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Reconnaissance Report...Water Resouces 1952
ALASKA A RECONNAISSANCE REPORT ON THE POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE WATER RESOURCES IN THE PoRBBITORY. OP. ALASKA” FOR IRRIGATION, POWER PRODUCTION AND OTHER BENEFICIAL USES JANUARY 1952 Street scene in Anchorage, largest city in Alaska Is M A Reconnaissance Report on the Potential Development of Water Resources in the Territory of Alaska for Irrigation, Power Production and Other Beneficial Uses By THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR : J Oscar L. Capmany, Secretary ” SponsoreD By AnD PREPARED UNDER THE GENERAL SUPERVISION OF im THE BurEAu oF RECLAMATION mn Micuaet W. Straus, Commissioner ALASKA DISTRICT OFFICE Joseru M. Moreay, District Manager JANUARY 1952 L \ HOUSE DOCUMENT 197 82p Concress, First Session ly X Jxo- 3095 00502988 4 Contents LETTERS OF TRANSMITTAL Letter of July 3, 1951, from the Acting Secretary of the Interior to the Speaker of the House . . Letter of March 8, 1951, from the Secretary of the Interior to the President Letter of March 1, 1951, from the Acting Com- missioner of Reclamation to the Secretary of the Interior PROPOSED REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR Letter of May 20, 1949, from the Commissioner of Reclamation to the Secretary of the Interior . Letter of February 15, 1949, from the Secretary of Alaska to the Commissioner of Reclamation . REPORT OF THE CHIEF, ALASKA INVESTIGATIONS OFFICE Letter of May 2, 1949, from the Chief, Alaska Investigations Office to the Commissioner of Reclamation... ..........2..- Transmittal Authority forthe Report... . 2... 0... Cooperation and Acknowledgement. .... . Basic Premise TheLandandthe Peoplee .......... Present Development. ........... Future Development Conclusions SUBSTANTIATING MATERIALS Chapter I. Purpose oF THE REPORT Chapter II, THE LAND AND THE PEoPLE. . . , Physical Land Characteristics... . . . Geologic History. ........... Regions and River Basins. ...... . Climate... .........2.28.4 Exploration Settlement Population Political History and Government .. . . Chapter III. Present DEVELOPMENT. .. . . Fisheries Inland and Local Fish of Utilitarian Value The Fisheries Industry Today... . Page eee Pr owunoon oOo cs 17 23 23 24 26 27 29 31 32 35 41 41 42 43 Chapter IIJ—Continued Wildlife Resources. 2. 2... 2. 1 we Minerals and Mining. ......... Timber Products. ...... Agriculture... 2... ee Agriculture Follows Other Develop- ments ........-6-220 5 Acreage and Crops. ........ Crop Yields... ......... Livestock. ©. 2... 2. L. . Farm Production by Regions... . Progress Since 1989 ....... Value of Production in 1946... . . Reindeer in Alaska’s Agricultural Picture. .........28. Wholesale and Retail Trade... ... . Manufacturing ............ Transportation and Communication Air Transportation. ...... Land Transportation. ....... Highways ete ee Railways Water Transportation Ocean Navigation River Navigation Communication ............ Power Supply and Markets. ..... . Power Production Facilities Power Requirements Electric Rates Recreation ............ Land Ownership Chapter IV. A Loox at Tomorrow The Next 10 years Fisheries .. 2... 2... ee Wildlife Resources Processing and Manufacturing. . . . Minerals and Mining. .........- Nonmetallics Metallics Timber Products Agriculture Increased Production Through Irriga- tion . Fertilizers Essential for Economic Pro- duction. .. 2... ...08. Gap Between Supply and Demand. . Vv PPD oO ODD Ore oe Seosooocse DWOAASDT sa Re OO wmaownr aononrnu 86 100 101 102 Chapter V. Usina THE WaTER . Chapter IV—Continued Agricult ure—Continued Competitive Position of Alaska Farm- ers . - + © © 8 Estimates of Potential Acreage Differ . Location of Agricultural Areas. ; Usefulness of Data From Other Arctic Countries. ... . Aa Possibilities for Export . . Development of Reindeer Industry . Climate of Agricultural Districts . Manufacture, Commerce and Trade Labor Force . Utilities a Domestic and Commercial Require- ments ....... Agricultural Use . Industrial Use . . Military Requirements . Load Forecast. . Transportation i, Air Transportation. . : Land Transportation. . . Water Transportation Recreation lolol The Next Century . “Agricultural Adequacy of Basin Source Material Special Engineering Problems . . Irrigation . Drainage . . Flood Control . J fell le Ib] elle Navigation... 2... 2... 2. 7 . Municipal and Industrial Water Supplies . Power Wels le Southeastern Region le) ie lel lel lel bile te Ketchikan Area... ... Davis River Site. . . . Wilson River Site ....... Punchbowl Creek Site. . . . . . Granite Creek Site. ...... Manzanita-Ella-Fish Creeks Site . Grace Creek Site. . . . Orchard Creek Site... . 2... Swan Lake Site ....... Reynolds Creek Site . . Willard Inlet Site. Wrangell Area. . . . . . Tyee Creek Site. ....... Harding River Site. . . Stikine River Site ....... Cascade Creek Site... .... Scenery Creek Site. ...... Page 104 107 108 108 109 109 110 110 115 116 116 117 118 119 119 120 120 122 122 124 126 131 131 131 132 133 133 134 134 134 137 138 138 140 140 140 140 141 141 141 142 142 142 142 142 142 142 143 ALASKA Chapter V—Continued Southeastern Se Tu Sitka Area Maksoutof Riv er ‘Site. Brentwood Creek Site Blue Lake Site. . . Takatz Creek Site . Angoon Area ale Hasselborg River ‘Site. Thayer Creek Site . . Kathleen Creek Site . Juneau Area. . . : Sweetheart Falls Creek Site . Tease Creek Site. . Speel River Site . . Crater Creek Site . . Long River Site . . . Dorothy Creek Site Carlson Creek Site. . Antler River Site. . . Endicott River Site Taiya River Sites . . . Whiting, Taku, Chilkoot, Chilkat, and - Alsek Rivers. . Perera South-Central Region. . . Gulf of Alaska Area . . Copper River Basin ... . Tazlina River Storage Site Klutina River Storage Site Chitina River Site. .... a Je Nizina River Site. . 2... .. Copper River Site No. 1 (Wood Canyon Site) i elle Copper River Site No. 2 Power Creek Basin . Duck River Basin . . Resurrection River Basin . . Cook Inlet Area. 2. 2. 2... Kasilof River Basin. Kenai River Basin. . . Kenai Lake Site . . Sixmile Creek Basin . . Eklutna Creek Basin. . .. . Matanuska River Basin. . . . Caribou Creek Sites ...... Matanuska River Site No. 1. . . Rush Lake Site ..... Matanuska River Site No. 2, Susitna River Basin 1% Susitna River Site No. 1 Susitna River Site No.2... Susitna River Site No. 3 (Devil Canyon Site) ........ Talkeetna River Site No.1... Page 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 145 145 146 146 146 146 147 147 147 147 148 148 148 150 150 150 150 152 152 152 152 152 153 153 153 153 153 155 155 155 156 156 156 156 156 157 157 157 157 158 158 158 CONTENTS Chapter V—Continued South-Central Region—Continued Susitna River Basin—Continued Talkeetna River Site No. 2 Talkeetna River Site No. 3 Sheep River Site . Beluga River Basin. Chakachatna River Basin . Cook Inlet Tidal Power Southwestern Region. . . is Basins Southwest of Egekik Basin : Egekik River Basin. . Naknek River Basin . Kvichak River Basin . Nushagak River Basin . . Togiak River Basin. . Yukon-Kuskokwim Region Kuskokwim River Basin Kuskokwim River Site . Yukon River Basin... . Upper Yukon River Area. . White River Basin . Fortymile River Basin . Eagle-Circle Development. Yukon Flats Area . Porcupine River Basin . Chandalar River Basin . Rampart Site . Tanana River Basin ete Chisana River Basin... . Nabesna River Basin . Nenana River Basin . Main Stem of Tanana River and Other Tributaries Lower Yukon River Area... ... Seward Peninsula Region. . . Koyuk River Basin. . . . Fish River Basin. ......... Kuzitrin River Basin. . . Salmon Lake Site. . . Tuksuk Site . Kiwalik River Basin . . Arctic Region . . . Kobuk River Basin Noatak River Basin Colville River Basin . . . Chapter VI. WeattH FROM WATER Gross Returns . Further Investigations Chapter VII. ProGRaMs OF CooOPERATING in TERESTS : vest Alaska Department ‘of ‘Agriculture a Southeastern Alaska. ...... Southwestern Alaska. ...... Page 158 159 159 159 159 159 160 160 160 160 160 162 162 162 162 163 163 166 166 166 166 166 166 166 168 168 168 168 168 171 171 171 172 “172 172 172 174 174 174 174 175 175 181 182 182 185 185 185 186 Chapter VII—Continued Alaska Department of Agriculture—Con. Kenai Peninsula Anchorage Area Matanuska Valley . Tanana Valley . Permafrost : Aids to Farm Settlement and Devel- opment . Alaska Department of Mines . Weather Bureau . . Historical . : Current Activities . . Climate of Alaska. . . General Climatic Controls Climatic Regions. . . The Pacific Drainage . The Bering Coastal Area . Arctic Slope... ... The Interior Valleys ... . Lengthof Days in Alaska... . Climate of Potentially Agricultural Area. 2... Snowfall Deficiencies. . . . Illustrations . Geological Survey . 7m es Water Resources Investigations sr Surface-Water Investigations . Ground-Water Investigations . Quality of Water Investigations . . Mineral Deposits. ae Topographic Mapping . . Aerial Photography Ground Control . Program River Surveys. . Office of Indian Affairs—Aleska Service... ... Distribution of Population. Native Population as Labor Supply. Educational Services . . Medical Services. . . Land Ownership and Wes q Agriculture . Mines. . Sawmills Fishing ...... Wildlife Resources . . Manufacturing ees Wholesale and Retail. . . . . Utilities Immediate Program . . . Long-Range Program Native VII Page 186 186 186 186 187 188 193 194 211 212 214 214 214 214 215 215 216 217 217 218 218 218 219 219 219 223 223 224 225 225 225 226 226 226 227 227 227 228 229 230 230 231 232 232 232 233 233 233 234 VIII Chapter VIJ—Continued Office of Indian Affairs—Continued Investigation Program . ; Land Ownership and Use . Agriculture . ] Minerals and Mining . Timber Products . Fisheries . . . : Wildlife Resources : Manufacturing . . Wholesale and Retail Trade . Utilities Markets. Recreation Power ... elk Fish and Wildlife Service ae Authority and Functions . Current Organization, Responsibilities, and Activities . . . Future Plans and Estimated Costs - Management Investigative Program . Wildlife. . Restoration of Wildlife to Former Ranges... . Stocking of Native Species Management of Introduced Ani- mals . . Wildlife Threatened ‘by “Extine- tion. . . eo Migratory Waterfowl . 2a Sea Mammals. . . Harvest of Wildlife . Utilization of Game and Fur Re- sources . Research is Good “Business, Bureau of Land Management ...... Alaska’s Lands. : Land Ownership, Present Use, and Suitability for Agriculture . South Central Alaska Region : Anchorage-Cordova Division. . . . Anchorage Area . Wasilla Area. . 2 . . Matanuska Valley . . Kenai Peninsula Division . . Kenai Peninsula . Kenai River Area . . . Yukon-Kuskokwim Region . . . Tanana River Division . Big Delta—Goodpaster Area = mates). . Salcha River Area (estimates) . Chena — Fairbanks Area (esti- mates) . sees ts Page Nnnnnwnywy,w WWWwww Or Or Or Or Gr Gr No bw ww am 236 236 236 236 237 237 238 238 239 239 240 240 241 241 241 241 241 241 242 242 243 246 247 247 247 247 247 248 248 248 248 249 249 249 249 249 250 ALASKA Chapter VIJ—Continued Yukon-Kuskokwim Region—Continued Tanana River Division—Continued Nenana — Fairbanks Area (esti- mates) . Dunbar Area (from tentative Soil Conservation Service data) Forestry and Fire Control . Bureau of Mines . 7 Alaska Road Commission . Future Development . . Public Roads Administration. . Alaska Communication System. . 1. Mission. 2. Organization and Operation . 3. Facilities of ACS. : 4. Improvement to ACS Services Dur- ing the Period of July 1947 to July 1948 by New Installations. : 5. Improvement of Existing Services . Alaska Railroad . Acetylene. . Alabaster . - Antimony. . . Beidellite . . Beef . . Berries . . Blocks . . Bricks. . . Canneries . eet he te Produce Drier. . . . . . Financial Institutions. . Fish Waste . . Foundry Graphite Hotels Ice Plant . . Insulation Lead... .. Leather. . . . Machine Shop . Oil Reclaiming Roadhouses. . . + Smoked Salmon . Smelter. . . Wallboard—Asbestos . Wood National Park Service Civil Aeronautics Administration. Agriculture . Mining. . . Miscellaneous. ....... Summary Alaska Department of Health . Forest Service Page NNWN Dy ny oro or or or Or PADD > & CONTENTS TI-— tinued Chapter V [T[—Con "Tongass National Forest, Southeast Alaska. Place of the Timber Industry in Re- gional Development . . : Physical and Climatic Features of ‘the Region . Population Timber Resources . ; Volume of Standing Timber . Character of the Forest . Overmature Timber Mature Timber ; Young Growth Timber . Timber Uses ; Western Hemlock (isuga heterophylla) . Sitka Spruce (pieea sitehensis) . Western Red Cedar (thuya plicata). Alaska Cedar (chamaecyparis noot- katensis) Serub . Muskeg Silvicultural Features Jt Water Power Resources ...... Limestone and Coal ...... Logging Methods and Costs. . . Existing Forest Industries Forest Management Policy . . . Objectives Timber-Use Policies aH Preservation of Scenic and Recrea- tional Values... . 2... General Conditions Applying to Large Timber Sales Ae Chugach National Forest— Prince William Sound and Kenai .......... National Forest Administration lela Principal Provisions of the Sale Agree- ment Covering the Recently Awarded Ketchikan Pulptimber Unit. . . U.S. Department of Agriculture—Agricul- tural Development in Alaska .... . Livestock and Poultry Other Agricultural Production | Prob- lems . Marketing 2% : Agricultural Services in ‘Alaska Rural Electrification in Alaska .... . The Need for Hydro-Electric Power for Rural Electrification in Alaska. . . Matanuska Electric aie Palmer. . ...4..+%2.-- Kodiak Electric Association, Kodiak . Homer Electric Association, Homer Golden Valley Electric Association, Fairbanks. . . 988410—52. 2 1 a 1 4 8 8 S NNNSN ON OS os 5 8 NVYNNNN Nnnnrr Nuun Aas Www 273 273 273 273 273 273 274 274 274 274 275 275 275 275 275 276 276 276 277 277 280 281 281 282 283 283 283 284 284 284 IX Page Chapter VIJ—Continued Rural Electrification in Alaska—Continued Glacier Highway Electric Association, Auke Bay... . . : 284 Chugach Electric Association, anchor- age .. 284 Letter of 19 Nov ember 1948 ‘from Headquarters Alaskan Command to the Secretary of the Interior. . . . 284 Letter of January 10, 1949, "from Governor of Alaska to Chief, Alaska Investigations Office . 286 Memorandum of January 12, 1949, from the Director of the Alaska Field Committee to the Secretary of the Interior . . ....... 287 Table TABLES No. 1.-Summary of Potential Hydroelectric Power Development by Regions and Areas . . 12 2. Quantities of Specified Agricultural Imports from the United States to Alaska. . . 13 3. Important Streams in Alaska ..... . 28 4. Density of Population ......... 33 5, Summary of Population by Race TE) |e ill ie 33 6. Population of Major Communities . . . 34 7. Summary of Persons Engaged in ‘Alaska’s Fisheries. . . 43 8. Number of Fish Caught by ‘Each Type of Gear... Bl lel a he eed eet 4 | fe 44 9. Fish Freezings it in 1945. Bl lal i Le fe . 44 10. Persons Dependent on Wildlife Resources. : 45 11. Licenses Issued for Hunting and Trapping . 46 12. Furs Shipped from Alaska in 1947... . 47 13. Alaska’s Mineral Production (1880-1947) . 49 14. Volume of Commercial Timber in foe Forest. . 2... 51 15. Forest Volume of Chugach National Forest . 51 16. Sawmill Production Record... . . 54 17. Number of Farms and Type of Operators in 1989. .... Se tt ie loi le] 6] |e ble fe 56 18. Areaof Cropland... ......... 56 19. Major Crop Groups ........-.-- 57 20. Number of Livestock... ......-- 58 21. Value of Farm Crops in 1939 Blt [sr | fet fe 58 22. Value of Agricultural Products in 1946. . 60 23. Value of In-Shipmeuits—United States to Alaska . . . 62 24. Value of Out- Shipments—Alaska ‘to United States || ito] it) sl fot tia pa] fo les (ee! Led fet |] bes 62 25. Highway Distances... . .. +--+: : 66 26. Railway Distances... . --- +--+ 67 27. Water (Ocean) Distance. . . lls 69 28. Estimated Distribution of Population . bla 86 29. United States (excluding Alaska) Imports and Exports of Nonmetallics and Metal- Bh! lls | || i | mt fa | im [el el fal | fot et | el atid) 96 x Table No. Page 30. Alaska Imports and Exports of Nonmetallics and Metallics. . . . 97 . Agricultural Imports (1947) and Estimate of Acreage Required to Produce Products in Alaska... . 105 32. Agricultural Imports (1947) Excluding Im- ports to Southeastern Alaska, and Esti- mated Acreage Required to Produce Prod- ucts in Alaska... .-. + ee es 105 33. Potential Agricultural Areas. . . ui 108 34. Shipments from the United States to Alaska... ... +e bial | || ee 35. Shipments from Alaska to the " United States... . lel el la) 115 36. Estimated Future Load Surv. ey. a el al et (||| ae 37. Estimated Northwest Airlines Passenger Traffic. . 2... . JTL aleteslel [e be| 120 38. Comparative Distances in Ocean-Going Nautical Miles. . . . 126 39. Summary of Potential Hydro-Electric Power Development by Regions and Areas. . 135 40. Summary of Estimated Regulated Stream- flow. .. Hk 135 41. Potential Hy dro-Electric Power Plant. .. 138 42. Average Temperature (Pacific Drainage). . 214 43. Average Monthly Precipitation (Pacific Drainage) . . 214 44. Average Monthly Snowfall (Pacific Drain- age)... . eee 215 45. Average Temperacure (Bering ‘Coastal Area)... allie! | fe 215 46. Average Monthly ’ Precipitation (Bering Coastal Area) . 2 2... ee ee ee 215 47. Average Monthly Snowfall (Bering Coastal AVM cic ke ee i we ts 215 48. Average Monthly Precipitation (Arctic Slope). : 216 49. Average Monthly ‘Snowfall (Arctic Slope) . 216 50. Average Temperature (Interior Valleys) . 216 51. Average Monthly Precipitation (Interior Valleys)... . 216 52. Average Monthly Snowfall ‘(Interior Val- leys) . 2... 216 53. Average Growing Season (Matanuska Val- Fey) js) jal lait] tlle lel |e) lel ish 217 54. Average Monthly "Temperature (Matanuska Valley) ..... . 217 55. Average Growing Season (Interior Valleys) . 217 56. Average Monthly Temperature (Interior Valleys)... . 217 57. Number and Distribution of Gaging Sta- tions... . +) ae) eee bd el fee 222 58. Composition of Population A | [sl feel hal | ol || [oe 59. Accommodations (beds) at Hospitals . ss © 228 ALASKA Table No. Page 60. Comparative Packs in Two Canneries. . . 232 61. Estimate of Funds Needed for Educational and Medical Facilities—1949 Through 1955... 234 62. Alaska’s Mineral Production for Years 1880- 1947... 252 63. Distribution of Road Mileage ; 254 64. Funds Expendable on Forest Highways in Alaska . . . 255 65. Mileage Approved and Improved, by Routes . 255 66. Estimated Employment and Population . 270 67. Estimated Volume of Commercial Timber, Tongass National Forest. 272 MAPS AND CHARTS Potential Agricultural Areas and Potential Power Developments. . facing page 18 Landform Map of Alaska. . . facing page 24 Administrative Chart—Territory of Alaska . . 36 Estimated “Commercial” Reserves as of 1944, in Known Deposits, Compared with 1935-44 Annual Rates of Production and Consump- tion... . 52 United States “Mineral Position—Actual, Im! pending, and Potential... ...... A 52 Alaska Exports and Imports ....... .- 63 Aerial Crossroad of the World . facing page 64 Comparative Costs of Electricity on Domestic Rates—Juneau, Alaska... ......- 73 Comparative Costs of Electricity on Domestic ' Rates—Ketchikan, Alaska ........ 74 j Comparative Costs of Electricity on Domestic Rates—Fairbanks, Alaska. ......-..- 76 Comparative Costs of Electricity on Domestic Rates—Anchorage, Alaska .. . 78 Reserved Land Areas—Territory of “laske + fel || Ie lel e . facing page 80 Alaska Agricultural Map 2 ihith . facing page 108 , Growing Season and Temperature—Data for Selected Stations . . facing page 110 Growing Season Precipitation—Data for Selected Stations. . . facing page 110 Climatic Data for Selected Stations in the Kenai, Susitna, and Matanuska Agricultural Areas . IL el feel ed et Lal Im et I] fa oe facing page 110 Climatic Data for Selected Stations in the Ta- nana Valley Agricultural Area. . . facing page 110 Estimated Annual Production Requisite for Electricity in Vicinity of Ketchikan, Alaska— 1948-68 ....... 121 Estimated Annual Prodhetion Reguremente aie Electricity in Vicinity of Juneau, Alaska— 1948-68 2... 1. 2 ee eee lls 121 CONTENTS Page Load Growth—Anchorage-Palmer Area, 1946-58 Inclusive . . . 121 Estimated Annual Production Requirements for Electricity in Fairbanks, Alaska—1948-68 . 121 Estimated Future Power Requirements—Rail Belt Area (Seward to Fairbanks) 1948-58 . . 122 Alaska Water and Land Transportation Routes... -.. . . facing page 124 Alaska Agricultural Areas and Potential Power Developments. . . . . . facing page 134 Location Map, Southeastern Region—Ketchikan and Wrangell Areas . . . oa 139 Location Map, Southeastern Region—Juneau, Sitka, and Angoon Areas. . . . : 144 Location Map, Yukon-Kuskokwim (Region == Tanana River Basin ....... 149 Location Map, South Central Region—Gulf of Alaska Area. 2 2 2 2 2 2. 151 Location Map, South Central ‘Region—Cook Inlet Area... 2... 2... 2. ; 154 Taiya River Power Project, " Alaska—Reservoir and Power Plants Profile . . . . facing page 156 Location Map—Southwestern Region Sa 161 Location Map, Yukon-Kuskokwim Region— Kuskokwim River Basin . . 165 Location Map, Yukon-Kuskokwim "Region— Upper Yukon River Area. . 2... 2... 167 Location Map, Yukon-Kuskokwim Region— Yukon Flat Area. . 2... . 2... 169 Location Map, Southeastern Region—Taiya River Area. - a 170 Location Map—Seward Peninsula Region. . . 173 Location Map, Arctic Region—Noatak and Kobuk River Basins. ........ 176 oeation Map, Arctic Region—Colville River gC 0 ee ae ee ee 177 laska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—General Farm Crops. ............6. 189 Alaska Natural Resources Utilisation—Indus- trialand Commercial Development—Livestock. 190 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Poultry, Horticultural Crops. . . 2... 2... 191 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Animal and Vegetables Fibers... ...... 3 192 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Iron and Carbon Stell... ........ 195 Alaska Natural Resources Diilisetion “Inga: trial and Commercial Development—Chro- mium, Silicon, Manganese Ferroalloys, and Alloy Steels. 2... ee 196 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Copper, Lead . ; . Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Zinc . Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Mag- nesium, Aluminum . : Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Lime- stone, Lime, Cement and Gypsum. : Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Insula- tion—Building and Electrical, Abrasive Prod- ucts. Fs Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Refrac- tories and Insulators, Bromine and Fluorspar . Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Glass, Enamels. ; Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Ceramic - Products, Salines, Barite. . E Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Hydro- chloric Acid, Chlorine and Caustic Soda, Cal- cium Carbide-Acetylene and Derivatives. . Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Chlorine and Caustic Soda. ee : Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Nitrogen Group, Concentrated Superphosphate, Acid Phosphate . . : Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—From Coal . =e oe : Alaska Natural Resources iilization “Indus trial and Commercial Development—Graphite (natural), From Oil, From Coal . Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Oxygen- Hydrogen - Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide, Acetylene, Synthetic Ammonia . Alaska... ... aoe aos Figure 1. Mean Temperature for January: Figure 2. Mean Temperature for July . Figure 3. Absolute Maximum Temperature for BY CAB tos ee es mene Se pete eee Figure 4. Absolute Mean Temperature for Yer... 5. Figure 5. Number of Days with Treuing "Tem- perature for Year ............ XI Page 197 198 199 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 213 220 220 XII Page Figure 6. Mean Precipitation for Year . . . . = 221 Figure 7. Mean Snowfall for Year . . . . . . 9 221 Figure 8. Average Length of Growing Season, Days. ... eee 221 Figure 9. Juneau, Alaska See eee eee Figure 10. Anchorage, Alaska... .... - 222 Figure 11. Fairbanks, Alaska . ... . ; 222 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Fishery and Sea Food Products. . . . : 244 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Fur Resources, Fish and Game Resources For Food and Sport... . 245 Communication Circuits Operated by. Alaska Communication System. ..... facing page 258 Alaska 7 . facing page 274 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Forest Industries—Mechanical Group ...... 278 Alaska Natural Resources Utilization—Indus- trial and Commercial Development—Forest Portion of Tongass National Forest, Industries—Fiber Group ......... 279 Rural Electrification Administration—Alaska and Virgin Islands. .......... » 285 PHOTOGRAPHS Street scene in Anchorage, largest city in Alaska... . Frontispiece River of ice—Lamplugh Glacier i in | Glacier Bay . 2 The Devil’s Thumb, sharp spine of the Coast : Range near the Stikine River... ... . 8 Aerial view of Anchorage, largest and fastest growing city in the Territory of Alaska. . . 16 Kodiak, oldest existing city in Alaska .... 22 Veniaminof Volcano on the Alaska Peninsula is a possible power source. Power production from volcanic heat has proved practicable in Dialysate re oe oe re oot ete 24 Alaska is a land of topographical] extremes. Mount McKinley (20,300 feet) is highest in the world above its own base. Most of the interior is a vast plateau... . : 25 Valdez, coastal terminus of the Richardson Highway ..... 2... eee eee 26 Skagway, terminus of the White Pass and Yukon Railway Soe eoe eo 7 27 Nome, service center for Northwestern ‘Alaa is served by three airplane lines throughout the year we ee 30 Haines, seaport terminus of the new road to the interior. Haines may boom as gateway to the moth. ..........08. Joe 31 34 35 | ALASKA Page Cordova, Prince William Sound fishing center . 33 Juneau Airport, one of many modern landing fields throughout air-conscious Alaska . Wrangell, gateway to Stikine River, another old community in Southeastern Alaska . Sea-going vessels transport lumber to market . 40 Halibut fishing, an important Alaska industry, employs about 1,200 men and_ produces about $2,000,000 annually in fish and by- products 42 Ketchikan, salmon- packing capital of the wi orld . 43 Petersburg, fur farming center of Southeastern Alaska . . Sa Se Se es eee ae: 44 Male mountain goat. Arrangement on horns is to prevent injury to persons . 45 Caribou bull in corral = ; 45 Red and arctic fox pelts are traded at t the ‘Eskimo cooperative trading store at Point Barrow 46 Feeding foxes on the front porch, Brother's Island oe 47 Idle bulls on Polovina Sookaty: St. ‘Paul Tanai 48 _ Sea otter in kelp bed on Ogliuga Island. Otter is a valuable furcrop. . . eee 48 He’s kneeling on a 2-ton nugget of pure native copper .....-.-+-e-. 49 Oil seep in Chilkat Creek, 1,000 feet from ac h. : 49 Upper Yukon coal beds . ee 50 Evan Jones Coal Co. is one of the Territory’ s big bituminous coal producers. High quality coal is a great undeveloped resource in Alaska . 51 Lumbering in Alaska ee 53 Lumbering is big business for small operators . 54 Copper mine at Nabesna, in the Esper River regio. . 2... we. : : 55 Crisp cabbages weighing as mock as 30. pana are easily grown in Alaska . : 56 Cows in a meadow in Mendenhall V aller: South- eastern Alaska. ....... 57 Strawberry patch at V. C. Spaulding’s | rane h near Juneau. ..... . : 57 Readily accessible waterways sat Guba pat: ts tosawmills ....... 58 Cultivation of rich farm lands isa boosted the population of Palmer from zero in 1930 to 1,500 inl948........... : 59 Grade A dairy barn in Matanuska Valley . . 60 “Bush pilots’ are indispensable to the economy of Alaskans who are termed the flyingest peo- ple under the American flag odiek 65 One of the several Diesel Streamliners in service on the Alaska Railroad. . . 67 Mount McKinley from mile 202 of réadbed newly improved under the expansion program . 68 heen CONTENTS River steamers are operated on the Yukon and Tanana Rivers by the Alaska Railroad . Freight being unloaded from ships in Skagway Harbor . : teri Existing power dev elopment : near Juneau ; Tanker engines supply electricity to Anchorage. Alaska's power potential is less than 1 per cent developed . : : Camera-compelling scenery is common in ‘Alaska. Entering Rudyerd Bay—3,380-foot cliffs form part of Punchbowl Cove Harding Gateway leading to Sew ard ae Angling near Cove Bay . : Camping at Tolstoi Bay. Possibilities are un- surpassed for developing year-round recrea- tion : Prize-winning display at Matanuska Valley Fair, showing wide variety and remarkable size of Alaska farm produce . : Indian women cleaning salmon at "Metlakatla. Salmon by-products now wasted are worth millions of dollars a year Indian cannery at Klawock . al la [4 Prospecting is hard work and uncertain of re- wards but vital to the Nation . a) /a| fal | ke More prospecting. Prime needs are access roads and an incentive system . : Juneau gold mill, Alaska’s biggest lode operation . Gold placer mining with dredge and hydraulic stream. Gold is Alaska’s second major indus- try. $}\ a] fel) isl le] ie Hydraulic placer operation. thirsty business in Alaska . me 7 Frozen ground being cold-water thawed ‘for dredging A billion board feet of lnehtlde! a year could be harvested in perpetuity . a) | lad |e Timber that falls and rots—millions in . wealth lost forever . ial |h Sawmills utilize only ¢ a fraction of the potential forest yield Homestead near Moose Creek dhdwing the hard labor required to clear the land : Ultimate reward: farm typical of most in Ma- tanuska Valley 7 7 Chopping and storing ensilage for winter feeding of cattle on Alaska farm. . . . Typical high yield of Arctic beedting Whentoae Ten-weeks’ growth of white clover from seed near Fairbanks . lle halls fall fot | el [a Swedish-style hay-curing near Palmer. Mod- ern equipment is eit to supplant this method. . . University of Alaska campus ‘at Fairbanks Gold mining is a Page 69 70 71 ~I bw 79 80 80 81 84 87 88 91 91 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 Hundreds of thousands of reindeer could thrive on the 200,000 square miles of Alaska tundra, considered unsuitable for other purposes. Eskimos and Aleuts are instinctive boat builders. Instinctive boat-building skill of Eskimos and Aleuts can become the basis for the establish- ment of small commercial enterprises . Indian totem at Kaasan . Native carvers at work on a 55- “foot totem. Their skills would be highly adaptable to spe- cialty furniture making . : : Southeastern Indians readily acquire mechanical and manual skills at eat School in Sitka . Hl Southeastern Indians working on an automobile motor at the Edgecumbe School in Sitka . . Youths learning to operate lathes at the Edge- cumbe School in Sitka . Air-conscious Alaskans fly in all weather, with wheels, skis, flying boats or amphibians, de- pending on conditions Alaska’s rails meet the sea at Seward. Whittier, port of entry on the Kenai Peninsula, - linked by the Alaska Railroad with Fair- banks ... World-record brown bear, killed at Cold ‘Bay, May 28, 1948 . Proposed multi-use dam at ‘Ramparts on the Yukon... A dam at Wood Canyon o on Copper River with a dam at Ramparts, would produce more firm power than Hoover and Coulee combined . . Salmon derby participants and their catch— part of Alaska’s allure for a tourist business expected to reach $100,000,000 annually . . Fairbanks, the “golden heart of Alaska,’ is subject to recurring flood damage . : Willard Inlet, near the International boundary. Constricted alternating tidal currents may be a potential power source Upstream view of dam site on Stikine River, potential source of power for timber products industries . Upstream view of ‘Chickamin River, another potential source of power for timber Pl industries . : i Sweetheart Lake in Southeastern Alaska is an important source of water for potential pro- duction of hydro-electric energy . . . Blue Lake in Southeastern Alaska, another source of water for potential en of hydro-electric energy . le ak Aerial view of Lake Dorothy near Juneau, a potential source of power for Southeastern Alaska . XII Page 110 lll 111 116 117 118 119 119 123 124 126 127 128 128 130 140 141 141 XIV Aerial view of Great Falls on Baranoff Island, another potential source of power for South- eastern Alaska 1} Ha ell A small dam at Miles Canyon Hadnstee in Y ia Territory near White Horse, would create a multi-lake reservoir having 500 square miles of surface area it aie Potential damsite on the Metunuske River ‘aan Potential damsite on the Susitna River. This and other sites in the rail belt area have im- pressive power possibilities ; ; Damsite near Georgetown, Alaska, on el wim River. A reservoir here would have great power possibilities Damsite at mile 356 on Nenana River Sitka and Japonski Island, one of the oldest com- munities in Southeastern Alaska . Juneau, capital of Alaska . Page 147 148 158 159 163 164 180 184 ALASKA Dog teams travel to regions otherwise inacces- sible . | Natives use skin boat with outboard ‘motor ‘for transportation between islands 1] irk fe Reindeer at abattoir near Teller. Low cost power is essential for providing adequate cold storage facilities . Shrimp trawl operations Alaska... . A haul of herring in | Shelikoff Strait ; Fur seals flourish at the rookery at St. Paul, Alaska . . Seal skins are salted, ‘shipped to ‘the States ‘for tanning, then returned to furriers in Alaska for templating, cutting, and sewing into finished garments . : Alaskan furrier cutting seal skins to be: sew wed i into garments . . Skiing facilities near r Anchorage near Petersburg, Page } 228 243 265 Se A LN eA RNR et O80: * A OEE OR ee: renee nem once -e0e te CE RET RFR Letters of Transmittal “The place of Alaska in our present stage of devel- opment is most significant in two respects. It ts important as an area for expansion and as a source of raw and finished materials. It is important, secondly, in any consideration of national security and defense of the United States. It is interesting to note that the military authorities feel that the military works being constructed in Alaska, however modern they may be, are not sufficient to provide local security or protection to the United States. Alaska must have more people, more railroads, more farms, more industries.”” Ang saonpay we tarvonypyy yhnydung— yn fo moony Letters of Transmittal UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY WASHINGTON 25, D. C. Jury 3, 1951. My pear Mr. Speaker: Transmitted herewith for the information of the Congress is my report on a recon- naissance of the potentialities for development of the water and related resources of the Territory of Alaska. The report was prepared under the sponsorship of the Bureau of Reclamation, with participation by other agencies interested in the development of Alaska, under authority of provisions in recent Interior Department Appropriation Acts, which authorized “. . . engineer- ing and economic investigations, as a basis for legisla- tion, and for reports thereon to Congress, relating to projects for the development and utilization of the water resources of Alaska . . .” The report cites the need for the initiation of a pro- gram for detailed investigations of the potentialities for development of the water and related resources in Alaska. The report was submitted to the President, and the Director of the Bureau of the Budget has advised as follows: “We consider the subject report as revised to be a reconnaissance inventory of conditions, problems, potentialities, and apparent trends in Alaska with suggestions for developments which possibly might be undertaken sometime in the future as may be determined by more thorough investigations and detailed studies. It is understood that it is now proposed to transmit this report to the Congress only for its general information and not asa request for legislation or authorization of projects. On that basis there would be no objection to trans- mittal of the report to the Congress.” Because of the widespread interest in the develop- ment of Alaska, it is recommended that the report be printed as a Congressional Document. Sincerely yours, (Signed) Wiu1am E. Warne, Acting Secretary of the Interior. Hon. Sam Raysurn, Speaker of the House of Representatives, Washington 25, D. C. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY WASHINGTON 25, D. C. Marcu 8, 1951. My Dear Mr. Presiwent: Enclosed is the report of the Department of the Interior on a reconnaissance of the potentialities for development of the water and re- lated resources in the Territory of Alaska, prepared by the Bureau of Reclamation under authority of pro- visions in recent Interior Department Appropriation Acts, which authorized “... engineering and eco- nomic investigations, as a basis for legislation, and . reports thereon, relating to projects for the devel- opment and utilization of the water resources of Alaska . .” The report of the Commissioner of Reclamation has been approved and adopted as the report of the Department of the Interior. Copies of an earlier draft of the enclosed report were sent to the Governor of Alaska, the Secretary of the Army, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Chairman of the Federal Power Commission, and the Director, Of- fice of Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. for their information and comments. The report has now been revised, taking into consideration the con- structive comments received from these agencies. The report contains recommendations for the initi- ation of a program for a detailed investigation of the development of the water resources of Alaska. I shall appreciate having your advice concerning the relationship of the enclosed report to your program. Sincerely yours, (Signed) Oscar L. Cuapman, Secretary of the Interior. Tue Present, The White House, (Through the Bureau of the Budget.) UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF RECLAMATION WASHINGTON 25, D. C. Marcu 1, 1951. Tue Secretary OF THE INTERIOR. Sm: On June 1, 1949, the December 1948 report of the Bureau of Reclamation on a reconnaissance of the 3 4 potentialities for the development and utilization of the water and related resources in the Territory of Alaska was approved and adopted as the report of the Depart- ment of the Interior. Since that time, the report has been under review by the other interested Federal agen- cies. After consideration of the helpful and construc- tive comments of the other agencies, contained in letters dated June 27, 1949, from the Governor of Alaska; Au- gust 30, 1949, from the Chairman of the Federal Power Commission ; September 2, 1949, from the Secretary of Agriculture; November 7, 1949, from the Director of the Office of Domestic Commerce, Department of Com- merce ; Decemker 21, 1949, from the Chief of Engineers. Department of the Army; and February 8, 1950, from the Assistant Secretary, Department of State; the re- port has been revised as of February 1950. A copy of the revised report is attached hereto. The report cites the need for the initiation of a pro- gram for detailed investigations of the potentialities for development of water and related resources in Alaska. Since the completion of our report in the field, studies on the agricultural phases of development of Alaska have continued, and several progress reports on these phases have been issued, notably “Some Eco- nomic Aspects of Farming in Alaska, January 1950,” and “Markets for the Products of Cropland in Alaska, July 1950,” by the Department of Agriculture in coop- eration with the Alaska Agricultural Experiment Station. Information developed by these studies, as well as more recent information compiled during the 1950 cen- sus, has made some of the information contained in the attached report outdated, without, however, invalidat- ing the basic premises of the report. Accordingly, I recommend that you approve the attached report and adopt it as the revised report of the Department of the Interior, and that you transmit it to the President and, subsequently, to the Congress. Respectfully, (Signed) G. W. Lineweaver, Acting Commissioner. Approved and adopted March 8, 1951. (Signed) Oscar L. Cuapman, Secretary of the Interior. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF RECLAMATION WASHINGTON 25, D. C. May 20, 1949. Tue Secretary OF THE INTERIOR. Sm: This is my report on a reconnaissance of the potentialities for the development and utilization of ALASKA water and related resources in the Territory of Alaska. The report has been prepared under authority of a pro- vision in the Interior Department Appropriation Act, 1949. The purpose of the report is to present the re- sults of the engineering and economic investigations made to date, for the consideration of the Congress as a basis for legislation. My report is based on the attached report of the Chief of the Alaska Investigations Office of the Bureau of Reclamation, dated May 2, 1949. The latter report presents a description of the land and its people, its present development and apparent trends, and its needs for future development, including sufficient detail on essential problems to judge the necessity for the type of development which can best be fostered through proj- ects and activities of the Bureau of Reclamation. The report has been prepared with the cooperation of local, Territorial, and Federal agencies operating in the Territory and contains, in its substantiating ma- terials, statements prepared by a number of cooperating agencies. Without their full and wholehearted coop- eration, this valuable inventory of facts and potential developments could not possibly have been prepared. Our. Bureau is particularly grateful for the splendid help’that has been received in this connection, for this document will be useful not only to the present Congress in connection with its consideration of appropriate leg- islation for the Bureau of Reclamation, but to the pub- lic at large both in the United States and in Alaska, and to the many Federal, State, and local governments, industries, and commercial interests which are con- cerned with the future of Alaska. This report permits us to be reasonably specific in discussing the potentialities for development. While it is not intended to make and does not make, recom- mendations with regard to particular projects or activi- ties to be undertaken, it presents a sufficiently definite understanding of the individual types of resources and their whereabouts to permit us, with reasonable assur- ance, to avoid a number of generalizations about Alaska which have heretofore too often been necessary. The place of Alaska in our present stage of develop- ment is most significant in two respects. It is im- portant as an area for expansion and as a source of raw and finished materials. It is important, secondly, in any consideration of national security and defense of the United States. It is interesting to note that the military authorities feel that the military works be- ing constructed in Alaska, however modern they may be, are not sufficient to provide local security or protection to the United States. Alaska must have more people, more railroads, more farms, more industries. In stating his position with respect to the funds pro- vided for preparation of this report, the Chairman of LETTERS OF TRANSMITTAL the Interior Department Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations later stated that he had previously suggested that the Department of the Inter- ior investigate the advisability of development of Alaska and felt pleased to know that something was being done about it. That this view was held not only by the Congress of the United States in making this ini- tial appropriation, but by others even more intimately cognizant of the problems involved, is made apparent by the fact that the 19th Alaska Territorial Legislature memorialized the President, the Congress and the De- partment of the Interior by Senate Joint Memorial No. 5 approved by the Governor of Alaska on February 12, 1949, as follows: “Now THEREFoRE, your Memorialist, the Leg- islature of the Territory of Alaska convened in Nineteenth Regular Session, respectfully urges that Alaska be included in the Bureau of Reclamation program with participation under the Reclamation Fund, and submits that such inclusion of Alaska would be to the benefit of all concerned.” A complete copy of the Memorial is attached hereto. I recommend for your consideration and that of the President and the Congress, the initiation of a program which will facilitate the economic development of the Territory of Alaska through the reclaiming of unused land for agricultural purposes and the development of the unused resources of the Territory to provide low cost hydroelectric power and related types of develop- ments. In connection with multiple-purpose projects, water supplies should be developed, where needed, for irrigation, municipal, and industrial use. The Bureau of Reclamation recognizes that its program is only one facet of a broader program which is needed and justi- fied in Alaska, but its share of this program is an essen- tial link in the development of Alaska in the interest of the whole of the United States. Irecommend that you approve and adopt this as your report and that you transmit it to the President and the Congress. In doing so, I hope that you will find it appropriate to recommend that the President and the Congress consider favorably the enactment of legisla- tion for the carrying out of the Bureau of Reclama- tion’s program in Alaska. Sincerely yours, (Signed) Micuart W. Straus, Commissioner. Approved and adopted June 1, 1949. (Signed) J. H. Kruse, Secretary of the Interior. on UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY FOR THE TERRITORY OF ALASKA JcUNeatv, Avaska, Fes. 15, 1949. CoMMISSIONER OF RECLAMATION, Bureau of Reclamation, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. Dear Mr. Commissioner: At the request of the Nine- teenth Alaska Territorial Legislature, now in session, I have the honor of transmitting to you certified copy of Senate Joint Memorial No. 5, passed by the Nine- teenth Alaska Territorial Legislature and approved by the Governor of Alaska, urging the inclusion of Alaska in the Bureau of Reclamation program. Yours very truly, (Signed) Lew M. Wittrams, Secretary of Alaska. IN THE SENATE BY SENATOR ENGEBRETH : SENATE JOINT MEMORIAL NO. 5 In THe LEGISLATURE OF THE TERRITORY OF ALASKA Nineteenth Session To THE PRESIDENT AND THE CoNGREss OF THE UNITED States, THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR, THE Bureau or RecLaMaTION, AND THE DELEGATE From ALas&a: Your Memorialist, the Legislature of the Territory of Alaska, in Nineteenth Session assembled, respectfully submits: Wuereas, Alaska as the continental corrior to Asia is of vital strategic importance to the Uni.2d States; and, Whereas, expansion of utilities and other services in Alaska with consequent acceleration of settlement would strengthen the Territory as a buffer area in the interest of national defense, in keeping with present programs of the Department of the Interior, the Army and the Navy and other Federal departments; and, Wuereas, the Bureau of Reclamation, through its Reclamation Fund, operating since 1902 in the Western States, has played a great part in developing those States in the fields of land reclamation and irrigation projects and has further developed those States, with augmented activity since 1939 in the field of hydro- electric power; and, Wuenrzas, projects handled through the Reclamation Fund (which is a revolving fund) have been self- liquidating, as would hydroelectric and land utilization Public Litsasy 6 projects in Alaska, if Alaska were allowed to participate under the Bureau of Reclamation program; but, Wuereas, Alaska has never been included under said program (except for a recent survey) for lack of statu- tory authorization by Congress: and, Wuereas, development of Alaska through participa- tion in the Reclamation Fund would even inure to the long range benetit of the Western States which look to Alaska as an expanding market for their products, not to mention improvement of their position from the national security standpoint; Now Tuererore, your Memorialist, the Legislature of the Territory of Alaska convened in Nineteenth Reg- ular Session, respectfully urges that Alaska be included in the Bureau of Reclamation program with participa- tion under the Reclamation Fund, and submits that such inclusion of Alaska would be to the benefit of all concerned. Anp Your Memortrauist WILL Ever Pray. Passed by the Senate February 2, 1949. (Signed) Gunnarp M. EncesretH, President of the Senate. ALASKA ATTEST: (Signed) Boxnre Jo Gronroos, Secretary of the Senate. Pas-ed by the House February 9, 1949. (Signed) Srantey McCctcHeoy, Speaker of the House. ATTEST: (Signed) Joun L. Heppe, Chief Clerk of the House. Approved by the Governor February 12, 1949. I certify that the within and foregoing is a full, true and correct copy of Senate Joint Memorial No. 5, passed by the Nineteenth Alaska Legislature and approved by the Governor of Alaska. (Signed) Cetra THEILe, Clerk Secretary’s Office. (Signed) Ernest Grueninc, Governor of Alaska. Report of The Chiet “... Wealth is lost as long as the timber falls and rots, as long as the arable land remains unproduc- tive, and as long as the rivers dissipate their energy into the seas. ‘Stopping this waste and conserving these resources are momentous tasks that require a coordinated, well- founded, comprehensive plan. Continued effort will produce such a plan.’ ME MYA yy tno Buna ysno,y ayy fo aurds danys QML Sr ON poly Report of the Chief UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF RECLAMATION AvasKA INVESTIGATIONS OFFICE JuneEat, Ataska, May 2, 1949. To: Commissioner From: Chief, Alaska Investigations Office Scssect: Reconnaissance report on potential develop- ment of water resources in the Territory of Alaska. TRANSMITTAL 1. Herein is my report on the potential development of water resources in the Territory of Alaska for power production, irrigation, and other beneficial uses. AUTHORITY FOR THE REPORT 2. This report is authorized by virtue of the Interior Department Appropriation Act, for the fiscal year 949, which provided $150,000 to be expended by the sureau of Reclamation on Alaskan investigations “for ugineering and economic investigations, as a basis for gislation, and for reports thereon, relating to projects or the development and utilization of the water power esources of Alaska. . . .” COOPERATION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT 3. Federal, Territorial, and local agencies, and many individuals assisted by supplying essentially all of the information. Only their splendid cooperation and col- laboration made the report possible. It is an example of the perfect cooperation found everywhere in the Territory, whenever the future development of Alaska is concerned. 4. The Alaska Development Board of the Territorial Government rendered invaluable aid by contributing general data and editorial assistance. Many Federal and Territorial agencies summarized their individual programs for inclusion in the report. Chapter VII of the substantiating materials is devoted exclusively to these programs. Cooperating Federal agencies were: Alaska Native Service, Alaska Railroad, Alaska Road Commission, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Mines, Fish and Wildlife Service, Geological Survey, and National Park Service, all of the department of the Interior; Civil Aeronautics Administration and Weather Bureau, of the United States Department of Commerce; Rural Electrification Administration, For- est Service and Agricultural Extension Service of the United States Department of Agriculture; and the Commander-in-Chief of the Alaskan Command of the United States Department of National Defense. Co- operating agencies of the Territory of Alaska were: Office of the Governor, Department of Agriculture, De- partment of Health, Department of Mines, and Alaska Development Board. Officials of electric utilities sup- plied much of the data on power supplies, markets and rates. BASIC PREMISE 5. Except for the statements contributed by some of the cooperating agencies, the report was written in its entirety in Alaska about Alaska. The viewpoints are those of the vast majority of the citizens of Alaska. It does not record the viewpoints of a few who would befog the issues while they exploit the resources for their own personal gain. There can be no compromise when Alaska’s future is at stake. Her natural re- sources must be conserved and utilized for the common good of the Nation. Nor are any viewpoints given herein that would serve to perpetuate the ideology of continued Federal domination over the land and the people. It is written on the basic premise that a gov- ernment of the people, by the people, and for the people has a definite responsibility to help the people of Alaska develop their country along democratic prin- ciples for the greatest good of all. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 6. It is a bigger country than most people realize extending nearly one-sixth of the distance around the 9 10 world at this latitude. So big is it that a wide variety of climate and topography can be found; the cool and humid fiords of the Panhandle; the fog-concealed active voleanic region of the Aleutians; the semi-arid temp- erate valleys of south central Alaska; the extreme 170 degrees temperature variations in the semi-arid rolling hills of the Yukon; and the flat, frozen, treeless tundra of the Artic areas. 7. Alaska was discovered only 200 years ago. Under the Russian flag, it was stripped of fur resources, then sold to the United States in 1867 as a worthless posses- sion. The States did not value it highly for they neg- lected to establish any permanent form of government for 17 years. The District of Alaska was formed at that time, but changed to the Territory of Alaska in 1912. 8. In 1880 there were only 430 white people in a total population of 33,000. Today, the total population is nearly 3 times greater but only one-third are natives. The present number of people in Alaska is really un- known because of the rapid immigration. Estimates for Anchorage, the fastest growing city, vary from 19,000 to 35,000 people. PRESENT DEVELOPMENT 9. In commerce, the fisheries industry with annual exports of $100,000,000 ranks first in importance, fol- lowed in turn by the mining and fur industries. Recre- ation is a big business. There are no Territorial taxes on property or on corporate or personal income. Ex- ports and imports are almost in balance at about $120,- 000,000 each per year. 10. “Wild life on the hoof” has an estimated value of more than $100,000,000 with an annual take of $4,- 000,000 by trappers and hunters. The government- owned fur seal herd in the Pribilof Islands administered by the Department of the Interior comprises about 85 percent of the fur seals of the world. The herd con- tained more than 3,000,000 animals in 1947. Seal hunt- ing is restricted to natives. Another native industry is that of raising and grazing reindeer. In 1948 there were about 40,000 head on the treeless ranges of north- ern and western Alaska. 11. Alaska can be reached by sea, by air, and by land. Transportation and communication facilities are in- adequate in some areas and costly throughout the ter- ritory. Ships from the States ply coastal waters as far north as Nome with stops at intermediate ports. Alaska is a vital base for trans-world air flights between North America and the Orient. The Alaska Highway links Canadian and Alaskan road systems. Principal towns are connected by telephone, telegraph, and radio with the States and Canada. ALASKA 12. Inside Alaska are more than 3,000 miles of water- way transportation routes. The Department of the In- terior operates river steamboats for more than 1,000 miles on the Yukon and Tanana Rivers on a regular- summer schedule and also operates the Alaska Railroad from the ports of Seward and Whittier on the Gulf of Alaska north to Fairbanks, a distance of 471 miles from Seward. Air transportation is available on regu- lar scheduled flights to all principal population centers. Chartered plane service is furnished by veteran bush pilots to virtually any place in Alaska. This is the favorite mode of transportation to remote and other- wise isolated areas. There are more than 1,800 miles of road in the highway system. 13. Forests cover much of the country and are valu- able reserves for the Nation. Reserves of merchantable timber are estimated to exceed 180 billion board-feet. Southeast Alaska supports a dense growth of virgin hemlock, spruce and cedar. In the interior vast forests remain practically untouched although burnt-over tim- berland is extensive in some regions and considerable timber has been cut near settlements and mines. 14. Gold and copper have accounted for most of Alaska’s past mineral production totaling almost a bil- lion dollars. Silver, coal, lead, tin, mercury, platinum, and zinc have been mined and shipped in relatively small amounts. Some oil has been produced. 15. Agricultural lands are now chiefly developed in Matanuska Valley near Anchorage and in Tanana Val- ley near Fairbanks. Only about 12,000 acres in the entire Territory are being cultivated, although poten- tial farm land totals many times that amount. Existing farms produce wheat, barley, oats, peas, potatoes, clover, alfalfa, carrots, rutabagas, cabbage, other hardy vegetables, and bush fruits. Livestock consists of beef and dairy cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, and chickens. Sev- eral farmers irrigate their crops. 16. Defense of the States has required fortification of Alaska. It is the back door invasion route to the States. Southeast of Fairbanks, 25 miles on the Rich- ardson Highway, the Army Air Force has recently con- structed one of the world’s largest airfields. Extensive improvements are being made on other air bases at Fair- banks, Anchorage, and Nome. The Navy is exploring Petroleum Reserve No. 4 covering more than 35,000 square miles on the Arctic Slope. 17. Recounting Alaska’s resources and activities gives no hint as to the existing economy of the Terri- tory. Alaska has economic growing pains. A new country seldom, if ever, has a balanced economy during its evolution and Alaska is no exception. Settlement of agricultural lands has been slower than development of other industries and most foodstuffs are imported. Although possessing some of the finest forests in the world, Alaska imports a substantial portion of her lum- REPORT OF THE CHIEF per. Imports of petroleum and related products exceed 310,000,000 annually, yet potential oil fields lie unde- yeloped. Electric power is in short supply in most areas while the energy of roaring rivers is dissipated into the sea and forever lost. “It's the freight.” say mer- chants defending their retail prices. Most items cost half again more than in the States. Freight rates are high because ships return to the States empty. Even though substantial reduction in transportation rates were effected, this alone would not be the final solution. The economy and development of the Territory require that concerted impetus be given to full utilization of the natural resources. Constantly recurring shipping strikes force Alaskans to depend on air-lift operations for the necessities of life or do without. Even the air- lift is unsatisfactory ; Juneau, the capital city, is served by only one airline from the States and sometimes 10 days elapse between flights. Inside Alaska there are more people than restaurants to feed them; houses and hotels to shelter them; and professional people and stores to serve them. During summer months the de- mand for skilled workers is terriffic. This seam-burst- ing, lopsided frontier economy is expanding at such a dynamic rate it is hardly comprehendible. 18. Although development has been retarded by an almost exclusive dependency on extractive industries, the Territory has made great economic strides. The Armed Forces found Alaska’s economy of great value in World War II. As the Western States found new life, the war also started a burgeoning in the north country. Vast military expenditures, plus scores of new service industries, resulted in a substantial increase in econ- omic levels throughout Alaska, but its greatest con- tribution was people. New people with new ideas— more than 20,000 of them. Today people more and more want to work in the Territory throughout the year, to make their homes and live out their lives in Alaska. Development of Alaska's resources offers a challenge Alaskans want to meet. For the first time in its 81-year history under the American flag, a real feel- ing of permanency is being sensed throughout the Territory. 19. Alaska has much in natural wealth to contribute to the Nation despite the limited development in the mining industry. Alaska’s mineral production since 1880 is valued at almost. one billion dollars—140 times more than the original purchase price of the Territory. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 20, Alaska has a great future. The people of the world are looking northward toward all undeveloped countries and their untapped wealth of natural re- 11 sources. The Territory of Alaska, together with all such lands, faces an era of rapid development. 21. Here in Alaska lie needed crude resources: fertile land, undeveloped mineral deposits, forests, and poten- tialities for development of low-cost power. In addi- tion, nature has provided a setting of recreational op- portunities for the enjoyment of millions of people. 22. The high industrial demand of the past 10 years emphasized that the United States is deficient in respect to a number of metals and minerals essential to the national security and economy. Normally these min- erals can be purchased and imported from other nations in sufficient quantities to supply commercial needs in the United States, but during a world crisis, shipments from foreign sources might be entirely cut off. Some of these minerals occur in Alaska in substantial or sig- nificant quantities. 23. Deposits of mercury, chromite, platinum, tin, tungsten, zinc, and antimony might, under more favor- able economic conditions or through the continued de- velopment of greater reserves, make welcome contribu- tions to American industrial requirements. There are possibilities for significant discoveries of oil and the Territory contains deposits of building and construc- tion materials to meet many of its own growing needs. 24. Alaska’s fisheries provide one of the great food resources of the world. Fish waste can be manufac- tured into many useful products: vitamin “A” and “D™ units, oil for paints and varnishes, animal feed for fur farms, and fertilizer for agriculture. New methods of processing of many species of fish, other than salmon, would expand the industry still further, increasing its total annual production far beyond the $100,000,000 mark, 25. Alaska is rich in wildlife resources, but they have contributed little to the internal economy of the Ter- ritory, as almost all pelts are shipped out of the Terri- tory for tanning and manufacturing. Establishment of these industries would advance the economy of sev- eral regions, providing employment for many Alaskan natives. 26. Southeast Alaska supports a dense growth of hemlock, spruce, and cedar from which 1,000,000,000 board feet could be harvested anually in perpetuity. 27. The United States now uses $2,000,000,000 worth of paper and paper products annually, necessitating the importation of huge quantities of paper and pulp. During any period of sustained high industrial produc- tion, however, imports are insufficient to supply the de- mand. Such shortages will be partially alleviated by development of the paper industry in Alaska. One mill is practically assured for Ketchikan and the con- struction of a second plant near Sitka will in all prob- ability start at an early date. Others are sure to fol- low. Conversion of hemlock and spruce into newsprint 12 would make possible the additional production of one- fourth as much newsprint as is now consumed in the United States. It is anticipated that full development would be attained in 10 years and could be sustained in perpetuity. 28. At least 5,000,000 people could be sustained on Alaska’s resources. Norway, Finland, and Sweden with the same latitude, but more fully matured eco- nomically, have a present population density 214 to 5 times greater than Alaska would have with 5,000,000 inhabitants. In fact, it is easy to see that Alaska could support a greater population density than Norway. In Alaska after discounting 200,000 square miles of the treeless regions worthless for agriculture, although valuable for reindeer pasture and mineral deposits, there are 386,000 square miles of land in Alaska more habitable and fertile and with more natural resources than the average land in Norway, Finland, and Sweden. A potential population density, midway between that of Norway and Sweden, would result in a potential Alaska population of more than 12,000,000 persons. By this reasoning it is not unlikely that Alaska ulti- mately will have 10,000,000 inhabitants. 29. When the country matures, agriculture will assume an important role. No nation is sufficient unto itself from a standpoint of agricultural production. As an example, the States import the products from 50,000,000 acres of foreign soil and in turn export sur- pluses of other products. Likewise Alaska can never hope to be entirely self-sufficient in food production. Climate would preclude the production of many desired foodstuffs. With a population of 5,000,000 to 10,000,- 000, however, it would be highly desirable to a balanced economy to have 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 acres of land in agricultural production. The Commissioner of Agriculture of Alaska states that agricultural land suitable for crops or grassland is approximately 17,- 000,000 acres. 30. Ample low-cost power is a prerequisite to the de- velopment of a mature and balanced economy. It is a magnet which attracts industry, business, and people. Power is wealth. Fortunately, Alaska river systems could produce more than 50,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours of energy a year. This much power would give 10,- 000,000 people more than twice that now available to each person in the States. Nature has provided these power sites so lavishly that even the most remote corner of the country is easily within modern power trans- mission distance. 31. Geographic areas which have been given consid- eration as a result of a reconnaissance made of the po- tential water power sites are listed below. Emphasis is placed on the fact that not all streams and their power potentialities have been considered, which, for the most part, was due to lack of sufficient basic data to evaluate ALASKA their production capabilities. Potential power sites are shown in red on the accompanying map. 32. A summary of the potential hydroelectric power developments by regions and areas follows: Taste 1.—Summary of potential hydroelectric power development by regions and areas Installed * Annual frm Region and area capacity production (kilowatts) (kilowatt-hours) _ Ketchikan area___________---- | 133, 000 | 730, 000, 000 Wrangell area_________ 7 218,000 | 1, 250, 000, 000 Sitka area___-_________ - 58, 000 320, 000, 000 Angoon area. _ 7 37, 000 210, 000, 000 Juneau area.__----- 2-22 ------ | 1,775,000 | 9, 760, 000, 000 Subtotal southeastern | region._-___-_------- 2, 221, 000 | 12, 270, 000, 000 Gulf of Alaska area 1, 744, 000 | 9, 780, 000, 000 Cook Inlet area. 1,519, 000 | 8, 660, 000, 000 Subtotal south central | region._......------- 3, 263, 000 | 18, 440, 000, 000 850, 000 | 4, 800. 000, 000 44, 000 250, 000, 000 1, 500, 000 | 8, 800, 000, 000 156, 000 890, 000, 000 Subtotal Yukon-Kusko- _———_, ——_______. - _ kwim region 2, 550, 000 | 14, 740, 000, 000 Subtotal Seward Penin- sula region--_____ 35, 000 200, 000, 000 Subtotal Arctic regi 225, 000 1, 280, 000, 000 Total__.--------------- 8, 294, 000 | 46, 930, 000, 000 33. Food production in Alaska is a matter of great importance to the Armed Forces. Immediately follow- ing the Pearl Harbor attack, Alaska was so vulnerable that men and war supplies were rushed to her defense. Matanuska Valley farmers by almost superhuman ef- forts were able to furnish much of the necessary food supply in those critical days thus freeing additional shipping space for defense materials. Before any sim- ilar emergency again arises, additional agricultural lands should be brought under cultivation and produc- tion increased by irrigation wherever needed. 34. Additional crop acreage is required. Develop- ments in communication, transportation, mining, in- dustry, and commerce would bring still greater local demands for products which could be economically pro- duced on Alaskan farms. 35. Increasing the acreage of cropland, however, is time-consuming and requires investment of consider- able capital. Except for 10 or 15 acres, clearing the virgin land of timber has been beyond the financial ability of the average settler. After providing such essentials as a home, out-buildings, water supply, fences, farm machinery and a few head of livestock, the settler needs sufficient cash or credit to clear a minimum of 40 REPORT OF THE CHIEF acres of land to have a going and self-sustaining farm. To clear 40 acres of land might cost $6,000. 36. The development of Alaska is as important and yital to the United States as was the development of our Western States. A balanced portion of the devel- opment must be in agriculture. The principal ques- tion, as Was the case in our Western States, is, how can this be accomplished? The general pattern of the de- yelopment of our great West with Federal assistance points the way by which Alaska can be developed, not at the expense of other portions of the country but by the returns from Alaska itself. Not only does the country need Alaska’s development from the stand- point of an expanding economy but the individual people need settlement opportunities, places to make their homes, business opportunities, and all the other benefits that are associated with a frontier country. Certainly individuals can reclaim small areas within their abilities and financial backing but for agriculture to expand in Alaska, even to meet the present needs, will require aid and assistance by the Federal Govern- ment both in “know how” and financial support. De- velopment of land by clearing, drainage, and irriga- tion should be financed, where private capital is un- able to accomplish it, by the use of Federal funds, to be paid for out of the returns from the production on those lands. Government sponsorship of the type which has been provided in the Western States would provide the stimulant necessary for Alaska to catch up in agri- cultural production so vital to a sound development. The potential agricultural areas are shown in yellow on the accompanying map. 37. Well-supported organized efforts are necessary to achieve the substantial agricultural development needed to supply existing demands for foodstuffs in Alaska. Some indication as to quantities required can be obtained from examining the import figures for 1947 as shown in the following table. 38. Quantities of specified agricultural imports from the United States to Alaska in 1947 (excluding esti- mated imports to southeastern Alaska, assuming that that region will continue to be supplied chiefly from the United States and Canada), and an estimate of the acreages required to produce these products in the Ter- ritory are shown in the adjacent table. 39. The figure of 87,000 acres shown as needed area is only a rough estimate of the amount of agricultural land which should be brought into production in the near future. Detailed studies must be made to deter- mine the extent to which the tabulated products can be economically produced under Alaskan conditions in competition with imports from the United States and Canada. 40. Alaska is one of the greatest undeveloped areas in a land-hungry, resources-hungry world. The Terri- 13 TaBLe 2.—Quantities of specified agricultural imports from the United States to Alaska | Quan- | tity im- | equivae | Lives Area Product | Ported | lent of | needed! | needed? pounds)) "Ci900°| Clumber) | (eres) | pounds)| | Petre = be - 7 | i Milk, evaporated, unsweet- | | 4, 600) | 1, 300} 9, 100 Butter 980) | 4,000! 25, 800 . 070) Beef and veal, fresh or frozen_, Pork, fresh or frozen________ Ham and shoulder, cured_ Bacon. __-_-__.___. Sausage, not canned Animal oils and fats, Total hog products_ 2, 650) 3, 450) Eggs in shell (1000 dozen) 1, 140)_____- Poultry_.._.____. 610 920) Potatoes-___ 4, 050|-_____) Fresh vegetabl Z 2, 300 114,000) 7, 400 5 28, 000 280 ! Milk cows, beef cows, brood sows, laying hens, and broilers. Youngstock are not included in these numbers but the complements of youngstock were taken into account in computing livestock yields and feed requirements. 3 Estimates of crop acres in Alaska needed to produce the equivalents of imported products. They are based on crop yields slightly higher than Matanuska Valley farmers’ estimates of usual yields and appreciably higher than yields reported for 1947. These higher yields were used because improved practices, including increased usé of fertilizer and irrigation, are expected to become more common in the future than they have been in the past. ? To produce beef in addition to veal and beef from dairy herds. « Assuming 40 percent of feed from ranze. 5 Broilers to produce meat in addition to that from farm poultry flocks. tory cannot expect to further develop on gold and fish alone. Advancement of its economy is contingent on the full utilization of resources now undeveloped. No geographical entity has ever attained lasting industrial greatness through extractive industries alone. To whatever extent integration is possible—from the ex- traction of raw materials to the manufacture of semi- finished or finished products—to that extent will Alaska achieve a place in the industrialization of the North American continent. 41. Current information concerning agricultural de- velopment permits three broad generalizations: (1) subject to detailed investigation and analysis of eco- nomic feasibility, about 87,000 acres of new agricultural land are needed now; (2) there are hundreds of thou- sands of acres of uncleared or undrained land, the soil, topography, and climate of which may be as suitable for agricultural production as lands now being farmed ; (3) agricultural growth should be geared to develop- ments in industry, commerce, and national defense, with respect to both its location and magnitude. 42. Ultimately, Alaska will contribute billions of dol- lars a year to National income. This will only be pos- sible when the natural resources are fully developed and utilized. It is a task too great for small groups of individuals or even for Alaska. It is a responsibility of the Federal Government to conserve and develop 14 these resources so that people can utilize them for the creation of wealth and the benefit of mankind. 43. For the immediate, investigations of the water resources for power and multipurpose benefits should embrace the Big Susitna River Basin; the trans- mountain diversion of water from the Lewes River (Yukon) drainage basin in Canada with its chain of lakes to the Taiya River outlet 10 miles north of Skag- way, Alaska, and other potential power sites in the southeast where interested pulp industries are investi- gating the possibilities of establishing pulp mills. The study and investigation of water resource develop- ment is needed particularly in two districts, the Fair- banks-Dunbar-Chena District and the Matanuska- Anchorage-Spenard District. Municipal water supply studies are also of vital importance to Fairbanks, Anchorage, Cordova, and other Alaskan communities. In Fairbanks well water supply is contaminated by contiguous cesspools, epidemics are imminent, investi- gations, and improvements are critically needed. CONCLUSIONS 44. It is concluded that: A. The demand for electric power supply in the Ter- ritory is expanding so rapidly that new installations of hydroelectric power plants are needed : (1) To supply emergency requirements for power as quickly as possible to meet urgent needs of the civilian and military population in the Anchorage and Fairbanks area. (2) To supply power requirements of existing and additional National Defense installations in the vicinity of Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Nome. (3) To provide power necessary for full utiliza- tion of the natural resources and for full realiza- tion of Alaska’s industrial and commercial potentialities. Sizable quantities of low-cost power would materially aid the establishment of the pulp industry; one pulp plant is being constructed near Ketchikan and another is virtually assured near Sitka. Three or four other pulp plants are being actively considered for development in Southeast Alaska. Large quantities of power may be needed to expedite early development of the coal hydro- genation program in the rail belt area. Power ALASKA would also be needed if a cement plant were to be built in the area. Power supply could be made available to the aeronautical laboratories for con- ducting supersonic wind tunnel research. B. Adequate agricultural production is necessary to the economic life and future development of Alaska. Present production is inadequate. To increase agri- cultural production : (1) Immediate investigation should be made of the physical and economic feasibility of bringing | into production as soon as possible approximately 87,000 acres of new agricultural land. Reports should be prepared on the engineering and eco- nomic feasibility of specific land clearing, reclama- tion by land drainage and irrigation projects which may appropriately contribute to this goal. (2) In order to prosecute such a program, in- vestigations should be initiated immediately for reports on the reclaiming of lands in_ the Matanuska-Anchorage-Spenard District, the Fair- banks-Dunbar-Chena District and on the Kenai Peninsula near Homer. C..Municipal and industrial water supplies are urgently needed in several localities, particularly in the Fairbanks area where well water is contaminated by contiguous cesspools. These requirements should be included in future studies of multiple-purpose projects. D. Flood control and navigation of inland water- ways in Alaska will increase in importance as the Ter- ritory is developed. The investigations of water resources to be accomplished in Alaska by the Bureau of Reclamation would be complemented by the investi- gations in Alaska authorized to be made by the Corps of Engineers under the Flood Control Act of 1948. The Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers should jointly consider these problems in connection with irrigation, power and other multiple purpose proj- ect investigations. The Federal Power Commission should also assist in joint consideration of power fea- tures of the potential projects. E. Annual appropriations should be made to permit an efficient investigation of Alaska’s land and water resources at a rate commensurate with the needs. (Signed) JoserH M. Morcay. Substantiating Material “Here lies America’s greatest wealth of untapped natural resources... “To conserve these great natural resources, men must forget immediate personal gain for the benefit of future generations ... to develop these resources, they must plan great plans and the Congress must have faith and understanding . .. to utilize these re- sources, at least five million self-supporting Alaskans are needed. “... Ultimately, Alaska will contribute billions of dollars a year to National income, but this contribu- tion will be possible only when the natural resources are fully developed and utilized. ‘‘ Additional investigative work is required.” i é ay , 4 Ce he ah: jrtcky 2 RRA, Fone bs elerial view of Anchoraye, largest and fastest growing city in the Territory of Alaska. CHAPTER I Purpose of the Report What of the water resources of Alaska? Have they any value? Should they be developed? These and a host of other questions have long needed answering. Recognizing the problems, the Eightieth Congress di- rected the Bureau of Reclamation to investigate the water resources of Alaska. In compliance with this request a field reconnaissance was made and the findings are stated in this report. The major purpose of the report is to present the re- sults of the reconnaissance investigation of the poten- tal water resource development of the Territory. A portion of the report is based on field and office inves- tigations recently performed by Bureau personnel. The major part of the report is a compilation of informa- tion obtained over the years by Federal, Territorial, and local agencies. The reconnaissance nature of the report should be emphasized. The Bureau of Reclama- tion presents no recommendations or preliminary plans for development of any specific project. Limitations of present knowledge and available sources of informa- tion are pointed out, and recommendations are made for detailed investigation and analysis to determine the engineering and economic feasibility of each specific project as continued development becomes desirable and necessary. Another purpose of the report is to emphasize the need for joint investigation by the United States and the Dominion of Canada of several hydroelectric power potentialities. An agreement would be necessary for full development of several rivers common to both Canada and Alaska. It is doubted that either country could independently develop these rivers within their own respective borders to produce its share of power at such low-cost as under joint development and opera- tion. The United States should actively seek an exten- sion of the agreement with the Dominion of Canada to extend activities of the existing International Joint Commission to include investigation of potentialities of water resources common to both the Territory of Alaska and Dominion of Canada. The Secretary of the Interior should be designated to represent the United States Government in this matter. Prior absence of a complete inventory of Alaska’s natural resources has been an almost insurmountable obstacle in coordinating their development. Although the major purpose of this report is to cite water resource potentialities, it also includes the most recent and com- plete economic evaluation possible of the Territory's resources. It is believed this investigation is now suffi- ciently complete to correlate the various potentialities into a comprehensive plan for orderly development of Alaska’s natural wealth. To place any comprehensive plan in operation would require the coordinated efforts of all Federal and Ter- ritorial agencies. For example, full development of water resources would inundate stretches of some pro- posed highways. However, it is not too late nor is the highway system so extensive but that these multiple activities could be coordinated in the future. Only by such cooperation could millions of dollars of future damages be eliminated. It is only natural that high- ways should be located on easy grades near streams or rivers. There is sufficient information in this report on the proposed location of new highways and multiple purpose dams and reservoirs to indicate the necessity for coordination of these activities at the earliest possible moment. The construction of many of these dams is highly probable in view of future demands for power and water. Construction would require access roads, many of which, with proper foresight, could become links in a future highway network. Many of these highways could be located along the shores of what potentially would be some of the largest man-made lakes in the world. Agricultural districts outlined in this report would eventually need to be included in farm-to-market road systems. Multiple-purpose development of water resources for optimum use requires correlation of fish and wild life conservation practices with construction of dams needed for other purposes. The fishing industry ranks first in importance in Alaska’s economy. This position can only be maintained if man-made destructive ele- ments are minimized. The Fish and Wildlife Service should be consulted to make certain that proposed structures for water resource developments do not 17 18 hinder the “run” of salmon. The information in this report is intended to set forth the location of some of the more important structures so they may be critically reviewed by conservationists. One of the reasons for high food prices in Alaska is the cost of fertilizer necessary for agricultural produc- tion. One of the purposes of this report is to point out the needs for fertilizer and that waste products from fisheries could be utilized for fertilizer production. The fisheries industry is in need of low-cost power for quick-freeze and cold storage plants. It is hoped that several of the power potentialities mentioned in this inventory will be of assistance. The various governmental agencies concerned in the development of the resources of Alaska must work closely together. Unless the work of these agencies is well coordinated, certain types of ore deposits might well receive only passing consideration and some large low-cost hydroelectric power potentialities may receive only cursory investigation. The combination of exten- sive low-grade ore deposits and plentiful low-cost elec- tric energy can lead to establishment of large-scale min- ing and metallurgical operations to assist in supplying the nation with mineral products. Unclaimed and undeveloped ore deposits are known to exist on public domain in several potential reservoir areas. The determination of their commercial and strategic values are functions of the Bureau of Mines. If the ore is of over-riding commercial and strategic value it should be mined before it is inundated. Lack of sufficient funds has been a severe handicap in the collection of basic data for water resource de- velopment. So much country has not been mapped, so few streams have been gaged, and there is so little knowledge of the quality of water in Alaska, that the Geological Survey needs to know the plans for resource development in order to plan the program of collect- ing basic data to the best advantage. There are several villages that would be inundated by potential reservoirs. If such reservoirs would per- mit utilization of large quantities of power for devel- opment of other natural resources, then these reservoirs might potentially have more value than the present village sites. Should these villages grow into cities then this potential wealth might be lost forever. Proper planning now would do much to alleviate future dif- ficulties. Potential agricultural lands in reservoir areas should be surveyed as to their adaptability for agri- cultural production and a determination made as to the best use of the land; for agricultural production or for a reservoir for multiple-purpose developments. High transportation costs, to and within the Terri- tory, are another economic ailment. Much of this cost can be traced to the lack of back-haul for the Alaska Railroad and steamship lines. Everything is loaded ALASKA going north, but empty returning south. Plentiful low- cost power would materially spur industrialization, which would provide a back-haul and thereby lower transportation costs. Development of water resources must be accomplished in such manner that the natural scenic beauty of the area is not destroyed. Correlation of water resource development activities with those of the National Park Service would not only accomplish this, but new recre- ational areas could be created in conjunction with man- made lakes. One of the most pressing problems in Alaska has been the fact that work is seasonal, resulting in large numbers of unemployed during winter months. This is particularly true of Alaskan natives. It is not too difficult for them to obtain employment during the summer in the fisheries or allied industries or construc- tion projects. One of the purposes of this report is to point out that such a labor force is available. that they are highly skilled and adaptable for industrial work and that low-cost hydroelectric power would make such industrial opportunities for employment economically possible. However, this native labor force would re- quire schooling and training, an activity of the Alaska Native Service, Office of Indian Affairs. The Weather Bureau of the Department of Com- merce supplies many of the records needled for investi- gation of potential water resource developments. It is willing and able to provide such records only if the location of such potentialities are known. It is hoped the information given in this report will be of some assistance to the Weather Bureau in its plan- ning for new installations and collection of records. The Department of National Defense is extending the defenses of Alaska. Most new installations will re- quire considerable electrical energy. One such instal- lation contemplated for the near future would require 200,000 kilowatts of installed electric yenerating capacity. The availability of low-cost hydroelectric energy is one of the determining factors for the loca- tion of this installation. It is hoped that information given in this report regarding hydro-electric power sites will be of assistance to the Department of National Defense. The Bureau of Reclamation of the Depart- ment of the Interior and the Alaskan Command of the Department of National Defense have worked together on these matters in the preparation of this report. Alaskan development cannot come overnight. nor will it be a simple matter of outlining a plan and following it to a conclusion. Many limitations must be recog- nized and either eliminated, surmounted, or accepted. Problems dealing with the soil, with climatic conditions, with agriculture, with industry, with transportation, and with the damage already inflicted by a lopsided economy are detailed in this report. The economic Scace of M Barrow TABLE OF POTENTIAL HYDRO-GENERATING PLANTS 1 © . OC Ee 4 REGION, AREA OR BASIN REGION, AREA OR BASIN ct g N NO. _AND-POWER PLANT NO. AND POWER PLANT A R ( eS SOUTHEASTERN REGION SOUTHCENTRAL REGION rh KETCHIKAN AREA GULF OF ALASKA AREA s VV 1 DAVIS RIVER 33. CHITINA RIVER 2 WILSON RIVER 34 -NIZINA RIVER I 3 PUNCHBOWL CREEK 35 COPPER RIVER NOI \ oo 8 4 GRANITE CREEK 36 COPPER RIVER NO.2 ) we 5 MANZANITA-ELLA-FISH CREEKS |37 RESURRECTION RIVER CoryiiLt 6 GRACE CREEK Lv 7 ORCHARD CREEK COOK INLET AREA ) 8 SWAN LAKE 38 KENAI LAKE UF 66 6 9 - REYNOLDS CREEK 39. EKLUTNA CREEK jay 40 CARIBOU CREEK NO.! 66 ’ WRANGELL AREA 41 CARIBOU CREEK NO.2 ts c / ' y 10 TYEE CREEK 42. MATANUSKA RIVER NO.I ! ( +e {1 HARDING RIVER 43 RUSH LAKE ny {2 STIKINE RIVER 44 MATANUSKA RIVER NO.2 / oe 13 CASCADE CREEK 45 SUSITNA RIVER NOI : CZ » { ont ‘3 14 SCENERY CREEK 46 SUSITNA RIVER NO.2 7 Be Dry 47 SUSITNA RIVER NO3 9 . > SITKA AREA i / Ss a oe IS. MAKSOUTOF RIVER 48 TALKEETNA RIVER NO. - \ a BIS ia. BRENTWOOD CRECG 49 TALKEETNA RIVER NO.2 CS 68% VIR 25 BLUE LAKE 50 TALKEETNA RIVER NO3 . vere? or 7 R. | Sip TAKATZ CREEK 51 SHEEP RIVER xe ve 18 52 CHAKACHATNA RIVER ans can) 6 g 55 om 1s Wace Gone aver YUKON -KUSKOKWIM REGION —_— / (_ Gin”. td 20 THAYER CREEK KUSKOKWIM RIVER BASIN — Nome Zs TA Sf pa 21 KATHLEEN CREEK 53 KUSKOKWIM RIVER : NANA Gairboniks S 7 JUNEAU AREA UPPER YUKON RIVER AREA a ) 22 SWEETHEART FALLS CREEK 54 FORTYMILE RIVER co TEASE K > a, é Bien ; ee pee Ruce YUKON FLAT AREA © we OY ~ 25 CRATER CREEK 55 RAMPART 5 F 5 : 26 LONG RIVER Ys & eS : 27 DOROTHY CREEK TANANA RIVER BASIN {3 tof Om ES 28 CARLSON CREEK 56 CHISANA RIVER NO! " x re 29 ~~ ANTLER RIVER 57 CHISANA RIVER NO.2 G a6; 30. ENDICOTT RIVER 58 NABESNA RIVER N a5 31‘ TAIYA RIVER NOL 59 NENANA RIVER NOI \ ‘ =A 4 &@ x hg ‘132 TAIYA RIVER NO2 60 NENANA RIVER NO2 R ° « y mA x : = 61 NENANA RIVER NO3 8 € a . S AIES!\ 62 NENANA RIVER NOG + one E are p~ WN \ SEWARD PENINSULA REGION Ms S Gf NaS \ i 63 FISH RIVER Say % v2 L \'s2 > B92 Whitehorse 64 SALMON LAKE , QL rage y 65 TUKSUK GORGE Dg ~ ere °¢ @ TN as - a fh 8 : ‘) faN ARCTIC REGION : fo 6 : DY 66 KOBUK RIVER ‘ we 38 : IN \ 67 NOATAK RIVER NO! = Ss, k EXPLANATION fe 37, OB o “XW agway gs. 168 NOATAK RIVER NO.2 a la Seward, 2 {% S y 69 NOATAK RIVER NO3 S35 S - 70 ON K RIVER NO4 POTENTIAL HYDRO-GENERATING PLANTS = Lg mana % NK 7. NOATAK RIVER Nas WY 72 COLVILLE RIVER 2 Sy sv? 7 é 5000 TO 20,000 Kw C . ; OF AL . Ll. « 20,000 TO 200,000 kw Ssa yt As ke \ a 200,000 KW AND OVER \ - G6 4 Pf 3 AP eof Kodiak : AGRICULTURAL AREA & 1 hy Q s \\ 5 > ALASKA yh A 9 Sa & ay e 9 \ 0 e AGRICULTURAL AREAS y ° - rv ° a AND ak s no? oem RM Be POTENTIAL POWER DEVELOPMENTS oe L = 1S %, OS OR. oot SX arevtA™ SB a0 iS DECEMBER 1948 SSH ° Q fF SYS \ 5s S16Su 988410 0—52 (Face p. 18) PURPOSE OF THE REPORT feasibility of every step must be determined by careful study. It is believed that the limitations which will be fully brought to light by careful investigation will be out- weighed by the potentialities. Alaska is one of the greatest undeveloped areas in the world; its known potential wealth is greater than our national debt, although $3,000,000,000 already has been taken out by haphazard development under the absentee landlord system. Its national defense position is evident and its industry, agriculture, service trades, and professions must be developed to back up the defense plans of the Army, Air Force,and Navy. In the past and at present “988410—52——3. 19 the Territory is being hamstrung by lack of a concen- trated, thorough investigation of the best method of utilizing its resources and overcoming its known limitations. There is a need for coordination of the activities of the various Federal and Territorial agencies involved in conservation and utilization of Alaska’s resources. These agencies were asked for statements regarding their future programs. These are to be found in chap- ter VII of this report. It is hoped the information presented in the following chapters will provide the basis to plan intelligently for the orderly and compre- hensive development of Alaska’s natural wealth. The Land and the People “The Yukon gold rush impelled Theodore Roosevelt to envision Alaska as ‘a new Scandinavia in the Western Hemisphere.’. . . “A polar-projection map shows Alaska to be strategically situated on world air lines... . “The interior of Alaska south of the Alaska Range has average winter temperatures similar to those of Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Maine. “... there are more frozen rivers and harbors in the United States than there are from the Aleutians to the Panhandle in Alaska.” 9, center mn oo renee (Pace p. 24) Per = nie ALASKA 988410 O—5: Candform THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE land areas rather than sedimentation. More profound than erosion was the face-lifting that occurred in the squeezing and folding of the rocks to form the major portion of existing mountain chains. Voleanism at- tended this mountain-building activity. Like the northern part of the United States and most of Canada, Alaska was most severely glaciated during the Ice Age. About one-third of Alaska, chiefly the mountain areas, was covered with glaciers. They pro- duced spectacular modifications in the character of the 25 terrain, such as carving the maze of fiords and islands of Southeastern Alaska and the deposition of a thick fill of silt. sand, and gravel in the Yukon and other valleys. Existing glaciers are remnants of the Ice Age and are still large enough to portray graphically the effects of the larger masses. ; The decrease in glaciation, the volcanic activity of the Aleutian chain, and the periodic earthquakes of parts of Alaska are vivid exhibits of our changing earth. Alaska is a land of topographical extremes. Mount McKinley (20,300) is highest in the world above its own base Most of the interior is a vast plateau. Valdez, coastal terminus of the Richardson Highway. REGIONS AND RIVER BASINS It is difficult to describe Alaska as one unit. The variety of landforms, climate, and resources make it desirable to divide the Territory into six regions for discussion: (1) Southeastern, (2) South-Central, (3) Southwestern, (4) Yukon-Kuskokwim, (5) Seward Peninsula, and (6) Arctic. Southeastern Alaska includes a narrow strip extend- ing 400 miles southeastward from the main portion of Alaska. The mainland portion is essentially the west slope of the snow-capped Coast Range. It rises sharply from sea level in forested slopes to 2,000 feet elevation and thence in relatively barren slopes to peaks as high as 10,000 feet. The islands, collectively called the Alexander Archi- pelago, rise sharply from the sea to elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 feet. Different as the region is from contin- ental United States, in many ways it is only a transi- tion zone between the States and the “Northland.” South-Central Alaska comprises essentially those areas, except the Gulf of Alaska, draining into the Gulf of Alaska. It includes the Copper River area, Prince William Sound, Kenai Peninsula, and Cook Inlet areas northward to the ranges forming the Yukon Valley divide. The salient features of the region are its lofty mountains similar to the Southeastern region, but with their continuity broken by the wide valleys of the Cop- per, Matanuska and Susitna rivers as well as Cook Inlet. The islands are restricted -almost entirely to Prince William Sound. The Alaska Peninsula, Aleutian Islands, Kodiak Island group, and Bristol Bay areas comprise the Southwestern Region. The Alaska Peninsula is char- acterized by its well-known chain of volcanoes trending in a southwest-northeast pattern. These volcanic fea- tures are arranged chiefly on the southeast border of the peninsula. The northwest side, blending with the Bristol Bay area is a relatively level coastal region con- taining large lakes and indented by bays. The Kodiak group of islands is the largest of several groups off the coast. The Aleutian Island chain is a remarkably well delineated group of islands, arranged like stepping stones across a pond of water. World War IT demon- strated their strategic importance. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE The Yukon-Kuskokwim Region. Perhaps the most popular conception of Alaska by the “armchair tourist” is acquired from descriptions of this region. This re- gion, consisting of the largest valleys of the Territory, is the typical tundra country. The low plateau is a monotonous series of meandering streams, shallow lakes, and rolling hills. The northern boundary is in the Brooks Range. Seward Peninsula shared the spotlight during gold rush days in vindicating “Seward’s Folly.” This region consists of the plateau and mountain area which reaches westward toward Siberia; the coastal areas of Norton Sound to the south; and Kotzebue Sound to the north. The mountains of the region are less than 5,000 feet in elevation and were the only portions glaciated in the Ice Age. No glaciers exist at the present time. -Avetic Alaska includes most of the area north of the Arctic Circle. It consists of an extensive monotonous coastal plain, sloping gradually downward to the Are- tic Ocean: the north slopes of the rugged Brooks Range, with peaks measuring 9,000 feet in elevation: and an intermediate dissected plateau area forming the foot- hills of the range. The region is too arid to support large glaciers. 27 A list of the more important streams of the Territory begins on page 28. Omissions from the list are chiefly those coastal streams with small basin areas and some with larger drainage areas, but with low discharge. CLIMATE Many persons believe Alaska is a frozen wasteland. The inhospitable land they envisage, however, exists in reality only partially between the Arctic Cirele and Arctic Ocean, Alaska’s proximity to the North Pole is about that of Scotland. Norway, Finland, and Sweden. The interior of Alaska south of the Alaska Range has average winter temperatures similar to those of Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Maine. North of the Alaska Range, however, winter tempera- tures are somewhat lower. The southern coastal areas and the Alexander Archipelago, warmed by the fringe of the same ocean current that passes the coast of Washington and Oregon, are only slightly colder in winter than the Puget Sound area and the Willamette Valley. Along the southern coast. variations of temperatures Skagway. terminus of the White Pass and Yukon Railway. YSS410—52 4 28 TaB_e 3.—/mgortant streams in Alaska ALASKA Region Major area | | Stream Principal tributaries SOUTHEASTERN..---------- SOUTH-CENTRAL KETCHIKAN_._-------------- Gur oF ALASKA_---------- Cook INvLET__-.------------ SOUTHWESTERN.__-.-___-- | Bristou Bay__------------- Salmon River Davis River Wilson River - - Punchbowl Creek Granite Creek __ Chickamin River- Unuk River__ Reynolds Creek - - Beaver Falls Creek _ Orchard Creek - - - Grace Creek _ _- Manzanita Cree’ Ella Creek___ Fish Creek - Falls Creek _ Tyee Creek Harding River_ Stikine River _- Cascade Creek - Scenery Creek _ Maksoutof River- Medvetcha River Takatz Creek _ Brentwood Cr Hasselborg Rive Thayer Creek Kathleen Cree Sweetheart Falls Whiting River Tease Creek Speel River__- Dorothy Creek __- - Carlson Creek Taku River__- Antler River Taiva River_- Chilkoot River_ Chilkat River_--.----- Endicott River Alsek River__ Copper River Power Creek..--.---------- Duck River__ Resurrection River - Kasilof River-- Kenai River. -------------- 4 Sixmile Creek - - Eklutna Creek - Beluga River__.-..-------- Chakachatna River Togiak River __ Nushagak River Kviechak River. ......-- _| Leduc River. Blue River. Long River Crater Creek. Klehini River. Tsirku River. Takhin River. Gulkana River. Tazlina River. Klutina-Nizina River. Chitina River. Bremner River. Tasnuna River. Snow River. Ptarmigan Creek. Trail Creek. Grant Creek. Cooper Creek. Russian River. East Fork. Caribou Creek. | Gravel Creek. | Chickaloon-Boulder River. | Kings River. | Maclaren River. Tyone River. Oshetna River. Portage Creek. Chulitna River. Talkeetna-Sheep River. Yentna-Skwentna River. Mulchatna River. Nuyakuk River. Newhalen River. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 29 Taste 3.—/mportant streams in Alaska—Continued eee Region Major area Stream Principal tributaries SOUTHWESTERN..--- Bristot Bay. .| Naknek River___ Egekik River___ 7 YUKON-KUSKOKWIM._.----- Bering Sea Kuskokwim River_ -| Stony River. Holitna River. Yukon River_____------------- Lewes River. Fortymile River. Porcupine River. Chandalar River. Tanana River. Koyukuk River. Innoko River. SEWARD PENINSULA.----- Berine Sea__.------------- Koyuk River__...------------ Fish River___- aa Eldorado River__ aoe Nome River__ ae Sinuk River- wee Kaviruk River. _----.--------- Kruzgamepa River. Kuzitrin River. Arctic OcEAN_...---------- Kugruk River Kiwalik River_ ee RO Tee e ee eeeeees eset at Arctic OcEaN__---.-------- Kobuk River- wok Noatak River_- Ikpikpuk River_ el Colville River__....-..-------- Killik River. Anaktuvuk River. from season to season are scarcely noticeable; however, in the interior the summers are hotter and winters colder. Surprisingly uncomfortable are the hot sum- mers near the Arctic circle in the Yukon River Valley. Precipitation in most of Alaska is comparable to that in desert lands of the Western States. Average annual precipitation of 150 inches in the southeastern humid region quickly drops to 15 inches or less north of the Alaska Range and steadily decreases to 5 inches on the Arctic coast. The most pronounced climatic difference between portions of Alaska and correspondingly similar por- tions of the semi-arid Western States is the amount of daylight in summer and winter. The long summer days in Alaska, particularly in the interior, are favor- able for agricultural production and tend to offset the shorter growing season. The average frost-free period varies from about 140 days in southern Alaska to about 80 days in the Tanana Valley. Despite the fact that Alaskan waters are hundreds of iniles to the north, there are more frezen rivers and harbors in the United States than there are from the Aleutians to the Panhandle in Alaska. With the ex- ception of Cook Inlet, which is little used for naviga- tion because of high tides, Alaska has no freezeups east and south of Bristol Bay owing to the “Kiro Suwo”, or Japanese Current, flowing eastward from the Asiatic coast. Actually, Alaska has several climates, described in ‘letail in chapter VII by the Weather Bureau, so it is technically wrong to speak generally of “the climate of Alaska.” Southeastern Alaska’s climate is relatively mild. It is much like that of the Puget Sound region with fairly heavy rainfall diminishing sharply toward Haines and Skagway. Extreme temperatures are rare. South-Central Alaska also has a comparatively mod- erate climate with heavy precipitation on the forested coast, but with considerably less rain and snowfall away from the coast. Anchorage, for example, has an average aunual precipitation of only 15 inches. Southwestern Alaska is a land of clouded skies and fog with only moderate precipitation. The Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula’s major characteristic is the rapid changeability of prevailing weather conditions. High winds, low winter temper- atures and foggy summers are common to the region. The Yukon and Kuskokwim Basins and Arctic Slope comprise a region of slight precipitation and extreme variations in temperature (more moderate along the coast). Temperatures of 100° and minus 76° F. have been recorded in the upper Yukon Valley. The sum- mers are warm to hot and the winters cold to frigid. EXPLORATION When an expedition of young scientists returned September 1948 from exploring the snow-capped Coast Range near Juneau, their findings helped broaden man’s factual concept of America’s “last frontier.” But the United States of nearly a century ago was better ex- plored than is modern-day Alaska. The vastness, ruggedness, and isolation of “the Great 30 ALASKA Nome, service center for Northwestern Alaska, is served by three airplane lines throughout the year. Land” have definitely retarded investigation. The fact that Alaska was one of the last major land discoveries in world history can be held accountable in part for its incomplete exploration. Not until July 16, 1741, was Alaska officially known to have been discovered. On that date, the Danish captain of the Russian Navy, Vitus Bering, sighted Mount St. Elias, 275 miles northwest of Juneau. Ber- ing’s men returned with $100,000 in furs—a cargo which signalized an immediate rush to exploit and, only inci- dentally, to explore the new land. In their search for furs, the Russians first explored the Aleutian Islands and the Bering Sea, subsequently reaching eastward to Cook Inlet, Prince William Sound, and the Alexander Archipelago. Not one reached the mainland of Alaska (Chirikoff’s men excepted) until 1761. Meanwhile, other European nations began venturing to the Northwest coast of America. Spanish expedi- tions left bases in California during the latter part of the eighteenth century sailing north and west as far as Unalaska in the Aleutian Island chain. England's mariner, Captain James Cook, reached the Alaskan Coast in 1778 to sail as far as Icy Cape before being turned back by the Aretic ice pack. A French expedi- tion veered from South Pacific explorations to the North Pacific, and was later followed by French traders who had heard the stories of rich furs. Yankee traders, too, followed the sea trails to the North. Under the influence of Czar Alexander T, Russia somewhat belatedly, and with other nations now in the field ahead of them, followed up its initial advantage. Seeking new fur-producing territories, the Russian American Co. received exclusive control of Alaska in 1799. Between 1803 and 1843, the Russians, Von Kursen- stern, Golovnin, Etolin, Nasilof, and Zagoskin, con- tributed to coastal and interior exploration. A. one- man trading post was established in 1836 on the lower Kuskokwim. In 1838 the Russians penetrated the in- terior, establishing a post at Nulato and exploring the Koyukuk and Yukon rivers above the post. Four years later they explored the Copper and Susitna River val- leys. Hudson's Bay traders descended the Yukon and established Fort Yukon in Russian territory in 1847. Britain's search for the fabled Northwest Passage was another economic motive that accounted for much of the early knowledge of Alaska’s Arctic and Bering Sea shoreline. With a shorter route to the Indies as their goal, Frobisher, Davis, Weymouth, Knight, Hall. Beechy, Hudson, Baflin, Cook, and finally Franklin, who came within 90 miles of completing the passage in 1847, were but a few whose explorations resulted in the naming of Point Barrow, Icy Cape, Cape Prince of Wales, and other landmarks. One of Cook’s lieu- tenants, George Vancouver, contributed an outstanding achievement to Alaskan exploration between 1791 and 1794 by charting Southwestern and Southeastern Alaska with such accuracy that it wasn't improved upon for more than a century, ‘THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE _ '! 31 Maines, seaport terminus of the new road to the interior. Haines may boom as gateway to the north An incompleted plan of the Western Union Tele- graph Co. in 1865 to join Europe and America by tele- graph line from Oregon to Siberia precipitated new explorations of the interior. Construction stopped when the Atlantic Cable was successfully completed in SGT. Gold first brought prospectors into the north as early as 1858 when pay dirt was discovered on the Fraser River in British Columbia, but it was not until the great rushes of 1898-1990 that large areas in Alaska were explored in the frantic search for gold. The Geological Survey began explorations and sur- veys of the Territory in 18! The Coast and Geodetic Survey began a sounding and mapping program of coastal waters. For the first time, detailed information and its coast was published for on large areas of Alaska general reference. With the coming of the air age, exploration of Alaska took to the ski In the late 20’s the United States Navy undertook aerial photographic expeditions, in co- Operation with the Geological Survey and the Forest Service. The photography obtained was later used by the Geological Survey in the preparation of planimetric and topographic maps. The American Geographic Society conducted aerial surveys of a portion of the Yukon basin in 1936. The United States Navy com- pleted southeastern Alaska aerial photographic activi- ties during the summer of 1948. SETTLEMENT It has been said that “if the Nation had been settled at the leisurely pace which has prevailed in Alaska, our frontier would not yet have reached the Alleghenies.” Isolation has been the major reason for this lack of development. It should be remembered, however, that colonization did not begin until 1784—nearly 2 cen- turies after the founding of Jamestown (1607) and more than 4 centuries after the Spaniards established the oldest American colony at St. Augustine, Fla., in 1565. Colonization of Alaska began on August 3, 1784, with the establishment of a trading post at Three Saints Bay, Kodiak Island by Grigor Shelekof, a Russian. The first settlement consisted of five log houses, blacksmith shop, barns for cattle and sheep, commissary, counting- house, farming implements, and most of the 192 men who comprised the embarkation party at Okhotsk. 32 Shelekof remained 4 years firmly establishing the colony and setting up an outpost named Fort Alexander on Cook’s Inlet. He then returned to Russia to lay the groundwork for subsequent establishment of the crown-sanctioned Russian American Co. Almost all colonization for the next 50 years was under the auspices of this venture of the Czars to emulate in Alaska what Great Britain had accomplished with its British East Indies Co. The Russian American Co. was formally chartered in 1799, but its foundations were laid from 1790 to 1799 by Alexander Andreevich Baranof, a Russian merchant employed by Shelekof to expand his fur-trading interests. Baranof, in the face of great hardships, stabilized operations in Western Alaska and advanced Russian settlement 400 miles eastward along the mainland by establishment of a combined hunter-trader-agricultural colony at Yakutat in 1796. In 1799, he established Fort St. Michael on Sitka Island, about 6 miles north of the present Sitka. When Baranof was replaced in 1818, he had suc- ceeded in expanding Russian colonization of Alaska to 23 establishments. The Russian American Colony passed out of existence in 1863 without further coloni- zation. The 1860 census showed the Russian colonists to number 576 men and 208 women. Eleven years after the purchase of Alaska two sal- mon canneries were established at Sitka and Klawock. This was the birth of a new industry. By 1890 there were 37 canneries and salteries in Alaska. New settle- ments sprang up in coastal regions as fishing became a million-dollar industry and eventually in multimillion- dollar industry, employing thousands of men. Gold, destined to become Alaska’s second-ranking industry, brought thousands of persons to the North. Of those disappointed in prospecting, some remained to establish businesses, farm, fish, trap, cut timber, or live off the land by hunting. Lack of laws regarding land tenure tended to dis- courage early settlers. It was not until after 1900 that effectual provisions for filing homesteads were made. Prior to that time neither land titles nor transfers were to be had, and town lots could not be legally held. Rich companies controlling big money “crops” did little to encourage settlement. Fur companies used natives to gather pelts. Early fishing industries im- ported Chinese to do the work. Later they were to import cannery workers from the States. In 1914 Congress authorized the President to locate, construct, and operate railroads in Alaska. The Alaska Railroad from Seward to Fairbanks was built, commencing operation in 1923. Agricultural lands were settled along the railroad ALASKA to the Matanuska Valley, adjacent to Anchorage, and in the Tanana Valley near Fairbanks. Owing, in part, to excellent communication facilities and the remarkable role aviation has played in trans- portation, Alaska’s social growth has probably out- stripped its actual settlement. Historian Henry W. Clark accurately and_ significantly observes that “. . . while the outlying parts of the Territory present a picture of true pioneer life with rigors ordinarily associated with the frontier, at the same time the centers of population are much further advanced than towns of corresponding size in the United States.” POPULATION The magnetism of the North has pulled thousands out of their established orbits—from all parts of the United States—to Alaska since the end of World War II. Despite these high-pressure gains in population Alaska is still a comparatively vacant land with slightly more than 90,000 inhabitants. Compared to the United States average of 44 people per square mile, this isa meager one-seventh of a person per square mile. A substantial population growth has been recorded since World War I. However, the biggest influx oc- curred during the past decade with thousands of veter- ans and war workers remaining or returning to Alaska after World War II. Until completion of the next census, the extent of this influx can only be estimated. The Alaska Development Board population estimate as of October 1, 1948, is 94,875, a 30-percent gain over the 1939 census figure of 72,524. With a previous gain of about 13,000 persons in the 1930-40 decade, the 35,000 total represents a popula- tion increase of 60 percent in the past 20 years. The first United States enumeration of Alaska’s population, in 1880, stood at 33,426, of which only 430 were whites. Within 10 years the total population de- creased by more than 1,300, but the total number of white inhabitants jumped to 4,298. The gold rush of 1898 resulted in an influx of more than 30,000 persons. Continued mineral production, trapping, and development of commercial fishing were economic factors which played a major role in retain- ing much of the influx, as well as attracting many new residents to Alaska. The decade beginning in 1910, was an era of depres- sion for Alaska and was marked by a recession in popu- lation. During that period, more than 9,000 persons left the Territory. Population figures dropped from 64.356 in 1910 to 55,036 in 1920. Nome, for example, tallied 12,488 inhabitants during the “rush”, but by 1920 its population stood at 852. Not all Nome’s gold food a THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE Cordova, Prince William Sound fishing center. seekers returned south. Many joined the surge into interior Alaska when gold was discovered in Tanana Valley in the early 1900's. Density of population in Alaska, according to the 1939 census reports, was 12.7 persons per 100 square miles. Considerable variation in population totals and density in the four judicial divisions of Alaska is indi- cated in the following: Tasve 4.