.2.1 Site 1: Barpak Micro Hydro Power Project
Village and Project Overview
This plant is located in Chhara Village, ward ;..;o.5 of Barpak Village District
Committee (VDC) in the Gorkhe District situated in Western Development Region ..
The site is situated in the northern part of Gorkhe District and is not accessible by the
road. The plant is located 3.2 km from the settlement area. The source, Ghatte Kl1ola,
is located 375 m from the powerhouse. The annual income of the users is estimated at
US$36-72.
Works started in September 1990 and were completed in June 1992. There were no
major problems apart than difficulties in the transportation of construction materials and
plant to the site. The plant has been able to provide services to 538 households, covering
3,362 people.
The consumers and other local residents were involved in civil construction works. The
consumers contributed labour while other local residents were paid on a daily basis
according to their skill. The borrower had to bear the cost toward the civil construction.
Table A-8: Barpak Scheme Profile (US$1998)
Capacity of MHP: Design capacity: 50 k W
Effective capacity: 30 kW 71
Start date: 1992
Total Capital cost ($1990): US$64,757
of which Electromechanical: US$57,356 (88.6 %)
Civil works: US$4,344 (6.7 %)
Other ( inc. trans/dist) US$3,057 (4.7 %)
Loan interest: 17%
Loan amount: US$35.913
Subsidv: US$15.812
Household end-uses: On average 3 bulbs of25 Watts per household.
Morning 05.00h-06.00h, evening 17.30h-
22.00h.
oductive end-uses: Ropeway, sawmill, grain mill1ng.
Tariff for domestic use in 1999: 38 US cents per month for 25 W bulb (fixed
tariff)
Productive end-uses (sawmill, etc.): 6 US to 7 US cents per kWh (metered)
Cost per installed k W: USS I ,295
The use of power for commercial application seemed encouraging. A ropewai2 of 2.3
km in length was established to operate cable cars, linking Barpak with Rangrung
village. It was designed by Himal Hydro General Construction Co, NepaL with a total
load capacity of 300 kg. Two cable cars are attached with 150 kg payload each. A total
of 30 kW is required to operate the system. The carrying time from Rangrung to
Barpak is 15 minutes. The total system was completed at the cost of US$! 00,000,
~1 Etlective capacity in 1998. source !TOG.
This scheme was badly damaged. The topography and the design seem to be the main cause~.
. 66 Best Practices for Sustainable Development or Micro Hydro Power
funded jointly by British Embassy, ITDG and Northern Gorkha Development Group
(NGDG). Local people contributed about 9 percent of the total cost in kind.
Table A-9: Source of Financing Ropeway between Barpak and Rangrung
lsi\ !source of Funding I Amount in US~ %1
l British Embassy 65,714.2q 65.71
2 ITDG 14,285.71 14.29
3 NGDG 11,428.57 11.43
4 People Contribution=t 8571.43 8.57
Total I OO,OOO.OC 100.00
The ropeway is completely managed by the community. It has a nine-member
management committee fully responsible for operating and managing the system. The
management charges USS0.07 per kg for goods transported.
The owner established an agro-processing mill, at a cost of about US$971, which was
supplied by Katamandu Metal Industries (KMI). The mill has one rice huller and one
grinder, consuming 4 k W of power for each unit. The respective processing costs are l
US cent per kg and 0.9 US cents per kg. The huller has capacity to process 50-75 kg
per hour while the grinder can process 34-41 kg per hour. A total of 20,000-25,000 kg
of paddy is hulled annually at present. The grinder is able to process 60,000-80,000 kg
of wheat. maize and millet annually.
Other Alicro Hydro Plants
A traditional water wheel is still working at Baluwa village, located at Bhalswara, about
4 km from Barpak village. lt is mainly operated for agro-processing and the rates are
some 14 percent higher than those fixed by the owner of Barpak. However, the rate for
grinding is about 13 percent lower than the rate fixed by Barpak's owner. ln addition
there is one peltric set of I kW capacity installed around 6 km outside of the Barpak
village. The power is used for lighting the owner's own house only. The national grid
is located roughly 1.5 days walking distance away.
Financial Result.fi
The results show that without subsidy the IRR after financing, expressed in current
values, is 22.8%, which is a good return. However, the results expressed in constant
dollars show a lower return of 17%. This latter rate is still in-line with the interest rate
charged by ADBN. The main explanation is that the increment of prices in current
terms is not correlated with inflation.
2.2.2 Site 2:Gorkhe Micro Hydro Project
Village Overview
This plant is located at Rupatar village of Illam District in Eastern Development Region.
The plant is situated at a \valking distance 73 of about 2 hours from the nearest roadhead
whereas the source, Jogmai Khola, is located at about 500 m from the powerhouse.
The annual income of the middle-class consumers is estimated at US$429-714. The
average income of the lower class family is estimated at US$171-286. The plant is
All distances expressed in hours arc walking distance.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 67
currently providing electricity services to 12 households with a population of about 80.
The owner intends to expand the services to include an additional 55 households with a
population of 450.
Project Overview
The Gorkhe water turbine mill was completed in 1984. The plant has a 25 kW capacity
and was the first plant installed in the lllam District. The cross flow turbine was
designed, manufactured, supplied, and installed by Development Consultancy Services
(DCS), who carried out the technical survey. ADBN sub-branch office at Nayabazar
conducted the financial feasibility analysis. The owner supervised and supported the
costs of all the civil works.
The electrification component was added in 1986, with battery charging and a drier
installed in 1988. Domestically, electricity is used for lighting, radio, televisions and
1ronmg. The bulbs are easily available for US$0.43-1.00 in local markets. The
consumers are also using low wattage electric cookers known in Nepal as 'Bijuli
Dekchi'.
Table A-10: Gorkhe Scheme Profile (US$1998)
I Capacitv ofMHP: I 25 kW .
Start date: Milling 1984
Electrification, Battery Charging and Cardamom
Drying 1986
Total Capital cost: US$16,374
of which Electromechanical: US$10,311 (63 %)
Civil: US$3,479 (21.2 %)
Other US$2.584 (15.8 %)
Loan: US$8.269
Subsidy: US$5.469
Repayment period: 10 years
HH consumption: 2-5 bulbs, I h/moming and 4.5 h/evening.
Productive end-uses: Batterv charger, cardamom drier.
Tariff domestic end-use: 3 I cents per month for 40 Watts (fixed tariff)
Cost per installed k W: $655
Other facilities for income generating activities were installed in the next phases. The
0\Vner installed a processing mill and agro-processing units at the cost of US$! ,332 and
US$1 ,645 respectively. The facilities comprise of a huller, grinder and oil expeller. He
borrowed US$893 from ADBN as a working capital in 1986. The processing charges in
1999 were: hulling, 0.6 US cents per kg; grinding, I .25 cents/kg; and expelling, I .56
cents/kg. These rates are higher, in nominal terms, than those fixed some years ago.
The owner expanded his activity further in 1988, installing a cardamom drier supplied
by DCS as a pilot project. The drier was supplied at a cost of US$1 ,343, of which DCS
paid 50 percent as part of their promotion. The owner has contributed the balance -
US$672, as his equity. The cardamom processing unit works seasonally for about four
months between August and November. The owner dries the cardamom harvested on
his farm, producing around 125 kg of dried cardamom annually from 400 kg of green
cardamom. The final dried cardamom is of a fine quality and fetches a good price in the
68 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
market compared with cardamom dried in the traditional way.
The owner used his own resources to establish the battery charger. There is a constant
load of 2 kW from the battery charger throughout the day. The load increases during
daytime mainly due to the operation of a processing mill. The load characteristics of the
plant are presented below. The rate for battery charging varies as per its capacity and is
set at 63, 31 and 19 US cents for 12, 8 and 6 volt batteries respectively.
