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Shungnak, Kiana & Ambler Vol. II Appendices Recon 2-1980
Alaska Power Authority LIBRARY COPY SO | DUK - §/032- Cc W S E WIND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING, INC. Renewable Energy Engineers 1551 EAST TUDOR ROAD ANCHORAGE, AK 99507 Calvin Kerr Forester Reid, Collins, Inc. Tim McLaughlin, P.E. Geotechnical Engineer PRELIMINARY REPORT FEBRUARY 1980 SHUNGNAK, KIANA AND AMBLER Reconnaissance Study of Energy Alternatives ‘VOLUME II - APPENDICES Prepared for The Alaska Power Authority Eric Yould, Executive Director Prepared by Mark Newell Bob Knol] Wind Systems Engineering, Inc. Assisted by James Barkshire Renewable Energy Consultant Alaska Renewable Energy Assoc. Tom Longstaff, P.E. Electrical Engineer Longstaff Engineering Judy Zimicki Peat Consultant VOLUME II TABLE OF CONTENTS Appendix A - Community Meetings .........42.264- eee ee 175 A Appendix B - Data on Existing Conditions and Energy Balance... . 187 c Appendix C - Energy Forecasting Procedures and Calculations .... 197 Appendix D - Technology Profiles. ... 2... 5.2 eee eee ». 199 1. Coal Utilization Technologies. ... 2s. ....2.0408. 200 2. Constant Ligh Level Fluorescent Lamp Controller. ..... 213 3. Energy Conservation in Building Construction ....... 221 4. Energy Saving Fluorescent Components .........-. 242 5. Geothermal Technologies. .......2.-2 22 eee eee 249 6. Motor Power Factor Controllers... .... 2.2.22 e ee 264 7. Peat Utilization Technologies. ......2..-+-2ee-s - 277 8. Solar Energy Potential ..... 2... 2 ee ee eee ee 298 9. Solid Fuel Space Heating. ....... os) ee ee ees 301 10. Solid Waste Energy Conversion Technologies ........ 312 11. Wind Energy Conversion Systems Direct Current Generators . 320 12. Wind Energy Conversion Systems Induction Generators. . . . 328 13. Wind Energy Conversion Systems Synchronous Generators. . . 336 Appendix E - Energy Plan Costs and Non-electrical Benefits by Year Over the Planning Period. ..........- 344 Appendix F - Detailed Description of the Recommended Plans. ... . 353 COMMUNITY MEETINGS Meetings in each of the study villages were held in early December. Prior to the site visits a detailed notification process was followed. Initially the Regional Strategy Planning program planner, Matt Conover was contacted for an overview of the study's relevance to other programs in the NANA Region, This was accomplished by phone and a visit to Kotzebue by study team personnel on Friday, November 14. All mayors and city managers in the study villages were contacted by phone and by letter to set-up community meetings. Each IRA administrator was also contacted and the head office of the Northwest Arctic School district granted permission for us to address the student bodies. In turn a school assembly was arranged in each village in phone conversations with the principals. The phone conversations were followed up in writing. A public notice was sent for posting in each villages weeks in advance of the site visits. A one page educational article was taken out in the monthly regional newspaper NUNA. The article informed residents of all villages in NANA Region of what the study was about and when the public meetings would be held. Virtually all households in the study villages receive NUNA. One week prior to the site visits a press release and meeting announcement was sent to KOTZ Radio. KOTZ broadcasts regionally on the AM band. The announcement was run at least 4 times daily for 10 days. On arrival in Kotzebue the WSE staff was interviewed by KOTZ Radio. The interview was featured two days on the news programs. This process assured thorough public awareness that the study was going on and public input was desired. The WSE staff traveled to Kiana on Tuesday, December 3 (poor flying weather delayed the Monday schedule). The meeting with the school was eliminated. There was a village meeting held that evening. Attendance waS approximately 60 adults - over 40% of that portion of the population. Two films pertaining to energy were shown and a brief description of the study purpose and scope made. Then a 23 question survey was taken. There was opportunity for discussion and public input between questions. All proceedings were tape recorded. Following completion of the survey a 1/2 hour interchange took place in which many energy issues were discussed. Door prizes were awarded and the meeting broke up at about 10:00 PM - a 2 1/2 hour meeting. WSE staff traveled to Shungnak Wednesday, December 4. The school children were addressed and 2 films were shown. That 176 evening a meeting similar to the one in Kiana was held with over 75 present. Thursday WSE went to Ambler. A public meeting was held that evening with 45 in attendance. The school was addressed on Friday and a 1 hour class lesson in renewable resources and energy conservation was given to the high school students. Copies of the survey are attached. A thorough explanation of each question was made in the meetings. j 177 78% 22% 93% 7% 32% 50% 7% 11% 80% 20% 43% 57% 50% 50% 14% 86% 82% 18% 96% 4% 33% 67% 84% 16% AMBLER ALTERNATIVE ENERGY STUDY QUESTIONAIRE The questions asked are to learn what people would like to see done for energy. The answers will help decide which kind is better when 2 kinds are a lot alike in cost and other ways. CONVENIENCE: These have to do with things that could change the way you do things. [21] yes 1. Would you be willing to store your frozen food [06] no in a big community freezer? [26] yes 2. Would you be willing to wash your clothes at a [021] no village laundry? 3. If you had shutters on your windows, how much do you think that you would be willing to close or open them? [09] Every time the sun came out {14] Every morning and every night [02] Once in November and once in February [03] Not at all [20] yes 4. You could get electricity for two different prices. [05] no One would be like now, 45¢/KWH and could be used any time. The other would be a lot cheaper, maybe 15¢/KWH, but could only be used at certain times like late at night or when the wind blows. Would you use the cheaper electricit;y if it meant doing things at different times than now? {121 yes 5. Do you mind cutting wood and stoking a stove? [16] no [13] yes 6. Would you mind using coal to heat your home? [13] no [04] yes 7. Would you want your home heated by a piped project [24] no run by the city with a bill every month? {23] yes 8. If you had a greenhouse connected to your home would [05] no you grow food in it? ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT : These questions have to do with how you pay for energy and the jobs it can make. [261 yes 9. Are wood cutting jobs OK? [01] no [09] yes 10. Are coal mining jobs OK? [18] no [21] logger 11. Which job would you rather have? [04] miner 178 00% 0% 00% 0% 59% 41% 27% 73% 65% 35% 56% 44% 76% 24% 92% 8% 18% 82% 19% 17% 50% 4% 10% 82% 18% 24% 48% 27% [27] yes 12. Do you use wood for heating your home? [00] no [27] yes 13. If you had to buy wood would you still use it to [00] no heat your home? NATURE: These questions have to do with what energy does to your village and land. : {17] yes 14. Diesel generators are noisy and smell bad, does [121] no that bother you? [07] yes 15. Do you think that cutting a lot of wood near the [19] no village would be bad for the animals? {171 yes 16. Would coal mining be bad for the animals? [091] no [13] yes 17. Would harvesting peat be bad? [10] no [19] yes 18. Do you think a hydroelectric dam would hurt [06] no fishing? MANAGEMENT : These questions have to do with the way that things that use energy are run and paid for. (24] [02] [05] [22] [09] [08] [24] [02] [05] {18] [04] [07] (14] [08] yes no yes no 19. Do you think that the city should run things like a community freezer or laundry? 20. Would you live in an apartment like the KIC apartments in Kotzebue? 21. If the price of stove oil and electricity keep going higher what will you do? Use less Fix up house Burn wood instead of oil Move to a place where it is cheaper Get it somewhere else yes no AVEC village 22. If you could do it, would you want to make your own electricity, or let AVEC do it? 23. Do you think that a village run or regional electric utility would be better than AVEC? Which do you want? NANA Region THANK YOU FOR HELPING US WITH THIS QUESTIONAIRE. WE HOPE THAT THE ANSWERS WILL HELP GET YOU THE KINDS OF ENERGY THAT ARE BEST FOR YOU. 179 79% 21% 65% 35% 36% 40% 0% 23% 85% 15% 17% 83% 26% TAS 41% 59% 71% 29% 76% 24% 58% 42% 79% 21% KIANA ALTERNATIVE ENERGY STUDY QUESTIONAIRE The questions asked are to learn what people would like to see done for energy. The answers will help decide which kind is better when 2 kinds are a lot alike in cost and other ways. CONVENIENCE : These have to do with things that could change the way you do things. [38] yes 1. Would you be willing to store your frozen food {10} no in a big community freezer? [321] yes 2. Would you be willing to wash your clothes at a [17] no village laundry? 3. If you had shutters on your windows, how much do you think that you would be willing to close or open them? [17] Every time the sun came out [19] Every morning and every night [00] Once in November and once in February [11] Not at all [41] yes 4. You could get electricity for two different prices. [07] no One would be like now, 45¢/KWH and could be used any time. The other would be a lot cheaper, maybe 15¢/KWH, but could only be used at certain times like late at night or when the wind blows. Would you use the cheaper electricit;y if it meant doing things at different times than now? [08] yes 5. Do you mind cutting wood and stoking a stove? [40] no [131] yes 6. Would you mind using coal to heat your home? [36] no [19] yes 7. Would you want your home heated by a piped project {27] no run by the city with a bill every month? [31] yes 8. If you had a greenhouse connected to your home would 113] no you grow food in it? ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT : These questions have to do with how you pay for energy and the jobs (13] [04] [26] {19] [35] [09] it can make. yes 9. Are wood cutting jobs OK? no yes 10. Are coal mining jobs OK? no logger 11. Which job would you rather have? miner 180 63% 37% 82% 18% 46% 54% 47% 53% 48% 52% 54% 46% 83% 17% 77% 23% 32% 68% 25% 21% 41% 7% 6% 59% 41% 4% 42% 53% [30] yes 12. Do you use wood for heating your home? [18] no [37] yes 13. If you had to buy wood would you still use it o [08] no heat your home? NATURE: These questions have to do with what energy does to your village and land. {221 yes 14. Diesel generators are noisy and smell bad, does [26] no that bother you? [20] yes 15. Do you think that cutting a lot of wood near the [23] no village would be bad for the animals? [20] yes 16. Would coal mining be bad for the animals? [22] no [22] yes 17. Would harvesting peat be bad? [19] no [38] yes 18. Do you think a hydroelectric dam would hurt [08] no fishing? MANAGEMENT: These questions have to do with the way that things that use energy are run and paid for. [37] {111 (13] [27] [20] (17) [33] [06] [05] {26] [18] [02] (20] (25] yes 19. Do you think that the city should run things like no a community freezer or laundry? . yes 20. Would you live in an apartment like the KIC no apartments in Kotzebue? 21. If the price of stove oil and electricity keep going higher what will you do? Use less Fix up house Burn wood instead of oil Move to a place where it is cheaper Get it somewhere else yes no AVEC village 22. If you could do it, would you want to make your own electricity, or let AVEC do it? 23. Do you think that a village run or regional electric utility would be better than AVEC? Which do you want? NANA Region THANK YOU FOR HELPING US WITH THIS QUESTIONAIRE. WE HOPE THAT THE ANSWERS WILL HELP GET YOU THE KINDS OF ENERGY THAT ARE BEST FOR YOU. 121 80% 20% 84% 16% 37% 48% 4% 10% 82% 18% 58% 42% 44% 56% 29% 71% 80% 20% 93% 7% 32% 38% 62% 3.2% SHUNGNAK ALTERNATIVE ENERGY STUDY QUESTIONAIRE The questions asked are to learn what people would like to see done for energy. The answers will help decide which kind is better when 2 kinds are a lot alike in cost and other ways. CONVENIENCE: These have to do with things that could change the way you do things. [52] yes 1. Would you be willing to store your frozen food [13] no in a big community freezer? [53] yes 2. Would you be willing to wash your clothes at a [10] no village laundry? 3. If you had shutters on your windows, how much do you think that you would be willing to close or open them? [26] Every time the sun came out [34] Every morning and every night [03] Once in November and once in February [07] Not at all [47] yes 4. You could get electricity for two different prices. [10] no One would be like now, 45¢/KWH and could be used any time. The other would be a lot cheaper, maybe 15¢/KWH, but could only be used at certain times like late at night or when the wind blows. Would you use the cheaper electricit;y if it meant doing things at different times than now? [36] yes 5. Do you mind cutting wood and stoking a stove? [26] no [27] yes 6. Would you mind using coal to heat your home? [34] no [18] yes 7. Would you want your home heated by a piped project [34] no run by the city with a bill every month? [48] yes 8. If you had a greenhouse connected to your home would [12] no you grow food in it? ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: These questions have to do with how you pay for energy and the jobs it can make. [56] [04] (37] [23] [48] [23] yes 9. Are wood cutting jobs OK? no yes 10. Are coal mining jobs OK? no logger 11. Which job would you rather have? miner 129 83% [54] yes 17% [11] no 75% [47] yes 12. Do you use wood for heating your home? 13. If you had to buy wood would you still use it to 25% [16] no heat your home? NATURE: These questions have to do with what energy does to your village and land. 71% [44] yes 14. Diesel generators are noisy and smell bad, does 29% [18] no that bother you? 40% [25] yes 15. Do you think that cutting a lot of wood near the 60% [37] no village would be bad for the animals? 71% [41] yes 16. Would coal mining be bad for the animals? 29% [17] no 42% [23] yes 17. Would harvesting peat be bad? 58% [32] no 42% [25] yes 18. Do you think a hydroelectric dam would hurt 58% [34] no fishing? ‘ MANAGEMENT : 58% 42% 33% 67% 16% 26% 48% 7% 3% 75% 25% 27% 30% 42% These questions have to do with the way that things that use energy are run and paid for. [54] (39] [20] [40] {18] [28] [52] [08] [03] [42] (14] {18] [20] [28] yes no yes no 19. Do you think that the city should run things like a community freezer or laundry? 20. Would you live in an apartment like the KIC apartments in Kotzebue? 21. If the price of stove oil and electricity keep going higher what will you do? Use less Fix up house Burn wood instead of oil Move to a place where it is cheaper Get it somewhere else yes 22. If you could do it, would you want to make your own no electricity, or let AVEC do it? 23. Do you think that a village run or regional electric utility would be better than AVEC? Which do you want? AVEC village NANA Region THANK YOU FOR HELPING US WITH THIS QUESTIONAIRE. WE HOPE THAT THE ANSWERS WILL HELP GET YOU THE KINDS OF ENERGY THAT ARE BEST FOR YOU. VOL U.S. BULK RATE PAID PERMIT No. 208 KOTZEBUE, ALASKA spins Ba ti cs Volume I, Number 2 A publication of the Mauneluk Association Hensley Keynotes AFN Convention MAUNELUK’S NATIVE STAFF ATTENDS Willie Hensley, prominent state and regional Native leader, opened the 14th annual conven- tion of the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) with an address recalling the political struggles that led to the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). The conclave was accented by a call for Native solidarity and the enrichment of cultural tradi- tions. Hensley’s address stressed those twin issues. Hensley noted that major political strides were made when Alaska’s Natives spoke with a single voice. Hensley’s address concen- trated an a trin af iecnes emicial ta because it represented money, or because it represented business.” “We fought for the land because it represents the spirit of our people, because it represents an intimate knowledge of the environment our people grew up with for ten thousand years. “Our fight for land. was a fight for survival.” The struggle, Hensley not- ed, was waged on the terms of the dominant white society, territory with which Alaska’s Natives were not familiar. “The battleground we fought on was political.” Besides Alaska’s Natives, the key players in the struggle included Congress, the press, law- yers and oil barons. “We fought,” said Hensley, “with hraken hows’ and lances. November 1980 century of repression.” Hensley called on delegates to define and protect Alaska’s Native cultures. psychological Language and culture form the ba- ole Ene than wnmncicnd nf ncce en te ~ North * eT oat i thle perienced managers.” Hensley’s address clarified and sharpened the leading issues facing Native Alaskans; language, land and culture. Even as he spoke delegates on the floor were drafting resolutions in response to the grand jury investigation of Slone whalers The vrohe .obuk Alternate Energy Study: -ublic Announcement During the 1980 State Leg- ‘lature Frank Furguson was suc- cessful in securing an appropria- tion for studying alternatives for the generation of electricity and ° other forms of energy in the vil- lages of Ambler, Shungnak and Kiana. Wind Systems Engineering of Anchorage has been given the contract to do the study. The things studied will in- clude; small hydro-electric gen- eration or water power, generation from solid fuels such as coal, wood or peat, generation by photovoltaics or directly from the sun, conservation or doing more with less, and of course, wind power. Many questions Jnust be answered before any of these things can even be given much thinking. Is there enough wood to supply everyone with heat for his home and still be able to make electricity? Can electricity be made by any of the nearby streams in winter when it is need- ed most? Would people be willing to accept the harvest of peat from land near the village? If conserva- tion is the best way to reduce the cost of living would it at the same time make homes warmer? What ways can alternative energy make jobs or save people money directly? There are many more ques- tions. They range from how many homes have a freezer and a Mr. Coffee, to what will the village look like in 20 years? The study will not find answers to all the questions, some of them will be suggested for more study. But you can help by beginning to think about what you think are good ways to make electricity and to heat your home. People from Wind Systems Engineering will come to Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak in early December to talk about what you think. There ul be meetings held and door prizes will be given. DiESEL Diesel is used to generate electricity because it is easy to install, can be run without an operator present, uses fuel that is easy to handle can respond to more demand for power when needed, and can be used any time during the year. But diesel fuel has gone up in price very quickly, can only be delivered once a year, is noisy, and most of all is very expensive. There are ways to make diesel more useful and even cheaper. One is to use the waste heat that goes out the exhaust as hot gases or through the radiator to cool the engine. The waste heat can be used to heat a village water supply or the school. Another way is to be sure that the generator is the right size for the amount of electricity needed. A generator that is two or three times as big as is really needed wastes a lot of fuel because it idles much of the time. A smaller one would not idle so much and when it did it would use much less fuel. HYDROELECTRIC Hydroelectric generation is when water falling from upstream is used to turn a paddle wheel or turbine to turn a generator to make electricity. Hydro plants can be very small from a few Kilo- watts to as large as the biggest nuclear power plants, depending on the size of the river and the height that the water is falling from. They may or may not re- quire a dam to catch water in. When a dam is built it is to store water from the summer to use later. If no dam is built then electricity is only generated when there is a lot of water flowing through the stream, such as during break-up or after rain falls. To get the water into the wheel or turbine there must be a thing called a penstock which is a long tube that is upstream from the generator. At the mouth of the penstock there must be a device called a diversion which causes the water to flow into the tube. When a diversion is built where there is ice build up in winter it is usually carried away in spring or must at least be repaired because of the moving ice. Hydroelectric generators need to have water that is flowing quickly. The speed at which the water flows is caused by the steepness of the stream bed. The number of feet that the water drops from the point at which it enters the tube is called “head”. The more “head” the heavier the weight against the water wheel. The more weight the more elec- tricity. Most villages are located on rivers which don’t fall very quickly. This is for good reason. Waterfalls are hard on boats and nets. So most of the good places to make electricity from water are a long way from the village and it is very expensive to mn lines from one place to another. The electric line from Kobuk to Shungnak cost $350,000 for about 7 miles or about $50,000 a mile! The cost of running the line must be included in the price that the user of the electricity pays. In many cases this could be as much as it costs to use diesel. So in comparing hydro power to diesel the hydro: uses cheap fuel but costs a lot for the equipment and lines. The diesel equipment is cheap to buy but uses very expensive fuel. SOLAR Solar or energy from the sun can be made into electricity by using a device called a phot- volatic. A photo-voltaic makes electricity directly from light by a complicated process in which small particles called electrons are caused to move when photons (the things light is made of) strike the surface of a material made of special materials. The materials are very very expensive. Here again the cost of the fuel is no- thing but the cost of the equip- ment is too much. No sun during the time that electricity is needed most is also a problem. WOOD COAL OR PEAT Solid fuels such as wood, coal or peat can be used to make electricity in many ways. Solid fuel can be burned in a furnace that does not have enough air in it to make all the fuel burn. A gas forms which is very much like the creosote that forms on the chimney of your wood stove when it is turned down low. (Creosote is formed because the gas condenses like water on windows when it touches the cold chimney pipe). The gas. from the furnace is fed into a specially made diesel generator where more air is fed in with it and the mixture burns like diesel fuel and turns a generator. A second method for mak- ing electricity from solid fuel is to burn it at a high temperature to make steam which turns a turbine similar to the engines on a twin otter airplane. The turbine turns a generator and makes electricity. Steam is how early electricity was made. It has problems in a village because it is dangerous and needs a person with special training present to watch all the time. Another way to use solid fuel is to burn it without enough air but instead of feeding the hot gases into an engine it is distilled or condensed into a liquid like water on a window. It is then stored for use like gasoline or fuel oil. The equipment is expensive but this method may have possi- bilities in some places. All the solid fuels have an advantage over imported oil in that they make jobs for people in producing the fuel. This could be in logging, harvesting peat or mining coal. WIND Wind power can be used by building a wind generator to catch the energy in air as it blows by. The process is like what happens when the motor of an airplane makes a strong wind to push the airplane, only the wind in this case turns the propeller to turn a gen- erator to make electricity. In the NANA region there are many wind generators. There is one in Ambler that belonged to Dan Denslow that made enough electri- city to power his home and two others. One in Selawik powers the IRA office building and one like it powers the city manager’s home in Kotzebue. After weatherization needs have been met the next step is something called retrofit. Retrofit is when basic changes to the house are made. These could be the addition of more insulation by building a se- cond wall frame either inside or outside. This was done to the community buildings in most villages by Ike Smith and Maune- luk in 1979. It could be the addi- tion of a kunnysuk or arctic entry. The use of shutters which are insulated plyboards that fit over windows during winter is a retrofit. A final way which is just be- coming possible is to use an “air to air heat exchanger” which takes heat out of air going out of the house and uses it to warm air coming in. When one of these is used a house can be sealed so tight that it is hard to close a door, but still have fresh air. If weatherization and retro- fit are done right the home will be warmer. That in itself is impor- tant but it will also take much less money for oil or less trips to cut wood. ALTERNATE HEAT SYSTEMS WwoOD Wood is available near many NANA villages. It has been used for home heat a lot longer than oil. Many people know how to make their own stoves. The kind of stove used makes a big difference in how much wood is needed. Air-tight wood stoves like Mauneluk bought for homes this year can get as much as 3 times as much heat as other stoves with the same amount of wood. But woodstoves are a problem. If you want to go away for very long, pipes freeze when the fire goes out. Another heat system is need- ed. Usually it is oil. This means that a lot of room is used for heating instead of people. SOLAR If a home is built with all or most of it’s windows on the south side the sun can be the source of most of its heat. During the dark- est months the windows must be covered with shutters. Using solar could cut heat bills by 1/3 easily. CLOSING All the things mentioned will be looked at in the study. In the end there will be answers to many of the questions about what will work best. Wind systems Engineering hopes you will think about these things and have lots of questions when we are in your village. Kiana - Mon. & Tues. - Dec. 1 & 2. Shungnak - Wed. & Thurs. - Dec. 3 & 4. Ambler - Thur. & Fri. Dec. 5 & 6. Appendix B DATA ON EXISTING CONDITIONS AND ENERGY BALANCE A. ENERGY BALANCE The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the total quantity of energy in a closed system is constant. Consequently, the good understanding of a system, such as energy use within the study-villages, shows energy inputs balanced by energy outputs. Outputs include actual energy use plus losses. If no balance can be shown, it may be due to a significant lack of information. A net energy balance analysis illustrates these concepts and pinpoints areas of information deficiency. A net energy balance analysis gives a good overview to detail included in this report. However, it tends to emphasize quantity rather than quality of an energy use. For instance, while cooking consumes a very small percentage of overall energy use, it represents a significant use by anyone's standards. If there were a severe energy shortage, some relatively large uses of energy would be more expendable than cooking. Consequently, the quantity of energy that is used for a given purpose does not necessarily correlate with its importance. When energy is converted into another type (e.g., coal into electricity), end use (e.g., firewood into heat), or delivered energy (e.g., power line transmission), losses occur and should be accounted for. Efficiency figures do not account for all secondary uses of energy required by a given end use. For example, it takes energy to deliver fuel oil to a homeowner, which should be figured into the net efficiency of burning oil. Little information exists for calculating such indirect uses, and they are generally not considered. Due to a lack of hard data the only losses which are quantified are those associated with electric power generation. It must be emphasized that this inventory deals only with active uses of energy. Active uses are those which require use of some device such as a burner. Passive energy systems, such as a house designed to capture maximum amount of solar radiation, are certainly used in Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak, but to account for their actual or potential uses would require more information on building structures than is available. 188 (1) Entering energy forms and quantities a) Diesel and heating fuel oil Table B-1: Historic Average Consumption in Gallons School AVEC Residential Total Ambler 26000 38000 41500 105500 Kiana 56000 71000 62700 189700 Shungnak 32000 51000 38400 121000 Table B-2: Heating oil usage in BTU's/year x 106 School AVEC Residential Total Ambler 3400 4900 5400 13,700 Kiana 7300 9200 8200 24,700 Shungnak 4200 6500 5000 15,700 Assumes 130,000 BTU/gallon of fuel oil b) Gasoline Table B-3: Gasoline usage in BTU's/year x 10° Consumption (gallons) BTU's x 10 Ambler 24,000 2500 Kiana 32,000 3800 Shungnak 23,000 2800 Assumes 120,000 BTU/gallon of gasoline c) Propane Table B-4: Propane usage in BTU's/year x 10° lbs./year BTU's x 10° Ambler 11,000 200 Kiana 16,700 300 Shungnak 10,300 200 Assumes 20,000 BTU/1b. of propane da) Wood Table B-5: Wood usage in BTU's/year x 10° wood use in equivalent gallons BTU's x 106 Ambler 24,900 3200 Kiana 23,800 3100 Shungnak 23 ,000 3000 Assumes 130,000 BTU's/gal of equivalent fuel oil (2) Intermediate Uses and Quantities a) Electrical generation: AVEC Table B-6: Diesel fuel use for Electric Power Generation in BTU's/year x 106 Consumption (gallons) (includes losses) BTU's x 106 Ambler 36,500 4,700 Kiana 87,800 11,400 Shungnak 49,900 6,500 Assumes 130,000 BTU's/gallon of diesel fuel b) . Transportation fuel usage Table B-7: Gasoline usage for transportation in BTU's/year 106 gallons gallons Total Sno-gos boats gallons BTU's x 106 Ambler 14,900 9,000 23,900 4,300 Kiana 17,900 13,300 31,200 5,600 Shungnak 14,500 8,400 22,900 4,100 Assumes 180,000 BTU's/gallon of gas c) Losses 1) Electrical conversion Diesel generators are considered to be roughly 30% efficient in converting fuel oil in electricity. Therefore 70% of the fuel consumed is actually given off as waste heat. In Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak the diesels do not utilize any waste heat recovery so that the entire 70% is attributable to losses. In additional losses are incurred in distribution systems and in-plant uses. Table B-8: Total Heat losses attributable to electric power 190 production in BTU/year x 10° Gross Waste heat Net consumption 70% of consumption consumption Ambler 4,700 3,300 1,400 Kiana 11,400 8,000 3,400 Shungnak 4,600 1,900 6,500 d) Transportation Energy losses Losses in the transportation sector are due to burning of gasoline to produce motive power. Because of the range of efficiencies of machines used in transportation make it difficult to quantify the losses incurred. To further complicate the picture, transportation is used to supply all the forms of energy addressed in the balance. The losses incurred in transporting for example wood from the burn to town would have to be attributed to wood delivery, as well as the trip to Kotzebue which brings back full cylinders of propane. For these reasons and the fact it is beyond the scope of this study, transportation losses are not considered. (3) Energy User a) Electricity Table B-9: Electricity use by sector in BTU/year x 10® (1979) Schools Distribution & Public & Plant Residential Commercial Lighting Facilities Losses Ambler 340 100 0 430 110 Kiana 490 180 30 1310 270 Shungnak 380 40 10 400 150 b) Heating 1) Wood Table B-10: Wood use by sector in BTU/year x 106 (1979) Community Buildings Residential Commercial (NOT schools) Ambler 3040 80 80 Kiana 2940 80 80 Shungnak 2840 80 80 191 2) Heating fuel oil Table B-1ll: Heating Fuel oil use by sector in BTU/year x 106 (1979) Residential School Commercial Public Buildings Ambler 4,600 3,400 400 400 Kiana 7,010 7,300 660 530 Shungnak 4,200 4,200 400 400 (4) Summary Energy Balance Tables a) Delivered Energy Table B-12: Delivered Energy Summary (1979) Energy Form Ambler _____Kiana ______Shungnak BTU/year x 10 Wood 3,200 3,100 3,000 Propane 200 300 200 Gasoline 2,900 3,800 2,800 Fuel oil & Diesel 13,700 24,700 15,700 b) Intermediate Use Table B-13: Intermediate use summary (1979) Energy Form Ambler __Kiana ___,_Shungnak BTU/year x 10 Transportation 4,300 5,600 4,100 Electricity 1,400 3,400 1,900 Losses 3,300 8,000 4,600 Recoverable Waste Heat 180 380 220 SE UE EEE III IINII IIIS SENIEI NSS SSEEREESR c) Energy User Table B-14: Energy User summary (1979) User Ambler _____Kiana_______Shungnak BTU/year x 10 Residential 8,000 11,000 8,000 Commercial 600 1,000 600 Street Lighting 0 30 10 Schools & Public Facilities 4,400 10,000 5,000 Losses 100 3000 200 192 ENGINE TO REMOTE HEAT LOOP a FROM REMOTE HEAT LOOP i A Gaara {tHeRostATIC CONTACTOR DIESEL GENERATOR WASTE HEAT/EXCHANGER UTILIZATION SCHEMATIC o R A D I A i O 7a RI F L 0 M WSE ab ra ae a pee ee ae ES tab we ~ een ae t tags 6 Sy S , es we ia Ns LOCATION MAP LEGEND ANDO NOTES PRIMARY CABLE, 13 KV WO 2 AL SECONDARY CABLE, GOOV, TRIPLEX, 40°2/0 470% SEAVICE CABLE, GOOY, TAIPLEX,2-2-2 4 TRANSFORMER, 18, T200V- 240/120¥, PAD MOUNT POWER PEOESTAL, SECONOARY ANO SERVICE METER, 120240 ¥, 10, SELF CONTAINED OISCONNECTED SEAVICE METER uTniooR ALL WIRES ARE IN UTILIOOR UNLESS ROICATED OTHERWISE WHERE WIRES ARE SHOWN PARALLEL THEY OCGPY THE SAME TRENCH OR UTILIOOR @AADE LEVEL EXCLOS/AE FOR PRIMARY SPLICE CT ALASKA VILLAGE ELECTRIC CO-OP Se be ee ALCRNO AND NIL iy caer, sn te a i em —— aE COMDANY CALLE, BEV MU 40° 20-408". . SERVICE CAME, BOW MT BT AL ee oe FUFL Lh, ST ULAR STEEL Rue peli el INGLS Jasper KX v IRANSFORWER, 19 12.470/7,209-240720¥ man wnat] SD fm POWER PEOESTAL, SECUNDANT AND SERVICE SERVICE METER, CL 200 39810 120/240V SWIRE WAADE LEVEL ENCLOSURE POR PRIMARY SRLICE \ \ Br %, ~ ll DISCORNECTED STAVE METER MA STACET VoHT WITHOUT SERVICE METER ror 2 Aoove encund ils us ounce = ALL WIRTS ANE GUPITO UNLESS WICATFO LOCATION MAP OTHE wise Sir ALASKA VILLAGE ELECTRIC CO-OP KIANA DISTRIBUTION - e ‘Eee | ap OFF Tavion af 38 Ey TSDatSie actos Oy TRACT D id =. een WELL aoe 2 [23] 28) 27] s a 22) 2 US. SURVEY NO. 4417 SHUNGN AK TOWNSITE * "9 ’e, % TRACT 8 TRACT A svreer wieeano LOCATION MAP Tract oO ary 690 9m sus To SUA cae OD S008 sTecer US GURVEY NO. 4431 Od stacey & CJ STREET 3! ( * \ wn \\ bl | ‘ " N SECOND LEGEND AND NOTES 3 PUNS PRIMARY CABLE, IS KV MO ZL PRIMARY CABLE, ISKV NO 2 AL SECONDARY CABLE, COOV NO 4/0-2/0-4/0 AL SERVICE CABLE, GOO V HO. 2-2-2 AL. FUEL LINE, 3° BLACK STEEL TRANSFORMER, 1@ 12A70/7,200-240/120 ¥ PAD WOUNTED POWER PEDESTAL, SECONDARY AND SERVICE GEAVE METER, CL 200 SOA 18 12/240¥ 3 RE GRADE LEVEL ENCLOSURE POR RY SPLICE, OISCONNECTED SERVICE METER WIRES STRUNG OVERHEAD wTusoon MAL WIRES ARE BURIED UNLESS INDICATED OTHERWISE | | bt ae 1 _ ALASKA VILLAGE ELECTRIC CO-OP j SHUNGNAK DISTRIBUTION | teat = WERNER GAVICE fay cy DaTe fon WORK ORCER sneer ; atv 2 Appendix C ENERGY FORECASTING PROCEDURE AND CALCULATIONS (A) ENERGY FORECASTING PROCEDURE (1) Establishing Existing Conditions The first step in developing the forecast was to study the historical demographic and economic conditions. This was done with close attention paid to factors which may affect growth. Next a detailed assessment of the current energy Situation was performed using an energy balance as a tool to present the data and identify holes in the available information. The existing power and heating facilities were then described. (2) Economic Activity Forecast The employment situation was assessed and the total per capita income forecasted based on past trends and specific information about the villages and region. (3) Economic Development Forecast The potential for major economic development was studied with an assessment of the possible impacts on employment. (4) Planned Capital Projects A listing of the projects which are on the drawing board or high on the village priority list was then made to identify any major electrical demands which may arise. (5) Population Forecast Historical trends were identified and explained in the village context. The available published figures were then studied and evaluated. Based on all the information presented thus far two levels of population growth were forecasted. (6) End Use Forecast The end uses were broken into sectors and looked at separately with the projected loads bracketed to reflect uncertainty in prediction. (7) Load Forecast The end uses were then aggregated and the losses in distribution added in to yield the forecasted kwh demand for the 20 year period. The winter loads and peaks were estimated based on historical information for those villages and villages of a similar size in the region. 