—Density of population Land area! Estimated | Per 100 but by 1939 the white population considerably exceeded the native. In that year there were 32,458 Aleuts, Eskimos, and Indians and 39,170 white persons. Eski- mos comprise almost half the native stock and Indians more than a third. The balance are Aleuts. This trend has continued. A summary of population figures by race obtained from past census enumerations follows: TaBLe 5.—Summary of population by race Judicial division ; (Square | 1949 popu- | square miles) ulation | miles Year White Native Other races Total | Ist Division (Southeast) -.___------- 34, 391| 27,000) 79.1 430 31, 240 1, 756 33, 426 2d Division (Nome, Rering Sea, and | 4, 298 23, 531 4, 223 32, 052 Aretie)ot 1 lb dei TTT 147, 135; 13,000) 8&7 30, 493 29, 536 3, 563 63, 592 3d Division (Anchorage, Cook Inlet, | 36, 400 25, 331 2, 625 64, 356 Aleutians, and Bristol Bay) ------- 142, 031) 34,000) 24.4 27, 883 26, 558 595 55, 036 4th Division (Fairbanks and Interior) | 247, 508} 20, 000 82 28, 640 29, 983 655 59, 278 et naa 39, 170 32, 458 896 72, 524 Total | et Hoo. (2s. l | on %6, 000) 16. 6 * Exclusive of inland water surface areas. The native stock constituted nearly half of Alaska’s population in 1920 and slightly more than half in 1929, Eskimos inhabit the north and west, the major con- centration being along the coasts of the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean. Aleuts are found principally in the 34 Aleutian Islands. The Athabaskan Indians are native to interior regions. Other Indian groups are found in southeastern Alaska. Men outnumbered women almost 2 to 1 in Alaska’s 1939 population. Since then it is believed the trend has been toward a more normal balance. There is a scarcity of males in the younger brackets. Less than half the white males over 15 years of age in Alaska are married as against three-fourths of the women in the same age group. Ninety percent of the white women over 20 are or have been married. During the last census there were 141 Negroes in the Territory. Other nonwhites enumerated were: 403 Filipinos, 263 Japanese, and 56 Chinese. Alaskan urban centers have recorded a steady growth during the past two decades. Most spectacular com- munity growth has occurred in Anchorage which had an estimated population of 19,000 in 1948, as contrasted with 3.495 in 1939. Development of the Anchorage area as headquarters for the Alaskan defense theater, during World War II, was the main reason for this increase. Fairbanks, in the interior, has also experi- enced rapid growth for similar reasons, jumping from ALASKA 3,455 in 1939 to an estimated 8,500 in 1948. Juneau, the capital of Alaska, increased from 5,729 in 1939 to an estimated 7,000 in 1948. The population of Alaska’s major communities in 1929, 1939, and 1948 follows: Taste 6.—Population of major communities Community | 1920 | 1979 | «190 | 1948 | Anchorage - - - - - aes 1, 856 2,277 | 3, 495 19, 000 Fairbanks 1, 155 2,101 3, 455 8, 500 Juneau. -- : 3, 058 4, 043 5, 729 7,000 Ketchikan __ .-- 2, 458 3, 796 4, 695 7, 000 Sitka_- } 1,175 | 1,056} 1, 987 2, 000 Palmer. -_-_- : Le aa te eae 150 1, 500 Cordovs _----- 935 980 938 1, 500 Fetersbuig---. -- - 879 1, 252 1, 323 1, 500 Wrengell ---- 821 948 1, 162 1, 200 Kodiak - - -- 374 442 864 1, 200 Nome. 852 1, 213 1, 559 1, 600 Seward _ eee 652 835 949 1, 000 Barrow - 322 330 363 750 Skagway. ._- 494 | 492 634 650 Valdez... -- | 466 | 442 529 600 Total__.......--- | 15, 497 | 20, 207 | 27, 832 | 55, 000 Juneau Airport, one of many modern landing fields throughout air-conscious Alaska. areas os ‘THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE POLITICAL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT First hint of the sale of Russian America to the United States is found in Russian archives of 1854. Although it is known that Andrew Jackson was inter- ested in the region as early ts 1536, several reasons are ascribed for its actual purchase in 1867 by the United States Government for the sum of $7,200,000, or about 2 cents per acre. On Russia’s part. they included de- cline in the colonies’ economy, fear they might be seized by Britain and prospective costs of protecting and maintaining itself in America. On America’s part, a dominant factor was the zeal of the then Secretary of State, William H. Seward. The fact that Alaska was almost completely neglected during the decade following its purchase reflected the general opinion that it was of little worth to the Nation. Not until 1884 was anything done about governing the Territory ona permanent basis. Both the United States Army and Navy administered temporary government— the Army from 1867 to 1877 and the Navy from 1879— until the District of Alaska was created by Congress in 1884. During the 2-year hiatus, 1877-79, Alaska lacked any form of government. Territorial residents actually 35 had to appeal to the British Governor at Victoria, British Columbia, for protection from the Indians in a liquor traffic uprising. The District Act established the seat of government at Sitka, extending Oregon laws to Alaska, thus providing a court system and a civil and criminal code. In 1906, Alaska was provided representation in Con- gress with one voteless delegate, and in 1912 the Dis- trict of Alaska was abolished in favor of a Territorial form of government. Other legislation provided for incorporation of towns and transfer of the seat of gov- ernment to Juneau. Thus a colorful era in Alaskan history ended as Sitka had been the “capital” of world commerce and social life in the North Pacific since 1799. Ironically, the Organic Act which created Alaska’s legislature in 1912 coincided with the explosion that summer of Mt. Katmai which threw volcanic ash over most of Alaska and created the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. Soon after, an earthquake rocked Fairbanks and in the fall of 1913, a hurricane almost destroyed Nome. The first legislature, patterned after the Washington Territorial Act of 1853, consisted of eight Senators and 16 Representatives chosen equally from four Judicial Disfricts. Wrangell, gateway to Stikine River, another old community in Southeastern Alaska. Subject to confirmation by U.S. Senate. Aptd. by Pres. of U.S. AOMINISTRATIVE CHART: TERRITORY — GOVERNOR of ALASKA CANVASSING BOARD Governor Sec. of Alaska Collector of Customs of ALASKA SECRETARY of ALASKA Territorial Legislature Indicates offices provided for by Federal statute All others thown derive authority from acts of the Elected by the DELEGATE | ATTORNEY AuDITOR COMMISSIONER HiGHwAy TREASURER LEGISLATURE Alaska, Senate: 16 Members people of Conorass GENERAL of Lagar ENGINEER House: 24 Members Boaro Boaro of BANKING —_ Boaro of INDUSTRIAL —BOARD of ROAD-——HiSTORKAL Lionany FISHERIES Konaareean APPEALS for BOARD = BuoweT Boaro COMMISSIONERS «= «& MUSRUA EXPERIAGHTAL pra whose Disallowed Claims Governor Governor Atty Gen. Governor COMMISSION COMMISSION mem ip is itor jitor uditor Hwy, Engr. Gover 7 -fixed by Terri- Serer Ait en, Treasurer Treasurer Comm. of Trenuee, Atty. Cea neo soot torial law on Auditor Treen Later Auditor by Gov., subject to & officio basis. Hwy. Engr. ‘Treasurer contirmation by ‘Treasurer Comm. of Legislature. Comm. of Education Kaustion Son ConservaTion BOARD CuraToR Apt. by Bd. of Admin. Dept. heads apptd r T 1 by Gov. Subject to COMMISSIONER of CoMMmiSSIONER COMMISSIONER confirmation by AGRICULTURE Of MINES Of TAXATION Legislature. I T ] T Boards app'td. by AERONAUTICS ANO ALASKA Development TERRITORIAL BoaRD TerritoriaL BOARD Gov., subject to COMMUNICATIONS BOARD OF HEALTH of PUBLIC WELFARE Confirmation by COMMISSION | | | Legislature, and of Not subject to confirmation COMMISSIONER Biascror of which Gov. is ex | GENL Mea. of HEALTH Puseic WELFARE ofticio member. SuPERviSOR [ALASKA ManiT i Srsrene Comcie | . T T T me Boards apptd. by TERRITORIAL ALASKA Board of REGENTS Board of UNEMPLOYMENT Worto war I Gov., subject to Boaro of HOUSING UNIVERSITY TRUSTEES COMPENSATION VETERANS Confirmation of EDUCATION Autuoaity of ALASKA Pioneers COMMISSION BoaRo Legislature, and | | wome | | ‘ Li PRESIDENT | & ee wiabane Cf tovcanion Director University ¢ Superintendent piseron Aiotaues 8 Rens Alaskie Development Board 9¢ VXUSVIV THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE Today, the Alaska Territorial Legislature consists of 12 members in the Senate and 24 in the House, the mem- bers’ salaries and transportation being paid by the Federal Government. They convene biennially in odd years for 60 days to legislate on Territorial matters not specifically prohibited by the Organic Act; adopt a biennial budget and pass on the Governor's appoint- ments. The actual government of Alaska is both Federal and Territorial. Both the Governor and Secretary of Alaska are appointed by the President, subject to con- firmation by the United States Senate, for 4-year terms. In some instances the Federal and Territorial functions overlap; in others they are separate and distinct. There are four Judicial Divisions in Alaska with headquarters at Juneau, Nome, Anchorage, and Fair- hanks. A Federal District Judge, a United States At- torney and Marshal, all Presidentially appointed, preside over each. United States Commissioners, ap- pointed by the judges, act as lower court magistrates, probate judges, and coroners in the larger communities. Principal Federal departments operating in Alaska are the Department of Interior, Department of Agri- culture, Department of Commerce, and Department of Labor. The principal Territorial officers are the Attorney General, Treasurer, Auditor, Highway Engineer, Com- missioner of Labor, and a voteless delegate to the United States Congress, all elected by popular vote. The elec- tive oflicials also serve with the Governor and Secretary on eight boards or commissions whose membership is fixed by Territorial law on an ex-officio basis. Department heads appointed by the Governor, sub- ject to confirmation by the Territorial Legislature are the Commissioners of Agriculture, Mines, and Taxation. 37 Boards appointed by the Governor, subject to con- firmation by the Legislature, and of which the Gover- nor is an ex-officio member are the Aeronautics and Communications Commission (not subject to confirma- tion), Alaska Development Board, Territorial Boards of Health and Public Welfare. Boards appointed by the Governor subject to legis- lature confirmation, but of which the Governor is not a member, are the following: Education, Regents, Trustees, World War II Veterans, Alaska Housing Au- thority, and Unemployment Compensation Commission. Military services in Alaska have become increasingly important with awareness of the Territory’s strategic value for National defense. In 1943, the Alaskan De- partment, now Alaskan Command of the Department of National Defense, was established with permanent headquarters at Anchorage. The Alaska Communica- tions System, under the Signal Corps, operates a net- work of submarine cables, telegraph lines, and radio telephones throughout the Territory serving both Gov- ernment and the public. The Navy Department in 1944 created the 17th Naval District in Alaska with head- quarters at Kodiak. There are 27 incorporated towns in Alaska governed by elected mayors and councils, with laws enforced gen- erally by magistrates and local police forces. The in- corporated communities levy taxes up to 20 mills, the maximum permitted by the Organic Act, and conduct their own schools with the help of some financial sup- port from the Territory. Alaskans are subject to all Federal taxes but as Ter- ritorial residents they elect no elector to the Electoral College, have no representation in the United States Senate and their elected delegate in the House of Rep- resentatives is voteless. Present Development “Since the purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867 for $7,200,000, the Territory has re- paid its original cost almost 700 times in trade and commerce—and most of its wealth remains locked in the seas, on the land, and under the ground. “Formerly Alaska had been thought of as a place to go, to work, to save money, and to leave. Today people more and more want to work in the Territory throughout the year, to make their homes and live out their lives in Alaska. Development of Alaska’s re- sources offers a challenge Alaskans want to meet.” Public. | ibrarv Nea-going cossels transport lumber to market. u A / CHAPTER III Present Development Since the purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867 for $7,200,000, the Territory has repaid its original cost almost 700 times in trade and commerce— and most of its wealth remains locked in the seas, on the land and under the ground, Although development has been retarded by an al- most exclusive monopoly which the extractive industries have held on its economy, the Territory has made great strides in political progress. Suffrage for women in Alaska was enacted by its legislature in 1913—6 years before women were enfranchised in the States. Alaska was among the first to enact and enforce 8-hour day work laws, a Workman's Compensation Act, and effi- cient social security measures. The Army and Navy found Alaska’s economy of great value in World War II. It had supported air, rail and water transport, whose vessels and pilots the Armed Forces took over. Alaska alone had these tools to de- fend thé frontier. -\s the Western States found new life, the war also started a burgeoning in the North country. Vast mili- tary expenditures, plus scores of new service industries, resulted in a substantial increase in economic levels throughout Alaska, but its greatest contribution was people, new people with new ideas—more than 20,000 of them. There has been a marked change in Alaska thinking during the past decade. The thought trend is no longer one of exploitation by the favored few, a handful of special interests who once dominated Alaska’s eco- nomic and political life. Instead, it is rapidly becom- ing “development of Alaska by Alaskans.” Formerly Alaska had been thought of asa place to go, to work, to save money and to leave. Today people more and more want to work in the Territory through- out the year, to make their homes and live out their lives in Alaska. Development of Alaska’s resources offers a challenge Alaskans want to meet. For the first time in its 81-year history under the American flag, veal feeling of permanency is being sensed throughout the Territory. Alaska has much in natural wealth to contribute to the Nation, but in order to formulate an orderly and comprehensive utilization program of its resources it is necessary to have at hand the most complete evalua- tion of its potentialities possible, as well as the record of its past and present development. FISHERIES Little did the white men, who first dropped their nets and hooks into Alaskan waters about 1840, realize they were launching what was to become the Territory's greatest industry. Following acquisition of the Territory from Russia, Alaska’s isolation held the industry to meager pro- portions. Introduction of salmon canning provided the impetus the industry needed to grow. Beginning with two canneries in 1878, with a pack valued at $16,000, the industry has now mushroomed to over 100 plants with an annual pack worth more than $100,000,000. Demand for other types of fish and shellfish has grown so that they too are now valuable additions to the industry. Alaska’s fishery products were valued at more than $115,000,000 in 1948. The total value of production from 1867 to 1948 is estimated at $1,856,- 000,000—265 times more than Alaska’s original pur- chase price. The Pacific salmon comprises five species of salmon which are found in Alaskan waters. All are commer- cially important. In this discussion their individual characteristics are treated separately, but all have life histories similar in these respects: (1) They are anadromous, returning to fresh water from the sea to spawn; (2) they possess a generalized homing instinct. returning on their spawning migration to the same stream or locality in which they themselves were hatched or released as fry; (3) they mature, and spawn but once, shortly after which they die. Sockeye or red salmon is the most valuable for canning purposes because its flesh retains its bright red color after processing. Occurring throughout Alaska, its greatest abundance is in Bristol Bay. Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island. and Cook Inlet. 41 42 Although the pack of pink or humpback salmon may exceed that of reds, its unit value is much lower. It is as nutritious and tasty as red salmon, but its meat is soft and pale and thus not as attractive in appearance. However, through sheer abundance they support extensive cannery operations in southeastern Alaska, Prince William Sound, lower Cook Inlet, Kodiak Island, and the Alaska Peninsula. Principally used for canning, chum or dog salmon runs a poor third to sockeyes and humpbacks, both in quality and quantity. When canned it is usually watery, pale, and lacking in flavor. The king salmon supports a fishery quite different than the canning species mentioned above. This type of fish is caught almost exclusively by trollers. Be- cause of their fine flavor, attractive appearance, and individual care they receive in catching, “kings” com- mand a premium price on the fresh fish market, or for a salting process known as mild curing. King salmon, ascend only the larger rivers, principally those of the mainland, and are not abundant. The large run is in the spring, appearing before any of the other species. Coho or silver salmon sustains the troll fishery in southeastern Alaska during the fall, entering the fish- ery after the “kings” have gone. They also support gillnet fisheries off several of the larger rivers. The halibut sustains a large spring fishery of unusual stability. It is a bottom fish of wide distribution on the banks and shoals of the Alaskan coast. They are marketed in either fresh or frozen condition. Allied to halibut—in being caught by the same boats and with the same gear—sablefish or “black cod” is a comparative newcomer in the ranks of commercial species. Its acceptance on the market was a boon to the halibut fishery in Southeastern Alaska since sablefish ean be taken when the brief halibut season is closed. Annual production is valued at almost $2,000,000. Herring are used principally for reduction to meal and oil, although a small pack is salted for food pur- poses. They are regarded as a basic article in the diet for salmon and halibut and thus are a favorite bait with fishermen. The industry is centered in southeastern Alaska, Prince William Sound, and Kodiak Island. The razor clam canneries at Cordova produces 1,500,- 000 pounds per year. A small industry of canning butter clams has been consistently maintained in South- eastern Alaska during past years but was recently sus- pended because of rulings of the Food and Drug Ad- ministration concerning a possible toxic condition aris- ing from the presence of a microorganism on which the clams feed. The shrimp industry has been well-established on a local basis at Wrangell and Petersburg since 1920 and provides a significant off-season contribution to the ALASKA Halibut fishing, an important Alaska industry, em- ploys about 1,200 men and produces about $2,000,090 annually in fish and by-products. region’s economy. ‘The 1947 pack was valued at $326,- 000 at the packing shed. Two species of crab are found in Alaska : the common Dungeness and the not-so-common King crab. The Dungeness crab occurs mostly in Southeastern Alaska and in the vicinity of Cordova, where it supports a minor industry. The catch in 1946 was valued at more than $600,000. King crabs, ranging up to 18 pounds with a 5-foot spread, are taken in certain areas adjacent to the Alaska Peninsula, Bristol Bay, lower Cook Inlet, and the Bering Sea. Inland and Local Fish of Utilitarian Value In the watersheds of the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers as well as the smaller streams emptying into Bristol Bay and Cook Inlet, salmon have been a tra- ditional mainstay in the economy of the resident native and white settlers. Unlike the big industry on the coast, there is no formalized commerce in the interior areas; salmon are taken and preserved for the personal year- round food supply of the people and their dog teams, PRESENT DEVELOPMENT 43 Ketchikan, salmon-packing capital of the world. Each malemute sled dog requires approximately one whole fish per day for almost the entire year. Trout and grayling, classed as game fish in the Alaska Game Law, provide a significant contribution to the food supply of settlers in remote regions of the interior. The Dolly Varden trout is overwhelmingly abundant in coastal streams. Steelhead trout, captured in small numbers incidental to salmon fishing in salt water, may be commercialized. A picturesque and traditional method of obtaining food by the Eskimos is the catching of tom cod through the ice. This lowly species has not yet achieved any significance in commerce but by virtue of its acces- sibility and abundance during the winter it is important to isolated Arctic residents. In Kotzebue Sound, natives take another species of fish known as the sheefish through the ice during the spring months. The sheefish is large, somewhat akin to both salmon and whitefish and of excellent food qual- ity. Not much is known about it or its fishery. The Fisheries Industry Today Among the natural resources of Alaska, none has at- (ined a greater state of development than the fisheries. The canned salmon industry dominates the economy of the fisheries. Only defense construction work has had a bigger payroll and more employees in recent years. More than 20,000 persons are engaged in the Alaska fisheries industry each year. The majority are seasonal workers—emploved only during the canning season. Approximately 50 percent of those employed are white, while Alaska natives account for 26 percent of the total labor force. <A detailed breakdown of the labor force for 1943, follows: Taste 7.—Summary of persons engaged in Alaska’s Peraons engaged Fisheries Number Whites_____--------.......--.----------~------------- 12, Native - 6,475 Chines 43 Filipinos. 3, 236 Hawaiian 13 Koreans__- 4 Latin Americans. 53, Negroes 60 Tuerto R 15 Portuguese 1 Spaniards. 7 24 Unknown-_-__-------- 962 Total....0_1J.) 2 fl | 28, 2 The total value of manufactured fishery products for that year was $66,516,357—of which $18,600,000 went to the fishermen. There were 6.654 fishermen, 10,957 shoremen and 1,532 transporters employed. Shoremen’s 2,088,366. wages were 37,720,798, and transporters” 5 ALASKA Petersburg, fur farming center of Southeastern Alaska. During 1943, 83 canning plants were in operation. To supply these canneries it required 783 vessels of 5 tons or over, 287 launches, 65 power dories, 235 powered gillnet boats, 665 unpowered, 349 seine skiffs, 1,046 other rowboats and skiffs, 484 lighters and scows, 29 house- boats, 49 pile drivers, 9 pile pullers, 37 rigging scows. To harvest this marine crop, 738 purse seines, 89 beach seines, 3,162 gillnets, 378 fish traps and an un- known amount of minor gear were required. The num- ber of fish caught by each type of gear follows: Tasie 8.—Number of fish caught by each type of gear. Type of gear Number of salmon Seines__ 24, 716, 194 Gillnets. 21, S38, 768 Traps_ 37, SO1, 547 Lines_ -- 1,279, 0ST hee eee eee ee sade 211,127 The salmon by-product industry was carried on at only two plants. Production consisted of 1,400,000 pounds of meal valued at $35,000 and 61,350 gallons of oil worth $52,148. The herring fishery production was valued at $1,813,- 991. Scotch-cured herring amounted to $143,660; bait $59,410; meal, $542,421; and oil, $1,084,000. The halibut fleet, as those of the United States and Canada, operates under regulations of the International Fisheries Commission. Employed in the halibut fish- ? ery in 1943 were 412 fishermen, 1,257 shoremen, and 92 transporters—a total of 1,716 persons. Engaged in and 19 launches. Products, exclusive of liver and viscera, were valued at $2,277,975. Livers were valued at $343,437. From brief statistical information available, in- creases in various branches of the industry are noted for 1945. That year Alaska produced 7,763 tierces of mild-cured salmon, compared with 3,122 in California, 1,209 in British Columbia, 1,790 in Washington, and 159 in Oregon. Almost 10,000,000 pounds of salmon were frozen in the harvest were S+ vessels 1943. In 1945, 15,473,092 pounds were frozen. Other fish freezings for the latter year follow: Type Tasre 9.—Fish freezings in 1945 pounds Bait and animal food 1, 872, 975 838, 131 Fillets __- 26, 678 Halibut — , 572, SIT Lingeod -_ 171, 935 Sablefish 5, 936, 572 Salmon __ 15, 473, 092 Others _- 31, 045 Clams __------ 176 Shrimp and crab_ Alaska total_- Oregon total Washington tot A sae ONT a Se PRESENT DEVELOPMENT Male mountain goat. Arrangement on horns is to prevent injury to persons. Halibut landings in 1945 totaled 21,049,000 pounds, compared with 19,630,000 in British Columbia, 13,676,- 821 in Washington, 793,000 in Oregon, and 300,000 in California. : The Territory of Alaska collected about $1,000,000 in taxes from the fishing industry during 1947 operations. Two-thirds of that amount is attributable to the pack tax oncanned salmon. Taxes on fish traps, salmon can- hery net income, clam canneries, salteries, cold storage plants, fish-oil plants, gillnet and seine operations, clam diggers, resident and nonresident fishermen accounted for the balance. WILDLIFE RESOURCES The population of Alaska dependent largely on wild- life as a mean of livelihood has been estimated to be 32,000. This is in addition to approximately 24,000 persons employed in commercial fisheries. Both activi- ties are seasonal and there is some overlap between the two. The following statistics show the number of persons dependent on wildlife resources: 45 Tastr 10.—Persons dependent on wildlife resources Trappers and hunters (na- tive and white) Judicial division Population 4, 000 10, 000 8, 000 10, 000 94, 875 | 32, 000 The majority of permanent residents in the Second Division, both native and white, are almost wholly de- pendent on wildlife resources for subsistence. Their food, clothing, dog food, and cash income is derived from fur and game animals and fish. In the interior the source is land mammals and birds. Along the coast sea mammals are food sources. In addition, they pro- vide some of the material for handicrafts. In the Fourth Division, embracing approximately the Yukon-Kuskokwim drainage plus the eastern Arctic coast, conditions are somewhat similar. With the ex- ception of those employed in construction activities in the Fairbanks vicinity, many of the people are depend- ent upon wildlife for the necessities of life. In the First and Third Division, comprising South- eastern Alaska, Alaska Peninsula, and Gulf of Alaska Caribou bull in corral, 46 region, there is a greater urban population and com- mercial fishing is more important than game and fur. Even so, a large percentage of the native population derives much of its living from these sources. White persons over 16 years of age are required to have a license for hunting or trapping. Eskimos and Indians are not licensed. The number of licenses issued during the past 3 years follow: Tasie 11.—Licenses issued for hunting and trapping License | Fee 1946 1947 1948 Nonresidence, big game__-- --- $50 232 411 484 Nonresidence, small game-.- - -- 10 234 773 1, 252 Resident hunting, trapping, and fishing-_....---------- Resident hunting and fishing -- 3 | 5,075 | 5,697 | 5, 343 2 | 8, 867 | 8,956 | 11, 749 Nonresident big game hunters are required to have registered guides on the hunt. Guiding and outfitting is an essential part of Alaska’s business. In 1948 there were 104 registered and 14 assistant guides. Money derived from licenses is equally distributed between the Territorial school fund and the United States Treasury. In 1947, licenses brought in more than $66,000. Cost of the license, however, is only a Red and arctic fox pelts are traded at the Eskimo cooperative trading store at Point Barrow. ALASKA small part of the Territorial income from hunting. Statistics on total income are not available; but as an example it might be pointed out that the nonresident trophy hunter’s expenditures for bagging a Kodiak bear have been estimated at $1,800. Alaska has long been known as a producer of fine furs. Exploitation of fur seals on the Pribilof Islands was started by the Russians shortly after discovery of the Islands in 1786. Between that date and 1834 it is estimated that 1,800,000 seals were killed for their skins. These were taken without regard to sex and resulted in such depletion that restrictive measures were adopted in 1835 prohibiting slaughter of females. This resulted in a slow increase in the herd so that by 1867 the herd was estimated at about 1,000,000 animals, compared with an estimated 5,000,000 in its original, unexploited state. As a result of numerous restrictions and international control measures enacted between 1868 and 1911, the herd increased by 1947 to an estimated 3,613,653 ani- mals valued at more than $100,000,000. From 1910 to 1947 it produced a total of 1,146,556 skins having a gross value of $36,422,412. In addition, a by-products plant annually produces about $80,000 worth of oil and meal from the carcasses. Under the international agreement, surplus male seals are killed each year by the Fish and Wildlife Service. The revenue derived from the sale of pelts goes to the } United States, Great Britain, and Japan. Since the United States assumes the expense of maintaining the reservation and processing the skins, the largest share goes to America. The raw pelts are shipped from the Pribilof Islands to St. Louis, Mo., where they are dressed, dyed, ma- 7 chined, and finished prior to the two annual public auc- tions. In 1947, 49,925 pelts were sold for more than $2,000,000. The steller sea lions are large mammals which re- semble the fur seals but have little commercial value at the present time. They are a despised nuisance on the commercial fishery grounds from Southeastern Alaska to Kodiak Island. Like the sea lions, harbor seals are pests to the fishermen and actually cause a direct economic loss by preying on salmon that are caught in gillnets. The Territory now pays a $3 bounty on this species. The walrus, a traditional mainstay in the economy of Arctic Eskimos, provides food, oil, hides, and ivory. The latter product, however, once attained such com- mercial importance that walrus were slaughtered ruth- lessly for their tusks and their total abundance was seriously depleted. The species is now protected by law and commercial exploitation is prohibited so the na- tives will be assured of their customary source of supply. PRESENT DEVELOPMENT | ange hae + iu ‘ a io Feeding foxes on the front porch, Brother’s Island. Another valuable fur is that of the sea otter. This animal, once on the verge of extinction, has been pro- tected since 1911 and has come back in such numbers that it will soon be possible to start a limited harvest of some of the animals. Blue fox, white fox, lynx, wolverine, marten, and land otter are some of the more unusual furs taken in the Ter- ritory in addition to the more commonplace skins of beaver, muskrat, mink, and red fox. Furs shipped from Alaska in 1947 as reported in “Trade and Industry in Alaska” are: Taste 12.—F urs shipped from Alaska in 1947 Species Number Value | Beaver. _.-.--.----- 26,395 | $834, 021 Fox, black and silver gat 3.922 | 119, 204 Fox, red_. Ji) 3. 303 32, 085 Fox, whit 7 i 2, 332 | 41, 946 Fox, blue... _ 2, 275 59, 758 Seal (including hair seal) J 61, 895 | 3, 561, 413 Marten____ ee gait 15, 071 586, 071 Mink___ we pet 55, 584 | 1, 291, 400 Muskrat.........-.---- --oltiijtll | 195, 818 333, 987 Se ee ee aad , 903 82, 312 Other... 3 80, 277 Total Lo 382.731 7, 022, 421 The Territory is at present divided into eight fur dis- tricts. This system provides considerable flexibility in the management of furbearing animals, particularly in determining season regulation. The Aleutian Islands have been classified for land use and those not reserved for military use, sea otter, or oceanic birds have been leased for blue fox farming. Alaska big game has worldwide fame, attracting thousands of trophy hunters and photographers. Im- portant species include brown, grizzly, kodiak, and black bear, moose, caribou, blacktail deer, mountain goat, and mountain sheep. Introduced species include musk oxen, bison, and elk, as well as the semidomesti- cated reindeer. The important small game species are ptarmigan. grouse, and snowshoe hare. Migratory waterfowl are of special importance to hunters of the remainder of North America. The Territory furnishes the nesting grounds for thousands of ducks and geese that provide outdoor sport for hunt- ers in the States. Common species include the pintail, mallard, teal, wigeon, gadwall, bluebill, shoveler, can- vasback, and goldeneve ducks: as well as the Canada, 48 snow and white-fronted geese, and black brant. Less well-known species include the Emperor goose, eider ducks, and the whistling swan. MINERALS AND MINING To a large extent, development of Alaska’s mineral resources has followed the pattern of North American frontier regions. As in the western part of the United States and Canada, most of the early explorations were made by fur traders and explorers—the men who cracked America’s wildernesses. Discovery of placer gold by these early adventurers led to intensive searches which yielded numerous placer and lode gold deposits. Although there were various discoveries of gold in Alaska by Russians and others prior to the purchase of tory by the United States, the first American discoveries were made at Sumdum and Windham Bay the Ter on the mainland between Juneau and Petersburg. These strikes yielded the first gold production in 1870, 3 years after the purchase of Alaska. Within a 10- year period, gold lodes were discovered near Sitka, Juneau, and on Douglas Island. The Klondike discovery in the Canadian Yukon had the same effect upon the search for gold in Alaska as Idle bulls on Polovina rookery, St. Paul Island. ALASKA Sea otter in kelp bed on Ogliuga Island. Otter isa valuable fur crop. that in California in 1848 had upon the region west of the Rocky Mountains. By 1900, an estimated 50,000 prospectors roamed the upper tributaries of the Yukon River, both in Canada and Alas Along the Pacific Coast prospectors pushed north and westward to the Seward Peninsula. They were rewarded with many discoveries, the most outstanding being the beach placers of Nome and the river placers of Fairbanks. It was during this gold-rush period, from 1895 to 1910, that the majority of known mineral deposits in Alaska were discovered. Little attention was paid by the prospector to minerals other than gold. Numerous copper deposits were found in the Copper River, Prince William Sound, and Southeastern Alaska districts. The Bonanza, the most notable discovery, began production in 1911 when the 200-mile Copper River Railroad was pushed through to the slopes of the Wrangell Mountains. When abandoned in 1938, more than 1,250,000,000 pounds of metallic copper had been produced from this property. Production of silver and lead has been limited largely to by-product recovery in gold and copper operations. Such recovery has met only an infinitesimal portion of FRESENT DEVELOPMENT the demand for these metals and minerals in the United States. Coal was first discovered in 1871 along the Arctic Coast, where it was mined for use on whalers and United States Revenue Cutter vessels. Little did the early explorers realize they were only scratching the surface of a few of the many deposits, which for all of North- ern Alaska are estimated to contain 60 billion tons of subbituminous and 22 billion tons of bituminous coal. Other coal deposits were found in various parts of the Territory during the “rush” era, but development of properties has been restricted to local market demands. The combined coal resources of the railbelt and Homer areas are estimated as high as 24.4 billion tons of lignite or subbituminous, 2.3 billion tons of bitumi- nous, and 1 billion tons of coking coal. Petroleum has been developed at only one place in Alaska, the Katalla field. where seeps first attracted attention in 1898. This field yielded about 150,000 barrels of oil prior to 1933, when the refinery was de- stroyed by fire. Despite limited development in the mining industry, Alaska’s mineral production since 1880 is valued at almost one billion dollars—140 times more than the or- Wes knecling ona two-ton nugget of pure native copper. iginal purchase price of the Territory. A summary of Alaska’s mineral production during this period follows : Taste 13.—Alaska’s mineral production (1880-1947) - $635, 515, 000 - 226,569, 300 - 25, 252, 500 - 14,144, 400 - 36,891, 800 Ota ee eee ete eee tice 938, 373, 000 Despite the fact Alaska has been a Territory of the United States for 81 years there has been little growth of the mining industry. Alaska is one-fifth the area of the United States but its total mineral production since 1880 is less than 1 percent of the National total. Of the 33 metals and minerals now classified in the United States as strategic and critical materials. for which stockpiling is deemed the only satisfactory means 50 of insuring an adequate supply for future emergency, 31 are known to occur in Alaska. The 33 strategic and critical metals and minerals are listed as follows: Antimony Cobalt Lead Asbestos Columbite Manganese Bauxite Copper Mercury Beryl Corundum Mica Bismuth Diamonds Monazite Cadmium (industrial) Nickel Celestite Graphite Platinum Chromite Kyanite Quartz Crystals Tale Tungsten ALASKA Rutile Tantalite Vanadium Sapphire and Ruby Tin Zine Zirconium All these metals and minerals, with the exception of bauxite and industrial diamonds, are known to occur in Alaska and deposits of some of them may be sub- stantial. Recent reports from remote areas state indus- trial diamonds have been found. These occurrences § have not been investigated, but Territorial Department of Mines engineers do not discount the possibility of their being discovered in Alaska. Upper Yukon coal beds. PRESENT DEVELOPMENT f. , ~~ Evan Jones Coal Co. is one of the Territory’s big bituminous c 51 oal producers. High quality coal is a great unde- veloped resource in Alaska. TIMBER PRODUCTS Conservative estimates place Alaska’s coastal and interior forest lands at more than 375,000 square miles— almost twice as large as the combined forest lands of the four Scandinavian countries, where forest indus- tries constitute a major factor in their eeonomy. How- ever, Alaska’s forests have never played their proper role in the Territory's economy. From the time the first American sawmill, powered by boilers from the naval vessel Jamestown, cut the first log in Sitka in 1878, Alaskans have never cut more than one-thirteenth of the potential annual cut—one billion board feet in perpetuity. Alaska’s most productive forest region is the 16,000- 000-acre Tongass National Forest, a long, narrow, island-dotted strip about 350 miles in length and 120 miles wide—in southeastern Alaska. Between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 acres of this forest have been classified as merchantable timber. The volume of commercial timber in this area has been conservatively estimated as shown in table 14. The average volume of commercial timber varies from 15,000 to 20,000 board feet per acre, but volumes of 40,000 to 50,000 board feet are common over a wide area. The majority of trees are from 2 to 4 feet in diameter and from 80 to 140 feet high. At least 75 per- cent of the commercial timber is within 214 miles of tidewater. Only rarely do good stands extend inland More than 5 miles. The forest cover extends from tide- YS8410—52—5 Taute 14.—Volume of commercial timber in Tongass Forest Species | Board feet measure | Percent Tr cas - a Western hemlock_..-...2.-___- | § k 74 Sitka spruce______ 20 Western red cedar - 3 Alaska cedar____-_-2222 22222 o 8. 3 otal tet 100 water to about 2,750 feet elevation in the south and 2,000 feet in the north. At an elevation of 1,500 feet the commercial timber gives way to dwarfed, limby trees classified as noncommercial. Almost the entire balance of Alaska’s coastal forests are to be found in the Chugach National Forest? of Western Alaska in the Prince William Sound region. This forest contains much the same type timber as Ton- gass National Forest, with the exception of cedar. The forest volume of the Chugach is estimated as follows: Taste 15.—Forest volume of Chugach National Forest Species Board feet measure Western hemlock 4, 200, 000, 000 Sitka spruce__. -- 1,900 ,000, 000 White spruce__ 100, 000, 000 Cottonwood __ 30, 000, 000 White bireb___ 10, 000, 000 COT eee ee 6, 260, 000, 000 ESTIMATED “COMMERCIAL” RESERVES AS OF 1944,IN KNOWN DEPOSITS, COMPARED WITH 1935-44 ANNUAL RATES OF PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION RESERVES IN TERMS OF YEARS OF PRODUCTION OVER oo rs to ks © COMMODITY 1000 je Unie — Mognesium ey TT ie Phosphete rock Hellum Anthrocite Molybdenum Rutile Potosh Tron ore, Imenite Notural gos Cobalt® Sulfur Bismuth® Fluorspor Bounite Zine Gold Copper Petroleum Silver* Cadmium* Leod Vonodium Mongen Platinum met 16M Antimony ® 38 Mercury sa Tungsten as Tontalum®™ im Chromite 1 Mico( strategic) RESERVES IN TERMS OF YEARS OF CONSUMPTION lll uss os eo ee Yoo ~ “ Yo wt] | oS as iz fe hi ' J Asbestos (long-fiber) | 1 Grophite(tioke) t ' Nickel® ' Tin Uindustrial diomonds | 1 Quorts crystol t “Optoined chietly os byproducts Output dependent on rate of production of ossocioted metols. re SSS STERN LONNOsininttttl nm U. S. MINERAL POSITION—ACTUAL, IMPENDING, AND POTENTIAL Based on known “commercial” reserves, outlook for noteworthy discovery. and, the possibility that known submarginal resources can be made available by technologie ‘Drogresa and improved economic conditions RELATIVE SELF-SUFFICIENCY ACTUAL AND IMPENDING POTENTIAL (Based on present technologic and| (If technologie and economic changes economle conditions and on known| permit use of known submargioal re- “commercial” reserves) suurces) A. VIRTUAL SELF-SUFFICIENCY AS-| A. VIRTUAL SELF-SUFFICIENCY: SURED FOR A LONG TIME: Bituminoys Aluminum Fivorspar Magne: Fiuorspar ores. ts ce dee! Mofybdentin {metal GeRestearagniie) Ant Fellum Mi Nt nde Natural gas Magnealte i Nitrates Haanesite Phosphate Phowpiate Potash Potash Sulfur eee B. COMPLETE OR VIRTUAL DEPEND-|B. COMPLETE OR VIRTUAL _DEPEND- ENCE ON FOREIGN SOURCES: ENCE ON FOREIGN SOURCES: 1. Small or remote expectation of improv- Piationm Industrial ing’ position through dcovery 2 mnene Chromit Industrial diamonds Quarts cryatal Platinum Asbestos metals (spinning: Tin quality) 2. Good expectation of improvin, th through discovery! st tenpeering porition Cobalt? Graphite (fake) C. PARTIAL DEPENDENCE ON FOREIGN| C. PARTIAL END! SOURCES, ACTUAL OR IMPENDING: ee ENCE ON FOREIGN 1. Good ex} 0 of im; through discovery | proving position Arsene.” series Petroleum Arsenic® Fluor bw Blamuth® y Sovait Sadwlone Chromit Copper faa"? Tron ore Mereu Lend Nickel” Mercury, Tanta ‘antalum Tungetes T te Zine” ne 2. Little bi of improvin; itt through discovery : ao Antimony® Vanadium Strategic mica *Domestic production chiefly byproduct. COURTESY BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY > S ea n . PRESENT DEVELOPMENT 53 Lumbering in Alaska. The interior forests of Alaska, composed mainly of white spruce and birch with a scattering of balsam. aspen, poplar, and tamarack, embraces an estimated 342,409-square-mile area along the Yukon, Tanana, Kuskokwim, and Copper Rivers. Maximum diameter of the trees in these forests is 24 inches. However, the majority range from 6 to 12 inches, and there are many areas of open woodland with scattered limby trees. A rough estimate places the volume of the interior forests at 910,000,000 cords. Several small sawmills have been established in in- terior Alaska. These mills cut lumber and timber for mine flumes, home construction, and similar uses. There has been fairly heavy cutting around various settle- ments for wood-burning river boats, mine props, and home heating. Because of climatic conditions, growth of replacement timber is slow in the interior. Wide areas have been denuded by fire. The 43,060-square-mile coastal forests, particularly the Tongass National Forest, have witnessed the great- est development because of their proximity to markets and low-cost transport as well as possessing a more favorable climate permitting almost all-year operation. Sitka spruce supplies most of the present sawmill re- quirements. It ismanufactured into all the usual forms of lumber and airplane stock. Western hemlock is used for a great variety of lumber products. Western red cedar is used for siding, high-grade lumber, shingles and poles, while Alaska red cedar is valuable for furni- ture manufacture, especially cedar chests and clothes closets because of its pronounced odor. Most of the forest products manufactured in Alaska— fish boxes, barrels, and building materials—have been used within the Territory. Alaska lumber did not find its way into the export market until after World War I. From 1931 to 1940, shipments of Alaska forest products to the United States averaged $78,176 annually. In 1940, shipments of lumber valued at $11,960 were made to the Orient, Australia, and Hawaii. Exports of wood, lumber, and timber increased from less than $100,000 in 1941 to an average of more than $700,000 during 1946 and 1947; but lack of development in this indus- try is illustrated by the fact that during this 2-year period imports of forest products to Alaska totaled almost $10,000,000. Alaskan logging methods are similar to those in Washington and Oregon. Machine logging with donkey engines and wire rope has proved most practi- cal. A large amount of timber is logged directly into tidewater for rafting. Flat rafts ave used in the pro- ALASKA Lumbering is big business for small operators. tected waterways while Davis-type rafts are required for tows in wider, more exposed channels. Floating logging camps, easily towed from one logging camp to another, are in general use. The cost of towing timber has been estimated by the Forest Service at 114 cents per 1,000 board feet per mile. Virtually all timber, manufactured in Southeastern Alaska, is purchased from the National Forest. The minimum stampage prices for western hemlock is $1 per 1,000 board feet. Sitka spruce and Alaska cedar bring a minimum of ; Juneau and Ketchikan have modern electric-driven sawmills of 100,000 board feet capacity per 8-hour shift. Whittier, Sitka, Wrangell, Petersburg, Homer, Palmer, Fairbanks, and other communities have smaller mills. The yearly cut is now about 75,000,000 board feet, less than one-thirteenth the amount that could be cut with- out endangering a permanent supply. Examination of production records show the growth of the industry during the past five decades: Taste 16.—Sarwmill production record Year Namie | awd et) Gutta) 1899 _- 10 6,571,000 -_-..--- 1919 22 = «21, 673, 000 - 1929 19 | 30, 393, 000 1939 24 25, 885, 000 1945_- 35 59, 056, 000 The majority of Alaska sawmills are small. In 1939, the most recent information available, nine plants listed production worth less than $5,000; six between $5,000 and $20,000; three between $20,000 and $100,000 and only three over $100,000. Total wages and salaries paid amounted to $341,526. Alaska mills usually cease op- eration during 1, 2, or 3 months in mid-winter for over- haul and repair of equipment and machinery. The effect on employment is shown by the fact that the in- dustry employed 426 in July 1939, but only 106 in Jan- uary 1940. PRESENT DEVELOPMENT Copper mine at Nabesna, in the Copper River region. The Alaska Unemployment Compensation Commis- sion estimated that in 1945 there were 25 basic lumber industries and one furniture manufacturing plant, em- ploying a total of 642 persons, operating in the Terri- tory. Later figures and other data are not available. For various reasons, 40,000,600 board feet of Alaska timber was rafted during 1948 to Puget Sound ports for manufacture in that area. AGRICULTURE Alaskan agriculture is still in its infancy, the first attempt at organized agricultural settlement being made less than 20 years ago. Agricultural experiment stations, established as early as 1899, have been so inade- quately supported that basic agricultural knowledge is deficient in many respects. In addition, many farm- ers have had little experience in cultivating land in Alaska or elsewhere. As recent as 1939, half the farm Operators reported they had occupied their land for less than 5 years. Clearing the virgin land of timber, except for 10 or 15 acres, has been beyond the financial ability of the average settler. After providing such essentials as a home, outbuildings, water supply, fences, farm machin- ery, and a few head of livestock, the settler needs suffi- cient cash or credit to clear a minimum of 40 acres of land to have a going and self-sustaining farm. It might cost $6,000 to clear 40 acres of land, but one average potato crop coupled with normal market conditions would have a gross value exceeding $12,000. However, before the first sack of potatoes is ready for market, the investment in essential improvements and machinery, a normal complement of livestock, land clearing, plus seed potatoes, fertilizer, and labor would be more than $18,000. Added to the excessive cost of clearing lands and the lack of sufficient funds to purchase necessary farm im- plements have been a deficiency of an adequate power supply for general farm use: the need for irrigation or drainage of some lands; the lack of roads and trans- portation facilities to transport products to market: and the strength of competition from Stateside producers. Despite the above, agriculture has established a foot- hold in Alaska. Its development is relatively small when compared with the States, but still it is highly significant because of the substantial quantities of food which have been produced. It also gives substance to the promise of extensive future developments. 56 Agriculture Follows Other Developments Agricultural development in Alaska, in contrast with common experience in the continental United States, has followed rather than preceded other forms of eco- nomic development. It began in small gardens near the cabins of prospectors, miners, freighters, fishermen, and on the clearings adjacent to missions. It consti- tuted a secondary activity undertaken in part to sup- plement food obtained from fish, game, and importa- tions. Frequently, as a hobby or to satisfy curiosity concerning the land’s ability to produce, small gardens were started. This secondary position of farming ex- plains, in part, the slow progress which has occurred. There were 222 farms in 1910. They increased to 364 in 1920 and 500 by 1929. In 1939 there were 623 farms of which 164 were fur farms. Most fur farms were located in Southeastern Alaska. (Fur farming is discussed elsewhere in this report.) Other farms were largely in the south-central region, the majority being in Matanuska Valley, other farms were located near Anchorage, and on the Kenai Peninsula. There were also a few livestock farms on Kodiak and the Aleu- tian Islands. Farms in northern areas were established in the Tanana Valley. The increase in farms between 1929 and 1939 was confined to the south-central region, while decreases were noted in other areas. Operation by owners, rather than by tenants or hired managers, was characteristic in Alaska. This is shown in the following data: Taste 17.—Number of farms and type of operators in 1939 South- Item Total Southeast | centraland| Northern Alaska region southwest regions region All farms (1939) ___ 623 166 401 56 All farms (1929) _ 500 202 187 lll Fur farms (1939)_ aJ 164 95 57 12 Farms other than fur farms (1939)______ 459 71 344 44 Full owners___ 339 58 249 32 Part owners_ 73 4 67 2 Tenants___ 28 6 13 9 Managers______________ 19 3 15 1 Acreage and Crops The acreage of harvested cropland increased from 3,875 in 1929 to 7,305 in 1939. The increase occurred in the south-central region, an appreciable decrease oc- curring in other regions. The low average acreage per farm indicates that many farms were very small. A farm, for census purposes, was defined as any agricul- tural property having 3 acres or more, or which pro- ALASKA Crisp cabbages weighing as much as 50 pounds are easily grown in Alaska. duced products valued at not less than $250. Total cropland and acreage harvested per farm follows: Tasie 18.—Area of cropland (acres) South- teat Total | Southeast centraland | Northern Alaska region | southwest region region Cropland_..--__._--__. | 11,332 | 1,190] 7,812 | 2. 330 Cropland harvested_--__| 7, 305 585 | 5, 395 | 1, 325 Cropland per farm_-____ | 24 16 22 53 Cropland harvested per | | farms! JU ads | 16 8 15 | 30 Oats, peas, vetch, root crops, and other forage ac- counted for almost half the harvested acreage in that year. Perennial tame and wild hay boosted the forage crop total to 66 percent. Small grain production was confined mostly to Matanuska Valley, although some grain was harvested in Tanana Valley. Approximate percentages of harvested acres in the major crop groups were : eee itl PRESENT DEVELOPMENT Taste 19.—Major crop groups (percent) pe eel legeraitltailcipnelts stiles aiesenaamnnigheciaiataaine South- Crop Total | Southeast | central and| Northern Alaska region | southwest | regions region Small grain and peas._.-| 26 1| 32 13 Oats, peas, vetch and | | | other annual forage | rope se ate! | 48 | 23| 47 | 57 Perennial tame and wild | | hay--~-------------- | 18 62 144% 17 Vegetables -| 2 6 1 | 3% Potatoes -- - -| 5 6 5 | 9 Small fruite..-......-<. 1 | 2| | % Totalzsteo oe esees 100 100 100 | 100 Crop Yields Influenced by farm practices and management, yields vary widely among farms. Approximate average yields per acre during recent years were: wheat, 22 bushels; oats, 35 bushels; hull-less barley, 25 bushels; annuals harvested for hay, 114 tons; annuals harvested for silage, 5 tons, and potatoes, 4 to 5 tons. Much Cows in a meadow in Mendenhall Valley, Southeastern Alaska. 57 Strawberry patch at V. C. Spaulding’s ranch near Juneau. larger yields were obtained by farmers employing im- proved methods, including use of fertilizer. Ordinarily Alaska’s land does not produce heavy yields without applications of fertilizer. Because of the shortage of livestock on farms, greater dependence is placed on commercial fertilizers than on livestock manure. In 1947, 1,000,000 pounds of fertilizers and materials were imported. Assuming 10,000 acres of cropland were harvested, an average of 100 pounds of fertilizer per acre was used. Potatoes and truck crops, however, received a large portion of the total since application of 500 pounds or more per acre is a common practice. Livestock Distribution of livestock in Alaska farms was as follows: 58 ALASKA Readily accessible waterways float timber rafts to sawmills. Tanie 20.—Number of livestock | South- Kind Total | Southezst |centraland| Northern Alaska | region | southwest | region | region Horses and mules | 496 | 33 | 423 | 40 All cattle___---- -| 3, 749 | 651 | 2, 943 | 155 Cows kept for milk -| 1,217 445 657 | 115 Other dairy stock ( | | mated) -| 206 400 40 Other cattle (estimated) __ oe | Sheep and larbs.. | 17, 076 | 33 | 17, 043 Goats and kids - 289 1t4 118 Swine -_- 7 959 45 784 130 Chickens_ 18, 374 4,274 | 13, 696 404 There were differences in the importance of various kinds of livestock in each region. For instance, the majority of horses were in Matanuska Valley but dairy cows were important in all regions. There were some beef cattle in Matanuska Valley, but the majority, in- cluding sheep were on Kodiak and the Aleutian Islands. Swine were largely in Matanuska Valley. There were chickens and goats in all farming localities. Livestock not located on farms were: horses and mules, 161; cattle, 140; goats and kids, 145; hogs, 63; chickens, 5,674; and work dogs 24,291. Dogs (work animals) not on farms had decreased from 37,287 in 1929. Farm Production by Regions Although there was little cultivated land in South- eastern Alaska in 1939, the value of agricultural products was substantial. Intensive agriculture was characteristic. This region led in greenhouse products, nursery stock, and dairy products and was important in vegetable, fruit, and poultry production. However, the majority of feed for dairy and poultry enterprises was imported. There was little cropland in the southwest region, consequently the value of most crop production listed under the south-central and southwest regions in the table below was produced in the former region, mainly in Matanuska Valley. Dairy, poultry, and potatoes constituted the principal sources of farm income in 1939. arm income in northern regions, principally at Fairbanks, was similar to that in Matanuska Valley ex- cept that vegetables were of greater importance while poultry production was much lower. In most cases grain and hay was fed on the farms where grown and consequently did not enter into sales in volume in any region. Values in dollars of the principal farm products sold from Alaska farms were: Taste 21.—Value. of farm products in 1939 (dollars) | | South- Total | Southeast | centraland | Northern Product Alaska region | southwest | "regions | | regions \ | Hay 1, 625 70 | 1, 465 | 90 43, 203 1, 958 | 22, 857 18. 388 22, 930 2, 444 3, O16 17, 470 4, 612 1, 569 1, 928 1, 115 1,320 | 1,075 95 | 150 Greenhouse products - 13, 095 | 10, 000 | 1,045 | 2.050 Milk and cream__ _ -|306, 987 |158. 387 | 97.300 © 51. 300 Eggs and poultr -----| 47, 720 | 10, 583 34,510 2. 597 Value of vegetables for | | home use_--- Vegetables Fruit. --.-.-.-- Nursery Stock. -_ 20,136 | 4.315 12.461 3. 360 NT DEVELOPMENT os i ae! * xs Progress Since 1939 There has been appreciable development since 1939, but agriculture still retains much of its early character- istics. Gardeners and farmers are continually trying out a variety of practices, crops and enterprises, as well as commercializing on knowledge gathered through past experience. Agriculture remains a side-line oc- cupation or hobby for the majority of persons actively engaged in farming. Preliminary estimates made in 1948, indicate there are only about 125 farms which can qualify as full-time operations. The majority are in Matanuska Valley— the only place where substantial organized efforts to further agricultural settlement have been made in Alaska. In 1929, the Alaska Railroad was instrumental in bringing families to Matanuska Valley. Additional families were brought in by the Alaska Rural Rehabili- tation Corporation in 1935, and given assistance in clearing land, erecting buildings and developing farms. There are now about 80 full-time farms, many part- time farms and gardens in Matanuska Valley. Dairy- ing is the leading farm enterprise. Approximately 40 grade “A” dairy farms furnish Anchorage and Palmer with fresh milk, but production is still far short of demand. Potatoes, vegetables, poultry, pork, and beef are produced. Some hogs are raised in the valley but 9SS410—52-—.6 59 Cultivation of rich farm lands has boosted the population of Paliner from zero in 1930 to 1,500 in 1948. the greatest production is from three farms utilizing garbage from Port Richardson. Matanuska Valley is the leading agricultural area in the Territory. According to the Agricultural Exten- sion Service, an additional 2,000 acres of land were cleared in 1947. A number of silos were constructed in 1948. More dairy barns are being built; others im- proved to meet grade “A” standards. Marked interest is being displayed in improved crop and livestock prac- tices. In terms of acreage of cropland, the second most important farming area is Tanana Valley, in the Fair- banks vicinity. Milk is the leading agricultural prod- uct. In contrast with Matanuska Valley, all commer- cial milk at Fairbanks is produced by two dairy farms and the Agricultural Experiment Station herd. Several farmers desire to enter the dairying field but lack of financial and mechanical means for clearing sufficient acreage has prevented them. For this reason, small farmers are forced to rely on potato and vegetable production. This type of farming carries high risks and is not conducive to soil improvement, or building a sound, stable, well-rounded agricultural program. Despite clearing handicaps, farmers in this area cleared about 1,000 acres in 1947, according to reports of the Agricultural Extension Service. Farming in the vicinity of Homer and other points on Kenai Peninsula has made little progress since 1929. Grade A dairy barn in Matanuska Valley. Lack of facilities to transport products to market ap- pear to have been the principal difficulty. Construc- tion of a dock at Homer and completion of the road from Homer to Anchorage will remove some of the difficulties. Southeastern Alaska still has little land under culti- vation, but dairy and poultry production, based largely on imported feeds were valued at $500,000 and $50,000 respectively in 1946. Value of Production in 1946 The approximate values of products produced on Alaska farms in 1946 were as follows: Taste 22.—Value of agricultural products in 1946 (1,000 dollars) | Beef, | ° Poul- | 7 i . | Vege |, Poul | pork Area Milk . | try and | * | Total re u | tables legge | and) | ‘otal | Southeastern Alaska__-.--| 500 50 50 |------| 600 Matanuska Valley -| 525 500 150 157 | 1, 350 Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak and Aleutian Islands__--|----~-|--- ca |-r tae ‘275 Tanana Valley 185 Often the market for home-grown products is limited to the locality in which they are grown because of transportation difficulties. The recent increase in civilian population of many towns plus military pur- chases, has resulted in consistent shortages of perish- ables such as whole milk, eggs, and hardy vegetables. Reindeer in Alaska’s Agricultural Picture Reindeer production is a livestock enterprise peculiar to the northern regions. In 1929, approximately 713,- 000 reindeer roamed tundra ranges from Point Barrow on the north, to Kodiak Island in the south and from the coastal belt bordering the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean to Ophir in the interior. Today, there are less than 40,000 reindeer in Alaska. A joint survey conducted in 1948 by the Alaska Native Service and Fish and Wildlife Service cited five major reasons for this large-scale depletion. They were: (1) slaughter of reindeer by wolves, (2) starvation through continued grazing of a single portion of the respective ranges, (3) poor herding and management, (4) exces- sive butchering, and (5) mixing and migrating with caribou. PRESENT DEVELOPMENT Prior to 1937, reindeer were owned by both Eskimos and whites, the Eskimos owning about two-thirds of the stock. Surplus stocks permitted considerable export of reindeer products. The most important of these products were meat and hides. Reindeer hides pro- vide a fine leather for manufacture of leather jackets and kid gloves. Skins are utilized locally in manufac- ture of winter garments—mukluks, parkas, mittens, socks, leggings, trousers, and sleeping bags. Export of hides increased from 8,000 in 1928 to more than 14,000 in 1930. Meat for the export market was prepared under modern methods of slaughtering and shipping. Sev- eral cold storage plants operated along the coast and meat was shipped to the United States in refrigerated ships. Exports of reindeer meat jumped from 1,000,- 000 pounds in 1928, to 2,000,000 in 1929 and 2,500,000 in 1930. Reindeer byproducts, the antlers, bones, and blood and viscera were used in the preparation of meals fed to dogs and foxes. Antlers were exported for use in the manufacture of knife handles and similar articles. In northern Scandinavian latitudes reindeer milk is used for making of butter and cheese. No reindeer milking was or is now being done in Alaska. The animal was used to a slight extent as a beast of burden— for packing in summer and drawing of sleds in winter. Readily broken to halter, the average reindeer can haul a sled loaded with more than 300 pounds. Past investigations reveal that the minimum-sized herd from which an individual owner can earn a living is in the neighborhood of 1,000 head. Tom Brower of Barrow, Alaska, estimates his annual income from 1,300 head is approximately $6,000. There is every reason to believe that through proper direction and management the herds can be rehabil- itated to their former status. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE Alaska has always been a good customer of the United States. In the decade prior to World War II, there were only about 10 countries in the world with which the United States did more trade. The Alaska trade surpassed that of the Central American countries com- bined, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, Holland, the Balkan countries, Italy, and China. By the end of 1947, the volume of trade between the United States and Alaska had reached a grand total of more than $4,500,000,000—625 times more than its original purchase price. Of this amount, almost $3,000, 000,000 was the value of shipments of fish, minerals, furs, and forest products to the United States. Ship- ments of foodstuffs. clothing. machinery, and other 61 manufactures to Alaska accounted for about $1,500,- 000,000. From mere examination of statistics, this balance of trade in Alaska’s favor has been termed by some econ- omists as being unfavorable to the United States. How- ever, these figures do not present a true picture as this $1,500,000,000 balance of trade is more apparent than real. Much of it was in the form of profits and over- head expenses actually paid in the United States. Many of the mining, fishing, and other companies maintained office staffs and headquarters in the United States, pay- ing in the States much of the overhead wages and costs and dividends. Consequently, such statistics as pay- rolls, Federal income and other tax payments, do not wholly portray development of trade and commerce in Alaska. Actually, many States have been credited with Fed- eral tax payments which were exclusively the result of Alaska production. That fact is often ignored when contributions of the Federal Government to Alaska are compared with Alaska’s tax payments in return. In fiscal year 1948, however, internal revenue collections within Alaska alone totaled $18,885,047. It is difficult to estimate the value of Alaska exports to foreign countries since its major commodity—canned salmon—is shipped to Pacific Coast States for ware- housing, brokerage, and marketing. Although the United States exports about $30,000,000 in fish prod- ucts annually, the amount attributable to Alaska manu- facture is not known. Prior to World War II, Alaska exported about $16,- 000 in wood products to the Orient. During this same period, exports to Canada’s Yukon Territory amounted to $500,000 while imports from the area were only $200,000. Trade with British Columbia amounted to $100,000 in exports and $70,000 in imports. Although postwar figures are not available, it is known that imports from British Columbia have in- creased substantially because of recurrent maritime tie- ups. In many instances, southeastern Alaska has de- pended on imports of meat, eggs, and other products from Canada as its sole source of food supply. Similar products were brought into interior Alaska from Ed- monton, Alberta, over the Alaska highway. Trade statistics between Alaska and the United States during 1947 show the total Alaska imports to be $123,- 002,041, while exports were $116,809,279. Accompany- ing statistics show the distribution of imports and ex- ports among animals and fish, agriculture, forest, mineral, and manufactured products. According to 1939 census figures there were 989 retail establishments, employing 1,636 persons. Gross receipts were $23,047,912. Included in retail trade establishments were the following types of businesses: beverages, tobacco, confectioneries, books, office sup- 62 plies, drugs, foods, general stores, and trading posts, hardware, electrical, marine supplies, restaurants, tailor shops, wearing apparel, coal and wood, service stations, ice, lumber, monuments, furniture, and photo- graphic supplies. There were 105 wholesale concerns, which employed a total of 105 persons and did a gross business of $9,016,990. These wholesale firms included the follow- ing: foods, beverages, gasoline, hardware, electrical equipment, wearing apparel, furs, coal, feed, furniture, lumber, and cement. There were 389 service establishments, which employed 702 persons and did a gross business of $3,391,131. Service establishments included: car- pentry, boat-repairing, garages, metal-work, plumbing, barber and beauty shops, cleaning and pressing, shoe repairing, watch repairing, undertaking, photo finish- ALASKA ing, billiard parlors and bowling alleys, theaters, dance halls, roadhouses, and hotels. It is to be noted that of over 900 retail concerns, only 25 reported gross incomes over $100,000 or more per year. There were 74 in the $50,000 to $100,000 bracket ; 606 from $5,000 to $49,000. With a substantial increase in population since 1939, many new businesses have been established and it is undoubtedly true that more con- cerns are now in higher income brackets. According to Alaska Development Board figures, Alaska bank deposits more than doubled from 1941 to 1948. Total deposits of 18 Territorial and National banks were listed at $22,110,699 on June 30, 1941, while total deposits of $59,948,989 were reported by the 20 banks in operation in the year ending June 30, 1948. In the same interval, bank capital increased from $985,000 to $1,175,000, surplus and undivided profits from $1,882,483 to $2,862,512. Taste 23.—Value of in-shipments—United States to Alaska sh | ' Manufactures und Year Animals, fish | Agricalre | Forest products | Mine products ee Total 1 $3, 199, 899 $4, 339, 739 $1, 188, 100 $1, 882, 756 | $11, 881, 580 $22, 492, 074 2, 321, 172 3, 629, 565 1, 067, 809 1, 758, 641 | 10, S44, O48 235 2, 240, 929 3, 875, 089 1, 341, 766 1,935, 984; 11, 362, 775 543 3, 180, 354 5, 753, 920 | 1, 795, 680 2,382,181 | 17, 261, 295 , . 430 3, 630, 186 6, 213, 160 1, 966, 199 2,962, 296 | 17, 255, 339 32, 027, 180 3, 798, 344 6, 800, 795 2,477, 931 3, 690, 387 | 22, 324, 263 39, 091, 720 4, 220, 574 7, 432, 321 2, 681, 840 4,088,081 , 24, 509, 408 | 42, 932, 224 4, 306, 950 7, 432, 370 2, 884 4, 385, 608 | 24, 260, 254 | 42, 744, 066 4, 501, 819 7, 410, 014 2, 569, 742 4, 809,675 ; 25, 035, 830 | 44, 327, 080 4, 818, 942 8, 161, 938 + 345 5, 205,033 | 26, 969, 320 | 48, 129, 578 Se ee ooo eee e eee fol es cide tee ee eects 32, , 605 8, 558, 682 13, 766, 625 6, 770, 455 | 10, 007, 647 , 50, 394, 212 | 8¢ 621 9, 557, 974 16, 246, 566 4, 152, 730 11,790,314) 31,811, 214° 4 798 8, 153, 674 16, 283, 441 3. 510, 702 | 6, 272, 623 27, 821, 923 62, 042, 363 8, 740, 545 16, 180, 142 | 3, 711, 701 | 5, 998, 379 29, 416, 643 64, 047, 410 10, 699, 168 15, 797, 059 | 3, 130, 705 | 7, 212, 301 | 38, 165, 996 74, 005, 229 13, 579, 275 | 20, 723, 757 6, 677,970 | 13, 150, 815 62, 677, 462 116, 809, 279 1 Figures for respective imports not available. Tasre 24.—Value of out-shipments—Alaska to United States or eniuees ae Forest products | Mine products | Manufastures ond Total $39, 135, 330 $34, 994 $11, 567, 081 $61, 246 $50, 798, 651 27, 951, 325 |- 20, 858 10, 907, 788 57, 904 38, 937, 875 31, 783, 289 43, 480 9, 995, 113 505 41, 836, 387 43, 710, 901 42, 889 16, 004, 468 5 59, 787, 613 32, 544, 029 80, 028 18, 824, 230 25, 986 51, 474, 273 56, 324, 378 |-- 130, 985 19, 751, 576 15, 673 76, 222, 612 52, 864, 583 100, 835 25, 667, 871 67, 382 78, 700, 671 47, 786, 712 |. 86, 497 27, 422, 959 30, 654 75, 326, 822 38, 648, 510 |- 124, 449 21, 343, 719 27, 541 60, 144, 219 36, 612, 468 116, 752 21, 885, 054 10, 408 58, 624, 682 63, 773, 965 92, 672 19, 099, 575 207, 199 83, 173, 411 53, 858, 079 117, 347 12, 139, 485 40, 031 66, 154, 942 67, 945, 364 |-- 145, 177 2, 000, 388 27, 261 70, 118, 190 66, 714, O11 |- 64, 097 2, 378, 820 58, 575 69, 215, 503 67, 994, 492 |- 114, 439 1, 752, 140 378, 747 70, 239, 818 62, 407, 974 |- 715, 749 5, 581, 416 137, 287 68, 842, 426 115, 274, 166 744, O1L 6, 652, 958 330, 906 123, 002, 041 PRESENT DEVELOPMENT 120 110 100 90 e ° 50 1 40 30 + | T = 20 Pelee | ml | jd 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 63 64 MANUFACTURING Manufacturing on the Pacific Coast of North Amer- ica was pioneered in Alaska. History tells that Sitka, capital of Russian America, was once the manufactur- ing metropolis of the Pacific Coast. Sitka had the first boat yard, the first sawmill, the first flour mills, and the first iron foundry. Products of its foundry are to be found in parts of California where mission bells cast in Sitka still ring. With America’s record for pioneering—cracking open its wildernesses and developing its resources—it would be natural to assume the industrial impetus given Alaska prior to 1867 would have continued on a larger and grander scale following its purchase. Unfortu- nately, this has not been the case. In the 30-year period preceding the Klondike gold rush, there was only limited exploitation of Alaska’s resources because of governmental policies. Develop- ment of manufacturing industries remained at a stand- still, During this time the main enterprise in the Territory was the annual harvest of the seal rookeries— leased by the Federal Government to a San Francisco company. Manufacturing was a relatively unimportant factor until the fishing industry entered Alaska in the late 1880’s. According to 1899 census figures, there were 48 manufacturing plants, of which 36 were engaged in canning and processing fish, in Alaska. Total produc- tion was listed at $4,194,421, the value added by manu- facture being $2,431,838. Within the next 2 decades, the total number of manu- facturing establishments had jumped to 147, the value of their products increasing to more than $40,000,000. More than 50 percent of the value of the raw material was added through manufacture. Alaska, 60 times larger than the combined area of Hawaii and Puerto Rico—both junior territories by more than 30 years—ranks last in manufacture. Ac- cording to the 1939 census the value of Alaska’s manu- factured products was $38,815,436, while Hawaii’s was $134,005,263 and Puerto Rico’s $111,499,641. Alaskans explain the Territory’s lowly position in manufactures is due chiefly to the inadequate evaluation and limited development of its resources, plus the “absentee land- lord” policy, established early in Alaska’s history, of shipping raw materials to the United States for process- ing and manufacture. The total value added by manufacture of Alaska’s resources by 230 establishments in 1939 was $17,898,679, the cost of materials, fuel, and electric energy being $20,916,757. Wages during this period were $11,458,- 311, representing 16 percent of the total value of the manufactures. The largest manufacturing enterprise was the fish HBT EUG IT F ALASKA canning and processing industry, which accounted for $36,367,663, almost 95 percent of the total manufactures. Lumber and timber products ranked second in manu- factures. There were 21 establishments, the total value of the product being $900,111. Manufacture added $590,695, or 65 percent to the value of the raw material. There were four ice-manufacturing plants in Alaska in 1939. The total value of the product was $77,776. Manufacture added 87 percent to its value. Approx- imately $150,000 in marine equipment was manufac- tured in the Territory’s boat-building enterprises. Other establishments included 24 bread and bakery con- cerns, 7 machine shops and 15 printing and publishing houses. Among the above manufacturing concerns, 133 were corporations, 53 were individual proprietorships, 37 were partnerships and 4 were cooperatives. In total volume of business, 28 did less than $5,000; 47 from $5,000 to $19,000; 49 from $20,000 to $99,000; 85 from $100,000 to $499,000; 19 from $500,000 to $999,000 and 2 over $1,000,000. All 21 doing over $500,000 busi- ness were salmon canneries. The 230 concerns employed a year around average of 5,467 persons, the peak being in July with 39,985 employees. While these statistics are out of date, they are the most recent available and it is certain that the 1949 census will reflect substantial progress in Alaska in all fields of endeavor. It is known that with Alaska’s esti- mated increase of almost 30,000 persons since 1939, that many new small manufacturing enterprises have sprung up in various parts of the Territory. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION Lack of adequate land transportation routes between Alaska and the United States has had a profound effect on its development. The ruts of the ox cart and covered wagon; the rails and ties flung across American fron- } tiers were forerunners of development in the western + United States. But it was many years after much of the early pioneering had been accomplished that trans- portation routes—railways and highways—were blazed across the seemingly endless wilderness within Alaska. From 1867 to 1942, the chief means of reaching Alaska was by a long ocean voyage, requiring a con- 3 siderable outlay of capital for prospective settlers. Once reaching the Territory, there was no ready access to many productive areas because of its vast size and rugged terrain. , With the major market for Alaska’s products at the * end of a 700- to 2600-mile ocean haul, development cen- tered only on products having a high unit value, such as gold, furs, and canned salmon. High freight rates— Aerial Crossroad of the World os bees + Nees “iho — ty nr Mane, of. Rite ea A La 1b* Courtesy of Civil Aeronautics Administration 988410 O—52 (Face p. 64) Public Library Anghorage, Alaska ll il il il ll il il PRESENT DEVELOPMENT 65 “Bush pilots” are indispensable to the economy of Alaskans who are termed the flyingest people under the Ameri- can flag. the highest in the world—blocked manufacture of many Alaska products which could have been marketed in the States. High freight tolls made it impossible for such manufactures to compete with imports from other countries. Within Alaska, transportation was slow and tedious prior to the advent of the airplane. It was simply a matter of walking, dog team, power boat, or just plain rowing. Then came the Alaska Railroad and the inte- rior highway system. Because transportation is such an important factor in Alaska’s economy—almost determining whether it lives or dies—its three chief mediums, air, land, and sea are discussed separately in this chapter. Air Transportation The airplane has been the covered wagon of Alaska. It played a major role in development of much of the Territory. Conversely, Alaska played an important role in development of aviation. Four United States Army planes, under command of Captain St. Clair Street, made the first flight from the United States to Alaska during the summer of 1920. The first air mail service within Alaska began in February, 1924. That same year Alaska was one of the “main-line” stops on the first round-the-world flight. The dirigible Norge, after a nonstop flight from Spitsbergen, was forced to land at Teller because of storms. Aviation pioneers such as Lincoln Ellsworth. Sir Hubert Wilkins, Carl Ben Eielson. Charles Lindbergh. Wiley Post, General Henry H. Arnold, Howard Hughes, and dozens of others wrote Alaska’s aviation history in deeds. The feasibility of air traflic between Alaska and the United States was never demonstrated more clearly than during World War II. Following the Japanese attack on Dutch Harbor and occupation of Kiska, 10 airlines flew men and material to Alaska. In addition to Pan American, the sole prewar operator, United Air Lines, American Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Pennsylvania Central Air Lines, Trans-World Air Lines, Chicago and Southern, Western Air Lines, Braniff, and Panagra were engaged in the Alaska operation. Because of vast distances and rugged terrain separat- ing communities, the plane has been a boon to most Alaskans, whether they be fisherman, miner, logger, trapper, or trader. Nurses and doctors are transported to outlying districts to aid in control of epidemics, and sick persons are rushed to hospitals. Many Federal agencies make use of airplanes in Alaska. Large areas have been mapped by Navy planes. The Coast Guard uses planes to protect life and property; conservation agencies patrol fishing grounds by plane, and the Alaska Native Service depends on planes for movement of personnel and emergency supplies during winter months. Prior to World War II, Alaska had 116 times as many planes, which flew 70 times as many miles, carried 23 times as many passengers, carried 1,034 times as much freight and express and 48 times as much mail as the United States on a per capita basis. Today, only about 24 persons per 1,000 are estimated 66 to use air service in the United States. In Alaska the number of passengers carried has exceeded the total population every year since 1946. The Alaska per capita use of air freight and express is more than 200 times greater than in the States. There were 29 air carriers in Alaska during 1948. They flew more than 7,000,000 miles, carried 129,616 passengers, more than 18,000,000 pounds of freight, and almost 2,000,000 pounds of mail all within Alaska. Be- tween the Territory and the States there were 3,397 flights for a total distance of 4,236,357 miles. These planes carried 48,270 passengers, 9,441,511 pounds of freight, and 588,417 pounds of mail. Anchorage gener- ates more air traftic than cities in the United States 100 times its size. Ketchikan and Juneau lead dozens of cities more than 20 times their size. Several Alaska towns of 500 population or less are linked by air with major communities on daily schedules, and the major communities in turn are linked with each other and the United States on similar schedules. One airline now flies the Great Circle route through Alaska to the Orient. Land Transportation Highways It was not until 30 years following the purchase of Alaska that any effort was made by the Federal Gov- ernment to explore routes for roads and trails. During this period, travel was limited largely to open water- ways in summer and their frozen courses in winter. Mining machinery and supplies were transported from coastal or river landings over the snow in winter. Travel across the country during the summer was usually by foot or pack horse. Actually, Alaska had no highway system prior to World War II. Excepting for the 371-mile Richard- son highway, with its mining road extensions to Liven- good, Circle, and Nabesna, the only roads were short stretches from towns unconnected with each other. Juneau’s road system totaled 80 miles; Ketchikan’s, 37; and other towns still less. A 75-mile road also ex- tended northward from Seward, and Anchorage was connected by road with Matanuska Valley. Construction of the 194-mile Glen highway during the war linked the Anchorage road with the Richard- son highway ; connected the Nabesna road to the Alaska highway—punched through the Canadian wilderness to give Alaska its first land link with the United States. The 42-mile Haines-boundary road was also extended to connect with the Alaska Highway. Alaska now has an interior highway system totaling 1,844 miles, of which only 350 miles receives winter maintenance. ALASKA Regular bus and limited truck services are now oper- ated on the Alaska highway. Appreciable gains in bus and private auto traflic are recorded during the summer months when thousands of tourists flock to Alaska. Truck traffic increases during maritime tieups, when Alaskans send trucks to Canada for food supplies. During the long tieup during the winter of 1948, a limited amount of mail was trucked from Seattle to Fairbanks. TaBLe 25.—Highway distances Elliott Highway Alaska Highway Mile Mile Dawson Creek-_-~~--- 0 Fox._..------------. 0 Fort St. John - 48 Livengood___-__-_____ 70 Fort. Nelson_ - 300 Liard River. _ _ 495 Slana-Tok Cutoff and Nabesna Watson Lake- - - 635 Road Teslin teense tee ----- 804 Tok Junction. __.____- 0 Norman Wells June- Slana_____. 73 tion. ------------_- 836 Gakona 135 Carcross Road Junc- Gulkana___ Ed. 140 ton. - ~~ ---- 865 Slana to Nabesna____- Al Whitehorse _- ~s—— HF Haines Road tion. 1, 012 Edgerton Cutoff Burwash Landing___.. 1, 090 $0 7 ishwaw White River.._-_.-__ 1,169 RieVardson Highway to Alaska-Yukon Border__ 1,223 00 Wu'B-~-------- ji Northway Junction... 1,265 Glen High d Anch Tok Junction. ___ 1, 305 er Pn bonds | ey Tanacross___ -- 1,314 a Big Delta 3493-1 lenallenss- oo ope dees aa Fairbanks. __. - -- 151 Anchorage -.. «193 Haines to Junction... 166 Palmer to Wasilla... __ 14 Richardson Highway Palmer to Willow... - 50 Valdez........ 0 Steese Highway Edgerton Cutoff 92 Fairbanks____ 0 Copper Center. 102. Fox____- - 11 Glenallen__ 116 Chatanika - 27 Gulkana _ 128 = Miller House - - 15 191 Central __ - 129 233 ~~ Circle 163 280 Central to Circle Hot 368 Springs. __--------- 8 Railways It was near the end of the era of America’s railway builders, when financiers and statesmen were making every effort to draw the iron trails of commerce into fresh lands that a great north-south railway, extending from Alaska to the Panama Canal, was envisaged. Four governments—British Columbia, Canada, Great Britain, and the United States—entered into negotia- tions to discuss bridging of the rocky expanses between the American border and Alaska. For varied reasons the proposed line was never constructed. At that time there was only one railroad in Alaska: the 111-mile White Pass and Yukon Route extending from tidewater at Skagway to Whitehorse in the Yukon Territory. Only 20 miles of this railway was in Alaska. It did. however, play an important role in development of interior Alaska. Prior to construction of the Alaska Railroad, the line, connected by river boat and winter PRESENT DEVELOPMENT 4 One of the several Diesel Streamliners in Service on the Alaska Railroad. trail, provided a major outlet for the Fairbanks region. During World War IJ, it transported much of the sup- plies and equipment used in construction of the Alaska Highway, Canol Oil Project and other defense projects. The White Pass and Yukon Route is a privately owned corporation. The United States Government authorized construc- tion of the Alaska Railroad March 12, 1914. Construc- tion began next summer, and within 3 years 354 miles of road was in operation. It was not until 1923 that the rail line was finally completed from the port of Seward to Fairbanks—a distance of 470 miles. In 1943 a 14- mile spur was constructed to link Portage with Whit- tier, another ocean port. The Alaska Railroad broke open the door into inte- rior Alaska. It carved a road to the coal mines of the Matanuska and the Healy River areas. It hauled dredges and heavy machinery to the mining districts and agricultural implements to the agricultural areas. It moved new settlers in. It brought building mate- rial for their homes. It carried food to sustain life. Along the path of the railroad, dozens of small com- munities have developed. Among these is Anchorage —now Alaska’s largest city—which sprang up almost overnight into a tent city of 2,000 persons. The railroad hauled over 1,000,000 tons during the year ending June 30, 1948. This tonnage is more than double the load carried during the war year of 1943. In April, the railroad carried as much freight as it did during 6 months in 1929. The economic value of the railroad is realized when examination is made of traffic figures for 1947. That year over 285,000 tons of mineral products; 46,000 tons of logs, ties, posts, lumber, and veneer; 138,000 tons of oil, gas, iron, and steel ; 8,500 tons of mining machinery ; 19,000 tons of cement; 4,000 tons of beer, equivalent to 109 bottles annually per capita; 179 tons of newsprint; 267 tons of canned food ; 1,557 tons of canned fish; over 10,000 tons of groceries and 500 tons of prefabricated houses were hauled over the line. The Alaska Railroad also plays an important role in encouraging development of the region which it serves. During the summer of 1948, the railroad con- ducted a survey of industrial potentialities of the re- gion. This survey appears briefly in chapter VII. Taste 26.—Railway distances Alaska Railroad Mile Mile Seward__ 0 | Palmer Portage _ McKinley Par 348 Anchorage_ Nenana___-___ 412 Eklutna ___ Fairbanks ~____ 470 Matanuska --- 151 | Whittier to Portage_ 14 White Pass and Yukon Route Skagway __------------- 0 | Whitehorse -.--....----. 111 68 Water Transportation Ocean Navigation Nature has provided a sheltered waterway along the Pacific Coast extending almost 1,000 miles from the head of Puget Sound to Skagway and Haines, far up the Alaska Panhandle. It is the world’s most sheltered and beautiful ocean waterway. The Inside Passage through Canadian waters is a symbol of the physical interdependence of the two great American nations in the North Pacific. Owing to climatic conditions, year-round steamship service is possible only in Southeastern Alaska, the southwestern and part of the peninsula area. Bristol Bay can be serviced only from early spring to late fall. The Bering Sea region is open to transportation from June until October, and it is possible for vessels to make only one trip each year to Point Barrow. Alaska’s shipping lines were originally established to transport ore and canned salmon to the United States. Transportation of passengers was a minor consider- ation. The vessels were usually old before entering the Alaska trade; schedules were uncertain and service poor. Prior to World War II, three American steamship lines—Alaska Steamship Co., Northland Transporta- tion Co., and Alaska Transportation Co.—serviced Alaska. The two latter named companies were com- petitors in Southeastern Alaska only. Two Canadian lines, operating out of Vancouver, British Columbia, sailed into Alaska waters as far north as Skagway trans- porting mostly passengers and only a small amount of Canadian goods. Restrictive legislation prohibited them from transporting passengers between Territorial ports or moving freight originating in the United States to Alaska. Because of heavy war traffic Seattle and other west coast docks were unable to handle the bulk of military traffic for Alaska defense bases. To alleviate this situ- ation, the United States War Department constructed extensive dock facilities at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, northernmost coastal railhead and only 90 miles from the nearest Alaskan port. Vast quantities of equipment and material were shipped from middle west and eastern States across the northwest rail route to Prince Rupert, where it was loaded aboard barges for trans-shipment to Alaskan ports. The success of this venture is attested by the fact that almost 2,000,000 tons of military equipment moved through the port. Speaking of this operation, General Dwight D. Eisenhower said, “It was this American installation in Canada which served as the hub of the new military supply route to the northwest—cutting the water ALASKA Mount McKinley from mile 202 of roadbed newly improved under the expansion program. voyage to Alaska by one-third... it was through Prince Rupert that hundreds of thousands of tons of supplies and thousands of troops were dispatched for- ward to bolster the defenses of North America in the dark days when the Japanese were threatening the American mainland.” American vessels in the Alaska trade were requisi- tioned by the War Shipping Administration in April 1942. Following VJ-day, immediate consideration was given to returning the operation to private account. The operators immediately asked for a rate increase ' of 100 percent. This was denied. After lengthy hear- ings, the United States Maritime Commission entered into an agreement (Contract No. USMC-C-60, 018) dated May 15, 1947, with (1) the Alaska Steamship Co., owned by the Skinner-Eddy Corp. whose main activities are devoted to the brokerage of salmon and whose president is G. W. Skinner, and secretary, R. C. Anderson; (2) the Northland Transportation Co. owned by G. W. Skinner, R. C. Anderson, and David E. Skinner; (3) the Alaska Transportation Co., an Alaska corporation, whose president, Norman Clapp, owns 51 percent of the capital stock. NT DEVELOPMENT PRES Taste 27.—Water (ocean) distance Seattle 749 Ketchikan 851 102 Wrangell 1064 315 229 Sitka 1004 256 170 183 Juneau 1100 352 266 216 115 Skagway 1544 798 712 529 564 592 Cordova 1559 813 727 544 578 605 87 Valdez 1586 840 753 568 605 634 170 169 Seward 1446 935 848 642 700 729 325 327 204 Kodiak 1961 1560 1474 1250 1326 1355 936 934 808 646 Unalaska 2633 2222 2136 1908 1987 2016 1597 1595 1470 1308 760 Nome 3219 2807 2721 2493 2573 2601 2183 2180 2055 1893 1346 658 Barrow Prince Rupert is 108 miles south of Ketchikan, Haines 18 miles south of Skagway, Yakutat 290 miles west of Juneau, Seldovia 168 miles from Seward. Under the agreement the Commission agreed to fur- nish Government-owned vessels to the carriers at an annual charter hire rate of $1. The Commission would bear the cost of marine insurance on both Government and privately owned vessels under this agreement until its expiration date June 30, 1948. During this period of operation there were numerous requests for rate increases, some of which were granted ; others denied. There were recurrent shipping tie-ups owing to labor disputes. Rates climbed 66 percent over prewar rates, which were then the highest under the American flag. In the Alaskan Rate Investigation No. 3, Docket 661, before the United States Maritime Commission dated December 15, 1947, the following freight rate compari- sons were made: “. . . witness for the Territory testi- fied that present rates for the Puerto Rico trade were 34 to 37 percent over prewar as against 66 to 68 percent for the Alaska trade, despite Government subsidy and capital costs and insurance in the Alaska trade... . In comparison of present rates between Seattle and Cordova and between New York and San Juan, both routes having a distance of approximately 1,600 miles, the rate of cement to Cordova is $17 per ton compared to $9 per ton to San Juan . . . potatoes and onions $23 per ton to Cordova against $12.40 per ton to San Juan. “... This exhibit compares freight rates between Seattle and Nome (2,500 miles) and between San Fran- cisco and Honolulu (2,150 miles). Examples are: Cement to Nome under present rates, $22 per ton; to Honolulu, $9.30. . . . The rate to Nome on potatoes “and onions is $28; to Honolulu $12.35.” Rail freight rate comparisons were also made. “. . . The rate on sugar from San Francisco to Seattle (906 miles) is 47 cents per hundredweight; from Seat- tle to Juneau (1,056 miles) the rate is 75 cents... . From Chicago to Seattle (2,100 miles) the freight rate on bathtubs is $10.66 per hundredweight; from Seattle to Kodiak (1,970 miles) the rate is $21.20. “Alaskan trade appears to constitute a startling ex- « River steamers are operated on the Yukon and Tanana Rivers by the Alaska Railroad. 70 Freight being unloaded from ships in Skagway Harbor. ception to the usual rule that carriage by water is mile- for-mile, cheaper than carriage by rail,” this portion of the report concluded. Labor disputes have continued to plague the industry. For long periods during the past few years Alaskans, with their lifelines severed, have had to depend on small fishing boats to bring supplies from Seattle or Prince Rupert, or use of the Alaska airlift which resulted in substantial dealer increases being placed on all com- modities. It has been estimated by the Ketchikan (Alaska) Chronicle that shipping strikes have cost the Territory more than $20,000,000 in business lost during the last 3 years. River Navigation Settlement of Alaska began along the coast, then moved inland along navigable rivers. Trappers, traders, and prospectors were the first to use this method of transportation. Today there are 3,500 miles of waterways in interior Alaska. The Alaska Railroad operates Yukon River steam- boats to sustain the mining industry and villages along the river. During the summer of 1948 the 1,028-ton' riverboat Nenana and the 237-ton sternwheeler Alice were in service. The ships are based at Nenana during a — ALASKA the winter, where a marineways is maintained along the Tanana River, almost 400 miles from salt water. These riverboats carry supplies and a few passengers. The Nenana travels from Nenana down the Tanana to the Yukon and down river to Marshall, a trip of 774 miles. The Alice makes the 530-mile round trip up river to Fort Yukon, as frequently as shipping demands dictate. COMMUNICATION On a bleak day in 1865 Hiram Sibley, president of the Western Union Telegraph Co., asked Colonel Charles S. Bulkley of the United States Army Engi- neers whether he thought he could survey the route of a proposed telegraph line across Northern British Co- lumbia, the Yukon Territory, and what then was known as Russian America to the Bering Sea. Colonel Bulkley replied: “Sir, if you give me the maps that are necessary, the tools that are needed and men with courage, we’ll build your wire.” That was the start of the famed Telegraph Trail ex- pedition. But Sibley was unable to comply with Bulk- ley’s initial request ; almost the complete contemplated route was uncharted. Of the tools of the day, Sibley agreed to supply whatever was needed. but when the | PRESENT DEVELOPMENT expedition’s various units got into their second month it was clear they might just as well have tackled the wilderness with their bare hands. To Bulkley’s third request, Sibley was able to accede—men with courage were not wanting on the old Telegraph Trail. Bulkley’s expedition was doomed to failure. In the summer of 1867, the steamship Great Eastern contrived to complete the Atlantic cable and the United States Government called off the northern projects. For the following 30 years there was no activity in developing electric communications in Alaska, In 1900 Congress authorized construction of military commu- nications between Army headquarters at St. Michael and other military stations by establishing the Wash- ington-Alaska Military Cable and Telegraph System. Communications were gradually expanded by this or- ganization throughout Alaska. In 1936 the name was changed to the Alaska Com- munication System. Under direction of the United States Signal Corps the “ACS” now has 32 different stations and 8 branch offices in Alaska, serving the mili- tary, Federal, and Territorial agencies and the general public. The latter includes coastal service to and from ships at sea, press service to newspapers, radio broad- 7t casts to radio stations, and general messages. Full details of this organization’s activities appears in chap- ter VII. The Alaska Railroad operates 501 miles of telephone and telegraph lines on its system, providing service to railbelt communities. POWER SUPPLY AND MARKETS Alaska has grown so rapidly that now the demand for power exceeds the supply in most cities and com- munities. Use of electricity is comparatively large even though it is expensive. Power Production Facilities No appreciable amount of water-power capacity has been developed in the territory. In the Juneau area the Alaska Juneau Gold Mining Co. has developed hy- droelectric facilities totaling 15,125 kilowatts. The Ketchikan Public Utilities has developed two plants aggregating 6,200 kilowatts. The Anchorage munic- Apality operates a 2,000-kilowatt hydroelectric station Existing power development near Juneau. wtb thenme Tanker engines supply electricity to Anchorage. Alaska’s power potential is less than 1 percent developed. at Lake Eklutna. Numerous small privately owned hydro developments, the majority under 100 horse- power, are used in various types of small mining activities. Steam power production is used by larger mining industries to back up hydroelectric production. The Alaska Juneau Gold Mining Co. maintains an 8,000- kilowatt steam plant. The Fairbanks Exploration Co. engaged in placer mining activities in the Fairbanks area operates a 9,500-kilowatt coal-fired steam plant. At the Alaska Native School on Japonski Island near Sitka, a 3,000-kilowatt oil-fired steam plant serves the Native Service requirements as well as the town of Sitka. The United States Smelting, Mining, and Refining Co. at Nome operates a 5,170-kilowatt Diesel-driven plant for its gold dredging operations. Among the communities depending either wholly, or for the most part, on Diesel power as a prime source of electric energy are: Nome, Seward, Valdez, Cordova, Haines, Skagway, Petersburg, and Wrangell. Several cold storage and cannery plants in scattered sections of Alaska own and operate small Diesel plants independ- ent of outside sources. Similarly lumber mills utilize refuse (hog fuel) from their operations to generate energy. There has been no complete inventory made of the capacity installed in existing power plants in the Ter- ritory. From data which are available, the total in- stalled capacity of hydroelectric power plants is esti- mated at about 32,000 kilowatts. Similarly, the ca- pacity of nonhydro plants, including chiefly coal and oil-fired steam plants, and Diesel plants, is about 45,000 kilowatts. With the possible exception of two localities in South- eastern Alaska, commercial power supply facilities have been totally inadequate to meet the needs of mil- itary establishments even under peace-time conditions. In every instance, existing deficiencies made it necessary for the Armed Forces to install independent sources of power supply. Most of these installations are a com- bination of steam and Diesel power production. Alaskan coal is used extensively in the Fairbanks area owing to its proximity to coal fields along the railbelt. During severe winter stock piling of coal is necessary. This pyramids the average cost above $12 per ton, while concurrently lowering the calorific value which does not average much more than 8,500 B. t. u.’s per pound of fuel at the mine. Fuel oil supplies are entirely dependent upon ship- ments from California thus further depleting reserves in the United States. The cost of fuel is excessive. There are instances where transportation costs exceed actual cost of the fuels. Diesel fuel oil in Nome costs $6 per barrel, whereas the price at Anchorage is $3.75 per barrel. Steaming coal in the Fairbanks area costs about $12 per ton. The cost of electric production often amounts to as much as 35 mills per kilowatt hour at the switch- board. 73 [_____] GG, KH MA 1000 KWHR PER MONTH LEGEND i Juneau, Alaska MS W re» PER MONTH BR oCrescent City, California WZ] ~Port Angeles, Washingt ON DOMESTIC RATES PER MONTH COMPARATIVE COSTS OF ELECTRICITY PER MONTH Includes 540 KWHR at cooking and heating rate, and 360 KWHR at. water heating rate. Includes 150 KWHR at cooking and heating rate. o t 1m “ - ° YNOH-LIVMOTIN Y3d SLN3O—1S090 39VY3AV be Az Ky a = Ou ° ra 4 - w Q & a w Nn ny of < Mm wn < — < _ LEGEND BYSSJ CRESCENT CITY, CALIFORNIA V/ZZ\ PORT ANGELES, WASHINGTON CQQQAN PISS S52 $5255.52 SD OOO OOOO? SSID SS YOOT) 1000 KWHR PER MONTH EOI OOO R282 ON DOMESTIC RATES pd) RR ker cHIKAN, ALASKA — COMPARATIVE COSTS OF ELECTRICITY EXIT ITITILIC PROS NIN III OOOO OH III KERR RRR RIV oro HE OX ROSS 25250505 74 vv m N YNOH -LLVMOTIN Y3d SLN3D - LSOD 39VYSAV QQ Q QOD 5 wvF. 7.10 SSS 55550 SSeS ON g os oo 250 KWHR PER MONTH XGA LLAAAAAALLAALLS AAA AAAS SO OVO OOOO ~ 2LOOOO oO OOOO OOO PRR MN K HR HH eacete SSCS 2200 A _ LALLA AAAA SESS BOO OSS 100 KWHR PER MONTH TOON OOXSS SI 5 OOOO KR RRP 50 KWHR PER MONTH PRESENT DEVELOPMENT Power Requirements Throughout most of Alaska, domestic space heating, water heating, and cooking is accomplished by burning fuel oil or local bituminous coal. Much of the coal is low in B. t. u. content and difficult to handle during winter months. Fuel oil costs are excessive owing to the prevailing high transportation rates. In areas where hydroelectric power is available, rates are suffi- ciently low to permit electric cooking, water heating, and in well-insulated homes, even space heating. Where low-cost energy is available in Alaska the annual con- sumption in an average home is about 4,300 kilowatt- hours. The cities of Juneau and Ketchikan are afforded hydroelectric service. It is interesting to note that in both these cities more than half of the total domestic and commercial customers served, operate electric ranges. This shows conclusively that electric energy is generally preferred as a source of fuel when low- cost power is made available. Although the demand for electric service in the Territory during the past decade has been increasing at a rapid rate, the acceleration is considerably less in the areas where rates have been high. Gold mining, both lode and placer, has been exten- sively carried on in areas contiguous to Juneau, Fair- banks, and Nome. In Juneau the Alaska Juneau Gold Mining Co. since 1914 has operated a lode mine, utiliz- ing the natural water-power resources in the immediate vicinity which has contributed to an efficient “line- production” mining operation. Although not pres- ently operating, a high degree of maintenance of equip- ment and structures continues. Placer mining in Fairbanks and Nome areas is also electrically operated. However, at these two mines the source of power supply is produced from steam power plants. In the Fairbanks plant steam power is gen- erated from coal fired boilers whereas in Nome, because of its geographic location, only fuel oil is used. Coal mines presently operated are situated at Healy about 100 miles south of Fairbanks on the Alaska Rail- road, at Jonesville in the Matanuska Valley and on a smaller scale in the vicinity of Homer on the Kenai Peninsula. Diesel electric power is used for the mine operations at both the Healy and Jonesville mines. In Anchorage, electricity has been a critical com- modity since 1941. From 1939 to date, electric con- sumption on the Anchorage municipal utilities system increased 570 percent. For its source of power supply, the city is largely dependent upon an abandoned, ship- wrecked oil tanker, using the broken half which con- tains power production facilities. In October, 1948 Anchorage voters approved pur- 75 chase of a 1,000-kilowatt Diesel electric plant to alleviate the power shortage. The Matanuska Electric Association is solely depend- ent on Anchorage for its power supply. In the 18 months period, January 1947 through July 1948, the number of customers served by the Association increased from 396 to 514. Two other rural electric cooperatives in the vicinity of Anchorage are critically in need of an additional source of electric energy because Anchor- age is unable to fulfill their demands. Fairbanks, largest community in interior Alaska, is 384 miles north of Anchorage by rail and 120 air miles south of the Arctic Circle. The principal natural re- sources in the Fairbanks area are minerals, fur-bearing animals, agricultural land and timber. The largest industry, exclusive of transportation enterprises and defense establishments, is gold mining. Lignite coal is mined commercially near Healy, about 100 miles south of the city. The chief sources of cash income for Fairbanks resi- dents are payrolls of Ladd Field, Eilson Field, the Alaska Railroad, several commercial airlines, gold min- ing, and various Government agencies which maintain offices in the city. It is also the commercial center of interior Alaska. Farming is carried on chiefly along the Farmers Loop Road and along the Steel Creek Road lying north and northeast, respectively, from Fairbanks. A Rural Electrification Cooperative totaling more than 400 cus- tomers has recently been formed. Juneau, Territorial capital, is situated at tidewater on Gastineau Channel, approximately 1,000 air miles northwest of Seattle. Principal natural resources of the Juneau area are fish, minerals, and timber. In the early part of the century, Juneau was famous as the location of three large hard-rock gold mines, the Alaska Juneau, the Gastineau, and the Treadwell. Workings of the Alaska Juneau Mines are immediately adjacent to the city. At the present time none of these mines are operating. In addition to the Alaska Juneau Gold Mining Co.’s mining properties, the company owns most of the power production facilities in the Juneau area and furnishes several million kilowatt-hours annually at wholesale rates to the Alaska Electric Light & Power Co. The latter company distributes the power to retail con- sumers. One large sawmill is now operating in Juneau. Juneau is the principal center of air transportation in southeastern Alaska. It is also a regular port of call for coastwise passenger and cargo ships of both United States and Canadian registry. Roads leading outward from the town extend only short distances to nearby suburban communities and rural areas. AVERAGE COST - CENTS PER KILOWATT-HOUR 10 COMPARATIVE GOSTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DOMESTIC RATES LEGEND. } | Fairbanks, Alaska. BR] Grants Pass ,Oregon. VW, Roseville California. Includes 150 KWHR at cooking rate. °, 7 y RX ery] OV) ax) XX YY XA OOY DOXVY et 4 bad Y Bi li : ‘) 4 “ " f 4 ‘\ i x) ll | PRESENT DEVELOPMENT A large cold storage and quick-freezing plant in Juneau handles substantial tonnages of salmon, halibut, and other varieties of fish. There are several fish can- neries in the immediate vicinity, but they are not an activity of major importance. Agriculture consists chiefly of dairying and vegetable production for local markets. A rural electrification system now being constructed by REA will serve most of the farms in the Juneau area. Among the sources of income on which the popula- tion depends, Federal and Territorial Government pay- rolls predominate, with the lumber and fishing indus- tries employing fewer persons. Employment in min- ing is now only of a custodial and maintenance nature except for a few people operating the mining com- pany’s electric power system. Transportation enter- prises and agriculture are dependent largely on govern- ment personnel for their income. There are several modern hotels and a number of curio stores, which rely in part on the sizeable summer tourist trade. Ketchikan, with a population of about 7,000 persons, is Alaska’s “First City,” situated 600 miles north of Seattle on Revillagigedo Island. It is accessible by both American and Canadian steamship lines and three commercial airlines. Uppermost among the natural resources in the Ketchikan area are pulp timber stands, unexcelled fish- ing beds, minerals, and elevated natural lakes facili- tating economic development of hydroelectric power. Ketchikan enjoys a mild climate with precipitation some years approaching 200 inches annually. One sawmill is now operated in Ketchikan and a 300- ton-per-day pulp mill is soon to be erected by a subsidi- ary of the Puget Sound Pulp and Paper Co. The Aluminum Company of America will soon resume min- ing operations on a limestone deposit in the vicinity. This lime is used in a new process to separate alumina from low-grade bauxite. The Permanente Metals Corp. is now operating a similar mine on Dall Island near Ketchikan. Electric Rates Electric rate structures are quite uniform through- out Alaska. The block form rate has been generally adopted by both municipal and privately-owned sys- tems. The rate structure of the Alaska Light & Power Co. now in effect at Juneau is unusual. The oddity of this rate schedule lies in the fact that for general light- ing, heating, and cooking service the rate is higher be- tween November 1 to May 1 than is in effect from May 1 to November 1. This automatic rate increase is due to the lack of hydroelectric power during winter months. Consequently, the deficiency must be replaced 77 by steam power production, which is more costly than hydroelectric power. Rate levels differ widely throughout the Territory. The highest in Alaska are found at Nome with Fair- banks next in line. The lowest rates in the Territory are those offered by the Alaska Electric Light & Power Co. in Juneau for quantities consumed up to 75 kilowatt hours monthly. When electricity is used in excess of 75 kilowatt hours monthly, the Ketchikan Public Utili- ties, a municipal system, takes the lead. Its published rate for domestic lighting, cooking, refrigeration, and heating is: First 50 kilowatt-hours at 6 cents per kilowatt-hour per month Next 100 kilowatt-hours at 3 cents per kilowatt-hour per month All over 150 kilowatt-hours at 1 cent per kilowatt-hour per month Wide variations in rate charges are found to be due, for the most part, to excessive fuel costs. Lack of hydroelectric power development, and high shipping and handling charges for fuel and equipment account for this situation. Recently the Territorial Government requested the Federal Power Commission to loan to the Territorial Government or municipal authorities its rate and valu- ation experts. Under the provisions of the Federal Power Act of 1935, in States (and Territories) where no regulatory commission exists, the Federal Power Commission may upon request of the Governor loan its “experts” for performance of service in the public interest. On December 15, 1948, the Federal Power Commis- sion agreed to make available members of its staff in connection with electric rates problems in Alaska. It is expected this action will remedy several munic- ipal situations of long standing grievances between the utility owners involved and the public at large. The accompanying graphs compare average unit costs per kilowatt hour for consumptions of 50, 100, 250, and 1,000 kilowatt hours per month in Anchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, and Ketchikan, with cities of com- parable size in western States. RECREATION The first appraisal of Alaska’s recreational resources was made almost 50 years ago by Henry Gannett, then Chief Geographer, Geological Survey, who reported: “There is one other asset of the Territory not yet enumerated, imponderable, and difficult to appraise, yet one of the chief assets of Alaska, if not the greatest. This is the scenery. There are glaciers, mountains, and fiords elsewhere, but nowhere else on earth is there such an abundance and magnificence of mountain, fiord, and glacier scenery. For thousands of miles the coast is a continuous panorama. For the one Yosemite 78 AVERAGE COST — CENTS PER KILOWATT-HOUR ALASKA COMPARATIVE COSTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DOMESTIC RATES 8 | LEGEND | | Anchorage, Alaska 7 B33 Eureka, California Klamath Falls, Ore. Reno, Nevada 6 } s es 4 | | 3K i iL + * 2-- +" TE Oth i 1} —— + I— | 0 32] Tel Sal iss] 3 ae Ht 50 KWHR. 100 KWHR. 250 KWHR. 1000 KWHR. PER MONTH PER MONTH PER MONTH PER MONTH * includes 300 KWHR at controlled water heating rate Camer-compelling scenery is common in Alaska. st Entering Rudyard Bay—3380-foot cliffs form part of Punchbowl! Cove. of California, Alaska has hundreds. The mountains and glaciers of the Cascades are duplicated and a thousand-fold exceeded in Alaska. “The Alaska coast is to become the show place of the earth, and pilgrims, not only from the United States but from far beyond the seas, will throng in endless procession to see it. Its grandeur is more valuable than the gold or the fish or the timber, for it will never be exhausted. The value, measured by direct returns in money received from tourists, will be enormous; meas- ured by health and pleasure it will be incalculable.” Despite this evaluation, comparative little use has been made of Alaska’s recreational resources. No de- tailed survey has yet been made as to the potential value of its mountains, volcanoes, coastal waterways, rivers and lakes. glaciers, hot springs, and forests as natural recreational attractions, Much has been written of the big game, fighting sport fish, and migratory waterfowl of Alaska. Hunt- ers and fishermen have come to the Territory in in- creased numbers since the end of World War II to enjoy this form of recreation. The airplane has made it possible to reach remote areas in just a few hours, where it formerly took di or weeks. Registered guides are available in all regions of the Territory. At Ketchikan and Juneau, facilities ave available to charter small boats with outboard motors for salmon fishing, or for use in connection with larger boats on hunting and fishing trips. A charter boat capable of river transportation was recently put into use in the Fairbanks area for hunting or sightseeing parties. There is still a notable lack of resort and other hous- ing facilities to accommodate any large number of tour- ists. The Alaska Railroad operates the McKinley Park Hotel in McKinley Park. There are no resort facili- ties in other National Parks and Monuments in Alaska. Resident Alaskans make the most of recreational op- portunities adjacent to their respective communities. Almost all Alaskans are ardent hunting and fishing enthusiasts and it is not unusual for a party of 3 or 4 businessmen to charter a plane early some morning, catch their limit of trout, and return to town in time to open their offices. The majority of Alaskans living in the southeast por- tion of the Territory own their own pleasure boats. On Sundays and holidays many will picnic on nearby unin- habited islands, exploring beaches and inlets. Fishing for king salmon is fast gaining in impor- tance as a salt water recreation. Fishing contests are held each summer in Juneau and Ketchikan. Trout contests are held in many other communities. The majority of Alaskan communities have theaters, bowling alleys or roller rinks, gymnasiums, and other indoor type recreation. During the summer months a limited number of inter-city league baseball games are held in southeastern and the Fairbanks and Anchor- age regions. In winter, an all-Alaska basketball cham- pionship tournament is now an annual event. Outdoor sports such as skiing and skating are favorites among Alaskans. LAND OWNERSHIP The United States Government holds title to 99 per- cent of Alaska’s total land area of 571,061 square miles as compared with a grand total of 24 percent of the 48 States. The 1947 edition of the Statistical Abstract of the United States shows that in Alaska 364,995,705 acres—exclusive of the acreage of inland bodies of water—of the total area of 365,481,600 acres is in Fed- eral ownership. Included in the Federal lands figure is a large por- tion of the 21,009,209 acres granted Alaska for common schools and 438,250 acres for the University of Alaska, which as yet have not been specifically selected or desig- nated. Homestead sites, which have not been perfected, are also included. Entries for homesteads from 1921 to 1946 included a total of 255,450 acres. Many home- steaders, however, let their entries lapse and over a Angling near Cove Bay. ALASKA fE NAPAVERES. Ve x Seo s (7A Rosuk NATIE RES, ) Sw ss ‘Shongrat= c Venetie Landing RE tiaies SECOND NAT. W.L REF. oe 8 SEWARD PENINSULA 8 Buckland an us ae é pieller JUDICIAL cot wwe, i owision |x ys et ee Sinuk ON. <etPh, white M oC <0 ite Min. ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND REINDEER STA. RES. K x x ‘AIRBANKS, StebbifG, St. Mighael / FOURTH J ION — Big Detta’y) Sw d McKinley Park oS SY MT MekiyLey Na E 2 b 6. Kotlik | oN % z / Uy} Advil McGrath 9 = WY ' a Mgdntain vice] p Shagel THIRD ro oly Cro co B Curry . h JUDICIAL i Bey pussian Midfion rj URRY BIRD, GAME & FISH REFUGE Sen, DIVISION \ \ / Copper Center %a., N ~ ¥ ¢ Steitmut 3 * Kiver BERING SEA NAT. W. L. REF. HAZEN BAY NAT. W. L. REF. Chitina \ mer KIA Eklutea \ \NCHORAGS ‘ NUNIVAK NAT. W. L. REF. x A \ G & \ P; . $ pon PE Ht ROR a mn o | a & - CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST ~ ie ° : ™S_ dg _—~. P Q f ost ~. _- xe KENAI NAT. MOOSE RANGE _~- -_—" o- 12 ~~ TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST oN PRIBILOF ISLANDS ee GULF OF ALASKA ‘ KATMAI NAT. MON. vy! wv % ~ k CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST KODIAK NAT. W. L. REF. / GLACIER BAY NAT. MON. TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST ST. LAZARIA NAT. W. L. REF SITKA NATIONAL MON: HAZY IS. NAT. W. L. REF. BOGOSLOF aman fete (4% ‘SEMIDI aac ner, 7 NAT. W. L REF. Ze D_ Bdtotski Se, bo : a neg jo Kkuter~ S wo sth UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF RECLAMATION RESERVED LAND AREAS TERRITORY OF ALASKA Scale of Statute Miles ° sO 100 150 200 250 LEGEND NATIONAL FORESTS NATIONAL PARKS NATIONAL MONUMENTS NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES FUR SEAL RESERVATIONS REINDEER RESERVATIONS NATIVE RESERVATIONS NAVAL RESERVES MILITARY RESERVATIONS GAS AND OIL RESERVES E COLONIZATION WITHDRAWAL * CLASSIFICATION & SURVEY WITHDRAWAL JUDICIAL DIVISION BOUNDARIES NOTE: ‘Some reserves lands are not shown for security reasons, or Decause the land area occupied is small / OLD KASAAN —- FORESTER I. NAT. W. L. RES. 988410 O—52 (Face p. 80) PRESENT DEVELOPMENT period of years several homestead entries have been made successively on the same tract of land. These Federal lands have been placed under various agencies for administrative purposes; the Department of Interior having 309,710,394 acres, Department of Agriculture 20,849,187 acres, War and Navy Depart- ments 34,382,425 acres and other agencies, 53,699 acres. Approximately 30 percent of the total land area un- der Federal ownership, or about 109,000,000 acres, has been reserved or withdrawn for various purposes. Areas of the principal reserves and withdrawals, in- cluding the location of others are shown on the accom- panying map. Because of security reasons, or areas insignificant in size, some reserved lands are not shown. In addition, there is in several instances, more than one type of reserve in a single specified area. However, the multiple-type reserve is not shown on the map in every case. The classification of each reserve or withdrawal gives some indication of the present or intended future use of the land. National Forests in Alaska are principally timber lands, with no significant livestock grazing areas. National Parks and Monuments are intended to preserve, for recreational and other public purposes areas of unusual scenic or historic interest. Wildlife refuges and fur seal and reindeer reservations are ad- ministered in the interest of wildlife and game protec- tion. 81 There are three withdrawals for colonization pur- poses. The withdrawal in the Palmer area was made in connection with establishment of the Matanuska Valley settlement in 1935. The majority of this land is now in private ownership or under purchase contract by valley farmers. This colonization withdrawal ap- pears to have been instrumental in getting land into agricultural production as well as private ownership. Two other areas, one at Kenai and the other west of Fairbanks at Dunbar were withdrawn in 1948 for agri- cultural group-settlement investigation. Detailed studies of these areas are now under way to determine their suitability for agricultural development and settlement. The green dots on the map indicate the location of small tracts which have been temporarily withdrawn while surveys are made to determine their suitability for parks, townsites and similar public purposes. These are located along the principal highways. The uncolored portion of the map, with minor excep- tions, consists of the vacant, unreserved, unappropri- ated public domain, totaling about 265 million acres. This region is administered by the Bureau of Land Management. “Present economic returns from the public domain and the majority of the land in the various reserves are the annual harvest of wild or natural products— game, fur, fish, timber and berries—as well as recrea- tional benefits obtained by Alaskans and others. Camping at Tolstoi Bay. Possibilities are unsurpassed for developing year-round recreation. A Look at ‘Tomorrow “To tap its forests, its oil resources and its minerals; to fabricate its timber, its furs, and its nonmetallic minerals; to cultivate its millions of acres of land; to build its roads, its airports and its private homes; to harness the billions of kilowatts now running wild through its canyons, Alaska will need millions of ” new citizens.... 988410—52. T Prize-winning display at Matanuska Valley Fair. showing wide varie ty and remarkable size of Alaska farm produc: CHAPTER IV A Look at Tomorrow Once Alaska’s vast resources are evaluated, it is pos- sible to envision its future world role. It is not beyond the realm of probability to state that once development of the Territory’s natural wealth is given proper im- petus its present population will increase tenfold within a decade; or even fiftyfold to a total of at least 5,000,000 persons within the next century. There can be no questioning the importance of Alaska to the Nation; the value of orderly development of its resources. “In this world of tomorrow, Alaska is assured a posi- tion of great importance. Upon Alaska our future may well rest.” These were the words of General Henry H. Arnold, who like his predecessor, Billy Mitchell, termed Alaska the “most strategic place on earth.” Alaska’s national defense position is plain to all. Its industry, agriculture, service trades, and professions must be developed to back up the defense plans of the Army, Air Force, and Navy. Of equal importance is Alaska’s economic future: the great contribution it can make to the Nation, to every citizen of these United States. Its forests, arable lands, fish and wildlife, oil and minerals, recreational paradises, hydroelectrical power sites represent wealth beyond man’s comprehension— potential wealth greater than our national debt. A1- ready $3,000,000,000 has been taken out of the Terri- tory by haphazard development under the absentee landlord system, dollars that have not been returned to lay the foundation for the Alaska of tomorrow. No man knows the value of Alaska’s hidden mineral wealth; however, Alaska’s billion board feet of timber that could be cut in perpetuity, the hundreds of thou- sands of acres of crops that could be harvested, and the 50,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours of energy that could be produced by river control systems represent a loss to America of more than $1,000,000,000 every year. Graphs showing the complete potential development pattern for Alaska resources were prepared for this report by various Federal and Territorial agencies. Their purpose is to portray graphically the industrial structure for a self-sufficient and self-supporting geo- gvaphic area. That the groundwork might be laid for acquiring a high degree of self-sufficiency in Alaska, these graphs, which are to be found in chapter VII, were prepared from the standpoint of the Territory’s ability to provide the required raw materials. The responsibility for formulating a comprehensive development program and its speedy enactment rests squarely on the shoulders of Congress. In reporting to the House Committee on Public Lands in April 1947 the Honorable J. A. Krug, Secretary of the Interior, said: “The past delay in Alaska’s development proved exceedingly costly when the world was plunged into global war. To fortify and protect our giant North Pacific frontier during World War II, we spent about 25 times the amount we originally paid for Alaska. Much of this expense could have been saved had Alaska been a fully developed community.” Tomorrow, in view of the new concepts of polar strategy, the cost might be catastrophic. The Nation has already witnessed the migration of industry westward during the past decade. As war emergency measures, new industries sprang up almost overnight along the Pacific Coast. Since the end of World War II, industry has, to a certain extent, shifted to the Pacific Northwest where low-cost power is avail- able. Now, the eyes of industry have turned north- ward and Alaska is directly in line with their sights. THE NEXT 10 YEARS Alaska is an economic island. Geographically sep- arated from the United States by hundreds of miles of Canadian wilderness, the Territory is dependent upon the vagaries of sea shipments, implemented by emer- gency airlift operations, and extremely limited truck- ing services over the Alaska Highway. Development of Alaska is largely dependent on shipping at a more reasonable cost. The airplane and highway cannot take care of the heavy movement that is going to be the backbone of Alaska development. Construction of a railway, however, would provide a more substantial means of land transport of greater capacity and reliability. 85 86 The present economy of Alaska is out of balance, having been based almost wholly on extractive indus- tries. The Territory cannot expect to further develop on gold and fish alone. Advancement of its economy is contingent on full utilization of resources now undeveloped. Statehood for Alaska is another factor which would speed development of its economy. As a Territory, its legislature is extremely limited in the scope of its ac- tivities. For example, it is unable to undertake long range programs since it cannot authorize bonded in- debtedness, nor create any debt; it cannot even assume indebtedness for the actual running expenses of the Territory in excess of the actual income for a given year. During hearings for Alaska statehood before the House Committee on Public Lands, the Honorable J. A. Krug, Secretary of the Interior, emphasized: “If we were to defer the grant of statehood to Alaska, we would retard development of an area which cries for develop- ment. We must allow Alaska to become self-sufficient, not only for its own sake, but also so that it can pay its own way and take over the present administrative responsibilities of the Federal Government in the Ter- ritory . . . Alaska has suffered for many years under what is virtually a colonial system that has encouraged absentee exploitation of its natural resources without leaving enough social and economic benefits for the Ter- ritory. If Alaska is granted statehood, its people will have more to say about their economic as well as their political destiny. Absentee interests . . . will find it more difficult to dominate the economy of the area. “TI believe that admission of Alaska to the Union as a State is essential to the welfare and to the security of every one of us in the States . . . Alaska needs a tremendously increased population to develop its re- sources . . . but we cannot get several million people to go to Alaska if we are to deprive them of their rights as citizens when they step across the boundary.” Regarding Alaska’s future population, the Federal Inter-Agency Committee on the Development of Alaska ina February 1948 report commented : “Tt is not practicable to estimate now the population that Alaska can support when fully developed. Far too little is known definitely about many of the factors that will affect its population capacity. Appraisals have been made, however, of the increase that may be expected in the next few years under a suitable plan and program for Alaskan development. The results are indicated for the several divisions of Alaska on two bases—an assumed minimum basis and an assumed maximum basis. “The growth actually made in the period indicated (1940-52) will depend in large part on the scope and vigor of the action taken by the Government in support ALASKA of Alaskan development. Inadequate support would restrict growth. Vigorous support, in keeping with the national interests at stake, might permit growth in 5 years beyond the upper limit assumed. “Estimated distribution of population in Alaska assuming both a 100,000 increase and a 200,000 increase in population during the period 1948 to 1952 is pro- jected as follows: Taste 28.—EF stimated distribution of population Distribution assuming a | Distribution assuming a 100,000 increase 200,000 increase Area Increase Total Increase Total + First division. --._-..-- 27, 000 54, 000 52, 000 79, 000 Second division_ 3, 000 16, 000 8, 000 21, 000 Third division _- 40, 000 74, 000 80, 000 | 114, 000 Fourth division. -__.-- 30, 000 50, 000 60, 000 80, 000 Total__..----- | 100, 000 | 194, 000 | 200, 000 294, 000 An inventory and possible utilization of Alaska nat- ural wealth to sustain a tremendous increase in popu- lation appears on the following pages. Once develop- ment is given the proper impetus, thousands of pioneers, the men and women who will develop its resources, will move westward to Alaska. Old cities will grow larger and new cities will spring up where formerly only totems stood. FISHERIES The North Pacific Coast fisheries of North America, shared by the United States and Canada, represent one of the great food resources of the world. The potential of this fishing area, the majority of which lies in Alaska, is immense. It is a commendable and fortunate cir- cumstance that in its exploitation and development these two nations have coordinated their administrative and conservation effort to set a pattern of international co- operation. This spirit of international cooperation is of the ut- most importance to the future of a great portion of Alaska’s fisheries, since the International Fisheries Commission regulates not only halibut fishing seasons for various areas in the North Pacific, but also limits the total catch as well as the size and character of fishing appliances. The International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commis- sion was formed with its immediate objective being development of the sockeye salmon fishery in and tribu- tary tothe Fraser River. Prior to regulating this area, salmon catches dropped from more than 2,000,000 cases in 1913 to about 300,000 in just 20 years. Although this fishery is located in Canada, it is important since it is shared by both Canadian and American fishermen. 4 LOOK AT TOMORROW Indian women cleaning salmon at Metlakatla. Salmon by-products now wasted are worth millions of dollars a year. many Alaska fishermen participating in its harvest. Not all problems have been solved or are capable of ready solution, but the success of steps already taken augurs well for the future of North Pacific fisheries. The fishing areas are far flung. They stretch from the coast to Oregon to the tip of the Aleutian Islands and beyond to the Bering Sea, and into the unexploited waters of the Arctic Ocean. The administration of sea fisheries is a Federal re- sponsibility, and in various parts of the world nations have associated in agreements and undertakings for purposes of scientific investigations, but nowhere, ex- cept in the fishing regions of the Pacific shores of Canada and Alaska, have two nations so successfully collaborated in the regulation and utilization of their basic fishery resources. The importance of this international cooperation to Alaska’s economy is emphasized by the fact that fish- eries have attained the greatest degree of development of any of the Territory’s vast resources. Some economists have stated that Alaska’s fisheries have reached the stage of over-development; that the industry is capable of no further expansion. Despite this pessimistic attitude, close examination of capabil- ities of the industry reveals further expansion is not only possible, but desirable for new canning and other manufacturing processes. Certain enterprises are now possible with only limited capital. It is true there is little likelihood the canned salmon pack, the fisheries’ largest industry, will increase. Many new boats, technological advancement in canning, im- proved methods of transportation and supply, and an eager market for salmon in all forms have contributed to intensive exploitation that has progessively depleted the various salmon runs. The task now is one primarily of restoration and management in order to bring back a supply more nearly commensurate with normal levels. However, the majority of formulas now used by the industry in canning salmon are not only archaic but also unreasonably wasteful from the standpoint of na- tional economy. According to present methods and processes, about 30 percent of the fish parts, including heads, tails, intestines and fish eggs are thrown into the sea. This waste amounts to an estimated 120,000,000 pounds annually. Part of the waste material would be suitable for canning of fish chowder, outlined in detail in the agri- 88 ALASKA } Indian cannery at Klawock. cultural section of this chapter, and much of the re- mainder for badly needed fertilizers for farm use. Dried meal is a rich source of nitrogen and phosphorous, two elements most essential for growing Alaska crops. It has been estimated that there are sufficient vitamin “A” units contained in fish waste material to supply one-tenth of present United States requirements, and enough vitamin “D” units to supply one-twentieth. In addition, oil extracted from this waste has considerable commercial value in manufacture of paints and var- nishes, tanning processes, oil cloths and linoleum, and as a lubricating agency in the cutting and cooling of metals. Experiments made in 1948 indicate the waste, when ground and frozen, makes an excellent animal feed for fur farms. Fish eggs—the roe of salmon, rock cod, gray cod, and herring—now have little commercial value. These items would find a lucrative caviar market in the east- ern United States. Salmon roe makes an excellent caviar and although good reports were received on the few shipments which have been made, this phase of the industry has never been fully developed. Oppor- tunity also exists in the salmon egg field for preparation of bait for sport fishermen. Immense quantities of salmon heads are discarded each year, leaving open the possibility for canning these heads. Experts have pronounced them most tasty. National markets would have to be developed since squeamishness is felt in most sections of the United States regarding use of fish heads. They would be suit- able for export to the majority of foreign countries where their use is common. Alaska’s herring fisheries offer much opportunity for development. Less than 5 percent of the Nation's domestic consumption is supplied by Alaska. In 1938, the United States imported 75,000,000 pounds of pickled, salted, smoked, and kippered herring valued at $6,000,000 from Scotland, Norway, Iceland, New- foundland, and Canada. That year, Alaska’s herring catch, almost identical in weight, reduced to oil and meal, was valued at only $2,000,000. It is estimated that revival of the herring industry to 1915-20 levels would provide 500 saltery workers with employment, 40,000 man-hours annually for longshore labor, 500 man-hours in salt handling, 10,000 man-hours in salt manufacturing 50,000 man-hours in manufacture of containers, about $175,000 to transportation companies, and a substantial amount for gear manufacture and boat repair and building. Some indication of potential development in this in- dustry can be seen by examining British Columbia fish- eries, where herring ranks second to salmon. In the Canadian Province about 1,000,000 cases of herring are canned annually in 20 coastal canneries. No herring is canned in Alaska. Other opportunities for development are as prom- inent in Alaska’s fisheries. Quick-freezing may revolu- tionize the industry by developing more attractive packaging; making new species available or old species more tasty, including development of specialty products. Present demands by exclusive hotels, clubs, and sim- ilar establishments warrant further development of salmon specialties such as smoked salmon and its asso- ciated products. Fancy packing and special merchan- dising, including careful selection of high quality fish would permit a product of this type to be marketed at over-market prices. This would also apply to smoked sablefish or black cod. Another possibility is the canning of fish balls, pre- pared from halibut, salmon, flounder, black cod, and others, as a specialty item. Little has been accomplished in developing the bot- tom fishing industry for cod, red snapper, sole, flound- A LOOK AT TOMORROW ers, and others. This field offers exceptional oppor- tunities for future expansion as tremendous quantities of these fish are to be found over a wide area. Through proper merchandising, these species could be packaged as a quick-freeze food product. Octopus tentacles are exceptionally tasty and it is possible that through proper promotion a market could be established for this product. Quick-freezing, attrac- tive packaging, and a special trade name would be important factors in marketing such a product. The basking shark is another wnexploited resource in Alaskan waters. Possessing an enormous vitamin- rich liver, this shark is gaining recognition with marked reductions in soupfin shark catches off the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and California. Its meat is also palatable, and although a few years ago one concern planned to market 1,000,000 pounds of Alaska shark meat per month, actual entrance by the company into the industry never occurred. The opportunity to de- velop this fishery is still open. Expansion is also possible in crab, clam and shrimp industries since these shell-fish are found in abundance in most regions of Alaska. The Government now en- courages growers to experiment with oyster culture by granting leases to tidelands desired for this purpose. Results of several attempts to cultivate Pacific (Jap- anese) oysters have been disappointing in Southeastern Alaska. The water, it is believed, is too cold for natural spawning and the rate of growth of planted meat is too slow to be profitable. Improved techniques may even- tually produce better results as initial efforts have not been too determined. Considering the zeal with which abalone is sought in California, excellent opportunity exists for exploitation of this marine delicacy. Abalones are very numerous along the rocky shorelines of Southeastern Alaska which are removed from all dilution of fresh water. These “Green” abalones are smaller than the Califor- nia species but they possess the same fine flavor. Various types of shells can be utilized in manufacture of curios, souvenirs, buttons, and other products. De- mand for these products would grow proportionately with Alaska’s tourist trade. A valuable crop to be harvested from the sea is sea- weed. Rough estimates place the area of Southeastern Alaska seaweed beds at 150 square miles, capable of producing 600,000 tons of potash annually. In addi- tion to potash, iodine, agar-agar, and other products can be manufactured from seaweed. Seaweed is now being harvested in British Columbia. A virgin field for pickled specialties such as pickled salmon, herring, kelp, and sea cucumbers is open for development. Many Alaskan women preserve kelp pickles and relishes which are not only delicious but 89 also easy to prepare. However, here again is another case where a market would have to be developed. Whaling, which once flourished in Alaska, went into eclipse with the advent of petroleum, steel, and plastics. As a result, whales have regained a measure of their former abundance in Alaskan waters and fishery ex- perts state they now could support a sizeable operation if the market offered sufficient incentive. Interest in whaling on the Pacific Coast is actually reawakening with the opening of one whaling station in northern California and another on the Queen Charlotte Islands in British Columbia. The high market value of salmon made possible the early utilization of their runs wherever found, but ex- treme isolation of the more northerly and westerly points made unprofitable the development of lesser fisheries. New cold storage plants on the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island are now expanding the halibut fishery farther westward. Several concerns are pioneering the area with refrigerator ships that can stay on isolated grounds until a full cargo of fish or crabs is caught. The Fish and Wildlife Service has sponsored explora- tory fishing expeditions into northern and western waters and demonstrated that commercial quantities of king crab and bottom fish exist over much of the region. The Bering Sea is an extensive, shallow sea with a muddy bottom, receiving a great amount of discharge from the land and is therefore well-suited to a tremen- dous production of fish life. No commercial fishing is now carried on in this area. With the inevitable growing demand for seafood products and the gradual solution of problems of trans- portation and storage, there can be no doubt that impor- tant fisheries will ultimately develop in these remote areas. What portends to contribute greatly to the entire fishing industry is trawling which is just coming into prominence in the Pacific despite the fact it is one of the oldest fishing methods on the Atlantic Coast. The quantity of trawl-caught fish off the coasts of Washing- ton and Oregon has increased more than 200 times dur- ing the past 15 years. The Bering Sea has been de- scribed as the largest trawlable body of water in the world. The Gulf of Alaska has barely been touched. It has been estimated that 1,000,000,000 pounds of fish per year could be trawled from the North Pacific. A Fish and Wildlife Service expert reported several years ago that trawling “may be one of the major, if not the major, fishing industry in Alaska waters in the future.” New methods, new products, new fisheries, and new areas hold promise of boosting the value of Alaska’s fisheries far beyond its present $115,000,000 annual mark, creating additional employment as well as more permanent employment for thousands of Alaskans. 90 WILDLIFE RESOURCES Although contingent on many things, Alaska’s wild- life resources can make a valuable contribution to the Territory’s economy. For continued prodiiction of an annual wildlife crop, better management is the foremost need. Only extensive management, however, is feasible for the greater part of Alaska. In broad terms, there does not appear to be a place for the intensive type of wildlife management now practiced on the quail planta- tions of the Southern States or the grouse moors of England and Scotland. Since management must be on an extensive basis, the success of any program is largely dependent on educa- tion. Conservation education is needed for young and old alike. Today’s grade-school boys will be tomor- row’s active hunters, fishermen, and trappers. Not all adults are good conservationists. The good trapper, for example, has learned to trap his line con- servatively year after year. The poor trapper takes everything he can from the trapline and has to move to a new location the following year. The major requirements for effective conservation of wildlife are outlined below : (1) An extensive type of management of the wildlife resource, adapted to the needs of the resource and the people, is needed. (2) Conservation education, including visual aids such as slides, cartoons, movies, charts, and teaching aids for use in schools, should be initiated. (3) Because of Alaska’s increased civilian and mil- itary population an aggressive and well-coordinated enforcement program for control of the human element, is required. Additional field stations have been planned by the Fish and Wildlife Service at Kotzebue, Bethel, Barrow, Fort Yukon, Ruby, Cold Bay, Tok Junction, Nome, Kodiak, Palmer, Glenallen, and Yakutat. (4) Better utilization of the wildlife crop can be attained through elimination of waste with animals taken for sport, fur, or special uses. More attention should be paid to harvesting many species of this crop when their numbers are at the peak of a cycle. For example, many more grouse or snowshoe hare could be taken at cyclic peaks of abundance. The utilization of certain age or sex groups of various animals should not be overlooked. For example, some bull elk and bachelor bull bison contribute nothing to the herd and could be harvested. Processing and Manufacturing Commercial tanning and processing of pelts in Alaska should be explored. Native-tanned furs, though interesting to the tourist and satisfactory for many pur- ALASKA poses, are objectionable to commercial markets because of their odor. Alaska pelts must now be sent to the United States for soft tanning and then shipped back to the Territory for manufacture. The Alaska Native Service has made a start in this direction by training young natives in commercial tanning methods. Possibilities for extracting tannin from Alaska trees such as western hemlock, Sitka spruce, and black spruce 4 barks should also be investigated. This has been con- sidered by the Forest Service, although it would not be a large item in proposed logging and timber utilization program. Bark from logs rafted in salt water loses much of the tannic acid, so it is possible interior Alaska forests will be found more suitable for this purpose than those of Southeastern Alaska. Manufacture in Alaska of finished fur garments, gloves and slippers, and other products is another eco- nomic opportunity now only partially developed. The | difficulty of competing with established “name” con- cerns in the field of fine furs in the United States mar- kets might be overcome through proper promotion of a “Made-in-Alaska” trademark. Processing of rough furs such as moose, caribou, wolf, and coyote also ap- pears feasible. Establishment of special areas of critical importance to the wildlife resource have been proposed for more intensive management. Requiring land withdrawals, they will be similar to wildlife refuges. However, as management units they will not become inviolate sanc- tuaries for all species, but only for those requiring pro- tection. Proposals include the Morzhovoi Bay area near the tip of the Alaska Peninsula, an important waterfowl area, the Innoko River area, the Big Delta area, and Simeonof Island, a sea otter island. The wolf and coyote control program may require expansion in critical areas such as reindeer, mountain sheep and caribou ranges. Competition between other species must be evaluated and an action program initi- ated where necessary. Examples of this type of com- petition include beavers and salmon, Kodiak bears and salmon, reindeer and muskoxen, and moose and black bears. Alaska is an excellent geographic area for fur farm- ing. At the present time the 75 fur farms in the Terri- tory produce about 2 percent of the ranched fur crop of the United States and its possessions. Expansion of the industry is wholly dependent on market conditions. Alaska has made several attempts to have part of the proceeds from annual sales of Pribilof Island fur seal pelts by the Federal Government returned to the Terri- tory but have always been unsuccessful, although Great Britain returned its share to Canada many years ago. In 1947 the pelts were sold for more than $2,000,000. More significant than just a share of the returns to 4 LOOK AT TOMORROW Prospecting is hard work and uncertain of rewards but vital to the Nation. More prospecting. YSS410—52 91 Alaska, would be establishment of the tanning industry in Alaska to process the pelts. It appears incongruous to have a resource, taken in the most westward region of Alaska, shipped thousands of miles to the central portion of the United States for processing. Establishment of this industry in Alaska would be a valuable addition to further development of the Territory’s economy. MINERALS AND MINING There are numerous reasons why such little progress has been recorded in this industry. Principally, inade- quate transportation facilities to and within the Terri- tory have resulted in such a high-cost operation that only the highest grade properties can be worked profit- ably. Because of its high unit value, gold has been the major metal produced. Production of other metals and minerals is needed to stabilize the industry. With gold being the major metal produced, the mining industry is not now on a sufficiently firm basis to maintain a -permanent economy. A second reason for this comparative nondevelop- ment of the mining industry is the lack of knowledge of geological conditions and other data and information concerning mineral deposits. Only 0.3 percent of Prime needs are access roads and an incentive system. 92 Alaska has been mapped on scales sufficient to permit detailed analysis of geological features that pertain to mineral exploration. Only an additional 3.2 percent has been mapped on a scale adequate for even semi- detailed analysis of such features. Exploratory geo- logic maps cover about 45 percent of Alaska, but 51 percent has not yet been mapped geologically. This area is comparable in size to Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and Illinois combined. It is only natural that the principal role in advanc- ing the mining industry should fall directly upon those who are engaged in mining activities. The continued responsibility for developing new mineral deposits falls directly upon private enterprise. Present market prices of many metals and minerals justifies their develop- ment and private industry should consider with due diligence their production in Alaska. Viewed in the light of long-term needs, one hope of replenishing and augmenting national mineral re- sources lies in the discovery of new mining districts by geological, geophysical, and geochemical methods. Im- provements in mining and metallurgical techniques have made possible the handling of low-grade ores and tailings that would not have been considered a few years ago. Because gold has always been the predominant factor in development of the mining industry, many other valuable minerals have been passed over in the course of prospective activities. This type of prospecting has contributed little to the overall mineral knowledge of Alaska. The prospector is to mining what the farmer is to agriculture. Without him the industry cannot endure. A serious situation faces the industry in Alaska today: the prospector has virtually vanished due to lack of encouragement. The Territorial Department of Mines is keenly aware of this need and has drafted several prospector incentive programs. However, with excep- tion of a trial amounting to experiment during the war, none has been placed in operation for lack of funds. In the immediate future the exploitation of many min- erals may be hastened by industrial expansion along the Pacific Coast—Washington, Oregon, and California— or until development within Alaska makes possible their local utilization. Development and availability of low-cost hydroelec- tric power would assist in unlocking’ some of Alaska’s vast mineral resources. Low-cost power would enable the mining and refining of raw materials in Alaska for subsequent shipping by boat to Pacific Coast markets to compete favorably with transcontinental rail deliveries. ALASKA No geographical entity has ever attained lasting in- dustrial greatness through extractive industries alone. To whatever extent integration is possible—from the extraction of raw materials to the manufacture of semi- finished or finished products—to that extent will Alaska achieve a place in the industrialization of the North American continent. It is to be noted that in 1945 Alaska imported $5,998,- 000 in nonmetallic mine products and exported none. It imported $8,298,000 in iron and steel manufactured products such as bars and rods, structural steel, pipe, nails, etc., and exported no ferrous ore. It imported $125,000 in copper and manufactured products and ex- ported $1,000 in copper ore. It imported $1,788,000 in ; chemicals and exported none. It is likewise significant that during this same year the United States imported $337,407,000 in nonmetal- lics. Ferro-alloy imports amounted to $59,979,000 and nonferrous imports at $481,084,000. The shortage of ferro-alloys and nonferrous min- erals in the States is depicted in export statistics. Ex- port of ferro-alloys dropped from $13,392,000 in 1940 to $3,701,000 in 1945, while nonferrous exports dropped from $137,421,000 to $110,810,000 during the same period. NONMETALLICS It is difficult to over-estimate the importance of the mineral industry to the general welfare and develop- ment of Alaska. The success of many new industries may be directly contingent upon local development of minerals previously deemed valueless. For instance, there will be an immediate interest in paper clays (barite), tale, sulphur, and other raw materials when the pulp and paper industry is developed in Southeast- ern Alaska. Few persons are aware that to produce this sheet of paper requires the use, in some way or another, of limestone, salt, gypsum, talc, and even the lowly sandstone and clay. Alaskan agricultural scientists have pointed out the critical need for fertilizers if Alaska is to make the best use of its agricultural land and show a substantial in- crease in crop production. Phosphates are particularly in demand. A diligent search might reveal sources of raw minerals for fertilizer manufacture. Alaskan imports of 5-10-10 fertilizer in 1947 totaled about 1,000,000 pounds, an average of approximately 100 pounds per acre of cropland harvested. An average application of 200 pounds per acre would be twice the present use, but only half the amount recommended by agricultural authorities. On the basis of 200 pounds per acre and one acre of cropland per capita. total fer- tilizer requirements for land to supply a population of 4 LOOK AT TOMORROW Juneau gold mill, Alaska’s biggest lode operation. 100,000 would be 20,000,000 pounds each year, and for a population of 600,000 would be 120,000,000 pounds each year. There is a possibility that Alaska lignite deposits can also be used for agricultural purposes. Black coal dust spread over snow-covered fields accelerates thawing of snow and facilitates preparation of ground, advancing planting from 10 to 14 days, according to experiments conducted by Dr. Basil M. Bensin, agronomist. In addition, lignite dust could be applied to garden crops during the growing season to increase absorption of heat by the soil and stimulate the growth of plants. Some of the nonmetallics such as building stone, gravel and road ballast, limestone and clays, which have low unit value in proportion to their weight, have al- ready been developed on a limited commercial scale. Ultimately these almost inexhaustible materials may even become more valuable than all of the other mineral products. Low-cost fabrication of these nonmetallics into build- ing materials would provide the impetus so badly in the construction field in Alaska today. Production of such materials would increase the demand for more and better homes and businesses as well as civic improve- ments—all of which encourage permanent rather than seasonal residences. Production of building materials in Alaska is a paramount need of both military and civilian interests. If Alaska industry is to expand on a healthy economic basis, full utilization of these resources is necessary. A modern cement plant should be constructed im- mediately in Alaska. Currently, Alaska uses 250,000 barrels annually. This figure is conservative as it does not consider that the high cost of cement compels build- ers in the railbelt to substitute less expensive construc- tion materials. Present cost of cement delivered to users in Anchorage ranges from $52.50 to $55 a ton. In Fairbanks the cost is $56 a ton in carload lots. A single sack costs $4. Federal and Territorial agencies in a recent prelimi- nary study determined that the most promising location for a cement plant is near Mile 323 of the Alaska Rail- road on the Alaska Range divide. The availability of suitable raw materials in the immediate vicinity is now being investigated. With an initial plant capacity of 350,000 barrels, selling price would vary between $25 and $35 a ton depending upon degree of total capacity used. If cement is made available at these prices, the demand would far exceed total capacity of the con- templated plant. Petroleum is yet another untapped resource of Alaska. The United States first learned of the possi- bilities of oil fields in the Arctic in 1886 when oil Seepages were reported at Cape Simpson, 50 miles east of Barrow. Reports of oil in the Arctic regions of Alaska caused President Warren G. Harding to sign a directive in 1923 creating the 35,000-square mile Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4—the world’s largest oil claim, half the size of the State of Oklahoma. Faced with a serious outlook on the national petroleum scene, the United States Navy commenced exploratory and developmen- tal work in the area in August 1944. The first extensive report of the Navy's petroleum operation to be made public was presented to a special subcommittee on Petroleum of the Armed Services Com- mittee of the House of Representatives early in 1948 by Commodore W. G. Greenman, USN, Director of Naval Petroleum Reserves. “We have not found oil in commercial quantities in the Reserve, although almost everywhere we have gone with the drill we have penetrated sands containing oil,” Commodore Greenman reported. “In addition to the numerous oil and gas seepages widely scattered over the Reserve, we have found oil sand in three wells on the Umiat structure in the southeast, one of which produces 24 barrels per day of extremely rich oil, and also in a third well and in several core holes at Cape Simpson, 150 miles to the northwest of the Arctic Coast.” Commodore Greenman optimistically concluded his statement: “Indications are all as favorable as have been found before drilling in the majority of the oil fields that have been found in the world. If explora- Gold placer mining with dredge and hydraulic st ream. Gold is Alaska’s second major industry. tions had not been pushed under such conditions, then none of the oil fields of the world would have been found.” Dr. W. E. Wrather, Director of the Geological Sur- vey, confirmed the Commodore's statement with: “The Geological Survey is of the unequivocal opinion that Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 offers possibilities for developing significant quantities of oil. This opinion is based upon the information acquired through the relatively generalized exploration to date and the analogy of conditions thus far determined with major oil-producing provinces elsewhere.” In the event that pools of sufficient size to warrant development are found, engineers have already roughed out pipelines, highways, and possible railways linking the fields with interior Alaska, and eventually the ice- ~ free coast of the Gulf of Alaska. Oil shales, assaying from 50 to 100 gallons and over per ton, are known to occur near the mouth of the Noatak River. Investigation of the extent of the shale bodies has not been sufficient to determine the probable quantity of shale oil that could be extracted from the deposits. Director James Boyd of the Bureau of Mines recently pointed out that the United States is using more oil to- day than the entire world used in 1938 and in 1947 con- sumption reached 608 gallons for every man, woman and child in the country. The United States now de- pends on foreign sources for much of its oil. In event of an emergency, it is entirely possible that these life- lines could be severed overnight. Alaska would be in an especially tight position for oil supplies. The importance to Alaska of production of petroleum and petroleum products cannot be over-emphasized. Alaska’s present consumption is almost 13,000 barrels per day. Estimates for several years hence, exceed 30,000 barrels per day for civilian and military con- ¥ bella seca oc. lb pants A LOOK AT TOMORROW sumption. It is expected that only one-third of the demand will be in Southeastern and Southwestern Alaska including the Aleutian Islands while the princi- pal demand will be from Kenai Peninsula northward including Anchorage and the Fairbanks area. So vital are these requirements that production of synthetic oil and gas from Alaska coal is now being considered by Federal agencies. Three areas in general are being considered, namely, near Homer, on the Kenai Peninsula, Matanuska Valley, and Healy Creek near the north boundary of McKinley National Park. There may prove to be justification for construction of at least one plant. Although Alaska’s total coal resources are in excess of 110,000,000,000 tons, mostly in the lower rank coals, Alaskans imported $464,000 in coal during 1945. How- ever, to a limited extent Alaska has taken advantage of this resource. Coal production ranks third in produced wealth of Alaska’s minerals. Another of the nonmetallics of importance is the production of precious and semiprecious gems and manufacture of jewelry. Appreciable deposits of jade and small deposits of other gems may be found in Alaska. The value of gem stones to the mining indus- try as a whole can be seen in the fact that during 1945, the United States imported $127,293,000 in precious stones and imitations and $19,572,000 in finished jew- elry and plated ware. Nothing was exported from Alaska. A prime example of the value that could be added by processing raw materials in Alaska is the cutting and polishing of jade. Alaskans export raw jade and receive about $6 a pound. Cut into small pieces and polished for mounting into jewelry, it is worth more than $250. In the Kobuk River region, north of the Arctic Circle, tremolite and chrysotile asbestos have been discovered. Investigations in the area have not been conclusive 95 enough to determine extent of the reserve. One ton of long slip fiber chrysotile and 47 tons of high-grade tremolite were exported to the United States early in 1946. Other deposits have been found in central and southeastern Alaska. METALLICS In the metallic field, Alaska has much to contribute to the national wealth. Of known domestic occurrences of tin and highgrade chromite, the most promising are in Alaska. Alaska provides the major domestic source of platinum for the United States. In addition, there are occurrences of copper, lead, zine, antimony, titanium, mercury, molybdenum, graphite, iron, tungsten, and others throughout Alaska. Although placer mines outnumber lode operations in Alaska, recovery of byproduct metals and minerals from river and sea beaches has not yet reached a stage comparable to similar operations in the States. Dredges and hydraulic operations have been concen- trated on gold recovery and have paid little attention to byproduct recovery of other valuable metals. Among “these metals and minerals which are found in placer sands are: silver, copper, mercury, cassiterite, chromite, chrysoberyl, columbite, ilmenite, magnetite, monazite, tungsten, and a wide variety of gem stones. Thus it is apparent that the value of Alaska’s mineral output should increase appreciably when more attention is paid by present placer operations to byproduct recovery of other minerals. The controlling factor in operation of placer proper- ties is availability of water. Low streams in the late summer months force many operations to close from days to weeks before freezeup. Vast quantities of water are needed in the permafrost regions—the sub- Hydraulic placer operation. Gold mining is a thirsty business in Alaska. 96 <> ALASKA Frozen ground being cold-water thawed for dredging. Arctic and Arctic areas of Alaska. In order to work these permanently frozen properties, the ground must be thawed a year in advance of operations. Alaska mining engineers have learned that the best method of preparing the ground is by the use of cold-water thaw. In this method, cold water is pumped into a series of holes which have been drilled to bedrock. Use of steam and other methods have proved unsatisfactory. The importance of placer operations in the general mining picture of the Territory cannot be discounted. Low-cost power would permit dredges to work low- grade ground which now must be passed over in view of the high cost of operation. Equally as important is the storage of water in these placer areas and its diversion to major operational locations. Rare metals such as tantalum and columbium are known to occur in the Territory. With the United States taking rapid strides into the Atomic Age, the possibility of Alaska as a source for radioactive ma- terials cannot be ignored. Alaska’s mineral wealth awaits orderly development. The United States, faced with a dwindling supply of strategic metals and minerals, is largely dependent on foreign sources for a supply of these materials. Any one of several factors—war or political powers un- friendly to the United States—could cut off supply of the “have-not” minerals. Alaska may eventually sup- ply some of the wants of the Nation. A higher degree of processing or manufacture in the Territory should be encouraged. It must be borne in mind that strength- ening Alaska’s economy is as important to the United States as its defense bases which ring the continent. Tape 29.—United States (excluding Alaska) imports and exports of nonmetallics and metallics {In thousands of dollars] | Imports Exports 1940 165 1940 1945 | Nonmetallics, total___--| 137, 176, 337, 407| 466, 369 1, 090, 167 Coal and related | | fuels....-------- 4,426 3, 024/66, 745, 198, 188 Stone, cement, lime_ 3,564! = 7, 534 2, 528, 16, 543 Petroleum and | products-_-- -- --- 47, 654| 152, 340] 345,619, 751, 584 Clay and clay | products- ------- 9, 515 7, 544 9, 449 22, 406 Glass and glass 6, 102 1, 263) 10,310, 36, 193 21, 466) 38,408) 31, 718 65, 254 Precious stones and Imitations- - _ --- 44, 034} 127,293; (*) (*) -| 209, 283) 541, 063) 150, 813) 114, 511 -| 25,513} 59,979) 13, 392, 3, 701 183, 770) 481, 084) 137,421) 110, 810 -| 79, 662| 144, 222) 153, 099) 414, 314 -| 15,501] 11, 882) 16,297) 35, 164 Metallics, total_ Ferro-alloys Nonferrous_ Chemicals, total Coal tars_ Medicinal 4, 847 9, 966} 20, 208; 115, 844 Industrial 19, 036} 37, 894) 32, 888) 90, 873 Pigmen 1,605} 1, 053) 20, 638, 30, 799 Fertilize - 35,250 41,327) 17, 676 18, 259 Explosive: _ 621) 37,703) 7, 203 16, 430 28, 529 Soap, toiletries. 2,801! 4,396) 9, 007 *Incluied above. COCCWP ERROR A LOOK AT TOMORROW 97 A Dillion board feet of lumber a year could be harvested in perpetuity. Tabte 30.—Alaska imports and exports of nonmetallics and metallics {In thousands of dollars] Imports Exports Nonmetallics, total_...--------------- 5, 998 None Coal__.-------- --- 464 -._------ Petroleum and products - 4,655 - Cer 113 - Glas - -- 243° | Clay and clay produc’ 211 - Others___.---------------------- 312 - Metallics: Copper and copper products-- 125 1 Iron (bars, pipe, nails, etc.) 8, 298 None Chemicals 1, 788 None TIMBER PRODUCTS Among Alaska’s various sources of national wealth, its forests offer a potential for immediate development. There are approximately 1,000,000,000 board feet of commercial timber each year ready and waiting for the fallers’ ax in Alaska’s southeastern coastal forests. Production of Alaska’s forest products is awaited by an ever-growing market. There is a tremendous de- mand for wood products in the United States and abroad. Demand within a growing Alaska itself is no small item. Newspapers, magazines, and printing establishments must now depend, to a large extent, on foreign pulp production to meet their paper require- ments. Demand for pulp for other uses, including rayon and plastics is also steadily increasing. To meet this mounting demand, American capital has been in- vested in Canada to build pulp and paper mills as the Pacific Northwest and other United States forests have been cut far more rapidly than they can be reproduced. Now, because of Canadian forest conservation policies, production of present pulp mills and establishment of new ones is limited. Canadian efforts fall far short of supplying demands within the United States. Against this fast-dwindling supply Alaska offers its huge coastal forests, now rotting for want of use but capable of providing a billion board feet of timber annually— now and forever. United States imports of wood and paper products from foreign sources increased from $261,779,000 in 1940 to $393,812,000 in 1945. Establishment of the pulp and paper industry in the Tongass National Forest offers an immediate oppor- tunity for development. Preliminary investigations indicate there is sufficient timber and waterpower avail- able to supply five or six pulp and paper mills of 500-ton daily capacity. It has been estimated that this forest can furnish enough timber and waterpower to manu- facture 1,000,000 tons of newsprint every year in per- petuity, on a sustained forest yield basis. The Forest Service has already approved a contract for establish- ALASKA Timber that falls and rots—millions in wealth lost forever. ment of a pulp mill near Ketchikan. Active interest is also being shown in the location of similar mills at Sitka, Thomas Bay, and other points in Southeastern Alaska. The total annual production of Tongass National Forest would supply almost 25 percent of the annual newsprint requirements of the United States press. In addition, large quantities of paper are needed annually by the Government Printing Office. In 1947, the Joint Senate-House Committee on Printing reported that in the last quarter of 1946 it was estimated that the Public Printer would need 40,000,000 pounds of paper to meet actual known demands for that period as compared with 21,500,000 pounds for the last quarter of 1939. The enormous Government demand is further illustrated by the fact that income tax forms for 1947 required print- ing of 665,705,000 blanks of various sizes requiring a total of 5,620,000 pounds, or 40 carloads of paper. At the time of making its report. the committee pointed out that Alaska offered the sole remaining untapped source of newsprint under the American flag. Once the hungry domestic market is satisfied, there is the growing literacy of the Orient—which will de- mand more paper for books, magazines, and newsprint. As it has been previously pointed out, Alaska is closer— closer by hundreds of miles—to the markets of the Orient than is the continental coast of the United States proper, including the paper-producing regions of Brit- ish Columbia. Gulf state markets and other sections of the Atlantic seaboard can be reached from Alaska by water ship- ments through the Panama Canal. Establishment of the pulp and paper industry in Alaska would give great impetus to the economic de- velopment of the Territory. Its operation would mean wise and profitable use of one of Alaska’s vast, untapped natural resources. With an industry providing year- round employment, many Alaskans would be insured a regular rather than seasonal income. The enterprise would attract new and permanent settlers to Alaska. Population would grow in a way that is not now pos- sible. It has been estimated that establishment of 6 pulp and paper mills would result in 16,800 new jobs and a population increase of more than 50,000 persons in Southeastern Alaska. The pulp and paper industry would require an ade- quate network of roads and general improvements in all transportation facilities. More service and recrea- tional industries would follow. There would be more interest in developing Alaska’s agricultural potentiali- ties; an unwillingness to depend longer on imported foodstuffs and other necessities. It is evident these general improvements would not come overnight. The establishment of a single industry would not simultaneously bring prosperity and a bal- anced economy over the entire Territory. But the ini- tial operation and its success would encourage other industrialists to examine the huge and valuable re- sources Alaska has to offer. 8s ie he ali 2 Sah Sat BRAT 1S Og eat Bet ea ete hd as at ssn Nt A LOOK AT TOMORROW Geologists expect that pulp wood logging operations will make possible the discovery of important mineral deposits now likely to be hidden in the dense forests by vegetation. Extensive cutting of pulping timber would make it possible to log all sorts of timber at once—thus im- measurably cutting the logging costs for such specialty timber as Alaska cedar. It would make it possible to produce cedar poles for power and communication lines at lower cost. High freight rates to Alaska would provide a ready- made tariff for the local producer of furniture. As Alaska’s population expands, more and more furniture will be needed. Good furniture can be made from hem- lock, spruce, and cedar in Southeastern Alaska and from white birch in the interior. The possibility also exists for manufacture of woodenware such as bread boards, cutting boards, iron- ing boards, drain boards, stepladders, bowls, rolling pins, plates, handles, smoking stands, hall trees, et cetera. Prefabricated log houses would be a valuable addi- tion to new forest industry manufactures. Log build- ings are not only adapted to climatic conditions of Alaska, they conform also to the setting. There would 99 be a considerable demand for this type of housing not only for permanent housing but also for tourist resorts and summer cabins. Although 28,000 squares of shingles were used in Alaska in 1936, only 9 percent were manufactured in Alaska, where the western red cedar is ideal for shingles. There are almost 6,000 small numbered boats regis- tered in Alaska. In addition, it is estimated the fishing industry uses 287 launches, 349 seine skiffs, 1,046 row- boats and skiffs, 484 lighters and scows, 29 houseboats, 49 pile drivers, 9 pile pullers, and 37 rigging scows in gathering its annual harvest. There are hundreds more vessels, from rowboats to cruisers, owned by the resident population of Southeastern Alaska. Many of these boats could be repaired in Alaska instead of being sent south as is now being done. Hundreds of new skiffs, gillnet boats, seiners, and other type vessels are required annually by the fishing industry. These could be built on Alaska marineways and in Alaska shops. Boat- builders could use Alaska cedar for decking, planking, et cetera. Lightweight Sitka spruce could be used for the manufacture of oars, paddles, garden tool handles, broom handles, gaff-hook handles, pike pole handles. and many other purposes. Sawmills utilize only a fraction of the potential forest yield. Public Library 100 Manufacture of barrels and tierces for packing mild- cured salmon and salted herring would be another po- tential industry. Currently, these barrels are manu- factured in the United States. In prewar 1939, about 11,000 such barrels were used. Spruce and hemlock are ideal for manufacture of this type of barrel. Toys, curios and novelties made from Alaska wood is another manufacturing possibility which cannot be overlooked. The expected increase in tourist business to Alaska would warrant profitable production of these items in the Territory. Establishment of a wood preservation plant would be economically feasible. About 60,000 linear feet of treated piling and 2,250,000 board feet of treated lum- ber are now required annually in the Territory. Treated piling is used in construction of wharves, foundations for industrial waterfront buildings, dol- phins, bridges, and trestles. Treated lumber is used for wharf superstructure, bridges, culverts, mining timber, and capping and railroad ties. Potential large users are the Alaska Railroad, White Pass & Yukon Railroad, road building agencies, mining companies, contractors, and others. Power line cedar poles, now in demand throughout much of the United States, have about reached the vanishing point in the Pacific Northwest. Because of its extreme durability in contact with the soil, western red cedar is one of the best species for poles. The de- mand would not only make it possible but profitable to export these poles from Southeastern Alaska by boat to the nearest railhead at Prince Rupert, British Colum- bia, and thence by rail to the Middle Western or East- ern States where such poles are in the greatest demand. Power transmission lines now being studied for con- struction in Alaska would require within the next few years more than 20,000 poles with a total length exceed- ing 1,200,000 feet. By 1958, Alaskan power transmis- sion and distribution pole requirements should exceed 10,000 each year. The potential value of Alaska’s forest resources can be seen by examining production and exports of the four Scandinavian countries—Norway, Sweden, Fin- land, and Denmark. In sawn materials, these countries produced 27 percent of Europe’s and 7 percent of the world’s supply. They produce one-fifth of the world’s total supply of woodpulp, one-third of the cellulose and one-eleventh of the paper. Their exports amounted to 84 percent of the total woodpulp exports of all na- tions, 71 percent of the cellulose, and 24 percent of the paper. Alaska’s forest industries will be one of the founda- tion stones of the much-needed industrial development of the Territory, providing a new and vital role for Alaska in the framework of world economy. ALASKA AGRICULTURE “Plants stand still until summer rains come.” “Trrigations would have permitted me to have my lettuce ready for market 2 weeks earlier.” “Lack of water in spring is a limiting fac- tor on pasture.” “Insufficient moisture to bring up plants re- sulted in a failure of my carrot crop.” “Would like to irrigate my potatoes.” Some of Alaska’s agricultural lands are as thirsty for water as Alaska’s economy is hungry for increased agricultural production. The above quotations are but a few of the expressions made by Alaskan farmers to interviewers conducting a survey in 1948 for the De- partment of the Interior-Department of Agriculture Committee on Group Settlement in Alaska. Analysis of Alaska’s food imports indicates that there is a need and a potential market for a great increase in crop pro- duction in the Territory. The following paragraphs explain the pressing need for irrigation, fertilizers, clearing, rural electrification, improved cropping prac- tices, and better seed selection as well as development of new varieties. Increased Production Through Irrigation Attainment of increased economic agricultural pro- duction on present acreage of Alaska farms is possible through employment of irrigation. The early summer months of May and June, when hours of sunshine are at a maximum, are relatively dry periods in most farm- ing areas. Farmers have repeatedly stated that lack of sufficient moisture during these months has definitely retarded plant growth. The Territorial Commissioner of Agriculture, G. W. Gasser, reports that while “low precipitation of early summer is not usually detrimental to crop growth in Matanuska Valley, the region has experienced droughts of some severity. In the Tanana Valley, dry weather in late spring and early summer sometimes checks plant growth to such an extent as to cause low yields of cereal crops.” For the Bureau of Reclamation Eklutna (Alaska) Project Report dated October 1948 the Agricultural Experiment Station in Alaska wrote: “Where sufficient water is available for irrigation there is no doubt that crop irrigation will be both possible and profitable. During the dry season in May, June and early July there is always a shortage of precipitation, and the per- centage of soil moisture falls to a level so low that crops develop very slowly. 101 Homestead near Moose Creck showing the hard labor required to clear the land. “During this period, additions of irrigation water would undoubtedly permit normal growth of plants and increase crop yields. This increase can be conserva- tively estimated at from 15 to 25 percent, and for mar- ket vegetables much more.” Use of water on home gardens has been a common practice in Matanuska and Tanana Valleys. Several commercial gardeners have had experience with irriga- tion of truck crops. In 1946, one operator irrigated portions of his potato field, the other part was at too high an elevation for application of available water. The irrigated portion yielded 7 tons per acre. The part not irrigated was not worth harvesting. The above operator stated his belief that where water is available, the increased yield of vegetable crops would pay for a sprinkler system in 1 year under present market conditions. Immature lettuce was sprinkled for 3 nights in September 1948 in an attempt to pre- vent frost damage. The temperature dropped to 20° F., a coat of ice covered the field but the lettuce remained undamaged and matured during the 2 weeks of warm weather which followed the frost. Experience to date indicates that irrigation not only increases yields but also extends the growing and mar- keting season. Those who have used irrigation plan to maintain or increase its use. Although there is little doubt that irrigation will in- crease, there is a searcity of available information con- cerning the economic feasibility of constructing irriga- tion systems and its effect on competitive relationship among crop and livestock enterprises in Alaska. Addi- tional information is required regarding the specific effect of irrigation on yields of various crops; the effect of water and soil temperature on the plants’ response to irrigation; suitability of glacial water for irrigation ; the effect of various methods of application as well as the quantity of water applied on growth of various crops; sources of water supply and the cost of obtaining and supplying water under actual farming conditions in Alaska. Fertilizers Essential for Economic Production It is agreed among agriculturists that fertilizers are essential for economic production of crops in Alaska. Their use is expected to increase but much specific in- formation regarding kinds and amounts required is still lacking. A group of scientists from the Department of Agri- culture who made exploratory investigations in 1946 reported : “Most soils in Alaska require fertilizers from Ultimate reward: farm typical of most in Matanuska Valley. the start for optimum production. Most farmers, in- cluding practically all those growing vegetables and potatoes, now use commercal fertilizers containing phosphate, potash and nitrogen, but only the vaguest notions are available as to the proper ratios and amounts of such fertilizers for the various soils and crops. Low yields suggest there are now great wastes of labor and materials from using inadequate amounts of fertilizers or the wrong mixtures. Use of lime should be investigated, especially in the Matanuska Valley. It is likely that some of the minor elements are necessary for optimum production. “Particular emphasis needs to be given to studies of the use of nitrogen, because either a deficiency or an excess has an extreme effect on both yield and quality of crops.” A 5-5-10 fertilizer is the most common mixture now used in the Territory. Imports of fertilizer in 1947 totaled about 1,000,000 pounds, an average of almost 100 pounds per acre of cropland harvested. Probably less than half the acreage received fertilizer, most of it being used on potatoes and vegetables which ordinarily receive applications of 500 pounds or more per acre. Agricultural authorities have recommended a greater use of fertilizer. With rotations which include grass- legume hay. where livestock are kept and the manure used on the land. the following applications were re- cently suggested: for grain, 200 pounds of 3-12 3 for potatoes, 600 pounds of 5-10-10 and for hay and pas- ture, 400 pounds of 5-10-10. Development farms have proved an effective means of obtaining information regarding irrigation, ferti- lizer, and crop adaptability on reclamation projects in the United States. These farms are usually operated under lease by practical farmers. The lease contracts provide for the operator’s cooperation in conducting specified trials and tests under general supervision of the sponsoring agency. Part of the farm is set aside for detailed experiments relating to irrigation, crop varieties, fertilizers, rota- tions, and other factors. These experiments are con- ducted by competent scientists in various fields and usually involve cooperation among a number of Federal and State agencies. The development farm thus pro- vides both detailed experimental data including prac- tical tests under actual farming conditions. There are many reasons why such farms should be developed in Alaska as it would prove an effective means of assisting in the solution of farm development problems. The need in Alaska is even greater than in the States. Gap Between Supply and Demand Food production in Alaska is a matter of great im- portance to the armed forces. Immediately following A LOOK AT TOMORROW the Pearl Harbor attack, Alaska was so vulnerable that men and war supplies were rushed to her defense. Matanuska Valley farmers by almost superhuman ef- forts were able to furnish much of the necessary food supply in those critical days thus freeing additional shipping space for defense materials. Before any sim- ilar emergency again arises, additional agricultural lands should be brought under cultivation and pro- duction increased by irrigation wherever needed. The recent widening of the gap between supply and demand was caused by greatly increased demand rather than by failure to make any increase in agricultural production. The gap may be reduced but not closed en- tirely by improved practices. Additional crop acreage is required. Developments in communication, trans- portation, mining, industry, and commerce would bring still greater local demands for products which could be economically produced on Alaska farms. A portion of the recent increase in demand has been due to the influx of population resulting from the large amount of defense construction and facilities related thereto. This program will probably continue for a few years and will continue to provide a vast market for agricultural products. Should there be a sudden cessation of defense activities, however, it is still not unreasonable to assume that the demand would stay at a high level. The recent impetus which has been given in part by defense activities to housing, trans- portation, and power facilities, will help in combina- tion with the rich natural resources of the Territory to assure continued growth of population and demand for agricultural production. Increasing the acreage of cropland is, however, time- consuming and requires investment of considerable capital. In their natural state most of the better agri- cultural lands are covered with timber. Once the land has been cleared it often takes a year or two to bring it to full productive capacity. The magnitude of the total investment which is nec- essary before the first crop can be harvested has been discussed previously. For example, the initial invest- ment in a potato farm for essential improvements, ma- chinery, a normal complement of livestock, land clear- ing, plus seed potatoes, fertilizer, and labor, might exceed $18,000. The first year might bring a tragic crop failure. One year out of three, insufficient moisture could turn a potential profit into a real loss. In the Western States, activities of the Bureau of Reclamation remove some of the speculative elements from farming. On Recla- mation projects farmers are no longer at the mercy of droughts. Likewise, irrigation of Alaskan farms could do much to insure crop production. It is not presup- posed that all the methods used in the Western States 103 would be strictly applicable to Alaskan conditions, but there is no reason to doubt that experience gained during almost half a century of work in those Western States can aid materially in the solution of the prob- lems peculiar to Alaskan agriculture. Present limited production of needed foods which can be produced in Alaska are recounted throughout this report. The United States Department of Agri- culture, in chapter VII, notes that the rapid increase in civilian and army personnel has created a shortage of dairy products and that it is doubtful if the produc- tion of fluid milk will reach the saturation point for this population for many years. Because of this, very little butter, cottage cheese, or buttermilk are produced. The Department further points out that few sheep and cattle have been produced and that expansion is pos- sible; that hogs have been produced in all the agricul- tural areas of Alaska for many years and that in- creased pork production is possible; and that poultry husbandry has been slow in developing but that it can be an economic enterprise. Well-supported organized efforts are necessary to achieve the substantial agricultural development needed to supply existing demands for foodstuffs in Alaska. Some indication as to quantities required can be obtained from examining the import figures for 1947. Chopping and storing ensilage for winter feeding of cattle on Alaska farm. 104 ALASKA Typical high yield of Arctic seedling potatoes. Quantities of specified agricultural imports from United States to Alaska, 1947, and an estimate of acre- ages required to produce these products in the Territory is listed in table 31 on page 105. Imports listed in the above statistics do not include supplies brought in for military forces. They do not include flour, canned goods, or other foods which might be produced in Alaska. In terms of live weight, these imports represent 17,992,000 pounds of cattle, hogs, and poultry. Pro- duction of cattle would require 8,100 dairy cows and 12,500 beef cows. Including the necessary complement of male and youngstock, the total number would be approximately 40,000 head. Pork products would re- quire litters from 3,500 sows and gilts. Production of eggs and poultry would require 175,900 laying hens, plus the raising of about 480,000 chicks annually. It would require more than 50,000 acres of cropland to produce feed for dairy stock, including an additional 50,000 for beef cattle. Grain for hogs would take 18,000 and for poultry 12,000 acres. Potatoes and fresh vegetables would require about 1,000 acres. The combined acreage to produce products equivalent to these imports would be around 135,000—10 times the present crop acreage. Competitive Position of Alaska Farmers Opinions differ regarding the quantities of food im- ports that could be replaced through local production. Many foods, which Alaskans want, cannot be produced in the Territory by ordinary farming methods. How- ever, only a few of the vegetables would be in this class. Livestock and poultry are now being produced. Plant facilities for processing meat into many of its imported forms are still lacking. A LOOK AT TOMORROW Taste 31.—Agricultural imports (1947) and estimate of acreage required to produce products in Alaska Live-weight} Quantity’ ‘ equivalent | Live-stock | .. Product imparted) of imports | needed ' Netelt |pounds)| (1000 (number) ° pounds) | Milk, evaporated, unsweet- ened_. Butter. - Beef and veal, fresh and frozen__.-.------------ Pork, fresh or frozen______ Ham and shoulder, cured__ Bacon Sausage, not canned_ 2 Animal oils and fats, edible_ Total hog products__ Eggs in shell (1,000 dozen) _ Poultry. Potatoes Other fres | Milk cows, beef cows, brood sows, laying hens, and broilers. Youngstock are not included in these numbers but the usual complements of youngstock were taken into account in computing livestock yields and feed requirements. ? Estimates of crop acres in Alaska needed to produce the equivalents of imported products. They are based on crop yields slightly higher than Matanuska Valley farmers’ estimates of usual yields and appreciably higher than yields reported for 1447. ‘These higher yields were used because improved practices, including increased use of fertilizer and irrigation, are expected to become more common in the future than they have been in the past. To produce beef in addition to veal and beef from dairy herds. ‘4 Assuming 40 percent of feed from range. ‘ Broilers to produce meat in addition to that from farm poultry flocks. Approximately 30 percent of Alaska’s population re- side in Southeastern Alaska. The majority of food imports from Canada enter this region. In 1946, these included 44,000 pounds of beef, 5,000 pounds of poultry, and 4,000 pounds of other animal products; 145,000 dozen fresh eggs, 715 pounds of butter, and 87 pounds cheese ; 28,000 pounds of flour, 344,000 pounds of pota- toes. and 191,000 pounds of other fresh vegetables. Food imports from Canada vary largely from year to year being subject to many influences, including mari- time labor strikes. Because this region is more accessi- ble from British Columbia and Seattle it appears that it will be some time before it would be supplied from farming areas in the interior of Alaska. In view of this inability, at least for the present, of Alaskan farmers to compete with farmers from the States and Canada for markets in Southeastern Alaska, the acreage figure derived in table 32 on this page should be revised to exclude imports to that area. Ac- cordingly, the table following includes quantities of specified agricultural imports from the United States to Alaska (excluding estimated imports to Southeastern Alaska) for the year 1947, and an estimate of the acre- age required to produce these products in the Territory. \s in the previous table, the imports listed do not in- clude supplies brought in for military forces, nor do they include flour, canned goods, or other food products which might be produced in Alaska. Ten-weeks growth of white clover from seed near Fairbanks. Tanve 32.—Agricultural imports (1947), excluding im- ports to Southeastern Alaska, and estimated acreage required to produce products in Alaska \ | Quantity Live-weight} | equivalent | Live stock | : Product (Goon | of imports | needed ! Needed |pounds)| _ (1000 (number) " | | pounds) Milk, evaporated, unsweet- |4, 660 |-_-.-.--| 1, 300 9, 100 ened_. Butter___- _...| 4,000 25, 800 Beef and | | frozen. ......---------- | 38, 000 | ¢ 32, 500 | 200 |._------|-------- pce lee LE Ham and shoulder, cured | Bacon Sausage, not canned__ Animal oils and fats, edible- 2,300) 11, 700 Total hog products--|2, 650 | 3, 450 | Sheltie |114,000 | 7, 400 920 |5 28, 000 280 390 260 87, 430 Footnotes sts in table 31 are applicable to this table also 106 ALASKA Swedish-style hay-curing near Palmer. Modern equipment is expected to supplant this method. It is believed that the figure of 87,000 acres derived in the preceding table is a reasonable estimate, for re- connaissance purposes and subject to detailed studies of physical and economic feasibility, of the needed acre- age of new agricultural land in the Territory for which a market is now available. The Alaskan farmer's ability to compete successfully with farmers in the United States and Canada is in- fluenced by both economic and physical factors. Eco- nomic difficulties associated with a slightly developed Territory are of major importance. Solutions to high development and production costs must be found, and the extent of the market for the agricultural production of the Territory must be determined. Rail, highway, and water transportation facilities must be greatly ex- tended and improved before major agricultural devel- opments become feasible in many localities. Problems relating to soil, crops, and livestock must be studied. The need for low-cost electric power, for land clearing, and for irrigation and drainage, when and if they are needed, must be met. Expansion of dairying is being retarded by lack of sufficient cleared land in Matanuska and Tanana Val- leys. gg production depends largely on imported feed. The principal deterrents to increased potato and vegetable production appear to be production problems coupled with inadequate grading, storage, and market- ing facilities, rather than lack of cropland. This reconnaissance report does not attempt to pre- sent a solution for all the problems which are facing and will face the farmer in Alaska. Instead it tries to indicate the need for increased agricultural production, to mention some of the obstacles in the way of making that increase, and to stress the importance of a thorough study of all factors in the development of a sound agri- cultural program for the Territory. Current information concerning agricultural devel- opment permits three broad generalizations: (1) there is a market in the Territory for the production of ap- proximately 87,000 acres of new agricultural land, this estimate being subject to detailed studies of economic feasibility; (2) there are hundreds of thousands of acres of uncleared or undrained land of which the soil, topography, and climate may be as suitable for agri- cultural production as land now being farmed: (3) agricultural growth should be geared to developments in industry, commerce, and national defense, with respect to both its location and magnitude. 4 LOOK AT TOMORROW Estimates of Potential Agricultural Acreage Differ Estimates differ regarding the total amount of land suitable for tillage and pasture. Dr. C. C. Georgeson, the first director of Alaska Experiment Stations, made an early estimate of 41,600,000 acres that could be tilled, plus an additional 22,400,000 acres for pasture land. Inanatrticle entitled “What of Alaska,” W. A. Rockie, of the Soil Conservation Service, estimated that 2,870,000 acres were available for crops and 4,228,000 for grass and range. A group of scientists from the Department of Agriculture who visited Alaska in 1947 estimated “there is probably not more than about 1,000,000 acres of suitable farm land, though much more might be de- veloped if the need for local production should become critical.” The group reported that summer range and pasture were extensive. Despite lack of knowledge of Alaska’s land, a con- siderable amount of information has been compiled since Dr. Georgeson made his first estimates. The University of Alaska has made field examinations of a number of areas. Detailed examination has been made of 10 areas—2 by the Soil Conservation Service and 107 8 by the Bureau of Land Management. These 10 areas covered 1,206,142 acres. Examinations showed 27 per- cent of the acreage physically suitable for production of general crops—small grains, hardy vegetables, and for- age crops—35 percent suitable principally for grazing and 38 percent unsuited for agricultural use. Difference in estimates of the amount of land suitable for farming may be explained, at least in part, by differ- ences in the view of various estimators regarding the overall possibilities for economic development of Alask: and the degree to which the present situation, as con- trasted with assumed future conditions, influenced their judgments. It would appear the group of agricultural scientists in arriving at an estimate of about 1,000,000 acres gave considerable weight to the present extent of economic development since they reported that “much more might be developed if the need for local produc- tion should become critical.” Commissioner of Alaska Department of Agriculture, G. W. Gasser, who has been actively engaged in agricul- tural research and administration in Alaska for many years maintains that conditions which presently pre- vent extensive development of agriculture in Alaska are University of Alaska campus at Fairbanks. 108 economic, not agricultural. His estimate of agricul- tural possibilities assumes that economic obstacles will eventually be surmounted. He includes in his ap- praisal a total of approximately 17 million acres phys- ically and climatically suitable for crops or for grass- land but points out that the exact extent of poten- tial agricultural lands is not known. There are marked differences in soil, temperature, and precipitation in various parts of Alaska. This recent estimate of potential agricultural lands is as follows: Tase 33.—Potential agricultural areas Areas Acres Aleutian Islands -_--—— = -2 2 ooo eee eee (area unknown) Kodiak Island______ 451, 840 Kenai Peninsula_ 5, 882, 880 Matanuska Valley 195, 600 Susitna Valley -__ 96, 000 Copper River Basin 3, 392, 000 ‘Tanana Valley_____------------------- 4, 000, 000 Dunbar -_--- 64, 000 Forty-Mile ___ 1, 667, 500 Yukon Valley 457, 000 Koyukuk Valley. 64, 000 Kuskokwim Valley. 450, 000 Healy-Lignite __ 143, 360 Yakutat 1, 280 40, 000 2, 000 1, 000 GL 2) |e ee eee 16, 908, 460 Location of Agricultural Areas Agricultural lands are for the most part situated along the river valleys. They are shown in yellow on the accompanying map, adapted from a similar one appearing in Circular No. 1 of the Alaska Agricul- tural Experiment Station reissued and revised June 15, 1937. The yellow portions of the map broadly in- dicate agricultural areas. The extent of the yellow area, however, does not necessarily indicate its impor- tance as a future farming area as the percentage of land suitable for agriculture differs greatly from place to place. Paucity of detailed information precludes definite delineation of potential agricultural lands. Usefulness of Data From Other Arctic Countries Detailed information regarding agricultural devel- opments under comparable soil and climatic conditions in the Scandinavian countries and in Finland, where economic development is more mature and pressure of population on land resources greater, might be helpful ALASKA in estimating probable limits for agricultural develop- ment in Alaska. Such information is also helpful in other ways. Data concerning agricultural advances in Russian Siberia might serve similar purposes. According to an article entitled “Fruit, Grain Flourish in Soviet Arctic,” ap- pearing in the September 22, 1948, issue of the U.S. S. R. Information Bulletin released by the Soviet Embassy, the Soviets have registered outstanding gains in devel- opment of Arctic agriculture. A variety of winter wheat has been developed, the report states, which gives yields in excess of 30 bushels per acre. A strain of early-ripening potatoes devel- oped above the Arctic Circle was found to produce two harvests per year when planted farther south. Experi- ments in fruits and berries resulted in producing 208 new varieties, which give greater yields, more frost resistant and superior flavor. Just below the Arctic Circle, the report stated, 40,000 acres of orchards have been planted. In the city of Gorno-Altaisk, 2,000 gar- dens provide much of the vegetable needs of the population. There has not been sufficient time to obtain an ade- quate analysis and comparison of the climatic and eco- nomic conditions in northern Europe and Siberia with Alaska conditions. Such comparisons should be in- cluded in subsequent investigations relating to agricul- tural potentials in specific localities in Alaska. Some dangers of working on the simple assumption that developments in northern Europe eventually will be duplicated in Alaska are pointed out in the report of the Alaska Resources Committee in the publication “Regional Planning Part VII—Alaska, its Resources and Development.” This report, on pages 15 and 16, states: “The assump- tion is frequently made that because millions of people live happily and thrive in Scandinavian countries, which are said to have no more favorable climate and less abun- dant store of natural resources, Alaska can support a similarly dense population. But the case is quite dif- ferent. Not only are soil and climatic conditions differ- ent but what is perhaps of more immediate importance, the economic and social setting are so radically dis- similar that European experience would seem to have little application to the Alaska situation.” After de- veloping specific points in more detail the authors con- clude, “Differences in population, living conditions, proximity to markets, soils, and climatic conditions in Alaska and Scandinavian countries are highly significant.” It is true that differences between Alaska and Scan- dinavian countries are highly significant and should not be overlooked in taking advantage of experience in these countries. However, it does not necessarily follow that American methods and ingenuity will be less effective A LOOK AT TOMORROW in subjugating Arctic lands to agricultural use than those of other countries. The United States takes a second place to none in the effective economic use of land on the “dry” margin of land development. There is no reason why it should be less effective on the “cold” margin. Our Nation has repeatedly demonstrated that intelligent use of capital by highly skilled labor and management can more than offset the alleged advantages of an abundant and cheap labor supply. A minor example of this is occurring in Matanuska Valley where the laborious “old country” method of curing hay on stakes driven into the ground is being supplanted by machine methods requiring less labor. Possibilities for Export Although any Alaska agricultural program will be extremely limited in its ability to compete successfully in export of foodstuffs and will to a large extent be centered on food products for home consumption, op- portunity does exist for export of other than domestic crops. For instance, a $2,000,000 annual industry has been developed in the State of Washington by gather- ing, processing and shipping of wild huckleberry branches. Common sword fronds are also gathered, sent to florists throughout the United States for use in wreaths, sprays, and other floral pieces. Infinite varieties of lichens, mosses, sedges, edible berry-producing shrubs, willows and dwarfed birches, horsetails, tall grasses, and others, all of which may have some potential export value, are found in Alaska. Aircraft now fly flowers to Alaska. They can as well carry decorative materials, native flowers, and small fruits to southern markets. A limited quantity of Alaska wild flower seeds have already been exported to the States. The peat industry is also open for development. Alaska has enormous deposits of peat scattered around thousands of small lakes and bogs. A general survey of Alaska peat moss, made by A. D. Dachanewski Stokes, specialist for the Department of Agriculture, reported the presence of sphagnum peat moss deposits of the same type and quality as now imported to the United States from Sweden and other European countries, amounting to about 100,000 tons annually. Alaska peat moss could be dried, pressed, and packed into bales for export. Development of this industry is feasible if special commodity freight rates were established to fill empty southbound railway cars and ships. Alaska peat would then be in a more favorable position to compete with the Canadian and Pacific Coast States product. Investigations made in 1946 by M. T. Zarotschentzeff, 109 internationally known food expert and originator of the “Z” quick-freezing process used in Europe and South America, reported closer cooperation could be attained between the agricultural and fisheries industry. He elaborated a formula for fish chowder to be packed in salmon canneries, pointing out it would provide a marked advancement to both industries. The salmon canning industry has actually recorded little progress, its methods and processing being the same as 50 years ago. The fish chowder formula consisted of 50 per- cent salmon, 20 percent potatoes, 10 percent cabbage, 3 percent peas, 4 percent onions and 5 percent fish stock, plus salt, pepper, citric acid and bay leaf. Food value would be 1,000 calories per can. When conducting the investigation there was con- siderable demand from international food organizations for fish and vegetable chowder for export to European and Asiatic countries. It was estimated these exports could amount to 10,000,000 cans. This would require about 2,000 tons of potatoes and vegetables—much more than Alaska was capable of producing at that time. Development of Reindeer Industry The Bureau of Biological Survey, in 1934, estimated there were 350,000 square miles of grazing land in Alaska, of which 200,000 square miles were particularly suited for reindeer. The carrying capacity of such an area was reported to be approximately 4,000,000 rein- deer, the annual surplus of which would yield 1,000,000 hides and 150,000,000 pounds of meat. Since then, a decline in numbers rather than the anticipated expansion of the reindeer industry has occurred. The Reindeer Act of 1937 limited ownership of reindeer to natives only. Reindeer formerly owned by whites were taken over by the Federal Government, to be administered by the Alaska Native Service. Reindeer associations were organized in various Eskimo villages. Community ownership resulted in a lack of interest in the herds in many villages. Reindeer were considered by many natives as an immediate source of food, with little or no thought being given to building up herds for local marketing and export. Unused and underutilized grazing lands of Alaska are potential sources of income. Some grazing lands are expected to be used by cattle and sheep but large areas in the north are likely to find their best utilization by reindeer. It is entirely possible that veterans trained in animal husbandry and familiar with cattle raising would be interested in reindeer production, contributing mate- rially to the profitable development of the industry. In many areas, reindeer are needed now for food and clothing. There is considerable demand throughout 110 ALASKA Hundreds of thousands of reindeer could thrive on the 200,000 square miles of Alaska tundra, considered unsuitable for other purposes. northern and interior Alaska for reindeer meat. Through proper sales promotion a substantial export market could be established for reindeer meat as a spe- cialty product. Climate of Agricultural Districts The June 1, 1948, revision of Circular Number 1, “Information for Prospective Settlers in Alaska” by the Alaska Department of Agriculture, contains a num- ber of charts which are reproduced in this report. The first shows the growing season and normal mean temperature curves for spring, summer and fall months (plate A). precipitation at various points in Alaska (plate B). The second shows the growing season and The fourth chart presents precipitation, growing season and temperature data for a number of stations in the southcentral region and shows areas of agricul- tural land in lower Matanuska and Susitna Valleys and on the Kenai Peninsula (plate D). The fifth chart presents precipitation, growing sea- son, and temperature data for a number of stations in the middle part of the Tanana Valley and shows areas of agricultural land in the interior area centered at Fairbanks, MANUFACTURE, COMMERCE AND TRADE In the now-dawning age of the Pacific, Alaska is des- tined to play an increasingly important role as a manu- facturing, commercial, and trading entity. It is nearer the vast Asiatic markets than are any of the States. It is on the main line of the new trans-world aviation It has room. Its population could be in- creased 50-fold and still give Alaska a smaller popula- tion density than all but 7 of the 48 States. Although Alaska has produced goods valued at almost $3,000,000,000 during its Sl-year history as a Territory of the United States, development of its natural wealth is still only in its infancy. Many re- sources have been subjected to almost no use at all. a to produce more billions of dollars worth of products from the mines under the ground, the forests on the ground, and routes. Orderly development will permit Alas the fisheries in the seas. Alaska offers opportunity for immediate large-scale development requiring millions of dollars of capital, and equally good opportunity for immediate small-scale development requiring only a few thousands of dollars. These opportunities are discussed at greater length and detail in chapters dealing with development possibili- ties of the respective basic resources. Southeastern Alaska forests are suitable for estab- 3 3 4 4 GROWING SEASON — AND TEMPERATURE DATA‘ FOR SELECTED STATIONS y% 3 gt p ‘. ery Te 7 < $ ity a ald > Y |“ (al ar | LZ A = ak] ZF pod 3 (| z 3 als sir Ni: Sls o Je sls ~ Cie eee dl gyi B3yee5 % it Gs Sis Hi Whi Piety jg 3s 3 iid WEE ld KEY GRAPH >}+____, GROWING SEASON PRECIPITATION DATA FOR SELECTED STATIONS CORDOVA faa i 3 OX $525 oe 255 SKK S59 HSN * OX Sesaren aA 0.0%, QR KEY GRAPH RRO 5 ~ MOO SI S252 OQ OI R25 232 x $5252525 o, QL? QSLRRE? % SY OF J od S 2 KO <2 Ke 2 o, SS 2 1, SS < o, 2 2 o, $39 <2 2 o, 2 > o $35 < 2 SooeN 5 co 2 ?, 2 gS o 2 oS ~ $26 <2 OS ?, e <6 Se S °, > < ~ 2 QO O % 2 oC . Be $25 ?, 2 o, 2 < QO XS O O o, O ~ o, Xx 2 2 Y EX oA wi 2 Q <2 <2 63 2 Y ys o> o 2 Y <2 o, Ye Q > gx } SOS 3 6 HS CLIMATIC DATA FOR SELECTED STATIONS IN THE TANANA VALLEY AGRICULTURAL AREA AREAS INDICATED AS HAVING SOME AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES (GENERALIZED). H++++H 9 ALASKA RAILROAD HIGHWAYS s ° s © as to ‘ee SCALE OF MULES J <<} o, oS ¥ 4 O 2 $25 < Y Y ~ o, ~ < ras < Lo <> $35 2 < 2 <2 $ 2 O S? <2 ~ 2 S es $ ° o, 2 eewe LENGTH OF caownes $£450%, o, < Sos °, ~ Q XS SKY ?, °, S25 Y <5 S <> 2 O SS S eM x2 + 25 <0 rem > ~ faqs ate enews OwOER OF OAS. ww FROST TREE SEG Oo fon] > oO & YL > o ~ < < 2 SS 2 J <2 2 $5 < 2 2S < °, < 2 Q C 2 o, < Oo <> <Q < <2 2 ree 2 EL 2 KS < $5 < 2 , o, 2 Xx Oates on verteat haet etna or shee AVERAGE LAST 32 reurceature, ww semne and < Ss ee S060 Rreten wortwcet tees thee LATEST SPRING AnO CARLEST FALL FROSTS Om RECORD Lnerewred on toate of aoe Mey to One SS ES SRRROS OOO x REX, A LRG XY x SOKO > SIL > oS o, QQ —i és JES NRRKS SERRA BS 988410 0—52 (Face p. 110) Sen Walon, Gutve theme Steer Nerisomet ner hows LENGTH OF GROWING SEASON, <> RS 2 YO SP Figure in ber shows NUMBER OF DAYS IN FROSTFREE GROWING SEASON. HICKALOON oO DODO POPOCREIS Oy RAO £5 <X °, SS maine ANO FIRST IN FALL show LATEST SPRING ronan vertical ines ANO EARLIEST FALL FROSTS OW RECORD 140) 130] B56 DX, Booey SEE [x OK R545 OO RRS KE x x (measured on scole of RPK SKK SRK 2 x monthe May te October @ bottom). OY x 8 <r SKK ‘ Mes Mes Xx C2 ~—y WILLOW CR, aire _ nA meat Aand CASTLE @ESKA JONESVIL| MATANUSK A o, 5 q J O 9, > al A bj RY KS » YA Z\ A 622 eo { wy, te % Y q o oY | <0 > e es < o* XI ANCHORAGE O x3 Cx RA <O im MOOSE PASS ! wooorow y gs LR 2, s 5% < Ls me Ce Q Co C2 eS 2 a qx XZ ul x Ee z no z 2° < - no a ul E o u uw ” a °o w , SUSITNA AREAS INDICATED AS HAVING SOME AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES x SONY SRS AND MATANUSKA AGRICULTURAL AREAS KENAI (GENERALIZED). bemrtentend ALASKA RAILROAD OS QS YX HIGHWAYS 20 1 10° 10 Q Xx <2 O50, SS S55 Bx) ak Blech verticat NORMAL MONTMLY, PRECIPITATION {Scele in inened. calumne thew SKWENTNA QL <X Y So SRS Xx QO? | ! PENINSULA MS SKK oe ss SX My LLY SELOOVIA 151° 152" 988410 O. (Face p. 110) No.5 A LOOK AT TOMORROW Eskimos and Aleuts are instinctive boat builders. lishment of paper and pulp mills, plywood plants, fur- niture and toy factories, shingle and lumber mills. The interior forests are ideal furniture and specialty manu- facture for local and export trade. In 1947, Alaska imported $1,075.493 in lumber and $599,967 in furni- ture. Total timber product imports amounted to more than $6,000,000, while exports were only $700,000. Alaska’s vast and varied mineral deposits are open 111 for prospecting and development. New mineral de- posits will be found, new uses will be found for old de- posits, and improved technology will make it possible to work many properties now idle. From Alaska’s non- metallics, it is possible to manufacture building materials, fertilizers, and other chemicals—all critically needed in the Territory today. Although the fisheries sustain Alaska’s leading indus- try, it is still far from the complete stage of its develop- ment. Many types of fish are not taken by the fisher- men today, and many parts of the fish that are caught are still not utilized. It was not until the 1930's that it was found that halibut livers were rich in oil. This relatively single discovery has resulted in millions being paid the fisherman for bringing in a product that had formerly been thrown back into the sea as waste. New discoveries of utilizing fish-waste, development of by- products and new methods of preparation and market- ing will further advance the industry. The tourist industry is capable of tremendous growth in Alaska. Only a comparative handful of tourists now visit the Territory. Establishment of hotels, cabins, and lodges; the building and operation of boats for charter and the manufacture of curios and novelties present another manufacturing opportunity of no small magnitude. As Alaska’s resources are developed, opportunities Lustinctive boat-building skill of Eskimos and Aleuts can become the basis for the establishment of small commercial enterprises. 112 would be created in the trades, services, and professions. One additional payroll creates need for another store, another doctor, another teaching staff, another bus route, et cetera. Nothing about the economy and business of Alaska is static and unchanging. The development of one in- dustry will bring about a change in another. Many of the features about Alaska’s economy that might appear disappointing today would vanish with even minor de- velopment. For instance: existing high freight rates are not to be taken as a discouraging feature for pro- spective manufacturing industries because the offering of substantial southbound cargoes, now almost entirely lacking except during the fishing season, would either make it profitable for present lines to reduce rates or for new lines to start. Not the least among Alaskan possibilities is the one which would involve new business in and for Alaska by transfer of some wholesaler and jobber or distributor functions from the States into Alaska itself. Some products from the Eastern or Middle Western States could be brought to Alaska much more cheaply by way of the Canadian National Railways to Prince Rupert, British Columbia, thence by barge or other type of vessel to Southeastern Alaska towns or to the interior by trans-shipment to motor carriers at Haines. This prac- tice, however, has been prevented by two things: (1) lack of volume on some items, and (2) the fact that exclusive distribution rights for Alaska are tightly held by brokers in the States. As Alaska grows, its commerce with the States ob- viously will increase. However, it is not desirable that they extend to the things which build up the States at the expense of Alaska : such as the present system which now gives Seattle a cut out of every Alaska dollar. Wholesale and distributing facilities for an expanding Alaska should be feasible in all the larger communities ALASKA and such important terminal cities as Haines and Valdez. One of the present major obstacles facing develop- ment of industry in Alaska is high production costs. ‘An abundance of low-cost electrical energy would be the greatest contributing factor toward lowering produc- tion costs. Establishment of new industries and de- velopment of its natural wealth to make Alaska a self- sufficient, self-supporting geographic area would result in a marked reduction in living costs, another obstacle. Finally, as has been previously pointed out, new indus- tries will have an advantageous effect in lowering pres- ent high freight rates. Opportunities for establishment of new manufactur- ing industries are many and varied. A complete pic- ture of the many Alaskan manufacturing opportuni- ties can be seen by examining the following lists of imports from the United States, which, as in preceding lists, do not include goods brought in for the Armed Forces. After examination of each item, the question appears: “Why should Alaska import that item (be it canned meat, butter, paper, or building materials) ¢ Why shouldn't Alaska itself manufacture or produce it?” This reconnaissance report does not attempt to answer these questions. For a few items there appears to be no reason why the product could not be manufac- tured or produced in Alaska. For others, it is obvious that production in the Territory is impossible. For all items, however, thorough and detailed studies of the physical and economic feasibility of local production would be necessary to arrive at a satisfactory answer to the above questions. They are asked here in order to provoke some thought regarding the possibilities. The shipment of goods from the United States (mostly through Seattle) to Alaska in 1947 are reported as follows by the Foreign Trade Division of the Bureau of the Census: Taste 34.—Shipments from the United States to Alaska Commodity description | Unit of quantity Net quantity Value (dollars) Animals and animal products, edible: | | Beef and veal, fresh or frozen___-------------------------------- |-Pound:___ 6, 262, 268 2, 960, 961 Pork, fresh or frozen. __--- - | Pound... 307, 377 693, 091 Hams and shoulders, c .| Pound._ 1, 183, 966 763, 092 Bacon__---------- Pound... 1, 113, 434 752, 863 Mutton and lamb__.._-.----------------------------- errr 9 149, 965 Sausage not canned - Pound._ 738, 105 324, 948 Canned meats- ------ Pound._ 1, 180, 737 551, 715 Poultry and game, fres | Pound__ 944, 583 563, 205 Other meats and sausage casing. “| Pound. 397, 310 165, 912 Animal oils and fats, edible___ .| Pound. 738, 504 235, 453 Milk, evaporated, unsweetened _ .| Pound. 7, 166, 852 949, 875 Butter, natural oil, and spreads - .| Pound._ 1, 500, 264 1, 178, 961 Cheese...-------------+---- .| Pound 431, 033 212, 273 Other dairy products. _--------------------------------- 22-2 r oe | gener 598 470" 304, 002 Fish and fish products Pound 598, 470 342, 315 Eggs in the shell __- ao Dozen ! 1, 758, 785 | 1, 163, 558 Animals and products, edible !._.- ------------------------7->>- (een eeeeeeees tee 76 | 85, 384 cit aa ahaa ee sete see eeee es ser 11, 397, 573 INot elsewhere specified. A LOOK AT TOMORROW TasLe 34.—Shipments from the United States to Alaska—Continued Commodity description Unit of quantity Net quantity Animals and animal products, inedible: | 113 Value (dollars) Boots, shoes, and other footwear = 923, 184 Other leather and manufacture: 284, 152 Furs and manufactures______ 842, 309 Animals and products, inedible '_ 132, 057 2, 181, 702 Vegetable food products and beverages: | Wheat flour J. Hundredweight__________ 81, 383 601, 021 Biscuits and crackers Pound. | 1, 082, 266 244, 869 Cereal foods__________ Pound. ! 598, 878 74, 776 Grain and preparations 272, 446 Fodders and feeds_ 382, 280 Potatoes, white___ 274, 334 Other fresh vegetables _ 542, 286 Canned vegetables and juices 831, 565 Vegetables and preparations ! 498, 162 Fresh fruits___ 629, 254 Canned fruits__ | 727, 080 Dried fruits and preparatio | 274, 567 Vegetable oils and fats, edible_ _ 922, 867 | 339, 889 Coffee. __-------_- 7 1, 781, 947 762, 776 Sugar, refined__ 5, 827, 176 526, 514 Confections and chewing gum__._.--_.-..2222222222222 221222 |e. eee eee eee 762, 422 Malt liquors -| Gallon___ 1, 496, 136 | 1, 895, 534 Whisky ___ .| Proof gallons - 394, 708 6, 317, 768 Distilled liquors !_ -| Proof gallons 7 27, 068 397, 916 Wines ___....._- -| Gallon... 72, 933 | 261, 682 Beverages and fruit juices'_..__..............._.--.-_-------...|.....- | 203, 276 Vegetable food products !_...._..................-------------..|......... 318, 959 Mota tte A 17, 139, 376 Vegetable products, inedible except fi Rubber boots and shoes 133, 778 496, 381 Rubber belting hose and packing 151, 777 139, 454 Cigars and cheroots__________ 3,056 | 190, 452 Cigarettes__.___- 273, 733 1, 782, 971 Smoking tobacco_ 110, 580 89, 559 Vegetable products, 885, 564 3, 584, 381 259, 174 Cotton wearing apparel !_ 874, 042 Cotton manufactures! _____ 1, 426, 616 Flax, hemp, and ramite man 440, 334 Manila cordage_.___....._____- 375, 148 Jute, yarn, fiber cordage!. 221, 632 Vegetable fiber, straw grass 7 188, 468 Wool knit wearing apparel_ -- 322, 552 Wool outer apparel, men’s and boys 867 436, 841 Wool clothing, women’s and children’ =e 385, O11 Wool or mohair manufactures !___ 583, 825 Silk manufactures_-________ 33, 238 Textiles and manufactures! __ 1, 534, 485 Total___ 7,081, 366 Wood and paper: | Boards, scantlings, Douglas fir... __ | 1, 075, 493 Cooperage____.-------- | 134, 938 Doors. sash and blinds 293, 112 Wood furniture______ 599, 967 Wood and manufactures !