Figure A-3: Load Characteristics of Gorkhe Micro Hydro Plant
Load Management
10.00
~ ,..::..::
c 5.00 ·-'"0
C\l
0
......J
Time
The owner fixes tariffs for domestic end-uses and income generating activities. The
consumers have no complaint about the present tariff levels. An increment was made
on initial processing charges fixed during the year 1985-1990 for hulling, grinding and
expelling by I 00, 300 and 50 percent respectively. This rate remained unchanged for
the years 1991 1995. The processing charges were again revised in 1996 and fixed at
33 and I 00 percent above the 1991 rates for hulling and grinding, whilst the rate for oil
expelling was reduced to 33 percent of the 1991 fixed rate.
Financial Anulysis
Gorkhe has the lowest cost per installed k W. This is certainly due to the fact that it is
principally aimed at providing mechanical power and as such the capital cost per
installed kW is relatively low. The return on the capital invested is 32% in constant
dollars. If the scheme was not subsidised, the internal rate of return is above 1 7% in
current dollars, but just 4% in constant dollars because of the disconnection between the
rate of inflation and tariffs.
Other Existing 1l1icro llydro Plants
A traditional water wheel is located about 4 km walking distance from the plant and is
mainly used for agro-processing. The charge for processing is 1.4 US cents per kg, 0. 7
cents/kg and 2.15 cents/kg for hulling, grinding and oil expelling respectively 74 . The
charge tor hulling is 150 percent higher than that fixed by Barpak's owner, the rate for
oil expelling is maintained at the same level and the rate for grinding has been
maintained at around 38 percent less. There is also a MHP plant of 64 kW, Gorkhe
Sana Jal Vidyut, located at about I hour walking distance. The plant was established by
the Small Hydro Power Development Project, funded by the Nepalese Government.
·Usually are per 40 kg.
Annex Summary of Case Studies 69
The plant is currently under utilised due to limited end-uses and NEA district office
approached the owner to take over the plant 1t requires highly skilled operators to
operate the plant and there is no plan at present to expand its services. The national grid
is located at about I hour walking distance and there is no programme to expand their
line to that area.
2.2.3 Site 3:Ghandruk Micro Hydro Project
Village Overview
The plant is located in Ghandruk village, in Kaski District, Western Development
Region. lt is about 6 hours walking distance from the nearest roadhead. The distance
from the nearest trail road to the site is about 100 m. The plant is located at about 200
m from the settlement area, whereas the source, Chane stream, is located at 2.3 km from
the powerhouse.
The average. annual income of consumers involved in business is estimated as
US$2,000-US$7,000. The average annual income of the middle class and lower class
family is estimated as US$430-US$700 and US$170-US$21 0 respectively. Agricultural
production and tourism are the main occupations of the community. The village is en-
route to Annapuma base camp and is considered as one of most beautiful Nepalese
villages.
Project Overview
The agro-processing mill was completed in 1985 and the electrification component was
added in 1988. During the implementation phase there were no major problems apart
from the transportation of construction materials and plant machinery to the site. A
pelton turbine and generator were imported from Stamford, UK. The system was
designed, installed and supervised by DCS.
The plant experienced serious technical problems after it came on stream: low output
was observed and the turbine shaft was broken after installation. The penstock pipe was
damaged during the test run of the plant as a result of its poor quality and poor
workmanship. DCS reinstalled the penstock pipe free of charge. Because of this
incident the supplier installed a separate 16 kVA diesel generator in July 1991 which
supplied power nightly until the MHP plant started operating again.
Table A-ll: Ghandruk Scheme Profile (US$1998)
Caoacitv of MHP: 50kW
Total Capital cost uss 112.597
of which Electromechanical: US$89.91 0 (79.9 %)
Civil: US$19,308 (17.1 %)
Other US$3,379 (3 %)
Start date: Mill-1985 Electrification-1988.
Loan interest: 17%J
Loan: USS14 481
Subsidv: US$73 499
Hours of usa£!e oer dav: Processim! mill 6 hours ner dav.
Tariff for domestic end-use: 0.8 cents /Wlmonth
Hotel and lodges: 1.2 cents /W /month
Productive (sawmill): 1.2 cents /W /month
Cost per installed kW: USS2 252
70 Best Practices for Sustainable DcYclopment of Micro Hydro Power
The power plant supplies electricity to 241 households covering a total population of
1900 people. The plant also supplies power to 22 hotels/lodges and 6 restaurants.
Heating appliances are used by all the hotels and lodges. The plant is managed and
operated by the community with the support from Annapurna Conservation Area
Project (ACAP), a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO). The community provided
both cash and voluntary work estimated at US$8, 132. Daily wages were paid to the
non-beneficiaries. The borrower and AC AP contributed the remaining amount required
for the establishment of plant.
Most of the energy consumption takes place during the morning as a result of the water
heaters and refrigerators used at hotels and lodges. The load improved after the
operation of processing and sa"' mill units. Now the load is relatively uniform during
whole day and evening. Load management becomes difficult during the dry season and
with the increase of domestic consumption. The load characteristic of Ghandruk MHP
plant is shown below.
Figure A-4: Load Characteristics of Ghandruk Micro Hydro Plant
Load Management (Ghandruk)
60.00
~
-"' 40.00 ·--::;; 20.00 "' c
-l
Time
There are no connection or fixed charges, but a reconnection charge of US$1.43 applies
if the consumer's consumption exceeds the power allocated 75 . For the processing unit,
power supply is available from I Oam to 4pm.
Financial Analysis
Ghandruk is the least profitable scheme in financial terms. Even with the subsidy, the
return for the investor is just over I 0% in current values and I% in constant dollars.
The relatively high initial capital cost 76 and the tariffs policy are key factors, explaining
this low profitability.
Other Micro Hydro Plants
A traditional water wheel, mainly used for agro-processing, is located two hours
walking distance from the plant. The processing charges are US cents 0.4 per kg for
hulling and US cents 1.1 per kg for grinding.
A micro hydro plant has recently been installed at ward no 9 of Ghandruk with a total
installed capacity of 6 kW. It is located at a walking distance of about 3 hours from the
existing MHP plant. The plant is managed and operated by the community and the
~' Households arc fitted with low cost circuit breakers. Power is automatically cut off when consumers use more
than the wattage allocated. Allocated supply usually falls between 40 W-I 00 \V.
'''.The capital cost per kW ofGhandruk is the highest of the four schemes of the l\epalese sample.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 71
users' committee fixes the tarifi. The tariff is US$0.57 per month for 40 Watt. This is
at least 100 percent higher than the tariff of the existing MHP plant in Ghandruk. A
newly constructed hotel has installed a diesel generator due to the lack of available
power from the existing MH plant.
The charge for hulling is 150 percent higher than the rate at Ghandruk MHP. The rate
for oil expelling is maintained at the same level whereas the rate for grinding is about 38
percent lower than the rate fixed by the owner of Ghandruk MHP. The national grid is
located about I hours walking distance away.
2.2.4 Site 4: Gaura Rice Mill (Harichaur Micro Hydro Project)
Village Overview
The plant is located in Harichaur village in Baglung District in Western Development
Region. It is 8 hours walking distance from the nearest roadhead and 30 minutes
walking distance from the nearest trail road. The plant is located at the bank of Daram
Khola, which is about 700 m from the village. Harichaur was previously the district
headquarter, later shifted to Baglung. It is situated en-route to Dhorpatan, one of the
promising areas for tourists and trekkers. There is a holy place called Utar Ganga,
which is located at a walking distance of about 3-days from the settlement. There is a
police station, a hospital, boarding school and short-wave communication transmitting
station. The main occupation ofthe community is agricultural production.
The annual average income of the consumers is estimated as US$170-US$290. The
plant supplies electricity to 236 households including II offices and institutions
covering 1575 people. Most of the power is used for household lighting, television and
radios and to run the agro-processing plant.
The daily time saving of 1-2 hours has been used by the community to set up a kitchen
garden and operate a Non Formal Education (NFE) programme. It is estimated that
about 70 percent of the community (an increase of about 45 percent) have become
literate and the enrolment of girl students has increased every year. The study hours of
the students has also increased, by l-1.5 hours daily.
