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Guidelines
A Sourcebook for Microhydropower
Development in Alaska
Prepared by the Alaska Power Authority
State of Alaska
1986
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Alaska Power Authority would like to express its
appreciation to those agencies and individuals who contribu-
ted financial support, information, graphics and text for
development of this report: the Alaska Power Administration
and the U.S. Department of Energy; the Washington Department
of Ecology; the Oregon State University Extension Service;
the National Center for Appropriate Technology, Butte,
Montana; Mr. Earle Ausman, P.E.; and Mr. Lou Butera, P.E.
Small Hydropower Evaluation Guidelines
A Sourcebook for Microhydropower
Development in Alaska
PREFACE
The interest in microhydropower is
explained, in part, by the independent
nature of these systems, providing
relatively constant power over many
years of operation, with minimal envi-
ronmental impacts. System sizes ranging
between several kilowatts to approxi-
mately 200 kilowatts can provide. power
to isolated areas lacking an opportunity
for interconnection to a larger power
source. For individuals or communities
fortunate enough to have streams flowing
on or near their property, hydro systems
can vary between a source of mechanical
power for a single pump, to a larger
electrical power resource capable of
meeting the needs of a small community
or commercial enterprise.
This manual is intended as an
introduction to the planning process
which must necessarily precede construc-
tion and operation of a successful
project. The guide was produced. by the
Alaska Power Authority through funds
provided by the Alaska Power Administra-
tion, USDOE. Readers' comments and
suggestions as to its usefulness will be
appreciated.
TABLE AE CONTENTS
Pa ge
1 INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Organization of the Booklet
3 RECONNAISSANCE & PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY
Site Analysis
Site Selection
Measuring Critical Stream Features
Flow
Head
15 Estimating Potential Power
19 Equipment Needs
Components Typical of Small Hydro Plants
31 Economic Considerations
34 END USE 'PLANNING
Power Conversion
DC Electrical Generation
AC Electrical Distribution Systems
38 ,Independent vs. Utility Intertie Systems
Measuring Demand
Utility Intertie System Coordinations
44 LICENSING
Land Access
45 Alaska Permitting Procedure's
51 Federal Permits & Licensing
APPENDICES
57
A.
Resource Assessment
Measuring Flows
Head Losses
76
B.
Sources of Information
Recommended Resources
Bibliography
84
C.
Directory of Equipment Manufacturers
Sample Request Form
92
D.
Agency Directory
State, Federal & Association Addresses
96
E.
Lexicon
Acronyms
Glossary
101
F.
Conversion Table
TABLES
Page
5
Table
1
Overview of the Pre -construction Process
7
Table
2
Site Appraisal of Available Resources
16
Table
3
Typical Efficiencies for Small Water Wheels and Turbines
22
Table
4
Intake Conditions
24
Table
5
Comparison of Commonly Used Pipe
25
Table
5a
Comparison of 12" Pipe
35
Table
6
Appliance Adaptability from AC to DC
40
Table
7
Typical Household Appliance Loads
46
Table
8
Water and Land Use Requirements
53
Table
9
Federal Regulatory Acts Affecting Hydro Development
54
Table
10
Federal Agency Contacts Required by FERC
63
Table
11
Weir Table
70
Table
A.1
Hazen Williams Coefficient "C"
4
1.1
Stream Characteristics
10
1.2
Low -head Run -of -River Insta.11ation
11
1.3
High -head Impoundment or Run -of -Stream Installation
12
1.4
Total Available Head
18
1.5
Nomograph to Compute Energy Potential
27
1.6
Pelton Wheel
28
1.7
Crossflow or Banki
29
1.8
Turgo Impulse
58
1.9
Yearly Hydrographs
60
1.10
Measuring Stream Area
61
1.11
Float Method
62
1.12
Weir and Depth Cage
67`
1.13
Level and Tape Method
73
1.14
Hazen Williams Nomographic Chart
74
1.14a
A Nomograph to Determine Losses Due to Friction in PVC Pipe
INTRODUCTION
In 1981 the Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic
Development published the "Hydroelectric Commercialization
Kit" which, in conjunction with technical assistance then
available, provided an introduction to microhydropower
development. Because the booklet lacked sufficient detail
to be useful without assistance, a revision has been pre-
pared as an introduction to site assessment and as a source -
book for further research and development.
Small hydro, microhydropower, mini -micro, are all terms
used in the available literature, there being no hard and
fast rules governing respective power ratings. In most
instances the potential development site is assumed to be a
range of several kilowatts to approximately 200 kilowatts
maximum output. Most often this would be the product of
what is known as a high -head low -flow site: an exploitable
power source available from water descending over a rela-
tively large elevation change but containing only a rela-
tively small flow or volume of water. Not only will these
be the more likely physical properties of 'a site, but they
may also be the more environmentally benign combination too,
increasing the chances for development.
The purpose of the publication is to facilitate the
development of environmentally acceptable hydropower proj-
ects.. It is not a design manual, but rather a compilation
of some of the more relevant issues to be addressed prior to
construction of a facility. The guide is divided into
several sections addressing major areas of investigation
with appendices providing more specific references. Sec-
tion I is an overview of reconnaissance level criteria
necessary to compute potential power at a site. Section II
addresses end use options, principally for conversion of
mechanical power to electrical energy. Section III is a
consolidation of permitting agencies within the state and
federal governments, and approvals which may be necessary to
develop a project in Alaska.
The Appendices(1) expand upon the overview with informa-
tion on actual measurement techniques to calculate head and
flow; (2) provide a comprehensive bibliography; (3) list a
number of manufacturers of hydropower equipment and provide
a form letter for obtaining standardized data; (4) provide
an agency directory for permitting and information resourc-
es; (5) and include other reference material related to
terminology and a unit conversion table.
2
If the power potential from a site appears to be promis-
ing and can be matched with local energy needs, development
options need to be assessed. Plan review by an experienced
civil engineer or hydrologist is encouraged in addition to
correspondence with specific manufacturers. Further techni-
cal assistanceis through other references provid-
ed and particularly in the course of applying for permits.
The potential developer is advised to make use of the
permitting process to explore details relevant to project
feasibility.
.r.
I. RECONNAISSANCE & PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY
A typical microhydro system is built around a turbine
and generator; water turns the turbine, converting stream -
flow into mechanical energy. The energy can be used to turn
an electric generator or to operate nearby equipment direct-
ly, such as a hydraulic ram or -pump. Other elements common
to microhydro systems are a dam or diversion structure, an
intake and trashrack, pipe or penstock to carry water to the
turbine, and possibly a power house where discharged tail -
water returns to the stream.
In order to succeed in the development of a site, a
number of prerequisite tasks are required to ensure that a
project is technically, economically and environmentally
sound. Table 1 presents an overview of the entire planning
to construction process. Among the planning tasks outlined
in the table, several significant features are listed below:
1. Resource assessment or reconnaissance of physical
conditions at the site,
2. Feasibility study and conceptual design to deter-
mine cost versus benefits,
3. Permitting and land use approvals,
4. System design,
5. Financing plan (or arrangements),
6. Equipment selection,
7. Familiarity with installation and operations re-
quirements.
The cost of doing these tasks including plant construc-
tion and equipment installation will vary greatly depending
on whether they are done by an individual or by an engineer-
ing firm or other experts. The initial capital cost of hy-
dro power sites can be prohibitively high, even for a do-
it-yourself builder. Estimates of between $1,000 and $5,000
per installed kilowatt are not unrealistic, but life spans
of twenty years or more can also be expected from microhydro
projects. Before equipment or construction expenses are
incurred it is advisable to have conducted a thorough exami-
nation of these seven tasks. Additionally, construction
plans should be reviewed by an experienced civil engineer
where doubt exists.
SITE ANALYSIS
SITE SELECTION
An important first step in communicating development
plans is to identify the proposed hydroelectric system lay-
out. A reconnaissance, or preliminary study, will establish
an inventory of characteristics for identification on maps
and as elements of a prospectus to facilitate the search
for technical, licensing or rights -of -way information.
.The location of waterfalls, fish hatcheries, spawning
channels, roads, trails, powerlines, buried utilities, and
land status features are important for their potential im-
pact on development. Topographic maps and aerial photos of
the area can be obtained from the United States Geological
Survey (USGS) to assist in documenting features near the
proposed site. Maps and field notes will provide a basis
for more sophisticated design and layout. The layout will
also serve as information for equipment manufacturers to
ensure that appropriate size and design parameters are met.
STREAM
STREAM CHARACTERISTICS
CHOOSING THE RIGHT SITE
HERE THE STREAM
IS INACCESSIBLE -
T00 FAR AWAY FROM
USERS, SMALL FLOW,
LOOK FOR A SHORT
,---'DROP OR WATERFALL,
RAPIDS,ELEVATION
CHANGES.— POWER GENERATION FACILITY
/ \\ SHOULD BE LOCATED AT LOWER
INTAKE WATER \\� END OF ELEVATION DROP.
JUST ABOVE WATER IS THEN RETURNED
ELEVATION ® TO STREAM.
CHANGE
TRANSMISSION LINE -. DISTANCE
FROM GENERATION FACILITY TO USERS
SHOULD BE SHORT AS POSSIBLE
I. 1
HIGH TIDE EFFECTS
/ STREAM TO HERE
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USERS e°
LOW °�°
TIDE
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Research through permitting offices, libraries, and
resource and data collection agencies can be invaluable in
early planning process. Anyone interested in hydropower
should read as much as possible about the subject, become
familiar with existing installations, and communicate with
manufacturers and technically oriented people in the
conceptual design stages. More than a half dozen microhydro
projects are described in the book, Frontier Energy,
published by the Alaska Department of Community and Regional
Affairs and available through State Depository Libraries
(see Appendix B) and the Cooperative Extension Service.
Many other resources will be referenced throughout the
course of the booklet.
Use of various state and federal agencies to aid in
research and development of a proposed hydropower site is
also recommended. These agencies can assist in identifying
site characteristics that may be useful in future analysis.
Table 2 provides a summary of possible resources.
Eventually sketchs or drawings of the proposed develop-
ment including pertinent dimensions will be required. If
license procedures of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commis-
sion (FERC) are necessary, detailed drawings will be needed
to describe the location of water diversions, use and stream
return. The drawings should show property lines and key
features such as intake point, penstock location, power-
house, discharge point and electrical distribution line(s).
Table 2
Site Characteristics and Available Resources
• Latitude and longitude of the USGS; State Division of
proposed site, or part of Land & Water Management
section, township, range and (DNR)
meridian. Location of waterfalls
or dramatic changes in elevation
• Location of existing dams, canals State Division of Land &
or conflicting water uses Water Management
• Location of fish hatcheries and
spawning areas.
• Stream gaging sites and other
surface water resources
Atlas at the State
Department of Fish &
Game, Regional Offices
USGS; State Division of
Land & Water Management;
State Division of
Geological & Geophysical
Surveys; U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers; Alaska
Power Authority
• Precipitation records, erosion USGS; Corps of
data, and stream characteristics Engineers; U.S. Soil
(silt load). Conservation Service;
Arctic Environmental
Information and Data
Center (UAA)
• Drainage area above the diversion
site
• Identification of property
owners, easements, roads
• Existing studies of hydropower
sites
• Equipment options
• Conceptual design
USGS
Recorder's Office (DNR);
State Department of
Transportation Right of
Way Agents; local
utilities and
municipalities
Alaska Power Authority;
Corps of Engineers;
State Depository
Libraries
Manufacturer literature
and correspondence
Dam safety personnel
DNR; private civil
engineers and turn -key
developers;
bibliographic
references
MEASURING CRITICAL STREAM FEATURES
A water resource with sufficient head (elevation dif-
ference) or flow must be available for a hydroelectric power
plant to be feasible. Of course, it must also be reasonably
close to a utility interconnection point or the load center,
among a number of conditions.
But the basic variables, head and flow, are responsible
for the amount of power that a site could provide. In addi-
tion to a factor for the density of water*, theoretical
power (Pth), flow (0) and head, (H) can be expressed in a
simple hydraulic relationship:
Pth = QixBH
1.
where:
FZow is the volume of water passing a given location in
a given time. Flow is usually expressed in cubic feet per
second (cfs), but may also be measured in cubic feet per
minute (cfm) or gallons per minute (gpm).
TotaZ AvaZabZe Head is the difference in elevation
between the water level at the dam or diversion site and the
ground elevation at the turbine site. Head is usually ex-
pressed in feet.
e Stream Flow
System sizing, design and energy projections are func-
tions of the accuracy of streamflow measurements over time.
Small hydropower projects are usually not economically fea-
sible if the facility must be shut down for some period of
time each year due to lack of water, or if large water or
power storage facilities must be provided to regulate out-
put. Therefore, measuring flow once a week for an entire
year is not unreasonable when a sizable investment of time
and money is spent on a project expected to have a twenty
year life span. Seasonal variations in streamflow are im-
portant because the length of time that certain volumes of
water are' available (days, hours) controls the amount of
energy,a hydropower facility can produce.
*
At 100% system efficiency, 1kW is generated by 11.8 cfs falling one
foot.
BREAKER BO:
SYSTEM
ENCLOSURE
GENERATED -►
ELECTRICITY
FOR
DISTRIBUTION
GENERATOR
\ 1 '
OUTLET
DRAFT TUBE
\ \ 1
PIPELINE _--
i
L0W-HIEAD RUN -OF -RIVER INSTALLATION.
Relatively high flow regimes permit the use of a
reaction type propeller turbine. The conceptual
design must include accurate head measurements and
pipe sizing to minimize power losses. '
I. 2
10
The maximum flow the turbine and pipe can accommodate
is known as the design fZow' and will vary according to the
site's physical limitations and the needs of the developer.
A fixed flow design will be based on low -flow patterns with
minimum available flow being the design flow of the turbine.
In other words, the turbine and pipe will be sized to accom-
modate only a fixed volume of water. Such systems are sim-
pler and less expensive than variable flow systems. The
power output of a fixed flow system can be changed manually,
but the load would also require a corresponding change.
A variable flow system is designed to make more effi-
cient use of changing stream flow rates. An increased out-
put from the turbine -generator set is possible based upon
the percentage of time that the system exceeds minimum flow
values. This is referred to as the "exceedance value." As
a general rule, the development of flow duration curves (a
stream's historical average flow pattern plotted on graph
paper) are necessary to establish an optimum turbine -
generator design flow. Design flow will likely be 20 to
35 percent above the average flow measured at the site.
One method of verifying exceedance values is to estab-
lish a "flow measurement correlation" between the flow at
the proposed site and the flow at a nearby site where stream
gage data is available. The United States Geological Sur-
veys Water Resource Office records stream gage sites and
statistical analyses of gage data. A "duration analysis
and flow duration curves for neighboring streams can be used
to validate flow measurements taken at the proposed site.
Over 300 Alaskan streams have at least one year of stream
data on record, and approximately 100 streams are being mon-
itored actively. Information and assistance is available
in:
United States Geological Survey
Alaska Index: Stream Flow & Water Quality Record to
September 30, 1983.
Open File Report 85-332.
Information related to computing stream flow and corre-
lation methods is available in detail in the U.S. Department
of Energy publication, Microhydropower Handbook, referenced
in the Appendix B. This two volume reference is highly
recommended reading for anyone wishing to understand design'
criteria in hydroplant construction.
Methods of determining streamfZow are provided in Ap-
pendix A.
SOURCE
(UPSTREAM COLLECTION
OR SPRING)
PIPELINE OR PENSTOCK
SHUTOFF
VALVES
BREAKER BOX
SYSTEM
ENCLOSURE
GENERATED
ELECTRICITY
' FOR
e DISTRIBUTION
� 8
oe
II
OUTLET PIPE
..................................
/...............
HIGH -HEAD, IWOUNOMENT OR WM-OF-
STREAM INSTALLATION.
High head permits the use of
relatively low flow regimes and use
of impulse turbines such as the ^�
pelton wheel. An impoundment may
be necessary for regulation of
stream flow where seasonal changes 1. 3
vary greatly.
12
• Total Available Head
A second factor in determining power potential is the
change in elevation (head) between the point at which the
water is diverted from the stream and the point where it
leaves the turbine(s).
The higher the head, the less water needed to produce
the same amount of power. A minimum elevation change for
most small installations is 10 feet. Wi'th'10 feet of head,
it takes about 1.39 cubic feet per second (cfs) to generate
1 kilowatt. The same amount of water with 100 feet of head
would allow ten times as much power, or 10 kW, to be pro-
duced.
Twice the head
and half the flow
Head = 2H
2H = 80 feet
Flow = Q/2
Q = 5cfs
Power = Flow(5cfs) x Head(80 feet) = 34 kW
11.81
Half the head -
and twice the flow
Flow 2Q
2Q = 10cfs
Head = H/2
H = 40 feet
Power = Flow(10cfs) x Head(40feet) = 30W
11.81
Tn
I. 4
If there is a choice, it is generally best to choose a
high head facility, as it will produce less expensive power
than a low head facility. The reason is that turbine out-
put is related to the head difference taken to the 1.5 power
(H1.5). As an example, a 1 kW machine designed for
operation under 10 feet of head would provide 0.35 kW at
5 foot of head, 1.8 kW at 15 feet, and 2.3 kW at 20 feet of
head. Additionally, at lower elevation difference, a
generator will need more poles or a higher -ratio speed
increaser, both of which lose power and are more expensive
than similar installations with high -head. Finally, the
availability of high -head impulse turbines is greater than
low -head reaction turbines for systems smaller than 200 N.
