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HomeMy WebLinkAboutWind Energy Resource Atlas, The Alaska Region, December 1980_SearchablePNL-3195 WERA-10 UC-60 WIND ENERGY RESOURCE ATLAS THE ALASKA REGION Wise, James L. (yD. L. Evntotef} Wentink, Tunis, Jr. W. R. Barchef,, Becker, Richard, Jr. R. L. George ) Comiskey, Albert L. Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center University of Alaska 707 A Street Anchorage, Alaska 99501 December 1980 Prepared for Pacific Northwest Laboratory Under Agreement No. B-87917-A-L Pacific Northwest Laboratory Richland, Washington 99352 (a) Geophysical Institute University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 (b) Pacific Northwest Laboratory PREFACE For the purpose of assessing the national wind resource, the United States and its pos- sessions have been divided into twelve regions. For each region, wind resource assessments are presented in the form of an atlas. The atlases depict in graphic, tabular and narrative form the wind resource on a regional and subregional level. The information presented in the atlases will help guide homeowners, utilities and industry in decisions concerning the use of the wind as a source of energy. This atlas of the wind energy resource is composed of introductory and background infor- mation, a regional summary of the wind resource, and assessments of the wind resource in each subregion of Alaska. Chapter 1 provides background on how the wind resource is assessed and on how the results of the assessment should be interpreted. A description of the wind re- source on a state scale is then given in Chapter 2. The results of the wind energy assess- ments for each subregion are assembled in this chapter into an overview and summary of the various features of the Alaska wind energy resource. Chapter 3 provides an introduction and outline to the descriptions of the wind resource given for each subregion. Assessments for individual subregions are presented as separate chapters beginning with Chapter 4. The sub- region wind energy resources are described in greater detail than is the Alaska wind energy resource, and features of selected stations are discussed. This preface outlines the use and interpretation of the information found in the subregion chapters. Much of the information in the subregion chapters is given in graphic or tabular form. As is discussed in Section 3.1, the sequence of maps, tables, and graphs is the same in each subregion chapter. References to these figures and tables are made here with an asterisk (*) in place of the chapter number (e.g., Figure *.1, Table *.2). Similar maps and tables are found in Chapter 2 on the Alaskan wind resource. References to the Alaskan maps and tables are made in brackets, [ ]. Figure *.1 shows the major geographical (mountains, rivers) and cultural (cities, towns) features in the subregion [Figure 2.1]. This map can be used to orient the reader to the subregion. Figure *.2 portrays the topography of the subregion in shaded relief [Figure 2.2]. The shaded relief allows the reader to visualize the character of the terrain surrounding locations of special interest. Superimposed on these subregion maps (but not the Alaska maps) is a grid of dashed lines one degree longitude by one-half degree (30') latitude. This grid is repeated on nearly all subsequent maps to give the reader an adequate frame of reference for locating the same feature on different maps. Figure *.3 is a map of the land-surface form [Figure 2.3]. The information presented in Sections 1.6 and 1.8 indicates how the land-surface form is used to designate the terrain features considered to have a typical good exposure to the wind. Awareness of what consti- tutes well-exposed terrain features is crucial to the proper interpretation of the maps of wind power density. Figures *.4 and *.5 identify and locate wind data sites relevant to the assessment. Al] locations in each subregion for which the National Climatic Center (NCC) has wind data in its archives are shown and named in Figure *.4. However, this assessment is based on a subset of NCC data augmented by data from other sources (see Sections 1.1 and 1.2). Figure *.5 shows the location of all wind data sites used in the assessment. Sections 1.3 through 1.5 briefly describe the methods used to analyze the wind data and evaluate the wind power. The wind energy resource for a subregion is illustrated using several maps. The wind power maps represent a careful synthesis of quantitative wind data guided by state-of-the-art concepts on air flow near the earth's surface. Section 1.6 describes how the analysis of the wind data is transformed into the map of annual average wind power density found in Figure *.6 (Figure 2.4]. This map gives the annual average wind power density at typically exposed sites. A discussion of the classes of wind pgwer density in Section 1.7 gives the relation- ship between mean wind power density (watts/m¢) and mean wind speed (m/s or mph). A certainty rating is used to provide a measure of the ability to objectively evaluate the wind resource in a grid cell. The certainty ratings are given in the maps of Figure *.7. The degree of certainty with which the wind power can be estimated depends on the quality and quantity of wind data, the complexity of the terrain and concern over the variability of the wind resource over short distances. How these factors are combined to assign a certainty rating is discussed in Section 1.9. The terrain feature with typical good exposure to the wind in a particular land-surface form provides a convenient and essential reference point on which to base the analyses of the wind resource shown in Figure *.6. However, a substantial portion of the terrain may have Vii poorer than typical exposure to the wind and will have a lower wind resource than shown on the wind power maps. The maps of Figure *.8 provide an estimate of the percentage of area in each grid cell that may experience at least each of four different wind power classes. Sec- tion 1.10 discusses the assumptions underlying the evaluation of the areal distribution of the wind resource. The area of the subregion estimated to experience a particular wind power class is given in Table *.1 [Table 2.2]. This table summarizes the contribution made by each grid cell to the areal distribution of wind power for the subregion. The annual average wind power density compresses into a single statistic time-varying trend on several time scales, e.g., annual, seasonal, monthly, and daily. In this atlas, the seasonal evolution of the geographical distribution of wind power is shown at the subregion level. The maps of Figure *.9 give the average wind power density for winter, spring, sum- mer, and autumn. The interpretation of the seasonal average wind power maps is identical to that for the annual average wind power map. [For Alaska, Figure 2.5 shows only the season of maximum power. ] Additional information on the time variation and other characteristics of the wind re- source in each subregion is presented for selected locations for which the National Climatic Center placed I-hourly or 3-hourly time-series data on magnetic tape. Descriptions of the characteristics of the wind resource presented for these stations are given in Section 3.2. The urge to consider information pertaining to one of these sites as representative of some other location must be tempered with the realization that wind characteristics are extremely site-dependent. The degree of correspondence between the wind characteristics at one site and those at another site depends on the similarity between the topographical setting of the sites, the weather patterns that affect the sites and the obstructions to the wind in the vicinity of the sites. : Table *.2 identifies the stations, and gives their location (see also Figures *.4 and *.5) and annual average wind speed and power density. Figure *.10 shows how the yearly mean speed and power varied during the period of record. The monthly mean wind speed and power over the course of a year are shown in Figure *.11. The hourly mean wind speed over the course of a day is shown in Figure *.12 with a separate curve for each season. Figures *.11 and *.12 indicate the time of year and time of day, respectively, the wind resource is avail- able. Figure *.10, on the other hand, indicates the year-to-year variability that might be expected in the yearly mean resource. The frequency of occurrence of winds from a particular direction and of winds with a particular speed is shown in Figures *.13 and *.14, respectively. The information on wind direction may be important in assessing the availability of the wind resource relative to surrounding terrain or nearby obstructions. However, it is also important to realize that the wind direction statistics are highly dependent on the location of the instrument site relative to obstructions and major terrain features, e.g., valleys, ridges, and mountain ranges. Figures *.15 and *.16 portray speed and power frequency statistics in the form of speed and power exceedance curves, respectively. The fraction of the total period of record the speed equals or exceeds a given value is shown in Figure *.15. The power exceedance curve in Figure *.16 gives the fraction of the period of record for which the power exceeds a given value. As has been shown in the preceding discussion, the order of presentation of the wind resource in this atlas proceeds from an Alaskan perspective in Chapter 2, to a subregion per- spective in the first part of each subregion chapter, to individual station descriptions in the last part of the subregion chapters. Attention given to Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 will make it possible for the reader to properly interpret the wind resource presentations.: iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A number of people and organizations contributed in various ways to this program, ranging from weather observers recording the winds at individual sites to the processing and analysis of wind data. The National Climatic Center furnished most of the station summaries, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Forest Service provided other important data. The program benefited from the close and sustained cooperation between the staff of AEIDC and the staff of the Geophysical Institute. The efforts of Coert Imstead and Celia Rohwer in the Geophysical Institute's Data Processing Section and the graphics personnel at AEIDC and PNL were especially helpful. Special appreciation goes to Deborah Topp and Lynda McAllister at AEIDC and Shelia Finch at the Geophysical Institute who patiently typed the text from initial draft through the several revisions to the finished product. Also, many thanks to Judy Brogan Murphy of AEIDC and Betsy Owzarski of PNL who edited the atlas. Finally, special acknowledgment is due to L. Divone and G. Tennyson of DOE, for their support and encouragement as well as their understanding of the many technical aspects and associated difficulties in producing this atlas. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A number of people and organizations contributed in various ways to this program, ranging from weather observers recording the winds at individual sites to the processing and analysis of wind data. The National Climatic Center furnished most of the station summaries, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Forest Service provided other important data. The Program benefited from the close and sustained cooperation between the staff of AEIDC and the staff of the Geophysical Institute. The efforts of Coert Imstead and Celia Rohwer in the Geophysical Institute's Data Processing Section and the graphics personnel at AEIDC and PNL were especially helpful. Special appreciation goes to Deborah Topp and Lynda McAllister at AEIDC and Shelia Finch at the Geophysical Institute who patiently typed the text from initial draft through the several revisions to the finished product. Also, many thanks to Judy Brogan Murphy of AEIDC and Betsy Owzarski of PNL who edited the atlas. Finally, special acknowledgment is due to L. Divone and G. Tennyson of DOE, for their support and encouragement as well as their understanding of the many technical aspects and associated difficulties in producing this atlas. CHAPTER 1: PwnNn— 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.1 0 CHAPTER 2: oe en 2 wn CHAPTER 3: 3.1 3.2 CHAPTER 4: 4.1 4.2 4.3 CONTENTS IDENTIFICATION OF WIND DATA SOURCES . WIND DATA SCREENING . . TIME SCALES IN REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS . EVALUATION OF WIND DATA. . 7 1.4.1 Vertical Adjustment 1.4.2 Estimates for Mountainous A Areas . QUALITATIVE WIND INDICATORS . . WIND POWER MAPS... eee WIND POWER DENSITY CLASSES... CLASSES OF LAND-SURFACE FORM . CERTAINTY RATING . . AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WIND. RESOURCE. STATE FEATURES. . . . « GEQGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY . . . . CLIMATE . . o 8 ee WIND POWER IN ALASKA |. REGIONAL WIND ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT — 2.3.1 Certainty Rating of Wind “Resource. 2.3.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource. ‘ SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE WIND RESOURCE MAJOR WIND RESOURCE AREAS . . . 2.5.1 Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Coasts Bering Sea Islands and Coast . Lower Cook Inlet. . . . Gulf of Alaska Coast . . NNNNNO nn nin Au Pwr SUBREGIONAL FEATURES. . MAPS OF STATE FEATURES . . a 36 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS. |; 3.2.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed Diurnal Wind Speed by Season . MNYNNE AnaPwnr- 3 3 3 3 3.2. NORTHERN ALASKA . « . ee Exposed Mountain Ridges and Summits Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian IsTands Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed Directional Frequency and Average Speed Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN NORTHERN ALASKA . 4.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource . 4.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource SEASONAL WIND POWER . . 2.1 Winter. 2... 2.2 Spring . . . . e .2.3 Summer . . . . . 2.4 Autumn . . . ES OF SELECTED STATIONS. . Interannual Wind Power and Speed URI ] ee -3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season . 4 5 6 vii Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed Directional Frequency and Average Speed Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration ecto ee eee we ew ee - ONADNPRPWWHNDY 10 10 ll 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 21 21 22 22 23 23 23 23 23 25 25 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 29 29 30 30 30 CHAPTER 5: 5.1 5.2 5.3 CHAPTER 6: 6.1 6.2 6.3 CHAPTER 7: 7.1 7.2 7.3 REFERENCE INDEX . CONTENTS (Continued) SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA. . . . . ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA 5.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource . 5.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource EASONAL WIND POWER . . . ww we ee 2.1 Winter 2... .2.2 Spring. . . -3 Summer. . Ss 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2.4 Autum . ... . FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS. . 5.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed Sa35 5.3. 5.3. 5.3. 5.3. Sc Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed . Diurnal Wind Speed by Season. . . Directional Frequency and Average Speed Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency On pwn SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA . . «. 2 e we ew ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN SOUTHEAST ALASKA 6.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource . 6.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource EASONAL WIND POWER . 2. . ww ew ew ee 1 Winter 2... eee Hopring ote 3 Summer . we 4 Autum . . URES OF SELECTED STATIONS ; 1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed at 2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed . 3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season . 4 5 6 2. 2 nee 220 EAT! 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. <5 Directional Frequency and Average Speed Ss 6. 6 6 6 Fl 6. 6. 6 6. 6. Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency 6. SOUTHWESTERN ALASKA 2 . 1. we ew ee ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN SOUTHWEST ALASKA 7.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource . 7.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource SEASONAL WIND POWER . . . ww ew ew ee «2.1 Winter. 0 5 0 a ee eee SPRING: eles oe) t6 Ie oS Summer . 1 ew we 4 Autumn ee Tl URES OF SELECTED STATIONS . tole 1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed 2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed ; Diurnal Wind Speed by Season. . . 5 6 Directional Frequency and Average Speed Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency . 7 7 7 7 F 7 7 7 7 Z 7 EAT 2 2 2. A 3 3 3 3 3. 3. vili Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration oF et eee treo ee ee Page 65 65 66 66 67 67 67 67 68 68 70 71 71 71 72 72 - 107 107 108 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 110 110 110 110 110 137 137 137 138 138 138 138 138 139 139 140 140 141 141 141 141 165 167 1.1 zal ene, 2.3 2.4 2.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 425 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 5.1 See 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 LIST OF FIGURES Geographic Divisions for Regional Wind Energy Assessments Geographic Map of Alaska . . «© « 6 + e+ © ew we Topographic Map of Alaska . . . . 2. 1. we we we w Classes of Land-Surface Form in Alaska. . . . . © Annual Average Wind Power in Alaska. . . . . « Seasonal Maximum Wind Power in Alaska . . . . Geographic Map of Northern Alaska Topographic Map of Northern Alaska . . . . . « «© Land-Surface Form Map for Northern Alaska. . . . NCC Station Locations in Northern Alaska . . . . Location of Stations Used in Northern Alaska Resource Assessment Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power. . . . . . Certainty Rating of Northern Alaska Wind Resource . . . Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Northern Alaska. Seasonal Average Wind Power in Northern Alaska . . . . Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska . Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska . Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Northern Alaska . . . Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Northern Alaska Geographic Map of Southcentral Alaska . . . . . . e Topographic Map of Southcentral Alaska. . . . . .. Land-Surface Form Map for Southcentral Alaska . .. . NCC Station Locations in Southcentral Alaska. . . . . Location of Stations Used in Southcentral Alaska Resource Assessment Southcentral Alaska Annual Average Wind Power . . . . Certainty Rating of Southcentral Alaska Wind Resource. . Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southcentral Alaska Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southcentral Alaska. . . Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska . Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southcentral Alaska . . Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southcentral Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southcentral Alaska . Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southcentral Alaska Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southcentral Alaska Geographic Map of Southeastern Alaska . . . . . « Topographic Map of Southeastern Alaska. . . . . « e Land-Surface Form Map for Southeastern Alaska . . . . NCC Station Locations in Southeastern Alaska. . . . . Location of Stations Used in Southeastern Alaska Resource Assessment ix Page 14 15 16 18 20 32 33 34 36 37 38 40 42 44 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 74 75 76 78 79 REFERS 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 112 113 114 116 117 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 LIST OF FIGURES Southeastern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power . .. . Certainty Rating of Southeastern Alaska Wind Resource. . . Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southeastern Alaska . Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southeastern Alaska. . . . Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska . Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southeastern Alaska . . . Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southeastern Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southeastern Alaska . Annual Average Wind Speed ™ ration for Southeastern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power ition for Southeastern Alaska . Geographic Map of Southwes n Alaska .-. 2. 2. « « © « Topographic Map of Southwes-ern Alaska. . 2. 2. 2 ew we Land-Surface Form Map for Southwestern Alaska . . .. . NCC Station Locations in Southwestern Alaska. . . . « Location of Stations Used in Southwestern Alaska Resource Assessment Southwestern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power . . . we Certainty Rating of Southwestern Alaska Wind Resource. . Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southwestern Alaska . Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southwestern Alaska. . . . Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska . . Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southwestern Alaska . . . Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southwestern Alaska Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southwestern Alaska . Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southwestern Alaska . Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southwestern Alaska . Alaska - 118 120 122 124 127 128 129 130 - 131 - 132 or 133 - 142 - 143 - 144 - 146 147 - 148 - 150 152 154 - 157 - 158 159 160 161 162 - 163 1.1 2.1 252 2.3 2.4 2.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 LIST OF FIGURES Geographic Divisions for Regional Wind Energy Assessments Geographic Map of Alaska . .... . Topographic Map of Alaska . . . .. . Classes of Land-Surface Form in Alaska . Annual Average Wind Power in Alaska. . . Seasonal Maximum Wind Power in Alaska . Geographic Map of Northern Alaska d Topographic Map of Northern Alaska . Land-Surface Form Map for Northern Alaska . NCC Station Locations in Northern Alaska Location of Stations Used in Northern Alaska Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power . Certainty Rating of Northern Alaska Wind Reso! Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Northern Alaska Resource urce Seasonal Average Wind Power in Northern Alaska . . Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska Assessment Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska . Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Northern Ala ska. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Northern Alaska Geographic Map of Southcentral Alaska . . Topographic Map of Southcentral Alaska. . Land-Surface Form Map for Southcentral Alaska NCC Station Locations in Southcentral Alaska Location of Stations Used in Southcentral Alaska Resource Assessment Southcentral Alaska Annual Average Wind Power Certainty Rating of Southcentral Alaska Wind Resource . Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southcentral Alaska Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southcentral A laska . Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska . Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southcentral Alaska Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southcentral Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southcentral Alaska . Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southcentral Alaska Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southcentral Alaska Geographic Map of Southeastern Alaska . . Topographic Map of Southeastern Alaska. . Land-Surface Form Map for Southeastern Alaska NCC Station Locations in Southeastern Alaska Location of Stations Used in Southeastern Alaska Resource Assessment ix Page 14 15 16 18 20 32 33 34 36 37 38 40 42 44 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 74 75 76 78 RFRSS 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 112 113 114 116 117 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 LIST OF FIGURES Page Southeastern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power . . . . . 118 Certainty Rating of Southeastern Alaska Wind Resource. . . . - 120 Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southeastern Alaska . . . . 122 Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southeastern Alaska. . . . . . « 124 Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska . . - 127 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska . . . 128 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southeastern Alaska . . . . - 129 Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southeastern Alaska . 130 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southeastern Alaska. . . . 131 Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southeastern Alaska . . - 132 Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southeastern Alaska . . . 133 Geographic Map of Southwestern Alaska . . . . . . «© «© «© « « 142 Topographic Map of Southwestern Alaska. . . 2. «© «© © «© © © © 143 Land-Surface Form Map for Southwestern Alaska . . . . . . . . 144 NCC Station Locations in Southwestern Alaska. . . . . . . . . 146 Location of Stations Used in Southwestern Alaska Resource Assessment . 147 Southwestern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power . . . . ... « 148 Certainty Rating of Southwestern Alaska Wind Resource. . . . . . 150 Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southwestern Alaska . . . . 152 Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southwestern Alaska. . . . . . . 154 Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska. . . . . 157 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska . . . 158 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southwestern Alaska . . . . . . 159 Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southwestern Alaska . 160 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southwestern Alaska. . . . 161 Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southwestern Alaska . . . . 162 Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southwestern Alaska . . - 163 LIST OF TABLES Page 1.1. Stations With Wind Data in Alaska and Peripheral Area Screened in Assessment... 2. + « © 5 «© © © «© © © © © «© «© « 2 1.2. Land-Surface Form Terrain Features Representative of Exposed Locations 5 1.3. Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 mand50m.....+.. 7 1.4 Scheme of Classification . . . 2. 2. © © «© © © © © © ew 7 2.1. Land Area and Population of Alaska . . 2. 2 e 6 © ee e we we e 9 2.2 Areal Distribution of Wind Power Classes in Alaska. . . . . - « - 219 3.1 Maps, Tables, and Graphs Used to Depict the Wind Resource. . . . . . 21 4.1 Areal Distribution (km?) of Wind Power Classes in Northern Alaska. . . 39 4,2 Northern Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics . . . 46 5.1 Areal Distribution (km?) of Wind Power Classes in Southcentral Alaska . 81 5.2 Southcentral Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics . . 88 6.1 Areal Distribution (km?) of Wind Power Classes in Southeastern Alaska . 119 6.2 Southeastern Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics . . 126 7.1 Areal Distribution (km?) of Wind Power Classes in Southwestern Alaska . 149 7.2 Southwestern Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics . . 156 xi CHAPTER 1: Rapid development of wind as a source of commercial electric power is the prin- cipal goal of the Federal Wind Energy Pro- gram. Utility planning, wind turbine man- ufacturing, and marketing of wind energy conversion systems all depend on detailed wind resource assessments. This atlas of Alaska's wind resource, a product of the Wind Characteristics Program Element of the Federal Wind Energy Program, repre- sents a major source of information for meeting these various needs. This atlas is one of 12 being assem- bled to describe potential wind resources throughout the United States (see Fig- ure 1.1). The spatial and temporal reso- lution of the wind resource in these regional assessments will be depicted in considerably greater detail than that in existing national assessments (Reed 1975, Coty 1976, Garate 1977, Elliott 1977). To produce the Alaska atlas in a timely fashion, only existing relevant data REGIONAL WIND ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT were used. The other atlases will use comparable data sets, analysis techniques, and presentations to ensure the compara- bility of the wind resource assessments. The Alaska atlas assimilates five collections of wind resource data: one for the state and one for each of the four sub- regions that compose the state (northern, southcentral, southeast and southwest). At the subregional level, features of the climate, topography, and wind resource are discussed in greater detail than is provid- ed in the state discussion, and the data locations on which the assessment is based are mapped. Variations, over several time scales, in the wind resource at selected stations in each subregion are shown on graphs of monthly average and interannual wind speed and power and hourly average wind speed for each season. Other graphs present speed, direction, and duration frequencies of the wind at these locations. Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands ow FIGURE 1.1. Geographic Divisions for Regional Wind Energy Assessments. The methods used to identify, screen, evaluate, and analyze the various types of data and to produce the wind energy resource maps and graphs will only be described brief- ly. [For more detail see Wentink and Wise (1980)]. However, this discussion will provide the reader with useful background information for interpreting the wind energy resource maps for Alaska. 1.1 IDENTIFICATION OF WIND DATA SOURCES The surface wind data on which this atlas has been based were obtained from several sources: the National Climatic Center (NCC), the U.S. Forest Service, university research projects, fossil-fuel power plants and their proposed sites, U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) candidate wind turbine sites, the Atmospheric Environment Service of Canada, and other government and private organizations. NCC has the larges' collection of wind data. Surveys and indi ces of wind data archived there (Changery 1975, 1978; Changery et al. 1977) are ex- tremely helpful in locating available wind data. The Index of Original Surface Weath« Records, published for Alaska by the NCC, provides additional information about stations at which wind data have been taken. The wind data available from the NCC may be in one or more of three formats: summarized, digitized, and unsummarized. Initially, all wind data are in the un- summarized format consisting of the original station weather records. For many stations, the collection of individual observations has been condensed into wind summaries. Changery et al. (1977) present examples of the various summary formats used and indices of the stations for which wind summaries are available. For still fewer stations (primarily airport stations) the NCC has put the original one- or three- hourly weather observat’ons on magnetic tape to create a digitized time series of weather (and wind) observations. [TDF-14 (NCC 1975) describes the data on these tapes:] Table 1.1 indicates the number of stations with wind data in these various formats in Alaska. Conventional NCC surface weather data in coastal areas were supplemented by monthly mean wind speeds summarized over coastal marine areas in the Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf Waters an Coastal Regions of Alaska (NCC and AEIDC 1977). Wind summarfes at the 150-m and 300-m levels above the surface (Winds Aloft Summaries, NCC 1970) for 16 sites in Alaska supplemented the upper-air wind climatology compiled by Crutcher (1961) for the northern hemisphere. In contrast to the NCC data, which are primarily from inhabited areas, U.S. Forest Service data in the National Fire Weather Data Library (Furman and Brink 1975) are from remote sites in mountainous and forested areas under the jurisdiction of the Federal government (i.e., national forests, national parks, Indian reser- vations, or Bureau of Land Management areas). Nearly 74 stations with wind data are reported in the National Fire Weather Data Library for Alaska. However, only one afternoon observation, at 2 p.m., is digi- tized per day during the local fire weather season. Wind data from one fossil-fuel power plant and one potential plant site (Verholek 1977) were examined. Many other wind data sets collected by university research projects, state and local air pollution control agencies, or in support of environmental impact statements have also been identified. 1.2 WIND DATA SCREENING Table 1.1 indicates the quantity of wind data available in Alaska. However, not all of these data need to, or should, be used in a wind resource assessment. Screening procedures were developed to identify stations with the most useful data and to eliminate stations that would not significantly contribute information on the distribution of the wind resource. TABLE 1.1. Stations with Wind Data in Alaska and Peripheral Area Screened in Assessment Source and Type Screened Retained National Climatic Center Digitized 107 107 Summarized 165 152 Unsummarized 160 19 National Fire Weather Data Library 74 24 Nuclear & Fossil-Fuel Power Plants 2 2 University Research 6 2 Other 5 4 Canadian and Russian 16 16 Wind data in summarized or digitized format were chosen over unsummarized data. If stations had both summarized and digi- tized data, the digitized data were used for selected stations to prepare a more extensive characterization of the wind resource. Unsummarized data were used only when no summarized or digitized data were available. In areas with a high density of sta- tions with wind summaries, those stations appearing to have the best exposure to the wind, greatest number of daily observa- tions, longest period of record, and long- est period of unchanged anemometer height and location were usually selected over other nearby stations. When more than one type of summary (see Changery et al. 1977) was available for a given station, the sum- mary covering the longest period of record with constant anemometer height and loca- tion, with the greatest number of wind speed and direction classes, and with the highest frequency of daily observations was chosen. The screening of the National Fire Weather Data Library identified those stations where NCC data were not dup- licated. This significantly reduced the number of U.S. Forest Service sites to be considered in the assessment. Table 1.1 shows the effect of screening on the number of sites analyzed. Only sites for which there was quality information per- taining to the wind resource were re- tained for the final analysis. 