Project Overview
The initial system was designed, installed and supervised by DCS who manufactured
and supplied the cross flow turbine. Nepal Machine and Steel Structure (NMSS) also
designed and installed a new turbine in 1997 which enhanced the output by an
additional2 kW.
Table A-12: Gaura Scheme Profile (US$1998)
Capacity of MHP: 25 kW
Start date: 1987
Total capital cost: US$54,000
of which Electromechanical: US$35,785 (66.3%)
Civil: US$15,330 (28.4 %)
Other costs ( incl. transp/dist.) US$2,885 (5.3 ~io)
Loan interest: 17% average interest rate
Loan: US$26.394
72 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Subsidy: US$8,053
Repayment period: 12 years including 3 years grace period.
Household and institutional end-uses: On average 3 bulbs of 25 Watt for lighting
05.30 h-06.30 h in the morning and from
17.30 h-22 h in evening.
Productive end-uses: Agro-processing (huller, grinder expeller).
Tariffs domestic lighting: US cents 34 /25W /month
Cost per installed kW: US$2,160
The processing mill was established at a cost of US$2,080. The owner carried out all
the civil construction. Local skilled and unskilled labour was used in the construction
works.
The loan repayment schedule for the plant was arranged for 12 years, which also
included a grace period of 3 years. The borrower had to repay the loan for working
capital within 12 months and there was no provision for a grace period for such a loan.
The consumers and other non-beneficiaries were involved in civil construction works.
The consumers provided voluntary labour whereas non-beneficiaries were paid as per
the prevailing rate depending upon their skill.
The morning and night-time loads are mainly from household lighting. A battery-
charging service has been provided which was developed by DCS in I 997. The battery
lighting system has been installed in the hospital to provide light for the maternity ward
in case of an emergency.
The load characteristics of the plant are shown in the chart below.
Figure A-5: Load Characteristics of Gaura Micro Hydro Plant
Load Management
30.00
> ..... ,.;,:; 20.00 ·-"':) 10.00 3
...J
Time
The processing charge tor rice hulling was fixed at 0.57 US cents per kg of paddy from
1984 -1986. The rate was increased from I 987 to I. 7 cents/k~ The grinding charge
was 0.68 cents/kg, which was increased to 2.9 cents/kg in 1987. The oilseed was
~ v
expelled at 3.8 cents/kg and was increased to 8.4 cents/kg in 1987 77 . However none of
these rates were changed after 1987 which signifies a sharp decrease in constant values.
Usually charges are per I Okg.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 73
Financial Analysis
The intemal rate of retum on the capital invested is over 13% in current values but just
3%) in constant values. If we assume that the plant was not subsidised, the intemal rate
of retum would be 7.39% in current values, with no retum in constant values. This is
predominately the result of the stabilised processing tariffs which were kept unchanged
from 1987 onwards.
Other 1'-ficro Hydro Plants
Harichour has numerous MHPs in its v1c1mty. An improved water wheel was
established in 1980 and is located at Hatiya village; about 45 minutes walk from the
MHP. It has the same rates as the plant investigated. Also, a MHP plant of 7 kW
capacity was installed a decade ago under the loan assistance from ADBN and with
subsidies from the Nepalese Govemment. The national grid line is about 1-days
walking distance from Harichour. A community-managed micro hydro of 50 kW
capacity has recently being installed at a working distance of about 45 minutes. The
plant was established with the grant assistance of US$29,851 from the Canadian Co-
operation Office (ceo). The balance fund \Vas arranged through a subsidy from the
Govemment ofNepal, a loan from ADBN and equity from the community.
74 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
3. PERU
3.1 The Sample
This economic and financial analysis is based on four small-scale hydroelectric plants.
The first case concerns Atahualpa farming co-operative. The power generated by this
MHP is used for income-generating activities, as well as for domestic and institutional
purposes. A small entrepreneur owns the second plant and the power generated is used
entirely for an incubating plant. The third case consists of a public electricity service in
the district capital of Pedro Ruiz. The MHP is managed by the municipality ~d
provides electricity to the town of Pedro Ruiz. The fourth case is a public service in the
Pucara District, managed by an electricity distribution company.
Table A-13: Selected Micro Hydro Schemes in Peru
I At h I a ualpa h 1 uma ua e ro UIZ ucara
Owned by Community Private Owner Community Private Owner
Capacity (kW) 35 10 185 2 x200
Figure A-6: Map showing the locations of the case study sites in Peru
South
Pecitic
Ocean
\ '• Huanuco . , UMA
Caltao«J
:~. ~01)·.·.. ··-
(l 2<l0 400 All
Site 1: Atahualpa
Site 2: Yumahual
Site 4: Pucara
BRAZil
Site 3: Pedro Ruiz
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 75
3.2 Ca8e Study Details
3.2.1 Site 1: Atahualpa Farming Co-operative
Village Overview
The project's objective was to provide the co-operative with a permanent and reliable
source of enerf,ry to improve the development of a previously implemented and
flourishing agro-industrial activity. Before putting the MHP plant into operation, the
co-operative had facilities for transforming farm products and had other machinery.
These were fed by a low powered diesel generator with limited output and high
production costs. The farming co-operative of Atahualpa-Jerusalen Workers has about
58 members at present of which 48 are active members and the other I 0 are retired.
Project Overview
The 35 kW MHP was set up as part of a demonstration project that ITDG promoted in
Cajamarca. The power generated by the MHP is used for productive activities, and for
domestic and institutional purposes.
Table A-14: Atahualpa Scheme Profile (US$1998)
Department, Province and District: Cajamarca
Settlement: Porc6n
Owner: Atahualpa-Jerusalen Farm Workers· Co-operative
Plant capacity: 35 kW
Start date: March 1992
Total project cost: US$82,541
of which Electromechanical: USS3l,ll6 (37.7%)
Civil work: US$19,009 (23 %)
Other costs US$32,416 (39.3 ~·'D)
Number of domestic users: 28 families, no charges, assumed part of the
benefits of the Co-operative.
Use of energy: Carpentry workshops and milk processing plants.
Domestic and institutional purposes (lighting,
cooking, TV and radio): battery charging, and
other services.
Cost per installed kW in US$2,358
The only workshops that produce earnings using the electricity generated in the MHP
are the carpentry workshop and the milking and dairy unit. Both are seasonal activities
and the annual consumption was estimated taking into consideration this important
parameter. In fact, the bulk of the consumption is currently absorbed by domestic end-
uses.
The co-operative has a registry of users in which they record the number of fluorescent
tubes and light bulbs. On average 3 fluorescent tubes and one light bulb per home are
used, as well as electric appliances for both domestic and institutional purposes. The
annual consumptimP was estimated at 56,337 kWh/year according to the following
breakdown.
Unfortunately the electricity meter installed in the MHP was not working properly and these figures had to be
estimated.
76 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Table A-15: Energy Consumption for Productive and Domestic End-Uses (kWh),
Atahualpa
Domestic and institutional end-uses 47 347
6 909
2 081
56 337
Financial Analysis
The MHP was financed with contributions from the Peru-Canada Countervalue Fund
(67%), ITDG (12%) and the Atahualpa Co-operative, which provided US$12,000 for
machinery as well as manpower and local materials for civil works. ITDG assumed the
commitment to supervise the works from start to finish and to train the operating and
maintenance staff. The finance structure was as follows (overleaf):
Table A-16: Financing breakdown for Atahualpa Micro Hydro Plant (US$)
Own ~CPC 1 'J ITDG
Total Contribution Contribution
I. Institutional 1.736,600 0,400 476,200
expenses
2. Investments 4,188.400 I .488,400 2,700,000 0
3. Installations 500,000 0 500,000 0
4. Transpm1 47.2.000 0 171.000 301,000
TOTAL 6,897.000 I ,488400 4,631,400 777,200
Source: Power and Producttve Development ol the (aJamarca R1ver Basm. MHP ot Huacatas and
Atahualpa. June 1990. Average exchange rate 0.21 Soles per dollar (according to Cuanto S.A.