198 TECHNOLOGY PROFILES COAL UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION 1) Coal Resource Thermodynamic and Engineering Processes Coal recovery in Alaska would mainly be done by surface mining. The cost per ton of surface mining coal is much less than sub-surface (deep) mining operations. The determination of the type of mining is based on the amount of overburden which needs to be removed to recover the coal. Strip (surface) mining has recovery rates of 70-85%. The basic steps in strip mining begin with removing the overburden layer covering the coal seam. The topsoil is set aside for reclaimation. The bed of coal is then broken up and removed. For bituminous coal (which should exist in this part of Alaska), the coal seam (bed) is usually between 14 to 30 inches thick. When the amount of overburden becomes too great, further coal can be extracted by auger. Finally, the spoiled overburden is back-filled and reclaimation of the land is completed. The following picture taken from Energy From Coal: a State of Art Review, Tetra Tech, Inc. demonstrates this surface mining technique. There are a large number of technologies available in the production of power from coal. Most processes are fairly technical and complex in operation for a small operation in rural Alaska. Some will be mentioned in brief but the coal-fired boiler technology will be stressed. This is due to its relative low capital and maintenance costs and simple operation. Since high pressures are not necessary, it is a much safer process as well. Coal gasification is a process which involves carbon, sytropgen, ent enycen fer tne EYETEM TO work. Water in the torn of steam provides hydrogen and oxygen, and the coal provides the carbon and hydrogen. An assortment of boilers, pipe, valves, beds, etc. are needed for the process. The gases which are produced are carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen. Carbon monoxide, methane, and hydrogen, of course, have value in the process. Gasification systems may use either a fixed-bed, entrainment, or a fluidized bed. If the systems are operated at high pressures, they are more efficient and produce a higher quality of gas. The most commonly used gasification process (out of developmental stages) is a process developed by Lurgi and Koppers-Totzek. The low and intermediate BTU gasification process is shown in the following schematic. No high-BTU gasification processes are out of the developmental stage. For further information on coal gasification processes, refer to: Science and Public Policy Program, University of Oklahoma, Energy Alternatives: A Comparative Analysis and Phase 2, volume 1, Beluga Coal District Analysis, prepared by the Division of Energy and Power Development, State of Alaska. The conversion of coal to methanol may possibly be reality in the near future, but little is available now. The fuel is produced by passing a synthesized gas, consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, over a catalyst under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure. This process is preceded oni Seep nekeae aia Ca ot op reek e REMOVAL OF OVERBURDEN COAL REMOVED BY FRONT-END LOADER CONTOUR MINING WITH BULLDOZER & AUGER SOURCE: TETRA TECH,INC., ENERGY FROM COAL : A STATE OF ART REVEW 202 eve QUENCH , HEAT RECOVERY, & SCRUBBING COAL PREPARATION APPROX. 2750° F ATM. PRESSURE GASIFIER STEAM & OXYGEN KOPPERS— TOTZEK COAL GASIFICATION PROCESS SOURCE: SCIENCE AND PUBLIC POLICY PROGRAM, UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA , ENERGY ALTERNATIVES | A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS WSE oF by a coal gasification technique. Methanol fuel is estimated to cost 18.8 cents ($3.00 per million BTU) at the plant. This again is too complex a system for the small cities in Rural Alaska as scattered as the cities of Kiana, Ambler, and Shungnak are. The most logical, small scale, electric plant would be a coal-fired boiler steam power plant. This low maintenance, low cost system can be easily and safely operated with little training. It would basically consist of a coal-fired boiler, water source, heat exchanger, steam lines, and a steam power turbine-generator. Small turbines producing electricity in the range of 5-2500 KW can be obtained on the market and could take care of each of these villages' needs, now and in the future, (see appendecies for these items). The following schematic demonstrates this process. As shown in the schematic and flow chart, a coal-fired power plant transforms chemical energy to electrical energy by three basic conversion processes. The furnace/boiler converts chemical energy to heat energy and heat energy to make steam from water. The steam is then transferred to the turbine under pressure to produce mechanical energy. The turbine turns the generator to make the electrical energy needed. The low- temperature heat (usually 100°C or less) is rejected by the turbine and is condensed. The waste heat is rejected, or can be used as space heating for buildings, etc. These plants might incorporate a stoker. Stokers are mechanisms which feed the coal onto a grate within the furnace. Stokers would be used for small plants such as those considered in this report. Boilers which can burn combination fuels such as coal and oil (70% to 30%) are new technologies which should be considered. Two to ten per cent more efficiency can be gained by this combination. Appendix A shows some examples of these boilers which are now obtainable out of Seattle. Another energy technology saver using the coal resource which must be considered is utilizing coal as heat. This is an old technology. Heating coal in single stoves in homes or heating systems for groups of buildings can be easily done. As shown from an Anchorage advertising paper, coal stoves can be obtained from costs ranging from $300.00 to $600.00, (see appendix A). Transportation costs in the villages would have to be added. Transportation of mined coal to the villages of Kiana, Ambler and Shungnak will probably be by the Kobuk River since much of the available coal deposits seem to be along the river on the north side. If further inland mining is expected, research might be done on a slurry pipeline or a road, to a river front processing area or to one of the villages themselves. The capital cost for this type of transportation is expensive and should not be considered for small scale operations. 2) Current and Future Availability Everything that's needed to power a coal-fired steam plant or heat a building with coal is easily obtainable on the 204 — SCHEMATIC OF A COAL — FIRED STEAM ELECTRIC STATION | 00 RSINE a seer —SEEII, ELECTRICITY, RETURN WATER CONDENSER RIVER al ENTER THROUGH STOKER) SCREEN Q COOL INTAKE PUMP t" WASTE HEAT ag OISCHARAGE PUMP CONVERSION OF COAL INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN A COAL ~- FIRED POWER PLANT = pm MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL T TEAI R ENERGY OAS FURNACE i—D| SOLER a TURBINE |——————| GENERATOR| ———_—_»> COOLING SYSTEM commor market as noced before. Appendix A shows some of these items and where they can be obtained. All items have been around a long time so all items should be easily obtainable in the future. The costs of the items will most likely increase with inflation. As recently reported from the Department of Energy, some 6,000 existing industrial boilers that now burn oil or natural gas will be ordered to convert to coal. An up-to-date list will be compiled for public use. The minimum size of a single boiler that can be ordered is 100 million BTU's per hour. (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Output The plant consists of a coal-fired boiler in producing 500 kw of electricity at 150 psi of steam. A good quality of bituminous coal will produce 13,800 pounds of steam per hour. A simultaneously firing coal and oil (70%-30%) furnace will produce 17,250 pounds of steam per hour. Five tons per day or approximately 400 pounds of coal per hour would be needed to produce the electricity for a 500 kw plant. 2) Reliability and Back-up Equipment Necessary As long as coal is stored and available, no actual back- up would be necessary except for the spare parts for the plant itself. If more than one system was installed, this problem would not even exist. No actual "downtime" would need to be considered. Large areas would have to be cleared near the plant (in the three villages) to stockpile the coal. Even if it was used only for heating stoves, storage areas should be set aside in piles. It should be noted that if the coal is not compacted in layers when piled, a safety hazard can exist because it isa fire problem. Storage should be away from living areas. 3) Efficiency Steam plants have low efficiencies. When converting steam to produce electricity, a conversion efficiency of 10 to 25 per cent is all that is possible because low temperature heat will be rejected for producing power. This efficiency can be increased with increased pressure but pressures above 150 psi in steam plants present safety problems. (C) ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A COAL-FIRED STEAM ELECTRIC PLANT The plant would consist of a coal-fired boiler and a turbine-induction generator capable of producing 500 kw at 150 psi of steam. The boiler will produce 13,800 pounds of steam per hour with bituminous coal or 17, 250 pounds of steam per hour when simultaneously firing coal and oil (70% - 30%). Fuel to steam efficiency is assumed to be 80%. Exact depth of overburden is unknown but recovery cost will be assumed at $50.00 per ton. This is based on Kentucky recovery prices and prices out of Palmer, Alaska. : Transportation by river to each of the villages will be assumed to be $5.00 per ton for the average of 25 miles. 206 Processing costs wiil be assumed to be »25.00 per ton or 50% o. Unloading and piling at plant will be Based on a larger Beluga Coal Plant the recovery costs. assumed to be $3.00 per ton. Analysis, a 500 kw plant will require 5 tons of coal per day. 10hp pump with a capacity of 200gpm will be assumed to provide All equipment is assumed to have the water supply for the steam. A cost of debt is assumed to be 8.5% with 0% a 20 year life. inflation. 1) Capital Costs Item Description Costs Exploration 20 areas $370,000.00 Boiler with stoker and furnace installed 255,000.00 Turbine- Generator with condenser installed 315,000.00 Building based on 960 s.f. 98,000.00 Piping 1000' 8" at $50/ft, installed 50,000.00 Pump 10hp @ 200gpm capability 1,000.00 Dock for unloading 40,000.00 Subtotal $1,129,000.00 10% contingency 112,900.00 1,241,900.00 Work Capital 25% of annual cost 64,350.00 Total Capital Costs: $1,306,250.00 2) Assembly and Installation These costs are included in the capital itemizations as shown. Assembly and installation will usually account for 50 per cent of the plant's capital costs. This might run_ slightly higher with transportation to the village areas. 207 3) Operation and Maintenance Item Description Cost Coal Delivery, processing and recovery $83/ton x 5 tons/day x 30 days/month x 12 month/year $149,400.00 Plant Labor, fringes, operation supplies 105,000.00 Pump 20% of cost 500.00 Piping 5% of cost 2,500.00 Subtotal $257,400.00 Depreciation (5% of capital) 62,095.00 Total $319,495.00 4) Cost per kw installed $2612.50/kw 5) Economies of Scale The real economies of scale in coal technologies occur at the resource extraction and transportation end. However, as you get into the 100mw and high coal power plants the installed costs start to fall. (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting Siting has no direct bearing on this technology, but special attention should be taken in choosing sites for mining, storage, and the power plant. 2) Resource Needs Coal Resources are non-renewable so exploration of the area should be complete to determine the full coal potential of the area before a plant is constructed. The various metals needed to build the structures and plant would also be non- renewable such as steel, aluminum, copper, etc. 3) Construction and Operating Employment by Skill Employment for surface "strip" mining are ninety per cent heavy equipment operators. Depending on the size of operation, these might be operators for dozers, cranes, scrapers, 208 loaders, as well as trucks. Explosives are extensSi,el, used ad the powdermen are used. Limited labor use is utilized. Since steam plant operation can be dangerous, plant operators need to be well trained individuals. 4) Environment Effects Most natural resource development brings about relatively short term effects but unfortunately this is not true for coal development. Strip mining can result in extensive, long term alternations to the environment by affecting the soil, water, vegetation, wildlife, and the air. However, intelligent planning can limit these effects. For discussion on these effects on the environment in detail for each phase of coal recovery, refer to Final Environmental Impact Statements on the Proposed Deferal Coal Leasing Program, 1977 and Phase 2, volume 1 of the Alaska Regional Energy Resources Planning project, Beluga Coal District Analysis, Exploration would not require the conservation of any access route. Drilling covers a small area and results in few permanent changes to the existing ecostructure if done correctly. Since most coal deposits that lie near the surface are most economically mined by strip (surface) mining, only this method of coal recovery will be discussed. For the impacts of deep mining, refer to the above mentioned articles. Surface mining can result in the deterioration of stream quality by acid mine drainage, high sediment load, high undissolved solids content, and trace elements in mine drainage water. Leached water from storage piles might also be acidic. These effects can be very detrimental many miles downstream from a mine site. The natural soil characteristics of the structure are destroyed. The micro-organism population and nutrient cycle is upset. The soil becomes very conducive to erosion. Overburden removal, if improperly done, causes loss of topsoil and creates vast wastelands. It sometimes takes years for a suitable habitat to reestablish itself. All these effects can be limited with proper planning but many impacts on the environment will still remain. The new "Surface Mining Control and Reclaimation Act" passed in 1977 is intended to set programs to protect the environment when strip mining is being done. The guidelines are rigid and should help many of the impacts mentioned above. Coal Steam Plant Impacts Besides the impacts of coal mining and strip mining, the impacts of the coal thermal powerplant should be considered. The properties of most interest are emissions from coal combustion such as heating value, sulfur content, and asSh content. For bituminous coal, as would be expected in Northwest Alaska (as shown on USGS map number 815), these can range from 3500 to 8500 cal/g heating value, 0 to 5 percent sulfur, and 4 to 25 percent ash. The largest emissions to the air is usually from coal combustion, but stock piling and handling coal can add some dust 209 to the air. These are minimal if the coal is prepared off-site (washing, crushing, and grinding). Runoff from rainfall on esreene coal piles, at preparation site or plant site, will add emissions to the surrounding water. Coal piles have a tendency towards spontaneous combustion and should be considered as a safety hazard. The major pollutant from coal production is from the ash. Flyash is emitted with the combustion gases to the air. Ash also leaves a residue in the furnace and must be removed periodically and disposed of in pits. Seepage or runoff into ground water from these pits will exist. Large plants may use scrubbers to reduce sulfur oxides and other pollutants but produce a sludge which must be disposed. Small plants, as are considered in this report, would find scrubbers too expensive to operate and they should not be considered. The amount of pollution in runoff from the pits can be estimated from the mathematical models described in "A Biologist's Manual for the Evaluation of Impacts of Coal-fired Power Plants on Fish, Wildlife, and Their Habitats," 1970. If coal is firing a boiler in the steam plant, the boiler blow-down contains toxic chemicals which are added to the steam loop. These are ammonia (to control alkalinity) and hydrazine (to scavenge dissolved oxygen). These are discharged back into the water reservoir source. Since steam power plants can only convert about 2-25% of the energy to electricity, waste heat (temperatures less than about 100°) are removed in the condenser and discharged to the body of water. Toxic chemicals, as mentioned above, may also be discharged. These effects on the surrounding environment are dependent upon the amount of dispersion liquid of that body of water with the amount of discharged water. These effects can be estimated though the pollutants should be minimal. For small power plants, both in air and water, all the impacts should be considered and calculated before a plant is constructed. The plant should be constructed on the downstream side of the village or below its water supply. Coal benefication involves separating out low-quality materials by either air or water. The waste material or Slurry, if water-Separation is used, contains carbon, trace elements, sulphur, and other harmful materials. This must be disposed of. If this process is completed at the strip mine area, the waste can be returned to the strip pits. Any impact from the transportation of coal is mainly from coal dust. Large amounts can be harmful to wildlife, vegetation, or rivers if transported by water as will be the case for these village areas. 5) Health and Safety Aspects Health and safety aspects were incorporated above in Section 4. Any steam plants, even with pressures of 150 psi or less, should always be considered dangerous and always be operated only by an experienced plant operator. 210 (E) SUMMARY AND CRIVICAL DISCUSSION 1) Cost per million BTU and per kwh Based on a 500 kwh plant, cost per kwh would be 15¢ if it were run at 80% capacity factor. Heating costs will vary according to the classification of the coal found. 2) Discussion The coal resource is shown to exist along the northern bank of the Kobuk River near the villages of Kiana, Ambler, and Shungnak. The resource is present as a bituminous coal of high- volatile classification. On the average, the overburden is shallow (2-50 feet) but with depths up to 150 feet. Seams range from a few inches to 9 or 10 feet. Coal recovery would be mainly done in these areas by surface mining because of the small amounts of overburden, low cost per ton expenses, and high recovery rates of the resource. Though many technologies are available in the production of energy from coal, the coal-fired boiler was stressed because of its simplicity in operation and low operating costs. Most other methods are large scale (to be economical) and still in the developmental stages. A 500kwh plant was chosen since it should fulfill most of the energy needs of all three communities. Boilers are now available which can burn coal and oil (70% to 30%) and gain much greater efficiencies. These same boilers can burn coal only if Oil became too expensive to use. If dual systems were installed, no back-up equipment would be necessary. Since the boilers will burn coal, oil, gas, or wood, resource availability for the system should never be a problem. In Energy User News, September 1980, the Union Carbide Director stated that the two new coal combustion technologies that show promise in the future were the fluidized-bed combustion and coal-oil mixtures. The latter shows a great deal of promise in rural Alaska. Before extensive exploration or mining begins in these areas, environmental impacts must be considered and estimated. The impacts will be great if prior planning is not done and enforced. 211 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ty lade of AK Coals - Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 682, Barnes, F.F., Coal Resources of Alaska, USGS Bulletin 1242, 1960. Brooks, Alfred H. and Martin, C.G., Progress of Investigations of Mineral Resoures of Alaska, USGS Bulletin 314, 1906 Callahan, J.E. and Sloan, E.G. of 78-319 Preliminary Report on Analysis of cretaceous coals from Northwestern Alaska, 1978. Coal Gasification and Liquefaction Technology, Volume 1 and 2, May 1976. Coal Technology: Key to Clean Energy, Office of Coal Research, U.S. Department of Interior, 1974 Cobb, Edward H., of 75-628, Summary of References to Mineral Occurences in Northern Alaska, 1975. Hawley, Mones, Coal, Scientific and Technical Aspects, Part I and II, 1976. Lewis, B.G., A Biologist's Manual for the Evaluation of Impacts of Coalfired Power Plants, 1978. Martin, G.C., Mineral Resources of Alaska USGS, Bulleting 712, 1918. , Proceedings of the Conference on coal noted seven areas along the Kobuk River as Potential Coal Regions. Rao, P.D. and Wolff, E.N., Focus on Alaska's Coal '75, 1975. Smith, P.S. and Miertie, J.B., Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska, USGS Bulletin 815, 1930. Smith, Philip S., Mineral Resources of Alaska, USGS Bulletin 844, 1931. Smith, Philip S., The Noatak-Kobuk Region of Alaska, USGS Bulleting 536, 1913. The Direct Use of Coal, Office of Technology Assessment, 1979. The Environmental Effects of using Coal for Generating Electricity, Argonne National Laboratory, 1977. 212 CONSTANT LIGHT LEVEL FLUORESCENT LAMP CONTROLLER (A) General Discription 1) Processes Involved - A system for control of fluorescent lighting provides major energy savings, improves the quality of the light, and increases the life of the tubes and ballast. The system uses the intensity of the total light reflected from the area beneath the fixtures as the feedback variable for electronic, closed-loop control of the electrit power applied to the fixtures. A simple, mechanically adjusted optical gain control allows the level of illumination maintained to be adjusted to the widely differing needs of a variety of work functions. Figure 1. (next page) is a block diagram of the system. Previous controls, generally described as "fluorescent light-dimming systems," used digital electronic switching techniques to provide pulse train variation of effective voltage applied to the lamps. The SCR-type circuitry used to produce this switching required special dimming ballasts and quite often generated electromagnetic interference effects. The special ballasts were bulky and, because of cooling requirements, were difficult to conceal. They were also quite costly. This system differs from previous fluorescent lighting produced by transistorized circuitry, and operates with the standard ballasts already built into the fixture. The power applied to the fixtures is varied by changing the amount of ac voltage applied to the lamps. Although the effective value of the applied ac voltage is controlled by the feedback signal, the system includes provisions that limit the minimum voltage that can be applied to the lamps. This limiting action prevents the visually objectional and power-consuming flickering that might otherwise be caused by trying to operate at a voltage too low to sustain the arc within the tubes. In use, the system maintains a constant, optimum light level by continuously adjusting power to change the amount of artificial light added to supplement the varying incident light from other sources (primarily natural daylight). When the area served by the fixture is adjacent to window areas, this method of control can save up to 70% of electrical energy used for daytime lighting. The ability to automatically adjust for ambient light also improves lighting quality by reducing artificial light. The method of control also automatically compensates for reduction in output caused by eventual deterioration of the lamp phosphor, (see figure 2 next page.) and accumulation of dust and grime on the lamps, reflectors and diffusers. (see figure 3next page.) This is important because it eliminates the power wastage associated with the initial 15 to 20% overdesign normally used to assure adequate light levels under subsequent, low-performance conditions. These conditions are automatically compensated for 214 LINE VOLTAGE WORKING SURFACE FIGURE |, CONTROLLER BLOCK DIAGRAM LIGHT OUTPUT, % POWER TO FIXTURE % FIGURE 3, LAMP AND FIXTURE LIGHT INTENSITY AS A FUNCTION OF POWER WSE Pied by automatic voltage increases that expand the arc (increase arc current) to meet the output needs near the end of lamp life. However, even with this progressive increase in voltage toward the end of the lamp'’s life, the average power requirement over the life of the tube is at least 15% less than that of an unregulated lamp. Additional energy savings of 25 to 50% are made possible by the mechanically adjusted, optical gain control. This control gives stepless attenuation of the feedback signal, thereby allowing the light level maintained by each fixture to be adjusted to the type of work performed beneath that fixture. Savings obtained from these adjustments are protected by the low voltage limiting circuit. This circuit assures adequate voltage for sustained lamp operation and applies maximum voltage on startup to assure establishment of the lamp arc. The system also allows maintenance savings resulting from the increase in useful service life of lamps and ballasts. Lamp life is increased because deterioration of the phosphor (and cathode) are slowed because of the lower average-operating-arc current throughout the lamp-life cycle. This gives some additional energy savings by prolonging the lamp's period of high-permformance operation. The life of the ballast is increased by the lower operating temperatures that result from the lower average power inputs. Typically, it is expected that these will allow the ballast to operate at a temperature 10° to 15°C below that of a standard unregulated fixture, thereby increasing ballast life by a factor of 2 to 3. Manufacturers claim that the total direct energy savings realized through use of this system can range as high as 72%. This figure is for areas having high window-to-floor area ratios, that are for work that can be done at lower levels of illumination. However, though the direct energy savings will be less for areas requiring high levels of illumination and areas with few or no windows, it is expected that the typical energy savings will be 20 to 50%. 2) Current and Future Availability Units of the type described are now selling for approximately $56 (prepaid shipping to village) retail. These units will control a (four lamp, two ballast) F40 fixture or a (two lamp, one ballast) F96 slimline fixture. (B) Performance Characteristics 1) Energy Saved a) Quality Electrical power b) Quantity Approximately 114 Kwh per year, per four tube 216 ’ fluorescent fixture. c) Dynamics The energy saved will be seasonal, because fluorescent lighting usage normally increases as the hours of darkness increase. As a result, the majority of the power saving will be realized during winter months. Since the village power requirements are greatest during this time period, the use of this device will hold down peak utility loads. 2) Reliability a) Need for Back-up Since the constant light level controller is a solid state device with an estimated M.T.B.F. of over 100,000 hours the need for spares is minimal. If a failure does occur and no replacement is available, the light fixture can be rewired to its standard configuration and put back into service. b) Storage requirements Units should be stored in a dry environment. 3) Thermodynamic Efficiency A fluorescent fixture coupled to a constant light level controller is 13% to 50% more efficient (depending upon light level desired and availability of natural light). (C) Costs for Typical Unit Installed (See Addendum to this Appendix for calculations) 1) Capital $56 per four tube fixture controller. 2) Assembly and Installation $11 per four tube fixture controller. 3) Operation and Maintenance None 4) Cost per Kw Installed © N/A 5) Economies of Scale Capital costs could be reduced through bulk buying (dependent upon number of units purchased). Assembly and installation costs could be reduced through a blanket contract for a village-wide retrofit.” (D) Special Requirements and Impacts 1) Siting Units mount thruogh knock-outs found on fluorescent fixtures. 217 2) Resource needs a) Renewable None b) Non-renewable Materials required to manufacture constant light level controller. 3) Construction and Operating Employment by Skill The original installation should be performed by a licensed electrician. No maintenance to the controller should be required, except to remove and replace the complete unit if it becomes defective. Lamp and ballast replacement (as well as twice yearly cleaning) can be accomplished by the resident or maintenance personnel. 4) Environmental Residuals Lower fossil fuel usage due to lower electrical demand. 5) Health and Safety Aspects None (E) Summary and Critical Discussion 1) Cost Using AVEC rates, the cost to add this unit to existing fluorescent fixtures could be amortized within 43 days (on F40 system) and 75 days (on F96 system). The present worth savings would be $1,105.53 (on F40 system) and $973.06 (on F96 system) for a 20 year life. Power conserved over this period would be 2,280 Kwh (for F40 system) and 2,040 Kwh (for F96 system). 2) Critical Discussion > Flourescent fixtures can be found in all new HUD homes, most new construction, the schools, some older homes and commerical establishments, the PHS buildings, AVEC plant and some community facilities. These devices require no change of lifestyle or operating skills. The increase in efficiency is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in heat loss from fixtures, which unless destratification is employed is not useful heat from a comfort standpoint. 