[As mentioned previously, most hydropower installations need
at least 10 feet of head to function. Installations above
several hundred feet of head introduce much more complex
design conditions requiring analysis by an engineer familiar
with surface water hydraulics.]
Friction and turbulence losses occur in the transport
of water and are collectively referred to as head Zoss.
Pipe length, interior roughness, the velocity of water with-
in the pipe, decreasing diameter and bends in the pipe all
contribute. to losses. Computations for such factors are
available usually through manufacturers; and head loss can
be expressed in equivalent feet per unit, for elbows or
valves, and feet per travel length, for pipe.
Net, head is determined by subtracting head loss from
total available head. Between 5 and 25 percent of total
available head is typically lost in the transport of water.
Methods for measuring gross and net head are provided in
Appendix A.
14
***********
In summary, desirable hydropower site characteristics
include:
An adequate amount of water,
Short distance between generation site and exist-
ing transmission lines,
Sufficient elevation difference between intake and
power generation equipment, with minimal lengths
of pipeline, ideally approaching 100 feet of head,
Good foundation material (bedrock),
No spawning areas or hatcheries,
Few landowners,
Year-round streamflow (even under winter ice),
Year-round access'to powerhouse and intake.
Least desirable site characteristics include:
Small elevation differences between intake and po-
werhouse site,
Lack of rock foundation materials (sandy valleys),
Periods of very low water flow (ice or drought),
Important salmon run near potential dam or diver-
sion site,
Long distance to transmission lines or load cen-
ter,
Many landowners,
State and Federal land holdings.
Potential site development will be determined by the
relationship between construction costs, financing and end
use benefits over time. These issues should receive thor-
ough examination in a feasibility study comparing fixed and
operating costs to savings or earnings.
15
ESTIMATING POTENTIAL POWER
Power is a measure of ability to do work and can be
expressed in kilowatts (kW). Because power from a hydro
system is in direct proportion to the product of head and
flow, a high -head, low -flow site can produce the same power
as a low -head, high -flow site. One major difference between
the two systems is that the equipment required for a high -
flow site is usually more expensive.
The ratio of power output to power input determines
system efficiency. Some of the power available will be lost
due to friction, power conversion, and losses in the turbine
and generator. These losses vary with the equipment selec-
ted and with the head and flow available at the site at any
given time.
The theoretical power.available in kilowatts has been
previously given as:
Pth Q X H
11.81
where Q = usable flow in cfs
H = net head in feet
11.81 = conversion constant relating to the
density of water.
Table 3 provides an indication of the various efficien-
cies affecting theoretical power availability. More precise
figures are available from manufacturers and will need to be
factored into the power equation to compute a more accurate
representation of actual power potential.
To transmit the power from water wheel or turbine to a
generator, alternator, or some mechanical system also
entails losses. Belt drives are 95 to 97% efficient for
each belt; gear boxes 95% and higher; alternators and
generators 80% for small machines, and increasing to 90%
with size. Efficiency ratings for second hand equipment
will likely be. slightly lower.
16
Table 3
Typical Efficiencies
for Small Water
Wheels and
Turbines
Prime Mover
Efficiency Range
Water Wheels
- Undershot
25
- 45%
- Breast
35
- 65%'
- Poncelet
40
- 60%
- Overshot
60
- 75%
Turbines -
Reaction
80%
-
Impulse
80
- 85%
-
Crossflow
60
- 80%
Belt Drives
97%
each
Generators
80 -
90%
These system losses must be included in the power
equation so that available power is the product of the
percentage of each system component. The power equation
then becomes:
P QXHXe1
11.81
where e efficiency of the total system components
Typical overall efficiencies for electrical generation
systems can vary from 50 to 70%, with higher overall effi-
ciencies existing for the high head, high speed impulse
turbines. Overall efficiencies of systems using water
wheels are usually well under 50%.
For example, assuming a plant efficiency of 75 percent,
approximately 6 kW can be generated from one cfs at 100 feet
of head. The same 6 N could also be generated by a very
small flow of .25 cfs at 400 feet of head.
1Hydropower texts also express the equation in the form:
P = cfs x head x efficiency x 0.0846
Nomographs (scaled charts which can solve for unknown
variables when at least two are known) also can be used to
demonstrate this relationship. In the nomograph on page 18,
an efficiency level has been factored into the equation to
account for .pipe and machinery losses. Assuming head and
flow measurments are known, to use the graph locate the low
flow rate in gallons per minute or cubic feet per second on
the left-hand scale. Remember, if some water must be left
in the stream, the power potential will be reduced. Next,
locate the total available head on the right-hand scale.
Connect these points with a straight line. On the middle
scale, read the kilowatt potential (capacity) at the point
where the straight line crosses. This is the approximate
number of kilowatts the stream will produce.
Energy can be thought of as a running total of power in
kilowatts (1000 Watts) over time in hours, as expressed in
kilowatt-hours (kWh). For example, a hydroelectric system
generating at a 1OkW power output for one hour will produce
10 kWh of electrical energy. Energy production is very sen-
sitive to the maximum flow that the turbine and pipe can
accommodate and to the variable volume of available water.
If these volumes can be estimated for different times of the
year, energy (E) can be calculated as:
E=Pxt
where
P = power in kW
t = time intervals in hours
In part, the sizing of a stand-alone hydroplant depends
upon the demand for electricity. In actual practice a
typical house may have a peak demand of about 5kW. This
means that at some time during a typical month there will be
a period during which the household will be consuming power
at a rate of 5 kW. A large group of houses together would
have an average peak demand of about 2.5 kW per home, and an
average demand of 1.4 kW. The average peak demand per house
is reduced for the group, because not all appliances are in
use at the same time, and the more houses, the more the peak
is spread out. This would indicate that a stand-alone
100-kW plant could actually supply the energy needs of 35 to
40 homes, assuming that the annual production is 50% of the
theoretical maximum from the 100 kW plant. If a 100-kW
hydropower plant is used in place of diesel power units, the
plant would;, displace diesel fuel at the rate of 10 gallons
per hour, or about 88,000 gallons per year.
18
500
50,000 450
400
500,000
1,000
350
20,000 300
300,000
10,000 250
200,000
500
200
5000
100,000
250
200
150
2000
70,000
50,000
30,000
N-1
150'
100 \ \
75 \
1000 100
90
500 80
70
4-
20,000
10,000
7000
e 5000
o
3000
�s
p 2000
0
J 1000
50 ^
25 Cl)
20 0
15
U.
10 v
B
7.5 cj
v
5
4 0
3
2 OJ
200 60
50
100 ..
45
a�
50 \'��� 350 v
\ \ 30 t
w
20 25
�
w
J
10 20 <
J
5.0 - 15 e
2..0
10 O
IL H
700
1.5
1.0
500
1.0
0.5
6 .
NOMOGRAPH TO COMPUTE300 0.2 ENERGY POTENTIAL
.5
200
Plot flow on left and head on
0.1 right. A line drawn connecting
the two will show Potential
100
0.2
Energy Production.
I. 5
Calculating Potential
Power Output
The power output of a prospective hydropower site may be
calculated from the following equation:
kW = Q x H x e
11.8
Where:
kW = power in kilowatts
Q = flow in cfs* (USGS data may be available)
H = head in feet (USGS maps)
e = overall efficiency (include losses from head,
turbines, and generators, 75% provides a rough
estimate)
11.8 = conversion factor for specific units
*Knowledge about the volume of water that.must remain in
the stream below the intake is extremely important.
Underestimating the amount of water that must. remain in
a bypass often leads to an erroneous estimate of potential
power output and, therefore, improper conclusions concern-
ing the feasibility of the project. The project's annual
energy production may be estimated by assuming a 50 per-
cent plant factor for facilities sized for mean annual
flow. A flow -duration curve may also be used to more
accurately estimate available energy.
EQUIPMENT NEEDS
Consult with experts who have built and operated micro-
hydroplants. Proposals and quotations should be obtained
from several suppliers to ensure that adequate engineering
capabilities and experience are matched with site charac-
teristics. A pre-engineered package of turbine, generator,
controls, and auxiliary equipment will usually result in the
most cost effective and reliable method of procurement. A
sample fora; letter is provided in Appendix, C to assist the
potenti aZ deveZoper in obtaining standardized data.
Many construction features for a particular site can be
improved with low cost design adaptations. For instance,
20
the possibility of using a pump as a turbine should be eval-
uated by comparing cost, operating efficiency, and. power
production costs against traditional hydraulic turbines.
The assistance of a civil engineer, versed in small hydro
design in Alaska., is recommended to review project design
before construction.
COMPONENTS (to be considered in the conceptual design)
® Dam Construction
Where an impoundment or diversion is required a dam or
weir will be necessary. Typical materials include wood,
timber, rock, concrete or earth aggregate. Generally speak-
ing, a microhydro project will be easier to construct and
permits easier to obtain if stream disruption is kept to a
minimum. In some instances small dams will be necessary to
maximize head or provide storage, for example:.
1. To impound water so that over a short time„period,
more water can be used than is flowing into the
reservoir. This is called regulation. Water is
used by the turbine when required and is replen-
ished when the turbine demands less water.
2. To increase the head. As an example - a stream
passes through a narrow gorge, then drops 10 feet
over 100 feet of travel. From that point on it
falls only one foot per 100 feet. Such a stream
may .not be economical to develop. However, by
installing a 10 foot or higher dam the head is now
20 feet or more. The amount of power is doubled,
and it may become economical to develop.
3. To provide better intake conditions, to eliminate
trash, sand and gravel, to provide a by-pass for
dogs and to establish an ice cover for preventing
intake icing. To provide some height of water
(head) over the intake so the intake will flow
full.
Dams which exceed 10 feet from lowest point to crest,
and store more than 50 acre-feet of water require a permit
from the State Department of Natural Resources, Division of
Land and Water Management. An acre-foot of water is that
amount of water which will . cover one acre or 43,560 square
feet, one foot deep. A cubic foot per second of water flow-
ing for 24 hours will almost equal two acre-feet of water.
One of the most important features of any dam is the
accommodation of floods. In the event of a failure, even a
9 foot dam with 40 acre feet of water behind it can have
devastating consequences to life and property. If there is
any doubt as to the safety of the situation, talk to the
Alaska State Dam Safety personnel (DNR) and consider hiring
a civil engineer or hydrologist to aid in the design.
The USGS bulletin entitled "Flood Characteristics of
Alaskan Streams," by R.D. Lanke, may be useful in determin-
ing potential flood sizes. Spillway design practices can be
obtained from the Bureau of Reclamation's "Design of Small
Dams." Both publications are referenced in the bibliogra-
phy, Appendix B.
® Intakes Structures
The purpose of an intake is to divert water from a
stream or lake and direct it into a pipeline, channel,
flume, or other water conveyance. Usually, an intake is
built as a part of some form of diversion structure such as
a dam. Included is a trash rack to separate debris from the
water flowing to the turbine. In addition, an intake is
usually equipped with a shut-off valve or gate, an air vent,
and in some cases an emergency -shut-off system. On streams
where fish are present, the intake is used to isolate fish
from the.conveyance.
Intake Orientation
Generally in a larger stream, it is preferable to ori-
ent the intake parallel with the flow of .the stream. This
allows large debris and other material to bypass the intake.
This is especially true when the water is high (flooding) or
passing over the spi'lTway in excess of the turbine capacity.
[High flow periods contain maximum trash and bed load move-
ment of rock, sand, gravel, and silt.] Additionally, an
orientation parallel to the stream will reduce water veloci-
ty at the intake. If there are fish, they are much less
likely to be trapped at the intake.
Intakes are usually designed for 1.5 to 2 feet per sec-
ond of velocity through the trash rack. The design depends
on a number of factors, some`of which are listed in Table 4.
22
Table 4
INTAKE
LOWER WATER
HIGHER WATER
CONDITIONS
VELOCITY
VELOCITY
(larger intake)
(smaller intake)
Attendance Required
at the site
Frequent
x
Infrequent
x
Trash in Stream
Little
x
Much
x
Raker
Power or Automatic
x
Non -Automatic
x
Difficulty in Reaching
Rack
High
x
Low
x
Value of Head (Friction
Loss)
High
x
Low
x
Fish
Present & Small
x
Not Present
x
Trashracks
Debris entering the intake and penstock could destroy a
turbine, and a sudden blockage of the inlet could cause wa-
ter hammer to rupture the pipeline. To prevent this, an
intake is usually equipped with a trash rack with a series
of bars whose spacing is determined by the turbine manufac-
turer, but generally from 112 to one inch. These bars are
usually inclined at 45 or 60 degrees from horizontal so they
can be raked when clogged with leaves, grass, twigs, and
branches; If required, fish screens 'comprised of thinner,
finer, meshed material are located behind the primary racks.
Trash racks can be home built, fabricated from floor
grates or purchased from manufacturers. Computing the de-
sign area of the rake is critical for appropriate sizing of
the penstock intake. Comprehensive methods for computing
intake Ydesign areas are. found in Microhydropower Handbook,
USDOE, referenced in Appendix `B.
23
Gates
Gates are used to shut off the water flow at the point
where it enters the pipe. Gates are sometimes omitted on
small projects or lower -head projects with short pipelines.
A slide gate is typical for small projects and is usually
purchased in standardized size and design from hydropower
suppliers.
Air Relief Vent
An air relief vent must be provided down stream from
the shut-off valve or gate in a pipe. Its purpose is to
prevent a vacuum -from forming in the pipe and causing the
external air pressure to collapse it. The air vent design
is somewhat difficult as it protrudes from the conduit and
is subject to freezing and plugging. The air vent should be
checked and cleaned of obstruction before the upstream valve
or gate is closed.
® Water Conduit
Pipe or penstock material can include steel, wood,
polyethylene, PVC, concrete or fiberglass reinforced.plas-
tic. Design considerations include losses from friction,
appropriate sizing, internal and external pressure capaci-
ties, and methods of dealing with water hammer and freezing.
Some comparative guidelines for commonly used pipe are
offered in Tables 5 and 5.a.
24
C+
o
-o
rD
J o
3
rD
O C<
-i
rD
C+
`<
rD (<
a
(D
(D
::E
F-� C31
Cn C)
Ocn
C)
o
Im
w
C:) C)C:) CD
CD
m '-'
cn
-0-0
z
Sv
J. J.
J.
CD
C+
`<
w
o
o cn -p:.
+
fD
C �
ru
n
w
cn
v
C+
Lnt-h
T-i
CT
J. C+ Ln
J.
O
\
C+
o
rp
O
sL LL
- C -P C1 -v
�- 4�- O� -o
J•
1< 1<
(D -0 J. J.
rD • 0 = J. —
C
(D
CL C rD
CLC+C+� ((DO'
V) -J
(D
00 (D
ii? -
. (D J. J.
C'+' J.
J.
m
0) N O
w4I-(D �
wN((DD
GL (D (D
C)0000 -5 (D
C) � -5 (D
o
-h CL O (n A
-h -h -h p 0 r- r-
N to cL r r
-)• rD 'S c+ <
O O O -.0
C+ C+ O ". O
X CL 'S sv
-1 cD rD O -sto ::E
'Y (D CC :E
c+ • cn rD
X (D V) -5 ="
(D n N S
cc
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o O c+
-Os V)) 0)
W (ND O
r �
T + 0.
(D A 7cc
+ -+
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r+ 0-O -+•
V) c-F (D =r -J
c+ (D
c+ c�-h
CT c) N
-h rD n to - .
in.
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a)
N= C. :
0) (D (L (D O O
-1-0 �
C
�CD<<0•0)
-a
31�.�prv-o-h
-1
f-Noo-h
z
= :3
(D 0. (D 0)
to a. 0)
-�
c-h (D c+ <<
i C C+ :E n
ch -5 (D — o
D
(n
0) o =- c.,. 0i C+
rD (D 0) C+
(D O �G O
('
� O
y
• h O 0 J.
� � J. v �
J. J. V -1
N
�
N
0) O rD
C+ i C+ t7
0) a -+ C'7
ry V) O II
n C CT P)
(D. - c+ rD rD I _.
J C+ :L I.-
=- C+ (D �
= (D (D V) V) Ui
rD -1 CS)
0 C+ (?
La (n o
-1O n Cl
(� + Ln
s o'
moo.
rD Pic+
An
rD +
I
=r (D CT C O n C+ M
cam. < p m
-p CT =r c+ (n cn J. 3
-+• X rD :3 -h O sv -5
O 0) -S X
O (D O O c+-o -h cv
to "o Q.. - -S -S (D
J. _J (D -0,
_'i iZ c•+ (D 03 <<
S (D (Z - . (n -$ 0)
C 0 (D
<< Q c+ rD O -h
(D O -i• 7r O O (D c+
(D V) O
rD J. :E O' - 'S p-
Z (A O m "5 V) O (D
V) C V)
c+ = 0) (y • sL O (D
y
J h J. Q) .5
<
J.
(D
cp N N
0).< n CD -h
<
E
< (D(D
CD
w
(D C+ 0) O J.
C
= -a (D ••5 = G r+
E-0 (D O -+• C+
O V) "Q O
C- z (D C•+ -)
H
SL 0) 0 H C-!• O - .
O (D c-i-
Q (D 'S fv O' rD
N
(D 0- C 0 O O
-)• V) CQ v
c+ (D c+ 0
to V) E O - W =
-
..
rD --1
O
V) ' ch (D
D
S(a O O CC-)w
�. V) O
C+ 0) --) n c+ (D O
Z
0) O N O II
a n --+) (D C-)
rD 0) O
z -+ a
- O 0) -5
0) C7 (�
-
D
E3 cv = 0) O P
sv c r J.