_._..__...222-.2---_-___-2121 2-2 ss nee) seh 2, 514, 274 Cork manufactures_________- 622, 468 | 150, 560 Wallboard paper, pulp, and fiber_ 4, 377, 850 285, 392 Boxes and cartons___--..___- 541, 896 Paper and paper products !__ 7 : 1, 082, 338 Totals ee ee t i 6, 677, 970 Nonmetallic minerals: ' Coal__- Short ton___- 6, 860 112, 272 Gasoline act Barrel__ 782, 657 4, 868, 290 Gas. oil, distillate, fuel oil_ 1, 502, 384 4, 856, 956 Residual fuel oil. _____--_- 212, 049 321, 795 Lubricating oil, red and pale 31, 853 679, 448 Lubricating oil !___--___- 432, 918 | 286, 867 Other petroleum products. .--.--.---------- 2222220222222 2 222 a | 751, 102 Hydraulic cement _-_____ 53, 424 140, 051 Glass and glass products...........--_-.-.------0--------- eee 405, 588 Clay and clay product 247, 941 ! Not elsewhere specified. 114 TaBLe 34.—Shipments from the United States to Alaska—Continued ALASKA Commodity description Unit of quantity Net quantity | Value (dollars) Nonmetallic minerals—Continued | Salt. ..-.-----.------------ 2 en nn nn en nn en nnn nn fo nn en en ee errr crete rere jo-e sett od i 104, 919 Mineral products, nonmetallic !__.--- ----------------------------|------------------------ oid) 375, 586 Total 7 jie ee 13, 150, 815 Metals and manufactures except machinery and vehicle: | | | Tron and steel bars and rods 7 | | 142, 754 Tin plate and taggers tin_- | 500 Structural iron and steel_ 398, 897 Welded pipe and fittings -- 141, 450 Tubular products and fittings *- 477, 661 Wire, uncoated, galvanized, barbed_ 342, 764 Wire and manufactures !__----- 606, 252 Nails and bolts, except railroad _ 181, 400 Castings and forgings. - 111, 486 Tin cans, finished, unfinished _ 4, 714, 584 Safes, vaults, metal furniture an 295, 868 Stoves and parts, except electric _- 711, 325 Tools_..-...-.---------- 294, 939 Hardware--------------- ; 1, 382, 059 Iron and steel manufactures !_ : i 1, 771, 273 Copper and manufactures- -- - - - i : 309, 538 Brass and bronze and manufacture: tts eet 224, 737 Metals, ores and manufactures }_- : 571, 275 Total......-.------------------- enn nen nn ene nee |e ee ee ee ee ne ne ee eae ace 12, 678, 762 Machinery and vehicle: Batteries. 281, 420 Electrical appliances and parts. 1, 460, 017 Radio apparatus ------------ 1, 233, 568 Electrical apparatus and parts !- 7 2, 426, 044 Steam engines, boilers and parts. - - 2 335, 289 Internal combustion engines and parts_- 1, 013, 400 Construction. conveyance and road machinery 1, 011, 706 Mining and quarrying machinery - 457, 415 Pumping equipment, except parts_ 301, 138 Metal-working machinery and parts 454, 077 Cannery machinery - ------------ 817, 975 Industrial machinery and parts ? 2, 430, 540 Office appliances and machines. 408, 753 Tractors-_-_--------------- 504, 382 Agricultural machinery and implements----- ---------------------|--:----- 873, 286 Motor trucks, busses, chassis 1, 914, 744 Passenger cars and chassis-_- 1, 860, 095 Automobile parts and accessor 944, 356 Aircraft parts and accessories-- - 1, 911, 969 Internal combustion marine engines 720, 500 Vehicles and parts ! 1, 334, 333 Total__------------- 22, 695, 008 Chemicals and related products: \ Coal tar products, except medicinals_ - | 12, 463 Medicinal pharmaceutical preparations - : 469, 239 Industrial chemicals and specialties__- 713, 210 Ready mixed paints, stains, enamels. | 428, 834 Paints, pigments, varnish !_- i 7 319, 905 Fertilizers and materials oe C ie 29, 262 Dynamite-_----------- Pound. - 952, 010 139, 231 Other explosives, fuses, ete-------------------------------------|------------------------|------2+2--:-- 62, O11 Soap--.-------------- Pound--- 324, 701 Toilet preparations. lel 318, 521 2, 817, 377 Miscellaneous: Motion picture films___--- 527, 237 Photo and projection good: 686, 126 Scientific professional instruments 268, 295 Musical instruments and parts- 461, 816 Toys, athletic and sporting goo 479, 268 Firearms, ammunition, pyrotechnics. 440, 774 Books and printed matter !___- 648, 573 Household and personal effects_ 4, 315, 349 Merchandise, value less than $50_ 7, 157, 298 All other articles-_ toe 2, 420, 213 Total__-.----- 17, 404, 949 Total shipments - 116, 819, 779 Total merchandise - _ 116, 809, 279 Total gold and silver__-_-----.---- 10, 500 1 Not elsewhere specified. A LOOK AT TOMORROW 115 Tape 35.—Shipments from Alaska to the United States Commodity description Total shipments Total merchandise Total gold and silver Foreign merchandise --_--- --- United States products returned \laskan products Merchandise: Live animals Halibut, fresh or frozen Salmon, fresh or frozen_- Other fish, fresh or frozen Salmon, canned_- Cod, cured or preserved__ Herring, cured or preserv Salmon, cured or preserved_ Clams. - Crabs_ Shrimp- Fish meal_ Fish oil. ---- Other fish and fish products Furs and skins: Beavers Black and silver f Blue fox Red fox_ White fo: = Seal skins (including hair seal) - Marten -__- Mink~ Muskrat Otter. Other. Fur manufactures - Fur seal oil__- Fur seal meal__- ae Wood, timber and lumber Platinum ore a Other ores and metals (except gold and silver) Trophies, specimens, curios, etc-- Pictures and paintings _- All other articles Gold and silver: Gold ore and base bullion _- Gold bullion, refined___ Silver ore and base bull Silver coin. ...---------- | Unit of quantity Net quantity Value (dollars) 129, 527, 479 123, 640, 885 5, 886, 594 733 6, 524, 705 117, 115, 447 2, 540 | Pound - 25, 035, 722 6, 369, 640 | Pound_ 15, 107, 754 3, 841, 396 Pound_ 3, 923, 123 544, 535 Pound _ 216, 715, 861 86, 528, 133 Pound _ 30, 373 6, 177 Pound_ 2, 195, 522 284, 578 | Pound. 5, 397, 909 2, 139, 167 | Pound_ 437, 794 212, 349 | Pound_ 501, 863 414, 931 | Pound. 398, 537 370, 960 Ton___- 15, 018 2, 228, 679 | Gallon _ 4, 468, 945 3, 664, 374 1, 504, 681 Number__- 26, 395 834, 021 Number_ 3, 922 119, 205 Number_ 2, 275 59, 758 Sumber_ 3, 303 32, 085 umber_ 2, 332 41, 946 umber_ 61, 895 3, 561, 413 umber_ 15, 071 586, 017 Number_ 55, 584 1, 291, 400 Number. 195, 818 333, 987 Number_ 2, 903 82, 312 Number 13, 233 80, 277 —--i- = 61, 408 37, 749 -=o2-=See== 40, 448 Thousand board fee 744, O11 Ounce____-------- 658, 286 108, 078 48, 283 2, 500 280, 123 Troy ounce_-- 3, 015, 452 Troy ounce- 2, 869, 075 Troy ounce 7 2, 060 LABOR FORCE Because of its small population, Alaska does not have a large surplus labor force. It does, however, have numerous men and women available for work in or near the various large communities. Many of those who work in the fisheries or other seasonable occupa- tions are available to work in new industries at other times of the year. That industry can muster an adequate labor force for new industries should go without question. The thousands of inquiries received annually by the Alaska Development Board from workers in the States show that many want to come to Alaska to live—and they will do so if and when there is work for them. That ap- peal—the appeal of the frontier—is the best guarantee of a good labor force that any industrialist can ask. Alaska natives. both Indians and Eskimos, are an 998410—52, important labor force which cannot be overlooked in the Territory's future industrial picture. Both races have already demonstrated their ability to fit into the economic, social, and political patterns of the respective areas. In Southeastern Alaska, the Indian plays a prominent role in the fishing and logging industries as well as in the trades and professions. At Metlakatla and Klawock, fish canneries are operated under native man- agement with a complete native labor force. The natives have proved to be excellent machinists, elec- tricians, sawyers, plumbers, carpenters, vessel opera- tors, and proficient at other skilled occupations. In the professions, they have attained considerable recogni- tion as attorneys, physicians, legislators, et cetera. Native girls have found their place as clerks, stenog- raphers, teachers, and nurses. 116 The Eskimos have become actively associated with mining, longshore, lighterage, and construction work as well as many other trades. Many are employed as “cat-skinners,” truck drivers, carpenters, dredge men, machinists, and are proficient at other skilled occupa- tions. The majority of employers praise their ability and aptitude. It appears certain that with proper edu- cation and training, the Eskimos could become a most valuable asset in development of the region. Like the Indians, the Eskimos have elected members of their own race to represent them in Alaska’s Ter- ritorial Legislature. The Alaska Native Service has directed their edu- cational programs toward training both Indians and Eskimos in trades common to Alaska. UTILITIES Fortunately, nature was kind, for every corner of Alaska is within easy power transmission range of hy- droelectric sites. Many of these sites are not at all unusual, but interspersed among them are “power giants”—not one but several—any one of which is as large or larger than anything yet developed on the North American Continent. There will be sufficient low-cost power for future gen- erations of “button pushers"—more than 50,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. As a comparison, this is equivalent to the average amount of power used in the States last year by 30,000,000 people. Once constructed, these “power giants” could pump more electricity into Anchorage, Fairbanks, or Juneau, than is now available to any city in the world regard- less of its size. Ina power-hungry world such a potential is certain to motivate mass migration of industries and people. The knowledge that such power possibilities exist is a dynamic force to hasten their development for the industrialization of Alaska. There will be no spectacular and overnight develop- ment of Alaska’s power resources. Development will be slow in the next few years, with demands for power gaining in momentum with time. Several medium-size dams should be constructed immediately to supply pent- up demand for power. Several more should be con- structed soon to supply power demands assured in the near future. However, by the end of the next 10 years talk should turn to the early construction of the “power giants.” Plans should be finished and ready for the go-ahead signal. Domestic and Commercial Requirements The average day is lower in temperature in Alaska than for most of the United States. This would result ALASKA Indian totem at Kaasan. in higher consumption in an all-electric Alaskan home. Space heating in homes and commercial establishments with low-cost hydroelectric energy is a distinct pos- sibility. It is also reasonable to assume that greater use will be made of deep-freeze units since the typical Alaskan family accumulates greater amounts of food- stuffs resulting from hunting. fishing. trapping, and purchases in large quantities because of transportation difficulties. Taking these and many other factors into A LOOK AT TOMORROW consideration it is known that the typical Alaskan consumer would have greater need for electric energy than a similar customer in the United States. It is estimated that energy requirements for an all- electric home would range from about 15,000 kilowatt- hours a year in Southeastern Alaska to 20,000 kilowatt-hours for interior Alaska. Annual energy consumption in an average home today, where low-cost hydroelectric power is available, approximates 4,300 kilowatt-hours. It is estimated that energy usage by 1958 will approach 7,500 kilowatt-hours annually in the future Alaskan home. Commercial establishments throughout Alaska are large users of electricity. Air conditioning units for purification, freshening and humidity control in com- mercial establishments are now used and will be more generally adopted in future years. Owing to the long hours of darkness throughout winter months, energy consumption is considerably 117 higher than for a comparable enterprise in the States. Even during summer months when twilight is present or through the midnight hours electric consumption in stores and shops, particularly for display purpose, is a major load on most utility stems. Agricultural Use As previously discussed, farm development in the Territory has been slow. The more salient factors mentioned as contributing to this situation have been (1) excessive cost of clearing lands, (2) lack of sufficient funds to purchase necessary farm implements, (3) de- ficiency of an adequate power supply for general farm use, (+) the need for irrigation or drainage of some lands, (5) the lack of roads and transportation facili- ties to transport products to market, and (6) the strength of competition from Stateside producers. The Rural Electrification Administration is pursuing Native carvers at work on a 55-foot totem. Their skills would be highly adaptable to specialty furniture making. 118 ALASKA Southeastern Indians readily acquire mechanical and manual skills at Edgecumbe School in Sitka. an aggressive construction program for bringing elec- tric service to the rural Alaskan areas. The areas where rural electrification is being most widely extended are Anchorage, Palmer, Fairbanks, Juneau, and Homer. In interior Alaska, where wells for water supply pene- trate the permafrost areas, difficulty has been encoun- tered in keeping the water from freezing. Wherever electric service is available, electrically heated cable wrapped around well piping solves this problem, there- by assuring a source of water at all times. In the opinion of Alaskan farmers, irrigation water would increase crop production. In some localities irrigation water could be pumped from underground wells or from surface streams. An adequate source of power in the agricultural areas at rates which would be conducive to greater use, would increase consumption to 10,000 kilowatt-hours annually on the average farm. Large areas of potentially productive land may re- quire drainage. tory and field by the Corps of Engineers, disclosed the feasibility of accomplishing soil stabilization through Recent experiments, both in the labora- the electroosmosis method. This method may have pos- sibilities in its application to drainage problems in Alaska. Industrial Use The need for a Territorial source of petroleum and petroleum products is of vital importance to the secu- rity and economic development of Alaska. With this objective, research has been instigated by the Corps of Engineers in collaboration with the Bureau of Mines and Bureau of Reclamation for a coal hydrogenation plant with an output capacity of between 10,000 and 30,000 barrels per day. Power requirements for the ultimate plant output will aggregate about 200,000 kilowatts of installed capacity. ‘The major source of energy could most economically be derived from water- power resources contiguous to the industrial site. The energy requirements for this plant are included in the 10-year projected forecast of load requirements for the rail-belt area and curve entitled “Estimated Future Power Requirements—Railbelt Area.” Most building supplies for Alaska, except Igcally pro- duced lumber, are shipped in from the outside. Most public buildings and larger commercial establishments are of framed stucco construction or reinforced concrete. Concrete varies in cost from $35 to SSO per ton de- pending on the geographic location of its use and quan- tity purchased. In the vicinity of McKinley National Park. near the Alaska Railroad. a large high-grade limestone deposit lies dormant. Coal. gypsum. and ¥ rete antie dere A LOOK AT TOMORROW Southeastern Lndians working on an automobile motor at the Edgecumbe School in Sitka. other necessary ingredients are nearby. Investigations are now under way which in all probability would lead to erection of a 350,000-ton-per-year cement plant. It is estimated 10 million kilowatt-hours annually would he needed for this operation. In Southeastern Alaska limestone has been mined and shipped to the northwest aluminum industries of Wash- ington for processing bauxite. In estimating future power requirements, considera- tion is also given to the likelihood of successful develop- ment of petroleum fields in the northernmost part of the Arctic region. Once the field is proven it is assumed a pipeline would eventually extend from the oil fields to Fairbanks where a modern refinery would be con- structed and operated. Additional power loads can be expected from the mining industry. Production of the following min- erals are included in the overall estimate of power requirements: barite, zinc, antimony, pitchblende, chromite, copper, lead, platinum, mercury, graphite, and asbestos. 119 Military Requirements Military construction in Alaska is of outstanding importance. Alaska should develop and manufacture the materials that go into these bulwarks. This would lower governmental cost while simultaneously building up the economy of the Territory. The present extensive construction program of the armed services is expected to accelerate during the next few years before it declines and then levels off. Most of the military installations will be permanently manned; this factor has been taken into consideration in estimating the energy requirements i0 and 20 years hence. Load Forecast Forecasts of energy requirements are shown graph- ically for the four largest cities in Alaska—Anchorage (which includes Palmer), Fairbanks, Juneau, and Ketchikan. Wherever possible estimated energy re- Youths learning to operate lathes at the Edgecumbe School in Sitka, 120 quirements were broken down and allocated between domestic-commercial loads, industrial and military establishments. In the Anchorage-Palmer area forecasts were limited to a 10-year period (1948-58) since it was not deemed feasible to predict a full 20-year period as was done for the other three cities. The reason for this departure is occasioned by the mushroom-rate of growth which has been experienced, and is expected to continue, in the Anchorage area. Postal authorities in Anchorage ad- mit they are unable to ascertain the population of Anchorage but hazard a guess of 35,000 inhabitants for the metropolitan area. Forecasts of future loads in the year 1958 for each class of consumer in the entire Territory follows: Tase 36.—Estimated future load summary Extimated total load—1958 (kilowatt houra) ---- 350, 000, 000 Clase of consumer Domestic and commercia Farm _ 41, 000, 000 Mining__ 145, 000, 000 Pulp mills_ 402, 000, 000 Other industrials including transportation__-__ 71, 342, 000, 000 DRURY Y ea a ee 78, 000, 000 58, 000, 000 230, 000, 000 ‘Total consumption Transmission and distribution losses__ Total load requirements ______--_____-___ 2, 588, 000, 000 Maximum demand ; 360,000 kilowatts. 1Includes power requirements from outside sources for coal hydro- genation plant, but does not include requirements that will be supplied by power generated in the hydrogenation process. This summary discloses that the bulk of the energy requiremenis will be supplied to high-load-factor con- sumers. Pulp mills and coal hydrogenation plants operate almost continuously with load factors ranging between 90 and 95 percent. With such large load-fac- tor customers it will be possible to supply power and energy at very low rates. The weighted average load factor for all classes of customers is about 75 percent. TRANSPORTATION Orderly economic development of Alaska depends to a large degree on efficient low-cost shipping and other transport mediums. However, present high costs are not to be considered an insurmountable development obstacle since establishment of new industries would provide badly-needed cargo for southbound ships, which now return to Puget Sound ports with holds almost empty. New industries would mean construc- tion of new harbors, new roads, airports, and railway spurs or branch lines. As in the previous chapter, air, land, and water transportation are discussed individu- ally. ALASKA ; Air Transportation Although aviation has been developed to a high level in Alaska, there is still room for further expansion. In addition to the single, two- or four-engine airplanes which now service the Territory, helicopters are des- tined to play an important role. This type of aircraft would be ideal for flying prospectors into formerly in- accessible areas; for engineering, geological, and agri- cultural surveys; for transporting sportsmen to remote hunting and fishing areas. Population gains in interior Alaska would increase air traffic between the Territory and the United States, resulting in establishment of new scheduled air lines. Competition in this area has developed a high-grade of service and efficiency among airlines operating between the interior and the States. In Southeastern Alaska, there appears to be opportunity for immediate estab- lishment of additional airlines to link that area with Pacific Coast States. Although one-third of the Terri- tory’s population is concentrated in this region, only one scheduled carrier now renders service to “outside” points. Because of its geographical position, Alaska is fast becoming the aerial crossroad of the world. One air- line is now utilizing the great circle route to the Orient on scheduled flights. Four other airlines have made applications to operate planes on this route. The great circle air route from San Francisco to Japan by way of the Aleutian Islands is about 1,700 miles shorter than the old route by way of the Hawaiian Islands. Huge international airports are now under construction at Anchorage and Fairbanks. The contemplated growth of traffic between the United States and Asia via Alaska, and between the United States and Alaska can be seen by examining the following estimates prepared by Northwest Airlines for the period 1947 to 1957. These figures gain signifi- cance when it is noted that the 1947 and 1948 expecta- tions were realized, Tani 37.—Estimated Northwest Airlines passenger traffic Through Total Year | Local yl ospaneseseesteceessnesss 23, 000 5, 000 30. 000 1948. -| 33,000 | 20, 000 55, 000 1949- | 46,000 | 60,000 | 106, 000 1950_ 60,000 | 120,000] — 180, 000 1951- 75,000 | 160,000 | 235, 000 1952- 93,000 | 150,000 | 243, 000 1958 2<2-6-- cs ties s sees 111,000 | 170,000} 281, 000 1954- -...| 132,000 | 180,000] 312; 000 1959-25 150, 000 | 190,000} — 340, 000 1956/iiie se 170.000 | 195,000 | — 365, 000 195722 eee 185,000 | 200,000 | 385, 000 A LOOK AT TOMORROW 121 er 7 ESTIMATED ANNUAL PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS i i sf oat FOR ELECTRICITY IN VICINITY OF Me 4 ai, 8 ed He Jo KETCHIKAN, ALASKA Ti | ESTIMATED ANNUAL PRODUCTION ea ieee vol—-1 REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRICITY 2 INCLUDES RURAL AREAS WITHIN A 30 MILE RADIUS 1 Ie Meniny Soe FROM KETCHIKAN tao} f a e 70 “MILLIONS OF KILOWATT HOURS - ANNUAL MILLIONS OF KILOWATT HOURS ~- ANNUAL ae CALENDAR YEARS 10 “age? actuas, ° Ce a en | CALENDAR YEARS TIT adic to a he : ™| ‘LOAD GROWTH | | | | wi ANCHORAGE” PALMER | IUTARY ESTABLISHMENTS, “el ESTIMATED ANNUAL : | PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS wl : 1946- 1958 Inclusive | ‘r— FOR ELECTRICITY IN — T etry FAIRBANKS, ALASKA | 1948-1968 METAL MINES "COAL MINES. SUBURBAN AREA TO BE SERVED BY CHUGACH ELECTRIC ASSOCIATION | mcuworne mew CAA mTEMATIONAL AIRPORT. | (ames eanaaten To comma Tee vaseeves ComESTIC Ae0 COSMERCAM. LORDS Ab OF 1048 PUA 900 DOMESTIC ano COMMERCL LOADS emt? eT LET Gee @ rowan couraare 3 “STATION USE @ TRANSMISSION LOSSES + *MATANUSKA ELECTRIC ASSOCIATION | (€xcusoiNe wimime LO488 ) e- “ALASKA RAILROAD WATT HOURS MILLIONS OF KILOWATT HOURS - ANNUAL ANNUAL REQUIREMENTS - MILLIONS OF KILO} AREA now SERVED BY NORTHERN Com j} wenciae company AnO BY UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA GENERATING, CALENDAR YEARS CALENOAR YEARS Publie Library Anehorage, Alaska 122 In preparing the above estimate, Northwest Airlines’ traffic experts reported that during their peak month they expected to handle 48,200 passengers; the peak day 1,920 and the peak hour, 320. Land Transportation When the Alaska Highway was under construction, the building of a military railroad to connect the Canadian rail system with the Alaska Railroad was considered by the War Department and a route survey made. This survey took advantage of a remarkable natural land feature, the Rocky Mountain trench, which lies just west of the main chain of the Rockies. This route provided easy gradients and a straight alignment with few natural obstructions, from a junction with the Canadian National Railways at Prince George, British Columbia. Because of the improvement in the strategic and tactical situation in the North Pacific following the naval action at Midway, the project was abandoned. The establishment of substantial means of land trans- port to Alaska of greater capacity and reliability than can be provided by highway or air appears inevitable. In this connection, there are two points that may not be generally appreciated : (1) Permanent hard-surfaced highways are more costly to construct and maintain than a railway line. particularly through remote and rugged terrain. The establishment and maintenance of crews with their equipment for the upkeep of a long and remote highway system require an extensive and widely dispersed organ- ization, difficult to establish and costly to house, service and maintain. The maintenance of a railway is in- herent in its operation, and patrol of the 7- to 10-mile sections is carried out daily by section crews. (2) Moreover, such a railway is not only of prime im- portance as a defense measure but also in the interest of development of Alaska, particularly in its effect in controlling freight costs as well as providing better access to areas rich in natural wealth. A railway to Alaska would not have to depend wholly on Alaska- consigned freight for its north and southbound hauls since the railway would have a beneficial effect on de- velopment of the rich Peace River area in British Columbia, and other potentially rich regions in the northern part of that province and the Yukon Terri- tory. Studies made by the Canadian Government re- veal this region is capable of supporting as many as 6,000,000 persons. Industrial development in interior Alaska would re- sult in expansion of the Alaska Railroad by construc- tion of spur lines to mining. agricultural, and manu- facturing sites. At the present time the Alaska Rail- ALASKA ESTIMATED FUTURE POWER REQUIREMENTS RAIL BELT AREA ( SEWARD TO FAIRBANKS ) 1948-1958 1700 1600 1400 1300 t 1 1200 1100 1000) 900 600} 700 + 600 + 500 4 4 | 300) MILLIONS OF KILOWATT HOURS - ANNUAL 200 100 + + j__t (948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1958 1986 1957 1958 CALENDAR YEARS road is engaged in a rehabilitation program costing millions of dollars. Likewise, the Alaska highway system will branch into new areas as they are opened for development. Con- struction of a highway to link Alaska with Pacific Coast. States would also follow. This highway would permit construction of lateral roads to Southeastern Alaska communities. Since Ketchikan, Wrangell, Petersburg, and new cities which would spring up with full utiliza- tion of forest, mineral, and recreational resources are or would be located on islands, car ferries could link these communities with coast laterals. Water Transportation Beset by maritime labor difficulties as well as numer- ous operating and traflic problems, there appears to be no immediate solution to make present shipping opera- \ LOOK AT TOMORROW -lir-conscious Alaskans fly in all weather, with wheels, skis, flying boats, or amphibians, depending on conditions. tions more eflicient and profitable. An extensive sur- vey of the Alaska shipping industry is now being made by the Department of Interior since current high trans- portation costs on vital necessities not only work a hard- ship on many Alaskans, but also have a detrimental effect on the general economy of the Territory. The Alaska Development Board, which has studied Alaska’s shipping problems, reports there appears to he opportunity for establishment of a fast steamer serv- ice operating on regular schedules from Seattle, carry- ing passengers, express, perishables, and mail to major ports with subsidiary lines serving minor ports with smaller or slower boats. The combination freight and passenger boats now operating to Alaska under the American flag have been unable to maintain regular schedules because of the uncertainties of cargo han- dling. A reliable schedule would insure getting pas- sengers back to Seattle in time to take up their train and hotel reservations and would be a big selling point in promoting tourist trade. More exclusive cargo carriers are needed to care for an expanding Alaska, the Board reports. One of the great difficulties met in previous years by American operators has been the almost complete lack of out- hound cargo. as compared with demands for north- HNs410 10 bound cargo space. Alaska imports almost all its food- stuffs, all its clothing, machinery, and other manufac- tures. Return cargo has been mostly canned salmon, almost all of which is shipped out in a few weeks. A pulp mill or two will ship several hundred tons daily to the markets of the world—and cargo carriers prob- ably will be required to take pulp and paper directly to its destination, be it Sydney or Shanghai, Los Angeles or New York. Barge service had a wartime test when thousands of tons of freight were taken from Prince Rupert through the sheltered Inside Passage to Skagway. This method of transportation might present a solution to the high costs besetting other forms of cargo carriers, at least for some types of freight. Use of the port of Prince Rupert would have a most beneficial effect on transportation costs if Canadian vessels were permitted to carry freight from that port to Alaska. Present maritime laws of the United States contain a provision permitting transport of merchan- dise between points within the continental United States over through routes recognized by the Interstate Commerce Commission “when such routes are in part over Canadian rail lines and their own or other connect- ing water facilities.” Alaska is, however, expressly 124 ALASKA Alaska’s rails meet the sea at Seward. excluded from this provision. This means that goods shipped in bond to Prince Rupert from points in the United States can not be delivered from there to any Alaskan port in ships that are not of United States registry. This legislation has thus denied Alaska the use of Canadian steamship lines to take advantage of favor- able transportation costs afforded by existing rail con- nection between the United States and Prince Rupert, only 90 miles from the nearest Alaska port. Estab- lished United States lines, based in Seattle, have not chosen to develop the use of this lower-cost routing. The transportation cost advantage lies in the fact that rail rates from Middle West and Eastern States are the same via Canadian rail lines to Prince Rupert as they are to the United States Pacific coast ports. Steamship rates from Prince Rupert (640 miles north of Seattle) to Alaskan ports reflect the saving in ocean haul. The magnitude of this differential is indicated in a study showing comparative rates for 88 principal com- modities normally shipped to Alaska from Seattle. Of the 88 items, 85 show a differential in favor of Prince Rupert; 81 items ranging from 15 to 254 percent, only 4 less than 15 percent. There is perhaps no part of the world where two nations have more closely identical problems, conditions, and objectives than the United States and Canada have in their lands in the northwestern portion of the conti- nent. The development of these lands, necessary in the broad national interests of the two countries, depends substantially, if not primarily, on transportation, and some move looking to cooperative action in this direc- tion appears to be needed. RECREATION In his book Alaska Now Mr. Herbert H. Hilscher writes that “The ubiquitous American traveler will be Alaska’s greatest gold mine in the years ahead. . . Alaska is already on America’s ‘tour circuit,’ and soon tours of every description will be flooding the Territory. Tours will bring the family to the Aleutians to show the children where Daddy licked the Japs. Camera tours will reproduce in color the mountains and water- falls of Alaska. The ladies of the American Botanical Study Club will see the beauties of nature in Mt. Mc- Kinley Park, at Point Hope and at Mt. Katamai. There will be artist tours to paint the glories of Eskimoland, historical tours to study the haunts of Baranof and general tours of the whole Territory. “Alaskans will do their share of griping about the influx of the ‘traveling cheechakos.’ But, like the peo- ple of the State of Maine who reap $100,000,000 from travelers every year, Alaskans will secretly be happy to share the Territory’s natural beauty, its romantic lure and its hospitality. . .” There is, definitely, opportunity for great expansion in the recreational industries of Alaska. The Alaska Development Board reports that surveys have shown that millions of Americans would like to visit Alaska. If transportation were available, they would come north SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA so ° SCALE LEGEND EXISTING ROADS queue ROADS UNDER CONSTRUCTION @ececeee PROPOSED ROADS ee RAILROADS — apattrttetteetresteteetegaaeet PRINCIPAL INLAND WATER TRANSPORTATION ROUTES. No aap WISEMAN : GENERALIZED STEAMSHIP PD ROUTES 2D ee @ 2 @e f ea Ii Yc %) ALASKA WATER and LAND TRANSPORTATION ROUTES A LOOK AT TOMORROW 125 Whittier, port of entry on the Kenai Peninsula, linked by the Alaska Railroad with Fairbanks. by the hundreds of thousands, the Board states. Present transportation facilities—steamers, airplanes, and buses—are able to handle only a minute portion of the potential tourist traffic. Alaska’s recreational facilities require great expan- sion. Alaska is a recreational paradise. Its distinctive seenery will still be wild and beautiful and unsullied even after new industry helps to increase the popula- tion. It offers northern lights, colorful native crafts, and exciting history. Its hot springs can become famed spas. There is room in Alaska for much new industry, millions of permanent residents, and still room for tour- ists, hunters, and fishermen. Presently, thousands of tourists come north every year. Most of them make the 10-day round trip to Southeastern Alaska, getting off their boats in each port for only an hour or two. Other thousands come on combination pleasure-business trips and thus manage to see more of Alaska by stopping off at various points. In the future, the tourist is expected to come north as a stop-over visitor. He will want to hunt, fish, ven- ture farther afield with his camera. In order to accommodate this trade, many lodges must be built in attractive outlying spots all over Alaska. Construction of roads to some of the more remote areas, scenie drives around islands of South- eastern Alaska will be necessary. Small boat charter servic retail stores to sell curios, Alaska clothing, pictures and photographic services; filling stations and overnight cabins on the Alaska Highway; guides to fishing and hunting areas; pilots for small boats cruis- ing Alaska waters; guided airplane trips and similar services are also needed. In connection with establishment of pulp and paper mills in Tongass National Forest, the Forest Service states all timber management plans will be carefully coordinated with plans for the preservation of scenic and recreational resources. One of the great values of Alaska’s recreational re- sources, which must not be overlooked, is their use by resident Alaskans, who are among the world’s most ardent hunters and fishermen, As the population of the Territory grows there will be increased demands for adequate recreational facilities. Ultimately, the value of Alaska’s recreational re- sources will exceed the Territory’s present largest in- dustry—the canned salmon pack. To both residents and tourists the value of this resource, measured in terms of health and pleasure, will be incalculable. Therefore, care should be taken in choosing the location of industrial development sites to preserve potential scenic and recreational areas. 126 ALASKA World-record brown bear killed at Cold Bay, May 28, 1948. THE NEXT CENTURY Projecting almost into the Eastern Hemisphere, Alaska can play a major role in the economic and social advancement of backward Asia. Few persons are aware of the position Alaska occupies on the globe. Nome, the most northerly and westerly city in Alaska, is more than 500 miles west of the Hawaiian Islands; less than 200 miles from Siberia. At the Bering Straits, Asia is only 56 miles from North America. Ketchikan, the most southerly city in Alaska, is 600 miles nearer the Orient than any of the Western States’ ports. Com- parative distances, in ocean-going nautical miles follow : Taste 38.—Comparative distances in ocean-going nautical miles j |! From Keteh- From San To— | ikan | Francisco | Differential Hong Kong | 5,335 | 6,041 706 Shanghai_ 4,770 ! 5, 491 721 Singapore _ 6, 600 7, 330 730 Vladivostok_ 4, 000 | 4, 650 650 Alaska is strategically and economically located at the crossroads of the Pacific. Trade relations with east Asia, whether by sea or air, will be linked with develop- ment of Alaska because it is the vital area through which goods can best flow from the factories of America to the markets of the Orient. A chain of war-con- structed airports have established an air path from the : heart of America to cities of Soviet Russia, the Orient, ; and India. On the Great Circle route to the Orient, ships might dock at Alaska ports between Ketchikan and Seward to | load cargoes of manufactures processed from the Terri- tory’s fisheries, wildlife, forest, and mineral resources. On return voyages to the United States, cargoes of Asiatic materials could be unloaded at these ports, where tremendous potentials of low-cost power are available, for further processing and manufacturing while in transit. Undoubtedly there would be a great demand for Alaska-manufactured products within the United < States as mineral and forest reserves and other resources become further depleted and the Nation’s population pushes steadily on toward the 200,000,000 mark. Sub- stantial increases in Alaska’s population would justify development of a wide variety of manufacturing indus- tries. In the case of manufactured metallic and non- metallic products, availability of adequate transporta- tion facilities. proximity to export markets, low-cost raw materials and low-cost fuel and power would make it economically feasible to locate industries at or near ore deposits, Extractiol of magnesium from dolomite, or sea water a. Importation of baux- might be undertaken in Alas 4 LOOK AT TOMORROW ite from Pacific islands such as Palau, which are nearer Alaska than the continental United States, would per- mit production of aluminum in the Territory. From thermal and electrolytic reduction plants magnesium and aluminum ingots would go to alloying plants, roll- ing mills, and light metal foundries for manufacture into sheeting, tubing, bars, foil, wire, forgings, and other products too numerous to mention in this report. Eventual introduction of the iron and steel industry cannot be discounted in Alaska’s future industrial pic- ture. Electric furnaces, rolling mills, foundries, and subsequent manufacturing processes would permit ‘Alaska to enter export markets with iron and steel wares. The same production pattern applies to the nonfer- rous group of metals such as copper, lead, zine, and others—all critically needed throughout the world. Shortages of these materials in the United States are emphasized in United States import figures. Imports of ferrous and nonferrous minerals increased from 775,000 in 1931 to $518,086,000 in 1945. The importance of nonmetallics for building mate- ls was stressed elsewhere in this report. The Terri- ri: tory has unlimited quantities of limestone—one of the most widely-used materials in the nonmetallic field. Crushed limestone could be diverted to the following Alaska markets: metallurgical, for use in iron blast 127 furnaces, steel furnaces and nonferrous metal smelters ; chemical, for use in sulphite pulp mills and sugar re- fining plants; agricultural, for fertilizer and building materials. for dimension stone, stucco, and road mate- rials. The uses for refined lime have still a wider scope. The ceramic industry offers opportunity for manufac- ture of common building brick, hollow tile, drain tile and sewer pipe as well as refractory brick, ornamental and floor tile. It also includes porcelain insulators and a wide variety of pottery products. The chain of potential industries among the non- metallics follows through the glass, abrasives, insulat- ing, enamel, industrial chemicals and by-product indus- trial gas. Coal, one of Alaska’s greatest resources— 110,000,000,000 tons—would permit not only export to Asiatic and other markets, but also establishment of a wide variety of chemical and manufacturing plants related to coal tars and byproducts. Imports of these materials to the United States increased from $167,409,- 000 in 1931 to $481,629,000 in 1945. Alaska’s forest products would find a ready market. At current prices, the total production of six pulp and paper mills, the maximum that can be established in Southeastern Alaska, is valued at $143,000,000—about one-third of the value of United States imports of these products during 1945. Proposed multi-use dam at Ramparts on the Yukon. 128 When Alaska matures, agriculture will assume an important role. No nation is sufficient unto itself from a standpoint of agricultural production. For example, the United States imports the products of 50,000,000 acres of foreign soil and in turn exports surpluses of other products. Likewise, Alaska can never hope to be entirely self-sufficient in food production. Climatic conditions would preclude the production of many desired foodstuffs. However, full development of Alaska’s agricultural potentialities will play an impor- tant part in sustaining several million persons. In contemplating full utilization of Alaska’s re- sources, the adjoining northwestern regions of Canada— the Yukon Territory and northern British Columbia— should be taken into consideration. A recent Dominion Government survey shows this area is capable of sup- porting as many as 6,000,000 persons. Like Alaska, it, too, is rich in natural wealth. It is possible that a large portion of its mineral resources could be shipped to tidewater Alaskan plants for smelting, processing, manufacturing or marketing. Moreover, this Canadian A dam at Wood Canyon on Copper River with a dam at Ramparts, would produce more firm power than Hoover and Coulee combined. ALASKA Salmon derby participants and their catch—part of Alaska’s allure for a tourist business expected to reach $100,000,000 annually. region would provide a nearby market for Alaska products. As the northern region of the North American con- tinent experiences development during the next century, it appears imperative the two nations cooperate to the utmost in exploring the economic possibilities of this vast region for full utilization of its natural wealth, the defense of its shores and skies, and the welfare of the millions who will settle it—the men and women who will ultimately add to the greatness of both the United States and Canada. Using The Water “Water resources of Alaska are virtually un- touched, yet represent one of the unused forces re- tarding the development of agriculture, timber, minerals, and other resources of the Territory... . “The total potential firm energy production of the hydro power sites discussed in this report is 47 billion kilowatt-hours annually. ... “This amount of electric energy is equivalent to one-fifth of all sales by all electric utilities in the United States—{in 1947].”’ Faas Fairbanks, the “golden heart of Alaska,” is subject to recurring flood damage, CHAPTER V Using the Water Water resources of Alaska are virtually untouched, yet represent one of the unused forces retarding the development of agriculture, timber, minerals, and other resources of the Territory. Many of the streams re- quire multiple-use of the waters for optimum develop- ment, including irrigation, power, navigation, flood control, fish migration, placer mining operations, and municipal and industrial water supplies. Drainage would be required in many potential agricultural areas. ADEQUACY OF BASIC SOURCE MATERIAL Reconaissance studies of the potential developments are based on interpretations of a few known basic data. Utilization of past experience and mature judgment, gained from investigations in other areas under similar conditions, have made it possible to extend these few data in order to determine roughly the potentialities of Alaska’s water resources. Although a considerable portion of Alaska has been topographically mapped, it is mostly on a 200-foot con- tour interval, too great for detailed studies. Enough geologic data are available to make some reasonable estimate of foundation conditions. Water supply studies were based on inadequate data on precipitation and stream runoff and on relatively small-scale topographic maps from which to estimate dam heights and reservoir capacities. The studies are strictly of a reconaissance nature and the results should be interpreted with that fact in mind. Water supply studies were made more difficult by the lack of adequate data on stream flow, except in Southeastern Alaska, where the records give fair coverage, both in distribution and length of record. Records for the remainder of the Territory include the following: (1) streams on Seward Peninsula for from 1 to 5 years during the period 1906-10; (2) streams in the Yukon-Tanana region for from 1 to 6 years during the period 1907-12; and (3) streams in Southcentral Alaska for the years 1913. None of these data include records of runoff during the winter season; in general, however, the measured flow included from 50 to 75 percent of annual runoff. Records were taken on the Seward Peninsula and in the Yukon-Tanana region primarily as an aid for development of the placer mining industry, and most of them were of no use for this study. An expanded stream-gaging program has recently been started by the Geological Survey; however, no records are yet available. Precipitation stations cover the lower elevations of the Territory fairly completely. There are very few records of precipitation at altitudes greater than 1,000 feet. The available records do not, therefore, indicate accurately the average precipitation over entire drain- age areas. The average annual runoff per square mile of drainage area was estimated for the various streams by studying the records of stream flow and precipita- tion, tempered by knowledge of topography and direc- tion of prevailing winds. Storage requirements for complete stream regulation were estimated as a percentage of the average annual runoff. Factors considered for storage requirements were the amount of runoff, estimated annual variation in runoff, and the area of glaciers in the drainage basin. The receding glaciers of Alaska cause a larger runoff from some streams than might otherwise be expected. This recession may stop or even reverse and should not be counted on as a source of additional water supply until more data are available. Glacial melt, however, by maintaining the stream flow during periods of hot, dry weather, can reduce the amount of storage capacity required for adequate stream regulation. SPECIAL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS Most design and construction problems of Alaska that differ from those in the United States are different in degree rather than in type. The design for most structures would differ very little from those in the higher elevations of the West. Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, is unique to the northern latitudes, and presents a problem where the condition exists. In general, it occurs where the average annual temperature is less than 30° F. This includes the area which lies north of a line running from Kuskokwim Bay eastward, then northeast to the 131 132 north side of the Talkeetna Mountains, north of Anchor- age, then bends toward Chitina Valley, between the Wrangell and Chugach Mountains. Fundamental re- search in permafrost has been undertaken by the Geo- logical Survey and the Army. Some of these studies will prove valuable in the designing of structures on permafrost. The results of earlier and present research in other countries are also available. Most of the larger streams head in glaciers. Par- ticularly in the past the silt load carried by the streams has been tremendous. Some of the reservoir sites will present a silt problem; however, most have adequate dead-storage volume to give a long life to the projects. In general, the glaciers of Alaska are receding, which may or may not be reflected in the silt load. The pro- gram of the Geological Survey includes silt studies in the streams of Alaska. The design of most structures in Alaska should allow for eathquake possibilities. Consideration must also be given to the possibilities of rock and snow slides that may be initiated by earth tremors thereby causing structural failure. Earthquakes records in the Terri- tory are incomplete. However, instrumental records are now being taken in Sitka and Fairbanks. Approxi- mately 100 shocks of moderate to severe intensity have been recorded since the severe Yakutat earthquake of 1899. The epicenter for most shocks is unknown, but it is usually near the southern coast line. Many of the shocks are related to the volcanism in the Aleutian Chain, but it is there that data are most fragmentary. The interior has experienced some strong tremors, notably in Fairbanks in 1937. IRRIGATION Except on the southeast coast, precipitation in agri- cultural areas of Alaska is relatively light during early spring. Seeds sometimes do not germinate because of insufficient moisture. Plant growth frequently is re- tarded resulting in lower yields and inferior quality. Applications of water on commercial fields of potatoes and truck crops in the vicinity of Anchorage and Fair- banks have brought amazing results. Irrigation of other crops such as hay, grain, and pasture would in- crease yields of these crops appreciably. A large portion of the potential agricultural areas shown by the Alaska Department of Agriculture lie in climatic regions classed by that department as semi- arid. It isin these areas that use of water for irrigation becomes an important factor toward raising the crop yield and average dollar income per acre. In general, the average precipitation is less than 15 inches annually. Killing frosts last in most agricultural areas until ALASKA about June 1 and reoccur within 100 to 115 days. Early in the season water is required and again it is needed 2 or 3 weeks prior to the end of the growing season to hasten maturity. Crops are ofttimes a complete failure if water is not available. The economic feasibility of extensive irrigation in Alaska has not been conclusively demonstrated, the amount of water required has not been determined nor can the extent of the potential benefits be ascertained until studies now under way by several Governmental | agencies have been concluded. The greatest economic returns probably will come from irrigation of intensive crops such as vegetables and potatoes produced near major markets, but it may prove profitable to irrigate other crops where water can be applied at low cost. A great deal of study is necessary concerning the response of plants to irrigation in Alaska. The effect of the temperature and quality of water on the growth of dif- ferent crops, the effect of irrigation on soil temperature, the amount of water which gives the optimum growth, and the best method of water application under various conditions are some of the things that need investiga- tion. Bureau of Reclamation development farms have proved an effective means of obtaining information on irrigation in the States. Similar farms should be estab- lished in Alaska. There are two major areas in which irrigation might be desirable now: Matanuska Valley and Tanana Val- ley. In the Kuskokwim Valley the ultimate need for irrigation should be determined by further studies. Water could be diverted from the north side of the Matanuska River about 12 miles above Palmer and be conveyed by gravity to farms in the Matanuska Valley. A 175-foot dam at this location would, in conjunction with upstream regulation, make possible the production of 90,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. The raise in water surface behind this dam would facili- tate a gravity diversion to supply some of the farms northeast of Palmer, the farms along the Alaska Rail- road, and the farm land southeast of Palmer to the Matanuska River. This irrigation supply would come out of unregulated spills and would not reduce the potential output of firm energy. Gravity diversion from the Little Susitna River to other areas in the valley could also be made. It might also be possible to irrigate with ground water pumped from the more pervious areas of Matanuska Valley or from the many lakes in the vicinity. The wells which have been drilled in the vicinity indicate that the areas of possible ground-water pumping may be isolated and scattered. Irrigation has been prac- ticed to a limited extent in the area, with good results on vegetable crops. Further investigation is necessary to determine the economic feasibility of gravity or pumping irrigation in the Matanuska Valley. USING THE WATER Irrigation is probably needed as much in the Tanana Valley as in any part of Alaska. Two commercial truck growers have irrigated land near Fairbanks dur- ing recent years. The supply for the major portion of the land in the vicinity of Fairbanks would probably come from the Chena River. Further investigation will be required to determine the means of getting this water to the land and also the source of supply and plan of development for other agricultural areas in the valley. There is little commercial agriculture in the Kusko- kwim Valley at present. Ultimately the economy of Alaska will require extensive agricultural develop- ments here. The climate is somewhat comparable to that of the Tanana Valley except that the annual pre- cipitation is slightly greater. Irrigation probably would increase the yield of crops in this valley. Ex- tensive investigations would be required to determine the desirability of irrigation in this area and the feasi- bility of possible plans of development. At present there is a substantial amount of irrigation of gardens in Anchorage which are served by the city water system. There are a number of small holdings south of the main portion of the city where some irri- gation is done. With the growth of Anchorage, irriga- tion in this manner will place too large a demand on the city system. Furthermore, with this expansion will come an increased demand for irrigation water for homesites. It will therefore be desirable to investigate means of supplying these areas with irrigation water, preferably under pressure. Still farther south of Anchorage is an area, which, if drained, should provide an extensive development of good agricultural land. This area would also be in need of irrigation water. The supply for these areas will probably come from one or more of the small creeks draining from the Chugach Mountains into Knik Arm and Turnagain Arm. DRAINAGE There are many poorly drained areas not only in the broad river valleys of Alaska but also on higher lands. Little or no study, however, has been given to possibili- ties of reclaiming lands for agricultural use by drain- age. This is a field for investigation. There is an area of several square miles along the Alaska Railroad south of the Matanuska station which might be reclaimed by drainage. There are areas on the low coastal plateau of the Kenai Peninsula which might be drained and developed for agricultural uses. Numerous situations comparable to those probably oc- cur in other parts of Alaska where soil and climate are suitable for farming. South of Anchorage along the Potter Road in the 133 vicinity of Fish Creek and Campbell Creek is an area of low-lying land which appears to be capable of good crop production if it were drained. Drainage might be accomplished without too much difficulty, and this area should be investigated as a possible gardening area to supply the population center of Anchorage. Drainage investigations should cover agricultural and engineering aspects. Chemical and physical char- acteristics of the soil, its suitability for various crops when drained, local frost conditions, tillage costs, and fertilizer requirements are some of the agricultural aspects to be studied. Engineering features include a study of the ground-water table, comparison of drain- age by gravity and by pumping based on topography, soil profiles, and power costs, and an analysis of total drainage costs. A potential new field for use of electric power for drainage is now a subject of research both as to its basic scientific aspects and its practical applications. This use is based on the fact that, under certain conditions of a mass composed of soil and water, an externally ap- plied electromotive force will produce a movement of the liquid with respect to the solid, a reaction known as electrosmosis. Practical applications of this process have been used in construction problems at LaGuardia Field in New York and Europe, and the extension of its use to drainage of land for agricultural purposes may be only a matter of time. FLOOD CONTROL Damage and inconveniences caused by floods now con- stitute a major problem at some Alaskan towns. This will eventually be true at an increasing number of places as the Territory develops and grows in population. Regardless of the damage, danger, and inconvenience associated with floods, villages situated on river flood plains will continue to become the cities of a mature economy because of the greater advantages of their location. Fairbanks is a typical example of a town affected by floods. The second largest city in Alaska, it is located on both sides of Chena Slough of the Tanana River. The town is only a few feet above the normal water surface and is inundated by spring floods with distress- ing regularity. The high water is caused by flood flows of the Chena River, which discharges into Chena Slough 9 miles above town. Investigations should be conducted for a dam site on the Chena River which might serve the multiple purposes of flood control, irri- gation, power, and municipal and industrial water supply. Other towns which now have flood control problems are McGrath, on the Kuskokwim River, and Juneau, 134 which is bisected by Gold Creek. McGrath, a small vil- lage located near the mouth of the Takotna River, is inundated frequently by high flows of the Kuskokwim which sometimes force residents to seek refuge on higher ground. Floods on Gold Creek are now largely controlled by channel improvements; however, occa- sional high flows still cause a small amount of damage. Upstream storage regulation on both these streams would be helpful in controlling destructive and costly floods. Other towns as yet unfounded or now only small villages will eventually face similar problems. As new highways are planned and built, careful thought must be given to their location and protection, that they are not made useless by recurring flood damage. The Alaska Railroad is often menaced by floods on the Nenana River. In many cases, the least expensive pro- tection for all these developments will undoubtedly be obtained by multiple-purpose storage regulation. NAVIGATION Settlement of Alaska began along the coast, then moved inland along navigable rivers. Trappers, traders. and prospectors were the first to go inland and their crude boats sufficed for transportation until the interior was sufficiently settled for steamboats to be profitable. Today, more than 3,000 miles of inland water transportation routes are operated by several companies and the Government. Along these rivers are sufficient timbers, minerals, and potential agricultural lands to make river transportation a matter of con- tinuing importance regardless of the advent of high- ways, railroads, and airlines. Movement of grains, lumber, ore, machinery, and petroleum products may ultimately require a greatly expanded water transporta- tion system. Present navigation of rivers is hazardous in many stretches. Navigation through the 200-mile-long Yukon Flats, for example, is difficult because of the ever chang- ing channels, some being newly cut by floods, others being abandoned and slowly filling with silt. In places the river is 18 miles wide across its numerous channels and intervening islands. Navigation charts are use- less, and pilots operate solely by experience gained over a period of years. Upstream movement of freight and passengers on the Yukon from Alaska into Canada is limited because traffic is slowed by the rapid river current. Many rivers are rendered nonnavigable at present by rapids or shoals. Large areas of the interior could maintain a movement of river freight if dams and locks were placed on some rivers at strategic places. Sim- ilarly, storage of flood flows and release during the low- ALASKA water period would be of great value to navigation on some rivers such as the Kuskokwim and the lower Yukon. Multiple-purpose river-control systems should be planned to aid in the navigation of Alaska’s inland waterways. MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES Provision of domestic water supplies for larger towns and cities will be of increasing importance. In the past, small creeks and underground supplies have furnished sufficient water for towns, but these sources may not be adequate to supply the growing population centers of the future. Furthermore, as the country becomes more developed, stream pollution will undoubtedly in- crease and may eventually require some sort of control. Expanded facilities for storage and purification may soon become problems to be faced by those responsible for municipal water systems. Water supplies for mining purposes have long pre- sented difficult problems. In some localities it has been necessary to hoist pay gravel to the surface in winter and store it in dumps for washing early in the summer at the time of high flows. Some mining companies have gone to great expense in the construction of ditches to provide water for thawing frozen ground and water and head for “hydraulicking.” A specific project of this type is the Salmon Lake development discussed under power sites in the Seward Peninsula region. In this project water used first to generate power would be diverted to thaw frozen ground prior to dredging operations. With the advent of new industrial plants to the Ter- ritory, furnishing water supplies for the operation of these plants will be necessary. In many industries an adequate supply of water for processing and plant op- eration is quite as essential as is an adequate supply of low-cost power. Industries of this type which may soon be established in Alaska are pulp plants in south- eastern Alaska and the synthetic fuels plant at Healy. These domestic and industrial uses should be coordi- nated with other possible uses in planning multiple- purpose projects in the Territory. POWER The inventory of potential hydroelectric power de- velopment following is of necessity very incomplete. Many potential sites are not included because of lack of adequate maps and opportunity for field inspection. Some sites are probably yet unknown. This inventory, RR Dabber 1 dave t seed bane thee corerers TAIYA RIVER NO.2 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7 72 EXPLANATION POTENTIAL HYDRO-GENERATING PLANTS & 5000 TO 20000 KW & 20,000 To 200,000 kw a 200,000 KW AND OVER POTENTIAL AGRICULTURAL AREA “adopted from Circular No.I, Alaska Agricultural Experiment Station” AS ° 0@ POTENTIAL AGRIGULTURAL AREAS a AND POTENTIAL POWER DEVELOPMENTS 1948 DECEMBER Scare oF MILES ° sO 100 150 CG Barrow o TABLE OF POTENTIAL HYDRO-GENERATING PLANTS tT | LP? Ce A T REGION, AREA OR BASIN REGION, AREA OR BASIN R G e N NO. AND POWER PLANT NO. AND POWER PLANT Ay ed SOUTHEASTERN REGION SOUTHCENTRAL REGION (fF KETCHIKAN AREA GULF OF ALASKA AREA Wy D 1 DAVIS RIVER a CHITINA RIVER ¢ Oo 2 WILSON RIVER 34 NIZINA RIVER 3 PUNCHBOWL CREEK 35 COPPER RIVER NO! a 4 GRANITE CREEK 36 COPPER RIVER NO.2 > Le ‘awe 5 MANZANITA-ELLA-FISH GREEKS |37 RESURRECTION RIVER COryinye Yoe ‘ 6 GRACE CREEK J 7 ORCHARD CREEK COOK INLET AREA 8 SWAN LAKE 38 KENAI LAKE Oncor BPG ‘ 9 REYNOLDS CREEK 39 EKLUTNA CREEK a : 0 40 CARIBOU CREEK NO.! 68 WRANGELL AREA 41 CARIBOU CREEK NO.2 Cir ' to TYEE CREEK 42 MATANUSKA RIVER NO! ' + & 11 HARDING RIVER 43 RUSH LAKE 12 STIKINE RIVER 44 MATANUSKA RIVER NO.2 Ku 13. CASCADE CREEK 45 SUSITNA RIVER NO.I Si , 508? 14 SCENERY CREEK 46 SUSITNA RIVER NO.2 & DOS SITKA AREA 47 SUSITNA RIVER NO3 LS 4 c 48 TALKEETNA RIVER NO! Rg p\z 15 | MAKSOUTOF RIVER ® aS ie BRENTWOOD CREEK 49 TALKEETNA RIVER NO.2 AWS Q3 6 BLUE LAKE 50. TALKEETNA RIVER NO3 Q c Dip ig TAKATZ GREEK 51 SHEEP RIVER e S52 CHAKACHATNA RIVER . A A Op 19 MeN nee aiver YUKON -KUSKOKWIM REGION (Bipis 3 ieee eae sen Tanah J = C 21 KATHLEEN CREEK us b la Fairbanks Ss JUNEAU AREA UPPER YUKON RIVER AREA 4 22. SWEETHEART FALLS CREEK 54 FORTYMILE RIVER Rip. ~ 7 23 TEASE CREEK Ep ‘ 24 =SPEEL RIVER YUKON FLAT AREA CRATER CREEK 5 RAMPART LONG RIVER Prom sales se CNISANA RIVER NOt Cal : CAEN eR 57 CHISANA RIVER NO2 are hig 23 ONENANA. RIVER NOL ‘A . PAIWACRIVER NOt 60 NENANA RIVER NO2 SEWARD PENINSULA REGION NENANA RIVER NOS NENANA RIVER NO4 FISH RIVER SALMON LAKE _TUKSUK GORGE ARCTIC REGION KOBUK RIVER NOATAK RIVER NO! NOATAK RIVER NO.2 NOATAK RIVER NO.3 NOATAK RIVER NO4 NOATAK RIVER NOS COLVILLE RIVER Interior—Duplicating Section. Washington, D.C. 84675 988410 0—S2 (Face p. 134) Satin! USING THE WATER however, is sufficiently complete to indicate the magni- tude of the undeveloped water power resources of Alaska. Secondary power has not been estimated, but it may be of considerable quantity at some sites. The estimates of firm generation are conservative. Only those sites having a computed installed capacity of more than 5,000 kilowatts are included. The total potential firm energy production of the hydropower sites discussed in this re- port is 47 billion kilowatt-hours annually. The total potential firm energy production of all hydropower sites in the Territory is estimated to exceed 50 billion kilowatt-hours annually. This amount of electric power is equivalent to one-fifth of all sales by all electric utilities in the United States last year. In addition to the water power resources of flowing ~treams, there are other natural sources of potential power development. The large tidal range at some lo- «ations and the constricting topography of numerous inlets suggest further study for development of tidal power, Volcanic areas may be favorable for transfor- mation of heat energy into electrical energy. Consist- ently strong winds may be another local source of low- cost energy. In the following discussion of water-power resources, the Territory was divided into six regions, some of which were further subdivided into areas or major river 135 basins. The descriptions begin with the Ketchikan area in the southeastern region and continue northward and westward to the Arctic region. Taste 39.—Summary of potential hydroelectric power development by regions and areas | Installed ca- | Annual firm pro- Region and area pacity (kilo- ; duction (kilowatt- | watts) hours) Ketchikan area... | 133,000 | 730, 000, 000 Wrangeli area _ | 218, 000 | 1, 250, 000, 000 Sitka area___ 7 | 58, 000 320, 000, 000 Angoon area | 37, 000 210, 000, 000 Juneau area_____-.-------------- |1, 775, 000 | 9, 760, 000, 000 Subtotai: Southeastern region.'2. 221, 000 |12, 270, 000, 000 Gulf of Alaska area_-_- Cook Inlet area______-- 9, 780, 000, 000 8, 660, 000, 000 Subtotal: South central region.'3, 263, 000 |18, 440, 000, 000 Kuskokwim River basin Upper Yukon River area Yukon Flats area___-- Tanana River basin__ | _| 44,000 lees $50, 000 | 4, 800, 000, 000 250, 000, 000 8, 800, 000, 000 Subtotat: Yukon — Kuskokwim 2, 550, 000 Region. i Seward Peninsula Region___ Artic region 890, 000, 000 14, 740, 000, 000 200, 000, 000 | 1, 280, 000, 000 |46, 930, 000, 000 Taste 40—Summary of estimated regulated streamflow | A | Average annual runoff ral Average a No. Region, area, and power plant {Srainage area precipitation | (square miles) | (inches) | uae at | Total 100 at , Regulated I _ Ey ~ 2 Southeastern region: | | | Ketchikan area | | i 1 Davis River - (!) | 670! 500 2) Wilson River_-_-_-- 7 65 ! 597 328 3 Punchbowl Creek (lower) - - \ 17 { 111 Same | Punenbon! en (middle) : i} 27 5 Sate 4 ranite Creek (middle) __ - = | 54. 6 4 Granite Creek (lower) -_- - \ 10.5 11800 { 69.2 | 61. Pil) || | SP ales ets! 22 0600 | a1 | amt irror ie. a. - . 8 1 | 1 | January Lake __ - 2.6 | 9800 | 25.5 24. Manzanita Lake No. : 66.9 | 3700 | 245 Same Pin Geek Lake No. 2. - 72.6 | 300 326 a lla Creek----- - 15.9 931 148 | 6 | Grace Creek - - - 28.3 10300 290 288 7 Orchard Creek. 59 7100 417 373 8 Swan Lake___- - 35. 4 9600 | 340 320 9 Reynolds Creek- - | if 42 Same Powerhouse No. 1-_- se 7 5.8 10500 | 27 Same | Powerhouse No. 2 (Summit Lake, Lake Josephine) -__-- J il 12 Same i i Wrangell area | ! 10 | Tyee Creek Tee beeEee Le 14.2 9200 | 130 Same | Harding River_ 91 8800 | 801 655 12 | Stikine River___.----- 19800 430 8450 Same 13 | Cascade Creek (plan B) 17.3 10800 | 186 151 " aes tee take... eels | lee. 8700 157 Same South Fork 3, 6) 2 sea = 8600 31 Same See footnote at end of table. 136 ALASKA Taste 40.—Summary of estimated regulated streamflow—Continued 7 Average annual runoff J ; Drainage area Verage | _——_____—. No. Region, area, and power plant iles precipitation ous) | Gang | Untat,. | rotamer | Pega Southeastern region—Continued Sitka area 15 Maksoutof River 27.1 10700 291 Same 16 Brentwood Cree: 6.6 14900 98 Same 17 Blue Lake. _- 37.5 9500 354 274 18 Takatz Creek 11.2 16500 185 Same Angoon area 19 Hasselborg River (plan No. 2)___ 6900 510 488 20 Thayer Creek __ 5800 306 288 21 Kathleen Cree 5500 171 153 Juncau area 22 Sweetheart Falls Creek: Sweetheart Lake_ | 26 Same Upper Lake 3.5 Same 23 Tease Creek__ 11.4 73 24 Speel River _- 182 1165 25 Crater Creek (independent unit) _ | 11.9 135 26 Long River. __- | 33. 2 Same 27 Dorothy Cree 10.3 Same 28 Carlson Creek 22.3 160 29 Antler River_ 5.5 33 30 Endicott River No. 1_ 109 Endicott River No. 2- 197 31 Taiya River No. 1_ Jot 5760 32 Taiya River No. 2 5760 Southcentral region: | | Gulf of Alaska area j 33 Chitina River 6190 14. 95 2 1200 7430 5800 34 Nizima River_ 1420 14. 95 2 1200 1700 1450 35 Copper River No. 1_ 23500 14. 95 2 1200 28200 25700 36 Copper River No. 2. | 24400 14. 95 2 1200 29300 25700 37 Resurrection River 204 j.--------- 1600 326 Same 38 Kenai Lake______ 602. | 19.41 | 1600 964 Same 39 Eklutna Creek peer) P5500 eT ee Ld 40 Caribou Creek 333 13. 00 2 1000 333 280 41 Caribou Creek No. 2._..._..._...---22.22222222-- 27 -|---- eee eee 13. 00 |_--.------!--2 2222. | 280 42 Matanuska River No. 1. 993 13. 00 2 1000 993 840 43 Rush Lake____________ 107 13. 00 ? 1000 107 80 44 Matanuska River No. 2 1880 13. 00 2 1000 1880 1330 45 Susitna River No. 1_ 4270 33. 48 2 1800 7700 Same 46 Susitna River No. 2. 5390 33. 48 2 1800 9700 Same 47 Susitna River No. 5930 33. 48 2 1800 10700 Same 48 Talkeetna River 750 33. 48 2 1800 1350 1150 49 Talkeetna River 864 33. 48 2 1800 1550 1350 50 Talkeetna River 1260 33. 48 2 1800 2270 1980 51 Sheep River___ 372 33. 48 2 1800 670 570 52 Chakachatna River____._._.___...-__- 1140 33. 48 2 1800 2050 Same Yukon-Kuskokwim region: Kuskokwim River Basin 53 Kuskokwim River 30800 15. 69 2 1000 30800 Same Upper Yukon River area 54 Fortymile River__.._.......-_..-_--_-__-___._ 5600 13.0 3 300 1680 Same 55 | Rampart 195000 14.0 3 400 | 72000 Same Tanana River Basin | 56 Chisana River No. lo. ..022222-22-2222222-0 0-022 ----e ee 628 | 20) 3 408 Same 57 | Chisana River No. 2. ___ | | 418 See footnotes at end of table. USING THE WATER 137 Taste 40—Summary of estimated regulated streamflow—Continued A Average daily runoff - : Drainage area vereee No. | Region, area, and power plant ( iles precipitation | pavers miles) | Mcinehes) | Unit atl, | Total oper | Paguied Yukon-Nuskokwim region—Continued Tanana River Basin—Continued 58 | Nabesna River... --- | 1548 59 | Nenana River No. 440 60 Nenana River No. 440 61 Nenana River No. 507 62 Nenana River No. 1113 Seward Peninsula region: 63 | Fish River- ---- 1060 Same 64 | Salmon Lake <= 300 65 | Tuksuk = Same ' Arctic region: 66 Kobuk River._.---------------- 24.0 3 650 1246 1135 67 Noatak River N 10. 0 3250 | 1570 Same 68 Noatak River | 10.0 3250 1760 | Same 69 | Noatak River No. 10.0 3 250 | 2080 | Same 70 | Noatak River No. 10.0 3250 2120 Same 71 | Noatak River N 10. 0 3250 | 3110 | Same 72 | Colville River. - 9940 6.0 | 150 | 1913 | 1850 ' Unsurveyed. 2 Finally reduced to these figures to be more conservative. 2 Reduced by 50 percent factor for conservatism. Information obtained for numbers 1 to 11 and 13-30 from Federal Power Commission and Forest Service Report “Water Powers, Southeast Alaska” except unit runoff per square mile, which was computed from drainage area and average runoff reported. Information obtained for numbers 31 and 32 from report on “The Potential Hydroelectric Power of Southeast Alaska and the Yukon Territory” by McClellan and Puls, January 1948. Available References :— In general reference information was exceedingly meager. For a few small areas covering the Seward Peninsula ; Yukon- Tanana Region; South Central Region; Yukon at Eagle and Southeastern Alaska, United States Geological Survey Water Supply Papers were reviewed. Some topographic information was derived by use of avail- SOUTHEASTERN REGION Most of the individual streams considered in the southeastern region are relatively small and are scat- tered over islands as well as the mainland. Rather than treat them singly they have been arbitrarily grouped according to their geographic relation to the nearest center of population. Such grouping allows for a bet- ter conception of the possibilities of establishment of power networks. The Federal Power Commission and the Forest Serv- ice compiled valuable data on more than 200 power sites in Southeastern Alaska. This information was published in 1947 as a joint report entitled “Water Power, Southeast Alaska.” From this report were selected 29 of the larger projects which appear most able aeronautical charts also recent quadrangle sheets prepared by the Department of the Army, covering, not in its entirety, but a large number of the potential power sites contained in these investigations. Runoff estimates were made at power sites investigated by the Bureau of Reclamation for the most part through use of a relationship of precipitation to runoff developed from known data. Precipitation records were used to indicate unit square runoff which was applied to drainage areas obtained from, best available maps. Itunoff thus extrapolated was further reduced by 50 percent or more for conservatism. The above tabulation lists runoff used in estimating power potentialities. Runoff tabulated for sites reported on by the Federal Power Commis- sion and Forest Service in their report entitled “Water Power, Southeast Alaska”, 1947, was taken from that report and was derived by methods discussed in that report. feasible for inclusion in this inventory. Many of the sites have been visited in the field. Minor adjustments in the estimated data were made as thought necessary. Additional sites on the mainland are also discussed, some of which involve international agreements with Canada. Most of the potential projects are entirely within the Tongass National Forest, which is increasing in na- tional importance as a source of timber products, par- ticularly pulp for paper, and fabrics. Most of the ex- isting hydroelectric plants in Alaska are situated in Southeastern Alaska, but all are small units. Some of the power sites have been privately licensed but only a few are being actively investigated. The grouping of the basins and their respective power sites include the Ketchikan, Wrangell, Sitka, Angoon, and Juneau areas. 138 Ketchikan Area The largest streams in the Ketchikan Area are the Salmon, Chickamin, and Unuk rivers. The Salmon River flows from Canada into the head of the Portland Canal. The Chickamin River and Leduc River, its most important tributary, head in Alaska near the In- ternational Boundary. The Unuk River drainage also extends into Canada and includes the Blue River as its chief tributary. This report does not include power possibilities on the streams because of insufficient data on runoff and storage possibilities. Nine power sites are considered, four on the mainland, four on Revil- lagigedo Island on which Ketchikan is located, and one on Prince of Wales Island. In addition, potential tidal power in a narrow inlet of Southeastern Alaska is briefly discussed. Davis River Site Davis River discharges into Portland Canal 13 miles southwest of the village of Hyder. The stream is 15 miles long, but no lakes have been reported in the basin. In a canyon 2,000 feet upstream from its mouth a con- crete dam 440 feet high, with a 1,200-foot crest length would create a reservoir with a storage capacity of 180,000 acre-feet. The water would be conveyed to a plant at sea level, where more than 160,000,000 kilowatt- hours of firm energy could be produced each year. Taste 41.—Potential hydroelectric power plants | Installed Annual firm No.! Region, area, and power plant capacity uction | (kilowatts) (kilowatt hours) Southeastern region: Ketchikan area: 1 Davis River__-_-_-- | 29,000 160, 000, 000 2 Wilson River_ } 9, 000 50, 000, 000 3 | Punchbowl! Cree 13, 000 70, 000, 000 4 | Granite Creek______- 9, 000 50, 000, 000 5 | Manzanita-Ella-Fish | | Creeks - - | 27, 000 150, 000, 000 6 | Grace Cree : 16, 000 90, 000, 000 7 Orchard Cree’ 2 9, 000 50, 000, 000 8 | Swan Lake___ = 12, 000 60, 000, 000 9] Reynolds Creek_____ | 9, 000 50, 000, 000 | Wrangeil area: | 10 | Tyee Creek___._____ | 23, 000 130, 000, 000 ll | Harding River | 20, 000 110, 000, 000 12 | Stikine River_ | 120, 000 700, 000, 000 13 | Cascade Creek | 30,000 170, 000, 000 14 | Scenery Creek___.-.! 25, 000 140, 000, 000 | Sitka area: | 15 | Maksoutof River-_-__- 24, 000 130, 000, 000 16 | Brentwood Creek___- 7, 000 40, 000, 000 17 | Blue Lake-- 11, 000 60, 000, 000 18 | Takatz Creek_ 16, 000 90, 000, 000 | Angoon area: | 19 | Hasselborg River_.-_| 16, 000 90, 000, 000 20 | Thayer Creek_-__ -| 12, 000 70, 000, 000 21 | Kathleen Creek _____! 9, 000 50, 000, 000 ALASKA | Taste 41.—Potential hydroelectric power plants— Continued i Installed Annual firm No. Region, area, and power plant | capacity roduction | (kilowatts) (kilowatt hours) Southeastern region—Con. | Juneau area: 22 Sweetheart Falls | Creek_.---------- 22, 000 120, 000, 000 23 Tease Creek - 10, 000 50, 000, 000 24 Speel River_- 37, 000 210, 000, 000 25 Crater Cree! 17, 000 100, 000, 000 26 Long River-- 33, 000 180, 000, 000 27 Dorothy Cree! 26, 000 140, 000, 000 28 Carlson Creck 9, 000 50, 000, 000 29 Antler River_ 8, 000 40, 000, 000 30 Endicott River. 13, 000 70, 000, 000 31 Taiya River No. 1_--| 800,000 | 4, 400, 000, 000 32 Taiva River No. 2..-| 800,000 | 4, 400, 000, 000 South central region: Gulf of Alaska arca: 33 Chitina River 140, 000 770, 000, 000 34 Nizina River 250, 000, 000 35 Copper River 6, 700, 000, 000 36 Copper River No. 2, 000, 000, 000 37 Resurrection River ~~ 10, 000 60, 000, 000 Cook Inlet area: 38 | Kenai Lake__ 25, 000 140, 000, 000 39 | Eklutna Cree =. 30, 000 100, 000, 000 40 | Caribou Cree ny 7, 000 40, 000, 000 41 Caribou Creek No. 2_ 10, 000 60, 000, 000 42 Matanuska River 18, 000 100, 000, 000 No. 1_- 43 Rush Lake-- = 7,000 40, 000, 000 44 Matanuska River | | No. 2.. 15, 000 90, 000, 000 45 | Susitna Ri 350, 000 | 2, 000, 000, 000 46 | Susitna River No. 2._| 350, 000 | 2, 000, 000, 000 47 Susitna River No. 3__| 450,000 | 2, 600, 000, 000 48 Talkeetna River No.1_ 25, 000 140, 000, 000 49 Talkeetna River No. 2_ 35, 000 200, 000, 000 50 Talkeetna River No.3. 35, 000 200, 000, 000 51 Sheep River__------ 12, 000 70, 000, 000 52 Chakachatna River__| 150, 000 880, 000, 000 Yukon-Kuskokwim region: Kusokwim River basin: 53 Kuskokwim River.--| 850, 000 | 4, 800, 000, 000 Upper Yukon River area: 54 Fortymile River___-- 44, 000 250, 000, 000 Yukon Flats area: 55 Rampart --_ ---|1, 500, 000 | 8, 800, 000, 000 Tanana River basin: 56 Chisana River No. 1- 7, 000 40, 000, 000 57 Chisana River No. 2- 35, 000 200, 000, 000 58 Nabesna River__---- 21, 000 120, 000, 000 59 Nenana River No. 1- 10, 000 60, 000, 000 60 Nenana River No. 2- 12, 000 70, 000, 000 61 Nenana River No. 3_ 14, 000 80, 000, 000 62 Nenana River No. 4_ 57, 000 320, 000, 000 Seward Peninsula region: 63 Fish River___- . 7, 000 40, 000, 000 64 Salmon Lake = 7, 000 40, 000, 000 65 Tuksuk____-..---.----- 21, 000 120, 000, 000 Arctic region: 66 Kobuk River-__-_------ 19, 000 110, 000, 000 67 Noatak River No. 22, 000 120, 000, 000 68 Noatak River No. 23, 000 130, 000, 000 69 Noatak River No. 40, 000 230, 000, 000 70 Noatak River No. 28, 000 160, 000, 000 71 Noatak River No. 26, 000 150, 000, 000 72 Colville River___...----- 67, 000 380, 000, 000 Total___-..---.-.----! 8, 294, 000 |46, 930, 000, 000 YWAILVM FHL ONISOA 1 ALASKA \ LOCATION MAP SOUTHEASTERN REGION ‘ KETCHIKAN .& WRANGELL AREAS os 0 18 20 2 SSS bites \ \ . \ PCr \ \ \ SYA, we \ oe | Re, teaslia Scole meted Milos 6£1 140 ALASKA Willard Inlet, near International boundary. Constricted alternating tidal currents may be a potential power source. Wilson River Site Wilson Lake, at elevation 280, discharges into Wilson River, which then flows 4.7 miles to Smeaton Bay of Behm Canal east of Ketchikan. A 100-foot dam with a 570-foot crest length would create 100,000 acre-feet of storage space, partially regulating the runoff. A power plant 1.1 miles downstream from the dam would have an average annual firm production in excess of 50,- 000,000 kilowatt-hours. Punchbowl Creek Site The outlet of Lower Punchbowl Lake discharges into Punchbowl Creek, which flows 0.7 mile to Rudyerd Bay of Behm Canal. This lake is at elevation 586. Two chains of lakes are tributary to the lower lake. One of the upper lakes could be tapped by a tunnel 2,000 feet long to a power plant at the lower lake. The runoff into Lower Punchbowl Lake could be regulated by a 40-foot dam and conveyed through a 3,500-foot pen- stock to tidewater. The active storage capacity would be 80,000 acre-feet. The combined firm output of the two plants would be at least 70,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Granite Creek Site Granite Lower Lake drains into Granite Creek, which flows 2 miles to Behm Canal 37 air miles northeast of Ketchikan. This lake, the lowest of four lakes in the basin, is at elevation 825. The next higher lake could be tapped by a tunnel which would convey the water to a power plant at the lower lake. A concrete dam 60 feet high with a 300-foot crest would provide addi- tional storage space at the lower lake, from which water would be conveyed 10,500 feet to a power plant at tidewater. The total storage capacity in the basin would be 40,000 acre-feet. These two plants could gen- erate at least 50,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy every year. Manzanita-Ella-Fish Creeks Site Manzanita Creek flows into the Behm Canal on the east side of Revillagigedo Island. The watershed con- tains Manzanita Lake at elevation 232 and the smaller January Lake at 650 feet. The adjoining basins of Ella Creek and Fish Creek contain Ella Lake at 248 feet and Mirror Lake at 377 feet, respectively. The lakes and creeks are so situated that four separate power houses are suggested, subject to further study. Janu- ary Lake, with only a low diversion dam, could be tapped by a tunnel and the water conveyed 2,900 feet toa power plant at Manzanita Lake. A 13-foot dam at the outlet of Mirror Lake, combined with some improve- ments in the saddle leading to Ella Lake, would permit storage of 30,000 acre-feet and diversion of water from Fish Creek to a power plant at Ella Lake. A 65-foot dam at Ella Lake would impound 120,000 acre-feet of storage, and a 6,100-foot tunnel would divert the regu- lated runoff to Manzanita Lake. A dam 80 feet high, USING THE WATER Upstream view of damsite on Stikine River, potential source of power for timber products industries. with a crest length of 190 feet, would provide 110,000 acre-feet storage at Manzanita Lake. The water would be conveyed 2,600 feet to a power house at the 135-foot elevation. Another dam on Manzanita Creek would divert the water to a fourth plant 0.4 of a mile above the mouth of the creek. The combined annual output of all four plants would exceed 150,000,000 kilowatt- hours of firm energy. Grace Creek Site Lake Grace, at elevation 425 feet, drains into Grace Creek, which flows 2.5 miles to Behm Canal northeast of Ketchikan. One-half mile downstream from the lake outlet a concrete dam 70 feet high with a crest length of 180 feet would create a storage capacity of 120,000 acre-feet, providing partial regulation. The water would be conveyed from the dam 5,000 feet downstream to a power plant which would generate more than 90,- 000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy annually. 141 Orchard Creek Site The outlet of Orchard Lake, at elevation 134, drains into Orchard Creek, which flows only 0.3 mile to Shrimp Bay, near the north end of Revillagigedo Island. Topo- graphic conditions at the outlet limit the economic height of the dam to 60 feet, with a crest length of 420 feet. Such a dam would create a storage capacity of 100,000 acre-feet which would partially regulate the runoff. The water would be conveyed to tidewater by 1,100 feet of tunnel and a 400-foot penstock. The firm energy output at this site would be at least 50,000,000 kilowatt-hours per year. Swan Lake Site Swan Lake, at elevation 220, drains into Falls Creek, which then flows 1.3 miles to the upper end of Carroll Inlet. A storage capacity of 110,000 acre-feet, created by a concrete dam 0.8 mile downstream from the outlet, would partially regulate the run-off. This dam would be 127 feet high, with a 330-foot-long crest. From the dam, the water would be conveyed 3,000 feet to tide- water, where a power plant would produce annually more than 60,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy. Upstream view of Chickamin River, another potential source of power for timber products industries. 142 Reynolds Creek Site On the southwest side of Prince of Wales Island, Reynolds Creek discharges into Hetta Inlet of Cordova Bay. The creek drains a number of high lakes, the lowest being Lake Mellen at elevation 870. One power plant would be located upstream from Lake Mellen and would use water from Summit Lake and from Lake Josephine, which lies in an adjoining watershed. A second plant would be located at tidewater near the mouth of Reynolds Creek, water being conveyed thereto from Lake Mellen by a 4,000-foot conduit. A total of 30,000 acre-feet of storage space would be provided at the three lakes by drawdown tunnels at Summit Lake and Lake Josephine and by a 40-foot dam below Lake Mellen. The combined firm energy output of both plants would be more than 50,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Willard Inlet Site Willard Inlet is one of the many narrow inlets of Southeastern Alaska that exhibit swift tidal currents suscéptible of power development. The inlet is situ- ated at the extreme southeastern end of Alaska near the mouth of Portland Inlet. Willard Inlet is 13 miles long and averages three-fourths of a mile in width. It is constricted in rock to Jess than 500 feet near the mouth, at which point the water depth is about 50 feet. One 12-hour period of observations in the constriction indi- cated maximum surface current velocities exceeding 30 feet per second and an average velocity for incoming and outgoing tides at the surface in mid-channel of more than 20 feet per second. Both slack water periods were less than 10 minutes in duration, lagging 1 to 2 hours behind the tide changes in the open water. No esti- mates have been made of the power potential in the tidal inlets, but it should exceed the possible output at many of the sites in southeastern Alaska. Wrangell Area Wrangell, often called the “Gateway to the Stikine,” is on Wrangell Island, which is separated from the mainland by a narrow channel. The five stream basins discussed in this report are on the mainland. Tyee Creek Site The outlet of Tyee Lake drains into Tyee Creek, which flows 2 miles to Bradfield Canal. A concrete dam 60 feet high with a 260-foot crest length would raise the lake to elevation 1,390. A drawdown tunnel ALASKA Sa would be located to leave 70,000 acre-feet of storage @ capacity and would convey the water 6,400 feet to a : power plant at tidewater. The firm generation would ; exceed 130,000,000 kilowatt-hours each year. Harding River Site The Harding River enters Bradfield Canal 35 air 4 miles southeast of Wrangell. Fall Lake, at an eleva- tion of 182 feet, has an area of only 170 acres. A 190-3 foot concrete dam, with a 280-foot crest length would create 170,000 acre-feet of storage capacity, which. would only partially regulate the runoff. The water would be conveyed to Bradfield Canal, a distance of 3 20,000 feet, where a power plant would produce an- nually at least 110,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm 4 energy. Stikine River Site No detailed studies have been made of the Stikine River for power development. More than 95 percent of the 20,000 square miles of drainage area is in Canada, where two relatively small sites have been reported in a recent potential resource study by the Dominion Gov- ernment. The stream is navigable for its 20-mile length in Alaska and an additional 100 miles in Canada. Although there are no outstanding dam sites on the stream in Alaska, there is one point 10 miles upstream from the mouth which warrants further study. The valley there is broad but is well confined by rock abut- ments, and a dam at this site would back the water well up into Canada. It is estimated that more than 700,- 000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy could be gen- erated at this site each year. It is believed that naviga- tion could be benefited, but that fish migration and the reservoir silting may be difficult problems. An inter- national agreement with Canada would be necessary prior to investigation and construction of this project. Cascade Creek Site Cascade Creek enters Thomas Bay of Frederick Sound 40 air miles northwest of Wrangell. There are two lakes in the watershed: Falls Lake and Swan Lake, the latter at an elevation of 1,487 feet. Of several pos- sible plans for development the best involves use of Swan Lake only. (This lake should not be confused with Swan Lake near Ketchikan.) A concrete dam, 100 feet high with a 280-foot crest length, combined with a drawdown tunnel to tap the lake, would create a storage capacity of 120,000 acre-feet. The water would be conveyed by a 14,500-foot tunnel and 300-foot USING THE WATER penstock to the mouth of the creek. A power plant at this site would have an annual firm output in excess of 170,000,000 kilowatt-hours. The same power plant building could be used in conjunction with a smaller development on nearby Delta Creek if desired. Scenery Creek Site Scenery Creek also discharges into Thomas Bay. Of the several lakes in the basin, Scenery Lake at elevation 1080 is the one considered here for power development. The lake could be raised either by a long, low dam at the outlet or by a 95-foot-high dam with short crest length, 200 feet downstream. Tapping the lake with a drawdown tunnel would provide 140,000 acre-feet of storage space, sufficient to regulate the runoff at Scenery Lake and also a diversion from the South Fork of Scenery Creek. The water would be conveyed by an 18,000-foot tunnel to a power plant at tidewater, where 140,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy counld be produced each year. Sitka Area There are numerous sites on Baranof Island, but only four are considered here. Sitka, the center of popu- lation of the area, is on the west side of the island. Maksoutof River Site The Maksoutof River drains into Sandy Bay on the west side of the south end of Baranof Island. The river drains an extensive lake system; the lowest lake is Maksoutof Lake at elevation 575. With an 80-foot dam at Khvostof Lake and a 70-foot dam at the outlet of Maksoutof Lake, the resulting storage of 160,000 acre- feet would completely regulate the runoff. A 3,100-foot tunnel would convey the water to the mouth of the river. The annual firm generation at this site would exceed 130,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Brentwood Creek Site The outlet of Brentwood Lower Lake discharges into Brentwood Creek, which flows one-half mile to Patter- son Bay in Chatham Strait 39 miles southeast of Sitka. The lower lake is at elevation 610, and Brentwood Up- per Lake is 1.2 miles upstream. A 30-foot-high dam at the outlet of each lake would provide 30,000 acre-feet of storage space, which would partially regulate the flow. A drawdown tunnel at each lake would be re- quired for this amount of storage. The water would be conveyed from the lower lake to a power house at Pat- 143 terson Bay, a distance of 2,800 feet. The firm energy production would be more than 40,000,000 kilowatt- hours each year. A smaller development, utilizing Parrg Lake in an adjoining drainage basin, could make use of the same plant. Blue Lake Site Medvetcha River, also known locally as Sawmill Creek, drains Blue Lake at an elevation of 210 feet and then flows 1.7 miles to Silver Bay near Sitka. A con- crete dam 160 feet high with a 160-foot crest length would impound 90,000 acre-feet of storage, partially regulating the runoff. The water would be conveyed 6,600 feet downstream to a power plant at tidewater, where at least 60,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy could be produced annually. This site has recently been considered by private interests in connection with a proposed pulp mill near the mouth of the stream. Takatz Creek Site The outlet of Takatz Lake, at elevation 927, dis- charges into Takatz Creek and flows 2 miles to Takatz Bay in Chatham Strait, directly across Baranof Island from Sitka. At a site 400 feet downstream from the outlet, a dam 75 feet high with a crest 420 feet long would create a reservoir of 80,000 acre-feet capacity. The lake would be tapped by a drawdown tunnel, and the water would be conveyed 4,800 feet to a power plant at Takatz Bay. The firm output of the plant would exceed 90,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Angoon Area Of eight sites previously studied on Admiralty Island, three are of sufficient capacity to warrant attention here. Angoon is a centrally located village on the west side of the island on Chatham Strait. Hasselborg River Site The drainage area of Hasselborg River is character- ized by six large lakes and many small ones. Hassel- borg Lake, at elevation 247, has an area of 3,500 acres and is the largest and lowest of the lakes. It discharges into Hasselborg River, which flows into a tidal slough in Kootznahoo Inlet, near Angoon. The north end of the lake is 4 miles from tidewater at Wind- fall Harbor on the east side of the island. Further study would be necessary to determine the most feasible development. However, the best plan seems to include (1) diverting Guerin Lake into Hasselborg Lake, (2) 144 Geacier Bay Wari. Mon KEY MAP © 100 200 Scole mmm Miles LOCATION MAP SOUTHEASTERN REGION JUNEAU, SITKA & ANGOON AREAS o S$ 10 18 20 25 soe STE sites USING THE WATER Sweetheart Lake in Southeastern Alaska is an impor- tant source of water for potential production of hydroelectric energy. 145 raising Hasselborg Lake with a 48-foot-high dam to give a storage capacity of 190,000 acre-feet, which would partially regulate the runoff, (3) connecting Hasselborg Lake with Alexander Lake by a 3,000-foot tunnel, and (4) conveying the water through 6,500 feet of tunnel and 3,300 feet of conduit from Alexander Lake to a power house at Mole Harbor on Seymour Canal. The annual production at this site would be more than 90,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy. Thayer Creek Site The outlet of Thayer Lake, at elevation 375, dis- charges into Thayer Creek, which flows six miles east- ward to Chatham Strait. The lake has an area of 3,155 acres, with an arm extending within 1.85 miles of Fresh- water Lake, at an elevation of 5 feet. Freshwater Lake drains into a slough off Kootznahoo Inlet. A drawdown tunnel tapping Thayer Lake would allow storage of 130,000 acre-feet, partially regulating the runoff. By conveying the water 11,000 feet to a power plant at Freshwater Lake, more than 70,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy could be produced each year. Kathleen Creek Site Lake Kathleen at elevation 460 discharges into Kathleen Creek, which flows 114 miles westward to Blue Lake in Southeastern Alaska, another source of water for potential production of hydroelectric energy. ALASKA Aerial view of Lake Dorothy near Juneau, a potential source of power for Southeastern Alaska. Chatham Strait, 29 miles north of Angoon. A 20-foot dam, limited to this height by a low saddle, combined with a drawdown tunnel to provide 40,000 acre-feet of storage, would partially regulate the runoff. A conduit 8,000 feet long would convey the water to a power plant located 0.8 of a mile north of the mouth of Kathleen Creek. The annual firm energy output would exceed 50,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Juneau Area All the sites in the Juneau Area are on the mainland. Nine of them are on streams or lakes which drain areas lying entirely within Alaska. The other two sites would be developed by transmountain diversion of water from the Lewes River drainage basin in Canada to the Taiya River in Alaska. All the power plants would be within possible, though sometimes difficult, transmission line access to Juneau. Sweetheart Falls Creek Site After draining Sweetheart Upper Lake and Sweet- heart Lake, the creek flows into the south arm of Port Snettisham 36 miles southeast of Juneau. A 10-foot dam and a 2,700-foot drawdown tunnel at the upper lake would provide 20,000 acre-feet of storage space. The tunnel would convey the water toa powerhouse near the head of Sweetheart Lake. The level of shallow Sweetheart Lake could be raised to elevation 615 by a 90-foot-high dam with a 200-foot crest, impounding 120,000 acre-feet of water. With 9,500 feet of tunnel and 1,200 feet of penstock, the water could be conveyed to a power plant at sea level which would generate least 120,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Tease Creek Site Tease Creek drains Tease Lake at elevation 1,006, only 0.8 of a mile from tidewater at Port Snettisham. A dam 80 feet high with a crest length of 550 feet anda tunnel tapping the lake would allow storage of 20,000 acre-feet, partially regulating the runoff. The tunnel and penstock to a power plant at sea level would total 4,400 feet in length. The annual output of firm energy would exceed 50,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Speel River Site The Speel River discharges into tidewater at the head of Speel Inlet of Port Snettisham. The lower 7 miles USING THE WATER is a deltaic fill; for the next 114 miles the valley is nar- row, then broadens again and splits into its upper trib- utaries. One-half mile downstream from the mouth of Long River a 160-foot dam would have a crest length of 460 feet, with rock abutments and a foundation of alluvium believed to be shallow. The dam would im- pound 390,000 acre-feet, only partially regulating the runoff. The water would be conveyed by 5,500 feet of tunnel and penstock from Second Lake, on a small trib- utary of Long River below Long Lake, to a power plant at the mouth of Speel River. The annual firm genera- tion at this site would be more than 210,000,000 kilo- watt-hours. Potential silting in the reservoir should be studied. Crater Creek Site Crater Lake discharges into Crater Creek at an eleva- tion of 1,013 feet. Crater Creek is 1 mile of continuous rapids to its confluence with Speel River, near the mouth of the latter. A concrete dam at the outlet of the lake, 55 feet high with a 310-foot crest length, would permit regulation of 90,000 acre-feet, if the lake were tapped by a tunnel. This storage would only partially regulate the runoff. The conduit and penstock would be 4,500 feet long to the mouth of Speel River. A power plant at this location would produce in excess of 100,- 000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. With a longer conduit, it would be possible to use the Speel River power plant if the projects were developed jointly. Long River Site Four lakes drain into Long River, a tributary to Speel River 8 miles above its mouth. Long Lake is the largest of these with an area of 1,345 acres at 807 feet elevation. Complete regulation of the runoff could be provided by constructing a dam and by tapping the lake with a tunnel to provide 220,000 acre-feet of stor- age capacity. A concrete dam 50 feet high with a 430- foot crest length could be constructed near the outlet, using a rock island for part of the support. The tunnel and a penstock would convey the water 8,800 feet to a power plant at Speel River that could be used jointly with the Speel River development. The potential energy production of the Long Lake development is more than 180,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Dorothy Creek Site Lake Dorothy, at an elevation of 2,415 feet, is the highest and largest of three lakes in the Dorothy Creek basin, which drains into Taku Inlet 14 air miles south- 988410—52——11 147 east of Juneau. By constructing a 15-foot dam -with a 200-foot crest length at the lake outlet and by tapping the lake with a drawdown tunnel, 109,000 acre-feet of active storage capacity could be obtained. The tunnel would be 8,000 feet long, intercepting the slope above Taku Inlet to the west, where a mile-long penstock would carry the water to a power plant at sea level. The annual output of this plant would be at least 140,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy. Carlson Creek Site The mouth of Carlson Creek is at Taku Inlet directly east of Juneau. There is no large lake in the basin, but a dam in a narrow section of the valley could be con- structed 185 feet high with a crest length of 1,220 feet. With a normal water surface elevation of 440 feet, the capacity would be 50,000 acre-feet partially regulating the runoff. The water would be conveyed to a power plant at sea level by a 6,800-foot tunnel and 200-foot penstock. The firm generation at this site would ex- ceed 50,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Aerial view of Great Falls on Baranoff Island, another potential source of power for Southeastern Alaska, 148 Antler River Site On the east side of Lynn Canal, Antler Lake dis- charges into a small stream which flows 0.9 of a mile to the South Fork of Antler River, then 7 miles to Berners Bay, 40 miles northwest of Juneau. Available data are insufficient to determine the ultimate output; how- ever, with 20,000 acre-feet of storage space available at an elevation of 2,000 feet, the annual production would be more than 40,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy. Endicott River Site Directly across Lynn Canal from Berners Bay is the Endicott River which drains eastward from the Chilkat Range, an extension of the St. Elias Range. No lakes exist along the stream, but a large flat valley at the head of a 914-mile canyon could be flooded by a concrete dam 50 feet high with a 540-foot crest length, impounding 50,000 acre-feet and partially regulating the run-off. The waters would be conveyed 18,000 feet downstream to a power plant at the surface of a second reservoir. The structure forming this reservoir would be a con- crete dam 250 feet high with a 250-foot crest length. There would be no active storage at this site, but the runoff would include a small diversion from Second South Fork Creek. The waters from the lower dam would be conveyed 2,000 feet to a power plant at eleva- tion 90. The combined output of both plants would be at least 70,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Taiya River Sites Taiya River discharges into the north end of Lynn Canal 10 miles north of Skagway. A power develop- ment involving transmountain diversion of water from the Lewes River drainage basin in Canada to the Taiya River has been studied. Lewes River is the principal upstream branch of the Yukon River. Upper Lewes River, which heads in northern British Columbia, is characterized by large lakes in the upper basin, notably the Atlin Lake group, Atlin Lake itself extending for at least 70 miles. A large volume of water flowing at a low gradient allows seasonal travel by river boats on the Yukon River, and upstream on the Lewes River as far as Whitehorse. Miles Canyon, on Lewes River 4 miles upstream from Whitehorse, is a rock canyon suitable for only a low-head power development. There is now a small dam 10 miles above this site which is used to con- trol releases of water for navigation. The mean annual runoff of Lewes River at Whitehorse has been estimated at more than 6,500,000 acre-feet. A small dam at Miles Canyon damsite in Yukon Ter- ritory near White Horse, would create a multilake reservoir having 500 square miles of surface area. Two plans for optimum development of the water re- sources of the Lewes River have been suggested by previous Bureau of Reclamation studies. An inter- national agreement would be a necessary prerequisite for serious consideration. Both plans involve diver- sion of water from Lake Lindeman, a small lake just south of Lake Bennett, by a tunnel through the Coast Range to the Taiya River in Alaska. Both plans sug- gest two power plants, each under 1,000 feet of head. The diversion tunnel would be in two sections, 11 and 4 miles long, respectively. Lake Lindeman would be interconnected with other lakes in the basin to obtain a storage area of more than 300,000 acres. The most economical plan for developing the estimated storage requirement of approximately 6,000,000 acre-feet can be determined only after extensive investigations. LOCATION MAP YUKON-KUSKOKWIM REGION TANANA RIVER BASIN © 10 20 30 40 80 see ESTES sites ALASKA‘ Zire, KEY MAP Seete mndemnd Mile8 WALVM FHL ONISA 641 150 Plan A is designed to allow sufficient water to main- tain normal navigation below Whitehorse. It consists of (1) a dam on Lewes River at the head of Miles Canyon, (2) a small hydroelectric plant at Miles Can- yon, with an operating head of 20 to 30 feet, or at the base of Whitehorse Rapids downstream at a total head of 75 to 85 feet, to furnish low-cost power to White- horse and vicinity, (3) a small concrete gravity dam at the outlet of Atlin Lake, (4) improvement of chan- nels between Lake Lindeman and Lake Bennett and between Lake Bennett and Tagish Lake, and (5) diver- sion of 2,300,000 acre-feet per year to the Taiya River power plants to produce more than 3,500,000,000 kilo- watt-hours of firm power annually. Plan B is designed to subordinate normal naviga- tional use of the water to power generation. The con- struction features are (1) a higher dam on Lewes River, (2) a power plant near Miles Canyon as in Plan A, (3) a small dam at outlet of Atlin Lake as in Plan A, (4) larger-scale channel improvements between lakes than in Plan A, (5) a regulating dam across the chan- nel between Tagish Lake and Lake Bennett at Carcross, or relocation of 27 miles of the White Pass and Yukon Railroad along the shore of Lake Bennett, (6) exten- sion of the railroad from Whitehorse to the mouth of the Teslin River, or navigation locks and dams to pro- vide slack-water navigation, (7) increased capacity of the diversion tunnels to the Taiya River power plants, and (8) increase in capacity of the two power plants to generate more than 8,800,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Plan B is shown in the summary tables and on the maps in this report. Whiting, Taku, Chilkoot, Chilkat, and Alsek Rivers The above rivers are streams in the Juneau Area that have relatively large drainage areas, but have not yet been investigated. No good storage sites are apparent on the streams, but future investigations may disclose feasible potential power developments. SOUTH CENTRAL REGION The South-central Region includes the Gulf of Alaska Area and the Cook Inlet Area. The region is rich in potential mineral, agricultural, and power development, being rivaled in the latter only by the Yukon- Kuskokwim Region. Gulf of Alaska Area The Gulf of Alaska Area includes the drainage into the gulf from Yakutat Bay to the south end of Kenai ALASKA Peninsula. The coastline is very irregular, particu- 3 larly in Prince William Sound. There are also many: rocky islands and offshore bars along the coast. The basin includes portions of several snow and glacier- covered mountain ranges, including the Chugach, Wrangell, and Alaska. Economic activity is centered in fishing, canning, and water transportation on the coasts, and mining in the interior. The principal # towns in the area are Cordova, Valdez, and Seward, all 3 on thecoast. The basins of Copper River, Power Creek, % Duck River, and Resurrection River are discussed in the $ following pages. 