1.3 TIME SCALES IN REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS Several time scales are encountered in the following discussions of the wind resource: annual, seasonal, monthly, and diurnal. Annual mean values are generally based on an average of the one- or three- hourly observations of wind speed or power in the period of record; however, a com- plete calendar year's data (covering January 1 to December 31) is used for calculating individual yearly means. At stations with less than 24 hourly obser- vations or eight three-hourly observations per day, the values are only representative of the times of day for which the data were taken. The four seasons are defined as: @ winter - December, January, and February spring - March, April, and May summer - June, July, and August autumn - September, October, and November. The phrase “seasonal trends” refers to the change in monthly mean values over the course of the four seasons. Monthly mean values are based on as many hours of data as are available for that month in each year of the period of record. The daily or diurnal cycles of variation in the hourly mean wind power or speed are referenced to local standard time on a 24-hour clock. Midnight is both 00 and 24, 1.4 EVALUATION OF WIND DATA For the purpose of mapping the geographical variation of the wind resource, wind power density was chosen over wind speed since the power density incorporates in a single number the com- bined effect of the distribution of wind speeds and the dependence of the power density on air density and on the cube of the wind speed. Quantitative wind data in three formats were evaluated for mean wind power density: digitized, summarized, and unsummarized. The,average wind power density P (watts/m°) in a vertical plane perpendicular to the wind direction for stations with one- or three-hourly digi- tized data was calculated from: n = 3 Per 9% 4 ) i=1 where n = the number of observations in the averaging period p = the density (in kg/m?) computed from the station pressure and temperature FF = the wind speed (in m/s) at the qth observation time. For stations with wind summaries, P was calculated from: Peps UH @) where vv = the mean air density c = the number of wind speed classes fy = frequency of occurrence of winds in the gth class V5 = the median wind speed of the jth class. In those cases for which unsummarized wind data were assessed, the seasonal and annual average speeds, V, were estimated from a visual examination of one year's original weather records. The wind power density, P, was then estimated by assuming the speed frequency distribution followed a Weibull distribution: Be aid) P 1.07 pV (3) 1.4.1 Vertical Adjustment The anemometer height above the surface rarely was at either the 10-m or 50-m reference levels chosen for the presentation of the wind resource. A power law was used to adjust the long-term mean wind speed or power density to the refer- ence level: a wT (RY 3 Pet (BY (4) Va Pa where Vv, y and B. = the mean wind speed or . ov wind power density at heights Z, r (the ane- ’ mometer and reference level, respectively) @ = the power law exponent. An examination of long-term mean wind speeds at airport locations at which the anemometer height was changed and at tower sites with multiple levels of anemometry indicates an « ~1/7 to be widely appli- cable to low surface roughness and well exposed sites from which conventional NCC data are available (Elliott 1979b). 1.4.2 Estimates for Mountainous Areas The quantitative estimation of wind power over mountains made use of the northern hemisphere upper-air wind clima- tologies for the 10 degree longitude meridians by Crutcher (1961). Since earlier studies had shown a strong cor- relation between mountaintop and free-air wind speeds (Wahl 1966), the free-air wind speed at mountain summit or ridge crest height was extrapolated (or interpolated) from the mean scalar speeds on the merid- ional cross sections. Estimates of the mountaintop wind speeds were made on a grid one-half degree latitude by one degree lon- gitude. In each such cell of the grid over mountainous areas, the mean ridge crest or mountain summit elevation and appropriate mean wind speeds were estimated. Linear extrapolation provided the mean free-air wind speed at the terrain elevation and the application of a Rayleigh speed distribu- tion gave the mean free-air wind power. The mean wind power at the 10-m and 50-m reference heights was taken to be one-third and two-thirds of the free-air value, re- spectively, to account for the frictional slowing of the wind near the surface. These estimates are considered lower limits for exposed ridge crests and moun- tain summits. Local terrain features in these mountainous regions can enhance the wind power considerably. However, a major uncertainty in mountainous terrain is the representativeness of some of the data upon which the free-air estimates are based (e.g., sheltering by nearby mountains can bias rawinsonde winds). Wherever possible, these estimates were compared with surface data from ridge crests and mountain summits. Over some of the mountainous areas, the estimates were adjusted based on the location of the upper- air recording station and/or the surface data from ridge crests. 1.5 QUALITATIVE WIND INDICATORS Although more than 230 stations provided the wind resource assessment in Alaska with quantitative data, these stations were not uniformly distributed. The station location figures for each sub- region show that most NCC stations are located in populated areas and along transportation corridors. Large areas in Alaska are devoid of any form of quanti- tative wind data suitable for this assess- ment, such as the western Arctic area and the Brooks Range, the eastern mainland, and all mountainous areas. Furthermore in areas of complex terrain, most observation sites (except for some U.S. Forest Service fire lookout sites) are confined to val! locations. To evaluate the distributior the wind resource in data-sparse areas, three qualitative indicators of the wind speed or power were developed for, and an- ployed in, the assessment. The most widely used technique depend- ed on certain combinations of topographical and meteorological features (Elliott 1979a) that were associated with high or low wind speeds. Those features indicative of high mean wind speeds are: @ gaps, passes, and gorges in areas of frequent strong pressure gradients @ long valleys extending down from mountain ranges e high elevation plains and plateaus @ plains and valleys with persistent strong downslope winds associated with strong pressure gradients @ exposed ridges and mountain summits in areas of strong upper-air winds @ exposed coastal sites in areas of 1) strong upper-air winds, or 2) strong thermal/pressure gradients. Features that signal rather low mean wind speeds are: @ valleys perpendicular to the prevail- ing winds aloft @ sheltered basins e@ short and/or narrow valleys and canyons @ areas of high surface roughness, e.g., forested hilly terrain. Areas in which the appropriate features occur were determined by examining topo- graphic contour and shaded relief maps and synoptic and climatological maps of sea- level pressure patterns and air flow. Evidence of persistent strong winds can also be found in wind-deformed vege- tation. Mean wind speeds deduced from the extent and morphology of tree deformation by Hewson et al. (1979) provided useful qualitative indicators of wind speed in many data-sparse areas. This was used in the Portage Pass area at the east end of Turnagain Arm, 1.6 WIND POWER MAPS The production of mean wind power density maps, such as those presented for each subregion, depended on the coherent synthesis of several pieces of information. The goal of the synthesis process was to present wind power density values repre- sentative of sites well exposed to the prevailing strong winds. Hilltops, ridge crests, mountain summits, large clearings, and other locations free of local obstruc- tions to the wind are expected to have good exposure to the wind (see Table 1.2). In contrast, locations in narrow valleys and canyons, downwind of hills and obstructions, or in forested or urban areas are likely to have poor exposure. The wind power density shown on the maps in this atlas will not be representative of poorly exposed locations. Estimates for ridge crests and summits (the shaded areas on the maps) are lower limits to the wind power expected at exposed sites. In such areas, local terrain features can enhance the wind power considerably (e.g., by a factor of 2 or 3). By specifying the type of wind exposure to which the map values of wind power pertain, we avoid the ambiguity that typical-location or average- for-the-terrain values might introduce. In this atlas, the terms wind energy, wind power, and wind power density are used syn- onymous ly. To represent the wind resource at well- exposed sites, it was necessary to become extremely familiar with the land-surface form and topography in the vicinity of every TABLE 1.2. Land-Surface Form Terrain Features Representative of Exposed Locations Land-Surface Form Exposed Feature (Map Value) Percentage Area(a) Plains: A1;B1,2 Plains 93 Plains With Hills: A; B3a,b Open Plains 79 Plains With Mountains: B4-6a,b Plains (not shaded) (b) 67 Ridge Crests and Mountain Summits (shaded) 10 Tablelands: B3-6c,d Tablelands, Uplands 80 Open Hills: C24 Hilltops and Uplands 27 Open Mountains: C5-6 Broad Valleys (not shaded) 80 Ridge Crests and Mountain Summits (shaded) i Hills: D3-4 Hilltops and Uplands 9 Mountains: D5-6 Ridge Crests and Mountain Summits (shaded) 3 (2) Percentage represents an average over the land-surface forms found in the Alaska region. (>) shaded areas on the wind maps emphasize that map values are estimates for ridge crests and mountain summit locations. data site. Maps were prepared showing the location of stations, the mean wind speed and mean wind power at the reference level, the character of anemometer exposure, and the land-surface form for each subregion. On these maps, areas with the appropriate combinations of topographical and meteoro- logical features were identified, areas with eolian landforms were outlined, and areas with wind-deformed vegetation were denoted. A great deal of attention was given to the orientation of topographic features with the prevailing wind direc- tions. Only after all this information was assembled were the maps analyzed. The annual maps for each subregion were merged into a regional mosaic. 1.7 WIND POWER DENSITY CLASSES The analysis of wind power maps departs from conventional isopleth analyses by showing the boundaries of wind power density classes. Each wind power class represents the range of wind power densi- ties likely to be encountered at exposed sites within an area designated as having that wind power class. Table 1.3 gives the power density limits for the wind power classes used in the atlas for the 10-m and 50-m reference levels. The definitions of the wind power density classes are repeated with the annual wind power map for. the region and for each state as a convenience for the reader. Wind power density is proportional to the third moment of the wind speed distri- bution and to air density; therefore, a unique correspondence between power density and mean wind speed (the first moment of the speed distribution) does not exist. However, by specifying a Rayleigh wind speed distribution and4a standard sea level air density (1.22 kg/m) a mean wind speed can be determined for each wind power class limit. The decrease of air density with elevation requires the mean Rayleigh speed to increase by about 3%/1,000 m elevation to maintain the same power density. If the wind speed distribution is more sharply peaked than the Rayleigh distribution, the equivalent mean speed will be slightly higher than the value in Table 1.3. Con- versely, a broader distribution of wind speeds will slightly reduce the equivalent mean speed. 1.8 CLASSES OF LAND-SURFACE FORM The physical characteristics of the land-surface form affect the number of wind turbines that can be sited in exposed places. For example, over 90% of the land area ina flat plain may be favorably exposed to the wind; whereas in mountainous terrain only the ridge crests and passes, which may be only a small percentage (<5%) of the land area, may represent exposed sites. The map of classes of land-surface form by Hammond (1964) provided information on the distri- bution of plains, tablelands, hills, and mountains in Alaska. Several character- istics are coded on this map: @ percentage of land area occupied by surfaces of gentle inclination (less than 8% slope) @ local relief, the maximum difference in elevation within a unit square 11 km across @ percentage of gently inclined surfaces that lie in the lower half of the local relief e@ land area covered by sand, ice, and standing water @ pattern of major crests, peaks, and escarpments. The first three characteristics are used in the classification scheme (see Table 1.4); the latter two have been omitted from the maps presented here. A three-character code, for example B3a, designates each class of land-surface form. In this example the "B" indicates that 50% to 80% of the area is occupied by gentle slopes; the "3" that the maximum local difference in elevation is 100 to 150 m; and the "a" that more than 75% of the gently sloping land is in the lowland. In areas of very little gentle slope (D) or very low relief and great smoothness (Al), the third desig- nator is omitted. For each land-surface form, the per- centage of land area that is representative of well-exposed, moderately exposed, and poorly exposed sites has been estimated. These percentages were determined subjec- tively as a function of the slope, local relief, and profile type. Table 1.2 gives the average percentage of land area that is designated as exposed terrain for the dif- ferent classes of land-surface form. For simplicity, the percentages shown for each class of land-surface form have been aver- aged over the range of categories in local relief and profile type found in Alaska. For example, the 27% for open hills is an average for C2 through C4. The average percentage of land area that is designated as exposed terrain ranges from 93% in smooth plains to 3% in mountainous areas where the exposed areas are usually the ridge crests and mountain summits. TABLE 1.3. Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 mand 50 mia) 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed, (b) Density, Speed, (b) Class watts/m2_—_m/s (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph) 0 0 0: 0: —— 100— 4.4 ( 9.8) 200 —— 5.6 (12.5) 150—— 5.1 (11.5) ——— 300 —— 6.4 (14.3) 200 —— 5.6 (12.5) 400 —— 7.0 (15.7) 250 —— 6.0 (13.4) 500 —— 7.5 (16.8) 300 —— 6.4 (14.3) 600 —— 8.0 (17.9) 400 —— 7.0 (15.7) 800 —— 8.8 (19.7) 1000 —— 9.4 (21.1) ———2000 ——11.9 (26.6) NDUGWNH— (Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva- lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation. TABLE 1.4. Scheme of Classification Slope (1st item) A >80% of area gently sloping B 50 to 80% of area gently sloping C 20 to 50% of area gently sloping D <20% of area gently sloping Local Relief (2nd item) 1 0 to.30 m(1 to 100 ft) 2 30 to 90 m (100 to 300 ft) 3.90 to 150 m (300 to 500 ft) 4 150 to 300 m (500 to 1000 ft) 5 300 to 900 m (1000 to 3000 ft) 6 900 to 1500 m (3000 to 5000 ft) Profile Type (3rd item) a > 75% of gentle slope is in lowland b 50 to 75% of gentle slope is in lowland c 50 to 75% of gentle slope is on upland d > 75% of gentle slope is on upland 1.9 CERTAINTY RATING The analyses of wind power density at exposed sites shown on the wind power maps depend on the subjective integration of several factors: quantitative wind data, qualitative indicators of wind speed or power, the characteristics of exposed sites in various terrain and familiarity with the meteorology, climatology, and topography of the region. As a result, the degree of certainty with which the wind power class can be specified depends on @ the abundance and quality of wind data @ the complexity of the terrain @ the geographical variability of the resource. A certainty rating from 1 (low) to 4 (high), of the wind energy resource estimate has been made for each cell of a one-half degree latitude by one degree longitude grid on a subregion-by-subregion basis by considering the influence of the above three factors on the certainty of the estimate of the wind power class for each cell. The definitions for the certainty ratings are adopted from those used by Voelker et al. (1979) ina resource assessment of U.S. Forest Service tracts. The certainty ratings for the wind resource assessment are defined as follows: Rating Definition i The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists: 1) No data exist in the vicinity of the cell. 2) The terrain is highly complex. 3) Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell. 2 A low-intermediate degree of cer- tainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) Little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low com- plexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data. 2) Limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly com- plex or the mesoscale vari- ability of the resource is large. 3 A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small meso- scale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data. 2) Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur. 4 The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at ex- posed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low complex- ity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. The assignment of a certainty rating requires subjective evaluation of the inter- action of the factors involved. 1.10 AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WIND RESOURCE As noted above, the wind power density class values shown on the maps apply only to sites well exposed to the wind. There- fore, the map area designated as having a particular wind power class does not indi- cate the true land area experiencing this wind power. Instead, there is a complicat- ed and difficult-to-quantify relationship among the class of land-surface form, the land-surface area and the map value of wind power density. For each land-surface form, the fraction of land area that would be favorably exposed to the winds, i.e., have the wind power density indicated on the map, was estimated (see Table 1.2 for averages in various land-surface forms). Furthermore, to be able to establish a wind power density for the remaining area, it was also necessary to specify a factor by which the wind power shown on the map is reduced in the less-exposed areas. As an additional complication, some land-surface forms, isolated hills, and ridges that rise above a nearly flat landscape may even experience a higher power density than the map indicates. To accommodate these various situa- tions, the land area represented by a given land-surface form was divided into four exposure categories: 1) better exposure than typical for the terrain, 2) exposure typical for that land-surface form, 3) partially sheltered exposure, and 4) very sheltered exposure. The partitioning of the land-surface forms into the four categories was based on the parameters used to classify the land-surface forms and on the experience of the authors and their co-workers with the terrain repre- sented by the land-surface forms. In order to adjust the wind power den- sity from the map value to the various expo- sure categories, the power density was scaled to be 1) greater than, 2) equal to, 3) slight- ly less than, and 4) much less than the map value power density. The factor by which the map value was adjusted to represent the wind power density in each category was determined by the magnitude of elevation relief given by the middle character of the land-surface form code. (The minimum power density allowed for a category was the me- dian value of wind power density class 1). The scaling factors for the wind power den- sity were based on a conservative applica- tion of a power-law type vertical adjustment with the height change specified by the terrain relief code. In each cell of a grid one degree longi- tude by one-half degree latitude, the land- surface form was specified and the wind power class associated with a typically exposed site in that land-surface form was determined. By partitioning the area of the cell into the four exposure categories, and by scaling the wind power class to each category, the contribution of that cell to the areal distribution was determined. A cell-by-cell representation of the areal distribution is given in a map that indicates the percentage land area in a cell over which the wind power class equals or exceeds a threshold value. Four maps are shown in the chapters on the subregion wind resources for threshold values of classes 2, 3, 4 and 5. A summary table of the areal dis- tribution that combines the contributions by each cell is provided for the state and for each subregion. For each power class, the sum of the area contributed by each exposure category is determined for each subregion and the state. Summing the area associated with each power class in each cell gives the area of the state or region over which the power class exceeds a given value. she table gives the estimated land area (km“) and the percentage of land area associated with each power class. Both of these presentations of the areal distribution of the wind resource are highly dependent on the estimates used to partition the land area into the four exposure categories and on the scaling of the power density for each category of exposure. Therefore, the areal distri- bution derived from the wind power and land-surface form maps must be considered only an approximation. The quantity and quality of wind data and topographic in- formation required to make a highly accu- rate cell-by-cell appraisal of the wind resource are far beyond the scope of this regional wind resource assessment. How- ever, as wind information becomes available through new measurement programs or through the discovery and processing of existing data sets, the evaluation of the areal dis- tribution of the wind resource can be improved on a cell-by-cell basis. CHAPTER 2: In this chapter, the geography, cli- mate, annual average wind power and sea- sonal variations in the wind power are described for the state of Alaska. As- sessments of the wind resource for each subregion of the state were performed using the methods described in Chapter 1. These assessments were then combined to depict the wind energy potential for the state. Major areas of Alaska that are estimated to have the greatest wind resource are also described in this chapter. 2.1 GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY - For this analysis, Alaska has been divided into four subregions; northern, southeastern, southcentral, and south- western (Figure 2.1). Alaska covers an area of 1,518,776 km 2 (586,400 mi2) and had an estimated population of 428,703 in 1979 (Table 2.1). More than a third of these people (about 185,000) live in the metro- politan area of Anchorage. The major cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountain ranges, and national parks and monuments are shown in Figure 2.1. TABLE 2.1. Land Area and Population of Alaska —____ Area Population Population Subregion km2 miles2 in 1979 per km2(mi2) Northern 732,310 282,672 84,627_—-.12( .30) Southcentral 574,980 221,942 265,745 —_.46 (1.20) Southeastern 92,706 35,785 60,967 _—_.66 (1.70) Southwestern 118,780 45,849 17,364.15 (_.38) Alaska 1,518,776 586,248 428,703.28 ( .73) The topography of Alaska varies from subregion to subregion (see Figures 2.2 and 2.3). A large portion of the land is moun- tainous; the Brooks Range is in the northern subregion, the Alaska Range is in the south- central and southwestern subregions, and the Coast and St. Elias Mountains are in the southeastern subregion. Flat coastal plains, such as those along the Arctic coast and Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (in the northern and southcentral subregions, respectively) are also prominent features. Flat alluvial plains are found in the river valleys, such as the Yukon River valley in the southeast portion of the northern sub- region. Upland plains are found throughout the state. STATE FEATURES The lay of the land does affect the number of wind turbines that can be erected in an exposed area. For example, more than 90 percent of the land area in a flat plain may be favorably exposed to the wind, where- as in mountainous terrain only the ridge crest and passes, or less than six percent of the land area, may represent exposed sites (see Section 1.8). To determine what percentage of a given land area in Alaska is plains, tablelands, hills, or mountains, a land-surface map of the state was used. 2.2 CLIMATE The climate of Alaska can be divided roughly into five zones. Mountain barriers form the boundaries between some of the zones, while in others such as the transi- tion zones, there is a gradual shift from one zone to another. The climate zones are: (1) a maritime zone, which includes southeastern Alaska, the south coast, and Aleutian Islands; (2) a maritime-continen- tal zone, which includes the north shore of the Alaska Peninsula, the Bering Sea coast inland to the Nulato Hills, the southwest Kuskokwim Mountains, Seward Peninsula, and the coastal areas of Kotzebue Sound north- ward to Point Hope and Cape Lisburne, (3) a transition zone between the maritime zone and the continental zone in southcentral Alaska, (4) an arctic zone from the Brooks Range to the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea coasts, and (5) a continental zone over the greater portion of the mainland. In the maritime zone, coastal mountains and the plentiful moisture from the North Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Alaska produce annual precipitation of up to 500 cm (200 in.) in the southeastern panhandle, and up to 380 cm (150 in.) along the northern coast of the Gulf of Alaska. Amounts decrease to near 150 cm (60 in.) on the southern side of the Alaska Range in the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands sections. Precipita- tion decreases rapidly to the north, with an average of 30 cm (12 inches) in the con- tinental zone and less than 15 cm (6 in.): in the arctic zone. Snowfall makes up a large portion of the total annual precipi- tation. The heaviest snowfall is in the higher elevations of the mountains that rim the Gulf of Alaska coast where many large glaciers and ice fields are located. There are an estimated 54,000 km2 (29,000 mi2), or 5% of the state's area, composed of glaciers and ice fields. Maximum average seasonal snowfall and maximum in a single season both occurred at Thompson Pass, a highway maintenance camp on the Richardson Highway north of Valdez. The mean annual snowfall there is 1,340 cm (547 in.), and the record for a single season is 2,474 cm (974 in.). Mean annual temperatures in Alaska range from 5°C (41°F) in the maritime zone to a chilly -12°C (10°F) in the arctic zone north of the Brooks Range. The greatest seasonal contrast in temperatures is in the continental zone. In this area average summer maximum temperatures are in the 25 to 27°C (77 to 80°F) range and temperatures around 30°C (90°F) are not uncommon. The highest recorded temperature in the state, 38°C (100°F), occurred at Fort Yukon in June 1915. Averace winter minimum temper- atures in this area are -35°C (-30°F); temperatures in the -45°C (-50°F) range are not uncommon. The record low temperature is -62°C (-80°F). Elsewhere in the state temperatures are much more moderate. In the maritime zone, high temperatures average near 15°C (60°F) in the summer and low temperatures average near -7°C (20°F) jin winter. In the transition zone, temper- atures range from 15°C (60°F) to near -18°C (0°F); in the maritime-continental zone the range is from 15°C (60°F) in summer to -24°C (-10°F) in winter. These ranges re- flect the summer marine influence and the winter continental influence (in winter the Bering Sea is ice covered). The arctic zone has a range extending from 9 to 10°C (48 to 50°F) in summer to -30°C (-20°F) in winter. 2.3 WIND POWER IN ALASKA The annual average wind power density in Alaska is shown in Figure 2.4. The anal- yses of mean wind power apply to terrain features that are favorably exposed to the wind, such as mountain summits, ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. However, nearby terrain features may interact with the windfield to cause the wind power at some exposed sites to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the assessment value. (See Wegley et al. 1980 for information on ter- rain features that may increase or reduce wind energy.) In forested or wooded areas the assessment values are representative of large clearings with good exposure to the prevailing strong winds, such as airports. In mountainous regions, the analyses also reflect major valleys. The percentage of land area that is favorably exposed to the wind strongly depends on the land-surface form (Section 1.8). The high wind resource areas (class 4 or higher) of Alaska can be dispersed over large areas, such as on the mountain sum- mits and ridge crests of the Alaska Range, Brooks Range, Chugach Mountains, Wrangel1 Mountains, St. Elias Mountains, and the Coast Mountains. They can also be confined 10 to particular topographic features such as Isabel Pass in the Alaska Range or Chicka- loon Pass between the Talkeetna and Chugach mountains. It is convenient to refer to the latter areas as wind corridors. A wind corridor is a passageway of lower elevation than the surrounding terrain through which the winds are channeled and sometimes enhanced. However, only those gaps, passes, valleys, gorges, or canyons in which the meteorological con- ditions cause high wind speeds are referred to as corridors. A corridor may vary in width from just a few km (e.g., the Isabel Pass along the Delta River) to over 100 km (e.g., Lower Cook Inlet from Iliamna Lake to the Barren Islands). A brief description of the major (class 4 and higher) wind resource areas follows in Section 2.5. For more complete discussion of these wind resource areas, refer to the chapter on the subregion con- taining these areas. Certainty Rating of Wind Resource Certainty ratings of the wind power resource were assigned to each grid cell as described in Section 1.9. Maps of the cer- tainty rating in each subregion accompany the descriptions of that subregion's wind resource. 2.3.1 The geographical distribution of the certainty ratings range from low (1) to high (4); only a few areas in Alaska were assigned a high certainty rating. Areas with high certainty ratings are in the northern subregion along portions of the coast of the Beaufort Sea and at Cape Lisburne, Wales, and Nome. Other high certainty rating areas are the islands in the Bering Sea, Cape Romanzof, Cape New- enham, Middleton Island in the Gulf of Alaska, and the southern portion of Kodiak Island. A high certainty rating is assign- ed to these areas because of the availabil- ity of existing data, low complexity of terrain, and low spatial variability of the resource. All the above-mentioned areas also have the distinction of being both high in certainty and areas of high wind resource (power class 4 or higher). Most areas with no mountainous terrain in Alaska are given certainty ratings of 2 and 3. However, a large area of Alaska has a low certainty rating, either because of sparsity of data, such as the Kuskokwim-Yukon River Delta area, or because of high complexity of terrain, such as the Aleutian Island chain and all of the southeast subregion. Year-round data are available from only a few exposed sites in mountainous terrain. Nevertheless, the mountain summit and ridgecrest estimates were given a cer- tainty rating of 2 because upper air wind data were used to approximate the power in these areas. 2.3.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind esource Through the superposition of a grid one degree longitude by one-half degree latitude over the region, the areal distri- bution of wind power can be computed as described in Section 1.10. Of the 717 grid cells in Alaska, 240 have exposed areas with class 4 or higher wind power. These power classes are predominantly along the coast and on mountain summits and ridge crests (shaded areas on the maps) with high topographic relief. As a result, the esti- mate of the actual fraction of the land area that experiences class 4 and higher wind power (about 8%) is significantly less than the 33% of the grid boxes showing class 4 and higher wind power. Many grid boxes along the coast and in island areas have only a small fraction of their areas as land (see Figure 2.4). The land area estimated to have low power densities of class 1 and 2 (about 80% of the state) is larger than the wind power maps suggest (50%) because of the highly complex terrain. Table 2.2 summarizes the results of the computation of the areal distribution for Alaska and its subregions. The subjec- tivity underlying the assignment of expo- sure partitioning and power scaling warrants reporting the areas and percentages to only two significant digits (see Section 1.10). Thus, individual areas and percentages may not sum to their stated totals. Of the upper four wind power classes, the largest area contributions are along the coasts in class 5 to 7. The major exception is the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta area where class 4 or higher is estimated to extend in 150 km from the coast. The only areas away from the coast estimated to have class 4 or higher wind powers are passes at the east end of Turnagain Arm in the Cook Inlet, Isabel Pass in the Alaska Range south from Big Delta, and the wind corridor from the east end of Bristol Bay to southern Cook Inlet. 2.4 SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE WIND RESMRGE™ i: a) al Throughout most of Alaska, winter is the season of maximum wind power (see Fig- ure 2.5). Areas with winter maxima include all of the southeast and southwest sub- regions, all mountain areas, and the west coast of southcentral Alaska. Along the Beaufort coast, autumn is the season of ll maximum wind power in the west, but in the east and interior, the strongest winds occur in winter. At exposed mountain sum- mits and ridge crests, winter is the season of maximum wind power because mean upper air wind speeds (more than 1,500 m above ground level) are strongest during the winter. However, mean wind speeds are generally low in sheltered basins and valleys. Cold air often fills the basins and valleys, resulting in a temperature profile that may remain stable throughout the day because of low solar insolation. This is most common in broad areas of south- central and northern Alaska where strong temperature inversions form at the surface and persist for days or weeks at a time. Under these stable atmospheric conditions, the vertical mixing is restricted, and winds may be very light in a basin or valley even if winds are strong on nearby ridge crests. Winds aloft generally decrease from 50° to 65°N latitude and increase north of 65°N. Therefore, strong- est winds and wind powers occur in the Aleutians, southeastern Alaska, and along the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea coasts. In spring, the upper air flow de- creases markedly over most of Alaska, and wind power at mountain summits and ridge crests also decreases. However, solar radia- tion increases markedly as the days become longer. The persistent arctic inversions are less frequent, and so the surface air is less stable; therefore, spring is the season of strongest winds in river valleys of interior Alaska, except in certain moun- tain passes where the wintertime flow is channeled and intensified by the terrain and pressure gradients. In summer, mean upper air wind speeds are low in all areas except the Aleutians and southeastern Alaska where average wind speeds at the 1,500-m level are seven to 11 m/s (15 to 25 mph). However, lowest wind speeds occur in summer. Some isolated loca- tions in interior Alaska, such as McGrath and Tanana, show maximum summer wind powers and speeds, but spring and summer wind speeds are close to the same at these locations. In autumn, upper-air wind speeds increase from September to November. Autumn is the season of second highest wind power at most mountain summits and ridge crests. Along the Chukchi and western Beaufort Sea coasts, autumn is the season of strongest winds and wind powers. During this season there are more frequent migratory storms, and there is often open water early in the season. Some of the most severe storm surges on the Beaufort coast have occurred in September and October. By the middle of November, the sea ice generally has completely cover- ed both the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas re- ducing the temperature contrasts (and hence storm intensities) along the coasts. Autumn is also the season of maximum wind powers at a few locations along the Yukon and Tanana Rivers from Manley Hot Springs to Galena. However, the difference from one season to another at these locations is small, and all wind powers are of class l. Seasonal variations in atmospheric stability affect the variation of wind speed with height in Alaska. For example, at McGrath and Fairbanks the season with highest winds above 900 mb (900 to 1,100 m) is winter, but surface and 950-mb (500 to 600-m) winds are lowest in winter and high- est in spring and autumn. This seasonal trend in the profiles is typical of many of the valleys and plains in interior Alaska. 