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Management of Transmission Line Rights-of-Way Vol l 1978
ENV co¢ Biological Services Program MANAGEMENT OF TRANSMISSION LINE RIGHTS-OF-WAY FOR FISH AND WILDLIFE cule BACKGROUND INFORMATION SISITNA 7 Fish and Wildlife Service reel US. Department of the Interior LIBRARY HOT en | COLUMBIA Biological Services Program RS EA PE TN SSSA MEAD At a A i i Nhe vb FWS/OBS-79/22 MANAGEMENT OF TRANSMISSION LINE RIGHTS-OF-WAY FOR FISH AND WILDLIFE VOLUME BACKGROUND INFORMATION Michael Galvin, Project Manager Asplundh Environmental Services Blair Mill Road Willow Grove, PA 19090 Kenneth D. Hoover and Michael L. Avery, Project Officers National Power Plant Team 2929 Plymouth Road Ann Arbor, MI 48105 Performed for: Power Plant Project Energy Research and Development Administration, Office of Biological Services Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Energy Regulatory Commission of the U.S. Department of the Interior Department of Energy Fish and Wildlife Service ec rr nnn nears NN U.S. Department of the Interior DISCLAIMER The opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommenda- tions expressed in this manual are those of Asplundh Environmental Services and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Office of Biological Services, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Federal government. Prepared for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service under con- tract no. 14-16-0008-2150 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Management of transmission line rights-of-way for fish and wildlife. Performed for Power Plant Project, Office of Bio- logical Services, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of Interior, et al. “Biological Services Program FWS/OBS-79/ 22.” Includes bibliographies and indexes. Supt. of Docs. no.: I 49.2:T68/2/v.1. CONTENTS: v. |. Background information.—v. 2. Eastern United States.—v. 3. Western United States. 1. Electric lines—Overhead—Right of way— Environmental aspects—United States. 2. Clearing of land—Environmental aspects— United States. 3. Wild- life management—United States. 4. Nature conserva- tion—United States. 5. Ecology—United States. I. Galvin, Michael T. II. Hoover, Kenneth D., 1943- III. Avery, Michael L. 1V. Asplundh Environmental Ser- vices. V. National Power Plant Team. VI. United States. Fish and Wildlife Service. Power Plant Project. QH104.M36 333.954 79-607044 Foreword The amount of land used for electric power generation and transmission in the United States is expected to increase substantially in the near future. Presently, over 300,000 miles of overhead transmission lines carry electric power for our homes, factories, and offices. The lands beneath those transmission lines, called rights-of-way (ROWs), can provide valuable habitat for fish and wildlife, if managed with that purpose in mind. This manual is the result of a cooperative effort between Federal agencies and regional and local utilities to document the wildlife management and vegetation mainte- nance currently in use and to develop a step-by-step approach to ROW management that results in management strategies that not only enhance fish and wildlife habitat, but are cost-effective and also assure electric transmission reliability. Management of Transmission Line Rights-of-Way for Fish and Wildlife is a three- volume reference manual that provides general background information on wildlife man- agement and vegetation maintenance techniques and specific information on selected plants and wildlife species of the Eastern and Western United States. A step-by-step approach to ROW management planning identifies areas suitable for specific wildlife management planning and assures that all available habitat is evaluated and best utilized to benefit fish and wildlife. With this kind of information and approach, biologists and ROW managers will be able to assess the management implications of transmission line ROW siting and other habitat modifications on fish and wildlife and provide information to decisionmakers. We believe this manual is a major step in providing the type of information necessary to incorporate environmental considerations into resource development decisions. SJ hymnal Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service The Biological Services Program was established within the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to supply scientific information and methodologies on key environmental issues which impact fish and wildlife resources and their supporting ecosystems. The mission of the Program is as follows: To strengthen the Fish and Wildlife Service in its role as a primary source of information on national fish and wildlife resources, particularly in respect to envi- ronmental impact assessment. To gather, analyze, and present information that will aid decisionmakers in the identification and resolution of problems associated with major land and water use changes. To provide better ecological information and evalua- tion for Department of the Interior development programs, such as those relating to energy development. Information developed by the Biological Services Program is intended for use in the planning and decision- making process to prevent or minimize the impact of development on fish and wildlife. Biological Services research activities and technical assistance services are based on an analysis of the issues, the decisionmakers involved and their information needs, and an evaluation of the state-of-the-art to identify information gaps and determine priorities. This is a strategy to assure that the products produced and disseminated will be timely and useful. Biological Services projects have been initiated in the following areas: © Coal extraction and conversion © Power plants © Geothermal, mineral, and oil shale development © Water resource analysis, including stream alterations and western water allocation © Coastal ecosystems and Outer Continental Shelf development © Systems and inventory, including National Wetlands Inventory, habitat classification and analysis, and infor- mation transfer. The Program consists of the Office of Biological Services in Washington, D.C., which is responsible for overall plan- ning and management; National Teams which provide the Program’s central scientific and technical expertise and who arrange for contracting Biological Services studies with States, universities, consulting firms, and others; Regional staff who provide a link to problems at the operating level; and staff at certain Fish and Wildlife Service research facili- ties who conduct in-house research studies. Electric transmission rights-of-ways (ROWs) occupy approximately five million acres of land throughout the United States (Asplundh Environmental Services 1978).! With few exceptions, however, utility companies have regarded wildlife habitat management as coincidental to their ROW maintenance procedures. This is because utilities, although strictly regulated by the State public service commissions, are licensed only to provide electricity at the most economical rate to customers. In recent years, wildlife habitat has been decreasing rapidly due to developmental projects and very efficient agricultural methods. Transmission line ROWs, however, constitute one land use development which holds great potential for benefiting wildlife. By incor- porating basic wildlife management strategies into existing clearing and maintenance practices, cost- effective programs may be developed that enhance wildlife habitat and continue to meet electric trans- mission reliability requirements. SCOPE AND PURPOSES This manual brings together for the first time ecological information on selected plants and wildlife on a nation- wide basis and demonstrates how this information may be incorporated into ROW wildlife management plans based on existing techniques. The manual does not attempt to evaluate the- various potential land use alternatives associated with ROWs. Wildlife manage- ment is the only option considered here. The manage- ment practices presented are offered as suggestions only and are not meant as rules or regulations that must be followed. The objectives of this manual are: 1 to provide U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) biologists and utility ROW managers with a refer- ence source to aid them in developing and imple- menting fish and wildlife management plans on overhead electric transmission line ROWs and, 'Asplundh Environmental Services. 1978. Benefit analysis—use of 2,4,5-T for vegeta- tion management on rights-of-way. Asplundh Environmental Services, Willow Grove, PA. 44 pp. Preface 2 to encourage more cooperation between groups in developing and implementing these management plans. Suggested wildlife management strategies and guidelines for vegetation maintenance are presented for all biological ecoregions in the United States in the introduction (see “Identifying Biological Ecoregions”) with considerations for cost-effectiveness and electric transmission reliability. Although the manual focuses on electric transmission line ROWs, it may be of help to anyone involved with land, vegetation, or wildlife management in unique areas. Such areas as pipeline ROWs, railroad ROWs, roadway ROWs, logging areas, or “leftover” bits of agricultural lands—such as gullies, odd corners, or fence rows—are all places where some of the information in this manual may be used to improve wildlife habitat. The manual may also prove useful during the process of transmission corridor selection by providing information on management potential for wild- life in different vegetation communities. It is fully recognized that this publication does not repre- sent the final word on wildlife management on ROWs. Future work in this field will no doubt result in innovations not contained in this manual. Novel approaches may be needed in the areas of setting management objectives and incorporating them into wildlife management plans, inven- torying resources in special linear habitats such as ROWs, relating the effects of ROW habitat management to wildlife populations in adjacent habitats, and determining the value of ROW habitat to various wildlife species. These are among the topics that must receive more attention in the future. The National Power Plant Team solicits all com- ments and suggestions on these and other related subjects. Any suggestions or questions regarding this manual should be directed to: Information Transfer Specialist National Power Plant Team U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2929 Plymouth Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105 (313) 668-2365 Acknowledgments Asplundh Environmental Services (AES) was responsible for conducting this project and preparing the initial drafts of the manuscript. AES staff members Paul A. Johnston, plant ecologist, and Phil Simpson, wildlife biologist, coordinated the many parts of this extremely complex project. The following individuals are gratefully acknowledged for their contributions to the development and organization of the information contained in this publication. David M. Armstrong, University of Colorado—eco- logical information on selected wildlife species of the Rocky Mountain States; organization and develop- ment of selected wildlife species list. Richard R. Braham, North Carolina State University— ecological characteristics and plant species lists for dominants and common associates for the Outer Coastal Plain Forest and the Southeastern Mixed Forest provinces. William C. Bramble, professor emeritus, Purdue Uni- versity—organization, style, and format of the manual; plant species lists and corresponding ecological characteristics for the Laurentian Mixed Forest, the Eastern Deciduous Forest, and the Prairie Parkland provinces. William R. Byrnes, Purdue University—administrative and organizational help in finalizing the format and style of the manual. Kenneth L. Carvell, West Virginia University—project format and style; technical assistance in many chapters. Leslie W. Gysel, Michigan State University—technical editor for the ROW resource assessment and review of wildlife habitat management techniques chapters; project organization. Joan Hett, University of Washington—plant listings, ecological characteristics, and wildlife information for the Columbia Forest, the Willamette—Puget Forest, and the Palouse Grassland provinces, and the Sitka Spruce—Cedar—Hemlock Forest, the Cedar—Hemlock—Douglas-fir Forest, the Silver Fir—Douglas-fir Forest, the Sagebrush—Wheat- grass, and the Ponderosa Shrub Forest sections. Robert Hobdy, State Division of Forestry (Hawaii)— listing and description of the selected plant species for the Hawaiian Islands. John L. Launchbaugh, Kansas State University—plant species listings and ecological characteristics for the Prairie Parkland, the Prairie Brushland, the Tall- grass Prairie, the Great Plains Short-grass Prairie, and the California Grassland provinces. John W. Marr, University of Colorado—development of the plant ecological characteristics tables; dominant plant and common associate species for the Douglas-fir Forest and the Ponderosa Pine— Douglas-fir Forest sections, the Wyoming Basin Province, and all of Alaska. Sidney T. McDaniels, Mississippi State University— plant species lists and ecological characteristics for the Everglades. Robert E. McWhorter, Natural Resource Consultants (with Kansas Fish and Game Department at time of the study)—wildlife information for all prairie provinces. William J. Neidig, vice president, Asplundh Tree Expert Company—cost data on ROW construction and maintenance methods. Harold H. Prince, Michigan State University—format and organization of plant species tables. Patrick J. Rusz, Grand Valley State College—chapters on ROW assessment guidelines and the literature review of the wildlife habitat management tech- niques applicable to ROWs; ecological characteris- tics of bird species. Richard L. Stephenson, Ecological Consulting Ser- vices—selected plant species and ecological char- acteristics for the Lahontan Saltbush—Greasewood, the Great Basin Sagebrush, and the Bonneville Saltbush—Greasewood sections, and the Upper Gila Mountains Forest, the Mexican Highlands Shrub Steppe, the Chihuahuan Desert, the Ameri- can Desert, and the Colorado Plateau provinces. Richard D. Taber, University of Washington—plant listings, ecological characteristics, and wildlife information for the Columbia Forest, the Willam- ette—Puget Forest, and the Palouse Grassland provinces, and the Sitka Spruce—Cedar—Hemlock Forest, the Cedar—Hemlock—Douglas-fir Forest, the Silver fir—Douglas-fir Forest, the Sagebrush— Wheatgrass, and the Ponderosa Shrub Forest sections. Charles F. Yocom, Humboldt State University —tech- nical review and organization of selected plant and wildlife tables; plant and wildlife species ecological characteristics for the Redwood Forest and the California Mixed Evergreen Forest sections. Paul J. Zinke, University of California—plant species and ecological characteristics for the Sierran Forest and the California Chaparral provinces. Additional thanks go to State game agencies for pro- viding technical assistance, materials, and data through- Acknowledgments out the study. Assistance was also provided by several U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological Services Offices and by many conservation and wildlife organiza- tions in all 50 states. Also helpful in this study were the ROW department heads and personnel of 75 utilities selected to represent all geographic areas of the United States. The cooperation of the Edison Electric Institute is gratefully acknowl- edged. The literature search was facilitated by a coopera- tive agreement between the Electric Power Research Institute and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Numerous utility companies and Federal, State, and private agencies participated in the review process of various drafts of this manual and their willing coopera- tion was sincerely appreciated. Special thanks are ex- tended to Dean Miller, Public Service Company of Colorado, for coordinating the review by the utility industry. The final organization, editing, rewriting, proofread- ing, and production of this publication was the responsi- bility of Francine H. Scherger and Midwest Public Inter- est Communications, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Judy Stopke, The Art Dept., Ann Arbor, Michigan, designed the publication. The success of this project is due, in large part, to their efforts. Contents INTRODUCTION siete etetea taster teat nate at ene nM Xvii USING THISIMANUAL Ht a 1 ST OS EO se eS TE RUE EEE IEE 2 Phase A—Investigation for Wildlife Management Potential on a Right-of-Way .............0.0008 2 Step A-1 Obtain Utility Company Approval Seine’ Step A-2|||(ASSess Feast bitty ee eee eT CT CE 2 Phase B—Resource Assessment on the Right-of-Way ...........e.ceeeeeeee 3 Step! 8-1) |||Select ROW Areas ee ee tT 3 Step B-2 Inventory Plants .............0.ececeeuee 3 Step B-3_ Assess Wildlife ......... 3 Step B-4 Identify Special Areas 3 Phase C—Identification of Wildlife Management PrICrities: 2nd O ject es eee eee eee UNE LHe eH LEU laa 4 Step C-1 Select Appropriate Management Strategy .............0.0eeeee 4 Phase D—Formulation and Implementation of the Wildlife) Manage ent en eee eee ee EL HEAICEL RIKI HI 4 Step D-1 Review Plant Habitat Preferences .............0cececececeees 4 Step D-2 Review Plant Responses .............0ecceecceecceecucceues 4 Step D-3_ Review Wildlife Habitat Requirements ...............0.0e0005 4 Step D-4 Review ROW Maintenance Methods and Costs ............005 5 Step D-5 Devise the Management Plan ...........0.ccccecueeececeees 5 Step D-6 Devise Implementation Plan/Release for Bids .............-- 5 Step D-7 Select Best Management Plan ...........0.0cceceeeeeueeeee 5 Step: D-3 | TMplement tne ean ee en 5 2 General Management Strategies ......... 0... cece eceececeececcucecencucs 5 Key ito Plant Communities ee ee LS LE et 5 Herbaceous) ROW, Strate ee ee ee Oe EL TA 6 Stable Shrub ROW Strategy tittle clea cislelelsielslelecws ulu cla iadieie euler iF MXed Woody) ROW erate ee Se ee 8 Passive ROW Strategy 9 SE MeMNple ete tes cerstolretales wesc etal te elie gta TSIM PECTS CeU cece IPH 10 Phase A—Investigation of Wildlife Management Fee n eC ee NT ME TIE I 10 Step A-I1 Utility Company Approval ........... 00.0. ccceececeececuees 10 Step A-2 Feasibility Assessment Phase B—Resource Assessment ............. Step B= 1) /ROW Selection ee ee ee TET iT Step'B-2) (Plant Inventory! 2M ES a Step|B-3)|| Wildlife: Assessment eee ee ee TH Step B-4 Identification of Special Areas .......... 0. cc cceceeeueuceees 14 Phase C—Identification of Wildlife Management PTIOnities and) ODJeCtry es ee ee eee de eee LECT 14 Step C-1 Selection of Management Strategy ............ccccececeeeees 14 Phase D—Formulation and Implementation of the Wildlife Management Plan .......... 0.0 cece eee cece cece eee eee eee eens Step D-1 Plant Habitat Preferences ........ ccc c cece cece ee eee eens Step D-2 Plant Responses ......... 0. cece cece eee cece cette eee eneee Step D-3 Wildlife Habitat Requirements ............. Step D-4 ROW Maintenance Methods and Costs Step D-5 Management Plan .............2eeeeeeeeee Step D-6 Implementation Plan Step D-7 Selection of Management Plan ............. Step D-8 Implementation of Plan PROLCTON COS ao aloo nal's lo. 4020 oc s-0l'.0-0-4-016 0.610. lo clo olese.4lo-0lao'storslee'o.cllos!e-s 6-0. cle slew ols.) ENGINEERING CONSTRAINTS IN ROW MANAGEMENT ...........000005 21 4 General Engineering Information NOMA RES aa ale ie ol scale oles la eleno/s oe tae = Clearances ...... 0... c eee e eee eee Reliability 2.2.2.0... 20... cece ee eee Rights-of-Way .........0eeeee eee Structtire Design| ete ile dott stole oss elncale altce-ele cleat dte-ailegih: ol old ote ale-ale walle « Right-of-Way Selection 2.0.0... 00. c cece cece cece e eee eee een eee neees Habitat Type ........... 0.0.00 eae Aquatic Habitats Vegetative Cover Plan and Profile Sheets 2.0... 0.0 esc e cece cece eee eee e eee e nee e eee e eens Crossing Drawings ..............4- Implementation SUVS orl le lice ow lls lors oll ved ollew Right-of-Way Acquisition .......... Access Planning .................. Vegetation Clearing Clear Cutting ................04 Selective Clearing No Cutting .................00- Chemical Treatment Brush|Disposal toe et Ue la le lhc He te er Mele elt allo Ueda ale oleae Construction ...........0e cece e ee Footings 2.2.0.6... e eee e eee eee Tower Construction ............. Conductor Stringing ............ Restoration ........... eee e eee ee Maintenance .............0ee eee FRETCT ENCES otc tle le ale ack peste Hhacelareleelesecttarsyendlnteraacdle-alltcet -eretavatecalerettere LAND USE RIGHTS ....... 0c. cece eect e cece eee eee e een een een nneees 31 7 8 9 10 I 12 13 14 Right-of-Way Acquisition Practices Acquisition Practices 0.2... 6. cece cece cece e nent ee eee eee eeennne Fee Right-of-Way ................ Easement Right-of-Way - Eminent Domain in Right-of-Way Acquisition .. 34 Right-of-Way Access Rights ..........c eee cece cent eee e ene eneees -. 34 Ingress and Egress ......... cece cece eee e cece cece e ee ee eee e eee eeeeneee 34 Third Party Access ........ cece cece eect eee een ener e ee eeeeeeeenees 34 Maintenance Rights and Practices 1.0... . 0. cece cece eee e eee e eee e nee 34 Implications for Fish and Wildlife Management ............ 00sec eee eee 35 References 00... ccc ccc cece ccc cece cece cece cece teen ene e eee ese eeeeeeeee 35 Appendixes A. Sample Fee Simple Right-of-Way Acquisition Form B. Sample License to Use Fee Right-of-Way ...........+-eeee- C. Sample Permit to Use Fee Right-of-Way .........cccceee eee eeeeeees D. Sample Lease to Use Fee Right-of-Way ..........00.ccccceeceeceuceees 40 E. Sample Conditional Fee Right-of-Way Acquisition Form ...... 00... ccc eee eee c cece cee eeceeeneeecncuveues 42 F. Sample Clauses of Transmission Rights-of-Way Easement Instruments 2.0.2... 0.0. c cece cece ce cuceucueeucuceusees 44 ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS ..........-0ecccccccceeues 51 15 Maintenance Methods ...............0cceeeeeee Selective Vegetation Maintenance Methods Manual ........ 0... cece cece cece eee eee o Chemical ... 2... 66. cece cece cece cece cece cece seneeeeeeceeeannnes 52 Nonselective Vegetation Maintenance Methods ............0eecseceeeeeeee 53 Mechanical Chemical .......... 00... e cence Burning 1.0.6... eee eee eee cece cece eee ccc eeeeeeaneeeeauetennncs 55 Methods for Slash Disposal ...........0..c0ccceeceuceueceuccuuceuceuns 55 Mechanical / Manual Burning Relocation of Vegation .. Methods that Alter Other Environmental Components Access Roads ..... 0... c cece cece cece cece cecucucucuens Tower Sites, Cable-pulling Sites, and Assembly Sites 16 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods Eastern United States Western United States .............0.00.0000. Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods Capital Clearing—Continental United States Maintenance—Continental United States Selective Vegetation Maintenance Methods ........... Nonselective Vegetation Maintenance Methods Cost Comparison among Methods References RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT ...........ccecccseececuecees 71 17 Summary of Data Requirements 18 Evaluation Guidelines .................. Surface Geology and Topography Climate .... SOUS ccc cece eee cee e cane eeeteneeeeceneennens Water Table and Drainage Alterations ROW Characteristics Fire Potential Vegetation .............04. Sensitivity Conditions Sensitive Communities Right-of-Way Data Collection .... Wildlife Populations Stream Characteristics Other Considerations References Appendixes A. Data Sheet for Assessing Resources and Conditions on ROWs and Adjacent Lands .......... 0. cece cece eee eee e teen eens 82 B. Universal Soil Loss Equation ........ 0. cece cece cece eee cent eeeeee 85 WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 89 19 The Literature Search 1.0... .. ccc eee eee ee ee ee ee eens 90 Scope of Literature Search ....... 6.0. ee eee eee eee eens 90 General Content of Literature .........--.. eee eee eee rene 90 20 Mechanical Manipulation ............. cece eee eee eee 90 Cutting ........ ee eee eee 90 Cutting on Rights-of-Way 91 Clear Cutting on Other Sites ...........00- 005 91 Selective Cutting on Other Sites 92 Bulldozing ...... 06. cece eee tee eee eee teen eee eee teen eens teens 93 Other Mechanical Methods 94 Methods of Slash Disposal 94 21) Brush Piling 10... .. ccc cece e eee eee teen eee e eee eeeneeeeee -» 94 Brush Piling on Rights-of-Way 95 Brush Piling on Other Sites 95 22 Herbicide Application = re 95 Types of Herbicides ............ 95 Hormone Growth Regulators . . 97 Plant Toxins ..........--004- 97 Growth Inhibitors 11... 0... cece cece eee e eee e ee en eee 97 Additives and Formulations 97 Application Methods ..........c eee eee e cece eee eee n eee eee enneeeee 97 Stem-foliage Spraying .......... cece eee eee e eee 97 Basal Bark Treatment ......... 0c e cece eee eee 97 Dormant Cane Broadcast Spraying 97 Tree Injection... cece cece cece eee eee n nee e en eenaes 97 Stump Treatment 97 Soil Application 97 Effects on Wildlife Habitat 97 Effects on Rights-of-Way 98 Effects on Other Sites ase 98 23 Planting and Seeding .......... cece e eect erect eee eee eetenaee 101 Planting and Seeding on Rights-of-Way ......... eee eeee cece e eee e ener eee 101 Planting and Seeding on Other Sites 101 Grasses and Legumes ....... 0. eee ee cece cece eee eee eees Shrubs and Low-growing Trees Limitations and Special Uses 24 Streambank Management ..... 25 Prescribed Burning ........... Burning on Rights-of-Way ....... 0.0 cece cece eee eee e eee eee e eens Burning on Other Sites ........ eee cece eee eee eens Effects on Plant Nutritive Values ...........0000- Effects on Vegation and Wildlife 26 Additional Wildlife Habitat Considerations Wetlands 01... .. ccc cece cece eee teen eee eee enee Endangered / Threatened Species Habitat 27 Summary ......... cc cece cece cece cece eee e eee e eee eeeeeeees oes References 0.0... ccc eee cece eee eee eee e eee e eee e ene e eee eeneeee GENERAL APPENDIXES A. List of Selected Plants B. List of Selected Wildlife C. Approximate Equivalents of Decimals to Fractions and English to Metric Measurements and Temperatures ........-+.eeeseeees 161 GLOSSARY 2... . ce cece c cece cece cece eee e tere eee neee ee eeeenseeeeees 163 INDEX occ cc tect cece sce tcvecetseeetestceveerssctteccsscee soe 0e 167 Plate | Illustrations Ecoregions of the United States ............ facing page xvii ee SSS Se re? Figure | Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 15.1 Figure 15.2 Figure 15.3 Figure 15.4 Figure 15.5 Figure 15.6 Figure 15.7 Figure 15.8 Figure 15.9 Figure 15.10 Figure 15.11 Figure 15.12 Figure 15.13 Figure 15.14 Figure 15.15 Figure 16.1 Figure 16.2 Figure 16.3 Figure 16.4 Figure 16.5 Four Phases of Wildlife Management Plan Development .......... 0. ce cece cece cence eee eee eneenes 2 Herbaceous Right-of-Way 6 Stable Shrub Right-of-Way .. 8 Mixed Woody Right-of-Way 9 Service Area of Western Conservawatt Electric Company ........ ccc cece cece cence nee e ee eeeeneens Il Western Conservawatt’s Transmission System ............. 12 Land Use Pattern along the Watertown-Milton 230 kV Transmission Line .......... 0c cee eee cece eee eeeeeeens 13 Segments along Watertown-Milton Line Suitable for Further Assessment .......... 0. 0c cece cece cece ee ee eens 14 Plan and Profile Map for Segment B .............e0e00ee 15 Plant Communities Present along Segment B .............. 16 Wildlife Habitats in Segment B .............0 eee eee eee 17 Identification of Special Areas in Segment B .............. 18 Example of Single and Double Circuit Tower Construction 1.6... 0... cece e cece cece cece ence eeeeenes ROW Width for 500 kV Line ......... 0... eee ee cece cues Danger Tree ........ cece cece c cence eee e ence ee eeeeee Alternative Tower Designs ............00ceeeeeeceecues Typical Access Road Plan .............ececeeeeeeeeecuce Bullwheel Cable Puller and Tensioner Stringing over Long Distances from Tensioner to Puller... ... cece cece cece eee cece e cence nena eeees 29 Side Trimming ........ 0... cece cece cece cece ee eeeees 52 Girdling 6.0... cece cece cence cence eee eeeeneees 52 Beri MA gS esecer oe rel or ecectctses0snrnieva’ore:ora''arsct-tra's-0cts04950s2ers estes rs 53 Tree Injection 60.0... .. cee e eee e cece cece eee eteneeees 53 Basal Spraying .......... ccc cece cece cece eee eee eneeee 53 Sheardozing ......... ccc cece cee cece cence eee eeeees 54 Brushraking and Rootraking ..............eceeeeeeeeees 54 Broadcast Chemical Spraying ............. cece eee cece 55 Slash Plling se saws a Chipping ............ 0. cee eee eee Hydroseeding Aerial Seeding Culvert ..... ccc cee c cee ceceeseees Broad-based Drainage Dip Tower Site oo... cece cece eee e cece eet eee eeeenees Selective Vegetation Management Methods in the Eastern United States 0.2.0... . cece cece cece cee eeeeeas 59 Nonselective Vegetation Management Methods in the Eastern United States ........ 0. ccc cece eee e eee e cence 60 Slash Disposal Methods in the Eastern United States ....... 61 Restoration Methods in the Eastern United States .......... 62 Selective Vegetation Management Methods in the Western United States 2.0... ... ccc eee cece e cence eee ees 63 Figure 16.6 Figure 16.7 Figure 16.8 Figure 16.9 Tables Nonselective Vegetation Management Methods in the Western United States ....... 0. cece cece cece cent een eens 64 Slash Disposal Methods in the Western United States ....... 65 Restoration Methods in the Western United States ......... 66 General Comparisons of Relative Costs by State Groupings) |e tisjat ola battles biole oles bel tiers stele sla aloes lates a 69 SE Table 4.1 Table 16.1 Table 16.2 Table 18.1 Table 18.2 Table 18.3 Table 18.4 Table 18.5 Table 18.6 Table 18.7 Table 18.8 Table 22.1 Table 22.2 Table 23.1 Table 23.2 Table 23.3 Table 24.1 Table 25.1 Typical ROW Widths .......... cece cece cece eee ee ee eens 24 Comparison of Selective and Nonselective Capital Clearing and Maintenance Cycles Costs for the Eastern and Western United States ............. eee eee eee 67 Relative Costs of Capital Clearing and Maintenance Methods for the Continental United States...........-.--- 68 Some Criteria for Estimating Fire Potential on Lands Adjacent to ROWS .........eeee cece eee e ene eeees 73 Some Criteria for Evaluating the Sensitivity of Vegetation Adjacent to ROWS ........ eee ee eee eee e eee 74 Example of a Simplified Formula and Key for Vegetation by Strata ...... cee cece cece ee eee eee eee e eens 76 Example of a Simplified Formula and Key for Wetland Habitats .......... ce cece cece eee ree eee eee 76 Some Characteristics of Snags Valuable to Wildlife . . Mateo Criteria for Evaluating Severity of Browsing..........++.-- 78 Some Criteria for Evaluating Fish Habitat at ROW Stream CrossingS....... 00 eeee cece e eee e eee ence ee eeeeeee 79 Some Criteria for Evaluating ROW Stream Crossings for Management Purposes ........-.eeeeeeeeee eee eeeeee 79 Some Common Uses of Selected Herbicides ............04+ 96 Some Reported Uses of Herbicides in Wildlife Habitat Management ............ cece eee ee eee eee teens 99 Food Patch Mixtures for Planting in Spring for the Eastern United States ........... ccc cece eee eee ee eeenee 102 Seeding Guide for Wildlife Plantings in the Eastern United States .......... cee eee eee eee ee ences 103 Adaptation and Recommended Use of Species for Seeding in Various Precipitation and Vegetation Zones in the Intermountain Region ............eeeeeeeee 104 Increases in Stream Temperatures that Might Occur with Removal of Shade .......... 0s cece eee eeeeeeeeees 107 Some Wildlife and Cover Types for which Prescribed Burning is Recommended for Habitat Management ....... 111 EXPLANATION LOWLAND ECOREGIONS HIGHLAND ECOREGIONS* DOMAIN DIVISION Province Section Province Section 1000 1200 1210 Arctic Tundra M1210 Brooks Range POLAR TUNDRA 1220 Bering Tundra 1300 1310 Yukon Parkland M1310 Alaska Range SUBARCTIC 1320 Yukon Forest 2000 2100 2110 Laurentian 2111 Spruce-Fir Forest M2110 Columbia Forest | M2111 Douglas-fir Forest HUMID WARM Mixed Forest 2112 Northern Hardwoods- (Dry Summer) M2112 Cedar-Hemlock- TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL Fir Forest Douglas-fir Forest 2113 Northern Hardwoods Forest 2114 Northern Hardwoods- Spruce Forest 2200 2210 Eastern 2211 Mixed Mesophytic HOT Deciduous Forest CONTINENTAL Forest 2212 Beech-Maple Forest 2213 Maple-Basswood Forest + Oak Savanna 2214 Appalachian Oak Forest 2215 Oak-Hickory Forest 2300 2310 Outer Coastal 2311 Beech-Sweetgum- SUBTROPICAL Plain Forest Magnolia-Pine- Oak Forest 2320 Southeastern 2312 Southern Floodplain Mixed Forest Forest 2400 2410 Willamette- M2410 Pacific Forest M2411 Sitka Spruce-Cedar- MARINE Puget Forest Hemlock Forest M2412 Redwood Forest M2413 Cedar-Hemlock- Douglas-fir Forest M2414 California Mixed Evergreen Forest M2415 Silver Fir- Douglas-fir Forest 2500 2510 Prairie Parkland 2511 Oak-Hickory-Bluestem PRAIRIE Parkland 2512 Oak + Bluestem Parkland 2520 Prairie Brushland 2521 Mesquite-Buffalo Grass 2522 Juniper-Oak-Mesquite 2523 Mesquite-Acacia 2530 Tall-grass Prairie 2531 Bluestem Prairie 2532 Wheatgrass-Bluestem- Needlegrass 2533 Bluestem-Grama Prairie 2600 2610 California M2610 Sierran Forest MEDITERRANEAN Grassland (ORY-SUMMER M2620 California SUBTROPICAL) Chaparral 3000 3100 3110 Great Plains 3111 Grama-Needlegrass- M3110 Rocky Mountain M3111 Grand Fir- DRY STEPPE Short-grass Prairie Wheatgrass Forest Douglas-fir Forest a 3112 Wheatgrass-Needlegrass M3112 Douglas-fir Forest 3113 Grama-Buffalo Grass M3113 Ponderosa Pine- 3120 Palouse Grassland M3120 Upper Gila Douglas-fir Forest Mountains Forest 3130 Intermountain 3131 Sagebrush-Wheatgrass P3130 Colorado Plateau P3131 Juniper-Pinyon Sagebrush 3132 Lahontan Saltbush- Woodland + Greasewood Sagebrush- 3133 Great Basin Sagebrush Saltbrush Mosaic 3134 Bonneville Saltbush- P3132 Grama-Galleta Steppe Greasewood + Juniper-Pinyon 3135 Ponderosa Shrub Forest Woodland Mosaic 3140 Mexican Highlands A3140 Wyoming Basin A3141 Wheatgrass-Needle- Shrub Steppe rass-Sagebrush A3142 Sagebrush- Wheatgrass 3200 3210 Chihuahuan Desert | 3211 Grama-Tobosa DESERT 3212 Tarbush-Creosote Bush 3220 American Desert 3221 Creosote Bush (Mojave-Colorado- | 3222 Creosote Bush-Bur Sage Sonoran) 4000 4100 4110 Everglades HUMID SAVANNA TROPICAL 4200 RAINFOREST M4210 Hawaiian Islands 1. *Key to letter symbols: M-mountains, P-plateau, A-altiplano This manual was designed to allow the user maximum flexibility. The suggested management strategies may be used on a wide variety of sites. Because the knowledge and judgement of the individual biologist or ROW manager is essential to implement these strategies, this manual has attempted to bridge the gap between the expertise of these two professional groups. The manual cannot make ROW experts out of biologists, or vice versa, but essential information is presented to help practitioners of one discipline better understand the goals of the other. ORGANIZATION OF THE MANUAL The manual is divided into three volumes — a general volume providing background information on wildlife management and vegetation maintenance on ROWs, and two volumes containing ecological information on selected plant and wildlife species and responses of various plant species to vegetation maintenance practices. For your convenience, this information has been synthesized into parallel volumes — volume 2 contains information on plants and wildlife of the Eastern United States; volume 3 discusses plants and wildlife of the Western United States. Identifying Biological Ecoregions Robert G. Bailey’s 1976 map, “Ecoregions of the United States,” was used by the authors to identify biologically similar areas within the United States. Bailey divides the United States into 31 biological provinces; he further subdivides these provinces into 61 biological sections (see plate 1). For our purposes, a province is defined as “a broad vegetation region having a uniform regional climate and the same type or types of zonal soils.” A section is defined as “a subdivision of a province based on local climatic variation.” The existence of two domains, or “subcontinental areas of related climates,” are reflected in the organization of this manual. For convenience, the flora and fauna of the Eastern and Western United States are treated separately, disregard- ing Bailey’s domain classifications. Alaska and Hawaii are considered with the Western provinces. Generalizing Life History/Habitat Requirement Information Life history/habitat requirement information con- tained in this manual of necessity has been generalized. Emphasis is on those factors that will benefit ROW © Plate 1 Ecoregions of the United States XVii Introduction managers. Due to the magnitude of a study of this type, all plant and animal species cannot be recognized. Species lists should not be interpreted as being the ideal species composition for any one site within a section; plants, local disturbances, climatic and edaphic factors, etc., will influence species composition of different sites. These variations, in turn, may affect local wildlife com- munity composition. Chapter Content Volume I, “General Background,” contains information applicable to both volumes 2 and 3. Chapter I, “Using this Manual,” contains a step-by- step discussion of the proposed use of this manual for: investigating the wildlife management potential on a right-of-way, assessing the resources on the right-of-way, identifying wildlife management priorities and objectives, and formulating and implementing the wildlife management plan. A discussion of four general vegetation management strategies—herbaceous, stable shrub, mixed woody, and passive—as well as a key to aid in the selection of the appropriate management strategy for a particular ROW, is followed by a detailed example that illustrates the step-by-step management technique. Chapter 2, “Engineering Constraints in ROW Management,” provides a basic review of the ROW siting and construction process. The basic parameters within which a transmission line must be designed and constructed are outlined. Chapter 3, “Land Use Rights,” discusses the various practices used to acquire a ROW and the feasibility and practicality of implementing wildlife management strategies under various landownership situations. “ROW Maintenance Methods and Costs” are the subject of chapter 4. Selective and nonselective vegetation maintenance methods, methods for slash disposal and restoration, and techniques that alter other environmental components are discussed along with their current cost and extent of use. Relative costs are compared by technique and use in different areas of the United States. Chapter 5, “Right-of-Way Resource Assessment,” suggests guidelines that may aid the user in identifying and quantifying habitat factors that must be considered during the development of a specific management plan. Chapter 6, “Wildlife Habitat Management Techniques,” contains a thorough literature review of Introduction presently used management techniques applicable to ROWs in the United States. Methods of mechanical manipulation, brush piling, herbicide application, planting and seeding, streambank management, and prescribed burning are discussed. An extensive bibliography is provided in the references section of the chapter. Three general appendixes are located at the end of volume | and contain information pertinent to all three volumes: General appendix A lists plants of the Eastern and Western United States and Alaska and Hawaii, alphabetically by common name. General appendix B contains an alphabetical listing by common name of wildlife—mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles, and fish. Both appendixes list the scientific names used within the text; occasionally, a common name appears more than once, usually with a different scientific name, indicating the regional variation in common name usage. Following the scientific names in general appendix A isa list of the provinces in chapter 2 of volumes 2 and 3 in whose descriptions they are included. Parentheses indi- cate that in those provinces the species is found but under a different common name. Following the scientific names in general appendix B is a key that associates the species with a table or tables in chapter 3 of volumes 2 and 3. General appendix C provides approximate equivalents of decimals to fractions and English to metric measurements. A glossary operationally defines the terms in the text and offers supplemental definitions to scientific or biological terms. An index to plant communities, selected wildlife species, and biomes is included. The numbers following each entry are the unique chapter section numbers that indicate the place within the manual where the subject is discussed. Volumes 2 and 3 contain specific material relating to the Eastern and Western United States, respectively. Each volume contains three chapters: Chapter 1, “Plant Responses to ROW Maintenance Methods,” provides information on sprouting, reaction to competition, and other factors that determine plant responses to disturbances. The techniques for vegetation manipulation presented in this chapter emphasize the maintenance of electric reliability while enhancing vegetation for wildlife habitat. Provinces are discussed individually or in groups of biologically similar areas. Chapter 2, “Selected Plant Species,” presents for each province and, when appropriate, for each section or subsection, plant species associated with general plant communities, differentiated by moisture conditions, successional trends, and height stratifications. Descriptive ecological characteristics, such as habitat, growth form, fruit, and general wildlife use are also given for each plant. Chapter 3, “Selected Fish and Wildlife Species,” discusses the characteristics of certain mammal, bird, and amphibian and reptile species that should be given special xviii consideration in ROW management planning. A brief province-by-province description of the fauna present is followed by a lengthy table that details the ecological characteristics of the selected species and several additional tables that provide information on bird nesting habitat and list U.S. endangered/ threatened fish and State endangered /threatened fish and wildlife. A list of references cited is provided for each chapter within all three volumes and follows the chapter text. EDITORIAL CONVENTIONS Cross-referencing between the three volumes has been accomplished by assigning each section within a chapter a unique section number. The section numbers run consecutively across all three volumes beginning with chapter | of volume 1. These chapter section numbers are not to be confused with the section numbers referenced within provinces. Those section numbers are four digit numbers that relate directly to Bailey’s map (plate 1). To further differentiate between chapter sections and province sections, chapter sections are always referred to with the generic “section.” as in section 38. Province sections are referred to as proper nouns, as in Section 2212. Figure and table numbers have been keyed to the chapter section (or, in some cases, the province, section, or subsection) to which they relate. For example, there are three sections in chapter 4—4, 5, and 6. Figures are found only in sections 4 and 6. The figure numbers are: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3. The first number indicates the unique chapter section in which the figure is found. The second number indicates which figure is being referenced. Within chapter sections, figures are numbered sequentially; the numbering begins anew with each section. Note that in the example above, there are no figures in section 5. Tables, in the forms of charts and graphs, found within the text are numbered in the same manner as figures; that is, sequentially within each chapter section. In volumes 2 and 3, however, an additional numbering scheme has been devised to facilitate the use of the detailed information on selected plant and wildlife species found exclusively in the tabular material. In chapters 2 and 3 of these volumes, province descriptions are followed by the two sets of tables: Selected Plant Species tables and Ecological Characteristics tables. Each table carries an identification label that specifies: 1 Section number Province chapter section or or caption number number 7 2 Subsection number. where: Province number relates directly to Bailey’s map (plate 1), chapter section number is the unique number assigned to each section within a chapter. The numbers run sequentially across all three vol- umes of the manual beginning with chapter | of volume 1../ indicates that this is a Selected Plant or Wildlife Species table; .2 identifies an Ecologi- cal Characteristics table. Section number also directly relates to Bailey’s map (plate 1). Whenever possible, individual descriptions of specific sections and subsections are presented. In these cases, the number en- closed in brackets will indicate which section or subsection is being considered. caption is a narrative description of the table contents. For example, Table 2210-33.1 [2215] Selected Plant Species Common to the Oak—Hickory Forest xix Introduction specifies that this is the Selected Plant Species Table for Province 2210, Section 2215, and that the province is discussed in chapter section 33. Running heads are included to further facilitate manual use. The running heads indicate the unique section number and the content of the section (an abbre- viated version of the title). Running feet indicate page number and chapter number and title. REFERENCE CITED Bailey, R.G. 1976. Ecoregions of the United States. U.S. For. Serv., Ogden, Utah. map. Using this Manual Electric utility companies are licensed and regulated to provide uninterrupted electric energy to their customers. Utilities are not wildlife management agencies, although many companies do maintain their transmission line rights-of-way (ROWs) in a manner somewhat compatible with wildlife resources. This manual is intended as a reference document to be used by ROW managers when its content is applicable to their overall ROW objectives. Much of the material presented in this manual will be familiar to companies that have existing programs that include wildlife management considerations. For those utilities currently without wildlife management concerns, it is hoped that this manual will encourage the develop- ment of such practices as an integral part of their ROW maintenance routine. This chapter provides an overview of the manual’s organization and illustrates how it is intended to be used. It is not feasible to develop and implement a wildlife management plan for every segment of ROW ina utility’s transmission system. When it is feasible to develop a wildlife management plan, the information and guide- lines contained in this manual may assist biologists in doing so. Four basic phases are involved in the development ofa wildlife management plan on a given ROW: A) investi- gation for wildlife management potential, B) assessment of resources on the ROW, C) identification of wildlife management priorities and objectives, and D) formula- tion and implementation of the wildlife management plan. Each of these phases involves a number of proce- dural steps which are discussed in this chapter (figure 1). Chapters in the manual pertinent to each step are indi- cated as appropriate. 