2 “abi Copper River Basin The Copper River basin has received considerable prominence because of its copper ores and the railroad, now abandoned, that once carried the ore from the * Kennecott Mines to Cordova. It sounds fantastic to hear that copper “nuggets” weighing more than 3 tons - have been found. The basin, embracing an area of more than 25,000 -3 square miles, is characterized by a variety of pic- * turesque features. The basin is bounded on the east ° by the St. Elias Range and the Wrangell Mountains, on the north by the Alaska Range and the Mentasta Mountains, on the northwest by the poorly defined divide on the Copper River Plateau, and on the south and southwest by the Chugach Mountains, through + which the river cuts to reach the Gulf of Alaska. Cop- per River heads in the north slope of the snow and ice- covered Wrangell Mountains, makes a sweeping semicircular are westward, then southward and south- eastward around the foothills of the mountains, and then takes a general southerly course to the gulf. The total length of the main stem is about 300 miles. The valley of the Chitina River, 100 miles long, forms a partial continuation of the are around the Wrangell Mountains, beginning at its point of confluence with the Copper. The geological evidence suggests that, dur- ing the Ice Age, tremendous glaciers from the Chitina— Valley area moved northwestward, receiving contribu- tions from the adjoining mountains, crossed the Copper River Plateau area and thence westward at a high level along the Susitna River Valley. There were smaller spillways, however, through the Matanuska Valley, pos- sibly one to Valdez, and a smaller one southward along the lower course of the present Copper River. The melting of the glacier left in its wake a large portion 3 of the sedimentary accumulation that makes up the surface of the Copper River Plateau and the terraces along the major streams. The middle section of the Copper River and most of the Chitina River have cut 1 abennfee¥ lh ie ngs Fee to i ¥ 2 $ & i ¥ e noah tage a _— -- — \ t ai Y, My 2 of Jaz! Regn nk (° ) Keyra NX vs wid AKE e ceeN AR fo G Ae rina >) “A ~, / va / | Sn, / © a | fe ¢ 2. ' cp | | ' | YP “VCE Writ sam) s! > ' Sovwwo i, l ) on = Seabee, tat. KEY MAP © 0 200 Scole mens Miles LOCATION MAP SOUTHCENTRAL REGION GULF OF ALASKA AREA © 10 20 % 40 50 seats ETE TES nites YILVM FHL ONISN I¢T 152 deeply into the sedimentary accumulation that averages 10 miles in width. At its confluence with the Chitina the Copper River leaves the broad valley to travel south- ward through a rock-walled canyon to its graphic delta. In the lower course three large glaciers enter the valley, partially obstructing the flow. The principal tributaries, in addition to the Chitina, are Christochina, Gakona, Gulkana, Tazlina, Klutina, Tonsina, Tasnuna, and Bremner Rivers, all heading in ice fields. The Nizina River is a short but impor- tant tributary of the Chitina. Sites considered in this report include storage sites on the Tazlina and Klutina, and power sites on the Chitina, Nizina, and the main stem of the Copper. There are no major towns in the basin. Tazlina River Storage Site Tazlina River heads in Tazlina Lake, nearly 20 miles long and two miles wide, located in the west cen- tral portion of the Copper River basin. It is served chiefly by Tazlina and Nelchina Glaciers. The lake has an area of 40,000 acres at elevation 1.785. By constructing an earthfill dam 60 feet high with a 300- foot crest length at the outlet, 1,600,000 acre-feet of active storage could be obtained. This storage would only partially regulate the runoff at the site. A higher dam would have a much longer crest. There is a pos- sibility of developing head downstream for power pro- duction on this stream, but that is not considered here. The only function of the site would be to store water for the two power plants on the main stem. This site is within the permafrost belt, a fact which must be considered in evaluating the site in advance stages of the basin study. Klutina River Storage Site The Klutina River basin lies just south of that of the Tazlina, to which it is similar. Klutina Lake, glacier- fed, is 17 miles long and 2 miles wide, with an area of 29,000 acres at elevation 1,790. The valley at the out- let is broad, but the stream becomes incised into the allu- vial terrace of the Copper River valley as it proceeds downstream. An earthfill dam near the outlet, 60 feet high with a crest length of 4,000 feet, would im- pound 1,000,000 acre-feet, which would completely reg- ulate the flow at the lake. The downstream canyon of the Klutina is of questionable geologic nature for a high dam for production of power. ALASKA 4 Chitina River Site About 45 miles from the confluence of the Chitina a River and the Copper River, the Nizina River enters the Chitina from the northeast in a narrow, rock-walled canyon with glacial sediments on the upper slopes. Seven miles upstream from the mouth of the Nizina, the Chitina narrows partly because it cuts through some rock at low level. An earthfill dam 325 feet high with a 4,000-foot crest would create an active storage capac- ity of 2,500,000 acre-feet. This would only partially regulate the runoff of the stream. The exact elevation and character of the sediments in the terrace above the river would determine the reservoir level. A power plant at this site would produce annually more than 770,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy. The site is near the division zone between permafrost and non- permafrost areas. Silting of the reservoir might be a problem, but the 400,000 acre-feet of dead storage should be adequate for silt deposition. Nizina River Site The Nizina River is relatively short but drains a number of large glaciers. The large Kennecott copper mines are in the basin. Before entering the Chitina River, the stream becomes incised into terrace sediments and then into a rock canyon. A dam in the canyon, 425 feet high with a 2,500-foot crest length, would impound 1,400,000 acre-feet of active storage, providing only partial regulation of the runoff. A power plant at this site would have an annual firm generation of at least 250,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Future field studies may indicate the practicability of combining the reservoirs of the Chitina and Nizina to produce power at a single plant at the Nizina site. Copper River Site No. 1 (Wood Canyon Site) Three miles below the mouth of the Chitina, the Cop- per River enters Wood Canyon, the narrowest portion of its lower course. For a distance of several miles the river occupies the entire valley floor between partly metamorphosed rocks extending high above stream level. A concrete dam 3 miles below the head of the canyon, constructed to a height of 700 feet above bed- rock in the foundation, would raise the water surface 575 feet and would have a crest length of 1,500 feet. The reservoir of 14,000,000 acre-feet active capacity would extend to the tailwater of the Nizina site. This amount of active storage would completely regulate the inflow below the four upstream reservoir sites. A pemupatinndiorinenren, € USING THE WATER power plant at the Wood Canyon site would produce more than 6,700,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Copper River Site No. 2 Just upstream from the mouth of the Tasnuna River, the valley of the Copper is broad at the base, but is confined by rock walls. The valley bottom, filled with alluvium, is about one-half mile wide, but because of the large regulated flow, consideration should be given to power development at this site. An earth dam 175 feet high with a 3,000-foot crest and a supplementary dike and spillway 100 feet high and 1,000 feet long would back the water to Site No. 1, providing only dead stor- age for the creation of power head. The annual firm output of a power plant at this site would be at least 2,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Power Creek Basin Power Creek enters Eyak Lake at its northeastern end, about 5 miles east of Cordova. Eyak Lake, in turn, drains south to the Gulf of Alaska. The creek heads in ice fields of the Chugach Range but flows only 5 miles southwesterly to Eyak Lake. The valley is one- fourth to one-half mile wide near the upper part of the basin, but 3 miles above Eyak Lake it narrows abruptly to pass through a bedrock canyon around a projecting ridge. ‘The canyon at this point is favorable for a dam 100 or more feet high. There is some question, how- ever, concerning the water-tightness of the ridge, which consists. at least in part, of very pervious glacial mo- raine. If the moraine is continuous across the ridge at any point below reservoir level, too much water may be lost. It would be necessary to explore it thoroughly before constructing a dam. Considering that the per- vious condition may not be extensive or beyond correc- tion, a dam 100 feet high with a crest length of 200 feet could be constructed, but data are unavailable to de- termine the storage. An 800-foot tunnel through the rock section of the ridge and a 5,000-foot conduit would develop more than 350 feet of head. A power plant at this site would produce enough power for the imme- diate needs of Cordova and vicinity. Duck River Basin Duck River enters Galena Bay of Valdez Arm of Prince William Sound about 17 airline miles southwest of Valdez and about 6 miles northeast of the Ellamar Mining District. The river has not been investigated, 153 but early work by the Geological Survey suggests the potential power resources of the basin. The stream, 2 miles long, has its source in Silver Lake at elevation 250. Silver Lake, between 3 and 5 miles long, could be raised at least 30 feet by a concrete dam with a short crest. Enough power to serve local needs could be pro- duced by tapping the lake and conveying the water 114 miles to a power plant at sea level. Resurrection River Basin Resurrection River drains into Resurrection Bay near Seward. he river is in a broad glacial valley with a constriction 9 miles above the mouth. An earth dam 935 feet high with a 2,000-foot crest length would cre- ate a reservoir with an active capacity of 320,000 acre- feet. A tunnel would convey the water 5 miles down- stream toa penstock and power plant, where the annual firm output would be more than 60,000,000 kilowatt- hours. There is some question, however, of the feasi- bility of the dam site for either an earthfill or concrete structure. Geologic conditions suggest deep, pervious overburden in the valley floor. Cook Inlet Area The Cook Inlet Area is the hub of Alaska, geograph- ically, industrially, as a transportation center, and for accelerated development in agriculture and miscellane- ous enterprises. The growth of the area is a healthy one, for it is not dependent on a single industry nor on unstable resource development. Yet many of the resources are virtually untouched, a major one being the water resources. Agriculture, coal and metal min- ing, lumbering, fishing, and transportation have com- bined to serve as a nucleus for a stable economy. Lack of power and other water resource development has thus far prevented an even more impressive “chain re- action” that would not only expand the existing de- velopments, but would attract new manufacturing industries to the area. The basin embraces a roughly elliptical area of about 35,000 square miles trending north-northeast by south- southwest and almost entirely enclosed by high moun- tain ranges. The inlet is 150 miles long and about 30 miles wide, terminating in Knik Arm and Turnagain ‘Arm near Anchorage. The western and northern boundaries of the basin are the Aleutian Range and the Alaska Range with many peaks over 10,000 feet in ele- vation, all dwarfed by Mount McKinley near the north end of the area. There are passes to the Yukon- Kuskokwim Plateau, however, that are below 3,000 $GI 154° see : 150° lee KEY MAP rd @ 0 200 aon Scole temmbemmed Miles LOCATION MAP SOUTHCENTRAL REGION COOK INLET AREA 0 10 20 30 40 50 ee SEES nites oe > is > n 5B , i USING THE WATER feet in elevation, notably Broad Pass at 2,400 feet used by the Alaska Railroad. The drainage divide with the Copper River Basin to the east is on the Copper River Plateau near 3,000 feet in elevation. The divide on the southeast is the crest line of that portion of the rugged Chugach Range from Copper River to the end of the Kenai Peninsula. Many major and minor streams originate in glaciers on the slopes of the mountains. The glaciers are rem- nants of the Ice Age when all of the mountains were capped by ice masses that moved down to coalesce in the basin area and to move southwestward to the sea. It was this mass ice movement that shaped the existing lowland topography by erosion of preexisting valleys and deposition of drift in its wake. The general topog- raphy has been little modified since the Ice Age. The broad lower Susitna River Valley, the Knik Arm area, the lowlands near Tyonek, and the west side of Kenai Peninsula are all glacially built terraces that are exist- ing or potential farming areas. A typical profile across a side of the basin would show a high, snow-topped mountain with glaciers in the upper valleys, steep slopes with deeply incised valleys often containing lakes, foot- hills that merge with high-level terraces, lower-level terraces, and a beach or stream floodplain. The bedrock of the basin is of all geologic ages and includes sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. The diverse geologic activity through all the geologic periods has resulted in formation of nonmetallic and metallic minerals in the basin that have not been thoroughly prospected. Lode and placer gold and coal have been exploited more than any other minerals, but chromite and tungsten have been produced, and copper, antimony, lead, and other minerals are known to be present. The most important towns in the area are Anchorage, near the junction of Knik Arm and Turnagain Arm, and Palmer, in the Matanuska Valley farming area. For the discussion of potential water use, the Cook Inlet Area is divided into the following principal ba- sins: Kasilof River, Kenai River, Sixmile Creek, Ek- lutna Creek, Matanuska River, Susitna River, Beluga River, and Chakachatna River. Kasilof River Basin Tustumena Lake, 25 miles long and 5 miles wide, is the outstanding feature of the Kasilof River Basin. The lake lies in the lowland between the Kenai Moun- tains, from which its inflow comes, and Cook Inlet. The river itself is only about 15 miles long. There are no apparent power developments within the basin. The importance of the basin lies chiefly in its agricultural possibilities and the fact that much of it is underlain 988410—52—12 155 by coal-bearing sediments. A comprehensive study has not yet been made of the possible benefits of irriga- tion and drainage. Kenai River Basin The salient features of the Kenai River basin are the numerous lakes, largest of which are Kenai Lake and Skilak Lake. The main stream heads in Kenai Lake at elevation 435. The lake, 24 miles long and more than 1 mile wide, is served by many tributaries in the Kenai Mountains. Many of the tributaries, most of which head in glaciers, have lakes in their courses. From Kenai Lake the stream flows for 15 miles through an ex- tension of the valley occupied by the lake, but filled with glacial sediments. The stream has cut a secondary valley into those sediments. Cooper Creek and Rus- sian Creek, heading in lakes to the south, are the largest tributaries entering this section of the river. It then enters Skilak Lake, 16 miles long and 214 miles wide, at elevation 150 feet, from which it meanders some 40 miles to Cook Inlet. The Alaska Railroad passes through a large part of the basin near the eastern side, paralleled in part by a highway that is being extended from Seward to Anchor- age. Both ends of Kenai Lake can be reached by road from Seward, and seasonal road travel is possible to the mouth of the river. A small amount of mining activity takes place in the basin, but not to full potentialities. Gold, antimony, and an unknown amount of other me- tallic minerals occur in the upper basin, and coal de- posits underlie a large portion of the lower basin. Tourist trade has been of importance because of the scenery, accessibility, and variety of game. Farming in the lower basin is a prospect for development. The basin offers numerous possibilities for small- power installations at relatively low construction cost. The only development considered is one using Kenai Lake for storage. Kenai Lake Site An earthfill dam 100 feet high with a crest length of 1,800 feet, near Coopers Landing at the outlet of Kenai Lake would back water over the delta being built into Kenai Lake at the southeast end by the braided mouth of Snow River. This would bring the lake waters closer to the divide with the Resurrection Bay drainage to the south, which may be further accomplished by a small amount of dredging in the Snow River. The di- vide area, made up principally of bedrock, would be pierced by a tunnel less than 4 miles long from Kenai Lake to Bear Lake, now at elevation 200. By means of 156 a one-half-mile tunnel to Lost Creek, Bear Lake could be lowered at least 50 feet. A power plant at the north end of Bear Lake would produce more than 140,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Control of Kenai Lake by the dam and tunnel would provide an active storage capacity of 1,000,000 acre-feet. The power plant would be within the boundaries of the Gulf of Alaska area. Conditions are favorable for tying this power production into networks to the north as well as to Seward and the nearby outlying villages and farms. Highway and railroad relocation would be involved in the plan given above. Sixmile Creek Basin Sixmile Creek, on Kenai Peninsula, drains northward from the Kenai Mountains to Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet. Nine miles from its mouth the creek divides into the East Fork Sixmile Creek and Canyon Creek. Small glaciers and lakes occur at the heads of the minor tribu- taries. All of Canyon Creek and the main stem, and the lower part of East Fork, are in narrow rock canyons. Gold placer mining is taking place in the basin, and a road from Turnagain Arm to Seward and other Kenai points passes through the basin. Construction opera- tions are underway to connect the road to Anchorage. Two damsites were investigated, but there is doubt about their practicability because of inadequate storage capacity. Eklutna Creek Basin Eklutna Creek enters Knik Arm from the Chugach Mountains 24 miles northeast of Anchorage. The prin- cipal feature of the basin is Eklutna Lake, which is at an elevation of 868 feet and is 7 miles long and 1 mile wide. The lake is in a steep-sided trough-like valley, 23 miles long, headed by a glacier and snow field. The City of Anchorage has censtructed a low storage dam at the lake outlet, a downstream diversion dam, and a tunnel to a power plant which has an installed capacity of 2,000 kilowatts. The urgent need for power in the Anchorage vicinity resulted in a study of the possibili- ties of more complete regulation of the waters of upper Eklutna Creek. Preliminary work was done by the Geological Survey, and recent investigations have been completed by the Bureau of Reclamation. The contem- plated improvements include (1) reconstruction of the existing storage dam and spillway to raise the normal lake surface 2 feet, (2) construction of a tunnel 414 miles long to carry the water northward toward Knik Arm, and (3) construction of penstocks and a power plant on the south side of Knik Arm. The active reser- ALASKA voir capacity of 123,000 acre-feet would partially regu- late the runoff. The aunual firm generation would exceed 100,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Matanuska River Basin Matanuska River, about 65 miles long, heads in the Matanuska Glacier and flows into the east end of Knik Arm of Cook Inlet. The river and its floodplain form a valley within a valley, the higher-level valley being a broad, U-shaped, irregular trough carved by glaciers. The terrace thus formed is partially bedrock, and a much smaller portion is topped by unconsolidated fill and small lakes. The remainder of the basin consists of mountain slopes deeply etched by tributary streams, The basin is best known for the pioneer agricultural colonies near the mouth. Coal resources are also impor- tant. Gold and tungsten are produced near the basin. The largest town is Palmer, located in the agri- cultural area of the lower valley. Caribou Creek, Chickaloon River and Kings River are the principal tributaries. Four sites are considered for potential power production. Caribou Creek Sites Caribou Creek flows into Matanuska River at its head near Matanuska Glacier. A preliminary study of the stream suggests partial regulation of the runoff at a site 5 miles above the mouth, where a concrete dam 350 feet high would have a crest length of 1,000 feet. The runoff would be partially regulated by an active storage capacity of 170,000 acre-feet. A power plant at this site, designated Caribou Creek No. 1, would generate in excess of 40,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. The tailwater could be diverted through a 5-mile tunnel to a second power plant, Caribou Creek No. 2, located just above the normal water surface of the reservoir at Matanuska River Site No. 1. The annual firm output of Caribou Creek No. 2 would be more than 60,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Matanuska River Site No. 1 The higher of two power sites on the Matanuska River is located one-half mile downstream from Hicks Creek. The flood plain of the river, 400 feet wide, is confined by steep rock walls. Bedrock is at an un- known depth, probably too deep for consideration of a concretedam. An earthfill dam constructed to a height of 400 feet above the river level would have a crest MAX. RESERVOIR W.S. EL. 2153 (PLAN A) ~— ' 2150 MARSH LAKE wl. 2/23 EL. 2098 W.S. EL. 2065 EL. 2/4/ ELEVATION — FEET = 1 KI 1 2° ' ate iz WS. EL. 2063.83—~ Mute aig r 0=12,000 CFS 2050 ik ere ‘ MIN. NAVIG. 3 Vis POWER | DRAFT ° =X PLANT 1 \= 5400 KW | 1S 1 100 110 \ WHITEHORSE MILES x tr 1 | sate = PROFILE of LEWES RIVER - MARSH LAKE to WHITEHORSE : i s!8 4000; a! ii x |» xz, alk aw 2/2 2 (© w i & 3 e 3500F < a f[& Q S/& 1 Oly a KR 3000 COAST RANGE xi ° Giz ~ rIS i & | S 2500k x als 2500 > 1 ww ' MAX. RESERVOIR W.S. EL. 2153 a ——— = 2000 [ eee | ee eI Tce C MNT hese ao UTS HE RE AAR A Shee A ey mee AI SQM pei] enema CIMA I IAN SELINA EMM dea | ; : ; i 20 LAKE LAKE BENNETT TAGISH LAKE MARSH LAK LEWES RIVER \ ! PENSTOCKS LINDEMAN i aaa aie fi al iis A 1500 : Sei: * Ji500 PLAN A PLAN B 'S m1 | \ CAPACITY 225,000 KW 562,000 KW — ( CONTINUOUS POWER ) | ix = ot 3 1000 inn aa===te-POWER PLANT NO.1 {DISCHARGE — 3,170 CFS 7,890 CFS Kl Se ° TUNNEL LENGTH 4 MILES HEAD 1,000 FT. 1,000 FT. = x BS Sliiinny a 1 w& x ty & ° KI wy PENSTOCKS PLAN A PLAN 8B ele 1 Ss f 500 ail a. a w 4 500 CAPACITY 225,000 Kw 562,000 KW = ( CONTINUOUS POWER ) {3 RH PZAOISCHARGE — 3,170 CFS 7,890 CFS i S| ‘ Aer ee POWER fara fe aan | Uitte i an FT. ; ' oa —1_ 4 cl SEE 4 ul 1 4 ere 1 ae i 1 1 {4 4 1 1 TAIYA INLET ° 2 4 6 8 10 12 141 20 25 30. «35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 OSS 120. 125.130 MILES \ MILES I % tal 9 sic Za |TAIYA RIVER. POWER PROJECT — ALASKA x= PROFILE of RESERVOIR, TUNNELS, and PENSTOCKS \3% Six 7 af 38 RESERVOIR and POWER PLANTS is ws | PROFILE 23] DRAWN Sie; SUBMITTED G5] TRACED M.T.Y. RECOMMENDED SS] CHECKED APPROVED z a DENVER, GOLORADO, NOVEMBER!, 1947 | c/GURE No.2 988410 O—52 (Face. Public Library Anehorags, Alast USING THE WATER Jength of 1,200 feet and would impound 290,000 acre- fect of active storage. Firm energy generation at this cite would exceed 100,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. silting of the reservoir would be a problem. Rush Lake Site By diverting the flow of Boulder Creek, a lower tributary of Chickaloon River, at a point 6 miles up- stream from their confluence, it would be possible to utilize natural basins to the south for storage. From the point of diversion the water would be conveyed by a 6,500-foot canal and a 2,600-foot tunnel to Rush Lake at 2.400 feet elevation, thence by a 1,500-foot tunnel to the unnamed lakes to the south at elevation 1,900, and finally by a 6,000-foot tunnel and a penstock to a power plant at the Matanuska River elevation of 930 feet. A 25-foot-high dam at the outlet of Rush Lake and a 100- foot dam and 90-foot saddle dike on the lower lake combined with drawdown tunnels tapping each lake, would be necessary to provide 60,000 acre-feet of active storage space. The power plant would produce at least 40,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy annually. Matanuska River Site No. 2 Nine miles upstream from Palmer, the Matanuska River makes two sharp turns in passing through a rela- tively narrow rock canyon with nearly vertical walls 175 feet high. The floodplain extends from wall to wall, a width of 450 feet. The depth to bedrock is unknown, but if it is too great for a concrete dam, an earth dam could be constructed to raise the water 150 feet above the floodplain. The active storage capacity of 180.000 acre-feet would only partially regulate the inflow below the upstream reservoirs. The annual firm production of a power plant at this site would exceed 90,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Economic regulation of the runoff would require more storage than suggested above, particularly if a large amount of dead storage is required for silt deposition. There are some possi- hilities of additional upstream storage, but these have not been studied in sufficient detail. Susitna River Basin The Susitna River is the most strategically situated of all Alaska streams by virtue of its proximity to Anchor- age and Fairbanks and the connecting railbelt. The hasin occupies the northern half of the Cook Inlet Area and is bounded on the west and north by the Alaska Range, and on the east by the Copper River Plateau. 157 The river enters Cook Inlet 25 miles west of Anchorage. The main stream heads in a series of glacier-bearing peaks 90 miles south of Fairbanks and 200 miles north- east of Anchorage. The highest of the peaks is Mount Hayes at 13,940 feet. The course of the river for 50 miles is generally southward over a broad alluvial fan and plateau. It then turns sharply westward for 75 miles through a practically continuous canyon incised in a high-level broad valley and thence abruptly south for 125 miles ina broad lowland. The principal tributaries head in high mountain glaciers: the Maclaren River, heading in the Alaska Range; Tyone River from the Talkeetna Mountains; Chulitna River from the Alaska Range in Mount McKinley National Park; Talkeetna River from the Talkeetna Mountains; and the Yentna River system, from a large portion of the Alaska Range. The economic activity is chiefly in the lower 120 miles of the basin along the Alaska Railroad. Placer gold, lode gold, tungsten, and construction materials are pro- duced in the basin. Coal and other minerals are pres- ent, but have received little attention. However, the possibilities of power production and other uses of the Susitna River, including flood control, will vitally affect the economy of the entire railbelt from the Kenai Peninsula to Fairbanks. No large settlements are located within the basin itself. A reconnaissance of the Susitna River basin suggested seven sites for potential power development: three on the main stem, three on the Talkeetna River, and one on Sheep River, a tributary of the Talkeetna. There is an excellent possibility of adding one or more low-head sites on the Susitna, downstream from Site No. 3 after up-stream regulation is substantially complete. The Yentna and Chulitna basins have not been explored, but maps indicate they warrant future study. Susitna River Site No. 1 The highest site for a dam on the Susitna River is near the upstream end of the 75-mile canyon section 17 miles below the mouth of Tyone River. It would serve the double function of creating head for this site and impounding regulatory storage for this and downstream sites. The main dam would be in a steep-walled, rock canyon 100 feet wide at the bottom. A concrete dam 575 feet high with a crest length of 1,200 feet would create a reservoir with 9,000,000 acre-feet of active capacity. The left bank would require a supplemen- tary concrete or earthfill saddle dike 225 feet high and 4,500 feet long. The bedrock is steeply dipping meta- morphic rock believed capable of supporting the struc- tures with low to moderate cost of grouting and strip- ping. The canyon is topographically favorable for a 158 ALASKA 3 ee a eT ieee Potential damsite on the Matanuska River. gravity arch dam. A power plant at this site would generate more than 2,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Susitna River Site No. 2 Thirty-six miles downstream from Site No. 1 the val- ley bottom is less than 300 feet wide and rock slopes rise far above the river at 45° angles. Bedrock is be- lieved to be at a reasonable depth below the floodplain. A concrete dam raising the water 425 feet would create a reservoir reaching to the tailwater of Site No. 1, and containing 1,000,000 acre-feet of active storage space. The annual output at this power plant would exceed 2,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy. Susitna River Site No. 3 (Devil Canyon Site) The third site on the Susitna is 30 miles downstream from Site No. 2, near the mouth of the canyon section. In this reach of the 75-mile canyon, the river occupies the entire width of the valley bottom and creates rapids and low waterfalls over bedrock and shallow over- burden. The rock walls rise on steep slopes, approach- ing vertical in places, to heights of 600 to 1,000 feet above the stream. The bedding of the partly metamor- phosed rock is almost vertical and at nearly right angles to the direction of the canyon. The site is topographi- cally favorable for a concrete gravity arch dam, but the rock quality has not been investigated. A dam high enough to raise the water 525 feet would have a crest length of 1,000 feet and create backwater to Site No. 2. The active storage capacity would be 1,000,000 acre-feet. The firm energy production would be more than 2,600,- (00,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Talkeetna River Site No. 1 Talkeetna River, which enters Susitna River 80 miles above its mouth, is geologically and hydrologically simi- lar to the Upper Susitna. most of the storage regulation for the three Talkeetna sites, is located 40 miles above the mouth of the river. A concrete dam 325 feet high would have a crest length of 2,500 feet and would create an active storage capacity of 750,000 acre-feet, only partially regulating the flow. Site No. 1 which provides A power plant at the dam would generate in excess of 140,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Talkeetna River Site No. 2 Twelve miles downstream from Site No. 1 the stream is in a narrow canyon adaptable for a concrete dam 325 feet high with a crest length of 900 feet. Such a dam would impound 220,000 acre-feet, regulating all the in- flow below Site No. 1 and backing the water up to that site. The firm energy output would exceed 200,000,000 kilowatt-hours each year. USING THE WATER ‘Talkeetna River Site No. 3 The stream flows through another narrow canyon 10 miles below Site No. 2, just below the mouth of Disap- pointment Creek. A conerete dam, high enough to raise the water 225 feet utilizing all the head below Site No. 2, would have a crest length of 500 feet. The ac- tive storage capacity would be 320,000 acre-feet, only partially regulating the incremental inflow. More than 200,000,009 kilowatt-hours of firm energy would be produced each year. Sheep River Site Sheep River enters the Talkeetna 6 miles downstream from Talkeetna Site No. 3. The river flows over a broad valley for most of its length but is constricted in a canyon 14 miles above its mouth. A conerete dam 5 feet high with a 1,500-foot crest length would pro- vide 520,000 acre-feet of active storage, partially regu- lating the stream. A power plant at this site would have a firm generation of at least 70,000,000 kilowatt- hours annually. v2 Beluga River Basin Only a small part of the Beluga River basin has been topographically mapped. A cursory reconnaissance in the basin disclosed that the stream, heading at large glaciers in high mountains, enlarges to a lake where it enters the lowland area, and thence passes through a low ridge before reaching Cook Inlet. A dam 22 miles above the mouth could back water into the lake area, but data are insuflicient to estimate the potential energy that might be generated. Chakachatna River Basin The central feature of the Chakachatna River basin is Chakachamna Lake at elevation 1,170. The lake, 14 miles long and 2 miles wide, is deeply nestled among high mountains, the tallest of which is Mount Spurr, 11,050 feet high. Two glaciers reach the lake. One forms a barrier between Chakachamna Lake and 6-mile- long Kenibuna Lake, and the other partially blocks the outlet of Chakachamna Lake. The lake is fed by four other large glaciers and numerous small ones. From the lake, Chakachatna River flows around Barrier Glacier before entering a moderately broad terrace and rock-walled valley. After flowing 13 miles in this valley, the river enters the lowland, which it traverses an additional 25 miles to Cook Inlet. The rock on the north side of the deep valley section is composed largely 159 of lavas from Mount Spurr, the northernmost volcano of the Aleutian group. The south bank is granitic, while the outcrops of the lowland are coal-bearing sedi- mentary rocks. The best damsite below the ice barrier of the lake is 4 miles downstream where a dam 300 feet high with a 2,000-foot crest length would provide 2,100,000 acre- feet of active storage. The water would be conveyed from the dam through a 9-mile tunnel to a power plant in the valley, resulting in a firm output of more than $80,060,000 kilowatt-hours annually. Cook Inlet Tidal Power Cook Inlet has one of the highest tidal ranges in the world. Among the combination of factors that cause such large differences between high and low tides, at times exceeding 50 feet, are the configuration of the inlet and its bottom topography. This potentiality is worthy of future study. Potential damsite on the Susitna River. This and other sites in the rail belt arca have impressive power possi- bilities. 160 SOUTHWESTERN REGION The Southwestern Region comprises the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and the area which drains into Bristol Bay south and east of the Kusko- kwim River basin. There is only a small amount of data on the major streams in the region. The follow- ing discussion indicates the lack of necessary informa- tion and suggests areas for future investigation. There are no major settlements within the region. Basins Southwest of Egekik Basin The Aleutian Islands and the southwestern end of the Alaska Peninsula are featured by small drainage basins and numerous volcanoes. Of the 39 volcanoes that have been active since 1760, all but 7 are situated west of the Egekik River basin. At least 19 others show evidence of activity in very recent geologic time. The important discovery of zine on Unga Island of the Shumagin Group near the southwestern end of the Alaska Peninsula, and showings of zine on Sedanka Island near Dutch Harbor in the Fox Island Group, offer encouragement for prospective industries. Like other mineral industries in Alaska, economic develop- ment of the resources would depend largely on avail- ability of low-cost hydroelectric power. The paucity of water resources in the areas and the impracticability of power transmission from areas rich in potential hydropower suggest emphasis on the study of the po- tential energy of the superheated rock in the Aleutian Are. Egekik River Basin The Egekik River is an unimportant feature of its basin. Becharof Lake, occupying a large portion of the basin, is about 40 miles long, extending southeast- ward to within 5 miles of the Pacific Ocean. The exact elevation of the lake is unknown, but it is probably too low for hydroelectric development. Hot springs on the shore of Becharof Lake, associated with Mount Peulik, an active volcano, offer some evidence of potential vol- canic energy development in the area. Prospective use of the energy thus created would depend on the ultimate exploitation of the zinc resources of the district. The southwest end of the Alaska Peninsula has not been thoroughly prospected, but showings of iron, lead, cop- per, coal, and oil, as well as the zinc, have been noted. Naknek River Basin The Naknek River basin is similar to the Egekik basin. Naknek Lake, some 50 miles long, and evidences ALASKA of volcanic action are the principal natural features. The lake and its arms are nestled among volcanic moun- tains on the east, but the west side is in a low coastal plain and is probably less than 50 feet above sea level. Most of the lake is within the boundaries of the Mount Katmai National Monument, established because of the natural wonders of the voleanic activity of the area. Of particular interest is the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, where countless jets of steam issue from a net- work of fissures or from domes or craters. The super- heated steam is invisible where it first rushes out with a temperature of 1.200° F. It is believed that part of the steam is derived from vaporization of surface drain- age, but the presence of some gases other than water vapor suggest that much of it may be of volcanic origin. Practically no seasonal change is noted in the behavior of the jets. but some unconfirmed reports indicate some general decline in activity in the past decade. Exploitation of voleanic energy has been undertaken in Ttaly and it is possible that utilization of the sub- surface energy of the Naknek and other southwestern Alaska areas, including the Aleutian Islands, may be feasible. Except for the important fishing and canning indus- tries on the coast, there are no important industries in the area at present. Even the number of tourists visiting the national monument is small. Koichak River Basin The Kvichak River basin may best be identified by the two large lakes in the basin: Lake Clark with an area of 143 square miles, and Lake Iliamna, the largest in Alaska, with 1,226 square miles. The basin, 60 miles wide, extends northeastward from the northeast tip of Bristol Bay for a distance of 170 miles into the north- west slopes of the Aleutian Range. The streams entering Lake Clark are short, and most of them have high gradients. Some of the streams have glacial lakes along their courses. At least one of these, the Tanalian River, contains a lake favorably situated for power development. The lake is 14 miles long and is fed by melting glaciers. The site has not been investi- gated in the field, but it is reported to lie near elevation 560 or 345 feet above Lake Clark. Lake Clark drains into Lake Tliamna by way of Newhalen River, with a drop of 165 feet in 23 miles. A low-head development may be possible here. Most of the streams entering Lake Iliamna are short creeks with high gradients draining from the north and east. Some of these streams contain high-level lakes. Pile Bay on the east end of the lake is separated from Cook Tnlet by a low mountain ridge 12 miles wide. Field studies of the geology and hydrology of the area have —_—- 21 5 MESSY AAS i a Ae 2A AR a ASANO 60° see — a nD gv A Q 4 jan} = _ i > \ 4 \ mh \ ” \ \ Leg at KEY MAP 9 10 200 Scole tet Miles LOCATION MAP SOUTHWESTERN REGION 0 10 20 3% 40 30 sere ETE mies 19T 162 not been made, but there appear to be excellent possi- bilities of low-head hydroelectric development by tunneling through the ridge to a power plant at Cook Inlet. The high tidal range in the inlet should be con- sidered in a project here. Kvichak River, draining Lake Iliamna, is 60 miles long with the lower half affected by tides. It is navi- gable by launches and barges from Bristol Bay to the lake. There are no important industries within the basin at present but prospects are very good in the mineral industry, especially in combination with the mineral- ization on the southeast slopes of the Alaska Range. Copper looks most susceptible of future development but prospecting has also revealed the presence of silver, placer gold, oil and gas showings, and oil shale. The basin is near areas of recent voleanic activity and there is some possibility of utilizing volcanic energy. Mount Iliamna and nearby Augustine Island issue steam, but there is no direct evidence of favorable geo- thermal conditions within the basin. A sulphur spring on the shore of Lake Iliamna issues cool water. Nushagak River Basin The Nushagak River basin embraces an area from Bristol Bay 220 miles northeastward to the divide with the Kuskokwim basin. It has a width of 100 miles be- tween the Tikchik Mountains to the west and the Kvichak River basin to the southeast. Most of the basin is of a low coastal plain character with only isolated hills. The northwest side of the basin is featured by 12 “finger” lakes emerging from rugged hill slopes. Lake Nerka. with an area of 78 square miles, is the largest of the lakes, which average 34 square miles. The lakes were formed by Ice Age glaciers that carved the preexisting valleys far below sea level. The outlet ends of the lakes are in the coastal plain and it is unknown if sufficient head can be de- veloped for power production, though they have not been examined in the field. The lakes, reached by the Nushagak and Wood Rivers, are spawning grounds for the salmon that form the important fishing industry of Bristol Bay. Togiak River Basin Little is known about the details of the Togiak River basin. The basin is located southeast of the delta of the Kuskokwim River. It is 80 miles long and 30 miles wide, trending northeast-southwest. Togiak River, with no important tributaries, drains into Bristol Bay. The headwaters are in a mountainous area with some ALASKA peaks rising above 5,000 feet. The mountains have been glaciated, resulting in many lakes within the basin, Togiak Lake, largest of these, is 15 miles long. The lack of adequate information on the basin precludes any discussion of development of the stream. YUKON-KUSKOKWIM REGION Most of Alaska is a plateau lying between the Alaska Range on the south and the Brooks Range on the north. The major portion of this area is drained by the Yukon River and the Kuskokwim River, the two largest streams in Alaska. Only a portion of the vast power potentialities of the region have been reconnoitered. Kuskokwim River Basin The Kuskokwim River is the second largest stream in Alaska in both length and drainage area. The basin, 500 miles long and averaging 100 miles in width, trends northeast-southwest, paralleling in part the lower course of the Yukon. The northeastern two-thirds of the basin is a broad lowland with topographic continu- ity northward into the Kantishna basin and southward into the Nushagak basin. The drainage divides into both these basins at elevations less than 800 feet. This part of the Kuskokwim basin is enclosed by the Alaska Range on the southeast and the dissected plateau form- ing the Kuskokwim Hills on the northwest. The principal feature of this section is the vast plain, covered with swamps and tundra, sloping gently north- westward. The plain was built up by outwash from the glaciers of the Ice Age and sediments from the pres- ent tributaries and has forced the main stream into the slopes of the Kuskokwim Hills. The stream mean- ders near the base of the hills for more than 200 miles to Sleitmut, where it abruptly assumes a course west- ward for 80 miles. In this section the valley narrows abruptly from 100 miles to an average of about 1 mile. After leaving the hills, the stream flows over the large featureless delta built jointly with the Yukon River. There are no outstanding tributaries to the Kusko- kwim. The largest of these originate in the Alaska Range and flow northwestward to join the main stream near the Kuskokwim Hills. These include the South Fork, Big, Swift, Stony, and Hoholitna Rivers. The principal tributaries from the Kuskokwim Hills are the Takotna, Holitna, George, and Aniak Rivers. The largest settlements in the basin are Bethel, near the mouth, and McGrath, at the confluence with the Takotna. The entire basin is within the region of permanently frozen ground. It is not implied that all of the ground <a LER E USING THE WATER Damsite near Georgetown, Alaska, on Kuskokwim River. A reservoir here would have great power possibilities. remains frozen through all seasons, for the amount and distribution of ground ice is a function of the nature of the soil, ground-water conditions, topography, and other modifying factors. It is likely that artificial drainage and cultivation can modify some areas of permafrost to excellent farm land. The present economy of the area is based on trapping and mining in the upper basin and fishing and trapping in the lower basin. The mineral resources include placer gold and tin, mercury, and antimony vein de- posits, and some coal in the Kuskokwim Hills. Plat- inum is obtained from placer workings in the lower basin. No commercial farming is practiced in the basin. Until extensive surveys are made, the potential eco- nomic development of the basin is difficult to predict. The extent of presently arable lands and of the areas that may be reclaimed by irrigation or drainage is 163 unknown. Subject to extensive surveys of the lands and the mineral resources, the principal potential use of the water of the basin is power development. The prospective uses for the power are limited to industries in other basins and to those that may be attracted by abundant power. Kuskokwim River Site Although some sites for development of power may exist on some of the tributaries, consideration has been given to only one large development on the main stream. There are several possible sites for dams in the stretch of the river that flows through the Kuskokwim Hills. The best site is situated about 8 miles upstream from the village of Crooked Creek. The floodplain is 1,500 feet wide abutting directly on moderately steep bedrock slopes on both banks. The alluvium of the floodplain is of unknown depth and character, but is probably relatively impervious and of moderate bearing capacity. An earthfill dam to create a reservoir with a surface elevation 300 feet above the river bed would have a crest length of 3,000 feet. A reservoir at that elevation would have a surface area of 1,800,000 acres and a total capacity of 230,000,000 acre-feet of which 40,000,000 acre-feet would be active storage. It would take 10 years to fill the reservoir. A power plant at this site could produce more than 4,800,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. In consideration of a dam height of optimum value it should be realized that a considerable part of the area covered by the reservoir may be more valuable as farm land or placer property. The most economical dam height also depends on the exact height of the saddles to the Kantishna and Nushagak basins and on the length of time required to fill the reservoir. Yukon River Basin The Yukon is one of the great rivers of North America, ranking fifth in length and in size of basin area. Heading in British Columbia within 30 miles of the Pacific Ocean it flows northwest 900 miles to enter Alaska at the town of Eagle. The river crosses and recrosses the Arctic Circle near Fort Yukon, veers to the southwest, and flows through a many-mouthed delta into the Bering Sea, having traversed 1,400 miles and fallen 800 feet in its course across Alaska. The mouth of the river is more than 300 miles inside the Bering Sea winter ice field. Features of the basin are the Yukon Flats on and near the Arctic Circle with an area of 10,000 square miles, and the coastal lowland and delta region, extending inland about 100 164 ALASKA Damsite at mile 356 on Nenana River. miles from the Bering Sea. Over half of the total drainage area of 330,000 square miles lies in Canada. The potential power resources of the region are vast and undeveloped. More than 16,000,000,000 kilowatt- hours of firm energy could be produced each year at sites on the main stem of the Yukon River alone. This is equivalent to an annual discharge of 8,000,000 barrels of oil from the Yukon River into the Bering Sea. During several months in the summer, the sea and the river are open to navigation, and river steamers carry freight and passengers as far up the Yukon as Whitehorse, Canada, a distance of 1,960 miles. Tanana River, the principal tributary, is navigable for large steamers to Nenana, and for small steamers, except during periods of low water, to Fairbanks. During high water the Tanana is navigable as far as the mouth of Delta River. Porcupine River is navigable; a launch can be chartered at Fort Yukon to Rampart House in Yukon Territory near the International Boundary. Down the Yukon at the town of Koyukuk, connection is made with boats operating on the Koyukuk River to Bettles. Covered freight barges are pushed by the steamers, The Yukon, like every river, has v personality that must be studied and understood before control is at- tempted. Here the difficulty is ice. There are two seasons in the north country, the “closed” season when the Yukon is frozen over and the “open” season when it is open to navigation. Any time after October 1, but usually in November, slush ice forms in the river and slowly bridges into a stationary sheet, reaching a maximum thickness in April. In May the melting snow causes the river to rise rapidly and thus the ice breaks. Jams are frequent, and huge blocks of ice 3 to 8 feet thick pile up and push out on the banks until the obstruction moves or a new channel forms. In the upper part of the river 10 days are usually required for all the ice to pass a given point. One of the peculiarities of the basin is the high ratio of runoff to precipitation which averaged more than 65 percent for the years 1911-13. Principal reasons for such high runoff are short growing season, sparse vege- tation, receding glaciers, low evaporation, and ground that is perpetually frozen to bedrock except for a sur- face layer that thaws in the summer. Fairbanks is the most important town in the basin. The four divisions for discussion of potential power 158° 136° isa 2° oar — 7 a N J ) 4 y KEY MAP ig WA 6 a Seote meted Miles 4 ra “e pM GRATING P 160° 7 Y 4 /s4 \ i i 62 i ? pert Be LOCATION MAP PVN k ) “5 Sf N YUKON-KUSKOKWIM REGION Ae SAY ‘ KUSKOKWIM RIVER BASIN ‘ - oy ‘ ° 10 20 © 40 50 Seo TES ites — a WALVM AHL ONISA col 166 development are: Upper Yukon River Area, Yukon Flats Area, Tanana River Basin, and Lower Yukon River Area. Upper Yukon River Area At the upper end of the basin, only a few miles from the Pacific Ocean, the glaciers astride the Coast Range that separates Alaska and British Columbia mark the beginning of the Yukon. The difference in elevation between top and toe of the glaciers on the Yukon Slope is more than 5,000 feet. The melt cascades into a group of parallel glaciated valleys to form several of the most beautiful lakes in Canada. These lakes—Atlin, Fan- tail, Tagish, Tutshi, and Bennett—have a total surface area of about 500 square miles. The general elevation of the lakes in this region is 2,100 feet above sea level and their drainage area is 5,000 square miles. The physical conditions are favorable for regulating nearly 6,000,000 acre-feet of the flow of Lewes River and di- verting the water to power plants on the Taiya River near Skagway. The plan was discussed previously under the Juneau Area of the Southeastern Region. White River Basin White River is the first important tributary of the Yukon which drains a portion of Alaska. Heading on the north slope of the St. Elias Range, the river flows generally northward from Alaska to the Yukon River in Canada. Less than half of the drainage area is in Alaska. Runoff is heavy, but the only possible dam sites are in the canyon just across the International Boundary in Canada. Fortymile River Basin Crossing the border from Alaska, the Fortymile River joins the Yukon in Canada. Most of the round- shaped basin drained by its North and South Forks is in Alaska. Below the confluence of the forks the river enters a long canyon section. Reconnaissance maps show good topography for dam sites in V-shaped can- yon sections, but photographs and descriptions indicate possible difficulties with a heavy overburden of gravel. Field investigation, however, would no doubt reveal some feasible dam sites. A dam on the main stem, in a canyon below the mouth of Steel Creek, would be 375 feet high with a 2,000-foot crest and would impound 2,900,000 acre-feet of active storage. A power plant at this site would produce more than 250,000,000 kilowatt- hours of firm energy each vear. ALASKA Eagle-Circle Development This development is named for the two villages of Eagle and Circle, located on the Yukon River 10 miles and 150 miles, respectively, below the International Boundary. Reconnaissance maps indicate a constricted section on the river in the reach between 50 miles and 37 miles upstream from Circle. The possibility of finding a dam site in this section is unknown. Extensive inves- tigations would be necessary to determine ice storage requirements in the reservoir before any estimate could be made of a potential economical dam height. Such studies might disclose the necessity of storing the break- up ice from 900 miles of the river upstream in Canada plus that from tributaries. Any studies of this site should be integrated with additional studies on the Rampart site, downstream, and the possible diversion of waters from the Lewes River, upstream. Yukon Flats Area At Circle the Yukon River enters a valley that is 200 miles long and from 40 to 100 miles wide. This is the Yukon Flats. The climate is severe with wide extremes in temperature between summer and winter. From 2 to 20 miles wide, the river in this stretch has many new and old channels with innumerable islands. The stream gradient is less than 1 foot per mile. A number of years ago an agricultural experiment station was operated at Rampart in the lower end of the valley. From results obtained it is known that thousands of acres are suitable for agricultural produc- tion. There are more than eight million acres below an elevation of 1,000 feet, but hundreds of lakes cover from one to two million acres. Porcupine River Basin Fort Yukon, the largest settlement in the flats, is lo- cated one mile north of the Arctic Circle at the con- fluence of the Yukon River and the Porcupine River. The latter river is an artery of commerce for northeast- ern Alaska and a means of access to the MacKenzie River delta country in Canada. Midway upstream it crosses the International Boundary in a canyon 75 miles long. Some 30 or 40 miles of the canyon are in Alaska. Available data are insufficient to determine potentiali- ties for control and development, but eventually this section of the river should be investigated. Chandalar River Basin The Chandalar River heads on the south slope of Brooks Range and flows south to join the Yukon 20 miles ou SR Hae a aeteategitty | ei taeth init Ea Ie USING THE WATER 167 KEY MAP ® 4 if © 0 200 7 Scole tet Miles Ly : A 7 > IN user e Forniwyhe Fok Aya] et iz - PP i IC a re) —™~ Dw / 7 SET ? Ry ee Trt 4 SY STEWAR re EAS GE 7 NY Si x are 2p L i 7 SELAIRK \r) li 4 \ Yan ai MeN it ‘ | \ ¢ > he 1 x 62° oF \ ; tA \SLMC 7 “2 | J ‘ SO A XN yo VipNet 7 / > Nene wets XO ( lea M yf Sy Ne uit ' Set 7 x 45 NI LOCATION MAP a SS YUKON-KUSKOKWIM REGION oH UPPER YUKON RIVER AREA 0 10 20 % 40 SO soe ESTES Nites 168 downstream from Fort Yukon. Data are unavailable for an estimate of power potentialities. Promising mining development exists at the headwaters near the village of Chandalar between North Fork and Middle Fork, 120 miles by trail from the Yukon River. Rampart Site At the village of Stevens 85 miles north-northwest of Fairbanks, the Yukon Flats suddenly narrows and ends at the head of a constricted river section 100 miles long. Midway down this stretch is Rampart. a town of 1,500 people during the “Klondike Rush” but now reduced to less than 200 people. Downstream from the town of Rampart. canyon walls hug the Yukon River nearly to the mouth of the Tanana River, giving rise to the name of “Lower Ramparts.” Reconnaissance topography indicates several poten- tial dam sites in “Lower Ramparts,” but the best site probably will be found about 31 miles downstream from the village of Rampart. If field inspection of the geology and topography confirm earlier reconnaissance. this site on the Yukon River would easily be one of the major potential hydroelectric power developments in North America. Rampart dam would block the mouth of the Yukon Flats, making a vast reservoir of the area. Unlike the Columbia River, which has scarcely enough storage capacity for complete regu- lation, the Yukon River would have so much capacity in the flats to limit the height of a dam at the Rampart site. A dam 290 feet high with a crest length of 2.500 feet. would create a reservoir with an active storage capacity of 130,000,000 acre-feet. The annual firm generation of the power plant would exceed 8,80:),000,000 kilowatt-hours. Development at this site should be coordinated with power potentialities both upstream and downstream. Use of river regulation for improve- ment of navigation should also be investigated. Tanana River Basin The principal tributary of the Yukon is the Tanana River, which is formed by the confluence of the Chisana River and the Nabesna River near the International Boundary. The Alaska Highway meets the river at this junction and follows it downstream to the town of Fairbanks, second largest city in the Territory. Chisana River Basin The Chisana River heads in glaciers on the northeast slopes of the Wrangell Mountains. The stream flows ALASKA northeast for 60 miles, where it abruptly turns towards the northwest and traverses another 50 miles to its confluence with the Nabesna River. Reconnaissance topography indicates a possible dam site between Chivolda Creek and Sheep Creek, about 22 miles below Chisana Glacier. At this site, designated Chisana River No. 1, a dam 230 feet high with a crest 1,500 feet, long would impound 510,000 acre-feet of active storage capacity. A power plant would produce more than 40,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. The tailwater from this site would be diverted into a series of tunnels with a total length of 26 miles which would terminate midway between Stone Creek and Lick Creek just above the maximum pool elevation of the potential Nabesna reservoir. The flow of Stuver Creek would be collected enroute. At the outlet of the tun- nel, a power plant known as Chisana River No. 2 would have a yearly firm output in excess of 200,000,000 kilo- watt-hours. Nabesna River Basin The Nabesna River also originates in the glaciers of the Wrangell Mountains and flows northeast for 75 miles to its junction with the Chisana. Two miles above the mouth of the Cheslina River, a dam 200 feet high would have a crest length of 2,500 feet and would create a reservoir having an active capacity of 1,500,000 acre- feet. Using the regulated flow of the Nabesna and the diverted flow of the Chisana, a power plant at this site would produce more than 120,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy annually. Field inspection of the Chisana and Nabesna Valleys might reveal unfavorable geological conditions for dam construction, but there is also the possibility that better sites than those herein described could be located. In consideration of these sites, attention should be given to ultimate needs for irrigation of potential agricultural lands in lower Tanana Valley; flood protection for the Alaska Highway, city of Fairbanks, farms and other downstream property ; draining of innumerable swamps annually filled by flood waters; and navigation on the Tanana River. Nenana River Basin The Nenana River originates in glaciers located on the northern slopes of the Alaska Range and then flows north to join the Tanana River at the village of Nenana. The Alaska Railroad follows the valley for the greater part of its length. Healy, situated near Mount McKin- ley National Park, is the coal mining center of the Nenana District and is one of a limited number of sites s4Kac Tic Cire; LOCATION MAP YUKON-KUSKOKWIM REGION YUKON FLAT AREA ! © 10 20 30 40 $0 ———— 4F AIR BANKS ae a YWALVM AHL ONISN 691 OLT 136° 136° 134° . fo 142° I> 140° i eee ae atetaeee s | 4 a Aiea 2 \ 3! [yrs Sue Ri renomse \ 2 y ae Ay YUKON __--4 fo Bey FISH COLUMBIA LOCATION MAP SOUTHEASTERN REGION TAIYA RIVER AREA 0 10 20 30 40 50 soe ST ES vite KEY MAP © 100 200 Scole bated Miles VASVIV kere, — il il USING THE WATER considered for a synthetic fuels plant. The plant would require substantial amounts of electric power and regu- lated cooling water. There are a number of possible plans for development of power and other uses of the stream and its tributaries. Maximum development, however, would involve con- sideration of expensive railroad relocation and the pos- sibility of sacrificing the scenic value of portions of the valley. The railroad is not only a transportation route between Anchorage and the interior, but also the only access to the adjacent national park. With these limi- tations in mind the following plan of basin development is tentatively outlined. Six miles southeast of Windy railroad station a 290- foot dam with a 1,000-foot crest would impound 550,000 acre-feet of active storage. The power plant, Nenana River No. 1, would have an annual firm production of more than 60,000,000 kilowatt-hours. The tail water could be diverted through a 9-mile tunnel to a power plant near Carlo, Nenana River No. 2. Annual gener- ation at this site would exceed 70,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy. The river could be diverted again 2 miles further downstream through a 9-mile tunnel to a power plant, Nenana River No. 3, above McKinley Park station. This plant would produce at least 80,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. The tailwater from this plant would again be diverted through a 20-mile tunnel to the slope southeast of Ferry station. Before entering the penstocks, the flow would be supple- mented by diversion from the Toklat River, the East Fork of Toklat River, and the Teklanika River. A total of 26 miles of tunnel would be required for these diversions, and a 300-foot dam on the Teklanika would impound 550,000 acre-feet of active storage. Using the total flow, a power plant designated Nenana River No. 4 would have an annual firm production in excess of 320,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Main Stem of Tanana River and Other Tributaries Although the Tanana River falls more than 1,000 feet from the mouth of the Nabesna River to the confluence with the Yukon River, development of the main stem appears to be difficult except by means of relatively low dams. There is a report of a contracted section called Mason Narrows just above the mouth of the Volkmar River; no topography is available to substantiate this report. On down the Tanana Valley, the Robertson, Johnson, Gerstle. and Delta rivers have large flows and steep gradients, but there are no readily discernible storage sites on available topographic maps. An exception is a possible small development on the headwaters of the 171 Delta River near Isabel Pass, 4 miles west of the Rich- ardson Highway. If power were needed in that vicin- ity, storage were required for irrigation of Tanana River Valley lands near the village of Big Delta, or flood protection were required for the Richardson High- way or other property, a project here might prove feas- ible. Investigation should also be made of a possible site on the Chena River for the multiple purposes of power production, irrigation of lands near Fairbanks, flood control protection for that sanie city, and munic- ipal and industrial water supply. From Big Delta downstream to the Yukon is the potential 4-million-acre Tanana Valley agricultural dis- trict. At present only a small amount of land is being cultivated in the valley, amounting to about 2,000 acres in the vicinity of Fairbanks. The Fairbanks area is served by the Alaska, Richardson, and Steese highways, Tanana River steamers, and the Alaska Railroad. The Geological Survey is doing field work on permafrost studies in this area. Lower Yukon River Area From the confluence with the Tanana to the Bering Sea the Yukon meanders over a broad valley under a low gradient. Though locally partially constricted there are no favorable conditions for power development on the main stem. The greatest immediate need in the Lower Yukon is the improvement of the channels for navigation. Without upstream regulation of flow the cost of maintenance is high. The Koyukuk is the only important tributary to this section of the river. It drains a large portion of the south slopes of the Brooks Range to the north. No re- connaissance has been made of the basin, and only a small section has been topographically mapped. The Alatna River tributary will be mentioned subsequently in connection with the Kobuk Basin, but no other data are available to make possible an evaluation of the water resources of the basin. SEWARD PENINSULA REGION A land mass projects 200 miles from the center of western Alaska, separated only by the Bering Strait from Siberian mainland 56 miles away. North and south the Seward Peninsula is 140 miles across the broad portion. Relief in the interior is strong with the Bendeleben, Kigulaik, and Darby Mountains rising to elevations of 2,500 feet, and individual peaks reaching more than 3,500 feet. Most of the peninsula is tundra that seldom thaws more than a few inches below the surface. Precipitation on the mountain slopes total 172 as much as 40 inches a year while low elevation tundra flats receive only several inches. Ratio of runoff to precipitation is unusually high. Nome, the largest community, was the scene of an early-day gold rush. Dog team races held each year from Nome on the Norton Sound northeast across the peninsula to Candle on Kotzebue Sound and return are world famous. Much of the region is suitable for graz- ing of reindeer, and that industry, confined by Federal control to native ownership, numbered herds totaling more than a half million animals at one time. The gold coast stretches for 300 miles along Norton Sound with deposits in streams, deltas, and beaches, thinly dissemi- nated in permanently frozen sand and gravel. Else- where on the peninsula are deposits of bismuth, anti- mony, silver, lead, graphite, tin, tungsten, mercury, platinum, and coal. Strategic mineral deposits assure the region of increasing activity in extractive industries. Conservation of water resources ultimately will be desirable for utilization in extractive industries and for municipal supplies and power production. Principal rivers are the Koyuk and the Fish draining the south slope. the Kuzitrin and the Kruzgamepa flowing west- ward from the interior and joining to empty into the Imuruk Basin, thence into Bering Strait, and the Ki- walik that empties into Kotzebue Sound. Several small streams are important because of present utilization for mining and municipal supplies. Unfortunately. there are no readily discernible po- tential hydroelectric power developments of major im- portance. Ultimate development of mineral resources will probably require importation of power in addition to development of limited local power sources. Koyuk River Basin The Koyuk River. with a basin area of 2,000 square miles, drains the southeastern part of the peninsula and runs into Norton Bay of Norton Sound. Information is scant but the only likely dam site probably would be found one mile above the confluence of Peace River with the Koyuk. Fish River Basin Draining the south slope of Bendeleben Mountains and the west slope of Darby Mountains, the Fish River has a basin area of more than 2,000 square miles. Ac- tually there are two large basins, one drained by the Fish and the other by the Niukluk River, a tributary. Locale of important mineral deposits, the water of the Niukluk and tributary creeks has been used extensively for hydraulic mining. ALASKA On upper Fish River is an oval valley 10 miles long and 15 miles wide. Leaving the valley the river drops down a narrow stretch 10 miles long and less than a - mile wide with abrupt walls. A dam in this section, 140 feet high with a crest length of 5,000 feet, would impound 1,250,000 acre-feet of active storage. The an- nual firm energy production would be at least 40,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Kuzitrin River Basin The Kuzitrin River with its tributary, the Kruzga- mepa River, drains the central portion of Seward Peninsula and flows west. into Imuruk Basin, a fresh- water extension of Grantley Harbor of Port Clarence. Near Bunker Hill is favorable topography for a dam and reservoir. Further reconnaissance would be neces- sary to determine the ultimate potentialities of this site; it is considered an alternate to the Tuksuk site down- stream on the Kuzitrin. The reservoir created above Bunker Hill would provide water transportation to several mining camps in the basin. Salmon Lake Site Kruzgamepa River, the southern tributary of the Kuzitrin, drains 475 square miles of mountainous area. In its precipitous headwaters are several small poten- tial power developments. one of which is especially worthy of consideration. A small multiple-purpose project could be developed with storage at Salmon Lake on the upper Kruzgamepa River. An 80-foot dam at the outlet of this lake would have a crest length of about 1,000 feet and would im- pound 180,000 acre-feet of active storage. From the upper end of the lake, a 6-mile tunnel would carry water to Nome River. A buried conduit would convey the combined flows of Salmon Lake and upper Nome River a distance of 16 miles to a short tunnel and a 5,000-foot penstock leading to a power plant on the Snake River. An annual firm generation of more than 40,000,000 kilowatt-hours would be possible at this site. The water would be discharged into the Snake River at ahigh enough elevation for gravity diversion by down- stream mining interests for use in thawing frozen ground prior to dredging operations. At present a substantial amount of energy is being consumed in pumping water for this purpose. The buried conduit from Nome River to Snake River would be in frozen sedimentary formations throughout most of its length, anda large portion of the construction would be on steep sidehills. Considerable study will be necessary on wa- ter temperatures and temperature Josses in transmission A gna Sanday # Got ovwin SEWARD PENINSULA REGION KEY MAP © 10 200 SCole eee Mile Seae TES ies LOCATION MAP o 5 10 8 2 2 q uw A Q 4 = onl tH = > ey tm wm 174 in order that the conduit may be designed to prevent freezing during the severe winters. Investigation should also be made of the possibility of diverting the upper Sinuk River to the upper Nome River. Tuksuk Site A potential power site exists in Tuksuk Channel, which joins Imuruk Basin with Port Clarence. A topographic map indicates that the water surface could be raised 100 feet by a dam with a crest length of 2.500 feet. It would require 9 years to fill the reservoir, which would cover 250,000 acres and have an active storage capacity of 4,500,000 acre-feet. A power plant at this site would produce in excess of 120,000,000 kilowatt- hours of firm energy each year. The site on the Kuzitrin at Bunker Hill is considered an alternate to this development. More detailed studies may indicate the desirability of coordinated operation of both power plants. Kiwalik River Basin The Kiwalik River drains 800 square miles on the north side of Seward Peninsula, flowing into Kotzebue Sound near the village of Candle. There is a possible dam site just above Candle, but the runoff of the stream is so small that a power development at this location was not considered. ARCTIC REGION The Brooks Range forms an east-west mountain bar- rier extending completely across the northern portion of the Territory. The land to the north is the Arctic Slope. It is an isolated and barren desert, almost unin- habited by man or beast, in which precipitation averages only 5 inches annually. The slope is treeless except for the high mountain sides and the willow-lined lower river reaches. The tundra-covered terrain is impassable by ordinary means during the brief summer, but during winter months transportation presents no unusual difli- culties. Most of the Eskimo inhabitants are nomadic and move along the coast in search of seal, walrus, and whales which are reasonably plentiful in the Arctic Ocean. The only village of any consequence is Barrow, which is the most northerly inhabited point in North America. The slope is not wasteland. It is capable of support- ing a substantial number of reindeer herds that would be valuable for meat and hides. Large areas are unex- ALASKA plored and may contain strategic mineral deposits. Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, covering 35,000 square miles, is the world’s largest exclusive oil claim. Oil that has the color of honey, smells like gasoline, and pours at 70° F, below zero has been found in a test bore hole. Exploration has been underway since August 1944; however, the field has yet to be proved. South of the Brooks Range lie the Kobuk and Noatak Rivers, draining an area about the size of Seward Pen- insula. The only settlements in the vicinity are several small villages, the largest of which is Kotzebue on Baldwin Peninsula. Future development of regional water resources would depend on the extent of the needs of the extrac- tive mineral industry for hydrolectric power and for industrial uses. Construction and operation of hydrau- lie works would be complicated by low temperature and snow, but engineering experience gained on dam sites at high elevations of the Rocky Mountains in the States would be valuable in this region. The major obstacles would be location and transportation of suitable materials. Kobuk River Basin The Kobuk River basin lies bet ween the Noatak River basin on the north and the Yukon River basin on the south. The river delta, covering more than 150 square miles on Hotham Inlet of Kotzebue Sound is interlaced with multiple channels. It is 450 miles to the head- waters but the lower 400 miles of channel have a gra- dient of only 1 foot per mile. Available topography is insufficient for the location of favorable dam sites in this stretch. Reconnaissance, however, might reveal sites in unsurveyed portions. The upper 50 miles of the stream is precipitous with many rapids and small gorges. The most favorable dam site appears to be in the “Lower Gorge,” 25 miles below the mouth of the stream draining Walker Lake. Adam in this canyon would be 225 feet high and would have a crest length of 1.500 feet. Water would extend up to Walker Lake, creating an active reservoir capacity of 2,000,000 acre-feet. The drainage area tributary to this site is rather small. There is, however, a possibil- ity of diverting the flow of the Alatna River, a tributary of the Koyvukuk River, at a point above the mouth of Helpmejack Creek. This possible diversion would be subject to greater potential use farther downstream on the Alatna or the Koyukuk. Using the Alatna water along with the Kobuk runoff. a power plant at the Ko- i i j eerie 88 ne SOU NONMIR DS EO Ne NARI R ONAN SERRE Re TIRES MORMON ite anatiicone serv oe aware 5 a ET RN, a <a ene eed USING THE WATER buk River site would generate more than 110,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Noatak River Basin At the extreme northwestern tip of the continent, the Brooks Range spreads giant fingers of mountains taper- ing down to meet the Arctic Ocean. The valleys be- tween the outstretched fingers are individual river basins. The Noatak River basin, encompassing more than 12,000 square miles, lies between the De Long Mountains on the north and the Baird Mountains on the south. The basin is divided into upper and lower val- leys by a series of canyons in a 70-mile stretch midway down the river. In the headwaters of the river below Midas Creek near the 157th meridian. the topography appears favor- able for a dam site. The river flow, however, is prob- ably insufficient to render any sites economically feasible above the tributary Aniuk and Cutler rivers. In the lower section there are five sites for potential dams and power plants. The first dam site is located near the 160th meridian, just above the mouth of the Nimiuktuk River. A 200- foot dam would have a crest length of 2,500 feet and would impound 3,100,000 acre-feet of active storage. The potential annual production of this power plant, Noatak River No. 1, would be more than 120,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. The second power plant, Noatak River No. 2, would be situated 15 miles below the mouth of the Nimiuktuk River and would generate at least 130,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. This development would require a dam 160 feet high, for creation of head only, regulation being pro- vided by coordinated operation with Noatak River No. 1. Seven miles west of the 161st meridian a 240-foot dam with a crest 1,200 feet long would create a reservoir with 650,000 acre-feet of active capacity. This power plant, Noatak River No. 3, would have a firm output in excess of 230,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. The next dam downstream would create 140 feet of power head, with no active reservoir storage space. The annual firm production at Noatak River No. 4 would be more than 160,000,000 kilowatt-hours. Just before the Noatak River empties into Kotzebue Sound, it is constricted by the Igichuk Hills in a can- yon section 8 miles long. A 130-foot dam at the lower end of this canyon would have a crest length of 1,800 feet and would impound 1,700,000 acre-feet of active storage. The output of the power plant, Noatak River No. 5, would exceed 150,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. 175 The river would be completely regulated by the active storage provided in the three reservoirs and the avail- able head above Site No. 4 would be fully utilized. The total energy potentiality at these five sites ex- ceeds 600 million kilowatt-hours a year. The heart of Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 on the Arctic Slope is within transmission range of these potential power plants. Likewise the Candle District on Seward Pen- insula lies 110 miles south of the Igichuk Hills with only the 8,000-foot-wide neck of Hotham Inlet of Kotzebue Sound intervening. Colville River Basin At least a dozen rivers drain the area north of the Brooks Range, but lack of topographic maps precludes an estimate of potential power development. An excep- tion is the Colville River, the largest stream on the Arctic Slope. It flows eastward and parallel to the Brooks Range for more than 200 miles, with many tributaries joining it at right angles from the mountain slopes. Leaving the mountains the river flows north- ward, crossing the comparatively flat tundra to dis- charge into Harrison Bay of the Arctic Ocean. Recon- naissance topography indicates reasonably favorable dam sites at several locations. On the main stream and on the tributary Awuna River there are possible dam sites near the 156th me- ridian. These two reservoirs could regulate water for diversion below their confluence to a power plant on the Kigalik River. This development, however, ap- pears less favorable than a larger development down- stream. At the 154th meridian, a dam 160 feet high with a crest length of 3,000 feet, would create an active stor- age capacity of 3,200,000 acre-feet. This space would regulate the runoff of the Colville River and of the tributary Killik River, which could be diverted into the main stem reservoir by construction of diversion works and a short aqueduct. Water would be released from the Colville reservoir into a tunnel 7 miles long that would convey the water to a tributary of Maybe Creek, tributary to Ikpikpuk River. In the Ikpikpuk basin, one, or possibly two power plants, depending on local conditions found on reconnaissance, would generate more than 380,000,000 kilowatt-hours of firm energy each year. Although final releases of water would be made at an elevation of 600 feet above sea level, there appears to be no possibil- ity of downstream power production on the Ikpikpuk River because of the low river gradient and the lack of a dam site. 9LT LOCATION MAP ARCTIC REGION NOATAK & KOBUK RIVER BASINS 0 10 20 30 40 80 KEY MAP BN © 100 200 Scole mmminet Miles soe SEES nts rn 160° isae ETE IPE TR is2e is0* KEY MAP © 10 200 Scale ented Miles 1 70" LOCATION MAP ARCTIC REGION COLVILLE RIVER BASIN © 10 20 3% 40 30 ce SEE onsite YALVM FHL ONISN LLI YSS410—52. 13 Wealth From Water “The age of light metals is here. This presents one serious question: Are the low-cost power resources of the Nation great enough to produce these wonder metals in sufficient quantities? ... “Alaska’s power potentialities may well be the decisive factor in the world struggle for supremacy in production of light metals.” “DYSDIY UAIPSDOY INO U2 8I27VUNULMOD JNO PIO IYI fO DUO “Pumps ] 1YSUOdD CPU DYLS — CHAPTER VI Wealth From Water Alaska’s future potential wealth staggers the imagi- nation. It is incalculable. A portion of the wealth to be created with proper use of water resources, can be approximated. It must be realized the following information is very general, suitable only for reconnaissance purposes. It will require considerable modification or even major revision when more definite data have been accumulated. A serious attempt has been made to keep the estimates of monetary value conservative. Alaska’s potential hydroelectric generation exceeds 40,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours annually. How much is it worth? Customers having constant demand for ex- ceptionally large block of power, such as the light metals industry, might receive a firm power rate less than 3 mills per kilowatt-hour. The small user with irregular demands would be supplied at a much higher rate. It is estimated that the weighted average of all sales would be 4 mills per kilowatt-hour. Fifty billion kilowatt-hours would bring in $200,000,- 000 in gross sales each year. Alaska’s potential agricultural lands are sufficient to meet the needs of its developing economy. Estimates of the ultimate potential acreage vary widely, but an estimate of about 5,000,000 acres appears to be a fair appraisal of the area that may be physically suitable for cultivation and crop production. Due to a diver- sity of economic factors. however, the acreage which may be economically feasible for agricultural produc- tion may not exceed 2,000,000 acres. Almost all of this land would require clearing, and much of it might require irrigation or drainage for optimum produc- tion. At present agricultural lands produce annually an average gross income of about $75 per acre. Pasture lands have a much lower annual income, but lands de- voted to vegetable crops have produced annual incomes in excess of $250 per acre. Using the present average annual gross income of $75 per acre and the estimated area of 2.000.000 acres, the gross income from agricul- ture would approximate $150,000,000 per year. It should be mentioned that only a portion of the potential income from agriculture should be attributed directly to development of water resources, the re- mainder being attributable to other factors of produc- tion, such as the land and application of fertilizers, Floods now cause recurring damage to property as well as endangering lives in Alaska. Flood control lLenefits which would result from multiple-purpose river control systems have not as yet been evaluated. Like- wise, benefits resulting from potential improvement of inland waterway navigation have not been evaluated. These matters require future study by the Corps of Sngineers. Recreational benefits resulting from multiple-purpose projects would be considerable, but require extensive study by the National Park Service and the Fish and Wildlife Service before any estimate of monetary value could be made. Water for municipal and industrial purposes will in- crease in importance as the Territory develops. Bene- fits would result from construction of a multiple-pur- pose project to serve the Fairbanks and the Nome areas but an estimate must await further study. The age of light metals is here. This presents one serious question: Are the low-cost power resources of the Nation great enough to produce these wonder metals in suflicient quantities? Even now aluminum produc- tion is severely restricted owing to lack of low-cost power in the States. Most light metal producers are combing the country for potential power sources which could be developed to supply energy at less than 3 mills per kilowatt-hour. There are only a few remaining undeveloped sites in the United States capable of gen- erating energy at such low-cost. This has resulted in light metal producers turning toward Canada. Re- cently, they have been eyeing Alaska’s power potentiali- ties. Alaska’s power potentialities may well be the decisive factor in the world struggle for supremacy in produc- tion of light metals. Supersonic scientific research in the States has been severely restricted for lack of electric energy. Two years ago the War Department announced they desired 9,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours of electric energy to power a supersonic wind tunnel. This quantity of power is twice the full output of Hoover Dam or Grand Coulee. Even the division of the project into two widely sepa- rated units, each requiring +,500,000.000 kilowatt-hours did not solve the power supply problem. Alaska’s potential power may provide the answer. 181 182 ‘There are few places on the earth’s surface where such fantastic quantities of power can be made available as in Alaska. Power requirements of the entire project could be met at either Anchorage, Fairbanks, or Juneau. It was estimated that a city of 25,000 persons would be constructed in conjunction with such a research center. What indirect benefits would accrue to Alaska’s de- velopment of low-cost power sources for use in manu- facturing and mining? Such benefits would be so far- reaching as to be incalculable, but a partial determina- tion of the true value of the energy is possible. Considering, first, indirect benefits in manufacturing, the Statistical Abstract of the United States discloses revealing information on the economics of manufac- turing in the States during 1939. The list of manufac- tures was screened to eliminate those not likely to have a corresponding development in Alaska and statistics compiled for the following : Lumber and timber basic products. Furniture and finished lumber products. Paper and allied products. Chemicals and allied products. Products of petroleum and coal. Leather and leather products. Stone, clay, and glass products. Iron and steel and their products. Nonferrous metals and their products. The average worker in these industries used 16,100 kilowatt-hours of electric energy, equivalent to an average demand of more than 10 horsepower. After spending $4,200 for raw or semifinished ma- terials, electric energy, and wages, the value of finished products totaled $7,400 per worker. The true value of electric energy at the disposal of the average worker is readily seen when data show that one kilowatt-hour of energy, plus 734 minutes of the worker’s time turned 26 cents worth of raw or semifinished materials, electric energy, and wages, into finished products valued at 46 cents. Without electric energy this same average worker would have been practically helpless. Electric energy enabled the worker to create over and above his wage, 20 cents of wealth with each kilowatt-hour. Similarly, for every kilowatt-hour of electric energy used in mining in the States during 1939, minerals worth 85 cents were extracted. Should Alaska develop mining and manufacturing to the point where 150,000 persons are gainfully em- ployed in mining, and 600,000 in manufacturing, power requirements would be 11,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours and value of products would be $5,700,000,000 a year predicated on statistical averages for the States in 1939. With the development of Alaska’s economy the bene- fits that would result from development of Alaska’s agricultural lands would be far-reaching. The stand- ard of living would be materially raised. Under ALASKA present conditions many foods are so expensive as to be out of reach for many people. This is particularly true of eggs, milk and green vegetables, all of which could be produced in Alaskid. With a plentiful supply of food available at substantially lower cost, the Terri- torial Department of Health believes the elimination of diet deficiencies would result in improvement of the health of many Alaskans. The Commander-in-Chief of the Alaskan Command stated: “To the extent that civil facilities are developed to a level which will permit a self-sustaining economy and a full development of the natural resources of the Territory, the expenditures for purely military works may be reduced. The benefit to the National economy of such a reduction in military expenditures is obvious. “A review of the various programs proposed for im- plementation by the Department of the Interior, indi- cates that a number of these would, if implemented, strengthen the internal economy of Alaska, and thus tend to reduce the investment in military works with- out a corresponding reduction in defense capabilities. “Among these projects are the provision of housing and community facilities, the improvement of trans- portation, the development of hydroelectrical power, increase in agricultural development, and the encourage- ment of capital goods industry.” This is conclusive proof of important potential bene- fits for the defense of Alaska and the Nation. GROSS RETURNS Based on the generation of 50,000,000,000 kilowatt- hours annually and the development of 2,000,000 acres of agricultural land, the annual gross returns would be: Power males| 0 $200,000,000 Agricultural income 150,000,000 These would be accompanied by annual benefits asso- ciated with the related purposes of flood control, navi- gation, recreation, and municipal water supply. No attempt has been made to evaluate these associated benefits. FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS Before this great “Wealth From Water” can be real- ized, multiple purpose river control systems must first be constructed. However, the Congress could only act after engineering and economic investigations were completed for individual projects and feasibility re- ports submitted. It would be a sound investment for the Government to continue engineering and economic investigations for the orderly and comprehensive de- velopment of Alaska’s water and land resources. Mil- lions for detailed plans will produce billions in benefits. Fe | ¥ Po Ff Cooperating Interests “The various agencies of the Department of the In- terior having an interest in development of Alaska’s natural wealth have teamed together inthe preparation of this reconnaissance report... Their cooperation is... practical, and essential, as evidenced in this chapter which presents their specific comments and programs. “Other Federal and Territorial agencies that are involved in development of the resources of Alaska have likewise cooperated with the Bureau of Recla- mation and their reports appear as part of this chapter.”’ Juneau, capital of Alaska. Sie ilbantiiiatiey - ! | 1 CHAPTER VII Programs of Cooperating Interests The fullest cocperation and harmony among all Federal end Territorial interests are essential for in- telligent comprehensive development of America’s northernmost possession—a land so vast that it con- stitutes an empire. Only through a pooling of the separate functions and the knowledge and the “know how” of all govern- mental bodies operative in Alaska can needless d ica- tion, wasted time, wested money, and failure to intograte today’s program with that of tomorrow be avoided. To that end, all the various agencies of the Depart- ment of the Interior have worked as a team in the preparation of this report. This teamwork is mani- fested in the specific comments and programs com- prising the bulk of this chapter. Even more gratifying. however, is the cooperation evidenced in the form of program planning by cther Federal agencies vitally involved in developing the resources of Alaska. These agencies have been willing to consider the needs of the Bureau of Reclamation and to so direct their programs that the required data could he obtained. ‘The recent establishment of the Alaska Field Committee of the Department of the Interior and the Inter-Agency Committee on the development of Alaska has in a large measure been responsible for this unified effort. It was to be expected that the Territorial Govern- ment of Alaska from the Governor down would co- operate to the extent of their funds and personnel available. They have. Strategically situated as it is. Alaska is all-important to national defense. Military interests, accordingly, are of commensurate importance to and in Alaska. The official statement of Lt. Gen. N. F. Twining, Comman- der-in-Chief, Alaskan Command, in cooperation with this report and the program it envisages is therefore doubly significant. Although the cooperating programs of all other agen- cies, Federal and Territorial. are confined to this chap- influence and reflected ter. their importance are throughout the report. ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE In considering agriculture in Alaska it is well to remember that most of the Territory lics in the north temperate zone. Too often the impression is given <hat Alaska is almost wholly within the Arctic Circle. The three main factors influencing farming are: (1) temperature, (2) precipitation, and (3) soil. All of these vary widely. For cxample, recorded tempera- tures in Central Alaska range from 99° to --72° F. Precipitatien at Point Barrow is but + inches, while on the Baranof Islands 248 inches per year is the record. The soil ranges from very fine sand through silt and loam to muck and peat. Garden and field reports, covering 50 ing and gardening from all parts of Alaska from Point Barrow to Umnak, show that a wide variety of crops of excellent quality can be grown. The one inescapable conclusion, based on part records, is that the conditions preventing development of agri- culture in Alaska are economic, not agricultural. This will be discussed in detail later in this report. There are three main agricultural regions—Mata- nuska Valley, Tanana Valley, and Kenai Peninsula. These are so considered, primarily, because of large areas of land suitable for cropping. There are many smaller areas as favorably situated in regard to climate and soil. The extent of the various areas suitable for agricul- tural purposes is not definitely known. Estimates range up to 7,500,000 acres that can be cropped immedi- ately upon clearing, and an additional 58,500,000 acres suitable for farming and grazing when cleared and drained. Only brief mention can be made in this report of cutstanding features of several farm areas. ars of farm- Southeastern Alaska As is well known, this is a heavily timbered region. ‘The temperature is comparatively mild in both summer and winter. In fact, it is very similar to the coastal TRS 186 regions further south and this condition is reflected in the type of vegetation at such points as Juneau and Ketchikan. The precipitation is quite heavy. This, together with the cool temperatures during the summer, precludes the possibility of certain types of agriculture such as grain growing. Many garden crops, however, do exceedingly well and excellent gardens are to be seen in many places along the coast. Bush fruits flourish. The mountains, however, crowd the coastline so closely that no large areas are suitable for field crops. We can see, therefore, that farming is limited to small areas, to dairying, and to poultry husbandry. Because of the mild temperatures, ornamental plants thrive and make it possible to have very lovely home landscaping. Southwestern Alaska Lower temperatures and less precipitation are not conducive to heavy plant growth and in many places there is no timber at all. We find grass in great evi- dence which indicates at once that livestock could be- come one of the principal forms of farm endeavor. Hardy crops of various types such as potatoes and a general line of garden vegetables can be grown. How- ever, summer temperatures are also too low to make grain growing a success. Dairy and poultry produc- tion are of importance and beef cattle will increase in importance as the Territory develops. Kodiak Island and the chain of the Aleutians offer potentialities in beef production. Results of the last few years give en- couragement to that belief. Kenai Peninsula The Kenai Peninsula in many ways is similar to southwestern areas. Much of it is treeless or sparsely timbered. Only the west side of the peninsula is suit- able for agriculture, the other part is too mountainous. This western area has received very favorable publicity and bids fair to become one of our leading agricultural areas. One definite handicap of the past is being over- come by the construction of a highway extending from the tip, at Homer, up the west side along Cook Inlet to connect with highways into Anchorage and Seward. Old settlements at such points as Homer, Ninilchik, Kasilof, Kenai, and Hope will take on new activities with the completion of the road. The mild climate, with natural resources, such as coal, fish, and game, give every reason to believe that a considerable agriculture will be developed. Dairying will undoubtedly have a major part in this program, also poultry and, we believe, beef production. A gen- eral line of garden vegetables and potatoes can and are ALASKA being grown on the Peninsula at very many places, Attention was focused on this area by the withdrawal of 161,000 acres of public land pending consideration and passage of a bill to establish a colony between Kenai and Kasilof. Anchorage Area Approaching the interior, we find an agricultural area around Anchorage. Farming there will be on a small scale, according to present indications. Never- theless, because of the proximity of a major market, many will find it worthwhile to establish homes on farmable land along the new highway out of Anchorage as well as in other nearby areas such as the Spenard re- gion. Here again we find potatoes, garden produce, and poultry the main types of farming. Many people like to live out of town and commute back and forth, raising much of the produce they eat and a surplus that can be sold. Undoubtedly, one of the reasons more people do not move out into rural areas is because they are loath to leave behind the city conveniences, particularly those provided through the use of electric current. This will be emphasized later in this report. Matanuska Valley The town of Palmer in the Matanuska Valley, some- times spoken of as the “Banana Belt” of Alaska, is lo- cated 50 miles from Anchorage Actually, the climate is much too cold to even approximate this term but, nevertheless, the mild weather enjoyed there has made it possible to grow many kinds of vegetables, fruits, and grain. A great impetus to farming in this valley was given by establishment of a government sponsored colony in 1935. Farming has prospered there. Palmer is truly one town in Alaska wholly supported by agri- culture. Dairying has taken front rank. At present, there are some 38 small dairy farms listed as grade “A”, The milk produced and sold constitutes a con- siderable portion of the income of the farmers there. Sales of milk and cream in 1948 amounted to $250,519. Garden produce, sold through the cooperating as- sociation, totaled $127,600. In addition, a large amount was sold by independent growers. There could be con- siderable expansion of farm activity in this valley. Tanana Valley This is the most extensive agricultural area in Alaska, comprising approximately 7,000 square miles. On the LABS EARN cases ye RMON Dem 9 ¥ PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS valley floor the soil ranges from coarse sand to very fine sand and is well adapted to production of hay, vege- tables, including potatoes and small fruits. The slopes on the hills adjoining the valley are composed of a soil a bit heavier; this is known as a silt loam and is of a brownish color. It is retentive of water and fairly fertile. The southerly slopes, especially, are well adapted to the production of hay, quality potatoes, and to ripening cereal crops such as wheat. The climate is strictly continental showing extremes from a sum- mer high of 99° to a winter low of —66° F., giving a ° range of 165°. The average precipitation is lower than any of the areas that have been discussed and averages 11.65 inches. There is, therefore, a lack of sufficient moisture some years to produce good crops. Usually, the summers are only moderately warm and are very conducive to the production of general farm crops. The winters can be quite cold and by some are con- sidered a drawback because good housing is required for livestock as well as for humans. Also, here we find permafrost which again is considered detrimental to crop production by some. Settlement in the Tanana Valley, while it has been going on for a number of years, has developed rather slowly as will be pointed out later. There are other regions well suited to general farm purposes such as in the Yukon Valley, in the Koyukuk, the Kuskokwim, the 40-mile area in the interior, and Unalakleet. To recapitulate, it will be noted that the coastal areas have the most equable climate and considerable precipi- tation, beginning at the southeastern part of Alaska. In the southwestern, precipitation is less and there is a little more winter. The Kenai Peninsula precipitation is more pronounced and, while general farming is prac- ticed, grain crops cannot be ripened successfully. Far- ther north, in the Matanuska Valley the precipitation tapers off, summer temperatures are somewhat higher, and grain can be ripened as well as other crops. The Tanana Valley, north of the Alaska Range, has even less precipitation with higher summer temperatures and much colder winters. Diversified farming can be car- ried on here quite acceptably because grain can be ripened, without question, which will serve as a feed for livestock and poultry. Vegetables and hay can also be produced as well as in southern regions, except that at times there is a shortage of moisture. It is interest- ing to note that farther north there is still less precipi- tation so that at Rampart on the Yukon, where an experiment station was established years ago, and con- tinued until 1925, the annual precipitation was 9.94 inches. At the extreme northern tip of Alaska it is about 4 inches per annum. It is evident that the weather is a vital factor to consider by those who want to farm in Alaska. In other words, if one desires to do grain farming, the interior is the best place. Dairying can 187 be done acceptable in the Kenai Peninsula or in the Matanuska Valley. For those who prefer beef cattle production, the lower parts of the Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak Island, and some nearby islands and also some of the Aleutians offer the best possibilities. Permafrost A great many peop}: are apprehensive that the per- petually frozen sulsoil in Central Alaska is an unfa- vorable condition for crop production. Actual growing tests indicate that permafrost is neither stimulative nor retarding in its effect. Immediately after the land is cleared, it is exposed to the sun and the ground thaws. The surface down as far as thawed becomes very wet and gives the impression that the land is swampy and poorly drained. This, of course, is particularly true on the bottom lands. It is true that this wet ground is cold and not conducive to good plant growth but after culti- vating for a year or two, the frost recedes from 6 to 8 feet down. The water settles, some of it evaporates, and some of it is used by the growing crop. Consequently, the land loses its boggy aspect and because the sum total of the loss of soil moisture exceeds the average summer precipitation of only 7 inches, the inevitable result is that the subsoil becomes depleted of water. Crop plants from then on are strictly dependent on the water that moves down from the surface. Because the ground freezes down several feet every winter and has to thaw before planting, it is immaterial whether the ground is permanently frozen underneath or simply frozen 6 or 8 feet. In either case, spring planting proceeds equally well and the crops likewise grow equally well. Very little has been said up to now about livestock production. It would be impossible, after seeing the vast areas of grassland in Alaska, to be skeptical about the possibility of beef cattle production. There are thousands of square miles of good grasslands in various parts of this Territory. The total extent of the areas are not definitely known. It is believed, with the increase of population both in the United States and Alaska, and the lessening of desirable rangeland in the States both in acreage and productivity, that the livestock man is going to come to Alaska to raise beef. There is no denying the fact that the Americans prefer beef to any other meat and as long as there is land available they are going to insist on beef as a large part of their diet. It is esti- mated that in the United States proper the per capita consumption of beef plus veal is 75 pounds per annum. According to import figures. the Alaska consumption of beef per capita is even greater. It is logical to assume that the time will come when Alaska will pro- 188 duce much of its own beef. Conditions in some places may seem rather rugged for wintering over beef cattle stock, but such is also true of the Great Plains where blizzards sometimes cause heavy loss of stock. There are instances, well authenticated, of horses, mules, and cows living over on the natural range for one or more winters in the interior. The buffalo herd in the Big Delta country gives excellent evidence that they can forage the year-around and find conditions congenial to a normal increase in numbers. From the experience of dairymen in various parts of Alaska it is noted that dairy cows can be kept in good health and in a high state of production both in the interior and on the coast. With dairying, it is more a question of the economy of production than one of survival. As agriculture increases, more home-grown feed could be utilized at a saving to the dairyman. So far, dairying has been a reasonably profitable form of farming. As competition increases, it will be neces- sary to produce more economically than at present. There is a good demand for fluid milk; in fact, the de- mand exceeds the supply so the dairyman is not forced to produce butter or byproducts. Other forms of livestock enterprise, such as sheep production, have been carried on in a small way and in places have proven successful. The Aleutian Islands offer good opportunities along that line and it is likely that more people will run sheep on some of these grassy islands. It is well-known that the wool clip from the Islands brings a premium price on the market because of superior quality and freedom from extraneous material. More attention will also be given to pork production as more extensive farming is done. There are several hog ranches now in operation and as home-grown feed becomes available more hogs will be raised. Hogs should be a part of most farm enterprises because, of all farm animals, hogs are the most economical meat producers. The same applies to poultry. Poultry has developed into a considerable business. The gross receipts for the Territory from poultry are estimated to be $150,000 for the current year, in spite of the fact that shipping strikes seriously curtailed the amount of feed available for the laying hen. Aids to Farm Settlement and Development While considerable progress has been made over a term of years in determining what crops can be pro- duced here and marketed, the fact remains that, with the exception of the Matanuska colony which was gov- ernment financed and sponsored, farming has developed quite slowly. The reasons for this are fairly obvious. ALASKA Desirable land 1s available in 160-acre homestead tracts in the several areas outlined. But for a settler to es- tablish himself on a tract of land and develop it to the extent of providing himself and a family with a reason- able income requires years of hard work and some pri- vation—also, a considerable outlay of money. A great deal of consideration has been given lately as to how these early years of privation under pioneer- ing conditions can be ameliorated. Assurance must be given the homesteader so he can offer his family a rea- sonable amount of comfort and convenience. Most conclusions have been that financing of some sort, such asa Federal loan, is necessary. In that way, land can be cleared, some essential building done, and crops raised and sold. The loan, of course, should be on a long-term basis and at a low interest rate. Good roads are also essential. Even after this is accomplished what makes life tolerable on the farm are some of the conveniences en- joyed by urban dwellers. These conveniences can come mainly through the use of electricity. There is no one thing that presents such great possibilities to the aver- age homesteader as electric current, because so many uses can be made of it in the house, in the barn, and in the field. Such uses are too well known to be detailed at great length but we would like to enumerate a few. We might mention irrigation as a great aid to many of the crops grown, especially in the interior and Matanuska Valley. The total summer precipitation is seldom suffi- cient to produce maximum crops and some years is greatly deficient. particularly for such crops as potatoes, garden vegetables, and small fruits such as raspberries and strawberries. Electric pumps would be a great convenience in supplying irrigation water. Another possible use of electricity is in the form of heating cables laid underground to serve hot beds and gardens. This would greatly extend the productive season of vegetables. As it is now, the season is quite short. Ifa few weeks could be added in the spring and in the fall, the use of fresh vegetables could be increased both for home use and for sale. The extent to which underground heating cables could be used would, of course, depend at how low a rate the electricity could be supplied. Obviously, with the rates prevailing at present, heating the ground with cables is out of the question. The production of greenhouse crops could be greatly extended if low-cost current was available to use for lighting purposes. During the summer there is an abundance of light. In the fall and winter, however, the light becomes definitely deficient and of too low actinic value to serve in growing such crops as tomatoes and lettuce. Heat could also be supplied by use of ue 5 = RUM NENG ee pide te ar serene: 2 ARIE OD sO ve 8 hah Ceti eh ean NDR Nin RRO EMR AEA Nore CHEN. PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS 189 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION— INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT GENERAL FARM CROPS -—— CEREAL CROPS POTATOES SUGAR BEETS came c I ---- lL. STORAGE AND ! ' straw CEREALS caioiue suai MARKET POTATOES 1 SUGAR MLL ron9 L------- ! ' ' ' cocoa | STORAGE AND i { i CLEAnne PLANT CULLS AND SURPLUS FLOUR PLANT ' susan ' ! | —! ! ‘ ‘ Gas eees==n 1 ' CEREALS WASTE POTATO FLOUR | FERMENTATION PLANTS! : 1 CoS Loe == ' ' MISCELLANEOUS FEED MHL | STaRcH evant OEMYORATION PLANT MATERIALS ' ' c ben tpg ree oe oe a oe 4 SSEeE SESErS Reese! Lee a zi i oot FLOUR MILL | BREAKFAST FOOO PLANT; | MALTING PLANT STOCK FEED WASTE DEMTORATED POTATOES foe eee r ' roe 1 atmo ' ' FLOUR Mi RUN GERM MEAL : wat 1h sien reee ' TATION PLANTS | ' tow! (ROOTLETS) 1 i a Recent anien siniosaianaens af ee — Ot. SEED CROP SEED CROPS on mee straw steo SSS Sooo 1 | HYDROGENATION PLANT }—4 om CAKE hcepand tepals | AND CLEANING PLANT Coo. = as FEED MLL waste seeo FORAGE CROPS GREEN FORAGE nay LEGUME FOOO CROPS p DEHYORATION AND UJ STORAGE, FUMIGATION, EXPLANATION GRINDING PLANT AMO CLEANING PLANT F000 PRooUCTS 10 YEAR PROGRAM et areteat | 1 _____} LONG RANGE PROGRAM wea waste FEED mL Pp POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES AGRICULTURAL GROUP 190 ALASKA oa ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT LIVESTOCK Soaane 7 om woe vanvesrne |) wut mut i MARKET MILK PLANT | CHEESE FACTORY \ LOCAL CREAMERY LIVE ANIMALS, SLAUGHTERING PLANT | | WHOLE MILK ICE CREAM sxe MHL gutter SuTTERMILK crea COTTAGE CHEESE CULTURED BUT TERMKX REWNET CASEIN PLANT | ' Loi...-—--. 4 FRESH MEAT mies Bones 8.000 orran HOOFS ANO WORMS Sa et 4 fee 7 ' 1 1 GLUE AMO GELATIN. | | TANNING CoMPOUNO ~~~ TANNERY PROCESSING PLANT ORYING PLANT i 1 { 1 { Puan ' Cae Tebid 1 eee 4 SMOKING, CURING, AND OTHER MEAT SCRAP LEATHER dome wea PROCESSING PLANTS PROCESSED LEATHER ORIEO FERTILIZER ! + pro soon | lemons rat MANUFACTURING Matenac ; ! PLANT J FAT PROCESSING LIVESTOCK ano > aur ORYING PLANT LEATHER PROoUCTS noutayeean COMMmERciAL cveLe Fat GLYCERINE ‘AMO OTHER FERTILIZER MATERIALS Feavuizer INOUSTRIAL FATS OREO MEAT SCRAP MINERAL STOCK FEEO naar. FATTY ACiOs Mixeo FERTILIZER \ EXPLANATION Eee + 10 YEAR PRo@RaM TO WHOLESALE MEAT DISTRIBUTORS =a LONG RANGE PROGRAM ! i \ POWER REQUIRED 1m eee LARGE QUANTITIES TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL GROUP PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS 191 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION —INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT POULTRY POULTRY A +t uve INFERTILE FERTWE PoutTRy Eccs Eecs FERTILIZER GRADING AND : : ERCIAL LLIN PROCESSING CHERY a PLANT Ld onesseo FRESH SURPLUS, STORAGE POULTRY FEATHERS DRIED BLOOD MARKET CRACKEO EGGS MARKET Ecos ETC. Eccs Zo eS eee el ia SaaRSee919 Set ee Ta He Pisa ih iecaanie) 111, a) 11 | ey PELL LS q CANMING AND 1 PLasTiC t t ' FREEZING 1 7 ORYING ' FREEZING 1 MANUFACTURING = + —~1 PLASTICS 1 | Plant 1 { PLANT 1 PLANT Hi ANT 1 1 3 i | Ly To waneer CANNED FROZEN ' FROZEN 1 { e6e 1 : e6G ' honudis Pouctry { Eces ! 1 SHELLS : I POWOER Lowe eee. 4 Li-------~ J Lo 4 HORTICULTURAL CROPS VEceTAgLES BERRIES I p coo LJ STORAGE PLANT b r Al { PACKING FREEZING i ANNERY PLANT lamina PLANT | PLANT \ a ltt need oot cute CANNED FROZEN FROZEN ar pabeucrs MATERIAL Fooos VEGETABLES BERRIES waste all ee FROZEN waTeRiaL 7 Fault couo ! FERMENTATION | PROCESSING STORAGE i PLANTS ' PLANT PLANT Ce a I Il Mg EXPLANATION [ 1 PRESERVES an puri 10 YEAR PROGRAM dae rT iT rt 1 1 L_.____} LONG RANGE program LARGE QUANTITIES TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL GROUP ALASKA ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT ANIMAL & VEGETABLE FIBERS FIBER FLAX woot secretes M fa I pocot sera 1 1 LINE ONG) FIBER Tow seeo Smives 1 scounine pant | eT a i \ sine eel ee ' r a ; in 1 av-enoovers | ! INNING A 1; 1 PROCESSING PLANT 1 | Coo J | ' VT 41--- 1 \ WINE THREAD on me | Scoumeo AniwaL rieen| ' ase eRe FISHNET YARN MANUFACTURING LINSEED on LINSEED MEAL CAKE PLANT PEPPERMINT one Hors DISTILLATION PLANT orien rita wii iia \ Gran ORIED wor, | mat \ | ee | COTO eee 1 | ile | | peprerumr on | DLL OW | BREWERY ie ee 4 { —_—_—_+—. TT 7 \ i seen i Stock reeo I ' \ HiSRe se aeele 4 EXPLANATION 10 YEAR PROGRAM raids | tone RANGE PROGRAM b oO POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL GROUP ¢ 4 k ? cry Ped an ae PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS electricity provided it is cheap enough to compete with other heating systems. In the house, one of the convenient ways of preserving fruit and other food items is the quick-freeze method. This method has been denied to the pioneer woman and will continue to be denied until electricity at a low rate is available. It would add a great deal of convenience to the homemakers as well as make it possible to serve iresh foods throughout the year, to have a quick-freeze unit in the kitchen. To stimulate the establishment of farm homes, we might sum up by saying: (1) Make available a reason- ably adequate sum of money on a long term basis and at a low interest rate to be used for land clearing, erection of necessary buildings, and possibly purchase of ma- chinery and livestock. (2) Make available electricity at a low enough rate to make its use economical to do many things conveniently and efficiently on the farm andinthehome. (3) Make it possible to have water for irrigation purposes when and if needed. (+) Provide a good telephone system. (5) Build roads connecting homesteads to main highways. Settlement by a Government sponsored colonization project could be the answer to the above. There is such a bill in Congress and land withdrawals have been made at Dunbar (32,437 acres) near Fairbanks and in the Kenai-Kasilof area (161,000 acres) on Kenai Peninsula. Under such a colonization plan the new settlement would be supplied with these conveniences, and if the henefits were extended, as they should be, to the older settlers, much of the hardship attendant to homestead- ing in Alaska would be eliminated. ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF MINES Nearly every known mineral is present in unknown quantity in some part of Alaska. The widespread mineralization leads to the conclusion that the mining industry is potentially the most important to the Terri- tory in the immediate future. Markets for the prod- ucts of other industries such as farming, power, timber, et cetera would follow the development of the mining industry. Indications warrant the belief that the value of our mineral production should be several times the present rate ($18,378,000 in 1947). The economy of the second and fourth divisions ordinarily depends almost entirely on mining, although the situation is at pres- ent temporarily altered by extensive Government con- struction projects under way in those divisions. Many sections of Alaska are of value only for the minerals they contain. No part of it should be restricted to prospecting and development of the mineral resources. Minerals are of value only to the extent they are uti- lized. and their extraction does not necessarily adversely 193 affect scenic attractions or other uses for the areas involved. A mineral deposit must be located before it can be evaluated or developed. No mining industry can long endure or expand without the discovery of new de- posits. Prospecting is necessary, but it is practically dormant in Alaska at the present time. It is estimated that less than 75 full- and part-time prospectors were active in Alaska during 1948, in spite of the fact that very few qualified persons will deny that Alaska offers the most favorable field for the discovery of new mines of any part of the United States. Among the reasons for the decline in prospecting are the following: 1. Inability of the prospector to earn a grubstake through winter employment. Several of the former large mining companies offered employment to pros- pectors during winter to finance prospecting during the open season, but such is no longer the case. 2. Unwillingness of private capital to grubstake prospectors due to uncertain and delayed returns. Grubstaking is much less today than a number of years ago. 3. Hesitancy of venture capital to come into Alaska, take over and develop prospects that are discovered. This is mainly because of unsettled conditions such as irregular, unreliable American shipping by water at high rates, which has so deteriorated during the past few years that it is practically a farce; Government reservations and threats of more, et cetera. 4. Lack of experienced prospectors with proper train- ing. Many persons are interested in prospecting but do not possess suflicient knowledge to intelligently engage in the search for mineral deposits. 