Institute).
The selling price of the electricity was derived from the opportunity cost of the
electricity produced by a diesel generator, estimated at 18 US cents per kWh in 1998.
The calculations were based on the average price of the fuel in the area, obtained from
local distributors and gave a life expectancy of 7 years for the diesel generator. We
have assumed that the selling price increases according to the inflation rate.
Under these assumptions, the internal rate of return is 17.5% in current dollars and
14.5% in constant dollars. Our calculations show that the project could be financially
viable. However, this remains linked to the management of the scheme and policy
regarding the payment of the electricity. Domestic users, who are not charged for this
service, absorb the bulk of the power produced. It is obvious that a system of tariffs in
line with the purchasing power of poor end-users will lead to a much lower IRR.
The initial investment in Atahualpa's MHP had a high grant component as ITDG was
promoting it as a demonstration project Standards of living have improved as a result
of the domestic supply of electricity for lighting, entertainment and even for cooking (I
kW to 2 kW electric cookers). Despite this. little value is placed on the energy
"" FGCPC: Fondo General Contravalor Peru Canada.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 77
produced by the MHP, due to the lack of control, limited internal regulations and above
all, the non-existence of a charge for its use.
By making more electricity available, the project has also had a considerable impact on
institution building. This is evident in the mechanisation of inventory and cost controls,
lighting of public areas such as roads, and stronger income-generating industries.
Religious activities have also been boosted by a radio station and lighting for the
church. It is worth pointing out that religion plays a prominent role in community life
and religious activities have been made more comfortable since spot lights,
loudspeakers, videos and electric organs were installed.
3.2.2 Site 2: Micro Hydro for Productive End-Use: Yumahual Scheme
Business Overview
All the production of Yumahual scheme is devoted to supply power to a privately-
owned broiler chicken farm. The micro hydro scheme and the chicken farm belong to
the same person. The initiative to incubate fertilised eggs was promoted as an across-
the-board business strategy aimed at reducing costs by incorporating activities and/or
processes, thus severing the dependence on suppliers of broiler chicks. Only one person
in the MHP is involved in supplying energy to the incubating plant. The same person is
also responsible for maintenance, for the entire process of incubation and hatching of
baby chicks, as well as for selling soft drinks.
Project Ol'erview
The MHP has the capacity for II k W, of which 8. 77 k W are used for incubation and the
remaining 2.33 kW would be for future operations. The initial investment in the MHP
in Yunahual was US$37 ,082, which was financed partly with a loan from a financial
entity (82.2%) and partly with a donation from ITDG (10.3%). The investor contributed
the remaining 7.6%.
Table A-17: Yumahual Scheme Profile (US$1998)
lo epartment an dP rovmce: a1amarca
District and Settlement: Magdalena, Yumahual
Start date: October 1998
Plant capacity: 11 kW (for 4 months a year the capacity of the
MHP is 4 kW due to the shortage of water)
Owner: Mr. Andres Leoncio Sangay Terrones
Total project cost: US$37,082
of which Electromechanical: US$14,062 (37.9 rYo)
Civil works: US$13,640 (36.8 %)
Other ( inc. trans/dist) US$9,380 (25.3 %)
Loan: US$30,000 in 1997
Interest and repavment period: On average 6.5% per vear: 5 years.
Use of energy: Operation of an incubating plant.
Cost per k W installed: 3,371 US$
78 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
In practice the effective capacity is 4 kW during low water stages in the Yumahual
watercourse (four months a year). The following will be the maximum annual
production capacity of the MHP:
3 months x 30 days x 24 hours x 4 kW = 11,520 kWh
8 months x 30 days x 24 hours x 11 kW = 63,360 kWh
This means that the MHP will have a maximum annual production capacity of 74,880
kWh a year. This limited capacity requires an adequate management of the annual load.
It is worth noting that there were maintenance problems as rocks shifted due to rainfall,
causing the MHP to stop operating on four occasions when it was necessary to resort to
a small generator that was used for more than 26 hours in 1999, consuming 121;2 gallons
of petrol.
The MHP supplies electricity for the incubation and hatching compartments, lighting
inside and outside the incubating plant as well as for charging a battery that supplies
power to a short wave radio receiver/transmitter used for communication with the farm.
Table A-18: Energy Distribution in the Incubating Plant, Yumahual
Load Power (kW) Daily working Energy (kWh)
hours
Incubator ( 1 of 3 units) 4,5 24 108,0
Hatcher 4,0 24 96,0
Battery charger 0,3 12 3,6
Lighting 0,4 6 2,4
I Total 210 I
Source: lntcn icw with the power plant operator.
A correcting factor of 0.8 was considered, because the incubator does not consume 4.5
kW continuously as it has a power capacity of 1.5 kW that works perfectly. The total
annual consumption is therefore:
210 kWh/day x 30 days x 12 months x 0.8 = 60,480 kWh/year.
Our analysis is based on this figure.
Comments
The same methodology and assumption as Athahualpa were used for Yumahual. The
selling price of the electricity was derived from the opportunity cost of the diesel
generator, which was estimated at 17 US cents per kWh in 1998· The calculations were
based on the average price of the fuel in the area, obtained from local distributors and a
life expectancy of 7 years for the diesel generators. We have assumed that the selling
price increases according to the inflation rate.
Under these assumptions, the internal rate of return in cunent dollars is 17.6% and
14.6% in constant dollars. This shows that the project could be financially viable. For
the entrepreneur the choice of micro hydro for electricity generation seems a better
option since the cost per kWh is cheaper than the cost of a diesel generator. However, if
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 79
we assume that there are no incentives, such as soft loans, the up-front capital could be a
major constraint in the replication of similar micro hydro projects.
The promotion of small-scale companies in Cajamarca requires a change in behaviour
patterns, as, by tradition, this area primarily produces consumer goods (mainly farm
products). In this respect, the Yumahual MHP has two potential roles, the first to
generate income, and the second, in demonstrating alternative end-uses for MH power.
3.2.3 Site 3: Public Electricity Service in Pedro Ruiz
Village Overview
Pedro Ruiz town is strategically situated at the junction of two main highways. The first
of these connects the higher jungle with the northern coast (Chiclayo, Piura, etc.), and
the second links the coast and the highlands ( Chachapoyas, C elendin, etc.).
Consequently, Pedro Ruiz is a resting point for travellers to these areas.
Project Overview
Electricity generating comes from two watercourses -Ingenio and Asnac. The plant
design capacity is 200 kW and the effective capacity is 140 kW leading to some
shortage of electricity supply in the growing town of Pedro Ruiz. Ln 1980, MHP
activities began under the responsibility of Electronorte (a state-owned regional
distribution company). Ten years later, the district municipality of Jazan took over the
nmning of the MHP.
The staff here have not been adequately trained to carry out their jobs. One operator has
been there since the previous administration and he took it upon himself to teach the
other operator despite the fact he was not well trained. No consideration was given to
using skilled staff for corrective plant maintenance, instead people with no MHP
training were hired, tor example, electricians used to solve the mechanical problems.
The plant is consequently rapidly deteriorating.
Table A-19: Pedro Ruiz Scheme Profile (US$1998)
Department. Province and District: Amazonas. Bongara, Jazan
Town: Pedro Ruiz
Owner: District Municipality of J azan
Start date: 1985
Plant capacity: Design capacity 200 kW; Effective capacity
140kW
Total project cost: US$1,126,075
of which Civil works: US$28,477 (2.5 %)
Electromechanical: US$806,162 (71.6 %)
Other costs (inc.trans/dist) US$291.436 (25.9%)
722 users.
Number of users and load • Monday to Fridays: I 0:00 a.m. to 5:00
management: a.m. (total: 95 hours)
• Saturdays: 2:00p.m. to 5:00a.m .
( 15 hours)
• Sundays: from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 a.m.
(total: 21 hours)
Cost per installed kW US$5,630
80 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
In order to save energy, the use of fluorescent lights was established, both for domestic
purposes and for public lighting. The peak hour is 6:00 p.m., which causes difficulties
for certain commercial activities, such as photocopiers.