O
rD C-) d -s CD
c+ (D n
CO -I. O (D (CD (rrl
S O Q. 'S
(D -0
C+ C+ n E a• CN
CT i CT V) O $
s= O 0)
C+ (D C+ ry --�• v
-a (D -S ^S !Z "r
C+
rD -1c+ (A
1 O M 00 (-D c+
O C7
(D O -) -�
(D N rL O N �-
V) O J• 7. A- -
rD c+ S
-+ (D X (n O l <
N S O 0)'-- n
:3 Z c0
O sL -I C+ O
C (D ca (n 0) O
SL c+ (D S
-S V) A) C e+ cr
V (D O
V)
(D CZ _I
(D c'+ V)
rD (D (D
J. •fi
1 O
O CA p)
V) c'F
--h 7C
c->
C)
3
-v
IA
(Hi)
C)
z
C)
Tl
O p•
C)
z (n
r
c
Cn
m
CD
-p
H
m
Table 5.a
COMPARISON OF 12" PIPE (100 psi)
Weight/ft Wall Thickness Cost/ft
Steel 9.6 0.0747 14 gage $ 6.57*
PVC 7.6 0.299 2.30
PE 13.15 0.823 13.15
*includes joints, inside coating, outside corrosion tape
A brief discussion of some hydrology issues as they
pertain to pipe selection and sizing is provided in Appen-
dix A. A comprehensive examination of condu.it design crite-
ria is recommended. Although beyond the scope of this book-
let, a few guidelines are offered:
1. Pipe sizes are determined by maximum permissible
velocity, regulation of flow and pressure, and
economics. Plastic pipe manufacturers usually
recommend 5 feet per second water velocity as
appropriate, 10 feet per second as excessive.
Correspondence with pipe manufacturers regarding
use of their specifications is recommended.
2. The pipeline route should be resurveyed.to check
results of head measurement to arrive at a more
accurate net head. Pipe diameter should be chosen
where losses are approximately 10 percent of the
head under maximum flow.
3. In addition to head loss in the pipe, there is
head loss in the intake and in accessories such as
bends and valves. The head loss in accessories is
frequently added in as equivalent pipe length.
Consult with manufacturers for equivalence tables.
4. Maximum hydraulic power output of a pipeline is
where the head loss is equal to 1/3 of the total
head. Hydro plants are not usually operated under
these conditions as velocities are too high; that
much head loss would not be economical, and it
would be very difficult to control flow. High
head, high flow sites should be analyzed with as-
sistance of a civil engineer or hydrologist.
M.
5. Specific joining and installation requirements
govern each pipe material. Restrained joints such
as welding, concreting or flanging of pipe is re-
quired in above ground installations to prevent
failure when pipe is pressurized.
®Turbines and Controls
Head and flow combinations will dictate the type of
turbine which will produce power most efficiently. Hydraul-
ic turbines are classified as impulse or reaction types ac-
cording to the method by which water head and flow is con-
verted to mechanical power. Where flow and head can be
maintained at fairly constant values, use of a pump (with
reverse flow) as a turbine is an option affording; re-
duced cost and increased availability. Performance_ curves
for pumps as turbines are not readily available and it is
advisable to contact manufacturers for proper sizing tech-
niques.
Impulse turbines make maximum use of high head and wa-
ter velocity by concentrating flow through one or more water
jets which strike the runner. Appendix C provides an
inventory of hydropower equipment manufacturers including
likely sources of microhydro turbines. Three basic types of
impulse turbines are manufactured and their respective
characteristics are outlined on the following pages:
27
1. Pelton Wheel:
Head: 75 feet of head and up.
Flow: Varies, but lowest of all turbines rela-
tive to head.
Cost: $300 to $500/kW on suitable site. Cost
per unit of output will decline as head
increases. Peltons are uneconomic at
low heads because limited water handling
restricts output.
Efficiency: Up to 90%. The size of the water jet is
a limitation on the acceptable volume of
water which can be utilized.
Generator
Valve
Penstock
1. e
t
2. Crossflow or
Banki:
Head:
25 to 200 feet.
Flow:
Can be built to accommodate a wide range
of flows.
Cost:
$500 to $1,200/kW. Price varies with
flow requirements, control systems used,
and quality of equipment. Crossflow
turbines can be designed and built by
skilled individuals rather than pur-
chased.1
Efficiency:
Approximately 65% due to the water jet
striking the runner in two stages. How-
ever, the flow capacity is increased
which allows for lower -head installa-
tions.
1. 7
1See Appendix B. Mockmore & Merryfield, "The Banki Water Turbine,"
Oregon State College. Bulletin 25, 1949.
we
3. Turgo Impulse:
Head: Comparable to Pelton--75 feet and up.
Flow: For the same .size runner, the Turgo will
handle three times more volume than the
Pelton. Also, for equal size flow, the
runner can be smaller and speed will be
slightly more than twice that of the
Pelton runner.
Cost: $500 to $700/kW. As with the Pelton,
economics of the turbine improve with
increased head.
Efficiency: Up to.92% with high efficiency maintain-
ed with flows as low as 25% of design.
M7
Nozzle
..ater from
penstock
30
Reaction turbines are usually more appropriate for tow-
head sites with higher flow rates. Head is converted to
velocity within the runner itself. Good seals are required
to prevent leaking. For this reason, sandy or stIty water
conditions will degrade the water seals along the runner.
Reaction turbines include Francis and propeller types. De-
signs are usually built to site specifications and can ac-
commodate as little as 6 feet of head.
® Generators and Controls
End use applications will dictate generator type: ei-
ther synchronous, induction motor or direct current. Micro -
hydro applications are usually rated between. 900 and
1800 rpm. Overspeed conditions resulting from unloaded con-
ditions requires a shutdown capability. Overcurrent protec-
tion can usually be specified with the generator by the man-
ufacturer. Further detail is included in Section II, End
Use Planning.
® Powerhouse and Tailrace
The powerhouse should be a weathertight enclosure with
a roof strong enough to handle snow loads. It should be
sited above the high water mark of the stream and in an ori-
entation to keep the penstock straight.
The tailrace is generally a part of the powerhouse de-
sign. It needs to be capable of carrying the design flow
of the system with an ability to reduce flow velocity, par-
ticularly where fish migration occurs. _.Velocity between .5
and 2 feet per second is standard.
® Switchgear and Distribution Lines
These will vary with end use and distance to the load
center or utility tie-in point. Electrical safety codes are
governed by the Alaska Department of Labor, Division of La-
bor Standards & Safety, Mechanical Inspection. The guide-
lines that they follow are eNE
enerally contained in the
National Electric Safety Code SC) and the NESC Handbook
which discusses and illustrates the requirements of the
NESC1.
1NESC and NESE Handbook. 1984 Edition published by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 445 Hoes Lane, Picataway, NJ
08854.
**********
In summary, the components outlined above represent an
overview typical of microhydropower projects. A construc-
tion manual which would take the developer from materials
through installation is beyond the scope of this booklet,
however, further references are contained in Appendices B,
C&D.
A conceptual design for a specific site must incorpor-
ate a comprehensive inventory of system components matched
to the stream resources and terrain. After the intake, con-
duit and powerhouse has been decided upon, drawings of the
system are required. As much as possible they should be to
scale and include dimensions, notations of material needs
and sizes, volumes of excavation and fill, and anything else
to ensure that cost considerations are complete.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
A small hydroelectric project will normally have a de-
sign life of twenty to thirty years if properly maintained.
Although the capital cost of these systems is high, the
actual lifetime cost may turn out to be quite reasonable.
Economic models using a variety of criteria are useful in
estimating whether a project's benefits exceed the risks.
A simplified life -cycle cost analysis of a proposed
system is one method of comparing costs of energy. The ini-
tial cost of the system will include capital equipment,
shipping, installation, legal fees, and other miscellaneous
expenses. Assuming the entire installation was debt -
financed, the cost of this borrowed sum could be computed
annually using an amoritization table.* An annual fixed
cost might typically be spread over a twenty year loan.
Added to it are operating costs such as insurance, mainte-
nance, and repair. This sum of fixed and operating expenses
will provide a rough estimate of annual costs for the pro-
ject.
*Amoritization tables are readily available at lending institutions.
32
The projected yearly output of the system in kilowatt-
hours is the equivalent benefit. Total annual cost divided
by annual kilowatt-hours produced will be anestimateof
cost per unit of energy. It is then possible to compare
costs with alternatives such as: interconnection to a utili-
ty either to buy or sell power; or from a stand alone diesel
power system where the same criteria of capital equipment,
installation, maintenance and repair costs must also be ex-
panded to include fuel and equipment replacement based on
the diesel life expectancy.
For example, suppose a 1OkW hydroplant was envisioned
with an installed cost of $3,500 per kW or $35,000. Assum-
ing 70 percent. system efficiency at a 50 percent plant fac-
tor, total energy output can be estimated as:
Power x time energy
or
1OkW x 8760 hours (per year) x .7 x .5 = 30660 kWh
Assuming that the entire $35,000 is debt financed for
twenty years at 12 percent interest, an amoritization factor
of 0.134 can be used to compute yearly repayment of the
loan:
$35,000 x 0.134 = $4,690
Insurance, 0&M and other costs are assumed to be $2,000
per year for a total yearly cost of:
$4,690 + $2,000 = $6,690
Based upon the energy projection of 30660 kWh per year,
the cost per kWh would be:
$6,690 30660 ='$.22/kWh
Discounting the effects of various energy subsidies, if
the project was designed to displace energy otherwise pur-
chased from a rural Alaskan utility, at possibly $.30/kWh,
then the project may be economically justified in the first
year. This assumes that most of the power produced could be
used at the suggested cost.
Ifenergywere to be sold to a utility at an avoided
fuel cost rate of perhaps $.07 per kWh the project would
obviously not be viable.
3?
Of course, comparison to utility purchased power is
still more complex due to the influence of inflation and
potential fuel cost increases experienced by the utility.
These factors might pertain to both the price of utility
purchased power and that sold to a utility under an inter-
connection agreement. In either case the methods and
models used to estimate these influences are beyond the
scope of this manual, but available in references provided
in Appendix B.
It may be necessary to go through this process several
times, evaluating different options, considering design
changes to reduce costs, or altering power needs through
conservation or other alternatives. Whatever the finaZ de-
cision, it is impossible to overemphasize the importance of
performing a.comprehensive economic anaZysis as a basis for
a decision to proceed with construction.
11. EN® USE PLANNING
The kinetic energy harnessed from water power can be
used directly to operate hydraulic ram type pumps, or be
converted for other mechanical or electrical energy uses.
Some examples of the variety of Alaskan micro systems can be
found in, Frontier Energy, Appropriate Technology in Alaska,
available through the Cooperative Extension Service, Univer-
sity of Alaska.
Mechanical energy is converted to electricity by a
generator which can be designed to supply either Direct
Current (DC) or Alternating Current (AC). AC is the most
useful type of electricity, as most appliances and accessor-
ies are set up for this type of system. In very small
systems, however, there may be economic advantages in
developing a DC powered system.
POWER CONVERSION
DC ELECTRICAL GENERATION
Car alternators are the least expensive type of genera-
tor. They are in actual fact alternators generating AC,
which is then converted to DC by passing it through diodes.
The DC usually produced for cars is slightly above 12 volts.
Voltage regulation can be altered with inexpensive kits to
produce 120 volts of DC power, however. These alternators
are inefficient and have to turn at high speeds.
Heavy duty alternators, which are used on trucks and
for marine purposes are available. These alternators are
more efficient, longer lasting and appropriate for adapta-
tion to a small DC system.
With a DC system, appliance options may either be
somewhat restricted or could require the added expense of an
inverter. For persons seeking a lowest cost option, an all
12-volt DC system is possible, as there are many appliances
available from recreational vehicle suppliers. Table 6
indicates some of the limits encountered in appliance
adaptability between AC and DC voltage.
35
Direct current generators can produce energy for use in
appropriate appliances or for conversion to AC through an
invertor. A DC -to -AC system has several advantages, espe-
cially in very small systems (less than 5kW).. Excess power
generated by a DC system can be stored easily in batteries,
thereby extending the system's peak capacity. DC generators
are not as speed -sensitive as AC, and a governor generally
is not needed. A small DC system can be less costly and
more versatile when the water source is small, because a
hydro generator usually puts some power back into the
battery set except in the most extreme cases. This means
that a deep discharge condition (a common cause of battery
failure sometimes evident in wind -battery systems) is less
frequent. The DC system with storage does limit the size of
a hydropower plant, as batteries become unwieldly and very
costly for systems over 6kW in size.
Table 6
Appliance Adaptability from AC to DC
Lights Incandescent
Fluorescents
Universal Motor Hand
Tools (Skill Saw,
Drill...)
Refrigerator,
Motor Compressor
Refrigerator,
Camper Type
Stoves
TV/Radio
Motors, Air Compressor,
Table Saw
Heater, Toasters,
Head Bolt Heater
Switches
Wall Receptacles
Welder
Transformers
Ease of Purchasing
Equipment
Governor Required
Voltage Regulator
Brushes Which Can
Require Maintenance
AC DC
Runs Runs
Runs No -Only Special .Type
Runs Runs
Runs No -Only Special Type
Runs
Runs Runs, but not
Clock Timer or
Electronic
Accessories
Runs Usually Not
Runs No
Runs
Normal
Rating
Normal
Runs
Runs
Yes
Yes
Yes & No
Usually Not
Runs
berated
Normal
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
AC ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Electrical systems, if AC, can be single (10) or three
phase (30). Most households are connected with single phase
power. Typical household voltage for single phase is
120/240. Standard voltages for electric ranges and some
household motors are 120/240v, 10.
Many larger users are connected to three phase power,
which can be provided in many voltages such as 120/208,
120/240 delta, or 277/480. Three phase generators and
electric motors are more efficient, less expensive, and in
the case of many motors, more reliable, because a
starting system is not required. A three phase system
requires balancing, however. That is, the equipment put on
each leg (phase) of the generator is selected so the cur-
rent, or amperes, is as equal as possible. A 10 system does
not require balancing the loads. For these reasons, a
household should usually consider .a single phase system,
especially if the hydro plant is 1OkW or smaller.
For a larger installation, a three phase system will
likely prove the most economical. Connections to a utility
are limited to 10 if the utility has only 10 power. If the
utility has 30, the connection can be 10 or 30, although
utilities may add interconnect charges for 30.
o AC Generators
Two types of AC generators are available for small
hydro electrical output: induction and synchronous.
In North America, AC systems operate at a frequency of
60 cycles per second (hertz); any variation will affect the
accuracy of clocks, stereo systems and the like. Sixty
hertz synchronous generators turn at basic shaft speeds. as
follows:
Speeds Use
3,600 rpm - Seldom Used for Hydro
1,800 rpm - Frequently Used
1,200 rpm - Very Frequently Used, More Costly than
1,800
900 rpm - Generator is More Costly than 1,200
720 rpm - Usually too Expensive for Micro Hydro
600 rpm - Practical Limit
37
A synchronous generator turns at one of the speeds
given, as determined by. number of poles in its design. When
turning at synchronous speed, the generator will produce AC
at 60 hertz. Some of these machines are inherently regula-
ted with no provision to alter the voltage; others have a
regulator which will allow the voltage to be raised or
lowered. The synchronous generator is the only AC machine
to be used on stand-alone systems, those which are not
connected to a utility or another synchronous generator.
If a synchronous generator is to be connected to a
utility, as a rule it will have to be synchronized to the
line. This usually requires installation of a governor to
match the speed of the turbine with the line frequency
before the generator is connected. Another means of syn-
chronizing a synchronous machine is to bring the speed of
the generator up near synchronous speed with the field
excitation "off" (this controls voltage). This is done
through water regulation at the turbine gate. As the,
machine nears synchronous speed, the field is switched "on"
and the generator will then pull into step with the utility
or other machines on the line. At this point, the gates. can
be opened further and control turned over to the turbine
governor.
An induction generator is for all intents an induction
motor being turned above synchronous rpm. This type of
machine must be connected to a power system which provides
synchronous operation. Because of this requirement, induc-
tion generators are not used in stand-alone systems.
An induction generator, operating similarly to a motor,
is easy to synchronize. It can be brought up to speed and
the breaker (switch with the capability of tripping under
overload conditions) closed as it passes through 60 cycles.
As long as it runs at rpm higher than the synchronous
requirement, it will generate power. Should the turbine be
unable to turn the generator above the synchronous rpm, it
will start to operate as a motor. In most cases, a.reverse
current relay is provided to prevent this from happening by
disconnecting it from the line. The induction machine also
uses what is known as reactive power - generated by the
utility. In some cases this may require the installation of
capacitors to maintain the utility's interest in balancing
active and apparent power in an alternating current circuit.
Energy product catalogs and manufacturers' literature
are invaluable in determining characteristics, compatibility
and cost of various systems. Several observations regarding
machine costs and features are:
• Generators are more efficient as size and output
increase.
• As rpm ratings decrease, price increases.
• As generator capacity increases, cost per kW
decreases.
Single phase generators are usually more costly as they
are 1.5 times larger for a given output than equivalent 30
machines. Single-phase induction machines are also diffi-
cult to obtain in sizes above 10 kW.
INDEPENDENT VS UTILITY INTERTIE SYSTEMS
MEASURING DEMAND IN STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS
In planning for a stand-alone hydropower facility it is
important early in the project to examine power needs and
characteristics of that need. Two separate but related
issues needs consideration: total consumption and peak
consumption. Accuracy in developing these figures is
required, as over or undersizing will result in a system
that is either unnecessarily expensive or too small. Guide-
lines for further estimating potential power in independent
systems is available in the following resources: "Assessing
Stream Potential for Backyard Hydropower," Peter Klingman;
"Micro Hydropower: Reviewing an Old Concept," National
Center for Appropriate Technology. (See Appendix B).