1 Step-by-Step Use INVESTIGATION FOR WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT POTENTIAL A-1 Obtain utility company approval A INVESTIGATION FOR WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT POTENTIAL B-4 Identify special areas A-2 Assess. feasiblity Pn EEE Figure 1 Four phases of wildlife management plan development These phases and steps should not be thought of as being discrete, separate operations, but rather as parts of a continuous process—from inception to implementa- tion—that often overlap in time and integrate without definite boundaries. 1 STEP-BY-STEP USE PHASE A—INVESTIGATION FOR WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT POTENTIAL ON A RIGHT-OF-WAY Step A-1 Obtain Utility Company Approval The potential for wildlife management on a particular ROW will depend largely on whether or not a particular utility considers wildlife management to be an important part of their ROW maintenance policy. Without such a commitment by the utility decisionmakers, a wildlife management plan cannot be developed or implemented. However, after it has been decided to incorporate wildlife management concerns into the utility’s ROW policy, 2 PHASE B ASSESSMENT OF RESOURCES ON THE ROW IDENTIFICATION OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES & OBJECTIVES B-2 Inventory plants c MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES RESOURCE % Al ASSESSMENT : ; ur OBJECTIVES B-3 Assess wildlife c-1 Strategy selection engineers and biologists can begin to investigate the potential for developing a management program. Step A-2 Assess Feasibility The feasibility of implementing a wildlife management plan on segments of a ROW must be assessed with regard to the legal and physical constraints of the transmission system. ROW managers will be familiar with these con- ditions, but biologists may not be. Therefore, two chap- ters in this volume are devoted to these subjects. Chapter 2, “Engineering Constraints in ROW Management,” discusses the physical limitations imposed by a transmis- sion line and the associated ROW. Chapter 3, “Land Use Rights,” considers the legal constraints imposed by the means of acquisition and adjacent land use of ROWs. Ona given ROW, there will probably be numerous seg- ments with high potential as wildlife habitat. Due to the various constraints imposed by land use rights and engi- neering requirements, however, many of these candidate areas will be ineligible for wildlife management. Thus, the segments targeted for management have to be identified through consultations among biologists, engineers, and CHAPTER 1 Step-by-Step Use 1 FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PLAN D-2 Review plant responses D-1 ee D-3 Review : : Review plant habitat : wildlife habitat preferences requirements D FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PLAN D-5 = ; D-4 Delineate Review ROW management management plan on ~ methods and base map ae costs land use personnel. Only after specific management sites have been identified is resource assessment feasible. PHASE B — RESOURCE ASSESSMENT ON THE RIGHT-OF-WAY Step B-1 Select ROW Areas The areas of the ROW selected for inclusion into the company’s wildlife management plan must be those where land use, ROW ownership, and terrain are compatible with the implementation of a management plan. Base maps should be prepared for the areas selected for management. Plan and profile maps used by the utility’s Engineering Department can serve as excellent base maps, since they already include the transmission line, tower, and ROW delineation; land ownership; topography; and stream and road crossings. Step B-2_ Inventory Plants The plant communities on and adjacent to the ROW should be inventoried. Some factors to consider when evaluating these plant communities are cover type, USING THIS MANUAL D-6 Devise implementation Select best plan/Release management for bid plan D-7 D-8 Implement plan —_--—————————————— eEeeeSESeeeeSSSSSSSSSFSseF community structure, sensitivity to disturbance, fire potential, and location of tall trees that might interfere with conductors. These factors are discussed in more detail in chapter 5 of this volume, “Right-of-Way Resource Assessment.” Plant communities should then be delineated on the base maps. Step B-3 Assess Wildlife Populations of selected wildlife species both on and ad- jacent to the selected ROW should be assessed. Factors to be considered in this assessment are discussed in chapter 5 of this volume, “Right-of-Way Resource Assessment.” Step B-4 Identify Special Areas The adjacent land uses and any special or critical areas should also be noted and mapped on the base maps. In- formation regarding such areas is also found in chapter 5. Once the above information has been collected and mapped, utility officials will have a better idea of present and future ROW management options. This will help in determining short- and long-range objectives that the utility company may want to achieve. 1 Step-by-Step Use PHASE C — IDENTIFICATION OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES AND OBJECTIVES After the wildlife-related resources of the ROW have been assessed, the formulation of specific management goals and objectives for the selected ROW segments may begin. This is a key step in the development of a manage- ment plan and determines the final form and structure of the strategy to be implemented. Wildlife management objectives may be designed to affect a particular species, such as the creation and main- tenance of ruffed grouse habitat, or may be more general- ized with no designated target species, such as the en- couragement of habitat diversity. Although there is no right or wrong way to express the management objec- tives, several basic considerations common to all wildlife management programs on ROWs influence all policy decisions. The first of these basic considerations is the nature of the existing plant and wildlife communities on and ad- jacent to the ROW. Information on local existing conditions should be readily available from local biolo- gists and from the ROW resource assessment. The man- agement plan devised must be compatible with the exist- ing resources; it cannot be “forced” onto the environ- ment. The plant community established on the ROW should retain a natural affinity with the surrounding veg- etation. Native plant species should be encouraged and exotics should be used sparingly, if at all. Cost is a very real constraint that must be taken into ac- count when setting wildlife management goals. A partic- ular management objective, desirable from a wildlife standpoint, may be too expensive for actual implementa- tion. It would be futile and inefficient to spend time and money developing an objective that is uneconomical to establish on a ROW. Finally, and most importantly, there must be adequate opportunity for local public viewpoints to be heard. The management plan developed should reflect wildlife prior- ities of citizens and/or governmental agencies that are directly affected by the management programs on the ROW (Tillman 1973). The willing cooperation of ad- jacent landowners is essential to a successful ROW man- agement plan. Where easements are in effect (see chapter 3), the utility company often has little say in how the ROW is man- aged. For example, in some situations the creation or enhancement of ring-necked pheasant habitat in heavily farmed areas may be the most desirable use of the land for wildlife, but because the ROW is under easement and the owner wishes to farm the land, the ROW manager must abide by the owner’s wishes and cannot manage the ROW for wildlife. State or private conservation agencies, educational groups, hunting and fishing organizations, and others should also be permitted to comment on pro- posed ROW management plans in their areas of interest. Tillman (1973) discusses in more detail the importance of public input in formulating wildlife management objec- tives and priorities. Step C-1 Select Appropriate Management Strategy After determining the priorities and objectives of the 4 management plan it is necessary to decide upon a strategy for fulfilling these priorities and objectives and to develop a scheme for implementing the strategy. The manage- ment strategies proposed in this chapter should be used as guidelines to aid in the development of the management lan. Wildlife management strategies for ROWs can take many forms. Four basic strategies are discussed here and can be applied throughout the United States: herbaceous ROW strategy, stable shrub ROW strategy, mixed woody ROW strategy, and passive ROW strategy. These general strategies are described in some detail in section 2, along witha key for relating each of the plant commun- ity types likely to be encountered on a ROW to one of the four basic strategies. The strategies are based on three general plant com- munity types (herbaceous, stable shrub, mixed woody), each of which is structurally unique but may be com- posed of a wide variety of plant species, depending on region and location. Communities (and strategies) were selected and generalized so that any community en- countered in the field could be placed in one of the com- munity categories. After a strategy has been selected, site-specific design modifications will be required before a final management plan can be developed. These will occur as the various steps within the formulation of the management plan are con- sidered. The eight steps presented under Phase D have been separated for clarity but must be considered to- gether as a single process because of their inherent inter- relationships. PHASE D — FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PLAN Step D-1 Review Plant Habitat Preferences The general habitat preferences for the plants found during the ROW resource inventory should be reviewed. This review will provide information as to which plants should or should not be encouraged for the benefits of line reliability, erosion control, wildlife, ROW stability, aesthetics, etc. Step D-2 Review Plant Responses Review the responses of selected plant species on the ROW to various control and manipulation techniques (see chapter | of volumes 2 and 3).This review will help determine which methods will most effectively maintain the vegetation and benefit wildlife. Step D-3 Review Wildlife Habitat Requirements Review the habitat requirements for the various wildlife species in the areas of the ROW. Plants that serve as cover and/or food species should be noted; any other characteristics of wildlife species that may be important to the ROW management plan should be considered. These special characteristics may vary depending on the species, area of the country, ROW vegetation, and what is actually considered important about various species by the local public and the utility (see chapter 3 of volumes 2 CHAPTER 1 and 3). Some common characteristics to watch for are the presence of seed-eating or browsing animals if seeding or planting is desired on the ROW. Animals that utilize low- growing vegetation types are noteworthy. Animals that may cause damage to wooden utility poles (if used) are also important (e.g., woodpeckers, bears, porcupines). A local biologist should be consulted regarding other char- acteristics of species to consider. Step D-4 Review ROW Maintenance Methods and Costs Feasible ROW maintenance methods should be reviewed along with their relative costs to determine which methods are the most cost-effective. Cost ranges for com- monly used ROW methods are presented in chapter 4 of volume |. The costs of implementing management strat- egies can be estimated from required combinations of ROW methods. Step D-5 Devise the Management Plan After Steps D-1 through D-4 are completed, the actual management plan can be devised. Several alternatives may be proposed and their respective merits evaluated in light of cost-effectiveness and compatibility with the pre- viously defined objectives. The proposed plan(s) should then be delineated on a base map. Step D-6 Devise Implementation Plan/ Release for Bids Once the management plan has been developed, the specific tasks involved in implementation and any alternatives must be devised. For example, the locations of access roads, methods to be employed at streams and marshes, and other special requirements must be pre- sented in detail on maps. These specifications can then be released by the utility company for bidding by contractors. Step D-7 Select Best Management Plan Based on the bids for the specifications and alternatives presented, the most cost-effective management plan is selected. By selecting from various alternatives and groups of alternatives, final costs can be kept within normal budgetary limits. Step D-8 Implement the Plan The final step in wildlife management plan development is the actual implementation of the plan by the contrac- tor, with the ROW manager or biologist seeing that the specifications for wildlife management are carried out. The ROW manager and/or biologist also assumes the responsibility of altering the specifications in the field as needed. 2 GENERAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES The first part of this section is a “key” for ident- ifying elements in a plant community through a process USING THIS MANUAL General Management Strategies 2 of elimination. The community is divided into groups ac- cording to certain distinguishing characteristics; each group is further divided into successively smaller groups leading eventually to a single general strategy. A discus- sion of the general strategies follows the key. KEY TO PLANT COMMUNITIES I. FORESTED A. Conifer canopy 1. Understory present e Strategy — Favor broadleaf woody plants by using either pure shrub or mixed woody plant communities, or a combination of the two. This adds diversity to the overall habitat and in- creases woody browse in the area. 2. Understory not present © Strategy — Develop herbaceous commun- ities; some broadleaf woody material is also de- sirable. Herbaceous plants reduce erosion and increase food and cover for ground-nesting birds and small mammals. B. Broadleaf canopy 1. Understory present a. Ground cover present © Strategy — With all vegetation compon- ents present, aim at increasing the weakest component present. b. Ground cover not present © Strategy — Develop herbaceous com- munities. 2. Understory not present a. Ground cover present e Strategy — If shrubs can be encouraged, develop a pure shrub community. This would help retard tree invasion. If shrubs are not common in the area, or if the site is un- suitable for shrubs, develop mixed woody plant communities to add diversity to the site. b. Ground cover not present e Strategy — Encourage low-growing woody and herbaceous plants by using the pure shrub and/or the herbaceous strategies. C. Brushland (forested areas where the major canopy species have not reached mature height) 1. Ground cover present © Strategy — Encourage low-growing and herbaceous plants by using the pure shrub and/ or the herbaceous strategies and emphasizing the edge effect. 2. Ground cover not present © Strategy — Encourage low-growing woody and nonwoody plants by using the pure shrub and herbaceous strategies. Il. NONFORESTED A. Grasslands (areas dominated by grasses, but also containing various mixtures of other nonwoody plants) 1. Grassland areas proper — lacking woody plant invasion General Management Strategies 2 © Strategy — Encourage plants that add to the overall diversity of the site by using the herba- ceous strategy. If applicable, also encourage low-growing woody plants by using the pure shrub strategy. 2. Areas of significant woody plant growth with- in the grasslands, such as riverbanks, lake- sides, and other wet areas. © Strategy — Maintain and encourage these unique areas to add habitat diversity. Use mixed woody plant communities strategies with the pure shrub strategy. B. Shrubland 1. Moist shrubland a. Ground cover present © Strategy — Favor passive management in these areas. Where disturbance is unavoid- able, use pure shrub and herbaceous strat- egies. b. Ground cover not present © Strategy — Encourage nonwoody plants by using the herbaceous strategy. 2. Wetland shrublands © Strategy — Passive management is advised to minimize disturbance. If disturbance is un- avoidable, use the herbaceous strategy to pre- vent erosion and increase diversity. 3. Dry site shrublands a. Dense stands © Strategy — Generally, use the herbaceous strategy to prevent erosion, increase diver- sity, and provide fuelbreaks. On very steep slopes and in other special situations, a pas- sive strategy may be preferable. b. Open steppelike stands © Strategy — Use passive management generally, but if moisture conditions per- mit, use the pure shrub strategy. Ill. SPECIAL AREAS A. Desert areas © Strategy — Use a passive strategy for desert and desertlike conditions. Minimize disturb- ance whenever possible because many desert plant species only slowly regenerate. B. Open areas (areas with little or no natural vege- tation) © Strategy Utilize passive management over any active strategy which may prove very costly and have only limited success because of extreme rockiness, shallow soils, or local extremes of acidity or salinity. Small, non-eroding, open areas may be beneficial. C. Bogs, swamps, other wetlands © Strategy — Use passive management, mini- mizing disturbance whenever possible. To main- tain a bog, prevent conifer invasion so that suc- cession is retarded and the bog is preserved. D. Agricultural areas © Strategy — Use a combination of herbaceous, pure shrub, and mixed woody strategies to create a varied habitat that will provide areas of year- round cover. In most cases where easements are in force, agricultural land will be farmed and no management will be possible; farmers will not allow it. E. Urban and suburban areas © Strategy — Develop highly diverse edge areas emphasizing songbird nesting, perching habitat, and favoring desirable urban wildlife using herb- aceous and pure shrub strategies. HERBACEOUS ROW STRATEGY The herbaceous ROW strategy (figure 2.1) consists of encouraging nearly pure stands or mixtures of annual and perennial forbs and grasses. Structurally, these stands are uniform in height and pose no threat to trans- mission reliability. The strategy is generally applicable to all domains of the country. Herbaceous vegetation is easy to establish and devel- ops quickly ina dense ground cover. Site preparation and seeding are common practices when soil is disturbed dur- ing the construction of new ROWs. Cultivated grasses and legumes are used to reduce erosion quickly, but seed- ing of native species is more beneficial to wildlife and should be encouraged. A discussion of these species and methods is found in section 23. Several methods offering a range of costs to choose from may be used to maintain herbaceous vegetation. Selective herbicide application and hand cutting of in- vading woody plants may be used; these methods create minimal environmental impact, but their costs are high. Mowing encourages desirable mixtures of grasses and forbs, but frequent treatments are needed to suppress woody invasion. Broadcast herbicide applications are relatively inexpensive in many areas of the country, but repeated treatments will, in many instances, cause a 7 A ees Y Figure 2.1 Herbaceous right-of-way CHAPTER 1 change in vegetation composition to that of a nearly pure grass ROW. These methods, their effects on wildlife hab- itat, and the use and relative costs for various areas of the United States are detailed in chapters 4 and 6 and should be studied before proceeding. Advantages — Generally, a low ground cover will pro- vide breeding cover for a variety of ground-nesting song- birds and game birds. If escape cover is available nearby, small mammals and larger herbivores will graze on desir- able plants. When small mammals and birds utilize these areas, raptors are also found because their prey are visible and accessible. When a herbaceous ROW parallels or traverses a forested area, the edge effect will be maximized and will benefit wildlife species preferring this habitat type. This type of ROW will, however, add little diversity when it Passes through or near existing herbaceous or agricul- tural lands. Shrubby areas, such as the western chaparral areas, have a high fire potential as stands mature. In these areas, herbaceous ROWs can provide fuelbreaks as well as browseways in dense, overly mature chaparral stands (Nord and Green 1977). Information about vegetation and wildlife for each ecoregion in the Eastern United States is found in volume 2; information for each ecoregion in the Western United States is found in volume 3. These data provide a base from which specific management plans for specific bio- logical communities can be developed. Disadvantages — In this ROW strategy, cover may be in- adequate or of the wrong type for some wildlife species, exposing them to predators or hunters. In forested areas, continuous cover types may be broken up by the ROW, effectively isolating some animal populations. Trespass and vandalism problems may be created by the easy access to previously isolated areas. Grasslands — The plains and prairies of the United States, Divisions 2500 and 3100 (see plate 1) are covered with native grassland vegetation that could be allowed to develop naturally on ROWs. Management of prairie veg- etation is normally accomplished by burning or selective grazing, but these practices are usually not performed on ROWs. Woody communities in grassland areas are of special significance and are discussed with the mixed woody and stable shrub strategies. Wetlands — Bogs and other nonwoody wetlands, al- though herbaceous, are discussed with the passive ROW strategy. Other special areas — Herbaceous areas may be desirable around tower sites, permitting easy access to towers and adding diversity to ROWs maintained generally to other Strategy types. Because of its value for erosion control, this type should be considered for use near stream and road crossings. If visual screens are required, narrow strips of herbaceous vegetation could be used in the most sensitive areas, such as steep banks, streambanks, and access roads. STABLE SHRUB ROW STRATEGY The stable shrub ROW strategy (figure 2.2) consists of USING THIS MANUAL 2 General Management Strategies encouraging pure stands or mixtures of shrubs. Herba- ceous plants are interspersed throughout individual stands as ground cover filling small spaces between stands. Densities of herbaceous plants generally vary inversely with the density of the shrubs (i.e. high density shrub stands have a low density herbaceous component). Structurally, these stands vary in height with different species and do not threaten transmission reliability. The strategy is generally applicable to some portion of each domain in the United States. Shrubs are difficult to establish from seed in many areas; planting of seedlings is expensive; results are un- predictable (U.S. Forest Service 1969). Management of naturally established shrub communities has produced some promising results (Richards 1973), but more re- research is needed. Several methods at a variety of expense may be used to maintain stable shrub communities. Selective herbicide applications or hand cutting of tall-growing woody plants create little environmental impact, but are costly. Fire is commonly used to rejuvenate shrub stands, but its usefulness on ROWS is limited. Mowing and plowing may also be used where slope is not a limiting factor, but not all species respond to these methods. Broadcast herb- icide applications are relatively inexpensive to use in many areas of the country, but care must be taken be- cause many shrubs are sensitive to herbicides at concen- trations required to kill tall-growing species. These methods, their effects on wildlife habitat, and the use and relative costs for various areas of the United States are detailed in chapters 4 and 6 of volume | and should be studied before proceeding. Advantages — This strategy provides dense, low- to moderate-height escape and breeding cover fora variety of songbirds and upland game birds. Woody browse is produced in quantity along with large amounts of herbaceous growth. Fruits of a variety of species are common in season and available to songbirds, upland game birds, and browsers. Shrubby ROWs paralleling or traversing forested areas add diversity and edge to the area and moderate the effect of the opening on adjacent trees. A shrub ROW also affords a good protective cross- ing between forested areas for wildlife. Disadvantages — Some shrub communities, particu- larly in chaparral areas of the West, may become so dense that they effectively form a barrier to browsing animals. Under these conditions, browseways may be constructed and maintained by periodic cutting or sheardozing of brush; dozing should only be used when adequate pro- tection against erosion has been taken. If native shrubs are not already established near the ROW, it may be very difficult and expensive to achieve this ROW cover type. An additional problem is that a pure shrub ROW may make utility maintenance access more difficult. Grasslands — The plains and prairies of the United States, Divisions 2500 and 3100 (see plate 1), contain rela- tively few woody plant communities. Natural wooded communities are concentrated primarily on streambank or floodplain areas (Weaver 1968). Manmade 2 General Management Strategies Figure 2.2 Stable shrub right-of-way shelterbelts make up a second significant wooded area in the Great Plains. Both floodplains and shelterbelts should be evaluated for use of the stable shrub strategy. Native shrubs can be encouraged in floodplain areas, while a wide variety of cultivated native and exotic shrubs have been developed for shelterbelt plantings. Wetlands — The borders of bogs, swamps, and other wet- land areas contain dense stands of wetland shrubs. These communities are discussed with the passive ROW strategy unit. Other special areas — Flowering shrubs and other species with aesthetic or ornamental value may be planted on ROWs in residential and recreational areas to create songbird habitat and foods. These plantings will benefit wildlife as well as provide the opportunity for ROW users to observe these animals. MIXED WOODY ROW STRATEGY The mixed woody ROW strategy (figure 2.3) consists of developing communities dominated by mixtures of tall- growing woody seedlings, sprouts, and root suckers associated with shrubs, all growing on a matrix of herb- aceous vegetation. The tall-growing woody vegetation will be influenced by the original forest composition, but with time, species resistant to herbicides, vigorous sprouters, those capable of developing large clonal colonies, and invasion-type species will tend to dominate the ROWs. Shrubs will include those species capable of withstanding the partial shade and competition created by the taller plants. Herbaceous plants will vary depend- ing on whether they are growing under the shade of woody plants, on the edge of such clumps, or in full sun- 8 light between these communities. This strategy is gener- ally applicable to all domains of the country, but is especially appropriate to deciduous forest areas. Mixed woody vegetation is easy to establish and develops quickly into dense clumps of sprouts and root suckers. Native vegetation is always used; seeding or planting is impractical and unnecessary to develop this type of ROW community. Small, highly disturbed areas may be planted with cultivated grasses or legumes, but these will only serve as a cover crop until native vegetation develops. Several methods with a range of costs may be used to establish and maintain this vegetation. Periodically cutting all plants back to a specified height by mowing may be used, but this method tends to encourage clonal species and the most vigorous sprouters. Mowing must be done at regular intervals and, thus, is costly. Selective herbicide application and hand cutting will allow more accurate manipulation of species composition; both methods, however, are costly. Broadcast herbicide appli- cations are relatively inexpensive in many areas of the country, but repeated treatments with some herbicides may reduce brush density, eliminate desirable species, and encourage resistant species. All of these management methods, their effects on wildlife habitat, and the use and relative costs for various areas of the United States are detailed in chapters 4 and 6 and should be studied before proceeding. Advantages — The mixed woody strategy provides a very diverse habitat capable of benefiting a wide range of wildlife species. Although tall-growing species cannot be allowed to mature, height, spacing, density, and species composition may be manipulated within specified ranges. CHAPTER 1 General Management Strategies 2 Figure 2.3 Mixed woody right-of-way Where a ROW parallels or traverses a forested area, the edge effect will be maximized using this strategy. Properly used, this strategy can add diversity to any vegetation type. Browse, fruits, and mast can be produced on this type of ROW. Cover is adequate for a variety of wildlife species. Shrub and small tree-nesting birds will be favored. Disadvantages — This ROW type must be constantly monitored because of the large amounts of tall-growing species in the ROW area. Regular maintenance of the ROW and access roads will be necessary. Grasslands — Woody vegetation in the plains and prairies of the United States, Divisions 2500 and 3100 (see plate 1) are limited to floodplain areas and shelterbelts. The mixed woody strategy is ideally suited to these areas where it can add to and complement the surrounding habitats. PASSIVE ROW STRATEGY The passive ROW strategy consists of minimizing the impact of maintenance activities on sensitive sites. Sensi- tive areas include wetlands, ridgetops, steep slopes, and shallow soils. Within the range of an endangered species, suitable habitats may also be considered for the Passive strategy, but will vary depending on the specific require- ment for the individual species. Many factors relating to the passive strategy should be USING THIS MANUAL considered during the design and routing of anew ROW. During construction, additional local site factors may also be considered, but after construction, little can be done except to minimize disturbance in these areas. Wetlands — For wetland crossings where conflicting considerations (such as the potential for bird strikes with transmission lines) do not prevent it, the following general guidelines (taken from Crabtree et al. 1978 and White and Byrnildson 1967) should be used in routing and construction of ROWs: | Follow existing utility clearings. 2 Follow the edges of tree and shrub communities. 3 Avoid dividing habitats whenever possible and cross the shortest length of the wetland. (However, some- times the narrow part of the wetland will be where the flight paths of shorebirds, waterfowl, etc. are concentrated and, thus, where collision risk is highest.) 4 Cross low-growing communities instead of forested wetland areas. 5 Schedule activities during periods of least impact to wildlife (i.e., avoid nesting and young-bearing seasons) when possible. 6 Schedule construction during low water periods. Reduce the size, number, and frequency of construc- tion vehicles in wetlands. 8 Use culverts to avoid altering drainage in wetland areas. nN 3 Example Stream crossings — For stream crossings, the following general guidelines should be used in routing and construction of ROWs: 1 Cross streams at right angles. 2 Cross streams at points of narrow width and/or the lowest banks. 3 Avoid crossing potential fish spawning areas (i.e., gravel beds). 4 Schedule activities to avoid fish spawning periods. Other special areas — For ridgetops, steep slopes, and shallow soils, the following general guidelines should be used in routing and construction of ROWs: 1 Maintain vegetation compatible with the overall profile to minimize adverse aesthetic impact of a ROW through wooded areas. 2 Reduce vehicle size, number, and frequency of travel in these areas. 3 When disturbance is unavoidable, use cover or nurse crops to aid revegetation. 3 EXAMPLE As an aid to using this manual, a hypothetical example has been developed and simplified to show the interrelationships of the basic steps required to develop a wildlife management plan. A utility, the Western Conservawatt Electric Com- pany, has an overhead transmission system typical of many in the Western United States. Western Conserva- watt’s service area includes Sections 3131, 3132, and 3135 of Province 3130, the Intermountain Sagebrush (figure 3.1). The system consists of 985 pole miles of transmission lines rated at voltages of 69, 138, 230, 345, and 500 kV and 648 pole miles of subtransmission lines rated at voltages of 22, 34.5, and 69 kV (figure 3.2). The service area extends over a wide variety of physical, sociological, and ecological conditions. Since the early 1920’s, when the first transmission lines were built, the company’s general policy has been to acquire use of land through easements whenever possible. Thus, less than 20 percent of the company’s ROWs are owned outright, having been acquired through fee simple purchases. The remaining 80 percent are held under easements granting the com- pany varying rights and obligations regarding vegetation maintenance. (See chapter 3, Land Use Rights.) Current public awareness has prompted an investigation into the potential for initiating a wildlife management plan on the company’s ROWs. The company’s vegetation manager is working in cooperation with a local biologist interested in wildlife management on transmission line areas. Either person could have initiated the process, but both felt they could make optimum use of their time and talents working together. PHASE A—INVESTIGATION OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT POTENTIAL Step A-1 Utility Company Approval When the idea for wildlife management on the ROWs was proposed, Western Conservawatt’s policymakers 10 met and discussed the actual legal and physical con- straints that influence their transmission system. The meeting resulted in utility officials accepting the idea of developing wildlife management plans where feasible. The company then established appropriate policies for their ROWs to include a positive commitment to active wildlife management and provided an indication of the relative intensity of management that would be imple- mented on the system. Step A-2 Feasibility Assessment Backed by the commitment of the utility, the team (vege- tation manager and local biologist) became familiar with all necessary background information about the trans- mission system. During this process, the vegetation manager recognized that some of the easements as well as all of the land the utility owned outright would be suitable for a wildlife management plan. The local biologist began to formulate a preliminary idea of the type of wildlife management plan that would be most compatible with the company’s transmission ROWs. PHASE B—RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Step B-1 ROW Selection Through a process of elimination, candidate areas suit- able for development of a wildlife management plan were selected. The team began to narrow downareas for inclu- sion in the plan by first identifying and eliminating areas where adjacent land uses made wildlife management impractical. They performed this step for all lines or line areas they could identify. In this example, however, the process will be followed for a single ROW only, the Watertown-Milton 230 kV line (figure 3.3). Along the Watertown-Milton 230 kV line, four segments of ROW were identified as suitable for further assessment (figure 3.4). The land use rights associated with these segments were evaluated. The team now knows that some portion of each segment has both suitable land use patterns and rights associated with it. Further assessment causes the team to eliminate several of the segments. Segment A is located near an urban area and agricultural land. Western Conservawatt owns small parcels of land at each end, but these areas contain a power generation plant and substation. The area in between is mainly farmland, with easements that do not allow any management. Segment C is mostly Bureau of Land Management lands, managed for grazing livestock. Easements do not allow wildlife management in this area. One small parcel within the segment is owned by Western Conservawatt, but it is rocky with virtually no vegetation. Segment D contains a State park area in which most of the easements do not allow for management by the utility. A section where Western Conservawatt does have these rights is currently being negotiated in expansion plans for the park. Future heavy recreational use of the area, however, would severely limit any wildlife management plans. Segment B has mostly wooded-brushy areas under easements that would allow wildlife management. In- cluded in this segment are 10 miles of a mainly wooded CHAPTER 1 Location of province within the United States Figure 3.1 Service area of Western Conservawatt Electric Company USING THIS MANUAL Example LEGEND Location of sections within the province Province boundary Section boundary State boundary 3 il 3 Example THORNSBURG 0 TOMSVILLE HUGHESVILLE \ LEGEND 500 KV 230 TO 345 KV 69 TO 138 KV 22 TO 66 KV GENERATING STATION MILTON Figure 3.2 Western Conservawatt’s transmission system 12 CHAPTER 1 WATERTOWN Example 3 SEGMENTS: SUBSTATION + INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIAL + WOODED AGRICULTURAL OTHER ty GY \ GY N Figure 3.3 Land use pattern along the Watertown-Milton 230 kV transmission line area of which the team chooses 5 miles for an intensive resource assessment (Steps B-2, B-3, and B-4). Base maps are essential to this resource assessment and are available in the form of plan and profile maps (figure 3.5) for the ROW area from Western Conservawatt’s Engineering Department. These maps identify specific landowners, line and tower locations, topography, access and other roads, and stream crossings. Step B-2 Plant Inventory Using the guidelines and checklist found in chapter 5, appendix S-a, the team identified the plant communities on the ROW and designated them on the base map (figure 3.6). The ROW segment under investigation descends a mountain on the eastern side, going from a relatively high elevation to a somewhat lower plateau level. In mountainous terrain, main ROW sections need no management when conductors span valleys and are too high to be within growth ranges of the vegetation beneath. This particular ROW segment contains predominantly lodgepole—ponderosa pine stands in the higher eleva- tions off the ROW. The ROW itself is a mixture of in- vading pines, Ceanothus spp., and various bunchgrasses. As the ROW descends in elevation, it traverses mainly a pinyon—juniper community. At the very lowest eleva- tions, the ROW passes through chaparral. USING THIS MANUAL Step B-3 Wildlife Assessment The team also identified the wildlife habitat available in the area (figure 3.7). Initially, the team relied on pub- lished literature and contact with State biologists to identify the species that are present. This information was supplemented by field observations. Wildlife species found in the area include mule deer, elk, black bear, porcupine, coyote, and mountain quail. A wide variety of songbirds are present most of the year, with greater diversity down the mountain, away from the pure forest stands. Small mammals, as well as a few species of raptors, are also present. The team knew that no wildlife species in the State are included on the U.S. Endangered/ Threatened Species List; some wildlife species, however, were included on the State list. Although no golden eagles or nests had been seen in the ROW area, the habitat seemed to be ideal for them. The abundance of large trees for nesting plus the numerous prey species were indications that this area could support the golden eagle. The team contacted the State Department of Conser- vation for a final check and received the same reply: it does not appear that any eagles are presently in the area. The State biologists mentioned that the eagles’ problem is not so much destruction of habitat as it is the illegal shooting of the birds by ranchers or hunters. 