Financial Analysis
The calculations are based on a historical interpolation from 1996 data -assuming
energy demand from I 980 to 1 996 grew at 3.1 0% and connections grew at the rate of
population growth (i.e. the 1996 figure for sales is extrapolated backwards). The
economic-financial analysis of Pedro Ruiz shows that there is no return in constant
dollars when the plant was financed by relatively soft loans. This is mainly due to the
high initial capital costs 80 and relatively low tariffs.
The following entities participated in the construction and implementation of the MHP:
I Project Funding: I Central Government
Civil Works: The firm Opil
Electrical-mechanical Electronorte
Equipment and Networks:
Manpower: Population of Pedro Ruiz and
neighbouring communities.
The total investment was slightly over US$0.5 million in I 979.
Table A-20: Structure of the Investment, Pedro Ruiz (US$Current)
Total US$
I. Land in which the power house is situated 55,728
2. Civil works I ,268,401
3. Electro-mechanical equipment 35,906,336
4. Grids and electrical facilities 12,924,882
Total (US$) 50,153,3461
Source: Initial Inventory of the Electricity Area at 17th October 1990 adjusted to December 1979.
There are three main categories of income: connections for new subscribers; sales of
energy; and other income, such as reconnections or payments for arrears. New
subscribers were taken into account for the calculation of the MHP's income from the
sale of electricity and other income. Meters were considered part of the capital
contribution as the municipality considers them as fixed assets. On average, 92% of the
income is obtained from selling the service and from subscriptions.
The rate structure has hardly changed since 1996. Payment dates vary between the first
ten days of each month, after which default interest is charged. The rates were
~11 Out of the 16 schemes investigated. Pedro Ruiz has the highest cost per installed k \\'.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 81
established during the previous municipal government by agreement with the council.
The population's interest in keeping the service as cheap as possible prevailed.
The registration fee for new users is US$49.00 (since 1997) and they have to buy their
own meter and accessories. The average rate per kWh charged is US$0.032. In case of
no payment the following sanctions are contemplated:
• Simple re-connection: US$1.12
• Re-connection due to overdue payment: US$1.87
• Unauthorised handling of meter: US$3. 7 4
• Extending the service to another home: US$5 .61
• Repetition of(a) and (b): service suspended for 8, 15 and 30 days, respectively.
The default interest rate is equivalent to 4% of the monthly bill per day; the electricity is
cut off after 60 days. According to the administrator, no sanctions are being applied at
present due to a change in the municipal administration, indicating that consumers have
become used to paying their bills on time.
As regards the theft of posts and cables, the administration addresses the culprits
directly and demands the respective payment; if payment is refused then a complaint is
filed at the police station. There is no fine for offences of this nature.
Table A-21: Income From the Sale of Electricity, Pedro Ruiz (US$Current)
1996 1997 1998
Income from the sale of energy (US$) 2, 134,152 2307629 2,518,682
Average annual consumption 661,680 682197 703.351
Average Price of Energy (US$) 32 34 36
Other income (US$) of which 725.690 632,120 659,607
Reconnections 60,220 15,341 13,932
Payment arrears 174,510 215,511 182,792
Various changes 319,115 408.268 462,883
Others 171,845 --
Total income
.. Source: D1stnct Mumc1pal!ty of Jazan. Electnc1ty Area
Cost Analysis
The total costs are summarised in the following table. Under our assumptions the cost
per kWh comes to US$0.14.
Comments:
The initiative of the authorities of Pedro Ruiz and the population in general to take over
the MHP marked a significant change in the quality of the services. It must be stressed,
however, that municipal elections and consequent changes of authorities do not
influence the electricity service. The funds are managed adequately despite the technical
and economic limitations. ln this respect the current administration has been successful.
Nevertheless, the management model is far from being worth replicating, considering its
eaming potential and the size of its user-base.
82 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
It is also worth mentioning that the entire economy was going through a serious crisis in
1990 that affected the management and supply of electricity services. The new legal
and institutional framework governing the electricity sector promotes private investment
as well as quality. As a result of this state initiative, several municipalities will be
handing over the electricity services to concession companies, given the legal, financial
and economic guarantees that make it attractive to meet the electricity requirements of
users in remote areas.
3.2.4 Site 4: Public Electricity Service in Pucara District
Town Overview
The town of Pucara is a nexus for cities like Chiclayo, Trujillo and Lima, as all farn1
traders and transport are required to drive through it. Like the town of Pedro Ruiz,
farming is the main activity, and the main crops are coffee, cocoa, rice and fruit. The
main access to Pucara is the "Marginal de Ia Selva'' highway, a fully paved road
(Chilcayo-Pucan}) that connects the town with the main towns on the coast and in the
jungle (Jaen, Bagua, and Chachapoyas). Pucara is home to major institutions: the
district municipality, the medical post, the national police force, and Electronorte,
among others.
Project's Overview
The MHP supplies electricity to 972 users in the towns of Pucara and Pomahuaca,
consuming an average of98.4 kWh/month per family, with an estimated power capacity
of 53.3%, given the peak hour demand of 120 kW. Business activities have increased
since this plant started operating, as farm products can now be traded without
restriction. Furthermore, service activities have developed, such as small restaurants,
shops, photocopying services, welding, carpentry and sewing workshops, etc.
Table A-22: Pucara Scheme Profile (US$1998)
lo epartment, p rovmce an do· tstnct: aJamarca, J ' p a en. ucara
Town: Pucara
Owner: 1986 1991 , Electroperu
1991 -1998, Electronorte
1998 onwards, G Ioria Group
Start date: 1986
Number of users: 972 cmTent users, of which 810 have a
meter.
Plant capacitv: 2 x 200 kW, Effective capacity200 kW.
Total project cost: US$454,460
Cost per k W installed : US$Ll36
Water for generating electricity is obtained from El Chaupe watercourse. The MHP has
a plant capacity of 400 kW \vith two power generating units of 200 kW each. The
maximum demand is 284 kW. The plant's etrective capacity is currently equivalent to
that of one generator as the speed regulator of the second unit is damaged and there is a
shot1age of water during the low-water stage. Consequently. there is an auxiliary
thern1al generator with an effective potential of 150 k W. The demand during 18 hours a
day does not exceed 150 kW, which is equivalent to the power generated by one
hydroelectric generator. providing that water is available.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 83
The MHP came on stream in 1986 under the responsibility of Electroperu.
Subsequently, in 1991, the management was transferred to the regional company
Electronorte. This firm was transferred to the private sector in 1998 and the Gloria
group became the plant's new owners. The Electronorte Office in Jaen (a unit of
Cajamarca), which depends on the main office in Chiclayo, is responsible for the
system.
The MHP in Pucara was financed with the participation of the Agency for International
Development (AID) and Electroperu. The latter was responsible for implementing the
project. As far as the finance structure is concerned, only the Physical Inventory of the
works was accessible, showing the network expansion structure but not civil works or
electrical-mechanical equipment. Nevertheless, according to the information obtained
from Ministry of Energy and Mines publications, the cost of the :vtHP was equivalent to
US$454,460.
Source of Income
The registration fee for new users is US$50.00. The Jaen office establishes this fee and
the finance method. By December 1998, 972 authorised users were registered.
Income from new users' subscriptions, sale of energy and other income were taken into
account to calculate the MHP's income.
Table A-23: Estimated Income, Pucara (US$Current)
1996 1997 1998
Annual Average Eneruv b. (kWh) 1,306,800 1,337.428 1368,774
Income from the sale of energy 79,458 83,721 59,763
(US$)
Average price of energy (USS) 6 6 4
Other income (US$) of which 725,690 632,120 659,607
Payment arrears and interest 165,600 267,800 235,600
Reconnection 146,600 76,600 55.400
Replacement and maintenance 189,500 172,300 156,400
charges
Source: lntcrncw wnh the power plant s operator.