218 Addendum to Constant Light Level Fluorescent Lamp Controller C - Standard F40 Fl Fi (Existing) 1. Installation - 0 2. Replacement lamps (20,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 10,000hr 3 changes x 4 lamps x $2.50 = $30 10,000hr remaining life on 4 lamps = ($5) 3. Replacement Ballasts (36,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 18,000hr 2 changes x 2 ballasts x $18 = $72 30,000hr remaining life on 2 balasts = ($30) 4. Operating Cost (20 year) -190kwh/h x 3000h/yr = 570kwh/yr 20 yr payout. = 20 yr x S570kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035) 29 = $10,207.62 Present worth = $10,207.62/(1.030)29 = $5,651.71 5. Total Present Worth $(30 - 5 +72 - 30 + 5651.71) = $5,718.71 6. Power Savings (20 yr) None Costs - F40 Constant Light Level Fluorescent Lamp Controller 1. Installation - Labor $1l Controller $56 2. Replacement Lamps (22,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start 11,000hr 2 changes x 4 lamps x $2.50 = $20 17,000hr Remaining life on 4 lamps = ($7.73) 3. Replacement Ballasts (72,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 36,000hr 1 change x 2 ballasts x $18/ballast = $36 48,000hr remaining life on 2 ballasts = ($24) 4. Operating Cost (20 yr) e152kwh/h x 3000h/yr = 456kwh/yr 20 yr Bayout = 20yr x 456kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035) = $8,166.09 Present Worth = $8,166.09/(1.030)29 = $4,521.37 5. Total Present Worth (Against $5,718.17 standard) $(11 + 56 + 20 - 7.73 + 36 - 24 + 4,521.37) = $4,612.64 6. Power Savings (20 yr) (570 - 456)kwh/yr x 20 yr = 2,280kwh 219 C - Standard F96 Fl t_Fi (Existing) 1. Installation - 0 2. Replacement Lamps (12,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 6,000hr 5 charges x 2 lamps x $5 = $50 6,000hr remaining life on 2 lamps = ($5) iad Replacement Ballasts (36,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 18,000hr 2 changes x $29/ballast = $58 30,000hr remaining life = ($24.17) 4. Operating Cost (20 yr) 0172kwh/h x 3000h/yr = 516kwh/yr 20 yr payout = 20 yr x 516kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035) 7" = $9,240.58 Present Worth = $9,240.58/(1.030)29 = $5,116.28 5. Total Present Worth $(50 - 5 + 58 - 24.17 + 5116.28) = $5,195.11 6. Power Savings (20 yr) None Costs - F96 Constant Light Level Fluorescent Lamp Controller 1. Installation - Labor $11 Controller $56 2. Replacement Lamps (13,200hrs M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 6,600hr 5 changes x 2 lamps x $5 = $50 12,600hr remaining life on 2 lamps = ($9.55) 3. Replacement Ballasts (72,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 36,000hr 1 change x $29/ballast = $29 48,000hr remaining life = ($19.33) 4. Operating Cost (20 yr) -138kwh/h x 3,000h/yr = 414kwh/yr 20 yr payout = 20 yr x 414kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035) = $7,413.95 Present Worth = $7,413.95/ (1.030) 20 $4,104.93 5. Total Present Worth (against $5,195.11 standard) $(11 + 56 + 50 - 9.55 + 29 - 19.33 + 4104.93) = $4,222.05 6. Power Savings (20 yr) (516 - 414)kwh/yr x 20yr = 2,040kwh 220 , : ij Leulati 1. 2. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Estimated life (M.T.B.F.) F40/cw lamp - 20,000hr. F96T12/cw lamp - 12,000hr. F40 & F96 Ballasts - 36,000hr. Estimated life with controller F40/cw lamp - 22,000hr. F96T12/cw lamp - 13,200hr. F40 & F96 Ballasts - 72,000hr Normal power requirements Two F40 Ballasts with four F40/cw lamps - 190 watt One F96 Ballast with two F96T12/cw lamp - 172 watt Power requirements of fixtures with controller, assuming a combined 20% power saving: F40 fixture - 152 watt F96 fixture - 138 watt Fixtures being fitted with controller have lamps and ballasts with half of estimated life left. Twenty year life for controller. Line voltage +10% of rated for ballast. Lamps changed at M.T.B.F. rate. Income paces inflation. Interest rate 3% above inflation. Electric rate 3.5% above inflation. Fixtures operated 3000 hr/yr. Original installation of controller done by electrician. Replacement items changed by resident or salaried personnel (no labor cost). 15. Prices listed are retail cost at village. References: 1. 2. General Electric Inc. Pamphlet No. 205-9044 (4/79). Conservolite Inc. Pamphlet "Conservolite" no date. 221 ENERGY CONSERVATION IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION James Barkshire Alaska Renewable Energy Associates (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION 1) Introduction Energy conservation means many things to different people. Turning back the thermostat and "driving 55" are forms of conservation. Installing "gadgets", such as a filter which allows warm air from the clothes dryer to remain in the living Space, is another type of conservation. Upgrading the thermal efficiency of the building "envelope" is by far the greatest way to reduce fuel usage and it is that aspect of conservation that is addressed herein. Buildings in the northern parts of Alaska require a large amount of energy to maintain ambient temperature. Construction Materials and techniques generally reflect those of a much more temperate climate. By making structures more energy efficient, heating loads and thus fuel expenditures can be radically reduced. 2) Thermodynamic and Engineering Processes A structure gives up the majority of its heat to the elements in two ways: by conduction through the "skin" of the building and by infiltration, both warm air letting out and cold air coming in through cracks in the structure. Additional insulation is necessary to combat conductive loss. The structural members must accomodate the additional insulation; this has been a problem in the past, as typical construction materials developed elsewhere have been used. In recent years, several techniques have been developed in nothern climates to afford more insulation. "Arctic" trusses with raised end allow the insulation to extend to the edge of the roof while maintaining constant thickness (See Figure 1). Deeper floor members are used, to allow sufficient depths of insulation where a raised floor is used, as in Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak. Perhaps most importantly, there are several ways of providing for a thicker wall to combat heat loss there (see Figures 2 and 3). Minimizing window area and providing insulated shutters over glazing at night and during cold periods are an excellent and necessary way to reduce conduction loss in what is the weakest point of a buildings thermal envelope. Infiltration accounts for up to 50% of the heat loss in construction. Significant reduction can be achieved by relatively simple measures, such as caulking and weatherstrippin holes and around openings. As tight a seal as possible in the thermal envelope is desirable. Vapor barriers are an important part of northern construction. A sealed vapor barrier will prevent moisture produced inside the structure from entering the insulation and 222 reducing it's efficiency. It is imperative to completely seal all joints and junctions, as even the tiniest hole will allow large amounts of moisture through. 3) Current and Future Availability Conservation measures are in use in Alaska today. There have been several successful application of superinsulated ‘homes in both Anchorage and Fairbanks. The technology uses existing materials and techniques that are simple to design and install. Because of this, conservation is applicable and marketable today, and will continue to be so in the future, looking even more attractive as fuel prices continue to rise. (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Savings The amount of energy saved will hinge directly on the degree to which conservation measures are employed. As each structure is different, it is necessary to use an example to illustrate the possibilities. A model, or "base" house is shown in Figures 4 through 6. The residence is typical of those now under construction in the villages under the HUD housing program. The floor area is 864 square feet. A partial list of construction materials is as follows: Foundation: Post and Pad (permafrost) Floor: Suspended wood I-beams on wood girders Floor finish: sheet vinyl over 3/4" plywood Walls: 2 x 6 studs @ 24” o.c. Siding: 5/8" T-111 plywood Roof: Premanufactured trusses Roof finish: Aluminum roofing over 1/2" plywood Windows (3 panes): Wood insulating glass with storm panes Exterior door: Insulated Metal (R-8) All insulation in the base house is fiberlass batt. Thicknesses and R-values are as follows: Roof: 12" batt, R-38 Walls: 6" batt, R-19 Floors: 9" batt, R-30 223 All new housing built in Kiana, Ambler, and Shungnak is equipped with an "Artic", or air lock entry to reduce heat loss when people enter or leave the structure. This in itself helps reduce air infiltration, as a large amount of heat is no longer being dumped outside whenever the door is opened for passage. Heat is provided via a hydronic hot water loop system, running around the entire perimeter of the building. The heating unit is an oil fired hot water boiler, placed in the center of the house, and not enclosed in a separate space. Make up air for the boiler is brought directly into the house from outside via a 1" air slot formed by the sheet metal pan on the wall behind the heating unit (See Fig. 7). This 1" air slot runs the width of the boilder (24-32"). Since the unit is not enclosed in a closet and is open to the living area, the outside air likely has a significant impact on infiltration in the house. The year heating load of this structyre is 92.6 million BTU's (MMBTU) assuming one air change per hour Several strategies for conserving energy in this typical unit are shown in Addendum 1 for both new construction and retrofitting existing structures. Energy savings range from 11.3 MMBTU per year for simple caulking and weatherstripping, to a significant 39.2 MMBTU per year for a structure with heavy insulation throughout. Thus, it would appear possible to reduce energy consumption ina building by as much as 45% using these measures. Conservation is static - once installed, it will reduce consumption at a relative rate. Fluctuation in outdoor temperature is the determining factor (and the variant) in energy consumption. While consumption will obviously increase with colder temperatures, the fuel and subsequent dollar savings will remain constant in the efficient structure when compared with a "typical" minimally insulated building. 2) Reliability Obviously, conservation measures will not totally replace the need for a heating source in buildings. During much of the year in Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak, the heating load will be such that backup heat will be required. The advantage of conservation is not only that the heating load is reduced tremendously, but that it is reliable. A superinsulated house will retain its heat much longer than an ordinary structure, important in times of power failure or supply disruption. The size of the backup heating systems can, of course, be sized smaller in the efficient house. 1. One air change per hour is a standard for new construction, 224 3) Thermodynamic Efficiency Conservation is technically not a supply option, as it reduces demand rather than supplies power. As such its conversion efficiency is considered to be 100%. Conservation is not directly affected by furnace efficiencies, as a fossil fuel might be. It is working to its full capacity once installed, at all times. (C) COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNIT INSTALLED 1) Initial Costs Installed costs for conservation will vary widely, depending on the degree and type of measure employed, and ina retrofit, the condition of the existing building. In the majority of cases the older structure will require higher initial capital outlay, as their degree of energy efficiency is low. New construction is generally least expensive, as labor costs for tearing out and rebuilding are not involved. Several assumptions are made for installed cost. All dollar figures are for 1980: 1. Cost of money: 3%, 20 year life 2. Cost of fuel: 3.5% inflation per year 3. 1980 bulk price fuel oil: $1.49/gallon 4. 1980 drum price fuel oil: $2.03/gallon 5. _ Carpenters wages: $18.90/hour (union) 6. Laborers wages: $15.87/hour (union) A listing of the most applicable conservation measures shows installed costs ranging from $1.20 MMBTU for caulking and weatherstripping, to $16.30 MMBTU for additional roof insulation in retrofits. The costs are computed over a 20 year period. By comparison, 20 year average costs for fuel oil show figures over $20.00 per MMBTU. 2) Operation and Maintenance Operation and maintenance costs are not applicable to conservation technologies. In almost all cases, the installed materials will last the life of the building with no additional expenditures. 3) Economies of Scale Installation costs will be reduced by applying conservation on a widespread scale at the same time. Since the materials and techniques are simple and somewhat repetitive, doing several buildings at once will likely involve price breaks on materials, shipping and labor. (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting Needs There are no particular siting needs that are of concern in building conservation. Since the technology materials that are a part of the structure itself to achieve efficiency, there are no restriction on placement of the building. The only concern involves a complimentary technology, that being passive solar. It makes sense to orient a structure to the south, so that south-facing windows can be used for solar gain. Since a heavily insulated house has a reduced heating load, the sun can help provide for part of the heating needs during much of the year. 2) Resource Needs Resource needs are geared around the materials needed» for conservation; insulation, wood structural members, caulking compounds, weatherstripping, etc. Most have to be shipped into the villages for installation, and come usually from Anchorage, Fairbanks or Seattle. Though not developed to any degree yet, some of the resource needs can be met at the community level. Local sawmills can produce framing lumber, particularly those needed to add a second insulated wall. Sawdust from the mill could be used as an insulation material; chemical treatment for resistance to fire and moisture would then have to be provided at the local level. 3) Construction Skills Required Conservation measures are not at all difficult to install. Required skills generally are those of the carpenter and laborer knowledgeable in light construction. Materials and techniques involved are basically no different than standard construction practices. The only difference is an understanding of why things should be done a certain way. The installer must be aware that proper work with many fine details will be necessary to achieve a tight building. Education of a skilled carpenter or laborer in the ways of conservation is relatively easy and the training period quite short. In fact, many individual homeowners could do much of the work themselves. As such, it is likely that a trained labor force could be found within the region itself. 226 4) Environmental Impacts Conservation measures have no known impact on the environment in any way. The technology is benign, and once installed will have no effect on air, water or biota. 5) Health and Safety Impacts There is nothing overly hazardous involving the installation of conservation measures. Accidents and injuries are confined to those normally seen in light construction and are minimal. The health of an occupant in a tightly built structure is a valid concern. When air changes within the building are significantly reduced, an excess of moisture and stale air may result, effecting health and comfort. The solution may lie in utilizing an air to air heat exchanger to allow the air changes needed for comfort. there are several small units on the market, inexpensive ($250-$350) and easy to install. Warm stale air is exhausted from the inside through the exchanger, while fresh air is brought in from outside. As the warm and cold air pass in the unit, the heat is drawn off the Outgoing air through a series of baffles, and transferred to the incoming. Manufacturer's claim an amazing 65- 70% efficiency. An exhaust fan draws the air from the house; the bathroom fan is most often used. Moisture inside the unit drops into a pan at the bottom, which is emptied once every week or two, depending on conditions. During extremely cold weather, a small defrost heater is used to keep moisture from freezing on the baffles. (E) SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION In almost all cases the cost of conservation strategies is far below that of fossil fuel when looked at over a 20 year life. Costs per million BTU are as low as $1.20, to a high of $16.30, as pointed out in the cost section and addendum. A new housing unit that reduces total fuel usage by over 40% has a cost of between $4.50 and $5.50 per MMBTU for the additional conservation measures. Expenditures per year for the measures is below the fuel savings in all but one case studied. The homeowner actually makes money from the outset! If the economics done were not enough to justify conservation, there are other advantages. The technology is benign environmentally an important consideration in a small community. It is available today, for immediate use. As the skills required for installation are simple, jobs can be created in the villages, keeping capital from flowing outward. The reduction in fuel cost to the individual also provides village cash flow. Finally, the lesser dependence on fossil fuels gives 227 greater reliability to the consumer over inflation and supply factors over which he has little or no control. 228 ADDENDUM 1 The following charts show initial costs and fuel and dollar savings, cost per million BTU and payback periods on initial investments for several different conservation strategies in both new construction and retrofits in the Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak areas. Different installed prices can be noticed between new and retrofit. Costs of some items are higher in reconstruction, due to the need to tear out and rebuild. Likewise, some strategies applicable to new construction would not be feasible in retrofits, because of prohibitive installation costs. 229 Ute SUMMARY OF YEARLY SAVINGS FOR CONSERVATION STRATEGIES (1980 COSTS) - NEW CONSTRUCTION Cost Cost Cost Cost for Savings for Savings BTU Gallon Gallon lst yr lst yr ($lst yr lst yr 864 Sq.ft. Difference Oil/yr Oil ($1.49/ ($1.49/ $2.03/ ($2.03/ Residence BTU/yr year used Savings gallon) gallon) gallon) gallon) (W/R-values shown) : 1. Base House (38,19,30) 92,651,092 926.5 $1380.48 $1880.79 2. Roof, upgrade (60,19,30) 86,665,159 5,985,933 866 60.5 $1290.34 $ 90.14 $1757.98 $122.31 3. Wall upgrade , (38,28,30) 74,815,596 17,835,496 748 178.5 $1114.75 $265.73 $1518.44 $362.35 4. Total upgrade w/rigid foam on walls (60,28,40) 57,016,084 35,635,008 570 365.5 $ 849.50 $530.98 $1157.10 $723 .69 5. Total upgrade w/double walls (60,28,40) 53,411,763 39,239,329 534.1 392.4 $ 795.80 $584.68 $1084.22 $796.57 6. Movable insulation unshuttered (43.5 sf) 6,201,732 - 62 - $ 92.38 - $ 125.86 - R-4 2,463,590 3,738,142.5 24.6 37.4 $ 36.65 $ 55.73 $ 49.93 $ 75.93 R-10 1,306 ,087.8 4,895,644 13 49 $ 19.37 $ 73.01 $ 26.39 $ 99.47 R-15 984,983.2 5,216,748.8 9.8 52.2 $ 14.60 $ 77.78 $ 19.89 $106.08 ‘ 4 SUMMARY OF COSTS AND YEARS TO PAYBACK OF INVESTMENT - NEW CONSTRUCLION (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (tk. cost of Annual Total Cost per Years to Years tc 864 Sq.ft. install- Payment 20 yr. Million Payback at Payback at Residence: ation cost BTU'S $1.49 Gall/oil $2.03 Gall/oil (W/R-values shown) : 1. Base House (38,19,39) - - - (see cost - 7 of oil) 2. Roof, Floor upgrade . (60,19,40) $1000.00 $ 67.22 $1334.40 $11.20 12.25 years 9.4 years 3. Wall upgrade (38,28,30) $1400.00 $ 94.10 $1882.16 $ 5.20 6.3 years 5.15 years 4. Total upgrade w/rigid foam on walls f (60,28,40) $2400.00 $161.32 $3226 .56 $ 4.53 5.75 years 4.75 years 5. Total upgrade w/double walls ; (60,40 ,40) $3300.00 $221.82 $4436.52 $ 5.65 6.84 years 5.17 years 6. Movable Insulation: R-4 shutters $ 261.00 $ 17.50 $ 350.00 $ 4.62 5.75 years 4.34 years R-10 shutters $ 326.25 $ 21.93 $ 438.60 $ 4,48 5.54 years 4.17 years R-15 shutters $ 369.75 $ 24.85 $ 497.09 $ 4.77 5.86 years 4.41 years Cost of oil at $1.49/gallon (f) $21.06 Cost of oil at ‘ $2.03/gallon (f) $28.68 (a) 1980 costs - material, labor, shipping (b) Averaged over 20 years with a 3% interest rate (c) Total cost of money with a 3% interest rate (d) Formula: Total 20 year cost + total 20 year BTU savings = cost per million BTU's (e) With fuel costs inflated yearly at 3.5% (£) 20 year average; see Appendix 1 2&2 SUMMARY OF YEARLY SAVINGS FOR CONSERVATION STRATEGIES (1980 COSTS) RETROFITTING AN EXISTING BUILDING Cost Cost Cost Cost for Savings for Savings BTU Gallon Gallon lst yr lst yr lst yr lst yr 864 Sq.ft. Difference Oil/yr Oil ($1.49/ ($1.49/ ($2.03/ ($2.03/ Residence BTU/yr year used Savings gallon) gallon) gallon) gallon) (W/R-values shown) : a 1. Base House (38,19,30) 92,651,092 926.5 $1380.48 $1880.79 2. Roof, upgrade (60,19,30) 90,117,017 2,534,075 901 25.5 $1342.49 $ 37.99 $1829.03 $ 51.76 3. Wall upgrade (38,28,30) 74,815,596 17,835,496 748 178.5 $1114.75 $265.70 $1518.44 $362.35 4. Caulk, weatherstrip base house 80,675,650 11,375,442 806 120.5 $1200.00 $180.48 $1636.18 $244.61 5. Movable insulation unshuttered (43.5 sf) 6,201,732 - 62 - $ 92.38 - $ 125.86 - R-4 2,463,590 3,738,142.5 24.6 37.4 $ 36.65 $ 55.73 $ 49.93 $ 75.93 R-10 1,306 ,087.8 4,895,644 13 49 $ 19.37 $ 73.01 $ 26.39 $ 99.47 R-15 984,983.2 5,216,748.8 9.8 52.2 $ 14.60 $ 77.78 $ 19.89 $106.08 €€Z SUMMARY OF COSTS AND YEARS TO PAYBACK OF INVESTMENT RETROFITTING AN EXISTING BUILDING (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) ( cost of Annual Total Cost per Years to Years 864 Sq.ft. install- Payment 20 yr. Million Payback at Payback Residence: ation cost BTU'S $1.49 Gall/oil $2.03 Gall/o (W/R-values shown): 1. Base House (38,19,30) = - - (see cost - - of oil) 2. Roof upgrade (60,19,30) $ 613.71 $ 41.25 $ 825.00 $16.30 16.43 years 12.88 year. 3. Wall upgrade (38,28,30) $3754.80 $252.39 $5047.95 $14.17 14.75 years 11.5 years 4. Caulk, weatherstrip base house $ 221.96 $ 14.92 $ 298.40 $ 1.20 1.64 years 1.21 years 5. Movable Insulation: R-4 shutters $ 261.00 $ 17.50 $ 350.00 $ 4.62 5.75 years 4.34 years R-10 shutters $ 326.25 $ 21.93 $ 438.60 $ 4.48 5.54 years 4.17 years R-15 shutters $ 369.75 $ 24.85 $ 497.09 $ 4.77 5.86 years 4.41 years Cost of oil at $1.49/gallon (f£) $21.06 Cost of oil at $2.03/gallon (£) $28.68 (a) 1980 costs - material, labor, shipping (b) Averaged over 20 years with a 3% interest rate (c) Total cost of money with a 3% interest rate (d) Formula: Total 20 year cost + total 20 year BTU Savings = cost per million BTU's (e) With fuel costs inflated yearly at 3.5% (f) see appendix 1 HEATING LOADS FOR THE BASE HOUSE USED IN THIS PROFILE Design Hour Heat Losses (BTU Hourly loss at 121°F. Delta T): 2718 -Roof 864 Square feet 3449.9 -Floor 864 Square feet 5634.48 -Walls 895.5 Squarefeet 1949.44 -Windows 43.5 Square feet 317.6 -Door (s) 21 Square feet 15054 Infiltration -—-s- 6912 feet cubed (£t3) 29123.7 -Total BTU's lost per hour Hourly Loss *)s Total Yearly Loss ( Delta T X Hours X 16039*) 92,651,092 BTU's Percentages of Yearly Heat Loss: 9.33 -Roof 11.85 -Floor 19.35 -Walls 6.69 -Windows 1.09 -Door *Heating Degree Days for Kotzebue are 16039 per year. 234 Noe Less NeULATION ZA ALoNa BOF E06 Meee al —- Lore RAS? BND _/| é CONGIANT Ne Sag 2F INSULATION a Figure 1) 9c METAR For ad PYWP. PACTIC TRAUes , @ 24" LL, a Ve BATT INSUL- (R- wo) 4 @ MIL VEER BAPRIZR 7 V2" pyYWeor VJ v 2’ BATT IN6UL (R-14) Lx Bes p zy ae. Ye" row. CK @MIL VB. [V2 "Hl-R” INSUL. | V2" Poli. CHEATHING (6-9) ay ext FUPRNA PLC. | MIL VB. 4" Tl IZ" BATT, |NAsL (R40) V2! PLY. Figure 2 236 2ifwe Lia ll/ cee Zena.) Wolly METAL pace V2" FLY. ARTIC TAU6> CH ou, xX ) \ 1) an = bi . _— Hl 7S |G BSTT INSU. 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BNA NAS dd | aaa NZIS galZAlnXl PALA AIAN AW 0) 442230 Baron aa a ‘ANAH| LA Ba-7 | Baldaels ete ae ae i cid HAdA ANA HIaA 'ADNLD HD SA- din SS N2asNe7 SA Cd Ls HASLLS - PF 1A bkb DAL : Z ‘ J wa Bard ON. TB a LAV a IN dada | | ! Tv2 oe ‘ er) i ; Lr iNTetige AT? WALL 2 LLG... AL METAL COLOT: Wee PeTAIL C FIGHT) “METAL = ; BOGE ns ‘CR FOFENE? G& PPRAE/NAL INTERMEDIATE 7 Z| HAP ED coTiFF ENERGY SAVING FLUORESCENT COMPONENTS (A) General Discription 1) Engineering Process Involved Energy Saving Ballasts Energy saving ballasts are premium quality transformers that save energy lost by normal ballasts through high hysteresis and copper losses. These new ballasts use more laminations in the transformer core, tight (flat) windings as well as larger qauge copper wire for the windings. The net result is a saving of 10 watts per F40 rapid start two lamp ballast and 15 watts per F96 slimline two lamp ballast, when operating standard fluorescent lamps at rated line voltage. An important additional benefit is the cooler opearation temperature of these ballasts. Because they operate approximately 25°C cooler than standard ballasts, a life expectancy of two to three times that of a standard ballast (36,000hr M.T.B.F.) can be anticipated. This longer life expectancy results in reduced maintenance, while the lower operating temperatures reduce cooling requirements. ; Energy Saving Lamps Energy saving fluorescent lamps are inherently more efficient than standard lamps from the same manufacturer. This increase in efficiency is effected through the use of newer phosphorescent compounds with light intensities equal to those produced with the standard (older) compounds. Power savings average 5 watts per four-foot F40 and 15 watts per eight-foot F96 slimline lamp. Combi ion E : d Ball The combination of energy saving ballasts and lamps does not produce a direct "A plus B" savings. Since the lamps conduct less current, the ballast supplies less current which reduces copper losses even with standard ballasts. 2) Current and Future Availability Energy saving ballasts and lamps are available through most major lighting distributors. Units are currently installed in most State of Alaska controlled buildings in Anchorage. (B) Performance Characteristics 1) Energy saved a) Quality Electrical power. b) Quantity Approximately 102 Kwh per year, per fluorescent four tube fixture. c) Dynamics The energy saved will be seasonal, because 243 fluorescent lighting usage normally increases as the hours of darkness increase. As a result, the majority of the power saving will be realized during winter months. Since the village power requirements are greatest during this time period, the use of power saving fluorescent components will hold down peak utility loads. 2) Reliability a) Need for Back-up The need for spare energy saving ballasts is reduced because the M.T.B.F. is at least 72,000 hours as compared to 36,000 hours for standard ballasts. The need for spare energy saving lamps is the same as standard lamps, since they both have a 20,000 hour M.T.B.F. b) Storage Requirements Storage requirements are identical to that for standard ballasts and lamps. 3) Thermodynamic Efficiency A complete energy saving fixture is approximately 13% to 22% more efficient than a standard fixture. (C) Costs for Typical Unit Installed (See Addendum to this appendix for Calculations) 1) Capital $63.60 per four tube fixture. 2) Assembly and Installation $22.00 per four tube fixture. 3) Operation and Maintenance No cost, to be performed by home owner or normal maintenance personnel. 4) Cost per Kw Installed. N/A 5) .Economies of Scale Capital costs could be reduced thruogh bulk buying (dependent upon number of units purchased). Assembly and installation costs could be reduced through a blanket contract for a village-wide retrofit. (D) Special Requirements and Impacts 1) Siting Same as for standard fluorescent components. 2) Resource Needs a) Renewable 244 none b) Non-renewable Materials such as glass, steel, copper and silver that are normally found in fluorescent components. 3) Construction and Operating Employment by Skill The original installation should be performed by a licensed electrician in order to assure proper wiring. Lamp and ballast replacement (as well as cleaning) can be performed by the resident or maintenance personnel. 4) Environmental Residuals Lower fossil fuel usage due to lower electrical demand. 5) Health and Safety Aspects None (E) Summary and Critical Discussion 1) Cost The cost to retrofit existing fluorescent fixtures with a combination of energy saving ballast(s) and lamps could be amortized within 65 days for the F40 system and 56 days for the F96 system. The total 20 year power conserved for the four lamp F40 fixture would be 2040Kwh and for the two lamp F96 fixture the saving would be 2160Kwh. The present worth savings compared to a standard fixture would be $950.89 for the F40 system and $1,023.35 for the F96 system. 2) Critical Discussion Flourescent fixtures can be found in all new HUD homes, most new construction, the schools, some older homes and commercial establishments, the PHS buildings, AVEC plant and some community facilities. These devices require no change of lifestyle or operating skills. The increase in efficiency is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in heat loss from the fixtures, which unless destratification is employed is not useful heat from a comfort standpoint. 245 Addendum to Energy Saving Fluorescent Components | teeta ldo ey , ee deetres 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Installation - 0 Replacement lamps (20,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 10,000hr 3 changes x 4 lamps x $2.50 = $30 10,000hr remaining life on 4 lamps = ($5) Replacement Ballasts (36,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 18,000hr 2 changes x 2 ballasts x $18 = $72 30,000hr remaining life on 2 balasts = ($30) Operating Cost (20 year) -190kwh/h x 3000h/yr = 570kwh/yr 20 yr payout = 20 yr x 570kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035) 29 = $10,207.62 Present worth = $10,207.62/(1.030)29 = $5,651.71 Total Present Worth $(30 - 5 +72 - 30 + 5651.71) = $5,718.71 Power Savings (20 yr) - None Costs, F40 Energy Saving Fluorescent Components 1. 3. 4. 6. Installation - Labor $22 New Lamps 4 @ $3.40 = $13.60 New Ballasts 2 @ $25.00 = $50.00 Old Lamps removed 4 @ $2.50 x .5 = $5.00 Old Ballasts removed 2 @ $18.00 x .5 = $18.00 Replacement Lamps (20,000hr M.T.B.F.) 2 changes x 4 lamps x $3.40 = $27.20 No remaining life Replacement Ballasts (72,000hr M.T.B.F.) None 12,000hr remaining life on each ballast = ($8.33) Operating Cost (20 yr) 156kwh/h x 3000h/yr = 468kwh/yr 20yr payout = 20yr x 468kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035) 20 = $8,380.99 Present worth $8,380.99/(1.030)29 = $4,640.35 Total Present Worth (against $5,718.71 standard) $(22 + 13.60 + 50.00 + 5.00 + 18.00 + 27.20 - 8.33 + 4640.35) $4,767.82 Power Savings (20yr) (570 - 468)kwh/yr x 20yr = 2,040kwh 246 Costs - Standard F96 Fl Fi (Existing) 1. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. Installation - 0 Replacement Lamps (12,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 6,000hr 5 charges x 2 lamps x $5 = $50 6,000hr remaining life on 2 lamps = ($5) Replacement Ballasts (36,000hr M.T.B.F.) Remaining life at start - 18,000hr 2 changes x $29/ballast = $58 30,000hr remaining life = ($24.17) Operating Cost (20 yr) 172kwh/h x 3000h/yr = 516kwh/yr 20 yr payout = 20 yr x 516kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035)29 = $9,240.58 Present Worth = $9,240.58/(1.030)29 = $5,116.28 Total Present Worth $(50 - 5 + 58 - 24.17 + 5116.28) $5,195.11 Power Savings (20 yr) None Costs, F96 Energy Savings Fluorescent Components 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Installation - Labor $11 New Lamps 2 @ $6 = $12 New Ballast 1 @ $43 = $43 Old Lamps removed 2 @ $5.00 x .5 = $5.00 Old Ballast removed 1 @ $29.00 x .5 = $14.50 Replacement Lamps (12,000 hr M.T.B.F.) 4 changes x 2 lamps x $6 = $48 No remaining life Replacement Ballasts (72,000hr M.T.B.F.) None 12,000hr remaining life = ($7.17) Operating Cost (20yr) -l136kwh/h x 3,000h/yr = 408kwh/yr 20yr payout = 20yr x 408kwh/yr x $.45/kwh x (1.035) 29 = $7,306.50 Present worth $7,306.50/(1.030)29 = $4,045.43 Total Present Worth (against $5,195.11 standard) $(11 +12 + 43 + 5 + 14.50 + 48 - 7.17 + 4045.43) = $4171.76 Power Savings (20yr) (516 - 408)kwh/yr x 20yr = 2,160kwh 247 , ; seen en 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. Estimated life (M.T.B.F.) F40/cw lamp - 20,000hr. F96T12/cw lamp - 12,000hr. F40 & F96 Ballasts - 36,000hr. Estimated life with energy Saving components F40/cw lamp - 20,000hr. F96T12/cw lamp - 12,000hr. F40 & F96 Ballasts - 72,000hr Normal power requirements Two F40 Ballasts with four F40/cw lamps - 190 watt One F96 Ballast with two F96T12/cw lamp - 172 watt Power requirements of fixtures with energy saving components, F40 fixture - 156 watt F96 fixture - 136 watt Fixtures being fitted with energy saving components have lamps and ballasts with half of estimated life left. Twenty year life for fixture. Line voltage +10% of rated for ballast. Lamps changed at M.T.B.F. rate. Income paces inflation. Interest rate 3% above inflation. Electric rate 3.5% above inflation. Fixtures operated 3000 hr/yr. Original installation of controller done by electrician. Replacement items changed by resident or salaried personnel (no labor cost). Prices listed are retail cost at village. References: l. General Electric Inc. Pamphlet No. 205-9044 (4/79). 