13 3 Example FEE SIMPLE EASEMENT ALLOWING MANAGEMENT EASEMENT NOT ALLOWING MANAGEMENT Figure 3.4 Segments along Watertown-Milton line suitable for further assessment Step B-4 Identification of Special Areas The team marked several other management factors on the base map, including the location of danger trees, den or mast-producing trees, brush piles or slash buildups, wetland areas, and the presence of endangered species habitats (figure 3.8). During this process, the team also indicated the relative intensity of management suitable for each area. When all field data had been collected and entered on the base map, the team was ready to select the wildlife management strategy. PHASE C — IDENTIFICATION OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES AND OBJECTIVES The team is now in the position to determine the wildlife management priorities and objectives for the ROW. Based on the ROW resource assessment, cost, and public input (obtained through interviews with local residents, consultations with State wildlife officials, and a meeting with the local National Audubon Society chapter), gen- eral management priorities are decided upon: | Endangered species management — in areas in which endangered species are located, a species- specific management plan will be developed. Note: this type of plan may include a passive man- agement (minimum disturbance) policy. 14 2 Management for diversity — the plan will provide maximum habitat diversity beneficial to a large number of species occurring in the area. An additional consideration that was brought up in the meetings with State wildlife officials was whether or not to allow hunting on the ROW. The presence of bear, deer, and elk typically draws several hunters to this region each fall. This particular section of line happens to lie in a straight line up the mountain. The low vegetation gives hunters an extra advantage in shooting at animals as they feed on or cross the ROW. Based on this information and because of the illegal eagle shootings that have taken place in the State, Western Conservawatt decides not to allow hunting on the ROW sections for which they can legally dictate policy. Step C-1 Selection of Management Strategy The team now consults the general wildlife management strategies outlined in section 2 to select the basic strate- gies to use in the area. After a careful evaluation, the team decides that the following combination of strategies should be used: the herbaceous ROW strategy for the pinyon—juniper area; the stable shrub ROW strategy for the small area at higher elevations. Using the information gathered in Phases A and Band CHAPTER 1 Example 3 as 7 ‘ < . — g * 8 8 ANDERSOW. — wae 7 - x2 2590 o—=\ e — seeaisy \- Se Aap es 5 eS eS ey RN = 5 LAT os L/ zago. \ 8/42 (aio CS LANG - MASON re Figure 3.5 Plan and profile map for Segment B USING THIS MANUAL 15 or 1 WaLdVHO q uawBag Buoje juasaid sanunuWod juRIg 9'€ aansLy mo ° =o é = eee = 2m zs _ Dv <2 z . = x . » <4 3 ria 3 v a 7 ary" «ty at ry BS OQ Lary ae So x > m 5 > 4 3 fa a) q 3 3 > v oO u = até wn So Dp er? > — > “1 = - C4 oO ae — ~~ ’ a = =z - m “n vac Poaravig ere a> Lean? bt alvet” atc Pr eang vee rt, Be CEANOTHUS Wi BUNCHGRASS por eae eye e “PINES 4 < 7 eae Le ham NG PINES Fe repairer ne alg tgvr4ey ra rae Sid va Fe Ae 2T2 aVa Cr Ad om i is pAarats bry t EZ aretha Aaantviage ole - x <P D SUP san retry 4 repay e acy? > Vab e< + > 4 eee eee Perens ys > Maree getyy rev? as tne a r>hvle > aq o v Vey Tetras rv Vr, erafeiev cS « 8 i oe Pe ae Pee NE Seer er Ie Oe OES ett ts Av : r gtqaaere a aYueretetyer Example 3 KEY 1. Stream provides water for aquatic life, waterfowl, and muskrats. 2. Sedge--cat-tail community provides food and cover for muskrats, waterfowl, and wetland nest- ing birds. a4 Alder thicket pro- vides escape cover and food for wood- cock. 4. Deer cover; brows- ing evident on smaller sprouts. Ruffed grouse habi- tat and feeding in the larger aspen areas. 5. Diverse shrub-- herb cover provides variety of nesting for songbirds. Cottontail rabbits also present. 6. Low herb cover pro- vides early spring plants for grouse, deer, and song- birds to feed on. 7. Mature white pine trees provide nest- ing cover for rap- tors. Old snags contain cavities for bluebirds and woodpeckers. Figure 3.7 Wildlife habitats in Segment B USING THIS MANUAL 17 3 Example KEY 1. Wetland--passive man- agement. 2. & 3. Sensitive areas, min- imize disturbance. Selectively cut only potentially dangerous alders. 4. Aspen and maple sprouts--selectively remove by cut and stump spraying taller individuals. Slash can be piled on edge of ROW. 5. Shrub--herb cover needs no maintenance. Access road area could periodically be disced and planted to herbaceous cover. 6. Mature forest (mostly white pine); only trees identified as potentially dangerous should be cut. If possible, topping and side cutting could be used to produce a snag valuable to wild- life. Mature aspen could be cut (if po- tentially dangerous) and left as drumming logs for grouse. Wl Access road %H& Brush piles # Cut logs @ snags > Danger trees Figure 3.8 \dentification of special areas in Segment B 18 CHAPTER 1 the guidelines outlined in chapters 2 through 6 of this volume, the team begins to develop the management plan. PHASE D — FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PLAN Step D-1 Plant Habitat Preferences The team consults the Selected Plant Species tables for Province 3130 (volume 3, section 51) and finds that ponderosa and lodgepole pine are both categorized as tall-growing trees that will eventually have to be con- trolled on the ROW. Pinyon and juniper are both classi- fied as low-growing trees that may at some time have to be controlled on the ROW. Ceanothus spp. and the present chaparral types (manzanitas and bitterbrush) are classified as low-growing shrubs that may be left on the ROW along with any grasses and forbs present. The team finds additional pertinent information about these plants by examining the Ecological Characteristics Table (table 31:30-51.2) found in volume 3, section 51. The data included in this table reveal that bitterbrush is important as food to small mammals and mule deer. Pinyon, juniper, and Ceanothus spp. all provide cover as well as food for small mammals, quail, mule deer, and elk. Manzanita berries are relished by wildlife; the plants form good cover for smaller animals. Both lodgepole and ponderosa pine furnish food in the form of seeds and needles. The trees themselves serve as cover for the various species of wildlife. The wood is gnawed by porcupines. The team also notes the growth forms and preferred habitats of these plant species. Step D-2 Plant Responses In this step, the team reviews the particular parts of volume 3, chapter | pertinent to Province 3130, with special regard to responses of the tall-growing plants on this ROW. This review reveals that ponderosa pine may be cut. If it does invade the ROW it will do so slowly because it competes poorly with the established grass. The same situation applies to lodgepole pine, but even more so, since it usually needs fire to regenerate. Both trees are susceptible to windthrow in shallow soils. Also determined is the fact that pinyon — juniper areas are commonly altered by bulldozers, chain saws, and chaining or cabling. Openings created will usually grow up in grasses and forbs. Herbicides and fire also produce similar effects, with exceptions that snags will be left. Control of the method, however, to only the desired area to be treated is difficult. Step D-3 Wildlife Habitat Requirements The next step is to review the wildlife Ecological Charac- teristics tables in volume 3, chapter 3 for information on selected wildlife species found in the area (tables 65.5, 65.6, 65.7). It should be noted that the mule deer’s preferred cover types include conifer forests, pinyon — juniper areas, and chaparral types. Preferred foods that are also found in this study are bitterbrush, manzanitas, Ceanothus spp.. and juniper. USING THIS MANUAL Example 3 Habitat requirements for elk include a forested / brushy mountain slope for cover that includes open grassy areas. Foods available in the area preferred by elk are Ceanothus spp., pine, and various grasses. The black bear prefers dense thickets and forests and, as found in the inventory, already utilizes a blowdown near the ROW for a den. Foods preferred in the area are pinyon pine seeds, insects, and small mammals. As found in the ecological characteristics for the coyote, this particular animal is extremely adaptable and does not necessarily require any management. Cover is any brushy or rocky area; the coyote’s food preferences include a variety of plant and animal matter found in the area. The porcupine is classified as a forest species and probably could not be managed for on the ROW itself. Its wood-gnawing habits may be a problem, however, if wood poles are used for the transmission line. The mountain quail prefers edge areas of conifer forests in the mountains. Nesting habitat is provided by dense shrub growth. Ponderosa pine is a preferred roosting tree. Food preferences include insects and seeds of grass, Ceanothus spp., and manzanita. Other selected wildlife species are checked in this manner. Songbirds observed in the area are checked in the Songbird Nesting Table (table 65.8) to see if they breed in this area and what nesting habitat they prefer. Step D-4 ROW Maintenance Methods and Costs The next step is to analyze which ROW maintenance methods are feasible and economical for this area of the country. The vegetation manager from Western Conser- vawatt is already familiar with these methods and costs, but the biologist is not. They note that bulldozing, selec- tive cutting, and stem-foliage waterborne spraying are common methods used in this area (section 16). Various slash disposal methods are also commonly used, while seeding to restore ROWs is performed routinely. The team notes that, in general, costs of ROW main- tenance methods for this particular area are high in comparison to the rest of the country, so vegetation maintenance will be employed only where absolutely necessary. Step D-5 Management Plan Basically, the team has now gathered the information necessary for formulating the management plan. These considerations are all interrelated in the planning process (see figure 1). The first decision the team must now make is how to best manage the potential danger vegetation on this ROW: ponderosa and lodgepole pine, pinyon pine, and juniper. Based on the information gathered from exam- ining plant responses, the team decides that the best way to manage the ROW through the forested area is to selec- tively cut any pine seedlings, should they appear. The existing grass—Ceanothus spp. cover will also dis- courage the future establishment of pines. This ROW area cover serves another function: that of a fuelbreak. Since fires are common in ponderosa — lodgepole forests 19 3 Example in this area, a fuelbreak here is an aid to firefighters. The danger trees noted just off the ROW should be cut away from the ROW to maintain the integrity of the fuelbreak. Since the Ceanothus spp. are very scattered and not large, it is decided not to remove them so they can serve as a food source to wildlife. Also noted in the plan is an avoidance (when possible) policy in the area of the bear den, especially in spring and summer when cubs might be present with their mother. The pinyon—juniper habitat is valuable wildlife habi- tat as is, but taller plants should be selectively cut. The access road in this area can be bulldozed free of these species and will open up the area to forbs and grasses, also valuable to wildlife. Slash can be piled at the ROW edge, if breaks are provided to allow wildlife access. The low-growing chaparral area is to be left undis- turbed, especially because of its high maintenance costs. Manzanitas and bitterbrush serve as excellent wildlife cover and food. The access road can be bulldozed clear. Tower sites can be left with bare rock cover or with grass. The final part of this step is to prepare these specifica- tions formally and to delineate special treatment areas on the base map. Step D-6 Implementation Plan The implementation plan, containing the specifications and alternatives, is presented to Western Conservawatt officials. Upon approval, the utility releases the plan for bids in the same manner that all the company’s vegetation maintenance specifications are released. Step D-7 Selection of Management Plan The final plan that is accepted by the utility is based on the most cost-efficient combination of base bids and selected alternates, allowing Western Conservawatt officials to initiate a management plan while staying within normal budgetary limits. Step D-8 Implementation of Plan As soon as the job is awarded and maintenance work begins, the planning team assumes the responsibility of being present in the field to make sure the plan is imple- mented according to the specifications. Since it may be necessary to change some specifications in the field, as problems arise, the presence of a team member is valu- able. The team member may also discover ways to im- prove the plan in the future. It should be pointed out that implementation of the wildlife management plan does not necessarily occur at one time. Due to budget and time constraints, different specifications in the plan may be performed on the ROW 20 as they are needed until all specifications are finally worked into the maintenance program. Periodic evalua- tion of the effectiveness of the plan should be made and changes or new ideas implemented accordingly. Note: Although this example is geared to formulating a wildlife plan on an existing ROW, the manual may also be used for new ROWs. The general steps to be followed are the same, but the vegetation present before a ROW is constructed gives even more flexibility to a wildlife man- agement plan. Developing wildlife management specifi- cations before construction helps reduce the impact on wildlife. REFERENCES Bailey, R.G. 1976. Ecoregions of the United States. U.S. For. Serv. Intermtn. Reg., Ogden, Utah. | map. Crabtree, A., C. Bassett, and L. Fisher. 1978. Evaluation of Pipeline construction on streams and wetland environments. Mich. Publ. Serv. Comm. 172 pp. Nord, E.C., and L.R. Green. 1977. Low-volume and slow- burning vegetation for planting on clearings in California chaparral. U.S. For. Serv. Res. Pap. PSW-124. 41 pp. Richards, N.A. 1973. Old field vegetation as an inhibitor of tree vegetation. Pages 78-88 in R. Goodland, ed. Power lines and the environment. The Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Gardens, Millbrook, N.Y. Tillman, R.E. 1973. Wildlife management — powerline rights of way. Pages 127-132 in R. Goodland, ed. Powerlines and the environment. The Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Gardens, Millbrook, N.Y. . 1976. The southern tier interconnection: a case study. Pages 221-223 in R.E. Tillman, ed. Proceedings of the first national symposium on environmental concerns in rights-of-way management. Miss. State Univ., Miss. State, Miss. U.S. Forest Service. 1969. Wildlife habitat improvement handbook. U.S. For. Serv. Handb. 2609.11. Weaver, J.E. 1968. Prairie plants and their environment. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Neb. 276 pp. White, R.J., and O.M. Byrnildson. 1967. Guidelines for management for trout stream habitat in Wisconsin. Wisc. Dep. Nat. Resour. Tech. Bull. 39. Engineering Constraints in ROW Management This chapter provides insight into the physical and biological alterations that occur when a transmission facility and ROW are constructed. The ROW alteration practices discussed are representative of those utilized by utilities throughout the United States and are not specific to any given utility company. 21 4 General Engineering Information 4 GENERAL ENGINEERING INFORMATION Transmission lines in the United States carry electrical energy in two basic ways: alternating current (AC), and direct current (DC). The most common type is AC, in which the direction of electron flow within the line changes back and forth. In DC transmission, there is no change in the direction of electron flow. For purposes of discussion, the similarities between AC and DC are more important than the differences. Since AC transmission is presently much more common in the United States than DC transmission, the rest of this discussion will deal primarily with AC transmission lines. AC transmission lines carry three-phase power; DC lines carry electricity at two polarities. Either AC or DC current may be single or double circuit. Thus, a three phase transmission line carries the specified voltage through three conductors or bundles of conductors (figure 4.1). Each circuit has one conductor for each of the three phases. A double circuit line has six conductors. The conductor, usually a wire or cable, carries electric current and is fixed to the transmission structure by insulator strings. Conductors for some high voltage transmission lines are comprised of two or more wires strung in bundles, with one bundle required for each phase. Static or overhead ground wires are mounted on top of the structure to protect against lightning damage. Following is a discussion, of several physical and engineering para- Static / ground wires «— Insulators Conductors meters of transmission lines that may cause environ- mental alterations. VOLTAGES Transmission line voltage determines design specifica- tions, construction methods, and considerations impor- tant in determining the environmental effects of electric power transmission. Transmission line voltage levels may be divided into three ranges: | high voltage transmission (HV) — 69 kilovolts (kV) to less than 230 kV; 2 extra high voltage transmission (EHV) — 230 kV to 765 kV: 3 ultra high voltage transmission (UHV) — greater than 765 kV. These definitions may vary among utility companies. Higher voltage lines connect large generating units with major substations and switching points. The surface area of the conductor determines, in part, the amount of energy a conductor can carry. Conductors with greater total surface areas carry more energy more efficiently than smaller conductors. In recent years, utili- ties have been upgrading lines by installing larger con- ductors. In many cases, new structures have been built because the original towers did not have the strength to support the larger conductors. Lines rated for 345 kV can carry up to six times as much power as 115 kV lines tT 125' Single Circuit Double Circuit Figure 4.1 Example of single and double circuit tower construction 22 CHAPTER 2 because of their increased voltage and current-carrying capability (Northeast Utilities Systems 1974). A 765 kV line can carry five times the energy of a 345 kV line (Northeast Power Coordinating Council 1975). Each transmission line is designed fora maximum level of current flow, called rating. The flow of electricity through a conductor is opposed by an internal resistance which causes heat, expansion of the conductor, and conductor sag. Extended operation at high conductor temperatures may cause heat damage to the conductors. CLEARANCES Transmission line height reflects the requirements for protecting the line from interference due to tall trees. The amount of sag on a given conductor is determined by a number of variables, including distance between towers, tower height, conductor weight, capacity, and tempera- ture. Conductors also swing laterally with the wind. Side clearance is figured by calculating the swing of the con- ductors in the worst possible conditions — i.e., high temperatures and high velocity winds. Minimum dis- tances are kept between conductors of different phases or voltages to prevent “flashover,” a sudden surge of voltage causing an arc between conductors (Northeast Utilities System 1974). Figure 4.2 illustrates the effect of varying conditions on adjacent tall-growing vegetation. After the voltage and circuit are determined, econom- 35° Minimum General Engineering Information 4 ic, engineering, environmental, and safety considerations determine the design of the line. A principal decision is whether to use long spans and tall structures or short spans and short structures (Northeast Utilities System 1974). This decision influences both the location and design of the ROW. RELIABILITY Transmission line reliability refers to electric power being available whenever necessary. It is a component of an entire electrical reliability system including generation of electricity. Electrical outages due to transmission failure may have four basic causes: 1) natural phenomena; 2) sys- tem operation; 3) line or equipment failure; and 4) human actions, foreign objects, and unknown factors. Of great- est concern are outages caused by events external to the transmission system. These make up nearly 85 percent of the total failures. Typical causes include a conductor breaking from accumulated ice, fallen trees, aircraft, and windstorms. Lightning accounts for 42 percent of all outages and is the most frequent cause of line failure (Holberger et al. 1975). RIGHTS-OF-WAY ROW width requirements vary for individual lines and are determined by side clearance, distances required to minimize radio and TV interference, maintenance access, 7S.S' SAG 1500 FT. SPAN 104’ R/W- MIN. Cope, GO*F, NO WIND 230° SPECIAL we Mit 4 180’ REGULAR Figure 4.2 ROW width for 500 kV line as determined by wind speeds and adjacent vegetation ENGINEERING CONSTRAINTS IN ROW MANAGEMENT 23 4 General Engineering Information and possible future additional lines (Holberger et al. 1975). Table 4.1 illustrates typical ROW widths and ap- proximate acres per mile (Detroit Edison Company 1973; Northeast Utilities System 1974; Holberger et al. 1975; Northeast Power Coordinating Council 1975). Table 4.1 Typical ROW Widths Line voltage Typical ROW widths (ft) Approximate acres/mile 115/138 (AC) 90-150 11.0-18.2 230 (AC) 100-150 12.1-18.2 345 (AC) 150-170 18.2-20.6 500 (AC) 135-200 16.4-26.2 765 (AC) 260-280 31.5-34.0 t400 (0c) 140-150 17.0-18.2 In addition to ROW access, utilities also require access to adjacent areas outside the ROW to cut trees that may potentially fall into the towers or conductors. Negotia- tions with property owners to cut or maintain these danger trees (figure 4.3) that are off the ROW are con- ducted at the time of ROW acquisition and may continue throughout the life of the line. The distance from the ROW that determines which trees are danger trees varies among companies and transmission line type. STRUCTURE DESIGN A variety of structure types and sizes (figure 4.4) are available for use with transmission lines. The three basic types are: 1) single poles made of wood, steel, or concrete; 2) double poles with cross braces, also made of wood, steel, or concrete; and 3) conventional steel lattice struc- tures. Various patterns of guy wires are used in the basic design of some structures. Structure type and size determine the extent of dis- turbance at the base for footings, assembly, and erection. Figure 4.3 Danger tree 24 In ecologically unique or sensitive areas, the variations of structure design and helicopter-assisted construction can minimize impacts by reducing soil disturbance or total clearing. Structure height, ravines, topography, and other natural features affect the distance of the conductors from the ground. 5 RIGHT-OF-WAY SELECTION In the transmission line planning process, termi- nal points are important. The transmission line route should be as direct as possible between terminal points. A ROW is not expected to vary from a straight line without reasonable engineering, cost, and/or environmental justification. A transmission line point of origin (the source of power flow) may be a generating plant, switching station, another transmission line (by looping or tapping an exist- ing line), or a step-down point from a larger voltage line (substation). Its end point is generally a substation at which the voltage is transformed into lower voltages. These lower voltages emanate from the station as distri- bution, subtransmission, or smaller transmission lines. Criteria for route selection vary throughout the United States. They must be set by the utility, State regulations, public participation, or by all three. The considerations applied to route selection are highly varied and may be categorized as follows: ecological resources, engineering/ economic factors, cultural resources, agricultural/forest resources, aesthetics, and socio-economic factors. A common limiting factor in effective route selection on private lands may be a lack of specific information re- garding habitats or unique features. Such areas have usually been studied or identified on public lands, and this public knowledge, coupled with little access difficul- ties, generally permits a more comprehensive transmis- sion line routing study on public lands than on private lands. The complexity of the route assessment depends on how many variations in land use, terrain, topography, etc., exist along the general alignment. The more diverse physical and other features are along a ROW, the more difficult are the assessment and the decisions. Homogenous land use between terminal points, however, calls for a less complex approach. Discussed below are factors affecting fish and wildlife that are often consid- ered in route selection. HABITAT TYPE Fundamental to routing transmission lines is an identifi- cation and evaluation of the wildlife habitat the lines may affect. As discussed previously, it is often difficult to iden- tify positively habitats on private lands, because of limited or no access to them. Aerial reconnaissance, when available, is an alternative technique used to identify hab- itats in inaccessible areas. Habitat mapping is usually done on aerial photographs and/or U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) quadrangle maps. AQUATIC HABITATS ROWs crossing water environments often present special problems in route selection and impact. River, stream, CHAPTER 2 LATTICE STRUCTURE STOWERS/MILE Right-of-Way Selection L STEEL SINGLE POLE STRUCTURE 7 TOWERS/MILE + WOOD H-FRAME STRUCTURE 7 TOWERS/MLE J T STEELH-FRAME STRUCTURE = 5 TOWERS/MILE DREYFUSS STRUCTURE 13/HS/LT2G STOWERS/MILE DREYFUSS STRUCTURE 12/HS/IT2G 7 TOWERS/MILE c r GUYED Y STRUCTURE 5 TOWERS/MILE GUYED "V" STRUCTURE 5 TOWERS/MILE RIGHT OF WAY 150° FS Bat bt Ft EE Ft Fas + 5 Figure 4.4 Alternative tower designs (from Kitchings et al. 1974) ENGINEERING CONSTRAINTS IN ROW MANAGEMENT 25 5 Right-of-Way Selection wetland, and lake crossings are avoided when possible, usually because of increased costs and environmental impacts associated with these crossings. However, aquatic crossings may be made with limited impacts on fish and wildlife by giving adequate consideration to the following factors: the approach to the crossings; estimated soil losses; bank stabilization; influence on aquatic and riparian habitat and associ- ated wildlife; 5 degree of vegetation removal and subsequent main- tenance, including effects of herbicides; and 6 equipment crossing. RWN— Limiting disturbances is most often associated with minimizing impact on vegetation. VEGETATIVE COVER The degree of vegetation removal on a new ROW de- pends on its location as well as on the techniques used for clearing and maintenance. When disturbances can be defined in terms of the extent of vegetation removed, route selection can minimize these disturbances. Long- range maintenance needs may also be developed at the time of route selection. PLAN AND PROFILE SHEETS Plan and profile sheets incorporate the survey maps and allow on-line drawings to be used in the field. These sheets are developed and used by many utility companies; however, not all companies have the resources or the need to develop comprehensive plan and profile sheets. When developing plan and profile sheets, exact center- lines and structure sites are plotted for subsequent survey and staking. Many site-specific decisions are made about the placement of facilities in relation to other structures, water bodies, fence lines, property boundaries, roads, etc. At this time, all of the considerations reviewed and accepted earlier in planning are transferred to the plan and profile sheets. Drawings often include aerial photographs in addition to a vertical schematic and hori- zontal terrain profile. Various types of information are shown, such as clearing and slash disposal, means of access, types of herbicides to be used, no-cut or no-chem- ical areas, problem erosion areas, etc. CROSSING DRAWINGS Detailed site drawings to illustrate how transmission lines cross rivers and streams can be instrumental when constructing lines over habitats determined to be signifi- cant. However, because of the expense, drawings are not required by all companies or done for all crossings. 6 IMPLEMENTATION The sequence of activities following route selec- tion traditionally consists of survey, ROW acquisition, access planning, vegetation clearing (sometimes includ- ing stump spraying), brush disposal, construction, restor- ation, and maintenance. 26 SURVEY Survey crews are usually the first representatives of the utility to acquaint themselves with the physical character- istics of the ROW. RIGHT-OF-WAY ACQUISITION ROW acquisition is a legal and contractual practice gen- erally removed from ROW development (see detailed treatment in volume 1, chapter 3). Quite often during ROW acquisition, agreements are made with the individ- ual landowner for special considerations of the trans- mission ROW location on or adjacent to the owner’s property. These agreements are made known to the con- tractors before any clearing or construction begins. Such agreements are not always in the best interest of wildlife habitat. ACCESS PLANNING The requirement for a permanent access road (figure 6.1) along power transmission lines varies among utility companies and with the type of line. In any emergency, heavy equipment and/or helicopters are used for line re- pair. Access to the ROW is also needed during construc- tion and maintenance. . Construction access trails within the ROW are 15 to 20 feet wide, depending on the tower design and type of con- struction equipment required. Meandering trails are con- structed where feasible. The construction trail, with proper planning, can provide ready access to tower fabri- cation sites and blend with the existing environment. PLAN VIEW L tans Figure 6.1 Typical access (service) road plan CHAPTER 2 Soil erosion is a critical concern in access road plan- ning, although mitigation practices can reduce it. For example, roads may be located in areas that will not col- lect large volumes of natural runoff. Where large amounts of water are anticipated, water interceptor ditches can be constructed to prevent erosion. When practical, wood chips are used for erosion prevention and for repairing soil compacted areas. Construction trails on marshy ground presenta special problem. Where excessive damage to soils may occur due to wet conditions and heavy vehicular traffic, the access road may be stabilized by gravel, stone, mats, or other means. The crossings of streams, rivers, or other water bodies by construction vehicles cannot always be avoided. In these cases, the streams are usually small (under 150 feet wide) and can be protected from damage from vehicular traffic. Streambank approaches can be effectively protected by stone fill, flexible steel mats, or timber planking. On completion of construction, access trails are stabilized by grass cover, water bars, and grading of any scars or ruts. VEGETATION CLEARING No single method of ROW clearing is universally suitable or always applicable to an entire ROW. For planning purposes the ROW may be segmented into areas where specific types of clearing and slash disposal are required. The size of the areas and the specific combination of clearing and slash disposal methods vary with topog- raphy, line profile, and adjacent land use. Variations of cutting types include clear cutting, selective clearing, and no cutting. Clear Cutting Areas are cleared of all woody vegetation. Stumps of tall- growing trees are treated with a suitable herbicide to avoid sprouting. Clear cutting is considered beneficial to many species of wildlife because it causes an edge effect between or within plant communities by allowing grasses, herbs, and legumes to be introduced in the cut areas. Clear cutting is generally used in the following areas along the line route: Tower fabrication sites — The dimensions of these areas will be determined by the height and configur- ation of the towers. The areas must also satisfy re- quirements for tower erection. Access roads — These areas are cleared only when access is restricted between tower sites: they are usually 20 feet or less in width. Construction trails — These provide access within the ROW, are usually 15 feet wide or less, and often meander within the ROW to enhance visual obscurity. Conductor stringing sites — If possible, “setup” areas for tension stringing equipment are located in exist- ing open areas to avoid additional clearing. Equipment staging areas Additional clearing for equipment staging can usually be avoided. Implementation 6 Selective Clearing Specifically designated species, types, or sizes of plants within specified areas of the ROW are removed. Selective clearing is more expensive than clear cutting and is often practiced only when the situation dictates. Points of max- imum line sag and minimum clearance along the ROW determine the species and mature heights of vegetation selected for removal. Additional areas where selective clearing is used include: Vegetative screens — A width of vegetation is main- tained to provide an adequate visual barrier, usually at road crossings and visually sensitive locations. Screens are generally composed of low-growing woody species extending from the edge of the road. Stream and river crossings — Mechanical clearing, which may result in soil erosion, is limited near streambanks. A buffer of low-growing plant species is maintained to check erosion, and the movement of equipment in these areas is held to a minimum. Danger tree areas — Danger trees must be removed or trimmed wherever they- grow along the ROW. Danger trees may be identified by the following: directional lean, configuration, age and vigor, ter- rain, and soil structure present. Selective cutting is not always a preferred technique in wooded areas. For example, in areas of dense second gen- eration growth, individual trees may be spindly and have very few limbs. Understory species may be sparse or non- existent. To cut selectively in these areas often results in unsightly residual vegetation that often perishes because of sunscald or frost on thin-barked species. The most practical areas for selective cutting are those with a well- established understory. No Cutting Special areas, such as valleys or where tower heights pro- vide sufficient clearances, may be preserved, except for suitable access. CHEMICAL TREATMENT During initial clearing, chemical treatment is generally restricted to controlling stump sprouting. All chemical herbicides are applied in accordance with label directions and applicable Federal, State, and local regulations. Emphasis is placed on selective vegetation control, drift- free application, and avoiding contamination of water sources. BRUSH DISPOSAL In general, merchantable timber is the property of the landowner. Removal of the timber may be the responsi- bility of the landowner, the utility company, or both. Asa precaution against disturbing access trails and erosion, many companies do not permit the landowner to remove timber. The landowner may request that the timber be cut to a specified size. Nonmerchantable timber and slash are disposed of by windrowing; piling: drop, lop, and leave: removing; chip- ping; piling and burning; or pit burning. The method of ENGINEERING CONSTRAINTS IN ROW MANAGEMENT 27 6 Implementation disposal generally depends on public demand, local and State regulations, practicality, and utility policy. CONSTRUCTION Footings Design and installation of concrete footings for the support of structures is determined by the characteristics of soil and bedrock. The design is consistent with varia- tions that allow for differences in tower loads or tower weights for the individual project. Concrete installation for transmission towers requires the use of heavy equipment and large quantities of material. Before excavation, a general soil profile is ob- tained from test borings to establish information on depths to bedrock, soil strengths, and the groundwater table. In wet or boggy areas, alternative footing designs are often used, both for the structure and to minimize environmental disruption. Cast-in-place concrete foot- ings require ready, reliable sources of concrete. If local sources of ready-mixed concrete are unsatisfactory, mobile batch concrete plants are utilized. Tower Construction The dimensions of tower fabrication sites must be ad- equate to assure safe construction and to prevent unex- pected site disruption. In addition to the type of tower, topography and con- dition of the ROW influence equipment needs. Motor- ized hydraulic cranes, although somewhat limited in boom length and capacity, have good mobility and cause less disturbance to the ROW than the larger capacity, mechanical cranes. Helicopter erection is becoming cost competitive with ground erection, especially in rough terrain or under other special circumstances. Conductor Stringing EHV conductors require a tension stringing method that uses a bullwheel puller and tensioner (figure 6.2). The use of tension during installation of conductors avoids the abrasion and scarring of the conductors that could occur Buuwiee CABLE TENSIONER. Figure 6.2 Bullwheel cable puller and tensioner 28 if they were dragged along the ground and across fences and other obstacles. This precaution also avoids unneces- sary radio and TV interference that damaged conductors might create. Conductor stringing setup locations are flexible, with the stringing covering long distances from the tensioner to the puller (figure 6.3). Flexible stringing distances facilitate the selection of the best setup sites. The stringing equipment is engine powered and avail- able with noise abatement devices. This improvement is particularly beneficial in wildlife breeding areas and public use areas (Northeast Power Coordinating Council 1975). RESTORATION Restoration work required after construction cleanup consists mainly of grading and seeding of grasses and ground covers. MAINTENANCE Controlling woody vegetation so it will not interfere with the conductors (insuring reliability) is the common tradi- tional definition of maintenance as it pertains to ROW vegetation. Current usage also includes the establishment of low- or slow-growing communities of plants that re- generate naturally, require little attention, and conform to the concept of transmission reliability. Vegetation maintenance practices consist of chemical, mechanical, and manual methods (section 15). Towers, conductors, and related electrical equipment are also maintained and repaired as required. REFERENCES Detroit Edison Company. 