TotaZ Consumption is the number of kilowatt hours used
in a given period of time, most commonly kWh per month.
Estimates of energy consumption and power needs can be
derived from Table 7, typical household appliance loads, or
from references in other publications.
Peak Consumption is the maximum amount of electrical
energy needed at any one time. Peak consumption can be
understood by considering the instantaneous power needs in a
house if all the appliances were operating at once; the
resulting demand would be the peak. In micro systems meet
39
ting peak demand will more likely cause problems if the
Peaks are erratic and high relative to average consumption.
If the system must be designed to meet peak demands, it is
likely to be less efficient and more costly unless other
uses for the surplus energy can be found.
In some instances it is feasible to build a hydropower
project larger than current or forecasted electrical demand.
The hydropower produced might be competitive with, and thus
displace, fuels currently used for space heating. Where
possible, the excess power may also be sold to a utility.
Peak demand can be approximated from monthly energy use
by the equation:
Peak Demand (kW)= Monthly Power Use (kWh)
182.5
where the factor,. 182.5, represents a cumulative average
duration (in hours) of appliance use per month in a typical
household.
Electrical motors and appliances will generally have a
name -plate attached stating the power demand. Allowing for
inefficiencies of appliances and wiring, a horsepower rating
of 1 hp will be approximately equivalent to 1 kW in comput-
ing demand. System load is also affected by starting
current requirements which, for typical motors, is six times
the operating current. The peak demand requirement would
then be 6 kW for the same 1 hp motor.
Development of a chart which lists all the electrical
appliances to be used, their respective ratings in watts,
and their number of hours in use within a 24 hour period
will provide a total daily picture of demand.
40
Table 7
TYPICAL HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCE LOADS
APPLIANCE
POWER
(WATTS)
AVG. HOURS
USE/MO.
TOTAL POWER CONSUMP.
kWh/MO.
Blender
600
3
2
Car Block Heater
450
300
135
Chest Freezer (standard 15 cu ft)
280
240
68
(high efficiency)
Clock
2
720
1
Clothes Dryer
4600
19
87
Coffee Maker 600-900
12
7-11
Electric Blanket
200
80
16
Fan (kitchen)
250
30
8
Freezer (chest, 15 cu ft)
350
240
84
Hair Dryer (hand-held)
400
5
2
Hi-Fi (tube type)
115
120
14
Hi-Fi (solid state)
30
120
4
Iron
1100
12
13
Light (60-Watt)
60
120
7
Light (100-Watt)
100
90
9
Lights (4 x 75 Watt)
225
120
27
Light (fluorescent, 4')
50
240
12
Mixer
124
6
1
Radio (tube type)
80
120
10
Radio (solid state)
50
120
6
Refrig. (standard, 11 cu ft)
300
200
42
(new high efficiency)
Refrig. (frost free, 17 cu ft)
360
500
80
(new high efficiency)
Sewing Machine
100
10
1
Toaster
1150
4
5
TV (black & white)
255
120
31
TV (color)
350
120
42
Washing Machine
700
12
8
Water Heater (40 gal)
4500
87
392
Vacuum Cleaner
750
10
8
Shop Equipment:
Water Pump (1/2 hp)
460
44
20
Shop Drill (1/4, 1/6 hp)
250
2
5
Skill Saw (1 hp)
1000
6
6
Table Saw (1 hp)
1000
4
4
Lathe (1/2 hp)
460
2
1
41
UTILITY INTERTIE SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
Electricity is generally produced by utilities and sold
to individuals. In order to encourage the development of
renewable energy resources, Federal Taws (Public Utility
Regulatory Policies Act - PURPA) now require electric utili-
ties to buy power from qualified facilities (QF's) provided
certain conditions are met. Qualifications governing rates
and safety have been adopted in the regulatory functions of
the Alaska Public Utilities Commission (APUC) which is
responsible for these matters. If a utility interconnection
is anticipated for a proposed project, contact both the
local utility and the APUC in the earl i est stage of plan-
ning. Critical economic considerations include buy back
rates and costs of switch gear and safety features, all of
which will affect financing options.
There are several reasons for connecting to a utility
grid.
• Generation of Revenue. Sales may occur for non -
firm power at rates equivalent to the utility's
avoided fuel cost rate. Firm power sales are af-
fected by a capacity credit which may vary for
each utility.
• Load Sink. For developers unable to consume the
majority of the power generated by the site, the
utility may provide a load sink by taking the
excess energy and keeping the system fully loaded.
This allows a fixed generator output to maximize
the resource.
• Power Backup. The utility can act as a backup
power source for the developer whose system is
down for repairs, or when the water source is too
low for power production.
Utilities have many differing requirements for connec-
tion to their power lines. These can range from as little
as a lockable disconnect switch at the point of -tie-in to
the utility system, to a total control system that involves
power metering, telemetering, and protective relaying.
The utility will require that protective equipment be
installed for the following reasons:
• Safety. There will be times when the power line
is down for maintenance or repairs, or due to
accidents, and the generator will have to be taken
off the power line. This will require both auto-
matic and manual disconnects.
• Protection of the Generation Equipment. There are
instances when the generator should be taken off
the power line to minimize the potential for
damage.
• Utility Safety. The utility will also require
protection for its system and equipment.
Equipment required for an intertie may include a
step-up transformer, protective equipment and a power line.
Overcurrent and short circuit protection from the hydroplant
generator are important considerations. Although the
protection and disconnect system can appear expensive to the
developer, its intent is protection of life and property.
Work with the utility for this goal.
The utility will require installation, maintenance,
testing, and calibrating of metering equipment to measure
the flow of power into the utility's grid. This metering
will measure power "out" from the generator in kWh. The
utility may also require a power "in" meter to measure both
demand and kWh used by the microhydropower system.
The utility might also require metering to measure
reactive power, or kilovar hours. This would normally occur
when a large induction motor is used as a generator. If the
generator is a synchronous machine, the utility will also
require a synchronizing device to connect the hydro genera-
tor to the system.
Other additional requirements that need careful con-
sideration for their legal and financial implications
include:
• Power Factor Correction. Power factor corrective
capacitors might be required to correct the
line power factor to 90% or even to 95% when an
induction motor is used as the generator.
• Liability Insurance. Insurance could be required
to protect the utility or developer from loss,
damage, expense, and liability to persons who
could be injured by the developer's or utility's
construction, ownership, operation, or maintenance
of the system. Insurance limits of $1,000,000 or
more may be required.
43
• Easements. The developer could be required to
obtain easements and rights -of -way for the utility
for any interconnection equipment. A surveyor
might be needed to write up the easement.
• shutdown Impacts. The contract between developer
and utility may also address what happens when
either party has problems that cause loss of power
generation capabilities. This item needs to be
addressed to.minimize the impact of the shutdown.
The microhydropower developer should remember that the
utility is -in business to distribute and sell power. The
utility usually wants to generate its own .power or to buy
power in large quantities, so the role of the microhydro-
plant could appear minimal to larger utilities.
In smaller communities with isolated grid systems very
different circumstances may exist, as the hydroplant output
could match average total demand. Unique circumstances
occur in this instance; working cooperatively with the
utility and possibly the APUC is recommended.
INTERFACING
YOU MUST CONSIDER
• COOPERATION OF LOCAL UTILITY
AND FEDERAL PURPA
• PAYBACK RATE
• HOOKUP EXPENSES
Meter Base
Stand-by Charge
Installation
Protection and Safety
• AVOIDED COSTS OF BATTERIES
AND GOVERNOR FOR A STAND-
ALONE MODE
III. LICENSING
Numerous laws enacted over many years at the local,
state and federal levels have resulted in a large number of
permit and license requirements which must be met before a
hydro project can be built. Most projects wiZZ not require
a.ZZ the permits or approvals Zisted in this chapter. Small
projects in particular are likely to require very few
permits, but this will vary on a case by case basis.
It is important for the prospective developer to regard
the regulatory requirements not as barriers to be surmounted
or circumvented, but as a means to identify potential
problems associated with a particular site or project
design. Agencies responsible for the permits and licenses
should be consulted early in the development process, so
that any appropriate modifications to the project can be
made in a timely manner.
LAND ACCESS
Development of any hydropower project requires the
developer to secure ownership, leases, easements, rights -
of -way, or other approval to occupy and use land at the site
and along transmission lines. This right may be obtained by
purchase or through permit or easement from property owners.
Direct negotiation with private property owners, such as
village corporations, native corporations, or individuals is
recommended. Sources for determining land ownership can
include: coastal zone management plans; regional compre-
hensive plans; timber management plans, and Alaska Power
Authority reconnaissance and feasibility reports. These
references are usually located in the Alaska State Deposito-
ry Libraries by subject index (see .Appendix B).
Agencies or organizations managing federal and state
land in the vicinity of a project should be contacted for
additional information, such as:
Federal Bureau of Land Management
Land Information Office
701 C Street
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
45
Alaska Department ;of Natural Resources
Recorder's Office
3601 C Street, Suite 1134
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
Development on designated parklands and game sanctu-
aries is restricted. Parklands include national and state
parks, forests, preserves, monuments and wilderness areas.
Permission to utilize or cross national parklands could
require an act of the U.S. Congress. Application for
easements must be made through the National Park Service, or
the Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. The Alaska
Department of Natural Resources manages state parkland.
ALASKA PERMITTING PROCEDURES
Although it is difficult to rank the environmental
acceptability of various types of hydropower configurations
in general terms, resource agencies agree that projects
involving an existing dam (or, for small projects, no dam at
all) have fewer adverse impacts than projects requiring
construction of a new dam. Similarly, run -of -river and
diversion type projects (assuming maintenance of adequate
instream flows for diversion projects) generally are more
environmentally acceptable than projects involving a storage
reservoir.
Examples of possible development impacts include: a
reduction of fish in the stream; changes in water quality
during construction; disturbance of wildlife; less or no
water in the stream between the intake and powerhouse.
Permitting processes give agencies a chance to review
and comment on a project. It is also an opportunity for the
deveZoper to obtain some free technieaZ advice. Since there
are many agencies involved, the complete permitting process
may take IS months or more for a large project. In some
instances compliance with regulations might require project
alterations. If a permit is denied, the project requires
reevaluation.
State permits pertain to water rights, fish and game,
and use of state land. An inventory of State agencies
charged with review of hydroelectric projects follows.
46
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STATE AGENCIES
® Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC)
Master Permit Application
The Alaska Permit Information Centers provide a centra-
lized statewide environmental permit information service.
Permit Information staff can identify all federal, state and
local permits that any specific project is likely to re-
quire. In addition, the Centers can arrange for the appli-
cant to meet with permitting agencies to discuss how to fill
out the applications.
A recently updated Alaska Directory of Permits is also
available at the Permit Information Centers. Permit Infor-
mation Centers are located at:
Juneau 465-2615
Anchorage 279-0254
Fairbanks 452-2340
Collect calls are accepted during business hours.
The master permit application serves state agencies
with a "notice of intent" for a proposed project. The map
report and prospectus prepared in a site reconnaissance are
submitted with the application to all state departments and
the municipality where the project is located. Jurisdiction
or permit requirements are then obtained for the applicant
for completion and resubmittal. If public hearings are
required, DEC will coordinate the hearing in or near the
municipality where the hydro project is proposed. Final
decisions will be incorporated into one document and return-
ed to the applicant.
Certificate of Reasonable Assurance (Water Quality Certi-
fication
Certification of compliance with Alaska Water Quality
Standards are regulated through DEC. Any work, construc-
tion, discharge or placement of structures within water ways
must satisfy Alaska Administrative Code, regulations
18 AAC 65.050 through 18 AAC 70.010. The Division of
Environmental Quality is the administering agency and works
in coordination with the U.S.Corps of Engineers to assure
standards are satisfactorily met.
• Department of Natural Resources (DNR)
Application for Water Rights (Form 10-102)
The Alaska Water Use Act provides the public with a
legal method to obtain water use rights. All use of Alaskan
stream water is controlled by the Alaska Department of
Natural Resources. Permits must be obtained from the
Division of Land and Water Management (DNR) according to
procedures described in their "Water User's Handbook'%
A water rights permit will provide legal standing
against subsequent conflicting uses, therefore, early
application for the permit is recommended. Only after the
water is being beneficially used can a Certificate of
Appropriation be issued. This is the legal document which
conveys water rights. A water right then becomes a property
right attached to the legal description of the property. If
the land is sold, the water right goes with the land to the
new owner unless special arrangements are made through DNR.
.Applicants for water rights are advised to contact the
Division of Land and Water Management for complete details.
Application to Construct or Modify a Dam
A dam and reservoir may be required at a proposed site
to regulate flow, increase head or as a diversion for the
intake design. An Application to Construct or Modify a Dam
is required by the Department of Natural Resources for
dams which are 10 feet or more in height or capable of
storing 50 acre-feet or more of water.
In general, any dam 10 feet or more in height will
require submission of plans as well as specifications,
topographic maps of the dam site, and profiles and cross
sections of the dam. Detailed hydrologic data, seepage and
permeability analysis of the structure, and a stability
analysis must be submitted if the structure is in an earth-
quake zone.
For dams less than 10 feet in height, or for reservoirs
of less than 50 acre-feet in storage, no special additional
approval is needed other than the granting of a water rights
permit to develop the water source. Plans and specifica-
tions, however, will still be required.
The purpose of the dam construction and safety regula-
tions is twofold. The primary purpose is to maintain an
accurate central file system of existing structures as a
49
precaution in the event of emergency situations. The
secondary purpose is to ensure a consistent review of dam
construction and the application of sound engineering
standards in the construction of dams.
Land Leases
State land leases also are the responsibility of DNR.
Leases and other land issues are not likely to be included
in the master permit application inventory. Contact with the
Division of Land and Water Management is necessary.
• Department.Of Fish & Game (DF&G)
Habitat Protection Permit
The Department of Fish and Game oversees wildlife
management and protection. DF&G's interest in water use
development relates to the protection of resident and
anadromous fish (salmon and steelhead) and the effects of
water impoundments on game habitat. A Habitat Protection
Permit is required where either resident or anadromous fish
are identified.
Identification of resident species can be researched at
Fish and Game offices. Catalogs and atlases document the
extent of anadromous fish migration. Management data on
resident fish is also available.
Fish and Game is also invited by DNR to comment on
water use permit applications. Any restriction of water
flow where fish are .present will likely necessitate a
Habitat Protection Permit.
• Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Division of Governmental Coordination
Coastal Project Questionnaire and Certification of
Consistency
Section 307 of the U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act of
1972, as amended by 16 USC 1456(c)(3), governs development
in coastal areas. It requires applicants for federal land
and water use permits in Alaska's coastal areas to provide
certification that activities vill comply with the standards
of the Alaska Coastal Management Program.
All potential hydropower developers seeking permits
from two or more state agencies or from a federal agency
50
(F.E.R.C. or the Corps) are required to respond to a coastal
project questionnaire. Because Alaska's coastal boundries
encompass a substantial amount of interior area as well, a
review of the Interim Coastal Zone Boundries map of Alaska,
available at the Governmental Coordination offices, is
advisable.
The need to meet various environmental standards in
coastal areas will be determined by OMB on the basis of
questionnaire responses. Furthermore, additional guidance
on other state and federal permitting procedures- is avail-
able from OMB during the review process. As their name
implies, the Division of Governmental Coordination will
communicate with other state and federal agencies to facili-
tate permit acquisition and responsiveness to coastal zone
issues.
® Alaska Public Utility Commission (APUC)
Cogeneration and Small Power Production Requlations
Although Alaska Statutes do not include a state
specific enactment of the federal Public Utilities Regula-
tory Policy Act (PURPA), AS 42.05.361 - 42.05.441 enables
the APUC to regulate certain electric utilities. Article 2
3AAC 50.750 - 3AAC 50.820 includes regulations governing the
interconnection, purchase and sale of electric power between
a utility and a qualifying facility (QF).
In keeping with the spirit of the federal PURPA enact-
ment, the APUC's guidelines state that "...regulations are
to encourage cogeneration and small power production by
setting out guidelines for the establishment of reason-
able, non-discriminatory charges, rates, terms and condi-
tions under which interconnection and purchases and sales of
electric power will occur...."
QF certification is obtained from the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission. Application is pertinent only if the
benefits available through PURPA are required from a hydro -
plant operation. Examples of benefits include:
• Exemption from certain utility regulations dealing with
revenues,
• Certification for tax benefit purposes,
• Requirements that utility interconnection be allowed,
• Requirements relating to a utility selling power to a
QF.
51
Applications should be made through the Washington, DC
office of FERC. An address is contained in the Agency
Directory, Appendix D.
Power buy-back rates are governed by whether the power
sold can be defined as firm or non -firm. Non -firm rates
should now be established for all utilities regulated by
APUC. These are directly related to the avoided fuel costs
that a utility realizes in the purchase of power from a QF.
Firm power rates involve a number of considerations
related to increased utility plant capacity which, might
otherwise be required if no alternative sources were being
proposed. Purchase rates are subject to negotiation with
the utility but must meet requirements set forth in. APUC's
regulations. Up to sixty days can be required for a tariff
decision.. Disagreements with the utility over its suggest-
ed buy-back rates may be appealed through the APUC, provided
it is a regulated utility.
FEDERAL PERMITS & LICENSING
FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION (FERC)
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the
primary federal agency responsible for issuing licenses for
all non-federal hydroelectric projects under its juris-
diction.