2.5 MAJOR WIND RESOURCE AREAS Descriptions of major areas in Alaska with high annual average wind power (class 4 and above) are briefly summarized in this section. For additional details on these areas, refer to subregional assessments. For the locations of place names mentioned in this section, refer to the individual subregional maps (such as Figures 4.1 and 4.4 for northern Alaska). 2.5.1 Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Coasts . The annual average wind power for ex- posed coastal and offshore areas is esti- mated to be at least class 5. Coastal areas near Barter Island, Point Lay, and Cape Lisburne show class 7. Even through much of the area north of the Brooks Range is of low relief, wind power drops off rapidly with distance from the coast as shown by data from Sagwon and Umiat. On the eastern Beaufort coast, an area with wind power of class 4 or higher appears to extend from the coast southward to the crests of the Brooks Range. Along the Chukchi Sea coast, wind power of class 5 to 7 is probably con- fined to near the coast, although there are no data available inland to corroborate this assumption. 2.5.2 Bering Sea Islands and Coast Islands in the Bering Sea, such as the Pribilofs, St. Lawrence, St. Matthew, and Nunivak, all show annual wind powers of class 7 except Savoonga, which has class 6. Along the coast from the Alaska Peninsula northward, wind power of class 5 or higher (with class 7 in exposed areas like the west end of the Seward Peninsula and the Cape Romanzof area) is shown. Wind power of class 5 or more extends eastward for 150 km (100 miles) in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta area, as shown by Bethel data. 2.5.3 Alaska Peninsula and the © Aleutian Islands, The Alaska Peninsula west of 162° shows annual wind power class 7 at all locations except those shielded somewhat by local terrain. The whole peninsula has class 5 or higher power. This area is along a major storm track from eastern Asia to North America. Storms generally move from west to east. Some storms also move northward through the Bering Sea, especial- ly during the summer months. Amchitka and Asi Tanaga in the western Aleutians show mean annual wind power of over class 7 (1,000 W/m2). Winter is the season of maximum wind power throughout the area. 2.5.4 Lower Cook Inlet The area from Iliamna Lake to Kamishak Bay across Cook Inlet to the Barren Islands is a corridor for strong winds. This is reflected at Bruin Bay, which shows an 2 average annual wind power of over 1,300 W/m*. Subjective comments from mariners indicate that this lower Cook Inlet area can be very windy. Bruin Bay data and an examination of weather records from two drilling rigs operating in the area confirm this impres- sion. There are no other permanent sta- tions besides Bruin Bay that show this wind resource. 2.5.5 Gulf of Alaska Coast Exposed areas of the entire Gulf of Alaska coast should experience mean annual wind power of class 4 or higher. Offshore data from Middleton Island and Brower et al. (1977) indicate class 7 wind power. Shore data such as Cape Spencer, Cape Decision, Cape Hinchinbrook, and North Dutch Island reflect class 5 or higher power. Data from more sheltered loca- tions, such as Cordova, Sitka and Yakutat do not reflect these wind power classes. Most of this coastline is rugged and heavi- ly wooded, so wind powers are very site- specific. 2.5.6 Exposed Mountain Ridges and Summits At least class 4 or higher wind power is estimated for mountain summits and ridge crests in portions of the Alaska Range on the west side of the Susitna River, the Coast Mountains along the Canadian border in southeast Alaska, and portions of the eastern Brooks Range. The map analyses represent the lower limits of the wind power resource for exposed areas. Wind speeds can vary significantly from one ridge crest to another as a result of the orientation to the prevailing slope of the ridge and its closeness to other ridge- lines. Winter is the season for highest wind speed and power at mountain summits and ridge crests. v1 MAR act OtAnD Yeg0 SE WARD PENINSULA MT MCKINLEY NATIONAL PARK: MIMCKINLEY ».- 0 50100 150 MILES 050 100 150 KILOMETERS —<—— PNL.3196 WERA-10 *KATMAL NATIONAL (\UMENT ror, SOUTHWESTERN ~ ™ Sristo BY ° , DF AKaiann a + ane. wet § BF ftw | El . | \ we 176° 80" v6 FIGURE 2.1. Geographic Map of Alaska ST 55° 160° FIGURE 2.2. Topographic Map of Alaska : 55° 16 dt LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND PLAINS FLAT PLAINS SMOOTH PLAINS IRREGULAR PLAINS PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS | A.B3a.b] PLAINS WITH HILLS PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B6a,b | PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS OPEN LOW HILLS OPEN HILLS OPEN HIGH HILLS OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS [| cé _|OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS HILLS AND MOUNTAINS HILLS HIGH HILLS LOW MOUNTAINS HIGH MOUNTAINS IRREGULAR PLAINS, SLIGHT RELIEF TABLELANDS TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION SLOPE (1st LETTER) A >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING c 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING D <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) 1 0 TO 30m (1 TO 100 ft) 2 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 ft) 3 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 ft) 4 150 TO 300m (500 TO 1000 ft) 5 300 TO 900m (1000 TO 3000 ft) 6 900 TO 1500m (3000 TO 5000 ft) PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND b 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND d >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND [£5] RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES 50100 150 MILES 050 100 150 KILOMETERS PNL-3196 WERA-10 1760 ie FIGURE 2.4. Annual Average Wind Power in Alaska 61 Power YHUSWNH— Class saAuswn= Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 m and 50 m(a) 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,(b) Density, Speed,(b) Class _watts/m2__m/s(mph) —_watts/m2__m/s (mph) 0 0. 0 0 1__400 —-4.4 ( 9.8) 200 ——S.6 (12.5) 150-——S.1 (11.5) 300-—— 6.4 (14.3) 200 ——5.6 (12.5) 400——7.0 (15.7) 250 ——6.0 (13.4) 500-——7.5 (16.8) 300 ——6.4 (14.3) 600 ——8.0 (17.9) 400 ——7.0 (15.7) 800 ——8.8 (19.7) 1000 ——9.4 (21.1) 2000 —11.9 (26.6) NAUSWH (Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva- lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions, To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation, TABLE 2.2. Areal Distribution of Wind Power Classes in Alaska Land Area (km?) Equal or Exceeding Power Class Northern Southcentral Southeast —Alaska_ —Alasta_ ——Alaska_ —Alasia_ 1,500,000 710,000 580,000 88,000 260,000 130,000 100,000 3,000 180,000 70,000 78,000 2,000 120,000 36,000 56,000 1,000 91,000 23,000 51,000 300 60,000 13,000 36,000 12 26,000 1,000 17,000 0 Percentage Land Area Equal or Exceeding Power Class Northern Southcentral Southeast Alaska Alaska Alaska. Alaska 100 100 100 100 18 18 18 3.5 12 98 13 . 2.2 718 a 9.6 11 6.1 Bes 8.7 0.34 4) 18 6.1 0.01 18 0.14 3.0 0.00 Southwest Alaska 110,000 30,000 27,000 23,000 17,000 12,000 7,800 Southwest Alaska 100 27 25 21 16 iW 7,2 02 [J WINTER (Ww) SPRING (SP) SUMMER (S) {00 AUTUMN (AU) (=) RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES 0 50100150 MILES —— O50 100 150 KILOMETERS — PNL.3196 WERA-10 FIGURE 2.5. Seasonal Maximum Wind Power in Alaska CHAPTER 3: The wind resource for the subregions of Alaska is described in Chapters 4 through 7. The subregion descriptions are presented in a consistent format. The text of each description is followed by maps, graphs, and tables that identify features of the geography and the wind energy re- source and summarize the data collected from the observation stations. The sequence of maps, tables, and graphs used to depict these features is presented below in Table 3.1. In two of the subregional descriptions, southeast and southwest, the illustrations are presented so that related information is on facing pages and can be viewed simultaneously; however, the other two subregions have numerous graphs and appear on several pages. To avoid repetition in the following chapters, the general format and content of the various maps, tables, and graphs used to describe the wind resource for each sub- region are summarized here. 3.1 MAPS OF STATE FEATURES The maps of cultural geography show the locations of major cities, rivers, and terrain features for each subregion. The maps of shaded topographic relief are re- productions of the 1:2,500,000 scale of U.S. Geological Survey maps. The land- surface form maps are reconstructions of portions of the map of classes of land- surface form by Hammond (1964; this is also available at a scale of 1:7,500,000 on Plate 62 in the National Atlas of the SUBREGIONAL FEATURES United States). The use of the land-sur- face form map was described in Section 1.8. Two maps are used to show the loca- tions of stations with wind data. The first map gives the locations and names of the NCC stations with wind data in any form. The other map shows the locations of NCC, fire weather, and other data stations that were utilized in this assessment of the wind resource. The map of annual average wind power is accompanied by maps of the certainty rating of the estimated annual average wind power by grid cell, and of the areal dis- tribution of the wind resource by grid cell. The certainty rating, which ranges from 1 (low) to 4 (high), indicates the level of confidence in the estimates of the wind resource in each cell of the grid. The rating is based on the availability of wind data, the complexity of the terrain, and the inherent geographical variability of the wind resource (see Section 1.9). The maps of areal distribution give the percen- tage of land area in each cell estimated to experience an annual average wind power class equal to or exceeding power classes 2, 3, 4, and 5 (see Section 1.10). Maps of the average wind power are presented for each season: winter (December, January, and February); spring (March, April, and May); summer (June, July, and August); and autumn (September, October, and November). The legend for the power classes is found with the annual average wind power map. TABLE 3.1. Maps, Tables and Graphs Used to Depict the Wind Resource Maps Left Hand Cultural Geography Land-Surface Form NCC Station Locations Annual Average Wind Power Certainty Rating Areal Distribution (Classes 2 & 3) Seasonal Average Wind Power (winter, summer) Graphs Summary Table of Selected Stations Monthly Speed and Power Directional Frequency Speed Duration 21 Right Hand Topographic Shaded Relief Legend to Land Surface Form Location of Stations Used in Wind Assessment Legend to Wind Power Classes and Table on Areal Distribution Legend for Certainty Rating Areal Distribution (Classes 4 &5) Seasonal Average Wind Power (spring, fall) interannual Speed and Power Diurnal Speed Speed Frequency Power Duration 3.2 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS The analysis of the wind resource on a state and subregional basis depends on in- formation from individual stations. For those stations with one- or three-hourly data on NCC magnetic tapes, a very detailed presentation of the temporal variation and character of the wind resource can be ob- tained. Graphs portraying various features of the wind resource have been prepared for selected stations in each subregion and are presented in the subregion chapters. For each station presented, a brief description of the station's topographical setting and unique features is given in the text pre- ceding the maps and graphs. The geograph- ical area represented by a station varies, depending on the complexity of the local terrain and variability of the wind resource. A table listing the stations for which graphs and summaries of the features of the wind resource are presented precedes the series of graphs. Height adjustments were made only to obtain estimates of the aver- age wind speed and power at 10 m and 50 m given in this table. No attempt was made to adjust to a reference height any of the other wind characteristics (e.g., diurnal wind speeds, frequency distributions of wind speed, wind direction, speed and power duration, etc.) presented in the graphs for selected stations. Caution should there- fore be used in comparing and interpreting station plots. In the plots of interannual wind power and speed, the first line of each graph contains the station name and state. The second line contains the WBAN number. In all other plots, the first line on each station graph contains the station identi- fication that corresponds to the name and location listed in the table and the month and year of the selected period of record. Only one period of record with constant anemometer height was plotted for most stations, even though some stations had several periods of record. However, if there was uncertainty as to which period had better anemometer exposure or if two periods with similar exposure indicated substantially different wind character- istics, two periods of record were plotted. Usually, periods when the anemometer was located on a mast directly on the ground were preferred to periods when the anemo- meter was located on the roof of a building. The second line of each station graph contains the WBAN number, anemometer height (Z) in m and its location, and the annual average wind speed (V) in m/s and wind power (P) in watts/m2 at Z. V and P are adjusted to 10 m for the graphs of interannual and 22 monthly average wind power and speed and are at anemometer height, Z, for all other graphs. The coded information listed with the anemometer height is one of the following (Changery 1978): R - indicates the anemometer was located on the roof of a control tower, operations building, hangar, or other similar structure. Normal mast heights were 2 to 4 m above roof line; however, many inner city locations used considerably taller masts. The listed height is elevation above ground level, not roof level; the "R" indicates an exposure type. indicates the anemometer was located on a mast attached directly to the ground. Most anemometers at airport loca- tions changed from a roof to ground exposure by the early 1960s. indicates a beacon tower exposure. For these locations, neither R nor G was considered satisfactory. UNK - indicates that documentation on instrument heights was not available. If information on exposure was unavailable, no exposure code is given. On a few station plots, an E follows the annual average wind power. If a pres- sure or temperature observation is missing, the wind power for that observation is com- puted using an air density based on station elevation. If the number of missing obser- vations exceeds 25% of the total, then an E is used to designate that the wind power is an estimated value. Up to 12 graphs of the same type may appear on one page to allow for station- to-station comparison. The scale of each set of plots was determined by the maximum range of values found for all stations in the region. 3.2.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed The plots of interannual wind speed and power portray the variations of the yearly average over the period of record. The beginning and ending of each period of record with constant anemometer height and location are designated by a "plus" symbol on the wind power curve and by a “diamond" symbol on the wind speed curve. If the anemometer height was unknown, a height of 10 m was assumed. Only yearly mean wind speeds based on 12 months‘ data (January through December) were plotted. Year-to-year deviations from the long-term annual average may not be a reliable indicator of the deviations at nearby sites or areas (Elliott 1979b). 3.2.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed Graphs of the monthly average wind power and speed portray the monthly and seasonal trends of the wind. Stations with less than five years of observations may not show reliable seasonal trends. Also, stations in complex terrain may not repre- sent the seasonal trends in nearby areas because of the influence of nearby terrain. Most of the station curves are within the range of 0 to 800 watts/m2. 3.2.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season The diurnal variation in wind speed according to season is plotted on graphs containing four curves, one for each season. Local standard time (LST) is used with hour 24 as midnight and hour 1 as the beginning hour. For National Weather Serv- ice and Federal Aviation Administration stations the diurnal curves are based on 24 observations daily for periods ending be- fore 1965 and on eight observations daily for periods ending after 1964. For Air Force stations the diurnal curves are usually based on 24 observations daily regardless of the period. The diurnal curves for Navy stations are based on 24 observations daily for periods ending before March 1972 and on eight observations for periods ending after February 1972. 3.2.4 Directional Frequency and Average Spee Graphs of the annual average frequency of occurrence show the percentage of time that the observed wind direction was from 23 each of 16-point compass sectors and the average wind speed of all observations in each sector. Some stations show a definite bias toward eight-point compass observations. The coincidence of peaks in the two curves indicates that the highest wind speeds occur from the prevailing directions. Caution should be used in applying these data to other sites, because nearby terrain and obstructions strongly influence the wind directions. Some of the directional data presented may not be reliable or represent- ative because of the anemometer location. 3.2.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency Graphs of the annual average frequency of observed wind speeds are shown in 1-m/s intervals. Along with the observed distri- bution, a Rayleigh wind speed distribution based on the annual mean speed is shown. Some of the stations show pronounced peaks in the observed distribution; these peaks reflect observer bias toward certain wind speeds, such as 2, 5, and 8 m/s (5, 10, and 15 knots). This bias occurs more frequent- ly in records prior to 1960. Because many of the wind instruments used had a thres- hold velocity of about 1.5 m/s (3 knots), the frequency of observations in the 1-m/s class is often lower than the frequency of the calm and 2-m/s classes. 3.2.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power ration The percentage of time that a given wind speed or power is exceeded is shown in two sets of graphs. Abrupt changes in the slope of the duration curves for speed and power usually correspond to peaks in the speed frequency distribution caused by © observer bias and instrument threshold velocity. Points are plotted at 1-m/s - intervals for the speed duration curves. Points are plotted every 50 watts/m2 up to 500 watts/m2 and every 100 watts/m2 up to 1,000 watts/m2 in the power duration curves. NORTHERN ALASKA CHAPTER 4: The northern subregion has an approxi- mate population of 84,627 (1979 estimate). Most of the people in this subregion live along the coast or one of the major rivers. Major population centers and respective populations are: Fairbanks North Star Borough, (60,227), Nome (2,982), and Kotze- bue (2,526), and Barrow (2,715). The great majority of the other communities in the subregion have populations under 500. This subregion comprises approximately one half of the total land area of the state. It includes the total width of the state from 141°W to the west coast, including Little Diomede Island, and from 64°N to the Beau- fort Sea and Arctic Ocean (see Figure 4.1). The total surface area of the northern sub- region is 732,310 km2 (282,672 mi2). A major geographical feature of nor- thern Alaska is the Brooks Range, which runs east and west between 69°N 141°W and 68°N 163°W (see Figure 4.2), and ranges in elevation from 1,220 to 2,750 m (see Fig- ure 4.3). The Brooks Range divides the arctic slope north of the range from the Yukon and the northwestern portions of this subregion. . From their origins in the Brooks Range, numerous rivers such as the Colville and Sagavanirtok pass through the arctic foot- hills on their way to the coastal plain. The rolling uplands of moist tundra with thousands of shallow impermanent thaw lakes dominate the arctic coastal plain. The coastline is generally low and flat with occasional bluffs and sea cliffs with heights up to 15 meters. Deltas terminate the larger rivers and streams, especially east of Point Barrow. Barrier islands and spits run in a broken line a few miles offshore, enclosing long, narrow lagoons. Here and there the line is interrupted by stretches of coast- line facing the open sea. South of the Brooks Range the subregion is composed of the Yukon interior and the northwestern coast environments. Other mountains besides the Brooks Range in this subregion are the Ray Mountains, Nulato Hills and the Yukon-Tanana uplands. Taiga forests are found extensively in the highland and river valleys below 600 m. The major rivers south of the Brooks Range are the Yukon, the longest in the state at 3,017 km; the Koyukuk; the Tanana; the Noatak; and the Kobuk. Lakes in this portion of the subregion fall into four groups: those resulting from the regional deformation where down- 25 NORTHERN ALASKA warped areas along the seacoast formed large collecting basins; glacial lakes scattered throughout the mountains and foothills; tundra lakes of all shapes and sizes that occupy the bench and flat valley lands; and lakes formed by volcanic action on the central Seward Peninsula. The major lakes of the Yukon interior and northwest environments of the northern sub- region are Imuruk Lake, 69 km2 (28 mi2); Walker Lake, 35 km2(14 mi2); and Shelby Lake, 20 km2 (8 mi2). Selawik Lake is much larger than these but is affected by tidal action. Permafrost is found throughout the whole northern subregion and is slightly more prevalent in northern than in southern areas. The permafrost appears to be thawed near deep lakes and major rivers. A few glaciers are found in this subregion, mostly in the northeastern portion of the Brooks Range, but snowfields that last from year to year can be found in pockets throughout the northern subregion. The wind data available from NCC are mostly from stations along the coast and major rivers in the subregion (Figure 4.4). Large areas exist in the northern subregion where no year-round data or only limited unsummarized data were available. In the absence of other reliable data, sparse fire weather data from some of the foothill and forested areas of the region (Figure 4.5) were used in the calculations. 4.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN NORTHERN The annual average available wind power density in northern Alaska is shown in Figure 4.6. The analyses of mean wind power apply to terrain features that are favorably exposed to the wind, such as mountain summits, ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. However, nearby terrain features may interact with the windfield to cause the wind power at some exposed sites to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the as- sessment value. (See Wegley et al. 1980 for information on terrain features that may increase or reduce wind energy.) In forest- ed or wooded areas the assessment values are representative of large clearings with good exposure to the prevailing strong winds, such as airports. In mountainous regions, the analyses also reflect major valleys. The percentage of land area that is favor- ably exposed to the wind strongly depends on the land-surface form (Section 1.8). The annual average wind power (Fig- ure 4.6) is class 4 or higher all along the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea coasts except at Barrow where class 3 occurs. Class 4 or higher wind power is estimated to be within 20 miles of these coasts and occurs only in exposed locations. Near Barter Island class 7 wind power prevails. Similarly, from Point Lay to Cape Lisburne class 7 wind power prevails. The Kotzebue Sound area has class 4 or higher wind power. Kotzebue itself has class 6 annual average wind power. On the Seward Peninsula, class 4 or more wind power occurs at the west end near the Bering Strait and generally along the south coast except where areas are shielded such as at Nome. Class 7 wind power occurs in the vicinity of the Bering Strait, as shown by data from Wales and Tin City where the annual wind power is over 700 W/m". Mountain summit and ridge crest wind powers are estimated to be generally class 3 along the Brooks Range except at the east end. Class 2 wind power prevails in the interior of the Seward Peninsula; the Nulato Hills are also estimated to have class 2 power. Class 4 and higher wind power occurs in the vicinity of Big Delta, where the flow of wind through Isabel Pass affects the area. Class 2 wind power is estimated at ridge crests in the Ray Mountains, the hills between the Yukon and Tanana Rivers, and slopes of the Alaska Range to the south of the subregion. Most of the remainder of the northern subregion has class 1 wind power. The few data in the northern Brooks Range indicate that valleys are generally sheltered. There are few passes through the range and data from Atigun, Anaktuvuk, and Wiseman indi- cate that low wind powers are the rule. 4.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource Certainty ratings in northern Alaska vary from 1 to 4 (Figure 4.7). Only three areas have class 5 or higher annual wind power and a certainty rating of 4. They are the wind corridor at the east end of ‘the Seward Peninsula at Moses Point and Koyuk, with annual class 5; the west end of the Seward Peninsula at Wales, Tin City, and Point Spencer, with annual power class 7; and the east-central Beaufort Sea coast at McIntyre and Oliktok with annual power classes 6 and 7. The certainty rating for areas a short distance from the coast drops quickly to 2 or 1 because of the sparsity of data and complexity of the terrain. 26 Complexity of terrain accounts for the class 2 or 3 ratings along the north and east coast of Norton Sound, the north coast of Kotzebue Sound, the southwest Chukchi Sea coast, and the eastern Beaufort Sea coast. Lack of data over much of the Arctic north of the Brooks Range results in an extensive area with a certainty rating of 1. The highest rating given to any in- terior location is 3 in the Fairbanks area and the east-central arctic plain where Umiat, Sagwan, and visually scanned data confirm a wind power class of 1. The re- mainder of the interior has of certainty ratings 1 and 2. Mountain summits and ridge crest estimates in the Brooks Range, Nulato Hills, and lesser mountains and hills in the interior have a certainty rating of 2 based on upper wind estimates from Crutcher (1961) and wind summaries from rawinsonde stations at Fairbanks, Nome, Barrow, and Barter Island. 4.1.2 Areal Distribution of the. Vind Resource Figure 4.8 illustrates areal distri- bution of the wind power in northern Alaska. The numbers identify the percentage of area in each cell of the grid in which the wind power equals or exceeds some threshold value. Although class 4 or higher wind power is predicted in 20% of the grid cells, only about 5% of the land area is estimated to experience these power densities (see Table 4.1). High wind power resource areas are confined to the coast, where in many of the grid boxes there is only a small percent- age of land and mountain summits and ridge crests of the eastern Brooks Range. In the high topographic relief of the Brooks Range, the areas with high wind resource are re- duced to only the most exposed ridge crests; elsewhere wind power classes 1 to 3 prevail. The only inland areas with class 4 or higher are the wind corridors at the east end of the Seward Peninsula and in the vicinity of Big Delta. Most of northern Alaska is of wind power class 1 and 2 at both lowlands and along the mountain summits and ridge crests. 4.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER Wind power maps for each season are shown in Figure 4.9. Winter is the season of maximum wind power along the Chukchi and Bering coasts, and the east end of the Beau- fort Sea coast. Mountain summits and ridge crests also have winter maximum wind powers. Spring is the season of maximum wind power in sheltered valleys of the Yukon, Koyukuk, and Tanana Rivers. However, from Barrow eastward to the Sagavanirktok River, autumn is the season of maximum wind power. (eral Winter east of Harrison Bay, along the Chukchi Sea coast south of Point Lay, at the west end During the winter, wind powers at of the Seward Peninsula, and at the east exposed coastal locations such as Barter ends of Kotzebue Sound and Norton Sound. Island and the west end of the Seward The west end of the Seward Peninsula is the Peninsula at Wales and Tin City are only area attaining class 7 wind power exceptionally high--more than 700 and during summer; the Cape Lisburne area 1,100 W/m2, respectively. Nearly all of attains class 6. In summer there is a the Chukchi Sea coast, the eastern half of primary storm track through the Bering the Beaufort Sea, and exposed areas of Strait. Elsewhere along the northern Kotzebue Sound have class 7 power. As Alaska coast class 3 wind power prevails. Moses Point and Koyuk data show, classes 4 to 7 wind power prevails in the relatively At mountain summits and ridge crests low relief area at the east end of the of the eastern Phillip Smith Mountains, Seward Peninsula. Elsewhere along the class 4 wind power occurs. In the Nulato coast, classes 3 to 6 wind power prevails. Hills and the western Brooks Range, class 2 prevails. Mountain summits and ridge crests in the Brooks Range generally have class 4 The wind corridor in the eastern Seward power, except in the Phillip Smith and Peninsula has decreased to class 2 to 4 DeLong Mountains, which have class 1; the power, which is lower than the values in Baird Mountains have class 2; and the winter and spring. The north end of Isabel Endicott Mountains, the Nulato Hills, and Pass also decreases to wind power class 1, smaller mountain ranges in the interior and indicating that high winds in this pass are on the Seward Peninsula have classes 2 or 3 primarily a winter phenomenon. £]sewhere power. in the subregion, class 1 wind power pre- vails in summer. Along sheltered valleys of major rivers such as the Yukon, Koyukuk, and Tanana, 4.2.4 Autumn class 1 wind power prevails. There is also class 1 wind power over much of the area in In autumn, class 4 or higher wind the arctic coastal plain between the Brooks power prevails all along the Chukchi and Range and the Beaufort Sea coast in winter. Beaufort Sea coasts. Class 7 occurs all along the Beaufort coast except around ai262 Spring Barrow and Lonely Point, where class 4 and 6 power prevails. Along the Chukchi Sea In spring, class 4 or higher wind power coast, class 7 occurs in the Peard Bay area occurs along the Beaufort Sea coast from and from Point Lay to Cape Lisburne. Class 7 Lonely Point eastward to the Canadian border, wind power also occurs at the west end of all along the Chukchi Sea coast and along the Seward Peninsula, and class 6 occurs in the Seward Peninsula, except portions of the Kotzebue area and the east end of Norton the Norton Sound coast around Nome where Sound. class 3 prevails. Class 7 wind power occurs along the Chukchi Sea coast from Mountain summits and ridge crests of Point Lay to Cape Lisburne and in the Peard the Brooks Range generally have class 3 Bay area. Class 7 also occurs at the west power in the Phillip Smith, Endicott, and end of the Seward Peninsula, as shown by DeLong Mountains and only class 2 in the Wales and Tin City. West of Lonely Point Baird Mountains. The Nulato Hills, Ray to Barrow, classes 2 and 3 wind power Mountains, and the Yukon and Tanana uplands prevails. show class 2 power in the higher elevations but for the most part are of class 1. Mountain summits and ridge crests in the eastern Brooks Range have power of Wind corridors at the east end of the class 3 or 4, and those in the Yukon and Seward Peninsula have class 2 to 5 wind Tanana uplands and the Nulato Hills are of power as shown by Moses Point and Koyuk class 2. data. The Isabel Pass area shown by Big Delta indicates class 4 wind power. In the wind corridors at the east end of the Seward Peninsula wind power of class 3 The remainder of the northern sub- to 5 occurs, and in the Isabel Pass area, region is generally of wind power class 1 power of class 2 and 3 occurs. In the spring, in autumn. the remainder of northern Alaska generally has class 1 wind power. 4.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS 4.2.3 Summer Graphs of wind characteristics are shown for 21 stations in northern Alaska. In summer, class 4 or higher wind Twelve of these are along the coast and the power occurs along the Beaufort Sea coast remainder are in the interior of the sub- 27 region. The station characteristics are summarized in Table 4.2. The Beaufort Sea coast is represented by the stations Barrow, Lonely Point, Olik- tok, Flaxman Island, and Barter Island. All stations are well exposed to winds from all directions. Barrow and Barter Island, NWS stations, have the greatest reliability and highest frequency of observations. Lonely Point and Oliktok averaged three observations per day, and Flaxman Island averaged only one observation per day. Barrow, Wainwright, Point Lay, and Cape Lisburne represent conditions along the Chukchi Sea coast. The most reliable stations are Barrow and Cape Lisburne, where observations averaged 24 and 18 per day, respectively. Cape Lisburne has hills from the southeast to the west quadrants. The effects of this terrain are increased frequency and enhancement of easterly winds and lesser wind et eae through south. Wainwright and Point La are well exposed to ae from all direc- tions. Kotzebue Sound is well represented by Kotzebue, a NWS station on the Baldwin Peninsula. The station is exposed to winds from all directions and had an average of 21 observations per day during the summary period. Tin City is representative of the winds in the Bering Strait and the west end of the Seward Peninsula. It is most expo- sed to winds from the north and south be- cause of elevated terrain to the west (over 600 m) and to the east (over 300 m). Nome and Moses Point experience repre- sentative winds found on the south coast of the Seward Peninsula, along the Norton Sound. Nome is exposed to the east, south, and west. Foothills (heights ranging from 150 to 400 m) extend from northwest to northeast at a distance of 7 to 15 km and rise to 1,500 m in the Kigluaik Mountains 50 km to the north. Nome is a NWS station with a frequency of 24 observations per day. Moses Point in the northeastern por- tion of Norton Sound is well exposed to winds from all directions except west through north-northwest. About 7 km to the west through north of the station, rolling hills average 500 m in elevation. To the northeast the terrain is flat and swampy for 19 to 28 km. The Koyuk and Buckland Rivers form a low pass into the Kotzebue Sound area to the north, resulting in strong northeasterly winds during the winter months. Moses Point had an average of 24 28 observations per day during the summary period. Umiat on the Colville River is consider- ed very representative of the interior of the arctic coastal plain. Winds tend to be channeled to the east and west directions by the river valley. Hills rise to more than 300 m within 10 km northwest of Umiat. The period of record is short (4.5 years), however, 24 observations per day were taken during this summary period. Bettles is located on the Koyukuk River in the foothills of the Endicott Mountains of the Brooks Range. The river valley runs northeast to southwest, perpendicular to the prevailing winds, and is representative of winds in sheltered valleys. Peaks more than 630 m occur within 9 to 19 km to the west, north, and east. To the south, the terrain is open and marshy. The station had a frequency of 24 observations per day during the 14-year summary. There are three stations in the Yukon River valley. From west to east they are Galena, Tanana, and Fort Yukon. Galena is located in the broad flood- plain of the Yukon just west of the Kaiyuh Mountains. There are no hills over 300 m within 20 km of the station. The most exposed directions are to the northeast and southwest. During the six-year summary for Galena there were 24 observations per day. Tanana is located 7 km west of the confluence of the Yukon and Tanana Rivers. Hills to the north of the station rise to more than 600 m within 15 km and to 1,500 m within 50 km. To the south the terrain is flat with numerous lakes and swamps. Dur- ing the 16-year summary for Tanana there was an average of 24 observations per day. Fort Yukon is located at the con- fluence of the Yukon and Porcupine Rivers. It is located in a broad valley 150 km wide and 370 km long and is openly exposed in all directions. During the 12-year summary used in the analysis there was an average of 11 observations per day. It is repre- sentative of the Yukon Flats area. The three stations along the Tanana River are Nenana, Fairbanks, and Eielson Air Force Base (AFB). Nenana is located on the floodplain at the confluence of the Nenana and Tanana Rivers. The mountains of the Alaska Range are 50 to 75 km south of Nenana, and the White Mountains are to the northeast. There is a range of hills with elevations to 300 m within 5 km to the north-northeast of the station. The remainder of the vi- cinity is generally marshy with numerous lakes and swamps. During the ll-year sum- mary used in the analysis there were 24 observations per day. Fairbanks International Airport is located on the floodplain of the Tanana River 9 km west of Fairbanks. There are hills as high as 300 m within 4 km to the west and north of the airport. To the southwest through southeast there is gen- erally open, gently rising terrain for 55 km to the Alaska Range with peaks to more than 5,800 m. During the 7-year summary used in this analysis there were 24 observations per day. Eielson AFB is located 28 to 37 km southeast of Fairbanks along the Tanana River. In this area the river valley is oriented southeast to northwest; hills rise to more than 600 m within 19 km east of the air base. The area to the southeast through south to northwest is generally exposed. However, to the south the terrain rises gently toward the Alaska Range. During the ll-year summary used in this analysis there were 24 observations per day. Indian Mountain is located in a depres- sion in the Indian Mountains surrounded by peaks of higher elevation. It is sheltered from strong winds from all directions. During the nine-year summary used in the analysis, there were an average of 21 obser- vations per day. 4.