1973. Transmission corridors. [Unpublished.] Holberger, S.L., L. Morrow, J. Watson, and F. Williams. 1975. Resource and land investigations (RALI) program: considerations in evaluating utility line proposals. Mitre Corp., McLean, Va. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, Va. PB 248 261. CHAPTER 2 References Figure 6.3 Stringing over long distances from tensioner to puller. Kitchings, J.T., H.H. Shugart, and J.D. Story. 1974. Envi- Northeast Utilities System. 1974. Overhead transmission ronmental impacts associated with electric transmission policies and practices. Northeast Utilities Service Co., lines. ORNL-TM-4498. Oak Ridge Natl. Lab., Environ. Sci. Hartford, Conn. 51 pp. Div., Oak Ridge, Tenn. 104 pp. Northeast Power Coordinating Council. 1975. EHV and the environment. [Unpublished.] ENGINEERING CONSTRAINTS IN ROW MANAGEMENT 29 Land Use Rights There are over 250,000 circuit miles of electric trans- mission lines in the United States (Edison Electric Insti- tute 1975). Most Americans are accustomed to the sight of tower structures supporting a number of large cables. One aspect of electric transmission lines that is often not understood by the general public, however, is the neces- sity of acquiring construction and management rights for these lines. Construction techniques and wildlife consid- erations on ROWs must be developed within the limits set by acquired rights. A primary objective of this discus- sion is to acquaint biologists investigating the practical possibilities of either mitigating impacts to wildlife habi- tat or developing long-term habitat management plans with the constraints imposed by land use rights associ- ated with transmission line ROWs. Most electric transmission lines are 115,000 volts (115 kV) or larger, with a minimum rural ROW width of 75 to 100 feet. Smaller lines, down to the size that serve individ- ual residences, are referred to as distribution and service lines and are not included in this discussion. Distribution and service lines require considerably less ROW width. Just as the edges of interstate highway ROWS are not marked in a special way, the edges of transmission ROWs are apparent only where development (e.g., a residential subdivision) has defined their limits or vegetation has been cleared to the ROW edge, as in a forested area. To the uninformed person, the ROW may appear unrestrict- ed. ROWs do have specific bounds, however, that legally limit activities of the utility, the landowner (if it is an ease- ment ROW), and the general public. For this discussion, practices used in acquiring electric transmission line ROWs were reviewed to determine pat- 31 7 Right-of-Way Acquisition Practices / 8 terns existing among utilities and to develop insight into the need for various rights. Seventy-five of the largest electric utilities throughout the 48 contiguous states pro- vided general information about their acquisition prac- tices. The information obtained from this survey was synthesized and forms the basis for the discussion in this chapter. 7 RIGHT-OF-WAY ACQUISITION PRACTICES Electric utilities, including private, public, and quasi-public companies, use two basic practices to ac- quire the land rights necessary to build, operate, and maintain transmission lines. They use fee simple acquisi- tion—buying the land outright—when it is necessary to keep all real property rights. They seek easement rights— rights to construction, operation, and maintenance—on smaller lines and/or when they wish the original landowner to retain all property rights. Utilities planning to construct a new line or expand an existing one usually have standard policies that dictate acquisition practices. For various reasons, however, practices may vary along the length of the line. For ex- ample, a utility that usually seeks easement rights may acquire some fee ROW near each terminal point to insure access to the terminal for future lines. Fee title may also be acquired where multiple lines are planned and the cost of an easement is as much as the fee value, or when the landowner prefers fee title because the parcel of land is small and an easement would limit the existing or intend- ed use of the property. A primary criterion in the decision to acquire fee rights is the size of the proposed transmission line. A utility may have a policy to acquire in fee all transmission ROWs for lines rated 115 kV and larger. Another utility may acquire in fee only the higher voltage lines, such as 500 kV and 765 kV. Because higher voltage transmission lines serve many more customers, interruptions of the power supply on these lines are more crucial than are those on smaller transmission lines. Utilities can, in these cases, better control encroachment and interference with line opera- tions through fee simple ROW acquisition. 8 ACQUISITION PROCEDURES Acquisition of electric transmission line ROWs is the responsibility of the utility’s Land Department, Real Estate Division, ROW group, or equivalent. Small utilities may have only a ROW solicitor or agent. The re- lationship of this department or person to other depart- ments involved in planning, budgeting, construction, and maintenance of ROWS varies among utilities, but the fol- lowing sequence of procedures appears to be typical: 1 Following a decision to expand a transmission sys- tem, the ROW or Real Estate Department studies cost estimates of the proposed plans. 2 After management authorization and determination of engineering design and type of ROW acquisition, actual ROW costs are budgeted by the ROW De- partment based on existing land values. 32 Acquisition Procedures w During line route selection, the ROW staff works with the Transmission Engineering and Environ- mental departments. ROW staff contribute infor- mation on existing ROW land uses and estimated land values in particular areas. 4 The ROW Department provides title information on the route selected and plots this information on ownership maps. 5 The ROW and Legal departments prepare all neces- sary documents and collect appraisal figures and records before beginning acquisition. To save time and maintain good public relations, it is important that appraisal information is accurate and objec- tive so that realistic offers can be made at the begin- ning of a project. 6 Landowners are contacted by authorized acquisi- tion personnel, who negotiate the agreements. These may include itemizing all of the unavoidable dam- ages to the landowner’s property, such as breakage of drainage tiles or removal of fences, associated with the ROW construction. Costs of such planned damages are discussed in general terms, only, at this stage. 7 Before construction begins, all agreements resulting from ROW negotiations are given to the department responsible for construction. Responsibility for adhering to specific agreements, such as stacking, burning, or removing cleared vegetation, is trans- ferred to the construction engineers who continue the relationship with the landowners initiated by the ROW Department. This obligation is as important for fee title as it is for easement ROWs. The ROW agent, project engineer, and construction supervisor review the project before construction. 8 Following construction, the ROW Department re- contacts landowners to settle on costs of planned damages. Unpredictable circumstances sometimes cause excessive damages, but these situations are handled individually. 9 Responsibility for landowner agreements is trans- ferred tothe ROW Maintenance Department, which continues contact with landowners over the life of the ROW. 9 FEE RIGHT-OF-WAY Land acquired through fee simple acquisition is under total control of the utility (see appendix 3-a, “Fee Simple Right-of-Way Acquisition Form”). On fee title ROWs a utility has the right to permit any non-utility uses compatible with the transmission of electric energy. Agreements for using a fee ROW by a third party are re- corded in letter form or in a license, permit, or lease (see appendixes 3-b, c, d). Licenses and permits are short- term authorizations granted for nominal payment and are revokable by the utility in a specified number of days upon written notice. Revocation of a license is usually due to improper use of the ROW by the licensee who is often liable for any caused damages. A lease is a stronger agreement and can be more difficult to terminate. The cost of leasebacks takes into account property taxes and CHAPTER 3 utility administrative costs. Commercial uses may have an annual rental based on land values or revenues. Ex- amples of third party agreements are: 1) a license for car parking on the edge of a ROW, 2) a permit for a local nature club to use a ROW for field trips (excluding trail building and posting of signs), 3) a lease to farm ona ROW, 4) an agreement with a municipal agency for a baseball outfield (excluding bleachers and backstops), and 5)a letter authorizing a hunting club to plant wildlife foods on a ROW crossing their property. Requests for reasonable non-utility uses by third parties are usually accepted. The degree of consideration given requests depends upon management opinion and the utility's response to public opinion. Third party use on fee ROWs can only be considered if it does not inter- fere with the rights of the original landowner. Where there are no limitations of land rights or safety, a utility may require adjacent landowners to agree to the third party’s proposed use. This practice lessens potential con- flicts when an aspect of the use, such as noise, will extend beyond the ROW edges. In some cases on a few ROWs, the utility is responsible for control of encroachment and trespass. Protection against encroachment (any unauthorized or interfering use by non-utility persons) requires constant policing. Fee simple ownership may be modified by a reserva- tion, or conditional fee, whereby the former owner re- tains rights to certain uses of the land. In conditional fee acquisition, grantors reserve certain rights that do not interfere with transmission operations (e.g.. farming, mining, landscaping, and gardening). These reserved rights, depending on the wording of agreements, may be assigned to the landowner’s heirs or to new owners (see appendix 3-e). Fee acquisition, however, assures the utility of much better control of ROW usage. 10 EASEMENT RIGHT-OF-WAY The more common of the two basic types of ROW acquisition practices is the easement. An estimated 85 to 90 percent of all transmission line ROWs through- out the United States are under easement. This figure is subject to opinion and statistical modification. An electric transmission ROW easement is a legal in- strument by which a utility acquires certain land use rights from the owner. Easements may be sought for sub- surface rights (pipelines), surface rights, and above surface rights (air rights). Though electric transmission easements provide mainly surface and air rights, future development of underground systems may involve more subsurface easements. Several utilities that distribute gas as well as electricity acquire both surface and subsurface rights. Variations of easement rights, such as permits and grants, give partial property rights to the utility, with fee title kept by the original landowner. Easements are more clearly understood when defined by the “bundle of sticks” theory: The owner of a parcel of real estate in fee simple has all of the benefits of the ownership thereof, excepting those reserved to the state. This is the bundle of rights theory. This theory can best be remembered by visualizing a bundle of sticks, each one repre- LAND USE RIGHTS Fee Right-of-Way 9 / Easement Right-of-Way 10 senting a right of the owner. This theory holds that the owner of a property in fee simple has all of the sticks except those retained by the state. Those rights reserved to the state are four: I. Police power, 2. Taxation, 3. Eminent domain, and 4. Escheat. Without police power there could not be controls which maintain domestic order, public health, building codes. zoning. and so forth. With- out taxation there would be no money to finance government or the public defense. Without eminent domain, there would be no projects in the public good. such as roads. power lines, water- ways. and so forth. Escheat is the right of the sovereign to own those properties not in the ownership of others, such as proper- ties of deceased persons not properly inherited by others. With- out escheat there would be chaos as regards to the ownership of such properties. The easement gives the right to someone other than the owner to one or more of the sticks in the bundle. Ownership of the real property remains the same after an easement. except that the real property is subject to the rights of the outside party. The simplest illustration of this is the easement wherein passage over a por- tion of land is granted to another. The land and improvements are still owned by the original owner. The original owner may still do anything within the law regarding his property excepting that he may not prevent the person with the right of passage from using a portion of the total property as a means of ingress and egress within the scope of the easement document. [Derbes 1968] Easements may be permanent or for a limited time. The permanent easement is most common on private lands. The words “forever,” “perpetual,” and “in perpe- tuity” are often used rather than “permanent.” Perma- nent easements may state that ROWs must be used for the designated purposes within a certain time, or never vacated for more than a certain time. A temporary easement is most common across public lands and may vary from | to 99 years. Renewal of the easement after its term is normal. ROW easements acquired from private owners “in perpetuity” usually remain perpetual easements even though titles may transfer. A perpetual ROW easement on private land remains perpetual when fee title is transferred to a public owner. A subsequent transmission line crossing of those public lands may be with temporary ROW grants, soa designated public area, such asa State or National forest, may have both permanent and temporary ROWs, as well as some fee ROWs. ROW easements, which may be referred to as grants, permits, servitudes, agreements, etc., usually define the rights granted to the utility with variations of the fol- lowing phrases: the right “to construct, reconstruct, oper- ate, and maintain its electric lines consisting of . . . (number of structures and guy wires) . . . wires, cables, fixtures, and apparatus upon, across, over, under, and along . . . (description of property)... , including the right of ingress and egress to and from the said lines for any of the aforesaid purposes... , the right from time to time to trim and to cut downand clear away or otherwise destroy any and all trees and brush now or hereafter on said strip or on either side of said strip which now or hereafter, in the opinion of second party, may be a hazard to said tower, poles, wires, and cables . . . ” (see appendix 3-f, clauses 1, 2, and 3). These three rights: 1) to construct, reconstruct, oper- ate, and maintain; 2) ingress and egress; and 3) to keep the ROW free of interfering vegetation, represent the pri- 33 11 Eminent Domain in Right-of-Way Acquisition / 12 mary needs for the easement. The rights can be stated in many ways, but even the most detailed easement normal- ly makes no attempt to acquire more rights than neces- sary to meet the needs of the proposed transmission line. ROW easements that include more than the basic needs vary greatly among utilities. A standard easement for one utility may be more detailed on access, for ex- ample, than a standard easement for a utility with ad- jacent service areas. Each utility has basic easement forms for different voltage lines. Though a basic form is preferred for consistency, clauses are often attached or modified. Special agreements with landowners are important and may be conditional, written terms, or only simple notations accompanying the easement (see appendix 3-f, clauses 5 and 6). Examples of special agreements in ROW easements are: 1) means by which vegetation is cut and disposed of (does the landowner harvest timber before construction, or does the utility handle it?); 2) handling of material ex- cavated from footings; 3) off-ROW construction ingress and egress; and 4) control of vegetation on farmland. A transmission line ROW extending 100 miles may cross numerous individual land parcels. If land use along the ROW varies, easement acquisition, construction, and maintenance can become complex. If land use is more consistent (extensive rangeland, desert, or open crop- land), these tasks are simpler. 11 EMINENT DOMAIN IN RIGHT-OF-WAY ACQUISITION The use of the power of eminent domain is a last resort for utilities. Eminent domain guarantees that if all other legal requirements are met a utility can build a transmission line that is in the public interest despite landowners’ wishes. The authority for eminent domain is given to private utilities or a State utility commission by legislation in each State. All States except Delaware have passed this legislation. Under normal conditions, ROW condemnation, a court procedure by which the easement land is legally appropriated for public use, is necessary for less than 10 percent of all acquisitions ona project. In instances in which organized public opposition to a project has developed, more condemnations may result. State condemnation laws vary; some permit condemnation for fee title rights, and others only for easement rights. 12 RIGHT-OF-WAY ACCESS RIGHTS INGRESS AND EGRESS The right of access toa ROW (ingress and egress) permits utility crews to cross property of an easement or condi- tional fee grantor or to enter the ROW froma public road (see appendix 3-f, clause 2). Though means of access are usually not described in detail, utility crews rarely enter ROWs on which there is active land use without first telling the landowner of their intent and working out a plan agreeable to both parties. This promotes good will 34 Right-of-Way Access Rights and reduces potential damages. In more remote areas that support little active land use, entry toa ROW bya utility requires less coordination with landowners. In some instances, easements are sought only for rights to cross a separate land parcel to get toa ROW. These are under separate easement with a different landowner. Conditions for these easements vary (such as possible construction and maintenance of a permanent lane). Grantors of ROW easements or deeds of reservation (conditional fee) generally limit conditional rights to safe access, THIRD PARTY ACCESS The issue of third party access, although not usually dealt with legally, is common and comes up in ROW land- ownership and management. A third party is any person(s) other than an easement grantee or grantor, ora fee title buyer or seller; it usually refers to the general public. The assumed right of the public to use ROWs is be- coming a concern of ROW managers, who have an ob- ligation to landowners; ROW agents, when negotiating easements; wildlife specialists; and organized recreation groups that may want to request use of ROWs in the future. Liability also concerns both the landowner and the utility. On easement ROWs, the landowner normally has the responsibility of controlling non-utility access; this was one of the “sticks” in the bundle that the landowner kept. In any third party use ofa ROW easement, authorization from the landowner is legally necessary and may be sub- ject to review by the utility. A utility cannot, on its own, grant rights to a third party that it did not acquire from the landowner. The utility has the authority, however, to determine uses that are not compatible with transmis- sion. On fee ROWS, the utility is responsible and liable for third party access, except when the third party is an authorized user. Efforts to limit trespassing usually in- volve posting or fencing and result in varying degrees of success. 13 MAINTENANCE RIGHTS AND PRACTICES After construction of a transmission line, two types of maintenance programs begin: | Facility maintenance, in which the structures, con- ductors, etc., are kept in efficient operating condition. 2 ROW maintenance, in which ROW surface condi- tions are controlled for safe and reliable operation. Maintenance rights are specified in all ROW agree- ments (see appendix 3-f, clause 3). Though most agree- ments do not require utilities to give the landowner notice of entry or to follow a set schedule, giving notice is a common practice that helps avoid misunderstanding and promotes goodwill. Utilities generally compensate land- owners for unavoidable damages (see appendix 3-f, clause 6). CHAPTER 3 Maintenance Rights and Practices ROW maintenance consists of: | Vegetation control to prevent trees, on and off the ROW, from reaching heights that could interfere with the operation of a line. 2 Site stabilization, including erosion control and pre- vention, and maintenance of culverts, waterbars, ete. 3 Trespass/encroachment maintenance. Some ROW agreements specify noncompatible uses (e.g., the erection of buildings). Others depend on regular in- spection to determine encroaching activities (see appendix 3-f, clause 4). A number of utilities provide landowners and/or authorized ROW users with a booklet on limitations and suggestions for use of the ROW. Of the three areas of ROW maintenance, vegetation control practices vary the most. The need to maintain vegetation on a transmission line is contingent on plant species, site characteristics, land use, and climate. Utili- ties try to tailor maintenance practices to land use and physical features in a cost-efficient way. A ROW in an area of tall, fast-growing vegetation is maintained differ- ently than one in anarea of tall, slow-growing vegetation. 14 IMPLICATIONS FOR FISH AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Wildlife management in this manual means the maintenance of vegetation for reliable electric transmis- sion and for the enhancement of wildlife habitat in gen- eral, with special consideration directed to a particular wildlife species only when practical. Wildlife manage- ment strategies most adaptable to ROWs are generally those that stabilize vegetation at low-growing succes- sional stages, using the conventional utility ROW clear- ing and maintenance techniques discussed in this manual. Wildlife management considerations can best be in- corporated into new ROWs by advanced planning. Traditional clearing and construction methods may re- LAND USE RIGHTS 13 / Implications for Fish and Wildlife Management 14 quire little, if any, modification to provide benefits for wildlife. ROW restoration and revegetation techniques may also include wildlife objectives. ROW ownership and land use rights have to be evaluated along with any construction cost alterations to determine the feasibility of wildlife management. Because of varying land use and available resources, wildlife management on new and existing ROWs is apt to be feasible only on portions of the ROW rather than on its entire length. Interest in planning for wildlife habitat on ROWs may come from a number of sources outside of a utility. Special interest groups, private landowners, State and Federal wildlife agencies, and university researchers have in the past had various incentives to coordinate wildlife planning efforts with utilities. Numerous studies have been conducted of wildlife on ROWs and are reviewed elsewhere in this report. Most provide insights on beneficial aspects. As land use congestion decreases both available lands for public enjoyment of wildlife and avail- able habitat for wildlife survival, incentives to look further at the availability of ROWs will increase. In New York, wildlife concerns have been included in regulatory requirements by stipulating that wildlife management plans for the ROWs of new transmission lines must be developed. Similar regulations may eventu- ally be adopted in other States as well. Irrespective of the source of interest or objective for wildlife management, the land rights acquired by a utility are always a limiting factor. As technical capabilities of wildlife biologists are applied to utility rights and prac- tices, strategies for wildlife management must incorpor- ate conditions of individual agreements with landowners and stipulations of applicable laws. Any combination of the various land rights described may be encountered, whether the interest is ina ROW across a single parcel of land, either side of a waterway, a woodlot, an entire transmission line, or even a total utility service area. REFERENCES Derbes, M.J.. Jr. 1968. The appraisal of easements. Page 290 in Selective readings in right-of-way. American Right- of-Way Association, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif. Edison Electric Institute. 1975. Statistical yearbook. New York, N.Y. 35 APPENDIX 3-A Sample Fee Simple Right-ofWay Acquisition Form KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS: That ; of. ’ County,_____Lin consideration of One Dollar and other valuable consid- erations, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, give, grant, bargain, sell, and convey unto_____+______the option to purchase, in accordance with the terms hereinafter stated, the following described premises: This option shall continue in force unti]__________,, and on or before that date_________m_t™may exercise this option and thereupon the above described premises shall be conveyed by Warranty deed free and clear of all encumbrances to or _______heirs or assigns. Upon the delivery of said deed the further pay- ment of ____=__Dollars shall be made therefore. In the event that said Grantee is unable to contact said Grantor > or any of them, to exercise this option, or to make said payment, it may deposit the same in at in the name of said Grantor. > or any of them, and such deposit shall be deemed to be full performance by said Grantee of its obligations hereunder. And for the consideration aforesaid I,______ of said_______ do. hereby covenant and agree to release all my right of dower, curtesy and homestead and all other statutory rights in said premises. WITNESS hand and seal this day of 19 Signed, sealed and delivered in the presence of: STATE OF ss In in said County on the______day of 19___before me personally appeared each and all to me know, and known by me to be the part_____———sssexecuting the foregoing instrument, and acknowledged said instrument by________..______.__executed to be free act and deed. Notary Public Justice of the Peace 36 CHAPTER 3 LS APPENDIX 3-B Sample License to Use Fee Right-of-Way THIS REVOCABLE LICENSE, Made this day of » 19 > by and between_____________ Company, hereinafter referred to as "Licensor," and > hereinafter referred to as "Licensee." WITNESSETH: THAT the Licensee has requested the right and privilege to enter upon and use that portion of the Licensor's property, hereinafter referred to as parcel of land, as delineated on a plat entitled________, attached hereto, made a part hereof, and marked "Exhibit A," for the Purpose stated below, and the Licensor is willing to grant such use subject to the terms and conditions as hereinafter set forth. NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of the right and privilege herein granted and the sum of Dollars ($_________), paid by the Licensee to the Licensor in advance for the period to » it is mutually agreed as follows: 1. LICENSOR hereby grants unto Licensee, and the latter hereby accepts a license to enter upon and use the parcel of land as delineated on the aforementioned plat solely for the purpose of. 2. LICENSOR shall have the right of ingress and egress over the said parcel of land to: a. Construct, operate and maintain present and/or future gas and/or electric facilities in, over, and under the said parcel of land and: the right to make necessary openings and excavations for the Purpose of examining, repairing, altering, or extending said electric and/or gas facilities provided that all openings and excavations shall be properly refilled and resurfaced and the parcel of land left in a good and safe condition. b. Make test borings or surveys on said parcel of land provided that such ingress and egress to the parcel of land does not unreason- ably disturb the peaceful enjoyment of the licensee. C. Trim, top, and/or cut down and keep trimmed, topped, and cut down any trees or bushes on said parcel of land which, in the sole judgment of Licensor, may interfere with or fall upon the said Present and/or future gas and/or electric facilities. 3. LICENSOR shall not be liable for any crop and/or other damage, regard- less of cause, on the parcel of land. 4. LICENSEE, as part of the consideration hereof, agrees to: a. Accept the parcel of land in its present condition for the right and privilege hereby given. —— eee LAND USE RIGHTS 37 Appendix 3-B (concluded) b. Keep said parcel of land in good order and condition at all times. c. Comply with all present and future applicable laws and require- ments of public authorities in respect to the parcel of land or use thereof. d. | Indemnify and hold harmless the Licensor, its agents, employees, and assigns, from and against any and all liability and/or damage of person or property, including loss of life, sustained to any persons, whether the agents, employees, assigns, servants, invitees, contractors, or members of the family of Licensor or Licensee, while in and around the licensed parcel of land, whether resulting from acts of negligence on the part of the Licensor, its agents, employees, or assigns, or arising in any manner from the exercise of the right and privilege herein granted. e. Not to assign this License or transfer in any manner any part thereof for any purpose. f. Not to construct any buildings or structures of any kind or nature unless specifically provided for by this License. g- Remove, upon termination of this License, all property belonging to the Licensee, surrender the right and privilege hereby granted and surrender possession of said parcel of land to Licensor upon termi- nation in good order and condition. 5. THE PAYMENT hereunder by the Licensee of any sum or sums in advance shall not be held to create an irrevocable license for the period for which same is paid, but the Licensor may at any time revoke this License by giving the Licensee thirty (30) days' written notice and refunding the Payment for the balance of the period for which the same has been paid. THIS LICENSE may be renewed thirty (30) days prior to the expiration of the original term or any extension thereof for an additional like term by payment of the sum of_______———dDollars ($______) in advance. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have caused this License to be duly executed the day and year first above written. . WITNESS _ BY: _ (Seal) General Supervisor, Real Estate and Facilities Services WITNESS: (Seal) _ (Seal) Mailing Address: ZIP a a SE Ea RE SR RE NS Ee SS Se 38 CHAPTER 3 APPENDIX 3-C Sample Permit to Use Fee Right-of-Way Company, hereinafter referred to as Company, hereby gives you permission for the calendar year of 19__to use for Purposes only that part of its premises described as follows: This permission is given with definite understanding that the land will be used for the above stated purpose only and that said premises will be kept clean and free of all weeds, and by acceptance of this permit, you agree to abide by and comply with all lawful orders of the weed commissioner, or such other orders or directives as may be made by any municipal or govermental agencies having juris- diction over said premises. No vehicles or equipment are to be parked or materials of any kind are to be stored temporarily or permanently on said premises. While enjoying the privilege of this permit, you will not in any way interfere with Company's operations nor damage or destroy any electric facilities, fences, gates, poles, or other property; and, further, it is agreed that you will assume all responsibilities in connection with the above privilege, holding the Company harm- less from any and all claims for damage to Property and/or injury to persons due to or arising out of the exercise of the permission herein given, such responsibility being acknowledged by the acceptance and signing of this permit. The permission herein given is subject, however, to the right of Company to construct, erect, maintain, and patrol electric lines and related facilities over and across these premises without any liability of any kind to you. It is agreed that in the event Company deems it necessary, it may at its sole discretion, for any purpose, terminate and cancel this permit by giving you thirty (30) days' written notice at which time you will vacate and surrender said premises peaceably and quietly to Company. The permission herein given is not assignable and shall not take effect until the duplicate original of this letter has been signed by you in the space provided and returned to this Company. Very truly yours, —————— LAND USE RIGHTS 39 ETE APPENDIX 3-D Sample Lease to Use Fee Right-of-Way THIS LEASE, made by and between _____________________Company, a —___— —_____with its principal offices at _____________ ("Lessor"), and ("Lessee"). THAT LESSOR leases to Lessee the parcel of land ("the premises") in___ County, ; described as follows: TO HOLD for the term commencing on the ___day of__ , 19 > and terminating on the day of. » 19 , Lessee paying therefore the rental of________Dollars ($_______), which has been paid at the time of execution and delivery hereof, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged. Lessee agrees not to sublease the premises or any part thereof, or to assign this lease, without the written consent of Lessor, and further agrees to quit and deliver up the premises to Lessor peaceably and quietly on or before such termi- nation date (notice of termination not being required), and further agrees to keep the premises in as good condition as at the commencement of said term. Lessee hereby agrees that he will use the premises for farming or gardening purposes only, in accordance with accredited or approved agricultural methods. Lessee agrees to cut or spray and keep cut or sprayed all noxious weeds on the premises at all times in compliance with the laws of the State and any local gov- ernment, and with the orders and directives issued by the municipal Weed Commissioner and any and all public officials having jurisdiction. In the event Lessee does not cut the weeds or comply with such orders and directives issued by the said Weed Commissioner or other public officials having jurisdiction, Lessor or its agents, without liability to Lessee for damages to land or crops, reserves the right to enter upon the premises to cut or spray such noxious weeds as required, and Lessee hereby agrees to reimburse Lessor for any and all costs incurred by Lessor in doing such work immediately upon presentation of a bill therefor. Lessor shall have the right at any time to enter upon said parcel of land herein leased for any purpose in connection with the inspection, construction, erection, maintenance, repair, or replacement of electric lines or related facilities upon, over, across, in, or beneath the premises wihout any liability to Lessee for any damage to land or crops. If the premises or any part thereof should be sold or if it should become necessary or desirable for Lessor to have possession of the premises or any part thereof, Lessor may, at its option, terminate or cancel this lease, in whole or in part, by giving thirty (30) days' notice, in writing, to Lessee, who shall there- upon vacate the premises according to such notice; provided, however, in the event of any such cancellation, of the crops planted thereon have not been harvested, Lessee shall be paid a reasonable amount (which shall not in any event exceed the rental herein paid) for Lessee's labor in preparing the soil, and planting and cultivating the crops, which shall thereupon become the property of Lessor. SL OOO OO 40 CHAPTER 3 Appendix 3-D (concluded) In the use of the premises for farming or gardening purposes contemplated pursuant to this agreement, while in proximity to electrical conductors presently existing or to be installed at some future date. Lessee hereby agrees to conform to the provisions and requirements of the administrative Code, Rules of Department of Industry, Labor, and Human Relations covering "Safety in Construction," Order "Ind 35.37 Electrical Hazards," and amendments thereto, and further agrees that no machinery, vehicles, or equipment exceeding twelve (12) feet in height shall be used, operated, or parked on the premises. Lessee shall, at all times, comply with the provisions of the State Electrical Code, compiled by Department of Industry, Labor, and Human Relations and the Public Service Commission and all amendments thereto. If Lessee shall violate any of the terms hereof, he shall, at the option of Lessor, forfeit all his rights under this lease, and Lessor may immediately re- enter and take possession of the premises. Lessee also covenants and agrees to indemnify and save harmless Lessor from any and all liability which may result from the exercise, by Lessee or his agents, of any of the rights contained in this lease. The covenants herein contained shall bind the parties mutually and their respec- tive heirs, executors, administrators, successors, or assigns. If more than one person executes this lease as Lessee, singular terms herein used shall be read as it written in plural. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, Lessor has caused this instrument to be signed this day of , 19___, and Lessee has hereunto set his hand and seal this day of_____, 19028. In Presence of: COMPANY Lessor yee | 504] ) Lessee (Seal) Lessee —— LAND USE RIGHTS 41 APPENDIX 3-E Sample Conditional Fee Right-of-Way Acquisition Form In consideration of Twenty-Five Dollars ($25.00), the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, the undersigned, for themselves, their heirs, administrators, successors, and assigns, hereinafter called the "Owners," being the owners of property in the________ Election District of County, acquired from _ by deed dated__________ and recorded among the Land Records of said County in Liber______No. , folio_______, hereby grant(s) to _____ Company, its successors and assigns, hereinafter called the "Company," the option to purchase in fee simple, exercisable at any time on or before________, 19 , a parcel of this land as shown outlined in red on the attached plat. Together with the right to: (1) have access at all times, using existing roads as far as practicable, over lands of the Owners, for the construction, reconstruction, modifications, operation and maintenance of the Company's utility facilities upon, over, or under the parcel of land; and (2) trim or cut down and remove trees on the Owner's land adjacent to the parcel which might at any time, in the sole judgment of the Company, be liable to interfere with or fall on any of the Company's facilities. The price to be paid at settlement for the parcel of land and the rights on the adjacent land shall be —___________ Do] lars ($____), from which shall be deducted the amount paid for this option and any consideration paid by the Company to obtain the release of any liens or encumbrances. It is understood and agreed that: (1) the Owners reserve to themselves, their successors, and assigns (for so long as they or any of them shall own land adjoin- ing said parcel of land on both sides, that is, a single ownership on both sides) the right to cross and extend roads and to install public utility facilities, in, along, and adjacent to such roads, across said parcel at locations agreed to in writing by the Company, with the understanding that there shall be at least one such point of crossing permitted over said parcel and additional crossings per- mitted as needed and as approved by State and/or County regulatory agencies; any roads constructed and/or utilities installed pursuant to this reservation may remain permanently irrespective of ownership of land on both sides of said parcel; and (2) any crops which may be damaged on land adjacent to said parcel because of construction, reconstruction, modifications, operation, and maintenance by the Company shall be paid for at prevailing market prices. Notice of intent to exercise this option shall be mailed to the Owners at _ whereupon the Company shall obtain immediate possession of the parcel of land; Settlement shall be held within a reasonable time after the option is exercised and the Owners agree(s) to sign and deliver a deed conveying such land in fee simple and the rights mentioned herein to the Company, free of all liens and encumbrances upon payment of the consideration as stated above. eee SS ESS 2 CHAPTER 3 Appendix 3-E (concluded) Company representatives may enter the property during the option period to make surveys and investigations. The Owners agree(s) to cooperate with the Company in obtaining any necessary Zoning or other permits. WITNESS : (Seal) (Seal) De Ce eee yo SE LAND USE RIGHTS 43 LS ——————————— APPENDIX 3-F Sample Clauses of Transmission Rights-of-Way Easement Instruments 1. FACILITY RIGHTS . to place, construct, build, maintain, operate, replace, repair, remove, and reconstruct overhead and/or underground electric transmission and distribution lines and structures and necessary guys and supports for the transmission and distribution of electrical energy . . . and any subsequent additions thereto on the right-of-way, together with the right to erect and maintain or to permit others to erect and maintain overhead and/or underground communications circuits and equipment belonging to Grantee or others within the right-of-way; : . to construct, operate, use, maintain, inspect, repair, renew, replace, reconstruct, enlarge, alter, add to, improve, relocate, and remove, at any time and from time to time, electric lines, consisting of one or more lines of metal towers, poles, and other structures, wires, cables, including ground wires and communication circuits, both overhead and underground, with necessary and con- venient foundations, conduits, pullboxes, guy wires and anchors, insulators and crossarms placed on said structures, and other fixtures, appliances, and appur- tenances connected therewith, necessary or convenient for the construction, oper- ation, regulation, control, grounding, and maintenance of electric lines and communication circuits, for the purpose of transmitting, distributing, regulating, and controlling electric energy to be used for light, heat, power, communication, and other purposes . . for the erection and continued operation, maintenance, repair, alter- ation, inspection, and replacement of the electric transmission, distribution, and telephone lines and circuits of the Grantee, attached to poles or other sup- ports, together with guys, crossarms, and other attachments and incidental equip- ment thereon, and appurtenances, with the right to permit the attachment of the wires and fixtures of other companies or parties, . . build, maintain, alter, repair, operate, and remove transmission and/or distribution lines consisting of poles, towers, wires, equipment, and fixtures over and across the following described lands . 