The total running costs estimated for 1998 were US$59,351. More than half of this
amount was spent on paying the operating and maintenance staff (54%), whilst security
service costs were equivalent to 46% of the total cost. Hence the decision to reduce the
number of staff
Financial Analysis
The calculations show that the internal rate of return before financing is just 8%) when
calculations are expressed in nominal values. This is beyond the discount rate of 18%
usually used for projects implemented in Peru. In constant terms and after financing,
there is no return.
84 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of \.1icro Hydro Power
Comments
Taking into consideration the government's plans to expand the networks, it is very
likely that the Pucara MHP plant will be connected to the general Electronorte network
in the medium term. This would certainly improve the project's profit margin as the
diesel generator would be no longer needed, and staff expenses would be cut down as
the electricity supply in Pucara and Pomahuaca would be re-organised and sold through
the grids.
The electricity service in Pucara has become more profitable as the management has
improved. This improvement in management is in part due to the restructuring of the
distribution company that took place before it was privatised.
As in the previous case, the donation is critical in the project's earning capacity,
suggesting that even for services of the size of those provided in Pucara, a soft loan
financing scheme is required. Pucara is probably within the limits of the type of
projects that need strong financial backing in order to operate under the current
circumstances in this country. Larger projects would have to be self-sufficient, even if
the management acquired higher skills in order to reduce energy production costs and
losses, improve distribution and increase income and collections.
3.3 Key Conclusions Peru
In all these cases part of the investment was covered by a grant provided by private
organisations or the state. It was difficult to obtain examples of plants where costs were
fully covered by the owner. Even in the case of the private owners, part of the total
investment (studies, technical assistance among others) was provided in the form of a
grant.
At first sight, the financial situation of the projects analysed is not ve1y encouraging.
Future prospects may be better however: the economy is fairly stable (the possibility of
traumatic changes seems remote); the government is promoting clear regulations for the
electricity business: and government policies are placing priority on the struggle against
poverty, showing a preference for overall projects in which energy is a component. It is
therefore expected that experiences like those of Atahualpa or Yumahual (less than 100
kW) will be disseminated and that under the current regulatory framework, appropriate
management alternatives will be proposed for projects like Pucara and Pedro Ruiz
(more than 100 kW).
The following are the key lessons to be considered for the future:
• The sustainability of micro hydro plants requires not only adequate technical
training in operation and maintenance but also business and managerial
training from the design stages of the project.
• The lack of credit for micro hydro is a constraint, but its availability does not
guarantee project sustainability. Good project design and careful risk analysis
of productive activities are a must
• The best prospects for economic and financial sustainability exist for projects
that use the energy produced for a diversified portfolio of productive activities,
and not just for domestic lighting.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 85
• Financial and economical sustainability of a plant will be adversely affected
where there are high costs associated with plant installation (due for instance to
over-design, wrong selection of equipment.
• Although no conflicts over the use of water were observed in these cases, it is
necessary to establish a water utilisation system for low water stages, which
does not limit the power generating capacity.
86 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
4. ZIMBABWE AND MOZAMBIQUE
4.1 Case Study Details
4.1.1 Site 1: Nyafaru Micro Hydro Co-operative: Domestic and Services End-
Uses
Village Overview
Nyafaru Co-operative Farm covers 600 hectares of land. It is run by a committee of
seven chosen from the membership at the farm. The committee is accountable to a
board of trustees. For purposes of management the farm is divided into units including:
the clinic; fisheries; schools crop production and retail. Sub-committees ·run each of
these units.
Until the current hydro project was commissioned, people on the farm depended on
paraffin and candles for lighting. A wind generator installed at Nyafaru more than
fifteen years ago was never commissioned because it was wrongly designed for the site
conditions. The use of solar PV at the clinic and a wind electricity generator at the shop
were discontinued with the advent of hydro electricity because the micro hydro plant is
more reliable. A diesel engine generator
that had been operating on the farm was
also disconnected because of high
operational costs.
Project Overview
The Nyafaru plant was commissioned in
1995. A Nepalese expert in designing and
manufacturing cross flow turbines was
hired to help with local construction of a
cross flow machine. Four local technicians
were simultaneously involved in building-
up the turbine and in training with a
Nepalese expert. ITDG planned the course
and provided overall guidance. The
training covered all components of the
project, including instaliation,
commissioning, operation and
maintenance. A small-scale workshop at
Cold Comfort Trust (CCFT) in Harare and
the University of Zimbabwe's mechanical
engineering workshop provided facilities
and materials.
Nyafaru, Zimbabwe, inside the power
The plant generates about 20 kW reliably, house
m w
which is used by a shop, a clinic, one primary and one secondary school, and farm staff
houses. The scheme is run by the Nyafaru Hydro Committee (NHC), composed of
representatives from the various units using the electricity, the chairperson of the co-
operative, and three co-opted teachers. The hydro committee is responsible for setting-
••
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 87
up and implementing electricity tariffs. A fixed monthly charge is levied on each user.
The tariff levied per user depends on the upper limit of the load for that consumer. A
miniature circuit breaker (MCB) installed at each user sets this upper limit. The tariffs
are set at socially attractive levels supported by a generous subsidy from the school.
When the hydro plant incurred a debt of about US$532 in 1998 (Z$ II ,400), the school
provided an interest free loan.
The domestic load consists of about twenty households, mostly teachers, nursing staff
and the co-operative chairman. Other farm workers have not yet been connected mainly
because they have not been able to afford the installation charge. Of the connected
households about 80% already have radios and televisions powered by the plant.
Benefits have been spread to the community beyond the farm through electrification of
the clinic. schools and shop. Over 200 school children on the boarding facility have
moved away from using paraffin lights and candles, to electricity. A weaving shop used
mainly by women has been electrified. This has enabled the women to engage in their
weaving activities well into the evenings. The improved service at the clinic benefits
mainly women and children who are in the majority within the farm and the surrounding
rural community. Women's presence in the committee is a sign of their participation in
the running of the plant. The provision of electricity for refrigeration has played a vital
role in increasing sales to a larger number of customers, some corning from distant
places like Magadzire, Tsatse and Gairezi.
There is a marked difference between the load pattern at planning stage and after
commissioning. During the planning phase an analysis of demand showed a peak of
17.5 kW and an average of 6 kW. However, the demand forecast included a mill and a
trout fam1. which have not been connected.
Table A-24: Nyafaru Scheme Profile (US$1998)
I S-·apacity of MHP: 120 kW
Start Date: 1995
Total Capital Cost: US$66,156
of which Electromechanical: US$21,382 (32.3 %)
Civil: US$14,980 (22.6 %)
US$29,794 (45 %)
Connection charge per HH: US$73
End-Uses: Domestic. services.
Tariff hh/month: US$2.65 (Z$30) per 5A connected
initially. now US$7.1 (Z$80) per 5A
connected ( 1999).
Cost per installed k W: US$3.307
Financial and Economic Analysis
The Nyafaru scheme was financed through grants from external organisations and
contributions by the Nyafaru community. The grants were negotiated by TTDG in close
liaison with the community. The main funders for the design and construction of this
scheme included: the European Commission; Cadburys; the UK Overseas Development
Agency (ODA): and German Agro Action (GAA). These funds covered technical
inputs from ITDG, local contractors. local and external consultants. local labour and all
materials including electricity transmission and distribution lines. The grants were also
· 88 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
extended to connecting the shop, clinic and a few blocks at the school. Each of the
connected user/group paid for their cmmection. These users consisted of the remaining
school blocks, teachers' and nurses' houses.
The investment cost of the scheme was about US$3 307 per kW 81 • However, this was a
prototype project with high external costs and the design was rather conservative.
A tariff based on meeting operation, maintenance and depreciation costs has been
recommended, but the hydro committee is not yet implementing it. Indications are that
unless tied with some income generating activities the communities are unable to meet
the tariff When the project came on stream only the shop, the clinic and the school
were connected. By the end of 1996 about nine households had been connected. The
fixed monthly charge of US$2.5 (Z$30) for each 5A connected in 1996, had risen to
US$7 .1 (Z$80) in 1999. In other words, a consumer with a 15A supply paid US$21 per
month. This type of tariff structure has encouraged the consumer to fully utilise the
installed capacity whilst stimulating the connection of new consumers.