5. Rewards are not commensurate with efforts re- quired to locate a mineral deposit of commercial tenor. Considerable time must elapse before a prospect is developed to a point where financial returns may be expected. A living may be attained through less ardu- ous labor under more favorable living conditions in other lines of endeavor. 6. The romance of prospecting has largely been elim- inated by the passing of the bonanza days in Alaska when the discovery of high-grade, surface mineral deposits could be expected. Early development of the natural resources of Alaska, with resultant increase in population, seems to be well justified under present conditions. Foremost among plans toward this end should be the development of its mineral resources. Accomplishment of this purpose can only be attained by encouraging and reviving prospect- ing from its present stagnant state. Government sub- sidy seems to offer a solution, inasmuch as assistance from private sources seems inadequate. Canada has for a number of years carried out a program for as ing prospectors with apparent success. The British 194 Columbia system includes educational and financial aid. A number of favorable discoveries have resulted, at least one of which had been brought into production by 1945. A bill was introduced at the 1945 session of the Alaska Legislature, providing for assistance to pros- pectors with Territorial funds. Its need was freely admitted by the legislators, but it failed to pass by asmall margin, presumably on account of lack of funds to carry out the terms of the Act. The bill was drawn up after careful study and was designed to provide assistance similar to that available to the British Colum- bia prospector. During the 3 biennia 1927 to 1933, the Legislature provided $20,000 to be expended each biennium under what was termed the “Prospectors’ Aid Act.” Under the terms of this act, not to exceed $150 per annum for transportation only could be allotted to any one pros- pector. Although no discoveries of commercial mineral deposits were reported by prospectors who received as- sistance, the expenditure was probably justified by in- formation of value to future prospectors on little-known areas, contained in reports submitted by prospectors, which reports were required by regulations governing the administration of the Act. More effective results would probably have resulted, had it provided for fully financing a fewer number of carefully selected prospec- tors in areas known to have favorable possibilities for new discoveries. Preference in any plan for subsidizing prospectors should be given to those who have continued this type of activity in spite of handicaps. There are a few old- time prospectors remaining whose experience and familiarity with the country would be invaluable in training the younger generation. Mining claims staked by a subsidized prospector should become his property as an incentive to diligence. Taxes and addi- tional wealth created by a very few producing mines resulting from the program would more than repay the cost. Services of prospectors who show lack of interests or adaptability should immediately be dis- continued to avoid adverse effects on other prospectors in the party. Government and Territorial geologists and mining engineers are already available in the field to assist in appraising and laying out development plans for any new mineral discoveries made by subsidized prospectors. Free assaying and identification services are available at the public assay offices of the Territorial Department of Mines for samples submitted in connec- tion with prospecting activity in the Territory. Should metallic and nonmetallic minerals be found in sufficient quantities to warrant development, the fol- lowing industrial flow-diagrams are presented. These diagrams portray graphically what full utilization of Alaska’s mineral resources would mean to the Terri- tory’s future economy. ALASKA WEATHER BUREAU The climate of Alaska is sufficiently unlike that of any of the 48 States to warrant careful scrutiny of any assumptions to be made regarding weather influences under which social and economic development. in Alaska will be undertaken. Such assumptions would ordinarily rest on the broadest possible base of factual evidence. The facts in this case are embodied in the 6,000,000 Alaskan weather observations which have accumulated in the repositories of the Weather Bureau over the past 15 years. The value of a well-organized and well-functioning weather service is recognized by all agencies that are interested in the economic development of the Territory of Alaska. Aviation. agriculture, grazing, forestry, water-power development, placer mining, forest-fire protection, and the conservation of wildlife and salmon can be planned more intelligently if information on weather and climate is obtained from an adequate sys- tem of meteorological stations carefully distributed over the vast Territory. An inventory of the natural resources of a country would be incomplete without including its climate, for climatic conditions, as much as topography, geographic positica, and other economic aspects, have an important bearing on the occupation and development of a region. Climate is not only basic to land resources and to land use, but it affects man in many other ways—his housing, clothing, occupation, forms of government, and manner of living. The relation of such climatic elements as temperature, precipitation, sunshine, and the length of the growing season fo animal and vegetable life, and hence to man’s occupancy of land, is too obvious to need special con- sideration. In a report to the President of the United States some time ago his Science Advisory Board aptly stated : “In whatever way we think of the land, or what- ever land it is that claims our attention, that land is conditioned by the sky under which it lies, by the cli- mate which is proper to it.” Suitable meteorological service is essential in the de- velopment of the water and power resources in Alaska. Adequate rainfall data must be collected, and analyzed for the full development and use of water and associ- ated land resources, including irrigation drainage, flood control, navigation, hydropower, municipal and indus- trial water supply, and other related purposes. An adequate meteorological service is vital to safe and efficient aviation. Air transportation is playing an important part in the development of Alaska, where distances are great, topographical features rugged, and weather conditions extreme. Such a service requires a large network of observing stations with well spaced upper-air observations and forecast centers at important PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS 195 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT IRON & CARBON STEEL pynite ror las | 1RON “ CONCENTRATOR wine $0, PYRITE ORE WRON SAND 1RON cone os bed CONCENTRATE ORE ‘ml on CONCENTRATE | cuancoas, pynite curowire TTamium fel BURNERS: CONCENTRATE | CONCENTRATE rd : Se ansearrion SULPHURIC ACID 1RON SINTERING Kt rt RESIOUE PLANT —-—— — --tY LIQUEFACTION PLANT meni e 7 r rel sei LEGTRIC FURNACE | reouction pian | ee OUI 7 out ae SULPHURIC ACID ay $% > Soya t he, Fe, Ce ' ——— 1 ‘PIG ROM ' > TO CHEMICAL ANO COMMERCIAL MARKETS xs L---4---+ as | » . Cie = = ak, > : 1 yy st nT | EeEeTIIC inom t DIRECT REDUCTION BLAST FURNACE | ELECTR FuRnace $-4 0 ALLOY STEEL PLANTS i PLANT 1 PLANT PIG IRON PLANT | pe iow PLanT I ma - TTI : Ty) Til) || t 1ROM ‘SCRAP IRON P16 IRON t EvLEecTAic | SCRAP IRON POWOER AMO STEEL L PIG -1RON AMO METAL ~~ a p hy sz S25 -sz--~--t4 t ' mcepine PLARY CAST IRON SESSEMER OPEN HEARTH 7 ELECTRIC i IPE PLANT STEEL PLANT STEEL PLANT 1 STEEL PLANT + -—5-—7 COMMERCIAL STEEL FORGING ‘STEEL y| CASTING CASTINGS FOUNDRY PLANT «got FOUNORY L COMMERCIAL FORGING i} ROLLING 1) ‘FINISHED WRON FOUNDRY euceT wre PROOUCTS =z — ‘STOVE wiRE MERCHANT REINFORCING works ROO ean aan EXPLANATION 10 YEAR Procnau nea staverunaL seer ite 7 mre SHAPES STRIP L 3 LONG RANGE PROGRAM POWER REQUIRED IN 1h ah telat aat ot 4 LARGE QUANTITIES wine \ 1 Li weave PRooUCTS ! PATE 1 mate Coo 3 RAWLS AND MALS CABLE WOVEN BARBED ‘PIPE AND Ls wine wire Tues TRACK MATERIALS STERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES TO COMMERCIAL MARKETS FERROUS METALS GROUP Va TO INDUSTRIAL AMO COMMERCIAL MARKETS 196 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION— INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT CHROMIUM, SILICON, MANGANESE FERROALLOYS & ALLOY STEELS peers cy, | | | pean cedar ce om TO INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL MARKETS TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES. FERROUS METALS GROUP CHROMITE MINES CHROMITE siuca NO CONCENTRATORS et quanay _| —_ FERROGRADE r m3 IRON ORE, COKE, 1 CHROMITE 1 UimesTONE, SINTERING | Low GRADE FERROGRADE FERROGRADE siica 1 PLANT PRODUCTS { CONCENTRATES CONCENTRATES one ROCK L Seren seer nok £ T A J ————————_ em I Pe 7 |_| wocvsoenua - 4 i ' CONCENTRATE | ELECTRIC FURNACE | CHROMIC ACIO ! { -———h AND | REDUCTION PLANT | ‘ ' ee tL Ligmomare reer | ' 1 ‘ 1 TUNGSTEN ----it-—-- p--—-—4t--—- = r 4 f q Sy CONCENTRATES Wi,Feyce ' ' CHROME \ Fee 1 I PIG IRON. i yy ! CHEMICALS, 1 L------—-4 cs. 2eu r----4 v7 SCRAP IRON TITANIUM TO INDUSTRIAL AND CHEMICAL dua SteRl. cone concen TRATE MARKETS ~ Lys er RE ERE ee postast ta + OxI01ZING ‘ micren ; AGENT an mG | Sep aeapoae nel U---------1 an tb b r --}--y fyi £3 ] i F 1 ML SZ_--- 4-41 ------ SZ -i4 1 32-52-41 ELECTROLYTIC ' rif i f cr ! tt DIRECT PROCESS [ | | FERROCHROME =| | 1 t Ferno aor | | CHROMIUM vy STAINLESS STEEL | | j PLANT 1 1 ' ' PLANT ‘ L PLANT 3! PLANT an L ie Hae 1 7 3 ae ate gat es oe ope dale here tn, es : \ 7 ! i or ' ‘ ' ' 1 ‘ poo ades-— 5 I mn abannng | ----t----, 0 -----b----, ' evectroutic =| | STAINLESS. ry ' ¢ ‘CHROMIUM 1} 11 1 remmocwnowe | ' 1 1 ' cd 1 I SCRAP IRON t-4 auvoy steer =| ‘ ROLLING STAINLESS L 1 amo steee FF runs | >} mie Kit seer bo t 1 ----J | L--—----—I ' H 1 ! ‘ ; I pa--SZ---5 fete lel etl 1 avoy steeu a} ROLLED tL t stamcess : INGOT t propucTs: ; 1 ingot es L----,-----. 4 tL-------- 1 1 ' 1 1 1 : teat 1 AIT ube del t STEEL INOUSTRY 1 ' MERCHANT L ' i SHEET, PLATE ' 1 TO IRON AND. LN | ' ean-roo | tan sta! ! | fel dlatlcelaleetelstotteall | Hehaltebdhinlela epost ; { | | 1 ! isle | Ta ei Plc || 7 ! {wine noo | || srauctunae | Sd ! AND WIRE ort SHAPES, t EXPLANATION 1 L--------4 | L------—-4 : | ' 10 YEAR PROGRAM tant) | — t t 7 itp i \ wirit ! ' FORGING tt PIPE AND 1 t {LONG RANGE PROGRAM 1 I eueT rt TUBING ! l too ols. 1 he Ty ay a ; Pp ' I : POWER REQUIRED in L Z i ance ouanrries t Pep ee RoR ete bdr oni spent SS ne Ne R Rope Sebo ener CRD SN Ome Nem ASHEN RN PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION —INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT COPPER LEAD COPPER LEAD -ZING ‘ORES ORES ‘MINES AND MINES AND CONCENTRATORS CONCENTRATORS COPPER: ZING CONCENTRATES CONCENTRATES > pyo--—-+-- ------- LT corren suevten r 4 q LEAD 1 TELECTROLYTIC REFINERY! | COMGERTRATES 1 sara arr 1 1 1 1 1 \ Vf qb rc { Govo ano suver | |! ARSENIC i ! YT! REFINERY =| | | TRIOXIDE ' 4 srk L rc t 1 ' | i 1 1 1 ' : I ta FLUE Gas, ' ' INSECTICIDE t ! 1 cowure sop | | | PLANT t I {2 oa Sees oe + 4 Lu 4 ! | 1 ! (os , OUd 7 poorrbeno-4 13 coPPER \ ZING SLAB 1 ea} ANTIMONIAL It ear ! {€ Time UTVIZATION SEET] ry Leo | Lae-4q----4 0 b----- r---—4 | L-------- ' ' t 1 Ve 1! { i \ (oecccss 5 {P= I 14 1 | 1 a swer 1 |) ware cao pant | 1 be tr} te ie b4-4 {OUTCH, CARTER, CABLE MILLS ' | HL See neti J ! } Luu i! Laem i 1 ! \ ' ! i | co Vy a = 4 H —— i | _] COMER ano onass | 11 LEAD EXTRUSION II | LITHARGE, RED LEAD, | ! r 1 FOUNDRIES ry 1 PLANT | 1 | LEAD PEROKIO€ PLANT | { jp boon 4) 1 Lowa ----- Jj Loa--p-----4 t 1 ' Tv ! I ! \ ' ' i p-------- \ 1 -----—-——— { faa 1 | (ies aner nor] | L-] (sovoeR, TrPe meTact..-| 1 ' 1] casting PLANT M 1 4 iene ceca t | 1 | te 4j ru ' ! t t ' 1 ' ! 1 ' ! ' co | proo--------9 | | ----——---5 ! ' ' sucpmunic acid 1 || coveen ano erass |! Lo LEAD FOIL 4 1 t 1 fd bet td Ld i PLANT byt Roum ams 1 | ty wie tt ! Li-—{-----4 | L--------- 44 ! U-------- sr t ' ! ' - \ ' i prom m tana porno aa \ p------—— = ' ! SULPHURIC 1 1! compen ano arass i! {1 LEAD SHOT ano ot t 1 Fe - _ - \ acto 1 TT) extmusion puawr [4 aay ool cra | ' Le ) Le I t 1 ' T 1 \ bo il epee ee eee 4 4 T TO COMMERCIAL ANO CHEMICAL MARKETS TO COMMERCIAL AND CHEMICAL MARKETS ° EXPLANATION 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES TERRITORIAL DEPARTWENT OF MINES 197 NONFERROUS METALS GROUP 198 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION — INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT LEAD ZINC 2iNC- LEAD ones, FLUE Gas “0. (OWUTE Soy) CONCENTRATORS K ‘SO, ABSORPTION Zinc y ‘ANO CONCENTRATES LIQUEFACTION PLANT | | i | ROASTING LiQUIO-$0y > Punt i mi Lh 80; GAS cone zine CALCINES 1 J ELEMENTAL ' RETORT | 1 €vectRouyric 1 SULPHUR PLANT ' {ZING PLANT J SULPHUR pom SULPHURIC ACID PLANT | 1 1 1 1 1 ' \ ! ! ! 1 i 1 | ' 1 4 1 (AMERICAN PROCESS) + { SULPHURIC TO COMMERCIAL AND L acio -—>) CHEMICAL MARKETS i I ! 1 ! ' ' Puant F r ae oe ae. J 1 1 | \ ' I | t ' i i I \ 4 b | 1 ' ' 1 | | | ---—---- ! ' | r 7 ' | | | ame oxoe pant L! PLANT a TO MARKETS TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES CONCENTRATES pod Sen ELECTRO Gacvami; PLANT SHEET -WiRE HOT O1P 7 cauvamizing Pant | ZINC DIE CASTING PLANTS ' SHEET MILL ' t---- PLANT ZINC OXIDE PLANT (FRENCH PROCESS); EXPLANATION 10 YEAR PROGRAM =---5 {LONG RANGE PROGRAM POWER REQUINED IN LARGE QUANTITIES, NONFERROUS METALS GROUP a a A | PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS -— ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT MAGNESIUM FROM DOLOMITE. FROM MAGNESITE FROM SEA WATER MAGNESITE QUARRY povowte pig tation et nroRocen CHLORINE ouaaay CONCENTRATORS. a b+ 1 7 | CONCENTRATE nant 1 1 | ' Sea waTeR caxciune cavcmne Ee nvorocmcone | I PLANT eLant acto ' euanT | | SS ! [ ' Me 5% MAGNESIA “AGNESIUM ! MAGNESIA FERROSILICON CAL CINE CHLORIDE — CALCINE 1 1 1 | cHvonine cone \ 1 1 e A | | oT ego PPT Crosman yr uel we 1 cnvorioizing uJ ‘ 1 THER WAL, i Le | EvectaoutiG 4 4 ' aeouction 7 Meoand L_ REDUCTION #Lant ' Lane u-- --4 =-—----- u > | root tata eqs a=te==5 1 MAGNESIUM t | MAGNESIUM 1 1 ‘Ngo t I INGOT 1 benno — 4 Coos sro 9 ro wancer TO waRKET ALUMINUM FROM CLAY FROM _ALUNITE cuay ALUMITE oe Posi Mine cuay et <ALUNITE ALUMINA Sycomumic PURIFICATION cuar paver PLANT L tL . ory SULPHURIC POTASSIUM coar acio SULPHATE To wanceT TO wake auwonia suenuarc Pure acio ALUMINA SS | . v -1L-t- p----4----75 [ awvowuw CT Tiwmwe I SULPHATE ALUMINA {| pom omm mmm mt evectrourric = 5 {Lpusirication PLANT | { {_neouction Puan + ats yfs=s- : Tf ! =a poe 5 i ---3 4 EXPLANATION : pure toe ' avumimum 1 ALUMINA r ‘ INGOT 1 10 YEAR PROGRAM tL. —- pees Cece ees -=2se= : Z - s ' n PRO TO MARKE 10 mance? bosses 1} LONG RANGE PROGRAM P POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES Lrensitomac ceeanTMeNT OF wines 199 LIGHT METALS GROUP 200 ALASKA ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT LIMESTONE, LIME, CEMENT & GYPSUM . CLAY oR LIMESTONE OR CEMENT GYPSUM MINE | LIMESTONE QUARRY ROCK QUARRY ANO a0 : AND CRUSHING PLANT nema CRUSHING PLANT CRUSHING PLANT mm ane — co | LIMES TONE SHALE ROCK Rock ‘ | \, 1 / v N | To ae PorTLANO coniavonme ausiese CALCINING AND CEMENT PLANT GRINDING PLANT LOW MEAT PORTLAND KEENE'S CEMENT CEMENT CEMENT LIME BURNING ROUND PLANT qnave GYPSUM 1 \ L_ | - READY-M0tx PLASTER BOARD = CONCRETE PLANT ANOLATH PLANT pm ---—------) ! ' wixeo BUILOING WALLBOARO COKE I cmonine ! CONCRETE PLASTERS Late U ---4---+ -----4---4 1 ! ! : > | carson lL To i O10KIDE INDUSTRIAL ' Manners 1 Pr io okt , -_ ---1--L4 a EXPLANATION \ CALCIUM CARBIDE CARBON O1OXIOE 'SSOR PLANT PLANT Comoe 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM r | CALCIUM t 1 CARBIDE ! cancun | ov ice L1QUID Cog POWER REQUIRED IN \ b--—---~—----5 LARGE QUANTIFIES \ 771 | SZ Se ‘ LIMESTONE MARKETS: COMMERCIAL MARKETS: 1 METALLURGICAL FLUX: 2. CHEMICAL PROCESSES: 3 AGRICULTURAL: 4 BUILDING MATERIAL: 1 ORY ICE (@ IRON BLAST FURNACE @ SULPHITE PULP MILL 0. FERTILIZER. © DIMENSION STONE @ ICE CREAM FREEZING » STEEL FURNACE » susan & STOCK FEED & STUCCO, TERAZZO 2. LiguD Coz ¢ NON-FERROUS METAL ¢ ROAD MATERIAL @ CARBONATED BEVERAGES SMELTER © FIRE EXTINGUISHERS SZ ! METALLURGICAL MARKETS: CHEMICAL PROCESS MARKET: SANITATION. 1. STEEL-MaKING L InsecTicio€s 1 WATER PURIFICATION 2 ORE CONCENTRATION 2. SODA AND SULPHATE PULP (2. WATER SOFTENING 3 HYOROMETALLURGICAL PLANTS ‘3. PAPER-FILLER (WHITING) BUILOING MATERIALS: GLASS - MAKING: 4. LEATHER TANNING 1. MORTARS CERAMIC: 5. CAUSTIC SODA 2 PLASTER 1. SILICA BRICKMAKING 6. SUGAR REFINING ‘3 WATERPROOF CONCRETE AGRICULTURE: T BLEACHING LIQUOR 4 KALSOMINE 1 FERTWIZER MATERIAL © ACETATE OF Lime 2. DISINFECTANT (WHITE WASH) 9 MAGNESIA PRECIPITATION TERRITORIAL OEPARTMENT OF MINES NONMETALLIC GROUP | ae ABERAT OS Be ah NR PR TRAM ODED eircom + sa PRES neve PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT INSULATION — BUILDING AND ELECTRICAL aseestos TALE MINE Mime AND MILL The ano ML 5 8y-PRooucT ASBESTOS FieRE iaea 800K Mica cRouNo TALC BLOCKS OR SLABS aseestos PLITTING AND MANUFACTURING seuisTene MANUFACTURING PLANT TRIMMING PLANT PLANT [rane Fae ERE Ue asleep ecesree ne | ‘AND BOARD GROUND MICA MICA SHEETS, fumes scene paRHnS pocsccro ~ Pa ' ! wovoco et MoLoED ' MICA MARKETS: et LAUNORY TUBS INSULATION | oraxe cine | 1 SHEETS: cuT PRooucTS Ca ee = @ ELECTRICAL INSULATION » STOVE winoows f 2 GROUND mica: ASBESTOS PIPE SHINGLES, 1 ROOFING FILLER PAPER, PAINT, AND TILE | ] SIOING, ETC © waLLraren ROOFING, ETC. © FILLER-RUBBER, PAINT : 4 MOLDGO INSULATION 4 CHRISTMAS TREE SNOW {MISCELLANEOUS STEATITE INSULATOR PLANT PRESSED, EXTRUOED,OR CAST INSULATORS INSULATION (Cont.) ABRASIVE PRODUCTS VERMICULITE MICA SAMO PIT ANO GARNET MINE ANO evectaicac MINE ANO CONCENTRATOR WASHING PLANT CONCENTRATOR INSULATORS | verwicurite siica ouantz CONCENTRATES sano SAMO r i VERMICULITE a ‘ | maturacewery | EXPANDING PLANT ” | AMO CORUMOUM | u exrouiaTeo aonasive mica — MANUFACTURING PLANT 7 -------=— --b-—----4-, ZONOLITE 1 ARTIFICIAL ot SILICON { OWSTONES Ano INSULATION t GRAPHITE ilk CARBIDE ! wneTsrones rT SANOPAPERS: Pe |) T t | 1 SET | feel ne eee eu! | r fr) 7 | os t cde INSULATION BOARD. [INSULATING BRICK te REPS ETORY #LAnt | ominowwe wneets F——1eMERY arene | Ce ee EXPLANATION TO INDUSTRIAL AMD COMMERCIAL MARKETS euILomG 10 YEAR PROGRAM INSULATION t _1 LONG RANGE PRogRaM POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES. TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES 201 NONMETALLIC GROUP 202 ALASKA ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION— INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT REFRACTORIES & INSULATORS MAGNESITE QUARRY ea ee i onoart on ra or CONCENTRATOR nas 1 r rinec CRUSHED ROCK Magnesite conckureare cunomiTe suuica Lay f, y CALCINING PLANT CALCINING PLANT vy i w---------5 | -----~---~ i TILe 1 LIME -MaGNesiUa I ‘ URNED WAGNESITE | Fuseo atumna SILICON CARBIDE FIREGRICK PLANT CALCINE 1 nl 1 I I ue C7 I bf > Patan pan ntan--5 | INSULATION 11 RERAcToRY =I TO MAGNESIUM PLANT ' 1 imEanica: | MOLOING PLANT | | Rick PLANT | fle ee be----7--- LLL QV wd a TO INDUSTRIAL ANO COMMERCIAL MARKETS REFRACTORIES etc. (Cont.) TO METALLURGICAL AND CHEMICAL MARKETS: TO INDUSTRIAL MARKETS BROMINE & FLUORSPAR PUMICITE QUARRY AND GRINOING PLANT DIATOMITE MINE AND CALCINER FLUORSPAR MINE AND CONCENTRATOR SULPHURIC ACIO Sea waTer PUMPING PLANT CHLORINE, GROUND PUMICE DRIED DIATOMITE INDUSTRIAL MARKETS: | CEMENT FILLER 2 PLASTER FILLER 3. FILTER AIDS 4 LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE 5. CERAMIC MATERIAL 1 POLISHING AND SCOURING 1 INSULATING ' COMPOUND PLANT BRK ANT {| — 4 ‘ ----t-—, POLISHES AND SCOURING : ' ; INSULATING BRICK |, ' L 4 —---q---- TO COMMERCIAL MARKETS OLIVINE QUARRY AND MILL OLIVINE ] FLUORSPAR S008 asH an Goi Oryitaciit t sooium ' 1 BROMINE i ALUMINATE ' ' eT ated u T t 1 | SULPHURIC ACID I ' \ 1 LEI (ae | 7 ) wvoRoFLuoRIC ty 1 oreromioe ' ACIO PLANT s|if ! . PUAN ! L -1 1 Co Se ey | | ‘ Cini | Croc cte ons [ MYOROFLUoRIG ; { ETHYLENE : 1 acio ‘i ' O1BROWIoE 1 ----5- i u----,----4 oS To OW iNoUSTAY FLUORSPAR wanecTs Canna 1 METALLURGICAL FLUX 1 CRYOUTE PLANT 2. GLASS-MAKING c 1 4 EXPLANATION 3. ALUMINUM ELECTROLYTE 4. ENAMELS 5S. MISCELLANEOUS a 1 I OLIVINE j 1 nernactory pLant | a TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES ] 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM TO ALUMINUM PLANTS: AMO INDUSTRIAL MARKETS NONMETALLIC GROUP PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION— INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES NONMETALLIC GROUP GLASS ARTZ sano QUARTE Mant AnO ar CHARCOAL FELDSPAR BORAX IMPORTS GRINDING MILL ANO WASHER Yop QUARTZ ROCK QUARTZ SAND S1LIcA SAMO ! SODA ASH {| Soo1uUM SULPHATE | ume toot t Ly----— == zi baa-4---- ' : ‘ A I Vv GROUNO SILICA p----+----) pro --4 | CONTAINER GLASS ! 1 GLASS FIBRE ‘ ( | PLANT 4 L AND WOOL PLANT 3 tS al ~< ' ' 7 SILICA MARKETS ! H —— panty 1. GROUND SILICA ' ' i 1 @. CERAMICS INOUSTRY | ware ass | | ormes,sans | I » CHEMICAL INOUSTRY ' ' { i € BUILDING MATERIAL —— r----d t—---4--===-1 I 4 MISCELLANEOUS 1 2. SANOS ! @ FOUNDRY MOLOING 1 DBUILOING MATERIAL | € ABRASIVES I 4. CERAMIC INOUSTRY 3. SiLica ROCK | \ METALLURGICAL FLUX ceanuuat » FERROSILICON \ DOLOMITIC 1 SILICA ROCK neavous ! ' I ENAMELS ' aaa 4 Seieieneieanate ' Pr Ti CRYOLITE IMPORTS covons a tonax mrorts [5 IRON ORE ' suas it CLAY OR SHALE L_--_-_.----4 | ’ 1 a i FLUORSPAR FELOSPAR siica schaplecastd { i M WOOL PLANT i 1 t }-----.. 4 proco-- room poco ahs a4 ! hy! ! t. Loose woo. GRANULATED WOOL ' ! Ll J L woot ears INSULATING CEMENT 3 1 | ENAMEL FRIT PIPE COVERING s.ocKs 1 Lows.) i proro-t---a t | ENAMELING PLANT t INSULATING BLANKETS INSULATION BOARD : Lo--—--—-4 EXPLANATION [ om Sa Seasdseeae 7 r 1 1 Tesh prone To MARKET 1 ENAMEL WARE | ! ! LONG RANGE PROGRAM hater 1 To MARKET 203 204 TO CHEMICAL AND COMMERCIAL MARKETS ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION —INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT . CERAMIC PRODUCTS CLAY PITS. MISCELLANEOUS que curs ——]—_T. erick | SamiTaRy WARE | | | PORCELAIN INSULATOR 1 aay PLANT 1 PLANT, PORCELAIN { PLANT ! U---7----4 | L- ro--4 . ' ' \ praaatennny | poo ta 4 REFRACTORY ' SANITARY ' i ELECTRICAL, t PRooucTs H FIXTURES { ) ft imsucaTors ' | L--_--—_. a BRICK, SEWER PIPE AMO TILE PLANT ORNAMENTAL AND + FLOOR THE POTTERY 1 TERRA COTTA PLAMT INDUSTRIAL MARKETS: 1 FILLER, © LimoLeus BUILDING BRICK SEWER PIPE mee CHA WARE ANO TILE |ANO ORAIN TILE TERRA COTTA | ' SALINES BARITE OARITE MINE BRINE WELLS paatanve 71 ! BRINE CARBON CRUDE BARITE \ Zinc SULPHATE I ' —--—-H EVAPORATION AN GROUND SARITE PURIFICATION PLANT ———-- q ras | p77 7-34 ---- ! rit t {BARIUM CHEMICAL | | POTASSNM SALTS F-—-—4 Som SrCARBONATE | ! mans ! L-------- | L---4----- J ! ! 1 c ! ' SODA ASH i sauT \ ' b-------~ a ' ' 1 ' ~~ a — ' C ee eee qa prs re t SALT CAKE | earum PeRoxio€ E+-4 BARIUM OXIDE | 1 INDUSTRIAL MARKETS: | t wo PL _] | L PAINT, ENAMELS, ANO LacquERs ! . { | 2.wescercancous ! wz 1 e===S==—— =a | Perea ee W------—----—--—-— brphanen ' suanc rixe — F-4-4 amiuu cansoware i emLonive ‘ rit | 4 U-----—--- I Lene e enue, 4 { INOUSTRIAL MARKETS: EXPLANATION fe = | 1 ox weus ome | BARIUM CHLORIDE rt BARIUM SULPHIDE | 2. GLASS -MAKING Kt ‘ 10 YEAR PROGRAM to ttt j eure pront- 3 | 4. MISCELLANEOUS | LONG RANGE PROGRAM > TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES NONMETALLIC GROUP ft | | | | | | PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS HYDROCHLORIC ACID ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT CHLORINE & CAUSTIC SODA [ SULPHURIC | saut ‘0c CHLORINE tive | f HYOROCHLORIC | nom CARBON caustic soon PLANT p-n-- heen a SALT HYDROCHLORIC | SODIUM CHLORITE | cane Acio 1 PLant ‘ - Sb TO SULPHATE To CHEMICAL PULP MILLS: MARKETS: TO INDUSTRIAL, MARKETS. SALT Torta nanan a -4 ELecTROLYTIC | SOOIUM HYPO- CHLORITE PLANT | sooium ' HYPOCHLORITE | a TO COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL MARKET CHEMICAL GROUP CALCIUM CARBIDE- ACETYLENE & DERIVATIVES TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES coKe Lime waTER Pp caccium cALcIUM ACETYLENE CARBIOE 4) +) =) ACETYLENE "| Puen CARBIDE GENERATOR SZ _L =+--- - sb ais | ACETALOEHYOE TO COMMERCIAL AND PLANT. 1 ver INDUSTRIAL MARKETS bool ACETYLENE BLACK CHLORINE EXPLANATION NITROGEN L oo 3 --t--l--- qo op b----- a i J LONG RANGE PROGRAM ' acetylene tt VINYL ' 1 cHtormation =| ACETYLENE t L PLANT 1 L PLANT ‘ NONMETALLIC GROUP 10 YEAR PROGRAM POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES nm a ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT CHLORINE & CAUSTIC SODA HYDROGEN saut Che HYDROCHLORIC ELECTROLYTIC CAUSTIC RECOVERY ACID PLANT CHLORINE PLANT » PLANT 1 | ry ' 1 HYDROCHLORIC ACID CHLORINE CAUSTIC LIQUOR SOLID CausTIC LicuID caustic ty Soowm weTaL tt 1 1 | ! SULPHURIC ACI | | So ee | | : CHEMICAL 1 Rs a { pur CARBON BISULPMOE ' 1 I | ° ' ! Coane HH I | ' non t 7 TO INDUSTRIAL MARKETS: VISCOSE RAYON AMO | ! " ' =< i L id cmLonine CELLOPHANE PLANT 4 I | ' 1 WATER PURIFICATION | ‘ \ | SANITATION | -------- 4 - Lr Vey W000 PULP BLEACHING avon vanw 1 , aes 4 ream cmonoe Kf-4 Text scscnne KY srronane ' : MISCELLANEOUS | Ua i | yy > caustic soos. 4G > rc 1 SOAP MAKING err ccc | 1 | PETROLEUM REFINING { 1 ! zinc 1 ot PULP AND PAPER 1 PROPYLENE ' ' } 1 ure ‘ ‘ u L--- 4 s_| TEXTWLE INOUSTRY I ! RUBBER RECLAIMING | 1 VEGETAGLE Ot PROCESSING cc-cc I \ ' MISCELLANEOUS 1 SYNTHETIC GLYCERINE 2) -4 PLANT Kt 1 PLANT 1 L----- +--+ 1 . | ' | TOTS SSS PT “TOO TV} 7 1 | scraptmmare | | f wawaree ETHYLENE i|t ETHYLENE i | tt ' 1 tid AND ACO i! tft ' L-------- 4k ae ane: 4 = = L----+—----4 | ' 1 i | 1 ' ' t ' po-—t---5 +} rot —4-— | (fT CHLORIDE PLANT 14 | ' ETHYLENE GLYCOL, tt > 1 (TIN RECLAIMING) t- ean bs (ETHYLENE orenomioe) [ Pant 4 L Li--- eee. 4 I —— ' i | ! --—=—--= 7 yy to ' 1 { ETHYLENE | | Soot PorrsuPHIDE | 1 ' tor | a I — T ' ... I €vectrourtic —f. 1 4 SYNTHETIC RUBBER ' MaGnesiuM PLANT | It K 2 - { tiwonon. ¢ ------- 4 ----4----- 4 I i 7 = EXPLANATION PRODUCTS TO CHEMICAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND COMMERCIAL MARKETS 10 YEAR program LONG RANGE PROGRAM POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES. TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES CHEMICAL GROUP PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS 207 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT NITROGEN GROUP warer steaw an a ELECTROLYTIC RETORT _| come » RETORT COMPRESSOR HYOROGEN PLANT HYDROGEN PLANT NITROGEN PLANT DISTLLATION PLANT = 4 | & 5 OxyGEN HYOROGEN CO, GAS co Gas NITROGEN oxveen - rp------- L_, TO COMMERCIAL AND ' svatwene ‘ CHEMICAL MARKETS AMMONIA PLANT =| === 4 PLANT (ELECTROTHERMAL VOLATILIZATION) CONCENTRATED SUPERPHOSPHATE (WET PROCESS) ACID PHOSPHATE —— PHOSPHATE ROCK PHOSPHATE ROCK PHOSPHATE ROCK Mine MINE MINE PHOSPHATE ROCK SULPHURIC ACID PHOSPHATE ROCK PHOSPHATE ROCK ‘SILICA ROCK COKE r I [ ore t4 ELECTRIC FURNACE 5 | PHOSPHORUS AND {| PHOSPHORIC ACIO PLANT Sao 4 7 ‘ e-2==s-——- > ‘ | PHOSPHORIC ACI L----,-----3 s PLANT es ‘ p-----4----- ' CONCENTRATED 7 FERTILIZER | MIXING PLANT * RRR lo 18 sy ep Shook ad Seite Rope BIB RABAK hb eer S890 TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES ; vy T TO COMMERCIAL ANO CHEMICAL MARKETS ‘SUPERPHOSPHATE c- ' SUPERPHOSPHATE t i rant =| u. aa 4 | ' ' \ pono t----- > 4 ' CONCENTRATED | ' 1 4 EXPLANATION [ven moe POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES CHEMICAL GROUP—FERTILIZER 208 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT FROM COAL COKING coat MINE AND WASHER ANTHRACITE COAL MINE AND WASHER wasneo com. ANTHRACITE COAL By-PRooUCT ) y- proouct A COKE OVEN b “mene L_MECOvERY PLanrs V auwomium sucpnare XK} ———___] coat Tan = mn COKE OVEN Gas CREOSOTE On CARBOLIC On Lint on mEAVY OW piten TO PRESERVATIVE MARKET eee aa 5 DOMESTIC CoKE ont PHENOL ' Tar t ' L---------_ 4 | Towmoustmac AND fn 4 | p-----—---- 4 DOMESTIC FUEL MARKETS. ‘ ty 1 [1 NAPHTWALENE =f) | PHEWANTHRENE ROAD TAR ‘ ry 1 bos cece ae. a | ci--------ee =| $ METALLUROICAL TO CHEMICAL MARKETS cone ROOFING TAR TO INDUSTRIAL MARKETS COKE BREEZE CHARCOAL wooo coxe A A v V Jb p-—--1---5 ----t----5 . ----s2@™., To METALLUReICAL | racnaneo awownin! i sooemacne aummum | | sooensens cLEcrnoe | AND CHEMICAL MARKETS: t ELECTRODE PLANT | 1 ELECTRODE PLANT 1 MIX PLANT 1 b--- fees LE a a 4 ‘ TOALUMIMUM CELLS TO SODERBERG ALUMINUM CELLS ____|____ ' ' | SODERBERG wrx { 1 EXPLANATION t-——----- 4 10 YEAR PROGRAM | LONG RANGE PROGRAM TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES INDUSTRIAL CARBON GROUP —, PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS 209 ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT | ELECTRODE CARBON }— TO METALLURGICAL AND CHEMICAL MARKETS b po-+------- | ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITE. | ' PLANT 1 L-----+---3 eT ' 1 | ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITE ~~~ ————— J | ._! PITCH CARBON BRIQUETS + TO DOMESTIC AND INOUSTRIAL FUEL MARKETS | Gnapwite prooucts ' ' \ TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF WINES 4 ' u ee Ses S553 = == 4-4 t tof neon | | cangon prooucts 1 | AMORPHOUS Cal ' 1 i | €uectRooes | Lee SB Los GRAPHITE (Natural) FROM OIL FROM COAL =| — narrate WESTERN OW FIELDS HYOROGEN LOW RANK COAL NO MILL coau |_| waturac GRaPnite CRUDE OWL HYOROGENATION PLANT ou REFINERY OVEN on. 1 r U cas Liauio FuELs | PETROLEUM,COKE | GAS PLANT OWL GAS PLAN 4 \ MISCELLANEOUS ey-PRooucTS cp } I V 1 4 ' f | -~—~-— _ Perroceum coxe TARS LAMPBLACK LIGHT ons ' ' 4 | | ----—---; OT a TyEe 1 ' nya P= METALLURGICAL COKE CREOSOTE On. — ETHYLENE | a ee eee 4 eee 1 \ -— — Founory cone Roao TAR PROPYLENE ' cotta 1 bs BUTYLENE 1 | | ELECTRODE PITCH - TO CHEMICAL MARKETS: CARBON BLACK - TO DOMESTIC AND st INDUSTRIAL FUEL TO INDUSTRIAL MARKETS MARKETS: MANUFACT O1L GAS ect aaa aay orvcen @ATTERY PLANT PULPBOARD er | TTT ZING CHLORIDE | --4 EXPLANATION 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES INDUSTRIAL CARBON GROUP 210 ALASKA ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OXYGEN—HYDROGEN—NITROGEN air waTer come waTer | [| ELECTROLYTIC. WATER Gas. MQUEFAC TON PLANT”. HYOROGEN PLANT HYDROGEN PLANT NITROGEN OXYGEN Oxveen HYDROGEN. mYOROSEN CO, eas TO SYNTHETIC TO CHEMICAL PLANT, AMMONIA PLANT LIQUID Co ,oR TO COMMERCIAL TO COMMERCIAL, ORY ICE PLANT AND CHEMICAL MARKETS ANO CHEMICAL MARKETS: CARBON DIOXIDE SULPHUR DIOXIDE ACETYLENE LIMESTONE CO, GAS WELLS SULPHUR CALCIUM CARBIDE waren LIME BURNING SULPHUR QURNING AND ACETYLENE PLANT LIQUEFACTION PLANT GENERATION PLANT Lime €0,6as LIQUID SO. ACETYLENE TO MARKETS TO COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, TO COMMERCIAL ANO ANO CHEMICAL MARKETS CHEMICAL MARKETS omy ice ORY ICE PLANT SYNTHETIC AMMONIA y convERsiON ano Kt (S0L10 Co,) ) PURIFICATION PLANT TO COMMERCIAL MARKETS: ‘STEAM PURIFIED GAS AMMONIA SYNTHESIS WATER cone ain vant SEMI-WATER GAS, >} MIxX€0 Gases: Aeon GENERATION PLANT EXPLANATION TO CHEMICAL AND IMOUSTRIAL MARKETS 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF MINES INDUSTRIAL GAS GROUP é & ‘ g PALER eR eee SONIA SPN nee ne ee PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS terminals where airline operators and pilots can obtain the latest weather information, examine weather maps and upper-air charts and consult with meterologists. Historical The earliest meteorological observations were begun at Sitka by Russian missionaries in 1828. ‘The meteor- ological work at Sitka was taken over by Russian Government officials in 1842 and continued until 1867 when the Territory was acquired by the United States. However, aside from this record and a couple of others of a fragmentary nature made at mission stations, there appears to have been no effort during the Russian occu- pancy to make systematic weather records. Soon after the organization of the United States Weather Bureau under the Signal Corps of the Army, by Joint Congressional Resolution, February 9, 1870 (16 Stat. L., 369), weather observations were begun by the surgeons at several Army-post hospitals. There- after a few additional stations were established, with 13 in operation by 1890, but these early records were made generally near the coast and no data became avail- able for the interior until the 80’s and then only frag- mentary in nature. After the transfer of the Weather Bureau to the De- partment of Agriculture in 1890, observational work was extended as rapidly as conditions permitted, and by 1920 weather reports were being received from 73 sta- tions. However, in Alaska, as in the States, the bulk of climatological records is obtained through coop- eration with interested persons who make observations without compensation for their service and, because of <parse settlement in most sections, limited communica- tion facilities, and often lack of permanency in resi- dence, it has been difficult in many cases to maintain continuity of records for a sufficient length of time for the data to be of material climatological value. The station mortality and observer turnover are extremely large. Current climatological records for Alaska have been printed in both monthly and annual summaries and earlier data, up to 1921, are summarized in consider- able detail in Weather Bureau Bulletin W. Forecasting activities in Alaska necessarily could not begin until it was possible to secure current daily ob- servations from scattered places in the Territory by cable, telegraph, and radio. Local forecasts for Juneau and vicinity were first issued in 1917, and were extended later to the area traversed by the Alaskan Railroad to Fairbanks and the Tanana Valley. In May 1919 Juneau was designated as the district forecast center. The first observation obtained by radio was from Nome on November 1. 1907, followed by Eagle on June 24, 1909, Kodiak and Dutch Harbor on May 1, 1915, and 988410—52——15 211 St. Paul on August 8, 1915. Prior to these dates obser- vations were secured regularly from places on or con- tiguous to the Seattle-Alaska cable. When the forecast service began in 1917 observations were available at. Juneau daily or twice daily from 10 places in Alaska. These reports were cabled also to Seattle and distrib- uted to the various forecast centers. They proved to be of incalculable value in connection with the forecasting service in the United States. By the time that the service for airways was inaugu- rated in 1931 there were 13 such stations transmitting observations daily or twice daily. They, with an in- creased number of observations each day, have formed a fundamental source of data used in providing service to aviation since that time. In 1931 there were 13 stations transmitting synoptic observations daily, or twice daily, in Alaska. The first service for aviation was inaugurated in the same year, with an appropriation of $26,695. For several years thereafter no material change was made in the service to aviation. The first plans for an expansion began as a coopera- tive movement early in 1936 on the part of the Depart- ment of the Interior, War Department, Post Office De- partment, and Department of Agriculture (Weather Bureau), involving plans for the relief and develop- ment of Alaskan aviation. While the request for funds for this project by the Department of the Interior for the improvement of Territorial possessions was not ap- proved by the Bureau of the Budget in that year, these plans were, in general, followed later when funds became available. A statement as to the need of aviation and generai weather service within Alaska was included in a report to Congress, as requested in the concurrent Congres- sional Resolution No. 24, approved August 21, 1937. This report, by the Alaskan Resources Committee, en- titled, “Alaska—Its Resources and Development” was presented to the President in December 1937 for trans- mission to the Congress. The staff report on “Meteorol- ogy and Climatology,” prepared by representatives of the Weather Bureau and a member of the Army Air Corps, proposed a weather-reporting service consisting of four airway district forecast centers, 7 upper-air re- porting stations, and 82 additional synoptic reporting stations. The committee pointed out that the advanta- geous use of weather reports is dependent upon the abil- ity of the Weather Bureau to organize meteorological observation stations and the effectiveness and expedition with which observations can be obtained from such sta- tions. Hence adequate communication facilities, par- ticularly radio, are vital in carrying out a meteorological program in Alaska. This committee indicated the ne- cessity of full coperation by radio stations, personnel 212 of the Signal Corps (Army), Navy, and Bureau of Air Commerce (later C. A. A.). In April 1938 an interdepartmental committee was organized for the purpose of putting into effect recom- mendations submitted by the National Resources Com- mittee with respect to weather service in Alaska. A Weather Bureau representative served on that com- mittee, and at the first meeting on May 2, 1938, plans were drawn up for 9 primary airports and 21 secondary landing fields, with the Weather Bureau presenting an estimate for consummation of the project. The first evidence of fruition of plans of the Inter- departmental Committee was the transfer of $131,500 from the Army Air Corps to the Bureau for use in establishing five radiosonde and pilot balloon stations in Alaska, namely: Foint Barrow, Nome, Bethel. Anchorage and Ketchikan. The War Department considered data from these stations as essential for accurate forecasting in Alaska for activities of the Army Air Corps. They were established before the close of the fiscal year 1941, increasing the number of radiosonde stations to seven, since two had been pre- viously established at Fairbanks and Juneau. At the request of the Secretary of War the Weather Bureau set up in its budget for the fiscal year 1942 funds for continued operations of these five stations. The Chief of the Army Air Corps, outlined “The Minimum Requirements for Safety of Air Corps Op- erations in the Fairbanks Area,” with respect to weather service, and listed the need for 18 additional stations for hourly reporting from 7:30 to 19:30 o’clock with 13 additional stations reporting at 3-hourly intervals, plus a continuance of reports from existing stations within the Territory. He further indicated that addi- tional airway weather service would be required as soon as communication facilities would enable transmission of reports from other points. As of January 1, 1941, 7 first-order stations were op- erating in Alaska from which radiosonde and pilot balloon observations were available, 16 second-order hourly reporting stations, and 97 airway reporting sta- tions. Juneau was designated as the general super- vising station for the Territory and direct supervision of activities within specified areas was assigned Fair- banks, Anchorage, and Nome. On August 2, 1941, the Army Air Corps requested that weather reporting serv- ice in Alaska be further expanded, with minor modi- fications. This was accomplished. On April 24, 1942, the Navy requested that a weather reporting station be placed on St. Matthew Island. As this was not practicable because of lack of facilities, a radiosonde station was opened at Gambell on St. Lawrence Island instead. Due largely to the requirements of wartime aviation ALASKA implemented in part by the transfer of funds from the War Department, there was steady growth in the ret- work of stations. Toward the end of the war there were forecast centers at Juneau, Anchorage and Fair- banks with the administrative work of the region (number 8) centered at Anchorage. Ten combination raidosonde and pilot-balloon and two pilot-balloon sta- tions were in operation by the Bureau, supplemented by others operated by the Army. There were nearly 150 airway weather stations including those reporting on-call and others taking observations for forecast maps. The C. A. A. also took observations at a small number of their communication stations. Close liaison was maintained during the war with the A. A. F. and the C. A. A. and changes in observing sta- tions, programs, instrumental equipment and the trans- mission of reports were worked out to the mutual bene- fit of all concerned. The establishment and maintenance of a network of reporting stations in Alaska has been difficult because of limited communications and transportation facilities and the lack of observer personnel in some communi- ties. Transportation difficulties were greatly reduced by the development of landing fields and installation of air-navigation aids by the C. A. A. Closely associated therewith has been the development of radio communi- cation facilities by that agency. However, the lack of communication facilities has been one of the Bureau's primary problems in obtaining reports from points off the airways, where it has been necessary to rely upon overloaded radio-communication facilities operated by the Signal Corps in some cases, or upon radio facilities operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs personnel, or by some individual in the community. In many cases transmission of reports has been unsatisfactory. Current Activities The Weather Bureau maintains a climatological service for Alaska with headquarters at Anchorage. The regional director at that station supervises the col- lection of weather reports, many of which are obtained from cooperative observers without cost to the Gov- ernment. These reports consist of daily records of tem- perature, precipitation, snowfall, and other weather elements. At the present, cooperative stations are in operation at 24 locations. Six of these stations are closely grouped in the agricultural region of the Mata- nuska Valley. In addition, meteorological records from all first and second order Weather Bureau sta- tions and all C. A. A. and military observing points are processed for climatological purposes. These reports are summarized and published in considerable detail <a Baie tr A abi» SefeW phang e Peer eiblabn sdglsintie Sh eubjai 1 Fu, Whiter ACape H é ' eke Middlctowa Island ato-uche Cape St. Elias SKA Yakutat. ALASKA Aste 230 1 iw mes \ LEGEND @ Section Center @ Weather Bureau Ottice OSubstation (Temperature and Precipitation) 4 Substation (Evaporation, Temperature, and Precip- itation) — Manse Heme Uhedan ued and . ee ae NOTE —Dasb (—) above station symbol indicates availability of hour ly temperature date, below symbol. aulographic precipiletioa records Symbol et locaton of equipmeat tor example, “4SW" indicates station 4 miles SW of postollice. NORTHERN DIVISION 1 Southern Valleys District 2 Yukos Valley District 3 Bering See District 4 Arctic Draitage Duttnet SOUTHERN DIVISION 5 Southeastern District 6 Pacttic Coast District 7 Southweste:a Islands (He Ne 2A ag re (2-5) o ones Rok ott Eee. ATE eek nets wen So Aint” \ apes Hid” ® Stations in Matanuska Valley Dastanowe ase ia reopest 'e Palaner Matanuske Valley No. 2 (4SE) Matanuska Valley No 9 (S.NW) Matanuska Valley No 12 (1-1!) Mataauska Valley No. 14 (5:SW) Matapusha Valley No. 15 (4¥) Mote Unable te benste all thane oa (nap become of crowding SLSIYALNI ONILVUACOOD JO SINVUOOUd £1é 214 for the several months and for the year as a whole. Printing of the climatological reports is done at Seattle, Wash. The civil airway weather service in Alaska is under the supervision of the Weather Bureau Regional Office at Anchorage. At the present there are 17 first order Weather Bureau offices in Alaska. Radio observations of temperature, humidity and winds aloft are made at six of these stations; radio observations of temperature, humidity and visual observations of winds aloft are made at seven stations; and visual observations of winds aloft are made at three stations. All these sta- tions participate in the regular surface observational program as well. Forecast service in Alaska is handled by forecast centers at Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau. Airway and general weather forecasts are distributed by ail three centers and marine forecasts are added from the Anchorage and Juneau centers. The basic net of first order stations is supplemented by additional stations manned by the following agen- cies: 1. Twenty-nine second-order Weather Bureau sta- tions. These stations are operated by paid noncommis- sioned employees of the Weather Bureau and furnish synoptic and/or airway observations. 2. Thirty-one communications stations of the C. A. A. 3. Eleven stations of the U.S. Coast Guard. 4. Five stations of the U. S. Navy. 5. Fifteen stations of the U. S. Air Forces and addi- tional weather reconnaissance flights. 6. Four cooperative airway stations. Reports from all stations are gathered at collection points and consolidated for inter-Alaska distribution by the radio and radio teletype circuits of the C. A. A. Reports from selected stations are relayed to national and international weather exchanges. Storm warnings are issued as required and broadcast for public information. Fire weather forecasts are issued seasonally. Climate of Alaska General Climate Controls The Arctic Slope is dominated by the Arctic Anti- cyclone at all seasons although areas of low pressure break into this regioninsummer. The interior is domi- nated by high pressure in the long winter and by low pressure in summer. Lows are able to penetrate into this region mostly in summer. The Pacific coastal area encounters the movement of Jows at all seasons. ALASKA Climatic Regions For the purpose of this report, Alaska is divided climatically into four regions: the Pacific Drainage, the Bering Coastal Area, the Arctic Slope, and the Interior Valleys. The Pacific Drainage Temperatures along the coast are generally cool and mild. The moderating influence of the ocean is a large factor in the control of temperature. Average January and July temperatures illustrate this point : Taste 42.—Average temperature °F. January July Juneau. 28 57 Kodiak__ _- 30 54 Matanuska___.._.....------------------- 13 58 Kodiak, with the greatest marine influence, has a range of 24° between mean temperatures of January and July, and Matanuska, more inland, has a range of 45°. The winters are not colder than many places in the United States, summers are definitely cool. Precipitation is generally rather heavy with the max- imum in autumn and winter. Moist air moving in from the Pacific is forced to drop much of its moisture on the windward side of the mountains in crossing this barrier. An idea of the variation between months and between stations can be obtained from the following tabulation: Taste 43.—Average monthly precipitation, inches Ketchi- Cor- | Anchor-| Mata- kan dova age nuska January 13.6 .2) 96) 08 | 0.9 February 11.2 5 | 10.6 -7 8 March. 12.1 a) 9.3 6 6 April. 10.9 . 4 9.4 4 5 May. 84/ 5.2) 91) 15 ‘7 June. 6.6 0} 60 7 11 July. 8&1 5.1 89 1.6 1.9 August_- 11.6 -4/)137) 26 2.7 September_ 12.2) 10.2) 199] 26 | 2.5 October _ __ 20.2) 11.4 | 22.6 2.2 | 1.8 November. 20.0} 9.2 / 15.2 1.0 1.0 December_._-.---------- 15.9] 7.6] 13.2 -9 11 Annual total. ._._.- 150.8 | 83.7 [147.5 | 14.6 | 15.6 Ketchikan, Juneau, and Cordova are representative of individual locations on the windward side of the mountains, Anchorage and Matanuska, the leeward side. ee Sie Pie emcees REE, sate sR ways woaty psy womee bye? eo Ce Seale aS oe PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS Precipitation usually falls steadily, seldom heavy and seldom showery. Thunderstorms are rare. Snowfall is governed by the same factors as precipi- tation in general, temperature permitting. The mag- nitude of the snowfall can be judged from the following average monthly amounts: Taste 44.—Average monthly snowfall, inches - os | atata- ut | samen | Say | Ange] Ms January. -..--.---------- 10.0 | 281 | 281 | 12.1 84 February - 7.1 | 23.8 | 25.1 8.7 7.8 March_~ | 47/149) 257) 77) 68 April. / “6| 46/112] 29] 25 May -| 14 .1 .2/ 2.2) 0 June .| 0 0 0 0 0 July -| 0 0 0 0 0 August_ -| 0 0 9 0 0 September -| 0 -1 0 0 -4 October--_-.- - 2 15 34 5.2 2.7 November 1.9 9.1 | 10.0 | 11.2 71 December 7.4 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 10.4 10.3 Annual total__.---- i 32.3 |t07. 2/1287 | 584 | 46.0 Relative humidity is rather high, varying somewhat with the precipitation. Dense fog varies from 1 to 3 days a month in the winter, is infrequent in summer. Cloudiness is prevalent: Anchorage has 180 cloudy days a year, Juneau 262. Sunshine is correspondingly deficient: Anchorage averaging 45 percent of the pos- sible amount, Juneau 29 percent. The Bering Coastal Area Mean temperatures vary on the average from the fifties in summer to zero or below in winter depending somewhat on distance from the ocean. The fact that the ocean is frozen for several months tends to lessen its moderating influence in winter. The following average temperatures are characteristic: Taste 45.—Average temperature °F. | January | July Nome 3 50 Holy Cross_._----- 0 57 Nome is on the coast thus having the moderating influence of the ocean, and is protected somewhat by mountains from the cold north winds. Holy Cross farther inland has a greater range of temperature. Precipitation is rather scant in this area with its maximum in late summer and autumn. Monthly dis- tribution is shown in the following tabulation: 215 Taste 46.—Average monthly precipitation, inches Nome Holy Cross January 1. Februar, March April May~ June- July _- August. September. October__ November - December__.--------- rereNyenNe, ., MOONNUH ONO Preepepre. pom WNAOSINNNIRWO | | | | Annual total___-..------------ 17.2 Precipitation is of a steady type rather than showery. There is an average of only one thunderstorm a year at Nome The greatest precipitation ever recorded in 24 hours at Nome is only 2.30 inches. Snow has fallen in every month with the possible ex- ception of July. In the winter months all precipitation issnow. Average snowfall by months is: Taster 47.—Average monthly snowfall, inches Nome Holy Cross January — 10.8 20.5 February 8.9 12.8 March 10.2 12.5 April. 5.1 71 May- 1.3 1.2 June_ 2 T July... 0 0 August -- f 0 September - 4 3 October___- 3.6 5.8 November. 8.5 13.0 December. - 10.8 18.0 Annual total. _..-------------- 59. 8 91. 2 Relative humidity is rather high, but at winter tem- perature is of little practical significance. At Nome light fogs occur 5 or 6 days a month, except in summer when they are about twice as frequent. Fogs are prob- ably a little less frequent farther inland. Cloudiness is general: 185 daysa year at Nomeare cloudy. Cloud- iness is somewhat less away from the coast. The clear- est season is winter. Nome averages only 42 percent of possible sunshine. Arctic Slope Temperatures are kept low by northerly winds during all seasons. The average July temperature at Barrow is 40° F. In contrast Nashville, Tenn., has an av- erage January temperature of 39° F. The average January temperature at Barrow is —17° F. For com- parison, the lowest temperature ever recorded at Wash- 216 ington, D. C., is —15° F. Although the Arctic Ocean is frozen months at a time, it has some moderating in- fluence. and temperatures vary more away from the coast than they do at Barrow. Precipitation is slight—less than some deserts in lower latitudes. There is a slight maximum of precipi- tation in late summer as shown by the following tabulation for Barrow: Taste 48.—-Average monthly precipitation, inches Barrow January __---~----------_- seamen eeeaaeeeeseae 0.2 February —- 2 March _- +1 April — a1 May 1 June —- 3 July ~~~ 9 August — 7 September 5 October ~~~ 76 November __ 25 December 3 Annual total --_--.-_-- 22-2 eee 4.3 Snowfall occurs in all months. Tarte 49.— Average monthly snowfall, inches Barro January ___ _. February __ - March __ - 2.0 April __- - 27 May __ - 41s June —_- - O44 July —____ - 410 August ___ - 07 September ~ - 3.0 October __- 7.9 November ___ - 43 December —_____-------_------- eee 3.9 Annual total -_-------_-2 2-2 33.0 The Interior Valleys Temperatures in this area have the greatest variabil- ity of anywhere in Alaska. Fairbanks has had extreme temperatures of 99° F. and —66° F. Differences be- tween January and July are shown in the following tabulation: Taste 50.—Average temperature °F. January July Difference Fairbanks_ -l11 60 71 Fort Yukon. 7 —21 58 79 Tanana_______..._ | sete —12 58 70 ALASKA Even though the winters are as cold as those along the Arctic Ocean, the summers are warm enough for hardy plants to thrive. Precipitation is light but has a decided late summer maximum. Taste 51.—Average monthly precipitation, inches iaket | E8Rle | ants | Fakon] Buby | faa” January __ 7) 04 | 1.0/04/]15/)08 y -8 a4 5 -4/1.0 7 -6] .4/ .7] .3] .8] .6 -4 -4 .3 .2 4 +2 6 -8 6 5 9 -8 13) 15) 14 8 -9/ 12 \ 22); rsiioluilail 24 August ___- (20/20 20/12/32/25 September_ /15/)13 23! .6)19])17 October__ ll -8) 68) .6)/ LRT] Lad November_ -8/ .5° .7) 14) 69] 27 December. -8| .4 6) 23 | -9) 26 ——— —— |_| 10.7 118 6.8 16.6 13.3 Annual total_.....-. 12.8 Avsmall portion of the summer rainfall is of the shower type and is associated with thunderstorms. slow, con- Most of the precipitation, however, falls tinuous precipitation. The greatest precipitation in 24 hours at Fairbanks was 2.33 inches. Snowfall, because of the extreme cold. is frequently in small, dry, powdery flakes that blow and drift easily. Taser 52.—Average monthly snowfall, inches , | yukon! Ruby | ong January_..-2 2-22. .3 | 10.0 February -6) 95 Mare .8) 81 i -6) 25 3 -5 T T 7 | 0 September 25 | .9 October___ 9) 7.6 November. 8); 5.8 December__ .2) 86 Annual total Relative humidity is rather high for a place with so light precipitation. However, this is of little signifi- cance at the temperatures prevailing most of the year. Light fog occurs at Fairbanks on an average of 50 days a year, the winter months having 1 day in 3 or 4 with light fog. This region has the most fair weather of any portion of Alaska, but is still rather cloudy compared to most places in the United States. Fairbanks has 100 Papers PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS clear days a year, 163 cloudy, and 46 percent of the possible sunshine. Length of Days in Alaska Because of its position so far north, the length of day varies much more between summer and winter than in the United States. At the Arctic Circle on the shortest day in winter the sun rises to the horizon in the south at noon, then setting. Farther south it rises correspond- ingly longer but farther north it does not rise on this day. For instance, at Fairbanks, about 2.5 degrees south of the circle, on December 21, the sun rises at 9:58 a. m. and sets at 1:40 p.m. At Barrow, about 4 degrees north of the circle, the sun has not risen since late November and will not be seen again until late January. In summer the days are as long as they were short in winter. At the Arctic Circle on the longest day the sun dips to the horizon at midnight, then rising. Farther south the sun goes below the horizon, farther north the sun does not reach it. At Fairbanks on June 21 the sun rises at 12:57 a. m. and sets at 11:48 p.m. At Barrow the sun has not gone below the northern horizon since early May but circles the sky, being highest in the south at noon and lowest in the north at “midnight.” The sun first sets at Barrow early in August. This is as much a “land of the midnight sun” as is northern Norway. Accompanying figures show the length of day throughout the year at Juneau, Anchorage, and Fairbanks. Climate of Potentially Agricultural Area The Matanuska Valley and some adjacent area has climatic conditions as favorable for agriculture as some areas in the Dakotas and Montana. The average grow- ing season, as measured from the last killing frost in spring to the first killing frost in autumn, is near 100 days. Tasie 53.—Average growing season Date of last | Date of first killing [Growing Patsetiest | Pateofart kiting tesa, _! ' 1 poeeeoe se oeee eae ; May 18__; September 27_-- 132 - May 25.. September 12--- 110 - June 14-. August 25-.---- 72 wneseee May 10_.- September 22-- -| 135 Summer temperatures are cool but the long days stimulate plant growth. 217 Taste 54.—Average monthly temperature, °F. Seward | Anchorage | Matanuska| Talkeetna Bismarck, January_______ 23 12 13 8 8 February _ 27 19 18 17 12 March_ 31 24 24 21 25 April___ 36 35 37 34 43 May- 44 45 47 45 55 June- 51 54 55 55 64 July -_- 55 57 58 58 70 August___ 54 56 56 55 68 Septembe: 49 48 48 46 58 October __ 40 36 37 34 45 November 31 22 22 20 28 December- - --- 25 13 14 10 16 Precipitation is most abundant in late summer and autumn, late for many crops. However, early soil mois- ture is available from melting snow, and the moisture requirement of plants is reduced by the cool tempera- tures. (See tabulation of precipitation under “Pacific Slope.”) In the interior valleys climatic conditions are a little more critical. The growing season is 90 days or less. However, temperatures are a little higher than in the Matanuska Valley, and the days are a little longer. Taste 55.—A verage growing season Di as Date of first Growing Killing frost Killing trust | Season, Allakaket__._.------] June 13_ August 6 54 Fairbanks_ May 29. August 2 89 Fort Yukon June 1__ August 2 81 Holy Cross_ May 31- August 2 90 Tanana -| June 3___---- August 2 64 Taste 56.—Average monthly temperature, °F. Allakaket | Fairbanks sort, Uelx | Tanana | January ~_ —20 -1L —21 | 0 —12 February —12 | -1 —16 5 —4 —3 | 10 0 13 6 18 29 22 26 25 41 | 47 43 42 44 56) 58 58) 54 57 58 | 60 61 | 37 58 = 52 | 55 55 o4 53 September. 40 | 44 42 44 41 October . - - 20 | 27 21 30 24 November-_ —7| 3 —6 | 12 1 December. ---- -17) -—7 —20 1) —10 Precipitation, although not heavy, is almost ideally distributed. There is little during the winter when it is of little practical significance to agriculture. Sum- mer rains begin in June and are usually heaviest in July and August, the growing season. Precipitation is generally adequate for agriculture. (See tabulation under “Interior Valleys.”) 218 Figure 8 shows the average length of the growing season in Alaska. Figure 2 shows the average tem- perature in July and figure 6 the average precipitation for the year. Areas with average temperatures below 50° F. in July will support only limited vegetation. Snowfall Snowfall in Alaska has a relative distribution quite similar to that for the rainfall, being heavy along the Pacific coast, with decrease northward to a minimum along the Arctic coast. The average annual amounts vary from over 100 inches in southeastern sections of the Territory to between 80 and 100 inches in most of the Bering Sea area, 40 to 60 in the interior valleys, and to less than 40 in the Arctic region. Barrow re- cords snowfall in every month of the year. The Pacific coast, in general, has about 4 months without any snow. the Bering Sea coast 3 months, the interior 2 months, and the far north no month without at least a trace of snow. In the interior June and July are the months without snow, while in the same latitude along the Bering Sea, July and August are generally snow-free. illustrating the effect of the cool sea in retarding the spring and early summer rise in temperature. Deficiencies Although there was a considerable expansion in the Weather Bureau's services in Alaska during the recent World War, the anticipated future development of Alaskan resources must be paralleled by suitable addi- tional meteorological services. Pending such expan- sion, however, every effort should be made to utilize to the fullest extent the climatological and hydrologic records already available. There is at present, a back- log of more than 6 million unprocessed weather obser- vations in Alaska. These observations are records of such weather elements as rainfall and snowfall amounts, highest and lowest temperatures, wind direc- tious and speeds, humidity pressure, ceilings and visi- bilities, and other weather phenomena. When properly processed, these data can reveal the all-important story of weather and climate in Alaska. They can supply the basis for determining design val- ues, the calculation of safety factors, and the calcula- tion of “weather risks,” all of which must be known in the intelligent planning of the development of munic- ipal water supply, water power, irrigation, and flood control in Alaska, as well as the planning of develop- ment of Alaskan agriculture, industry, aviation, and other civil activities. The data that these observations will reveal when properly processed are also of utmost ALASKA importance in planning military defenses and opera- tions. The Weather Bureau is planning a 5-year program for placing these weather observations on punched cards. Once the data are on punched cards they can be tabulated and retabulated in many ways to meet the various requirements of the water and power resources planners, as well as the requirements of agriculture, industry, aviation, the military and others. If funds become available for this program, the Weather Bureau will then be able to make its store of unprocessed clima- tological and hydrologic data for Alaska available for whatever planning and investigative studies may be required by the end of the 5 year period. Alaska. notwithstanding its extensive area and de- cided contrasts of climate, due to its topography, adja- cent waters and geographic location, has only 136 climatological stations as compared with a total of 517 in the States of Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, the area of which is only about one-third of that of Alaska. There is great need for complete weather observations and records from far-flung places which are not now obtainable because of isolation, sparse habitation, or lack of communications. In most of these places it would be necessary to erect suitable buildings, provide meteorological, radio, and other equipment and to em- ploy observers, operators, ete. It would, of course, be prohibitive to incur the expense of such installations for weather reports alone. However, when other gov- ernment agencies have need for service at such locations, cooperation and division of cost could bring about the desired results. The Weather Bureau should operate a river and flood service in Alaska. To do this, it would be necessary to install complete facilities for conducting such a river and flood forecasting service. A number of reporting stations would need to be established at various points on the Yukon, Tanana, and other rivers. Two or more should be equipped to record stream flow and to transmit the record to the principal forecasting centers. It would also be necessary as a part of this project to inaugurate snow and ice surveys. Such surveys could best be made by utilizing airplane flights and air photog- raphy, and by establishing a short wave radio com- munication system. Illustrations The pertinent climatic features of Alaska are por- trayed in the following accompanying figures: 1. Mean temperature for January. Mean temperature for July. Absolute maximum temperature for year. Absolute minimum temperature for year. Hew = ¥ 2 ili ee pais 2 PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS 5. Number of days with freezing temperature for 6. Mean precipitation for year. 7. Mean snowfall for year. 8. Average length of growing season. 9. Time of sunrise and sunset, Juneau. 10. Time of sunrise and sunset, Anchorage. 11. Time of sunrise and sunset, Fairbanks. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The Geological Survey has the responsibility for a group of activities that are necessary for the appraisal of the potentialities of a partially developed area such as Alaska and for assisting in the development of the area. Such basic investigations are prerequisite to the development of Alaska in an intelligent and effective fashion. These activities include study of the quantity and quality of surface and underground waters; geologic mapping and investigation of mineral re- sources ; topographic mapping; the classification of the public lands for their mineral or nonmineral character and for their water power potentialities; and mineral leasing on the public lands. Water Resources Investigations Our modern economy depends to a high degree upon the adequacy and safety of water supplies for domestic, municipal, and industrial purposes, and for irrigation and power. Available water resources will have a pro- found effect on the economic growth and development of Alaska. The demonstrated key position of water resources in the economic development of the United States predicts they will prove no less significant in the future development of the Territory of Alaska. Accurate knowledge of this vital resource—knowl- edge of stream flow, underground waters, and the quality of waters—obviously is indispensable to the consideration of any project involving its control and utilization. There is a wide fluctuation from season to season and from year to year in the quantity and quality of water in surface streams, and to a lesser ex- tent in the underlying ground-water reservoirs. Only systematic, reliable records will permit an accurate ap- praisal of water supplies and of their long-time trends and cycles. Without such basic information, designs may not be adequate, money may be wasted in construc- tion, and projects may not be operated effectively. Information on the water resources of Alaska has been collected intermittently by the Geological Survey and other agencies subsequent to 1906. However, only in Southeastern Alaska are there records that cover 16 188410—52. 219 periods of more than a few years and, even in South- eastern Alaska, only a few of the records are over a considerable period of time. Available records thus fall far short of presenting the complete understanding of water resources needed for purposes of development of plans outlined. The records have been collected largely to serve current needs for some local and re- gional planning and local development; they do not provide a balanced and comprehensive coverage of the Territory. Hence, they provide inadequate informa- tion on which to base detailed specifications for many of the water-development projects. Elimination of major deficiencies in the basic data is the primary ob- jective of the investigative program of the Geological Survey. Surface Water Investigations Stream-gaging stations are established and operated to disclose the amount, seasonal variation, trend, and distribution of runoff. The records obtained provide information needed in connection with the present in- vestigations by Federal and Territorial agencies and for administration of several local projects. They pro- vide, subject to the limitations of the available data, an inventory of water resources for planning further de- velopment and aid in the solution of problems of water. Past stream-gaging programs of the Geological Sur- vey and the Forest Service have provided a limited amount of information at various locations in the Terri- tory. The present and proposed programs of the Geo- logical Survey will provide a general coverage on many of the larger streams and particularly those susceptible of early development. In many cases intermittent dis- charge measurements only are available and, in the vicinity of proposed major projects, the detail and dura- tion of stream-flow data may be insufficient to furnish the information needed for preparing final designs. The gaging program is being extended whenever and wherever feasible to provide the additional basic data required. Water-supply investigations in Alaska were started by the Geological Survey in 1906. Initial studies were made on the Seward Peninsula. Subsequently the in- vestigations were extended to the Fairbanks district in 1907, the Circle district in 1908 and the Fortymile and Seventymile districts in 1910. These investigations, which were in the placer districts, were discontinued in 1912. The results of these studies were summarized in “Water Supply Papers 314, Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, and 342, Surface Water Supply of Yukon-Tanana Region, Alaska.” A water- power reconnaissance was conducted in South-Central Alaska in 1913, the results of which are summarized in 220 ALASKA 8 oe wr ue wer 1a0RE 4.—A bsolute Minimum Temperature for Year. th a -— Mean Temperature for July. Ficurr 2 =" F ur ve | Temperature for Year. nh Ficure 1.—Afean Temperature for January. Absolute Maximum Figure 3.—. 140 Figure 7.—Aean Snowfall for Year. Ticure 8.—Average Length of Growing Season, Days. SLSIYALNI ONILLVYYIMOOD AO SIXWAUOOUd rea 222 “Water-Supply Paper 372, A Water-Power Reconnais- sance in South-Central Alaska.” In 1915, as a result of urgent need for information on the water-power re- sources of Southeastern Alaska, the Geological Survey and the Forest Service established a comprehensive stream-gaging program in that region. Subsequent to 1920 and until 1946 the Forest Service continued limited investigations alone or in cooperation with private groups investigating possibilities for development of the pulp and paper industry. The results of studies in Southeastern Alaska prior to 1946 are summarized in Geological Survey Bulletins 642, 662, 692, 712, 714, 722, and 836, and in the Federal Power Commission-Forest Service reports, “Water Powers of Southeastern 1201n WERIDIAN TIME ry GY 7, ve JUNEAU, ALASKA s8°1e'N Fig 9 (30m WERIOIAN Time RA GGG GG Ld SGV NN ec Lis ANCHORAGE, ALASKA SII N Fig 10 ALASKA etidaateeaad Wf Y FAN WN S\N NNVVN KAN rTSN OE MiG iI). WUUUD FAIRBANKS, ALASKA 64°SI'N Fig tt Alaska,” published in 1924 and “Water Powers of Southeast Alaska,” published in 1947. The number and distribution of gaging stations and miscellaneous stream-flow measurement points at the time the Geological Survey's present) program was initiated in 1946 and at the present time are as follows: Tanre 57.—Number and distribution of gaging stations Gaging stations ! | Miscellaneous Area measurement M6 | ws | points ? 1948 j |7 South Central and Interior ' O° 17 29 Alaska. Southeastern Alaska_._____- 3 16 13 Total. _...--.------ 3 33 42 1 As of September 30. 3 Gaging stations may be established at many of these locations. Records for many of the stations indicated are of very short duration and investigations must be con- tinued for several years before reasonable deductions as to annual and seasonal variations can be made. How- ever, correlation of the short-term records and the re- sults of miscellaneous discharge measurements with continuous records of long duration will tend to assure full usefulness of the available data. The results of investigations will be published annually in preliminary reports and may be summarized at 5-year intervals. In order that some of the major deficiencies in stream- flow data may be overcome and water resources de- velopments advanced, the program of surface-water in- vestigations will be extended and expanded as rapidly as facilities and resources permit. Many additional gaging stations are necessary, particularly at sites of ASS ON a oe Kedah PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS prospective and feasible projects, and the improve- ment and rehabilitation of existing installations should be advanced as rapidly as possible. The programs of the past several years have been too limited in scope and extent to permit investigations of floods. It is therefore most desirable that the characteristics of recent notable floods be studied. Ground-Water Investigations The more important specific objectives of ground- water investigations include the securing of informa- tion on (1) the sources and amounts of perennial ground-water outflow through springs (which affords dry season stream flow), (2) the extent of areas from which ground water is or may be withdrawn for use in significant amounts, (3) the perennial yields and the quality of ground water available in those areas, and (4) the potential interference between utilization of surface water in streams and utilization of ground- water. Ground-water data, when available, serve many pur- poses. They facilitate judicious development of do- mestic, municipal, agricultural and industrial water supplies, indicate possibilities for irrigation in areas remote from perennial surface sources and, in interior Alaska, may be useful in defining the location, extent and effects of permafrost. Ground-water investigations in Alaska have been very limited. Prior to 1947 essentially the only ground- water data available were those obtained from logs for drilled water wells. A systematic investigation of the ground-water resources of the Fairbanks area was started by the Geological Survey in 1947 with an in- ventory of wells, supplemented in 1948 by the drilling of exploratory test holes, to obtain much-needed data on the deeply buried strata and their hydrologic char- acteristics, the character and distribution of subsurface materials, and the water-bearing character and distri- bution of permafrost, and quantitative determinations of the permeability of water-bearing sands and gravels. Ground-water reconnaissance has been performed in several scattered locations in the Territory. The rela- tive urgency of the water supply problems precludes estimates of perennial yield in the near future. The results of the ground-water studies will be published in special reports as significant phases of investigations in specific areas are concluded. A systematic inventory of the ground-water resources of pertinent areas in Alaska is proposed, which will in- clude (1) canvassing existing wells to secure descriptive data, (2) geologic mapping and test drilling to deter- mine the extent and characteristics of water-bearing zones, (3) determining the extent of ground-water with- 223 drawals, (4) conducting pumping tests on selected wells to determine the water-yielding properties of forma- tions, and (5) making periodic observations of water levels in selected observation wells to evaluate changes in ground water storage in relation to recharge, natural discharge, and withdrawals. The first stage of the pro- posed inventory would be of a reconnaissance character to fix the general pattern of ground water occurrence and to define fundamental problems in the Territory. Later stages would involve intensive study of critical problems. Quality of Water Investigations Knowledge concerning the quality of waters is as important as data on the amounts available. Data re- garding temperature of the water are of peculiarly practical interest. The sediment transported by streams may create significant problems in the design of diversions and conduits and of reservoir siltation. The chemical character of waters, changes in chemical concentration and character following use for industrial and agricultural purposes, and changes in quality that take place during storage in lakes and reservoirs all give rise to problems of providing satisfactory water supplies for industrial, domestic and irrigation put- poses. The wide variation known to exist in the chemi- eal character of ground-waters makes dependable information on the quality of those waters particularly important. Securing data on both ground- and surface- waters which will help solve problems of the kind sug- gested is the primary objective of proposed quality of water studies. Few data on the quality of ground- and surface- waters have been collected in Alaska. During 1947 and 1948 analyses have been made by the Geological Survey of ground-waters in the Fairbanks area and miscella- neous determinations were made at additional locations. In Alaska many of the streams are of glacial origin and carry large quantities of suspended sediments. Deter- mination of the character and volume of sediment transported thus is particularly important in Alaska in connection with reservoir development, runoff retardation and soil-erosion studies. Proposals for quality of water investigations needed in Alaska would include (1) establishment of a labora- tory for analysis of both the chemical quality and sedi- ment content of samples and (2) activation of a comprehensive program for the collection of surface and ground-water samples in areas of interest. Sam- ples would be collected at appropriate intervals; for example, occasional ground-water samples, daily sam- ples of surface-water sources when changes in concen- tration are to be studied. and. for sediment load 224 computation, at frequent intervals, say hourly, during freshets and rises and occasionally during other periods. Mineral Deposits The exploration and exploitation of mineral resources of Alaska have shared with the fur industry in enticing white men to spread over the Territory, even into its most remote and inaccessible parts. The exploitation of mineral resources led to the establishment of many of the major towns (Juneau, Nome, and Fairbanks) as well as many of the smaller settlements. At present, and for many years past, mining ranks second to fishing among the prominent industries in Alaska, although in the recent war and postwar years the construction industry has greatly outranked both. Since the begin- ning of mining in Alaska in 1880, mineral production has reached a total value of nearly 1 billion dollars. Gold has accounted for approximately two-thirds of the total value of mineral production. Two-thirds of the gold has been derived from placer deposits, although at various times the annual production of gold from placers and lodes has been essentially equal, and in some years lode production has exceeded placer pro- duction. Copper, to the value of one-third of the total value of gold production has been recovered in the Ter- ritory principally between 1911 and 1938; and copper production was, in fact, responsible for the all-time maximum annual value of mineral production attained in 1916. Silver, in value amounting to one-sixteenth of the copper and one-forty-fifth of the total value of gold, has been produced as a by-product of placer gold, lode gold, and copper mining. Lead, to the value of $2,800,000, has been recovered as a by-product of lode gold mining. Deposits of lead-silver ores are also known in Alaska that may under slightly different eco- nomic or transportation conditions, support mining of these metals alone. Platinum, mercury, tin, antimony, tungsten, and zinc have been recovered from Alaska ore deposits that are workable for these metals themselves. Chromite ore has been mined, but not processed to ob- tain the metal. Palladium has been recovered from one gold-copper mine in Southeastern Alaska. Other metals which occur in deposits that further develop- ment work may yet show to contain commercial amounts include iron, molybdenum, nickel, bismuth, and arsenic. Traces of other metals, such as cobalt, are also known. The total value of production of these other metals (exclusive of gold, silver, and copper) and nonmetals is approximately one-thirtieth of the grand total of the mineral production. The value of the coal produced thus far in Alaska greatly exceeds the value of the production of any other nonmetallic mineral material. The value of the total ALASKA production is about one-ninth of the value of the cop- per, and one-twenty-fifth of the value of the gold pro- duction. Petroleum has been produced at Katalla on the south coast. and exploratory drilling for other oil accumulations has been done or is in progress on the Alaska Peninsula and in Northern Alaska. Gypsum, limestone and marble have been utilized in considerable amount, and clays, asbestos, and jade to a lesser extent. Deposits of abrasive garnet, barite, fluor spar, sulphur and pumice have also attracted some attention. Broken rock for railroad riprap and gravels for roads and other construction are also used. Gold was the initial mineral resource developed under frontier conditions, especially more readily recoverable placer gold. The deposits mined in earlier years were of the bonanza type and permitted attainment. in 1910 of the peak production in terms of quantity of gold. Subsequently, the mining industry settled down to larger scale mining of lower-grade deposits. Boom conditions no longer persisted. and settlements became more stabilized. As improved means of transporta- tion have made some areas more accessible. attention has been more and more focused on the possibilities of mining low-value deposits of other mineral resources, Eventually this trend should lead to more thorough ap- praisal of deposits that have been recognized but not developed because of the obvious impracticability of obtaining sufticiently low-cost transportation to make mining pay. Mineral resources are widely distributed in the Terri- tory: few areas, on the basis of exploration to date. can be ruled out as of no interest from this viewpoint. The apparent spotty distribution of well-known min- eralized areas in Alaska is largely a result of the emphasis that has so far been placed on placer and lode gold mining. True, there appears to be some segrega- tion or restriction of certain metals to more or less distinct parts of the Territory but search has not yet been thorough enough to prove this, e. g.. mercury in the Kuskokwim region. tin in the Seward Peninsula and in the central Yukon region, and chromite in the Kenai Peninsula. The future of Alaskan mining appears to depend on a more thorough search for workable deposits of more types than have been of interest thus far, on the determination of the character and manner of occur- rence of such deposits, and considerable thoroughness in the development of each deposit. Geologic mapping on scales sufficient to permit detailed analysis of geo- logical features that pertain to mineral exploitation, or to other economic or military problems. covers only 0.3 percent of Alaska. An additional 3.2 percent has been mapped on a scale adequate for semi-detailed or reconnaissance analysis of such features. About 45 percent has heen covered by exploratory geologic maps: Ss a PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS but 51 percent of the Territory has not been mapped geologically. The Geological Survey has prepared a plan, coordi- nated with the Interior Department’s Alaska develop- ment plan, designed to speed up geologic mapping at reconnaissance or larger scales, and to complete the cor- relative investigations and interpretations necessary for adequate over-all appraisal of mineral resources. Several areas under consideration as power sites are known to contain mineral resources. Mining opera- tions are being or have been carried on in some of these. The data acquired to date, however, are inadequate for estimating the significance which the development of sources of low-cost power would have on exploitation of mineral resources. The mining industry is the only one, among the sev- eral principal industries in Alaska, whose ultimate limit of expansion, as determined by reserves available, remains essentially unknown. Topographic Mapping The responsibility for the preparation of the topo- ervaphic quadrangle atlas of Alaska rests with the Geo- logical Survey as the recognized agency of the Federal Government responsible for the topographic mapping of the United States and its territories and possessions. This function is accomplished by means of funds which the Congress annually appropriates for the Geological Survey, supplemented in the past by transferred funds, principally from the Departments of the National Military Establishment. Topographic maps portray, in symbolized form, the natural and man-made features existing upon the land surface. By their representation of relief and delinea- tion of the works of man such as roads, railroads, dwell- ings, etc., they offer a means of economically planning engineering projects, evaluating natural resources, plan- ning for conservation, industrial development and rec- reational projects. By their use, many preliminary surveys prior to location of transportation routes, trans- mission lines, irrigation channels, etc., can be eliminated. Alaska has an area of approximately 580,000 square miles, about one-fifth the area of the United States. Of this vast territory about one-half has been covered by topographic surveys, largely of a reconnaissance nature. These reconnaissance maps were generally prepared by plane table methods in conjunction with geological ex- ploration. Where the necessity was urgent and time and funds permitted, larger scales were used for special purposes. These included a number of sheets at 1: 62,500 and a few at even larger scales. Much of this work, both large and small scale, has been concentrated in the areas where mining operations have been most 225 active. This includes the Alaska Railroad belt, the Yukon-Tanana_ region, portions of Southeastern Alaska and Seward Peninsula. Much of the remainder of the Territory was mapped by exploratory recon- naissance methods and, because of the transportation problems involved, followed the main drainage systems. The maps published to date by the Geological Survey number more than 50. They incorporate areas that range widely in extent and are not based on any estab- lished quadrangle system. Most of them cover irregu- lar areas of geographic or geologic importance. By agreement between the Bureau of the Budget, the Department of the Army, and the Geological Survey, a standard quadrangle subdivision of Alaska has now been established. All new mapping will be printed on a format based upon this quadrangle grid. Acrial Photography The Territory of Alaska is almost entirely covered with aerial photography of some type. Up until 1948, the major coverage has been with trimetrogon photog- raphy with added areas covered by nine-lens, tri-lens, and some single-lens photography. From a mapping viewpoint there are serious gaps and most of the pho- tography is suitable only for rather small scale compila- tion. During the past field season, however, substantial areas in Southeastern, Central, and Northern Alaska were covered with single-lens vertical photography which will lend itself more readily to the compilation of larger scale topographic maps. Ground Control The situation with respect to ground control in Alaska is a serious one. Before any large-scale mapping program can be prosecuted, the prerequisite ground control must be established. Performance of the surveys required for primary, secondary, and sup- plemental control is a major operation even in the United States. In Alaska its magnitude is enhanced immeasurably by the ruggedness and over-all difficulty of the terrain, the short seasons, and probably the most serious obstacle, the lack of extensive transportation and supply routes. At present there are three major Jong lines of hori- zontal control, all adjusted to the 1927 North American Datum. These triangulation nets extend from South- eastern Alaska to the Seward Peninsula, along the 14)° meridian, and from Fairbanks to the tip of the Aleutian Islands. In addition there are several shorter lines plus some isolated segments which are not adjusted to the North American Datum. 226 Vertical control is even less adequate and is concen- trated for the most part along the overland transporta- tion routes. Program It is generally agreed that the most immediate and important map need for Alaska is the completion of the reconnaissance map series at the 1: 250,000 scale. This group of maps can be completed in a period of 5 years or less, thus providing a system of maps which will greatly assist both the civil and military agencies in planning and development activity in Alaska. The method of preparing this series involves the combina- tion of all existing source material, field surveys, large scale maps, land plats, trimetrogon manuscripts, ete., supplemented by additional photo-compilation and re- vision where needed or advisable. Presently available ground control is generally made to suffice but since it is scant in many areas, any new control will be of value. The preparation of topographic maps for larger scale publication at 1 mile to the inch has proceeded at a moderate pace in the past, but should be increased in scope during future years, as new photography and ground control becomes available. The 1: 250,000 scale map series will be of considerable value in planning operations for large-scale mapping. Primarily because of the current lack of adequate basic control in Alaska it is apparent that, for many years to come, national map accuracy standards will be difficult if not impos- sible to attain without exorbitant costs. The need for an adequate series of maps covering the vast area of Alaska stems from a variety of sources. These are the major considerations of the significant geographic position of Alaska ; its transportation prob- lems; the development of mineral resources, including petroleum; water resources development; studies of glaciers, volcanoes, and permanently frozen ground; and last, but not least, the opportunity in the Territory for wide-spread settlement. With adequate topo- graphic maps, more favorable settlement areas can be selected, based in part upon initial studies for water resources, proximity of transportation, and sources of food and fuel. Thus will be laid a firm foundation for the efficient, economic development of the Territory of Alaska. River Surveys In the United States the construction of reservoirs is usually attended by the relocation of railroads, high- ALASKA ways and other improvements, sometimes at a cost ex- ceeding the cost of the dam. In Alaska, as yet only slightly developed, most, if not all, such increased cost can be prevented by obtaining information on the lo- cation and extent of such projects now and reserving the sites for future use, and the information required for this purpose can be used also for the selection of the most economical sites and for preliminary plans and estimates for power projects. The first step in the location of reservoir and power sites is a topographic survey of the river valley and the preparation of maps showing the course and fall of the stream and the configuration of the valley floor and im- mediately adjacent slopes. From the map, dam and reservoir sites can be selected, capacity of proposed res- ervoirs can be computed, power projects can be outlined and if the water supply is known, potential water power can be estimated. Water power is abundant in Alaska but because of the wide variation in the flow of the streams due to long cold winters, storage is essential to its utilization in all projects of major size. The river surveys should be followed by geologic examinations at proposed dam sites as foundation conditions are an important element in appraising values of such sites. So far, few adequate river surveys have been made in Alaska. Eklutna Lake near Anchorage and a portion of Eklutna Creek have been mapped. The United States Forest Service has made many reconnaissance surveys on streams in Southeastern Alaska, but even preliminary planning requires accurate topographic maps of the rivers and lakes on a fairly large scale. A program for river surveys in Alaska therefore would include practically all streams of substantial size. The first projects would be those within easy transmission distance of the larger cities or those well situated for pulp and paper or other plants. OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIRS— ALASKA NATIVE SERVICE The native stock in Alaska which constituted nearly half of the total population of the Territory in 1920 and slightly more than half in 1929, was considerably outnumbered by the white population in 1939. At that time there were reported 32.458 Aleuts, Eskimos, and Indians, as against 39,170 white persons. These figures are taken from the Sixteenth Decennial Census. The Eskimos, numbering 15.576 in 1939, accounted for nearly half of the native stock; the Indians, 11,283 in number, for more than one-third; and the Aleuts made up the remainder, 5,599. The Indian population comprises several linguistic stocks, of which the Athapascans and the Thlingits, ¥ x + - via oe naiods au wea ‘ Shp il nce aia haae, bE gut RRS * E o 6 SS eS «SERED a © - —- PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS numbering 4,671 and 4,643, respectively, are by far the most numerous. The following table provides additional detailed in- formation concerning the composition of population: TaB_e 58.—Composition of population } | Percent of change {— Race or linguistic stock 1939 | 1929 1920 | 1929 to 1920 to | | 1939 1929 White, total... 39, 170. 28, 640 27, 883/ 36.8) 2.7 Native._.-...------ 30, 384] 18, 460, 16,286) 64.6 13.3 Foreign-born _ 8,786 10, 180) 11, 597|—13. 7; —12. 2 Native stock, total.._-- 32, 458. 29, 983 26,558] &3| 12.9 Indian, total_ - ll, 283 10, Athapascan 4,671 4,935, 4,657) —5.3) 6.0 Haidas_ 655 588 524) Ll. 4) 12.2 Thlingit 4,643, 4,462 3, 895 4.1) 14.6 Tsimshi: -| 881 845 842) 4.3; .4 United States, Cana- | 433 125. dian, and unknown | i | stocks. Japanese ___-.-..----- Other and unknown 633 377 races. Allraces, total... 72,524 59, 1 Eskimo and Aleut are included together. Distribution of the Population The Eskimos occupy the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean coast. There are Eskimo settlements several hundred miles inland along the courses of the main rivers emptying into these bodies of water. Scattered groups of Eskimos live as far inland as the north slope of the Brooks Range. They also occupy St. Lawrence, Nunivak, King, and Diomede Islands. The Aleuts for the most part occupy the Alaska Peninsula, and the Aleutian Islands and Kodiak Island. The Athapascans occupy all of the interior of Alaska. Two of the main branches of the interior Athapascan Indians are the Tinnehs in the Upper Yukon area and the Tanas of the middle Yukon area. Of the Athapascan groups in Southeast Alaska the Thlingits are the most widely distributed. There are fairly well localized groups of Haidas at Kasaan and Hydaburg and a community of Tsimshians at Ketchi- kan and Metlakatla. There is considerable inter-mixing of the racial groups. particularly of the Eskimo and Aleut stock in the Bristol Bay and northern coast of the Alaska Peninsula. These people are in general great travelers and move 227 about extensively within their own areas as well as migrating to some extent from area to area. Native Population as Labor Supply The general intelligence of the native people, their local knowledge, wide variety of aptitude, and eager- ness for wage employment, make this population group a Valuable labor pool. Some employers currently ob- ject to native labor because of allegedly greater absen- teeism, lack of skill, and unreliability. Many regard the natives as a “last hired—first fired” class. It can safely be assumed that these alleged disqualifications are largely a part of the over-all social and employment situation rather than due to any characteristics of the natives as a laborer. A study of very limited data available suggests, but does not definitely conclude, that the number of natives in the 20- to 30-year age group is much smaller than in the corresponding age group among whites. Since males in the 20- to 30-year age group are an important source of industrial labor the relatively small number in this age group, as compared with the white population, should be taken into account in con- sideration of the native population as a labor pool. No attempt has been made to establish the cause for the sharp decline of the size of the native population as compared with the white population beginning with the 20-year age group. Population studies on other groups indicates that improved health conditions in the vil- lages, improved community services and other advan- tages for the native people may tend to increase the number in the higher age group. Educational Services The Alaska Native Service at present operates 85 day schools in villages scattered throughout Alaska. In £0 communities, schools have previously been opereted which will be reopened when sufficient appropriations are secured for their operation. A review of requests filed by communities for the establishment of schools indicates that there are approximately 42 communities, each with sufficient number of children to justify the establishment of a school. The Alaska Native Service has a program of establishing schools in these communi- ties over a period of the nest 6 to 10 years, depending upon the availability of funds for providing school services to these people. In accordance with past policy, schools would also be established in communities where the need arises should concentrations of population result from a greater industrial use of Alaska’s water power and natural resources. ALASKA Dog teams travel to regions otherwise inaccessible. In addition to these day schools the Alaska Native Service operates three boarding schools. Of these, the school at Mount Edgecumbe is equipped for and com- mitted to a policy of providing vocational education for enrollment of 600 young men and women. The policy of the school is to provide training in trades which now exist or may be developed as a result of the over-all industrial and economic development of the Territory. Training is provided at present for marine mechanics, boat operators, heavy duty mechanics and clerical work- ers. In addition college entrance training is provided for those people interested in higher education for nursing, teaching or vocations requiring professional training. The Territory of Alaska operates 50 schools in rural areas and 22 schools in the incorporated cities of the Territory. These schools are available to Alaska na- tives as well as to whites. By mutual agreement between the Alaska Native Service and the Territory a plan is in operation whereby schools now operated by the Alaska Native Service will be taken over by the Territory as rapidly as the availability of funds and other conditions permit. Any expansion of school sery- ices for present or future populations of the Territory should be considered in light of this policy. Medical Services The Alaska Native Service operates hospitals at the following places with the accommodations (beds) indicated : Taste 59.—Accommodations (beds) at hospitals Tubercu-! Ortho- losi pedic Station | General Cribs Quonsets! Barrow___ 3) 1-24 bed. Kotzebu -- 1-24 bed. Bethel ____ j - 1-24 bed. Kanakanak__ 1-24 bed. Tanana_____ - Juneau_.__.____| 2: < ~a--4- Mount | | Edgecumbe___! 20 (inf) 136 | 65 | <oasee ‘These quonsets are under construction for the care of tuberculosis patients and are expected to be in operation during the latter part of 1949 or early 1950 fiseal year | | | | | PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS t nN nm wo Natives use skin boat with outboard motor for transportation between islands. In addition to the foregoing a 200-bed hospital is now under construction at Mount Edgecumbe. This will be for tuberculosis patients. The Bureau of the Budget and Congress have also authorized a 400-bed institution at Anchorage. This will have 100 beds for general use and 300 beds for tuberculosis patients. Future plans for construction include the replace- ment of the hospital at Kotzebue with a 60- to 80-bed unit, additional or replacement construction at Juneau, additional staff quarters at various hospitals and small clinic units at various places or additional space at some of the present hospitals as the need develops. The location of future construction will doubtless be in- fluenced by hydropower developments. Additional quonset space may also be provided in the future if the use of those now under construction proves practical in the handling of tuberculosis cases. In addition to the resident staffs of the regular hos- pitals field nurses are located at Bethel, Dillingham, Kotzebue, Nome, Nulato, Uzinki, Wainwright, White Mountain, Wrangell, and Yakutat. Part-time physi- cians are under contract at Anchorage, Cordova, Fair- banks, Juneau, Ketchikan, Kodiak, Nome, Seldovia, Valdez, and Wrangell. Field nurse positions are also established at Mount Edgecumbe, Savoonga, and Unalakleet but are vacant at the present time. Cooperative arrangements are in effect with the Alaska Health Department whereby the Native Service supplies funds for per diem care of patients in the Seward Sanatorium operated by the Methodist Mission Board of the States. Cooperative arrangements are also made for public health nurses at Angoon, Hoo- nah, Hydaburg (including Craig and Klawock), and Naknek. Land Ownership and Use The number of natives of Alaska who hold title to the land they use and occupy is very small. With the exception of a few who have been granted homestead allotments under the act of May 17, 1906, practically no individual natives living outside of surveyed town- sites have title of any sort to their lands, but hold them by possessory rights only which have not been formally determined. These possessory rights are recognized by Congress and have been specifically mentioned in several acts, beginning with the act of May 17, 1884, which provides, “That the Indians or other persons in said district shall not be disturbed in the possession of any lands actually in their use or occupation or now claimed by them—.” Group land ownership by natives, in the form of recognized reservations, is so small as to be relatively unimportant at the present time. Of the 100-odd re- serves under the general jurisdiction of the Alaska Na- tive Service, the majority are for school or other ad- ministrative purposes, and only about 20 are primarily for the use of the native inhabitants. Of those, only seven or eight are large enough to provide a sufficient resource base for the people residing thereon. The native uses of the land are principally for trap- ping and hunting. In these pursuits they cover large areas, the vast majority of which are tundra and other submarginal types of country good for little beyond 230 producing fur and game. Reindeer are raised by the skimos in some areas. Agriculture, logging, and min- ing are relatively limited in extent among the native peoples. Agriculture The native people of Alaska are not agriculturally minded. They originally lived along the coastal areas or along the principal rivers and their economy was based upon fishing and hunting. They used some wild plants and berries for fcod, but moved about seasonally to take advantage of opportunities to obtain different kinds of game and fur animals and fish for their food and clothing supply. It is only since their contact with white civilization that they have made any attempts to grow agricultural products for food or to produce reindeer for food, clothing, and sale. The basic economy of the native people still is fishing, with its related activities, and hunting and trapping. However, a few villages are largely dependent upon the preduction of native arts and crafts and a few are now dependent upon a wage economy for their livelihood with a lesser number dependent upon the reindeer in- dustry. The native people have proved themselves quite adaptable to changed conditions and new indus- tries, and it is believed that where it can be demonstrated to them that they can make a better living or supplement and increase their regular food supply by gardening or the production of livestock that they will increas- ingly adopt such practices. The development of Alaska and the encroachment of white civilization have caused changes in the native’s economy. In some instances these developments have caused a diminishing of the native’s original source of food supply and in others they have created desires and appetites for the white man’s food, clothing, and equip- ment. Reindeer were introduced to offset a loss of other food supplies and gardens have been advocated to supplement native food in some areas. Gardens have been grown sucessfully in Southeast Alaska, on the Alaska Peninsula, on Afognak, Spruce, and Kodiak Islands, in some areas along the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers, at Tanana, Tetlin, and Tana- cross in the interior, at Unalakleet on Norton Sound, at Kotzebue, Kiana, and Shungnak. Unalakleet is the only area where natives are producing garden products for sale and their production is still on a small scale. Further investigations are needed to determine more fully the areas where soil conditions are satisfactory so that gardening may be successfully carried on, where ir- rigation is possible and practical, and where soils are satisfactory if proper fertilizers are applied. Power equipment is needed where conditions are favorable for ALASKA gardening to subjugate land for garden sites, to pre- pare the land for planting, and in some instances to cul- tivate and care for the gardens. Additional qualified personnel is needed to instruct the natives in gardening, Up to the present time the native population has done little in the production of livestock other than reindeer, There are areas of native population on the islands along the Alaska Peninsula and in the Aleutian Islands where the production of cattle, sheep, and goats is pos- sible. Further studies are needed to determine the practicability of livestock production in the areas, the adaptability of the natives to a livestock economy, and the possibility of developing satisfactory markets for products to be sold. Should development appear feasible importation of foundation stock would be necessary. Reindeer were introduced into the native economy by importations from 1891 to 1902. The industry de- veloped rapidly to where the reindeer population was estimated at 500,000 head in the early thirties. From then on numbers steadily declined until now there are an estimated 40,000 head in Alaska. Virgin grazing areas, the lack of predators contributed to the rapid increase in numbers. Lack of markets, wolves, some overgrazing, deer going with caribou migrations, and lack of attention to herding were contributing factors in the rapid decrease in numbers. Present herds are now located at Barrow, Wain- wright, Point Hope, Kivalina, Kotzebue, Shungnak, Kewalik, Teller, Golovin, Unalakleet. St. Michael, Hooper Bay, Nunivak Island. Kodiak Island, Umnak Island, and Atka Island. Herds are owned either by the Government or by natives. Native ownership includes individual and association ownership. Future development contem- plates increased individual ownership. Funds are needed to assist individuals in becoming established with herds to prevent butchering of breeding stock while building herds to economic units. Funds will also be needed by the Fish and Wildlife Service to assure adequate control of wolves in areas where rein- deer are grazed. Alaska will be the principal market for reindeer meat for some time to come. Adequate cold storage facilities are needed to hold the meat from butchering time through seasons when the meat is not prime or when it cannot be safely transported so that a steady supply may be assured the markets. Low-cost power is es- sential in providing adequate cold storage facilities. Mines Natives have taken only a small part in the develop- ment of mines in Alaska, except as laborers in mines. Reindeer at abattoir near Teller. Low-cost power is essential for providing adequate cold-storage facilities. Generally they lack the knowledge of minerals which is required for independent prospecting and mining. Mining of coal for village needs is becoming more important as better housing facilities are provided. The need will increase as Alaska develops. Coal is now mined by natives for their use near Barrow, Wain- wright. Point Lay, and Nelson Island. The produc- tion at Barrow is greatest with 340 tons being produced in the operating year 194546 ; 761 tons in 1946-47; and 636 tons in 1947-48. Coal deposits have been reported on St. Lawrence Island and near Point Hope, Kiana, and Unalakleet. Coal has also been mined near the native village of Deering. This development was operated by white owners. Further investigations of coal deposits near native villages are needed to determine the possibilities of development and the most practical locations of mines to supply local needs. Studies of transportation prob- Jems in connection with moving and storing the coal are also needed. Low-cost power for use in mining coal and improved transportation facilities should do much to improve the fuel supplies of native villages in areas where coal is found or where it may be mined and shipped at reasonable cost. Kodiak Island, Shungnak, St. Lawrence Island, and Venetie show promise of mineral deposits. Investi- gations are needed in these areas to determine possibili- ties of development. Instruction should be provided also for interested natives to give them the necessary knowledge to prospect for and identify valuable minerals. Sawmills The native population has taken little active partici- pation in timber operations other than as laborers in sawmills and logging camps. One large mill has been in operation at Metlakatla for a number of years and is now in the process of being rebuilt. Production figures on past operations are not available. Small mills are in operation or have been purchased 232 to go into operation at Hydaburg, Klawock, Kake, Noorvik, Shungnak, and White Mountain. The op- eration of these mills is mainly to produce materials at low cost for native housing, boat building, and other local needs. Funds are needed for surveys and studies to deter- mine where other small mills should be located to serve local needs of native people. More mills will be needed as the housing program develops. A source of low-cost power for the operation of the sawmills would be of benefit in producing cheaper construction materials. Fishing Fishing has always been of prime importance to the natives of Alaska. In Southeast Alaska fishing and related industries not only provide more than half of the cash income of native people but also furnish a major portion of the food supply. In other parts of Alaska, on the Aleutian chain, north along the coast, and up the major rivers, fish and other sea foods are even more important as a source of food than in South- east Alaska. Great quantities of fish are dried, smoked, or frozen for human consumption and for dog food. Fish in many of the areas in the north is the main source of dog food. Three canneries are owned by native groups. These are located at Metlakatla, Hydaburg, and Hood Bay. The latter two have been financed by loans from the Government. The Hood Bay cannery was purchased in 1948 to go under the operation of the Angoon Community Association in 1949. It was under lease in 1948. The Metlakatla cannery was operated under a share lease prior to 1948. It was operated by the native group this year. Hydaburg has been under native operation for the past 10 years. All three hire experienced managers to operate the canneries for them. Comparative packs for Hydaburg and Metlakatla for the past 10 years are shown below: Taser 60.—Com parative packs in two canneries | Annette Islands | “Hydaburg Co- Year | Canning Co., | operative Assoc. total number of | Cannery, total cases | number of cases 94, 211 41, 236 102, 399 25, 397 141, 827 43, 117 100, 203 31, 917 87, 769 23, 913 74, 621 | 30, 137 75, 147 | 26, 059 96, 215 | 34, 939 42, 201 | 16, 103 74,717 | 33, 819 ALASKA Funds are needed for development of similar enter- prises in other communities and for studies and investi- gations of other possibilities for development of fisheries by the native groups. A source of power at low cost is essential in the development of quick freeze and cold storage plants for handling fish and some other sea food products. Availability of low-cost power will be a determining factor in the selection of locations for such enterprises. Wildlife Resources Most of the native people in Alaska are very closely dependent upon the fish and wildlife resources of the individual communities. The matter of fisheries has previously been discussed. No data are available on the exact extent to which the native population is dependent upon other wildlife re- sources for their livelihood. However, they do catch various fur animals and use the fur for clothing and the surplus for sale. They also obtain considerable food and clothing from various species of birds. Seals, wal- rus and whale furnish an important part of the liveli- hood of the people of certain villages. Game animals are also used for food. Additional information is needed as to the extent that the native population is dependent upon wildlife re- sources for their livelihood. A study should be made of the normal production of different areas with refer- ence to fur and game animals. This could be used to determine the areas which various individuals and groups would need for their use in trapping and hunt- ing to make an adequate living for themselves. Information is also needed upon the effects of the proposed power development on wildlife resources of the areas involved and the economy of the natives related thereto. Manufacturing The native people of Alaska do very little manufac- turing in the sense of industrial manufacturing as we commonly think of the term. They do, however, man- ufacture a great many articles for their own use and some for sale. Articles manufactured mainly for home use include dogsleds and harness: kayaks, comiaks and other small boats; and many articles of clothing. Articles manu- factured largely for sale through commercial channels include craft products of ivory, wood, and baleen; woven baskets and mats; articles of fur and skin cloth- ing; certain types of dolls; and replicas of old native hunting and fishing equipment. ee PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS There is no yearly record of the total value of all ar- ticles manufactured by the native people. Reports were received from teachers and compiled in 1944 which showed a total production value of $677,395 of which SI9L714 worth of products were used in the home, .19L worth were disposed of through local sales, and the remainder or $200,490 worth were sold through the Arts and Crafts Clearing House in Juneau. No similar records for later years are available. The year 1944, a war year, was near the peak of craft production at high prices. Sales through the Arts and Crafts Clearing House increased to $212,500 in 1945, then dropped to $114,000 in 1946, and raised back to $127,000 in 1947. It is highly probable that the volume of manufacturing of crafts for home use remains fairly constant from year to year with changes in total volume being reflected in the volume of sales and prices. The lower value of sales in 1946 and 1947 as compared to 1944 and 1945 is due partially to less demand on account of the withdrawal of military personnel and partially to lower prices for articles sold. More information is needed on total production of craft items in connection with the developing of mar- kets for such articles. Studies should also be made of the possibilities for the development of a tanning in- dustry to tan Alaskan furs for the manufacture of native products. Wholesale and Retail There are 49 group-owned stores operating in Alaska, of which 31 have been organized under the Indian Re- organization Act and 9 are operated as stock companies or village enterprises. These stores are generally in small communities where they have been established to serve and meet the needs of the communities in which other store facilities are inadequate or not available. ‘Twenty-eight of the stores are members of the Alaska Native Industries Cooperative Association, a central buying organization, which was developed to purchase supplies and market products for the native stores. Two additional stores have made application for mem- bership in this central organization and will be full- fledged members as soon as their applications are approved. The stores purchase supplies for the com- munities in which they are located and sell their mer- chandise for cash or exchange it for furs or other items which the native members of the communities have to sell. The stores sell the furs or other items which are accepted in barter to obtain cash for the further pur- chase of supplies. A survey is needed to determine other native villages which are inadequately served at the present time and to give them assistance in organizing their groups and 233 obtaining loans if necessary to finance the local stores. Additional credit funds are also needed for making loans to communities which need stores or which need to increase their purchasing power to meet the needs of the communities. Utilities Native villages of Alaska have practically no develop- ment of utilities. The people of Metlakatla have their own water and light plant and are arranging for the development of additional electric power. A few other villages have obtained light plants which they are op- erating to meet the village needs. Some have sources of water power which appear to be sufficient to operate small power plants that would meet village needs. Ad- ditional studies of power needs and possibilities of de- velopment are needed as well as funds to assist in mak- ing developments where investigations indicate that they are feasible. Surveys are also needed to determine the feasibility of the development of water supplies and sewage disposal systems for various villages. Govern- ment assistance in some villages will be necessary in providing funds for development of low cost power for villages to meet domestic and industrial needs. Immediate Program A proposed program for the economic development of the natives of Alaska has been worked out for the six-year period ending with the fiscal year 1954. This program includes the following: 1. The development of fisheries. canneries, cold stor- age, mild cure, and quick freeze units at various places for greater participation of the natives in the fishing industry. 