2. UTILITY ACCESS RIGHTS . . . to have free ingress and egress over adjacent lands or by means of existing traveled ways to and from the right-of-way at any time for the pur- poses herein recited. : . the right of ingress to and egress from said strip over and across said lands by means of roads and lanes thereon, if such there be, otherwise by such route or routes as shall occasion the least practicable damage and incon- venience to first party; provided that such right of ingress and egress shall not extend to any portion of said lands which is isolated from said strip by any public road or highway now crossing or hereafter crossing said lands; pro- vided, further, that if any portion of said lands is or shall be subdivided and dedicated roads or highways on such portion shall extend to said strip, said ee en RS SR SRE ES SEES SRS SS SS 44 CHAPTER 3 eo > CO eee Appendix 3-F (continued) right of ingress and egress on said portion shall be confined to such dedicated roads and highways; - + + and to use said right-of-way and easement for access to and from any Part or parts thereof and any lands and rights-of-way of Grantee adjoining the same for the enjoyment of the rights of Grantee therin, and of ingress and egress to, over, and from the Premises and any adjoining lands of Grantor at any and all times for the purposes of exercising and enjoying any and all of the rights here- by vested in Grantee. : - with the right of ingress and egress to and from the same. In exer- cising its rights of ingress and egress the Grantee shall, whenever practicable, use existing roads and lanes, and shall repair any damage caused by its use thereof. - . . and to pass along said strip to and from the adjoining lands and to pass over the Grantor's land to and from said strip as reasonably required. . . the right, permission, and authority to enter upon said strip of land for the purposes of constructing, patrolling, repairing, maintaining, and re- placing said transmission line facilities and exercising the rights herein acquired. The furtner right, permission and authority is also granted to Grantee to enter in a reasonable manner upon the property of Grantors outside of said strip of land for the further purpose of access to said strip of land to con- struct, erect, operate, maintain, and replace said facilities. The utility may not use any lands beyond the boundaries of the easement for any purpose, including ingress to and egress from the right of way, without the written consent of the landowner 3. VEGETATION CLEARING AND MAINTENANCE RIGHTS : - the right from time to time to trim and to cut down and clear away or otherwise destroy any and all trees and brush now or nereafter on said strip and to trim and to cut down and clear away any trees on either side of said strip which now or hereafter in the Opinion of second party may be a hazard to said towers, poles, and/or other structures, wires, or cables, by reason of the danger of falling thereon, or may interfere with the exercise of second party's rights hereunder; provided, however, that all trees which second party is hereby auth- orized to cut and remove, if valuable for timber or wood, shall continue to be the property of first party, but all tops, lops, brush, and refuse wood shall be burned or removed by second party; In addition to the right of the Grantee to remove trees from said right-of- way strip, the Grantee shall also have the right to trim or top and to keep trimmed or topped any and all trees on the lands of Grantor within said right- of-way strip for a distance of 75 feet from the exterior lines of said right of ne RA A RR ER ES Ce eT AND USE RIGHTS 45 Appendix 3-F (continued) way strip, to such heights as in the judgment ot Grantee, its successors, or assigns, shall be reasonably necessary for the proper construction, operation, and maintenance of said electric lines and communication circuits, but at no point outside of said right-of-way strip to a height of less than 50 feet. : . the right from time to time to cut, trim, and remove tree, brush, | overhanging branches, and other obstructions which may injure or interfere with the Grantee's use, occupation, or enjoyment of this easement and the operation, maintenance, and repair of Grantee's electrica’ system. . . . the right to the Grantee to cut, to control, or to eliminate by herbicides, and at its option to remove from the Premises or the lands of the Grantor adjoining the same on either side, any trees, overhanging branches, vegetation, obstacles, or obstructions which may endanger the safety or inter- fere with the installation, use, or enjoyment of all or any of the Grantee's facilities; Grantee shall have the right to remove and keep removed all trees and brush from the above described right-of-way and may remove or top any other trees adjacent to said right of way whose height plus ten feet equals or exceeds the horizontal distance from the tree to the nearest conductor wire. All logs, limbs, and brush removed by Grantee in clearing the right of way will be burned or re- moved, unless otherwise mutually agreed between Grantor and Grantee. . . . to clear and keep cleared by physical, chemical, or other means, said strip of trees, underbrush, and structures (the first clearing may be for less than the full width and may be widened from time to time to the full width) The right, permission, and authority is also granted to Grantee to cut down and remove or trim all trees and overhanging branches now or hereafter existing on said strip of land, to cut down and remove brush, or apply chemicals for pur- poses of brush control, and to cut down and remove or trim such trees now or hereafter existing on the property of Grantor . . . located outside of said strip of land which by falling might interfere with or endanger said lines . the right, permission, and authority to enter in a reasonable manner upon prop- erty of Grantor The utility shall control weeds and brush around the transmission line facilities. No herbicidal chemicals may be used for weed and brush control without the express written consent of the landowner. If weed and brush con- trol is undertaken by the landowner under an agreement with the utility, he shall receive from the utility a reasonable amount for such services. . . . to cut, trim, or remove "danger trees" growing adjacent to the right-of-way ("danger trees" being defined as trees which have branches or limbs overhanging the right-of-way and/or trees whose height plus_____feet exceeds the horizontal distance from the butt of the tree to the centerline of the transmission line); and . re rr RR 46 CHAPTER 3 Appendix 3-F (continued) . . . also the right to cut down, trim, and remove and keep cut down and trimmed by mechanical means or otherwise, any and all trees, brush, or other undergrowth on said strip of land or adjoining the same, which, in the judgment of said Company, may at any time interfere with the construction, reconstruction, maintenance, or operation of said lines, poles, wires, guys, stub poles, fixtures, and apparatus, or menace the same, and in connection therewith, the right to re- move, if necessary, the root systems of said trees, brush, or other undergrowth, and to spray said brush and undergrowth with chemicals for their removal and control, . "It is further agreed that evergreen trees under feet in height are to be excluded from the abovementioned tree cutting and tree trimming rights." 4. RESTRICTED ACTIVITIES . that no act will be permitted within said strip which is inconsistent with the rights hereby granted; that no buildings or structures will be erected or constructed upon said strip; and that the present grade or ground level of said strip will not be changed by excavation or filling. At no time shall any flammable material or any building of any kind be Placed or erected within the boundaries of said right-of-way, nor shall any equip- ment or material of any kind that exceeds 20 feet in height be placed or used thereon by Grantor or by Grantor's heirs, successors, or assigns. The Grantor covenants and agrees that no structures will be erected, or inflammable material placed or accumulated, or trees planted on said strip of land, and Grantor . . . further covenant . . . and agree . . . that the eleva- tion of the existing ground surface within said strip of land will not be altered by more than one (1) foot without the written consent of Grantee. - + . the right to clear and to keep clear said easements and rights-of-way and the real property affected thereby, free from explosives, building, structures, equipment, trees, vines, brush, combustible materials, and any and all other ob- structions of any kind, including, but not in any way in limitation of the gen- erality of the foregoing, swimming pools and appurtenances, fences (other than farm, grazing, or pasture fences), and the parking of automobiles, trucks or other me- chanical equipment, for protection from fire and other hazards and from inter- ference with ingress and egress and with the unobstructed use of said easements and rights-of-way and every part thereof, . - . . to clear the right-of-way and to keep it clear of all trees, brush, buildings, signboards, mobile homes, wells, swimming pools, permanent or tem- porary structures of any type, and stored or parked personal property; and to remove obstructions of any kind and nature that might interfere with the use of this easement by Grantee or be hazardous or potentially hazardous to the use of same by Grantee; ee NR TE SS RE SPST ACT SIR ES Cae LAND USE RIGHTS 47 Appendix 3-F (continued) . . to control and to the extent reasonably necessary to prevent the construction or alteration within the limits of the right-of-way of transportation facilities (including but not limited to roads, railroads, and pipelines), other overhead or underground utility facilities, park and playground facilities, land- fills, land excavations, water impoundments, and other land uses which might re- duce the safety of or cause a hazard to the operation of the Grantee's facilities constructed on the hereinafter described right-of-way, or which might increase the cost of maintenance, operation, repair, removal, replacement, or reconstruction of said Grantee's facilities; 5. PERMITTED ACTIVITIES Grantor reserves for Grantor and Grantor's heirs and assigns, across (but not longitudinally along) said right-of-way strip, rights for (1) underground water pipelines, (2) farm, grazing, or pasture fences, and (3) roads, provided, however that the exercise of such rights does not interfere with or endanger, in the opinion of Grantee, the operation or maintenance of the electric lines and communication circuits of Grantee, or Grantee's ready access to its said electric lines and communication circuits, or the exercise of any of the rights herein granted to Grantee. In addition to said reserved rights for water pipelines, farm fences and roads, Grantor and Grantor's heirs and assigns shall have only the additional right to cultivate the land within said right-of-way strip for any and all field or orchard crops which may be grown thereon or to use such land for grazing and pasturage, provided such uses shall not interfere with the rights herein granted to Grantee, its successors, and assigns. Grantor expressly agrees that Grantee, its successors, assigns, and agents shall not be liable for damage to, or removal of trees and vines, including loss of production, both present and future, where such damage, removal, and loss occurs as a result of the exercise of the rights granted herein. Grantor expressly agrees for Grantor and Grantor's heirs and assigns, that said right-of-way strip will never be used for cemetery purposes. Subject to the foregoing limitations, said right-of-way may be used by Grantor for roads, agricultural crops, and other purposes not inconsistent with said easement. Grantor shall have the right to cultivate or otherwise use the Premises in any way not inconsistent with the easement hereby granted, but no building, structure, or obstruction shall be placed by the Grantor under or within feet (measured horizontally) of the centerline of the electric power line. "After construction of said electric transmission lines, Grantor shall have the right to plant and grow evergreen trees to a height not exceeding feet and/or fruit trees to a height not exceeding______feet above the presently existing surface of the ground within said easement area, except that no trees shall be planted within feet of each side of the centerline of said elec- tric transmission lines to the extent that, in the sole judgment of the Grantee, the said trees shall not in any manner interfere with, hinder, or impair the Be et Sn nn SSeS RES Sn i a NE A NR NR 48 CHAPTER 3 a Appendix 3-F (continued) construction, operation, patrolling, maintenance, reconstruction, renewal, addi- tion to, relocation, or removal of said facilities or any part thereof, anything to the contrary notwithstanding; but Grantee may, from time to time, when it deems it necessary for the purposes aforesaid, remove any of said fruit and/or evergreen trees, provided it shall pay damages to Grantor for any such fruit trees ONLY so removed or damaged." 6. UTILITY (GRANTEE) COMMITMENTS Grantor(s) reserves the right to be paid for damage to growing crops and to be paid for or have repaired by Grantee or its agents or independent con- tractors future physical damage to property of Grantor(s) caused by reason of Grantee's construction and maintenance activities and/or by reason of the exercise of the right of ingress and egress by Grantee. Grantee shall promptly repair or replace all fences, gates, drains, and ditches damaged or destroyed by it on the Premises and shall pay Grantor all dam- ages done to crops and livestock on the Premises proximately caused by the con- struction, operation, and maintenance of Grantee's Facilities. Any trees cut will be paid for by Board Measure, using Scribner's Lumber Rules at the market price in vicinity. In constructing and maintaining high-voltage transmission lines on the Property covered by the easement the utility shall: T. If excavation is necessary, ensure that the top soil is stripped, piled, and replaced upon completion of the operation. 2. Restore to its original condition and slope, terrace, or waterway which is disturbed by the construction or maintenance. 3. Insofar as is practicable and when the landowner requests, schedule any construction work in an area used for agricultural production at times when the ground is frozen in order to prevent or reduce soil compaction. 4. Clear all debris and remove all stones and rocks resulting from con- struction activity upon completion of construction. 5. Satisfactorily repair to its original condition any fence damaged as a result of construction or maintenance operations. If cutting a fence is necessary, a temporary gate shall be installed. Any such gate shall be left in place at the landowner's request. 6. Repair any drainage tile line within the easement damaged by construction or maintenance. 7. Pay for any crop damage caused by such construction or maintenance. LTE | LAND USE RIGHTS 49 50 Appendix 3-F (concluded) 8. Supply and install any necessary grounding of a landowner's fences, machinery, or buildings. In consideration of such grant, Grantee agrees that it will repair or pay for any damage which may be caused to crops, fences, or other property of the under- signed by the construction, operation, maintenance, inspection, patrolling, or removal of said line. Grantor(s) covenants that no act will be permitted within the easement property which is inconsistent with the rights hereby granted; "It is also understood that if a bulldozer is used to clear the said strip of land, then the said strip of land must be left passable during and after said operations and no piles of stumps, stones, or dirt are to be placed along either side of said strip of land which would prevent ready access to adjoining lands of the Grantor(s)." ROW Maintenance Methods and Costs The right-of-way (ROW) clearing, maintenance, and related cost information presented in this chapter is in- tended to provide an overview of clearing and mainte- nance methods currently being used in the United States. Information presented in figures and tables and summa- rized in discussions was obtained directly from utility ROW managers and industry records. Maintenance methods currently in use are summarized for each vegeta- tion province. Cost information is presented by State or group of States that experience similar pricing con- straints. Clearing and maintenance work involves two distinct operations: clearing means the initial clearing of the ROW for construction of the transmission facility; main- tenance represents the on-going effort to maintain the ROW once the initial clearing is complete. The first section of this chapter provides a description of currently used ROW maintenance methods. The second section indicates the frequency of use of various methods and presents relative costs of these methods by State or group of States. 51 15 Maintenance Methods 15 MAINTENANCE METHODS This section describes cost-effective methods that can be used in initially clearing (capital clearing) a ROW and in maintenance operations on transmission line ROWs throughout the United States. Some methods are used in both capital clearing and in maintenance op- erations. Combinations of methods, such as chainsaw cutting and stump spraying, are also frequently used. Clearing and maintenance methods are identified as either selective or nonselective, depending on their type and use. Selective vegetation methods consist of both manual and chemical work; nonselective methods include mechanical and chemical methods and burning. SELECTIVE VEGETATION MAINTENANCE METHODS Selective vegetation methods include those methods that treat individual plants or clumps of plants. Manual Chain saw cutting — This method involves chain saw cutting plants of predetermined “target” species and/or plants that exceed a predetermined height. This method is often used along with stump spraying. Trimming — Trimming includes two different but re- lated operations: topping and side trimming. Topping involves cutting back large portions of the upper crown of the tree, usually to a predetermined height. Topping is done to maintain trees approaching full height under conductors. Removing more than 60 percent of the live crown, however, may result in the death of the tree. Side trimming (figure 15.1) involves cutting back or removing the side branches that extend into the ROW area. Limbs should be removed at lateral branches. Removing more than half of the live crown in this manner may result in the decline or death of the tree. (For further information regarding tree tolerances and trimming, see Asplundh Environmental Services 1978.) Girdling — This method involves completely removing a 3 to 5 inch wide band of bark from the trunk of the tree (figure 15.2). Bark and phloem must be completely severed to disrupt the flow of nutrients to the roots. Sprouting below the girdle may occur in some species. Before Girdling is hard work, time consuming, and costly. It is advantageous, however, because it is a selective cutting method that leaves no slash, and the resulting snag may also benefit wildlife. Figure 15.2. Girdling Chemical Frilling — Frilling (figure 15.3) can be performed in three basic ways: 1 By making a single line of overlapping downward axe or hatchet cuts completely around the tree (a frill girdle). Chips are left attached to the tree to provide a place for applied herbicide to collect. 2 By spacing cuts 2 inches apart and adding diluted or undiluted herbicide to each cut. 3 By making notches or “cups” with an axe at the base of the tree. Two downward axe cuts, one above the other, are made and the chips are pried out. Dry, crystalline herbicide, such as ammonium sulfamate, may then be added to each “cup.” Frilling may be done at any time, but is most effective during the peak growing season because the herbicide is more actively transported throughout the plant at that time. N. Security zone FERS RS SR ERE RRS AN SE SY SERRE SR RR A PRR SE Figure 15.1 Side trimming 52 CHAPTER 4 Figure 15.3 Frilling Tree injectors and the hypo-hatchet - Typical tree injectors and hatchet-type tree injectors (figure 15.4) allow the operator to cut through the bark to expose cambium and apply herbicide in one operation. The operator makes spaced or continuous cuts around the base of a tree near the root collar and applies herbicide to each cut. Hatchet-type tree injectors allow the operator to make waist-high incisions on target species. Spaced cuts are usually used, but on species that are difficult to kill, continuous cuts may be needed. A variety of diluted or undiluted herbicides may be used in either type of equipment, depending on species and season. ” ES: % Celt Figure 15.4 Tree injection ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS Maintenance Methods 15 Cut and stump spraying — Cut and stump spraying involves two distinct operations. The first operation involves cutting the plant down. Stumps smaller than 4 inches may be “V-notched” to expose more surface area. The second operation involves applying herbicide to the newly cut surface, root collar, and exposed roots. Spraying should be applied to the point of runoff. This method usually will not prevent root suckering. Basal spraying — Basal spraying involves applying herb- icide with an oil carrier to the lower 18 inches of stem (figure 15.5). Each stem and any exposed roots are treat- ed on all sides with herbicide to the point of runoff. Figure 15.5 Basal spraying Stem/foliage waterborne — Stem/foliage application using a water carrier is a summer treatment. The entire plant, all foliage and stems, is sprayed to the point of run- off. If applied later in the season, the chemical concentra- tion should be increased. Dormant stem spraying — Dormant stem spraying is a method used in a dormant season — fall, winter, or spring — after the foliage drops from the plants. Oil is used as a carrier. The stems of the target plants are sprayed to a height of 6 feet or 80 percent of tall stems. Thorough drenching of the root collar is critical for good control. This method gives control equal to summertime waterborne spray, except on root-suckering species. It may be preferable to use selective basal applications when brush density is heavy. Growth inhibitors — Certain chemicals inhibit or retard plant growth. They may be applied to cut surfaces after trimming and pruning operations or as a foliage applica- tion to the tree crown. Current research has also in- dicated the possible future use of such chemicals by injec- tion and bark-banding applications. NONSELECTIVE VEGETATION MAINTENANCE METHODS Nonselective vegetation maintenance methods include those methods that treat an entire area, altering all vege- tation in that area regardless of the species or height. Mechanical Sheardozing — Sheardozing involves using a tracked 53 15 Maintenance Methods vehicle with a sharp, straight blade that shears off all stems protruding from the ground. Properly used, this equipment can sever trees up to 10 inches in diameter, but it works best on smaller plants. Soil disturbance can be minimized by sheardozing when the ground is frozen (figure 15.6). Scalping — Scalping involves scraping off all plants and the top layer of soil. Wheeled or tracked vehicles provide the quickest and most economical means to achieve scalping. Wide moldboard plows can be used to scalp on gentle slopes that are fairly free of rocks, but a blade that can be raised or lowered, mounted ona 3-point hydraulic hitch on the rear of a tractor, should be used on steeper slopes. An adjustable bulldozer blade may also be used to scalp if done carefully. Pushing — Pushing involves using a tracked vehicle with a standard blade and push bar to uproot larger woody plants. The uprooted plants can be removed or disposed of by standard slash disposal methods. Brushraking and rootraking — Brushraking (figure 15.7) involves a tracked vehicle with a specially designed toothed blade that uproots and removes brush. The brushrake may also be used to move or pile previously cut trees and brush. Rootraking uses a brushrake with a cut- ting bar attached to the bottom of its teeth to sever roots below the soil surface. Roller chopping — A roller chopper consists of a cutting blade mounted on heavy water-filled metal drums; chop- pers are pulled over the area by a tracked vehicle. The chopper can be used to treat shrubs and small trees to 6 inches in diameter by forcing them against the ground and cutting them into small pieces. This method creates minimal slash and site disturbance. a F Ie , . Figure 15.6 Sheardozing 54 Figure 15.7 Brushraking and rootraking Disking and plowing — Disking and plowing can be done using a variety of equipment from conventional tillage implements to heavy duty disks and moldboard plows. Disks cut, lift, and invert vegetation while scarifying the soil. Mowing — Mowing involves using heavy rotary mowers, such as brush hogs, to cut woody plants and create a well- groomed appearance. Chemical Broadcast chemical spraying — Broadcast chemical spraying is done in two ways: low volume and high volume applications. Low volume applications usually involve using water carriers, such as ground sprayers, power mistblowers, fixed-wing aircraft, or helicopters (figure 15.8). Best re- sults are obtained when applications are made during periods of optimum growth after full leaf development. The object of low volume applications is to coat the leaves uniformly rather than drench the foliage. High volume applications involve using water carriers to apply herbicides, but oil/ water carriers give better top kills. This method is used on ground areas accessible to wheeled or tracked vehicles. Timing of high volume ap- plications should follow the seasonal recommendation for low volume application presented above. Dry herbicide applications — Dry, nonliquid herbicides are produced as pellets, granules, and beads. Applica- tions to the soil surface may be made by hand or by using several mechanical devices. Dry herbicides are not recommended for use in wetlands or areas of standing water. Applications may be made at any time of the year, but late winter or spring applications are most effective because high soil moisture helps dissolve the herbicide and root growth is at a maximum, increasing the uptake of the herbicide. However, effectiveness of control will vary with soil type and plant species. CHAPTER 4 Figure 15.8 Broadcast chemical spraying (helicopter) Soil-sterilants — Soil-sterilant herbicides are used in areas where the soil is to be made nonproductive of vege- tation. Once applied, these herbicides are carried by moisture into the root zone of plants, thus controlling both established plants and germinating seedlings. These herbicides are available as powders that may be wetted for spraying or left in powder form for dry application. Burning Broadcast prescribed burning — Broadcast prescribed burning is the controlled application of fire to vegetation. It is used under conditions of weather, plant moisture, soil moisture, etc., that allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area of the ROW. At the same time, it must produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required to further certain planned objectives of control. Burning permits are required in most areas. METHODS FOR SLASH DISPOSAL Mechanical/Manual Slash piling — Slash piling (figure 15.9) consists of col- lecting and piling slash in designated areas of a ROW. Mechanical slash piling may be done using wheeled or tracked vehicles to push slash into piles. Windrowing isa form of piling that consists of concentrating slash, usual- ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS Maintenance Methods 15 ly along the edge of the ROW, to clear the intervening ground. Piling may also be done manually, especially in areas where heavy equipment would have adverse effects on soil or residual vegetation. Brush piling for the benefit of wildlife is discussed in section 21. Drop, lop, and leave — Drop, lop, and leave consists of lopping all slash so that it lays close to the ground. This method is suited to areas where slash is light or where heavy equipment would damage the site. Removal — Removal of slash involves physically remov- ing slash from the area and disposing of it in another loca- tion, often a more suitable site on the ROW. Chipping — Chipping involves using heavy-duty or whole tree chippers to chip slash. The chips can then be disposed of on the site or loaded into trucks and removed from the site (figure 15.10). Burning Piling and burning — Piling and burning involves col- lecting material as described above in piling slash. If a burning permit is required and obtained, the piles may be burned under proper atmospheric and wind conditions. Pit burning — Pit burning involves digging a pit, approx- 55 15 Maintenance Methods Figure 15.10 Chipping imately 10 feet wide and 15 feet deep, in which to burn slash. Often an “air curtain” incinerator is used. This mechanical device blows air into the pit causing complete combustion that results in a “cleaner smoke” that is also less visible. Slash is dumped into the pit with a front-end loader or bulldozer. Note: In most areas permits may be needed before open burning can be used. METHODS FOR RESTORATION Grading Grading to return the soil to its original contour is done on sites that will no longer be disturbed, such as cable pulling sites. Seeding Seeding with grasses or legumes is an important supple- ment to erosion control structures on access roads, tower sites, cable pulling sites, and assembly sites. Seeding is usually restricted to areas of high erosion hazard and is 56 usually done to prevent erosion until natural vegetation is established. Ground seeding can be done using deep- furrow drills, seed dribblers, cyclone seeders, hand broadcasting, or hydroseeding (figure 15.11). Aerial seeding can be done using the hydrospider equipment (figure 15.12). Planting Planting native or exotic plants, usually woody, is done in areas of high visual impact or where immediate screen- ing is desired. Native plants may be relocated from near- by sites as needed. This practice, however, is expensive and may not be totally successful. Relocation of Vegetation This method involves lifting the entire live plant from its original location and placing it on a new site. It is used to preserve certain plants that might otherwise be de- stroyed. Note: It may be difficult to successfully plant or relocate vegetation. METHODS THAT ALTER OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS Access Roads Access roads should be located in a manner that will pre- serve site quality and minimize erosion. Filter strips — A filter strip is a protective area of ab- sorbent, undisturbed soil between access roads and streams. It should be wide enough to prevent road surface water from reaching the stream directly. Culverts — Culverts may be constructed from metal, lumber, or logs (figure 15.13). They drain road-surface runoff, springs, seeps, and other small sources of water away from the road to prevent erosion. Broad-based drainage dips — Broad-based drainage dips CHAPTER 4 Figure 15.11 Hydroseeding (figure 15.14) may be used instead of culverts for cross- drainage where no intermittent or permanent streams are present. If properly designed and installed, broad-based dips reduce the need for waterbars and are maintenance- free. Waterbars — Waterbars, like culverts, provide cross- drainage and minimize erosion. They are “cuts” in bare soil areas, such as roads, that should be used when roads are to be closed to vehicles after construction. Waterbars can be constructed with handtools, but bulldozers are more commonly used. Fords and stream erosion — Fords should be used to cross streams too large to be carried by culverts. Fords should be at right angles to streams and should not inter- fere with natural stream flow. Tower Sites, Cable-pulling Sites, and Assembly Sites Tower sites, cable-pulling sites, and assembly sites fre- quently require alteration of the soil surface contour. They comprise a relatively small percentage of the overall ROW area but are centers of activity during the construc- tion phase of a transmission ROW. ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS Maintenance Methods 15 Figure 15.12 Aerial seeding 57 15 Maintenance Methods Tower Sites — Tower site alteration ranges from rela- tively small disturbances, such as digging holes to accom- modate poles, to grading an area of several hundred square feet and digging deep holes for concrete footers on which steel towers are constructed (figure 15.15). As the area becomes larger, consideration for drainage away from the site and soil slippage into the site becomes critical. Because the tower site is a permanent part of the ROW, its design and construction must be considered carefully. Cable-pulling sites and assembly sites — Cable-pulling sites and assembly sites will be needed much less fre- quently than tower sites. They are short-term work areas and are usually selected because of easy access and suit- ability for use. 16 CURRENT : ; USE AND COST OF Figure 15.13 Culvert CLEARING AND MAINTENANCE METHODS CAPITAL CLEARING AND MAINTENANCE METHODS The figures in this section summarize information on capital clearing and maintenance methods and provide an indication of the extent to which the methods are used by utilities throughout the country. Data presented are based on and show the percentage of electric utilities that use a certain method in some portion of their ROW main- tenance program. The selective vegetation maintenance methods include chain saw cutting, trimming, girdling, tree injecting and hypo-hatcheting, cut and stump spray- ing, basal spraying, and stem/foliage waterborne Figure 15.15 Tower site 58 CHAPTER 4 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods 16 methods. The nonselective techniques include shear- dozing, scalping, brushraking or rootraking, roller chop- ping, mowing, broadcast chemical spraying, and dry herbicide applications. The data do not indicate the per- centage of use of any particular method by each utility; rather the data show the percentage of utilities using the method. It should be emphasized that use by the utility industry of various methods represents their best effort at ROW maintenance, considering historical patterns, tech- nology, and management constraints. As public aware- ness and concerns regarding ROW management intensi- fy, utilities are striving to better document the long-term effects of each method they use. The data upon which the figures that follow are based were calculated from in- formation supplied by ROW contractors and utility foresters (Asplundh Environmental Services 1978). Eastern United States The data obtained for seven selective maintenance methods confirm their use, with the exception of girdling and tree injector/hypo-hatchet methods, by most utilities in the East. Little variation in the overall pattern of use appears between province groupings (figure 16.1). Among the five nonselective techniques assessed for fre- quency of use, only roller chopping was not employed by a substantial portion of the utility companies in each province grouping (figure 16.2). The overall use of non- selective methods was similar throughout the East. 100 40 20 Percent of utilities using each method by province groupings 10 A Trimming \ Chain saw cutting Girdling Data not Tree injectors and hypo-hatchet /\ A\ Basal spraying /\ /\ Cut and stump spray waterborne available for frilling, dormant stem spray, and growth inhibitors PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS ——— 2111, 2112, 2113, 2114 wm 2211, 2212, 2213, 2214, 2215 * 2320; 2311, 2312; 4110 em 2511, 2512; 2531, 2532, 2533; 2521, 2522, 2523 i Figure 16.1 Selective vegetation management methods used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Eastern United States. ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS Stem/foliage 59 16 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods Percent of utilities using each method by province groupings Sheardozing, Roller chopping Mowing Broadcast Ory scalping, chemical herbicide brushraking, spraying applications or rootraking Data not available for pushing or grubbing, disking and plowing, soil-sterilants, and broadcast prescribed burning. PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS ———— 2111, 2112, 2113, 2114 wom 2211, 2212,.2213, 2214, 2215 eee 2320; 2311, 2312; 4110 ommmm 2511, 2512; 2531, 2532, 2533; 2521, 2522, 2523 Figure 16.2 Nonselective vegetation management methods used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Eastern United States. Use of slash disposal methods (figure 16.3) varies con- siderably among provinces, but all are used more than 40 percent of the time. Sections 2111, 2112, 2113 and 2114 (Province 2110) show the greatest variability between methods and display the trends of the remaining prov- inces (although with more exaggerated differences). These trends include: substantial use of slash piling; comparatively less use of drop, lop, and leave and remov- al methods; and more substantial use of chipping. Restoration methods (figure 16.4) for eastern prov- inces depict substantial (greater than 40 percent) use of both grading and seeding, but seeding is used consistently more often than grading. Province 2110, Laurentian Mixed Forest — Increased use of the following methods was noted within this prov- ince: cut and stump spraying, stem/foliage waterborne methods, and slash piling. Greater use is expected in the 60 future for all methods compared with the rest of the country, with the exception of cut and stump spraying. Less use is expected for sheardozing, scalping, brushrak- ing or rootraking, and dry herbicide applications as com- pared with the rest of the United States. Province 2210, Eastern Deciduous Forest — More fre- quent use was noted for the following methods: mowing, cut and stump spraying, basal spraying, stem/ foliage waterborne methods, and slash piling. Increased use is expected for roller chopping, mowing, basal spraying, broadcast chemical spraying, and slash piling. Province 2310, Outer Coastal Plain Forest; Province 2320, Southeastern Mixed Forest; Province 4110, Ever- glades — More frequent use was noted for the following methods within these provinces: sheardozing, scalping, brushraking or rootraking, mowing, piling and burning, pit burning, and grading. Sheardozing, scalping, brush- CHAPTER 4 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods 16 100 wo So 80 40 _1 “A A A Piling slash Drop, lop, and leave Percent of utilities using each method by province groupings Removal A \ \ Chipping Piling and Pit burning burning PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS 2111, 2112, 2113, 2114 wm 2211, 2212, 2213, 2214, 2215 snerneos 2320; 2311, 2312; 4110 mmm 2511, 2512: 2531, 2532, 2533; 2521, 2522, 2523 a SR A Figure 16.3 Slash disposal methods for utilities used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Eastern United States. raking or rootraking, mowing, dry herbicide applica- tions, piling and burning, pit burning, and grading are methods expected to increase in implementation. Cut and stump spraying use is expected to decline in use as compared to its utilization in the rest of the United States. Province 2510, Prairie Parkland; Province 2520, Prairie Brushland; Province 2530, Tall-grass Prairie — Trends identified within this province grouping showed: 1) in- creased use of the following methods: sheardozing, scalp- ing, brushraking or rootraking, cut and stump spraying, dry herbicide applications, piling and burning, and pit burning; 2) increased use is expected for sheardozing, scalping, brushraking or rootraking; and 3) less future use is expected for the drop, lop, and leave method. Western United States With the exception of utilities in the forested, northwest coastal provinces (Provinces 2410 and M2410) that make widespread use of basal spraying, western utilities are consistent in their overall use of selective maintenance methods (figure 16.5). Use among provinces of chain saw cutting, cut and stump spraying, and stem/ foliage water- ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS borne methods varies. Of the nonselective methods, only mowing use varies greatly among province groupings; all other techniques are consistently used throughout the western provinces (figure 16.6). Considerable variation exists between provinces in the use of slash disposal methods (figure 16.7), but all are used more than 25 percent of the time. A comparison of restoration methods employed in the Western United States provinces (figure 16.8) shows substantial use of both grading and seeding (greater than 15 percent), but seeding is used more consistently than grading. Province 3110, Great Plains Short-grass Prairie; Province A3140, Wyoming Basin — Less use of stump spraying, selective foliage methods, and pit burning methods was noted. Less use is expected in the future of trimming, stump spraying, basal spraying, and selective foliage methods. Province 2410, Willamette — Puget Forest; Province M2410, Pacific Forest — Significantly greater use is ex- pected in the future for selective foliage and chipping methods. 