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed Along the Beaufort coast (Figure 4.10) annual wind power at Barter Island varies by a factor of two from 300 watts/m2 (W/m2) to more than 600 W/m. Barrow, Lonely Point, and Oliktok also vary by a factor of two, 2 but their actual values are 120 to 250 W/m at Barrow, 170 to 340 W/m2 at Lonely Point, and 240 to 480 W/m2 at Oliktok. With few exceptions, variations in wind power and speed are synchronous from one end of the Beaufort coast to the other. Along the Chukchi Sea coast, Cape Lisburne showed the most interannual variability, from over 700 W/m2 in 1956 to 320 W/m2 in 1971. Barrow, Point Lay, Wainwright, and Cape Lisburne the interannual variations coin- cide from year to year. Along the west coast of Alaska, Kotzebue showed its high- est wind power in 1951 of 580 W/m2, 2 2.9 times the lowest power of 200 W/m” in 1953 and 1962. Nome and Moses Point are generally synchronous with Kotzebue; how- ever, actual values of wind power are generally less due partly to less exposure. Though Tin City has the greatest wind power of the west coast locations, it varied more and variations did not coincide. Umiat's short record is also synchronous with coastal At 29 locations, but wind power and speed are much less. Interior locations show less variation from year to year than do the coastal locations. ac3ee Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed Along the Beaufort Sea coast mean annual wind speeds (Figure 4.11) average 5.4 to 5.9 m/s; however, the wind power classes average from 3 at Barrow to 7 at Barter Island with a gradual increase from west to east. The wind speed and power vary less by season in the west, where Barrow shows an October maximum and all other stations show a pronounced November to February/March maximum. Along the Chukchi Sea coast the wind speeds average 5.1 to 6.1 m/s, and wind power class increases from north to south--3 at Barrow to 7 at Point Lay and Cape Lisburne. All stations show a fall and winter maximum and a minimum in summer. Farther south along the coast, Kotzebue shows a mean annual speed of 5.8 m/s and a wind power class of 6. It also has a late fall and winter maximum and a minimum in summer. Tin City, at the west end of the Seward Penninsula, shows the strongest wind speed of any station in northern Alaska at 8.5 m/s and wind power class 7. There is a slight late-fall and winter maximum and summer minimum but little variation from season to season. All interior locations are of wind power class 1 with mean annual wind speeds varying from 3.8 m/s at Fort Yukon to 1.6 m/s at Fairbanks/Eielson AFB. With the exceptions of Umiat and Indian Mountain, all interior stations show a slight spring maximum and a winter minimum. Umiat, on the north slope of the Brooks Range, has a very short period of record that shows a fall minimum. Indian Mountain shows a fall and winter maximum and a summer minimum more typical of a coastal location. The reason for winter minima in interior Alaska is the prevalent tempera- ture inversions of cold air during that time of year. With short periods of sun- light, low sun angle, and clear, or partly cloudy skies, surface cooling occurs 24 hours a day and strong inversions with dense air at the surface can persist for weeks at a time. Indian Mountain, at approximately 1,000 feet elevation, is often above the strongest inversions; therefore, it has more winter wind. 4.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season The diurnal variation of wind speeds in northern Alaska (Figure 4.12) is gen- erally that the strongest winds occur in the early afternoon in spring at Beaufort and Chukchi coastal locations and in spring, summer, and fall at interior stations. There is no diurnal variation in winter anywhere in the subregion. Because most of the northern Alaska subregion is north of the Arctic Circle, there are periods in winter when the sun does not rise above the horizon and periods in summer when it does not set. Since the driving mechanism for diurnal variations of a meteorological param- eter is often radiational heating or cooling, the transition periods between winter and summer have the greatest day-to-night con- trast. Other influences are more important than diurnal variations for most of the year. 4.3.4 Directional Frequency and Average Soest Along the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea coasts (Figure 4.13) the most frequent wind direction is easterly with a secondary maximum from the west. The strongest winds are also mostly easterly except at Barter Island, where it is westerly and strongest, probably because the station is closer to the Brooks Range in the eastern portion. Cape Lisburne's strong south through south- west winds are enhanced by the local topo- graphy as a foehn wind. Umiat most frequent- ly has westerly winds, with the strongest from the east-northeast along the Colville River valley. Kotzebue also has its most frequent and strongest winds from south- southeast, with secondary maximums from west-northwest. The strong south-southeast winds are caused by the intensification of low pressure systems in the Kotzebue Sound area and the strong west-northwest winds that frequently accompany or follow frontal passages fron the west. Tin City's most frequent and strongest winds are northerly with a secondary maximum from south-south- east. Local terrain tends to enhance both northerly and southerly winds and very few . winds occur from east or west. Nome, on the other hand, has its most frequent and strongest winds from the east and its lightest winds from the north as a result of the blocking effects of mountains to the north. Nome is typical of locations on the south shore of the Seward Peninsula. Moses Point has its most frequent and strongest winds from the north, with a secondary maximum of south-southwest. The strong northerly winds are enhanced some- what by local effects of north-south ridges and valleys at the east end of the Seward Peninsula. Moses Point is very represen- tative of the area to the east as far as the Nulato Hills. 30 In the interior, Bettles has its most frequent winds from northerly and southerly directions. There are also winds from east-northeast and southwest along the Koyukuk River valley; however, the winds are not particularly strong from any direc- tion (typical of many valleys in the southern Brooks Range east of the Nulato Hills). Fort Yukon is very representative of the Yukon Flats area, with northeast winds being most frequent and southwest winds the next most frequent. Wind speeds reach 4 to 5 m/s from both directions. Galena and Tanana show strongest winds from the east (along the direction of the Yukon River); however, winds from the north are the most frequent at Galena and winds from the east and southeast are most frequent at Tanana. Indian Mountain has strongest and most fre- quent winds from east-northeast and secondary maxima southwest through west. Nenana has a wind regime similar to that of Tanana-- east-northeast winds are most frequent and strongest; southwest through northwest winds show secondary maxima. Near Fairbanks, Eiel- son AFB shows very little variation of speed and direction while the Fairbanks airport has north winds most frequently and strong winds from west-southwest, 4.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed frequency The high incidence of calm conditions in winter at interior locations (Figure 4.14) is a result of extremely stable air and strong temperature inversions, particularly at Eielson AFB, Galena, Fairbanks, Tanana, and Nenana. Observer bias is also evident in the peaks of wind speeds at 2, 5 and 8 m/s (corresponding to 5, 10 and 15 mph) at stations with data from before 1960, such as Umiat, Barter Island, Point Lay, Oliktok, Tanana, Kotzebue, Lonely Point, Moses Point, and Flaxman Island. Speeds of 1 m/s are often not shown in recorded data before 1960 because of instrument design. There is good correlation with the Rayleigh distribution at Tin City, Nome, Moses Point, and most coastal locations where the occur- rence of calm conditions is low. 4.3.6 Average Annual Wind Speed and Power Duration i The percentage of time that a given wind speed or power is exceeded is shown in Figures 4.15 and 4.16. Abrupt changes to the slope of the duration curves correspond to peaks in the speed frequency distribu- tion caused by observer bias and instrument threshold speed. \ 156° 0 50 100 150 MILES aN BARROW, Re 15g0 PNL-3196 WERA-10 Rh Tee 154° 050 100 150 KILOMETERS ———_ 1620 nee LONELY POINT EA 7 TESHEKPUK, 152° 4590 BEAUFORT s uake® & ve ° H easy oie 46° age SR io) POINT Lay, D 142° , Lf <r” i Oy . care 166° 1640 3 Ye a: | RIVER Si \ Convitt ) 5 1 OUNTAINS B 20 <n \ 2 s hg Tone ROoKs ance & NOATAK avs aX ‘ > -Lo MOUNTA/ ‘ 1640 BAIRD MOUN7, ot 11 Ns Ss \ KOre, INS <n < \ e Se korzes\} Kobu« , opt FE ee \ % iano = S A Wik : ° 1630 me SB (Yorn BETTLES@ gr? : s. aD | ile ane MECC. RE ga gy LORE IRON on noae> \ S, « awe ; i ey IMURUK ¥ oe no alae y 12, Pp Sue a @ INDIAN MOUNTAIN Wy wv’ i > E = ot go ty + | NINSULA 2 cow “OUNTAINS ' i = ‘ 0 MOSES POINT; TANANA \ 1660 J 2 4 : YUKON. 7, 4 i . NA T6go 1620 > Z CALENA mace Me EAGLE M J . PRTON — souND eae = KALIAG ay, \ Ly “4 Veg \ \ Ae eos DELIA JUNCTION t de Ef —+— aye 154° 152° ° 150° 148° 146° 144 FIGURE 4.1, Geographic Map of Northern Alaska €€ FIGURE 4.2. Topographic Map of Northern Alaska * Se LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND PLAINS TABLELANDS [ Al _ | FLAT PLAINS [ 83c,d ] TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF | a2 | SMOOTH PLAINS | B4c.d | TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF | 81 | IRREGULAR PLAINS, SLIGHT RELIEF | 85c.d | TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF | _B2__] IRREGULAR PLAINS | B6c.d | TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION [ A.83a,b] PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE (1st LETTER) | B4,2,b | PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A ——- >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING | 85a.b | PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING | 86a,b_| PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING D —-<20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS [C2] OPEN Low HiLLS LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) | C3 | OPEN HILLS 1 0 TO 30m (1 TO 100 ft) | C4] OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 ft) | C5 | OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 ft) | C6 _|OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 150 TO 300m (500 TO 1000 ft) 5 300 TO 900m (1000 TO 3000 ft) HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1500m (3000 TO 5000 ft) [03] nus | 04 | HIGH HILLS PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) | D5 _|LOW MOUNTAINS a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND | D6 _]HIGH MOUNTAINS 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND aoc 9€ 156° ONTO Ween OO AML 100 150 MILES BARROW O DIGITIZED DATA 154° 0 50_100_15 100 150 KILOMETERS IZED AN CAPE SIMPSON @ DIGITIZED fad aA 1620 Seong POINT moe 3196 WERA-10 a ee 4 SUMMARIZED cee COCR RES & UNSUMMARIZED Wa DATA POINT LAY PRUDHOE BA BARTER ISLAND lec POINT CAPE LISBURNE ota BEAUFORT \ UMIAT ‘ POINT HOPE \ a \ \ /ALINA 1 ose A ATIGUN PASS ‘ 164 \ \ KOTZEBUE @ WISEMAN JACK WADE@® 1 = | BETTLES : © PROSPECT CREEK ‘ ALATNA \ \ © rari HUGHES, INDIAN MTN AFS af ‘STEVENS VILLAGE race \ CENTRAL® \ YA CIRCLE HOT SPRINGS + ph icanctanes ACOAL CRE Uae ee TANANA ‘ MANLEY@, —_EIELSON AFB@ EAGLE HOT FAIRBANKS A\NO GRUB : oni) ttl, Fal \ 640 NENANA \ 154° 152° 150° 148° 146° FIGURE 4.4. NCC Station Locations in Northern Alaska de “go MILES Q _ 7 Pes on 3196 WERA-10 0 101440 DIGITIZED 8 101440 DIGITIZED & NCC-SUMMARIZED & NCC-SUMMARIZED 9 OTHER-SUMMARIZED x ~=NCC/OTHER-UNSUMMARIZED © MARINE 3K CANADIAN/OTHER FOREIGN + USFS FIRE WEATHER FIGURE 4.5. Location of Stations Used in Northern Alaska Resource Assessment gt S 2 158° 156° 6€ Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 m and 50 m(@) 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed, (b) Density, Speed, (b) Class _watts/m2__m/s(mph) —_watts/m2__m/s (mph) 0 0 0. 0. 1————100 4.4 ( 9.8) 200-——5.6 (12.5) 2 150 ——5.1 (11.5) 300-—— 6.4 (14.3) 3 200 ——5.6 (12.5) 400-——7.0 (15.7) 4 250 —— 6.0 (13.4) 500-———7.5 (16.8) 5———300—— 6.4 (14.3) ——— 600 —— 8.0 (17.9) 6 400-——7.0 (15.7) 800 —— 8.8 (19.7) 7 1000 —— 9.4 (21.1) ———2000 ——11.9 (26.6) (@)ertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (>)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva- lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard seatevel conditions, To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation. TABLE 4.1. Areal Distribution (km2) of Wind Power Classes in Northern Alaska % Land Cumulative % Cumulative Power Class Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 1 580,000 82 710,000 100 2 60,000 8.4 130,000 18 3 34,000 41 70,000 98 4 13,000 18 36,000 51 5 11,000 1.5 23,000 33 6 12,000 1.6 13,000 18 7 1,000 0.14 1,000 0.14 Ov 70:03, beet peo 2 thee weeps. le Pe eee e np occ eahy S72 11 “+t Adhgo. Sone ; R20 111 FIGURE 4.7. Certainty Rating of Northern Alaska Wind Resource, Tp Rating CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND Definition The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) 3 No data exist in the vicinity of the cell. The terrain is highly complex. Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell. A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) Little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data. Limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large. A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data. Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur. The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com- plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. 168 142 7 72,188. 166 ag 144..142-72 f Pope H64 182. 160 15@ 156 154 152 150, 148.146. Class 2 , a 50 MILES Pt : bo badearet I le = BF sasphesk venigiiusase-s-estavekaeacea (=o) : woe FIGURE 4.8 (Continued). Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Northern Alaska (Power Classes 2 and 3); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown. 42 168 72-188 166 ovr. 184 162 160 158 156 154 152 150 148 i ; ee 4 7) 5. CammnSDeeeedG0 MILES id judged E74 71 —_ Qed KILOMETERS ¢ iy fin in ptt tt egaet PNL-3195 WERA-10 68; 67: 64: : Preteens i x ois i ; “ 168d 1010 28y i Polot0.0:0:0:0:0 “158 156 184. «1S2.—«150 62 160 158 156 15 . MILES s Class 5 71% Q 59100 KILOMETERS ">: PNL-3195 WERA-10 FIGURE 4.8. Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Northern Alaska (Power Classes 4 and 5); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown. 43 (5) moa crest estimates 0 SO 100___150 MILES —— 2 _|® Q__50_100 150 KILOMETERS $ . 7 C00 15 PNL-3195 WERA-10 roe! a + 690 3 67° ee* 6s N 3" 2 $$ 8 @ &¢ ¢ & # [2] nwo crest esrmares 3 8 a 3 SUMMER O50 1003150 mites x” scl § 3 aeons / | . | ; i 6° 8° 660 é er 650° 6° 3 ; 6° _/ w (56° 54° 152°) '50°h we 146°) “4 142° 140°, iter, Summer) 44 SPRING & 3 [=] mwas caest esrmares ° SO 100__150 MILES " 8 ¥ 8 Q__S0_100_150 KILOMETERS © PNL-3195 WERA-10 7088 ! (moat eneerexrmares 3 & 3 ag AUTUMN o EJ 100 150 MILES — x” Q 100_150 KILOMETERS i FIGURE 4.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Northern Alaska (Spring, Autumn) 45 67° TABLE 4.2. Northern Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics. Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, Wim2 Station 1D Station Name Barrow Wiley Post - Will Rogers Airport 156.78 9.4 04/55-12/64 56 S4 68 Barter Island Barter Island Airport 70.1 143.63 11.9 01/49-08/55 7.6 56 S8 7.3 370 416 829 Bettles Bettles CAA 66.9 153.5 203.0 05/51-12/64 8.2 29 30 38 37 40 80 Cape Lisburne Cape LisburneAFS 68.9 166.1 16.1 04/61-12/71 4.0 $3 60 7.5 272 404 806 Fairbanks EIE —_Eielson AFB 64.7 140.1 173.4 08/59-12/70 40 14 16 2.0 13 19 39 Fairbanks INT Fairbanks Inter- 64.8 147.9 134.1 09/57-12/64 10.1 2:52:55 a2 26 «2602 52 national Airport Flayman Island = Flayman Island 70.2 158.0 7.0 08/57-12/70 43 $0 5.7 7.1 232 334 «666 Air Field Fort Yukon Fort Yukon CAA 66.6 145.3 129.5 01/52-09/63 7.6 3.7 38 48 69 78 155 Galena Galena AFS 64.7 156.9 45.4 04/62-11/68 6.1 2.2 24 3.0 28 35069 Indian Indian Mountain 66.0 153.7 2883 04/61-12/70 4.0 26 2.9 3.7 56 «83166 Mountain AFS Kotzebue Ralph Wein 65.9 163.0 6.1 01/45-12/64 9.4 58 S58 7.3 309 «317s 6311 Memorial Airport Lonely Point Lonely Point Air 70.9 152.3 9.0 07/37-11/75 43 45 S50 63 171 246 «491 Field Moses Point Moses Point AAF 64.7 = 162.1 64 06/52-07/64 8.2 54 56 70 241 +262 522 Nenana Nenana AAF 66.6 149.1 110.9 07/53-12/64 8.5 27 28 35 38 41 81 Nome Nome Airport 645 165.4 5.5° 08/58-12/64 21.3 54 49 6.1 247° «179 «(356 Oliktak Oliktok Air Field 70.5 149.9 5.0 08/57-11/75 43 52 59 74 254 366 729 Point Lay Point Lay Air Field 69.7 163.0 6.0 08/57-11/75 43 54 6.1 7.7 281 4405 807 Tanana Tanana FSS 65.2 1521 73.2 07/48-12/64 10.1 25 25 32 42 42 84 Tin City Tin City AFS 65.6 167.9 78.6 06/60-12/71 4.0 74 84 10.6 519 772 1538 Umiat Umiat Airport 69.4 152.1 102.7 07/48-12/52 10.7 33 33 4.1 91 89 176 Wainwright Wainwright Air Field 70.6 160.1 27.0 08/57-11/75 43 45 Sl 65 192 277 551 46 +—— WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M?* ---- WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S FMeBIOS wens-10 ABSCISSA — YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW BARROW AK BARTER ISLAND AK BETTLES AK 27502 2m01 ae 8 ‘io eee | je 7 wot DME pts : F t t '-4 5 100 foto pndeeeginndne finite boeniginfe 4 i ; ; ; 0 t r 3 r 2 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 CAPE LISBURNE AK 26631 Fal RBANKS/EI EAK 264 800 5. 8 700 4. 7 600 4. 6 5004. 5 400 4- 4 300 4. 3 200 2 ett 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 FLAXMAN IS. AK FT. YUKON AK 2m04 26413 88888 HNO AOAY °8 i i joi j pos : pi 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 INDIAN MTN. AK nore AK LONELY PT. AK 8 100 4- HOSA 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 FIGURE 4.10. Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska. 48 +——+ WIND POWER «---- WIND SPEED PNL-3196 WERA-10 MOSES PT. AK 26620 8 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68.72 76 80 OLIKTOK AK 2403 SHECEoHES 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 TIN CITY AK 26634 . 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 PT. LAY AK 26638 8888888 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 UMIAT AK 26508 i i 1 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 ° o 888888 LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M’ RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S ABSCISSA - YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW NENANA AK NOME AK 26435 266r7 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 TANANA AK 26529 “ré 5 4 3 2 “pl ° 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 WAINWRIGHT AK 27508 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 FIGURE 4.10 (Continued). Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska. 49 —— WIND POWER WIND SPEED PNL-3198 WERA-10 ARROW P= 1 27802 Z=1L9 R, V= 5. AK 04/55-12/64 CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61- FLAXMAN IS. en ae a o 88 8 8 i : Hn to JFMAMJJASOND 26631 Z= 4.0 G, V= 60, P= JFMAMJJASOND 2404 Z= 43 G, V= 5 FMAMJJASOND i JPMAMJIJASOND FIGURE 4.11. tba o NM f @ AK 08, Spe Shae oN # OO Ny oh ee oN Fe @ @ = 415 o 8 8 8 8 i ii i 7 JFMAMJJASOND FAIRBANKS/EIEAK 08/59-12, 26407 KS/EI G, V= es 108. o 8 8 8 8 JPMAMJSASOND FT. YUKON AK OL 5200/83 26413 Z= 76 R, V= o 888 E. SRE a4 JPMAMJJASOND KOTZEBUE AK 0148-12 /66 o 8 8 8 8 o § 8 8 8 JPMAMJIJASOND 50 BETTLES LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M? RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S ABSCISSA — MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW BARTER ISLAND AK O1f9--08/55 2401 Z= 76 R, V= AK 05/51-12/64 mm 02 Ra 36 2/8 26533 Ott 0 JFMAMJJASOND FAIRBANKS/INT.AK 09/57-12/64 LONELY Fr 2641 Z=101 G, V= 25, JSPFMAMIJSASOND AK 04/62-11 Z= 61G, V= Ve ie LENA SFMAMJIJASOND AK 07/57-11/75 V= 80, P= 246 SPMAMIJASOND Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska. —— WIND POWER ------- WIND SPEED PNL-3196 WERA-10 LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M* RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S ABSCISSA —- MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW AK 06/52-07/64 “78 o § 8 8 8 i i 0 JFMAMJJASOND OLIKTOK AK 08, ars 2m03 Z= 43 G, V= 59, P= o § 8 8 8 o § 8 8 8 JSPMAMJIJASOND TIN CITY AK 06/60-12 26634 Z= 4.0 G, V= 84, Pe ~EESRE JPMAMIJASOND CFSE RRS o 8 8 8 8 NENANA AK 07/53-12/64 28, P= 40 26435 Z= 85 R V= o § 8 8 8 o SPMAMJIJIASOND PT. LAY AK og /szais 26638 Z= 43 G, V= 61, P= 7 oN * OO JPMAMIJASOND UMIAT AK 07, 12/52 26508 =2=10.7 G, V= ae “es So sere o 8 8 8 8 JFMAMJJASOND NOME AK 09/se-12/¢ 26617 = 72=213 B V= 49, P= 7 ro o 8 & 8 8 JPMAMJIJASOND TANANA AK 0748-12/64 Mees ator RVG Pope o § 8 8 8 ; ° JFMAMJJASOND WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 27808 Z= 43 G, V= 51, P= 7 6 ° JPMAMJIJASOND FIGURE 4.11 (Continued). Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska. §1 +—— WINTER ®- —® SUMMER BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 27502 «Z=11.9 R. V= 56, P= 213 10 oN + @ @ o 3 6 9 12 15 16 21 24 CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 ° 26631 Z= 4.0 G, V= 53, P= 10 oN & @ @ 12 15 18 21 24 MUD o3 69 FLAXMAN IS. o 3 6 9 12 15 16 2 2 IAN MTN. AK 04/61-12, ee Z= 40 G, V= eke ee 10> oN FOO o 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2&4 ¢----~SPRING & --8AUTUMN BARTER ISLAND AK O1f49-08/55 2401 2= 76 R, V= Ps 10 oN e OD 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 FAIRBANKS/EIE.AK 08/59-12, f 26407 "| 4 Oe 10+. a4. 6 4 Poe ° 0 3 6 9-12 15 18 2 24 FT, YUKON | AK 01/52-09/63 V 7, P= 69 26413 Z= 76 R, VO spoon pee oN e+ @ @ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 KOTZEBUE AK 0145-12/64 [izssie Z= 94 R, V= 58, P= 104 sensu “oN eh @ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2 ORDINATE - M/S ABSCISSA — HOUR PNL-3195 WERA-10 BETTLES 26533 AK 05/51-12/64 i; 72+ 82 R, V= 29, P= 37 1 a * oN FO @ o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 FAIRBANKS/INT.AK 09/5' 584 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 GALENA AK 94762-11768 7 26501 Z= 61 G, V= 22, P= iE eats sopenoege o 3 6 9 -12 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 27512 Z= 43 G, V= 45, P= Mm 15 18 21 24 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 12 15 FIGURE 4.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Northern Alaska. 52 €s “BYSEIY WIAYIION 40J UOSRaS Aq paads pulm jeusnig *(panujUOD) ZL'p JUNI vz ww el st 2 6 8 € O ve i of St at 6 9 € O ve ww ot st 2} 6 8 € O 261 =d ‘S¥ =A ‘DE =Z =d SE =A ‘D LOI-Z gog92 3618 <d L=A'D OF =Z veoee g0sez, 16 $2/1I-26/80 AV LHOIMANIVA 2S/21-8W/L0 AV AVIAN 21-09/90 AV ALIO NIL ve et st 2 6 89 € O vz i ot si 2t 6 9 € O vw est 26 8 € O ay ad =d ‘WS =A ‘D €F =Z gEDEe a =d =A ‘DW =Z Cows ¥0/21-aybo av VNYNVL Se yti 2s/00 av AVI Id SZ, fins 760 xv MOLY ITO ve 2 et st 2 6 8 € O ww est 2 6 9 € O ve i et st 2 6 89 € O 2 =d'‘¥S =A ‘8 Clz=2 Use 8 =d 22 =A USE =Z scree lz =d '¥S AU Ze =Z Oeoee ¥9/21-85/60 HIV 3NON —¥9/z1-9/40 HIV YNVNGN = -¥8/L0"28700 HV ** “Gas SasOn ‘OL-vuaM S6LEANG YNOH — VSSIOSEV NWOLNVe---8 UYAINNNS e -« S/W — GLYNIGYO ONITUdSe ---¢ YaLNIM+—+ — PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE — PERCENT BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 27502 «Z=119 R, V= 56, P= 213 a psc set tee gets ticstla icaoa cota CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 26631 Z= 4.0 G, V= E N NE E SE S SW W NW FLAXMAN IS. AK 08/57-12/70 pa cnt Z= 43 G, V= of Bie al oe @ @ § N NE E SE S SW W NW INDIAN MTN. AK 04 nia 26535 Z= 4.0 G, V= P= oe @ © N NE E SE S sw woNnw WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S ABSCISSA — WIND DIRECTION PNL-3198 WERA-10 BARTER ISLAND AK Ae -06/55 2m01 Z= 76 R, V= 56, P= eee reemee seni N NE E SE S SW W NW FAIRBANKS/EIE.AK 08/58-12/70 8 ° N NE E SE S SW W NW FT. YUKON AK 01/'52-09/63 26413 Z= 76 R V= 47, P= 69 N NE E SE S SW W NW KOTZEBUE AK 0145-12/64 26616 Z= 94 R, V= 58, P= oo oO N NE E SE S SW W NW AK 05/51-12/64 BETTLES 26533 Z= 82 R, V= 29, P= 37 12 N NE E SE S SW W NW FAIRBANKS/INT.AK 09/' S7a12 7 Se N NE E SE S. SW W NW LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 27812 Z= 43 G, V= 45, P= M71 40 - 20 20 10 Oo N NE E SE S SW W NW FIGURE 4.13. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Northern Alaska. 54 — PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE — PERCENT seceree WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S ABSCISSA — WIND DIRECTION PNL-3196 WERA-10 NENANA AK 07 (ele oe NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26435 Z= 65 R, V 26617 Za213.B V= 54. P= 267 . = +0 ° N NE E SE S SW WNW N NE E SE S SW W NW OLIKTOK AK 08/57-11/75 2m03 Z= 43 G, Va Shea ae TANANA AK 0748-12/64 26529 v Ms 49 6 3 0 : ° pag N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW TIN CITY AK 06/60-12 UMIAT AK 07A8-12/52 WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 26634 Z= 40 G, V= 74, P= 19E 26508 2=10.7 G, V= 33, 27508 ~Z= 43 G, V= 45, P= 192 rey 7 40 a2 40 ri2 x0 2 2% 9 20 6 2 6 10 3 10 3 o ; 0 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW FIGURE 4.13 (Continued). Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Northern Alaska. 55 —— ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE — PERCENT seats RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA — M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 BARROW > AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND AK OM 9-08/55 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 213 2x01 oes areas 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 24 6 8 10 12 4 16 CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 F IRBANKS/EIEAK 08/59-12/70 FAIRBANKS/INT.AK 09/57-12/64 Pi caine Vv E 6407 Z= 4.0 G, V= 14, P= 13E ‘on Z=101 G, V= 25, P= 26 7 fet ° 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 FLAXMAN IS. AK 08 5712/70 FT. YUKON AK 01/52-00/63 GALENA AK 9462-11768 2m04 Z= 43 G, V= 5.0, P= E 26413 Z= 76 R, V= P= 69 iE 26501 Z= 61 G, V= 22 P= ° + ' ° ; a : 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 AK 04/61-12/70 KOTZEBUE AK 0145-12/64 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 oGvy P= 56E qo 28 2-94 R V= 88, Pa soe? 43. G. Va 45. Pam o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 FIGURE 4.14. Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Northern Alaska. 56 —— ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE — PERCENT peeoao RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3196 WERA-10 Ar 06/st- Oy ‘64 NENANA AK. 07/5912 /64 NOME AK 09/s8-12/64 i 26435 Z= 65 R V= 27, P= 38 2667 7=213 B, V= 54, 24 6 8 0 12 4 6 o 24 6 8 0 12 4 6 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 OLIKTOK 08/57-11 PT. LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA 12/64 YAOD em 43 oN Sh Be ober A maior Ru Gorm 42 26638 Z= 43 G, V= 54, P= 26529 024 6 8 0 2 4 6 o 24 6 8 0 2 4 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 TE so UNE OE wa ME Os MOD 40 x» 2 10 ° o 24 6 8 0 12 4 16 024 6 8 0 2 4 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 FIGURE 4.14 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Northern Alaska. 57 BARROW 27502 =7Z=119 R, V= 56, P= 213 °o 88888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 CAPE LISBURNE AK 94/ei-12/71 a 26631 Z= 40 G, V= 53, P= 272E 1 i = o 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 FLAXMAN IS. AK 08, Sete 70 2404 Z= 43 G, V= 1 100 -*- it o8 8 8B o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 INDIAN MTN. AK 04 e1=12/70 X o88 888 10 12 14 16 024 6 8 AK 04/55-12/64 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3196 WERA-10 BARTER ISLAND AK 0149-08/55 mn 2401 Z= 76 R, V= 56, P= 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 FAIRBANKS/EIE.AK 08/59-12/70 26407 Z= 40 G, V= 14, P= 13E 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 FT. YUKON AK 01/52-09/63 26413 Z= 76 R, V= 47, P= 69 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x 26616 04 n't wey i 88888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 26533 Z= 82 R, V= 29, P= 37 100 > Sagres 80 60 40 20 °o 10 12 14 16 o 246 8 FAIRBANKS/INT.AK 09/57-12/64 26411 Z=101 G, V= 25, P= 26 0858888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 oso zm aro MK OY RS o8 8 888 024 6 686 W 12 4 16 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 27512 Z= 43 G, V= 45, m 100%: eo 88888 10 12 14 16 024 6 8 FIGURE 4.15. Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Northern Alaska. 58 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA — M/S PNL-3196 WERA10 MOSES PT. AK 06 (S207 (4 NENANA AK K_07/53-12/64 NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26620 Z= 82 R V= 28435 Z= 85 RV 26617 2=213 B V= 54, P= 100 100 100 80 e+ 80+ 60. 60 60 40 40 404- 20 20+: 20+ SUE ia ee ot i bebbiie . pepe i 024 6 8 0 2 4 6 024 6 8 0 12 4 6 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 OLIKTOK AK 08/57-11 PT. LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA 2/64 EM Thal So TRIES 100 100 100 . 6 80 204) 60 60+ 60+: 40 40 404- 2 20 20 ° ° ° 024 6 8 0 2 4 6 024 6 86 0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 TIN CITY AK 06/60-12, UMIAT AK 0748~12/52 WAINWRIGHT = AK 08 /57-11/75 26634 .0 G, V= 74, P= 26508 Z=10.7 G, V= 33, P= ‘91 27508 Z= 43 G, V= 45, P= 192 100 100 100 reent 80 80 80-+- 60 60 60 +- 40: 40 404: 2 20 20+- ° o ° t 024 6 8 0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8 100 12 4 16 024 6 8 0 12 4 16 FIGURE 4.15 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Northern Alaska. 59 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA - WATTS/M? PNL-3198 WERA-10 BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND, AK 01/49-08/55 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 27502 2=119 R. V= 56, P= 213 ZHOl 2= 76 R V= 5 26533 Z= 82 RV: 100 Sunes apiheaiien ianeecne idicon 80 680 60 60 40 40+! 20 20 ° - 0+ ——+ +——t 1 ° - oO 200 400 600 800 1000 oO 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000 CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 FAIRBANKS/EIE.AK 08/59-12/70 26631 Z= 4.0 G, V= 53, P= 26407 P= 13E 40 G, V= © 200 400 600 800 1000 FT. YUKON AK 01//52--00/63 26413 Z= 76 R, V= 0 200 400 600 800 1000 FLAXMAN IS. AK 08 S717 2m04 Z= 43 G. V= 5! 200 400 600 800 1000 KOTZEBUE AK O15 12, 64 26616 Z= 94 R, V= 58, AS 0 200 400 600 800 1000 ° Ny A Soe 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 °o FALRBANKS/INT.AK_09/57-12/64 28411 Z=101 G, V= 25, P= 26 hpi leae 0 200 400 600 800 1000 son et 2 81 0. NS Mi oY Se 08888 0 200 400 600 800 1000 LONELY PT. “AK OY S71 /75 088888 0 20 400 600 800 1000 FIGURE 4.16, Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Northern Alaska. 60 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA — WATTS/M? PNL-3195 WERA-10 MOSES PT. AK 09/s2-07/64 NENANA AK o7/ey12/e4 NOME AK 08 /59-12/64 26620 Z= 82 R, V= 26617 =72=213 B, V= 54, P= 26435 Z= 85 R. V= 100 100 80 £0 604. 60+: hail: aaa 20 20 j : — i 9 = 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 me om 43 oN UE Bel” em a3 fh pee on aaa RAK TOS 80 80 0+ 60 40 40 20 2 ° t . —= ° 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 TIN CITY AK 06/60-12 UMIAT AK 0748-12/52 WAINWRIGHT _AK 08/57-11/75 27508 Z= 43.G, V= 45, P= 192 26634 Z= 40 G, V= 7.4, P= SI9E 26508 7=10.7 G, V= 33, P= 91 088888 088888 0 20 400 600 800 1000 0 20 400 600 800 1000 FIGURE 4.16 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Northern Alaska. 61 SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA CHAPTER 5: The southcentral subregion had an esti- mated population of 265,745 in 1979. The major population centers of this subregion are the Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the Kenai Peninsula Borough, and the Municipality of Anchorage (formerly the Greater Anchorage Area Borough). With a population of 185,280, Anchorage is the largest population center in the state. This subregion extends from 141° on its east end to 176°06' in the Bering Sea on the west. Its northern boundary is 64°N and its southern boundary is 59°N and the Gulf of Alaska. The southcentral subreg ign covers an area of 574,980 km2 (222,000 ai 2). Geographic and topographic features of southcentral Alaska are shown in Fig- ures 5,1 and 5.2. The subregion is characterized by rug- ged, mountainous terrain (Figure 5.3). Important exceptions are in the lowlands bordering Cook Inlet, the Kuskokwim River valley, the lower Susitna Valley, the Copper River plateau, and intermittent low- lands along the coast. The borders of this subregion encompass the southern portion of the Nulato Hills, the Kuskokwim Mountains, the Alaska Range (including the 6,194 m high Mt. McKinley, the tallest peak in North America), and the Talkeetna, Wrangell, Chugach, and Kenai mountain ranges. The subregion experiences great tec- tonic activity. It is subject to frequent violent movements of the earth's crust that cause severe earthquakes, and it exhibits all the manifestations of the Pacific Rim's "Ring of Fire," including the following active volcanoes--Augustine, Iliamna, Re- doubt, Spurr, and the Wrangells. Great glaciers abound in the Alaska, Wrangell, Chugach, and Kenai mountain ranges. Meltwater from glaciers contri- butes huge quantities of water and silt to many of the large rivers in the south- central subregion. The subregion has three of the largest river systems in the state: the Kuskokwim, Susitna, and Copper. It also includes the lower third and delta region of the Yukon River, the longest river in Alaska. Their drainage basins account for more than half the total area of the subregion. Next in size is the Matanuska River with a drainage area of 5,672 km (2,190 mi2). Lakes abound in this subregion. Iliam- na Lake covers 2,590 km2(2,190 mi2) and is the largest in the state; others are just 65 SOQUTHCENTRAL ALASKA large enough for floatplanes to land and take off. Major Takes in the subregion are Tustumena, 303 kn? (117 mi2); Lake Clark, 285 km2 (110 mi2); Wood River/Tikchik Lakes area; Skilak Lake and Kenai Lake. The coastal areas of this subregion vary from the fjords, inlets, and islands of Prince William Sound, the Kenai Peninsu- la, and Cook Inlet to the delta portions of the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. Wind data stations in the southcentral subregion (identified in Figures 5.4 and 5.5) are primarily along the coast, major rivers, the railroad, and the few highways. Fire weather data (Figure 5.5) from the forested foothill and the lowland areas were used for calculations where other reli- able data were absent. 