2. The development and use of timber resources by natives, including establishment of small sawmills for production of lumber for home construction, village streets and docks, building of boats, and other local needs. 3. Continuation and expansion of the native store program to meet the needs of communities not ade- quately served. +. Development of better housing facilities for na- tives either through new construction or the repair of present housing facilities. 5. The development of water supplies and sewage disposal systems for better sanitation and health. 6. Garden and agricultural development including reindeer and other livestock where practical. 234 7. Development of coal mines for native use to pro- vide adequate and sure fuel supplies in areas where coal is available and can be mined and transported eco- nomically. 8. Study and development of other mining industries which might contribute to the income of native groups. 9. Development of better warehousing and storage facilities in native villages for the preservation of foods. 10. Further development of the native arts and crafts program, including the development of new designs typical of Alaska and utilizing Alaska products. This includes the establishment and development of training and work centers for native craft production. It in- ciudes ivory, gold, silver, lapidary, wood, skin sewing, and basketry work. 11. Settlement of land titles and handling of other land problems. 12. Assistance in placing natives in employment in industries which develop in the Territory. 13. Development of other small industries in the Territory which will provide gainful employment for natives and stabilize their economy on a standard of living comparable to that of other residents of the Territory. 14. Continuation and expansion of the credit pro- gram to provide funds for loans to tribes for the de- velopment of corporate or tribal enterprises and for relending to individuals to assist them in developing sound economic enterprises. 15. Development of electrical power for village and industrial use where practical. The purpose of this program is to help the native people to help themselves in the development of their natural resources to the point where they can compete with and fit into the over-all economic program of in- creasing industrialization and development of Alaskan resources that will come with an increased Alaskan population. Much of the development must come through small industries which will give the people longer periods of gainful employment and supplement sources of income which they now have. Some of the development means better use of present resources, in- cluding preservation of food and production of garden produce to supplement other food resources and low cash income. The program contemplates some appropriations by the Government which will be outright grants to assist in the rehabilitation of the native groups. It con- templates additional appropriations of revolving credit funds for loans for developing enterprises and indus- tries. It also contemplates additional appropriations for personnel to train and work with natives in the expanded program of developing new commercial in- dustries and improving the present ones. ALASKA It is important that the rehabilitation funds be ap- propriated on a no-year basis so they may be used until a project is completed. This will allow better planning and more economy in the expenditure of the funds. After 1954 the funds needed for loan purposes would remain fairly constant until the rehabilitation program was completed. It is anticipated that it would require 2 or possibly 3 years to complete all rehabilita- tion work after appropriations are made available, The program contemplates the production and use of local materials for home construction where such pro- duction will provide the materials at a lower cost than shipping them in. It is contemplated that a village re- ceiving a grant from the Government for housing pur- poses would establish a repayment plan for individuals receiving benefits from the fund so that a permanent revolving fund would be established to meet future housing needs of the village. Closely related to the economic development program are the educational and medical development programs which call for: 1. The construction of additional schools in areas where the number of native children justifies such action and the needs are not taken care of by Territorial schools. 2. Construction and operation of additional medical facilities where conditions are found to justify such action. Anestimate of funds needed for the construction of new educational and medical facilities for the period 1949 through 1955 (fiscal years) is as follows: Taste 61.—Lstimate of funds needed | Medical facili- , ties Total Fiscal year School facilities $588,000 | $623, 000 1949-22. $35, 000 1950- -| 1, 120, 000 | 2, 239, 500 | 3, 359; 500 1951 2,119,000 | 4,285,000 | 6, 404, 000 1952 5, 270, 000 | 2; 420, 000 | 7, 690, 000 1953 585,000 | "724,000 | 1, 309, 000 1954 -| 405,000 | 686,000 | 1, 091; 000 1955-22 405,000 ; 500,000 | ' 905, 000 Total. .-..--22-. 9, 939, 000 11, 442, 500 21, 381, 500 ; | Note.—These figures do not include operational costs. The production and distribution of low-cost power in areas where Native Service installations are located would facilitate operation of the units and should reduce operating costs. Long-Range Program The long-range program of the Alaska Native Service for the economic development of the natives of Alaska NN ie we RIN Rate PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS is somewhat different to that of long-range programs of most agencies. Most long-range programs provide for development of services or production to a maximum point, and maintenance at that point thereafter making only such changes as are necessary to meet changing conditions. In working with the native people of Alaska it is anticipated that they will gradually fit into the developing economy of the country and that the need for a special service to assist them and look after their interests will gradually diminish. The Alaska Native Service is in the unique position of working itself out of a job. Just how fast this will be accomplished will depend upon several factors among which are how fast the natives adapt to the changing economy, how fast the economy of the Territory changes and develops, and what provisions are made for providing needed services to all people of a community by the same agency, and how fast such services can be extended to all communi- ties. This may take 15, 20, 25, or more years. It is not anticipated that the native people of all vil- lages or communities will reach that stage of develop- ment where the services of the Alaska Native Service can be withdrawn at the same time. Rather it is ex- pected that any withdrawal of services will be gradual, village by village or community by community, over a period of years. Inthe meantime the economic develop- ment program must be a continuation of that of the next 10 years, changing as needed to meet changing condi- tions. The sooner the native population is provided with facilities, working conditions, and improved industrial and employment opportunities which will enable the people to maintain an improved standard of living comparable to that of other residents of Alaska, the sooner the Alaska Native Service will have fulfilled its mission. The development of Alaska’s comparatively untouched natural resources such as timber, coal and some other minerals, agriculture, and certain fishing areas facilitated by the development and use of its hydropower may well hasten that day. Low-cost power has been proven the key to industrial development and to economies of labor and time for individuals. It is also the key to many of the comforts and luxuries of life. Investigation Program The following investigation program is needed for the Alaska Native Service: Land Ownership and Use 1. Investigations to determine areas needed for na- tives’ use and development. 235 2. Investigations of areas now under the Alaska Native Service that can possibly be released. Agriculture 1. Soil surveys to determine areas adapted to garden- ing or needs for fertilizer to make land suitable for garden production. 2. Surveys of localities to determine suitability of feeds and climatic conditions for livestock production. 3. Investigation of individuals and groups to deter- mine interest in livestock and gardening and suitability of such projects to native economy. 4. Investigation of possible markets and cost of mar- keting products produced for sale. 5. Investigation of the possibilities for irrigation of garden sites including those where low-cost power is available for pumping. Mincrals and Mining 1. Surveys to determine feasibility of coal mine de- velopment for native use at Tanunak, Unalakleet, and on St. Lawrence Island. 2, Surveys to determine practicability of mining for other minerals on Kodiak Island, Shungnak, St. Lawrence Island, and in the Venetie area. Timber Products 1. Surveys to determine amount of accessible timber in areas where sawmills or other timber products plants are proposed to be located in interior Alaska. 2. Studies to determine practicability of installation of timber processing plants by natives.“ Fisheries 1. Surveys to determine kinds and potentials of sea foods available in areas where canneries, quick freeze, mild cure, or other processing plants might be developed to provide longer periods of employment and greater income for natives. 2. Studies on the feasibility of construction and op- eration of processing plants by natives in areas where natives are congregated. This includes such places as Angoon, Hoonah, Haines. Kasaan, Kake, Klawock, Chanega, Tatilek, Atka, Tyonek, Alitak, Belkofski, Egegik, Gambell, Karluk, Mountain Village, Old Har- bor, Saint Michael, Unalakleet, Yakutat, and White Mountain. 236 3. Studies to determine the effect of proposed power and pulp developments on fisheries and the native economy. In many areas, including interior Alaska, natives are dependent upon fish for a large portion of their food supply and as the principal source of dog food. Wildlife Resources 1. Studies of average normal fur production of given localities to determine areas needed by members of na- tive villages to provide an average normal income from furs and at the same time study procedure for protect- ing and conserving breeding stock, breeding grounds and introducing breeding stock into adaptable areas. 2. Study to determine the effect of power develop- ment upon wildlife and its relationship to native economy. Manufacturing 1. Surveys and studies of localities where materials suitable for development of Alaskan craft products are available and can be developed profitably by natives. 2. Study of possibilities for developing a tanning industry for Alaskan furs for use in native skin sewing projects. Wholesale and Retail Trade 1. Studies to determine localities where natives are not adequately served by store facilities at reasonable prices and where new stores should be developed. 2. Studies of markets and possible markets for native craft products and other products produced by them, surplus to their needs. Utilities 1. Studies of electric power needs of various villages for industrial and home use. 2. Surveys to determine flow of streams at prospec- tive sites for power development near certain villages and determination of whether power plants should be diesel or hydroelectric. 3. Studies to determine feasibility of proposed small power developments for villages. 4. Investigation of possible sources of water supply for certain villages and plans for systems of distribution. 5. Study of plans for sewage disposal for native villages. ALASKA Shrimp travel operations near Petersburg, Alaska, Markets 1. Investigation of market possibilities for livestock and agricultural products produced in excess of local needs. 2, Investigation of markets for processed sea foods. 3. Investigation of markets for timber products. Recreation 1. Survey of areas as possible sites for development of hunting lodges or other recreational facilities. 2. Investigation of interest of natives in operating hunting lodges or other recreational facilities. SA OR at aR ibys + 2 ¥ Steno Rath evant wasbiaeigease sti e+ 2 aictsgemt Deis aBidbes amano a eA Mink HN LOE PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS Power 1. Survey of hydropower development possibilities throughout Alaska and prospects of actual power gen- erating facilities with studies of how industries of the native population may be geared to such development. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE The wildlife resources of Alaska—fur animals, game birds, game animals, and above all commercial and game fishes—represent a greater proportionate wealth in the Territory than is the case with any one of the 48 States. Most of the 586,400 square miles in the Territory are better suited to the production of wildlife than to other forms of land use; and the fisheries of the Territory— its principal resources—have established Alaska as one of the important seafood producing regions of the world. Chief among the Alaska marine species forming the basis for elaborate industries are the salmon, which 237 collectively yield high quality food products valued around 100 million dollars annually. Thus, salmon fishing is Alaska’s most lucrative industry. Ranking third (gold mining is second) among Alaska’s basic industries are the furbearers—as raw material for the pelt and fur industry. This includes trapping as well as fur farming. The Alaska Planning Council, however, rates even higher the value of wildlife as an economic attraction to tourist visitors. In 1941 the Council wrote: “Wild- life holds a very distinct place among Alaska’s basic economic assets, and its perpetuation is, therefore, of the utmost significance to the future economic develop- ment of the Territory: First, as an attraction to an in- creasing number of tourist visitors, especially bi hunters, naturalists, and photographers . . .” For these and other reasons, any comprehensive pro- grams for the future development of Alaska’s water g game resources for power or any other purposes will be closely watched by the Fish and Wildlife Service for possible effects, good or bad, on fish and wildlife resources. This, of course, is required of the Bureau of Reclama- A haul of herring in Shelikoff Strait. 238 tion or any other agency constructing projects as well as the Fish and Wildlife Service in compliance with the Coordination Act as amended by Public Law 732. Review of hydropower and other developmental proj- ects may require the full-time service of at least one person on the Fish and Wildlife Service staff. Also, in connection with proposed development, the Fish and Wildlife Service urges caution in the approval of further land withdrawals for any purpose, but stands ready to cooperate with the National Park Service and the Bureau of Reclamation in the establishment of such sanctuaries or wildlife management areas in the vicinity of new reservoirs as may be deemed advisable. Such areas would preserve small sections of Alaska in their pristine state as places where everyone can have a chance to see the fauna of Alaska in their natural habitat. In the beginning, of course, fishermen took fish in the most convenient manner possible and conservation was ignored. Ill-advised practices made themselves felt in as short a time as 10 years so that Congress in 1889 deemed it necessary to prohibit the erection of permanent gear or barricades in salmon streams. At the same time the Office of the Commissioner of Fish- eries was established and directed to make an investi- gation as a basis for legislation that would place the industry on a sound, sustained footing. This study discovered what has continually been emphasized ever since: fishery problems are so everlastingly complex, intricate, and variable that their solution is long and difficult. Jurisdiction over Alaska’s fur seals and fisheries was transferred from the Treasury Department to the De- partment of Commerce in 1903, to be administered by the Bureau of Fisheries. The Bureau was transferred to the Department of the Interior in 1939 and the fol- lowing year was combined with the Bureau of Biologi- cal Survey to form the Fish and Wildlife Service. Authority and Functions Laws governing the administration of Alaskan fish- eries derive from Congressional Acts, some of which make specific provisions for control, while others dele- gate certain broader fields to the Secretary of the In- terior for his supervision. The act of 1906 prohibited wanton waste of fish, assessed a small case pack tax, required submission of statistics by fishery operators and gave the Secretary authority to prohibit commer- cial fishing in streams. The other more important act upon which regulations are based is the “White Act” of 1924 which prohibited all commercial fishing between 6 p. m. Saturday and 6 a. m. Monday, established the principle that escapement should equal catch, and gave ALASKA the Secretary rather broad powers to make regulations he felt necessary to conservation. The Secretary’s authority and responsibility is discharged through the Branch of Alaska Fisheries of the Fish and Wildlife Service. It is a function of the Fish and Wildlife Service to determine the best means of managing the fisheries of Alaska through research and observation and, with that knowledge, to formulate regulations and enforce them. A considerable volume of complex regulations had gradually evolved to control and preserve the various fisheries and they are amended endlessly to meet chang- ing needs and conditions. Fishermen, operators and resident Alaskans are consulted annually in an effort to secure the benefits of as wide experience and knowledge as possible. Current Organization, Responsibilities and Activities The Fish and Wildlife Service as a whole has wide- spread duties that are national and even worldwide in scope, and is concerned with practically every important item of wildlife as well as fish in the United States; Alaska’s fisheries are but one of its concerns. The Branch of Alaska Fisheries is the subdivision of the Service immediately concerned with management and enforcement in Alaska commercial fish and fur seals. It is advisedly assisted with scientific research con- ducted by the Alaska Investigations of the Branch of Fishery Biology. Chiefs of these Branches have head- quarters at Washington, D. C., but actual administra- tion of the management work in Alaska is performed by the Regional Director at Juneau. Under the Re- gional Directors are fishery field agents who administer surrounding districts from headquarters at False Pass, Chignik,’ Kodiak, Naknek,’ Anchorage, Cordova, Yak- utat,' Juneau, Sitka, Craig, Wrangell, and Ketchikan. The scientific staff is headquartered at the Fish and Wildlife Service oftice and laboratory building at 2725 Montlake Boulevard, Seattle, Wash. Formal bi- ological field studies are currently being made on the sockeye salmon of Bristol Bay, the sockeye runs at Kar- luk Lake on Kodiak Island, the pink salmon of South- eastern Alaska generally and the three major herring fisheries. Related miscellaneous fishery problems are also investigated by the staff as they arise. A compre- hensive program of physical stream survey coupled with barrier removal and spawning ground improve- ment is being conducted jointly by fishery engineers and biologists. These activities are directly under the au- thority of the Chief of the Branch of Fishery Biology * Seasonal only ana Wem PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS but, of course, their findings are integrated with the management functions of the Regional Director. A technological research laboratory (Branch of Com- mercial Fisheries) at Ketchikan constantly experiments with means of improving or inventing products derived from the waters of Alaska. Food processing, storage, by-product development, quality standardization, and seafood utilization are subjects coming within the laboratory’s scope. This work is supplemented to some extent by related studies at the Seattle laboratory. This same branch is also now conducting fishing ex- ’ ploration in Alaska waters to determine the potential yield of presently unfamiliar grounds. Two large trawlers commenced their studies with a preliminary trip in 1948 to the Bering Sea and Western Alaska. A somewhat different organization pertains to the Pribilof fur seal operation, which is independent of the Juneau Regional Office. The Superintendent and his staff have seasonal headquarters at both Seattle and the Pribilofs and work directly under the central office in Washington, D. C. All activities covering fur seals are, of course, subject further to the terms of the international convention with Canada. The halibut fishery is outside the purview of the Fish and Wildlife Service, except in matters of enforcement, as it is managed and regulated by the International Fisheries Commission established under treaty with Canada. All other commercial fisheries in Alaskan territorial waters, however, are subject under law to regulation by the Fish and Wildlife Service. Future Plans and Estimated Costs Management The severe decline in the salmon resources of recent years leaves no question but that efforts to protect and restore the runs must be greatly intensified if the fishing industry and thereby the economy of Alaska is to be preserved at anything like its present level. The dis- tressing lag of actual production behind potential is due in large part to unsound and overly intense fishing prac- tices, the result in turn of inadequate law inforcement and scarcity of scientific knowledge. It will be impos- sible to rehabilitate satisfactorily Alaska’s salmon un- less personnel and equipment to do the job are markedly increased. It is reassuring that substantial improve- ment has been possible in this regard during the last 2 years through larger appropriations of funds by the Congress so that a good nucleus has been formed for expanding into the necessary fields. Pending reorganization of the Alaska staff estab- lishes two classes of field agents concerned with fish- eries: enforcement and management. The eventual 239 stationing of one of each of these agents in most of the fishing districts and the permanent staffing of the Yak- utat and Yukon-Kuskokwim Districts will require doubling the present force of 12 men. This necessarily requires a correlative increase in clerical and adminis- trative personnel, and it is intended eventually to as- sign clerical help to those several field stations now without such assistance. It is also desirable to expand further the number of temporary, seasonal, enforcement personnel from 90 to a minimum of 130 so that most of the principal spawn- ing streams can be assigned individual watchmen to pre- vent poaching during the time of the runs. Each man must be equipped with an outboard motor and boat and camping gear. Accurate, factual data become of increasing impor- tance as management of the fisheries becomes more capable and more precise. In fact, statistics on the catch are absolutely indispensable to an understanding of the numerous factors constantly affecting the highly complex and ever-changing salmon industry. Collec- tion, compilation and analysis have become so necessary and will be so involved as to require the services of a trained statistician to do the job properly. Experience has shown that counting weirs in streams are the most practical means of effecting adequate escapement in that area. Prior to 1932 an elaborate weir program was an established part of salmon man- agement in Alaska. Only five units have been operated in recent years, due to lack of funds, but two new weirs were installed in the Ygashik and Naknek Rivers on Bristol Bay in 1949. A complete weir program, how- ever, requires that racks also be placed across the other three Bristol Bay rivers, plus 10 on other key streams throughout Alaska. It is estimated that the original cost of installing and operating a project of this nature would be almost $200,000, although the annual expense should be only one-third that amount once the initial equipment is in place. As a result of vessel and airplane acquisitions from war surplus supplies, the Service now has a reasonably adequate patrol fleet; transportation is no longer the severely limiting factor it once was. However, funds as recently available have restricted use of this equip- ment below the optimum considered desirable from an enforcement standpoint, and they must soon be in- creased to raise vessel crew wages commensurate with those prevailing in the maritime industry. Fast but livable speedboats of the type needed for patrol of inshore waters are not available from war surplus sources and must be purchased new. Early replace- ment of the Service’s present fleet of outmoded small craft is essential as several units are badly deteriorated. 240 A total of 11 new 45-foot speedboats is required, costing about $20,000 each at present prices. Other items of transportation in current need are a large and fully equipped hangar that can accommodate the fleet of 19 planes based at Anchorage. The severity of winter weather, the huge investment in aircraft and our dependence on their condition and reliability make obvious the necessity for adequate storage and servicing facilities. The use of commercial aircraft in the in- terior has grown so fast that Government planes are seriously handicapped by the resultant lack of accom- modations. A much smaller hangar is also required at the Juneau airport for the three planes assigned to Southeastern Alaska, likewise without cover at present. It is estimated that the Juneau hangar will cost some- where near $15,000 but the big Anchorage installation will come to nearly a quarter million dollars. The efficiency of the field personnel at the various sta- tions would be greatly promoted if they were provided with trucks in good running condition for carrying out local assignments. Four are in urgent need at the present time because of distances involved and all sta- tions should be so equipped eventually. ALASKA Fur seals flourish at the rookery at St. Paul, Alaska. INVESTIGATIVE PROGRAM The future management of Alaskan wildlife resources may dictate the future economic welfare of the people. The depletion of wildlife resources in Alaska has fol- lowed the same pattern as in the States. Proper man- agement of wildlife based upon scientific knowledge of a real opportunity for increased development of the resources. the species and environment offe Wildlife The Pribilof Island fur seal herd is an outstanding example of successful management. Management of some other species has not yet met with the same success. The fur seal herd has been increased from 132,000 animals in 1910 to 3,837,000 in 1948. The annual har- vest has also been steadily increasing. Research and investigation should provide the knowledge necessary to manage other important game and furbearing ani- mals to their maximum population consistent with the environment and relative value directly or indirectly to _ . om i q | i — PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS the welfare of the people. A few of the basic problems which will require investigation and research before the proper management of wildlife can be practiced are now apparent, other problems will arise with management and development. Restoration of Wildlife to Former Ranges The depletion of wildlife has followed closely the de- velopment of the Territory and the present range of many kinds of wildlife has been greatly reduced from the original range. Factors which govern the distribu- tion of wildlife should be studied and where possible and desirable from the economic, social, biological, rec- reational, or aesthetic standpoint, efforts should be made to restore the wildlife to the original ranges. The cari- bou is an example. This species is no longer found on the Kenai Peninsula where it formerly was abundant. Similarly caribou have been severely depleted in num- bers over wide areas in the Territory. Studies are nec- essary to determine the factors limiting the caribou range. Life history investigations including migration, food and cover requirements, predatory and other fac- tors of mortality are essential as a basis in restocking the Kenai and other former ranges not now occupied by the caribou. Such studies will undoubtedly entail sev- eral years’ work by competent biologists working in the field following the caribou in all their migrations throughout the year. Stocking of Native Species Basic life history and distribution studies of the species and the environment should be made on a num- ber of the more important furbearers and big game animals to obtain information for use as a guide in stocking suitable range not at present occupied. For example, the mountain goat now occupies a limited range on higher elevations along the coast of South and Southeast Alaska. Studies should be made to deter- mine the maximum available range in the Territory and determine the proper methods of stocking. Baranof Island has been successfully stocked with goats and other islands of Southeastern Alaska may prove equally suitable. Management of Introduced Animals Research should be initiated to follow closely the progress of animals which have been introduced such as the elk, bison, and muskox. Once an introduction is successful proper herd management is essential. ‘The 241 continuous public demand for the introduction of new forms of wildlife necessitates the need for factual data on the range and the species requirements. Introduc- tions of any species to a new environment should be undertaken only after thorough research has shown the adequacy of the range, the possible affect of the intro- duction on native species and environment. Wildlife Threatened by Extinction Alaska provides the home for a number of species of wildlife which have decreased to a population level where they may not recover. Studies should be con- ducted at least to the extent that the necessary protec- tion is provided and the known management measures are taken before the populations reach a critical level. Investigations on the trumpeter swan might have re- vealed information necessary to avoid the danger of extinction which has threatened this species for the past 3 decades. Migratory Waterfowl Investigations on the breeding range, nesting areas and migration of the thousands of migratory waterfowl in Alaska have not been extensive. Banding studies (Lower Yukon, 1941; Hooper Bay, 1942; Innoko River, 1948) are limited to a few hundred birds in a few iso- lated areas. Almost nothing is known about the ex- tent to which ducks and geese, raised in Alaska, provide the hunting for the waterfowl hunters in the Mississippi and Central flyways of the States. Investigations should be completed in the Territory to provide the minimum essentials to proper manage- ment of the waterfowl for the welfare of the hunters on the North American continent. Nesting, resting, and wintering range of all species of ducks and geese found in Alaska should be determined. The important nest- ing areas should be studied over a period of years dur- ing times of high and low water levels and high and low populations. Migration pattern by dates and loca- tion of species should be investigated through banding and aerial surveys. Factors affecting nesting mortality should be known for the important nesting areas. Sea Mammals The Alaskan waters contain sea mammals that fur- nish an important source of food and clothing to many of the northern native people. The conservation of these oceanic forms of wildlife such as the hair seals, walrus, and whales has been given little consideration 242 ALASKA Seal skins are salted, shipped to the States for tanning, then returned to furriers in Alaska for templating, cutting, and sewing into finished garments. because of lack of information on the range, habits, population, and harvests. The use of modern firearms and equipment, together with the demand for such items as ivory and sperm oil may result in unnecessary destruction and depletion of oceanic wildlife. Investi- gations on the life history, distribution, and population status should be made to provide the necessary basic information for proper management and harvests. Harvest of Wildlife The Alaskan Game Commission is continually con- fronted with the difficult task of establishing regulations pertaining to the taking of game and furbearers. Studies relative to the populations and allowable har- vest should be continuous to establish facts upon which to base the setting of seasons for hunting and trapping. Lack of adequate information may result in an excess harvest that may curtail the harvest for many subse- quent years. Likewise closed seasons (where justifiable hunting and trapping could be allowed) may result in losses of valuable fur and game from starvation, cyclic disturbances, or predation. Discriminatory harvests of certain sex or age groups may increase the take with- out affecting the breeding stock. Utilization of Game and Fur Resources The increase in population of Alaska together with the growing demand for outdoor recreation from both Alaskans and nonresidents will necessarily bring heavy pressure on fur and game species of wildlife. The de- mand for food and clothing for the natives is an ever present critical problem. The proper utilization of all parts of a bird or animal carcass for food or clothing is imperative. Studies on utilization of fur, carcasses, and other products should be made. For example. the 1948 harvest of seal skins provided the carcasses of over 10,000 seals, a by-product which should have maximum Rett 5 ye 1 UN REA CS te A Babee eet PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS utilization without waste. Natives and some whites have been known to kill an excess of caribou causing undue waste. Usable food is wasted in hunting walrus for the ivory trade and allowing the beheaded carcass to go unused. The methods of harvest require study to avoid losses. For example, losses of oceanic mammals from “sinking” after being shot represents a serious loss and expense to the native. New techniques require de- velopment to avoid losses of this type. The byproducts of the entire fur, fish, and game industry require a thorough study to avoid waste. Research is Good Business The future of Alaska will depend to a large extent upon the management and utilization of the natural 243 restorable resources. Fur and game represents a large percentage of the food, clothing, and revenue from a restorable resource. Investigations have not been ade- quate to provide accurate information on the annual harvest of wildlife to determine the importance to the public welfare. Research and investigation must pre- cede proper wildlife management. The monetary ex- penditure for research is not the sole criterion for a job to be done, but if modern industry finds it is necessary to spend about 3 percent of the gross sales on research then it can be assumed that a like amount may be required to manage properly the wildlife. The Fish and Wildlife Service receives a limited amount ($25,000) of funds from Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration, a portion of which is devoted to research. No other wildlife research funds have been available. None of the license fees for Alaska furrier cutting seal skins to be sewed into garments. 988410—52——17 244 ALASKA ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT FISHERY & SEA FOOD PRODUCTS SALMON _| wacieuT ROCKFISH TRAP, SEINE e cul NET —— LIVER @ VISCERA soe cauGuT cauenT Lo caver LST UU B COLD STORAGE PLANTS FRESH FROZEN:— SALMON, HALIBUT, SABLEFISH, ROCKFISH, COO, TUNA, CLAMS, EDIGLE BOTTO! TROUT, HE SHELLFISH MEAT. MILO CURED SALMON - SALTED SAGLEFISH ~ FULLETS OF SALMON, HALIBUT, ROCKFISH, COD CHEEKS OF SALMON HALIBUT - FROZEN SALMON & HALIBUT BAIT ~ FROZEN DOG FOOD - TRANSSHIPMENT OF LIVER &@ VISCERA TO ViITA- SEINE © GILL WET MIN_EXTRACTION LABORATORIES ~ FUR FARM F900. CAUGHT FRESH FROZEN: SMELT, OYSTERS, ond ABALONE OFF SEasOW surPwus HERRING LIVER @ viscERA CANNERIES, SALTERIES, SMOKING PLANTS, etc. SPECIALIZED GEAR CANMEO:— SALMON, HALIBUT, ROCKFISH, COD, TUNA, SWELLFISM, TROUT, HERRING. SALTEO:— SALMON, NEARING, SABLEFISH, SPECIAL FULLETS| SMOKED:— SALMON, HERRING. GILL NET — CANNED SMOKED SALWOM,e0d ALIOUT, cauGHT CANNED SALMON TIPS, CANNED PET FOODS, CANNERY Loar. REDUCTION PLANT MEAL. — SALMON, WERT WASTE SCRAP FISH Ol: — «SALMON, HERI WASTE on@ SCRAP FISH WHALES \ SPECIALTIES:— FERTWIZER, LIVESTOCK en¢ PouLTRY FOOD K} COMPONENTS ------7-4 p---- dl. | cavent with] 1 seeciauzeo po Gear 1 Li. Lone Line cauent BOAT BUILDING - LOGGING end LUMBERING — WIRE SCREEN MANUFACTURE — PROVISIONING — TANK CONSTRUCTION— oe ANY GEAR 1 $xim PROoUCTS MANUFACTURE:— FISH NET, LINE, 1 ENGINES; RADIO EOUI c. MACHINERY; HAROWAR SCRAP FISH BoTTom FisH TAKEN WITH EXPLANATION uP TRAWL SPECIAL GEAR TRAWL CAUGHT @ LABOR Lal 10 TEAR Program r---- poon-be--5 § LOM@ RANGE PR ALONE L 1 POWER REQUIRED | LARGE QUANTITIES FISH oné WILOLIFE SERVICE WILOLIFE & MARINE FISHERIES GROUP PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS FUR RESOURCES FUR | ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT FISH &.GAME RESOURCES—FOR SPORT & FOOD FACILITATING SEAL on @ weaL T TACKLE, TS, TRAPS, end FISH WHEEL GuIDE SERVICE MOUNTAIN SHEEP MOUNTAIN GOAT ocer carisou SMALL. GAME SALT WATER FISH WATER FOWL SALMON waLiguT sournmer MaRwoTs COLD STORAGE FRESHWATER FISH SALMON BLACKFISH WHITEFISH CHEEFISH GRAYLING TROUT— RaimBow, STEELHEAD, LAKE] CUTTHROAT, BROOK, one DOLLY VAROEW TANHING PROCESSING FURRIERS TAXIDERMY crart FISH ® WILOLIFE SERVICE FOOD one RECREATION HIDES, FURS ene ivory TROPHIES | DOG Foon FISH BAIT EXPLANATION ] 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM TRAPPING HUNTING HUNTING Fime FUR FARMING (GOVERNMENT ELS CONTROLLED) - T ecaver LU wantin | wink FUR SEAL a ROUGH PELTS orTer LW MUSKRAT 4 Fox DEER na Moose y COMMERCIAL wease. J Lynx TANMERIES caRiBou rt WAIR SEAL (im sTaTEs) T an ; Lb ' FUR coats ! MUKLUKS WOLVERINE covore FUR MILLINERY 1 PARKAS eoves 1 WECKPIECES ' cares ' peor--------. + wurrs ' TouRIsT . 1 1 MEN'S HATS ' SOUVENIRS ' Leatner 1 wour Lis FISHER RACCOON | ! NATIVE GARMENTS 1-4 FooTeEAR & ' ' ‘ ' ' b.--...._.. 4 ! cia Mes ' aoeoe L---- WILDLIFE & MARINE FISHERIES GROUP 245 246 trapping and hunting is used directly for the manage- ment of fur and game. The shipment of furs from Alaska in 1947 amounted to approximately 7 million dollars. The value of game for food, clothing, and recreation can be conservatively estimated at 8 million dollars. The total combined estimated value of game and fur would be approximately 15 million dollars per year and at 3 percent would yield $450,000, the amount which could reasonably be spent annually in research and investigation of problems affecting the development of the resource. Investigation and research is good business and essential to the proper development of the fur and game resource. BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT The development of Alaska’s natural resources is fun- damental, both from the values that these resources can contribute immediately to the economy and well-being of the Territory and the United States, and from the additions to the security and wealth they can contrib- ute over a long period of time. Existing international unrest lends impetus to the immediate need for Alaska’s development because of its strategic location and vital importance to national security. Abundant and inex- pensive power must be available for this needed indus- trial development of Alaska. As shown in the fore- going report, Alaska has abundant potential hydro- electric power resources that only await development to be made available for industrial expansion. Consider- able other direct and indirect values will also be realized by such developments. Inexpensive electric power as well as irrigation water will aid in the development of agriculture and, likewise, food production and general security. One of the fundamental purposes for the existence of the Bureau of Land Management in Alaska is to facilitate the development of the Territory. In gen- eral, the Bureau is responsible for the administration and disposition of the public domain. It is the desire of the people, as expressed through Congress, to trans- fer the ownership of these lands to private individuals for development and productive use as rapidly as pos- sible. However, as a public resource, it is desired that the land be placed in its most productive use. Some types of land, therefore, should remain in public own- ership and be administered for certain public purposes. Other lands, suitable for agricultural, industrial, munic- ipal, and residential uses, are transferred to private ownership for their development and use. The con- struction of multiple-purpose dams and the provision of electric power and irrigation water will greatly aid the development and highest productive use of the land. ALASKA To promote the best possible use of the public domain and to insure its fair disposal, Congress has developed laws regulating the disposal of public lands. Home- stead laws have been enacted to encourage and regulate the transfer of unappropriated public domain to pri- vate ownership for agricultural development and use of the land. Other laws have been enacted to facilitate and regulate the transfer of land to private ownership for business, residential, recreational, and health uses. The Bureau has been designated to administer these regulations as well as to administer the use of the public domain remaining in public ownership. The various homestead laws permit male citizens of the United States who are 21 or more years old or who are heads of families, to select, develop for agricultural use, and acquire up to 160 acres each of unappropriated public domain. Good intention must be demonstrated by the construction of a habitable house on each entry, by 3 years of residence on the land, and by the cultiva- tion of at least one-eighth of the total area by the end of the third year. After these conditions have been met, an application for title to the land may be accepted. Some requirements are modified, particularly for the war veterans. Examination of the unappropriated public land by the Bureau of Land Management, study of its physical characteristics, and determination of its suitability for various uses is not required by law, but is highly de- sirable prior to settlement upon the land. Such re- search not only may save settlers costly mistakes, but provides needed guidance and a sound foundation for public land administration. As previously indicated, limitations of time and personnel have allowed such examinations to be made in only a few areas and repre- sent only a very small proportion of the area where settlement will probably occur in the immediate future. Such studies are also needed to assist in public land development programs such as the hydroelectric and irrigation development program as proposed by the Bureau of Reclamation. Likewise, these examinations are essential to foresee the future need for land to be reserved for public recreational and other purposes. In spite of its limited numbers of available trained personnel, a vigorous program of land classification has been proposed for the next several years. This pro- gram calls for the detailed classification of over 3,000,000 acres and reconnaissance studies on about 6,000,000 acres of land in the next 6 years. The study and classification of these lands will provide much needed guidance to prospective settlers as well as a better foundation for public land administration. Likewise, such information will be available for use of the Bureau of Reclamation in its planning for de- velopment of specific reclamation projects. a | PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS ALASKA’S LANDS Alaska’s primary resource—its land—is at the pres- ent time virtually an unknown, and nonmeasured asset. Specialists of the Alaska Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Office of the Commissioner of Agriculture, and others have made observations in various localities. The land in a few areas has been examined in detail by the Bureau of Land Management and the Soil Conser- vation Service, but these and the reconnaissance ob- servations represent a very small proportion of Alaska’s total land area. Land Ownership, Present Use, and Suitability for Agriculture The very large majority of the land of the Territory is in public ownership. Information is not available to show the exact amount of land in each type of owner- ship. Ilowever, of Alaska’s gross area of over 375,000,- 000 acres, about 365,000,000 acres were in Federal ownership as of June 30, 1947. Of this, about 265,000,- 000 acres were vacant, unappropriated, and unreserved. Detailed examinations of lands have been conducted in eight areas by the United States Bureau of Land Management and in two areas by the United States Soil Conservation Service. These examinations were conducted to evaluate the physical characteristics of the land in terms of their limitations upon potential use of the land, and, in so doing, to provide a guide for future land settlement and for public administration of the lands involved. Reports on some of these investiga- tions have been completed and have been published. Others, because of their recency, are not as yet in com- pleted form and. consequently, data obtained from them represent tentative estimates only. In an attempt to summarize the data, some regrouping of the land suit- ability classes was necessary. A total of 1,206,142 acres has been included in these land examinations. Of this, 327,822 acres or 27 percent were tentatively found to be suitable for Alaska general type of farming. This class of land is considered to be physically suitable for cultivation and the produc- tion of vegetables, grains, forage crops. Local areas will be subject to major or minor limitations. On 417,211 acres, or 35 percent of the area examined, the land is tentatively considered suitable principally for grazing; however, in some instances it may be adaptable for the limited production of forage crops. Land tentatively considered to be unsuitable for agri- cultural use included a total of 461,109 acres or 38 per- cent of the total area examined. Because of its physical characteristics, present inaccessibility, and relatively small economic demand, 247 most of Alaska’s land area is in its natural wild state and therefore directly contributes to the economy of the Territory only through its production of natural products. In 1939, only 623 farms embracing a total of 1,775,752 acres were enumerated by the Census of Agriculture. In the same year, the Census of Popu- lation listed only eight incorporated towns of 1,000 or more population. Numeroussmall villages exist as well as rural homesites, business sites and industrial sites. However, the actual total use of Alaska’s 365 million acres of land is very slight. The potential value of Alaska’s land resources is almost unlimited. These values will be realized as the population pressure and the demand for land is increased, inaccessibility is over- come by extension of transportation facilities, reclama- tion projects are built to provide electric power and irrigation water, and mechanical power is made avail- able for land clearing and drainage. Alaska awaits general development of its public facilities before its vast land resources can more materially contribute to its economy. SOUTH CENTRAL ALASKA REGION Anchorage-Cordova Division As mentioned, the Bureau of Land Management has conducted two detailed surveys of land within this geographic division. In addition, a survey of the Matanuska Area was made bv the Soil Conservation Service in 1946. Other than for the land included in these surveys, little information concerning land use or ownership is available. Anchorage Area A total of 60,800 acres was examined in this area to determine their physical suitability for settlement and to provide a guide to settlement and public land ad- ministration. Of the total area in 1947, about 41,200 acres were included in military reservations; 18,000 acres were in private ownership; and about 1,500 acres were vacant and unappropriated public domain. The privately owned land is primarily used for residential and commercial purposes. A small pro- portion of the land is used for farming. In 1939, the Census of Agriculture enumerated 23 farms with a total acreage of 2,120 acres. Of the 60,800 acres of land examined, 16,314 acres were tentatively considered to be suitable for Alaska general type of farming with local limitations; 19,630 acres suitable for grazing or limited crop production; 248 and 24,856 acres unsuitable for agricultural use at the present time. Undoubtedly, the highest use of any land in the vicinity of the city of Anchorage will be for the rural residential and business uses because of the rapid growth of the population of the city. Wasilla Area This area was examined in 1947 to determine the physical adaptability of the land for settlement use. A total of 121,089 acres was included in the survey. The present ownership of the land, estimated as of November, 1948, is as follows: Total Privately owned land: Acres acres Patented_ - 5,880 Tatent pendin, - 11,915 Total private land___--------_---------------- 17, 795 Federally owned land : Reserves_-_---—- 16, 661 Unappropriated — Total federal land 121, OSD The suitability of the land examined for agricultural uses was tentatively found to be as follows: Acres eres With local limitations suitable for Alaska gen- eral farming___--------.-----------_---_- 37, 920 Production limited for suitable for grazing__ 30, 85S Unsuitable for agricultural use_--~---------- 52,311 Total -- 2-2 oes 121, 0S9 Matanuska Valley The Matanuska Valley was examined in 1946 by the Soil Conservation Service to determine the physical characteristics and adaptability for agricultural use of some 317,510 acres of land. This survey indicates the use then being made of this land as follows: Total Acres acres Cleared for crop production_____-__----______ 4, 781 Seeded Pasture 6S Slashed for clearing. 733 Grazing or native clovers_. 6, 342 Urban uses. 279 Total land used___ 12, 203 Total land unused_ 305, 307 Total area examined___.--.--.--.----------- 317,510 ALASKA The suitability of this land for agricultural use was classified as follows: Total Acres acres Tillable. - 59, 435 Suitable for pasture or hay_ -- 156, 257 Unsuitable for agricultural use______--__-- 101, 818 Total area classified__ 317,510 Kenai Peninsula Division As discussed, the Bureau of Land Management has conducted two detailed surveys of land within this geographic division. Other than for the land included in these surveys, summarized information concerning land ownership and use is not readily available. Kenai Peninsula A gross area of 333,800 acres of Jand was examined to determine the physical characteristics of the land and its suitability for settlement, The ownership of these lands, as of February, 1946, Was estimated as follows: T Privately owned land: Acres aeres Patented 14, 750 Patent pending. ~~ ~~~ --___ -- 11.450 ‘Total, -privat@ ics eaas coos saesecescesessasece 26, 200 Federally owned land: Reserves____------------------------- 11, 200 Unappropriated___---_---------------- 296, 400 Total, Federal__--__------------------------ 307, 600 333, 800 Approximately 163.000 acres of the public domain have been withdrawn from entry pending enactment of regulations by Congress for planned group settlement. This reservation also includes a large proportion of the unappropriated public domain in the Kenai River Area. Similar to other areas, the large majority of the land is not being used at the present time. In 1945, some 41 operating farms were enumerated. These farms em- braced a total of 5,658 acres, of which 305 were under cultivation. At that time, little of the nonfarm land was grazed, the livestock population consisting of 54 dairy cows, 58 beef animals, 23 horses and colts, and 7 sheep. Numerous small tracts of land are used as rural residences and somewhat less than 500 acres are used for municipal purposes. The study of the physical characteristics of the land indicated its tentative suitability for agricultural use as follows: 6 eee Seb G4 PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS Total Acres acres Suitable for Alaska general farming_________ Limited crop and livestock production_ Limited crop and grazing_----_ Limited suitability for grazing__ Unsuitable for crop production or grazing____ 91,354 . Water area - 2,923 Kenai River Area An area of land through which the Kenai River drains was examined in 1947 to determine its physical suitability for settlement. A total of 79,388 acres, of which 2,968 acres were water surface and 76,420 acres of land area, were studied. The ownership of these lands, February, 1948, was as follows: Total Privately owned land: Acres aeret Patented Patent pending . Total, private _-_-----_--___--___----__---_-- 5, 697 Federally owned land: Reserves -_..--------------------------- 6, 443 Leased G70 Unappropriated —~___ Total, Federal ---__---_---------------------- 70, 725 Grand total — - 76,420 (A large proportion of this area has been withdrawn from entry pending enactment of regulations by Congress for planned group settlement.) At present, there is very little use being made of the land in this area; the principal present use is for a few scattered rural residences. Other than for home gardens, there is virtually no present agricultural use of the land. For potential use, the land was tentatively found to be as follows: Total Acres acres Suitable for Alaska general crop production____ 2, 048 Suitable for Alaska crop production with local limitations ___----------------------------- 23, 521 Suitable for grazing and limited forage crop production -__--_ 25, 415, 50, 984 Unsuitable for agricultural use___----___-____ 25, 436 Total___-_----------------------------------- 76, 420 Portions of the Kenai Peninsula and Kenai River area containing about 163,000 acres and known as the Kenai-Kasilof Withdrawal Area have been examined for their agricultural suitability by the Soil Conserva- tion Service. 249 YUKON-KUSKOKWIM REGION Tanana River Division Several detailed surveys have been made of areas within this geographic division, The Bureau of Land Management has studied the physical characteristics of land within four areas, and the Soil Conservation Serv- ice has examined one area. Other than the information available from the field notes and preliminary reports on these surveys, no summarized information is avail- able concerning present land use, ownership, or land suitability for the rest of the land in the Yukon- Kuskokwim Region. Big Delta—Goodpaster Area (Estimates) The physical characteristics of about 165,000 acres of land in the Big Delta-Goodpaster drainage basins were studied in 1948 to determine their suitability for settlement. The land in this area is owned at the present time almost entirely by the Federal Government. About 1,000 acres are in private ownership and the remainder, about 164,000 acres, are in various forms of public ownership. Less than 10 rural residences and homesteads are located in the area. Their use of the land is primarily for residential purposes with very little agricultural use being made of the land. As the livestock population is very limited, little or no grazing use is made of the land. The suitability of the land was tentatively found to be as follows: Total Acres acres Suitable for general Alaska crop production_ 25, 000 Suitable for grazing and limited crop produc- tion 25, 000 Unsuitable for agricultural use___~ Total, classified___-__..---------------------- 165, 000 Salcha River Area (Estimates) Approximately 65,000 acres of land in the lower Salcha River basin were studied to determine their physical suitability for settlement. The land included in the study is practically all in unappropriated public domain. This type of Federal ownership was estimated to include about 64,500 acres of the total area. The remainder, or 500 acres, were owned by five or six private land holders. Other than residential, no use is being made of the land. 250 The suitability of this land is very limited for inten- sive uses. It was tentatively estimated that about 500 acres are suitable for general crop production; 1,000 acres for grazing and limited forage crop production, and approximately 63,500 acres are unsuitable for agri- cultural use because of their physical characteristics. Chena-Fairbanks Area (Estimates) The lower drainage basin of the Chena River was studied and classified for its suitability for settlement. Potential agricultural use was tentatively found to be as follows: Total Acres acres Alaska general crop production__------________ 7, 450 General crop production with some limitations__ 20,550 Principally grazing and limited forage crop production -- 11,550 Limited grazing, woodland and other extensive estry ----------------- 19, 500 Nenana-Fairbanks Arca (Estimates) Approximately 80,150 acres of land surface and 2,950 acres of water surface, comprising the portion of the lower drainage basin of the Nenana River, were studied and conclusions reached as follows: Total Acrea acres Suitable for Alaska general crop production____ 3, 0SO Suitable for general crop production with some limitations________.-------_ eee 19, 070 Principally suitable for grazing and limited forage crop production___--________--_____ 23, 940 Suitable for limited grazing. woodland, and other extensive uses___.--___--_-_________ 30, 600 Unsuited for crop production, grazing. or forestry ~_--_------_---- 3, 460 Dunbar Area (From Tentative Soil Conservation Service Data) This area includes a total of 32,437 acres of land bordering the Alaska Railroad right-of-way in the vicinity of Dunbar. It was withdrawn from entry in June 1948 to allow study and classification for agricul- tural uses prior to settlement. Consequently, it is in reserved public ownership. There is no present agri- cultural use being made of the land. ALASKA The physical characteristics of the land for agricul- tural uses were classified as follows: Total Acres acres Suitable for cultivation with minor permanent limitations_____________-------_-_______ 17, 464 Suitable for cultivation with major perma- nent limitations________------____-________ 594 Suitable for occasional cultivation due to major permanent limitations___._--____--______-- 621 Suitable for grazing (including muskeg swamps) Unsuitable for agricultural use__ Total___-_-____---_---------------------_---- 32, 162 Forestry and Fire Control The Bureau of Land Management, through its Di- vision of Forestry, is responsible for the management of the forest and other natural resources of the public domain lands in Alaska. It is also responsible for the protection of the vegetative resources from forest fires. Although these responsibilities have been vested in the Bureau (formerly the General Land Office) for many years, it was not until 1940 that funds were pro- vided for the establishment of organized fire protec- tion, and until 1946 before forest management policies and practices were initiated. Funds provided to date have met only the bare operational requirements of fire presuppression and timber sale supervision. The funds have not been adequate to undertake forest surveys, fire damage appraisals, and all phases of forest. re- search. These studies, while essential to sound forest management, have never been initiated on any of Alaska’s public domain land. It is for this reason that any figures or data presented on behalf of Alaska’s interior forest lands must be based on invalid estimates. It is assumed that 225,000,000 acres of the public do- main bear some-form of vegetation. Of this, 125,000,000 acres are believed to bear forest growth of varying density and species, and the balance consists of exten- sive grasslands, brushlands, and tundra. Estimates of the gross timber volume vary from 70,000,000,000 board feet to 350,000,000,000 board feet. The latter estimate is based on 85,000,000 acres of sparse forest bearing four cords per acre (gross, 340,000,000 cords) and 40,- 000,000 acres of dense forest bearing 9 cords per acre (gross, 360,000,000 cords). The vast grass and tundra areas constitute poten- tially valuable grazing lands for domestic stock. Pioneer attempts have already been made, especially within the Aleutian Island and Matanuska Valley areas. Although only partially successful, these at- tempts have been indicative of what may be accom- PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS plished under more favorable economic factors (better intra-Territorial transportation routes. lower freight rates, increased Territorial demand for meat, hides, wool, et cetera) and with more extensive research into forage values of native vegetation, stock-carrying capacities of local ranges, and possible improvements to range conditions. Today, and in the future, the grass and tundra lands will support large populations of reindeer, caribou, bison, and other wildlife. There is a great need for intensive research in wildlife man- agement to the end that the game population can be increased to equal more nearly the carrying capacity of the range and thereby assure food to the natives and residents of Alaska as well as a continued income to the Territory as derived from big-game hunters and other sportsmen. The forests of Alaska are broadly separated into two types: the coastal forests, and the interior forests. The coastal forests are the extension and northern limit of the big timber found along the coast in the Pacific Northwest. Western hemlock comprises about 70 per- cent of the merchantable volume of the Alaskan coastal forest ; Sitka spruce, 24 percent; western red cedar and Alaska yellow cedar, the balance. The coastal forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the Coastal Range and are largely included within the two national for- ests, Tongass and Chugach, which are under the admin- istration of the United States Forest Service. The greatest potential use of these forests is now being real- ized with the recent award of a 50-year contract for 1,500,000,000 cubic feet of pulpwood, which will sup- port one pulp and paper mill of 550-ton capacity in perpetuity. There is suflicient timber in the Tongass National Forest to support five such mills. The interior forests primarily consist of white spruce and white birch, with smaller amounts of northern black cottonwood, tamarack, aspen, black spruce, balm- of-gilead, alder, and willow. The forests are typically found as narrow belts of timber along the major streams and their tributaries. Low-lying benchlands and pla- teaus between such streams are usually forested. Timberline varies throughout Alaska but is usually be- tween 1,500 and 2,500 feet. The forests do not ordi- narily occur in large unbroken stands; rather, they are broken by areas of swamp and muskeg, of greater or lesser extent, which make their utilization most costly and definitely seasonal in nature. The interior forests are primarily valued for con- sumption within Alaska, and not for export purposes. Except for white birch which has a definite export pos- sibility, the other species are of generally inferior value and could by no means compete with Pacific Coast tim- ber. White spruce, which is the only species utilized today, has inferior mechanical properties but is of major YSS410—52 Is 251 importance to Alaska. It supplies most of the fuel- wood, houselogs, and lumber used by Alaskans (not in- cluding residents of incorporated cities and Government projects). It is found throughout Alaska; it is the species found at the limits of tree growth in latitude, longitude, and altitude. Small though the trees may be, they make possible the development of Alaska because they are found where needed. Prospectors would be unable to live and work without spruce for fuel, cabins, and timbers. Trappers could not exist, nor could the wildlife and fur-bearers. Homesteaders are of vital im- portance to Alaska because they develop the basic need of agriculture. They are typically imbued with the necessary pioneer spirit but just as typically have a minimum of cash assets. Were it not for the white spruce, available under free use privilege, they would be unable to build their homes, barns, corrals, and obtain their fuelwood, because imported forest products would be too expensive for their limited means. White spruce is thus considered not only the major commercial species of interior Alaska but also the major factor which allows her other natural resources to be exploited and devel- oped in behalf of the United States. No technical data can be supplied regarding tree sizes, volumes per acre, et cetera. It is presumed that the white spruce will average 8 to 12 inches in diameter and 70 feet in height over much of Alaska. However, individual stands of spruce attain diameters of 36 to 54 inches and heights of 90 to 110 feet. Acreage vol- umes vary from 2,000 board feet per acre to 12,000 board feet. White birch, except for the Cook Inlet region, is usually small and may average 7 to 8 inches in diameter and 50 to 70 feet in height. In the better white birch stands found in the Cook Inlet region, the birch may attain diameters of 30 inches and 90 feet in height. These latter stands are now being considered for utilization and probable export to the Pacific Coast markets. In Alaska, residents may legally cut from the public domain up to 100,000 board feet of forest products each year for their own personal use in developing their land claims. The widely scattered population of Alaska, coupled with the small number of personnel in the Division of Forestry, make it impossible to know just how much free-use wood is actually cut each year. The reported annual cut has averaged about 11.000,000 board feet of all forest products—including lumber, houselogs, posts, poles, and cordwood. The 1947 re- ported cut by commercial operators was 28.9 million board feet of sawtimber and cordwood and 6,990,125 linear feet of houselogs and poles. Here, too, it is known that all of the commercially cut wood has not been covered under formal sale permit. Until forest surveys of at least reconnaissance ac- 252 curacy have been obtained, and other basic forest man- agement data compiled, it cannot be argued that the interior forest have any greater potential types and de- grees of utilization than those now enjoyed. It is be- lieved that the white birch can be successfully entered upon the export market. This will require the estab- lishment of sawmills, dry kilns, and remanufacturing plants. Woodworking plants and possibly a small veneer plant will undoubtedly follow. It is believed that Anchorage and vicinity will become the hardwood center of Alaska. Local observation indicates that the interior forests are capable of rather large annual in- crement, as a result of the long summer daylight period. It may therefore be shown that certain areas could well be used in perpetuity by small chemical plants and pos- sibly pulp plants. The greatest destructive force suffered by the interior forests is that of uncontrolled forest fires. The long daylight hours, the semi-arid climate (typified by low precipitation and low relative humidity), and the shal- low-rooted trees cause a long fire season of medium to high fire danger and extraordinarily heavy losses to trees within burned areas. Although lightning is a considerable causative agency in certain areas of Alaska, most fires are man-caused. Since most of Alaska’s residents and travelers are found along the river valleys and lower benchlands, it is obvious that most fires occur within the rather restricted zone of tree occurrence previously mentioned. Forest fires have been a major destructive factor since the days of the early gold rushes. Subsequent stampedes to other portions of the Territory are clearly marked by the more recent burns. It is not known what annual losses may have been suffered, but it is estimated at 3 to § million acres. In 1940, when the Alaskan Fire Control Service (now the Division of Forestry of the Bureau of Land Management) was organized, the fire loss was 4,500,000 acres. Active fire suppression, public education, and the war-year re- strictions brought a marked decrease within the next few years—losses of 110,000 to 117,000 acres per year. The 1946 and 1947 fire seasons reflected the lapse of military restrictions on travel and civilian activities in Alaska, as well as the postwar interest in Alaska’s development potentialities, by increasing the annual losses to about 1,500,000 acres. Such vast and repeated burns over the estimated 125,000,000 acres of vegetated public domain, have in many areas completely destroyed all vegetation; in others, have changed cover composition; and in all, have caused vast losses of public resources which are now so urgently needed in developing this last frontier and northern outpost of the United States. ALASKA BUREAU OF MINES That the mineral resources of Alaska have added considerably to the national wealth, being exceeded only by the value of fishing products, is demonstrated by the following table: Tanre 62.—Alaska’s mineral production for years 1880-1947 $636, 516, 000 226, 569, 000 25, 252, 000 14, 144, 000 36, $92, 000 Total__--__----------------------------- 939, 373, 000 Alaska with a land area roughly one-fifth that of continental United States is as yet largely unexplored. The Geological Survey has been engaged for nearly half a century on studies in Alaska, but most of these studies were of a general nature and only an exceed- ingly small proportion of the total land area has been geologically mapped. At the present rate of progress it will be scores of years before even preliminary work will be accomplished. Due to a lack of transportation, labor, power and other factors entering into a remote mining operation, special emphasis was placed in the past on gold produc- tion. The facts in hand are still too meager to justify even wild guesses as to the value of other mineral re- sources. However, it has been amply demonstrated that many of these other mineral products have already been found in commercial quantities at widely separated points and have contributed notable amounts to Alaska’s output of minerals. During the recent World War, the United States was hard pressed to obtain minerals to meet the high de- mands of military and civilian requirements. The post~ war period has not lessened these demands. Recent appraisals by the Bureau of Mines and the Geological Survey have indicated the deficiency of a number of important industrial minerals essential to our national security and economy. Space does not permit discussion in detail of each of the various minerals of which the distribution of some of the better known deposits are indicated. Among the critical and strategic minerals found in Alaska are: 1. Chromite. The United States is almost wholly dependent on imports for its supply of chromite. Among known domestic deposits some of the best qual- ity, though not the largest, are those of the Kenai Penin- sula, Alaska. Chromite likewise is known on Knik River, Baranof Island and Cleveland Peninsula. 2. Tin. Tin occurs in the York district on the Se- ward Peninsula and in the central Yukon Valley. Some PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS of the deposits in the York district, as yet not fully explored, contain also tungsten and fluorspar. 3. Nickel. Nickel-copper deposits on Yakobi, Ad- miralty, Chichagof, and Baranof Islands, and in the Copper River region, have been investigated by private and government agencies. 4. Platinum. The Goodnews Bay platinum deposit is the most important source of this metal in United States and possessions. The metal is also found in gold placers in the Circle and Eagle districts in East-Central Alaska. Palladium has been produced on the Kasaan Peninsula. 5. «Antimony. Deposits of antimony, most of which are small, and widely distributed in Alaska in the Georgetown, Kantishna and other lacalities. 6. Tungsten. Known occurrences are fairly wide- spread in the Fairbanks, Seward Peninsula, and Hyder areas. 7. Asbestos is found at Dahl Creek, Kobuk district; Admiralty Island, Goodpaster, and Chulitna district. 8. Lead and zine deposits are reported from widely seattered localities throughout Ala as Sedanka Island, Kantishna, and Ground Hog 9. Mercury. Deposits of mercury. in some cases xtricts. containing recoverable antimony. are found at Sleitmut near the Kuskokwim River, Marsh Mountain, De- couscy Mountain, and have been noted at a number of gold placers. 10. Copper has been found at several localities in Southeastern Alaska, Prince William Sound, Tiamna, Orange Hill, Kobuk-Nootak, White River, and the Yukon. 11. Fluorspar. Considerable quantities of fluorspar may be found in the Seward Peninsula associated with tin and tungsten. It has also been noted on Zaremho Island and Ground Hog and Glacier basins. 12. Arsenic is an abundant constituent of various gold-quartz mines and could be recovered as a by- product. 13. Bismuth has been noted at Nome, Eva Creek, and Moose Creek on the Nenana River. In addition to the above occurrences of critical and strategic minerals. the Territory of Alaska includes a wide variety of types and kinds of mineral deposits in- cluding gypsum, andalusite, limestone, _beidellite, marble, barite, witherite, iron, titanium, graphite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, sulphur, gold, coal, petroleum, and gravel. Were it not for the cost of production and marketing, these and many of the new known but undeveloped de- posits might supply almost limitless quantities. In their present situation few of them offer any attraction 253 for development except to supply local needs, which are for practically a negligible amount of raw material. This present condition necessarily will change as de- velopment of the whole Territory progresses, so that many of the deposits having low unit value in propor- tion to their weight may become even more valuable than all the other mineral deposits. From the foregoing brief summary, it is readily apparent that Alaska holds potential reserves of min- erals, as yet undeveloped, that will contribute to the national security and economy. Determination of what amounts can ultimately be supplied, is still highly prob- lematical as quantitative data are still too inadequate to form the basis of accurate estimates. As transportation facilities expand, new industries develop and low-cost power is provided, greater em- phasis will be placed on Alaska’s potential mineral resources to supply local and United States needs. ALASKA ROAD COMMISSION The Alaska Road Commission is responsible for road construction and maintenance in all of Alaska except those areas included in National Forests. Road work in National Parks is performed with National Park Service funds. evelopment of the road system has been largely in- fluenced by past economic development in the Territory and by other existing transportation routes by rail and water. In the post war period. funds have been avail- able to expand the basic interior road system to reach previously inaccessible areas with potential for further development. At present there are 2,871 miles of road of various classes maintained by the Alaska Road Commission. The main road system includes the principal reads of interior Alaska. These include the Richardson, Glenn, Steese, Alaska and Gulkana-Tok Highways. These roads, excepting the Steese Highway, are designed for 24-foot top width with a selected gravel surface. A program to provide an asphalt surface on all the above named roads, except the Steese Highway, has been ap- proved and the first stage of this work is now under way. These roads are connected with the United States by means of the Northwest Highway System of Canada. Other roads serve as branch or feeder roads to the main net or serve to connect settlements with rail or water transportation. These roads are generally of lower standards than the main road system. Widths are from 16 to 20 feet. Some type of surfacing is pro- vided from local materials, usually gravel. 254 There are 1,740 miles of connected roads in interior Alaska including the main system. The remaining mileage includes local road systems in isolated sections not connected with the main system. Excepting for a part of the Richardson Highway and the Steese Highway, the main roads and certain of the feeder roads are maintained open year around. The remainder are maintained open in summer only, being closed by snow in the winter. Plans are being made to maintain the remainder of the Richardson Highway on a year-round basis as soon as funds are made available. The table following indicates the distribution of the road mileage: Taste 63.—Distribution of road mileage Summer . ee \ ng loa round | mainte- Taterior Alaska principal connected road systems | Miles | found | mainte j nance only Year | Richardson Highway ____- - -. 365 155 210 Glenn Highway ___~ = - 189 | 189 |... -.- Steese Highwa. -- 7 162 28) «134 Tok Cut-Off... __ 2 : Alaska Highway and branches. _. LOCAL SYSTEMS Nabesna Branch____.__._._._________- Feeder Roads, Richardson Highw McCarthy Road System_____ Feeder Roads to Steese Highw Livengood Road and branch Anchorage local roads. Fairbanks local roads_ Palmer system __ Nome system ___ === Seward Peninsula mine roads - Seward Peninsula tram road Takotna system. Flat system_____ Manley Hot Springs system ___ Ruby system ______ = Haines system __ Kenai Peninsula system. ___ Feeders to the Alaska Railroad. Eagle svstem____________-_ Tliamna svstem______________ Forty Mile Mining District Ro - Mount McKinley Park roads___.-______- | Isolated roads connecting with river or | ocean transportation.________________ | 106 17 89 Future Development Future development of roads in Alaska is planned to extend the main road system and to link isolated localities with it. Subject to provision of funds, planned extensions over a 10-year period include the following: 1. Connection of the road system of Kenai Peninsula ALASKA with the main road system of Alaska by construction of a road along Turnagain Arm to Anchorage. 2. Construction of a new road down the west side of Kenai Peninsula from the end of the present road system near Kenai to Homer. 3. Connection of the Eagle-Forty Mile District with the main road system near Tok and a branch to the Canadian border to connect with Dawson, Y. T, (Canada). 4. Connection of the Mount McKinley Park road system with the main road system near Paxson’s on the Richardson Highway. - 5. Construction of a road from Fairbanks up the Chena River to Chena Hot Springs and agricultural and mining areas in the vicinity thereof. 6. Construction of a road from Fairbanks via Dun- bar and Nenana to Healy and McKinley Park. 7. Connection of Cordova with the main road system at Chitina by way of a road up the Copper River Canyon. 8. Connection of the Manley Hot Springs area on the lower Tanana River with the main road system at Livengood. 9. Extension of the Fairbanks-Livengood road to the Yukon River and beyond to Wiseman, 10. Construction of a road from Nome to Teller, Alaska. 11. Improvement of the road from Nome to Solo- mon, and thence a new road to White Mountain and Golovin, Alaska. 12. Connection of the Ruby Long-Poorman Road and the McGrath Takotna-Ophir Road with each other and with the main road system. 13. Establishment of a system of car ferries in Southeastern Alaska linking the principal ports with the main road system of Alaska at Ifaines and with the main road system of Canada at Prince Rupert, B. C. PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION Beginning in 1917, funds expendable by the Bureau of Public Roads, now the Public Roads Administra- tion, in national forests were made available for use in the Territory of Alaska, both construction and mainte- nance being handled by the joint representatives of the Public Roads and the Alaska Road Commission. Since July 1, 1920, all roads within the Tongass and Chugach National Forests have been constructed and main- tained by the Public Roads Administration. Federal funds expended for roads in and adjacent to the na- tional forests of Alaska amounted to $13.231,821.08. In addition, $370,438.12 have been made available by PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS the Territory, making a total to June 30, 1948, of $13,602.259.20. Funds expendable on forest highways in Alaska are secured under the authority of the Federal Highway Act and amendments thereto. The following tabula- tion shows the amount expended for the fiscal years 1928 to 1948, inclusive, regular and emergency funds: Taste 64.—Funds expendable on forest highways in Alaska Fiscal y Regular Emergency year funds funds Other funds Total | | $510, 248. 43 |. ~ | $40,832.63 | $551,081.07 542, 191.99 7 39, 764. 27 (581, 956, 26, 434, 000. 54 | = 3, 388.70 437,389. 24 672, 407.25 432,311.41 704, TIS. 66 789, 701.71 25, 000. 00 814,701.71 304,014.00 238, 447.05 210, 552. 29 364, 360. 7: 168, 612. 25 39, OH. 69 43, 444. 40 19, 658. 98 377, 582. 38 2 131, 286.17 167.89 30. 90 36, 551.00 42, 568. 34 303, 2 474, 348, 26 553, 269. 57 1,021, 067.00 799, 142.68 | 10,656, 831.90 ' Includes $4,670.00 refund to cooperator. 2 Includes $1,500.00 refund to cooperator. During World War II funds were made available from defense access funds for the improvement of some sections of the forest highways upon certification from the Army or Navy as to their importance in the war effort. A total amount of $585,160.51 of access funds were expended on forest highways in Alaska. Forest highway funds are expended exclusively on the forest highway system which was selected in the early 1920’s and originally consisted of 21 routes and a total mileage of approximately 384 miles. Subse- quent revisions approved by the Secretary of Agricul- ture, on the joint recommendation of the Territorial Road Commission, Forest Service, and Public Roads Administration, have from time to time changed the system as originally selected and the Alaskan forest highway system now consists of 18 routes, with a total mileage of 356.3, of which 274.3 have been improved to date. Forest highway construction projects are programmed annually by the Secretary of Agriculture after joint recommendation of the Territorial Road Commission, Forest Service, and Public Roads Admin- istration. The following tabulation shows mileage ap- 255 proved, improved and remaining to be improved, by routes, as of June 30, 1948: Taner 65.—JMileage approved and improved by routes 3 mproved|, 70 35 Route name Approved rt Giles) improved — —-—}- |. — 1 | Tongass Highway 49.8 22.1 2 | Glacier Highway 57.9 43.3 3 | Seward Highw: ---| 33.5 33.5 4 | Cordova Highw: -| 20 10.4 5 | Kenai River Highway -| 19.7 19.7 7 | Mitkof Highway----- 17 10.5 9 | Salmon River Highwa: -| 121 12.1 11 | Sitka Highway --_- -| 12.9 8.7 12 | Crow Creek Highway : 7.8 7.8 13 | Palmer Creek Highway 11.9 11.9 14 | Moose Pass Highwa: -| 45.5 45.5 |.--- -- 16 | Wrangell Highwa -| 13.6 9.6 4 17 | Skagway Highway 7 7 2.3 4.7 18 | Texas Creek Highway - -| 17 11.7 26 | Point Agassiz Highway 8 4.6 3.4 30 | Afognak Lake Highway . 4.5 4.5 |..-222- 31 | Douglas Highway __- -| 11.6 4.3 7.3 32 | Copper River Highway -------- 11.8 11.8 = - Total__._.------------- 356. 3 | 274.3 82 The principal value of the forest highway up to the present day has been in the opportunities they have afforded the public to settle and make use of the adja- cent land. The rough terrain and dense forest cover, particularly in Southeast Alaska, preclude any settle- ment without roads. Before the forest highways were constructed there were no settlements outside of the incorporated towns and villages. As roads were con- structed, the settlers followed and in the 10-year period immediately before the war a considerable settlement was in progress, particularly adjacent to the larger towns. The settlement came to a standstill during the war because of restrictions on materials and manpower. After the war the construction of permanent homes, summer homes, small businesses, etc., is again pro- gressing at a rapid rate. In addition to the resumption of the normal develop- ment, interrupted by the war, a wood pulp production development program is beginning in Southeastern Alaska which will materially affect road construction within Tongass National Forest. This forest covers practically the entire Southeastern Alaska which con- sists of the islands and a comparatively narrow strip of mainland adjacent to the sea coast. Most of the tim- ber is therefore accessible by water and the trans- portation of the timber to the mills will therefore probably always be done by the comparatively cheap water route and forest highways will not be required for timber haul, but rather for access to mill sites, ship- ping routes, power sites, and sites for new communities that will be created. 256 The forest highways within the Chugach National Forest are located on the Kenai Peninsula; where there is a connected road system of approximately 110.6 miles. This system has heretofore been isolated and has served local traffic only. The Alaska Road Com- mission is at the present time constructing a road con- necting the forest highway system with the Kenai Village-Homer Area. This project, together with the Turnagain Arm project which also is under construc- tion at the present time, will give the forest highway system on Kenai Peninsula added importance, par- ticularly if the Alaska Railroad abandons the section between Portage and Seward. The Turnagain Arm project when completed will connect the road system on Kenai Peninsula with the road system in interior Alaska and through the Alaska Highway with the road systems in Canada and the United States. The Turnagain Arm project mentioned above is being constructed from funds made available through the Department of the Interior through an interdepartment cooperative agreement. Public Roads is responsible for the location, design, type and supervision of con- struction of the portion of the project extending be- tween the southern terminus to Indian on the north side of Turnagain Arm. Construction of the section between Indian and Potter, the northern terminus of the project, has been assigned to the Alaska Railroad, subject to review by the Public Roads Administration. The Alaska Road Commission of the Department of the Interior has the over-all control of funds. The Public Roads Administration became active in the interior of Alaska for the first time during the war when the Alaska Highway was constructed jointly by the United States Army and Public Roads. After the completion of this project, in 1943, the Public Roads was not active in interior Alaska until this year. Through a cooperative agreement with the Department of the Interior, the Public Roads Administration is re- sponsible for the preliminary engineering, preparation of plans and specifications, bids and contracts, and the supervision of construction of a large improvement program involving the hard surfacing of portions of the major interior routes; namely, Glenn Highway, Richardson Highway and the Alaska portion of the Alaska Highway. Funds for this program have been made available to the Alaska Road Commission of the Department of the Interior which under the agreement exercises general supervision of programing, design and construction. It appears that the road construction program in Alaska which heretofore has lagged because of insuf- ficient funds, will proceed at an accelerated pace in the next few years. ALASKA ALASKA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 1. Mission The Alaska Communication System, operated by the Signal Corps, United States Army, provides the long lines telephone and telegraph service from Alaska to the States and between key towns in Alaska. It serves (a) the military, (b) all Federal agencies, (c) all Ter- ritorial and other Government agencies, and (d) the general public. This latter includes coastal service to and from ships at sea, press service to newspapers and radio broadcast stations. ACS has provided the ar- terial communication services for Alaska since 1901. 2. Organization and Opcration (2) The headquarters of the Alaska Communication System is in the Federal Oflice Building, Seattle, Wash. The majority of communication to and from the States and Canada is routed through ACS Seattle Communi- cations Center. Operating directly under the Com- manding Officer are 32 different ACS stations and eight branch offices in Alaska to serve the military and civil customers. ACS offices are located at the follow- ing points: Adak, Anchorage. Barrow, Bethel, Big Delta, Cathedral Bluffs, Cold Bay. Cordova, Craig, Curry, Fairbanks, Flat, Unalaska, Haines, Healy, Ju- neau, Ketchikan, Kodiak, Kotzebue, Naknek Airbase, Nome, Northway, Petersburg, Seward, Shemya, Sitka, Skagway, Umnak, Valdez, Whittier, Wrangell, and Yakutat. Branch offices are located at Fort Richard- son, Ladd Field, Eielson Field. Annette Tsland, Naval Base Kodiak, Naknek Village, Nome Airbase and Yak- utat Village. (4) Col. Fred P. Andrews, Signal Corps, USA, is the Commanding Officer of ACS. The Deputy Com- mander for ACS, with headquarters in the Anchorage area, is Lt. Col. M. R. Kunitz, Signal Corps, USA. The Sector Commanders in charge of various opera- tional areas in Alaska are Maj. Robert R. Wingfield, Anchorage; Maj. Robert D. Terry, F airbanks; Capt. Charles M. Macali, Adak; and C apt. Svend C. Hansen, Juneau. 3. Facilities of ACS (a) Alaska Communication System provides ar- terial communications over long lines telephone, over- seas radiotelephone, radiotelety pe, and submarine cable telegraph. It interconnects at Seattle with the facili- ties of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. and the Western Union for communication to all points PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS in the United States, and at Edmonton, Canada, with the Canadian telephone and telegraph companies for communications throughout Canada. (b) Services include long distance telephone, tele- graph, telegraph money orders, press service, and radio broadcasts. (c) Means available include radio, landline, sub- marine cable, VHF'—these over a gradually expanding network offering several routings. (d) ACS collects and distributes government and commercial traffic to and from approximately 150 small outlying connecting stations in various parts of the territory. 4. Improvement to ACS Services During the Period July 1947 to July 1948 by New Installations (a) Installation of a new broadcast transmitter in Seattle for the relay of live broadcast programs from the States to key towns in Alaska. (b) Initial establishment. of limited intra-Alaska broadcast service. (ce) Established rates for broadcast program service from United States and intra-Alaska broadcast service. (d) Reduced rates on money transfer service by mak- ing provision whereby supplementary messages may be filed with transfer messages and including provision whereby money transfers may be forwarded beyond original station of destination where necessary. (e) Radiotelephone facilities were established be- tween Sitka and Seattle on September 2, 1947. (f) Rural landline telephone service for subscribers along ACS circuits on the Alcan Highway between Fairbanks and the Canadian Border (opened September 1, 1947). (g) Additional carrier equipment was installed on the lines between Anchorage and Fairbanks, providing additional voice channels for use of the military and civilian populace stationed at Fort Richardson and Ladd Field. (h) Provided positive telephone service between Petersburg and Wrangell by installing voice carrier equipment on the cable. (i) Atthe request of the Weather Bureau, a telephone circuit through ACS and the Ketchikan Public Utilities switchboards connecting the Weather Bureau on An- nette Island, was completed February 10, 1948. This circuit is used on a call basis and provides a ready means of communications for the public in Ketchikan to receive the latest weather reports upon request. (j) On June 3 the ACS completed installation and final tests of an 11-pair submarine cable between Ketch- 257 ikan and Pennock Island. This cable connects with the single channel submarine cable extending to Gravina Island, thus providing telephone service for the Forest. Service between Gravina Island and Ketchikan. The laying of the multichannel cable between Ketchikan and Pennock Island makes available circuits for use by the Ketchikan Public Utilities in providing telephone service to the residents of Pennock Island. 5. Improvement of Existing Services (a) Obsolete and nonstandard transmitting equip- ment was replaced at Ketchikan, Anchorage, Nome, Kodiak, Sitka, Wrangell, Kotzebue, and Flat. (b) New radiotelephone transmitter was installed at Adak, improving Adak-Seattle telephone service. (c) Installed remote receiving facilities at Wrangell and Petersburg to improve radiophone between these points and Juneau and Ketchikan. (d) Installed a new transmitter at Juneau to im- prove the Seattle-Juneau radiophone circuit. (e) Improved Juneau and Ketchikan ship-shore radiophone facilities by installation of new transmitters and terminal equipment. (f) On the current trip of the cable barge Lenoir, which started on May 28, work is being performed by the barge crew and other specialized technicians to gen- erally improve and extend cable, telephone and radio facilities in Southeastern Alaska. This will result in generally improved communications in the area. One of the primary accomplishments will be the extension of telephone facilities via cable and radio, permitting increased intra-Alaskan and Alaska-to-the-States service. The Alaska Communication System is capable of handling a considerable increase in traffic with its pres- ent equipment. Any sudden increase in communica- tions, such as expected from the pulp mills or new developments, can easily be absorbed. The system is continually being face lifted. Obso- lete equipment is replaced with new as fast as it becomes available, thus providing the best service possible. ALASKA RAILROAD During the summer of 1948, the Alaska Railroad explored the possibilities of creating additional rail traffic near or within its operating area. The study was directed toward establishment of new ventures or an expansion of those already in existence, but of such modest scope that their rail tonnage was insignificant. From over 100'suggested enterprises 38 were selected 258 for investigation. A few of these, such as coal and cement are primary sources possessing characteristics which commit them economically to rail traffic. Of course, all possibilities enumerated, plus many other types of activities must be present to ultimately attain a balanced economy. Still it is not beyond the realm of possibility to create and develop all these various types of establishments simultaneously. It is equally difficult to select those which should be given precedence over the balance. For instance, if reasonably priced cement were available it would make possible lower- cost housing. This in turn would produce a tendency to stabilize employment, attracting a more permanent class of labor. Thus the chain continues, each link enhancing the value of the other types as they them- selves become realities. To most observers, the futility of effectuating a pro- gram establishing commercial services, industrial fab- rication, or extractive production is obvious since communication, transportation, and power are either missing or inadequate even in the most advanced portions of the Territory. Therefore, it is necessary to begin with these funda- mentals and only when they are assured can it be said that the first step toward a stabilized economy has been taken. As such evidences of permanence appear, ven- ture capital will lose its reluctance to enter Alaska in direct ratio. However, these basic elements are more or less predicated upon the availability of another essential—low-cost power. Power is a vital character- istic of all progressive economic systems throughout the world. It is particularly critical in the Alaskan economy as labor and skilled craftsmen are at a pre- mium and the distances to markets are vast. The woe- fully inadequate makeshift attempts to overcome this lack of power is one unavoidable observation to be made throughout Alaska. It is the outstanding deter- rent blocking reasonable exploitation of Alaska’s resources from Seward to Fairbanks. For example, the proposed cement plant at Windy must, before it can get into operation, create a 2,500-kilowatt power plant for its own use in manufacturing processes and the townsite for its employees. This represents a capital investment (if written off at the same rate of amor- tization as the balance of the plant) of approximately 20 cents per barrel over power charges which accrue to the same product in the continental United States. Moreover, this power capacity would have to be geared to the maximum peak load of this industrial instal- lation and must, therefore, represent considerable over- capacity during slack periods. Multiplying this situ- ation by all enterprises—mines, manufacturing plants, and commercial institutions—which are or should be part of this economy would, at even a conservative estimate, require twice the capital investment and oper- ALASKA ating expenses a single integrated system would have to assume. Of course, the enormous spread between the local cost of manufacturing cement and its Alaskan sales price is largely accounted for by costs which accrued through handling, water and land-borne freight, et cetera. A differential which will enable this industry to privately generate such power as necessary and still show a distinct price advantage is necessary to accele- rate the building of Alaska. However, much of the benefit of this production will be lost as the products fan out into the present and new areas for an uneco- nomic application will be inherent due to lack of power and power equipment at the point of use. Another great resource which is retarded in reaching its proper stature is Alaska’s coal industry. Beginning with excavation of coal at the mine, the absence of low-cost. power has permitted certain inefficiencies to become a part of the system—all the way from digging to washing, grading, and loading. Moreover, absence of low-cost electricity has precluded the next logical step in utilization of Alaska coal; namely, that of proc- essing coal to extract and refine its volatile oils. This process would presumably offset, in part, transporta- tion costs on various petroleum products—from as- phalts to aviation fuels—now imported. Digressing from the strict realm of commerce and industry, attention should be called to the major prob- lem of the Alaska Railroad. This is the difficulty in obtaining (and retaining) suitable personnel, owing mainly to inadequate housing, previously mentioned and related again to the matter of high building cost. particularly of cement. If building costs were revised downward and adequate housing provided, it would solve one problem, but create another. More dwellings would impose an impossible burden upon municipal functions in all towns along the railroad, particularly Anchorage and Fairbanks. In these latter cities a well- known overload now strains electrical generators, the school system, the water supply, et cetera. Another digression having an important bearing on commerce and industry is the matter of agricultural produce. This vital need necessitates imports which in many instances are too expensive, long delayed, and lacking in freshness. However, local supply is ac- corded little favor because of the high moisture con- tent, particularly in root and tuber crops. Both quan- tity and quality could be increased and the shortage of locally produced beef, lamb, and pork nullified if these products were processed and the poor storage qualities for winter forage was banished through arti- ficial curing. Standby electrical produce driers would rectify many of the troubles inherent in the present agricultural development program. Hence, low-cost power would mean greenhouses, curing establishments: COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS OPCRATED BY Of6 = ALASKA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 16 le 000-00 0 2 0200 ood }+_-_-—- = — = = ae od ——— eed — —— ———— tt es | 7 Q ~, x I | | ny Font Ricnanoeow Wauiretorse eels LEGEND Lanouine Painter Lanouine Prone ALAGna Goneen Camaod Bondar mn denen Annem Aen = Pameanne 1 | ! ' I ' t ! | i 4": : 1 ——-— Caece Painter LFr Geen —-+—-— Caece Painter € Voice ~——— Manuat Raoio -~— +—- Raocio Paintrcea Raoro Prone oe Secciac Cincurts ws ----- Coastat Harsor Raoio Tor Oe x x x x x Snie Sroamc Raoto Prone ale —x —x— Coastac Hanson Raoio Tor € | Snie Srone Raoio Prone === Man. Racio OTner Acencics Raoioerone OTHER Acencits: e Loca Painter Circuits @> se PRESS BRoAccasT ee ee eee ee ene ee eee ee ee ee ee Kevemnn SweerGrass Montana Diaect Race Circuir To Wasrinaron OC | T Commenciac Tevecaaon Ouner Via Westean Union To Au Pants Or Tre Wonto, | ACAN Ner | aDiscer Lanoune To Sanfrancisco Caur, Commenciar Lowa Distance Teceenone Via American Tecemnone_€ Teresa arn Co. To Av Paars Or Tre Woa.o 988410 O—52 PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS the result being an over-all reduction in costs of food- stuffs. In this category there are three additional types of activities capable of exerting a beneficial influence on the distribution system. These are “feeder-transporta- tion” lines to facilitate movements of people and goods to and from certain areas such as the Southwest Kenai area. This would encourage development of that area as well as create a source of rail revenue, not now exist- ent. Such a feeder-transportation system would em- brace trucks and buses designed to transport people, freight, cargo, express, mail, et cetera, on a regular schedule geared to anticipated growth rather than the existing need. Such a function would permit opera- tion of both mines and farms in areas now lying idle. Presumably this would result in increased payrolls as well as produce a supply of certain vegetables more nearly in line with local demand. Warehousing is another needed facility. Creation of suitable merchandise warehousing where trade goods and other expendable items could be imported under the more favorable rate structures would, to a large extent, remove the plague of maritime strikes, or at least their disastrous consequences. The third element regarding a portion of the gen- eral subject “community planning” is shopping centers. Here again, planned facilities offering a well-rounded variety of supplies and services in new areas would encourage more logical development of residential sites and would, in a measure, assist in establishing the residential character of a community as well as maintaining it. These activities exhibit a sufficiently attractive financial return to justify private capital- ization. Benefits of these activities would permeate into virtually every phase of social and economic life. The latter projects are only indirectly dependent upon the thread of low-cost power, which is both the foun- dation and keystone of this entire program, yet their value pales into insignificance without it. The third set of enterprises which must enter the Alaskan picture eventually are of necessity all small, at least at their inception. All are predicated upon the majority of the forementioned factors and facilities being present in a substantial degree. Of course, the desiny of such establishment, besides dependence upon proper capitalization, management, et cetera, must rest with conditions and circumstances beyond the control of the individual enterprises. These minor industries, like the more important ones previously mentioned, have been covered in greater detail by individual reports available through the general manager’s office (A. R. R.) in Alaska. However, the following summaries will suggest the complete de- pendence all such establishments must have upon the fundamental facilities enumerated, particularly power. 259 Acetylene Because of operating conditions, the vast quantity of heavy-duty machinery and equipment in Alaska are subjected to an extremely high incident of breakage. This and the remoteness of most scenes of operation suggest a high ratio of welding equipment with acety- lene and oxygen and it is necessary that the cylinders be imported from the States and the empties returned— both operations being conducted at considerable expense and loss of time. The Alaska Railroad has an acetylene generating plant, but the exclusive requirements of the railroad have never quite justified operating this unit. How- ever, other demands for acetylene (plus that of the railroad) would make this a profitable enterprise when combined with certain other related types of activity. In subsequent chapters of this report other activities may occur to the reader which might be combined with this, for instance, oxygen, ice-making, welding, et cetera. Such a consolidated headquarters for these “service industries” should be located on the railroad just north or south of Anchorage, as this is the center of the mar- ket as well as the most likely source of steady labor. Alabaster In the search for low-cost building material, ala- baster should not be overlooked since gypsum is avail- able in several localities and the process necessary to achieve a building material of many favorable charac- teristics is relatively simple. Alabaster provides a strong, light, self-insulating structural surface capable of supporting tremendous weights and impervious to chemical reaction and moisture. Antimony Antimony has been prospected in numerous areas, particularly in central Alaska where a large deposit was located just north of McKinley Park at Stampede. Lesser quantities have been found just eastward of the Big Delta area. Antimony’s broadening applica- tion to the munitions field, matches, linotype metal, bearings, battery plates, et cetera, calls attention to the desirability of developing these deposits further, (1) by increasing their accessibility through passable roads (concentrates are now being brought out by air); (2) that a sample custom mill be established for further refining of this concentrate, thus avoiding the tremen- dous expense of transmitting so much bulk ore to refineries in the States. 260 Beidellite This particular clay is found in enormous quantities on the north side of Richardson Highway, south and east of Fairbanks. The quantity in the almost pure state may be of commercial significance since the two principal deposits in the United States—one at Beidell, Colo., and the other in Central Louisiana—both re- quire some refinement and both are limited in quan- tity. Samples of this material should be submitted to oil companies, the largest potential users. Exploration of the cosmetic field would also be in order as beidellite makes an excellent “mud pack.” It also makes an ex- ceptionally fine soap for mechanics and others whose vocations bring their hands in contact with oils and greases as it is a most effective solvent for petroleum and petroleum products. Beef The lower southwest portion of the Kenai Peninsula is literally covered with a natural forage—“‘redtop” and clover. This luxuriant growth is—according to the Department of Agriculture and the natives of this area—an excellent fattening food for cattle. Its prin- cipal drawback is that it does not store well and cannot be cured, largely due to the excessive rainfall in the area during the ripening period. To some extent, “redtop” is stored in underground silos for a wet winter silage. Heat generated by the moisture, prevents it from freezing except in the area which is exposed directly to the weather. Production of beef, however. is not wholly contingent upon this storage. In addition to Peninsula-bred cattle, young animals might be shipped into the region early in the spring for summer feeding and would, in all proba- bility, be ready for market before the winter freeze-up. The present Alaska market, for this beef will be inac- cessible to the area until the Kenai road, now under con- struction, is completed into Anchorage. Predatory animals—now common in the vicinity—might make some inroads on this type of livestock if permitted to graze without protection. Berries The unusual quality and profusion of various berries in the Tanana, Dunbar, Kanai, Matanuska, and other areas, suggests that a de-luxe market for these unique products could be developed through clubs, hotels and delicatessen stores in the United States. The types of berries which would be particularly adaptable for this market are blueberries, strawberries, ALASKA cranberries—both high and low bush—and to some extent the sauces made from rose hips and other vari- ations peculiar to Alaskan agriculture and culinary arts. Blocks Both cement and pumice blocks are now manufac- tured in Alaska but in almost every instance produc- tion methods are antiquated, hence expensive. These organizations should be financed on a more adequate basis, since pumice, sand and gravel exist in vast quan- tities throughout Alaska. Components to make an ex- cellent cement are also present. Manufacture of cement in Alaska would provide impetus for block manufacture, as the cost of imported cement runs be- tween $50 and $60 per ton, which is high enough to dampen the ardor of almost anyone for block construe- tion. Moreover, present facilities of the block manu- facturers is so limited that sills, lintels, chimney squares, and other supplement cement, pumice, and other pre- formed structural shapes are not available in any quantity or at any price. Bricks This building material is probably the least used of any in Alaska construction. Bricks were once made in a small hand plant south of Anchorage, and an old wall constructed some 40 years ago stands on the north side of Fourth Avenue near the city hall, enduring proof that frequent earth tremors do not impair its structural desirability. However, not a vestige of the brick plant or kiln survives. Presumably the small demand and the wealth of other materials for building houses and cabins terminated this venture before it was fairly started. Presumably even today the manufac- turer of bricks for fireplaces, fire-brick and a few other uses could not be made into a profitable venture if required to stand or fall on these items alone. How- ever, a modest establishment equipped to make and kiln numerous types of ceramic products such as the above plus tile—glazed and field—could undoubtedly find a place for itself in the present building-supply business. This is particularly true if this venture were supplemented by and combined with wallboard, in- sulating, and perhaps roofing materials. Canncries Many types of marine life have not been commercially developed and because of their relatively small potential PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS are not of interest to the large packing organizations. These specialties, such as clams and crabs, could be developed by private individuals along Cook Inlet and perhaps Prince William Sound, thereby providing a substantial livelihood for a considerable number of workers. The chief weakness of those now spasmodically en- gaged in this type of activity lies in the fact they do not have a sufficient consumer demand for goods packed under their labels or trade names. The superior qual- ity and other unique characteristics of certain clams and crabs would appeal to the point of demanding a premium if these products were properly packaged, labeled, and presented to the small exclusive market represented by leading hotels, exclusive clubs and delicatessen stores in the States. What has been said of crabs and clams could also apply to halibut cheeks, kelp and perhaps a wide variety of seafoods. Produce Drier If an agricultural community is to be established, particularly in the lower Kenai Peninsula, it is essential that growers of farm produce be insured against a cer- tain but unpredictable loss which occurs owing to diffi- culty of drying certain produce during harvest seasons. For instance, the lavish yield of potatoes possible in this area could be dried by spreading them out on the floor of farm buildings. Enough of the surplus water— inherent in the Alaskan potato—can be removed and a potato with storing qualities realized. However, large scale drying of potatoes is impossible without facilities especially designed for this purpose. More- over, these facilities would not be continually neces- sary for the vagaries of climatic conditions are such that frequently vegetables can be air-dried without artificial heat being applied. But, the threat of a pro- longed rainy period will preclude any conservative agriculturist from developing his lands along the line of commercial crops until standby equipment is avail- able in the event of adverse weather. The foregoing also applies to the curing of winter forage, necessary for the dairy industry to flourish. Importation of baled hay is prohibitive in cost and storage space for such forage limited. Therefore it is recommended that the Department of Agriculture, having already made tremendous con- tributions toward the advance of Alaskan agriculture, be encouraged to study the matter of a subsidized pro- duce drying establishment in the vincinity of Homer where it would be possible to use the readily available coal as a cheap and adequate supply of fuel. In ad- dition, the growing season could be extended by start- 261 ing various plants and vegetables in greenhouses, cold frames, et cetera. This institution would of necessity require a large capital investment and could scarcely be looked upon as a self-sustaining project since its facilities could not reasonably be expected to yield a revenue in those years in which it was not used. Likewise the agricultural interests in the community could hardly be expected to pay on a scale that would support the facilities dur- ing inactive years in order to have them available dur- ing the emergency periods. However, to make Alaska self-sustaining from an agricultural and dairy products point of view would undoubtedly more than justify this form of subsidy. Financial Institutions Alaskan economy is plagued by under capitalization. Never in its history has there been the proper ratio between the volume of business and the amount of capital involved. Absentee ownership, the under-esti- mated capital investment costs, and a number of other factors have undoubtedly contributed to this, but the underlying ailment has always been greater than the speed with which capital surplus could be accumulated. To remedy this situation in part, it is suggested that at least one building and loan association be started in Anchorage and another in Fairbanks. The nature of this organization should be such that it can hypothe- cate its capital through the “Fannie May” operations of RFC. Thus such organizations could, with a modest capital investment, provide a favorable return to the investors and long term mortgage money for residen- tial construction. However, these building and loan associations would have to operate in conjunction with another very vital but missing factor in the financial structure of Alaska, namely, a title insurance company. The present method of bonded abstracts is not adequate for the purpose it attempts to serve. Instead, a regular title and guar- antee company should be subsistuted. In view of the relatively short history of real estate transactions in Alaska, the problem of tracing titles and identifying property should be comparatively simple. Moreover, by bringing to light those parcels of land, the titles of which are clouded, would make possible the clarifi- cation of such titles at this time while most of the in- volved parties are alive, rather than wait until some future date and have each problem unnecessarily com- plicated by the death of or the inability to locate the key principals. Such a title company operating on a conservative basis would make possible the additional vital factor of remote secondary markets for mortgage paper. 