248 GOETHERMAL TECHNOLOGIES het (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION 1) Geothermal Resource Thermodynamic and Engineering Processes The Technology of Power Production form Geothermal Subsurface Heat In order to produce power from a geothermal source, obviously, heat of acceptable quantities must be available. Assuming a large enough reservoir is found with temperatures exceding 150°C, a reasonable efficiency of power production from captured or created steam could be achieved. The accompaning line diagram briefly outlines a possible and basic system which could produce power with an acceptable source. When brine is pumped up from the well, or with considerable luck, flows from the well head naturally (artesian), it consists of mixed hot water and steam. Any sources that may evolve in this area will most likely be hot water with a maximum of 2 - 15% steam, (with due consideration to the exploration wells completed at Pilgrim Springs and Kotzebue, no significant amounts of steam are likely to surface). This brine solution might be directed via a metal or other hi-temperature tolerable pipe to a separator which would allow that portion of steam to be used to power a turbine. The greater portion, hot water, could be directed to a heat exchanger. A vast array of other uses also exists. However, a portion of that hot brine (water) solution in liquid form can be converted into flash steam and again be used to power a turbine. In power generation equipment, a considerable amount of hot "water" is required to produce a limited amount of flashed steam. By comparing the entholpy, or latent heat, of steam and water, we would find that perhaps less than 10% of the flashed steam can be retrieved from that water. In our line diagram any steam, whether available or flashed, would drive a turbine which is coupled to a generator. The temperature and pressure of the steam can be regulated to maintain a constant electrical generation. The excess, or condensed, hot water may be vented to the outside, passed through cooling towers if necessary, or pumped back to be used in a heat exchanger, or reinjected into another well to maintain reservoir equilibrium. This would also facilitate the disposal of any silicate residues. Various arrangements of power producing hardware exist, depending on quantity of steam available and pressure assumed. The higher the pressure, the higher the RPMs, torque, and power produced. Assuming a well in the Selawick - Kobuk reservoir would produce only limited steam, a single flow condencing turbine would suffice for power production, (Wehlage). attempting to use a well with below 150°C temperatures will result in minimal power production. In the future, a true binary system using a refrigerant with a lower boiling point will be developed beyond the prototype 250 Lug GEOTHERMAL STEAM POWER GENERATING SYSTEM STEAM TURBINE | SFPARATOR - ELECTRIC GENERATOR aad COOLING TOWER | OR WATER SOURCE [__] FOR WASTE HEAT COOLING PRODUCTION WELL (3) REINJECTION WELL WSE SFL PUMP SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM : THE USE oF LOW - TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL HEATING SYSTEM USING HEAT PUMPS. EVAPORATOR loo°e F 90°F GEOTHERMAL INJECTION WELL (CASED) WELL (CASED) 242 stage. Iso-butane, or freon gas (12 or 22), could be used to create increased pressure. By today's level of technology, these may involve rather sophisticated heat exchangers. A potential that appears more feasible and has its equipment available today is a dual fuel system, (Taylor, J.) If the wells' water is insufficient to produce steam as it exits from the ground, a second fuel, (i.e. coal or oil) could be used to produce adequate steam pressure for power production. (See the discussion of coal-steam equipment in the COAL TECHNOLOGY PROFILE for additional information.) This may be the most obvious answer to maximizing the established well upon development which conceivably could be found in the subject area. LOW TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL SPACE HEATING Another method of reducing high cost energy consumption using the geothermal resource is with low temperature space heating for buildings and agricultural greenhouses. Greenhouses should be considered as a means of year-round food supply as well as a possible economic base. Primarily, space heating in this report will be intended for buildings as a means to reduce energy consumption. For the history of geothermal space heating, refer to Geothermal Energy in Alaska: Site Date and Development Status, Don Markle or Phase 2, Volume III, Alternative Energy Systems and Regional Assessment Inventory Update, Rutledge, Lane, and Edblom. Though it has been used for centuries, only recently has it been considered a resource worth exploring. As noted earlier in this report, the state funded project at Pilgrim Hot Springs in the Nome area shows the tremendous energy potential close under the ground (not 8,000 to 12,000 feet as originally thought) that may lie just a couple hundred feet. With fuel oil costing over $100 a barrel in many rural villages as in the three in this report, the initial captical costs of an alternate system should be considered regarding their long-term low yearly costs. As shown in the resource availability section fo this report, four known hot springs exist in the areas of Kiana and Shungnak with more potential sits existing under ground. Possibly, without extensive drilling, this relatively low temperature resource for space heating can be utilized. Since geothermal space heating has a low annual operation cost, attention is always focused on capital cost and thus often rejected as a possibility. This doesn't seem to be a logical long term approach. Though large amounts of funds are now available for use, the future may present a different outlook. Both cost concepts should be considered for this technology. Geothermal resources for heating and cooling can successfully utilize temperatures ranging from 10°C (50°F) to 100°C (2129) and up. This is within the range of most hot springs in Alaska. Most temperatures below 60°C (140°) must be 253 boosted through the use of boilers or heat recovery systems. The concept of space heating using geothermal fluids is very simple. It can be made available to users much as natural gas is now but at a much cheaper rate, (i.e. distribution through an underground pipe network). For temperatures of 50°F to 90°F, heat pumps would have to be utilized. As implied by the name, the heat pump simply transfers, or pumps, heat from a low temperature to a higher temperature medium. A fluid is used inside the heat pump to absorb heat fom the geothermal water and transfer that heat to a surrounding space. Freons 12 or 22 are usually the fluids used. Heat is absorbed by the fluid and changed from a liquid toa gas. As it chnages back from a gas to a liquid, the liquid give off heat as it cools, condenses and resultantly raises the temperature of the room. The heat pump can also lower the medium's pressure while absorbing the heat. It raises the pressure while giving off heat, achieving a higher room temperature. Return air ducts might then collect the cool room temperature from the room. The following schematic demonstrates the heat pump operation. Electricity is needed to circulate and compress the Freon to operate the heat pump. For each electrical unit used, two or more equivalents of heat energy is gained. The pump necessary to push the geothermal water to the evaporator will be a consumer of electricity unless an artesian well is found. This possibility does exist. For city heating systems, auxiliary boilers can be utilized to increase the geothermal fluid's temperature for direct use, (obviously, an additional fuel would be required). Direct uses of hot water exist for geothermal temperatures greater than 100°F. Again heat exchangers can be utilized. Down-hole heat exchangers involving less pipe to carry the brine solution, obviously reduce the chance of corrosion. City water could be pumped down into the well and through the down hole heat exchanger. The resulting hot water could then be pumped up the well into the houses using a forced air system, baseboard convector unit, radiant panels for space heat, or the old cast iron radiators used so many years in homes. The following schematic shows this direct application of geothermal hot water for heating buildings. Presently, the most noted application of this in the United States is the district heating systems being constructed in Boise, Idaho and Klamath Falls, Oregon. Special attention should be focused upon hybrid plants. Geothermal resources utilized together with coal-fired boilers, solar, or wind energy. 2) Current and Future Availability Most items used in utilizing geothermal technology are off the shelf hardware if space heating is implemented. Items such as heat exchangers, radiators, pipe, and pumps can be easily gotten anywhere now and just as easily in the future. Everything 254 EXPANSION TANK VENT ~ IF WELL Ww / OVERFLOW HAS GAS OR STEAM TO DOMESTIC H.W. KTR. VENT WELL CASING HOT WELL = WATER LEVEL = 59828. ---¥—# TWO HEAT EXCHANGERS "DOWN-HOLE” TYPE THE "DOWN HOLE" GEOTHERMAL SPACE HEATING SYSTEM SOURCE : EDWARD F WEHLAGE , THE BASICS OF APPLIED GEOTHERMAL ENGINEERING, 1976, p. 164, ORIGINAL SOURCE. 1SGE TRANSACTION, VOL.1, NO. 1. OER | that is needed to power a steam plant is now obtainable on the common market. All items should be just as easily obtainable in the future and should increase in cost with inflation. (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Output The energy output from a geothermal source is very site specific and is not possible to quantify without more data. 2) Reliability and Back-up Equipment No actual back-up equipment would be needed for a direct use heating system except for spare pumps necessary to transport the water (and heat pumps if included). If the temperature of the water exibits cooling, there should be sufficient time to start up a boiler to heat the water for the system. The back-up for the electric steam plant could be a diesel generator or a steam system fired by wood or coal (since it:is easily accessible) in case the geothermal temperature drops. Spare parts for the plant equipment would be necessary as in any plant. Since the geothermal resource has its own storage in the ground, no additional storage would be necessary. 3) Efficiencies The efficiency of the geothermal resource varies depending on the in-ground temperature and method utilized. (The higher the temperature, the greater the efficiency.) If heat pumps are needed for a heating system (or a boiler to produce power), the efficiency will, of course, drop. Since none of the springs in this area have been developed and no exploration wells have been drilled, a range of efficiencies (based on those wells developed) have been assumed. To convert an efficiency for geothermal water for heating systems, the coefficient of performance (i.e. the energy savings) is calculated by dividing the BTU output of the system by the BTU input to the system. A conversion efficiency of from 70 to 90 percent is possible for direct use space heating but, only a conversion efficiency of 5 to 25 percent is possible for a steam plant to produce electricity. If wells are tapped which have a low pressure head or low surface temperature, a binary system utilizing a low boiling point medium will again reduce the efficiency down to 4 to 11 percent. (C) COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNITS The following costs are calculated and tabulated according to -the three alternatives listed above. COST ESTIMATION FOR POWER PLANT INSTALLATION In order to formulate even general capital and operating costs for power production, significant numbers of assumptions 256 must be made. Although the direct possibility of locating a eothermal site adjacent to the villages described in this report is feasible, we will address those sites in the relatively near proximity. We must assume that a site will be useable for a minimum of 20 years. We shall consider three wells at a site with a depth of up to 4000 ft, in an aquifer with significant volume to supply and receive reinjected brine throughout the generating term. We will assume that no return pumps are necessary due to the pressures available at drilled depth being adequate to return silicate rich water to the well. Normally cooling towers are on order but will not be considered due to the low average ambient temperature of both air and water throughout most of the year at any of the three subject sites. The geothermal acquifer or reservoir was assumed to yield 155°C brine for plant operation. Cost assumptions are taken from Bureau of Mines circular #8692, via Ben Halt Co. of Southern California, down graded to well depth and number and up graded to proposed 1980 prices. For the binary fueled plant to be utilized, we will assume a binary fuel system to produce 1000 kw at 200 gpm. (For additional information on coal as a resource, see that section of this report). Coal or wood would be the natural second fuel and its cost of purchase and transportation will need to be addressed. We shall assume that the selected site can be serviced by aircraft eliminating the need for road construction. However, we will assume that some air strip renovation to allow large freight aircraft to land will be necessary. With any of the three villages utilizing perhaps 400 kw daily, the system pumps (3) will require 400 kw daily. 1) Power Plant a. Capital Cost per Geothermal Site item £ Description | Cost per Well well 3 4000' 10" casing Field Recon $120,000 Area Develop 30,000 Equipt Charge 50,000 Casing 105,000 Mud 25,000 Bits 25,000 grout 45,000 Three Wells 169,000 x 3 $507,000 257 707,000 pump 3 200 gpm, 50 hp. 42,000 installed w/fittings piping 5000' of 6" w/fittings 495,000 installed generator 2 500 kw ea., turbine at 850/kw installed 850,000 trans. line 5 mi. @ 140 kv line @$105,000/mi. 525,000 transformer 1 2000 kw @ $31/kw 62,000 airplane rental 8 trips @ $3000/trip 24,000 airfreight 8 loads @ $8000/load 64,000 airstrip renovation l.s. 110,000 Subtotal 2,879,000 contingency 10% 287,900 Subtotal $3,166,900 Interest during const. 5% 158,345 New subtotal 3,134,000 Contingency 313,400 subtotal 3,447,400 Interest during const. 5% 172,370 Total for deprec. $3,619,770 Working Capital 25% of ee annual operat. cost 188,240 Dual fuel generation total cost $3,808,010 b. Assembly and Installation This is included in the capital costs and _ can usually be considered to be fifty per cent of the capital costs. 258 c) Operation and maintenance Estimated Annual Cost for Geothermal Power Plant item Decription Cost generator Labor, fringes, supplies $105,000 wells casing replacements 20% of 21,000 initial cost pumps 20% of cost 8,000 plant -1% of plant cost 1,100 facility piping 20% of pipe materials 99,000 trans. line Maint @ 4% invest. 20,000 air trans. l.s. 25,000 Fixed/Indirect Cost 8% of invest. 266,020 Deprec. 5% of total invest. 166,260 Total $711,382 da) Cost per kw installed $3,808,010/850 kw = $4500/kw 2. Power Plant with Binary Fuel System a) Capital For dual fuel generation Former subtotal 2,879,000 Binary fuel generation equipment 180,000 using coal as second source and well temperature @ 75°C Coal, 750 tons delivered @ $100/ton (50% of required 400#/hr nec.) $75,000 Total for depreciation $3,325,245 259 Working cap 25% ann. op. cost 177,850 Total Cap. Req. $3,503,090 b) Assembly and Installation This is included in the capital costs and can usually be considered to be fifty per cent of the capital costs. c. Operation and Maintenance d t_f Geo-P i bi subtotal 280,100 Binary plant maint. @ .1% of equipt. cost 2,000 Fixed/Indirect cost 8% of invest. 289,581 Deprec. @ 5% of total invest 180,990 Annual Cost $752,951 a) Cost per kw installed $3,503 ,090/850 kw $4100/kw POWER PLANT COST SUMMARY The total cost to develop one particular site enclosing three wells with gathering pipes, pumps, generator and transmission lines would be $3.5 million. This small generating unit would have three pumps in the three wells feeding brine to the generating unit @ 200 gpm. It was assumed that the 50 hp pumps could pump the water against a 500 ft head to the generator. Operating costs were $720,000 per annum to produce 6 million kw per year of electricity at $,12/kw hr. The various costs listed were assumed to represent a yearly average. A binary fuel system would increase the total cost to $3.8 million and _ the annual maintenance cost to $753,000 and resultant per kwhr cost to $.13. (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS .AND IMPACTS \ 1. Siting Siting is critical for maximum yields from a geothermal 240 source. 2. Resource Needs Geothermal resources should be indefinitely renewable as long as the water is always returned to the ground to be re- heated. This is one of the high points of this technology. The source should never end once it has been developed. 3. Construction and operating employment In space heating, only a good maintenance or pump man would be needed. For a steam plant, an experienced and qualified plant operator would be essental. Limited unskilled laborers would also be needed. In developing the resource, drilling crews would be the main employment necessary. 4. Environmental Residuals The environmental, health, and safety impacts are not yet fully known but seem very minimal. As this resource is explored further as an energy, regulations are being formulated to limit the impacts but still encourage the exploration. The Federal Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 and Alaska Statutes defines a geothermal resource. (See appendix A) They limit the regulations to sources with temperatures greater than 120° Celsius. The major impact geothermal useage has on the environment is the lowering of the water table if water is brought out but not returned to the earth. When discharge of fluids exceed the recharge rate and reservoir pressures decline, land overlaying the source may subside. The amount of subsidence is unknown but should be considered. This is only true, of course, if the water is not returned to the aquifer. If the water production is extremely large-scale, seismic activity might result. (No known occurence of this phenomenon exists.) Air pollution might result in the form of added humidity to the atmosphere by increased vapor discharge. Mineral vapor and gases may be added to the air (though in Alaska, this would be relatively minimal). When geothermal energy is utilized as space heating for buildings or agriculture greenhouses, little environmental consideration need be given. Wastewater disposal will be an impact but should be negligible. As in any resource development, initial construction disrupts the surrounding terrain, especially in permafrost regions. This would also be the case if any transmission lines were constructed. This can be limited with proper planning. The pipes may have to be raised, or well insulated, to reduce thermal exchange with the surrounding environment. 2Al The hot springs in North-western Alaska are relatively clean of corrosive materials, toxic substances, and gaseous emissions, though some of each may exist. Most generally, these springs are high in silica and low in salt content. In many springs though, the brine makes the water impotable for drinking but still useable for energy production and space heating. The steam electric plant has environmental impacts which must be looked at. The waste heat (unless it is used as space heating) is removed in the condenser and discharged to a body of water. Since water in the river stays cold, this might not be a major problem. (One case exists where a discharge allows a stream to be used for hydro-electric production throughout the winter.) If so, cooling towers might have to be added. Some toxic chemicals will also be discharged with this waste but’ the dispersion of river should limit this. The plant should be down stream of the villages if possible. COST ESTIMATES FOR SPACE HEATING USING DIRECT UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL In performing an economic feasibility study for geothermal applications for space heating utilization, the following assumptions will be used. Assume a 1000 feet of drilled hole to gain 200°F temperature in the well. If heat pumps would be decided upon, the well depth might be able to be greatly reduced. Original village water might be 35°F initially in the system but would probably level off at 50-60°F on the return. After it is circulated through the heat exchanger, 55°F will be assumed once the system is working efficiently. Though not entirely correct, no temperature change will be assumed in the well (actually, there may be 5-10% temperature drop over substantial time). The temperature drop in the circulating water system to the homes will vary but a delivered temperature of 120- 130°F will be assumed available to hat the homes. Return water completing the loop is assumed to be @ 55°F, (assume two down hole heat exchangers). A 200 gpm production of water through the village system would be needed. Therefore, assume a 50 h.p. pump would be needed to circulate the water down 100 feet and through the system. The equipment is assumed to have a 20 year life expectancy with proper maintenance and only minor repairs. One (1) well is assumed adequate for each system. (E) SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION Although geothermal development has been merely utilized as a recreation resource to date, considerable potential exists needing only to be developed. The resource acquifer may not be retrievable economically for wide spread electrical power distribution; however, on a local level, power may be produced to supply any one of many small villages. The anticipated low operating kwhr cost should be sufficient incentive to promote the planning necessary for preliminary site investigation. The recent exploratory drilling for Pilgrim's Spring and Kotzebue have produced better results than earlier thought possible. With 262 the development anticipated for the U.S. in the near future, the necessary equipment may be in near enough proximity to assure that exploratory drilling should and could be rationally performed. As is illustrated and described in this report, space heating is viable. This is one immediate resource possibility that exists both as a functional technology today and one that needs little preparation after initial exploration. In fact, any minimal success found through initial exploration could be immediately transformed into a small heat production source with the small investment in heat exchangers and necessary piping. This technology is both affordable and purchaseable and should be immediately addressed by any community in the "steam arc" of Alaska. If the combination of resources (i.e. coal and geothermal) is necessary, then the residents of these three villages should be given assistance in developing these technologies. 263 MOTOR POWER FACTOR CONTROLLERS (A) General Discription 1) Engineering Process Involved The inductance motor power factor controller is a solid state device invented by Frank J. Nola of the Marshall Space Center, NASA; patented 10/4/77 by NASA. The device is advertised as being able to save up to 45% of the energy required to operate an A.C. inductance motor running under less than fully loaded conditions. The Power Factor Controller reduces energy waste by reducing the applied voltage to a lightly loaded motor. This is accomplished by means of a feedback control loop. The loop senses the motor load level by monitoring the voltage/current phase angle (power factor). The loop then delays the next input voltage waveform, through the use of a phase controlled triac circuit (similar to that used in the common electric light dimmer) and forces the power factor to be approximately equal to that of a fully loaded motor. The result is an effective reduction in applied voltage that reduces motor excitation losses. As the motor load level increases, the feedback loop senses the change in voltage/current phase angle and advances the voltage turn-on time. At full load, the Power Factor Controller is effectively removed from the circuit since full line voltage is applied to the motor. (See Addendum to this Appendix for further information and cost calculations). 2) Current and Future Availability Power factor controllers are currently available through electrical wholesale , retail and mail order channels. (B) Performance Characteristics 1) Energy Saved a) Quality Electrical Power b) Quantity Variable, based upon motor size, loading and running time. A typical 5 hp motor, 60% loaded, running 24 hours per day will normally consume 24,511 Kwh per year. The addition of a power factor controller will reduce this consumption to 23,040 Kwh, saving about 6% or approximately 1,500 Kwh per year. c) Dynamics It is logical to assume that the greatest power savings will be during the winter months. Motors used for fuel pumps, forced air fans, water circulation pumps are pressed into service as temperatures drip. 265 2) Reliability a) Need for Back-up Since units now on the market are completely solid state devices with an estimated M.T.B.F. of 100,000 running hours, the need for spares is minimal. If a unit does fail and a replacement is not available, the motor control circuit can quickly be rewired to its original configuration and the motor restarted. b) Storage Requirements Units are available in any NEMA rated enclosure, therefore storage requirements are dependent upon the unit enclosure purchased. 3) Thermodynamic Efficiency The addition of a power factor controller to a motor circuit will imporve the motor efficiency, but the amount of imporvement is dependent upon motor size and loading. Typical motor efficiencies will improve 5% to 20%. (C) Costs for Typical Unit Installed (5HP) 1) Capital $140 per unit 2) Assembly and Installation $50 per unit 3) Operation and Maintenance None 4) Cost per Kw Installed N/A 5) Economies of Scale Capital costs could be reduced through bulk buying and shipping (dependent upon number of units purchased). Assembly and installation costs could be reduced through a contract for a village-wide retrofit. (D) Special Requirements and Impacts 1) Siting No special siting requirements 2) Resource Needs a) Renewable None b) Non-renewable Materials required to manufacture power factor controller. 266 3) Construction and Operating Employment by Skill The original installation and calibration should be performed by a licensed electrician. No maintenance to the Power Factor Controller should be required, except recalibration if (and only if) the motor is replaced with another. 4) Environmental Residuals Lower fossil fuel usage due to lower electrical demand. 5) Health and Safety Aspects None (E) Summary and Critical Discussion 1) Cost If a motor ran 24 hours per day (as a water plant circulation pump does), the total power savings per year would be 1,472 Kwh. This is equivalent to a savings of $662.40 per year based upon a utility rate of $.45 per Kwh. A typical Power Factor Controller for this size motor costs $140 plus $50 for installation. In this case the unit would pay for itself in less than four months. 2) Critical Discussion As discussed in the Addendum Potential Energy Savings, a power factor controller can save tremendous amounts of energy on the inductive motors in the villages. In addition they limit the requirement for reactive power which should go far to decrease peak loads and increase efficiency of the utility's equipment. These devices are proven and trouble-free and require no lifestyle changes. 267 Addendum to Motor Power Factor Controllers The following (down to and including Table 2) is extracted from NASA Technical Support Package "Power Factor Controller” Brief No. MFS-23280, March 1979. POWER FACTOR CONTROLLER BACKGROUND, OPERATION AND POTENTIAL USE BACKGROUND The Power Factor Controller invention resulted from an analysis of Solar Heating and Cooling Systems to reduce the power consumed by pump and fan motors used in these systems. The Power Factor Controller was conceived, fabricated, and tested on four electric motors in April 1975, by the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). The Power Factor Controller was evaluated by Auburn University in the Fall of 1977 (See Table 1). A U.S. Patent was issued in October 1977. Patent applied for in eight other countries. All Patent rights belong to the government. The Power Factor Controller (PFC) attaches to the leads of an electric motor and reduces the energy wasted within the motor. (See Figure 1.) Studies by the A.D. Little Company and others indicate that in the United States: a) 50 million electric motors are manufactured annually. b) Several billion electric motors are presently in use. c) Electric motors consume about 2/3 all electrical energy generated. d) Electric motors use 1/3 more energy than automobiles. e) Electric motors require 6 million barrels of oil equivalent (1.5 million tons of coal) daily. A 4% reduction in power consumption would: a) Save 1/4 million barrels of oil equivalent daily. b) Save over one billion dollars annually (at $14.00/barrel). 268 APPROXIMATE PERCENT SAVINGS AT VARIOUS LOADS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF 3 PHASE MOTORS LOAD FULL pl CONDITION LOAD 80% 60% 40% 20% NO LOAD 3 HP WAGNER 0% 1.5% 4% 7% 15% 5 HP : PACER 0% 4% 8% 15% 30% 1HP GE 1.5% 4% 7% 10% 25% 3 HP PACER 0% 2.5% 6% 10% 20% TABULATED FROM AUBURN UNIVERSITY REPORT, “EVALUATION OF INDUCTION MOTOR PERFORMANCE USING AN ELECTRONIC POWER FACTOR CONTROLLER” Table 1. 260 % POWER 100 80 o o Py o 20 TYPICAL POWER SAVINGS FOR SINGLE PHASE MOTOR POWER W/O CONTROL POWER WITH CONTROL 20 40 60 % TORQUE Figure 1. o7n 80 100 APPLICATION The Power Factor Controller applies to induction type electric motors —- the most commonly used type in all major home appliances and the most commonly used by industry. Applicable to both single phase and 3 phase motors. (See Figure 2.) Can be used with most existing motors without modification to the motor. The device determines the load on the motor by sensing the phase relationship between voltage and current. When the load is reduced, the controller reduces the applied voltage by means of a solid state switch. This minimizes wasted power. As load increases, the Power Factor Controller increases the voltage to that required for optimum operation. TESTING The Power Factor Controller has been tested at Marshall Space Flight Center on about 40 motors ranging from 1/12 hp up to 5 hp - both single phase and 3 phase, including 8 home appliances. Most motors will show a 40 to 60% savings at no load. Small motors normally show a 2 to 6% savings even at rated load. Larger and more expensively built motors may show no savings at rated load. Fifteen single phase Power Factor Controller units were fabricated at Marshall Space Flight Center and installed on drill presses, grinders, typewriters, vacuum pumps and a tube flarer. Savings were typically 30 to 40% idling and 10% when loaded. One vacuum pump motor ran about 25°C cooler with the device. A Power Factor Controller was tested by a large textile manufacturer on an industrial sewing machine using a 1/2 hp 3- phase motor. In a 500 hour test on two identical machines, each performing identical functions, the machine equipped with the Power Factor Controller used 33% less energy. The motor was not opened or modified. (See Figure 3.) Six other companies that have tested the device reported results that were similar to those found by the Marshall Space Flight Center. 271 PERCENT SAVINGS POWER FACTOR CONTROLLER ~ PERCENT SAVINGS VS TORQUE FOR VARIOUS MOTORS 80 70 3 HP3 ¢ LOUIS ALLIS MOTOR* 60 50 40 30 1/3 HP 1¢ DELCO MOTOR ** 20 10 *5HP3¢- LOUIS ALLIS MOTOR —_ ! 20 40 60 80 100 PERCENT FULL LOAD TORQUE * DATA OBTAINED FROM AUBURN UNIVERSITY REPORT ** NASA/MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER (MSFC) DATA Figure 2. 272 ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN KWH AND ENERGY SAVINGS IN % “AN: — 35 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AS A FUNCTIC.. OF TIME 4 H.P. 3 PHASE AMCO MOTOR DRIVING AN INDUSTRIAL SEWING ‘ MACHINE UNDER ACTUAL WORKING CONDITIONS 50 20 ome SAVINGS IN % == e= WITHOUT POWER FACTOR CONTROLLER qe ew WITH POWER FACTOR CONTROLLER OTHER BENEFITS In many cases, power saved in the motor results in an additional savings in the utility company's distribution system. Each percent reduction in power wasted allows a utility to add a like percentage of new customers without increasing capital equipment. The Power Factor Controller causes the motor to run quieter and cooler. Cooler temperature extends motor life. The Power Factor Controller saves on air conditioning costs. In the textile mill, the total power (heat) saved on 3,700 machines would be 222 kw. Over 60 tons of air conditioning would be required to neutralize this heat equivalent. The Power Factor Controller may reduce the costs large users of motors pay for having a poor power factor. Payback time for the device can be enhanced by double duty. With modification, it can be used as a means for: a) turning the motor on and off. b) Limiting inrush current in larger motors. COMMERCIALIZATION The Power Factor Controller has received worldwide publicity; due to articles in trade publications, over 4,500 inquiries have been answered by Marshall Space Flight Center prior to March 1, 1979. 5,300 additional inquiries have been received since March 1, 1979. Ten companies are now licensed to manufacture the device. These companies are performing extensive testing in plant locations throughout the United States. A company has advertized the device for $13.62 for al hp single- phase motor in quantities of 1,000. Several have indicated considerably lower prices for installation in original equipment. A large motor manufacturer has tested the device and reports significant savings. Many requests for licensing information have been received from foreign companies. 