5.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER _IN The annual average wind power density in southcentral Alaska is shown in Figure 5.6. The analyses of mean wind power apply to terrain features that are favorably ex- posed to the wind, such as mountain summits, ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. However, nearby terrain features may interact with the windfield to cause the wind power at some exposed sites to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the assessment value. (See Wegley et al. 1980 for information on ter- rain features that may increase or reduce wind energy.) In forested or wooded areas the assessment values are representative of large clearings with good exposure to the prevailing strong winds, such as airports. In mountainous jons, the analyses also reflect major valleys. The percentage of land area that is favorably exposed to the wind strongly depends on the land-surface form (Section 1.8). The annual average wind power (Figure 5.6) is class 4 or higher all along the Bering Sea coast, at islands in the Bering Sea, in wind corridors in lower Cook Inlet and Isabel Pass, and at mountain summits and ridge crests of the Alaska Range and the Wrangell Mountains. St. Lawrence Island shows class 7 power at the east and west ends and class 6 along the north shore; however, St. Matthew Island, Nunivak Island, and the Bering Sea coast all show class 7 wind powers. Class 4 or higher wind power extends eastward in the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta for more than 150 km (100 mi), as shown by Bethel data. These high wind powers reflect the frequent storms that occur in the Bering Sea year round. Off the Gulf of Alaska coast and Middleton Island class 7 wind power occurs. However, most coastal data are in sheltered locations and thus reflect annual power of class 2 or 3. Exposed locations should be class 4 or higher. There are wind corridors with class 4 and higher power in the lower Cook Inlet from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands. Bruin Bay shows class 7 for all seasons of the year. Isabel Pass along the Delta River through the Alaska Range shows annual wind power of class 4 to 7. Other wind corridors with no objective data have a significant wind resource. A few examples of these are: Portage Pass, which connects the Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet with Prince William Sound; the lower Copper River; Windy Pass near Mt. McKinley National Park; and several other passes through the Alaska Range. Mountain summits and ridge crests of the Alaska Range east of 150°W reach wind power class 6 in the vicinity of Mt. McKin- ley; class 4 or higher occurs north of 60°N along this range. In the Wrangell Moun- tains along the Canadian border, class 4 wind power also occurs. However, other mountain summits and ridge crests are generally estimated to have class 3 power. Annual wind power of class 1 prevails in interior regions along the Yukon, Kusko- kwim, and Tanana rivers; in the source region of the Copper River, in the relative- ly low relief area between the Talkeetna, Chugach, Wrangell, and Alaska mountain ranges; and in the sheltered areas of Cook Inlet and the Susitna River valley. Certainty Rating of the Wind esource Certainty ratings in southcentral Alaska vary from 1 to 4 (Figure 5.7). There are only two areas with class 4 or higher wind power and a certainty rating of 4--southern St. Matthew Island and Middle- ton Island, both with an annual wind power of class 7. Elsewhere in the subregion, certainty ratings of 3 or less predominate. 5.1.1 There are several areas where data are adequate but the certainty rating is reduced because of terrain complexity. These are the vicinities of Cook Inlet, St. Lawrence Island, the Bering Sea coast, and the inner mountain region around Gulkana. Most of the subregion is of certainty rating 2 because the powers are based on mountain summit and ridge crest estimates in the 66 Nulato Hills, the Alaska Range, and the Kuskokwim, Talkeetna, Wrangell, Chugach, and Kenai mountains. Stations along the Gulf of Alaska coast and in the Prince William Sound area that represent exposed locations are North Dutch Island, Cape Hinchinbrook, and Middle- ton Island. The certainty rating at all of these stations except Middleton Island is reduced to 2 or 3 because of the complexity of the terrain in the vicinity. Other Gulf of Alaska coast stations, such as Valdez, Cordova, and Yakataga, are not favorably exposed to the prevailing winds. Sole Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource The areal distribution of the wind power in southcentral Alaska is illustrated in Figure 5.8. The numbers identify the percentage of area in each cell of the grid in which the wind power equals or exceeds some threshold value. Although class 4 or higher is predicted in 18% of the grid cells, only about 10% of the land area is estimated to experience these power densities (see Table 5.1). High wind energy resource areas are along the Bering Sea coast and its is- lands, lower Cook Inlet, and the coast of the Gulf of Alaska from Prince William Sound eastward, mountain summits and ridge crests of the Alaska Range west of Cook Inlet, and the Wrangell Mountains. The most exploitable high wind resource areas are the Bering Sea coast, the Yukon-Kusko- kwim Delta, the wind corridor from Bristol Bay to lower Cook Inlet, Isabel Pass south of Big Delta, and Portage Pass at the east end of the Turnagain Arm. High wind re- source areas along the Gulf of Alaska coast are estimated to be in a narrow strip along the coast and the Copper River delta. The remainder of southcentral Alaska is est ima- ted to be of class 1 or 2. 5.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER Wind power maps for each season are shown in Figure 5.9. Generally, winter is the season of maximum wind power along the coastlines, the mountain ranges, and in passes where pressure differences in winter cause strong winds in the passes. Maximum wind power along major inland rivers and the upper Cook Inlet coasts generally occurs in spring. 5.2.1 Winter Class 7 wind power occurs all along the Bering coast in winter except along the south shore of Norton Sound and Kvichak Bay at the northeast end of Bristol Bay. Class 4 or higher wind power is estimated to occur over the western 150 km of the Yukon-Kusko- kwim Delta, as shown by Bethel data that indicate class 5 wind power. Along the Gulf of Alaska coast, class 5 or 6 wind power generally occurs with class 7 over the open waters and in the Middleton Island area. At mountain summits and ridge crests in the Alaska Range, class 7 wind power is estimated in the vicinity of Mt. McKinley and west of the Susitna River valley. In the Wrangell Mountains along the Canadian border class 7 is estimated at the highest peaks, and class 4 or higher is estimated for most of the Chugach Range and the Tal- keetna Mountains. Wind corridors in lower Cook Inlet from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands and in Isabel have class 7 power for part of their lengths, as shown by Bruin Bay and Big Delta data. Other passes with high wind powers that are primarily a winter phenomenon resulting from strong pressure gradients are Portage Pass, which connects the Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet to Prince William Sound, with class 5 to 7 wind power; Isabel Pass, with class 6 and 7, Windy Pass, with class 5 and 6; Chickaloon Pass, along the Matanuska River, with class 6 power as shown by Palmer and Sheep Mountain; and the lower Copper River, estimated to experience class 6 wind power. Class 1 wind power occurs along major rivers, such as the Yukon, Kuskokwim, Tanana, Susitna, and the source region of the Copper River where extremely stable air at the surface may persist for weeks at a time with intense temperature inversions. 5.2.2 Spring Class 4 or higher wind power prevails all along the Bering Sea coast and at is- lands in the Bering Sea in the spring. Class 7 only occurs at the most exposed areas of the western coast of St. Lawrence Island at Gambell and at Cape Romanzof and Platinum on the mainland coast. The remain- der of the Bering Sea islands are of class 6 and the remainder of the coast is class 6, decreasing to class 4 at the east end of Bristol Bay and along the shore of Norton Sound. Class 7 wind power still occurs in the wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands in lower Cook Inlet. Along the Gulf of Alaska coast class 4 and 5 wind power is the rule; power generally increases to class 6 at Middleton Island and class 7 eee more open waters of the Gulf of Alaska. 67 Mountain summits and ridge crests with. class 4 or higher wind power are restricted to the Alaska Range in the vicinity of Mt. McKinley and the Wrangell Mountains along the Canadian border. The remainder of the mountain summits and ridge crests are pri- marily class 2, with a few estimated at class 3. Wind corridors at Isabel Pass have of class 3 or 4 power, and Chickaloon has class 3. Other wind corridors shown in the winter season are not significant in spring because of the seasonal decrease in pressure gradients. Class 1 wind power covers most of the interior west of the Alaska Range, the major river valleys, the Cook Inlet area, and the low relief area between the Talkeetna, Wrangell, Chugach, and Alaska mountains. 5.2.3 Summer In summer, locations with class 4 or higher wind power are St. Lawrence and Nunivak Islands in the Bering Sea and the wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands. This corridor shows class 7 wind power at the west end of Kamishak Bay, which diminishes rapidly to class 3 in both directions. The Bering Sea coast is predominantly class 3, and the Gulf of Alaska coast is class 2 as far out as Middleton Island. Mountain summits and ridge crests have up to class 4 power in the vicinity of Mt. McKinley, and class 3 in the Wrangell Moun- tains along the Canadian border and portions of the Alaska Range southwest of Mt. McKinley. The remainder of mountains summits are of class 2 orl. Class 1 prevails over the rest of south- central Alaska in summer. 5.2.4 Autumn In autumn, class 4 or higher wind power occurs along the Bering Sea coast and at islands in the Bering Sea. Class 7 occurs along the Bering coast from Cape Romanzof to Kuskokwim Bay and at St. Matthew, St. Lawrence, and Nunivak Islands. Class 4 or higher occurs over the western Yukon-Kusko- kwim Delta up to 160 km from the coast. The Norton Sound coast has class 4 or 5 power, as does the north shore of Bristol Bay. The wind corridor from Iliamna Lake through the lower Cook Inlet to the Barren Islands has class 7 power. Other wind cor- ridors show wind powers as follows: Isabel Pass, class 5 and 4; Chickaloon Pass, class 2 and 3; Portage Pass, class 4 and 3; and the lower Copper River corridor, class 3. Mountain summits and ridge crests in the Alaska Range and the Wrangells near the Canadian border reach class 6. Class 3 wind power occurs in the Chugach Range north and east of Prince William Sound. Else- where in the Talkeetna, Kenai, and Kusko- kwim mountains, class 2 power is the rule. Class 1 power prevails over the remain- der of the subregion west of the Alaska Range; in the Susitna River valley and vicin- ity of Cook Inlet; and in the inner mountain region at the headwaters of the Copper, Delta, Susitna, and Matanuska rivers. 5.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS Graphs of wind characteristics are shown for 23 stations in southcentral Alaska. Nine of these are along the coast and 14 are inland. The station character- istics are summarized in Table 5.2. Northeast Cape is located on the extreme northeastern coast of St. Lawrence Island. It is well exposed to the open sea to the north, east, and south with the ter- rain to the west gradually rising to 300 to 450 m elevation about 8 km west of the sta- tion. During the six-year summary used in this analysis there was an average of 22 observations made per day. Unalakleet is at the east end of Norton Sound about 100 m from the shoreline and 400 m north northwest of the mouth of the Unalakleet River. The country in the immediate vicinity is flat beach and tide- land. Low, rolling hills rise to 200 to 300 m about 3 km northeast of the station and extend from north-northwest to east. Mountains 800 to 1,100 m high and 16 to 64 km distant extend from southeast to south. The Unalakleet River valley extends inland in an easterly direction and forms a low pass into the Yukon River basin. Strong easterly winds are common down this valley during the winter months. During the seven-year summary used in this anal- ysis there were 24 observations per day. 68 Cape Romanzof on the Bering coast is Faecal on three sides by hills up to 700 m within a few kilometers of the sta- tion. It is exposed to winds from the southwest toward Kokechik Bay. Prevailing winds are along the direction of the valley, either southwest or northeast. During the “seven-year period of record used in the analysis, there was an average of 22 observa- tions per day. There are three stations along the Kuskokwim River: Bethel, Aniak, and Mc- Grath. Bethel is about 80 km from the coast on the Kuskokwim River. Surrounding ter- rain is flat tundra except for the Kilbuck Mountains about 65 km southeast of the sta- tion. Bethel is very representative of the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta area. There was an average of ight observations per day coded during the 16-year summary used in the analysis. Aniak is located at the confluence of the Aniak and Kuskokwim Rivers, where the wind direction is from east to west. The surrounding terrain is generally level to the south with low brush vegetation. To the north there are rolling hills with elevations over 300 m within 16 km of the station. Aniak is typical of a sheltered valley wind regime. There were 24 obser- vations per day during the ll-year summary used in the analysis. McGrath is located in a relatively flat drainage basin in the upper portion of the Kuskokwim River. Elevations in the Kuskokwim Mountains from northeast to south- west of the station are more than 500 m within 8 km of the station and 1,000 to 1,300 m within 30 km. McGrath had 24 obser- vations per day during the 16-year summary used in the analysis. There are four stations in the western slopes of the Alaska Range: Iliamna, Fare- well, Lake Minchumina, and Sparrevohn. Iliamna is located near the north shore of I1famna Lake along the Newhalen River, which connects Lake Clark to Iliamna Lake. The area immediately surrounding the station is relatively level and covered with muskeg, and slopes gently southward to the lake. To the northeast and northwest on both sides of the Newhalen River there are peaks over 600 m within 15 km of the station. This station is-exposed to winds from Cook Inlet across the lake from the east-southeast and also from the north from the direction of Lake Clark. During the 16-year summary used in this analysis there were 24 obser- vations per day. Farewell is located on the south fork of the Kuskokwim River, a few miles from the foothills of the Alaska Range and about 45 km from the entrance to Rainy Pass. At 500 m elevation, it is one of the few sta- tions higher than 300 m in Alaska. The surrounding terrain is generally level or rolling tundra. Frequent gusty southeast winds from the direction of Rainy Pass occur in winter. During the 16-year sum- mary used in this analysis, there was an average of 24 observations per day. Lake Minchumina is located on the north shore of the lake in a broad valley between the Kuskokwim Mountains and the Alaska Range. It is sheltered from all except the east- northeast and south-southwest. To the north of the station, thickly wooded slopes begin about 80 m from the station and ex- tend into the Kuskokwim Mountains, provid- ing a very effective block to northerly winds. During the 16-year summary used in the analysis there were 24 observations per day. Sparrevohn is in a very sheltered loca- tion with ridges to the north, east, and southeast rising to about 600 m above the station within 10 km of the station. During the 10-year summary used in the analysis, there was an average of 21 observations per day. The eastern shore of Cook Inlet is represented by Homer, Kenai, and two loca- tions in the Anchorage area. Homer, located on the shore of Kachemak Bay, is sheltered from all except southwest and northeast winds. The terrain in the immediate vicinity is flat or gently rolling with alternating wooded and open, swampy patches. A bluff 300 to 500 m high and oriented east-west rises sharply about 3 km north of the station. The Kenai Mountains on the south shore of Kachemak Bay protect the station from the southwest to east direc- tion. During the 16-year summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. Kenai is located about 3 km from the shore of Cook Inlet. Terrain is flat, there are swampy areas, and it is covered with a moderate growth of trees and brush. During the 16-year summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. 69 Anchorage International Airport is on a point of Tand that separates the Knik Arm from the Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet. The terrain in the immediate vicinity is gently rolling. To the south, west, and north are the open waters of Cook Inlet. Peaks of the Chugach Mountains rise to more than 1,600 m within 30 km to the southeast through northeast. Three-hour synoptic observations were used in the 17-year summary in this analysis. Elmendorf AFB is located on a 65-m high bluff on the Knik Arm of Cook Inlet. It is sheltered somewhat by a 200-m high glacial moraine that lies parallel to the runway and is oriented east-northeast to west- southwest less than one kilometer to the north. The mountains of the Chugach Range with elevations higher than 600 m are 30 km to the southeast through northeast. During the 10-year period of the summary used in this analysis, there were 24 observations per day. The Susitna River valley between the Alaska Range and the Talkeetna Mountains is well represented by Skwentna, Summit, and Talkeetna. Skwentna is located in a broad valley at the confluence of the Skwentna and Yentna Rivers in the eastern foothills of the Alaska Range. The immediate area around the station is very flat swampy ground with numerous ponds and small lakes. There are dense patches of birch and spruce trees 7 to 10 m high. The area is open to the east, but mountains and hills are nearby in other directions. During the six-year summary used in the analysis there were 24 obser- vations per day. Summit is located on a plateau that lies in a northeast-southwest direction and averages about 15 km in width. Mountains are 6 km away to the north and south and 15 km away to east and west. Much of the immediate vicinity is swampy and covered with brush and a few small trees. During the eight-year summary used inthe analysis, there were 24 observations per day. Talkeetna is located on the Susitna River near the confluence with the Chulitna River. The area in the vicinity is slightly rolling, with considerable swampland and a moderate growth of brush and trees on the higher elevations. The mountains of the Alaska Range are about 100 km to the west and north and the Talkeetna Mountains are within 20 km to the east. During the period of the 16-year summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. The Tanana River valley is represented by Big Delta and Northway. Big Delta is located on the Delta River about if km southeast of its confluence with the Tanana River. This station is affected by flow through Isabel Pass, one of the few passes through the Alaska Range. In the immediate vicinity the terrain is gently rolling for 15 to 20 km in all direc- tions. However, the mountains of the Alaska Range reach altitudes to near 3,000 m within 50 km to the southwest to southeast. During the 16-year summary used in this analysis, there were 24 observations per day. Northway is located on the Nabesna River 8 km from its confluence with the Tanana River. The terrain in the vicinity is gently rolling, with numerous lakes and swamps and moderate growth of trees on the higher ground. There is a range of hills across the Tanana River oriented southeast to northwest up to 1,000 m elevation within 15 km of the station. The mountains of the Alaska Range are within 30 km to the south- west of the station. During the seven-year period of the summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. Gulkana is located in a broad valley about 15 km wide, 3 km from the Copper River. The terrain is nearly level in the vicinity, sloping slightly toward the Copper River to the east. The area is heavily wooded with spruce and alder. The Wrangell Mountains are to the east and south of the station about 30 km and the Alaska Range is to northeast and north about 40 km. Toward the west and northwest there are no obstruc- tions for 80 km. During the 16-year period of the summary used in this analysis, there were 24 observations per day. The Gulf of Alaska coast is represent- ed by Cordova and Yakataga. Cordova is located in a sheltered area of the gulf coast 20 km east of the town of Cordova and 15 km west of the Copper River delta. There are mountains up to 1,000 m within 15 km of the station and the Chugach Mountains rise to more than 2,200 m within 40 km from. northeast to northwest of the station. The station's immediate vicinity is gently rolling and heavily wooded. Dur- ing the 16-year period of the summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observation per day. Yakataga is located on a narrow strip of re atheely level land bounded on the south by the Gulf of Alaska near the mouth of the Yakataga River. To the north the Chugach Mountains rise to more than 1,000 m within 8 km. The immediate vicinity has been cleared of a dense growth of timber to 70 allow for moderate exposure. There were 24 observations per day during the nine-year summary used in the analysis. Middleton Island lies in the Gulf of Alaska about m south of Cordova. The station is 400 m from the island's west edge, 520 m from its east edge and 1,300 m from its northern tip. The island is about 8 km long and about 1.5 km at the widest part. It has no trees and is covered with a dense growth of heavy grass. There are no obstructions. During the eight-year period of the summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. 5.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed The three locations exposed to the open Bering Sea (Cape Romanzof, Northeast Cape, and Unalakleet) are highly variable from one year to another (Figure 5.10). Northeast Cape and Unalakleet varied by a factor of ~ore than 2 and Cape Romanzof by 1.5. Inte onnual variations coincide at these thr ocations. Along the Kuskokwim River, Bet showed wind power values of class 2 or 3 from 1948 to 1957, but varied between class 4 and 6 wind power for the remainder of its period of record. In 1958 the anemometer was moved 8 km and from an elevation of 5 to 42 m and the height above ground changed from 12 to 20 m. During the last 16 years the wind power varied by a factor of 1.5 from minimum to maximum. Aniak and McGrath, with class 1 wind power, show very little variability from year to year. Between the Kuskokwim Mountains and the Alaska Range, Lake Minchumina and Spar- revohn show very little interannual varia- tion while Iliamna and Farewell vary by a factor of more than 2, from wind power classes 1 to 4. In the Cook Inlet area, Anchorage, Homer, and Kenai vary little from year to year, remaining in wind power class 1 at all times. These sites do not reflect the wind powers that occur at more exposed locations or passes in the Cook Inlet area. Skwentna and Talkeetna, in the Susitna River drainage, show very little change in wind power from year to year while Summit, at a more exposed location, varies between class 1 and 4 wind power . In the Tanana River valley, Northway shows very little interannual variation; however, Big Delta at the north end of Isabel Pass varies from class 1 to class 7 wind power from one year to another. Gulkana, on the upper Copper River, shows very little variation from year to year, which is typical of an interior location. Along the Gulf of Alaska coast, Cordova, in a sheltered loca- tion, and Cape Yakataga show very little interannual variation in wind power or speed, remaining in wind power classes 1 and 2. Middleton Island varied from class 6 to 7 wind power over the seven-year record. 5.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Spee At coastal and island stations in south- central Alaska, wind power class 7 dominates in autumn and winter and minimum wind powers occur in summer (Figure 5.11). Two excep- tions are Cordova and Yakataga, where there is very little seasonal change in wind power. Cordova is class 1 and Yakataga is class 2 most of the time Unalakleet shows wind power class 7 in winter only. Along the Kuskokwim River, Bethel is typical of inland areas of the Yukon and Kuskokwim Deltas, with class 6 wind power occurring in late autumn and winter, decreasing to class 3 in summer. Aniak, with class 1 wind power, shows a March maximum and a July minimum. McGrath is typical of much of the interior area, with a winter minimum and spring/summer maximum. In the area between the Kuskokwim Mountains and the Alaska Range, Sparrevohn, with wind power class 2, shows a March maxi- mum and June minimum. Farewell and Iliamna both show summer minima and maxima in autumn and winter, with annual wind powers of class 2 and 3, respectively. Lake Minchumina shows very little change in wind power and speed throughout the year. All stations in the Cook Inlet area show an annual wind power class 1, with minima in summer at Kenai and Homer and in winter at Anchorage. However, there is very little change during the year. In the Susitna drainage area, Skwentna and Talkeet- na show annual wind power class 1, with very little seasonal variation, summer minima, and winter or spring maxima. Summit, on the other hand, with annual wind power class 2, reaches class 3 in winter and class 1 from April to December. Summit, at 770 m, is less affected by the persistent arctic temperature inversion that generally affects more sheltered locations during the winter- time. Big Delta, along the Tanana River valley at the north end of Isabel Pass, shows a winter maximum and summer minimum. Big Delta is only representative of a small area affected by this local phenomenon. Northway, with annual class 1 wind power, is more typical of the broad Tanana Valley; it has a winter minimum and summer maximum, reflecting the influence of the persistent winter temperature inversions. Gulkana, at 510 m elevation, is very representative of the broad, rolling plain that forms the divide between rivers flowing north, south, and west. Wind power class 1, a winter minimum, and small spring maximum are re- flected in Gulkana's data. 5.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season All 22 stations showed maximum winds between noon and late afternoon (local time) 71 (Figure 5.12). The season with greatest diurnal variation was spring at seven stations and summer at the remainder. Al] stations showed the least diurnal variation during winter, when there is very little warming by the sun. Coastal stations tend to experience maximum winds earlier in the afternoon than do island stations. Directional frequency and verage Spee In the Bering Sea and along the coast inland to Bethel, the prevailing winds are north through east and southwest through south (Figure 5.13). These are also the quadrants of strongest winds, averaging 9 m/s at Northeast Cape from south-south- east and 6 to 8 m/s at Cape Romanzof and Bethel. Unalakleet has a high frequency of strong easterly winds from a pass through the Nulato Hills and a pressure gradient from a high in the interior to a low over the Bering Sea. Migrating storms are responsible for the strong southerly winds along the coast. Prevailing winds at Aniak are along the direction of the Kuskokwim River valley, with no real peak in wind speed. McGrath shows predominant north and northwest winds, but the strongest winds (4 to 5 m/s) are from the south-southwest. Farewell and Iliamna show prevailing east- southeast and southeast winds, averaging 6 m/s. Along the broad valley in which Lake Minchumina is located, winds from east-northeast and west-southwest average 3 to 4 m/s. 5.3.4 Stations along Cook Inlet show prevail- ing north to northeast winds; however, strongest winds are most likely to be south- southeast to southwest. There are light winds in the Susitna drainage; Skwentna's winds are from the west-northwest and Tal- keetna's from the north. Summit shows pre- vailing winds from the northeast and south- west. The strongest winds average 6 m/s from east-northeast and originate in the high plain around Summit. Big Delta shows strong east-southeast winds and mean speeds of 8 to 9 m/s from that direction. The strong winds at Big Delta are affected by flow through Isabel Pass. Northway, more typical of locations in the Tanana River valley, has prevailing winds from northwest along the direction of the Tanana River; however, speeds only average 4 m/s from northwest. Gulkana's stongest winds tend to come from south to southeast; the wind speed averages less than 6 m/s. The winds at Cordova average less than 4 m/s. Yakataga winds occur most often from southeast through south and average 6 m/s. Middleton Island's prevail- ing apd strongest winds are east-southeast, averaging 6 to 8 m/s. This station is more representative of exposed areas of the coast than either Yakataga or Cordova. 5.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency Many interior stations have a high percentage of calm winds and do not follow the Rayleigh distribution (Figure 5.14). The Rayleigh distribution in these cases tends to put too high a percentage of winds in the 1 to 4 m/s range and not enough above 4 m/s. Coastal stations like North- east Cape, Unalakleet, Middleton Island, and Cape Romanzof tend to follow the Ray- leigh distribution. There is also observer bias shown in the preference for 2, 5, 8, and 10 m/s (corresponding to 5, 10, 15, and 20 mph) in the data at Aniak, Cape Romanzof, Cordova, Homer, Iliamna, Middleton Island, Northeast Cape, Summit, Unalakleet, and Yakataga. 72 5.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and ower Duration The percent of time that a given wind speed or power is exceeded is shown in Fig- ures 5.15 and 5.16. Evidence of observer bias and instrument response is indicated by abrupt changes in the shape of the wind speed duration curves. Note that wind power class 7 occurs 20 percent of the time at Cape Romanzof, Middleton Island, and Northeast Cape, all coastal or island loca- tions. Bethel data indicate that the Yukon- Kuskokwim Delta also has a substantial potential for wind power development. “<—f u t 640 OONGA ~ 0 50. 100___150 MILES __.jstumnend Q_50_ 100.150 KILOMETERS 728) ISLAND 7) ¢ ] foe st martHew istano| “ORTON 160° SOUND 62. ™ . mba we 1540 152° 150° 14° 146° 4a4e aan we c 1620 + | | | i \ | \ zq60° Me of I T \ : 7 Oo N (& I | | \ “ \V S _- NATIONAL 7 TANACROSS EMMONA) Tre / A “PR OPARK : & eToK Ss ps ? i » fo ~ gee $ Q \ ~ [S + MOUNT MCKINLEY . 620_(/ © (>. MCGRATH - \ ~“ CAPE ROMANZOF % ~ & ' > fs » ze ake, 4 vi \ a = TALKEETNA Le $ er 166 Ped x ~N «< - t, GLENNALLEN @ TT Cponveg - & KA RY ¢ EL i i. . ae) DAN S xc § ae beg c L \ Rf PSge © Ss 5 S@PALMER \ 1660 ys 8 Np ° : 60°. a : " *& —_ FAB ANCHORAG \ PBT eo - = A : 6) oo Ve MOUNT os 7 \ 1660 ° a REDOUBT, —XENAl SKILAK WHITTIERDS ; 1640 e sy CLARK, sw Sonate ENA oth ww 8 ~ MOUNT 4. ‘ SEWARD! 146° of 3 IWAMNA' / TUSTUMENA~ or ae are yw" = ri ILIAMNA , s af 3 y 3 1 EY (ong 9 4. ° Tae 2A eDipLINGHAM aan MOUNT ~ ASKA 160° ihe om LPANIGUSTINE 452° GULF OF AL 156° 154° FIGURE 5.1. Geographic Map of Southcentral Alaska SZ FIGURE 5.2. Topographic Map of Southcentral Alaska 92 Ww = 100 MILES ‘ A2b C5a 050100 KILOMETERS \ ——— PNL 3196 WERA 10 FIGURE 5.3, Land-Surface Form Map of Southcentral Alaska, (ys LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND PLAINS [ A1_| FLAT PLAINS | a2 | SMOOTH PLAINS | 81 | IRREGULAR PLAINS. SLIGHT RELIEF | 82 __| IRREGULAR PLAINS PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS [ A.83a.b] PLAINS WITH HILLS | B4,a.b | PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS [ C2 __] OPEN Low HILLS OPEN HILLS —_ OPEN HIGH HILLS | C5] OPEN Low MOUNTAINS | C6 _|OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS HILLS AND MOUNTAINS [| 03 His | 04 | HIGH HILLS | 05 }|LOW MOUNTAINS | 06 | HIGH MOUNTAINS TABLELANDS TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION SLOPE (1st LETTER) A >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING 8 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING c 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING Dd <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) 1 0 TO 30m (1 TO 100 ft) 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 ft) 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 ft) 150 TO 300m (500 TO 1000 ft) 300 fO 900m (1000 TO 3000 ft) 900 TO 1500m (3000 TO 5000 ft) On rwn PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND b 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND ao 8 GAMBELL 4g, VOONGA | 0 50 100 150 MILES O DIGITIZED DATA @ DIGITIZED AND Ved = my OQ 50 100 150 KILOMETERS SUARZED DATA PNL-3195 WERA-10 1 SUMMARIZED DATA (& UNSUMMARIZED DATA ¢ \eseno ISLAND i 640. 160° 442° ° 4 "see "sae 150° 148° 146° ic pet i se | 2° : 1220 60° LAKE MINCHUMINAO | ctampEDEAD ok et i Seas @TANACROSS | ; @ SUMMIT A : AOPHIR BROAD Pass APAXSON NORTHWAY@ | a TATALINA AFS@ @MCGRATH ‘ MOUNTAIN VILLAGE i CAPE ROMANZOF | STUYAHUKA clad OL S» \ HOLY CROSS 5 a =. TALKEETNA 4 ° ‘Neomnee ‘_ 67° Da CAMUTE r. CROOKED CREEK comes CENTER ele KALSKACD.~@ ANIAK \ASTONY RIVER SKWENTNA® \ ee! rs wittowla. 4 BiG Lake a sueer’ MOUNTAIN | Sg nn PALMER CHINA \ 1660 \ NUNIVAK ISLANI L _- ELMENDORF are Brera FLD \ 60° @ SPARREVOHN AFS ger APT: : NORTH DUTCH ISLAND! \ ; aR conpows i 662 KENATBn SOLDOTWA Popa KASILOF ee ee aga, WARD sEwan le 1485 fee (CAPE ST ELIAS ee R seit aa @ MIDDLETON ISLAND 152° 154° FIGURE 5.4. NCC Station Locations in Southcentral Alaska 62 +mOxdoo00 FIGURE 5.5. Location of Stations Used in Southcentral Alaska Assessment. 