The purpose of federal licensing is best stated in
Section 10(a) of the Federal Power Act which requires the
Commission to assure that: "the project ... will be best
adapted to a comprehensive plan for improving or developing
a waterway or waterways for the use or benefit of interstate
or foreign commerce, for the improvement and utilization of
waterpower development, and for other beneficial public
uses, including recreational purposes...." In more direct
terms, Congress wanted to ensure that hydropower development
in any river basin would be compatible with the best overall
use of the resource. In addition to the Federal Power Act,
Congress has enacted a number of other statutes to assure
the original intent of the Act and to protect other public
interests. Some of these more recent statutes are listed in
Table g.
52
A hydropower project is within the jurisdiction of
FERC, and therefore requires a license or an exemption from
licensing, if any of the following apply:
1. The project is on a navigable waterway,
2. The project will affect interstate commerce (i.e.,
project will be connected to a regional transmission
grid),
3. The project uses federal land,
4. The project will use surplus water or waterpower from a
federal dam.
Under these criteria very few projects are exempt from
FERC licensing requirements. Only a very small project
which does not affect a navigable waterway or interstate
commerce and does not hook up with a grid system would be
exempt from FERC involvement.
If there is uncertainty regarding FERC jurisdiction,
there is a relatively simple legal procedure for obtaining a
decision from FERC. A Declaration of Intention is filed
according to Part 24 of the FERC regulations (Title 18 CFR).
The requirements are short and uncomplicated and can be
completed with a minimum of data. A more direct method is
to request an unofficial opinion from FERC staff.
Preliminary Permit
A preliminary permit protects a developer's priority to
apply for a license for a particular site and allows further
study; it does not authorize construction. FERC permits are
broken down into major and minor projects. Microhydro comes
under minor projects, less than 1500 kW.
The exact specifications for filing a preliminary
permit application are in FERC Orders No. 54, 1233, and 183
and 18 CFR 4.80-4.83. An application consists of an ini-
tial statement and four exhibits:
1. A description of the facility and proposed mode of
operation,
2. A map of the general location,
3. An environmental report,
4. A set of drawings showing the existing and proposed
project works.
53
Table 9
Federal Regulatory Acts
Affecting Hydro Development
Legislation Requlation
Federal Power Act
16
USC
791
National Environmental Policy Act
42
USC
4321
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
16
USC
661
Historic Preservation Act
16
USC
470
Wilderness Act
16
USC
1131
Clean Water Act
33
USC
1251
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
16
USC
1271
Endangered Species Act
16
USC
1531
Coastal Zone Management Act
16
USC
1451
Federal Land Policy & Management Act
43
USC
1701
Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act PL 95-619
Licenses and Exemptions
A project which satisfies certain requirements. may
qualify for an exemption from the FERC licensing process.
FERC has created two categories of case -specific exemptions
and one generic category. Presently, the generic category
has been stayed by court order pending further evaluation.
The case -specific exemption categories are:
1. Projects less than 15 MW that are built into conduits
or provide direct discharge of water for agricultural,
municipal or industrial use.
2. Certain projects not exceeding 5 MW which involve dams
built prior to 1977 or run -of -river projects which
utilize natural water features without the need of an
impoundment.
If exempted from licensing, a project is not subject to
a number of provisions applicable under the Federal Power
Act.
.If the project is located only on federal lands, any
person may apply for an exemption. If any part or all of
the project is not on federal lands, only the owner of those
property interests or the holder of an option to obtain
those interests may apply for a exemption.
54
A potential hydro developer is required to consult with
local, state, and federal agencies (see Table 10) during
preparation of a license or exemption application, and
include evidence of these consultations in the application.
Although the Federal Power Act requires evidence of com-
pliance with state and local requirements prior to issuance
of a license, FERC may override state and local decisions.
FERC issues licenses to construct and operate hydro-
electric projects up to 50 years. Projects must be reli-
censed when a previous license expires. For more informa-
tion on the FERC licensing and exemption processes, see
Appendix D, FERC's "Bluebook" and FERC Order No. 106 as
amended and clarified by Order No. 106-A, and Orders No.
202, 202-B, and 202-C.
Recent changes in FERC licensing requirements are
outlined in FERC Order No. 189, "Application for License for
Minor Water Power Projects and Major Water Projects 5
Megawatts or Less."
Table 10
Federal Agency Contacts Required by FERC
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
National Marine Fisheries Service
U.S. Department of Interior, Environmental Division
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT (NEPA)
Federal agencies making decisions on hydroelectric
project licenses are required to comply with the National
Environmental Policy Act for minor projects and for addi-
tions of hydroelectric facilities at existing dams. A
developer is initially required only to provide enough
environmental information for FERC to make a determination
of environmental significance.
If the project is determined to be environmentally
significant, a full Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is
required. When a full NEPA EIS is required, it is written
by the FERC staff using the information provided in
55
Exhibit E of the license application. When necessary, FERC
will require that additional studies and information be
provided. FERC regulations regarding NEPA are listed in 18
CFR 2.80-2.82.
OTHER FEDERAL PERMITS
® U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Section 10 and Section.404 Permits
The Corps of Engineers has jurisdiction over any
project which is proposed -for a navigable waterway (Sec-
tion 10, River and Harbor Act of 1899) or which involves
the discharge of any dredge or fill material into waters of
the United States (Section 404, Federal Water Pollution
Control Act).
In general, the Corps does not require aseparate
Section 10 permit in cases where FERC exercises licensing
jurisdiction. The Corps does, however, review and comment
on FERC applications as part of FERC's prelicense consulta-
tion process to ensure the protection of navigational
interests.
For projects involving the discharge of dredged or fill'
material into U.S waters a 404 permit is required in addi-
tion to any FERC action. These applications_ are made on a
general form and take approximately three to six months for
approval. Required is information on the nature and
location of the proposed activity; the time span
involved; and the status of other federal, state, and local
permits.
The developer should contact the Corps District Engi-
neer well in advance of construction. The Corps, Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation and the,Division of
Governmental Coordination (OMB) work together to ensurethat
compliance to water quality standards is reviewed and meta
The Alaska District Office in Anchorage has jurisdiction.
over Corps permits within the state. See Appendix D for the
address,and telephone number.
56
® Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Determination of No Hazard
The FAA has forms which must be completed and reviewed
to determine if any project feature (e.g., transmission
towers) constitutes a hazard to aviation. A project layout
showing elevation contours should be turned in with the
application, and information on microwave tower and existing
airports in the project area may be required. Approval of
this permit will take approximately two months.
® U.S. Forest Service (USFS)
Special Use Permit
If any part of a project is on National Forest lands, a
Special Use Permit (SUP) is required from the U.S. Forest
Service. In order to secure a SUP, the developer must have
a FERC license or exemption.
The developer then applies to USFS for a Study Special
Use Permit (SSUP). This SSUP is for studies. which gather
information required under NEPA. After NEPA regulations
have been satisfied, the USFS writes a 4(e) report, which is
their official position toward the project. The 4(e) report
is required by FERC as part of its licensing requirements.
After FERC has issued a license or exemption, the
developer can apply for a SUP in order to begin actual
construction. The USFS SUP process can be quite complex and
hydropower developers should establish early contact with
the Forest Service.
57
APPENDIX A
RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
If no data is available on the stream of interest or
the data is not sufficient, measurements will need to be
made. For a stand alone system which will supply a village,
house or business without connection to an outside genera-
tion source, the most critical measurements are during low
flow periods. In most Alaska locations low flow periods are
during early or late spring just prior to break-up. Flow
measurements taken at this time will yield the base flow of
the stream versus the usual minimum. An exception to this
case occurs in Southeastern Alaska, where the minimum yearly
flow can occur near the end of a long summer dry spell.
Flow calculations for the body of water under consi-
deration may already exist; in that case measurements will
not need to be made. To find out if this is the case,
contact public agencies whose responsibility it is to
acquire this type of data. The best source for surface
water data in Alaska is the USGS, which is also the source
of topographic maps and aerial photos.
MEASURING FLOWS
To determine flows in a stream where no previous
measurements have been made, it is worthwhile examining
adjacent streams of similar basin characteristics. Drainage
area, vegetation cover, surrounding mountain height, orien-
tation toward prevailing winds and elevation may have been
measured or observed extensively.
Streams in Alaska have different flow characteristics
dependent upon these known characteristics. To illustrate
this and to provide an indication on flow rates, some yearly
hydrographs are presented for a few typical streams '(Illus-
tration 9). To aid in their interpretation, these hydro -
graphs have been "unitized"; each basin's run-off for an
entire year,has been called "100 percent," even though the
actual streams have differing flow rates.
9
3
O
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U.
J
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z
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F-
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IL
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V
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ev�
W
9
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'11
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28
SOUTHEAST
24 (Specific Streams)
Skagway River
......••••• Harding River
20 • — • — Fish Creek
16
12 '♦
8
4
................
—•
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG REP
W,
SOUTHCENTRAL
(General Characteristics)
24 High -elevation mountain streams
— — — Low -elevation mountain streams
20 ......••••• Cook Inlet lowlands streams
- — Gulf of Alaska lowlands streams
16
12
8 \
- . . ......................
0 1 1 I ; 1 1 1 1
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
Yearly Hydrograghs
!. a
In the case of Ship Creek in south coastal Alaska, the creek
has a drainage area of 90 square miles and has been gaged
for 39 years. The average annual flow is 163 cfs.
Now suppose some idea of minimum flow were needed on a
stream with 30 square miles of drainage area which had basin
characteristics similar to Ship Creek. As an approximation,
the annual flow of the stream in proportion to the drainage
area is:
163 cfs x (30 : 90 ) = 54 cfs
average annual daily flow. The yearly flow for the stream
would be 54 cfs X 365 days = 19,700 cfs-days.
The chart for a low elevation mountain stream in South-
central Alaska shows that the minimum percentage of annual
flow occurs in February and is about 2.3% of the annual
flow. Calculating the low flow for the stream in question
results in:
.023 x 19,700 cfs-days = 453 cfs-days.
February has 28 days, so dividing 453 by 28 provides
cfs/day:
453 cfs-days/28 days = 16 cfs minimum flow.
An approximate power generation capability can be
determined from this minimum value. For example, for 30
foot of head and a typical turbine generation output of
about 6 KW/cfs/100' of head, the output would be:
30 feet/100 feet X 6 KW/cfs X 16 cfs = 29 KW.
If a hydro system will produce electricity for a house-
hold, it will often be a DC -to -AC conversion system, requir-
ing only minimum flows. If, however, a considerably larger
system is envisioned, a direct AC system design would be
chosen. In this case load projections will have to be
calculated, particularly with respect to what can be done
with the energy at the time of year it is available. This
will. require some information regarding maximum and mean
stream flows as well as minimum. If the system requires a
dam, it will be vital to know maximum stream flows in order
to size spillways adequately to bypass excess water and
prevent damaging the installation.;
OTHER METHODS OF MEASUREMENT:
• Container Filler Time
For small mountain streams or springs, temporarily dam
up the water and divert the entire flow into a container of
known size. Carefully time the number of seconds it takes
to fill this container.
For example, if the filling times for a 55 gallon drum,
placed under a culvert, averaged 20 seconds, the flow rate
would be:
55 gal/20sec = 2.75gal/sec x 60sec/min = 165gpm .37cfs
® Float Method
Flow can also be estimated using a watch, tape measure,
weighted float, and calibrated stick such as a yardstick for
shallow streams. A float can be made using either a piece
of wood weighted at one end with some heavy material - such
as nails or metal scraps or a plastic container partially
filled with water. The float is partially submerged to ob-
tain a better estimate of the average stream velocity, but
should not touch the bottom of the stream.
Begin by finding a stretch of stream as straight and as
uniform in width and depth as possible. Pick .a typical
section and measure the stream width (W) with the tape
measure. Use the calibrated stick vertically to measure the
depth at 5-inch intervals across the stream. Nine depth
measurements, including two zero measurements at the stream
banks, are shown in Illustration 10. Average these depths
to estimate the average stream depth (D). Multiply the
average depth by the stream width to estimate the stream
area (A).
Average depth: Stream area:
D = O + D1 + Dp + D3 + Dq + D5 + D6 + D7 + O A = DxW
9
Measuring stream area.
1. 10
61
The stream velocity can be determined by choosing a
straight stretch of water at least 30 feet long with sides
approximately parallel and the bed unobstructed by rocks,
branches or other obstacles. Mark off two points approx-
imately 20 feet apart along the stream. On a windless day,
place a float upstream on the first marker, in midstream.
Carefully time the float's travel between markers. Repeat
several times at different distances across the stream's
width. Use the average time and the measured distance to
calculate the average velocity.
Flow can be calculated from the equation:
Q= A x V x C,
where
Q = water flow rate,
A = stream area,
V = average stream velocity,
C = correction factor.
The flow equation includes a correction factor to
account for streambed conditions. Use C = 0.8 for a smooth
streambed; or C = 0.7 for intermediate conditions; C = 0.6
for a rough or rocky streambed.
Flow is calculated in cubic feet per second (cfs),
based on area in square feet and velocity in feet per
second. For other units of measure, see the conversion
table at the end of this booklet.
Flow measurements must be made several times over a
year to determine flow variability. For rough estimates,
several measurements using the float method would do.
Remember that both the stream area and velocity change with
flow rate, so that depth, width, and velocity must be
measured each time. A more complex and accurate measurement
technique is achieved by building a weir across the stream.
Flow 1st Float
3rd Float
2nd oat
Length for timning, _L,
Average time: Stream velocity: Stream flow:
T Tl + Tz + Tg V _ L Q = AxVxC
3 T
Float method of measuring average stream velocity.
62
�► Weir Method
A weir, as used in flow measurement, is a temporary dam
built across the stream perpendicular to the flow. A rectan-
gular.notch or spillway of predetermined proportions is
located in the center section. The notch has to be large
enough to take the maximum flow of the stream during the
period of measurement, so make some rough estimate of the
stream flow prior to building the weir. The notch width (W)
should be at least three times its height (H), and the lower
edge should be perfectly level. The lower edge and the
vertical sides of the notch should be beveled with the sharp
edge upstream. The whole structure can be best built out of
timber with all edges and bottom sealed with clay, earth and
sandbags to prevent any leakage. A typical weir is shown in
Illustration 12.
In order to measure the flow of water over the weir,
set up a simple depth gage. This is done by driving a post
in the stream bed at least 5 feet upstream from the weir,
until a pre-set mark in the post is precisely level with the
bottom edge of the spillway. The depth of water above the
pre-set mark will indicate the flow rate of water over the
weir. You will need to refer to a "Weir Table" in order to
determine this flow rate. (See Table 11).
Weir and Depth Gage
I. 12
weir)
Table 11
WEIR TABLE
Inches
0
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
0
0
0.003
0.008
0.0015
0.0024
0.0033
0.0044
0.0055
1
0.0067
0.0080
0.0094
0.0108
0.0123
0.0139
0.0155
0.0172
2
0.0190
0.0208
0.0226
0.0245
0.0265'
0.0285
0.0306
0.0327
3
0.0348
0.0370
0.0393
0.0415
0.0439
0.0462
0.0487
0.0511
4
0.0536
0.0561
0.0587
0.0613
0.0640
0.0666
0.0694
0.0721
5
0.0749
0.0777
0.0806
0.0835
0.0864
0.0894
0.0924
0.0954
6
0.0985
0.1016
0.1047
0.1078
0.1110
0.1142
0.1175
0.1208
7
0.1241
0.1274
0.1308
0.1342
0.1376
0.1411
0.1446
0.1481
8
0.1516
0.1552
0.1588
0.1624
0.1660
0.1697
0.1734
0.1771
9
0.1809
0.1847
0.1885
0.1923
0.1962
0.2001
0.2040
0.2079
10
0.2119
0.2159
0.2199
0.2239
0.2280
0.2320
0.2361
0.2403
11
0.2444
0.2486
0.2528
0.2570
0.2613
0.2656
0.2699
0.2742
12
0.2785
0.2829
0.2873
0.2917
0.2961
0.3006
0.3050
0.3095
13
0.3140
0.3186
0.3231
0.3277
0.3323
0.3370
0.3416
0.3463
14
0.3510
0.3557
0.3604
0.3652
0.3699
0.3747
0.3795
0.3844
15
0.3892
0.3941
0.3990
0.4039
0.4089
0.4138
0.4188
0.4238
16
0.4288
0.4338
0.4389
0.4440
0.4491
0.4547
0.4593
0.4645
17
0.4696
0.4748
0.4800
_ 0.4852
0.4905
0.4958
0.5010
0.5063
18
0.5117
0.5170
0.5224
0.5277
0.5331
0.5385
0.5440
0.5494
19
0.5549
0.5604
0.5659
0.5714
0.5769
0.5825
0.5881
0.5937
20
0.5993
0.6049
0.6105
0.6162
0.6219
0.6276
0.6333
0.6390
21
0.6448
0.6505
0.6563
0.6621
0.6679
0.6738
0.6796
0.6855
22
0.6914
0.6973
0.7032
0.7091
0.7151
0.7210
0.7270
0.7330
23
0.7390
0.7451
0.7511
0.7572
0.7633
0.7694
0.7755
0.7816
24
0.7878
0.7939
0.8001
0.8063
0.8125
0.8187
0.8250
0.8312
25
0.8375
0.8438
0.8501
0.8564
0.8628
0.8691
0.8755
0.8819
26
0.8882
0.8947
0.9011
0.9075
0.9140
0.9205
0.9270
0.9335
27
0.9400
0.9465
0.9531
0.9596
0.9662
0.9728
0.9792
0.9860
28
0.9927
0.9993
1.006
1.013
1.019
1.026
1.033
1.040
29
1.046
1.053
1.060
1.067
1.074
1.080
1.087
1.094
30
1.101
1.108
.1.115
1.122
1.129
1.136
1.152
1.149
31
1.156
1.163
1.170
1.178
1.184
1.192
1.199
1.206
32
1.213
1.220
1.227
1.234
1.241
1.248
1.256
1.263
33
1.270
1.227
1.285
1.292
1.299
1.306
1.314
1.321
34
1.328
1.336
1.343
1.356
1.358
1.365
1.372
1.378
35
1.387
1.395
1.402
1.410
1.417
1.425
1.432
1.440
Flow per Inch of Weir Width (cfs)
64
To use the table, determine the depth of water in
inches above the post notch. The table lists flow for each
inch of weir width. To establish total flow, multiply the
volume flow rate by width, in inches, of the weir notch.