274 NO. PER UNIT DUTY TOTAL POWER TOTAL FUE UNITS SAVINGS CYCLE SAVINGS SAVINGS (MILLIONS) (WATTS) (HRS/DAY) (MILLION KW HR/DAY) (BARRELS/| TYPEWRITERS 5 30 8 1.2 2000 INDUSTRIAL SEWING MACHINE 1 60 16 -96 1600 WASHING MACHINE 50 36 WHR 1 LOAD/DAY 1.8 3000 DRYER 35 55 a 1.9 3200 REFRIGERATOR 50 13 10 6.5 11000 FREEZER 25 17 10 4.25 7000 FAN 10 25 10 2.5 4000 EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL NATIONWIDE SAVINGS AT $14.00/BARREL THE TOTAL SAVINGS IS $445,000/DAY. SAVINGS TO UTILITIES OR FOR AIR CONDITIONING NOT INCLUDED FUEL CALCULATIONS BASED ON AN ENERGY CONVERSION OF 600 KW HR/BARREL (2KW HR/LB) OF OIL. TABLE 2. 275 POTENTIAL ENERGY SAVINGS The potential for nationwide energy savings are estimated in Table 2. The current retail prices for Power Factor Controller units vary from $30 for a small single phase residential unit (rated up to 1/2 H.P.) to a large three phase industrial unit (rated up to 400 H.P.) selling for over $2000. The pay-back period for individual installation is dependent on motor size, loading and local utility rate; but the example that follows is for a 5 H.P. single phase motor operating under a 60% loaded condition, using AVEC utility rates. From Table 1 above, typical savings run from 4 to 8%; we will use 6% in these calculations. Typical 5 H.P. motor efficiency - 80% Input power per h.p. produced equals 746 watt/h.p. x 1/.8 = 932.5 60% load = .6 x 5 hp x 932.5 watts/h.p. = 2798 watt a saving of 6% = .06 x 2798 watt = 168 watt-hr/hr If the motor ran 24 hours per day (as a water plant circulation pump does), the total power savings per year would be 1,472 Kwh. This is equivalent to a savings of $662.40 per year based upon a utility rate of $.45 per Kwh. A typical Power Factor Controller for this size motor costs $140 plus $50 for installation. In this case the unit would pay for itself in less than four months. 276 w/h.p. PEAT UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION Peat is an accumulation of organic soil that results from an unbalanced ecosystem where the rate of deposition of plant material is greater than its rate of decomposition. The majority of the world's peat deposits are in the arctic and subarctic regions of the northern hemisphere where short, cool, moist summers lead to the anaerobic conditions that favor peat growth. For many years Ireland, Finland and the Soviet Union have used peat for power generation and district heating. In 1979 peat- fuel power generation represented about 30%, 3% and 2% respectively, of the total generating capacity of those countries. Peat cannot be considered as a renewable resource in the sense of sustained yield harvesting because of the slow growth rate of bogs (10cm/100 years). It is, however, a local energy source that can be used in villages to further free them from the high costs of imported fuels. After harvest, reclaimed petlands can produce energy biomass crops or may be used as prime agricultural land. In this sense, the harvest of peat for fuel is just the first step in a continuing process of resource use. A demonstration project for the gasification of fuel peat is currently underway in Minnesota, and the economics of a harvest operation are being analyzed in North Carolina. A preliminary inventory of fuel peat in Alaska was conducted in 1980; no demonstration projects have been planned or undertaken to date. Peat can be used as a fuel in a direct combustion process to ‘produce both power and heat or it may be used as a feedstock for the production of synthetic and natural gases. (Figure 1). The similar fuel properties of coal and peat allow extrapolation of coal combustion theories to fuel peat. As a result, the basic technologies of fuel peat utilizations are easily described, while the economics of power generation and specific adaptations to the peculiar properties of peat are still in initial stages. 1) Thermodynamic and Engineering Processes Involved a) Wet Harvest A wet harvesting method is currently used at some sites where bog drainage is physically difficult or environmentally unsound. In this method a clamshell or dragline is stationed on a moveable barge and excavated peat is fed through a slurry pipeline to a mechanical dewatering press. A grate at the pipeline head provides initial screening of large roots and remnant trees. Several processes for peat dewatering such as wet carbonization, wet oxidation, biogasification and solvent extraction are under development. These techniques use high temperatures and pressures to separate the peat solids from bound water. Because of the young stage of development and the large operation size needed to make a wet harvest economically feasible, this method will not be addressed further in this 278 DIRECT COMBUSTION HEAT puis: _ STEAM FWwIDIZ! GRATE ELECTRICITY SUSPENSION MILLED PEAT AND SOD PEAT GASIFICATION PRESSURZED FLUIOZED Bep | [PRESSURIZED ENTRAINED BED | MODIFIED HYGAS Iroc! REACTOR | bn eed —o t Ms , | | | sno. | | 1 ! | | i lt / ae | / Vw pravuic | r DEWATERI / PEAT ——————— CURRENT APPLICATIONS AND | 7 —— — — —— UNDER DEVELOPMENT ! Sauna | ca WeTaTion 1 / La 4 ee ee ed nn SOURCE : DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, 1979 es NS ALTERNATIVE ENERGY USES OF PEAT eee 279 [WSE | tS profile. b) Dry Harvest Bog preparation for the dry harvest methods involves clearing the vegetation from the bog and then ditching to remove excess water. Parallel ditches are spaced 100 feet apart and designed to lower the bog water table so that harvesting machinery can be supported. Bog preparation may take up to five years in areas of deep, highly decomposed peats because of the deep drainage depth and the slow rate of water movement through peat; along the Kobuk River a drainage time of 2 years is expected. When bog preparation is complete, peat may be harvested with either a sod peat or a milled peat method. Inthe sod peat method a slightly canted circular plate bordered by cutting blades is pulled 16 inches below the bog surface. Centrifugal forces push the cut peat into cylinders from which cylindrical peat sods about one foot long and 3.2" diameter are extruded onto the field. The sods are left to dry by the sun in the fields to 35% moisture, a process that takes about fourteen days, depending on local conditions. In a small operation the dried sods are bulldozed to a central stockpile from where they would be transported to plant-side storage. In the milling method, tractor-drawn equipment scrapes a thin layer (1/2 inch) from the top of a prepared bog. This milled layer is solar dried to 50% moisture in one to three days. Collection is effected by a bulldozer creating a central stockpile or the peat may be vacuum harvested directly into collection bins or trucks. Local peat quality and depth, size of operation and climatic and topographical conditions are factors which determine which dry harvest process should be used. Each method has its advantages; selection of method should be done ona site- specific basis. The differences in the two methods are listed in Table 1. Peat sods are easier to handle than milled peat and the moisture content of the finished product is lower. When drying, a hard shell forms on the outside of the sod that protects the inside from wetting during thunderstorm activity although the exterior will require two additional drying days. A drenching rain, however, will penetrate the outer shell and the drying time will be brought back to day one. Sod peat methods also tie up harvest acreage for long periods, necessitating a more extensive harvest operation to meet demands than a milling method. Equipment use for collection and transportation is more sporadic and intensive in sod peat harvesting. 2an Table 1: A Comparison of Peat Harvest methods Sod_ method Mill method No. of harvest/8 wk season 3 10 Average. yield/acre (x 103£t3) 8 5 Depth/harvest 16" 1/2" Average. drying time 14 days 2-3 days Final moisture content 35% 50% c) Fuel Transportation Solar dried peat is-commonly transported from the harvest site to plant side storage either by rail or by truck. One cubic foot of peat at 50% moisture will contain about 100,000 BTU's. Side dump cars or trucks are preferred to minimize handling of this low density fuel. Railroad construction in Kiana, Ambler and Shungnak will not be considered in this profile. Truck would be used if harvest operations are located near existing gravel roads, or across the tundra from the village. Based on truck rental rates in Kotzebue, it is estimated that the haul cost on an existing road would be $.04/f£t3-mile or $4.00/ton-mile, (Table 2). d) Biogasification Synthetic natural gas can be produced from peat in its natural wet state through biogasification processes. Peat used for biogasification may be either milled or delivered as a slurry to the reactor. Screening is essential to provide uniform particle size for the process.In the first step of this process, the wet peat is partially oxidized and the pH adjusted. In the second reaction, bacteria are used to catalyze the production of methane at near-ambient temperature and pressure. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfides are removed from the methane, leaving a synthetic natural gas. The biogasification of many organic wastes is already a commercial reality. The product of such processes is a low BTU gas (150 BTU/£t2) that can be used in gas water heaters, space heating furnaces and gas piston or turbine generators. The Institute of Gas Technology has recently proposed a BIOTHERMGAS Process in which the peat-water slurry is put through an anaerobic digestion system and then mechanically dewatered and thermally gasified *igmmmegs. No economic or reliability data is available for this process at the present time. II. Local Peat Resources 281 The recent inventory of fuel peat resources in Alaska divides the state into nine fuel peat probability provinces. Kiana, Ambler and Shungnak are in a province largely covered by organic soil, about half of which will meet fuel peat requirements as stipulated by the U.S. Department of Energy. Soils investigations have been conducted in Kiana, Ambler and Shungnak by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and the Division of Aviation of the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT and PF). Additional surficial soils information is available from various vegetation maps of the study area. No soil samples from the Kobuk valley have been analyzed specifically for fuel peat characteristics. Reliable data is available from only about ten square miles adjacent to each village. With this information as base data, the area of potentially good fuel peat soils was extrapolated to a wider radius through the use of low and high altitude aerial photographs. Potential fuel peat areas identified by this process must be analyzed for ash content and heating value before harvest planning begins. Drainage potential and transportation methods must also be considered in the selection of harvest sites. A. Kiana Of the three villages addressed in this report, Kiana shows the lowest potential for fuel peat availability. Organic soils are found in small patches in the rolling topography near the village which typically consist of 12-16 inches of very fibrous peat over 12" of amorphous peat with silt pockets. The upper layer is too undecomposed for good fuel quality; the value of the lower layer is reduced by the noticeable silt content. There are 80-100 acres of potential harvest area, however, east of the confluence of the Kobuk and Squirrel Rivers. B. Ambler The land west of Ambler Village contains open muskeg areas with organic mats formed on old terraces of the Kobuk River. Typically the upper 1.5 feet is partially decomposed peat. Areas of up to two feet of peat are reported. Total acreage of these areas within a five mile radius of Ambler is about 800 acres in non-contiguous areas averaging less than 50 acres. More promising for fuel peat production is the large peatland across the Kobuk River directly south of Ambler. This area, however, is on the floodplain of the present river and contains remnants of old oxbows and, therefore, caution is needed in the choice of harvest area made to avoid the silty peats of the old riverbed areas. Six square miles of peatland are available south of the river within five miles of Ambler. Cc. Shungnak 282 The area surrounding Shungnak has an abundance of peaty soils. In the higher peatlands one foot of undecomposed sedge peat typically overlays 8" of highly decomposed peat. High centered polygons composed of up to two feet of fibric peat are found in the lower elevations. An area one mile north of Shungnak between the drainages of Cosmos Creek and the Kobuk River contains 500 acres of potentially useable fuel peat. Areas along the Kobuk southeast of the village are expected to contain a high percentage of silt. A large (10 mi2) lowland area six miles southwest of Shungnak and west of Tekeaksakrak Lake might contain deep peats with a low ash content. This area is very wet and may prove difficult to drain. III Performance Characteristics A. Fuel Properties of Peat 1. Chemical Analysis The combustion energy of peat is derived from its carbon content. With time, there is a gradual increase in the percentage of fixed carbon in the plant material as hydrogen and oxygen are converted to water, carbon dioxide and methane. Heating values of fuel peats range between 8000 and 10,500 BTU/1b on a dry basis. A typical analysis by weight of a dried Alaskan fuel peat sample is: Ash 9.3% Carbon 53.1% Hydrogen 6.0% Oxygen 29.2% Nitrogen 1.9% Sulfur 0.5% Heating value 93 08BTU/1b Percent ash is given on a moisture-free basis. All other figures are expressed as a percent of an ash-free sample. The field moisture content of the sample was 86.5% by weight. 2. Degree of Decomposition Different grades of fuel peat are most commonly described by their degree of decomposition. Fibric, or moss, peat consists of over 66% recognizable plant fibers. It is better suited for horticultural use as a soil conditioner than for fuel use because of its relatively low carbon content. Peat made up of one-third to two-thirds recognizable fibers is classified as hemic and widely regarded as the best fuel peat. 283 vse 8,000 BTU /ib (MOISTURE FREE) 6900 4(00.- 200, wh. = Fy. : : | | 1 } | | | 20 40 60 80 % ASH (MOISTURE FREE ) ASH v. HEATING VALUE FOR ALASKAN PEAT SAMPLES N 2 36 The more decomposed sapric peat has a greater carbon content than hemic and fibric peats, but their use for fuel is difficult because of the large amount of colloidal water held in the fine- grained material, decreasing the effective heating value. 3. Ash Content The ash content of peat is usually expressed as a percent of dry weight. The ash is the mineral residue after combustion, and reflects the bog drainage history, wind deposition and recent volcanic activity. A careful review of current and historical topography and hydrology of a specific peat deposit can be used to predict ash content. Good fuel peat will have an ash content of from 5-15%. A higher ash content is undesireable in power production because of the need for special boiler design and ash handling systems, Results from peat samples analyzed from Alaskan bogs demonstrates clearly the negative correlation of ash content with heating value, (Figure 2). 4. Moisture Content The moisture content of the peat feedstock is linearly related to the effective heating value (Figure 2). Net heat value is defined as the heat of combustion of the peat minus the heat required to evaporate the water associated with it. In the field the average water content of peat is 80-95% by weight, the more decomposed peats typically ‘wetter' than fibric peat. The high moisture content of peat is the major technical problem in the development of peat as an alternative fuel. 5. Bulk Density The bulk density of peat is an important. characteristic in design of fuel handling and transportation systems. Solar-dried peat at 50% moisture will have a bulk density of 22 lb/f£t3. B. Dynamics The harvest season for fuel peat in the Kobuk Valley is 8 weeks long. During this period the annual resource need must be cut and stockpiled to dry for the winter heating season. Iv Fuel Peat Technologies The process of peat power production can be divided into three major steps: 1) harvest, 2) fuel transportation, storage and preparation and 3) combustion or gasification. Technology profiles have been developed for each of the first two steps and for the various methods of power production. Each profile describes the technology, its availability and reliability. Special requirements and impacts are addressed where appropriate. Production cost data for fuel peat operations is scarce, and 285 small scale economics almost nonexistant. Available economics is discussed for all relevant technologies. The most promising current use of peat appears to be for residential space heating. This use is described in detail in Profile #6 c. Costs Equipment costs and annual costs for a peat harvest operation are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Even though actual harvest time differs for the two methods, labor and fuel remain the same because of the extra handling required of peat sods during drying. Two full-time seasonal heavy equipment operators are required to complete the harvest and field stockpiling of peat. To avoid lost days with equipment malfunction it is recommended that the employees have a good mechanical background and that spare parts are obtained with the initial equipment order. Equipment * Mill Method Sod Method tractor + extras, 4 wd, 25 HP $8129 $8129 tiller, 54" width 1673 7 loader, 60" width 1998 1998 blower 2338 - trencher, 4' x 8" 463 463 wagon 400 400 sod extruder, single head - 11,000 Shipping to Kotzebue 1500 1500 Kotzebue to village 1000 1000 $17,501 $24,490 * All equipment prices except the wagon and sod extruder were quoted by Contractor's Equipment Corporation, Anchorage, AK in October 1980 for Ford Co. machinery. Table 2: Harvest Equipment Costs (1980 dollars) DQk Peat Harvest - Annual Costs Mill Method Sod Method Labor 2 heavy equipment operators x $20/hr x 10 hrs/day x 56 days $22,400 $22,400 Fuel Diesel at $11.50/gal x 5 gal/hr x 560 hrs 4,200 4,200 Maintenance and Repair (5% capital) 750 1,100 Depreciation Annual Cost $24,350 $27,700 Expected life: tractor, loader, wagon 10 years. tiller, blower, trencher, extruder 15 years. Table 3: Peat Harvest - Annual Costs 287 d. Environmental Considerations The peatlands of the Kobuk River drainage are underlain by permafrost at 1.5-2.5 feet depth. The presence of permafrost will make sod peat harvest more difficult. As the upper insulating layers of peat are removed, underlying permafrost will begin to melt. This process, however, is not quick enough to allow successive 16" sod harvests in one season. The presence of underlying permafrost is an advantage, however, in the milling process in areas where it is continous because the frozen soil 1) perches the surface water so that drainage ditching can be shallower and 2) serves as a solid base for harvest machinery. As the permafrost level recedes, ditches will have to be deepened to maintain good drainage. Another consideration unique to northern peatlands is the danger of losing equipment in drainage ponds covered by a thick vegetative mat. These areas can be outlined in the initial resource survey by probing. All harvesting equipment for small-scale peat operations is currently available. The sod extruder must currently be ordered from a supplier in Finland although a Canadian company will soon be manufacturing its own variety. The expected lifetime of the equipment is 10-15 years, depending upon the extent of its use in the harvesting operation. 10 yd truck rental in Kotzebue ‘wet! $100/hr avg. speed (incl. load and dump) 10 mph cost/mile ($100/hr + 10 mph _ $210 cost/yd-mile $1 cost/ft3-mile ($1.00 + 27) $.04 cost/ton-mile (ft3=.01 ton) $4.00 Table 4. Truck Transportation Costs Since a road does not already exist to, or near, the potential harvest sites, the additional cost of road construction must be considered. Because of the wet environment of peatlands, an average of 15 feet of fill was assumed to be needed. If gravel borrow pits are locally available the cost per mile of summer road is $1,037,760, (Table 5). If royalty pits are used this cost could increase as much as $500,000 per milet. Mobilization cost (20% of project) $172,960 Gravel/mile road 52,800 cu yds End place price ($10/cu yd) 792,000 288 Misc. clearing, grubbing, culverts, etc. 20,000 $1,037,760/mile Table 5. Road Construction Costs ($/mile) Another method of transport is by barge along the Kobuk River. Peat may be harvested by the milled or sod method from wetlands near the river. After preliminary stockpiling at the harvest site, the peat would be loaded onto the barge. Unloading facilities would be needed at the village dock. To minimize handling, the power plant should be located close to the river so that a conveyor may be used to transport peat to plant side storage. Barge transportation costs (Table 6) are computed for three plant sizes, 2, 10 and 20 miles from the harvest site. The cost per ton-mile includes depreciation, fuel, labor, maintenance and repair costs but does not consider loading and unloading facilities. Transport distance (miles) tebe les 2 10 20 100 kw 4.08 0.82 0.41 500 kw 0.18 0.04 0.02 1000 kw 0.04 0.008 0.004 Table 4. Barge Transportation Costs ($/ton-mile) Ton Stn eee . : Per Personal communication with The State Department of Transportation and Public Facilities personnel. 2. Storage Storage facilities large enough to maintain year-round fuel feed will be needed because the peat harvesting season along the Kobuk River is only eight weeks. Peat may be stored at plant side in a simple warehouse. Covered outside storage may be used in the warmer months, but peat at 35%-50% moisture will freeze together in winter. Waste heat from the power plant can be used to maintain a 40°F temperature in this warehouse to prevent freezing of the peat. The storage area need for three plant sizes is presented in Table 3. The warehouse is assumed to be 20 feet high with a cost of $100 per square foot installed. 289 Plant size Storage need(ft3) warehouse size(ft3) cost(x103) 100 kw 140 ,000 7,000 $700 500 kw 700,000 35,000 $3,500 1000 kw 1,400,000 70,000 $7,000 iC Pable 7: Storage Requirements oo" Dust emission from dry peat must be considered in all stages of peat use. Fuel losses have been found as great as 30% in windy areas where field stockpiles are not covered and transportation is open. This can be considerably reduced with proper precautions. When the moisture content of peat is below 40 percent the dust-air mixture becomes explosive whenever its oxygen content is over 10 to 12 percent. With decreasing particle size the explosiveness increases. This characteristic must be planned for in the design of all peat handling and storage systems to prevent dust accumulation and to provide good cleaning possibilities. Storage capacity in hot surroundings should be kept minimal to decrease explosion potential. Cc. Profile #3 Peat Briquettes 1. Resource Requirements Many countries use peat briquettes as fuel for grate-fired boilers or for individual home heating. Figure X is a schematic diagram of a briquette operation. Peat is prepared by blending, crushing and screening to a homogeneous material, then blown with hot air through a cyclone and a suspension dryer to reduce it to a moisture content of 10%. The dried peat fines are then compacted to the desired size and shape. A small briquetting plant of this type would use 4,000 pounds of peat at 50% moisture content for a net briquet output of 2,000 pounds per hour. The balance of the peat would be used to provide the power for the all-electric plant. At this rate, a plant operating 2520 hours could produce the briquettes needed to supply both heat and electric power to an average AVEC village of 307 persons in 1978 (Marx, 1979). 2. Costs A commercial briquetter is available with a production capacity of 700 lbs/hr of 2 inch diameter briquettes. Cost for the machine with a feed hopper and a drive motor is $70,000. The maintenance cost for wear on extrusion parts is estimated to be $4/ton of produced briquette. The use of peat briquettes for power production and home heating has increasing potential as more efficient and economical methods of peat dewatering are developed. It is not possible at this time, however, to evaluate the process economics for a briquette system. 290 E. Profile #5 Thermal Gasification The thermal processes of peat conversion have faster reaction rates than those of biological conversion. Although results from performance tests on coal have been extrapolated to peat gasification, data is limited to laboratory and scaled-down production development tests . Different types of gasifiers have been considered and tested for peat, including entrained flow gasifiers, moving packed bed and fluidized bed processes. Gasifiers are currently being designed specifically for peat by Rockwell, Bechtel Corporation and the Institute of Gas Technology. In addition to the central gasifier, all types would require equipment for heat recovery, acid gas removal, water gas shift and methanation. Milled peat is the preferred fuel, with screening and grinding or pulverization necessary to insure fuel uniformity. Process efficiencies are dependent upon the type of gas-solids contact and the method of supplying heat for the reactors. Peat gasification tests at the Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) demonstrate that peat is an excellent material for the production of synthetic natural gas (SNG). A schematic diagram of their PEATGAS reactor is shown in Figure 6. Peat at 50% moisture is fed to the top of the reactor system where it is dried by hydrogasifier offgases. Steam and oxygen are fed into the bottom of the system where they react to produce a hydrogen- rich synthesis gas. In the hydrogasification zone the dried peat and this synthesis gas meet, producing methane. The char from this zone drops into the fluidized bed gasification section. The preferred operating pressure range for the PEATGAS process is 200-500 psig and the temperature range of the char gasification zone is 1700°-1900°F. 1. Thermodynamic Efficiency The overall thermal efficiency of the PEATGAS process is 67% for a SNG plant producing 250 billion BTU/day. In the process 52.4% of the total energy input is converted to SNG and 12.2% is converted to liquid hydrocarbons (benzene and fuel oil). Figure 7 outlines the energy distribution for this process. Process economics for the PEATGAS process are worked for a peat cost of both 50¢ and 75¢ per million BTU, at 50% moisture for a plant producing 250 billion BTU/day. The 20 year average price of SNG per million BTU is $2.57 or $3.06, respectively. No smaller scale economics have been worked for peat gasification processes. In the autumn of 1980, peat gasification tests were begun on 291 a pilot-plant-scale at a converted coal gasification plant. Feasibility study results and refined economics should be available from the plant by 1983. F. Profile #6 Residence Space Heating Home use of fuel peat involves direct combustion of peat in specially designed peat or multi-fuel stoves. These stoves have a large firebox to handle the low density of peat, a large bottom grate and an ash box for easy removal of ash build-up. A shaker on the bottom grate is convenient but not necessary. Air flow is controlled by a draft located under the grate in the front of the firebox. 1. Reliability A back-up heat system would be required if the house were left vacant for several days and water pipes are present. An airtight stove can hold a fire no longer than 12-20 hours. Because of the seasonal nature of peat harvest operation, the annual fuel need would be stacked and covered to maximize drying and minimize wind losses in the summer season. 2. Combustion efficiency The combustion efficiency of a multi-fuel airtight stove in good condition is estimated to reach 50% with proper operation. 3. Costs The cost of an airtight combi-fuel stove delivered to Kiana, Ambler or Shungnak is around $1000, including accessories. These units are easily self-installed and maintained with minimal skill or cost. 4. Special Requirements and Impacts a. Siting Transportation distance and resource availability must be considered in siting of the peat harvest operation. No peat- specific siting requirements are needed for residential fuel storage and stove placement. b. Resource Needs Peat to be burned for residential space heating may be in the form of briquettes, machine extruded sods or hand-cut sods. At a moisture content of 35% (sod) and a bulk density of 15 lb/cu ft, the average house in Kiana, Shungnak and Ambler would require 3000 cubic feet of peat per annum. An alternative method of peat use is in combination with other fuels such as wood and coal. Peat burns with a slow flame, making it desirable for 'night fires' where a low, constant heat 292 is required. Ina combi-fuel stove, wood may be used whena hich flame is desired. An alternative method of peat use is in combination with other fuels such as wood and coal. Peat burns witha slow flame, making it desirable for “night fires’ where a low, constant heat is required. Ina combi-fuel stove, wood may be used when a high flame is desired. c. Construction and operating employment d. Environmental Residuals and Health Aspects Three impact mediums should be considered in a discussion of peat harvest, transportation and burning. The environmental impact on the air, water and land mediums are briefly discussed below. 1. Air Medium Dust emission is the Primary impact on the air medium during peat harvesting operations. Small dried peat particles can be Stirred up by machinery and by the wind, creating a visual impact, especially during milling of peat. On the scale of harvest operations needed by each village, the dust would be dispersed quickly, causing a temporary impact. Dust emission would also be expected from uncovered on-site storage Piles, Erosion of wetlands is a serious environmental impact of peat harvesting operations, especially in permafrost areas. All the fuel peat areas indicated in this Study are flat or have minimal elevation changes. Drainage ditches would be used to artificially lower the water table at a harvest site. The water flowing through the ditches would thaw the permafrost under and near the drainage, thereby causing a widening and deepening of the ditching. Erosion from the harvesting area can be minimized if it is kept level and drainge is kept open. Permafrost thaw as the insulative Organic mat is removed will Create additional erosion problems. 3. Water Medium Drainage water from harvest sites will carry Peat fines and silt into the drainage waterway. This water may be more acidic (pH4) and more nitrogen-rich than that of the Kobuk River. 293 However, these impacts would be minimal bcause of the dilution effect of the larger water body. e. Safety Aspects When peat is harvested and burned for residential space heating there are no safety aspects specific to peat which present additional hazards to handlers or users. G. Summary The use of peat for electrical generation and for district heating is not economically practical for Shungnak, Kiana and Ambler. Preliminary economic analysis proves fuel peat to be 1 1/2 to 2 times more expensive than wood and coal for this area. This is due to several factors: 1) the low bulk density of peat increases the handling and transportation costs; 2) the seasonality of harvest operations necessitates storage facilities and a developed plan for year-round supply, and 3) the high cost of dewatering methods in climates for which solar drying is unreliable. As peat burning technologies are further developed, these additional costs will decrease. However, the emphasis of current development is on larger-scale operations where the economy of scale works in favor of reducing the additional capital investment of peat power. Therefore, it is recommended that peat as an alternative energy fuel for power generation in Shungnak, Kiana and Ambler be removed from further consideration. Peat may be economically viable as a fuel for a larger scale operation in a less remote location. Additional peat resource assessment should be conducted in Alaska to identify areas with consistent fuel peat deposits at least 4 feet in depth. Peat from this operation could be briquetted in a nearby plant and transported to smaller villages for power generation or home heating. The economics of such an operation would depend on the peatland quality and location. 294 BIBLIOGRAPHY Arora, J.L. and C.L. Tsaros. Experimental Program for the Development of Peat Gasification = Interim Report No. 5. Minnesota Gas Co., Minneapolis, Minn. “February, 1979. Berger, Louis and Assoc. Western and Arctic Alaska Transportation Study. Phase 1 - Draft Report. February, 1980. Galliett, Harold H. Jr., J.A. Marks and D. Renshaw. Wood to Gas to Power. April, 1980 Leppa, Kalui. Direct Combustion of Peat for Electric Power Generation. Ekono, Inc., Bellevue, Washington. Northern Technical Services and Ekono, Inc. Peat Resource Estimation in Alaska - Final Report. Anchorage, Alaska. August, 1980. Punwani, D.V. Synthetic Fuels from Peat - State-of-the-Art Review. Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago, Illinois. March, 1980. Punwani, D.V., A.M. Rader and M.J. Kopstein. Synthetic Fuels from Peat by the IGT PEATGAS Process. Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago, Illinois, August, 1980. Punwani, D.V. et al. SNG Production from Peat. Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago, Illinois. December, 1977. Punwani, D.V., J.L. Arora and C.L. Tsaros. SNG from Peat by the PEATGAS Process. Institute of Gas Techology, Chicago, Illinois. August, 1978. Retherford, R.W. and Assoc. Reconnaissance Study of the Kisaralik River Hydroelectric Power Potential and Alternate Electric Energy Resources in the Bethel Area. Anchorage, Alaska, February, 1980. U.S. Department of Energy. Peat Prospectus. July, 1979. 295 SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL James Barkshire Alaska Renewable Energy Associates January 1981 (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION 1) Introduction Solar technology has enjoyed virtually no study or application in Northwest Alaska. It has been suggested that solar may provide substantial benenfits toward meeting heating needs in Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak. Though solar radiation in northern Alaska hardly approaches the levels found in the southern United States, the long heating season and high heating loads make any alternative seem attractive. There are two distinct types of solar: active and passive. Active solar is perhaps the most recognizable of the two. Collectors mounted on the roof, wall or ground heat either water or air, transferring the medium either directly to a distribution system, or to a storage system for later use. Passive solar involves designing the building itself to Capture, store and distribute the sun's heat. 2) Thermodynamic and Engineering Processes Quite simply, the solar technologies take energy from the sun and transform it into usable heat. The efficiency of the conversion will depend largely on the type of system employed. The term used,to describe the amount of sun available is insolation; the total amount of radiation Striking a surface exposed to the sky. Insolation is usally measured in terms of BTU's per square foot per hour or per day. In Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak, a broad average of 300,000 BTU's per square foot per year of solar radiation is available. The maximum heating loads of a structure tend to occur when insolation is at a minimum. However, as mentioned earlier, the fact that the heating season may last 10 to 11 months makes solar energy applicable. 3) Current and future availability It is difficult to quantify the availability of the solar technolgies, as virtually none have been installed in the villages. There are several-dealers and distributors in both Anchorage and Fairbanks who carry active solar collectors; these products are available by mail order throughout the state. How economically feasible they might be cannot be quantified at this point. Passive solar technologies are an inherent part of the design process; at present there are few deSigners in the State who have a full understanding of the potential benefits of these strategies. The problem is not one of an undeveloped technology, it is a rather a case of educating those involved in the process, 297 (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy QOutput/Savings It must be understood that solar technologies in Northern Alaska will not replace the need for supplemental heat; rather, they offer a reduction in heating needs. Coupled with conservation, they can provide a significant amount of the heating needs during the year. The amount of energy produced is at best a lesson in futility at this point. Until further actual study of specification installations is done, no hard figures can be established. 2) Reliabilit Solar in Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak will obviously need a back up heating source for part of the year. How often depends on the efficiency of a particular installation and cannot be quantified at this point. Some form of storage is necessary for a truly effective solar system, so that the sun's heat can be carried over into night time and cloudy periods. Otherwise, the technology produces energy only when the sun is shining. 3) ! 3 ic Effici Efficiencies of active solar systems are about 30-40% and vary little between manufactured collector units. Passive systems will differ. A direct gain approach (south facing windows) will transmit 65-75% of the sun's energy falling on the collection surface. A greenhouse will have the same efficiency, but only 20-40% of this heat is available for transfer to the house. (C) COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNIT INSTALLED The cost of solar in the villages is impossible to define at this point, due to the lack of precedent. It will likely remain so until systems are installed. A few general guidelines can be established. South facing window cost no more than average construction. It is the necessary shutters over them that increase cost. A greenhouse pg cost about the same as standard construction per square oot. Very rough estimates show that EPDM (rubber-based) active collector could be installed for $20-$25 per square foot. 298 Operation and maintenance costs for passive systems are not applicable. Active will require some O&M, the degree depending on the size and complexity of the system. As with all dispersed technologies, installing several in the village at one time will reduce initial capital costs. (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting Needs All solar systems must be oriented within 20° of true south to be effective. In addition, there must be minimal obstructions and shadow in the path between the sun and the collector surface. 2) Resource Needs Resource needs are limited to normal building materials for passive solar. In active, there are two options: manufactured units, or site built collectors, requiring lumber, insulation, glazing and the absorber itself (copper, EPDM). Most of this would have to be imported into the villages, though local sawmills could supply lumber. 3) Construction Skills Required Required skills involve general Carpentry and labor. The installations are not difficult and it is likely that the labor force in the villages can be employed with proper training. 4) Environmental Impacts Solar has no known impact on air, water or biota. It is totally benign to the environment. 5) Health or Safety Aspects Solar is of no concern to individuals in terms of health and safety with no known negative impacts. Hazard to system installers is low, no more than that encountered in light construction. (E) SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION Too little is known of the performance of the solar technologies in Northern Alaska to attempt any but the most rudimentary guess at their effectiveness. Common sense dictates that new structures should be oriented with most of their glazing to the south when solar access is available. Greenhouses can be effective in providing heat, though likely not enough to be cost feasible unless they are used for 299 food production to offset high produce costs. Active solar appears at this point to be too expensive to be used for space heating in the villages. Solar hot water heating may be cost-effective, as the water heat load is year round. In conclusion, it appears that building new and retrofitting existing housing to be energy efficient will pay bigger dividends in Ambler, Kiana and Shungnak than applying solar technologies. It needs to be stressed again that all new housing should be oriented to make use of the sun, as it costs nothing. As fuel prices continue to rise in the future, the other solar applications may become much more attractive. Below Strategically located woodstoves or wood cookstoves can effectively store considerable heat | in the thermal mass of a solar greenhouse wall (concrete or brick); the stoves will be assisted by solar heat collected and stored in the same thermal mass. When sun or stove(s) are not in use, the walls gradually release heat to the living spaces of the home and the growing spaces of the green- house. Add to this the pre-heating of domestic hot water with solar and wood, and you will have four life-support systems functioning together in harmony — space heating, cooking, hot-water heating and gardening! 3nn SOLID FUEL SPACE HEATING WSE TECHNOLOGY PROFILE SOLID FUEL SPACE HEATING Two solid fuels are present in quantities sufficient to supply heating needs for residential purposes as well as commercial and governmental needs such as water and sewer utilities and schools. They are wood and coal. This profile will concern itself primarily with wood because of its greater availability and desirability on the part of the local residents. Buildings in the three villages may be classified a number of ways: HOUSE-SIZE buildings include homes, small stores, community buildings, clinics, and snowmachine repair shops. They are on the average between 500 and 1,000 square feet. Their heating needs can generally be met with an average of 2.5 barrels of fuel oil or its equivalent per months in the heating season, about 7 months (1978 AK Public Forum Survey). MIDDLE-SIZE buildings include those community and commercial facilities 1,000-5,000 square feet and the water and sewer utilities. Their fuel requirements for a year can run anywhere from 3-8,000 gallons per year for space and water heating. SCHOOLS include the largest buildings in the three villages. The two upper Kobuk villages use about 30,000 gallons each year for space heating and the Kiana schools (two complexes) use about 60,000 gallons per year total. House-size buildings in most cases can be heated adequately with an airtight wood space heater. These units, however have two major drawbacks. If the building is poorly insulated or if the space is closed off it may require relatively high temperatures in the main living area where the radiant source is to achieve minimal heating in bedrooms and other partitioned off areas. Second, if left unattended for periods longer than 24 hours (less if insulation is poor) the interior temperature drops causing damage to pipes, food and inconvenience on return. Problem one can be remedied by installation of a hydronic heat distribution system. This is being done with excellent results in the new homes being built by NANA Housing Authority in Noatak and Kivalina in 1980. More even heat distribution is accomplished by circulating water through coils connected to an air tight wood heater throughout the house. This system makes all parts of the house more comfortable i.e. the living area is not kept at 85° whle the bedrooms are 45° and at the same time reduces overall fuel consumption. Problem two can be overcome by the addition of an oil fired space heater which can be turned on when periods of absence are anticipated. Both solutions have problems. 302 Homes in the study area are small. Two radiant heat appliance with proper spacing from walls can easily render 30 square feet of floor space unusable. In a 720 square foot house this represents 4% of total floor space. But the location is usually in the main living area, typically 20x15 feet or 300 square feet of which 30 square feet represents 10%. Living space is at a premium and should not be used for superfluous heating plants. Multi-fuel hydronic heating systems are available which can cut floor space needs by half and at the same time provide automatice switchover to oil when needed. These units may also provide domestic hot water. Air tight wood heaters offers two major advantages over wood hydronic systems. The first is simplicity, no moving parts, easy installation and maintenance mean high dependability and acceptance by residents. Two, cooking needs can be met by air tight wood heaters. They generally cannot be met by wood hydronic systems unless they are coils added onto an existing wood heater. Both air tight and integral hydronic systems may function without electricity if designed with sufficient distribution pipe size. The inability to function without electricity is the major impediment to forced air type systems. Medium size buildings can be heated in the same manner as house size ones. Wood hydronic equipment up to 280,000 BTU/hr May be obtained and if additional capacity is required additional units can be added or move up to larger and more expensive commercial equipment may be made. This option was investigated for the Shungnak water and sewer system by the PHS. Their calculations showed that 5,000 gallons of fuel oil could be saved per year if the equipment used to heat water pumped into the storage tanks every ten days were fired by wood. A 280,000 BTU/hr unit would be required at an installed cost of less than $10,000. If oil price per gallon were $2.00 and wood cost per cord were $125 a yearly savings of approximately $4,000 could be realized. This does not take into account capital costs which the village is not responsible for or labor which is present during tank filling operations anyway. , This type of conversion is made more attractive if capability of switching to oil when needed is available. The wood fuel can be used during hours when there is normally an operator present precluding the need to add round the clock labor. Schools typically burning 30,000 gallons of oil per year are sufficiently large to graduate from equipment meant for residential use to that of small commercial size.- Several manufacturers supply this market although only a few produce equipment intended for the 500,000-2,000,000 BTU/hr range which the study area schools need. 303 Schools need dependable round the clock heat. To use wood to fuel one's needs the system must be either automatic with a feed/storage system capable of unattended operation for periods of at least 48 hours or it must be attended by an operator on 24 hour call. The cost of maintaining the services of an operator may be prohibitive because of the idiom "you get what you pay for" which in this case means that a low paid operator will be less dependable than a high paid one. The upper limit of the pay scale is not known but could certainly be determined if the value of getting a man out of bed in the middle of the night to go out into -50° temperatures to stoke a boiler could be quantified. The range of operator costs could be: LOW PAID $10.00/hr + $2.00/hr fringe benefits 4 hr per day x 210 days per year = $12.00/hr x 840 hr = $10,080 HIGH PAID $15.00/hr + $3.00/hr fringe benefits 4 hr per day x 210 days per year + $18.00/hr x 840 hr = $15,120 This does not take into account overtime for weekends or additional needs imposed by extremely cold spells. It assumes 4 firings per day 6 hours apart. Manufacturers warn that irregular cycles of high and low heat cause undue stress on boiler equipment. These would be unavoidable with a hand stoked system. Automatic systems can be grouped into three categories: ® 1. Hogged fuel 2. Round logs 3 Thermal storage Hogged fuel wood boilers were developed by the pulp and lumber products industry as a solution to two fold needs for disposal of large quantities of wood residue from operations and a need for process steam and electricity. Hogged fuel is ground wood particles. The particles are produced by a chipper or hog. Particle size can vary from 2 x 2 x 1/2" to sanderdust depending on the size of the screens in the machine and the needs of the combustion system. Hogs runs in size from 35 horsepower models capable of processing 2 ton/hr to 500 horsepower capable of processing many tens of tons per hour. (Appendix 2 contains a list of manufacturers.) The equipment requires a highly developed maintenance infrastructure such as that available in a pulp or lumber mill. The grinding teeth or hammers need frequent ‘sharpening and replacement and sheared pins in the direct drive mechanisms are not uncommon. Once chipped the wood is blown by a large fan up a tube and into a silo. The silo may be sized to the capacity of the boiler and the desired frequency of hog operation. Fuel is fed from the Silo through a "live" bottom which is conical surface with an opening and a vibrator to facilitate chip flow. Depending on 304 furnace type the chips are then moved by a conveyor or a screw auger into the combustion chamber. Silo storage systems suffer one major problem in cold climates. When the wood is chipped the ice particles in it melt. Once into the silo they refreeze causing bonding between layers in the silo. When the chips are fed out the upper layers remain in frozen arches or bridges which are very difficult to break up. This problem may be partially overcome by installing the silo in an enclosed space but this is not completely effective and adds considerable cost to the overall system. Combustion of wood chips can be accomplished in any of three basic methods. They ares 1. Dutch oven 2. Spreader stoker 3. Suspension In a dutch oven the combustion process is split into two components. The first is the drying/pyrolysis phase. The chips are fed by a conveyor into a chamber lined with refractory, the heat from the refractory walls radiates to the fuel drying it out and partially burning the volatile gases. The atmosphere in the preheat chamber is intentionally oxygen deficient. The gases from the first chamber are fed into a second where more air is added for completion of combustion. The second chamber may be a conventional boiler modified for this application. Spreader stokers may be top or bottom fed. In a top fed unit the fuel is dropped pneumatically or mechanically onto the grate. The heat from the refractory walls dries the fuel volatizes it and then additional air is added to complete combustion. In the bottom feed the chips are fed up by an auger from underneath the grate. Under fire air is fed up through the pile. As it progresses upward it dries the wood, near the top the temperature rises until at top of the pile the temperature is at the volatile point. The wood gasifies, the gas rises and is combusted by additional air added from the side. Bottom fed stokers have fewer problems with fluctuations of fuel flow volume because the fuel does not fall directly on the surface which is burning and no cooling is introduced. Suspension combustion is accomplished by suspending the fuel above the grate with air. This is the most difficult process to make work but has promise of being the most responsive to changes in heat demands. Round log systems are conventional furnaces with manual or automatic feeder systems. Wood pre sized to maximum length and diameter requirements typically 8" dia. x 20" length is placed on a horizontal conveyor. The conveyor can be sized to the length of time between loadings up to 5 cords. The horizontal conveyor moves the wood to an inclined one which meters the wood not unlike the cnveyors used in industrial heat treat furnaces. The 305 wood slides from the top down through a spring operated door into the combustion chamber. Control of combustion is accomplished by varying the air and flue gas flows and the conveyor speed, This system has the advantage of simplicity in not requiring chipping and dependability in that it can be manually fed should the conveyor break. Thermal storage can be used to smooth out heat demand/supply discrepancies arising from irregularly stoked manually fed boilers. Assume that there is a maintenance worker in the school 12 hours/day 6 days/week as a part of normal operation. The worker could stoke the boiler for no additional out of pocket expenses. But most boilers will not go 12 hours between stokings and still provide adequate heat. so the boiler is oversized a bit and the excess heat capacity from a last large stoking at the end of the day is stored in an insulated tank with eutectic salt solution in it which changes phase at 140°. The heat storage capacity of the tank could be large enough for 12 hour lags in stoking or even 48 hours to accommodate a weekend. Heat is then metered out as needed via mixer valves in the circulation system. Heat exchange in wood boilers may be accomplished in two ways; fire tube and water tube. Fire tube boilers allow hot gases from combustion to circulate in tubes surrounded by water. They are very efficient but limited in overall size. They can easily be built large enough to meet the needs of the schools in the three study villages. Water tube boilers are the most common type made. They allow hot combustion gases to circulate around tubes filled with water. Moisture content of fuel is a major consideration in utilizing wood as fuel. Wood consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with traces of nitrogen and ash. The oxygen and hydrogen are inthe form of water. To achieve combustion the wood must be heated to its volatile temperature. This temperature is much higher than 212° so all the water in the fuel must be turned to steam before combustion. The proportion of moisture in a fuel has a direct relationship to the heat available. At 50% moisture content 13% of the fuel's heat value is required to vaporize the moisture. At 67% moisture, 26% of the heat value is needed for drying. Changes in moisture content of fuel complicate control of combustion. If combustion is running smoothly with fuel with 50% moisture content and suddenly much drier fuel is introduced there will be a rapid increase in combustion rate and a deficiency of oxygen which results in a plume of dense black smoke. The reverse situation will cause a rapid decrease in fire temperature because of a relative excess of air. Both situations can be remedied by adjusting air flow. Most chip feed boilers control only volume of fuel going in. Moisture content and consequent BTU value is virtually impossible to monitor. Ideally, fuel volume, air flow rate, and heat flow rate could all be monitored simultaneously, and accordingly 306 adjusted automatically. Newer model boilers are capable of this. Batch fed boilers which receive several hundred pounds of chips at one time are virtually impossible to control stable combustion conditions in. Many of these problems may be overcome with heat storage though. Moisture content of wood in NW Alaska is not known. However, estimates for 6 month air dried or cut standing burned timber are in the neighborhood of 15-25% moisture content. This low figure can be attributed to extremely low humidity in cold winter months and low overall precipitation rates on a year round basis. Should these figures be born out by experimental research the heat value of the white spruce in the study area would be very high. Typically it only requires 5-8% of available heat value to drive off the moisture. Thus moisture would not be a significant problem in combustion control. Ash may be separated from flue gases electrostatically or by a cyclone fan. Carbon may be avoided by careful control of air fuel mixture. Solid waste or ash is influenced by the type of wood and by its cleanliness. About .6 lb of ash per 100 1b of fuel can be expected from clean white spruce. If the wood is dirty, however, the ash content can be several per cent. The State of Alaska Fire Marshall Office requires no additional safety precautions for wood burning boilers than oil fired ones save that there must be a spark arrestor in the flue. The State of Alaska Department of Labor licenses all boilers operated in the state. They only require that the boiler be an approved design by the ASME or other recognized testing organization. 307 (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Output a) Quality Quality - 100°C or less hot water for space heat. May be used to produce steam but operator must be present. b) Quantity 100,000 - 22,000,000 BTU/hr. c) Dymanics Depending on fuel storage year around use is possible. 2) Reliability a) Need for backup Boilers are fitted with oil burners which will operate when wood or coal are short. A secondary boiler is needed as is practice for all boiler systems in schools. b) Storage requirements For cord wood one acre will store 300 cords. This is sufficient for Ambler and Shungnak. Kiana would need 2 acres. 3) Thermodynamic efficiency Runs up to 65% depending on moisture content of wood. Cc. COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNIT INSTALLED 1) Capital Auto-system boiler with controls, fluc, oil burner 750,000 BTU/hr $40-60,000 Auto load system conveyor 5 days operation $60-80,000 Chip feed with silo chipper and blowers $60-80,000 O&M $8,000/yr 2) Assembly & installation Add on building 24 x 24 $40,000 installation 25,000 Engi : @ 168 25-32 ,000 Total $190-237 ,000 308 Cost per kw installed - NA Cost per 1,000 BTU/hr $253-316 Manual feed boiler system Capital 750,000 BTU/hr wood boiler with oil burner $40,000 building addition 20,000 Assembly & installation 12,500 Endi . 10.000 Total $82,000 O & M - boiler maintenance 2.000/yr operation .__——_——CC*$ 12.000 Cost per 1,000 BTU installed $109 5) Economies of Scale None that are applicable. D. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting None except must be 100 feet from oil storage tanks. 2) Resource needs a) Renewable 250 cords of wood/yr - see resource section of text (Volume I) 2) Critical Discussion The technology discussed is proven reliable in many parts of the world. Wood boilers were the main stay of heat Plants 100 years ago. They are as reliable as oil if handling of fuel and O & M are good. The equipment is available from many manufacturers and can be bought from stock in some cases - especially the manual feed systems. The technology is appropriate for the are for two key reasons: 1. It creates labor intensive employment at a time when jobs are scarce. 2. It reduces the dependence an ounce per season oil deliveries. 309 3) Construction and operating employment by skill For auto feel system installation of equipment must be done by manufacturers personnel. Operating employment requires semi-skilled labor and manual labor. 4) Environmental residuals Controlled harvest of wood Increased moose browse Establishment of fire breaks near village 5) Health and safety aspects Boiler must be ASME certified and licensed by the State of Alaska D.O.L. Safety requirements are the same as for existing oil, plus screens must be added for sparks and ash. E. SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION 1) Cost per million BTU At 25,000 gallons oil replaced per year. Wood @ $100/cord x 250 $25,000 Capital at 20 yr useful life 9,500-11,900 Interest 5,700-7,100 QO& MB 00 Total per yr $48 ,000-52 ,000 Total useable BTU produced 27,000 x 10° cost per 106 pru $17.80 310 BIBLIOGRAPHY Boilers Fired with Wood and Bark Residue, David C. Junge, Forest Research Laborator, Oregon State University. Economic Analysis of Wood or Bark fired Systems, General Technical Report FPL 16 Forest Products Laborator, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin ' Wood for Energy in the Pacific Northwest: An Overview, James O. Howard, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, General Technical Report PNW 94, September 1979 311 SOLID WASTE ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION 1) Thermodynamic and engineering processes involved siaia‘nane cb Rec : ae Most solid waste programs first consider disposal, then recovery and energy possibilities. Though disposal must be the Primary objective in solid waste Management, this profile will only consider energy saving or Producing technology (thermal processing). Since incineration is the most known thermal process, it will be considered first. In practice, incineration is accomplished in the presence of substantial quantities of added oxygen or air. Most incinerators built in the U.S. are not built for energy recovery. These utilize a refractory furnace which is a basic fixed hearth type. Probably the most simple form of energy recovery is the use of waste heat boiler (incinerator) that is extracting heat from the flue gases to make low pressure steam. A more effective type of heat recovery unit utilizes furnace walls made of closely-spaced steel tubes welded together, with water or steam circulating through the tubes to extract heat generated during combustion. This also allows major reductions of air needed. This steam pressure made can then be used to drive the turbines and then the generators for electric power production. Two newer types of incinerators now available are the suspension-fired incinerator and the fluidized bed incinerator (Weinstein). In the first, the waste is pulverized, is suspended in an air stream, and introduced into a combustion zone, where burning is very rapid. A combination refuse/coal combustion system of this type is still in the experimental stage and shows promise. The fluided bed incinerator is still experimental but shows even more promise. Combustion from this process is improved by the suspended bed which aids contact between the air and the solid waste. This fluidized bed system can be used for many fuels. Such a suspended boiler recovery system was built in 1974 in Menlo Park, California by the Combustion Power Corporation. Their CPU-400 System introducted a large material recovery system before the waste was introducted to the boiler. The following three figures show this Plant's Operation. The basic system is used in combination with coal. Other fuels could be used including wood. This system is designed for 1000 tons/day to be cost effective. Pyrolysis is another seriously considered method of solid waste for energy production. Little or no air is introducted in this process. A series of decomposition and other chemical reactions take place. Low sulfur gaseous, liquid, and solid products are produced which are potentially useful as fuels or chemical raw materials. The addition of heat to the pyrolysis Chamber is usually necessary. The amount, or type, of heat needed depends on the Pyroplysis method used. To avoid 313 ‘uiGHT' FRACTION MAGNETIC ey wea a \ SEPARATOR \ | \ | \ : \ | Ne NY \ oo i= COPPER,ZINC, ALUMINUM LEAD ETC. STEAM SOL1O WASTE FEED SAND SEPARATOR &- FIRST-STAGE INERTIAL eS '~ STAGE INERTIAL FLUO BED COMBUSTOR FROM SHREDDED SOLID WASTE STORAGE ah MATERIAL RECOVERY AND INCINERATOR / STEAM ELECTRIC PLANT CPU-400 PROCESS HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM (SOURCE . COMBUSTION POWER CORPORATION) 314 ; contamination of the product, separation steps to remove glass and metal by-products are necessary. Other processes are being experimented with as well, but these more simple technologies are all that will be discussed in this profile. 2) Puture and Current Availability Technology used in a solid waste electric plant is mostly experimental now but because of vast need to dispose of this waste, availability of this resource's technology will increase in the future even for smaller plants. Now small plant technology is not available because it is not cost effective. (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Output For this small of plant, the output versus input would only be a wild approximation as no such plant ever existed. 2) Reliability and need for back-up equipment Most any other resource (coal, wood, or oil) could be used in conjunction with, or in replacement of, as a fuel source. Back-up diesel generators could also serve for convenience. How reliable this plant might be would be only guess work since. such a small plant doesn't exist. 3) Efficiency The energy recovery for municipal solid waste thermal processes are determined differently for each process. The following table was adapted from Weinstein and Toro's "Thermal Processing of Municipal Solid Waste for Resource and Energy Recovery”. Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste Thermal Processes Form of Energy Recovery Type of Thermal Processing (based on refuse as delivered) Refractory Incinerators with or 0-1.5 tons steam/ton refuse (or electr without Waste Heat Boiler power generated from steam) Modern Waterwall Incinerators 1.5-4 tons steam/ton refuse (or electr power generated from steam) Combined Fossil Fuel/Refuse 1.5-4 tons steam/ton refuse (or electr Combustion Boilers power generated from steam, e.g., 500- 800 KWH per metric ton of refuse) Pyrolysis Plants Gaseous, liquid or solid fuels (or ste or power generated from fuels) 1c High Pressure Fluidized Bed 400-500 KWH electrical power/metric (under development) ton of refuse As can be seen from the above table, for waterwall incinerators, one ton of refuse is needed to produce 1.5 to 4 tons of steam [or one metric ton (2205 pounds) to generate 500- 800 KWH]. For heating, 4360 BTU/1b is usually estimated for a general distribution of solid waste material. As noted from either, efficiencies would be extremely low in comparison, but the necessity of solid waste disposal must be weighted in as a factor. For the pyrolysis process, it is expected one ton of refuse produces approximately 150 KWH of electrical power (Weinstein). (Cc) Cost Estimates for an Incineration Power Steam Plant Estimates will be based on a 20 year life for the major components of the plant. The data is a scaled down version of four existing plants built from 1969-1975. These plants ranged from 720 tons per day to 1600 tons per day. The villages of Kiana, Ambler, and Shungnak only average one to two tons per week or 400 pounds to 700 pounds per day each. Due to the lack of refuse generated, a one ton per day system will be assumed in an attempt to make such a small system cost effective. Present worth of the plant will be based on a 20 year life (zero salvage), 0% inflation, and an interest rate of 3.0%, using 1980 prices. 