61 16 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods Grading Percent of utilities using each method by province groupings Seeding Data not available for planting and relocation of vegetation. PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS m——— 2111, 2112, 2113, 2114 mmm 2211, 2212, sereeee* 23205 2311, wememm 2511, 2512; 2213, 2214, 2215 2312; 4110 2531, 2532, 2533; 2521, 2522, 2523 —e_e_e_csasaeeees ee ee Figure 16.4 Restoration methods used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Eastern United States. Province 2610, California Grassland; Province M2610, Sierran Forest; Province M2620, California Chapar- ral — Less use is expected for basal spraying and slash piling in these provinces. Province M2110, Columbia Forest; Province M3110, Rocky Mountain Forest; Province M3120, Upper Gila Mountains Forest — Greater use was noted for drop, lop, and leave and seeding methods. Substantially less use was noted for trimming, stump spraying, and basal spraying methods. Less use is expected for trimming, stump spraying, basal spraying, and slash piling. 62 Province 3140, Mexican Highlands Shrub Steppe; Province 3210, Chihuahuan Desert; Province 3220, American Desert — Considerably less use was noted for chain saw cutting, trimming, and basal spraying methods. Less use is expected in the future for chain saw cutting, trimming, stump spraying, basal spraying, dry herbicide applications, and chipping methods. Province 3120, Palouse Grassland; Province 3130, Inter- mountain Sagebrush — Less use was noted for trimming and basal spraying techniques. Less use is expected for trim- ming, basal spraying, and slash piling. CHAPTER 4 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods 16 20 10 Percent of utilities using each method by province groupings YN Chain saw Trimming Girdling Tree injectors Cut and Basal Stem/foliage cutting and stump spray spraying waterborne hypo-hatchet Data not available for frilling, dormant stem spray, and growth inhibitors PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS cree tener eee 2610, M2610, M2620 3120, 3131, 3132, 3133, 3134, 3135 2410, M2411, M2412, M2413, M2415 2112, 3111, 3112, 3113, 3120, 3131, 3132, M2111 3111, 3112, 3113, 3141, 3142 # 3211, 3212, 3221, 3222, 3140 SS Figure 16.5 Selective vegetation management methods used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Western United States. COST OF CLEARING AND MAINTENANCE METHODS Because of the variables associated with clearing and maintenance methods, it is difficult to form generaliza- tions about the cost of using these techniques. Even more difficult to prepare is a summary of associated costs for different areas within any particular region of the country. The cost of labor varies widely from utility to utility. Differences in terrain, accessibility (e.g., rocky, steep, or wet), or extremes in brush density are basic factors that must be considered when determining clear- ing and maintenance costs. These factors, in addition to State laws or public relations considerations (pertaining ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS to specific management techniques), impose constraints that vary widely between locales. Specific cost information on capital clearing practices and maintenance methods for all regions of the contin- ental United States was obtained from ROW managers responsible for performing such work. This discussion attempts to provide greater insight into the actual aver- ages and ranges of cost per acre of selective and nonselec- tive capital clearing practices and maintenance methods. The capital clearing costs discussed represent practices or combinations of practices used to perform an entire ROW clearing operation and include all of the categories described earlier: mechanical / manual clearing, chemical, slash disposal, and restoration. 63 16 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods Percent of utilities using each method by province croupings Sheardozing, scalping, brushraking, or rootraking Roller chopping Mowing Broadcast Ory chemical herbicide spraying applications Data not available for pushing or grubbing, disking and plowing. soil-sterilants, and broadcast prescribed burning. PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS M2610, M2620 3131, 3132, 3133, 3134, 3135 M2411, M2412, M2413, M2415 3111, 3112, 3113, 3120, 3131, 3132, M2111 3112, 3113, 3141, 3142 3212, 3221, 3222, 3140 Figure 16.6 Nonselective vegetation management methods used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Western United States. Maintenance costs are based on an average of all the maintenance methods combined: mechanical/manual clearing methods (bulldozing, roller chopping, topping/ side cutting, etc.), chemical methods (stump spraying, selective foliage, etc.), slash disposal (burning, chipping, etc.), and restoration (seeding and fertilizing). Cost ranges represent the low and high extremes known to exist. Capital Clearing — Continental United States Overall, capital clearing costs range from $53 to $3000 per acre (table 16.1), with an average cost of $956. Selec- tive capital clearing costs average $1000 per acre; non- selective costs average slightly less, $912 per acre. Over- 64 all, capital clearing practices performed in the Eastern United States average about $460 less per acre than prac- tices performed in the Western United States ($726, East- ern; $1186, Western). Selective and nonselective practices average $256 and $663 per acre less, respectively. Maintenance — Continental United States Maintenance costs range from $17 to $1100 per acre, with an average cost of $181 per acre (table 16.1). Selective maintenance costs average $210 per acre; nonselective costs average much less, $152 per acre. Overall, mainte- nance methods in the East average $72 more per acre than in western vegetation provinces ($217, East; $145, West). Selective and nonselective methods average $68 and $77 CHAPTER 4 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods 16 Percent of utilities using each method by province grouping Piling slash Drop, lop, and leave Chipping Piling and burning Pit burning PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS M2610, M2620 > 3131, 3132, 3133, 3134, 3135 M2411, M2412, M2413, M2415 3111, 3112, 3113, 3120, 3131, 3132, M2111 3112, 3113, 3141, 3142 3212, 3221, 3222, 3140 a RE NS SR RE ERE SSE RR CU a EE Figure 16.7 Slash disposal methods used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Western United States. per acre more, respectively. The overall maintenance cycle in the Eastern United States averages 3.88 years. Maintenance cycles for the Western United States are so variable that a comparison would be meaningless. Selective Vegetation Maintenance Methods Eastern United States — The cost for selective capital clearing practices averages $872 per acre (table 16.1). Selective maintenance methods average $244 with an average cycle of more than 3.9 years. The average cycle from low to high for selective maintenance ranges from 3.4 years (Provinces 2310, 2320, 4110) to 4.2 years (Prov- ince 2110). ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS Western United States — The cost for selective capital clearing practices averages $1128 per acre (table 16.1). Selective maintenance methods average $176 per acre; intervals between maintenance are highly variable. Nonselective Vegetation Maintenance Methods Eastern United States — For the Eastern United States the cost for nonselective capital clearing practices aver- ages $580 per acre (table 16.1). Nonselective maintenance methods average $190 per acre; an average cycle is about 3.8 years. The average cycle from low to high for non- selective maintenance methods ranges from 2.9 years (Provinces 2310, 2320, 4110) to 4.9 years (Province 2210). 65 16 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods 90 80 Percent of utilities using each method by province groupings Grading Seeding Data not available for planting and relocation of vegetation. PROVINCE AND SECTION GROUPINGS oneness 2610, M2610, M2620 ——--—— 3120, 3131, 3132, 3133, 3134, 3135 mumemmemmn 24)(), M2411, M2412, M2413, M2415 ; memes 2112, 3111, 3112, 3113, 3120, 3131, 3132, M2ii] ——_ 3111, 3112, 3113, 3141, 3142 & = 3211, 3212, 3221, 3222, 3140 eee Figure 16.8 Restoration methods used in clearing and maintenance by utilities in the Western United States. 66 CHAPTER 4 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods 16 Western United States — The cost for nonselective cap- ital clearing practices averages $1243 per acre (table 16.1). Nonselective maintenance methods average $113; intervals between maintenance are highly variable. Cost Comparison among Methods Because of the degree of variability involved (described earlier), specific site bidding is required to derive actual costs. Based on current actual costs, however, a relative cost comparison between methods can be made. The fol- lowing list ranks the relative cost of clearing and mainte- nance methods ona per acre basis for selective, nonselec- tive, slash disposal, and restoration groupings. Selective Vegetation Maintenance Methods Lower ....1 Chain saw cutting Cost 2 Trimming 3 Cut and stump spraying 4 Girdling Higher 5 Frilling Cost...... 6 Tree injectors and hypo-hatchet Lower ....1 Stem/foliage waterborne Cost 2 Basal spraying Higher 3 Dormant stem spraying Cost...... 4 Growth inhibitors Nonselective Vegetation Maintenance Methods Lower .... 1 Broadcast chemical spraying Cost 2 Dry herbicide applications 3 Soil-sterilants 4 Mowing 5 Broadcast prescribed burning 6 Disking and plowing Table 16.1 Comparison of Selective and Nonselective Capital Clearing and Maintenance Costs and Cycles for the Eastern and Western United States Eastern U.S. Western U.S. Continental U.S. Practice/method® Mean cost Mean cost Mean —_- Range/Low-High Capital Clearing Practice Selective $872 $1,128 $1,000 Nonse lective 580 1,243 gz All capital clearing 726 1,186 956 $53-$3,000 Maintenance Methods Selective 244 176 210 Nonselective 190 13 152 All maintenance a 145 181 $17-$1,100 Information obtained from Asplundh Tree Expert Co., 1977. Ppractices--combinat ions of methods used to perform an entire ROW clearing operation, including categories of mechanical/manual clearing, chemical, slash disposal, and restoration. ‘Cost of maintenance operations are shown by the average of mechanicat/ manual clearing methods (i.e., bulldozing, roller chopping, topping/side cutting, etc.), chemical methods (i.e. stump spraying, selective foliage, etc.), Slash disposal (i.e., burning, chipping, etc.), and restoration (i.e., seeding and fertilizing). ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS 7 Roller chopping 8 Brushraking Higher 9 Pushing or grubbing / Cost..... 10 Sheardozing/scalping/brushraking Slash Disposal Lower ....1 Drop, lop, and leave Cost 2 Slash piling 3 Piling and burning 4 Pit burning Higher 5 Chipping Cost...... 6 Removal Restoration Lower .... 1 Grading Cost 2 Seeding Higher 3 Planting : Cost...... 4 Relocation of vegetation The relative comparison of costs presented above applies to all areas within the United States in which the particular methods are performed. As a general rule, chain saw cutting; drop, lop, and leave; grading; and/or seeding methods provide the lowest cost per acre for selective clearing, slash disposal, and restoration. Similar pricing constraints for methods currently used and sum- marized earlier may be characterized as low, average, average to high, or high, when individual states or groups of states are compared (table 16.2, figure 16.9) The following States or groups of States in the East have the lowest costs of clearing and maintenance ona per acre basis when compared with all other states within the con- tinental United States: 1 West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Ala- bama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Ok- lahoma. Groups of States with average comparative costs include: 1 Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut; 2 Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Dela- ware, New Jersey. Groups of States generally having average to high com- parative costs include: 1 Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana. States or groups of States with high costs, compared to the rest of the United States, include: 1 New York; 2 North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, lowa; 3 Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado; and 4 California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico. The comparative costs associated with the state group- ings listed above point out the differences in pricing ona regional basis. Significant local variability and differ- ences exist from utility to utility due to management, labor, standards and specifications, and legislative re- strictions, as well as public sensitivity to various prac- 67 16 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods Se EN Pex DERI A Table 16.2 Relative Costs of Capital Clearing and Maintenance Methods Used by Utilities for the Continental United States. Range of costs per acreD by state areas© Method Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7 Area 8 Selective vegetation management methods: Chain saw cutting Trimming Girdling Frilling Tree injectors and hypo-hatchet Cut and stump spray Basal spraying Stem/foliage waterborne Dormant stem spray Growth inhibitors ae Seseeneeee Nonselective vegetation management methods: 11. Sheardozing, scalping, and brushraking or rootraking 12. Pushing or grubbing 13. Brushraking or rootraking 14. Roller chopping 15. Disking and plowing 16. Mowing 17. Broadcast chemical spraying 18. Dry herbicide applications 19. Soil-sterilants 20. Broadcast prescribed burning lash disposal: Mechanical/Manual ) 21. Piling slash 22. Drop, lop, and leave 23. Removal 24. Chipping 25. Piling and burning 26. Pit burning TTT PEEEEE EEE COT PEEEE Restoration: 27. Grading Pe] ESS 28. Seeding Peed Bseres 29. Planting Ped TESS 30. Relocation of vegetation 3 fesecee Information obtained from Asplundh Tree Expert Csimilar state areas for documenting costs of Co. 1977-1978. methods are grouped as follows: b 1 - ME, VT, NH, MA, RI, CT Symbols used for range of costs per acre are: 2- NY 3 - MI, OH, PA, MD, DE, NJ - Low 4 - MN, WI, IL, IN - Average 5 - WV, VA, KY, NC, SC, GA, FL, TN, AL, - Average to high MS, LA, AR, TX, OK - High 6 - ND, SD, NE, KS, MO, IA - Not done 7 - WA, OR, ID, MT, WY, UT, CO - Environmental restrictions 8 - CA, NV, AZ, NM - Limited use 68 CHAPTER 4 Current Use and Cost of Clearing and Maintenance Methods 16 Information obtained from Asplundh Tree Expert Co, 1977-1978, Similar state areas for documenting costs of methods are grouped as follows: 1) Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut 2) New York 3) Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey 4) Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana 5) West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma 6) North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa 7) Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado 8) California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico RELATIVE COST LOW: AREA 5 EC] AVERAGE: AREAS 143 AVERAGE TO HIGH: AREA a HIGH: AREAS 2,6,7,8, Figure 16.9 General comparisons of relative costs for clearing and maintenance methods by State groupings tices. The maintenance cycle or time interval between use of maintenance methods also varies, especially in the Western United States, and between utilities. For ex- ample, mowing may be done every year, but selective trimming as a maintenance method may be needed only once every 5, 10, or more years, depending upon specific site conditions. Thus, the cost-effectiveness of maintenance ap- proaches depends on specific site conditions (terrain, veg- ROW MAINTENANCE METHODS AND COSTS etation type and density, land use, etc.), required standards and specifications, and the expected life of the electric transmission facility. REFERENCES Asplundh Environmental Services. 1978. Economic and environmental aspects of contemporaneous electric trans- mission right-of-way management techniques. Empire State Electric Energy Research Corp. 3 vols. 69 Right-of-Way Resource Assessment Habitat inventory and analysis is necessary for effective fish and wildlife management on any site. The purpose of this chapter is to help biologists and ROW managers evaluate the habitat on a specific site, so that an appropriate management strategy, one that incorporates the information included in chapter | of volumes 2 and 3, “Plant Responses to Management Techniques,” can be devised. Emphasis is on factors applicable to a majority of ROWs in the United States; no emphasis is placed on special, local situations. The suggested methodology is based on an assumed need for rapid and inexpensive col- lection, synthesis, and evaluation of ecological data most relevant to wildlife management decisions. Where detailed analyses are needed for research or other purposes, additional literature sources should be con- sulted (Graham 1945; Lagler 1952; Leopold et al. 1971; Nihman et al. 1973; Gysel and Lyon 1977). Because of the potential hazard to transmission relia- bility and the direct influence on management costs, height and density of tall-growing plants are the primary concerns of the ROW manager. Woody species that normally would not grow tall enough to interfere with conductors have also become a concern of ROW managers in recent years. These species add to the aesthetics of the ROW and compete with tall-growing plants for light, moisture, and root and crown space, thus reducing the invasion and growth rates of tall-growing species and decreasing maintenance costs. 71 17 Summary of Data Requirements / 18 17 SUMMARY OF DATA REQUIREMENTS Data requirements for assessing resources and conditions on ROWs and adjacent lands are summarized in appendix 5-a. This data sheet may be used in the field, supplemented by maps and written descriptions. The ideal ROW resource evaluation data collection system must include all of those factors needed by the ROW manager and those habitat factors required to develop an adequate wildlife management strategy. Methods for gathering data and evaluating conditions are discussed in the rest of this chapter. Sensitive areas, such as certain soils, wetlands, or habitats of rare and endangered species, may require more detailed analysis. Some of this additional informa- tion about sites may be available through other agencies (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Forest Service, State agencies, or university extension services). 18 EVALUATION GUIDELINES SURFACE GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY The response of vegetation to management depends on overall site conditions. Rock formations, glacial depos- its, and numerous other geological features affect composition and structure of vegetation (Gysel and Lyon 1977). Slope gradient, length, shape, and aspect help determine vegetation, water economy, microclimate (e.g., potential for frost damage), and erosion potential. Surface geology and topography also affect vegetation maintenance practices. Site conditions often limit use of heavy equipment. For example, steep slopes make bull- dozing impractical. Knowledge of the surface geology, topography, soils, and drainage is necessary to predict vegetation succession and habitat quality. Site preferences of various plant species are listed in chapter 2 of volumes 2 and 3. CLIMATE Information on climate conditions is available from local weather stations and is important for determining vegetation, fire risk, and erosion potential. SOILS Soil structure, moisture, fertility, and acidity also help determine the composition of plant communities. Soil fertility influences plant nutritive values and yields, which are important for wildlife (Denney 1944). Acidity (measured in pH units) is closely associated with productivity. Acidic soils and waters are frequently deficient in nutrients (Odum 1971). Sensitivity to disruptions and slow recovery characterize peat bogs, spruce swamps, and other acidic environments. Data and maps from the USGS and published soil surveys of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) are valuable in assessing overall site conditions. These data and interpretations may be supplemented if necessary by analyses of core samples from the ROW. 72 Evaluation Guidelines The soil erosion potential on a ROW can often be estimated by using published soil surveys or data sheets from the SCS. Erodibility values for soil types and erosion potentials, based on both erodibility and slope, are usually available for each soil series. In general, slopes of 0 to 6 percent have low erosion hazard; slopes of 7 to 18 percent have moderate erosion hazard; slopes of 19 per- cent and over have high erosion hazard (Barnard- Jackson-Raeder, Inc. 1975). Delineation of soil types by the SCS, however, is based primarily on air photo interpretation and is often not reliable for use on narrow ROWs. Assistance in obtain- ing erodibility ratings based on core samples can often be obtained from local SCS offices. Where soil erosion hazard is high and detailed measurements of erosion potential are desired, the Universal Soil Erosion Equation (appendix 5-b) can be used. WATER TABLE AND DRAINAGE ALTERATIONS Drainage alterations may drastically influence the growth and survival of many plant species (Gysel 1975; Davis 1975). Raising the water table or restricting the move- ment of groundwater may saturate the rooting zone. Roots suffering from an oxygen deficiency are ineffective in assimilating nutrients and water (Boelter and Close 1974). Growth rates are significantly reduced and, in some cases, all trees in a stand die (Nelson 1951; Heninger 1974; Jeglum 1975). Wetland drainage patterns are complex and easily dis- rupted. Compaction and/or subsidence of soils during construction or maintenance of ROWs can alter water table levels and drainage patterns. The subsequent die- back of sensitive species may extend one-half mile from the ROW and persist for over 30 years (Boelter and Close 1974; Jeglum 1975). Ponding, drowning, desiccation, die- back, and species changes may result from alteration of drainage patterns. Communities most susceptible to these problems are those with high water tables and poorly drained shallow soils (Heninger 1974; Crabtree et al. 1978). ROW CHARACTERISTICS Physical and engineering characteristics and mainte- nance records of the ROW are available from the utilities. This information may help determine what vegetation can be expected and/or allowed on or near the ROW. FIRE POTENTIAL Adjacent land use is an important evaluation not only for ROW management purposes, but for risks and liabilities to the utility when fire is possible. Where the potential for fire and subsequent damage to valuable resources is high, consideration should be given to management plans that enhance the value of the ROW as a fire break. Table 18.1 lists some criteria for making rough estimates of fire potential of lands adjacent to ROWs. Fire risk can be estimated by analyzing the fire history of an area and by considering the frequency and nature of lightning and human activities (Deeming et al. 1972). Areas of high fire risk are often characterized by frequent cloud-to-ground lightning and human activities in- CHAPTER 5 Evaluation Guidelines 18 Table 18.1 Some Criteria for Estimating Fire Potential on Lands Adjacent to ROWs FIRE POTENTIAL High (peat, muck) FACTOR Low ~——— $$ i IH Soil Organic content Low Average slope (%) 0-20 21-40 40 Lightning Thunderstorms Thunderstorms common, Thunderstorms infrequent but cloud-to-gound Man-caused risk Distance to nearest other firebreak (miles) 0.25 Fuel class A Water table durin critical seasons (feet below ground surface) 0 Length of critical fire season (months) 2, once/year No high risk ac- tivities during critical seasons and cloud-to-ground lightning seldom lightning frequent observed Some high risk ac- tivities during critical seasons Much high risk ac- tivities during critical seasons 0.25-1.00 1.00 B c D 0-1 1 2-4, and/or more 4 than once/year volving campfires, burning of debris, and operation of various machines. The physiography of an area also affects its fire poten- tial. The spreading speed of fire varies directly with slope, aspect, and elevation. Areas with organic soils (e.g., peat bogs, “muck farms”) are much more susceptible to fire than those underlain by mineral soils (Deeming et al. 1972). By far the most important criteria for determining fire potential, however, are the quantity, distribution, and kind of fuel. Flammability varies with moisture content and size of fuels; dry, woody fuels 1 to 2 inches in diameter are one of the greatest fire hazards. For rough estimates of fire potential, fuels can be grouped into four general classes. These classes are ranked in table 18.1 according to their contribution to fire hazard and are briefly described below. Class A — Short grasses with little woody fuel; shrubby covers with little dead material and in which living foliage does not burn readily (e.g., laurel, salal, vine maple, alder, mountain-mahogany); hardwoods where leaf litter compresses readily (e.g., maple — aspen communities); most croplands; low vertical or horizontal continuity of fuel; sparse cover. Class B — Tall grasses with little woody fuel; hardwoods where the leaf litter does not compress readily (e.g., oak RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT — hickory communities); fuel loading not continuous; low density. Class C — Dense brush with substantial dead woody material and where living foliage burns readily (e.g., chaparral brushlands, low pocosins, sagebrush, ink- berry); partially thinned conifer or hardwood stands with moderate amounts of slash; either horizontal or vertical continuity of fuel. Class D — Clear-cut pine plantations or dense conifer stands with heavy buildup of downed tree material; deep litter with very high loading of dead woody material larger than | inch in diameter. Examples are mosses, lichens, peat soils, coastal Douglas-fir, and clear-cut ponderosa and other pines; fuel continuously vertical and horizontal. General fire potential (based on climate) of lands in different areas of the United States can be obtained from State and Federal forest agencies. Critical fire seasons as determined by the National Fire Danger Rating System (Deeming et al. 1972) are also available. Other climatic considerations influencing fire potential include: air turbulence, wind direction and velocity, temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric stability, amount and duration of rainfall, and lightning character- istics. Estimations of local “average bad” conditions should be obtained from local weather or fire stations. 73 18 Evaluation Guidelines VEGETATION Vegetation within about one-half mile of the ROW should be classified according to cover type (e.g., dominant vegetation types and size classes). Boundaries of cover types should be delineated on an aerial photograph or other suitable base map to aid biologists or ROW managers in determining how a ROW can best contribute to area habitat diversity and wildlife food and cover. In many areas, basic cover type mapping can be done entirely by air photo interpretation; in others, some on-ground observations along selected transects are sary. Cover maps for Federal or State lands are often available from wildlife and forestry agencies. Sensitivity Conditions Criteria for evaluating sensitivity to disruptions of plant communities are listed in table 18.2. Conditions associ- ated with sensitive communities include soil compaction, subsidence and erosion; alteration in drainage patterns (causing ponding and vegetation changes) and water table; sunscald; windthrow; and dieback. The latter three conditions are discussed below. Sunscald — Opening a forest for a ROW causes immediate environmental changes. Many plant species grow and reproduce vigorously after exposure to com- plete sunlight. More sensitive species, however, may show stress, poor growth, and dieback (Davis 1975). Dis- coloration of leaves is the first sign of internal stress. Evidence of sunscald has been reported for beech, hem- lock, white cedar, black spruce, red maple, and paper and yellow birch (Nelson 1951; Asplundh Environmental Services 1978; Crabtree et al. 1978). Sunscald severity varies with the width and orientation of the corridor, veg- etative community, species, and average height and density of the stand (Downey 1976; Asplundh Environ- mental Services 1978; Michigan Public Service Commis- sion in press). Windthrow — Soil characteristics, such as a high water table or a cemented subsoil layer, affect the development of tree roots and determine the resistance of trees to wind (Nelson 1951; Mettert 1972). Openings in an otherwise continuous canopy may allow winds to fell numerous trees. Windthrow is most common in shallow, organic soils and may greatly increase the area affected by a ROW. Windthrow is less severe in narrower corridors and in those parallel to prevailing winds (Downey 1976; Crabtree et al. 1978). Table 18.2 Some Criteria for Evaluating the Sensitivity of Vegetation Adjacent to ROWs SENSITIVITY FACTOR Low —— —» HIGH A, Overall site characteristics 1. Water table a. Depth (feet) 5 5-3 3-1 1-.3 23-0 surface b. Seasonal variation Never flooded temporary flooding seasonal permanent flooding flooding Soil characteristics a. Soil formation Other peat muck b. Soil depth (feet) 6 6-3 3-1 1-0 c. Water erodibility (K value) -0.23 0.24-0.36 0.37 + d. Subsoil layer (if any) 10'/sand clay (poorly drained) rock, cemented e. Soil fertility High Low 3. Topography a. Slope (%) 0-6 7-18 19+ b. Elevation (feet) 0-5000 5000-7000 7000-9000 9000 + 4, Drainage patterns a. Ponding in ROW/edge no evidence jet season only severe ponding b. Soil drainage characteristics well-drained fair poor very poorly drained B. Vegetative characteristics 1. Community type grassland old field shrubland forest wetlands, dunes, tundra a. Wetland shrub swamp hardwood swamp conifer swamp, marsh,bog b. Age young old c. Rooting characteristics deep shallow on surface d. Proximity to regional ecotone far near within ecotone e. Sunscald (%) -10 10-25 25-40 40-60 60 + f. Dieback (%) -10 10-25 25-40 46-60 60 + g. Windthrow (%) -10 10-25 25-40 40-60 60 + 2. &Endangered or threatened Known not Probably not Possibly not Probably Known to fauna or flora exist to exist to exist exist exist RELL AD IEEE RESALE SENS Sa ORR 74 CHAPTER 5 Dieback — Two forms of dieback may occur on the edge of a ROW. Trees that have had limbs removed or are damaged by other activities may exhibit dieback of the terminal limbs or from cut areas. This type of dieback ranges in severity from affecting only one or two limbs to eventually killing the entire tree. It may also allow heart rot to develop in the tree. Trees may also die back from the ROW edge due toa combination of exposure, changes in soil moisture, and sunscald, which slowly weaken and kill trees. This type of dieback is usually evidenced from successive stumps, which indicate gradual decline and death of successive trees. Sensitive Communities Large, continuous, sensitive communities are scarce in much of the Eastern United States (Forman et al. 1976). The number of species in a habitat is influenced by the size of the habitat (Galli et al. 1976; Formanet al. 1976). A habitat can be reduced so that it is too small to support some wildlife (Lancia 1974; Terborgh 1974). For ex- ample, sensitive conifer swamps are critical winter habi- tat for white-tailed deer in the northern Lake States (Verme 1965; Krefting and Phillips 1970). Utility ROWs cutting across these swamps can result in reduction or loss of deer yards by windthrow and dieback (Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Game 1975; Crab- tree et al. 1978). Communities that are naturally sparsely vegetated and require considerable time for revegetation may also be classified as sensitive. Tundra communities and sand dune communities are slow-growing and extremely vulnerable to disruptions. Old communities are more scarce than young ones, but are less vulnerable to serious disruption through fire and erosion (Mobley et al. 1965). Species associated with climax communities tend to be more susceptible to changes (Odum 1971; Lancia 1974). Shallow-rooted species (e.g., beech, hemlock, sugar maple, red maple) are sensitive to compaction, which restricts root growth, and loss of litter, which gradually exposes the upper root surface (Heninger 1974). Death and loss of vigor have been attributed to the destruction of surface roots, soil compaction, and smothering (Asplundh Environmental Services 1978). Increased solar radiation on ROWs increases soil temperature and may affect root hardiness and hydrologic and nutrient cycles (Lancia 1974; Asplundh Environmental Services 1978). The severity of the consequences of root exposure depends on species, soil type, ground cover, and aspect. A community within or close to a regional ecotone is often more sensitive than the same community in the heart of its range. For example, a northern coniferous forest may be converted to a hardwood community if disturbed at the southern limit of its range (Heninger 1974; Crabtree et al. 1978). Right-of-Way Data Collection Reconnaissance-type techniques described by Kuchler (1967), Gysel and Lyon (1977), and others generally apply to vegetation analysis on ROWs. However, modifi- RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Evaluation Guidelines 18 cations are necessary to meet the special needs of ROW managers. In most habitat analyses the plant community is the ecological basis for making observations and organizing data (Gysel and Lyon 1977). Recognition of plant communities is usually based on gross differences in dominant species, size classes, density, or distribution. Delineation and mapping of communities should be an integral part of vegetation analysis on ROWs. The clearance requirements of ROWs, however, lend support to use of nonecological “management zones” for mapping and organization of data. ROWs can be divided into three general management zones: the strip under the conductors, and the strip or zone on either side of this strip. Very wide or vegetationally diverse ROWs may be divided into four or more zones. Overlaying community maps and management zone maps may be useful in making management decisions. Both communities and management zones may be described in terms of species composition, size classes, density, sociability (distribution), and diversity. Strip transects distributed for maximizing sampling across management zones should be used (for a thorough discus- sion of sampling methods see Gysel and Lyon 1977). “Formulas” are useful for describing overall structure of communities or management zones (Graham 1945; Gysel and Lyon 1977). Such formulas describe vegetation by strata (table 18.3). Communities usually consist of from one to three strata: a ground layer of herbaceous plants and low shrubs, an understory of shrubs and young trees, and an overstory of older trees. These formulas may be modified to describe wetland habitats (table 18.4). The formulas should be supplemented by written descriptions and/or tables describing in more detail species composition, abundance, sociability, diversity, and other components of the community or management zone. The number of individuals per unit area provides important information about habitat structure and amounts of food and cover. Abundance classes (Gysel and Lyon 1977) for species or groups are: 1) rare, 2) oc- casional, 3) frequent, 4) abundant, 5) very abundant. Sociability of plants is an important consideration in ROW management, particularly where selective tech- niques are practical. A qualitative rating scheme (Braun- Blanquet 1965) for distribution or sociability of individ- uals of a species in a community, or of a management zone, is: 1) solitary, 2) clumps or dense groups, 3) small patches or cushions, 4) small colonies or large carpets, 5) large, almost pure stands. Diversity within a community or management zone depends on species composition, sociability, and struc- ture. Mathematical diversity indexes yield useful infor- mation but require intensive sampling. A subjective estimate of each community or management zone in a ROW, although crude, can aid managers in management decisions. Brush piles are often overlooked in vegetation anal- yses. Because of their importance to a number of wildlife 75 18 Evaluation Guidelines Table 18.3 Example of a Simplified Formula and Key for Vegetation by Strata Community Density dbh Height B.A. B Red maple--red oak Ill 10-15 30-45 60 Red maple (black cherry) Il 25-3 ~5-2 Grasses--forbs I 0-1 a) Community - Letters may be used to indicated major community designations. b) Plant species - Species forming a dominant part of the stratum are noted. relative abundance. Within a stratum, species are listed in order of Parentheses indicate a species of limited distribution in the community. c) Density - The total area covered by the aerial parts of the plant is expressed as a percentage of total ground coverage. I - Open tree and shrub cover; sparse forb and grass cover 0-40 percent II - Partially closed crown or stem cover III - Fully closed crown or stem cover 40-80 percent 80-100 percent d) Diameter at breast height (dbh) - A range of diameters in inches at breast height (4.5 feet). e) Height - The range is given in feet for each stratum. f) Basal Area (BA) - The cross-sectional area of trees (measured at b reast height) per acre in square feet is an index of cover and density. g) Strata divisions - Strata are separated by horizontal lines. Over- story, understory, and ground layers are designated on the upper middle, and lower formula lines, respectively. — LLL LOL ROLE AE LORE EI TS DS SEER species, brush piles on or adjacent to ROWs should be inventoried. In assessing the importance of brush piles on a particular ROW, location, number, size, shape, and structure should be considered. These variables as related to wildlife are discussed in volume 1, chapter 6 (see espe- cially section 21). Some snags on managed forest lands are beneficial to wildlife, especially to woodpeckers, raptors, and other Table 18.4 Example of a Simplified Formula and Key for Wetland Habitats Height above Community Species Density water (ft) F Buttonbush--cat-tail I 3-5 Arrow arum--arrowhead 1 1-2 Coontail--bladderwort--milfoil 1 Submergents Numbers or symbols can be developed to fit specific needs of any investigator (Gysel and Lyon 1977) Diameters and heights may be measured with a Biltmore stick and basal area with an angle gauge. Other parameters can be estimated. 