This will give the stream flow rate in cubic feet per
second.
While the weir is in place, readings can be taken at
convenient intervals. If the weir will be in place for any
extended period of time, it is important to frequently check
the watertightness of the sides and bottom.
Note Weir construction should onZy be undertaken with
appropriate permits. Contact, Division of Land and Water
Management (DNR) and other agencies referenced in Sec-
tion III.
BEAD LOSSES
The greater the vertical distance water falls the more
potentially useful power is available from it. For high
head systems, detailed topographical maps of the area may
give some indication of the vertical height difference
between proposed intake and tailwater levels. The degree of
accuracy attainable from map readings is limited, so this
technique should only be used for very preliminary estima-
tions.
More comprehensive methods of head measurement are
necessary for both the independent developer and those who
wish to interconnect to an existing electrical grid. In the
former case, when minimum flow values are known and power
needs have been calculated, a design head can be computed to
determine an approximate intake location. The basic hydro
power equation given earlier solves for kW capacity:
P_QxHxe
11.8
where
P = design capacity in kW
Q = flow in cfs
H = head in feet
e = system efficiency
11.8 = conversion factor for water density
65
Rewriting the equation to solve for H produces the follow-
ing:
H11.8xP
Q x e
Theoretically, provided topography and other factors
were feasible, the design head could then be located for
further conceptual examination.
Where head is subject to variation to satisfy design
requirements, more precise methods of measeurements are
available. Several of these are given below.
METHODS FOR MEASURING HEAD
® Estimating Head Through Water Pressure
Head and water pressure are directly proportional:
1 foot of head = .433 lbs per square inch (psi)
Using this relationship, head can be measured in
relatively short river increments using a static pressure
gage and hose. A gage with 0.1 psi accuracy and hose of
less than 20 feet are required.
Starting at the tailrace location of the turbine or
other power unit, the hose is submerged so water flows
freely through it. The upper end of the hose ought to have
an elbow joint attached to direct the opening to 90' from
the upstream direction in order to compensate for effects
from water velocity. The lower end then has the pressure
gage attached for a measurement.
Noting the location of the upper end of the hose,
successive measurements and readings are taken until the
intake location is reached. The sum of all the readings
divided by .433 equals pool -to -pool head in feet.
P+ P 2+ P n
h= 3
where
h = head in feet
P = individual measurements
n = number of measurements
.433 = pressure per foot of head
I.T.
s Photographic Surveying
For those who
surveying techniques,
give fairly accurate
can be developed and
graphs. But caution
Photographic surveying
• Altimeter Measurements
are acquainted with photographic
this method of head measurement can
results. Pictures taken in the field
the elevations scaled on the photo-
-- this is not a method for amateurs.
requires some skill and training.
Pocket altimeters can give preliminary estimations of
the elevation difference between intake and tailwater lo-
cations on proposed high. head systems. The accuracy, of
these measurements is not suitable for any serious calcula-
tions.
Larger portable altimeters tend to be 'very expensive,
but enable elevation measurements to an accuracy of a couple
of feet. These instruments are suitable for engineering
calculations and can be rented from retail outlets for
surveyor's equipment.
• Surveying
A surveyor can be hired to determine the head. The
surveyor will calculate the vertical distance between water
source, or proposed intake location, and the proposed
location of the power plant. Because this approach may be
expensive, reasonable assurance of carrying through with the
project is recommended. If the head is less than 25 feet,
very precise measurements are required and a surveyor is
advisable.
If you know how to use standard surveying equipment
(transit or a surveyor's level.and leveling rod), borrow or
rent the equipment and get a friend or two to help you make
the necessary measurements.
• Level & Tape Measure
Another do-it-yourself technique involves a carpenter's
level, some sort of table to raise the level a few feet off
the ground, and a tape measure. The assistance of a second
person may also be required. The "plane table and aledaide"
method is described below and shown in the following
illustration:
67
1. Set the level on the stand; make sure the level is
horizontal (level) and that its upper edge is
either at the same elevation as the water source,
or a known vertical distance above the water
surface (height of the stand plus width of level).
2. Sight along the upper edge of the level to a spot
on a nearby object (tree, rock, building) that is
further downhill and which can be reached for mea-
suring.
Level & Tape Method
START AT PLACE WHERE WATER
INTAKE WOULD
OCCUR _*, MEASURING STICK HELD
CARPENTER'S STRAIGHT UP BY 2ND PERSON
LEVEL
.... GK-......Al
H�....8.1
...... .... A2
H=HEIGHT OF
LEVEL FROM
SURFACE OF
WATER
62
RECORD
HEIGHTS
AB1
FEET
AB2 ___
FEET
AB3
ETC.
FEET
FEET - TOTAL DROP
- IN ELEVATION
SUBTRACT HEIGHT
OF LEVEL ABOVE
WATER AT 1ST
-H
MEASUREMENT
TOTAL ELEVATION
DROP OR "HEAD"
1. 13
STOP MEASURING
AT PLACE WHERE
POWER FACILITY
WOULD GO
.:
3. Note this precise spot on the object and mark it
(point A in the diagram).
4. Move the level and stand down the slope and set it
up again so that this time the upper edge of the
level is at some point B, below point A on the
first object, as shown in the drawing. Mark this
point B and measure and record the vertical
distance A to B. Now sight along the upper edge
of the level in the opposite direction to another
object that is further downhill.
5. Repeat this procedure until the elevation of the
proposed power plant site is reached.
6. If more than one set up was required, add all the
vertical distances A-B. If the first set up was
above the water surface, subtract the vertical
distance between the water surface and the upper
edge of the level from the sum of the vertical
distances. You now have the total head.
• You do not need to be concerned with horizon
tal distances for head determination.
• Every time you re -set the level, its upper
.edge should be at precisely the same level as
Point B (sight back to check).
• You need not travel in a straight line.
HEAD & SYSTEM LOSSES
• Penstock Effects
Once total or gross head has been determined, various
losses must be considered before further theoretical power
calculations can be made. The net head is required for
these calculations.
Gross Head - Losses = Net Head
Losses occur through friction and are greater `as flow
velocity increases or pipe diameter decreases. Variation in
slope, intake and valve constrictions, and the turbine
itself may all contribute to some inherent head loss, but
the most severe area of concern is related to the pipe or
penstock. A brief discussion of pipeline hydraulics is
followed by one available method to calculate pipe losses
and appropriate sizing. *
Most hydroelectric installations involve the transport
of water through a pressure.line or penstock to the turbine.
The flow of water in a pipe is measured as the average
velocity multiplied by the cross sectional area. Once a
pipe size is chosen, the cross sectional area of the pipe is
fixed and therefore an increase in water volume through the
pipe requires a proportional increase in water velocity.
The increased water volume and subsequent velocity increase
results in some head loss and a decrease in pressure at the
turbine.
In a high -head situation one can tolerate an increased
head loss and perhaps use a smaller size pipe, saving money
on the penstock. The maximum economical head loss possible
in a penstock seems to be approximately 1/3 of the total
available head. In a low -head situation it is necessary to
size the penstock for minimal head loss to limit affects on
power production.
The Hazen Williams Nomogram provides a method. for
determining pipe solutions, if three of the parameters in
the nomogram are known. In a typical application, the flow
is known and the type of pipe is chosen, leaving the size of
pipe to be determined. The Hazen Williams Nomogram found on
page 73 simplifies determination of a pipe diameter if head
loss, quantity of water, and the value of pipe friction
factor "C" are known. While this nomogram is based on a
limited range of experimental data, the degree of accuracy
is well within the design requirements necessary in small
hydropower installations.
tion:
A rough idea of pipe size is determined by the equa-
D = F (Q/v)0.5
where
D = Inside diameter of pipe, inches or (centimeters)
Q = Flow, cfs, (m /sec)
*Examples provided courtesy of Lou Butera, from "Hydroelectric Pipeline
Hydraulics for the Private User", Sourcebook published by Conservation and
Renewable Energy, Inc., 6th Alaska Alternative Energy Conference, 1985'.
70
V = Desired velocity, (5 ft/sec) typical, and will
usually not exceed 10 ft/sec.
F = 'Conversion Factor = 13.5 (English units)
= 1.1 (Metric units)
The diameter and the known flow are entered as points
on the left side of the nomogram and connected with a
straight line extended across the center line or pivot
point. A value of "C", the Hazen Williams Coefficient, is
chosen from Table A.1 based on the type of pipe being used.
A line drawn connecting the coefficient value with the pivot
point will intersect the values of velocity and head loss.
The value of head loss is per 1000 feet of pipe and there-
fore is adjusted to represent the head loss for the particu-
lar length of pipe.
Table A.1 HAZEN WILLIAMS COEFFICIENT "C"
Material 11C11
Polyethlene 140
P.V.C.. 150
Fiberglass 150
Steel (new) 140
Steed (worn). 120
Example A.1 - Use of Hazen Williams Nomogram
Given: Required Flow = 6 cfs
Length of Pipe: 600 feet P.V.C. pipe
Choose a pipe diameter to accommodate the flow. What are
the velocity and head loss?.
D = 13.5 (6/5)'5
= 14.8 inches (round to 14 inches, a common pipe
size)
Entering the nomogram at Q = 6 cfs
D = 14 inches
C = 150
it is seen that: Velocity = 5.5 feet per second
Head Loss = 5 feet per 1000 feet
Pipeline Head Loss =1000 x 600 ft = 3 feet (in 600 ft)
This solution is just one of many possible combinations
of pipe diameter, velocity and head loss. The proper choice
of pipe diameter, once the Hazen Williams Nomogram is
mastered, is a matter of economics.
Example A.2
Your hydroelectric site provides plenty of water;
115 feet of head is available over a 2500 foot length of
pipe run. You have available an old 6 steel mining pipe.
How much water is available at the nozzle to determine your
power potential?
Solution: Power = Flow (cfs ) x Net Head (ft)
11.8
The absolute. maximum hydraulic power output of a
pipeline is where the head loss is equal to 1/3 of the total
head, producing the highest suitable water velocity.
Assuming head Loss = 1/3 x 115' = 38 feet.
Head Loss per 1000 Feet = 2500 x 1000 = 15' = S
("S" is the head loss per 1000 feet, located along the
far right column of the nomograph).
Entering the Nomographic Chart at S = 15 and C = 120,
the pivot point is obtained and a line drawn connecting the
pivot point to 6" diameter pipe yields a flow of 0.8 cfs or
350 gallons per minute.
Therefore, the power at the nozzle =
0.8 cfs x (115-38) ft. = 5.22.kW
11.8
It should be noted that this is the power calculated
from a preliminary net head. This power will be reduced due
to valve constrictions, pipe bends, and intake head losses.
Use of 1/3 head loss for pipe calculations should also be
limited to pipe runs that have a fairly uniform slope. A
pipe route that varies in slope would introduce complex flow
problems at this maximum water velocity.
Example A.3
A low head site has the following fixed parameters:
72
1. Head - 20 feet
2. Length of pipe - 100 feet
3. Mean flow rate - 12 cfs
In this case with 20 feet of head, little head loss can
be tolerated through the 100 foot section of pipe. The
penstock must be sized to deliver 12 cfs flow with minimal
head loss, therefore a large penstock and low flow velocity
should be selected.
Example AA
A high head site has the following fixed parameters:
1. Head 100 feet
2. Length of pipe - 600 feet
3. Mean flow rate - 2.0 cfs
4. Power required (at nozzle) - 15.0 kW
5. Polyethylene penstock
Power = Q11.8 = 2�011.800 = 16.9 kW
In this case the theoretical power (not considering any
head loss) at the nozzle is 16.9 kW; therefore, the gross
effective head can be reduced by pipe friction losses to the
point where 15 kW is produced at the turbine nozzle as
required. The amount of head necessary to produce 15 kW.is
calculated as:
H=11.8x15 kW=88feet
2 cfs
A head loss of 100 - 88 = 12 feet of head in 600 feet
of pipe is the maximum head loss allowable. This is
equivalent to:
12 feet 600 feet x 1000 = 20 feet/1000 feet (head loss) = S
Referring to the Hazen Williams Nomogram to
determine penstock size, one draws a line connecting a head
loss of 20 feet/1000 feet with the coefficient of C = 140
for polyethylene pipe, extending the line to the center line
or pivot point. A line drawn from the pivot point to the
required flow capacity will cross the pipe size. In this
case with a 2 cfs flow rate's an 8 inch pipe would be re-
quired.
FLOW OF WATER IN PIPES
HAZE WILLIAMS
N®M®GRAPHIC CHART
100
50 50
40
38
20•
36
34
32
10
30
28
5
26
24
U
Lij
22
2
U
z
20
Z
i
18
O
UW 1
co
z
16
¢
W .5
a
O
U
14
W
O
w
W
CC
12
U '2
W
L
W
m
>
10
U
1
_<
o
i
W
C9
o
e .05
8
U
U
i .02
O
6
.01
5
.005
003
4
20
200,000
10
s
100,000
8
7
50,000
6
5
4
20,000
z
3 O
10,000
ui
co
2 W
5000
a.
W
W
LL
2000
1 O
1000
.8 W
W
.7 O
.6 >
.5-
0
J
.4 W
>
200
W
i
.3 >
z
100
a
.2
50
co
z
O
20
oi
.1
10
O
5
.05
W
z
f-
O
z
W
U.
W
W
O 200
U
z
O
P
U 100
U-
U
73
74
A Nomograph to Determine Losses Due
to Friction in PVC Pipe
FLOW
2
2
LL
a
U
a
400
3000
2500
300
2000
200
1500
150
1000
100
800
80
600
500
60
50
400
40
300
30
200
20
150
100
10
80
8
60
6
50
40
30
25
3
20
2
15
10
1
PIPE SIZE
16=
14=
12=
10:
8=
6:a
4=
3=
21/2=
U.
a
0
m
r
I. 14a
FRICTION VELOCITY
B 1.0 —4
0.01
0.02
1.5 -
0.03
0.06
0.08
2.0-
0.10
0.20
'
3.0-
0.40
-
0.60
-
0.80
4.0=
1.00
2.00
5.0 -
4.00
6.0-
6.00
7.0 -
8.00
10.00
80 -
�
i- w
4.
C
w a
2
w a
w
C
C
w
u
0
u,
y °L
00
a
®
U
u
4
w w
.2 a
?5
**********
In summary, the steps to follow to determine the hydro
potential of a site are:
1. Measure the water flow rate using one of the
following:
— available or extrapolated data,
— timed container filling method,
— float method,
— weir method.
2. Determine the usable flow, with attention to
minimum flow and possible development of a flow
duration curve.
3. Measure.the total or gross head,
— pressure method,
— surveyor's equipment,
— carpenter's level and stand.
4. Determine the net head by subtracting friction and
other losses from the gross head.
5. Calculate the theoretical power available using
_QXH
Pth 11.81
6. Calculate the useful power available by multi -
.plying theoretical power by the efficiency of each
piece of machinery linked into the system between
and including the water wheel or turbine and the
unit giving out the useful power.
APPENDIX B
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Most state and federally funded research -project reports are
distributed throughout Alaska and retained in depository libraries.
Studies include reconnaissance and feasibility investigations which
may contain specific information about potential hydroelectric sites.
For instance, the Corps of Engineers has identified over 250 sites of
which approximately 50 were looked at in more detail. Many of these
may be beyond the scope of a microhydro developer, yet may still
provide information suitable to early investigations.
® Alaska State Depository Libraries are listed below:
Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
University of Alaska, Anchorage, Library
Alaska State Library, Juneau
Anchorage Municipal Library
Noel Wien Memorial Library, Fairbanks
Alaska Resources Library, Anchorage, Federal Building
Ketchikan Public Library
Sheldon Jackson College Library, Sitka
Northwest Community College, Nome
A. Holmes Johnson Public Library, Kodiak
Kenai Community Library
University of Alaska, Juneau, Library
The Alaska Power Authority and the Division of Community Develop-
ment, Department of Community and Regional Affairs, also have librar-
ies which are available to the public. The Power Authority library is
not a general circulation type; resources cannot be checked out unless
duplicates exist. The Energy Library at the Division of Community
Development allows materials to be circulated.
® Alaska Power Authority
701 E. Tudor Road, 2nd Floor
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
(907) 561-7877
Hours: 8:00 a.m. - 4:30 p.m., Monday thru Friday
® Energy Library
Division of Community Development
949 E. 36th Avenue, 4th Floor
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
Hours: 10:00 a.m. - 2:00 p.m., Monday thru Friday
77
Recommended Resources*
• MICROHYDROPOWER HANDBOOK, VOL I & II
Prepared by: E.G. & G. Idaho, Inc.