101440 DIGITIZED 101440 DIGITIZED & NCC-SUMMARIZED NCC-SUMMARIZED OTHER-SUMMARIZED NCC/ OTHER-UNSUMMARIZED MARINE CANADIAN/ OTHER FOREIGN USFS FIRE WEATHER 0_ 50100 KILOMETERS PNL-3196 WERA-10 08 EZCUMOGE Crest EsTumaTES 9__ 50100 _150 MILES Q_50_100_150 KILOMETERS PNL-3195 WERA-10 FIGURE 5.6, Southcentral Alaska Annual Average Wind Power 18 Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 m and 50 m(a) 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,(b) Density, Speed,(b) Class watts/m2_—m/s(mph) —_—watts/m2_—_m/s (mph) ———— 0 7-9 ——100— 4.4 ( 9.8) 200 —5.6 (12.5) 150——5.1 (11.5) ——-300- 6.4 (14.3) 200 —5.6 (12.5) 400-——7.0 (15.7) 250——6.0 (13.4) ——500 ——7.5 (16.8) 300——6.4 (14.3) 600 ——8.0 (17.9) 400——7.0 (15.7)——-800 ——_8.8 (19.7) 1000 ——9.4 (21.1) 2000 —11.9 (26.6) NAUSWH— (a)Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva- lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation. TABLE 5.1. Areal Distribution (km2) of Wind Power Classes in Southcentral Alaska % Land Cumulative % Cumulative Power Class Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 1 480,000 82 580,000 100 2 25,000 42 100,000 18 3 22,000 38 78,000 13 4 5,000 0.85 56,000 10 5 15,000 2.6 51,000 8.7 6 18,000 3.2 36,000 6.1 7 17,000 3.0 17,000 ° 3.0 82 €8 Rating CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND Definition The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) 3) No data exist in the vicinity of the cell. The terrain is highly complex. Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell. A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) Little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data. Limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large. A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data. Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur. The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com- plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. class 3 5 ri 190 MILES 00 KILOMETERS 50 i pnt 3198 WERATO a4 Class 5 156 154 152 150 148.7" FIGURE 5.8 (Continued). Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southcentral Alaska (Power Classes 4 and 5); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown. 85 WINTER PNL-3195 WERA-10 [5D] mioae crest esmaares oO SO 100 150 MILES O50 _100_150 KILOMETERS SUMMER PNL-3195 WERA-10 E } ‘RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES: Qs 1990 mites O__50_100_150 KILOMETERS: FIGURE 5,9. Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southcentral Alaska (Winter, Summer) nt 86 SPRING PNL-3195 WERA-10 E25) noc crest esrmares ° 50 100__150 MILES 32 100_10 KILOMETERS 8 § ? AUTUMN PNL-3195 WERA-10 634 i [EZ] pwae crest esnmares 221090 mutes |/_—__—_—4 50 100 150 KILOMETERS > < FIGURE 5.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southcentral Alaska (Spring, Autumn) 87 TABLE 5.2. Southcentral Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, Station 1D_ Station Name Anchorage/ Elmendorf AFB 61.3 149.8 53.6 10/53-04/56 13.7 22) 21 ELM Anchorage/ Anchorage Inter- 61.2 150.0 32.0 03/61-12/78 6.7 3.2 34 42 52 62 123 INT national Airport Aniak Aniak CAA 61.6 159.5 8.5 07/48-02/59 9.8 3.0 3.1 38 50 51101 Bethel Bethel WBAS 60.8 161.8 39.9 10/62-12/78 6.1 5.6 6.1 7.6 209 «258 =6515 Big Delta Big Delta CAA 64.00 145.7 388.2 07/48-12/64 8.8 42 43 54 215° 227) 452 Cape Romanzof Cape RomanzofAFS 61.8 166.0 123.4 04/61-11/68 4.0 5.8 66 83 346 514 1026 Cordova Cordova WBAS 60.5 145.5 13.4 07/48-12/64 10.4 23 23 29 38 37 75 Farewell Farewell CAA 625 153.9 458.1 07/48-07/64 9.1 38 38 48 124 129 257 Gulkana Gulkana CAA 62.2 145.5 481.3 07/48-12/64 91 31 3.1 3.9 76 79 «157 Homer Homer CAA 59.6 151.5 22.3 07/48-12/64 9.1 3.0 3.0 38 52 54 108 Iliamna lliamna CAA 59.8 1549 46.3 07/48-09/64 9.8 46 46 58 151 153304 Kenai Kenai CAA 60.6 = 151.3 27.7 07/48-12/64 10.7 35 34 43 73 71 «142 L.Minchumina Minchumina CAA 63.9 152.3 65.2 07/48-09/64 9.8 23 23 29 41 41 83 McGrath McGrath WBAS 63.0 155.6 103.9 07/48-12/64 8.5 2.2 2.3 29 27 29 58 Middleton Middleton Island 59.5 146.3 13.7 07/48-08/56 9.1 62 63 80 389 404 806 Island CAA NortheastCP NortheastCapeAFS 63.3 169.0 9.1 04/62-12/68 4.0 56 64 8.1 295 439 874 Northway Northway FAA 63.0 141.9 523.6 10/57-12/64 9.4 18 18 23 24 25 49 Skwentna Skwentna CAA 62.0 151.2 46.6 06/53-02/28 10.1 14 14 18 14 14 28 Sparrevohn Sparrevohn AFS 61.1 155.6 529.1 06/58-11/68 43 24 2.7 3.4 55 79° 158 Summit Summit CAA 633 149.1 733.7 03/51-12/59 98 4.2 42 53 112) 113-226 ‘Talkeetna Talkeetna CAA 62.3 150.1 107.0 07/48-12/64 10.4 2.2 2.2 28 29 29 37 Unalakleet Unalakleet CAA 639 160.8 6.4 07/52-06/59 7.6 5.3 55 69 240 270 = 537 Yakataga Yakataga CAA 60.1 142.5 10.1 01/53-06/62 94 3.7 37 4.7 108 #1110 221 88 +—— WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M’ ----e WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNL-3196 WERA-10 ABSCISSA pa YFAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK ANCHORAGE/INT-AK ANIAK AK 26451 26516 300+. iteenaarets acisoos Seana! e a 200 4. 3 “ae b4 Au aa : 100 4- 2 gga eeeeaeet eee ieee eters ° t T +0 ° +1 oft ide 40 44 48 S2 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 BETHEL AK BIG DELTA AK CAPE ROMANZOF AK 26615 26415 3 400 6 5 300 4 3 200 2 ~ 1 sno ; sg gue outa Ls HE Eiger Lan a a a 5 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 S2 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 S2 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 CORDOVA AK FAREWELL AK GULKANA AK 26519 26425 3005-- a) 200 +- 4 100 4- 3 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 HOMER AK 1LIAMNA AK 25507 25506 FIGURE 5.10, Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska. 90 88888 100 ° 8888838 +——+ WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M’ «----e WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S ABSCISSA - YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW MCGRATH AK MIDDLETON IS. AK 26510 25402 PNL-3195 WERA-10 LMINCHUMINA AK 26512 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 SPARREVOHN AK 28534 m1 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 UNALAKLEET AK 26627 enoeavan 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 ot R ; . rl 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 NORTHWAY AK 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 SUMMIT AK TALKEETNA AK 26414 26528 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 YAKATAGA AK 26445 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 66 72 76 80 FIGURE 5.10 (Continued). Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska. 91 —— WIND POWER poeeeee WIND SPEED PNL-3195 WERA-10 ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK 02/61-' 12770 26401 Z= 43 G, V= 26. o § & 8 8 o § & 2 8 JFMAMJJASOND BETHEL AK 19/62=12/78 26615 Z= 61 G, V= 61, P= o 8 & 8 8 o 8 8 8 8 JFMAMJJASOND CORDOVA AK O7As-12 64 26410 Z=10.4 R, V= 23, /e eo 6 oF : : A JSPMAMJIJASOND nt z= 91 R ve = Seba 600 6 400 4 200 2 ° o JPMAMJIJASOND FIGURE 5.11, LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M* RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S ABSCISSA — MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ANCHORAGE /INT-AK 03/6112 /78 26451 z= 67 preted att + ° JFMAMJJASOND BIG DELTA AK OyAs- 2/4 26415 Z= 68 R V= 43, P= oN fe @ @ JFMAMJJASOND FAREWELL AK 0748-07/64 26519 Z= 91 R, V= 38, P= 126 o 8 8 8 8 oc 8 + @ @ JFMAMJJASOND ILIAMNA AK 0745-09 oe 25506 Z= 98 R, V= JFMAMJJASOND 92 ANIAK AK _07/48-02/59 26516 Z= 9B R, V= 31, P= 50 —_o : 8 600 +- ré 400-4: 4 2004. Le ° ° JFMAMJJASOND CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 28633 Z= 4.0 G, V= 66, P= SI4E ri2 0888883 JFMAMJJASOND GULKANA 26425 AK 07 12/66 Z= 91 Ro Ve at o § 8 8 8 JFMAMJJASOND ENAI AK 0748-12/64 26523 Z=10.7 R, V= 24, pe JFMAMJJASOND Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska. —— WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M’ secceee WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 ABSC I SSA = MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW LMINCHUMINA _ AK 0748-09/64 MCGRATH AK O748-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07 /58 e002 27 98 R Va 23 P= 41 28810 Ze 85 RY Pa 28 25402 Z= 91 R V= 63, P= 404 600 +- 6 ” i 6 no 400 4 400 4 600 200 2 2004 2 feed ° r ° ° ° ° ret 4 JPMAMIJIJASOND JPMAMJIJASOND SPMAMJIJASOND NORTHEAST CP. AK 04 (ences NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 SKWENTNA AK 08 /83-02/50 26632 Z= 40 G, V= 64, P= 26412 Z= 94 R, V= 18 P= 24 28514 e 12 600 800 8 10 Le 600 600 6 6 400 400 4 4 2 200 200 2 ° Oo o ° JPMAMIJASOND JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND SPARREVOHN AK 08/58-11/68 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 TALKEETNA AK 0748-12/64 26534 Z= 43 G, V= 27, P= E 26414 Z= 98 R, V= 42, P= 26528 4 Z=104 R V= 22 P= 26 o 4M e @ @ o 8 8 8 8 ate sis\is JPMAMJIJASOND SPMAMIJTASOND UNALAKLEET. AK or/sa-00/20 YAKATAGA AK O1/'69-.06; ‘62 26627 Z= 76 R V= P= 26445 Z= 94 R V= 37, P= 110 SMsenene one @ @ i } i tot ° JSPFMAMIJIJASOND SPMAMIJASOND FIGURE 5.11 (Continued). Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska. 93 +—— WINTER ¢----~SPRING @ -—®SUMMER ®--SAUTUMN ANCHORAGE/ ELM. AK g/ei- —12, ty 26401 = 23 P. 26461 ize 7 G, V= 8+. 6 4+ 2 0 T 1 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK oven 2/4 26615 Z= G, V= 56, P= 209 26415 Z= 88 R V= 42, P= 10 --- on *# @ @ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 PASI Ze o1R ss mee oye 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2 CORDOVA AK VAG 12/64 26410 7=10.4 R, V= 23, one @@ 0 3 6 9 2 15 1 2 2 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 HOMER AK 07 12/64 ILIAMNA AK 07 ‘64 25607 Z= 91 R V= pe 25508 Z= 98 R V= 46, pe 104 oN & @ @ 0 3 6 9 12 15 16 2 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2 ANCHORAGE/INT.AK 03/61-12/78 GPG Va 96 pe ORDINATE — M/S ABSCISSA —- HOUR PNL-3195 WERA-10 ANIAK AK 0748-02/59 26516 ieee 95) R Ad 0. P= “ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26633 Z= 40 G, V= 58. P= 346E 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 GULKANA AK 0748-12/64 26425 zm 01 R Ve 3b Pa 46 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 KENAI AK O7As-12 64 26523 2=10.7 R, V= 35, Mes j i io 0 3 6 9 12 15 16 2 24 FIGURE 5.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southcentral Alaska. 94 +—— WINTER ¢----SPRING ORDINATE - M/S ® -®SUMMER ®--8AUTUMN ABSCISSA — HOUR PNL-3198 WERA-10 LMINCHUMINA _AK 0748-09/64 MCGRATH AK 0748-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 0748-08 /56 9 2512 2= 98 R V= 23, P= Al 9 28010 = 85 R Y= 22 Pe 27 ote? % 81K Y= 62, Po e+ 8 8 : 6 6 6 44 4+ 4 2 2 2 A i i i ca a ce fot] Mee Hye mh 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2% 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2 03 6 8 2 15 18 a 264 NORTHEAST CP. AK 0462-12 68 NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 AK 06/53-02/59 26632 E 2841 24 ‘4 10 8 6 ry 2 i i ° + * ° : : 3 — 0 3 6 9 12 15 16 2 2% 0 3 6 8 12 15 18 2 2 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 a 2% SAE ALENT oa MOP EB A 107 : : 10 104 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 at ee ° ° - a 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2% 0 3 6 8 12 15 18 2 2 0 3 6 8 12 15 18 a2 24 UNALAKLEET _AK 07/52-06/s8 YAKATAGA oa 01/89508/62 26627 Z= 76 R V= : 10+- one Og @ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2% FIGURE 5.12 (Continued). Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southcentral Alaska. 95 — PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE — PERCENT sects WIND SPEED. RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S PNL-3196 WERA.10 ABSCISSA — WIND DIRECTION ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK 02/61-12/70 ANCHORAGE/INT.AK_ 03/61-12/78 ANLAK AK 0748-02/59 26401 Z= 43G, V= 23, P= IE 26451 id G. f Se li. Mo eels [z= 98 R Va 30. ‘Fs [ea MO ay coseerseespersqerepecnpecege cgeenyenngeengrecmrecpeengenogee 1D _ . NA N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 07/48—12/64 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 28615 Z= 61 G, V= 56, P= 28415 Z= 88 R V= 42, P= So 28633 Z= 4.0 G, V= 58, P= 346E 9 9 6 6 3 3 ° ° ° 0 = N NE E SE S SW WNW N NE E SE S SW WNW N NE E SE S SW WNW CORDOVA AK 0748-12/64 FAREWELL AK 07/48-07/64 GULKANA AK 0748-12/64 284 Vv 38 26519 Z= 91 R, V: Pa 24 26425 Z= 91 R V= 31 P= 76 9 9 6 6 3 3 0 + ° ° ° N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW WNW HOMER K 7A8-12/64 ILIAMNA AK 07 /64 KENAI AK 0748-12, 64 a a on™ Z= 98 R V= 46, P= 151 28623 7=10.7 R V= 35. P= 73 9 304: 6 20+ 3 10 ° ° N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW WoONW FIGURE 5.13. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southcentral Alaska. 96 —— PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE — PERCENT cette WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S oe ABSCISSA — WIND DIRECTION eee ah Get Boo ne AK we MIDDLETON Is. AK ae 30 9 30 9 20+ 6 20 6 10 3 10 3 = ° 0 ° ° ° N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW NORTHEAST CP. AK 04 4 (6212/68 NORTHWAY AK 10/87-12/64 SKWENTNA AK 06/3-02/59 26632 = 40 G. V= 5 fs 26412 Z= 04 R V= 18 Pe a 28614 -Z=101 R V= 14, Pe if 9 9 +9 6 6 6 3 3 3 0 — ° ‘ = ° N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW WNW SEAREPON, MOVIE NGS SUMMIT oy OIE TET QM 2 ° ? ° N NE E SE S SW WNW N NE E SE S SW W NW UNALAKLEET AK oyfee 06/0 Fr 2 o> N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW WNW FIGURE 5.13 (Continued). Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southcentral Alaska. 97 —— ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION — RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION PNL-3195 WERA-10 ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK 02/61-12/70 5 26401 Z= 43 G, V= 23, P= E Ma 26451 Z= 67G, V= 32 P= 52 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA G, V= 56, P= 209 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 AK 0748-12/64 rye TA an NTS eee 0 24 6 8 10 i2 14 16 FAREWELL AK ne oy 64 26519 Z= 91 R V= P= Uh o 24 6 8 0 2 4 16 CORDOVA AK 0748-12/64 26410 Z=104 R, V= 23, P= 1S o 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 ILIAMNA AK O78 00/04 (eos Z= 98 R, V= a a o 24 6 8 100 12 4 16 HOMER AK O7A8-12/64 MSO? tm 01 RVG GA bo se o 24 6 8 0 2 4 16 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 ANCHORAGE/INT.AK 03/61-12/78 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA - M/S ANIAK AK 0748-02/59 26516 Z= 98 R. V= 30, P= 50 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26633 Z= 40 G, V= 58, P= 346E 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 GULKANA AK 0748-12/64 26425 Z= 91 R V= 31, P= 76 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 KENAL AK 0748-12/64 26523 7=10.7 R V= 35, P= 73 ot 8 8S 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 FIGURE 5.14, Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southcentral Alaska. 98 —— ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE — PERCENT panna RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 LMINCHUMINA _ AK 0748-09, MCGRATH AK 0748-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07 26512 Z a Faso 265 Ae 2S = a eee 0 24 6 8 00 12 14 16 0 24 6 8 10 12 4 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 NORTHEAST CP. AK 04, Fe Se NORTH WAY AK 10/57-12/64 06/58, 00/58 26632 Z= 40 G, V= 5: Z= 94 R, V= 18, P= 14 26514 nior RY f SK 40 40 x K 20 2 10 10 1 o-+ o 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 SPARREVOHN AK ane SUMMIT AK 03/51-12 (39 TALKEETNA AK OAs 12/84 26534 Z= 43 G, V= 2. 26414 Z= 98 R, V= 42, P= 26528 =7Z=104 R V= 22, o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 UNALAKLEET. AK 07/8206 / 59 - YAKATAGA AK 01/53-06/62 26445 Z= 94 R, V= 37, P= 108 26627 Z= 76 R, V= o 24 6 8 10 12 4 16 0 24 6 8 10 12 4 16 FIGURE 5.14 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southcentral Alaska. 99 ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK 02/61-12, a 26401 Z= 43 G, V= 23, P= 100 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 26615 Z= 61 G, V= 56, P= 209 o 2 4 6 8 100 12 14 16 CORDOVA AK O7Ae 12/64 26410 Z=104 R, V= 23. o 2 4 6 8 00 12 4 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 ANCHORAGE/INT.AK 03/61-12/78 ra 26451 Z= 67 G, V= 32, P= 52 0246 8 BIG DELTA AK OyAba 2 td 26415 Z= 88 R, V= 42, P= 45 10 12 14 16 088888 0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 FAREWELL AK 07 64 28519 bos a OY 1 o88 888 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 ILIAMNA O7A8-00/6 ‘64 25608 a 98 R= ‘i b ©o88 888 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 ANIAK AK 0748-02/59 26516 Z= 96 R, V= 30, P= SO 100 Sess reaycascetereee ese at erat eas ceeeae 0:2) 46-6 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26633 «Z= 40 G, V= 58, P= 346E 10 12 14 16 8 o 8888 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 GULKANA AK 07A8-12/64 26425 Z= 91 R V= is “6 88888 o 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 KENAI AK 0748-12/64 ; 26623 Z=10.7 R, V= 35, P= “es o 88888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 FIGURE 5.15, Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southcentral Alaska. 100 LMINCHUMINA AK 0748-09/64 26512 Z= 98 R, V= 23, P= 41 100 spose preppy . 0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 NORTHEASE CP. AK 04 oe Z= 40 G, V= 56, X sear o 2 4 6 8 0 12 4 16 SPARREVOHN K 96/58-11/68 26534 Z= 43 G, MS 1 088888 o 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 UNALAKLEET AK 07/52-06/59 26627 ae RS “8 o8 S888 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 MCGRATH 8-12 /64 26510 Z= 65 R, we Tae Ss o8S 888 o 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 26412 Z= 94 R V= 18 P= 24 X o 88888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 26414 Z= 98 R, V= 42, P= 1 o8 888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 YAKATAGA AK 01/'53-06/62 08 o8S 888 10 12 14 16 o24 6 8 MI DOLETON I 25402 Z= 9! 088888 SKWENTNA Bouts 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 AK 06/53-02/59 26614 Z=101 R V= 14, P= 14 100 60 a 40 20 024 6 8 0 2 4 16 ee 100 80 60 40 20 ° o 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 FIGURE 5.15 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southcentral Alaska. 101 ORDINATE —- PERCENT ABSCISSA — WATTS/M? PNL-3195 WERA-10 ANCHORAGE /ELMAK = 24 Po or ANCHORAGE/INT.AK 03/61-12/78 ANIAK AK 0748-02/59 eoaos zs P= 26451 Z= 67G, V= 32, P= 52 26516 w= 98 R, NS 3.0, a 5O 100 80-4. 60 40 20 ° i i i 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 BETHEL AK 19/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 0748-12/64 CAPE ROMANZO®” AK 04/61-11/68 1 26415 d= 88 R Va 42 P= 215 26633 Z= 40 G. Ve 58, Pe 3408 G, V= 56, P= 100 80+. 60 40-+- 20 ° i 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 CORO zmt04 ah ASS so te 91 R nS Ta ee eae 91 ne oneness 08888 200 400 600 6800 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1000 1000 HOMER AK 0748-12/64 I / 84 KENAI AK O7A6- 12/64 25607 Z= 91 R V= 30, P= 52 P= 151 28523 1-107 R V= 35, Px 73 X 1 o8 8888 o8 8 888 08888 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 20 400 600 800 1000 FIGURE 5.16, Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southcentral Alaska. 102 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA — WATTS/M? PNL-3195 WERA-10 son ee 9B Re Zaipe at MBB z= as Re Ce beer ee Gee a da pe sae 80 4- 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 ay i a 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 © 200 400 600 800 1000 NORTHEAST CP. AK 04/62-12/68 NORTHWAY 5, AK 10/87-12/64 seer AK 06/53-02/59 i = = 10 el Mat RK V= 14, Pe 14 80 80 60 60 40+- 40 204- 20 ° - - —} ° 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 API, AEE NUT a ow OG? TURE, QA EI 100 : 100 = 80 80 60 ) 40 40 20 20 i : i Lf i nas i i 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 UNALAKLEET _AK 07/82-08/S9 YAKATAGA | AK 01/89-06/62 28627 Z= 76 R V= o888es FIGURE 5.16 (Continued ). Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southcentral Alaska. 103 SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA CHAPTER 6: In 1979 southeastern Alaska had an estimated population of 60,967, which is about 1.7 persons per square mile. Most of the population is found along the coast and on the islands that make up about 40 percent of this subregion. (See Fig- ure 6.1). The major population centers are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. This sub- region is 200 km (125 mi) wide and stretches approximately 966 km (590 mi) north from the southern tip of Prince of Wales Island to 141°W, which runs through the Malaspina Glacier. glotal surface area is about 92,706 km“ (35,785 mi“). Cross Sound divides the subregion into two parts. To the north the coast is regu- lar but is bordered by a low, hummocky, irregular coastal plain less than 61 m high and covered in part by the Malaspina Glacier, which separates the Coast Mountains from the Gulf of Alaska. South of Cross Sound, the mainland of southeastern Alaska is dis- sected by an intricate system of fjords forming a complex of mountainous islands with summits 700 to 1,100 m high (see Fig- ure 6.2). These spectacular fjords are believed to be former drainage courses that were eroded and deepened by glaciers and ice currents. On the mainland strip, peaks as high as 3,000 m are frequently found. The Alexander Archipelago, an exten- sion of the coastal mountains to the north, is about 500 km long and has hundreds of 2 islands. Sixty-five of these exceed 10 km; (4 mi*) and six exceed 2,600 km2 ,1,000 mi“). From largest to smallest they are Prince of Wales, Chichagof, Admiralty, Baranof, Revil- lagigedo, and Kupreanof. The islands are separated by a system of marine features such as sounds, straits, canals, narrows, and channels. There are nearly 17,000 km (10,000 mi) of shoreline along the islands and mainland. The Chatham Trough divides the coastal St. Elias Mountains from the irregularly incised Coast Mountains along the U.S.- Canada border. The Coastal Mountains in southeast Alaska consist of the Fairweather Range, the Alsek Ranges, the Glacier Bay Section, the Chichagof Highland, and the Baranof Mountains (see Figure 6.3). The Fairweather Range, the most rugged in southeastern Alaska, is the coastal extension of the St. Elias Mountains. The major rivers of the region originate in Canada, apparently as ante- cedent streams that were able to maintain their courses as the Coastal Mountains were thrust upward. The principal rivers are 107 SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA the Alsek, Chilkat, Klehini, Taku, Whiting, Chichamin, Unuk, Bradfield, Speel, Stikine, and Taiya. The largest drainages are the Stikine River 51,036 km© (19,700 mi2), Alsek River 24,611. km2 (19,700 mi2), Taku River 17,358 km2 (6,700 mi2), and the Chilkat 3,187 km2 (1,230 mi2). Many of these rivers have glaciers at their headwaters. Fresh- water lakes vary in size from a few to sev- eral thousand acres and in type from coastal marsh to high alpine cirque lakes. Only Harlequin Lake exceeds 25 km2 (10 mi2). Water storage is principally in the glaciers and winter snowpack. Although no permafrost exists at lower elevations, the region contains extensive glaciers. The Malaspina Glacier, one of the largest ice masses on the North Amer- ican continent, lies at the northwestern extremity of the region. The mountains of the St. Elias Range rise to elevations of 4,267 to 5,791 m from a jagged mass of peaks having elevations of 2,438 to 3,048 m. Interconnected valleys between the peaks are filled with glaciers and ice fields. These ice fields and smaller ones to the southeast feed many streams. Wind data available from NCC are most- ly from stations along the waterways of the inland passage (Figure 6.4). Data from three fire weather stations were used in the calculations for this subregion (Fig- ure 6.5); two from Prince of Wales Island and the other from Chichagof Island. Fire weather data were used only where other reliable data were absent. 6.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER_IN The annual average wind power density in southeastern Alaska is shown in Fig- ure 6,6. The analyses of mean wind power apply to terrain features that are favor- ably exposed to the wind, such as mountain summits, ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. However, nearby terrain features may inter- act with the windfield to cause the wind power at some exposed sites to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the assessment value. (See Wegley et al. 1980 for information on terrain features that may increase or reduce wind energy.) In forested or wooded areas the assessment values are representative of large clearings with good exposure to the prevailing strong winds, such as airports. In mountainous regions, the analyses also reflect major valleys. The percentage of land area that is favorably exposed to the wind strongly depends on the land-surface form (Section 1.8). In the major portion of the southeast subregion, from Cape Fairweather and Skagway in the north to Dixon Entrance in the south, wind powers range between class 3 and 6 with a small area of class 7 in Lynn Canal (Figure 6.6). In general, there is class 3 and 4 power over the relatively low, wooded islands. Class 5, 6, and 7 powers are lo- cated along the outer coast, over the major channels and over high terrain, the latter being generally inaccessible and extremely hostile to both people and equipment. It is suspected that the Taku River valley, the Stikine River valley, Behm Canal, and Portland Canal also have high wind classes, but no data exist from these areas and they are too narrow to depict on Figure 6.6. Most of the wind power is generated by atmospheric pressure gradients with lowest pressure associated with storms in the Gulf of Alaska and relatively higher pressures over the mainland. The pressure gradient winds tend to blow along the isobars--mostly from the southeast--but in areas of rough terrain the wind will blow almost directly from high to low pressure. Consequently the winds in southeast Alaska tend to blow parallel to the axis of a channel, strait, passage, or valley. In addition to the winds induced by pressure gradients, gravity winds are found in the passes and valleys leading into the interior. Gravity winds are caused by dense (cold) air flowing into an area of less dense air. Gradient winds and gravity winds can work together to create very strong winds. These conditions account for the class 7 winds in Lynn Canal and the probable strong but unconfirmed winds in the Taku Inlet, Stikine River, Behm Canal, and Portland Canal. 6.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource The wind power estimates of southeast Alaska have a rather uniform certainty rating of 2 (Figure 6.7). The three major criteria for determining certainty ratings are data quantity, terrain complexity, and resource variability. The entire subregion has ex- tremely complex terrain; surface data are mostly from sheltered locations and the analysis is primarily based on ridge crest estimates. 6.1.2 Areal Distribution of the esource The areal distribution of wind power in southeast Alaska is illustrated in Fig- ure 6.8. The numbers identify the percen- tage of area in each cell of the grid in which the wind power equals or exceeds some threshold value. Wind power class 4 or higher is estimated to occur in 48% of the grid cells in southeast Alaska, primarily 108 along the Gulf of Alaska coast and in the mountain summits and ridge crests of the Coast Mountains paralleling the Alaska- Canada border, and the higher elevations 0f Baranof, Admiralty, and Kupreanof Islands. Since the entire subregion has high relief, only about 1% of the area is estimated to have wind power class 4 or higher (see Table 6.1). U.S. Coast Guard stations in Lynn Canal and Frederick Sound indicate that exposed areas along these waterways and Chatham Strait will have the higher wind power classes. Exposed locations all along the coast of the Gulf of Alaska are estimated to have class 4 to 7 wind power. More than 98% of the subregion is estimated to be of wind power class 1 to 3 because of the high topographic relief. 6.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER Wind power maps for each season are shown in Figure 6.9. Winter is the season of maximum wind power, and autumn is a close second. Juneau and Ketchikan report an autumn maximum, but all other sites report a winter maximum. The highest to lowest wind power seasons are winter, autumn, spring, and summer. 6.2.1 Winter Wind power is highest during the winter; class 4 to 7 powers are encountered. The highest classes (6 and 7) occur near sea level because of the combined effects of gravity and pressure gradients and stronger pressure gradient winds from above 1,520 m. The intermediate area has power between class 4 and 6 in exposed areas, primarily as a result of pressure gradient winds. Winter conditions in southeastern Alaska are almost completely opposite those in interior Alaska. In interior Alaska the valleys fill with very cold, stable, and stagnant air because of radiation and drain- age. In southeastern Alaska the valleys are mostly filled with relatively warm sea- water, causing unstable conditions in the lower portion of the atmosphere and, conse- quently, stronger surface winds.. As a result some of the highest wind powers occur over and adjacent to waterways. The most notable waterways for high wind power are Chatham Strait and Lynn Canal. Others are Icy Strait, Cross Sound, Sumner Strait, Frederick Sound, Clarence Strait, and Dixon Entrance. Although no data are available, Taku Inlet, Stikine River, Behm Canal, and Portland Canal prob- ably experience similar wind conditions. Spring In the spring wind power ranges between class 2 and 6; class 5 and 6 is generatly restricted to terrain above 900 m. Thus, the effective class range is generally from 6.2.2 2 to 4. Pressure gradient winds and drain- age winds are less frequent than in winter, but some low level maxima are still evident over the waterways. These low-level maxima are considerably less than winter maxima but still account for class 4 power. In fact a few small areas of class 5 exist at the seaward entrances to Chatham Strait, Sumner Strait, Clarence Strait, and Cross Sound. In summary, spring wind power, lower than that found in winter, can be attributed to the weaker pressure grad- jients, very weak gravity winds, and more stability in the low layers of the atmos- phere that occur in spring. 6.2.3 Summer Summer wind power classes are mostly 1 or 2 with a possiblility of a class 3 on very exposed locations along the outer coast and near Dixon Entrance. The low classes are a result of low pressure grad- ients, stable conditions, and very weak and erratic gravity winds. Average wind power is less than that in spring and much less than that in autumn. 6.2.4 Autumn Autumn wind classes are high--generally 4 to 7--with a few areas of class 3 in the northern portion. The class average is about one class lower than winter. The highest powers (class 5 to 7) are over the higher terrain. Classes 4 to 6 prevail over the major waterways and adjacent exposed locations. The exposed areas near Dixon Entrance may experience class 7. The high wind powers can be attributed mainly to strong pressure gradients associated with autumn storms. 6.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS Graphs of wind characteristics are shown for seven stations. Characteristics of these stations are summarized in Table 6.2. Annette Island Airport winds are quite representative of winds over southern south- east Alaska because the airport is on a relatively large piece of flat land in an exposed location. This station would not accurately represent the wind power avail- able at nearby Ketchikan, which is relative- ly sheltered, or at other communities that are quite sheltered. Strongest and most frequent winds are from the southeast. Juneau Airport wind speeds are reason- ably representative of the Juneau-Gastineau Channel area. The most frequent sustained winds are from the southeast and east-south- east, caused by funneling through Gastineau Channel. Because of the extremely rough 109 terrain in the Juneau area, winds and wind powers vary from a little higher than those at the airport to considerably lower than those at the airport. Gustavus Airport, although on an un- usually large tract of flat land, is quite sheltered by high mountains in all direc- tions except from the south. The most common strong winds are from the southeast. It is representative of the habitable area from Icy Strait northward. Icy Strait and Pleasant Island, which lie to the south, have much higher wind values although the values are not known. Icy strait is sub- jected to strong sustained easterly and southeasterly winds. Petersburg is in a very sheltered location and i not representative of the stronger winds found on nearby ridges or exposed locations along Frederick Sound. Wind speeds on nearby ridges and exposed locations are probably a little higher than those at the Juneau Airport. Strong winds tend to be south-southeasterly. Haines, located in the northern, inside portion of southeast Alaska, is in a rela- tively well protected area and is not repre- sentative of wind speeds nearby. Chilkat Inlet, oriented approximately north-south on either side of Haines, is subjected to strong northerly winds in the winter and to brisk southerly sea breezes in the summer. The terrain is very rough. The most fre- quent and sustained winds at Haines are from the south-southeast. Sitka, although close to the outer coast of central southeast Alaska, is ina relatively sheltered area. Sitka Sound lies to the south and west and rough ter- rain lies to the east and north. Wind values are lower than one might expect. Higher wind values probably occur on the numerous small islands in Sitka Sound, and considerably higher values probably occur on nearby ridges. Strongest winds are from the southeast. Yakutat Airport is representative of most of the Rabi table land along the east coast of the Gulf of Alaska between Dry Bay and Icy Cape. The wind speeds are much lower than one might expect. This is caused by the very high mountain range that paral- lels the coast and rises from sea level to 3,000 m within 48 km of the coast. Moun- tain peaks rise to nearly 6,000 m. Exposed areas along the immediate coast may have higher wind speeds. The strongest winds at Yakutat are from the southeast. 6.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed The interannual wind power and speed (Figure 6.10) varied considerably between stations; Annette Island has the highest values and Petersburg has the lowest. This variability is attributed more to the differ- ences in exposure of the two locations than to a difference in climatic conditions. In addition, peak years of wind power did not necessarily coincide between stations. For instance, Annette had high values of wind power between the years 1952 and 1956 with a peak in 1954. Yakutat had high wind values in 1952 and 1956 but had a minimum in 1954, The ratio of highest annual wind power to lowest annual wind power at any one station was greatest at Juneau (2.66); however, the greatest interannual variabil- ity at any one station was at Annette, where it varied between a minimum of 130 W/m2 to a maximum of 270 W/m2 for a difference of 140 W/m2, Wind powers approaching those at Annette and Juneau are probably attain- able over most of southeast Alaska in exposed locations. Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed At most locations, maximum wind power and speed occurred from October through March (Figure 6.11). All stations exhibited relatively constant values during those months except Yakutat and Haines, which had sharp peaks during January. The monthly wind and power averages from Annette and Juneau should be considered the most repre- sentative of exposed areas throughout south- east Alaska. At those stations the wind reaches a near maximum during the month of October and remains high through December, drops off a little during January, rises to another peak in February, and then drops steadily to a minimum in July. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season Diurnal variations of wind speed (Fig- ure 6.12) are greatest during the summer months with maximum variations of near 2 m/s at Juneau, Gustavus, Haines, and Sitka. Yakutat varied by 3 m/s. The maximum winds occurred at 1500 hours, and the minimum winds occurred between midnight and 0500 hours. Winter variations were the least; no station reported a diurnal variation of 1 m/s or more. Spring and autumn had some significant diurnal variations, ranging between 1 and 2 m/s at all locations. Directional SERRE and Average Spee The prevailing direction at all stations except Petersburg is southeasterly, varying from easterly at Yakutat to south-southeast at Haines (Figure 6.13). Average wind speed was highest from these directions. Peters- burg reported prevailing winds from the 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 110 west-southwest and from the east-southeast, with the west-southwest winds being slightly more predominant. However, the maximum wind speeds were reported to be from the south-southeast. Petersburg is in a very unusual topographic location, and it is this location to which we can attribute wind records quite different from those of other stations. 