16 birds (Gale 1973). The most valuable snags on ROWs should be identified and mapped. Important factors for evaluating snags include hardness, height, diameter, and bark and limb condition. Wildlife preferences vary by species; table 18.5 lists general characteristics of snags that appear to be most valuable to wildlife. Because preventing contact between vegetation and transmission lines is the essence of ROW management, Table 18.5 Some Characteristics of Snags Valuable to Wildlife Component Characteristic Hardness Soft, rotten Height (ft) 20 Diameter at breast height (in) 15 Bark Absent Limbs Absent or reduced to stubs Source: Summarized from Gale 1973. CHAPTER 5 danger trees should be identified and mapped. Consider- ation of the factors listed below will help in the choice of control method: 1) directional lean, 2) conformation, 3) species, 4) age and vigor, 5) terrain, 6) soil type, 7) immediate hazard. Control of danger trees is dis- cussed in detail in volume 1, chapters 4 and 6. Abundance and diversity of wildlife species are closely related to the condition of vegetation. Condition of veg- etation is influenced by site quality, management, and wildlife use (e.g., browsing pressure). Many plants suffer drastic loss of vigor when browsed heavily or when grow- ing on marginal sites. Where ROW vegetation is in poor condition, techniques to improve the site (e.g., fertiliza- tion, prescribed burning) should be considered. Analysis of vigor should be based on new growth, size and condi- tion of leaves and buds, and quantity and quality of fruits and seeds. Methods for counting fruits and seeds are available (Gysel 1956; Gysel and Lyon 1977), but are less practical than subjective estimates for ROW analyses. A recent ROW management study showed that crown position is a useful index of vigor in hemlock (Asplundh Environmental Services 1978). Hemlocks with deep, full crowns that received both top light and side light were better able to withstand topping than were less vigorous trees. Crown dominance position may be a useful index of vigor of other species as well. WILDLIFE POPULATIONS Knowledge of existing wildlife populations should influence management decisions on ROWSs. The observa- tions of tracks and scat and a rough bird census should be an integral part of premanagement habitat evaluation. Techniques for estimating populations and habitat values of many species are well-documented (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1976; Flood et al. 1977). A discussion of criteria for species-by-species analysis is beyond the scope of this manual; however, habitat requirements of “selected species” are listed in volumes 2 and 3, chapter 3. Information about populations of endangered or threatened species is often available from State and Federal wildlife agencies. Because of their potentially adverse effects on revege- tation after habitat treatments, special attention should be given to populations of browsers. Criteria for evalu- ating the severity of browsing effects on revegetation are listed in table 18.6. The intensity and effect of browsing on revegetation is difficult to predict, but estimates can be made based on: 1) arrangement of cover types near a ROW; 2) density and type of vegetation in the ROW; 3) density of animals (browsers); 4) ROW width. In the North, where deep snow prevents deer from moving far from evergreen shelters, a lack of nearby cover for deer can minimize winter browsing on ROWs. Similarly, a lack of suitable cover adjacent to ROWs can prevent overbrowsing by rabbits and other small mammals. Many browsing species are “edge” species that prefer a variety of cover types within their home range. The inter- spersion of openings and brush on adjacent lands influences the degree of using ROW openings. Density of vegetation also helps determine the RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Evaluation Guidelines 18 browsing effect, since the diameter to which stems are browsed is directly related to the number of animals feeding and inversely related to the abundance of food (stems). Effects of browsing on species composition depend on the palatability and tolerance to browsing of the woody species in the ROW. According to Graham et al. (1963): “The effects on woody plants. . . seem relatively dependable and show clearly that an excessive number of deer exert a profound effect on the composition of low- growing plants, eliminating some and permitting the unpalatable ones to occupy greater areas.” The criteria in table 18.6 involve observation of browsing marks on vegetation both on and off the ROW and identification and mapping of important cover for browsers. STREAM CHARACTERISTICS Habitat analysis to determine the sensitivity of the stream to exposure to sunlight and the erodibility of the banks is essential to selecting an appropriate management strategy for ROW stream crossings. Other factors, such as sensitivity and important wildlife frequenting the streambank, should also be considered. Criteria for evaluating ROW stream crossings are summarized in tables 18.7 and 18.8. These criteria and other methods for determining potential effects of ROWs on stream communities are discussed below. The best way to estimate potential temperature changes at ROW crossings is to make actual in stream measurements of temperature above and below openings of similar width during critical seasons. The critical seasons for stream communities are when hot weather and low flows occur. The critical seasons vary in different areas of the country but can be determined by examining discharge and air temperature data for a specific area. Great difficulties are encountered in obtaining measurements under “worst-case” conditions, and many areas traversed by both streams and ROWs have no suit- able openings for comparison. Where such measure- ments and comparisons are not practical, subjective estimates can be made by persons experienced in aquatic ecology. Consideration of the criteria in table 18.8 should help such estimates. Those streams most sensitive to exposure are generally shallow and wide (with a large surface area exposed to sun), with small sidecharges, little groundwater inflow, and resident populations of coldwater fishes. Accurate measurements of discharge, groundwater inflow, and fish populations are difficult and time consuming; however, all experienced aquatic ecologists can make reasonable estimates. Hydrodynamic and fish popula- tion data are sometimes available from State agencies. For general purposes table 18.7 can be used to evaluate fish habitat at ROW stream crossings. Brownetal. (1971) provide an empirical formula that can be used to estimate stream temperature increases. Aquatic plant growth depends on complex relationships among light, nutrients, substrate, and current velocity. A subjective evaluation of the sensitivity of a stretch of stream to increased sunlight, however, may be made by a combination of judgement and the criteria 71 18 Evaluation Guidelines Table 18.6 Criteria for Evaluating Severity of Browsing Factor Evaluation criteria Little browsing likely Severe browsing likely 1. Browsing on adjacent lands (% stems browsed) a. Preferred browse 10 10-30 30-60 60-90 90 b. All woody stems 10 10-30 30-60 60-90 90 2. Browsing on ROW (% stems browsed) a. Preferred browse 10 10-30 30-60 60-90 90 b. All woody stems 10 10-30 30-60 60-90 90 3. Maximum diameter of browsed stems at tip (inches) a. On ROW 1/16 1/16-1/8 = 1/8-1/4 1/4-1/2 1/2 b. On adjacent land 1/16 1/16-1/8 = 1/8-1/4 1/4-1/2 1/2 4. Abundance of browse on adjacent land Abundant Moderate Sparse 5. Proximity to preferred winter cover of browsers® (miles) 1.0 0.5-1.0 0.25-0.5 0.1-0.25 0.1 Species of browser Smal] mammal Deer Elk, moose 7. Tolerance of dominant plant species to browsing Very tolerant Moderately tolerant Intolerant 8. ROW width 200 150-200 100-150 10-100 50 9. Browser density Low High 10. Vegetation density Low High 11. Vegetation type Low palatability Highly palatable "This criterion is most relevant in ecoregions where winter movements of browsers are restricted by snow. It applies only to large mammals. described in table 18.8. Clear, shallow, slow-moving streams with stable sand or silt bottoms are most likely to develop extensive plant beds if exposed to light at ROW stream crossings. Unless extremely dense, increased plant growth will usually benefit stream fish populations. Numerous factors influence the sensitivity of stream- banks to erosion. The role of vegetative cover is discussed further in section 24. Other important factors include soil type, current velocity and direction, and bank slope. Banks of organic soils subject to strong currents (e.g., at the outer edge of bends in the stream) are most susceptible to erosion. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (appendix 5-b) may be applicable for long, gently sloped banks. In most cases, however, subjective estimates must be made for “worst-case” conditions (e.g., high water, swift current, dormant or sparse vegetation). OTHER CONSIDERATIONS To minimize the many potentially negative impacts of ROW management, some factors not previously men- tioned in this chapter should be considered. The aesthetic 78 effect is important, particularly in highly populated areas or near major transportation routes. Where ROWs are used for recreation (e.g., hunting, use of off-road vehicles, hiking, horseback riding), the impacts of such uses on vegetation and/or wildlife should be considered in the decisionmaking process. Where prescribed burning is considered as a possible management technique, air pollution, safety, and aesthetic concerns should be taken into account. Identi- fication of critical resources and “sensitive receptors” (as frequently done for environmental impact assessment) is necessary for pre-burn planning. Adjacent resources that might be affected should be carefully evaluated before applying herbicides. This is particularly critical near croplands, waterways, and urban areas. Impact analysis should be an integral part of all habitat evaluation and decisionmaking. Methods such as those described by Leopold et al. (1971) and Nihman et al. (1973) are often helpful in assessing broad effects of a ROW management strategy. CHAPTER 5 Evaluation Guidelines 18 Table 18.7 Some Criteria for Evaluating Fish Habitat at ROW Stream Crossings FACTOR POOR RATING FAIR GOOD EXCELLENT Cover Substrate Current speed Pool/riffle ratio Width/depth ratio No instream debris, no undercuts, smooth streambed 100 percent organics or silt Uniform across channel Either pools or riffle absent High Some instream brush or shallow undercuts 25 percent gravel Mostly uniform across channel, some slack zones Moderately high or low Moderately high Moderate under- cuts, or brush, stumps 50 percent gravel Moderately var- jable 75:25 or 25:75 Low Extensive under- cuts, stumps, brush in stream close to bank 100 percent gravel, rubble Extremely variable across channel with numerous "edges" Near 50:50, with good interspersion Very low Ratings for Cover and Substrate are from Crabtree et al, 1978. Papplies primarily to habitat for coldwater fishes. However, because production of aquatic insects is closely related to substrate, streams with rubble bottoms are often good habitats for warmwater species as well. Table 18.8 Some Criteria for Evaluating ROW Stream Crossings for Management Purposes ESTIMATING RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF STREAMS TO EXPOSURE TO LIGHT--TEMPERATURE RESPONSE FACTOR LEAST SENSITIVE $$ $A i i i '?; «MOST SENSITIVE Minimum discharge (cfs) 30 20-30 10-20 5-20 0-5 Width/depth ratio (maximum) 4:1 4:1-10:1 10:1-30:1 30:1-50:1 50:1 Groundwater/surface runoff inputs during critical HIGH MODERATE LOW seasons (minimum) Coldwater fishes Never present Seasonally present Resident ESTIMATING RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF STREAMS TO EXPOSURE TO LIGHT--AQUATIC PLANT RESPONSE FACTOR LEAST SENSITIVE A A i MOST SENSITIVE (average summer condition) Bottom type Rock, rubble, gravel Shifting sand and silt, hard clay Stable sand and silt Current velocity (ft/sec) 5 5-3 3-1 1-.05 05 Depth (ft) 6 6-4 4-2 2-0 Clarity Turbid or Colored Clear Water fertility LOW MODERATE HIGH ESTIMATING RELATIVE ERODIBILITY OF STREAM BANKS FACTOR VERY ERODIBLE ————+ RESISTANT TO EROSION Soil K value (below 0-23 0.24-0.36 0.37 water line) Maximum current velocity 5 5-3 3-1 1-0.5 0.5 (ft/sec) Current direction At angle to bank Parallel to bank Bank slope (%) 19 7-18 0-6 RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 719 References REFERENCES Asplundh Environmental Services. 1978. 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Lancaster, M.A. Fosberg, R.W. Furman, and M.J. Schroeder. 1972. National fire danger rating system. U.S. For. Serv. Res. Pap. RM-84. 165 pp. Denney, A.H. 1944. Wildlife relationships to soil type. Proc. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 9:317-323. Downey, T.G. 1976. Emphasizing the benefits of environ- mental rehabilitation of natural gas pipeline rights-of-way. Pages 232-240 in R. Tillman, ed. Proceedings of the first national symposium on environmental concerns in rights- of-way management. Miss. State Univ., Miss. State, Miss. Flood, B.S., M.E. Sangster, R.D. Sparrowe, and T.S. Baskett. 1977. A handbook for habitat evaluation procedures. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Res. Publ. 132. 77 pp. Forman, R.T., A.E. Galli, and C.F. Leak. 1976. Forest size and avian diversity in New Jersey woodlots with some land use implications. Oecologia (Berl) 26:1-8. Foster, G.R., and W.H. Wischmeier. 1974. Evaluating irreg- ular slopes for soil loss prediction. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 17(2):305-309. Gale, R.M. 1973. Snags, chainsaws and wildlife: one aspect of habitat management. Trans. California-Nevada Wildl. Soc. 1973:97-111. Galli, A.E., C.F. Lech, and R.H. Forman. 1976. Avian distri- bution patterns on forest islands of different sizes in central New Jersey. Auk 93:356-364. Graham, S.A. 1945. Ecological classification of cover types. J. Wildl. Manage. 9:182-190. , R.P. Harrison, Jr., and C.E. Westell, Jr. 1963. Aspens: phoenix trees of the Great Lakes region. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Mich. 272 pp. Gysel, L.W. 1956. Measurement of acorn crops. For. Sci. 2:305-313. , ed. 1975. Ecological reconnaissance, transmission line routing proposals and methodologies employed for corridor analysis in four Michigan counties. Consumers Power Co., Jackson, Mich. 214 pp. , and L.J. Lyon. 1977. Habitat analysis and evalua- tion. [Revised draft of a chapter for 4th edition of Wildlife Management Techniques Manual]. Wildl. Soc., Washing- ton, D.C. 52 pp. Heninger, R.L. 1974. Ecological effects of highway construc- tion upon Michigan woodlots and wetlands. Mich. Dep. State Highways Transportation, Lansing, Mich. 56 pp. Krefting, L.W., and R.L. Phillips. 1970. Improving deer habitat in upper Michigan by cutting mixed conifer swamps. J. For. 68(11):701-711. Kuchler, A.W. 1967. Vegetation mapping. Ronald Press Co., New York, N.Y. 472 pp. Jeglum, J.K. 1975. Vegetation-habitat changes caused by damming a peatland drainageway in northern Ontario. Can. Field-Nat. 89(4):40-42. Lagler, K.F. 1952. Freshwater fishery biology. W.C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa. 421 pp. Lancia, F. 1974. The indirect and direct effects of electric transmission lines and underground pipelines on wildlife. Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C. 28 pp. Leopold, L.B., F.E. Clark, B.B. Henshaw, and J.R. Balsley. 1971. A procedure for evaluating environmental impact. U.S. Geol. Surv. Cir. 645. 13 pp. Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Game. 1975. Power lines, rights-of-way, and wildlife management: a working paper. 5 pp. [Unpubl. mimeo.] Mettert, W. 1972. Soil survey of Gladwin County, Michigan. U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv., Washington, D.C. 112 pp. Michigan Public Service Commission. [In press.] Evaluation of pipeline impacts on wetlands. Lansing, Mich. n.p. Mobley, H.E., R.J. Jackson, W. E. Balmer, W. E. Ruziska, and W. A. Hough. 1965. A guide for prescribed burning in southern forests. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv. Southeast. Exp. Stn. 40 pp. Nelson, T.C. 1951. A reproductive study of northern white cedar. Mich. Dep. Conserv., Lansing, Mich. 100 pp. Nihman, G.I., N. Dee, J.M. Griffin, and B.W. Cost. 1973. Application of the land use trade-off model to assess land-use capabilities of the Beaufort-Jasper County area. Battelle, Columbus Labs. Tech. Rep. Vol. 2. Various paging. CHAPTER 5 Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of ecology. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 574 pp. Soil Conservation Society of America. 1977. Soil erosion: prediction and control. Ankeny, Iowa. 393 pp. Terborgh, J. 1974. Preservation of natural diversity: the problem of extinction-prone species. Bioscience 24(12):715- 721. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1976. Habitat evaluation procedures. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Div. Ecol. Serv., Wash- ington, D.C. 30 pp. Verme, L.J. 1965. Swamp conifer deeryards in northern Michigan: their ecology and management. J. For. 63(8):523- 529. Wischmeier, W.H., and D.D. Smith. 1958. Rainfall energy and its relationship to soil loss. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 39:285-291. RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT References . 1959. A rainfall erosion index for a universal soil loss equation. Proc. Soil Soc. Am. 23:246-249. —_____, C.B. Johnson, and B.V. Cross. 1971. A_ soil erodibility monograph for farmland and construction sites. J. Soil Water. Conserv. 26(5):189-193. . 1972. Estimating the soil loss equation’s cover and management factor for undisturbed areas. Pages 118-124 in U.S. Dep. Agric. Agric. Res. Serv. Pap. ARS-S-40. . 1972. Predicting rainfall-erosion losses from crop- land east of the Rocky Mountains. U.S. Dep. Agric. Agric. Handb. 282. Washington, D.C. 47 pp. . 1976. The use and misuse of the universal soil loss equation. J. Soil Water Conserv. 31(1):5-9. 81 APPENDIX 5-A Data Sheet for Assessing Resources and Conditions on ROWs and Adjacent Lands 1. GENERAL SURFACE GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY TOPOGRAPHY a. Slope length (ft or m) b. Slope gradient (percent Cc. Slope orientation d. Elevation 2. CLIMATE a. Rainfall factor b. Lightning risk of fire c. Critical fire season length (months) d. Prevailing wind direction 3. SOILS (data for each major soil type; corresponding map needed) a. Soil type b. Fertility c. Soil permeability d. Erodibility (Additional data is required to determine erosion potential by the universal soil loss equation (see appendix)) 4. WATER TABLE AND DRAINAGE a. Water table depth b. Seasonal variation c. Ponding in or at edge of Row: Year-round_____ Seasonal] No. 5. ROW CHARACTERISTICS a. Width (ft or m) b. Orientation c. Clearance requirements d. Maintenance history e. Special features 6. FIRE POTENTIAL a. Man-caused risk of fire (high risk activities during critical season) b. Nearest firebreak c. General type of land use (cropland, residential, other) em a RS MR RR NR i RNA SRE TE SE a 82 CHAPTER 5 Appendix 5-A (continued) 7. VEGETATION (Supplement data with maps and written descriptions) a. b. Sensitivity. Off-ROW Data (for each major cover type) Cover type Size Proximity to regional ecotone PWN Sensitivity to potential ROW management impacts (see pp. ) Fire potential (see pp. ) Browsing evidence n- n-ROW Data (ror each community) Community formula (see pp. Percent cover. Sociability Size of community — Rooting characteristics of dominant trees NPwONroOaN Browsing evidence Snags Brushpiles_ Ground litter and slash Danger trees -—COWOOND Endangered or threatened flora 8. WILDLIFE POPULATIONS (Both on and off ROW) a. b. c. d. Endangered or threatened fauna Selected species Degree of browsing Nuisance species 9. STREAM CHARACTERISTICS (Measured or estimated during critical seasons oa-sao nda Discharge (cfs or cms) Le Width (ft or m) Maximum pool depth (ft or m) Average depth (ft or m) Maximum surface temperature (°F oe °C) Bottom type/substrate Width/depth ratio Pool/riffle ratio Groundwater/surface runoff inflow ratio Current 1. Uniformity RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT a RN a EN ta A nae I 83 Appendix 5-A (concluded) 2. Velocity (ft/sec or m/sec) 3. Direction(s) with respect to banks— Clarity Water fertility. Canopy closure/shading (percentage) Banks 1. Erodibility 2. Cover (vegetation) 353-7 3. Slope (percentage) . Height (1)__ (2) oO. Fish populations 1. Coldwater fishes 2. Warmwater fishes 3. Fish cover (aquatic vegetation, brush, rocks, etc.) 10. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER 5 APPENDIX 5-B Universal Soil Loss Equation Estimating Erosion Potential Four main factors determine the erosion potential of an area: climate, topo- graphy, soil characteristics, and vegetative cover. The soil erosion potential on transmission ROWs (and adjacent lands) may be estimated by the Universal Soil Loss Equation as described by Wischmeier and Smith (1972). This equation is A = RKLSC where: A is soil loss in tons/acre/year, R is an index of the erosive force of rainfall, K is the soil erodibility factor, L is the slope length factor (the ratio of soil loss from an area's slope length to that from a 72.6-foot length of similar soil type and gradient), S is the slope gradient factor (the ratio of soil loss from an area's gradient to that from a 9 percent slope with similar soil type), and C is the vegetative cover factor. For pre-management ROW analysis it may be desirable to eliminate "C" from the equation because of the close relationship between vegetative cover and management. eae C values for different vegetative cover types are listed in Wischmeier 1972). Erosion Slope length and gradient factors (LS) for assumed uniform slopes may be calculated from the values in the tables that are listed in Wischmeier (1972) ("C-values for Permanent Pasture, Rangeland, and Idle Land" and "C-factors for Woodland"). The effective slope length is the distance from the point of origin of overland flow to the point where deposition begins or the runoff water enters a well-defined channel (Foster and Wischmeier 1974). Values of the LS for slope percentages not shown may be computed thus: LS = VA(0.0076 + 0.0053s + 0.00076s~) where A is the slope length in feet and s represents the gradient (slope percentage). The value of L may be expressed as (4/72.6)™. m is significantly influenced by the interaction of slope length with gradient. The average value (0.5) is used in the slope-effect chart in Wischmeier and Smith (1972). On slopes steeper than 10 percent, a value of 0.6 form is recommended (Wischmeier and Smith 1972). A value of 0.3 is applicable to very long slopes of less than 0.5 percent gradient. The equivalent slope length chart (Wischmeier and Smith 1972) provides a graphical method for determining the value of LS when conditions indicate a length exponent other than 0.5. Where there are several slopes on a given field, slope characteristics of the most erosive segment of the field should be used. Averages tend to underestimate soil movement. The slope-effect chart may be used for uniform slopes only. An irregular slope is one on which K or S varies with location on the slope. This slope may be divided into a series of segments such that the slope steepness and soil type within each segment can, for practical purposes, be treated as uniform. The a RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 85 Appendix 5-B (continued) total soil loss from the slope is the sum of the losses from each segment. Equations and charts to help in the computation of LS on irregular slopes may be found in Foster and Wischmeier (1974). The frequency, intensity, and duration of rainfall determine the amount of runoff produced. The rainfall erosion index (EI) for a particular storm is the product of total kinetic energy of rain (hundreds of foot tons/acre) and the maximum 30-minute intensity (inches/hour) (Wischmeier 1959). To compute storm rainfall energy (a component of the EI value), a single storm was considered as rains separated by less than 6 hours. The rain gauge recorder chart provides a tabular record of intensities and the amount of rain falling at each of the successive intensity increments. The mid-value of a specific intensity increment is entered on the table and the corresponding energy figure from the table multiplied by the inches of rain falling at this rate describes the energy value of that increment of the storm. These partial products are accumulated to obtain the total energy value for the storm. Indi- vidual storm EI values for all rains of .5 inch or more are summed over time periods in computing R (Wischmeier and Smith 1958). An isoerodent map (found in Wischmeier and Smith 1972) may be used to obtain R values for states east of the 104th meridian. These R values represent the locational average annual values for the EI parameter for 22-year weather cycles. In the mountainous states west of the 104th meridian, the sporadic rainfall pattern prevents the use of isoerodents. Locational values of the erosion index computed from rainfall records should not be considered representative of a large geographic area. In areas such as the Pacific Northwest, a large part of the erosion is caused by runoff from thaw and snowmelt. The erosive potential of this runoff must be added to the local EI value to evaluate R (Wischmeier 1976). The soil erodibility factor (K) may be obtained from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) District offices for each soil series. However, rating adjustments are sometimes necessary for varying soil textures. Where soils maps and K values are not reliable (or available), a simple nomograph may be used to determine K values for exposed subsoils as well as undisturbed surface soils (see graph in Wischmeier et al. 1971). A few simple determi- nations from 4 inch diameter soil cores provide all the necessary data to read from the nomograph a soil's erodibility (K). The K value read from the nomograph should be reduced by about 10 per- cent for soils with stratified subsoil that includes layers of small stones of gravel without a seriously impending layer above them. LR 86 CHAPTER 5 Appendix 5-B (concluded) The product of the above factors may be used as an estimate of the erosion potential of the ROW. Reliable estimates of soil loss should be limited to maximum slopes of 20 percent and slope lengths of 400 feet (Asplundh Environ- mental Services 1978). Additional information about specific locations, soils, or problems may be obtained from the Soil Conservation Service (1977). a RIGHT-OF-WAY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 87 Wildlife Habitat Management Techniques This chapter summarizes the literature on fish and wildlife habitat management techniques for transmission line rights-of-way (ROWs). Techniques and results generated from studies aimed specifically at improving wildlife habitat on ROWs are reviewed. General wildlife management techniques, if compatible with ROWs, are also described. Techniques considered incompatible with ROWs are those that encourage uncontrolled growth of tall-growing trees and shrubs. 89 19 The Literature Search 19 THE LITERATURE SEARCH Although abundant literature is available on techniques to maintain vegetation on ROWs, only those sources containing documented benefits for wildlife have been considered. SCOPE OF LITERATURE SEARCH Wildlife Review and the indexes over the last 25 years of the journals listed below were searched: Journal of Wildlife Management Journal of Forestry Journal of Mammalogy Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Ecology Journal of Ecology Journal of Animal Ecology Journal of Range Management Transactions of the American Fisheries Society Other primary sources included publications lists of academic institutions and Federal and State agencies, including the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the U.S. Forest Service. Publications lists were requested from all major agencies and institutions listed in the National Wildlife Federation’s Conservation Directory (1976) that regularly engaged in fish and wildlife research. Approximately 35 percent of the agencies and insti- tutions contacted provided publications lists; several replied that lists were not available. Reference lists of the publications selected for review were sources of additional citations. GENERAL CONTENT OF LITERATURE A variety of techniques may be employed to control tall- growing vegetation and enhance fish and wildlife habitat. Although most of the literature documenting these techniques originates from authors in the Eastern United States, the practices described may be applied also to tall- growing vegetation in the West. Many authors advocate particular techniques (e.g., prescribed burning, herbicide application) or the use of certain cover types on ROWs. Egler (1957, 1962), U.S. Forest Service (1966), Goodland (1973a), and others state that low shrub cover types are most desirable on ROWs because they retard tree invasion and provide better wildlife habitat than herbaceous communities. Egler (1962), Arner (1977), and others suggest that a U-shaped ROW with tall-growing shrubs and/or low-growing trees along the outer edge can create habitat diversity. Others (Leith 1974) promote herbaceous communities. | would partly take issue with the statement of Egler (1958) that “in most cases shrub communities retard reforestation more successfully than do grasslands.” While very dense shrub cover effectively inhibits tree invasion, sparser shrub cover often aids such invasion into old fields. I believe there is a much greater acreage of successfully stable meadow than shrubland in the Northeast and that stable meadow is easier to establish over a variety of conditions. [Richards 1973] 90 Roberts (1969) offers this observation about goals in ROW management: Within the wildlife profession there are differences of opinion as to the role of right-of-way in game management. Should the environment created by a pipeline or powerline right-of-way be primarily woody or herbaceous in nature? Some habitat managers feel that thick shrubby vegetation benefits a wider variety of wildlife than does herbaceous ground cover. In the writer's opinion, the forest type or land use pattern in a particular area should determine what type of right-of-way cover to favor. In other words, those practices should be followed that produce the greatest edge effect. Other authors recognize the potential benefits of considering regional resources in ROW management. Arner (1977) recommends different strategies in various parts of the country. The diverse requirements of wildlife species and the practical limitations imposed by the size of ROWs, variable terrains, and surrounding land uses suggest that wildlife managers should consider each of the techniques available before prescribing a ROW treatment. 20 MECHANICAL MANIPULATION Methods for mechanically treating vegetation include hand cutting, cabling, chaining, disking, scalping, and bulldozing. These techniques have been used to prepare seedbeds for planting, make browse and other forage available to wildlife, provide slash cover and snags for wildlife, and maintain openings. Most of the literature on mechanical manipulation, however, is related to logging and timber production. Many studies have been conducted in the high yield timber areas, such as the Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, and mixed conifer forests of northern California and Oregon, the lodgepole pine—spruce—fir forests in Colorado, the pine forests of the South, and the ponderosa pine forests of Arizona. Literature on mechanical manipulation of vegetation for wildlife on ROWS is scarce. Most of the studies were conducted in the Northeastern United States; some were conducted in the Southeast. The majority are concerned primarily with the initial clearing or logging of a site. Information on intermediate stages of succession (which is most pertinent to management of ROWs for wildlife) is limited. CUTTING Clear cutting and selective cutting have been used extensively to manipulate wildlife habitat. Clear cutting favors revegetation by shade-intolerant plant species and often provides valuable habitat for many wildlife species. If the soil is exposed during treatment, pioneer species (e.g., grasses or certain fruiting shrubs, such as blackberries and staghorn sumac) often invade. When climax or near-climax stages of vegetation are cut, revegetation is by much different plant species, whereas pioneer stages tend to reestablish themselves after cutting (Kittredge 1938). The response of vegetation to selective cutting depends, of course, on the degree of disturbance to the community and the species removed. Light partial cuts generally favor shade-tolerant species, especially those already established in the understory, and tend to CHAPTER 6 advance forest succession rather than initiate earlier stages. Moderately heavy cuts and small openings favor midtolerant species. Cutting during the dormant season encourages sprouting of woody plants; cutting during the flowering or leaf development period can exclude or reduce the abundance of some woody species (Spurr and Barnes 1973). The specific effects of any cutting operation depend on the composition of pretreatment vegetation, climate, topography, soil conditions, time of cut, and time since last cutting. The available literature clearly indicates that each of these factors should be considered before cutting. Cutting on Rights-of-Way Relatively little information is available about the specific effects on wildlife of clear cutting ROWs. A shift from chemical to predominately mechanical reclearing allows the normal invasion of many plants beneficial to wildlife, such as wild grape, greenbrier, partridge-pea, Japanese honeysuckle, and ragweed (Fowler et al. 1976). In fact, mechanical clearing of ROWs by the Tennessee Valley Authority has, in many cases, improved wildlife habitat and browse production. Clear-cut ROWs often attract a variety of wildlife (Foster 1956; Arner 1977). Use of rotary mowers has become a common technique for ROW maintenance in the past few years (Arner 1977). Conventional mowers can cut woody plants up to 1.5 inches in diameter in relatively rough country. This method of clear cutting can be used during the growing season to exclude or reduce objectionable herbaceous plants as well as some woody species. Arner (1977) reports that mowing is required about every 3 to 4 years. Selective clearing is another maintenance technique with potential for wildlife management. Cavanaugh et al. (1976) compared the effects of selective cutting and clear cutting on ROWs in New Hampshire and concluded that removing only those trees that interfere with the transmission line can create maximum wildlife diversity. They found that the number of browse plants and the wildlife that use them were significantly greater in selectively cut areas. They suggested that clumps of shrubs and small trees mixed with sparser vegetation, open grassy cover, and bare ground should be maintained where possible by selective cutting. Selective cutting on ROWs has become the standard practice of the Metropolitan Edison Company in Pennsylvania because selectively cut ROWs appear to be more attractive and beneficial for wildlife (Ulrich 1976). Clear cutting is done only within 50 feet of metal towers, within 20 feet of wooden poles, and to maintain a 15 foot access road. By favoring low-growing shrubs, ROW managers preserve valuable wildlife habitat and create a plant community that requires very little maintenance. White- tailed deer and rabbits use the ROW more, and their browsing helps keep the vegetation low (Tillman 1976a, b). Even after three years, the ROW may not need vegetation maintenance. To obtain maximum benefit to wildlife, to minimize costs, and to avoid extensive future ROW maintenance, selective cutting must be carefully planned and based on WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Mechanical Manipulation 20 detailed inventories of existing vegetation and other features (Goodland 1973a; Randall 1973). Selective cutting to create and maintain the U-shape first proposed by Egler (1957) has been promoted by Stalter (1973), Goodland (1973a), Randall (1973), Arner (1977), and others. Taber (1975) reported that the U-shaped communities in Washington often include herbaceous vegetation in the middle of the ROW, bordered by low brush. Anderson et al. (1977) suggested that cutting to provide leafy understory at the forest edge and clumping understory vegetation can minimize the undesirable and maximize the desirable effects of ROWs on bird populations. Jackson (1976) stated that saving den trees and pruning low limbs on edge trees that do not “self-prune” enhance the value of a ROW for the red-cockaded woodpecker, an endangered species. Pruning and topping rather than removing tall- growing trees is commonly done on ROWs, but only in urban areas or where the aesthetic effect isa concern. The costs of pruning and topping may be prohibitive. Information on effects of this selective cutting method on wildlife is lacking. Clear Cutting on Other Sites East-west clear-cut strips, 30 to 60 feet wide, provide an abundance of desirable wildlife foods by decreasing competition from less desirable plants (Yoakum and Dasmann 1971). Several other authors also document the beneficial effects of clear cutting on certain wildlife species (Pengally 1972, 1973; Hooven 1973a,b; Perkins 1974; Fransreb 1977). Several studies that document changes in wildlife habitat from clear cutting are discussed below. Northwestern United States — Clear cutting is often used in the Pacific Northwest and Northern Rockies to produce browse for deer and other big game. Pengally (1963) found that logging at low elevations in Douglas-fir stands in the Northern Rockies improved habitat for white-tailed deer and elk. Reynolds (1966) recommended small clear cuts in spruce—fir stands for deer and elk. Gashwiler (1970) in Oregon, and Davis (1976) in Wyoming, found that clear cutting increased populations of some mice, voles, shrews, and other small mammals because of the increase in ground cover. Hagar (1960) concluded that logging in Douglas-fir forests alters the composition of bird communities and may cause a temporary decline in numbers. Within a year after cutting in California, total bird numbers returned to pretreatment levels, while species composition remained different. The brushy successional stage that resulted 3 to 7 years after cutting supported more species and higher populations than other successional stages in the area. Vegetation in the cutover area included fireweed, miner’s lettuce, Oregon-grape, tanbark-oak, western raspberry, gooseberry, tobacco brush, common thistle, bluegrass, hairgrass, knotweed, and poison oak. While clear cutting attracted deer and other large game, Hooven (1973a,b) found that patch cutting to achieve a mix of cut and uncut cover also benefited wildlife in Oregon. 