1) Capital Costs Waterwall Furnaces $250,000.00 Wasteheat Boilers $185,000.00 Turbine/Generators $222,000.00 Excess Steam Condensers $ 45,000.00 Air Pollution Equipment $130,000.00 Residue Handling (Cranes) $ 55,000.00 Building (98sq.ft.) $110,000.00 Pump (Assume 10 h.p.) $ 2,000.00 Piping (Assume 500 ft) , $ 10,000.00 Subtotal $1,009,000.00 Transmission costs (neglect 316 due to existing systems contingencies 10% $100,900.00 $1,109,900.00 Working Capital at 25% of Annual Costs 56,228.@0 Total Capital Costs $1,166,128.00 2) Assembly and Installation These costs are incorporated into the capital costs. 3) Operation and Maintenance Plant Material Replacement @ 15% of cost $124,800.00 Labor (3 men x $8/hr x 8hr/day 365 days/yr $ 70,080.00 Fringe Benefits, etc (40% of Labor costs) $ 28,032.00 Maintenance, Misc. Supplies Lighting, Fuel for Heating, Etc. $ 2,000.00 Subtotal $224,912.00 Depreciation 5% of Capital $ 58,306.00 Total Annual Costs $283,218.00 (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting Siting has no bearing for this resource. 317 2) Resource Needs This resource is renewable but as mentioned previously, not at a rate to make power production economically feasible. 3) Construction and operating employment by skill The only employment this resource would require is a qualified plant operator and a dozer or loader operator to move the solid waste from location to location. Some unskilled labor help would be required. 4) Environmental residuals Envi l 1 social I - Gaseous emissions are probably the primary source of pollution from incinerators. The relative and absolute quantities of each gas are determined by the composition of the refuse, amount of air used, and the amount of air and/or water used for flue gas cooling and cleaning. The following table estimates the typical gas emissions generated, (Weinstein). Typical Gas Compositions for Conventional and Steam-Generating Incinerators Type of Incinerator Waterwall Refractory Refuse Heating Value (HHV) cal/g (BTU/1b) 2420 (4360) - Refuse Firing Rate, MT/hr (st/hr) 15.2 (16.7) 8.4 (9.2) (Rating) Air Cooling/Air Cleaning Method Boiler/Electro- Caustic Scrubber static Precipitator Excess Air, % 71.7 180 (estimated) Stack Exhaust Temperature, °C(°F) 211 (411) 57-77 (135-170) Volume % CO, wet basiS (dry basis) 9.1 (10.5) 3.7-3.2 (4.8) Volume % O97 wet basis (dry basis) 7.8 (9.0) 10.1-8.6 (13.0) 318 Volume % No, wet basis (dry basis) 69.8 (80.5) 6432-54.2 (82.2) Volume % H20, wet basis 13.3 22-34 Flow, CM/min @ temperature 2400 @ 211°C 2119 @ 77°C (ACFM @ temperature) (84,700 @ 411°F) (74,800 @ 170°F) Incinerator residues (solid materials remaining after combustion) would be the second largest pollutant to consider. These residues could be classified as grate residue (ash, cans, glass, rocks, etc.), grate siftings (grate residue which has been reduced in size), and flyash (dust, cinders, soot, charred paper, etc.). Land disposal methods would have to be established to consider this impact. This last major environmental impact from incinerators would be process wastewater. To prevent pollution of underground water sources, some form of treatment and location of the incinerators must be researched. All these impacts to the environment would be minimal if safely constructed and planned. (E) SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION As noted in this report, the major downfall for this resource in any of the three villages is refuse availability on a continuing basis. To be cost effective, plants need to range in the size of 1000 tons per day. As shown, this is more than 1000 times the amount of solid waste generated in either Kiana, Ambler, or Shungnak. Since solid waste is a pollutant that needs disposal for the health of the community, plants that combine refuse with other available resources, such as coal or wood, might be considered. This should be only as a means of disposal though since solid waste would reduce the power production efficiency of the other resources. 219 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION INTRODUCTION Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) have been around for a long time. The use of wind electric generators dates back to the first homesteaders in Alaska. Most of the old 'Winchargers' in the villages have since been taken down and radio or TV antennas been put in their place. However, with the recent upsurgance of the wind generator manufacturing industry and rising fuel costs, they have regained popularity. One manufacturer has sold over 50 wind generators to Alaskans in the last few years. Most of the installations in Alaska are 2 kw or smaller and most are in remote areas. Historically battery charging systems have been the primary application for WECS in Alaska, and still today the remote market is demanding WECS compatible with storage batteries. 1) Thermodynamic and engineering processes involved . DC power can be developed by two methods in WECS. The simplest is the use of a brush~type DC generator in which the voltage produced varies as a function of the rotor rpm. The second method is slightly more complex and uses an alternator. The alternator produces a variable frequency output as a function of wind velocity. The output is then rectified to produce the DC voltage. The magnitude of the output voltage can be controlled in many cases by changing the field current by inserting different resistance values into the field windings. During normal operation the units are usually self-exciting. Most modern DC WECS use alternators because of their lighter weight, availability, reliability and reduced maintenance. Most utility applications require AC power so that the DC must be inverted to AC before use. There are two types of inverters which will do this: synchronous and asynchronous. a) Synchronous inverters (SI) are less expensive and are available in sizes from 2 kw to 1.5 megawatts. The SI is designed to synchronize with a source such as a diesel generator to save fuel. However, it will not operate without the diesel running. b) Asynchronous inverters (AI) provide their own reference for producing sine-wave power and are available in sizes from 100 watts to several megawatts. AI's are used as stand-alone power sources and are capable of being synchronized with each other. 2) Current and future availability There are presently in Alaska over 30 DC type WECS operating. Of particular interest to this study is Denslow's 321 machine in Ambler which is used to charge a bank of batteries and a unit in Kotzebue with a synchronous inverter. The DC WECS being the oldest in use with its height of popularity in the 1930's it is available today commercially from over a dozen manufacturers in the U.S. (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Output a) Quality - DC generators produce high quality DC power which can be used directly or inverted to AC. The inverted AC power can be very high quality if the proper equipment is selected to give a good impedence match. b) Quantity - DC WECS are currently available on the market which are rated from several watts to 50 kw (up to 225 kw on special order). c) Dynamics - Since the wind is the direct source of energy as far as WECS are concerned, it is axiomatic that the output is dependent on the precise location of the turbine and that the dynamics are wholly a function of a very localized micrometeorology. 2) Reliability a) Need for back-up is very system dependent. Most systems using DC WECS have batteries which depending on the size of the storage bank and the wind resource could alleviate the need for a back-up systems. This would not be a prudent approach however and most village scale systems which require reliable power are designed with 100% back-up in some form. b) Storage requirements are dependent on the local wind and the maximum expected duration and frequency of calm. 3) Thermodynamic efficiency - the efficiency of WECS is not relevent because the source of power is free. However, the theoretical maximum amount of power a WECS can take out of the wind is 60%. Most wind generators currently manufactured in the U.S. take from 15% to 30% of the power in the wind and convert it to electricity at the base of the tower. 322 (C) COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNIT INSTALLED Using a commercially available WECS currently being demonstrated in the lower 48 at five sites: Merkham Energy Development Model 445 1) Capital Generator, controls, tower stub, and spare parts . . - eo 2 c¢ 6 6 $40,000 subtotal $40,000 2) Assembly and Installation Foundation. . . « « © « « © © « © « « $7,000 Erections et ee ee ett eat 2 O00 Transportation. . . « © » « «© « « « « 3,000 subtotal $13,000 3) Total Capital Costs Installed Costs . . « «© « « « « « « «$53,000 Engineering and planning. . ....-.- 8,000 Contractors profit. . . . « « « « e « 8,000 Total $69,000 4) Operation and Maintenance Because of the high reliability required of remote applications operation and maintenance cost are minimal. Typically nothing more than an annual greasing and inspection is required. Most studies site 0.5 to 1% of installed cost per year for O & M, we will use 2% to be conservative. 2% x 69,000 = $1400/yr 5) Cost per kw installed The WECS chosen for this analysis produces 45 kw ina 27 mph wind thus $69,000/45 kw = $1,530/kw installed 6) Economies of scale Two distinct economies of scale exist. The first is on the manufacturing and mass production which will drive down cost through market penetration. Coupled with mass production is improved technology and decrease in research and development as a portion of capital costs. The second economy of scale is in reduced cost per kwh 323 with Larger WECS. These economies are dramatic when comparing a 1 kw WECS toevenalOkwunit. The following figure illustrates this concept graphically. (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting Proper location of a WECS is the most important aspect of its survival and usefulness. Entire books are devoted to this topic alone. The most critical elements are avoidance of turbulence and siting in a wind regime with a minimum 10 mph annual average. 2) Resource needs a) Renewable - A wind regime of at least 10 mph average is generally considered a minimum for economic production of power. However, many WECS in Alaska are located in areas with much lower annual averages. Seasonal variations give higher winds in the winter when the demand for lighting and heat is greatest in most locations and because of inordinately high fuel cost compared with "lower 48" sites a lower annual average may be economic. b) Non-renewable - standard materials found in most machinery or autos are used in WECS for their fabrication. 3) Construction and operating employment by skill a) Construction - An experienced WECS dealer- installer is needed to install units larger than 3 kw. A combination of rigging, welding, electrical and heavy equipment skills are required. b) Operating - The DC machines are generally quite simple to operate. Their maintenance is limited to periodic lubrication and in the case of brush-type generators, inspections for brush wear and alignment. Trouble shooting the system is also relatively easy (as compared to synchronous and induction types). Skills that are necessary for the operation and maintenance of small electric generating plants would generally suffice for proper wind plant care. However, if power processing equipment is used to convert DC to AC, e.g. synchronous inverters, technical skills ekin to that of a licensed electrician experienced in that type equipment would be necessary. 4) Environmental residuals Absolutely no environmental residuals of any importance are associated with village size WECS. Without proper design 324 COST OF ELECTRICITY, #/kWH SECOND UNIT COST 50 45-— | 40 | 35 | MOD-O0A 30 25 20 i5{— IMPROVED se TECHNOLOGY>, 10 5 oD-2 = MOD-2 MATURE slee | [ [TOT Tpropuct 12 15 18 SITE MEAN WIND SPEED, mph Cost of Energy (1977) as a Function of Annual Mean Wind Speed at 30 Feet (Thomas and Robbins. Lies WSE Ea 325 there can be some aesthetic, noise problems (Boone, N.C. DOE Mod- 1) but these are not present in properly designed machines in the less than 200 kw range. (E) SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION 1) Cost per kwh The output of a WECS is dependent on the wind regime 100%. If the capital costs are amortized at 3% per annum with a 20 year useful life and only production expenses considered the following table can be generated: Annual costs = $1,100 + (A/P, 3%, 20 yr) $69,000 = $5740/yr Average Wind velocity (mph) kwh/mo kwh/yr é/kwh 10 “5,000 60,000 10 12 8,700 104, 400 5 14 11,600 139,200 4 20 15,500 186,000 3 2) Critical Discussion These costs represent 1980 prices for hardware currently available and being demonstrated in the lower 48. No distribution, overhead, insurance, interest, other utility cost, or cost of storage in batteries or inversion to AC is included. These costs are likely to quadruple the cents/kwh costs of the machine alone. This machine is typical of a village sized unit which would be installed in sets of at least 3 per village. This particular machine shows some of the economies of scale achievable with a larger generator. This unit however is not currently being tested in Alaska, which would be required, with a demonstration project in an accessable area like Kotzebue. The technology however is available now for reliable power and is currently in use in the region with smaller machines. Another distinct advantage with WECS is the ability to add units incrementally as growth in demand was experienced. The high capital cost, low operating costs is as well very attractive for the-study villages. As well the use of an indigenous resource which requires no mining, harvest, or transportation is clearly a plus. 326 BIBLIOGRAPHY David Rittenhouse Inglis. Wind Power and Other Eneray Option. University of Michigan Press, 1978 Harry C. Wegley; James V. Ramsdell; Montie M. Orgill; Ron L. Drake. A_ Siting Handbook for Smal] Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Windbooks, 1980 Mark A. Newell. An Environmental Assessment of Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Unpublished, 1978 Pacific Northwest Laboratory. Preliminary Evaluation of wind i = - Contract # DE- ACOQ6-76RLO 1830, 1980 Richard Timm. Evaluating the Potential for _Smal]__Wind-driven Michigan System. Contract # MA-SC-79-WI-0011, 1980 Ron Beck; Jeff Stollman; Robert Martin; Glenn Armbruster. A and Isolated Area Applications: Final Report. 1979 The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. Energy Conservation Design Resource Handbook. The Carswell Printing Company, 1979 Tom Koravik; Charles Pipher, John Hurst. Wind Energy. Domus Books, 1979 : Solar Age Magazine. Church Hill, Harrisville, NH 03450, 1980 i ment. Volume 5 Number 2, February, Church Hill, Harrisville, NH 03450, 1980 i - Newsletter, P.O. Box 14 Rockville Centre, NY 11571, 1980 Wind Power Digest Magazine. 109 E. Lexington, Elkhart, IN 46514, 1980 & 207. of (au pra ees oak dates eae am yaa So ane 1d tal idedtine {ll dkPiaeadl : i i eee! .2 iyode! OW Ab 12 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS INDUCTION GENERATORS | INDUCTION GENERATORS (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION INTRODUCTION Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) have been around for a long time. The use of wind electric generators dates back to the first homesteaders in Alaska. Most of the old 'Winchargers' in the villages have since been taken down and radio or TV antennas been put in their place. However, with the recent upsurgance of the wind generator manufacturing industry and rising fuel costs, they have regained popularity. One manufacturer has sold over 50 wind generators to Alaskans in the last few years. Most of the installations in Alaska are 2 kw or smaller and most are in remote areas. Historically battery charging systems have been the primary application for WECS in Alaska, however, this is changing. The new breed of wind generators interface with the utility directly producing excellent power quality and favorable characteristics from a utility and owner viewpoint. 1) Thermodynamic and engineering processes involved WECS using induction type generators are designed to operate in parallel with an existing utility grid (AC). The induction generator is actually an induction motor. With no input from the blades, and the system connected to a utility, the induction device would try to spin the blades. On the other hand, with the wind blowing at a velocity that causes the rotor to turn faster than the induction device's rated rpm, the device acts like a generator and produces energy. The most important part is that the energy produced will be "synchronized" with the local utility power. The relationship between the utility and the WECS is that of master to slave. The master, (diesel generator) provides the signal or reference, and the slave has the duty of mirroring the master. Induction systems must be smaller in output than the utility. Based on the testing of remote diesel systems by Grumman Aerospace and Enertech Corp., an induction generator should be sized so that the total grid of induction generators tied to the diesel generators should not exceed 40% of the average load on the diesels. For purposes of this study 30% will be used in developing a plan in order to remain conservative in our assumption. 2) Current and future availability There are presently in Alaska eight induction type generator with at least five more to be installed this spring. Of particular interest to this study is the unit in Kotzebue which has been in operation for almost two years without any 329 maintenance. In addition, there are inductive WECS operating in Selawik, Barrow, Haines and Naknak. Larger commercial and utility sized units are currently being demonstrated in the lower 48 using production run commercially available WECS. The 200 kw and under generators are well proven, with the megawatt size still experimental. Within the first five years of the study period enough experience will have been gained in Alaska with WECS to prove their viability in remote bush communities. (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Output a) Quality - Inductive generators mirror the voltage and frequency of the "master" by design. Power factor or reactive power requirements for inductive generators can cause a problem in some installations; however with proper capacitance, solid state controllers, or load management, solutions can be found. b) Quantity - Inductive WECS are currently on the market which are rated at 1.5 kw to 200 kw output. c) Dynamics - Since the wind is the direct source of energy as far aS WECS are concerned, it is axiomatic that the output is dependent on the precise location of the turbine and that the dynamics are wholly a function of a very localized micrometeorology. 2) Reliability a) Need for back-up is very system dependent. If several WECS were located in different wind regimes within the vicinity of the power user and quality wind data were available in a high wind regime, no back-up would be necessary with enough installed capacity. This would not be a prudent approach however and most village scale systems which require reliable power are designed with 100% back-up in some form. b) Storage requirements are dependent on the local wind and the maximum expected duration and frequency of calm. 3) Thermodynamic efficiency - the efficiency of WECS is not relevent because the source of power is free. However, the theoretical maximum amount of power a WECS can take out of the wind is 60%. Most wind generators currently manufactured in the U.S. take from 15% to 30% of the power in the wind and convert it to electricity at the base of the tower. (C) COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNIT INSTALLED Using a commercially available WECS currently being demonstrated in Alaska: 330 Wind Power Systems - Storm Master 10-18-16-3P-60 1) Capital Generator, controls, tower stub and spare partS. . ..... .- -$20,000 Tower We! |//||/4 || 6, || oi Vell tieliiis||(ell.¢ || of (eo) ellie le || o1|4s Co subtotal $23,000 2) Assembly and Installation Foundation. . . « »« « « © « « e « « « $6,000 Erection. . . « © «© © © «e © e © © «© & 2,000 Transportation. . »- » « « « « « « « « 2,000 subtotal $10,000 3) Total Capital Costs Installed Costs . .« « 2 « « © « © « «$34,000 Engineering and planning. . .....- 4,000 Contractors profit. . . © « »« »« « « « 4,000 Total $42,000 4) Operation and Maintenance Because of the high reliability required of remote applications operation and maintenance cost are minimal. Typically nothing more than an annual greasing and inspection is required. Most studies site 0.5 to 1% of installed cost per year for O & M, we will use 2% to be conservative. 2% x 42,000 = $840/yr 5) Cost per kw installed The WECS chosen for this analysis produces 18 kw ina 24 mph wind thus : $42,000/18 kw = $2,300/kw installed 6) Economies of scale Two distinct economies of scale exist. The first is on the manufacturing and mass production which will drive down cost through market penetration. Coupled with mass production is improved technology and decrease in research and development as a portion of capital costs. The second economy of scale is in reduced cost per kwh with larger WECS. These economies are dramatic when comparing a 1 kw WECS to evenalOkwunit. The following figure illustrates this concept graphically. 221 COST OF ELECTRICITY, #/kKWH SECOND UNIT COST 50 45+-— 40 35 MOD-0A 30 25 20 15{— IMPROVED MOD-1 TECHNOLOGY, 10 op-2 sss MOD-2 MATURE sat [ “pRobucr 12 15 18 SITC MEAN WIND SPEED, mph Cost of Energy (1977) as a Function of Annual Mean Wind Speed at 30 Feet (Thomas and Robbins. 1979) 332 (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting Proper location of a WECS is the most important aspect of its survival and usefulness. Entire books are devoted to this topic alone. The most critical elements are avoidance of turbulence and siting in a wind regime with a minimum 10 mph annual average. 2) Resource needs a) Renewable - A wind regime of at least 10 mph average is generally considered a minimum for economic production of power. However, many WECS in Alaska are located in areas with much lower annual averages. Seasonal variations give higher winds in the winter when the demand for lighting and heat is greatest in most locations and because of inordinately high fuel cost compared with "lower 48" sites a lower annual average may be economic. b) Non-renewable - standard materials found in most machinery or autos are used in WECS for their fabrication. 3) Construction and operating employment by skill a) Construction - An experienced WECS dealer- installer is needed to install units larger than 3 kw. A combination of rigging, welding, electrical and heavy equipment skills are required. b) Operating - induction generators require only annual lubrication and semi-annual inspection which can be performed by any villager with minimal training. 4) Environmental residuals Absolutely no environmental residuals of any importance are associated with village size WECS. Without proper design there can be. some aesthetic, noise problems (Boone, N.C. DOE Mod- 1) but these are not present in properly designed machines in the less than 200 kw range. (E) SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION 1) Cost per kwh The output of a WECS is dependent on the wind regime 100%. If the capital costs are amortized at 3% per annum with a 20 year useful life and only production expenses considered the following table can be generated: Annucel costs = $2,300 + (A/P, 3%, 20 yr) $42,000 = $5120/yr 333 Average Wind velocity (mph) kwh/mo kwh/yr é/kwh 10 1,170 14,000 37 12 1,500 18,000 28 14 2,400 28,800 18 20 4,400 52,800 10 2) Critical Discussion These costs represent 1980 prices for hardware curréntly available and being demonstrated in Alaska. No distribution, overhead, insurance, interest, or other utility costs are given. The "other" costs would most likely triple the ¢é/kwh number as these savings are in fuel alone representing 1/3 of the retail price of electricity. The technology is available now for reliable power production and is currently in use in the region. The costs for the machine presented are typical but not necessarily representative of less expensive per kw larger units which could be installed in groups of 3 or more in a number of villages ata time. 224 BIBLIOGRAPHY David Rittenhouse Inglis. Wind Power and Other Energy Option. University of Michigan Press, 1978 Harry C. Wegley; James V. Ramsdell; Montie M. Orgill; Ron L. Drake. iti i i Systems. Windbooks, 1980 Mark A. Newell. An Environmental Assessment of Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Unpublished, 1978 Pacific Northwest Laboratory. Preliminary Evaluation of Wind j = - Contract # DE- AC06-76RLO 1830, 1980 Richard Timm, Evaluating the Potential for __sSmal]__Wind-driven Michigan System. Contract # MA-SC-79-WI-0011, 1980 Ron Beck; Jeff Stollman; Robert Martin; Glenn Armbruster. A and Isolated Area Applications: Final Report. 1979 The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. Energy Conservation Design Resource Handbook. The Carswell Printing Company, 1979 Tom Koravik; Charles Pipher, John Hurst. Wind Energy. Domus Books, 1979 ‘ Solar Age Magazine. Church Hill, Harrisville, NH 03450, 1980 j ment. Volume 5 Number 2, February, Church Hill, Harrisville, NH 03450, 1980 i - Newsletter, P.O. Box 14 Rockville Centre, NY 11571, 1980 Wind Power Digest Magazine. 109 E. Lexington, Elkhart, IN 46514, 1980 & 335 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS (A) GENERAL DESCRIPTION INTRODUCTION Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) have been around for a long time. The use of wind electric generators dates back to the first homesteaders in Alaska. Most of the old 'Winchargers' in the villages have since been taken down and radio or TV antennas been put in their place. However, with the recent upsurgance of the wind generator manufacturing industry and rising fuel costs, they have regained popularity. One manufacturer has sold over 50 wind generators to Alaskans in the last few years. Most of the installations in Alaska are 2 kw or smaller and most are in remote areas. Historically battery charging systems have been the primary application for WECS in Alaska, however, this is changing. The new breed of wind generators interface with the utility directly producing excellent power quality and favorable characteristics from a utility and owner viewpoint. 1) Thermodynamic and engineering processes involved WECS utilizing synchronous alternators are capable of 60 cycle, alternating current with or without a utility grid. This capability is possible because of the controls necessary to make the synchronous alternator generate electricity. The "master-slave" relationship found in the induction machines is modified for the synchronous machine with the addition of a "middle-man" who translates the master's instructions. This middle man is usually a micro-processor. Because micro- processors have the capability of generating their own reference, the utility grid is not necessary for machines to generate electricity at 60hz. There is no requirements on sizing a synchronous generator to "match" a diesel system as with induction generators. There is not as well any need for batteries or inverters as with DC generators. 2) Current and future availability There are presently ten large (greater than 200 kw) synchronous WECS operating in the Lower 48. These are available on a custom build arrangement only. There is at least on manufacturer building a smaller (8 kw) synchronous unit in mass production (over 100 have been sold as of October, 1980). No synchronous WECS have been installed in Alaska to date, however a 200 kw unit has been operating with a small diesel grid off the coast of Massachussetts since June 1977 and is based on the Gedser Mill with more than 30 years of successful utility operating experience in Denmark. The 200 kw size is no longer considered experimental and is now commercial with the experimental units being of a megawatt scale. 337 (B) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 1) Energy Output a) Quality - The electricity generated from a synchronous WECS is of the same quality as the output from a synchronous alternator on a diesel-generator set. b) Quantity - Synchronous WECS are currently on the market which are rated from 8 kw to 4 megawatts. c) Dynamics - Since the wind is the direct source of energy as far as WECS are concerned, it is axiomatic that the output is dependent on the precise location of the turbine and that the dynamics are wholly a function of a very localized micrometeorology. 2) Reliability a) Need for back-up is very system dependent. If several WECS were located in different wind regimes within the vicinity of the power user and quality wind data were available in a high wind regime, no back-up would be necessary with enough installed capacity. This would not be a prudent approach however and most village scale systems which require reliable power are designed with 100% back-up in some form. b) Storage requirements are dependent on the local wind and the maximum expected duration and frequency of calm. 3) Thermodynamic efficiency - the efficiency of WECS is not relevent because the source of power is free. However, the theoretical maximum amount of power a WECS can take out of the wind is 60%. Most wind generators currently manufactured in the U.S. take from 15% to 30% of the power in the wind and convert it to electricity at the base of the tower. (C) COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNIT INSTALLED Using a commercially available WECS currently being demonstrated in the lower 48: WTG Energy Systems MP1-200 1) Capital Generator, microprocessor controls, tower, control housing, and spare parts. .. . $250,000 2) Assembly and Installation Foundation, erection, start-up and transportation. .« . « « « © © © e« «© e « «200,000 2RR 3) Total Capital Costs Installed costs . . 2. « « « © © © « © « $450,000 Engineering and planning. . . -« « « « e 60,000 Contractors Profit. 2... 2. «2-0 * shs..0 yohh 000 total $570,000 4) Operation and Maintenance The system is designed for unattended operation although due to the extreme environment conditions as well as the complexity and lack of experience with the MP1-200 in Alaska an O & M figure of 4% x installed cost will be used for annual operating costs. A further justification for the higher O & M is the transportation of qualified maintenance personnel from the Lower 48. 4% x 570,000 = $22,800/yr 5) Cost per kw installed : The WECS chosen for this analysis produces 200 kw ina 30 mph wind thus $570,000/200 kw = $2,850/kw installed 6) Economies of scale Two distinct economies of scale exist. The first is on the manufacturing and mass production which will drive down cost through market penetration. Coupled with mass production is improved technology and decrease in research and development as a portion of capital costs. The second economy of scale is in reduced cost per kwh with larger WECS. These economies are dramatic when comparing a 1 kw WECS toevenal0O kwunit. The following figure illustrates this concept graphically. (D) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AND IMPACTS 1) Siting Proper location of a WECS is the most important aspect of its survival and usefulness. Entire books are devoted to this topic alone. The most critical elements are avoidance of turbulence and siting in a wind regime with a minimum 10 mph annual average. 2) Resource needs a) Renewable - A wind regime of at least 10 mph average is generally considered a minimum for economic production of power. However, many WECS in Alaska are located in areas with much lower annual averages. Seasonal variations give higher 339 COST OF ELECTRICITY, ¢/kWH 50 45¢ 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 SECOND UNIT COST MOD-0A IMPROVED MOD-1 TECHNOLOGY>, OD-2 Wms MOD-2 MATURE | [| 7" 7pRopucr 12 15 18 SITE MEAN WIND SPEED, mph Cost of Energy (1977) as a Function of Annual Mean Wind Speed at 30 Feet (Thomas and Robbins. 1979) WSE winds in the winter when the demand for lighting and heat is greatest in most locations and because of inordinately high fuel cost compared with "lower 48" sites a lower annual average may be economic. b) Non-renewable - standard materials found in most machinery or autos are used in WECS for their fabrication. 3) Construction and operating employment by skill a) Construction - An experienced WECS dealer- installer is needed to install units larger than 3 kw. A combination of rigging, welding, electrical and heavy equipment skills are required. b) Operating - The synchronous machines available today all utilize computerized controls. Two levels of skill are required for proper operation of these machines. All of the machines require the basic lubrication schedules that could be handled easily by semiskilled personnel, however, the control systems for these machines require highly technical skills for their proper operation. The WECS systems will require routing monitoring. The remote applications claimed by the manufacturer are possible only if some form of data-link exists between the machine and qualified personnel. In the case of an Alaskan village, the nearest qualified personnel may be several hundred miles away. 4) Environmental residuals Absolutely no environmental residuals of any importance are associated with village size WECS. Without proper design there can be some aesthetic, noise problems (Boone, N.C. DOE Mod- 1) but these are not present in properly designed machines in the less than 200 kw range. (E) SUMMARY AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION 1) Cost per kwh The output of a WECS is dependent on the wind regime 100%. If the capital costs are amortized at 3% per annum with a 20 year useful life and only production expenses considered the following table can be generated: Annual costs = $22,800 + (A/P, 3%, 20 yr) $570,000 $61,100/yr 341 A erage Wind ve.ocity (mph) kwh/mo kwh/yr ¢/kwh See eee ee ee eee ea 10 7,200 86,400 71 12 17,300 207,600 29 14 28,800 345,600 18 20 64,800 777,600 8 _ ee 2) Critical Discussion These cost represent 1980 prices for hardware currently available. No distribution, overhead, insurance, interest, or other utility costs are given. The "other" costs would most likely triple the ¢/kwh number as these savings are in fuel alone representing 1/3 of the retail price of electricity. It is apparent from the cost/kwh that the magnitude of the wind resource has a strong bearing on the feasibility. Because of the cost of transportation it would be prudent to first demonstrate a WECS as large and complex as this in a city such as Kotzebue prior to installation in the villages. However, because of its ability to run without diesels operating it is important to consider their potential. 