6.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency The actual wind speed distribution (Figure 6.14) clearly depicts one of the shortcomings of the wind speed observa- tional program in that speeds of 1 m/s are rarely reported. This can be attributed to observer bias and low instrument threshold speeds. Consequently the actual wind speed curve does not approximate well with the Rayleigh speed distribution curve in the lower wind ranges between 0 and 2 m/s. Disregarding the low-level anomalies in the actual distribution curve, the actual curve at Annette Island approximates very closely the Rayleigh curve. Juneau, Yakutat, Gus- tavus, and Petersburg are also reasonably close to the Rayleigh curve. However, both Haines and Sitka are considerably below Rayleigh curve estimates in the 3 and 4 m/s range. There is no obvious explanation for the anomalies at this particular speed range. Wind speeds of 2 m/s are reported with the greatest frequency, and this is particularly true of Petersburg, which reports a 2 m/s wind speed about 40 percent of the time. Here again, it seems obvious that Peters- burg should not be used as guidance for determining general wind power availability in southeast Alaska. Annual “err ane Wind Speed and Power Duration Annette, Juneau, and Haines have the highest percent of stronger winds (Fig- ure 6.15 and 6.16), and since wind energy is generated most effectively above 8 m/s, the wind power duration curves at these locations are quite favorable. In fact, in terms of wind power duration, Haines is the most effective, generating 200 W about 20% of the time and 400 W approximately 10% of the time. This is slightly better than both Annette and Juneau and considerably better than all the other locations. The wind power duration results at Haines indi- cate that favorable locations for wind generators would be in exposed areas along major channels and passages such as Chilkat Inlet, Lynn Canal, and Chatham Strait. Annette Island and Juneau indicate that wind power generation is favorable in most of southeastern Alaska in exposed locations. 6.3.6 ert 100 150 MILES aE 0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS Sa] ————_ PNL-3196 WERA-10 FIGURE 6.1. Geographic Map of Southeastern Alaska / MISTY FJORD NATIONAL S3. ° omen ‘R Bache fe ND LR ee ue > = = Ent FIGURE 6.2. Topographic Map of Southeastern Alaska vIT 0. — oy 0 KILOMETERS 100 MILES FIGURE 6.3. Land-Surface Form Map for Southeastern Alaska SIt LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND PLAINS TABLELANDS | _A1_| FLAT PLAINS [ B3c,d ] TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF | A2__| SMOOTH PLAINS | B4c.d | TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF | 81 | IRREGULAR PLAINS, SLIGHT RELIEF | B5c.d | TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF | 82 __] IRREGULAR PLAINS | B6c.d | TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION | A.B3a,b] PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE (1st LETTER) | B4,a.b | PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A ——- >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING | 85a,b | PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING [ B6a,b_] PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING D — <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS [ c2 | OPEN LOW HILLS LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) | cs | OPENHILLS . 1 O TO 30m (1 TO 100 ft) | C4 | OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 tt) | C5 | OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 ft) | C6 OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 150 TO 300m (500 TO 1000 ft) 5 300 TO 900m (1000 TO 3000 ft) HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1500m (3000 TO 5000 ft) | 03 |HILLS | 04 |HIGH HILLS PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) | DS | LOW MOUNTAINS a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND | 06 | HIGH MOUNTAINS b 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND d >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND OI PNL-3195 WERA-10 ELDRED ROCK\ \ NASENTINALISLAND- ODG! ih SE CANYON ISLAND ~ . \ JUNEAU 4 - ‘ANNEX CREEK 5 5® ol N CAPE SPENCER Fuygers mm . > 3" RADIOVILLE M ‘ a TERSBURG \—-~~—___ © DIGITIZED DATA @ DIGITIZED AND SUMMARIZED DATA QBEAVER FALLS & SUMMARIZED DATA ah awe f 4& UNSUMMARIZED DATA Cine ISLAN p @ MARY ISLAND 0 50 100 _ 150 MILES ob ar. ome - —a i 0 50 100-150 KILOMETERS ISS FIGURE 6.4. NCC Station Locations in Southeastern Alaska dIt i41 136 135 134 133 132, 131 130,128, 60 0 50 100 MILES 0 50 100 KILOMETERS ; 358 456 701440 DIGITIZED : . y c J : 101440 DIGITIZED & NCC-SUMMARIZED ‘ Bw. scost SS NCC-SUMMARIZED OTHER-SUMMARIZED NCC/OTHER-UNSUMMARIZED MARINE CANADIAN/ OTHER FOREIGN USFS FIRE WEATHER 55} +mOoxagoog0 40139138" sy se igs isa igs Tse 1ST 130 FIGURE 6.5. Location of Stations Used in Southeastern Alaska Resource Assessment Sil (5) RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES 50 100 0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS 150 MILES PNL-3195 WERA-10 FIGURE 6.6. Southeastern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power 6IT. Power Class 4~nwUer wn Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 m and 50 m(a) : 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power _—_ Density, Speed, (b) Density, Speed, (b) Class _watts/m2_—m/s(mph) —_watts/m2__m/s (mph) 0 0 0 0 ——100 —4.4 ( 9.8) 200 —.6 (12.5) ——150 —5.1 (11.5) 300 -——6 4 (14.3) ———200 — 5.6 (12.5). 400 ——7.0 (15.7) ———250——6.0 (13.4) 500 —7.5 (16.8) ——300 — 6.4 (14.3} —— 600 ——8.0 (17.9) 400 ——7.0 (15.7) 800-——8.8 (19.7) 1000-——9.4 (21.1) ——2000- —11.9 (26.6) UANEWNS (@) Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva- lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation, TABLE 6.1. Areal Distribution (km2) of Wind Power Classes in Southeast Alaska % Land Cumulative % Cumulative Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 85,000 97 88,000 100 1,100 12 3,000 35 900 Tal 2,000 2.2 700 0.80 1,000 11 300 0.33 300 0.34 12 0.01 12 0.01 0 0.00 0 0.00 O21 130,128, 136 135 134 133, 132 131 see sede 158 56 a0 ee” Soa Wr Miia ie : : tm. : 54 H41 140 139138137 136135134. «133 :(132—«SE 130 129 FIGURE 6.7. Certainty Rating of Southeast Alaska Wind Resource. T2t Rating CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND Definition The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists: y) 2) 3 No data exist inthe vicinity of the cell. The terrain is highly complex. Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell. A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) Little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data. Limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large. A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) 2) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data. Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur. The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com- plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. pan! <0 hse 137 136 135 134 133 132 131 130, 122) Class 2 “60 59 $8 $7: 57 56° “56 9 50100 MILES Dia KILOMETERS ts 54) : : i : i : Pn... : . 4 M41 140139138137 136138134133 «132131180 13 137 136 135 134 133 132. 131 TS Class 3 59 ‘$8 $7 Feesninfesnnfnsvonedemnnendaccuned ee VE Bp cede B7 56 :--- 356 s 50 MILES ce OES ‘85 : i 8 SA poet deceerend Boec cuedeesete dc veencdeeenee ee aA rect ON fg 39° 38 137136 13513413332 IST +30 FIGURE 6.8, Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southeast Alaska (Power Classes 2 and 3); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown. 122 Class 4 57: +57 50 MILES 55 050.100 KILOMETERS Sphere i “SA ti 14098 se 1g as ase Sse 3 Jul ~~ 137 136 135 134 133. 132.131 130128, io greeny : : sia : Class 5 60 59 ‘58 7 1 eM ee Dit eeeisig?, 56: 50 MILES _50J00 KILOMETERS 55 30 128" Hi ao ie ise ay ise is is eS FIGURE 6.8 (Continued). Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southeast Alaska (Power Classes 4.and 5); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown. 123 Be WINTER $ 60° z EZ] RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES 0 50 100 150 MILES 0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS PNL-3195 WERA-10 8 . SUMMER 2 = 0 50 100 150 MILES O50 100 150 KILOMETERS PNL-3198 WERA-10 FIGURE 6.9. Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southeastern Alaska (Winter, Summer) 124 SPRING [EX] RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES O50 100_150 MILES Loe oe 0 50 _100_150 KILOMETERS oe ane PNL-3195 WERA-10 AUTUMN 0 50 100 150 MILES O50 100 150 KILOMETERS PNL-3195 WERA-10 FIGURE 6.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southeastern Alaska (Spring, Autumn) 125 TABLE 6.2. Southeastern Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics. Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, Station 1D Station Name Annette Island Annette Airport 55.0 131.6 33.5 03/60-12/78 6.1 45 48 60 128 «15 Gustavus Gustavus FAA 584 135.7 8.8 07/48-09/64 98 3.2 3.2 4.0 68 69 132 Haines Haines CAA 59.2 135.4 78.3 07/48-07/53 10.7 41941 51 124 121 240 Juneau Juneau Airport 58.4 134.6 6.1 04/59-12/78 11.3 40 40 50 121. #115 229 Petersburg Petersburg Airport 56.8 133.0 338 07/48-04/56 10.7 2.6 2.6 3.2 37) (3672 Sitka Sitka FAA 57.1 135.4 -20.1.-07/48-05/S8 21.6 34 3.0 38 1130 «81—s«162 Yakutat Yakutat WBAS 59.5 139.7 94 11/58-12/64 10.4 35 34 43 82 81—s«1611 State Airport F 126 +—— + WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M? «----e WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNL-3198 WERA-10 ABSCISSA — YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ANNETTE IS. AK Gustavus, AK HAINES 0, AK 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 JUNEAU AK PETERSBURG AK SITKA AK 25309 25333 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 YAKUTAT AK - 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 FIGURE 6.10. Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska 127 —— WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M? sereeee WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 ABSCISSA - MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW RET ates AG OVE URIS. ow uO OMGt BNE san aM OUTS! 800 eee eaegrt gE ere ie oc = ——=B0G ce 8 800-5 = 600 +6 6 600 400 4 4 400 200 2 2 200 o+— —+—+ 0 ; ° 0 0 JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND JPMAMIJIJASOND JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG _ AK 07, ‘56 SITKA AK 0748 05/58 25309 Z=113 G, V= 40, P= 114 25329 72107 R. V= 26, P= 35 25333 7=216 R, V= 30, P= 81 9004-0 8 800 8 = eB 600 4. 6 600 6 6 400 4 400 4 4 200 4-~ 2 200 2 2 ° ° ° ° ° JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND JPMAMJJASOND YAKUTAT AK 11/58-12/64 25339 Z=10.4 G, V= 34, P= 60 800 8 600 6 400 4 200 2 ° ° JFMAMJJASOND FIGURE 6.11. Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska 128 +—— WINTER @- —® SUMMER ANNETTE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 26308 Z= 61 G, V= 45, P= 128 — ORDINATE —- M/S ABSCISSA - HOUR PNL-3195 WERA-10 ¢----~SPRING & --8AUTUMN GUSTAVUS AK 0748-09/64 25322 Z= 98 R. V= 32, P= 68 MO spoovsssepereeeeee estettteeeting i 0+ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 . 25309 Z=113 G, V= 40, P= Ii 105. 8 6+- 4 2+ ° fog i} i 0 3 6 9 12 15 16 21 2% YAKUTAT AK 11/58-12/64 26339 72=10.4 G, V= P= 62 10 oN FS @ @ 0 3 6 9 12 15 16 2 —T 12 15 18 21 24 AK 07/48-04/56 Z=107 R, V= 26, P= 37 o3 6 9 PETERSBURG 10 X 8 64 Ott tt ti 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 2 HAINES 10>: AK 0748-07/53 25323 Z=10.7 R, V= 41. P= 124 8 6 4 2+ ° t t 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 SITKA AK 0748-05/58 28333 10> oN * @ @ 2=216 R, V= 34, P= 113 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 FIGURE 6.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southeastern Alaska 129 —— PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE — PERCENT scteeee WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S a ABSCISSA — WIND DIRECTION ANNETTE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07 09/64 HAINES AK 0748-07/53 soe, 2= 81 G. Va 45, Pa fee 25322 Z= 98 R. V= 32, P= re 28323 Z=10.7 R. V= 41, P= 124 ol. bod 9 9 204: 6 6 10a! 3 3 i —— - +0 ; + 0 0 N NE E SE S SW WNW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 0748-04/56 SITKA AK 0748-05/58 25309 Z=113 G, V= 4 P= 121 25329 Z=10.7 R, V= 26, P= 4 25333 Z=216 R V= 34, P= if Weer reer rr 12 a 12 12 304: 9 9 +9 204 6 6 6 10 3 3 3 ot + ° ° ° ° N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW YAKUTAT 25339 Z=10.4 G, V Oger N NE E SE S SW W NW FIGURE 6.13. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southeastern Alaska 130 —— ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE — PERCENT Sea RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3195 WERA.10 ANNETTE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07 '/64 HAINES AK O7A8-0/53 25308 Z= 61 G, V= 45, P= 128 25322 Z= 98 R, V= P= 68 25323 Z=10.7 R, V= 41, P= 124 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 6 100 12 14 16 JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 0748-04/56 SITKA AK 0748-05/58 25309 + Z=113 G, V= 40, P= 1 1 25329 -Z=10.7 R V= 26, P= 37 eee 4, P= 13 o 24 6 8 0 12 4 16 o 24 6 8 0 2 4 6 0 24 6 8 0 12 14 16 YAKUTAT AK 11/5618) 4 25339 Z=10.4 G. V= P= 62 o 24 6 6 10 12 14 16 FIGURE 6.14. Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southeastern Alaska 131 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 ANNETTE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 0748-09/64 25308 Z= 61 G, V= 4.5, P= 128 68 25322 Z= 98 R, V= 32, P= 100 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 AK 0748-04/56 OTe i Se ete ee aes 0 2 PETERSBURG JUNEAU AK 08 oe a1e 78 25309 Z=113 G, V= 4.0, P= 088888 0246 8 O72 14). 6) 60) 1816 8 10 12 14 16 YAKUTAT AK 11/58--12/64 10 12 14 16 Oa ene ae HAINES 100 AK 0748-07/53 25323 Z=10.7 R, V= 4.1, P= 124 o8 8 88 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 SITKA AK (A805 /58 o88 88 OL S746. 6) 10 12 14 16 FIGURE 6.15, Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southeastern Alaska 132 ANNETTE IS. 1 088888 JUNEAU a 088888 25308 Z= 61 G. V= 0 200 400 600 25309 Z=113 G, V= 0 20 400 600 YAKUTAT AK 1 X o8 888 25339 7Z=10.4 G, V= AK 03/60-12/78 45, P= 128 800 1000 AK Oe/oQ~12/76 4.0, P= aa} ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA — WATTS/M’ PNL-3195 WERA-10 GUSTAVUS AK 0748-09/64 25322 Z= 98 R, V= 32, P= 68 100 °o 8888 0 200 400 600 800 1000 PETERSBURG AK 0748-04/56 25329 Z=10.7 R. V= 26, P= 3 X 088888 0 200 400 600 800 1000 HAINES 100 °o 8888 0 200 400 600 800 AK 0748-07/53 1000 SITKA AK 0748-05/58 25333 -2=216 R, V= 34, P= 113 bf o8 S888 FIGURE 6.16. Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southeastern Alaska 133 1000 SOUTHWESTERN ALASKA No. of Copies Phil Smith c/o Rural CAP 327 Eagle Street Anchorage, AK 99501 Bob Roggasch 529 6th Avenue Fairbanks, AK 99701 Richard D. Seifert P.0. Box 8014 Fairbanks, AK 99708 Mark Newell Wind Systems Engineering, Inc. 1551 Tudor Road Anchorage, AK 99507 Michael Edds WSUN Pioneer Park Building, Suite 800 715 S.W. Morrison Portland, OR 97205 G. A. McKay Director Climatological Applications Branch Canadian Climate Centre 4905 Dufferin Street Downsview, Ontario M3H 5T4 CANADA ONSITE 2 DOE Richland Operations Office -0. Box Richland, WA 99352 H. E. Ransom R. K. Stewart 75 Pacific Northwest Laboratory attelle Bouleva Richland, WA 99352 W. R. Barchet (10) J. C. Barnard N. J. Cherry J. R. Connell J. C. Doran L. Drake Drumheller E. Elderkin L. Elliott (20) L. George Hadley K. Heflick R. Hiester A. Jensen OANODVOAD Distr-5 No. of Copies Miller + Owzarski Pennell . Phinney Powell Proud (15) Ramsdel1 Renne Wegley Wendell K. Woodruff . Zengerle Technical Information (5) Publishing Coordination (2) rrn<z20r45r= PBr-rTOCCom=emyD *GPO 797-416 1985 No. of Copies C. Hansen Rockwell International Rocky Flats Plant P.0. Box 464 Golden, CO 80401 Terry Healy Rockwell International Rocky Flats Plant P.0. Box 464 Golden, CO 80401 R. Moment Rockwell International Rocky Flats Plant P.0. Box 464 Golden, CO 80401 J. Sherman Rockwell International Rocky Flats Plant P.0. Box 464 Golden, CO 80401 Ted Kornreich SAI 1710 Goodridge Dr. McClean, VA 22102 Richard Braasch Division 4715 Sandia Laboratory Albuquerque, NM 87185 E. Kadlec Division 5443 Sandia Laboratory Albuquerque, NM 87115 J. A. Bereny Solar Energy Information Service P.0. Box 204 San Mateo, CA 94401 Roland Hulstrom Solar Energy Research Institute 1617 Cole Bivd. 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Village Ave. Rockville Centre, NY 11571 Earl Davis Wind Farms Ltd. 639 Front St. San Francisco, CA 94111 Alaska Center for the Environment 1069 West Sixth Avenue Anchorage, AK 99501 Ernst Mueller State of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation Pouch 0 Juneau, AK 99811 No. of Copies Neil Davis Geophysical Institute University of Alaska Fairbanks, AK 99701 John Zarling Mechanical Engineering Dept. University of Alaska Fairbanks, AK 99701 Chris Noah, Executive Director Alaska Council Science and Technology Pouch AV Juneau, AK 99811 Jeff Wilson Alaska Chapter AIA 201 East Fireweed Lane Anchorage, AK 99503 Richard Straty Auke Bay Fisheries Lab U.S. Dept. of Commerce (NOAA) P.O. Box 155 Auke Bay, Alaska 99821 Nils P. Sara AVCP Box 767 Bethel, AK 99559 Mim Dixon P.O. Box 81585 College, AK 99701 Frank DeLong Earth Resources Company 1200 One Energy Square Dallas, TX 74026 Robert Burkett F.R.E.D. Division Dept. of Fish & Game Subport Building Juneau, AK 99801 Emil Remus 4 Winds of Alaska 5100 Vi Street Anchorage, AK 99507 Kent Grinage P.0. Box 69 Barrow, AK 99723 Byron Hollembaek Mile 1403-1/2, Alaska Highway Delta Junction, AK 99737 Sara and Chuck Hornberger P.0. Box 69 Iliamna, AK 99606 Dist-4 No. of Copies Bill Leighty P.0. Box 993 Juneau, AK 99802 Jay Hogan Legislative Finance Division Legislative Affairs Pouch FW Juneau, AK 99811 Harvey Laborn Local 72 Sheet Metal Workers 315 5th Avenue Fairbanks, AK 99701 Byron D. Ruppel Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Inc. Sunnyvale, CA 94086 John A. Pursley Heatloss Analysis 536 Bonanza Avenue Anchorage, AK 99502 Jerry D. Plunkett Managing Director Montana Energy and MHD Research and Development Institute P.0. Box 3980 Butte, MT 59701 Bill Bartlett National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Climatic Center Federal Building Asheville, NC 28801 Jack T. Sanderson Asst. Director for Engineering and Applied Science National Science Foundation 1800 "G" Street N.W. Room 537 Washington, DC 20550 Harold Sparch Director Nunam Kitlutsisti P.0. Box 267 Bethel, AK 99559 Walter B. Parker 3724 Campbell Airstrip Road Anchorage, AK 99504 Leslie Griffiths Rand M. Consultants P.0. Box 6087 Anchorage, AK 99502 No. of Copies OFFSITE 20 27 50 A. A. Churm DOE Chicago Patent Group 9800 S. Cass Ave. Argonne, IL 60439 D. F. Ancona Department of Energy 600 E St. NW Washington, DC 20545 Ted Ankrum Office of Commercialization Department of Energy Room 6A081, M/S 68025 Washington, DC 20585 C. I. Aspliden Department of Energy 600 E. St. NW Washington, DC 20545 Ernie Chabot Department of Energy GMTA, CS-74, M/S 2H027 Forrestal Building Washington, DC 20585 L. V. Divone Department of Energy 600 E St. NW Washington, DC 20545 W. C. Reddick Department of Energy 600 E St. NW Washington, DC 20545 Robert San Martin Department of Energy 600 E St. NW Washington, DC 20545 G. P. Tennyson Department of Energy Albuquerque Operations Office Suite 151 4501 Indian School Rd. NE Albuquerque, NM 87110 DOE Technical Information Center U.S. Government Printing Office Documents Warehouse 8610 Cherry Ln. Laurel, MD 20810 Distr-1 DISTRIBUTION PNL-3195 WERA-10 No. of Copies 20 62 Tunis Wentink University of Alaska Geophysical Institute Fairbanks, AK 99701 J. L. Wise Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center University of Alaska 707 A St. Anchorage, AK 99501 Richard Katzenburg American Wind Energy Association 2820 Upton St. NW Washington, DC 20008 Ben Wolff American Wind Energy Association 1621 Connecticut Ave. NW Fifth Floor Washington, DC 20009 AWEA Windletter 1609 Connecticut Ave. NW Washington, DC 20009 Bruce B. Hicks Argonne National Laboratory 9700 S. Cass Ave. Argonne, IL 60439 DO. L. Sisterson Argonne National Laboratory 9700 S. Cass Ave. Argonne, IL 60439 P. A. Taylor Atmospheric Environmental Service 4505 Dufferin St. Downsview, Ontario, CANADA M. J. Berger Bonneville Power Administration P.O. Box 3621 Portland, OR 97208 Edgar De Meo Electric Power Research Institute 3412 Hillview Ave. Palo Alto, CA 94303 Ken Bosley Energy Unlimited 2 Aldwin Center Villanova, PA 19085 UC-60 No. of No. of Copies Copies Stanley Macklis Philli p French pene) eoeey 12 scan NASA Scientific and Technical ee Information Facility Philadelphia, PA 19101 P.0. Box 8757 Ken Pickering ms 7 ome International GEOMET, Inc. 15 Firstfield Rd. Eat eieees ree }ete Gaithersburg, MD 20760 Tom Potter k National Oceanic and Atmospheric eee y Administration/EDIS EOMET, Inc. National Climatic Center 15 Firstfield Rd. 1 Gaithersburg, MD 20760 Peri Egle G. T. Norman Malcom Reid Global Weather Consultants, Inc. . 2301 Hanover St. , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Palo Alto, CA 94306 evisvease ; Room 416 Page 1 Alain Streicher Hagler, Bailly and Co. maa Gs 108 GUESS Suite 350 M. J. Changery 2020 K St. NW National Oceanic and Atmospheric Washington, DC 20006 Administration National Climatic Center T. A. Schroeder Federal Building Department of Meteorology Asheville, NC 28801 University of Hawaii 2525 Correa Rd. 5 Daniel Mitchell Honolulu, HI 96822 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Leon Graves National Climatic Center Institute for Storm Research Federal Building 4104 Mt. Vernon Asheville NC 28801 Houston, TX 77006 Roger Brode J. B. Knox NUS Corporation Lawrence - ed Laboratory 4 Research P1. P.0. Box M Livermore, CA 94550 a Ron Stoner Barbara Luxemburg NUS Corporation Library of Congress/CRS 4 Research Pl. Washington, DC 20540 Rockville, MD 20850 R. J. Templin R. L. Simon National Research Council Pacific Gas and Electric Montreal Rd. Rm 455 Ottawa, Ontario, CANADA 215 Market St. KIA OR6 San Francisco, CA 94106 J. Estes . L. Luther NASA Lewis Research Center a fare Analysis Co. 21000 Brookpark Rd. 7600 Old Springhouse Rd. Cleveland, OH 44135 McLean, VA 22102 Ron Thomas R. Cingo NASA Lewis Research Center Rockwell International 21000 Brookpark Rd. Rocky Flats Plant Clevelanc, OH 44135 Golden, CO 80401 Distr-2 Annual average wind power, discussion of, regional, 10 Northern Alaska, 25 Southcentral Alaska, 65 Southeastern Alaska, 107 Southwestern Alaska, 137 maps of, regional, 18 Northern Alaska, 38 Southcentral Alaska, 80 Southeastern Alaska, 118 Southwestern Alaska, 148 Areal distribution of wind power, defined, 8 discussions of, regional, 11 Northern Alaska, 26 Southcentral Alaska, 66 Southeastern Alaska, 108 Southwestern Alaska, 138 maps of, Northern Alaska, 42 Southcentral Alaska, 84 Southeastern Alaska, 122 Southwestern Alaska, 152 Certainty rating for wind power, basis, 7 discussions of, Northern Alaska, 26 Southcentral Alaska, 66 Southeastern Alaska, 108 Southwestern Alaska, 137 maps of, Northern Alaska, 40 Southcentral Alaska, 82 Southeastern Alaska, 120 Southwestern Alaska, 150 Directional frequency and average speed at selected stations, discussions of, Northern Alaska, 30 Southcentral Alaska, 71 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Southwestern Alaska, 141 graphs of, Northern Alaska, 54 Southcentral Alaska, 96 Southeastern Alaska, 130 Southwestern Alaska, 160 Diurnal wind speed by season at selected stations, discussion of, Northern Alaska, 29 Southcentral Alaska, 71 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Southwestern Alaska, 141 graphs of, Northern Alaska, 52 Southcentral Alaska, 94 Southeastern Alaska, 129 Southwestern Alaska, 159 Evaluation of wind data, method, 3 Interannual wind power and speed, at selected stations, discussion of, Northern Alaska, 29 Southcentral Alaska, 68 Southeastern Alaska, 109 Southwestern Alaska, 140 graphs of, Northern Alaska, 48 Southcentral Alaska, 90 Southeastern Alaska, 127 Southwestern Alaska, 157 Land-surface form classes, defined, 6 maps of, regional, 16 Northern Alaska, 34 Southcentral Alaska, 76 Southeastern Alaska, 114 Southwestern Alaska, 144 Monthly average wind power and speed at selected stations, discussion of, Northern Alaska, 29 Southcentral Alaska, 71 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Southwestern Alaska, 140 graphs of, Northern Alaska, 50 Southcentral Alaska, 92 Southeastern Alaska, 128 Southwestern Alaska, 158 Qualitative indicators, used in data-sparse areas, 4 Seasonal variations in wind power, in Alaska, discussion of, 11 at selected stations, discussion of, Northern Alaska, 26 Southcentral Alaska, 67 Southeastern Alaska, 108 Southwestern Alaska, 138 at selected stations, maps of, Northern Alaska, 44 Southcentral Alaska, 86 Southeastern Alaska, 124 Southwestern Alaska, 154 Sources of wind data, general, 1 discussion of, Northern Alaska, 25 Southcentral Alaska, 65 Southeastern Alaska, 107 Southwestern Alaska, 137 maps of, Northern Alaska, 37 Southcentral Alaska, 79 Southeastern Alaska, 117 Southwestern Alaska, 147 167 table describing, Northern Alaska, 46 Southcentral Alaska, 88 Southeastern Alaska, 126 Southwestern Alaska, 156 Wind corridor, definition, 10 discussion of, region, 12 Northern Alaska, 25 Southcentral Alaska, 65 Southeastern Alaska, 107 Southwestern Alaska, 137 Wind power density classes, table defining, 7 relationship to wind speed, 6 Wind resource, greatest potential in Alaska, 12 168 Wind speed and power duration, annual average, at selected stations, discussion of, Northern Alaska, 30 Southcentral Alaska, 72 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Southwestern Alaska, 141 graphs of, Northern Alaska, 58, 60 Southcentral Alaska, 100, 102 Southeastern Alaska, 132, 133 Southwestern Alaska, 162, 163 Wind speed frequency, annual average, at selected stations, discussion of, Northern Alaska, 30 Southcentral Alaska, 72 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Southwestern Alaska, 141 graphs of, Northern Alaska, 56 Southcentral Alaska, 98 Southeastern Alaska, 131 Southwestern Alaska, 161 REFERENCES Arctic Meteorology Research Group. 1960a. Temperature and Wind Frequency Tables for Nort erica and Greenland. Vol. 1, January-June. McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Arctic Meteorology Research Group. 1960b. Temperature and Wind Frequency Tables for North America and Greenland. Vol. 2, July-December. McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Atmospheric Environment Canada. 1976a. Climatological Station Data. The North Yukon Territory and Northwest Territory. Downsview, Ontario, Canada. Atmospheric Environment Canada. 1976b. Climatological Station Data. British Columbia. Downsview, ntario, Canada. Atmospheric Environment Canada. Canadian Normals, 1955-1972. Changery, M. J. 1975. Initial Wind Ene Data Assessment Stud NSF/NOAA, NSF-RA-N-75-020, N 5 ational Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina. No date. Changery, M. J., W. T. Hodge, and J. V. Ramsdell. 1977. Index-Summarized Wind Data. BNWL-2220 WIND-11, N acific Northwest Laboratory, National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina. Changery, M. J. 1978. National Wind Data Index. HCO/T1041-01, /NOAA, E(49-26)-1041, National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina. Cliff, W. C. 1977. The Effect of Gener- alized Wind Characteristics on Annual Power Production Estimates from Wind urbine Generators. - » Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. Coty, U. A. 1976. Wind Ene Mission Analysis. SAN/1075-1/1,2,3; Lockheed- Caltformia Company, Burbank, California. Crutcher, H. L. 1961. Meridonal Cross-Sec- tions, Upper Winds over the Northern Hemisphere. Technical Paper No. 41, National Weather Records Center, U.S. Weather Bureau, Asheville, North Carolina. Elliott, D. L. 1977. Synthesis of National Wind pperay Assessments. BNWL-2220 W ac -5, c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. 165 Elliott, D. L. 1979a. "Meteorological and Topographical Indicators of Wind Energy for Regional Assessments." Proceedings of the Conference on Wind Characteristics and Wind Ener: tting. L-3214, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. Elliott, D. L. 1979b. "Adjustment and Analysis of Data for Regional Wind Energy Assessments." Paper presented at the Workshop on Wind Climate, Asheville, North Carolina, November 12-13, 1979. Furman, R. W. and G. E. Brink. 1975. The National Fire Weather Data Library. USDA For. Ser. Gen. Techn. Rep. RH-19, Rocky Mt. Fo. and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins, Colorado. Garate, J. A. 1977. Wind Energy Mission Analysis. co0/2s7B-17LLP ee Genera ectric Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Hammond, E. H. 1964. “Analysis of Proper- ties in Landform Geography: An Appli- cation to Broadscale Landform Mapping," Annals, Association of American Geogra- phers, 54:11-19, Map Supplement Number 4. Hewson, E. W. and R. W. Baker. 1978. Windpower Network Over the Pacific oheae BPA-77-2, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. Hewson, E. W. et al. 1978. Vegetation as an Indicator of High Wind Velocity. RLO/2227-124-76-2. Available from National Technical Information semice, Springfield, Virginia. Hewson, E. W. et al. 1979. A Handbook on the Use of Trees as an Indicator of Wind Power Potential. -79/3. Available from National Technical Infor- mation Service, Springfield, Virginia. Kolm, L. E. and R. W. Marrs. 1977. Pre- dicting the Surface Wind Characteristics of Southern Wyoming from Remote Sensin and Eolian Geomorphology. RLO/2343-78) > Iniversity of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming. Marlatt, W. E., P. Tierney, P. Meikle, M. Baer, and J. Childs. 1979. Assess- ment of the licability of the National ment of the Applicability of the National Fire Weather Library to Wind Energy na ao, - . Prepar or Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. Marrs, R. W. and D. R. Gaylord. 1979. A Guide to Interpretation of Windflow Characteristics from Eolian Landforms. RLO/2343-79/2. Available from National Technical Information Service, Spring- field, Virginia. National Climatic Center (NCC). 1970. Winds Aloft Summaries, by Month. Avail- able from National Weather Records Center, Federal Building, Asheville, North Carolina. National Climatic Center (NCC). 1975. TOF-14: Surface Observations. Avail- able from the Nationa matic Center, Asheville, North Carolina. National Climatic Center (NCC) and University of Alaska. 1977. Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf and Coastal Regions of Alaska. Available from Arctic nvironmental Information and Data Center, University of Alaska, 707 A Street, Anchorage, Alaska and NTIS. National Climatic Center. 1977. Index of Original Surface Weather Records for Stations in Alaska. Available from the National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina. 166 Reed, J. W. 1975. Wind Power Climatol of the U.S. SAND 74 0348, Sandia ea tories, querque, New Mexico. Voelker, A. H. et al. 1979. A Systenatic Method for Resource Rating with Two ications to Potential Wilderness Areas. ORNL/TM-6759, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Wahl, E. W. 1966. Windspeed on Mountains. No. AF19(628)- 5 -CRL, Bedford, Massachusetts. Wegley, H. L. et al. 1980. A Sitin Handbook for Small Wind Energy eae sion Systems. - ev. 1, Pacific ethaest Laboratory, Richland, Washing- ton. Yansky, G. R., E. H. Markee, Jr., and A. P. Richter. 1966. SS of the National Reactor Testing Station. 1D0-12048, Air Resources Field Research Office, Idaho Falls, Idaho. ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA — WATTS/M? PNL-3195 WERA-10 AMCHITKA AK 0144-11/50 ASI TANAGA AK 02, 0349 45702 72=10.7 R, V= 9.7, P=1219E 25709 Z=101 R. V= 8: 100 ever epeseprnegeneieinegeeeeperiegeenepning 100 apseyseegerpenegecerenegeeninneg 680 60+. 404. 20 ; o+ t t t Lm 1 ° +——t + t 1 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 ATTU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 45709 Z=104 R, V= 53, P= 1005 * : : : 25623 Z= 4.0 G, V= 51, P= 242E 100 : z pone a DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 25515 Z= 4.0 G, V= 43, P= i © 200 400 600 800 1000 AK 01/61-02/67 97 ° 200 400 600 800 1000 SHEMYA AK 11/61-04/73 45715 Z= 61 G, V= 87, P= 810 0 200 400 600 800 1000 scot 400 600 800 1000 KING SALMON AK 02/62-12/78 25503 V= 48, 0 200 400 600 800 1000 AK 06/59-02/64 asa 0 200 400 600 800 1000 25624 Z= 64 G, V= 75, P= 517 088888 0 200 400 600 800 1000 KODIAK AK 08/58-05/73 25501 Z= 49 G, V= 44, 8 °o 8888 0 200 400 600 800 1000 ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 ; 25713 7=195 R, V= P= 612 o 88888 0 200 400 600 800 1000 FIGURE 7.16. Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southwestern Alaska 163 —— ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION = RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION PNL-3195 WERA-10 ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 25704 Z= 76 R. V= 54, P= 255 40- ; = : Wt ‘ 204 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 ATTU AK 08/54-12/56 ~ 45709 Z=104 R, V= 53, P= o 24 6 8 DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 me Z= 40 G, V= 43, P= I 10 12 14 16 o 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 NIKOLSKI AK 01/61—02/67 25626 Z= 91 R V= 72, P= 497 10 12 4 16 0 2 SHEMYA 468 AK 11/61-04, 45715 Z= 61 G, V= 67, P= o 24 6 6 10 12 14 16 AMCHITKA AK gras ‘S50 45702 7Z=10.7 R, V= 9.7, P=1219E = , 20-4-- i 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 CAPE NEWENHAN AK 04/61-12/70 Z= 40 G, V= 5.1, P= 24: 25623 405° 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 KING SALMON AK 02 (62-12 /78 25603 Z= 61 G, V= 48, P= Il 0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 PORT MOLLER AK 06 /59-02,/64 25625 Z= 91 R, V= 44, P= i 10 12 14 16 0246 8 ORDINATE — PERCENT ABSCISSA - M/S ASL TANAGA _ AK 0247-0349 © 25709 Z=101 R V= us oe pauteee = Ch egrnendceed hood o 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 25624 Z= 64 G, V= P= 57 10 12 14 16 AK 08/58-05/73 ee tae 0 24 6 8 100 2 14 16 ST. PAUL IS. AK 06/61-12/64 25713 Z=195 R, V= P= 612 0 8 8 BS 0 24 6 8 100 12 14 16 FIGURE 7.14, Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southwestern Alaska 161 ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 25704 Z= 76 R. V= 54, P= 255 r odeenaion a 088888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 TTU AK 08/54-12/56 45709 2=10.4 R. V= 53, > i o88 888 0 2 4 6 & 10 12 14 16 DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 25615 Z= 40 G, V= 43, P= I 100-%- o8 S888 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 NIKOLSKI AK 01/61-02/67 , 25626 Z= 91 R V= 72, P= 497 088888 o 24 6 8 0 2 4 16 Rac ee at o8 S888 10 12 14 16 0246 8 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - M/S PNL-3195 WERA-10 AMCHITKA AK 0144-11/50 45702 Z=10.7 R, V= 97, P=1219E 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 25623 Z= 40 G, V= 51, P= E 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 KING SALMON 25603 Z= 61 G. V= 4! AK 02/62-12/78 P= 1 246 6 PORT MOLLER 10 12 14 16 AK 06/59-02/64 25625 Z= 91 R V= 44, P= i o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 ASL TANAGA AK 02, 25709 Z=101 R, V= 8: i ° 88888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 25624 Z= 64 G. V= 75, P= 5I7 eo 88888 0 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 KODIAK AK, 08/58-05/73 25501 Z= P= o8 S888 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 26713 Z=195 R, V= 0, P= 612 M o8S BBB o 24 6 8 10 12 14 6 FIGURE 7.15. Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southwestern Alaska 162 +—— WINTER ¢----SPRING ORDINATE — M/S ® -®SUMMER ® --SAUTUMN ABSCISSA — HOUR PNL.3195 WERA-10 ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK O1 25704 Z= 76 R, V= 54, P= 255 45702 Z=10.7 R, V= 4-11/50 ASI TANAGA AK 02/47-0349 P=1219E 25709 +Z=101 R, V= 85, P=1 10 16 16 14 5 12 6 10 8 4 6 6 2 4 4 2 ; £ A cordomall 2 ° tot St ° + t 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 ATTU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 45709 Z=10.4 R, V= 53, P= 25624 Z= 64 G, V= P= 57 10- = a 25623 Z= 40 G, V= 51, P= 242E 7 8 8 6 e+ 4 a Ninel ratiesi cio 4 2 2 2 ater ° pop — ° 0 3 6 9 12 15 16 21 24 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 KING SALON AK 02/62-12/78 KODIAK AK 08/58-05/73 25515 Z= 40 G, V= 43, P= I! Z= 61 G, V= 48, P= 1 25601 Z= 4.9 G, V= 44, P= 10 poy 10 ol d cacheecteegl tice Pacha 8 8 Op ttbrbebened 6 6 SS = ‘ a Qdersssssbenreccofececcendecersesbcssesofecesenfennnreedeeneeeg 2 2 0 pa ° — 0 - 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 0 3 6 8 12 15 18 2 2 NIKOLSKI . AK 01/61-02/67 PORT MOLLER AK 09/5¢-08/64 ST. PAUL IS. AK 0e/e1=18 (04 9 2 Z= 91 R V= 72, P= 497 10-2, B= 81 Re Ve P= Pedic 7=195 R, V= 60, P= 612 AD aaa on * @ @ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2 2 0 3 6 8 12 15 1 2 2% SHEMYA AK 11/61-04 45715 Z= 61 G, V= 67, P= 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 FIGURE 7.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southwestern Alaska 159 — PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE — PERCENT RIGHT ORDINATE — M/S ABSCISSA — WIND DIRECTION sreseee WIND SPEED PNL.3156 WERA-10 ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 01/44-11/50 25704 Z= 76 R. V= 5.4, P= 255 45702 2=10.7 R. V= 9.7, P=1219E Oso ee PZ AQ pry nrnyemareing nya AK 08/54-12, 45709 Z=104 R, V= 53, P= ° LG N NE E SE S SW W NW DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 25515 Z= 40 G, V= 43, P= I 405 . ri2 °o N NE E SE S SW W NW NIKOLSKI AK 01/6102, ‘67 25626 Z= 91 R, V= 72 P= 497 oe @ © ° N NE E SE S SW W NW SHEMYA AK net Of ‘73 45715 Z= 61 G, V= 87, P= 810 404- 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12 407: K 40>" 104: pA] pokalidobubedebeiedeteied N NE E SE S SW W NW PORT MOLLER N NE E SE S SW W NW oe 25623 Z= 4.0 G, V= 51, P= 242E a eas areata reeeroae Tae ES] N NE E SE S SW W NW ING SALMON AK 02/6212, 78 25503 Z= 61 G, V= P= 1 AK 06/59-02 25625 Z= 91 R. V= 44, P= I ASI TANAGA AK 02, 26709 Z=10.1 R. V= 65, P=1 oT ss W4-i¥ Bonga N NE E SE S SW W NW COLD BAY 25624 Z= 64 G, V= 75, P= 5I7 AD apneic tear eet N NE E SE S SW W NW AK 08/58-05/73 Z= 49 G, V= 44. P= [7 KODIAK 25501 N NE E SE S SW W NW ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 25713 Z=195 R. V= 80. P= 612 FIGURE 7.13, Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southwestern Alaska 160 0349 AK 11/62-12/78 12 +—— WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M* «----e WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNL.3195 WERA.10 ABSCISSA — YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ADAK AK AMCHITKA AK ASI TANAGA = AK 45702 25709 pony . eee 8 10 ; 8 900+. 7 6 4 =~ 600 6 2 +0 700 m 5 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 ATTU AK CAPE NEWENHAM AK COLD BAY AK 25623 7. 7 ~ 800>~ 9 6 6 700-+- 8 5 5 600+. +7 4 4 500 4- 6 3 3 4004. 5 2 2 00+: 4 1 t 1 7 1 200-+-+ r r —— 3 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 DRIFTWOOD BAY AK KING SALMON AK KODIAK AK 25515 25503 25501 88888 = noe aan 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 NIKOLSK1 AK PORT MOLLER AK ST. PAUL IS. AK 25626 8 8 3 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 SHEMYA AK 45715 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 FIGURE 7.10. Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska 157 —— WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE — WATTS/M? seeeeee WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PaUsIOS wene-10 ABSCISSA -—- MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 0144-11/50 ASI TANAGA AK 02, 25704 Z= 76 R, V= 5.7, P= 286 45702 Z=107 R. V= P=1165E 25709 ~Z=101 R, V= 85, 5 20 25 2500 2000 2000 +4- 4 15004: 1500-4. 1000 4: 1000 500 500 4. o- + + 0 0 + ° JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND ATTU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 45709 Z=104 R, V= 53, P= 324 25623 Z= 40 G, V= 58 P= 359E 25624 Z= 64 G, V= 80, P= 625 800 Jose ee eee TT TO eg reer 00 arr : sateen ka 1000 4» 6 6 600 atk 4 400 4 600+. 400 4- 2 2004 iia ° ° 0 ° 0 : ie: ero cus if i : : i JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 KING SALMON AK 02 ez ere KODIAK AK 08/58-05/73 25515 Z= 40 G, V= 49, P= 25503 Z= 61 G, V= 52, P= 25601 Z= 4.9G, V= 48, P= 9005 8 8005. = -B8 8004--- peice 600 6 600 600 6 400 4 400 400 4: 4 200 2 200 200 b2 ° ° ° o+—+ ——+ + ° JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND NIKOLSKI AK 01/ 61-02, 67 PORT MOLLER ST. PAUL IS. AK 06/61-12/64 25713 Z=19. V= 72, P= 459 1000 1000 + [ 800 800 : 600 600 400 400 200 200 ° ° + ° JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND SHEMYA AK 11/61-04, 45715 Z= 61 G, V= us or ofS 8888 JPMAMIJIJASOND FIGURE 7.1!. Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska 156 SPRING M740 530 oo by 2 | ee : 0 50 100__150 MILES = & g 0_50_100_150 KILOMETERS 2 SE BNL.3198 WERA-10 53° 53° 7 o one ae oe N a < a. x x 7 x < e c eS — se 3" Are oe ° ys 1 ue * & & hs °° z . e & €& AUTUMN S30 or) wy, é <i j i = 8 cece eres gL = j 253° ° 0 100__150 MILES é S 50100150 KILOMETERS PNL-3196 WERA-10 53° . = 53° = + 7 C. aa Rae Oe Bo x Cr Paes al poo , oT z FIGURE 7.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southwestern Alaska (Spring, Autumn) 155 TABLE 7.2. Southwestern Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics. Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, Station 10 Station Name__ Adak Adak Naval Station 51.9 176.7W 4.9 04/62-02/72 SA S37 770 255 Amchitka Amchitka Island AFB 51.4 179.3E 62.3 01/44-11/50 10.7 Si 9:070201 1219 1186 2363 ASI Tanaga ASI Tanaga Naval 51.7 178.0W 45.1 02/47-03/49 10.1 8.5 8.5 10.7 1028 1025 2044 Station Attu Attu Naval Station 52.8 173.3E 28.0 08/54-12/56 10.4 53 5.3 66 330 325 «648 Cape Newenham Cape Newenham AFS 58.7 162.2W 71.6 04/61-12/70 4.0 Se 5:8) 147-3 342 360 717 Cold Bay Cold Bay WBAS Sota, 162.7W 30.2 11/62-12/78 6.4 7.5 8.0 10.1 517 626 «1248 Driftwood Bay Driftwood BayAFS 53.9 166.9W 395.6 05/64-05/69 4.0 43 49 6.2 153 228 = 453 King Salmon KingSalmon WBAS 58.7. 156.7W 14.3. 06/62-12/78 6.1 48 5.2 65 163 202 402 Kodiak Kodiak Naval Air 57.8 152.5W 33.8 08/58-05/73 49 44 48 6.1 171 233-464 Facility Nikolski Nikolski AFS 52.9 168.8W 214.9 01/61-02/67 91 Dee etd oe) 497 516 1029 Port Moller Port Moller AFS 56.0 160.5W 316.4 06/59-02/64 91 44 44 56 160 166 331 St.Paul Island St, Paul Island WBAS 57.2 170.2W 8.5 08/61-12/64 19.5 8.0 7.2 9.1 612 410 916 Shemya Shemya WBAS 52.7 174.1E 39.0 11/61-04/73 6.1 8.7 9.4 11.8 810 1001 1996 156 72171 sf 170 169 168 9 59 168 167 166 165 1641 poonpenema tes Class 4 se: 58 s7 8S 57 ae 56 56 5s 55 Stas : 50190 MILES i 2 ae 0 KILOMETERS 53 LE FOO tgs enact 2 2m: 2 o "yet oF ¥ . 72 171 170 1g3 152 151 169 168 167 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 156 195 154 §472 “173 174-175-176 -177 -178 -179 180 173178 177 «176: :175—«‘174 v3 172, 33 : ; 33 ms . : se ri é 2 2,2 RA s: Ab awit) si 1 NI ATT pa Size feewe cat V73-174 178-176-197 -178 -179 160 179 178 :177:«176:«178:—«174 Class 5 56 ss Calpe MILES Q 50, joo KILOMETERS PNL.3195 WERA-10 oF 7 $2 72 171 17 6 haces i s i 3 3 B * =z 152 is 170 169 168 "167 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 187 156 155 154 15° 472-173 - 17; SATA N73 2078 -175 -178 -177 -178 «479 190 179. 178177176 17817473 2, = a jn SS PI peepee fff a ag weap tei! Lis U2 73 174 Li75 ein i73 7 “176-177 -178 -178 190 179 178 177 «178 FIGURE 7.8 (Continued). Areai Distribution of Wind Resource in Southwestern Alaska (Power Classes 4 and5); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown. 153 WINTER I7}0 Sze ° ‘ oO > Zz . 8 (Eh neat cnr armen R 2 S3e a o 30 100__150 MILES s ; & — és = Q__50_100_150 KILOMETERS = ———= PNL-3195 WERA-10 53° = 53° : ° i> $2. — - §2° ° a : Ta, % 2 174° 76° ee & : / Pa 0 30100 __150 MILES 8 iia Q__50_100_150 KILOMETERS = ——nn_PNL-3196 WERA-10 53°: , ss a 82° ° & FIGURE 7.9, Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southwestern Alaska (Winter, Summer) 154 IST Rating 1 CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND Definition The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists: y 2) 3) No data exist in the vicinity of the cell. The terrain is highly complex. Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell. A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: y 2) Little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data. Limited data exi the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large. A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: 1) 2 There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data. Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur. The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com- plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. 72 5’? 171 170 169 168 167 n66 iestgi es id Class 2 frie bittbieadac 20 SB: eee 57 SH 2. S6- sé ss: ss sense cee Swot MF el. 050190 MILES So es i pe ppd” pie ioe oS oe : . pete ts S2. $2 : v SA72 173-174-2178 2476-177 -178 179 100 173-178 177-176«175«174«173- 7B s3 é : ; : ' : s3 1F tp : > e s2 ie 3 : er ar 5_jPJo s2 ¢ Ne 25 Ded Ee 5 sh ies zs 2. aes : py oo ; VES 174 2175 176-177 178 -179 190 179 «178 «177:«176:«*178:—«174 Class 3 S7 36 Ss: i) 54: a 30, 190 MILES 0. 50. 100 KILOMETERS PNL3195 WERA-10 S: See oe tee poinberdendoed : a 555%. Beco bod : Lee 72,171 170 Veg vee : dices bet wees 152 151 170 ee ete eee 154.153 169 168 167 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 156 155 473. 178 -172 - S40 073274 178 -478 -177 -178 -179 160179. 178177176, 178,17: 7 ‘ + i é. : * + : _@ (ems abt Oe St: “172 i. 1 98 Lag ag gd it are vi WEA 7S “176-177 “ise “179 igo 78 178177176 «178:« 17478 FIGURE 7.8. Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southwestern Alaska (Power Classes 2 and 3); Percent of Land Area with or Exceeding Power Class Shown. 152 6¢T Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 mand 50 m(@) 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,(>) — Density, Speed, (>) Class _watts/m2__m/s (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph) 0 0 0 0 ——100 —4.4 ( 9.8) 200 ——5.6 (12.5) ———150 —S.1 (11.5) 300-——6.4 (14.3) ———200 —5.6 (12.5) 400——7.0 (15.7) 250 6.0 (13.4). 500 ——7.5 (16.8) 300 —6.4 (14.3) ——600 —8..0 (17.9) 400-——7.0 (15.7) 800 ——8.8 (19.7) 1000-— 9.4 (21.1) ——2000—11.9 (26.6) NAUAWH= (@) Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (>) mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva- lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions, To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation. TABLE 7.1. Areal Distribution (km2) of Wind Power Classes in Southwest Alaska % Land Cumulative % Cumulative Power Class Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 1 78,000 72 110,000 100 2 2,700 25 30,000 27 3 3,800 34 27,000 25 4 6,100 5.6 23,000 21 S) 4,800 44 17,000 16 6 4,400 40 12,000 uN u 7,800 173 7,800 7.2 OST Tt b ae diced © JEP pee y 5010 MILES ———* Pevesecdeseccacd yt ce beecdenccdenens TLOMETERS ee ae ee BDF de tengo tans eo 5% 522.2: i 52 172 171 2 4 153 152 1S] 100 MILES 100 KILOMETERS Siz : “172-173 245 5 : ; : i : Laced bose : : 174-175 -176 -177 -178 -179 180 179 178 177 176 175 174 FIGURE 7.7. Certainty Rating of Southwestern Alaska Wind Resource Let 5472 171 170 169 ; -172 - oa: 173 -174 -175 -176 FIGURE 7.5. Location of Stations hoy 090 MILES Quip K TLOMETERS PNL-3196 WERA TO. 1p1440 DIGITIZED 701440 DIGITIZED & NCC-SUMMARIZED NCC-SUMMARIZED OTHER-SUMMARIZE NCC/ OTHER-UNSU! MARINE CANADIAN/OTHER FOREIGN USFS FIRE WEATHER Used in Southwestern Alaska Resource Assessment. 8bT = ; : 2 Nu o~ ! © E25) pwoe crest esrmares: 2 el, 253° 0 50100 __150 MILES ~ ° ——EEEEEEEEEEEEs 2 2 0 50 100 _150 KILOMETERS 2g PNU3ISS WERATO. 53° Oo ™“e prone : = KR Bae ba ae gpI a3 i 3 + o eens ° i . en ed 2 _ Sie ct ae FIGURE 7.6. Southwestern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power StL LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND PLAINS TABLELANDS [| Al | FLAT PLAINS [ 83c.d | TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF [ a2] SMOOTH PLAINS | B4c.d | TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF | 81 __| IRREGULAR PLAINS, SLIGHT RELIEF [| B5c.d | TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF | 82 | IRREGULAR PLAINS TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION [ A.83a,b] PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE (1st LETTER) | 84.a,b | PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING D —- <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS [ C2 _] OPEN Low HILLS LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) | C3 | OPEN HILLS : 1 0 TO 30m (1 TO 100 tt) | C4 | OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 ft) | C5 | OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 ft) | C6 _] OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 160 TO 300m (500 TO 1000 ft) 5 300 TO 900m (1000 TO 3000 ft) HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1500m (3000 TO 5000 ft) [ 03 |HuLs | 04 HIGH HILLS PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) | 05 | LOW MOUNTAINS >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND | D6 | HIGH MOUNTAINS 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE 1S IN LOWLAND 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND aoce 9bT 169° CAPE NEWENHAM aa KING SALMON ST PAULISLAND@y es © DIGITIZED DATA @ DIGITIZED AND 158° SUMMARIZED DATA PILOT POINT, ise A SUMMARIZED DATA 4 UNSUMMARIZED DATA Va . PORT HEIDEN ALITAK PAysiTainar 154° a Qi CHIRIKOF ISLAND SPQ 8 f2mesano POINT CAPE SARICHEF Bere # 4 1660 DRIFTWOOD BAY @ 54° TA $S —_SCOTCH CAP ad UMNAK-CAPE AF DUTCH HARBOR Qy, CHUGINADAK REINDEER LACNOSTH SHORE 0 50 100 150 MILES ISLAND er D ° x 1 sii: Wiig 9 0 50100 150 KILOMETERS ——<—————> PNL-3196 WERA 10 172° 174° 176° 178° 190° ane 176° Uni 472° \ t Th t { Per SEGUAM ISLAND ® ON; "@SHEMYA po ae ar A @ BULDIR ISLAND Qy en a \ oF sze nisin 2) 5 o asiannci red} AK pre ~ OGUUGA® Sequcuinea A ° \ } + iE a" { { { 1720 1748 176° 178° 180° 178° 176° q7ae FIGURE 7.4. NCC Station Locations in Southwestern Alaska ae 152° 0 58° KODIAK 143 FIGURE 7.2. Topographic Map of Southwestern Alaska vel v Ww 100 MILES a 0 eu 00 KILOMETERS — el? KNOMET 155° o +O 190 KILOMETERS Pre 98 ERA TO 50° 175° EAST 50° 180° 175° WEST 170° FIGURE 7.3, Land-Surface Form Map for Southwestern Alaska Tides Diurnal Wind Speed by Season There is very little diurnal variation of wind speeds (Figure 7.12) at any location. The highest diurnal variation is at King Salmon in spring with about 2 m/s. The rest of the stations showed the greatest diurnal variation in summer with the varia- tion 1 m/s or less. Since King Salmon is the farthest from the coast of any location in the subregion, it also has the greatest diurnal temperature change particularly in spring and autumn. Strongest winds tend to occur from 1200 to 1500 hours. Directional Frequency and Average Speed Only Cold Bay has its strongest winds and its most frequent winds from the south- southeast direction (Figure 7.13). Most of the remaining stations show very little directional prominence. Only Adak, Asi Tanaga, Attu, Cape Newenham, Cold Bay, King Salmon, Kodiak, and Port Moller show more than 10 percent of the winds from any one direction. The most frequent directions of wind are west-southwest through north. However, exceptions are Cold Bay, Cape New- enham, and Port Moller. At Cold Bay winds are most frequently from the south-south- east. At Cape Newenham they are from the south; strong winds occur most often from 7.3.4 141 the southeast. At Port Moller, south winds are most frequent, but the strongest winds are from the south-southeast. Annual Average Wind Speed ‘Frequency There is some observer bias in favor- ing speeds of 2, 5, 8 and 10 m/s (5, 10, 15, and 20 mph) at the older stations such as Amchitka, Asi Tanaga, Nikolski, Port Moller, and Cape Newenham (Figure 7.14). Actual wind speed distributions agree quite - well with the Rayleigh distribution except at Attu, Asi Tanaga, Cape Newenham, Drift- wood Bay, Kodiak, and Nikolski. Some of the disagreement is the result of observer bias, but at other stations (such as Attu, Kodiak, and Cape Newenham) the disagreement is more from local peculiarities of terrain. Annual we Wind Speed and Power Duration The percentage of time that a given wind speed or power is exceeded is shown in Figures 7.15 and 7.16. Wind power class 7 occurs more than 40 percent of the time at Amchitka, Asi Tanaga, Cold Bay, Nikolski, St. Paul, and Shemya. Some abrupt changes in the shapes of the wind speed duration curve are due to observer bias and instru- ment threshold velocity. 7.3.5 7.3.6 BARREN ISLANDS TRINITY CH ISLANDS 154° A criixor stano ALE ut AN omurrwooo Cs UNIMAK ISLAND. eB y os, ee Es uausa OS astas® UNALASKA ISLAND ~ pele a AR AN Oo _50__100_150 MILES ne oct 0 00 150 OMETERS 501 KILOMI PACIFIC 172° 174° 176° 178° 180° vee 176° me ve ATTU ISLAND: ia} ! ' { "rca t ae SS SHEMYAISLAND 4 L E L A N D Ss sen Poe 45" <s i Ft Bay || | ee oes TANAGA ISLAND. Cy sae Pp irae So o 9 ° or} 'ADAK ISLAND Wa 4 c x ish ~ E A N id, RAT , ! G \ AMCHITKA ISLAND. °° Oo i at { { { { 172° 174° 176° 178° 180° 178° 176° 474 FIGURE 7.1. Geographic Map of Southwestern Alaska Mountain summit and ridge crest estimates vary from class 2 to 4 on the Alaska Peninsula and are class 3 on Kodiak. Isolated summits in the Aleutians are assumed to be of the same power as the sur- face data, varying from class 4 to 7. 7.2.4 Autumn Class 4 or higher wind power occurs throughout the subregion in autumn. The Pribilof, Aleutian, Trinity, and Chirikof Islands are all estimated to have class 7 power. Bristol Bay coastal areas vary from class 7 at Port Heiden and class 6 at Cape Newenham to class 4 along the shores of Kvichak Bay. Kodiak Island is class 5 or 6 along the coast depending on the degree of exposure. Open waters of the Bering Sea, the North Pacific and Gulf of Alaska exper- ience class 7. Mountain summits and ridge crests are estimated at class 4 to 6 on the Alaska Peninsula and class 4 on Kodiak Island. The wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands experiences class 7 power as it affects the northeast portion of south- western Alaska. 7.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS Graphs of wind characteristics are shown for 13 stations in southwest Alaska. All stations are near the coast or on an island. The station characteristics are summarized in Table 7.2. The Bristol Bay area is represented by Cape Newenham and King Salmon. Cape Newenham is on a rugged point of land at the northwest end of Bristol Bay. It is sheltered on the east, south and west by a ridge that extends to more than 610 m. It is open to the northwest, and there is a saddleback in the ridge to the southeast. The terrain slopes steeply upward toward the southeast in the vicinity of the sta- tion. During the nine-year period of record used in the summary, there was an average of 22 observations per day. King Salmon is located about half a kilometer (one-fourth mile) from the Naknek River, 29 km inland from the shores of Kvichak Bay at the east end of Bristol Bay. The terrain surrounding the station is gently rolling, barren tundra for 50 to 100 km in the north through east to south-southwest. Some 100 km to the east are the mountains of the Aleutian Range with peaks to more than 2,260 m. During the summary period of used in this analysis, there were eight observations per day digitized. There are two stations on the Alaska Peninsula, Cold Bay and Port Moller. 139 Cold “ is located on the northwest side of the bay that bears its name. Ten miles southwest of the station Frosty Peak rises to 1,870 m. Across the bay to the east, several peaks rise to elevations of approximately 1,610 m. The station is shel- tered from strong southwesterly and easterly winds. The open bay area to the south-south- east tends to provide a funneling effect on all winds of consequence fram the southwest through southeast to produce strong south- southeasterly winds. From west-northwest to the northeast the land is relatively flat with much swampland and numerous small lakes. During the 16-year summary used in the analysis, there was an average of six observations per day. Port Moller is located on a sand spit between Moller Bay and the Bering Sea. It is exposed to west, north, and northeast winds but is sheltered somewhat from the east through south to southwest by the Aleutian Range, which rises to more than . 2,260 m within 8 km of the station. During the period of the summary used in the anal- ysis, there were an average of eight observa- tions per day. Kodiak, the only station on Kodiak Island, is located on the western shore of Women's Bay. The area around the station is heavily wooded and steep in all direc- tions except northeast through east-south- east, where it is exposed to the open water of the Gulf of Alaska. Mountain peaks rise to more than 800 m within 5 km to the west of the station. During the summary period used in the analysis, there were 24 obser- vations per day. St. Paul is located on the south shore of St. Paul Island, which is 11 by 14 km in size, of low relief, and has no trees. The station is well exposed to winds from all directions. St. Paul's winds are consider- ed to be representative of other islands in the Pribilofs. During the three-year sum- mary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. The Aleutian Islands are represented by seven stations: Adak, Amchitka, Asi Tanaga, Attu, Driftwood Bay, Nikolski, and Shemya. Adak Naval Station is located on Adak Island. It is s' to the northwest, north-northwest, and south by mountains more than 610 m high within 8 km of the station. However, there are no obstruc- tions to the north, west, or east. During the nine years of the summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. Amchitka is located at the southeast end of Amchitka Island where the terrain is gently rolling. There are no elevations within 25 km more than 300 m high. At the northwest end of the island there are a few peaks. During the seven-year period of the summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. Asi _Tanaga is located at the south end of Tanaga Island on a gently rolling portion of the island. The station is shielded somewhat to the northwest to northeast by a mountain, with an elevation more than 1,600 m, about 19 km from the station. There are no obstructions in any other directions. During the two years of the summary used in the analysis, there was an average of 21 observa- tions per day. Attu is located at the east end of Attu TsTand on the west shore of Massacre Bay. It is shielded from all directions except south to east. The island is moun- tainous, with elevations to more than 610 m. During the two-year period summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. Driftwood Bay is located on the north shore of Unalaska Island. The terrain south of the station slopes upward to 1,060 m within a mile of the station. The location is sheltered from strong winds from north- east through south to southwest but is exposed to the west and north. During the five-year summary period used in the anal- ysis, there was an average of eight obser- vations per day. Nikolski is located at the southwest end of Umnak Island. The terrain around a 3-km radius of the station is gently rolling hills or open water. There are mountains ~ with elevations more than 1,800 m 15 to 25 km northeast of the station. All other directions are free of obstructions. During the summary period used in the analysis, there was an average of eight observations per day. Shemya_ AFS is on Shemya Island, a small island Sbeut 5 by 5 km with very little relief. There are no trees or hills of any size on the island, and it is open in all directions. Only observations taken every three hours were used in the analysis. 7.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed The only stations with long periods of record in this subregion are Adak, Cape Newenham, Cold Bay, King Salmon, Kodiak, St. Paul Island, and Shemya (Figure 7.10). The greatest interannual variability is at Attu, Adak, Cape Newenham, and Kodiak. 140 These locations are all shielded from a particular direction by surrounding terrain. Less interannual variability of wind power was shown at St. Paul Island, Shemya, and Nikolski where no obstructions exist. Many of the stations’ periods of record are not simultaneous; however, 1964 and 1965 appear to be maximum years for wind power for most locations except Cold Bay and Kodiak, which show somewhat less wind resource during those years. The year 1976 was a relative- ly low wind power year at all stations reporting then except Kodiak, which was high. Kodiak is more exposed to storms from the southwest than other stations. The most prevalent storm track is west to east along the Aleutians to the Gulf of Alaska. Attu varied by a factgr of two in wind power from 300 to 600 W/m whereas St. Paul, Shemya, and Nikolski varied by a fraction of only 1.1 to 1.2. Most other stations have too few years to make-a com- parision of long-term trends in interannual variability. Monthly Average Wind Power and Spee Class 7 mean annual wind power occurs at all locations west of Driftwood Bay except Adak and Attu (Figure 7.11). Since both of these stations are shielded to some extent by local terrain, class 7 appears to be the normal for the entire west end of the sub- region. Class 7 wind power also occurs at St. Paul in the Pribilofs and at Cold Bay. The winds at Cold Bay are enhanced somewhat by local terrain, so this station is high in reference to the rest of the Alaska Pen- insula. Driftwood Bay and Port Moller are somewhat sheltered from the strongest winds, so their annual power (class of 4 and 3) is somewhat low. King Salmon, with class 4 annual power is representative of the broad relatively flat area of the southern and eastern Bristol Bay area. Cape Newenham, with class 6 annual power, is character- istic of an exposed location even though it is sheltered from all except southeast and northwest winds. Kodiak's annual power (class 4) is low for exposed areas on Kodiak Island and adjacent islands. 7.3.2 The season for maximum wind speed and wind power is winter at all except Shemya, Attu, Adak, Nikolski, and Port Moller. Attu's maximum wind power occurs in March, and the remainding stations have maximum wind power in October and November. Class 7 wind power occurs during some months at Amchitka, Asi Tanaga, Attu, Cape Newenham, Cold Bay, Nikolski, St. Paul, and Shemya. Summer is the season. of minimum wind power except Cold Bay where the minimum occurs in May. The greatest seasonal variation occurs in the western Aleutians, the Pribilofs, and Cape Newenham. CHAPTER 7: Southwestern Alaska had an estimated population of 17,364 in 1979, which is approximately 0.62 persons per square mile. The major population centers of the sub- region are the Bristol Bay Borough, Kodiak Island, and Adak Island. As shown in Fig- ure 7.1, this subregion has a northern boundary of 59°N and includes the Alaska Peninsula, the Aleutian Chain, the Pribilof Islands, and the Kodiak Islands. Its southern boundary is the Pacific Ocean and the western boundary is the western tip of Attu Island, which is approximately 173°30'E. With a total area of 118,780 km2, (45,849 mi2), the southwestern area is the smallest sub- region in the state. The Aleutians are the only major moun- tain range in the southwestern subregion (Figure 7.2, 7.3). The Alaska Peninsula and the more than 50 islands of the Aleu- tian Island chain form an arc separating the north Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea and are part of one of the world's most active seismic zones. There are many small streams in the subregion but no major rivers. Three lakes on the Alaska Peninsula are of noteworthy size: Becharof Lake and upper and lower Ugashik Lakes. One very significant physical feature of the Aleu- tian Islands is that they are treeless. Wind data from NCC were available for stations along the coast of the Alaska Pen- insula, Kodiak Islands, and the Aleutian Islands (Figure 7.4). Data from one fire weather station on the peninsula were used in the calculations for this subregion (Figure 7.5) because other reliable data were absent. 7.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN The annual average available wind power density in southwestern Alaska is shown in Figure 7.6. The analyses of mean wind power apply to terrain features that are favorably exposed to the wind, such as mountain summits, ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. However, nearby terrain fea- tures may interact with the windfield to cause the wind power at some exposed sites to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the assessment value. (See Wegley et al. 1980 for information on terrain features that may increase or reduce wind energy.) In forested or wooded areas the assessment values are representative of large clear- ings with good exposure to the prevailing strong winds, such as airports. In moun- tainous regions, the analyses also reflect major valleys. The percentage of land area 137 SOUTHWESTERN ALASKA that is favorably exposed to the wind strong- ly depends on the land-surface form (Sec- tion 1.8). The annual average wind power (Fig- ure 7.6) is class 4 or higher throughout southwestern Alaska. Class 7 wind power prevails in the Pribilof Islands, the Aleutian Islands, the west end of the Alaska Peninsula, and the islands south of the Alaska Peninsula southwest of Kodiak Island. Several stations show annual wind powers of over 1,000 W/m? including Amchitka, Shemya, Asi Tanaga, and Scotch Cap. Indi- vidual stations with annual wind power classes less than 7 in the Aleutians are sheltered somewhat from a part of the strong winds. All open waters in the Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean have class 7 power. Mountain summits and ridge crests on the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island are estimated at class 4 for the most part and 5 at the higher elevations. Mountain sum- mits and ridge crests in the Aleutians are isolated peaks and the estimates were much lower than surface data for the most part, so the wind power classes discussed for the Aleutians are exclusively based on surface data at exposed locations. It is assumed that for the purposes of wind energy conver- sion systems (WECS), these surface data reflect the wind powers to expect for WECS installations. Kodiak Island's exposed locations are estimated to experience class 6 and 7 wind power; however, the Kodiak station shows annual class 4 power because of its shel- tered location. The only wind corridors in the sub- region for which there are data are Cold Bay (where south-southeast winds, enhanced by surrounding terrain, are of class 7 wind power) and the wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands in the northeast corner of the subregion (also with class 7 power). Other major wind corridors may exist along the Alaska Peninsula at Dry Bay, Puale Bay, and Port Heiden, based on examination of satellite imagery and sub- jective meteorological considerations, but no data have been gathered at these sites. Tete Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource The wind power estimates for most of the subregion have a certainty rating of 2 (Figure 7.7). In the Aleutians, even though there was a fair amount of data, many of the locations were shielded from at least one direction and the land-surface forms are moderately to highly complex. A cer- tainty rating of 3 was assigned to the Pribilof and Chirikof Islands. Mainland areas of the Alaska Peninsula have generally class 2 power, because most of the area consists of mountain summit and ridge crest estimates. Data are sparse on the mainland in the Bristol Bay area where land-surface forms are less complex, but the certainty rating is still 2 or 1. Areal Distribution of the ind Resource 7.1.2 Figure 7.8 illustrates the areal dis- tribution of wind power in southwest Alaska. The numbers identify the percentage of area in each cell of the grid in which the wind power equals or exceeds some threshold value. Wind power class 4 or higher is estimated to occur in 98% of the grid cells including all of the Aleutian Islands, Kodiak Island, all other islands in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea, the Trinity Islands, and the Alaska Peninsula. The only area not of class 4 or higher is inland from the north shore of Bristol Bay and is estimated to be class 3. Following the assumptions and computations described in Section 1.10 and because of the high relief in most of this region, only 21% of the land area is estimated to be of class 4 or higher (see Table 7.1). This subregion, located along a storm track that generally affects Alaska and much of North America, reflects an annual wind power class 7 (approximately 55% of the grid cells). However, the assumption that there is a reduction of wind power class in high topographic relief may be too general for this subregion, particularly for land forms D5 and D6 where entire islands consist of one or two mountain peaks with only a few sheltered valleys. Using the same reason- ing, the estimated 72% of wind power class 1 is most likely high. 7.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER Wind power maps for each season are shown in Figure 7.9. The season of maximum wind power is generally winter in the entire subregion. There are few sheltered valleys where stable air is present for any period of time in southwestern Alaska. Summer is the season of minimum wind power in the entire subregion. 7.2.1 Winter In winter class 7 wind power occurs in all coastal areas of the subregion except 138 the eastern Bristol Bay area, where class 5 or 6 occurs, and the Kodiak Island coasts, wnere class 6 occurs for the most part. Winter wind power over 1,000 W/m2 occurs in the open waters of the southern Bering Sea, the north Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of Alaska. Land stations in the Aleutians with over 1,000 W/m2 are Shemya, Kiska, Amchitka, Ogliuga, Asi Tanaga, and Sitki- nak. Mountain summits and ridge crests of the Aleutian Mountains on the Alaska Penin- sula generally have class 6 power; however, the higher peaks experience class 7 power, and those of Kodiak Islands have class 5 (also class 7 at highest elevations). The wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands (affecting the northeast corner of the subregion) also has wind power class 7. Weer Spring Class 4 or higher wind power occurs throughout southwest Alaska in the spring. The Pribilof Islands, Aleutians, and the islands south of the Alaska Peninsula west of Kodiak all have class 7 power. Bristol Bay coastal areas vary from class 7 in the west as shown by Cape Newenham and Port Heiden, to class 4 in the east, shown by King Salmon. Kodiak Island has class 5 or 6 along the coast at exposed locations and 4 elsewhere. Mountian summits and ridge crest estimates show mostly class 4 for Kodiak Island and the northeastern Alaska Penin- sula and increase to class 6 farther west along the peninsula. In the Aleutian Islands the mountain peaks were considered to be well represented by surface data and are class 7. The wind corridor from Kami- shak Bay to the Barren Islands also experi- ences class 7 power. Teed Summer In summer, the wind resource is more variable in southwestern Alaska than in any other season. Class 4 or higher wind power occurs in the Pribilof Islands, the Aieutians, and the west end of the Alaska Peninsula. However, the Pribilofs are of class 4 and the Aleutians are of class 4 to 6, except for Amchitka, which is class 7.: The open waters of the Bering Sea have class 6 power, as does the western north Pacific. Wind power class in the Gulf of Alaska decreases from 7 in the southwest to 3 in the north. The Trinity Islands still have class 7 power, as shown by Sitkinak. The wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands is reduced to class 3 power by the time it affects southwestern Alaska.