From the records available the plant has experienced down time of about 50 days per
year. The annual electricity consumption is estimated at about 57 000 kWh. However,
meter readings of power over a nine-month period from November 1997 seem to
suggest that the load factor is around 43%.
In trying to build up a picture of the cash flow situation for the plant the following points
were noted:
• The cost of getting the power from the nearest distribution pole to the user
constitutes the connection costs and this is borne by the user.
• Average connection costs have been used in the analysis.
• It is assumed that the Civil Engineering Index on plant can be used to predict
inflation on the power plant.
• It is assumed that investment costs for the plant was incurred over one year
only.
• Inflation on labour is assumed to be about 30% per annum. This is confirmed
by an analysis of the payments to the operator.
• The US$532 (Z$11 ,400) borrowed from the school to pay for otherwise
avoidable damage to the equipment was in the first quarter of 1998. It is
assumed that in future preventive maintenance will be practised to avoid such
disasters.
• It is assumed the tariff increases by 15% each year. ZESA is increasing its
tariffs at 15% per quarter.
Nyafaru scheme was almost entirely funded by grants. The IRR is extremely high if the
grants are considered as an income. We have therefore assumed that the capital is
borrowed from a renewable energy fund such as the UNDG-GEF Solar fund. This fund
levies an annual interest rate of 15%. We have considered a repayment period of five
years. A period of twenty-five years has been selected as the minimum life of the plant.
Under these assumptions the internal rate of return is 8% in current tern1s and there is no
retum in constant dollars. This is largely due to the rather low load factor and the high
initial capital cost, and the tariffs increase which is below the rate of inflation.
XIS Fernando. S Khcnnas and K Rai. ITO(! Zimbabwe Micro Hydro Project Evaluation. 1997.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 89
4.1.2 Site 2: Svinurai Micro Hydro Mill
Village Overview
This was originally a commercial fam1 called Tabanchu. It is located at Cashel, about
80 km south of Mutare. In the early 1980s, government bought it for resettlement
purposes. This scheme is run by a Micro Hydro Committee, which is composed of
elected people from the general membership of the co-operative. The committee is also
responsible for setting and implementing electricity tariffs after consulting the general
membership. Membership of the co-operative has fluctuated over the years, but
averages about 23 people. A committee of seven runs the farm.
Milling is one of the minor activities at the farm. Although it does not stand out as a
major activity, the mill has provided the co-operative with a more consistent source of
income than the other activities. Apart from the co-operative members, the 280
households in the surrounding community benefit from the milling service. The main
beneficiaries are women and children who would otherwise walk up to 8 km to the
nearest mill, which is powered by a diesel engine. Apart from unreliability of the
diesel-powered mills users would have to pay up to 50% more per bucket milled.
Project Overview
In 1993 rehabilitation work started with the assistance of lTDG. The mill is operated by
an worker who checks the whole system about three times a week on average. The
operator is a member of the co-operative and is employed full-time. Virtually all repairs
are now done at the farm. During peak times the mill operates on three eight hour
shifts, seven days a week. A single eight hour shift is the normal mode of operation.
Routine maintenance is carried-out by the committee. This involves greasing and
replacing bearings. replacing belts and cleaning the intake, channel and forebay.
All members of the co-operative benefit from the milling service and therefore they
would like to enjoy a low tariff. However, they also get a monthly allowance as part of
their income from the farm activities. Co-operative members are charged 1.5 US cents
less per bucket milled than non-members. This forces them to charge reasonable tariffs
as they both try to maximise their income and avoid getting overcharged themselves.
The operator gets the same monthly allowance and milling tariff's as other members of
the co-operative.
Table A-25: Svinurai Scheme Profile (US$1998)
I Capacity ofMHP: 113 kW
Start Date: I 993
Total Capital Cost: US$9,296
of which Electromechanical: US$662
Civil: US$8.634
Cost per installed k W: USS715
90 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
Figure A-7: Map showing the locations of the case study sites in Zimbabwe
.· MOlAMBlQLJlE
-·""''~'~··--'r ·· ~=·:-:~-:.-y::: .. -:-:"~:.;;;.:·:::-:;:~::~:.. --. .,---·-·
ZAMBIA
Binga
·Hwang a
BOTSWANA
~'
•
·Kadoma
• Bulawa)'O'
SOUTH A.F R lCA
Site 1: Nyafaru Co-operative Farm
Site 2: Svinurai Mill
Financial and Economic Analysis
MOZ.
The rehabilitation works were funded through grants. The estimated cost for restoring
milling and electricity at the Svinurai scheme was US$9,296 including the co-
operative's contribution. The grants were negotiated by ITDG in close liaison with the
community. The Svinurai community contributed all the labour for the rehabilitation of
the civil works, penstock and powerhouse, including the installation of a new mill.
African Development Foundation (ADF) funded the irrigation component including
management support and training. Funds for the first and second stage rehabilitation
were secured from the States of Guernsey. For the electrification component funds
were secured from a grant raised through an individual's cycling trip around Zimbabwe.
Calculations were based on a twenty-five year life expectancy. The tariff for a hydro
milling service is set per bucket of milled grain. No rigorous analysis has been done on
the tariff but the revenue generated has been shown to meet the operation, maintenance
and management costs. An analysis of the co-operative's books shows that the mill is
not regarded as a stand-alone enterprise. There is evidence that costs incurred on other
farm activities are financed from the mill income while records show that operation,
· maintenance and repairs of the hydro mill are only financed from the mill income.
Milling tariffs are set from a social standpoint and are generally below those of
competing diesel fuelled mills. Income from the mill has not been consistent over the
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 91
years and this can be attributed to various factors, chief of which is the lack of target-
oriented management.
The financial analysis shows that if tariffs are constant in current terms over the life
time of the project there is a very good return, 48% in current currency and 20% in
constant dollars. We have assumed that the capital is borrowed from a renewable energy
fund such as the UNDG-GEF Solar fund. This demonstrates once more the issue of
services pncmg.
4.1.3 Site 3: Elias Mill-A Private Micro Hydro Scheme (Mozambique)
Village Overview
This mill is in the Manica District of Mozambique, within 16km of Manica town. The
main focus of the Elias plant is hydro milling. There has been no extension of the
enterprise to other end-uses. Electricity generation from this plant is possible but as the
houses are scattered, the number of beneficiaries may be very limited. The owner could
however, install a pico-hydro plant for use at the mill and homestead. Such a generator
would provide electricity for lighting, communication and small-scale enterprises.
Elias mill is an old scheme using an old pelton turbine to drive a rudimentary mill. The
powerhouse is a simple timber off-cut structure thatched with grass. The Portuguese
first installed this equipment around the 1930s at a different site. Mr Elias later
acquired the equipment from them and installed it at his homestead. The capacity of
this scheme is about 15 kW.
Project Overview
This scheme was identified by a Mozambican non-governmental organisation, Kwazai
Simukai (KSM), who invited ITDG to provide them with the technical skills for the
mill's rehabilitation. Up until 1999 the owner did most of the work on repairs following
advice from ITDG. KSM is close to the site and, as such, does most of the follow-up.
In addition KSM's in-house staff received intensive training on feasibility studies of
micro hydro schemes from ITDG and turbine manufacturing from Water Energy and
Development Services (WEDS) - a small Zimbabwean consultancy Company. The
main funder of KSM has been exploring the possibility of Elias receiving credit
assistance for components that have to be bought and involve large amounts of money
relative to the monthly income from the mill. These include cement, the penstock.
turbine and mill. The owner has already accepted the working arrangement, and
manufacture of the turbine is already at an advanced stage. This is being done by local
technicians with technical support from WEDS of Zimbabwe.