342 BIBLIOGRAPHY David Rittenhouse Inglis. Wind Power and Other Energy Option. University of Michigan Press, 1978 Harry C. Wegley; James V. Ramsdell; Montie M. Orgill; Ron L. Drake iti and ind E si Systems. Windbooks, 1980 Mark A. Newell. An Environmental Assessment of Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Unpublished, 1978 Pacific Northwest Laboratory. Preliminary Evaluation of Wind Energy Potential - Cook Inlet Area, Alaska. Contract # DE- AC06~-76RLO 1830, 1980 Richard Timm. Evaluating the Potential-for—Smal1—_Wind-driven Michigan System. Cokteace # MA-SC-79-WI-0011, 1980 Ron Beck; Jeff Stollman; Robert Martin; Glenn Armbruster. A sis ot s i ° s ications: Fi Report. 1979 The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. Energy Conservation Design Resource Handbook. The Carswell Printing Company, 1979 Tom Koravik; Charles Pipher, John Hurst. Wind Energy. Domus Books, 1979 . Solar Age Magazine. Church Hill, Harrisville, NH 03450, 1980 The Solar Age Wind Products Supplement. Volume 5 Number 2, February, Church Hill, Harrisville, NH 03450, 1980 i - Newsletter, P.O. Box 14 Rockville Centre, NY 11571, 1980 Wind Power Digest Magazine. 109 E. Lexington, Elkhart, IN 46514, 1980 & 343 - Appendix E ENERGY PLAN COSTS AND NON-ELECTRICAL BENEFITS BY YEAR OVER THE PLANNING PERIOD Kiana Base Case Plan Electricity Economic Evaluation This plan is designed to meet the forecast demand for electricity in Kiana for 20 years. This plan relies on optimization of diesel fuel economy for its major cost savings. Table E-l: Forecast demand for Kiana in kwh x 103/yr 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 low 647 583 514 540 543 medium 657 527 590 643 702 high 667 671 666 746 861 Average: Low 565 Medium 623 High 722 As in Ambler and Shungnak the diesel generator in this plan will be run at optimum load with a "float" charge on batteries. Kiana's larger average and higher daily peaks will require that at least on generator be in the 125-160 kw range. This slightly larger unit if run at or near optimum should show fuel economy improvement to approximately 13.5 kwh/gallon average. Capital Cost 2 100 kw generators @ 30,000 $70,000 FOB KIA 1 150 kw generator @ 35,000 40,000 FOB 450 kwh battery storage 37,000 75 kw DC/AC inverter 45,000 Controls 60,000 Building 24 x 50 150,000 Installation 50,000 Engineering @ 15% 68,000 Contractor profit @ 20% 90,000 Total capital $610,000 Plan cost present worth Capital $610,000 Interest 272,000 Oo & M @ 15,000 yr __223,000 Total PW capital $1,105,000 Present worth of fuel oil demand - low 42,000 gal/yr $1,430,000 medium 46,000 gal/yr 1,577,000 high 53,500 gal/yr 1,828,000 345 Total base case plan present worth demand - low $2,535,000 medium 2,682,000 high 2,933,000 Present worth of current system Capital $350,000 Interest 156,000 O & M @ $20,000/yr _298,000 Total PW Capital O & M $804,000 Fuel Present worth demand - low 7.5 kwh/gal 75,000 gal/yr $2,564,000 medium 8.1 kwh/gal 77,000 gal/yr 2,632,000 high 9.0 kwh/gal 80,000 gal/yr 2,734,000. Total present worth current system low $3,368,000 medium 3,436,000 high 3,538,000 Present worth of non electrical benefits Waste heat recovery @ 8,000 gallons oil saving/yr in water & sewer system Capital cost (Arctic pipe) $30,000 Interest 13, 400 O & M - 1,000 14,900 Fuel 8,000 gal @ 273, 400 Net PW of saving $215,000 Additional non-electrical benefits are safety and reliability resulting from new generator house. Kiana Alternate Plan B Electricity Economic Evaluation In this plan the base case is implemented and in addition 3 40 kw wind electric generators are installed. Also an additional 75 kw of inverter capacity and 300 kwh of battery storage are installed. The wind generator will run the village standing alone on windy days and reduce fuel consumption on calmer days. In the 12 mph wind regime expected the units will produce 91,000 kwh/yr each for a total of 273,000 kwh/yr. This will displace approximately 20,000 gallons of fuel per year. 346 Capita) 3 40 kw Wind generator @ $69,000 (installed) $207,000 75 kw DC/AC inverter @ $45,000 45,000 300 kwh Battery storage 35,000 Contingency @ 20% —_57,000 Total $344,000 PW of plan savings @ 20,000 gal fuel saving/yr $684,000 net saving 340,000 Total PW of plan (base case plus Alternate B) demand -: low $2,195,000 medium 2,342,000 high ; 2,593,000 Additional non-electrical benefits of plan: The waste heat recoverable in this plan is reduced because of the reduction in fuel consumed for generation. Medium case @ 25% waste heat recovery x 26,000 gal = 6,500 gal. PW of Capital and O & M of $58,300 Net Fuel saving 222,000 Net Saving $164,000 Ambler Base Case Plan Electricity Economic Evaluation This plan is designed to meet the forecast needs for electricity for 20 years. This plan is similar to that of the base case plan in Shungnak. The key difference is the relatively high efficiency already achieved with Ambler's much smaller generators. On a yearly average Ambler's fuel economy is 320,000 kwh + 38,000 gallons = 8.4 kwh/gallon. Using the identical gear to that in the Shungnak plan the PW of the system Ambler is: Table E-2: Ambler Demand in kwh x 103/yr 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 low 318 307 308 285 291 medium 320 355 376 393 431 high 322 403 444 500 571 347 Average: low - 301 medium - 375 high - 448 Capital Cost 3 100 kw generators @ 30,000 $100,000 FOB AMB 300 kwh battery storage 25,000 50 kw DC/AC inverter 35,000 Controls 60,000 Building 24 x 50 150,000 Installation 50,000 Engineering @ 15% 63,000 Contractor profit @ 20% 84,000 $567,000 Present worth of plan Capital $567,000 Interest 253,000 O & M @ $15,000 yr _223,000 PW of capital and O & M $1,043,000 PW of fuel @ $1.64/gal low: = 26,000 gal $929,000 medium = 32,600 gal . 1,164,000 high = 39,000 gal 1,393,000 PW of current system fuel low demand 38,000 gal $1,357,000 PW of capital 732,000 Total PW $2,089,000 PW High demand 2,518,000 Additional non-electrical benefits: Recovery of waste heat will eliminate need to heat village water system. 6,000 gal/yr PW = $244,000 Total PW of Plan less non-electrical benefits low demand $2,012,000 - 224,000 $1,788,000 medium demand 2,046,000 high demand 2,273,000 Capital investments by year Base Case Plan Ambler all equipment in year 1 $567,000 Kiana all equipment in year l 610,000 Shungnak all equipment in year 1 567,000 348 Alternate Plan B Ambler wind equipment in year 5 $208,000 Kiana wind equipment in year 5 344,000 Shungnak wind equipment in year 5 208,000 Base case plan equipment is estimated to have useful life of 20 year with necessary overhauls included in O & M figures. Alternate Plan B is also estimated at 20 year useful life. 349 PLAN COSTS AMBLER 1 5 10 15 20 Component A Capital $28,350 $28,350 $28,350 $28,350 $28,350 Interest 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 Fuel 45,634 60,000 75,500 93,600 121,700 O&M 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 Total 105,984 120,350 135,850 153,950 182,050 Production cost in ¢/kwh 33 34 36 39 42 Component C Wind System 10,400 10,400 10,400 10,400 Capital 6,240 6,240 6,240 6,240 Interest (30,762) (36,498) (43,292) (51,192) Fuel 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 O&M (17,858) (24,652) (32,552) (3.4¢/kwh) (4.5¢/kwh) (6.3¢/kwh) (7.5¢/kwh) Total Costs 105,984 108,228 117,992 129,298 149,498 Production cost in ¢/kwh 33 30 31 33 34.6 Non electrical benefits Capital 0 O & M 500 (500) (500) (500) (500) (500) Fuel 9,840 7.788 9,240 13,700 16,200 7,288 8,740 13,200 15,700 PLAN COSTS KIANA 1 5 10 15 20 Base Case Capital $30,500 $30,500 $30,500 $30,500 $30,500 Interest 18,300 18,300 18,300 18,300 18,300 Fuel 75,400 71,800 93,800 123,200 159,600 o& M 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 Total 139,200 135,600 157,600 187,000 233,400 Production cost in ¢/kwh 21.2 25.7 26.7 29.0 31.8 Component B Wind System 17,200 17,200 17,200 17,200 Capital 10,320 10,320 10,320 10,320 Interest (36,800) (43,600) (51,800) (61,400) Fuel 3,000 3,000 __3,000 3,000 O&M (6,280) (13,080) (21,280) (30,880) Total 129,320 144,520 165,720 192,520 Production cost in ¢/kwh 24.5 24.5 25.8 27.4 Current System Capital 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,500 Interest 10,500 10,500 10,500 10,500 10,500 Fuel 122,450 125,100 164,900 203,000 256,600 O&M 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 Total 170,450 173,100 212,900 251,000 304,600 Production cost in ¢/kwh 25.9 32.8 36.1 39 43.4 PLAN COSTS SHUNGNAK 1 5 10 i5 20 Base Case Capital $28,350 $28,350 $28,350 $28,350 $28,350 Interest 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 Fuel 38,900 70,600 86,900 109,100 138,800 O& M 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 Total 99,250 130,950 147,250 169,450 199,150 Production cost in ¢/kwh 37.4 32.3 35.1 38.1 41.8 Component B Wind System 10,400 10,400 10,400 10,400 Capital 6,240 6,240 6,240 6,240 Interest (31,600) (37,600) (44,556) (52,772) Fuel 2.000 22000 22000 O&M (18,964) (25,916) (34,132) Total 117,990 128,286 143,534 165,018 Production cost in ¢/kwh 29.1 30.5 32.3 34.6 Current System Capital 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,500 Interest 10,500 10,500 10,500 10,500 10,500 Fuel 86,125 135,000 166,600 209,150 245,300 O&M 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 Total 134,125 183,000 214,600 257,150 293,300 Production cost in ¢/kwh 50.6 45.2 Slit 57.8 61.5 Appendix F DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE RECOMMENDED PLANS REGIONALIZATION OF ELECTRIC UTILITIES It appears from our study that the delivery of electric service by AVEC may not be in the best interest of the three villages. Based on AVEC's published cost figures the three study villages contributed these amounts in 1979. Table F-l: Electricity sold to study villages in 1979 Total kwh Cost @ $.35/kwh Ambler 270,000 94,500 Kiana 579,000 202,650 Shungnak 242,000 84,700 Breakdown for entire AVEC system. Table F-2: Breakdown of cost for AVEC electricity Distribution Board Delegates Ins. Consumer Acts Operation 1% 2% 6% 7% Ambler 945.00 1,890 5,670 6,615 Kiana 2,026.00 4,052 1,2123 14,185 Shungnak __ 847,00 1,694 52082 52929 3,818.00 7,636 22,875 26,729 Table F-3: Breakdown of costs for AVEC electricity cont. Plant Operator, Administration Fuel Oil Mechanic, Parts Depreciation 8% 19% 12% Ambler 7,560 34,965 17,955 11,340 Kiana 16,212 74,980 38,503 24,318 Shungnak_6,776 31.339 16,093 10.164 30,548 141,284 72,551 45,822 There are 10 villages in the NANA region outside Kotzebue, 7 of them have AVEC electricity. Adding the kwh sold to them in 1979, we find that they total approximately 1.8 million addition kwh/yr. At .35¢ per kwh these amounts to $630,000 breaking down the main cost components we find that the NANA villages paid: 354 TOTAL COST OF ELECTRIC SERVICE BY ITEM BOARD- DELEGATES~! % NSURANCE 2% DISTRIBUTION OPERATION @ | CONSUMER MAINTENANCE | ACCOUNTS 6% ADMINISTRATION & GENERAL INTEREST oDucTION 3% 5 % PLANT OPERATOR, MECHANICS, PARTS, ETC. 19 % FUEL OIL 37 % POWER PRODUCTION 70% CALENDAR YEAR 1979 ALASKA VILLAGE ELECTRIC CO-OPERATIVE WSE | as 355 Board Delegates @ 18% 10,000 Consumer Accounts 6% 60,000 Distribution, Operation & Maintenance 7% 70,000 Administration 8% 80,000 Plant Operators & Mechanics & parts 19% 190,000 410,000 This $410,000 goes primarily to ersonnel. The only personnel in NANA region paid even indirectly by AVEC are plant operators making about $500/month or a yearly total of about $42,000 (round off to $50,000). If plant maintenance and administration could be carried out for $360,000 per year or less then a regional utility would be economically viable while at the same time adding a significant boost to private sector employment in the area. The advantages of a regional utility to the three study villages in particular would be: 1. Better working relationships between plant operators and mechanics. 2. Quicker dispatch of mechanics. 3. Alternative oil buying options with Kotzebue Electrical Association (KEA). 4. Establishment of cost benefit relationship in plant performance. 5. More responsive controlling board. 6. Standardization of equipment. 7. Establishment of a regional coal extraction operation. 1. The performance of the local plant operator is crucial to good service and longivity of equipment. And, though training is periodically provided for operators there is little ongoing contact with AVEC mechanics. A regional utility would probably have two full time mechanics - each visit to the village would be by a familiar face and should eventually lead to better working relationships then those described now by AVEC personnel and plant operators alike. A regional utility could very easily offer some unique work sharing opportunities which are sought by the study village residents, e.g. a village operator could be a 6 month per year trained mechanic working from Kotzebue and returning home for 6 months for preferred subsistence activities (one month on, one off would be more likely). There is a great demand to become experienced heavy equipment mechanics in the QEE study villages, a regional utility could be a convenient means of accomplishing it. 2. AVEC personnel are all located in Anchorage, which means that there is always a full day of travel to reach Shungnak or Ambler (ANC-OTZ jet flights miss scheduled bush connection by one hour in mornings). And a full day is required to reach Anchorage on return. That is 40% of a man week wasted per service call. In addition it is a $300 flight plus per diem. Dispatch from Kotzebue could be made any morning 6 days per week via scheduled carrier. 3. Alternative Oil purchase options have been made possible by Kotzebue Electric Association with the completion of its 1 million gallon oil tank. KEA is now able to conduct open bidding for supply of its fuel oil to Kotzebue. During 1980 it saved over 20% on its oil purchase from the price it would have paid Arctic Lighterage Chevron, the only dealer of oil in the region. In all likelihood KEA would manage a regional electric utility thus making fuel oil savings possible to its village utilities also. 4. Cost saving benefits are not now felt in individual AVEC villages. If Kiana or Ambler were to achieve cost savings by alternative generation means or by more efficient utilization of existing equipment the savings would be spread over 48 other villages. The regional utility would only spread the savings over 8 villages. The formation of a regional utility could include means for price differences in more efficient villages. This would introduce a vital cost-benefit relationship not now present. 5. The board of AVEC is structurally weak because of its wide geographic distribution. Little or no contact between members occurs other than at board meetings. And board meetings are held in Anchorage where more than one board member feels out of place and leary to stand firm on a village's demand for better service. Currently the study villages are part of several regional organizations including: OTZ telephone cooperative, NANA Regional Housing, Authority, Mauneluk Association, Northwest Arctic School District and Northwest Arctic Coastal Resource Service Area. All are run well and very acceptable to regional residents. In addition all the village corporations in NANA regions have merged with the highly successful NANA Regional Corporation to achieve goals they individually could not. It is a model of success. There is every reason to believe that a regional electric utility would be responsive to the study villages needs. 6. Standardization of equipment does not exist, however well striven for, in the current AVEC system. It would be an intial objective of a regional utility. Parts inventories and mechanic and operator training would be significantly reduced by standardization. Spare units could also be kept 357, in stock in Kotzebue or rebuilt there for reuse later. 7. Coal deposits at Chicago Creek, south of Kotzebue, are being investigated as a source of fuel for electric generation. The feasibility of using the coal would be increased significantly if one organization could negotiate and plan for purchase and utilization of it for electric generation. All planning, mining and transportation decisions will be made in Kotzebue. All the decision makers are represented there (Arctic Lighterage, NANA which owns the land, KEA which will use the coal) except AVEC. The existing KEA cooperative has the operating management and technical staff nucleus to expand to a regional system. The regional system would not need to withstand the start-up costs associated with a new operation. OTZ telephone cooperative has operated successfully as a regional phone utility for over 4 years. It is managed and operated by permanent NANA region residents. The advantages of a regional electric utility are seemingly many. The exact balance of them with their associated costs requires careful study. There are legal and financial details that must be addressed. This study should be made for the following reasons: 1. The response in the three study villages to what their preference was as to electric utility operation was overwhelmingly regional. 2. The NANA Regional Strategy planning project funded by the State of Alaska and HUD has recommended regional utility study. 3. The NANA Region Overall Economic Development Plan Strategy for Development goals are: Create a multiplier effect in the regional economy via import substitution (which in this case would be personnel), and only encourage developments which lend themselves to local control. 4. Increasing capitalization for the study village utilities will be likely to come from State funds. The region has clear representation of its interests in the legislative via its elected legislators. AVEC does not enjoy the same coherency in legislative matters. 358 : ‘Cold clits Community freezer/cold storage facilities are gaining social acceptance in remote Alaskan villages due to the economic realities of high electrical rates in a subsistence oriented society. Many families cannot afford to store all the food that they can gather or barter; yet when staples are needed, they are unavailable or too expensive to buy locally. Therefore any freezer/cooler storage facility that combines reliability of operation and security for stored goods with low operational costs enables the family to be less dependant on imported food stock and makes subsistance living a viable possibility. According to a design completed by Jimmy N. Anderson (Architect) and reviewed by EDS Consulting Engineers (Electrical/Mechanical), a 46' by 50' facility for the village of Selawik, Alaska would require less than 35,000kwh per year for year round operation. This facility will supply 20 cubic feet of freezer space and 20 cubic feet of cold storage space for each of 100 families. This design contends that: "COST PER USER will be lower than a standard home freezer for each family because: The centralized freezer space will gain less heat than individual freezer units, due to a more favorable volume/surface area ratio. An economy of scale will be realized from operating larger equipment, and will result in less maintenance. Enhanced insulation of the total building envelope will reduce heat gain to a minimum and further lower total operating cost for the village. DEPENDABILITY Dependability of frozen storage will be increased in part because the stored thermal mass of the frozen material will lessen the chance of catastrophic failure of the facility. Enhanced insulation will reduce heat gain. A backup compressor mechanical system will be supplied in case of breakdown of the primary system. 359 At an outside temperature of 60°F., a) A full freezer with only one compressor operational could be maintained indefinitely, as long as no new material were added. 2.) A full freezer with no compressors operational would take 15 days to rise to 32°F, and no significant spoilage would result for at least a month, provided no new material were added and doors remained closed as much as possible. AVAILABILITY OF MORE FREEZER SPACE/USER FAMILY 20 cubic feet of freezer space/family will be available, for a total of 1932 cubic feet of freezer space. The average home freezer is currently 15 cubic feet. AVAILABILITY OF NON-FROZEN STORAGE 2222.92 cubic feet of non-frozen storage space will be available--approximately 20 cubic feet per family. Non- frozen storage space is currently unavailable." : : E Cost Estimated costs for Engineering and Construction are $263,000. The salary of a part time plant operator is estimated to be $100 per week and yearly maintenance costs are estimated to be 10% of operating costs. If operating a community facility is compared to operating 100 individual 15 cubic foot freezers, the monitory advantage of a community facility is apparent; since the present worth and operational costs are approximately half. Cc = ividual F to 1. Purchase price approximately $500 x 100 = $50,000 2. Assume a 20 year life with an average of one $50 repair per freezer. Repairs - $5,000 3. Assume freezers are used 9 months per year at 100kwh per month each. Cost for, power - 100kwh/mo x 9mo/yr x 20yr x $.45/kwh x (1+.035) x 100 units = $1,611,729 4. Present worth of power $1,611,729/(1.030)29 = $892,375 5. Total present worth $(50,000 + 5,000 +892,375) = $947,375 360 6. Average yearly operation cost in terms of today's money $947,375/20yr = $47,369/yr 7. Cost per year per family $47,396/yr x 1/100 = $473.69/yr C -c¢ ; 2 /Cold_st Pacili 1. Purchase price - $263,000 2. Salary - $5,200/yr x 20yr = $104,000 3. Power cost 20 35,000kwh/yr x 20yr x $.45/kwh x (1+.035) = $626,783 4. Present worth of er $626 ,783/ (1+.030) = $347,035 5. Repairs (20yr) 10% x ($104,000 + $347,035) = $45,104 6. Total present worth $(104,000 + 347,035 + 45,104) = $496,139 7. Average yearly operation cost in terms of today's money $496 ,139/20yr $24,807 8. Cost per year per family $24,807/yr x 1/100 = $248.07/yr Impact The plant operator will be the one person who will make a community freezer/cold storage plant a viable alternative to individual home units. He will have to posses a combination of mechanical, structural, refrigeration and electrical skills. In addition he will be required to control access to the plant in order to prevent accidents (such as a small child being locked in the freezer), vandalism and theft. The amount of skill, work and social interface required for this position (coupled with low pay) could discourage most qualified village residents from applying. A life style change would be required by most village residents that choose to use the community facility in place of a home unit. Since access to the facility would most likely be limited to a few hours each day, significant planning for menus would be required by residents so that a full day's rations could be with-drawn in one visit. The collection of user fees, replacement parts buying, electric bill paying, replacement parts and tools purchasing as well as accounting and payroll will have to be added to the tasks currently shared by city administration members. 361 only 3%) saves 3.5 KW that is reflected in higher consumer voltage, lower generator loading and fuel consumption, which in turn should lead to lowered utility rates after the cost of the new feeder is amortized. In the above example, the feeder loss was calculated at nearly full load; if for example it is assumed that the average year round load draws only 45 Amps, the average loss in the feeder will be 287 watt hour/hour or 2,514kwh per year. This represents $1,131.30 lost (@ $.45 per KWH) in this single feeder alone. The cost to increase the feeder to a 3% voltage drop at full load would be approximately $5,600 for materials, $800 for shipping and $4,800 for labor. This upgraded feeder would have 1/4 the resistance of the original, which would in turn have 1/16 the losses of the original. Estimat Amortizati a The cost to upgrade this system could be amortized within 10 years. The present worth savings would be $12,169.92 for a 20 year life. Power conserved over this period would be 47,139kwh. 1. Installation - 0 2. Power lost (20 yr) -287kwh/h x 24h/day x 365day/yr x 20 yr = 50,282kwh 3. Cost of power lost $.45/kwh x 50,282kwh x (1.035)29 = $45,022.75 4. Present worth $45 ,022.75/(1.030)29 = $24,928.01 Cost-Upgraded System (20 yr life) ise Installation - $5,600 + $800 + $4,800 = $11,200 2. Power lost (20 yr) (1/16) x 50,282.4kwh = 3,143kwh 3. Cost of power lost 20 $.45/kwh x 3,143kwh x (1.035) = $2,814.26 4. Present worth of power lost $2,814.26/ (1.030) = $1,558.19 5. Total present worth $11,200 + $1,558.19 = $12,758.19 Reference: 1978 National Electric Code Handbook. Wilford I. Summers (Editor), National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Mass. 362 ri Ener The basic principles of electrical energy management are not complicated. They require very little more understanding than the obvious. ENERGY USING EQUIPMENT SHOULD BE TURNED OFF WHEN IT IS NOT BEING USED. A problem arises when people depend on themselves to do the turning on and off. Being human, many are not dependable enough or have the time to do this efficiently. In some cases there is no way of knowing when equipment may be turned off and not interrupt the operation of business. There are situations when the timing to turn a load off becomes very critical in terms of realized savings. The common terms used to identify types of systems to be used in energy management control are listed below and will be elaborated on in the following paragraphs. 1) SCHEDULING 2) NIGHT SETBACK 3) DUTY CYCLING 4) DEMAND LOAD LEVELING Scheduling is the automatic turning on and off of several loads so they are on only when needed. A good example of scheduling is plugging a coffee-maker into a pre-set alarm clock so the coffee will be ready when you awake in the morning. This saves energy over making the coffee and leaving it plugged in all night. This example may seem obvious, but many situations are this uncontrolled. Scheduling in industrial, retail and commercial buildings is a bit more complicated, but the theory is the same. A modern scheduling device will have several channels which can be separately programmed to different on and off times during day or night, and each day can have separate on/off times. Many units also offer a completely different program for holidays. Night setback is usually applied to systems where loads are grouped together and all are either in the day-time mode or night setback mode. These systems are normally timed by a single clock which controls the system's mode. Modern units contain other very important features. First, the entire system should not be turned on at the same time. The loads are sequenced on in discrete time intervals to minimize electrical power demand requirements. Second, to avoid the building getting too cold or too hot during non-business hours, high and low limit controls are provided to sequence the cooling/heating system on if the temperature limits are exceeded. Third, an override timer may be mounted next to any thermostat. This would allow personnel to work in specific areas without heating or cooling the entire building. 363 Duty cycling is the turning on and off of loads at a fixed rate to achieve only a percentage of total on time. The time period of each cycle is very short (between 5 to 30 minutes) when compared with scheduling or night setback. Control units contain separate and isolated duty cycle timers. Each is adjustable over a variable time base. A second control adjusts the percentage of on-time from 10% to 90%. An excellent application for duty cycling is ventilation fans. Most are over-designed for the room or building in which they are installed, and can easily be cycled without any loss of effectiveness. However, some larger motors should not be cycled too frequently. Some manufacturers recommend their motors not be restarted more than a few times an hour. If concerned, check the manufacturer's specifications of the motor. Demand load leveling pertains to the method power companies charge the larger users for the power they consume. An extreme example is a building that uses a large amount of power for only one hour out of each day and none for the remainder of the day. The power company would have to be capable of supplying the peak power required for building operation 24 hours a day, if used or not. As a result, power companies have developed a "DEMAND" type meter with a separate scale for monitoring peak power usage. The meter wil average the amount of power used over short periods (usually 15 or 30 minutes) causing the meter reading to increase to that point. Each month the meter is read and manually reset to zero. A demand factor is then applied to the electric bill based on the highest usage of power within any demand interval occurring during the past month. These charges are in addition to the charges for each kilowatt-hour of energy used. This illustrates the importance of limiting the heavy usage of electrical power, even for short periods, since the entire monthly bill is inflated by a demand factor. Units are designed to limit power peaks by monitoring the incoming current to a building. A "target" set-point is established causing non-essential loads to be shed when it is exceeded. Loads are shed in sequence as long as power usage is over the target point, but will only be shed a preset amount of time out of each 15 minute period. Installed and adjusted properly, this device will effectively limit the peak demand. Estimated Savings It is very difficult to accurately predict the amount of savings to be realized on any particular installation. Many factors must be considered which vary in different environments. Also, it will depend on how poorly energy has been managed in the past, as well as the thought that went into the design of the building electrical systems. In the village environment, it is reasonable to assume that savings will range from 10 to 30% in larger public and commercial structures. 364 Llati ; . The original installation and maintenance of energy Management systems should be performed by an electrician or electrical technician in order to achieve a proper component interface. The ability to use voltmeters, ammeters, and watt meters is required in order to optimize system performance. Once a system is properly set up, the resident needs only to reset clocks that lose time due to commercial power interruptions. Envi m. 1_ Impact None 365 Feeder Line Losses Article 215-2(C) of the 1978 National Electrical Code recommends that feeder wire voltage drop be limited to 3% of the supply voltage applied to that feeder. This recommendation is not mandatory design criterion for designers or contractors, but is recommended good practice. Utility companies are not bound by the Code at all. Excessive voltage drop experienced in feeders has a double negative effect on an electrical system. First, the 7 branch circuits being fed by the feeder may not receive the line voltage required to operate appliances or fixtures connected as loads. Second, the voltage drop in the feeder multiplied by the current flowing through it is nearly equal to a loss in watts of power (assumming a high power factor). In general, the percentage of voltage dropped in feeders is proportional to the percentage of power not available to the consumer; but is lost as heat in the feeders. In the village environment utility feeders are often overloaded; i.e., are much too small for the number of consumers being served. The losses in these feeders can be (and often are) considerable. Field measurements will indicate which feeders should be enlarged to more efficiently supply power to the consumers, since the power lost in the feeders is paid for through higher utility rates. Example of loss in f Assume the voltage being supplied by a transformer to a 4/0 aluminum feeder is 115/230VAC. The feeder is 1000 ft long and the voltage at the pedestal being served is 100/200VAC due to consumer demand. TRANSFORMER. PEDESTAL 4/0 - 2/0- 4/0 (Al) oe 1000 FEET SUBFEEDERS TO USERS EEDER NGLE N Looking at the 230VAC part of the circuit only, the voltage drop is 30 VAC or 13%. The resistance of 4/0 aluminum wire is 0.0836 ohms per 1000 ft. The total two way conductor resistance in this circuit is then .167 ohms. A voltage drop of 30 volts indicates a line current of approximately 30V/.167 ohm = 180 Amps. This current represents a loss of nearly 4.6 KW ina system with a power factor of .85. This loss represents 13% of the 35.2 KW produced by the transformer, leaving only 30.6 KW for the consumer. By increasing the feeder size, (so that the voltage drop is 366