262 Two additional types of financial institutions ur- gently needed in the Territory, but not necessarily related in any manner to those just mentioned, are savings banks and personal loan companies—the latter, of course, to include financing of personal property plus signature loans, which are beyond the realm of straight commercial banking functions. Either or both of these types of activity could well be included within the framework of the existing financial institutions but it is not necessary that this be done if the type of business contemplated is not within the reasonable scope or philosophy of the extant banks. Fish Waste The necessity for utilizing all available labor during the short salmon season has caused the cannery operators to overlook or ignore one of the principal byproducts of their business, principally waste. Narrowing margins of profit owing to declining salmon runs will eventually call more widespread at- tention to the desirability of utilizing this byproduct for manufacture of fertilizer, meal, and fish oils. Foundry At various times small foundries have been established in Alaska. One operated for a period of years as a part of the Alaska Railroad. It is not clear why these infant units did not survive but presumably it was lack of volume demand. Today, however, Alaska has expanded to the point where a small foundry, properly operated, should be a successful venture owing to the quantities of heavy construction and mining machinery imported into the area as well as the extension of municipal facilities which require manhole covers, frames, gates, et cetera. In addition, rehabilitation of the railroad will permit greater speeds, thus requiring increased tonnage of brake shoes and other expendable castings. Moreover, the residential construction in- dustry has a tremendous potential so an expanding market exists for soil pipe, grates, and miscellaneous other cast products. Raw materials such as scrap iron are generated by the railroad and other commercial enterprises in excess of such a foundry’s needs. There is also a definite possibility that pig iron may be produced in the future. No satisfactory fuller’s earth is available at this time but nominal quantities might be imported without excessive cost being added to the foundry operation. ALASKA Graphite Graphite—imported into the United States because of the domestic shortage—is to be found in Alaska in enormous quantities. Presumably, if demand for graphite remains at its present level the small domestic supply and the foreign sources would be satisfactory. However, since it has taken on new significance in connection with atomic energy and its generation, the necessity of exploring the possibilities of a further supply within the jurisdiction of the United States Government is evident. One or more of the several deposits should possibly be examined with a view to supplementing commercial demand, plus underwriting any emergency demand in the event of military re- quirements which is certain to develop with another world catastrophe. Hotels Development of tourist trade in Alaska depends not so much on the magnificent attractions in scenery and wild life as on the provision for accommodating the tourist with the reasonable necessities: transportation, communication, quarters, and food. Likewise these facilities must be so coordinated that no— blind spots will exist in the system. The best method of regulating this business would consist of licensing each participant and inspecting the services rendered so that uncontrolled individual operators might not nullify all that is done to promote this industry. A single instance of “bad will” can offset a shipload of “good will” in the tourist trade. The principal contribution is good hotel accommoda- tion. Several excellent hotels exist now but they are independent of one another and not adequately con- nected by transportation to form any semblance of a tourist route. Furthermore, these establishments do not at present have the capacity to care for the present volume of guests. Ultimately these hotels will form a loop, one part of which will pass through northwest Canada and the balance swing southward from Fair- banks. Ice Plant Ice-making machinery, installed in conjunction with other types of service equipment heretofore mentioned, would undoubtedly find a ready market for its pro- duction during summer months. This market would come principally from the icing of refrigerator cars, and demands of local hotels, restaurants, and clubs. At this time such a function would not—if operated on an Fi PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS exclusive basis—be a profitable enterprise, for the total local market for ice is not sufficient to keep equipment operating on a full-time basis. Insulation The need for insulating practically all types of struc- tures is so apparent that the principle is accepted with- out question by most of the local residents. Bulk or cubic requirements of most insulation materials has precluded its importation to some extent—an importa- tion largely unnecessary due to the volume of local products which could be converted into suitable insulat- ing materials. Mineral-wool and asbestos or materials from which they could be made are found in many readily accessible areas. It is desirable, then, to examine the possibilities of combining this activity with other enterprises wherein the creation of building materials is contem- plated. Perhaps the most likely establishments would be those engaged in making gypsum board, pumice blocks, or ceramic products. Such consolidations are recommended because some of the equipment used in these processes could be adapted to the manufacture of insulating boards, sheets, and pads: also the identical market absorbing the products would utilize delivery equipment and thus minimize the distribution expenses and the sales effort. Lead The diminishing world supply of lead and the increased demand for this commodity suggest develop- ment of new sources for both commercial and strategic use. Some lead deposits are known in Alaska, but their potentialities have not been determined. Known lead deposits, particularly at Galena and Groundhog Basin, become of ever increasing importance. The United States Geological Survey has compiled some data on these and other deposits and improved tech- niques in refining lead-bearing ores may increase the possibility of development. Leather Another byproduct of the fishing industry which has received too little consideration is the possibility of converting fishskin into commercial leather. Prelim- inary tests on tanned salmon skins have proved they may be of considerable value to the American leather trade, particularly the novelty phases of this business. In addition, hair seal, beth with and without the hair 263 in place, has established a certain limited demand as upholstering material and a material for ladies’ coats. It would seem that either or both of these sources of leather should be further explored to determine whether or not the characteristics of each are of sufficient value to establish a profitable industry. Present indications are that this is well within the limits of possibility. Machine Shop The necessity for a privately-owned machine shop is demonstrated by the increasingly large volume of requests to the railroad to machine a wide assortment of metal shapes. Obviously this imposition on the railroad’s facilities only reflects a small percentage of the total demand, the balance being satisfied either by replacing equipment in its entirety or obtaining parts from the original manufacturers. Obviously, if a small foundry and welding shop is created the necessity for a flexible and universal machine shop becomes automatic. Oil Reclaiming The premium paid for new petroleum products in Alaska suggests that oil reclaiming could flourish pro- viding the founding and the reprocessing expense is not such that the advantage in the price differential is absorbed. Presumably the large amounts of oil used or which will be used in the Diesel engines of the rail- road and the certain percentage of automotive lubri- cants now in use would justify the millwrighting of a small reclaiming plant. It is not recommended that any further capital investment be made in this type of equipment but rather that an inquiry be directed as to the cost of operating the equipment which is now lying fallow in Anchorage. Presumably if this can be ac- complished without inordinate expense it could be a source of substantial revenue, at least until such time when it might be supplanted by cheaper petroleum products extracted from oil and shale. This process might also develop a byproduct which, mixed with beidellite, could be used as a means of controlling dust on the many streets and highways, which is so objec- tionable and likely to continue offending for many years before the streets and roads are included in a hard- surfacing program. Roadhouses The Alaskan roadhouse is a vital link in the day-to- day commercial life of Alaska as well as in the develop- ment of the tourist, hunting and fishing businesses. 264 The ever-expanding highway system will, to a large measure, rely upon such establishments to supply mo- torists with all manner of traveling services and accom- modations. It is therefore desirable that the proper distribution of these services is observed and some con- trol over their operation be exercised by a Territorial licensing board, as previously mentioned. It may be essential to subsidize roadhouses in certain areas by assisting them to procure supplemental rev- enue like postmasterships, weather reporting stations, et cetera. For it is clear the new highways must come before the users and when the highways are used there must be facilities along them to provide the needs of the initial travelers—these facilities must of necessity have a capacity in excess (at least at first) of the de- mands that are made upon them. Smoked Salmon Improvements or changes in the regular commercial salmon industry are far beyond the scope of any super- ficial survey. However, there is a place for salmon specialties—smoked salmon, squaw candy, salmon sticks—and even regular salmon if carefully selected for high quality, and then fastidiously hand-packed. This de luxe merchandise has been sampled by experts in the specialty food lines. particularly those serving the high grade delicatessens, clubs. and the exclusive hotel trade. In every instance these experts have agreed that the quality is such that over-market prices could be demanded and obtained, but they point out that in order to appeal and to cultivate this market, de luxe packaging and a recognized brand must be the basis of any successful exploitation. Smelter The need for a custom smelter or sample mill has often been stressed by the operators of small mining claims, but Geological Survey and Bureau of Mines experts have always contended there is not enough volume of business to justify such an institution. While this is true as of today, there is a real possibility that there would be enough business if such a service were available to the small operators. It is the con- tention of these operators that they cannot develop their properties because of the high cost of transmitting ores to United States refineries, and that if such a service were provided at central points—central eastern Kenai Peninsula and in the Curry-Healy areas—that both would have a sufficient volume of business to make the venture entirely profitable. ALASKA Wallboard—Asbestos This product should be related to other building material activities, preferably combined with those in- terests now creating a pilot plant in the Chickaloon area, an organization wherein gypsum board and gyp- sum plaster are the immediate objectives. Undoubt- edly the same group which undertakes the manufacture of pumice blocks and mineral wool insulation, et cetera, could profitably explore the possibilities of a composi- tion wallboard which embodies a fireproofing percent- age of asbestos. The staff and equipment necessary for fabricating dry wallboard certainly can be adapted to the manufacture of asbestos insulating materials with very little additional investment and the market apparently is sufficient at this time to justify such adaptation. Wood Lumber and lumber products along the railbelt differ considerably from those of the southeastern Panhandle and western Canada. The stands of lumber are, for the most part, inferior in quality, and many special prob- Jems are created for the lumberman who proposes to operate there. Nevertheless. demands for railroad ties, piling, and boxing, emphasizes the need for creating these products in this locality. It should be recognized that either lumbering or lumber products manufacture nevertheless must be approached with full recognition of the extraordinary procedures which are an integral part of any such business in this For instance, oversized dry kilning equipment and area. creosote and other pressure treatment equipment would be vital in order to make the products acceptable to local users. Birch could be used locally in many cases, particu- larly for flooring, furniture frames, and trim. ‘There is even the possibility that automatic turning equipment could compete in the export market for a portion of the spool. coat hanger. handle, and similar specialty and novelty items. There is also the possibility of developing the novelty and gift trade outlets for the unusual products now being developed in Seward and Copper Center, since the grain of the birch in these areas, particularly in the burls, make very fine dishes, plates, laminated cutting boards, bookends, candle- sticks, and lamp bases. The current price at which these are sold in Alaska are favorable enough that these could enter the competitive market in the States and absorb the transportation bill necessary to get them here. a | PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS 265 Skiing facilities near Anchorage. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Alaska’s recreational resources are abundant and of great variety. They are of world-wide fame and consti- tute one of the Territory’s greatest assets. Its moun- tains rival and surpass those of Switzerland ; the fiords equal those of Norway ; glaciers, ice caps, and volcanoes are of unsurpassed magnitude and beauty; the rivers, hot springs, forests, lakes, fresh and salt water game fish, historical evidences, and primitive frontier devel- opments all loom as recreational attractions. Its re- freshing summer climate and its fame as the “Land of the Midnight Sun” add greatly to the pleasure derived by the tourist. The recreation industry looms large in the over-all economy of Alaska. During 1948, the number of visi- tors to Alaska outnumbered the permanent population of the Territory. With the provision of much needed facilities and the stimulus of an increased population. the value of this industry can be expected to expand many fold. The industry already supports a sub- stantial portion of the population, and upon expansion it can logically support a much greater number. Reser- voirs having recreation potentialities to be developed in connection with the water resources program will create new opportunities, reflecting an increase in the value of the industry. Far too little has been done so far toward the devel- opment of facilities to make these resources available to the people of the Territory and the thousands of visiting tourists. The National Park Service and the United States Forest Service have provided pioneer facilities in certain areas under their jurisdiction. In the Tongass National Forest of Southeastern Alaska and the Chugach Forest of Southwestern Alaska some basic recreational facilities have been provided. Ina few instances communities have provided small munic- ipal recreation parks. Of the five areas under the ad- ministration of the National Park Service, two of which are the largest areas in the entire National Park System 266 exceeding even Yellowstone, basic facilities for recrea- tional use have only been provided at Mount McKinley National Park and Sitka National Monument. Noth- ing has been accomplished at Katmai, Old Kasaan, and Glacier Bay National Monuments in spite of repeated and continuing attempts to secure the necessary funds. The insufficiency of appropriations in recent years also has retarded the accomplishment of much needed developments in McKinley National Park. The development of Alaska’s water resources as con- templated by the Bureau of Reclamation will, undoubt- edly, create numerous impoundments, some of which may have recreational value. Likewise, heretofore in- accessible regions will be opened by construction roads to exploitation for recreational purposes such as hunt- ing and fishing. However, it appears that many of these new reservoirs will probably remain too far re- moved from population centers to justify developments for recreation, although others closely related may have great recreational value. All reservoirs within the scope of the program will obviously have to compete recreationally with many of the hundreds of natural lakes that now exist within the Territory. This is par- ticularly true in the southeastern and southwestern regions where the natural scenic attractions are great- est and where the future population increase is likely to occur. Therefore, the geographical position and ac- cessibility of the various projects will, in a large meas- ure, be one of the governing factors justifying recrea- tional development. Alaska’s superb hunting and fishing opportunities are sure to attract great numbers of sportsmen if the region is made accessible. The potential magnitude of sports fishing alone is indicated by the often heard claim that in the United States more money is spent on fish- ing tackle than on equipment for any other sport, in- cluding golf and boating. For the most part, it is doubtful whether the recrea- tional potentialities of water resources development will have an appreciable effect upon the national parks and monuments in Alaska under the administration of the National Park Service. The exception may be Mount McKinley National Park in the vicinity of which the Bureau proposes to impound waters of the Nenana River which forms the easterly boundary of the park. Impoundment of these waters will create reservoirs of considerable magnitude along the boundary possibly flooding some park land and altering the present recrea- tional pattern in the area. The National Park Service would be opposed to any proposals to flood park lands and would require investigation of every possible al- ternative before any park values are sacrificed. Very little is known about the specific areas in which these projects are to be undertaken and whether or not they will be readily accessible. An analysis of popula- ALASKA tion trends of the region in which each will be located will be a factor in determining the value of recreational developments. A comprehensive study of the proposed projects will be needed before any conclusive recommendations can be made as to the recreational possibilities of the indi- vidual projects and the over-all program. This study and the resulting recommendations must be based on factual knowledge. It should consider population trends, availability of land for facilities, accessibility, location, evaluation of scenic qualities, economic values, cost of recreational facilities, and effects upon the wild- life, history, and archeological resources. This investi- gation will serve as a basis for the allocation of recrea- tional benefits and will assist in determining the policy to be followed in developing and administering those areas having recreational potentialities. CIVIL AERONAUTICS ADMINISTRATION In the year 1939 when the Civil Aeronautics Admin- istration first came to Alaska for the purpose of devel- oping a Federal Airways and Communications System as aids to aerial navigation, we found that aviation was being conducted here under extremely adverse con- ditions. There were approximately 150 small airports scat- tered throughout the Territory, none of which could meet the standards of a Class I airport as approved by our organization. These airports were either con- structed with Territorial funds, by mining interests, by private individuals or a combination of two or more of these groups. There were no communication aids to aircraft other than those developed by small aviation companies for their individual interests. Weather re- porting was also most unsatisfactory and entirely inade- quate to properly serve the pilots who were attempting to give Alaskans a mode of transportation. During the period from 1939 to 1948, and assisted primarily with funds allotted for national defense, the Civil Aeronautics Administration has established a broad Federal Airways and Communications System which now not only serves Alaska but is a vital con- necting link in the International Airways System serv- ing the Orient. In general, this system is considered reasonably com- plete insofar as Federal aids to air navigation are con- cerned, Weather reporting stations both on and off the airways system are now reasonably sufficient to meet, the needs of both airline and personal aircraft pilots. It is true that improvements and refinements to these systems are constantly being made and no doubt will continue to be made for many years to come. PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS Transportation in Alaska has been developed under conditions in the reverse order to transportation growth in the continental United States. In the continental United States, the oxcart, the road, the automobile, the highway, and finally the airplane has been the order of transportation development. Here the airplane took the lead. This is largely due to the fact that surface transportation in Alaska is extremely difficult and expensive. The construction of roads and highways requires the outlay of vast sums of money. This kind of money was not available locally as the population was not able to supply it. Neither did there appear to be sufficient justification for the expenditure of Federal funds to construct these roads over treacherous swamps and across or around glaciers in order to serve a sparse population. Consequently in 1939 the only road of any consequence extended from the coastal town of Valdez to Fairbanks in the interior, a distance of approxi- mately 368 miles. A small roadway system was in operation in the Anchorage area extending to Palmer and the Willow Creek mining area for a distance of 100 miles. Shorter systems existed in the Seward area and in a few mining districts; however, none of these were interconnected. During the past nine years and primarily as a result of the national defense program, this road system has been extended somewhat. As a means of serving the more remote locations, however, the road network is still grossly inadequate. It is our opinion that this condition will persist until such a time as the airplane can demonstrate the importance of a particular section of the country from a commercial, industrial or agri- cultural standpoint. During this 9-year period very little work has been done by the Territory of Alaska to construct new and to improve existing airports off the Federal Airways System. Federal funds are not directly available for this purpose except through the Federal Airport Act which permits the construction of airports within Alaska on the basis of 75 percent Federal to 25 percent local or Territorial funds. Unfortunately the Terri- torial Legislature has not as yet seen fit to avail them- selves of an available $10,000,000 in Federal money to improve old and construct new fields so vital to the growth and development here. Agriculture The agricultural possibilities within the confines of Alaska are somewhat problematical. A relatively small amount of farming and gardening is being conducted in the Anchorage, Palmer, Homer, and Fairbanks areas with some truck gardening at 267 Unalakleet and in the southeastern area around Yakutat and other locations to the southeast. In the Anchorage and Palmer areas the growing sea- son is approximately 108-110 days with only a moderate yearly precipitation of 14-16 inches which is not nor- mally sufficient to mature crops properly. The dry season usually occurs in the spring and early summer when rainfall is necessary for proper germination. Therefore, an irrigation system is considered essential to improve the growing of vegetables and small grains in these areas. Water is available from reasonably shallow wells; however, at present the excessive cost of electric power and the lack of an adequate rural electrification system eliminates any possibility of this type of irrigation being conducted on a commercial basis by pumping. If electric power could be made available at a cost of several mills per kilowatt-hour rather than 6 to 11 cents, the picture would be com- pletely reversed. There are certain areas around Anchorage where one would expect the growing of such crops as potatoes, carrots, turnips, celery, lettuce, radishes, cabbage, cau- liflower, and broccoli to be relatively ideal. It has been found from experience, however, that soil con- ditions are not necessarily the determining factors but growth is hampered by cool winds blowing down across the fields. Fields that have similar soil con- ditions in close proximity have produced in abundance. Other areas, particularly in the interior which appear to have excellent top soil characteristics for growth of garden vegetables are of little value due to the perman- ently frozen ground below the surface. In certain spots such as Unalakleet on the Bering coast and Yakutat along the Gulf of Alaska where one would suspect that the growing of garden produce would not be possible or at least not profitable, excel- lent results have been obtained in almost pure sand. It appears, therefore, that much pioneering work is yet to be done before a particular piece of ground can be condemned as unfit for the production of certain vegetation. Fruits, vegetables, and grains such as apples, plums, figs, cherries, corn, beans, tomatoes, melons, and similar produce requiring hot weather cannot be grown suc- cessfully outside of hothouses or greenhouses. There seems to be a possibility, however, that with low-cost electric power the growing of many farm products could be carried on commercially by the chemical pro- cess and they could be placed on the market on a com- petitive basis with produce shipped or flown in from the States. Many present producers of garden vegetables can find an immediate market for a limited supply of their products. Lack of cold and cool storage facilities. however, prevents the storage of excess stocks for winter 268 consumption. Any attempt to increase production without this cold storage would only result in glutting the summer market. Production of food stuffs for export use is not considered inasmuch as the cost of production in this climate could not compete with California produce even if the transportation costs were eliminated. Across Knik Arm to the north and northwest of An- chorage lies a completely undeveloped area of approxi- mately 40 square miles. Even though the near edge of this area is but 1 or 2 miles from Anchorage it is com- pletely inaccessible except by way of the Matanuska Valley or a distance of nearly 100 miles. This area could be made available for the growth and expansion of the city of Anchorage and for farming purposes if a causeway were constructed across Knik Arm. The growth of Anchorage is already hampered by Knik Arm on the north and west, by the military reservations to the northeast and by the Chugach Range to the east and southeast and Turnagain Arm on the south. In the vincinity of Cairn Point just north of the city only about one-half mile of water remains at low tide. A highway and railroad could be placed on a causeway constructed at this location. It would shorten the route to Fairbanks by some 30 or more miles and would open up an area much of which has rich agricultural possibilities. By constructing a causeway at this point it appears that a deep water harbor area could be form- ed where ocean going vessels «ould come and go during all seasons of the year. At present the fresh water flowing in from the Matanuska and Knik Rivers creates large blocks of ice which choke this channel during the winter months. This ice is carried back and forth as the tide ebbs and flows and prevents vessels from using the present docking facilities for 5 or 6 months each year. This fresh water could be shut off by causeway gates late in November or early December when the river flow is relatively small and this should clear the channel of ice hazards. The tide in Cook Inlet averages in the neighborhood of 30 feet. A causeway might be utilized for low-cost power production by taking advantage of the drainage trapped behind the causeway. Mining Mining of gold and other minerals in Alaska has been curtailed on account of inadequate transportation and the high cost of industrial power. As air and sur- face transportation improves and a system of low-cost electric power is made available such as only the Bureau of Reclamation can make possible, the search for strate- gic minerals will increase. The exploration of min- ing areas will be initiated by the establishment of local ALASKA off-airway airports of Class I size or larger. If the mining area thus explored proves to be of sufficient economic value, highways will be constructed to connect these areas with arterial highways. The Territory of Alaska is known to hold large quan- tities of different minerals. Only a relatively small portion of the area has been explored to date. The smelting and refining of ores could be carried on here providing an ample source of low-cost power could be provided. At present these ores are shipped out to the States. Miscellaneous The lumbering in the Anchorage area and most of the interior of Alaska will never be conducted on a scale of any appreciable size. This is due primarily to the small sized growth of timber in this part of Alaska. Nevertheless, the growth of spruce south of the Chu- gach Range and particularly in the Matanuska Valley area offers an opportunity to produce a generous sup- ply of small dimension lumber which can be used locally in constructing new homes. This small scale lumber industry would be greatly augmented by a source of low-cost electric power. The result would mean the increase of much needed lumber for general construction and home building, clearing of lands for agricultural purposes and the employment of additional labor to carry on this work. Summary In summarizing the outlook for future growth and development within the Territory, we have reached the following conclusions: 1, The Federal Airways and Communications Sys- tem will keep pace with all scientific improvements which may be used in perfecting all aids to aerial navi- gation in the interests of safety and efficiency. The present system is capable of supporting a large increase in air travel, both foreign and domestic. 2. A source of low-cost electric power will open the way for a sound economic growth of commercial, in- dustrial, agricultural and private interests within the confines of the Territory. Without such a source of power the growth of the Territory will be severely hampered. 3. Transportation both air and surface must con- tinue to grow and +pand in such proportions as to adequately serve ti:c :snulation. Reduced rates rather than continuously increasing rates are essential. 4. The Federal Airways System must be augmented by a series of local airports serving off-airway communi- PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS ties. The principal airway centers are Anchorage, Fairbanks, McGrath, Nome, Bethel, and Naknek. From these centers the surrounding areas will develop or remain stagnant largely depending upon the action taken by the Territory in the sponsoring of the Federal airport program. This is an extremely important point to be considered in the anticipated growth of interior Alaska. 5. A causeway across Knik Arm in the vicinity of Cairn Point near Anchorage will permit Anchorage to develop and expand so that it should become a great industrial city of perhaps several hundred thousand population helping to serve the vast Alaskan interior. We would further emphasize the fact that adequate transportation facilities, both ground and air, working together but neither one eliminating the necessity for the other, coupled with a plentiful source of low-cost power and a good communications system will create this increase in population so vital to National Defense and the growth and development of the Territory. The interior, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, must also be developed if this goal set for Anchorage is to be achieved. 6. The International Airports at Anchorage and Fairbanks will become connecting links of a number of international airways systems, both foreign and domes- tically owned, that serve the entire world. ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH The Territory of Alaska has health problems no different from those in the States except for the very high incidence of communicable diseases, including tuberculosis which is of epidemic proportions. Poor water supply, sewage disposal systems, and general unsatisfactory sanitation conditions seriously compli- cate all health programs. Climatic conditions would not be detrimental to health provided housing conditions were adapted to the prevailing weather trends. Many communities in Alaska cannot properly supply their citizens with good drinking water and modern sewage plants without further engineering in sanitary projects. With increased industrialization and popu- lation existing plants will become obsolete. Inadequate municipal water supplies have already resulted in emer- gency uses which are dangerous because of possibilities of pollution. Water-borne diseases ¢.uch as typhoid and polio might arise. Food habits of Alaskans are t: » state of transition. Many Alaskans adequately uc-isied by food habits developed by trial and error »ver centuries are now poorly nourished owing to substitutions which do not meet nutritional needs. Transportation of fresh foods 269 is dependent on air lifts which are still expensive. Alaska’s agriculture is not yet adequate to take care of present population needs. Nutritional deficiencies con- tribute to Alaska’s health problems. The improvement of environmental sanitation and all types of sanitary engineering must receive immediate and effective attention. Local governments have not been able to cope with the problem which has become more acute with recent increases in population. The Federal Government has a responsibility for es- tablishment of improved water supplies which are ade- quate and safe, of sewage disposal units, and other sanitation facilities. In any comprehensive planning for future development, action by some Federal agency or agencies that can construct facilities, planned in co- operation with health engineers, for providing satis- factory municipal water supplies is imperative. Fur- ther increases in population are unthinkable unless this can be done. In the States, several of the more recent multiple- purpose projects constructed by the Bureau of Recla- mation have included as incidental or secondary bene- fits from storage of water for irrigation and power development the supplying of domestic and industrial water to municipalities. Such water, of course, is available over and above agricultural and power needs. A notable example is Salt Lake City which will shortly have its municipal water supply more than doubled as a secondary benefit of the multi-million dollar Provo River project. Such facilities are costly, even for cities the size of those in Alaska. The Alaska Department of Health knows what is needed and how to meet the needs but is limited by lack of funds. It is understood that the 10-year and long range program contemplated in this report by the Bureau of Reclamation outlines possibili- ties for construction of many potential multiple-pur- pose dams throughout the Territory. For a fraction of the total cost, extra capacity for municipal water might be included in the designing of these reservoirs; also the necessary aqueducts to convey the water to our cities. If necessary, filtration plants and modern dis- tribution systems might be included. With its knowledge of the difficulties that beset sani- tation engineering in Alaska, the Department of Health in cooperation with city governments is prepared to undertake the planning of such projects with Reclama- tion engineers. The climate, especially in the Arctic, is an ever- present problem. Permafrost, which exists in the en- tire Arctic region, can best be described as frozen ground which in summer thaws from the surface to a depth of but a few feet. Below the thaw, solid ice ex- tends to depths of several hundred feet. In winter, the 270 earth is solidly frozen up to the surface with concomi- tant external temperatures of minus 70° F. The difficulties of laying water and sewer pipes are apparert, also, the sewage problem created by lack of drainage for cesspools. Inspections have disclosed the continued improper discharge of community sewage on tidal flats, in small streams, and on beaches in most of the coastal towns—a situation far from healthful. If such basic essentials for living are not properly met, it cannot be expected that many people will be attracted to live in Alaska, or at best long remain. FOREST SERVICE Alaska has two national forests comprising a total of 20,846,000 acres. The Tongass National Forest con- tains 16,046,000 acres and includes the greater part of the region popularly known as Southeast Alaska. The Chugach National Forest covers the timber belt on the shores of Prince William Sound and the east half of the Kenai Peninsula. Its area is 4,800,000 acres. These national forests were set apart from the open public land area between 1902 and 1909. They have been placed under the administration of the United States Forest Service for development and manage- ment by methods that will insure continuous forest productivity. All of their resources are available for use. Standing timber may be purchased for manufac- ture in practically any quantity desired ; lands valuable for agriculture, mining, industrial plants, homesites, and townsites may be patented under the general public land laws; areas needed for water-power development, fur farming, summer homes, residences, and other special purposes may be leased under appropriate laws and regulations, public recreation facilities are pro- vided ; hunting and fishing are fostered. TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST, SOUTHEAST ALASKA Place of the Timber Industry in Regional Development Southeast Alaska presents an opportunity for the development of permanent pulp and paper manufac- turing enterprises founded on sustained supplies of timber coming from forests that are almost entirely of outstanding pulping species and that are and will continue to be in the ownership and under the manage- ment of the Federal Government. The industry would have an almost year-round logging season, cheap log ALASKA transportation along protected sea channels between the woods and the mill, ocean shipping for inbound mill supplies and outbound paper products, water power for mill operation in an equable climate that permits of unhindered mill operation throughout the year. In view of these favorable features, the manage- ment plans for the timber resources of the Tongass Forest are being so drawn that these resources will contribute in the greatest possible degree to a perma- nent regional development of the industry. TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST STATISTICS Estimated merchantable timber stand of 78,500,- 000,000 feet board measure. Estimated allowable annual cut under sustained yield 1,000,000,000 feet board measure. The allowable annual cut will support a pulp and paper industry with a daily production capacity of 3,000 tons, operating 300 days per year, and which will use 850,000,000,000 feet board measure of timber annually, The additional cut of 150,000,000 feet board measure per year will be used to support associated major industries producing high-grade lumber, plywood, spe- cial cedar products and cedar shingles. The Forest Service will insist that the plans of con- cerns entering this new field call for economically-sized and well-equipped plants, and for operations for a type that will promote continuous employment for skilled woods and mill workers and foster the building up of thoroughly modern industrial communities. While Taste 66.—L£'stimated employment and population Raw ma- terial re- | An est quire | Production |Timber)S®'*!C*) Tota | Esti. ments capacity indus- jandus- | ‘employ- mated | feet board! = Per day —jtrytotal Guiteg | ment | "tion measure | per year Pulpand paper 850,000 : 3,000tons......} 5,250 | 5,250 | 10, 500 | 31, 500 pap Lumber... 85,000 | 285thousand..| 390| 390 | 780 | 2,340 Plywood... 25,000 §5thousand..| 235| 235| 470] 1,410 Shingles and cedar 40,000 | 135 thousand..| 375 375 750 | 2,250 products, | Total.....2.0...) eee eee feceeeeeeeeeeeeeefeeeeeee Jessen 12, 500 | 37, 500 the timber of the Tongass Forest is regarded as prima- rily valuable for the support of a pulp and paper in- dustry, the Forest Service estimates that approximately 15 percent of the possible yearly log output will be more valuable for such other uses as high-grade lumber, ply- wood, special cedar products, and shingles. The region thus offers an opportunity for an integrated system of PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS timber industries making the best possible use of the forest resources. Physical and Climatic Features of the Region Southeast Alaska consists of a long, narrow strip of mainland and an adjoining archipelago of hundreds of islands, extending southeasterly from the main body of the Territory along the west side of northern British Columbia. The region covers an area about 350 miles long and 120 miles wide. The mainland strip and nu- merous islands are penetrated and separated by an intricate system of navigable straits, inlets, channels, canals, and bays, which give the region a total shore line of about 9,000 miles, and make a very large proportion of its forests readily accessible by tide-water transpor- tation. The total land area of Southeast Alaska is about 34,391 square miles. This region possesses a high relief and rough topog- raphy. The slopes, both on the islands and on the mainland, are mostly steep and heavily dissected, and the shore lines are largely bold and rocky. Most of the streams are small, since either they are on the islands or their catchment basins are confined to the seaward slopes of the mountain range which paral- lels and adjoins the coast of the mainland. There are no rail or motor road connections with the main body of the United States, except the stub pio- neer motor road at the extreme north which joins the Alaska Highway. The nearest transcontinental rail- road point is Prince Rupert, British Columbia, a Pacific Coast terminal of the Canadian National Railroad sys- tem, 95 miles from Ketchikan, the nearest Alaska town. Transportation to and from this region is largely by water, through the sheltered “Inside Passage,” which lies back of the island groups that extend from Puget Sound to the north end of Southeast Alaska. Ketchi- kan and Juneau, the two largest towns, are 660 and 900 nautical miles, respectively, from Seattle. Year-long steamship service is provided from Seattle and from Vancouver, British Columbia. The main sea channels are deep. Ocean-going steamers can transport materials to or products from the existing towns or other sites at which manufactur- ing industries, such as pulp and paper mills, might be located. The network of protected sea channels is admirably suited to the use of small craft. Small tugs with barges and flat scows are used extensively to transport coal, lumber, ore, canned salmon, and other products between local points and to and from Puget Sound. A railroad car ferry or barge service could easily be operated between the Southeast Alaska ports and the Prince Rupert terminus of the Canadian National Railroad. This would permit Alaska pulp, 271 paper, and other timber products to be shipped by a short route to the Middle Western States. The markets of the Orient and Australia for pulp and other timber products are as readily accessible to Alaska as they are to the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia. Those of the Gulf States and other sections of the Atlantic seaboard can be reached by water shipments through the Panama Canal. In general terms the winter climate is similar in character to that of Puget Sound but somewhat colder, and the precipitation is higher. The mean temperatures for the winter months at the various towns range from 29° to 35° F. Zero temperatures occur infrequently. The lowest recorded temperature in Juneau during a 30-year period of weather records was 15° below zero. The precipation is extremely heavy, the yearly mean for Juneau being 81 inches; for Ketchikan 156 inches. There is no pronounced dry summer season as in the Pacific Coast States. Snow does not accumulate to great depths at sea level, much of the winter precip- itation there being in the form of rain. The towns are practically free of snow the greater part of the winter. The above statements apply only to low elevations near tidewater but most of the activities of this region are conducted on or near the coast lines. Winter tem- peratures decrease rapidly with increase in elevation and progress inland; precipitation is much heavier on the higher mountains; and at altitudes over 1,000 feet snow covers the ground for not less than 4 months of the year. As the above information indicates, there are no climatic factors which prevent or seriously hinder the operations of woodworking enterprises throughout the year. The main seaways and most of the small inlets are free of ice throughout the winter, permitting water transportation at all times. The logging season is usually considered as covering 9 months, March 1 to November 30, but winter logging is practicable in many localities so far as weather is concerned. The short winter days are somewhat of a handicap, however, since the latitude is about that of Denmark or Southern Sweden. The heavy rainfall of the average summer gives this region a very low forest-fire risk. Population The population of Southeast Alaska in 1940 was 25,240, including 6,500 native Indians. The estimated population in 1948 was 27,200. The principal industry is the sea fishery and its appurtenant service industries. Mining and lumbering are next in importance. The larger towns together with their present estimated populations are: Juneau 7,000; Ketchikan 7,000; Sit- 272 ka 2,000; Petersburg 1,500; and Wrangell 1,200. All have community facilities that are at least equal to those of towns of similar size in continental United States. All can be reached by ocean-going steamers throughout the year. Satisfactory locations for pulp and paper mills are available in the vicinity of these towns. Timber Resources Southeast Alaska is within the extensive “Coast For- est”, which occurs in the coastal sections of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia and along the south- ern shores of Alaska as far north and west as Afognak Island. As this Coast Forest pushes northward from the most favorable part of its range, in Washington, it gradually loses some of its species, the timber line de- creases in altitude, the trees become smaller, and species of higher elevations gradually work down toward sea level. As found in Southeast Alaska, the Coast Forest is predominantly a mixed stand of western hemlock and Sitka spruce. In many places western red cedar and Alaska cedar are associated with them. Anyone of these four species may be found occasionally in a pure stand of small extent. There is no Douglas fir. The forests have an almost tropical density of trees and underbrush. In the usual mixed stand, hemlock with some cedar forms a dense main cover, and this is over- topped by the more light-demanding spruce, which oc- curs singly or in small groups. Small bushy saplings of the shade-resistant hemlock and cedars, and blue- berry, devil-club, and other shrubs form a dense under- story. Down timber, which decays very slowly be- cause of almost continuous saturation from abundant rainfall, is plentiful everywhere. The forest cover extends from the edge of tidewater to an altitudinal limit of about 2,750 feet in the southern part of the region and 2,000 feet in the northern sec- tions. At an elevation of about 1,500 feet the com- mercial timber gives way to stands of dwarfed, limby trees, which are classified as noncommercial. Because of the prevailing steep slopes the commercial forests form relatively narrow bands along the shore lines of the mainland and islands, rarely extending inland more than 5 miles, except along the valleys of the few large streams. It is estimated that 75 percent of the commercial timber lies within 214 miles of tidewater. The forests of commercial value are broken into large blocks by frequent extensive noncommercial areas of “serub” and peat “muskegs™. ALASKA Volume of Standing Timber The following represents a conservative estimate of the volume of commercial timber by species on the Tongass National Forest : Taste 67.—E'stimated volume of commercial timber, Tongass National Forest Species Feet, board measure} Percent Western hemlock - ___ 74 Sitka spruce__.---.--) =. 20 Western red cedar____- 3 Alaska cedar. ____ 3 Total__. 78, 500, 000, 000 100 | Between + and 5 million acres of national forest land are estimated to carry timber of present or possible future commercial value. At least one-third of this area carries timber that is marginal in value at this time but should become usable in the future. There are also extensive areas of “scrub” timber that is con- sidered unusable at present. The avera ge volume per acre of the stands that are classed as commercial under present conditions is be- tween 15,000 and 20,000 board feet but individual log- ging units may have 40,000 board feet per acre over extensive areas. The majority of the merchantable trees are from 2 to 4 feet in diameter and from 85 to 140 feet high. Character of the Forest Overmature Timber This class of forest consists of a mixed stand of open overmature hemlock and spruce and an understory that is largely younger hemlock, with some cedar. In its more advanced stages of overmaturity it contains about 75 percent hemlock and 25 percent spruce by volume, the spruce consisting of scattered exceptionally large trees. The overmature hemlock is 3 to 4 feet and the spruce 4 to 6 feet in diameter. The younger trees of the stand range from 8 inches to 2 feet in diameter, and are tall, well-formed, clean-boled, and sound. This combination of overmature and young timber constitutes about half of the commercial timber of the region and must be relied upon to furnish a correspond- ing portion of the wood supply for mills. It will yield primarily pulp timber, but much spruce saw timber of large size, cedar shingle timber, and long hemlock piling can be segregated from the pulpwood output. Perhaps half of the timber logged from this class of forest will come from the younger understory hemlock. PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS Mature Timber Mature timber includes mixed stands of the principal species of the region which have not yet begun to open up and let in the young growth. The trees range in diameter from 214 to 4 feet and are of good quality. Although not so prevalent as those of the overmature forest, extensive areas of this mature timber are scat- tered throughout the region. Their heavier yield per acre and smaller amount of defect than the mixed over- mature-young growth stands give them a high value from a logging cost standpoint. Young Growth Timber Stands of even-aged young growth timber, varying from a few acres to several square miles in size, are frequently found throughout the region. These even- aged stands are the result of windfalls, landslides and in some cases fire. They usually contain a much larger percentage of spruce than the virgin forest which they supplanted. On areas of average site quality and in stands 100 years old or more the trees range from 1 to 2 feet in diameter and from 90 to 150 feet in height. They are clean stemmed, well-formed and sound. Ex- tensive cutting will not ordinarily be done in this class of timber in the near future except for small areas that occur in stands of older material. Timber Uses Western Hemlock (Tsuga Heterophylla) This is an excellent wood for a great variety of lumber uses and is superior to eastern hemlock as a pulping wood. It is widely used for long piling in Alaska wharves. The high value of western hemlock in pulp and paper manufacture has been fully established by the mills of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. It is the foundation of the extensive bleached and unbleached sulphite pulp industry which has been developed there in the last 15 years. Much of the bleached output goes into rayon and cellophane which require the high- est grades of pulp. As unbleached sulphite and me- chanical pulp, western hemlock also provides most of the principal raw material for the newsprint industry of that region. Sitka Spruce (Pieea Sitehensis) This species supplies most of the present sawmill requirements of Southeast Alaska, and the trees yield 273 a good percentage of clear lumber that can be exported profitably. Sitka spruce is manufactured into all of the usual forms of lumber and into airplane stock. It is an excellent all-purpose pulping wood, comparing favor- ably with white spruce, the standard pulpwood of east- ern North America. Western Red Cedar (Thuya Plicata) Western red cedar is used for siding and other spec- ialized lumber items, shingles and poles. It is also usable for sulphate pulp. The species does not occur north of Frederick Sound in the vicinity of Petersburg. Alaska Cedar (Chamaccyparis Nootkatensis) Not much Alaska cedar is now cut as it is not well known in the markets. Its qualities and field of use- fulness have not yet been studied carefully, but results obtained in local use indicates a high value for spe- cialized purposes. It has a fine texture, is easy to work, has a bright yellow color, takes a beautiful satin finish, and is extremely durable. It is considered valuable for pattern making, furniture, toys, turned articles and cabinet work. A pronounced “cedar” odor makes it valuable for clothes closets and chests. It is used locally for boat-building and telephone poles. Battery separators have been made of it in British Columbia. Alaska cedar occurs throughout Southeast Alaska. Scrub The term “scrub” is used to describe the open stands of dwarfed, defective trees, with dense undergrowth, which oceupy more poorly drained soils than those of the forest types. Many of the trees are highly defec- tive, have a rapid taper, and in general present a scrubby and unhealthy appearance. All of the coniferous tree species of the region are usually present. Clumps of fairly good trees are scattered through the scrub stands and may sometime be logged in the form of cordwood for pulp. Muskeg The muskeg type consists of a vegetable cover of moss, grass, herbs, and a few isolated stunted trees, growing on peat accumulations often 5 feet or more in thickness. It covers extensive areas of swamp ground in this region and carries practically no commercial timber. 274 Silviculture Features Sitka spruce, the most important species of this region is a rapidly growing, light-demanding tree. It reaches its best development when growing in mix- ture with other species, which it always overtops. Western hemlock, its principal associate, has fair growth properties and is shade-enduring, a quality enabling it and the more light-demanding spruce to form dense mixed stands. The preliminary studies made to date indicate that the two are an excellent com- ‘bination for the production of pulpwood, and that the aim of the forester should be to reproduce both species but increase the proportion of the more valuable spruce. The original forest cover in this region was doubtless almost pure spruce but such stands gradually tend to give way to hemlock. Areas recently uncovered by receding glaciers show spruce as the predominant spe- cies with hemlock just beginning its invasion. Over most of the region the forest growth is older, the hem- lock now forms the major portion of the mixture. It is thought that under forest management this natural tendency toward pure hemlock can be checked and the proportion of spruce in the regrowth on the cutover areas materially increased through the use of cutting methods that favor the latter. Research facilities so far available to the Forest Serv- ice have not been sufficient to provide comprehensive studies of various methods of cutting in Alaska forests. Clear cutting with reserved seed trees is the method now used in the sawtimber operations which characterize logging here, and ordinarily the areas so logged show ample reproduction. Due to the windthrow danger seed trees on the clear cut areas are not left as scattered individuals but in fairly large groups, a practice which causes little interference with logging operations. If further study should show that favorable results can be obtained by individual tree or group selection methods of cutting on certain classes of sites, such methods may be adopted for those sites. It appears at this time that the disposal of loging slash on pulpwood cutting areas need not extend further than lopping and scattering of tops so that they lie close to the ground. Even these simple measures may be found unnecessary on the average logging area. Due to the wet climate, the fire hazard is usually so low that expensive slash disposal work is ordinarily not required from that standpoint. Preliminary studies of yield in the forests of South- east Alaska indicate that the rotation should be 75 or 80 years and that the crop produced in this period will have a volume per acre well above the average volume now found in the virgin commercial forest. With an estimated commercial stand of virgin timber on the Tongass Forest of 78.5 billion board feet, and ALASKA allowing an average of 78 years as the rotation period during which this virgin timber may be entirely re- moved under sustained-yield forest management, ap- proximately 2,000,000 cords of wood of 500 board feet each can be taken from the forest each year in this period. If the entire output of timber were devoted to pulp manufacture it would be sufficient to produce 1,000,000 tons of sulphate pulp a year plus substantial quantities of lumber, plywood, cedar shingles, and cedar poles. Water Power Resources The Tongass Forest possesses an abundance of water power in units of suitable size for individual plants. The best sites range from 5,000 to 30,000 horsepower in capacity and can be very economically developed for a year-round supply. A typical power site has a high “hanging lake” a short distance inland that provides excellent water-storage facilities, requires short con- duits to connect the lakes with powerhouses located at tidewater, and the power can be used for paper manu- facture where developed so that transmission lines are unnecessary. In many cases power from a number of sites can be concentrated readily at one industrial plant by the use of short transmission lines. A survey has been made by the Forest Service, Geo- logical Survey, and the Federal Power Commission of the principal known power sites of this region. The sites covered have a total year-round capacity of about 800,000 horsepower. Fifty power sites with an aggre- gate capacity of 22,000 horsepower have been developed and are now in use. All water power sites are publicly owned and can be leased under the Federal Water Power Act for periods up to 50 years. Limestone and Coal High calcium limestone deposits are available at tidewater points in Southeast Alaska. Coal can be obtained most readily from mines on Vancouver Island or in Western Washington. Logging Methods and Costs The methods of logging required in Alaska are sin- ilar to those used in Western Washington and Oregon. Machine logging with donkey engines and wire rope has proved to be the most practical means of moving logs from the stump on the usual logging area in this region because of the rough topography and wet ground. Spay Wropuy Asesqyy onqnd tS—O OLF886 bz ded) PORTION OF TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST ALASKA May 12,1947 MILES 50 Rs NATIONAL FOREST eee PULPTIMBER ALLOTMENT BOUNDARY sai PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS Ground-skidding and high-lead systems are now used, but one of the overhead systems will probably prove most economical for extensive pulpwood operations. A large percentage of the timber can be logged directly into tidewater by the use of two and three donkey engines working tandem. Log flumes, short railroads, or motor-truck roads will be required to transport the timber from the donkey yarding engines to tidewater in the longer valleys. Log driving is not practicable in the short turbulent streams. Timber is commonly handled in full-tree lengths or as very long logs from the stump to the mill. After being placed in tidewater it can usually be towed in the form of flat rafts through the protected water- ways, but Davis-type rafts are required in winter for tows in the wider, more exposed channels. The cost of towing logs is about 2 cents per 1,000 board feet per mile. Timber supplies for a plant can thus be drawn cheaply from a very extensive region. Floating logging camps, which can be towed from one cutting area to another, are in general use. Sim- ilarly, donkey engines and all other logging equipment are moved on scows and floats. The average cost of sawlogs, exclusive of stumpage, delivered at the saw- mills just prior to the war was about $10 per 1,000 board feet. It is estimated that on the basis of labor and equipment costs of 1948 the total cost of unpeeled pulpwood logs delivered at local mills would not have exceeded $10 per 100 cubic feet (equivalent to $20 per 1,000 board feet). Existing Forest Industries Practically all of the timber manufactured in South- east Alaska is purchased from the national forest. The amount taken yearly from the forest under com- mercial sales is now about 80,000,000 board feet. Most of this goes into lumber, but about 20 percent is used in the round for fish-trap and wharf piling. Juneau and Ketchikan each have a modern, electric- driven sawmill of 100,000 board-feet capacity per 8-hour day. Sitka has an efficient mill of 35,000 board- feet capacity, and smaller mills are found in other communities. Alaska has no operating pulp or paper plants at this time. The nearest mill is the newsprint plant of Pacific Mills (Ltd.), located at Ocean Falls, British Columbia, 296 miles south of Ketchikan. Forest Management Policy The following is a condensed statement of the main objectives and timber-use policies which have been 988410—52—19 275 established for timber management on the Tongass National Forest : Objectives 1. The development and maintenance of a perma- nent pulp and paper manufacturing industry based on a sustained yield of the timber resources. 2. The furnishing of a permanent and convenient supply of timber for local consumption, with such an additional supply to the local sawmills for sale in the general lumber markets as may be needed to justify efficient milling facilities and provide year-long opera- tion. Timber-Use Policies The productive forest land will be divided into pulp-timber allotments and local-use allotments. Pulp-timber allotments will be laid out to supply the timber needs of pulp and paper mills of economical operating size in each section of the region. Sustained yield timber management will be practiced on each allotment or group of allotments. Local-use allotments will be laid out on the basis of the suitability of the timber for the common local uses and its accessibility to points of consumption. National Forest timber must be given at least primary manufacture in Alaska. Other things being equal, preference will be given to such industries and appli- cants as contemplate the most complete manufacture in Alaska. The establishment of minor wood-using industries, especially those using western red cedar and Alaska cedar, will be encouraged. Small sales will be encouraged so far as is consistent with the investment required. Preservation of Scenic and Recreational Values Scenic and recreational values rank high in much of the national forest area, predominate over considerable areas, and must be adequately safeguarded. All timber management plans will be carefully co- ordinated with plans for the preservation of the scenic and recreational resources of the Forest. Timber sales will not be made in locations where the scenic and recreational values are predominant. Along heavily traveled narrow sea channels and in other loca- tions where justified, cutting will be either excluded entirely or permitted only under some form of selective logging which will prevent unsightly scars or openings 276 in the timber cover, or exposure of the remaining stand to probable windfall. Within the boundaries of timber sale areas strips of timber will be left standing along the shorelines of important recreation lakes and fishing streams and along main roads. General Conditions Applying to Larger Timber Sales The stumpage alone is offered for sale from the na- tional forest, the land being retained by the United States for the production of successive forest crops. The maximum amount of timber that will be placed un- der contract to one firm and the period of time allowed for its cutting will be determined by the Forest Service in consideration of the purchaser’s logging and manu- facturing investment, practical operating methods, and markets. The timber of the unit to be offered for sale is ap- praised by a forest officer on the basis of its value for manufacture into the timber products for which it is best suited and practicable of manufacture within the region. The timber is then advertised for sealed bids for a period of not less than 30 days, the advertisement naming the appraised stumpage rates as the minimum that will be considered. It is awarded to the highest bidder who can make a satisfactory showing of ability, financial and otherwise, to carry the proposed opera- tions through to completion. The timber is paid for in relatively small advance installments as cutting proceeds and on the basis of a scale or measurement of the cut material made by a for- est officer. The bid stumpage rates in every long-term sale ap- ply for a limited period only and are subject to read- justment at stated intervals throughout the life of the contract to bring them into conformity with the then current value of stumpage in Southeastern Alaska. The proposed stumpage reappraisal interval for large pulp sales is 5 years following an initial 10-year period of no readjustment. National forest timber is sold for use and cannot be held for speculation or other purposes. Hence long- term contracts specify a definite date by which sub- stantial logging must begin. Timber is sold on the basis of the unit customarily used in the industry concerned. Thus, sawtimber is sold by the board foot, and piling and poles by the linear foot. Pulptimber will be sold by the cubic foot with the unit being 100 cubic feet of solid wood (excluding bark and rot), an amount approximately equal to a cord or to 500 board feet. Alaska contracts usually provide for “clear cutting” the merchantable timber on the sale area with the ex- ALASKA ception that not to exceed 5 or 10 percent of the volume will be reserved for natural reseeding purposes. Seed trees must be protected against injury from logging operations. Some form of selective cutting may later be required in situations where such system of cutting proves to be feasible. The Forest Service reserves the right to require the disposal of logging debris to the extent of lopping the tops and scattering the brush so that it lies close to the ground and away from seed trees and clumps of re- production. Satisfactory precautions must be taken against the escape of fire from logging operations. There must be no logging interference with salmon spawning streams. CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST— PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND AND KENAI The timbered areas along the shores of Prince Wil- liam Sound and in the east half of Kenai Peninsula above Seward have been set aside as the Chugach Na- tional Forest. Its area is 4,800,000 acres. The prin- cipal species are western hemlock and Sitka spruce but the tree growth is smaller than that of Southeast Alaska since this is the northern limits for the species. The products of the Chugach Forest supply local needs, being the closest source of supply for the lightly timbered and nontimbered sections of Alaska farther to the north, that is, the interior and the Arctic-Bering Sea areas. The chief demand is for lumber, heavy- sawn timber and piling. The largest sawmill with a capacity of 60,000 board feet per day, is located at Whittier, a gateway of the Alaska Railroad into In- terior Alaska. A few smaller mills, ranging up to 10 or 15 thousand feet in daily capacity, supply part of the local demands at Seward and other towns in or near the national forest. National Forest Administration The national forests of Alaska are administered by the Forest Service, United States Department of Agri- culture, with a regional forester and staff resident in Alaska. Only important matters involving ques- tions of general policy need be referred to Washington ; most national forest business is handled locally. The office of the regional forester is at Juneau. The Tongass Forest is divided into three divisions, with headquarters at Juneau, Ketchikan and Petersburg. The Chugach Forest has two divisions, with head- quarters at Cordova and Seward. Each division is in charge of a supervisor. The regional forester and ma) PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS the supervisors have assistants for handling specialized lines of work. A fleet of seagoing launches is maintained for field transportation. Principal Provisions of the Sale Agreement Covering the Recently Awarded Ketchikan Pulptimber Unit 1. The total amount of timber placed under contract is an estimated 1,500,000,000 cubic feet (roughly equiv- alent to 7,500,060,000 feet board measure). This vol- ume is based on the requirements for a 50-year supply of a sulphate or sulphite pulp mill having a daily capacity of 150 tons for the first 10 years and 525 tons daily for the remaining 40 years. 2. The agreement covers a period of 50 years. 3. The sale areas within which logging units are to be laid out to supply the timber for the pulp plant have been definitely designated. 4. The Forest Service has also designated the specific logging units, estimated to contain a 20-year timber supply for the plant, which are to be cut first. Units to be logged after the above have been cut will be selected currently by the pulp mill operator, as logging progresses, in advance of the plant needs, by 5-year periods. The selections are subject to the approval of the regional forester. 5. Insofar as conditions on the sale area will permit, the logging units to be selected and approved periodi- cally throughout the sale period will be of such char- acter that, with respect to the cost of logs delivered at the plant, the purchaser’s pulp manufacturing opera- tion will not be in a disadvantageous position in com- parison with similar enterprises in the Puget Sound region. 6. The purchaser agrees to install in Alaska a pulp mill of not less than 150 tons daily capacity within 3 years from the date of execution of the timber sale agreement: and to enlarge the plant to a capacity of 525 tons daily within 10 years of the date of the execution of the agreement. 7. The bid rates of the successful bidder constitute the stumpage rates to be paid for an initial 10-year period of operation. These rates are: $0.85 per 100 cubic feet for timber cut for manufacture of ulp. $150 per thousand feet board measure for cedar. $2.00 per thousand feet board measure for sawlogs of hem- lock and other species. $3.00 per thousand feet board measure for spruce sawlogs, including high-grade spruce logs intended for pulp manufacture. 277 The rates to be charged throughout the life of the sale agreement will be subject to readjustment at 5- year intervals after an initial period of 10 years, to make them conform to the then current value of the stumpage. The rates will be fixed by such reap- praisals, which shall give consideration to the estimated cost for the Alaska plants of manufacturing and ship- ping as compared with the costs for similar enterprises on Puget Sound. 8. In addition to payments for stumpage, the pur- chaser will make deposits with the Government to defray the cost to the Forest Service of work to be done on the cutover areas to improve the future stand of timber. The rate will be 10 cents per 100 cubic feet or an equivalent amount for timber scaled by other units of measure. 9. Timber will be paid for as cutting proceeds in installments of $10,000 to $40,000. 10. At least three-fourths of the purchaser’s yearly pulpwood requirements are to be taken from the areas under sale to him. The remainder may be taken from areas outside this proposed agreement under sales made to independent loggers or the pulp company. 11. Strips and blocks of timber having special scenic value in connection with water courses, lakes, recre- ation sites and highways are reserved from cutting. 12. The logging units are to be clear cut with the exception that not to exceed 10 percent of the mer- chantable timber volume within an actual cutting area is to be left for reseeding purposes, but this provision may be modified at dates of reappraisal of stumpage rates. 13. The merchantability of the trees and of the logs which must be cut are closely defined in the agreement. 14. The purchaser must take adequate precautions against the starting of forest fires and must assist in their suppression. 15. Woods operations will not be permitted to in- terfere with salmon in spawning streams or to injure spawning beds in any way. 16. To the extent that local laborers have the neces- sary skills and are available, the woods and other crews for the purchaser’s operations are to be recruited from among all residents of Southeast Alaska. 17. A surety bond of $50,000 is provided for perform- ance under the agreement. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE— AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ALASKA Agriculture in Alaska will develop along with in- dustry, mining, recreation, fisheries and other com- mercial activities. As the population grows, there will be need for increased agricultural production. Es- ALASKA ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION —INDUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT FOREST INDUSTRIES Forest wooos Trees orenations over Loss saw PoLes, ries hice SHINGLE BOLTS an a Loss ano Posts aes mo Locs saan n ann vencen ano | Swimece Sawwue Purwooo PLanT | wiee —y----4 : i 1 1 noucn sau Fenn mes ' ues é r 4 { : 1 rummture oo} WF ony KiLn vamitume | | puywoon veers ' ' u 4 : PLANING : pantie 7 + FuRarTune Fummiture | cumeer ue PuaNT ' ~~. 7 MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL TIMBER (Lumen 8 canTs) husees OeWERAL pox FABRICATING @ wooo wictwonk pacrory MANUFACTURING TREATING PLANT PLANTS PLANTS satuon soxes @ sox soars ano TREATED wicuw prooucts crates >Hooxs snirs prooucts wooo MIGH PRESSURE sawoust on sucenumic steaw wooo CHiPs acto 7 - ' : pet----—k PARTIAL [ panTian MYOROL YSIS i myoroursis | PLANT (STEAM) | pLawT (acioy | See t ' i-, -i------, Aci sucar i ' UGMoceLLULosE NEMICELLULOSE 11 Uenoceceuose | sowtion | | { bese eeees ee sse elses WATERPROOFING AGENT PRESSED BOARD OF VARYING OENsITY BoaRo PLANT UMITED STATES FOREST SERVICE EXPLANATION 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM POWER REQUIRED IN LARGE QUANTITIES MECHANICAL GROUP i PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS — FOREST INDUSTRIES ALASKA NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION—INOUSTRIAL & COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE EXPLANATION 10 YEAR PROGRAM LONG RANGE PROGRAM FIBER GROUP PULP LOGS WOOD WASTE MILL WASTE AND WOOD SULPHUR LIMESTONE Lime Lime COOKING LiovOR [> SULPHITE SULPHATE MECHANICAL PULP MILL PULP MILL PULP MILL WASTE ALPHA CELLULOSE UNBLEACHED BLEACHED SULPHITE LIQUOR CHEMICAL PULP puce puLe > yy UNBLEACHED BLEACHED WASTE MECHANICAL pulP pup Liquor pur ' Lome }) WASTE LIQUOR | RECOVERY PLANT | RECOVERY PLANT L---- Part surwun THY mH vi TEAM 1M ' ETHYL ALCOHOL atcoveny ' ROCESS STE COOKING LIQUOR L---- eee Le + J co SZ --— q 279 280 pecially in the immediate future it can be anticipated that military food requirements will remain high. But there must be a very fine balance maintained between the rate of agricultural development and in- dustrial development in Alaska. Payrolls for indus- trial workers in population concentrations are necessary if there is to be a market for Alaska agricultural products. The number of Army personnel at Alaskan bases and Army policy with respect to procurement of those food products which can be produced in Alaska will be of primary immediate importance in the rapidity and stability of agricultural development. Because of the short growing season and other factors. many farm families now and in the future will rely upon work off the farm for a part of their income. From a technical viewpoint, research at the Experi- ment Stations and also farm experience have proved the possibility for further development of specialized farming enterprises in Alaska. In many instances specialized enterprises on the same farm have been com- bined in the farm economy to increase the income and and make better use of farm equipment and labor. These specialized enterprises which have been given study at the Experiment Stations and used on the farms in Alaska are: Market gardening, dairying, meat ani- mals including beef cattle, sheep. hogs and poultry; small fruits, grains, annual grain and legume hay crops, and perennial cultivated grass and legumes for hay and pasture. Better grain and forage crops, in- cluding pastures, are of basic importance to successful livestock and poultry enterprises. Closely related to all these enterprises is the necessity for technical knowledge concerning soil classification, soi! analysis, soil management and plant response. The scientific study of soils isa comparatively new phase of research work in the various agricultural areas of Alaska. It will become increasingly important in the agricultural development of the Territory. There are wide differences in climate and considerable variation in soil formations over the broad expanse of Alaska. Because of these variations, farm enterprises adapted to one area may be uneconomical in other areas. Ex- cessive precipitation and lack of suitable soils in South- eastern Alaska make production of hay and grain difficult. Over much of Alaska the native grasses have been used extensively for hay. In the area extend- ing northward from Homer, on Cook Inlet, through the Matanuska, Susitna, and Tanana Valleys to Ram- part on the Yukon River, early maturing cereal crops ripen, even though the growing season is quite short, but artificial drying may be necessary to condition the grain properly for storage. These crops include wheats, oats, rye, and barleys. The seasons are too cool for corn to mature. The demand for grains for poultry ALASKA and livestock feed is increasing more rapidly than their production in Alaska because of the difficulty and ex- pense of clearing land and putting it into cultivation, There is no doubt that eventually many of the varieties and strains of grains tried at the experiment stations will find wide use in Alaska farming areas where they are adapted. Experiments with perennial cultivated grasses and legumes indicate that improved winter hardy, high- yielding strains of these valuable forage plants, adapted to both hay and pasture, may eventually be developed, but as yet this goal has not been attained. This lack is an important current handicap to livestock produc- tion, including dairying. Good pastures are especially important as a source of nutritious, low-cost feed. Applications of barnyard manure and of commercial fertilizers to stimulate quick plant growth and increase the nutritional value of the hay and pasture is accepted practice on most of the farms. Only limited tests have been made on soils in Alaska to indicate their fertility. As soil analyses are completed on the various soil clas- sifications, they will undoubtedly indicate that the use of barnyard manures, green manuring crops. and com- mercial fertilizers will become increasingly important in a good soil-management program. There will be some farms in all agricultural areas in Alaska devoted entirely to the growing of market vege- tables, an important limiting factor being the extent of the market. Because vegetable and potato production provide employment for only a comparatively short period, a large percentage of such enterprises will likely be combined with dairying, poultry production, or other livestock activities to provide a year-round income. In some areas the farming enterprise will be only a part- time occupation. Farm income will be supplemented by either year-round or seasonal non-farm work. Livestock and Poultry Because of the rapid increase in civilian and Army personnel in Alaska, there is a shortage of dairy prod- ucts. It is doubtful if the production of fluid milk will reach the market saturation point for this population for many years. At present, only fluid milk is mar- keted. Very little butter, cottage cheese, or buttermilk are produced in Alaska and only very small amounts of whole milk are used in ice cream. A major portion of the feed concentrates for both dairy animals and poultry are imported from the States at high cost. Poultry husbandry has been slow in developing in Alaska. Good housing is essential. Most of the grain used for feed is now imported at high cost. In the long run, local production of at least grain for scratch feed may become desirable if the enterprise is to be economic. "= PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS Poultry combines well with vegetable production, or with root crops such as potatoes, rutabagas, carrots, etc., and provides a year-round income to pay current obligations throughout the year. Experimental work at the Fairbanks and Matanuska Stations, as well as practical experience of farmers in Alaska, show that poultry can be an economic enterprise. As the country develops there will be room for expansion of this enterprise. Sheep and cattle have been produced for many years on various islands of the Aleutian chain. There is considerable room for expansion of this industry in that section, especially on islands where harbor facilities are available. To date very few beef cattle have been produced on the mainland of Alaska. The same may be said of sheep. Weather conditions prevailing from Kodiak Island north along Cook Inlet through the Big Susitna River valley are less severe than in much of the area of the intermountain States. Feed and water are abun- dant on the south slopes of the mountains above timber- line throughout this entire area. On the extensive tide flats, along the southern Alaska coast and extending along Cook Inlet and on river deltas, some grazing is possible. With this abundant summer range, there is still the necessity for cleared land in the valleys on which to produce winter roughage for a long winter feeding period. There are extensive highland areas in interior Alaska, north of the Alaska Mountain range, suitable for graz- ing, but only during a limited midsummer period. Val- ley land will have to be cleared on which to produce feed for the long winter feeding period. Because of severe winter temperatures and deep snow, it will be necessary to supply shelter. Predator control will be an important problem. Despite these limitations, it will be possible to produce some beef cattle and sheep in parts of Alaska. Hogs have been produced in all the agricultural areas of Alaska for many years. At present, most of the hogs produced are in areas near Army bases or cities where garbage is available as the major portion of the feed. -\s more land is cleared for seeding pasture and grains and a system of hogging off crops is practiced, more pork will be produced for family use and for local market consumption. Other Agricultural Production Problems A most pressing requirement for agricultural devel- opment in Alaska is land clearing. Few farms have sufficient cleared land for economical production. Obtaining more cleared acres will require assistance in the form of long term, low interest rate loans, tech- 281 nical assistance, and other aids. The high cost of clear- ing warrants thorough exploration of feasible ways and means for improving methods and reducing costs. Barnyard manures, green manuring crops, and com- mercial fertilizer have been used on Alaska farms with excellent results. Bacterial action in Alaska soils is very slow, due to low prevailing soil temperatures and the short growing season. Barnyard, or green manures, supplemented by applications of such commercial fer- tilizers as soil analysis and plant response results indi- cate, will improve conditions for plant growth. Sound crop rotation practices will assist materially in increas- ing crop production and maintaining or even increasing soil fertility. Where livestock and poultry are major farm enterprises, production of feed crops, especially grasses and legumes, and use of barnyard manure will help to maintain soil productivity. Where crops such as market vegetables are produced, careful tillage, rota- tion, fertilization and other soil conservation and man- agement practices must be applied, to maintain soil tilth, and to avoid deleterious soil erosion. To produce farm commodities at a minimum of cost it will be necessary that labor saving equipment be used wherever possible. The best farm practices, including crop rotations and soil and moisture conservation meas- ures, must be used. High producing animals, poultry, and seeds must be secured. Seeds of adapted varieties may be produced locally if properly conditioned for storage. Long range farm planning will be necessary. Farm records must be kept consistently, so that un- profitable farm practices, animals, equipment and enter- prises can be eliminated. Only by keeping records and analyzing the farm business can a farmer expect to build a sound farm economy. Competition in agri- culture is just as keen in Alaska as it is in the States. Irrigation of some crops will be practical in certain seasons. Especially is this true where market vege- tables are the major enterprises. In some agricultural areas, the gravelly character of the subsoil would pre- clude the use of water carried by ditches from streams. Where sufficient ground water is available for pumping at economical levels, the use of sprinkler irrigation by pipes laid on the surface has produced excellent results during the dry season. To whatever extent irrigation by pumping is used, it will not be profitable unless there is an abundant supply of low-cost electric power. Marketing Farming is a business which usually requires the full time of the operator. Marketing is a specialized busi- ness. Few farmers are so favorably situated that they can spare the time to supervise the sale of their products satisfactorily. Usually the farmer's produce is sold 282 through a cooperative marketing organization, or on contract to private buyers. As agricultural develop- ment becomes more stabilized in Alaska, better market- ing facilities will undoubtedly become available. In order to protect their own financial interests, it will be necessary that farmers produce and deliver only the highest quality produce for marketing. This requires education as to market grades and quality. The pro- gressive farmer will take advantage of every opportun- ity to secure information on the market requirements for his products. He will also take a personal interest in the organization through which his products are marketed. He must be willing to invest his time, thought and money in his marketing organization. Agricultural Services in Alaska Research and experimental work in Alaska will fol- low definite trends in agricultural development. Agri- cultural leaders in Alaska are agreed that this develop- ment will first be dairying, poultry, forage and grain crops, and market vegetables and fruits. Soils work will include soils classification, analysis of soil samples, and work in soil management and plant response. Re- search work on types of farm building, their insulation and heating: methods and equipment for harvesting, storing and preserving vegetables, forage crops, and grains will be the goals of research by agricultural en- gineers. Analysis of individual farm records to es- tablish the most economical farm enterprises and farm management practices, and marketing problems, will be handled by agricultural economists. As agriculture develops, plant diseases, insects, and weeds will become more prevalent. Studies of these pests must be made and control measures recommended by plant pathol- ogists, entomologists and agronomists. Studies of human and animal nutrition must be made on Alaska vegetables, fruits, grains, and forage crops by nutrition- ists. As yet animal and poultry diseases have seldom reached major proportions because of the scattered farms in the agricultural areas. When fuller develop- ment is reached, these diseases are certain to take a heavy toll of livestock and poultry unless given study by bacteriologists and veterinarians under Alaska con- ditions, so that preventive measures may be devised and and taken. Fur farming problems—breeding, feeding, diseases, and others—need to be attacked. All these are research problems the solution of which is necessary for the building of a sound agricultural future in Alaska. Such research is the function of the Alaska Agricul- tural Experiment Stations, currently under the juris- diction of the United States Department of Agri- culture. ALASKA The results of research are brought to the citizens of Alaska through the educational activities of the Agri- cultural Extension Service. This is a cooperative un- dertaking of the United States Department of Agricul- ture and the University of Alaska. Its work is carried on by agricultural agents, home demonstration agents, 4-H clubs, and in other ways. Alaska soils need to be safeguarded against erosion damage by wind and water. To attack this problem the Alaska legislature in 1947 enacted a soil conservation district law. The law declared the Territory to be a soil conservation district, established the Alaska Soil Conservation Board and a conservation committee advisory to it, and provided that land occupiers may organize and operate local subdistricts of the Alaska Soil Conservation District for the purpose of attaining soil conservation and wise land use. Organization of the district followed, and early in 1948 the Board began its program. Several subdistricts have been organized, and others are in process. The operations of the Soil Conservation Service in Alaska consist of assisting the district and its subdis- tricts in two broad categories of work: making available the services of trained conservationists, and a limited amount of equipment and conservation materials, for helping settlers and farmers plan, apply, and maintain conservation and wise land use on their farms: ¢ conduct of land capability surveys and investigation of potential agricultural areas and of applicable soil con- servation and erosion preventive and control measures. The agricultural conservation program assists soil conservation and agricultural development by making payments for performance of designated practices for farm improvement and soil conservation. including clearing. The program is locally administered through the Alaska Director of Extension. Production and subsistence loans are made by the Farmers Home Administration to farmers and stock- men who are unable to secure adequate credit at reason- able rates from the other sources for the purchase of livestock, seed, feed, fertilizer, equipment and for other farm needs, under authority of Title IT of the Bankhead- Jones Farm Tenant Act as amended. Long-term farm ownership loans are made to farmers and veterans, unable to obtain satisfactory credit from other sources, for the purchase of family-type farms, for the enlarge- ment of undersized farm units and the development of farm units under authority of Title I of the Bankhead- Jones Farm Tenant Act as amended. Preference is given to veterans. Under present law. a first mortgage on the real estate must be obtained. This can be done only where title has passed to private ownership. Legislation is needed to authorize the creation of a lien through other means upon homestead entry and prior to passage of title. One cooperative loan association is PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS also outstanding; this is to the Matanuska Valley Farm- ers Cooperating Association, a purchasing and market- ing cooperative. To guard against the introduction and spread of injurious plant pests, the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine maintains inspectors in Alaska for the inspection and treatment, if necessary, of plant mate- rials transported by air and surface-borne carriers in international commerce. Highly important to successful agriculture and rural living in Alaska is rural electrification, which is dis- cussed in detail below. RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN ALASKA The Need for Hydroelectric Power for Rural Electrification in Alaska Alaska’s lack of plentiful electric energy at reasonable cost is recognized by those familiar with the Territory as a grave obstacle to full development of the area. The Rural Electrification Administration is particularly concerned about the situation because of its adverse effect on rural electrification progress in Alaska. Ex- panded hydroelectric development is necessary if the full benefits of rural electrification in the Territory are to be realized. This conclusion grows from several years of experi- ence with the rural electric cooperatives which have been organized with REA financing to carry out rural electrification in Alaska. There are at present six of these cooperatives. The first two were established in 1942 at Kodiak and Palmer; the others, in 1947 and 1948 at Homer, Fairbanks, Auke Bay, and Anchorage. Electrification of several additional areas of Alaska through cooperatives is under consideration. None of the Alaska systems for which REA loans were made in 1947 and 1948 has yet been completed. While several factors have impeded progress, perhaps the most difficult problem has been to secure dependable sources of low-cost electrical energy. For example, the Matanuska Electric Association of Palmer gets its wholesale power from the Anchorage Power System, which was originally designed to serve a population of approximately 3,500, and is now serving about 20,000. This situation has brought serious problems to the cooperative and its member-users—service interrup- tions, restricted use of power and inability to serve new consumers. The Anchorage situation is perhaps the most severe in the Territory. but Fairbanks and other Alaskan communities have similar problems. 283 The high cost of electric energy in Alaska results chiefly from the Territory’s dependence on numerous, small generating plants. Electricity produced by such means is a costly commodity. The Matanuska Electric Association buys power from the city of An- chorage at 2 cents per kilowatt hour—more than double the average wholesale rate paid by REA borrowers in the States. Asa result the retail cost of electric energy to Matanuska Valley consumers is so high as to dis- courage full utilization of the advantages of electric appliances and machines. A typical valley user pays an average bill of $25 to $35 per month to operate an electric water heater, deep-well pump, electric range, electric washing machine and small house-hold appli- ances. REA financing of generating and transmission facilities in Alaska will probably be necessary in serving certain isolated rural sections, but this repre- sents no solution to the problem of over-all power development in the area. As in the Territory’s present generating plants, the cost of producing power with such facilities would be high. Alaska needs a co- ordinated hydroelectric development program to pro- vide low-cost power for its rapidly expanding military, industrial and rural needs. Such a program is, of course, far beyond the scope of REA. If this high-cost situation can be overcome, doing so will greatly aid the further development of agricul- tural and associated industries in many parts of Alaska. Matanuska Valley farmers are at present using only an average of 140 kilowatt hours of electricity per month. If abundant low-cost power were available, estimates based on experience in the States indicate that average use would rise sharply—perhaps to 1,000 kilowatt hours per month within a very short time. Low-cost electric power could do much to relieve Alaskan farmers of the hazards of a short and un- certain growing and harvesting season. It would also encourage the establishment of basic industries along the lines of REA borrowers in Alaska to supplement the agricultural development and provide a well- rounded economy for the area. These possibilities are indicated in more detail in the following summary of the status of each of the REA-financed systems in Alaska : Matanuska Electric Association, Palmer: Operates 113 miles of line serving 552 consumers. Recently re- ceived additional loan of $185,000 for new construction and improvement of existing lines. Purchases whole- sale energy from the city of Anchorage at a flat rate of 2 cents per kilowatt-hour, but has received notice from city of termination of present wholesale power contract. Serves the Matanuska Valley, and is in 284 position to serve gold and coal mining area in the mountains bordering on the valley. Kodiak Electric Association, Kodiak: Operates 10 miles of line serving 530 consumers in and near the town of Kodiak. Generates own power in diesel gen- erating plant. Has new REA loan of $310,000 to finance complete rebuilding of distribution system and installation of additional generating units. Serves Kodiak fishing industry, which is expected to increase greatly in importance in the next few years. Homer Electric Association, Homer: Has REA loan of $217,000 to finance a generating plant and 43 miles of line to serve 198 consumers. System under con- struction. Substantial agricultural and industrial development of the Homer area is anticipated. ‘The town is situated on Kachemak Bay on the Kenai Penin- sula. A low bench near the elevation of the town offers land and climatic conditions suitable for crop production. The higher land appears capable of being used for grazing. The area is underladen with a sub- bituminous coal deposit of great size. Homer will soon be linked with Anchorage by the Kenai Road now under construction. Completion of this road should result in a rapid growth of population in the Homer vicinity as well as elsewhere along the highway. Golden Valley Electric Association, Fairbanks: Was REA loan to finance construction of 59 miles of line to serve 129 consumers. System now under construc- tion. Expects to be able to purchase wholesale power. The area of this system lies immediately adjacent to the city of Fairbanks in the Tanana Valley. Placer mining of gold has been carried on here for many years. The valley is an area possessing possibilities for fur- ther agricultural development. Glacier Highway Electric Association, Auke Bay: Has REA loan of $230,000 for 45 miles of line to serve 251 consumers. System under construction with ener- gization expected in January 1949. Will be able to purchase wholesale power. This system lies in the vicinity of Auke Bay north of Juneau. Many persons living in the area are employed in Juneau, either in Government offices or by privately-owned businesses. There are numerous summer homes along the co-op lines which are expected to be occupied on a year-round basis when dependable service is available. The area has lumber and fishing industries and is hopeful of a large scale wood pulp development which would result in a substantial increase in the population. Chugach Electric Association, Anchorage: Has REA loan of $560,000 for 100 miles of line to serve 848 con- sumers. Lines cannot be energized until power source is available. Anchorage is a growing commercial cen- ter, and the Anchorage vicinity is recognized as vital in the defense of Alaska. The area proposed to be served by this cooperative lies immediately adjacent to ALASKA the city and has shared in the tremendous growth which the locality has experienced in recent years. The Anchorage area and the Matanuska Valley have been looking to the development of low-cost hydro- electric power from Lake Eklutna that can serve not only immediate defense requirements but should also provide a base for developing and stabilizing the civil- ian economy in this area. A project at Lake Eklutna is urgently needed to meet conditions that can be clas- sified as an emergency. HEADQUARTERS ALASKAN COMMAND OFFICE OF THE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF Fort Ricrtarpson, ALASKA Novemner 19, 1948. The Honorable The Secr ky OF THE INTERTOR, The Department of the Interior, Washington 25, D.C. Attention: Bureau of Reclamation. My Dear Mr. Secrerary: My responsibility as the unified commander of the armed services in Alaska requires that I examine all of the factors which affect the national military establishment within the Terri- tory. It is quite evident that the over-all defense of Alaska depends upon two closely interrelated factors, the military facilities and installations available to the Armed Forces and the civil resources of the Territory. To the extent that civil facilities are developed to a level which will permit a self-sustaining economy and a full development of the natural resources of the Ter- ritory, the expenditures for purely military works may be reduced. The benefit to the national economy of such a reduction in military expenditures is obvious. A review of the various programs proposed for im- plementation by the Department of the Interior indi- cates that a number of these would, if implemented, strengthen the internal economy of Alaska, and thus tend to reduce the investment in military works with- out a corresponding reduction in defense capabilities. Among these projects are the provision of housing and community facilities, the improvement of transpor- tation, the development of hydroelectrical power, in- crease in agricultural development, and the encourage- ment of capital goods industry. It is difficult to assign an overriding priority to any of these projects since the cumulative effect is neces- sary if Alaska is to be made self-sustaining. One of the most critical needs, however, is the pro- vision of additional housing and community facilities. The demand for housing has far outstripped private SONV 16! NIDWIA ONY WxSV IV RURAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION = zs a PUERTO RICO & VIRGIN ISLANDS > Lge gg puerto mico = ve on < vitews =| | (VIRGIN yi : Tacanoa ' ; ' \ iN re ® ® ® zy te ’ x e v , ‘ 4 tee . VY oo tee , a ajo * . ant &: 'o ™—— i | | Shooms | nawlee \ fea, ree ney Or T | wren | 6 4 1, - ° hs roman Ste : mano . yy me aon pa ALASKA AND VIRGIN ISLANDS SCaLe-srarure wes eal @ 6 0 m0 #00 fo w \ : - \ <e \ *, . ey a° ty) S \ ‘~ \ ye \% \ \ oe we \. LEGEND ALLOCATIONS MADE OR WA cONstRUCTION IN PROGRESS MM enercizeo REVISED JANUARY 1, 1948 SLSTUTLNI ONILVUAICOOD JO SINVUOOUd C82 286 capabilities, especially in view of the high costs of construction in Alaska. Unless housing and related facilities can be provided at reasonable costs, all other efforts to reduce the cost of living in Alaska will be dissipated. Since much of the present high cost of construction can be traced to high transportation costs and long delays in shipping, improvement in means of transpor- tation and reduction in transportation costs is also vitally necessary. Improvement in the internal high- way net in the central Alakan area is desirable from both the civil and the purely military standpoint. The provision of an alternate land line of communication to the United States is a vital matter. The blockade of Alaska, occasioned by the current shipping strike, merely hints at the disaster which would strike Alaska in the event the lines of communication were interrupted during the period of anemergency. Although improve- ment of the Alaskan highway would provide an emer- geney land line of communication, the only sure high tonnage link with the States is the construction of the proposed Alaska-United States rail line down the intermountain trough. Such a railroad would open up for development new areas presently inaccessible because of the Jack of transportation, both in Alaska and in Canada. I have been informed that almost 20,000,000 acres of Territory lands are arable and another 20,000,000 acres would serve as pasture lands. Improved transpor- tation would open some of these lands almost immed- jately ; however, the high cost of clearing land, the lack of suitable equipment, and the scarcity of fertilizers also currently impede improvement of the agricultural program. Cheap and dependable power is a necessity for the development of any community. Only minor develop- ment of hydroelectrical power has taken place in Alaska and yet a potential exists which has been de- scribed as almost unlimited. A program for the devel- opment of hydroelectric power in the Anchorage area would undoubtedly result in a major improvement in the economic condition of this part of the Territory. Finally, if Alaska is to be self-sustaining, domestic industry must be encouraged. In view of the current needs of the Territory, it would appear that action to develop at an early date indigenous sources of cement, fertilizer, and the production of petroleum from coal resources would produce the most striking results. I have outlined these matters because of my knowl- edge that any increase in the economic development of the Territory of Alaska will result in a more adequate defense for the Territory and for the United States at a lesser cost in men, money, and materials. You may ALASKA be assured that this command will support any practic- able program to effect this end. Sincerely, (Signed) N. F. Twrnrne, Lt. Gen., USAF, Commander-in-Chief. TERRITORY OF ALASKA OFFICE OF TIIE GOVERNOR JUNEAU January 10, 1949, Mr. Joserit Morcan, Chief, Axaska INvEsTIGATIONS OFFICE, Bureau of Reclamation, Juneau, Alaska. Dear Mr. Morcan: I am glad to have an opportunity to comment on the work of the Bureau of Reclamation in Alaska and the great good which I am confident will result from a federally organized effort under the Bureau to develop Alaska’s hydroelectric power re- sources. As we know, the Reclamation Act has never been extended to Alaska—one of the many discriminations of which our Territory has been the victim. We were gratified when Congress last year made it possible for the Bureau of Reclamation to make preliminary in- vestigations in Alaska which should result, among other things, in the comprehensive departmental reconnais- sance report on the development of the water resources of Alaska. We are hopeful that the Congress will make it pos- sible in the near future for the Bureau to operate, just as it does in the States of the West, in the Territory of Alaska where reclamation and power development are needed in order to enhance our opportunities for economic advancement. Hydroelectric power constitutes probably Alaska’s outstanding undeveloped resource. Its significance can be appreciated when its potentialities are considered alongside those of the mineral, forest, agricultural, fisheries, recreational, and other undeveloped resources of Alaska. We are grateful for the work you have done and are anxious for progress on the work the Bureau of Recla- mation proposes to do in this Territory. Not only is there every reason why Alaska should participate in the Bureau’s program, but there is great need that the work be speeded because of the imperative necessity for rapid development of Alaska’s potentialities, a development long delayed. Sincerely yours, (Signed) Ernest Grcentne, Governor of Alaska. PROGRAMS OF COOPERATING INTERESTS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Alaska Field Staff JUNEAU, ALASKA January 12, 1949. MEMORANDUM To: J. A. Krve, Secretary of the Interior. From: Kexnetn J. Kapow, Chairman, Alaska Field Committee. T have read with great interest the report on Alaska sponsored by and prepared under the general super- vision of the Bureau of Reclamation. After careful consideration of the material presented therein, it is my opinion that this report accurately sets forth develop- ment potentials of Alaska’s natural resources, points up many of its most important development problems, and may prove to be the basis for an orderly and com- prehensive development of the Territory. The report points out the definite need for integration 287 of developmental activities, both public and private, and for coordination of governmental agencies. This need was recognized by your office when you recently appointed a personal representative in Alaska to co- ordinate and facilitate the various inter- and intra- developmental activities for the greatest public good. Since this report is intended to provide “engineering and economic investigations as a basis for legisla- tion . . .” to extend the reclamation laws to Alaska, I believe the contents herein satisfy that requirement, insofar as facts are now available. It is my firm belief that the economic and social growth of Alaska cannot be satisfactorily accomplished without the development of its land and water re- sources. As I see it, cheap electrical energy is the “pass key” to present and future development needs. I wholeheartedly endorse this report in its entirety and urge its early approval by the Department. (Signed) Kennetn J. Kavow, Director.