P.O. Box 1625
Idaho Falls; ID 83415
Prepared for: U.S. Department of Energy, 1983
Available from: National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Phone: (703) 487-4650
Price: Vol. I, 428 pp, $32.50
Vol. II, 408 'pp, $31.00
This two -volume handbook should be required reading for anyone
seriously considering a small micro -hydro installation. It contains
chapters on design, equipment, safety requirements, construction,
installation, economic considerations, and a thorough discussion of
legal, institutional, and environmental considerations. Supporting
documentation and examples are also included.
® HOW TO BUILD AND OPERATE YOUR OWN SMALL HYDROELECTRIC PLANT
Prepared by: George Butler
Publisher: Tabs Book 1417, 1982
Price: $11.95
A good story mostly of George Butler's construction of a hydro-
electric power plant in Vermont. George exhibits true yankee ingenu-
ity in the book as he scrounges parts and more importantly enlists the
services of an electrical engineer to help him design the system
comprised of a pump driving an induction generator (motor). Included
are a number of useful circuit diagrams for control and power wiring.
This type of data is not available in similar books. The induction
system will only work when connected into a system with a synchronous
generator which will control the speed and supply reactive power. It
will not work for an isolated stand-alone system.
*
Courtesy of Earle Ausmann, P.E., and the National Center for
Appropriate Technology
® HARNESSING WATER POWER FOR HOME ENERGY
Prepared by: Dermot McGuigan
Publisher: Garden Way Publishing Co., 1978
Price: $6.75
A well written 100-page book which has a little of everything in
it. It is well worth the price just for the pictures which include a
number of typical installations. The book, however, suffers from lack
of detail as to the design and construction of a small power plant,
and should not be the only book bought on the subject.
® LOW-COST DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL WATER -POWER SITES
Prepared by: H.W. Hamm
Published by: VITA
80 S. Early Street
Alexandria, VA 22304
(703) 823-6966
Price: $5.75
This 43-page booklet gives detailed information for every step in
the process of developing small-scale hydro power sites. Descriptions
are included of water wheels, a small 12-inch diameter crossflow
turbine and the Pelton Wheel. Small earth dam construction is also
covered.
® ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY
Published by: Alternative Sources of Energy, Inc.
107 S. Central Avenue
Milaca, MN 56353
(612) 983-6892
ASE is published bi-monthly and is directed toward the indepen-
dent power product ion community. Issues are often exclusively devoted
to small hydro development including: financing, bid preparations,
manufacturers references, and case studies. Subscriptions are main-
tained at the Energy Library, Division of Community Development,
Anchorage, the Alaska Power Authority Library, and are likely to be
found in public libraries.
79
• NATIONAL APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY ASSISTANCE SERVICE (NATAS)
U.S. Department of Energy
P.O. Box 2525
Butte, Montana 59702-2525
(800) 428-2525
NATAS provides information and technical assistance on energy
related appropriate technologies. A toll free number is available for
callers to contact Information Specialists who may refer you to
in-housetechnical and financial specialists. More detailed written
responses are often provided as follow-up. Most of NATAS technical
assistance falls within the following service types:
- selection or composition
- design assistance
- troubleshooting systems
- engineering analysis.
of systems or components
and components
In the area of microhydro development NATAS has provided assis-
tance in penstock sizing material, generator sizing, power and energy
calculations, and financing. Their staff includes civil engineers
familiar with design and construction.
• APPLICATION PROCEDURES FOR HYDROPOWER LICENSES, AMENDMENTS, EXEMPTIONS
& PRELIMINARY PERMITS
Published by: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
1120 Southwest 5th Avenue
Suite 1340
Portland, Oregon 97204
This booklet is published in loose-leaf form in a three ring
binder to a.ccomodate updating. Ail the information necessary to apply
for a license or exemption is included, making it essential reading
for hydroelectric power developers
Bibliography
(Please note that "small-scale" hydro references may likely pertain to Lower 48 standards,
perhaps the size of Tyee or Terror Lake at 20MW installed capacity)
AVOIDED COSTS AND UTILITY INTERCONNECTION
Cost Estimating Guidebook for Interconnec-
tions between Electric Utilities and
Small Power Producers Qualifying Under
PURPA. Draft., Washington, DC, U.S.
Department of Energy, 1982.
Geller, Howard S., The Interconnection of
Cogenerators and Small Power Producers to
a Utility System: Equipment Costs.
Self -Reliance Inc., Washington, DC, 1982.
James, Jeffrey and Gilbert A. McCoy, Devel-
oping Hydropower in Washington State: An
Electricity Marketing Manual. Washington
State Energy Office, WAOENG-81-02/2,
Olympia, WA1982.
Patton, J.B., Survey of Utility Cogeneration
Interconnection Practices and Cost. U.S.
Department of Energy, DOE/RA/29349-01,
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COST ESTIMATING
Brown, H.M., Simplified Methodology for
Economic Screening of Potential Low -Head
Small Capacity Hydroelectric Sites.
Electric Power Research Institute, Report
EM-1679, Palo Alto, CA, 1981.
Building and Operating a Small -Scale Hydro-
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Water Engineers, Continuing Education in
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Simplified Methodology For Economic Analysis
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Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304. $9.75.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydropower
Cost Estimating Manual. Portland, OR,
North Pacific Division, U.S. Army Corps
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ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Hildebrand, S.G., et. al., Analysis of
Environmental Issues Related to Small.
Scale Hydroelectric Development: Design
Considerations for Passing Fish Upstream
Around Dams. Oak Ridge National Labo-
ratory, ORNL-TM-7396.
Jassby, Alan D., Environmental Effects of
Hydroelectric Power Development.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
October 1976.
Loar, J.M., et. al., Analysis of Environ-
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Oak Ridge National Lab, Oak Ridge, TN,
1980.
Loar, James M. and Michael J. Sale, Analy-
sis of Environmental Issues Related to
Small Scale Hydroelectric Development:
instream Flow Needs for Fishery Resour-
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Ridge, TN, ORNL/TM-7861, 1981.
Turbak, Susan C., et. al., Analysis of
Environmental Issues Related to Small -
Scale Hydroelectric Development: Fish
Mortality Resulting from Turbine Pas-
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FINANCING & ECONOMICS
Brown, Peter W., A Manual for Development
of Small Scale Hydroelectric Projects by
Public Entities. The Energy Law Insti-
tute, Franklin Pierce Law Center, Con-
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Brown, Peter W., The Financing of Private
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Energy Law Institute, Franklin Pierce Law
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1981.
Goodwin, Lee M., The Impact of Recent
Federal Tax Legislation on the Renewable
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Proaction Institute, "Financing Hydropower
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U.S. Department of Energy, "Financing of
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LICENSING AND PERMITTING
Alaska Directory of Permits. Book Publishing
Company, 201 Westlake Avenue North,
Seattle, WA 98109
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission,
Application Procedures for Hydropower
Licenses, Exemptions and Preliminary
Permits. Washington, DC, 1982.
U.S. Office of Federal Register, Codes of
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to 149, Part 149 to End.
POWER PURCHASE CONTRACTS
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SITE ASSESSMENT
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Regional Assessment. Western Systems
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U.S. Department of Energy, "Pacific North-
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Klingman, Peter C., "Assessing Stream
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PROJECT DESIGN
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Durali, Mohammad, Design of Small Water
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83
STREAMFLOW INFORMATION
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Micro -Hydropower Potential for Small
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Corvallis, OR, September 1982.
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Usefulness of Hydrologic Data for Hydro-
power Feasibility Analysis. Idaho Water
and Energy Resources- Research Institute,
June, 1982.
MANUFACTURERS LITERATURE
Small Hydroelectric Guide, Small Hydroelec-
tric Systems and Equipment, 5141 Wicker-
sham, Acme, WA, 98220.
MicroHydro Turbines, James Leffel & Co., 426
Ease Street,.Springfield, OH, 45501.
APPENDIX C
1
HYDROPOWER EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS AND HARDWARE SUPPLIES
Allis-Chalmers Fluid Products Co.
Hydro Turbine Division
Box 712
York, PA 17405
(717) 792-3511
Almanor Machine Works Co.
413 Arbutus Drive
Lake Almanor, CA 96137
(916) 596-3959 a
Amtech
467 Oceanside St., Islip Terrace
New York, NY 11752
(516) 581-5262 a
Arbanas Industries
24 Hill Street
Xenia, OH 45385
(513) 372-1884 a,b
Associated Electric Co., Inc.
54 Second Street
Chicopee, MA 01020
(413) 781-1053
Axel Johnson_ Engineering Corp.
666 Howard Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415) 777-3800
Barber Hydraulic Turbine
P.O. Box 340
Port Colborne, Ontario
CANADA L3K 5W1
(416) 834-9303
BBC Brown Boveri Corporation
1460 Livingston Avenue
North Brunswick, NJ 08902 a,b
Birbsboro Corporation
100 Lindberg P12 #2
5160 Wily Post Road
Salt Lake City, UT 84116
(801) 532-2520 a
Bouvier Hydropower, Inc.
12 Bayard Lane
Suffern, NY 10901
(914) 357-2189
Canyon Industries
5346 Mosquito Lake Road
Deming, WA98224
(206) 592-5552 a
Carl G. Brimmekamp & Co., Inc.
102 Hamilton Avenue
Stamford, CT 06902
(203) 325-4101
C. MacLeod Corporation
P.O. Box 286
Glenmore, PA 19343
(215) 458-8133
Cornell Pump Co.
2323 SE Harvestor Drive
Portland, OR 97222
(503) 653-0330 a
1An additional comprehensive directory of equipment manufacturers, developers and turn -key opera-
tors is contained in the periodical, "Alternative Sources of Energy" July/August 1985, ASE
issue #74.
Key to Annotations: a - likely sources of microhydro turbines
b - penstock supplier
Dominion Bridge Sulzer, Inc.
F.W.E. Stapenhorst, Inc.
P.O. Box 280, Station A
283 Labrosse Avenue
Montreal, Quebec
Pointe Claire, Quebec
CANADA
CANADA
(514) 634-3551
(514) 695-8230
Eagle River Hydro
Colt Energy Systems
P.O. Box 1113
73 Water Street North, Unit 502
Bellingham, WA 98227
Cambridge, Ontario
(206) 592-5148
CANADA NIR 7G6
(519) 623-1390
Energy Research & Applications
1820 14th Street
Gilkes Pumps, Inc.
Santa Monica, CA 90404
P.O. Box 528
(213) 452-4905
Seabrook, TX 77586
(713) 474-3016 a
Energy Systems & Design
P.O. Box 1557
Han -A Corporation
Sussex, New Brunswick
921 W. 6th Avenue, Suite 190
CANADA EDE 1 PO
Anchorage, AK 99501
(506) 433-5748 a
(907) 272-1181
Essex Development Associates
110 Tremont Street
Boston, MA 02109
(617) 451-1103
Essex Turbine Co.
Kettle Cove Industrial Park
Magnolia, MA 01930
(617) 525-3423 a
Fairbanks Mill Contracting
North Danville Village
RFD 2
St. Johnsbury, VT 05819
(802) 748-8094
Flygt Corporation
129 Glover Avenue
Norwalk, CT 06856
(203) 846-2051
Fugi Electric Corporation of America
727 W. 7th, #235
Los Angeles, CA 90017
(213) 622-4490 a - a
Hayward Tyler Pump Co.
P.O. Box 492
80 Industrial Parkway
Burlington, VT 05402
(802) 863-2351
Hitachi America, Ltd.
950 Elm Avenue
San Bruno, CA 94066
(415) 872-1902 a
HobbyKraft
Box 71
Deje 660 92
SWEDEN
Hydro -Generation, Inc.
101 Casa Buena Drive, Suite F
Corte. Madera, CA 94925
(415) 924-4534
Hydro -Tech Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box 82
Chattaroy, WA 99003
(509) 238-6810 a
IT.,
Hydrolec North America, Inc.
925 Leroy-Somer Blvd.
Grandby, Quebec
CANADA J2G 8E2
(514) 378-0151 a
Hydro Watt Systems, Inc.
146 Siglun Road
Coos Bay, OR 97420
(503) 267-3559 a
Hydro West Group, Inc.
1200 112th Street, NE
Suite 102A
Bellevue, WA 98004
(206) 453-1106 b
Hydro West of California, Inc.
P.O. Box 765
Alamo, CA 94507
(415) 820-8326
Independent Power Company
20092 Oak Tree Road
N. San Juan, CA 95960
(916) 292-3754 a
Ingersoll-Rand
P.O. Box 486
Phillipsburg, NJ 08865
(201) 859-7000
James Leffel & Co.
426 East Street
Springfield, OH 45501
(513) 323-6431
Korea Hydro -Power
Development Co., Ltd.
Room 307 Hanyung Building
130-9 Seosomun-bong. Chung -Ku,
Seoul, KOREA
Kvaerner-Moss, Inc.
800 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10022
(212) 752-7310
Layne & Bowler, Inc.
P.O. Box 8097
Memphis, TN 38108
(901) 278-3800 a
McKay Water Power, Inc.
P.O. Box 221
West Lebanon, NH 03784
(603) 298-5122 a
Micro Hydro, Inc.
P.O. Box 1016
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
(208) 529-1611
NEEDS, Inc.
71 North Pleasant Street
Amherst, MA 01002
(413) 256-0465 a,b
New England Energy Development Systems,
Inc.
109 Main Street
Amherst, MA 01002
(413) 256-8468
New Found Power Co., Inc.
P.O. Box 576
Hope Valley, RI 02832
(401) 539-2336 a
Neyrpic Hydro Power, Inc.
969 High Ridge Road
Box 3834
Stamford, CT 06905
(203) 322-3887
Northwest Energy Systems
P.O. Box 925
Malone, WA 98559
(206) 482-3966 a
Northwest Water Power Systems
P.O. Box 19183
Portland, OR 97219
(503) 288-1297
Obermeyer Hyd. Turbines Ltd.
10 Front Street
Collinsville, CT 06022.
(203) 693-4292 a,b
Ossberger Turbines, Inc.
5709 South Laburnum Avenue
Richmond, VA 23231
(804) 22.6-9180
Alaska Sales Representative:
Stenor of Alaska, Inc.
203 W. 15th
Anchorage, AK 99501
(907) 279-6942 a
Oriental Engine & Supply Company
251 High Street
Palo Alto, CA 94301
(415) 325-0925 a,b
Page Hydro Power Systems
228 Melrose Court
Iowa City, IA 52240
(319) 354-9506
Phillip C. Ellis
R.D. 7, Box 125
Reading, PA 19606
(215) 779-2135
Schneider Engine Co.
Rt. 1, Box 81
Justin, TX 87248
(817) 648-2293
Small Hydro East
Star Route 240
Bethel, ME 04217
(207) 824-3244 a
Small Hydroelectric Systems and Equipment
5141 Wickersham
Acme, WA 98220
(206) 595-z312 a
Sunny Brook Hydro
P.O. Box'425
Lost Nation Road
Lancaster, NH 03584
(603) 788-4777 a
Voest-Alpine International Corp.
Lincoln Building
60 E. 42nd Street
New York, NY 10165'
(212) 661-1060
Waterwheel Erectors Ltd.
P.O. Box 246
Weeland ONT
CANADA
(416) 735-5512 a
Worthington Division of
McGraw -Edison
5310 Tarrytown Pike
Tarrytown, MD 21787
(301) 756-2602
HYDROELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
Applied Power Technology Co.
P.O. Box 666
Fernandina Beach, FL
(617) 547-7020
Barbour Stockwell Co.
296 Third Street
Cambridge, MA 02142
Basler Electric Company
P.O. Box 269
Highland, IL 62249
(618) 654-2341
Beckwith Electric Co., Inc.
11811 62nd Street, North
Largo, FL 33543
(813) 535-3408
Carling Turbine Blower Co.
Carlson Bldg., 8 Nebraska Street
P.O. Box 88
Worcester, MA 01613
(617) 752-2896
Digitek, Inc.
P.O. Box 468
Kenmore, WA 98028
(206) 485-6571
-0
Fist Devices, Inc.
101 Packard Road
Stow, MA 01775
(617) 897-5091
Gloval Technology Corp.
R.D., 3, Box 3155
Shelburne, VT 05482
(802) 985-2912
KGM Machine & Tool Co., Inc.
805 Henderson Blvd.
Folcroft, .PA 19032
(215) 586-7430
McGraw -Edison Co.
Service Group, Supply Operations
333-T Rt. 46
Fairfield, NJ
PACS Industries, Inc.
61 Steamboat Road
Great Neck, NY 11022
(516) 829-9060,
Satin American Corp.
40 Oliver Terrace
P.O. Box 619
Shelton, CT 06484
(203) 929-6363
Siemens -Allis, Inc.
P.O. Box 2168
Milwaukee, WI 53201
(414) 475-2759
Tech Development, Inc.
6801 Poe Avenue
Dayton, OH 45414
Voest-Alpine Int. Corp.
Lincoln Building
60 E. 42nd Street
New York, NY 10165
(212) 661-1060
Wegner Machinery Corp.
35-43 Eleventh Street
Long Island City, NY 11106
(212) 278-8408
SAMPLE REQUEST FORMAT FOR HYDROPOWER
EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS
GENTLEMEN:
DATE
I am interested in installing a microhydropower system. The following
site specifications are supplied for your evaluation. Please review the
specifications and answer any appropriate questions concerning your equipment.
My Name:
Phone No. ( )
Project Name:
I. REASON FOR DEVELOPMENT
(Check One)
Address:
1. I am interested in supplying my own electrical needs. I do not plan
to intertie with a utility. Therefore, I will require a synchronous
generator.