The owner runs this scheme with assistance from his family. In fact it is run as a family
business and no payments are made to any associated family labour contributions. In
some rare situations external labour is hired, for example when major repairs on the
civil works are necessary. This labour is paid from family income without regard to
whether the money was generated from the mill or not. Family members interviewed
indicated that they were very comfortable with this situation. Their motivation seems to
be driven by a strong household head committed to the well being of the family. This
mill serves about 300 households mainly from Ndirire village ~2 .
"Funding Proposal for Three Micro Hydro Schemes in Mozambique. !TOG. 1996.
92 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
The mill operates an average eight hours per day six days a week. In emergencies it
opens brietly on the seventh day. Routine maintenance is done especially on greasing
and replacing bearings, belts and cleaning the intake, channel and forebay.
Table A-26: Elias Mill Scheme Profile (US$Current)
Capacity of MHP: 15 kW
Start Date: 1996
Total Capital Cost: US$18,000
Grant: US$10,000
Hours of usage per day: 8 hours
I Cost per mstalled k W: I US$1,200
Financial and Economic Analysis
In 1996 the estimated cost of rehabilitating the power plant was US$16,000 (£10,000),
excluding training, monitoring, evaluation, administrative overheads and contributions
by the owner113 • Part of the funding for ITDG's technical input on the first stage of
rehabilitation was provided by Andersen Consulting, UK. A grant secured by KSM
from FOS-Belgium financed designs of the turbine and a training course leading to the
production of a prototype. The total amount on this grant was estimated at US$8,000.
The income and expenditure of this mill was monitored over a month. This data was
used to extrapolate to 25 years guided by some basic assumptions on external tactors
and on the perfonnance of the mill~~~. Our calculations show an internal rate of return of
9% as,.uming that the capital is borrowed at an annual interest rate of l 5% over the
repayment period. It is assumed that the turbine currently being fabricated will be
installed in 1999 and the mill will be replaced the same year. It is also assumed that the
civil works will be rehabilitated in 2000.
4. 1.4 Site 4: Chitofu Mill (Mozambique)
Village Overview
The Chitofu hydro mill is in the Manica District of Mozambique, within 18km of
Manica town. The owner runs this scheme with assistance from his family. The mill
has served a community of over l 00 households with an average of six members for
over sixty years. These come from two villages, namely Maridza and Nyaronga, where
the alternative mill is powered by a diesel engine and charges up to 50% more than the
Chitofu mill. Poorer people get the service on credit ad sometimes on barter. The
owner sets tarifTs for the Chitofu mill, driven by both social and business objectives. It
is evident that the deployment of resources on operation and maintenance has been kept
at a level just high enough for minor repairs.
Project Overview
This is an old scheme using an old pelton turbine to drive a mill. The powerhouse is a
simple brick structure with con11gated iron roofing. The scheme has a capacity of about
15 kW. The owner used his own resources to develop the plant but has been getting
assistance fonn ITDG and KSM to rehabilitate itxs.
'' The~e costs were estimated at USS2.000 according to interviews with the owner and ITDG records.
A ProJeCt for Rchabllitation of Two Micro Hydro Plants in Mozambi!..]UC, G Goncalves, 1998.
" Mini Project Proposal. Nyaronga -Chitofu. ITDG. 1995.
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 93
Like the Chitofu mill this scheme was identified by KSM who invited ITDG to provide
technical skills and financial assistance for its rehabilitation. The memorandum of
understanding signed in 1995 also governed the co-operation between KSM and ITDG
on this project. The owner has done most of the work on repairs following advice form
ITDG. The first task done was the replacement of the old-worn out bearings with new
ones. At the same time some repairs were done to the old mill and penstock. A second
stage involved repairs to the channel, forebay tank, penstock, powerhouse and
replacement of the old mill with a new one. The owner provided labour for all the
rehabilitation work. KSM continues to provide most of the follow-up because of its
proximity to the project site.
As in the case of the Elias mill, the local authority under which the scheme falls had not
been involved in the planning or implementation of the rehabilitation work. The mill
operates an average eight hours per day, six days per week, but in emergencies it opens
briefly on the seventh day. Routine maintenance is done especially on greasing and
replacing bearings, replacing belts and cleaning the intake, channel and forebay.
The main focus of the Chitofu plant is hydro milling. There has been no extension of
the enterprise to other end-uses. Current efforts are to improve this service but there is
potential to use the same plant to generate electricity. This would be a very attractive
option considering that within 600 m of the plant there is a school, clustered houses and
a business centre. Small-scale industries could also surface provided other conditions
such as finance and training are attractive.
Table A-27: Chitofu Mill Scheme Profile (US$1996)
Capacity of MHP: 15kW
Start Date: 1995
Total Capital Cost: US$18,500
End-use: Grain milling
Hours of household usage per day 8
Cost per installed kW US$1,233
Financial Analysis
A combination of grants and owner finance has been used to rehabilitate the scheme.
Estimates for rehabilitation of this mill were done at the same time as for Elias, and a
figure of US$16,000 (£ 1 0,000) was reached. This excludes training, monitoring,
evaluation, administrative overheads and contributions by the owner 86 · The core funding
for this project was a grant secured by ITDG from Andersen Consulting and the DFID
of the United Kingdom. These funds covered materials for repair to the powerhouse.
the turbine housing and replacement of bearings, repairs to the old mill and its eventual
replacement and the technical inputs by ITDG. Chitofu contributed labour during the
repairs. The owner also provided labour for repairs to the intake works, canal, forebay
tank and penstock.
No systematic monitoring of income and expenditure has been done on this scheme.
Historical data has been generated through interviews with the members of the family
responsible for milling. Our calculations show an internal rate of return of 9%,
"'Estimated at USS1.:'i00 from interviews with owner and ITDG's records.
94 Best Practices for Sustainable Development of Micro Hydro Power
assuming that the capital is borrowed at an annual interest rate of 15% over the
repayment period.
Figure A-8: Map showing the locations of the case study sites in Mozambique
t' 1fl0 JOO
Q
TANZANIA \
SOUTH
AfRICA i
lnham barleJi
tndian
·Ocean
Site 3: Elias Mill
Site 4: Chitofu Mill
Pemba~
Cidade de Nacal a~' ,.
/
4.2 Summary of Findings of Micro Level Analysis
Significant effort has been made by NGOs working with various stakeholders to
demonstrate that micro hydro can supply much needed energy to remote rural
communities. The four cases selected for Zimbabwe and Mozambique are a clear
demonstration of the technical viability of hydro as an alternative energy source and
can, therefore, be replicated with relative ease. Management of such schemes appears
to be within the grasp of the ordinary rural farmers. Moreover, their capabilities can be
extended with additional training, and personnel should only need to be brought in in
Annex: Summary of Case Studies 95
exceptional cases where system failures are experienced. The only apparent constraints
concern financial management. particularly regarding the approach taken on tariff
setting. All four schemes need to improve on the utilisation of the available power.
This can in tum improve on the returns from the investment.
A point of concern, however, is the cost involved in micro hydro technology. The cost
is prohibitive particularly for rural productive operations, which often have low output
due to the demand conditions that prevail in the rural areas. The technology lends itself
well to variations in scale thus allowing different size systems to be installed to suit
particular needs or particular resource potentials.
In both Zimbabwe and Mozambique lack of energy planning at the local and regional
levels can be attributed in part to lack of awareness on energy options available at that
level. This highlights the fact that energy provision has not yet been recognised as an
integral part of the development process that needs to be planned for. The tendency is
to regard the national grid as the only energy source of electricity. This is only supplied
by utilities, and at the local level electrical power has tended to be synonymous with the
utilities.
The process of getting information from the rural communities on local resources and
development needs could also be improved to allow for better planning that would,
hopefully, incorporate energy issues. Embarking on community empowerment
exercises that would give communities an insight into their role in the development of
their ward or district could further facilitate this.
The environmental impacts of the four micro hydro schemes selected for this study can
be classified as minor according to Zimbabwe's guidelines on environmental impact
assessment.
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