2. I am interested in supplying my own electrical needs. When my needs
are less than the energy produced, I would consider selling to a
utility. However, I want to be able to generate power independent
of a utility. I therefore require a synchronous generator and speed
control equipment.
3. I am interested in supplying my own electrical needs. I want to be
able to sell excess power to a utility. An induction generator is,
acceptable since I do not care to generate power independent of the
utility.
4. I am interested in generating as much power as possible for the
dollar invested. However, I want a synchronous generator so that I
can generate power if the utility service is interrupted.
5. I am interested in generating as much electrical power as possible
for the dollar invested. I am not interested in generating
independent of the utility.
Courtesy of USDOE
-1,
II. TYPE OF SOURCE AND AMOUNT OF HEAD
(Check One)
1. The site is a run of the stream or river site and can have a pool -
to -pool head from to feet.
2. The site is an existing dam and has a constant/variable pool -to -pool
head of to feet.
3. The site is a'canal drop/industrial waste discharge and has a,
pool -to -pool head of feet.
III. AMOUNT OF FLOW
(Check One)
1. The flow values are based on the attached flow duration curve.
2. The flow value is based on a minimum stream flow of cfs.
This is because my.objective is to supply my.energy needs as much of
the ,year as I can.
3. The flow is available months out of the year and is fairly
constant at cfs.
4. The flow values are based on monthly averages in cfs:
Jan. May Sept.
Feb. Jun. Oct.
Mar. Jul. Nov.
Apr. Aug. Dec.
5. Other: See V-9, Additional Information
IV. PERSONAL POWER NEEDS (for independent systems)
A copy of the daily load use table is attached. The daily peak load is
estimated to be kW. Major electrical equipment is listed below.
The voltage I need is
, and is single/three phase.
91
V. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
1. Site location and stream name
2. Name of local utility
Distance to nearest substation is
miles.
3. The quality of the water is usually clear/murky/silt laden/muddy.
4. Site elevation is feet.
5. Annual average temperature variation is from to
OF.
6. A sketch of the site is/is not included.
7. Existing structures or equipment that should be used, if possible,
include
8. The proposed diameter and length of the penstock are (leave blank if
not known): inches in diameter, feet in
length.
9. Additional information to be considered
MA
APPENDIX D
AGENCY DIRECTORY
FEDERAL AGENCIES
® Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission (FERC)
1120 Southwest 5th Avenue
Suite 1340
Portland, Oregon 97204
(503) 294-5840
• Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission (FERC)
825 N. Capital Street
Washington, D.C. 20426
(202) 727-1830
® Alaska District Corps of Engineers
Attention: Regulatory Branch,
NPACO-R
P.O. Box 898
Anchorage, Alaska 99506-0898
(907) 753-2712
® U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
701 C Street, Box 19
Anchorage, Alaska 99513
(907) 271-5083
® U.S. Department of Agriculture
Cooperative Extension Service
2221 East Northern Lights
Suite 240
Anchorage, Alaska 99502
(907) 279-5582
Cooperative Extension Service
1514 S. Cushman
Room 303
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
(907) 452-1530
Cooperative Extension Service
P.O. Box 109
Juneau, Alaska 99801
(907) 586-7102
Soil Conservation Service
201 E. 9th Avenue, Suite 300
Anchorage, Alaska 99501-3687
(907) 261-2426
Forest Service:
Forest Supervisor
Chugach National Forest
201 E. 9th Avenue
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
(907) 261-2.500
Forest Supervisor
Chatham Area
Tongass National Forest
P.O. Box 1980
Sitka, Alaska 99835
(907) 747-6671
Forest Supervisor
Stikine Area
Tongass National Forest
P.O. Box 309
Petersburg, Alaska 99833
(907) 772-3841
Forest Supervisor
Ketchikan Area
Tongass National Forest
Federal Building
Ketchikan, Alaska 99901
(907) 225-3101
o National Weather Service
National Climatic Data Center
Federal Building
Asheville, NC 28801-2696
(707) 258-2850
93
• U.S. Department -of the Interior
Bureau of Land Management
Anchorage District Office
4700 E. 72 Avenue
Anchorage, Alaska 99507
(907) 267-1200
District Manager
Fairbanks District Office
1541. Gaffney Road
Fairbanks, Alaska 99703
(907) 356-2025
National Parks Service
Regional Director
Alaska Regional Office
2525 Gambell, Room 107
Anchorage, Alaska 99508
(907) 261-2688
U.S. Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
4230 University Drive
Anchorage, Alaska 99508-4664
(907) 271-4138
Bureau of Reclamation
P.O. Box 2553
316 N. 26th
Billings, Montana 59103
STATE AGENCIES
s Alaska Department of Commerce and
Economic Development
Alaska Power Authority
P.O. Box 190869
Anchorage, Alaska 99519-0869
(907) 561-7877
• Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation
Permit Information and
Referral Center
437 E Street, Suite 200
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
(907) 279-0254
Northern Region
Permit Information
P.O. Box 1601
Fairbanks, Alaska 99707
(907) 452-2340
Southeast Region
Permit Information
P.O. Box 240
Juneau, Alaska 99803
(907) 465-2670
o Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Regional Habitat Protection
Supervisor
Southeastern Regional Office
230 South Franklin Street
Juneau, Alaska 99801
(907) 465-4107
Southcentral Regional Office
333 Raspberry Road
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
(907) 344-0541
Central Regional Office
1300 College Road
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
(907) 452-1531
94
e Alaska Department of Natural
Resources
Division of Land and Water
Management
Southeastern District Office
400 Willoughby Center,
4th Floor
P.O. Box MA, Juneau 99811
(907) 465-3400
Haines Area Office
P.O. Box 263
Haines, Alaska 99827
(907) 766-2120
Ketchikan Area Office
P.O. Box 7438
Ketchikan, Alaska 99901
(907) 225-4181
Northcentral District Office
4420 Airport Way
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
(907) 479-2243
Delta Area Office
P.O. Box 1149
Delta Junction, Alaska
(907) 895-4226
Copper River Area Office
P.O. Box 185
Glennallen, Alaska 99588
(907) 822-5535'
o Alaska Department of Transportation
and Public Facilities
Right -of -Way and Land
Acquisition Agent
P.O. Box 196900
Aviation Building
Anchorage, Alaska 99519-6900
(907) 266-1621
Right -of -Way and Land
Acquisition Agent
1201 Peger Road
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
(907) 452-1911
Right -of -Way and Land
Acquisition Agent
Valdez
See Fairbanks
Right -of -Way and Land
Acquisition Agent
99737 Nome
See Fairbanks
Southcentral District Office
3601 C Street,
P.O. Box 7-005
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
(907) 349-4524
Mat -Su Area Office
P.O. Box 328
Big Lake, Alaska 99688
(907) 892-6027
Kenai Peninsula Area Office
P.O. Box 1130
Soldotna, Alaska 99669
(907) 262-4124
Right -of -Way and Land
Acquisition Agent
P.O. Box Z
Juneau, Alaska 99811
(907) 465-3900
e Office of the Governor
Office of Management and Budget
Division of Governmental
Coordination
Juneau Office
P.O. Box AM
Juneau, Alaska 99811
(907) 465-3562
95
Southcentral Regional Office
2600 Denali Street; Suite 700
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
(907) 274-1581
Northern Regional Office
675 7th Avenue, Station H
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
(907) 456-3084
® University of Alaska
Arctic Environmental Information &
Data Center
State Climatologist or Office of
Program Development
707 A.Street
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
(907) 279-4523
ASSOCIATIONS
• Independent Energy Producers
1225 Eighth Street, Suite 285
Sacremento, CA 95814
• National Hydropower Association
1516 King Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
• Northwest Small Hydroelectric
Association
P.O. Box 7528
Bend, OR 97708
APPENDIX E
LEXICON
ACRONYMS
APA Alaska Power Authority, State Department of Commerce & Economic Development
APUC Alaska Public Utilities Commission
AVEC Alaska Village Electric Cooperative
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
cfs Cubic feet per second
DEC Department of Environmental Conservation, Alaska State
DCRA Department of Community and Regional Affairs, Alaska State
DGGS Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, Alaska State DNR
DNR Department of National Resources, Alaska State
DOE Department of Energy, Federal
DOT Department of Transportation, Alaska State
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
FAA Federal Aviation Administration (U.S. Dept. of Transportation)
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (U.S. Dept. of Energy, formerly Federal Power
Commission
kW Kilowatt
kWh Kilowatt hour
MW Megawatt (equals 1,000 kilowatts)
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NOC Notice of. Construction
OMB Office of Management & Budget, Alaska State Office of the Governor
PURPA Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act, Federal
QF Qualifying.Facility
REA Rural Electrification Administration (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture)
R/W Right -of -Way
USBR U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (U.S. Dept. of Interior)
USC United States Code
USDOE U.S. Department of Energy
USFS United States Forest Service (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture)
USGS U.S. Geological Survey (U.S. Dept. of Interior)
97
GLOSSARY
Amortization The process of paying off a debt with periodic equal payments.
Anadromous Fish Fish, such as salmon, which ascend rivers from the sea at certain seasons to
spawn.
Average Load The hypothetical constant load over a specified time period that would pro-
duce the same energy as the actual load would produce for the same period.
Avoided Cost The amount of money which a utility saves when it uses electricity produced
by a small producer rather than generating the electricity itself.
cfs Cubic feet per second; a measure of waterflow (lcfs = 450 gallons per
minute).
Capacity The maximum power output or load for which a turbine -generator, station, or
system is rated.
Capital Costs Development costs during project planning, design, and construction.
Collection Point The upstream location where water is diverted into the penstock.
Critical The amount of streamflow available for hydroelectric power generation during
Streamflow the most adverse streamflow period.
Debt Service Principal and interest payments on the debt used to finance the project.
Demand See Load.
Diversion See collection point.
Energy The potential for performing work. The electrical energy term generally used
is kilowatt-hours and represents power (kilowatts) operating for some time
period (hours).
Feasibility An investigation performed to formulate a hydropower project and definitely
Study assess its desirability for implementation.
Federal Energy An agency in the U.S. Department of Energy which licenses non-federal hydro -
Regulatory power projects and regulates interstate transfer of electric energy.
Commission (FERC) Formerly the Federal Power Administration.
Firm Power In marketing the energy from a hydroelectric project, the seller cannot
assume delivery of any more power than is continuously available in minimal
or critical water years. This power, of which delivery can be assumed even
under worst -case :circumstance, is called firm power.
Generation Point The downstream spot where water moves through the turbine and electricity is
generated.
98
Generator A machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Gigawatt (GW) One million kilowatts.
Head, Gross The difference in elevation between the headwater surface above and the
tailwater surface below a hydroelectric power plant.
Hydropower Plant An electric power plant in which the turbine/generators are driven by falling
water.
Impulse Turbine Units which use the velocity of the water to move the runner. Discharge is
at atmospheric pressure so that the water falls out of the turbine housing.
Most widely used in the microhydro range of applications.
Induction An induction motor used as a generator by operating it at speeds faster than
Generator it would operate as a motor.
Installed The total capacities shown on the nameplates of the generating units in a
Capacity hydropower plant.
Kilowatt NW) One thousand Watts..
Kilowatt -Hour
The amount
of electrical energy used to satisfy a one
kilowatt demand over a
(kWh)
period of one hour.
Load
The amount
of power needed to be delivered at a given point on an electric
system, or
demand for power.
Load Curve
A curve showing
power (kilowatts) supplied, plotted
against time of occur-
rence, and
illustrating the varying magnitude of the
load during the period
covered.
Load Factor The ratio of the actual average load to the peak or maximum load occurring
during a designated time.
Megawatt (MW) One thousand kilowatts.
Megawatt -hours One thousand kilowatt-hours.
(MWH)
Nomograph A set of scales for the variables in a problem arranged so that a straight
line connecting the known values will provide intersections on other scales
and solve unknown values.
Peak Demand Peak demand is the maximum demand in kilowatts for a given period. For
example, the annual peak demand is the maximum demand in kilowatts that
occurs within a 'year; the daily peak demand is the maximum demand in kilo-
watts that occurs within a given day.
Peak Load The maximum load in a stated period of time.
O
Penstock The pipe that water moves through between the collection and generation
points.
Plant Factor Ratio of the average load to a plant's installed capacity expressed as an
annual percentage.
Pondage The amount of water stored behind a hydroelectric dam of relatively small
storage capacity and used for daily or weekly regulation of the flow of a
river.
Power The rate of doing work. Electric power refers to the generation or use of
electric energy, usually measured in kilowatts.
Power Factor The percentage ratio of the amount of power, measured in kilowatts, used by a
consuming electric facility to the apparent power measured in kilovolt -
amperes.
Pumped Storage
An arrangement whereby electric power is generated during peak load periods
by using water previously pumped into a storage reservoir during off-peak
periods.
Riparian Habitat
Habitat found on or near stream or river banks.
Reaction Turbine
Units with runners directly in the water stream with power developed by water
flowing over the blades. Pressure rather than velocity drives the runner.
Reconnaissance
A preliminary study designed to ascertain whether a feasibility study is
warranted.
Spinning Reserve
Generating units operating at no load or at partial load with excess capacity
readily available to support additional load.
Streamflow
The movement of water in a stream or river.
Synchronous
A generator capable of operating in a stand-alone system providing 60 cycle
Generator
power. It provides its own excitation current through either a rectifier or
an external DC generator or battery system.
System, electric
The physically connected generation, transmission, distribution system, and
other facilities operated as an integral unit.
Tailrace
Channelof discharged water from the turbine draft tube to the river or
stream.
Term The duration of a loan, usually measured in years.
Transmission The act or process of transporting electric energy in bulk.
Turbine A hydraulic motor. The part of a generating unit which is spun by the force
of water or steam to drive an electric generator. The turbine usually con-
sists of a series of curved vanes or blades on a central spindle.
10C
Turbine/Generator A rotary -type unit consisting of a turbine and an electric generator.
Turbine Efficiency The ratio between the actual power output of the turbine and the theoretical
power output for a "perfect" turbine. Efficiency can refer to the turbine by
itself, or to the plant as a whole, including the generator and any gear box,
clutch or similar unit. In this report, efficiency refers to the power
production of the plant as a whole.
Watt The rate of energy transfer equivalent to one ampere under a pressure of one
volt.
Wheeling Transportation of electricity by a utility over its lines for another utili-
ty, including the delivery to another system of like quantities but not
necessarily the same energy.
101
APPENDIX F
CONVERSION TABLES
Volume
U.S.
Cubic
Cubic
Unit Liters
Gallons
Feet
Meters
Acre -Feet
1 Liter = 1
0.264
0.035
0.001
8.11x10-7
1 U.S. Gallon = 3.785
1
0.134
0.00379
3.07x10-6
1 Cubic Foot
(62.4 lbs. water) = 28.317
7.48
1
0.0283
2.30x 10-5
1 Cubic Meter = 1,000
264
35.315
1
8.11x 10-4
1 Acre -Foot = 1,233,500
325,851 43,560
1,233.5
1
1 U.S. Gallon = 231 cubic inches = 0.83 Imperial Gallons.
1 Liter = 1,000 cubic centimeters = 1.05 quarts = 1,000
grams of water.
Rate of Flow
Unit
gpm
cis
mgd
cu m/sec
1 U.S. Gallon per Minute (gpm) =
1
0.00223
0.00144
6.31x10-5
1 Cubic Foot per Second (cfs) =
449
1
0.646
0.0283
1 Million U. S. Gallons per day (mgd) =
694
1.55
1
0.044
1 Cubic Meter per Second (cu m / sec) =
15,800
35.3
22.8
1
1 U.S. Gallon per Minute for 1 Year = 1.614 acre-feet.
1 Cubic Foot per Second = 1.98 acre-feet per day = 724 acre-feet per year
1 Acre = 43,560 square feet (209 x 209 feet) = 0.405 hectare.
1 hectare = 10,000 square meters = 2.5 acres (approximately).
Energy
Unit
j
ft-lb
BTU
Kcal
hp-hr
KWH
1 Joule =
1
0.7376
9.481 x 10-4
2.389x 10-4
3.725x 10-7
2.778x 10-'
1-Foot-pound =
1.356
1
1.285x 10-3
3.239x 10-4
5.051 x 10-7
3.766x 10-7
1 BTU =
1,055
777.9
1
0.252
3.929x 10-4
2.930x 10-4
1 Kilocalorie =
4,186
3,087
3.968
1
1.559x 10-3
1.163x 10-3
1 Horsepower -hour =
2.685x 106
1.980x 10s
2,545
641.4
1
0.7457
1 Kilowatt-hour =
3.6x 106
2.655x 106
3,413
860.1
1.341
1
1 KWH is generated by 0.98 acre-feet of water falling 1 foot (at 100% efficiency).
1 joule = 1 watt -second.
Power (Energy rate of flow)
Unit
BTU/hr
ft-lb/sec
hp
KW
1 BTU / hour.
= 1
0.2161
3.929x 10-4
2.930x 10-4
1 Foot-pound/ second
= 4.628
1
1.818x 10-3
1.356x 10-4
1 Horsepower
= 2,545
550
1
0.7457
1 Kilowatt
= 3,413
737.6
1.341
1
1 KW is generated by 11.8 cfs of water falling 1 foot (at 100% efficiency).
1 Watt = 1 joule per second.
CREDITS
James Gurke
Linda Irvin
Susan G. Rogers
Irene Tomory
Writer/Editor
Graphic Support
Editing
Word Processing
Funding for this publication was provided by
the Alaska Power Administration, U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy Grant No. DE-F651-80R00103.