91 20 Mechanical Manipulation North Central United States — Clear cutting stands of oaks, aspens, maples, basswood, and other trees is integral to habitat management for deer and ruffed grouse in the North Central United States (Jenkins and Barlett 1959; Graham et al. 1963). Gysel (1957), studying the effects of experimental cutting of aspen in Michigan, found that aspen root suckers dominated the area after cutting and provided an abundance of deer browse. The number of sprouts was much greater in clear-cut areas than in areas that were commercially cut. He also found that axe treatment of oak produced about twice as much browse as did chemical treatment. Krefting and Phillips (1970) recommended clear cutting strips in northern Michigan’s mixed conifer swamps for white-tailed deer. However, clear cutting white cedar where large deer populations exist often results in poor regrowth of cedar because of overbrowsing by deer and rabbits. After cutting, cedar stands may convert to speckled alder communities. Krefting and Phillips (1970) also found that browsing was consistently heavier in clear-cut stands than in uncut areas. They noted that browse plants in clear-cut, mixed conifer swamps in Michigan included red, sugar, and mountain maples; yellow birch; red-osier dogwood; black ash; willow; mountain-ash; white cedar; and fly-honeysuckle. The wildlife benefits of clear cutting in the Missouri Ozarks are closely related to the quality of the site (Crawford and Harrison 1971). Clear cutting produces many desirable wildlife food plants on high quality sites, such as slope bottoms; results are poorer on lower quality sites at higher elevations. On poor sites, competition from hickory and oak stems hinders growth of more desirable cover. Eastern United States — Clear cutting has also improved conditions for certain wildlife species in the Eastern United States. Broods of ruffed grouse use clear-cut areas in Pennsylvania for dusting and feeding (Morton and Sedam 1938). The importance to grouse of the new growth produced by clear cutting aspen stands is discussed by Bramble (1973). Clear cutting old growth timber increases fruit-bearing shrubs, which benefit bear in Massachusetts (Lauckhart 1956). Cardoza (1976), however, noted that clear cutting even small tracts in Massachusetts may be detrimental to bear populations where there are no continuous wooded areas nearby. Southeastern United States — Cutting in southern pine plantations quickly provides succulent woody sprouts and herbs (Perkins 1974). Within 3 to 5 years, woody species almost completely replace herbaceous vegetation. As succession advances, however, its value to wildlife declines. Scrubby hardwoods and underbrush result from clear cutting longleaf pine in the Gulf Coastal States (Campbell 1955). Because it is extremely intolerant of shade and cannot compete with the faster growing brush, the pine fails to reoccupy all areas it once dominated. Ripley and Campbell (1960) found that clear cutting produced significantly more browse than did selective cutting in hardwood stands in North Carolina. Despite moderately heavy browsing by deer, tulip-poplar, 92 northern red oak, white oak, and chestnut oak regenerated well. Clear cuts in Tennessee supported more small mammals than adjacent uncut forest (Ambrose 1975). Southwestern United States — As in other areas of the country, the purpose of most clear cutting in the South- western United States is to produce better quality, merchantable timber. Production of browse for big game is a beneficial byproduct of well-planned cuts. Wallmo et al. (1972) found that clear cutting lodgepole pine and spruce—fir stands in Colorado produced more forage for deer. Maximum forage grew about 6 years after logging, and declined to pretreatment levels in 15 years. Patton (1974) observed similar results in eastern Arizona’s ponderosa pine forests. Both deer and elk used the browse provided by Gambel oak, trembling aspen, buckbrush, New Mexican locust, mountain muhly, squirreltail, cinquefoil, and yarrow. Selective Cutting on Other Sites Besadny et al. (1968) reported that a selective brush management program for Wisconsin roadsides was attractive as well as beneficial to wildlife. Desirable shrubs were cut back to permit resprouting; low shrubs and trees that were aesthetically enhancing or valuable for wildlife were kept; large trees or diseased shrubs were removed. Downey (1976) advocated selective clearing of natural gas pipelines. He suggested designing vegetation removal to fit the site and using the U-shaped ROW where feasible. Morton and Sedam (1938) reported that the Pennsylvania Game Commission wildlife habitat management program used release cuttings around wildlife food plants like grape, hawthorn, blackberry, mountain-ash, flowering dogwood, beech, huckleberry, and sumac to stimulate growth and fruiting. These were then maintained by periodic recutting. They suggested that some trees can be felled back into the uncut forest stands to provide escape cover and allow additional sunlight for shrub production at the edge of cutover strips. Stumps cut 12 inches above the ground produced the most sprouts; stumps from trees 13 to 24 inches in diameter at breast height (dbh) grew fastest. Crawford and Harrison (1971) recommended that oak and hickory sprouts be selectively controlled to release other plants, such as sassafras, grape, blueberry, blackberry, black gum, flowering dogwood, tick-trefoil, wild rose, goat’s- rue, pussy’s-toes, aster, hawkweed, and cinquefoil, on cutover areas in the Missouri Ozarks. Several authors have advocated keeping snags in cutover areas for squirrels and birds. Fransreb (1977) found that snags provided the majority of the nest sites for many bird species in logged Douglas-fir stands in Arizona. Gale (1973) recommended that all snags, if possible, be left for woodpecker feeding and nesting in cutover ponderosa pine and mixed conifer areas in northern California. Snags should be soft or rotten, barkless, 15 inches or more in diameter, and 20 to 49 feet high. Conner and Crawford (1974) and Conner et al. (1975) made similar observations and suggested killing live trees by girdling and leaving them standing to CHAPTER 6 enhance cavity nesting sites in Virginia. This practice was also recommended to maintain habitat for pileated woodpeckers in northern Michigan (Rusz and Bourgeois 1976). Sanderson (1975) suggested that one den tree every 2 acres be left in cutover areas for squirrels. He emphasized the need to leave healthy trees instead of dead or dying trees for dens: potential den trees should have dead or dying branches 3 inches or more in diameter and a life expectancy of 25 years or more. Girdling is a possible technique for den tree management. Another selective cutting technique for providing valuable wildlife habitat is “hinge cutting” or the “cut- and-bend” method. This method involves cutting selected trees just deep enough so that the tops can be pushed over, leaving a connecting strip of bark and wood. Burger (1973) hinge cut 6 to 8 foot tall conifers 4 to 5 feet above ground. He reported that the lower branches (no longer shaded) grew vigorously, while the connected tops grew upward again. This resulted in a low, dense, living brush pile which provided ideal winter cover for small game. Because hinge-cut trees in Pennsylvania remain alive | or more years after treat- ment, top browse continues to grow, and ground cover deteriorates more slowly (Forbes and Harney 1952). In areas not suitable for bulldozing, hinge cutting is the best technique for producing browse and cover for deer and rabbits. Benefits of this technique are most pronounced | to 2 years after treatment. Hinge cuts are especially attractive to ruffed grouse, quail, and rabbits if vines or shrubs grow in and on the cut tree (Shomon et al. 1966). Rusz and Bourgeois (1976) recommended this technique for creating tangles and drumming logs for ruffed grouse in northern Michigan. BULLDOZING Bulldozing is often used in transmission ROW clearing. It is becoming increasingly popular with wildlife managers, particularly in the North Central and Eastern United States. However, literature on bulldozing to improve wildlife habitat is scarce for others areas of the United States. Typically, bulldozing to clear transmission ROWs is followed by seeding to prevent soil erosion and improve wildlife habitat. Arner (1960) reported that bulldozing and seeding on 9 miles of ROW in Maryland effectively controlled growth of unwanted woody vegetation. Woody species made up only 9 percent of the vegetation after three growing seasons. At the end of the seventh growing season, only about 20 percent of the vegetation was undesirable plants. Smith (1959) studied effects of bulldozing on secondary succession on a ROW in North Carolina. He examined four areas that varied from 3 to 6 years in the time since they had been bulldozed and found that blackberry, broomsedge, aster, and pine dominated succession. These species were found on all sites regardless of soil type or time since treatment. Only water table levels and erosion appeared to be important to species composition. Smith concluded that bulldozing as a maintenance technique can drastically reduce the site quality and the productivity of slopes and ridges on WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Mechanical Manipulation 20 ROWs. Several authors have advised against bulldozing on ROWSs because of soil erosion (Pennsylvania Power and Light Co. 1971; Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Game 1975). Several studies, however, have indicated that bulldozing simply to topple or cut trees and break up brush, rather than scarify sites, can greatly improve habitat for certain wildlife species. Forbes and Harney (1952) conducted the most thorough of these studies in Pennsylvania. They described results of bulldozing in a variety of pole-sized stands that differed as to plant species composition, topography, and soil type. Bulldozers toppled and ran over vegetation, which in many cases created a dense junglelike growth that persisted 4.5 years despite heavy browsing by deer. Some of their conclusions from the Pennsylvania study are summarized as follows: 1 Minor variations in climate are not significant in determining the success of bulldozing. 2 Soil moisture and texture are important. In soft and moist ground, trees are more easily uprooted; stems break less. 3 Bulldozing in spring or late fall is easiest and most beneficial to deer. Sprouting is more likely to occur from a spring bulldozing. 4 Trees 2 to 4 inches in diameter sprout better than smaller or larger trees. Smaller trees tend to spring back when overrun, while larger trees require consid- erable effort to push over and thus increase the cost of an operation. 5 Overrunning trees after they have been pushed down is cheap and fast, but it damages the trees more than does bunting the trees down and then backing off. The latter method, however, lets the operator select the kinds of trees to remove or to leave standing. 6 In Pennsylvania, the four forest types best suited to bulldozing (in order of desirability) are beech— birch—maple, northern hardwoods transition, oak, and aspen. Shade-tolerant species are best suited to bulldozing. There was no root suckering of bull- dozed aspen trees on any of the study areas. 7 Bulldozing has greatest value for deer, while cot- tontails, snowshoe hares, and grouse also benefit. 8 Bulldozing is cheapest using a large machine with a hydraulic lift blade and protection for vital parts. Trees are overrun in one direction. The site is free of large rocks and swampy ground. Most trees are 2 to 6 inches in diameter. 9 In Pennsylvania, bulldozing produces more deer browse and cover more cheaply for a longer period of time than other accepted techniques, including hand cutting and prescribed burning. Gysel (1961) studied effects of bulldozing with conventional blades in northern Michigan. He reported good browse production in sugar maple, red maple, and oak stands, but poor results in willows. Bulldozing a community dominated by staghorn sumac resulted in a dense cover of blackberry, bracken fern, and grasses after 93 20 Mechanical Manipulation two growing seasons, and vigorous sprouting of staghorn sumac after five growing seasons. Special tree cutter blades have also been used to provide browse in northern Michigan. Beale (1961) found that a tractor with a tree cutter blade could be used to stimulate browse, but results varied among sites. The amount of sprouting was better than with controlled burning or commercial cutting in aspen stands. Other trees and shrubs that sprouted well after treatment included black cherry, willow, red maple, oak, dogwood, and wild-raisin. Beale concluded that clear cutting witha “tree dozer” was efficient and economically competitive with other techniques, such as disking, aerial application of herbicides, and prescribed burning. Bulldozing with special cutter blades on other sites in Michigan also produced abundant browse (Cook 1969a,b). OTHER MECHANICAL METHODS Other mechanical techniques include chaining, cabling, and scalping or disking with various types of plows. These methods have been described by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (1965), Plummer et al. (1968), and Yoakum and Dasmann (1971). Chaining breaks off or uproots plants by dragging a heavy (up to 100 pounds per link) anchor chain behind two tractors traveling parallel courses. The weight of the chain may be modified to control the degree of disturbance. Chaining efficiently removes young, willowy trees and is useful in preparing seedbeds for aerial broadcast seeding (Yoakum and Dasmann 1971). Cabling is essentially the same procedure, except thata 1.5 inch cable is used instead of a chain. Cabling creates less disturbance than chaining and is useful for saving residual stands of valuable shrubs and herbaceous cover. It is usually ineffective with young, willowy trees, which simply bend and spring back. Data on specific effects of these two techniques on wildlife habitats are scarce. However, Plummer et al. (1955) have documented their effectiveness in seedbed preparation in Utah. Conventional plows are sometimes used to eliminate certain undesirable woody species and to prepare seedbeds for planting. Scalping scrapes off the plants and part of the top layer of soil with a wide moldboard plow pulled by a tractor or jeep, or by bulldozing. This technique is used only for seedbed preparation. Disking may be used for controlling unwanted vegetation as well as for preparing seedbeds. Yoakum and Dasmann (1971) recommend plowing to a depth of 3 to 4 inches to control most nonsprouting plants and plowing to a depth of 4 to6 inches to eradicate plants that spread by underground rootstocks or from the crown. A heavy-duty plow is required to eliminate root-sprouting species. Deep, thorough plowing can be especially useful in keeping openings free of aspen root suckers in the Midwestern and Eastern United States. Light disking, skidding, and other disturbances of the forest floor benefit aspen reproduction, however, by reducing leaf litter for cutworms that often destroy the root suckers as they sprout (Graham et al. 1963). Cutworms have contributed to the failure of numerous aspen stands in Michigan where, after cutting, the ground has been 94 covered with leaf litter. Light disking and scalping can create favorable conditions for invasion of pioneer herbs and shrubs valuable to wildlife. Rusz and Bourgeois (1976) recommended light disking next to clumps of raspberry and blackberry to spread these fruiting shrubs for ruffed grouse, indigo bunting, and cottontail in northern Michigan. METHODS OF SLASH DISPOSAL There are four basic methods of dealing with the slash that results from mechanical treatment of vegetation: 1) burning, 2) piling, 3) chipping, and 4) leaving it where it falls. The effects of slash burning and brush piling are discussed in other portions of this chapter. Chipping has no direct effect on wildlife habitat. Leaving slash where it falls may have major effects on the vegetation that grows later and the wildlife that use it. Conner and Adkisson (1975) found that breeding bird diversity in Virginia was greatest when slash was left and the area was not disked or burned. Insects inhabiting slash that is not piled or burned may attract woodpeckers to clear-cut areas (Conner and Crawford 1974). Leaving trees where they fell and cutting limbs to lie flush with the ground enhanced wildlife cover ona ROW in New York (Tillman 1976). Some disadvantages of this method, however, include increased fire hazard, interference with revegetation, and creation of habitat for forest insect pests. Leaving slash where it falls permits the ready use of logs for erosion control, provides small game habitat, maintains the soil structure, and reduces loss of soil nutrients (Dohrenwend 1973). If slash is physically removed from a site, the means of removal can affect the post-treatment community. Skidding or pushing the slash with a bulldozer disturbs the soil and can influence the vegetation that grows later. The Metropolitan Edison Company in Pennsylvania uses hydraulic log or brush clamps in moving slash to minimize site disturbances (Ulrich 1976). Pennsylvania Power and Light Company (1971) uses wheeled or tracked equipment with brushrakes, forks, or winches to remove slash and minimize disturbances. The use of bulldozers for maintenance is not permitted on that company’s ROWs. Skidding slash has been found to be detrimental to regeneration of longleaf pine (Campbell 1955) and Douglas-fir (Hooven and Black 1976). However, it is often beneficial to aspen (Graham et al. 1963). Arnold (1953) found that 5 years after selective cutting in Arizona, changes in herbaceous cover were greatest on logging roads and skid trails. Surface disturbances generally benefited annuals and perennials. He suggested that erosion on skid trails can be minimized by draining with cross-ditches, by scattering slash, and by reseeding. 21 BRUSH PILING Although few sources mention specifically the effects of brush piling on wildlife, Schofield (1955), Yoakum and Dasmann (1971), and Kight (1971) report CHAPTER 6 that piling brush, rather than leaving the cut brush in place on the ground, can provide cover, especially for rabbits. BRUSH PILING ON RIGHTS-OF-WAY Utility companies usually burn or chip brush rather than pile it. Documented exceptions are Metropolitan Edison Company in Pennsylvania and Connecticut Light and Power Company. Ulrich (1976) reported that Metropolitan Edison now establishes brush piles in preplanned areas near the edges of ROWs and in areas with few desirable plant species. Brush piles should not exceed 40 by 40 feet; piling in the downslope of natural depressions and gullies prevents soil erosion. According to Ulrich (1976), the brush piles provide food and cover for wildlife, help prevent soil erosion and sedimentation, and produce valuable forest humus. At the suggestion of the Connecticut Board of Fisheries and Game, the Connecticut Light and Power Company changed from brush disposal to brush piling for wildlife (Hamrick and Bishop 1957). The company now informs all property owners next to ROWs that, ifit is agreeable to them, brush from the side clearing will be piled in the woods for birds and rabbits. A majority of the landowners have cooperated in improving conditions for wildlife. BRUSH PILING ON OTHER SITES Shomon et al. (1966) recommended piling brush to provide escape cover for wildlife and to encourage burrowing by woodchucks. A variety of mammals, amphibians, and reptiles also use woodchuck burrows. Yoakum and Dasmann (1971) stated that brush piles increase the capacity of large clearings for upland game birds and cottontails. They also noted that grasses, forbs, and vines often grow up through the brush and add density and permanence to the pile. Hamilton and Cook (1940) suggest that brush piles are important to several species of small mammals. Large brush piles created by bulldozing may provide valuable escape cover for ruffed grouse in two grouse and woodcock management units in south central Michigan (Palmer and Ammann 1968). In Georgia, brush piling is the easiest way to immediately improve rabbit habitat (Kight 1971). Forbes and Harney (1952) suggested that brush piles created by bulldozing benefit rabbits and other wildlife in Pennsylvania. Turkey nests have been found in slash piles, and there may be advantages for turkey nesting in piling brush at the bases of trees or around logs (Yoakum and Dasmann 1971). Several authors have suggested that size, shape, and structure of brush piles influence use by wildlife. Heaping brush over stumps or logs prevents settling (Shomon et al. 1966). In Michigan, loose brush piles improve winter habitat for ruffed grouse; denser brush piles improve habitat for rabbits (Rusz and Bourgeois 1976). Piles for rabbits in Georgia should be 10 to 15 feet in diameter and 4 to 6 feet high (Kight 1971). Below are recommendations of Yoakum and Dasmann (1971) for brush piling for scaled quail, cottontail, and ring-necked pheasant: WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Brush Piling 21 / Herbicide Application 22 Scaled quail—make slash piles 5 to 6 feet in diameter and about 3 feet high. Use rocks or logs to elevate the pile about 6 inches above the ground. Cottontail—make piles 25 to 50 feet long, 5 feet wide and 4 feet high. Ring-necked pheasant—pile brush loosely in field corners or along fence rows. In summary, the available literature on brush piling indicates that there is great potential for incorporating this technique in ROW management plans. Some general conclusions are: 1 Brush piles benefit a number of species such as songbirds, upland game birds, small mammals, rabbits, raccoons, foxes, and skunks. 2 Brush piles are most effective if placed near habitat “edges” (where different cover types meet). 3 Long, narrow brush piles, less than 6 feet high, are preferable to higher, rounded piles for rabbits and possibly other wildlife. Upland game birds prefer loosely piled rather than crushed brush. 4 Brush piles are especially effective if placed where forbs, grasses, and vines, such as grape, greenbrier, and Virginia creeper, will grow in and on the pile and create a dense tangle. 22 HERBICIDE APPLICATION Herbicides have been used to manipulate vegetation for several decades and are widely used for transmission ROW maintenance. Recently, wildlife managers have started to use herbicides in habitat management programs. Literature on effects of herbicides on vegetation is voluminous; about one-half of the references concern ROW maintenance (Asplundh Environmental Services 1979). Effects of specific herbicides on various plant species have been documented (DeVaney 1968; Cody 1975; Bovey 1977); considerable information is available on application methods (DeVaney 1968; Carvell 1973; Barnhart et al. 1976; Bovey 1977). Some authors have suggested that herbicide-treated areas are often good wildlife habitats (Leonard and Cain 1961; Carvell 1973), but documentation of actual wildlife use after herbicide application is relatively scarce. Most studies have only compared the effects of different application methods or types of herbicides on vegetation. These studies suggest that when properly applied herbicides can contribute, depending on such factors as pretreatment vegetation (composition and height), soil characteristics, topography, type of herbicide, time of treatment, and application method, to effective, flexible habitat management. TYPES OF HERBICIDES A number of herbicides and additives are currently used for ROW maintenance and wildlife habitat management. They are grouped according to their mode of action and are briefly described below. Information on uses of various herbicides is summarized in table 22.1. 95 22 Herbicide Application Table 22.1 Some Common Uses of Selected Herbicides Herbicide Action® Uses Special values and problems Ammonium HGR Stem-foliar application; Especially effective in control of sulfamate treating stumps. poison ivy, poison oak, and poison (Ammate ) sumac. Safe for use around water and crops. Trichlorobenzoic HGR Often used to increase spec- Spray drift may injure adjacent crops acid (TBA) trum of kill as additive. Bromacil HGR Basal treatment in a water Leaves drop quickly after treatment, (Hyvar) solution. so brownout problems are eliminated. May persist in soil. Dicamba HGR Often used in combination with Effective on hard-to-kill species (Banvel) other herbicides; controls including ash, gum, maple, pine, sour- sprouting of stumps and stubble. wood, mesquite, witch-hazel, creosote bush, sagebrush, and yaupon. Selective on grass. Karbutilate HGR Basal treatment in a water Persists in soil. solution; controls sprouting of stumps and stubble. Picloram HGR Stem-foliar application; basal Effective against many woody plants (Tordon) application; treating stumps. Delayed killing action; persists in Used mainly in combination soil. Various mixtures. with other herbicides; effects are usually additive. 2,4-D HGR Stem-foliar application. Kills both woody and herbaceous vege- tation. Selective on grass. 2,4,5-T HGR Stem-foliar application. More effective woody plant killer than 2,4-D. Select#ve on grass. 2,4-DP HGR Stem-foliar application. Con- trols root-suckering plant species. Silvex HGR Stem-foliar application. Controls some species, including maple (2,4,5-TP) and oak, that are resistant to 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. Persists in soil. MCPA (2-methy1- HGR Stem-foliar application. Safe around croplands. When added to 4-chloropheno- other herbicides, gives wider spectrum xyacetic acid) control. Dichlobenil GI Retards growth of young trees; Effects both monocots and dicots. prevents germination of seeds. Applied to the soil. Naphthalene acetic GI Prevents sprouting from stumps acid (Tree-Hold) and trimmed branches. Chlorflurenol GI Prevents sprouting from stumps and trimmed branches Fenuron GI Retards tree growth and germi- Suitable as soil-sterilant in dry nation of seeds. the soil. Applied to areas only. —_— —— Source: Bovey 1977. 24GR--hormone growth regulator; GI--growth inhibitor Summarized from Carvell 1973, Barnhart et al. 1976, and 96 CHAPTER 6 Hormone Growth Regulators Hormone growth regulators are similar to naturally occurring auxins which are found in extremely low levels in plant tissues (Carvell 1973). Silvex, 2,4-D, 2.4,5-T', picloram, and dicamba are the most widely used hormone growth regulators (Barnhart et al. 1976). These herbicides kill plants by speeding metabolism in plant cells, causing the cells to die. Other herbicides, such as aminotriazole, are chlorophyll inhibitors; the triazines, simazine, and atrazine, and perhaps substituted ureas (e.g., monuron, diuron, and fenuron), also interfere with photosynthesis (Carvell 1973). More selective hormone growth regulators will likely be developed in the future. Plant Toxins Several herbicides kill plants by direct toxic action. Ammonium sulfamate, bormacil, and darbutalate are three of the most widely used plant toxins. They are particularly useful for brush control near crops that could be damaged by hormone growth regulators. Growth Inhibitors Certain chemicals, including maleic hydrazide, dichlobenil, and alpha naphthalene acetic acid, inhibit or retard plant growth (Carvell 1973). Technically, they are not “herbicides” (i.e., they do not kill plants), but they are being used increasingly in vegetation maintenance. According to Carvell (1973): “Chemical companies are doing extensive research on growth inhibitors. When economic and effective compounds are developed, they could find wide use in right-of-way control, particularly where selective spraying is used to encourage aesthetically desirable shrubs. Growth inhibitors eliminate the danger of brownout.” Additives and Formulations Additives and special formulations developed over the years have increased the usefulness and safety of herbicides. Wetting agents, spreader stickers, emulsifiers, and cosolvents are examples of additives that increase herbicide effectiveness. Others mask the offensive odors of certain spray solutions. Invert emulsions are formulations that reduce drift during herbicide applications from the air or from high- pressure equipment. They permit accurate application and careful control of the area sprayed (Carvell 1973). Recently, Emulsavert was developed because invert formulations could not be mixed with other herbicides to increase the number of species controlled. These mixtures now allow greater flexibility in matching herbicide mixtures to the vegetation on a particular ROW (Carvell 1973). APPLICATION METHODS Stem-foliage Spraying Stem-foliage spraying is done from either the ground or 'Use of 2,4,5-T was recently suspended by the Environmental Protection Agency and mention of it, or of any other herbicide, does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Herbicide Application 22 the air. On the ground, high-pressure pumps and spray guns thoroughly wet all foliage and stems of the target plants (Barnhart et al. 1976). Aerial application can give good coverage, but not enough spray penetrates lower portions of the plant and understory plants. For thorough kill, follow-up sprays | to 2 years after initial treatment may be necessary (Bovey 1977). Both aerial and ground treatments must be done during the growing season and full-leaf development period (Carvell 1973; Barnhart et al. 1976; Bovey 1977). Susceptibility of woody plants may be greater if there is a gradient between sugar levels in leaves and roots at the time of application (Brady and Hall 1976). Basal Bark Treatment For selective vegetation control or where other methods are unsafe or impractical, basal bark treatment is used. This method involves wetting stems from about knee level to the ground or root collar zone. Exposed roots should also be treated. This treatment may be performed in any season. Dormant Cane Broadcast Spraying This technique is used in the dormant season, when the stand is too dense for basal bark application. As in basal bark treatment, the lower part of the plants are drenched. According to Barnhart et al. (1976), this method can, with proper selection of herbicides, more effectively control root-suckering species than can basal bark application because some of the ground is also treated. Tree Injection Tree injection is a selective method of treating large stems resistant to basal bark applications. Herbicide tree injection can be done with commercial injectors or by frilling (making overlapping axe cuts around the bole of a tree and peeling the bark to wet the exposed wood). For best results, summer treatment is recommended; in winter, resistant species may require increased levels of herbicide. Stump Treatment Spraying or brushing the exposed wood of fresh-cut stumps can prevent sprouting. This is most effective if the outer bark is also treated to ground level. Soil Application Herbicides can be applied to the soil around undesirable woody plants either as dry pellets or as solutions. If pellets are used, the soil should be moistened either by rainfall or irrigation shortly after application for best results and, in some cases, must be moist before application (Bovey 1977). There is usually reduced kill during hot, dry seasons. EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE HABITAT Herbicide application is controversial among both wildlife ecologists and the general public. Some investigators have shown that herbicides can enhance habitat for certain wildlife species (Jenkins 1955; Krefting et al. 1956, 1960; Coulter 1958; Gysel 1962; Krefting and Hansen 1969) and should be used in habitat 97 22 Herbicide Application management programs (MacConnell 1968). In contrast, other biologists have reported detrimental effects (Goodrum and Reid 1956; Tietjen et al. 1967). Much of the criticism of herbicides has arisen because of incidents of indiscriminate use (Carvell 1973). Public criticism of herbicides has caused some utilities and government agencies to avoid using them. In spite of this, herbicides will continue to be used in vegetation maintenance. For example, in the Northeast and Pacific Northwest, where the terrain is rough and inaccessible, other methods are often impractical (Jenkins and Fisher 1970). The main advantages of herbicides are that they are easy to use and inexpensive compared to cutting, bulldozing, and seeding (Carvell 1973). Effects on Rights-of-Way Stem-foliage spraying is acommon method for applying herbicides on ROWs. Numerous studies have shown, however, that root-kill of woody vegetation is often ineffective (Egler 1952; Roe 1953; Bramble and Byrnes 1955a,b; Niering 1957). In Connecticut, up to 80 percent of oaks, maples, and other tree species on ROWS live even after two foliage treatments (Niering 1957). The effects on wildlife of blanket spraying vary a great deal. Mayer (1974, 1976) found that wildlife used broadcast-sprayed ROWs in New Hampshire, Georgia, and West Virginia more than adjacent lands. Important food and cover plants included greenbrier (in West Virginia and Georgia), blackberry (in Georgia and New Hampshire), swamp privet and white sassafras (in Georgia), and meadow spiraea and choke-cherry (in New Hampshire). Johnston (1973) and Carvell (1976) studied blanket-sprayed ROWs in Georgia, Minnesota, West Virginia, and Virginia and selectively sprayed ROWs in California, Louisiana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Oregon. They concluded that blanket-sprayed plant communities (mainly perennial grasses, ferns, some shrubs, and a few broadleaved perennials) had fewer perennial herbs and particularly showy summer and fall wildflowers than did selectively sprayed ROWs. A long-term study in Pennsylvania of the effects of ROW herbicide applications found that wildlife used both broadcast and selectively sprayed plots where stable bracken, sedge, herb, and blueberry communities developed (Bramble and Byrnes 1969, 1976). Both broadcast and selective basal sprays increased plant diversity and available deer browse on a Michigan ROW (Gysel 1957, 1962). On a Pennsylvania ROW, Shrauder (1954) found that a selective summer basal spray produced more winter deer browse than did broadcast foliage application. Many authors have advocated selective spraying to enhance the stability of shrub communities and wildlife habitat on ROWs (Egler 1949, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1956; Niering 1961). On ROWs on National forest lands in Ohio and Indiana, good wildlife habitat was created by selectively treating the outer edges and broadcast spraying the centers (Landes and Hamilton 1965). Ona Michigan ROW, selective treatment to enhance wildlife habitat was recommended: 98 The use of a broadcast, chemical spray, or the mechanical disking contemplated, would prove a needless expense and an inexcusable waste of valuable wildlife habitat in this particular area. [Foster 1956] In Pennsylvania, selective basal spraying resulted ina stable shrub community with value for wildlife: The low blueberries, 6-24 inches high, are an abundant food supply for raccoons, bear, and birds. Goldenrod and fern-covers harbor an insect population needed by nestling grouse and turkey chicks. The taller shrubs at the side, the various dogwoods, viburnums, and hollies retain their berries until late in the winter. All these, as well as the colorful azaleas, give ample browse for deer. Rhododendron, laurel, and juniper provide the necessary cover for protection from enemies. [Ibberson and Egler 1951] Selective basal spraying increased species diversity and kept valuable wildlife plants on a Connecticut ROW: As a result of the selective uses of herbicides, more than 48 species of shrubs and vines have been preserved along this limited section of right-of-way. In addition, four species of low-growing trees and over 80 species of herbaceous perennials (10 ferns, 15 grasses, sedges and rushes, and 59 forbs) add to the floristic diversity of the demonstration area . . .. Herbs of especial botanical or ornamental value include ladies’ tresses (Spiranthes cernua), butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa), and cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis). [Niering and Goodwin 1974] Effects on Other Sites Table 22.2 lists some uses of herbicides in habitat management. One of the earliest documented uses specifically for wildlife was in northern Michigan, where aerial spraying created openings for sharp-tailed grouse (Boyce et al. 1953). The treatment was of little value to the grouse, but it stimulated aspen resprouting and root suckering that benefited deer. This prompted substantial broadcast spraying for wildlife management in Michigan. Ruch (1956) reported profuse sprouting of willow and aspen. After 2 years, there was an increase of 4205 stems per acre, of which 66 percent were aspen, 29 percent willow, and 5 percent other species. Jenkins (1955) also found that herbicides stimulated resprouting of aspen. Gysel (1957) showed that herbicide treatment of a predominantly oak overstory improved habitat for certain wildlife, but the chemical treatments generated only one-half the browse produced by axe cutting. Use of 2,4-D often encouraged growth of blackberry and certain other desirable plants (Coulter 1958). Hamilton and Buchholtz (1953) and Zorb (1957) used broadcast spraying to prepare seedbeds for wildlife food plots. In Wisconsin, McCaffery et al. (1974) found that to maintain wildlife openings that have been invaded by aspen, willow, and choke-cherry, pelletized picloram is less expensive, more convenient, and maintains the openings better than do liquid herbicides and mechanical methods. No root suckering of aspen or willow was evident after 2 years; broadleaved herbs did not reinvade treated spots, possibly because of residual chemicals or the invasion of bluegrass. Because of effects on nontarget species, including many important deer foods, the authors did not recommend broadcast application of picloram. In Minnesota, Krefting et al. (1960) and Krefting and Hansen (1969) found that aerial spraying of 2,4-D CHAPTER 6 Herbicide Application Table 22.2. Some Reported Uses of Herbicides in Wildlife Habitat Management See rorancs | Location Year teva Method Cost/acre Purpose and results Various PA 1949- 26 studied Selective Rabbit cover improvement by cutting and herb- herbicides 1951 ground icide treatment along woodland edges, fence (Bowers 1954) spraying rows, and other areas. Herbicides showed promise in controlling tree growth and devel- oping rabbit cover. 2,4,5-T PA About Limited Selective Develop clearings and shrubby thickets for (Liscinsky 1966) 1952- sutdy areas foliage, basal woodcock breeding, nesting, and resting 1962 spary, and covers. Selective stump and basal spraying stump spray considered of practical value. 2,4-D MI 1956- 10,849 Aerial spray $3.50 Control woody plants on sharp-tailed grouse (Ammann 1963) habitat; fairly successful. Dalapon and MI 1955- 11 (Study Ground spray Chemical tillage for establishment of wildlife 2,4-D 1956 area) food patches; effective grass control. (Zorb 1957) 2,4-D, 2,4-D MD, NY, DE, 1955- Study areas Cat tail control to improve waterfowl] habitat; and TCA Mix- and else- 1958 2,4-D ineffective; 3,4-D and TCA fairly ef- ture, Dalapon, where fective; Dalapon good to erratic control; Amitrole Amitrole good results. (Steenis et al. 1958) 2,4-D MN 1958- 16 (Study Aerial spray $4.00 Increased deer browse quality and quantity; (Krefting and 1966 area) considered cheap,’ convenient method where ac- Hansen 1969) cessibility difficult or labor for cutting costly. 2,4-D and/or IN and OH 1965 Small study Selective $30.00- Development and maintenance of shrub edges in 2,4,5-T (National areas basal spray- $48.00 wildlife openings and utility ROWs in national (Landes and Forests) ing and stump forests. Hamilton 1965) and frill treatment 2,4-D and MD 1965 Research Foliage sprays Control of multiflora rose; good results. 2,4,5-T Mix- plots ture, Picloram, 2,3,6-TBA and Dicamba (Scott 1965) Appropriate WI 1967 12 mi of Selective cut- Cheaper than Maintenance of shrubby vegetation on roadsides herbicide roadside ting, stump mowing with for scenic values, erosion control, wildlife (Anon. 1967) studied treatment, and added bene- habitat, and safety requirements. Developed basal spraying fits and endorsed by many Wisconsin agencies. Tordon WI 1968 About 82 Ground spray $11.40- Maintain grassy forest openings for deer for- (McCaffery and $28.13 age. Creed 1969) Herbicides OH 1968 Guides for Selective Selective release of squirrel food-producing (Nixon 1968) state wild- ground shrubs and small-growing trees on old field life areas spraying edges and of mast trees. 2,4-D and WI 1959- 700 a. Aerial a. $5.57 a. Woody plant control in meadow development. 2,4,5-T 1964 spray b. $1.98- b. Meadow development and brush contro] on (Linde 1969) b. Ground fo- $3.00 impoundment dikes. liage spray (Meadows ) $19.00 (Dikes) 2,4-D and/or OH 1969 Guides for Selective Release of fruiting shrubs in old fields, 2,4,5-T management basal spray- openings, and edges for ruffed grouse. (Davis 1969) on wildlife ing and stump areas or frill treatment Herbicides-- US and 1969 To manipulate wetland vegetation. soil-sterilants Canada (Sanderson and Bellrose 1969) Tordon 10K WI a. 1972 a. 146 Selective use a. $19.15 Selective control of woody plants in wildlife (McCaffery et b. 1972- b. 954 of pellets b. $13.41 openings; good results. al. 1974) 1973 continued WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 22 22 Herbicide Application Table 22.2 (Concluded) Herbicide and reference Location Year teed Method Cost/acre Purpose and results 2,4-DP WI 1972- a. 974 Stump spray a. $21.06 Selective control of woody plants in wildlife (McCaffery et 1973 b. 620 b. $19.06 openings. whe | al. 1974) 2,4,5-T and MO Recent 200/yr. Ground foli- Eradicate unwanted woody plants from old 2,4-D years age. fields. (Milonski 1975 pers. 700/yr. Basal spray Selective removal of unwanted stems in forest comm. to Landes) and tree in- stands to increase mast and forage. Jector. Simazine, IN No date, Ground spray Improve survival of woody cover plantings by Dalapon, current in strips or removing competing grasses and weeds. Amitrole-T, manage- spots and/or ment Amizine-W guide (Wilson n.d.) a. Bladex OH 1974 a. 346 a, b, and c: a, b, and c: Cornfield weed control for b. Paraquat CL b. 120 Tractor boom Canada goose and upland game management. c. Atrazine c. 775 sprayer. dande: Selective release of shrubs in d..2,4-D and d. 265 d. Treating old fields and forest openings. 2,4-DP e. 30 individual 3. Tordon stumps--235 (Carinon 1975 pers. e. Foliage comm. to: Landes) spray a. 2,4,5-T IA a. 1968- a. 250/yr. a. Aerial a. Willow control in marsh; fair results 1 b. Silvex 1970 spray yr., excellent 2 yrs (2,4,5-TP) b. 1972- b. 62.5 b. Basal and b. Release of desirable tree species in tim- (Dalziel 1975 pers. 1973 frill spray ber stands. comm. to Landes) 2,4,5-T or IN and OH a. FY a. 150 Selective a. $30.00- Selective development and maintenance of 2,4,-D and (National 1975 basal, cut $50.00 shrubby cover in old fields; satisfactory 2,4,5-T Forests) b. FY b. 34 stump, and b. $100.00 except for root-suckering species. (Landes & Hamil- 1974 frill spray c. $100.00 ton 1965) c. FY c. 54 1973 Source: From Landes 1976. effectively reduced (common) hazlenut and other low- preference browse species and increased the supply of better browse plants for deer in trembling aspen, jack pine, oak, and upland brush cover types. Basal broadcast spraying of 2,4-D in a stand of pole-sized balsam fir and white spruce stimulated resprouting of mountain maple (Krefting et al. 1956); spring spraying produced more browse than did fall applications. Selective herbicide application maintained desirable plant species for wildlife along edges of openings on National forest lands in Indiana and Ohio (Landes and Hamilton 1965). In western Oregon, the response of wildlife to herbicide-induced changes depends on_ habitat preferences. Borrecco et al. (1972) found that aerial spraying reduced the number of grasses, forbs, and overall ground cover, while Douglas-fir and most shrubs survived better on treated areas. These changes affect the seasonal use of plots by deer. Deer mice increase, while grass-loving species, such as the Oregon vole, decrease. Trailing blackberry, a preferred food of mule-tailed deer, grow more vigorously. Mueggler (1966) and Lyon and Mueggler (1968) found that sprouts from shrubs preferred by elk and deer did not continue to grow well after aerial spraying. The 100 optimal time of application varied among individual plant species, and no one best time for all purposes was determined. All treatments, regardless of season, killed redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), the most desirable browse plant in the study area. Thus, Mueggler (1966) concluded that 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T should not be used where redstem ceanothus is abundant. In Virginia, Trumbo and Chappell (1960) studied habitat responses to selected basal applications of monuron and fenuron and to frill treatments of ammate and 2,4,5-T. They concluded that herbicides showed potential for creating wildlife clearings and controlling undesirable trees and shrubs. In west central Alabama, Carter et al. (1975) found that plots treated by selective herbicide application had more diverse wildlife habitat than did mechanically treated sites. Applying herbicides aerially on upland, pine, and hardwood sites in the Southeastern United States may benefit deer, rabbit, and (temporarily) grouse, but may harm squirrel, turkey, and raccoon populations if large areas are sprayed (Chamberlain and Goodrich 1962). Brunett (1971) compared effects of herbicide application, cutting, and burning on a wide floodplain in Louisiana. Sprouting on herbicide-treated plots was poor compared to that on the CHAPTER 6 cut and burned plots during the first growing season after treatment; during the second growing season, sprouting was equally abundant on all plots. Brunett also found that nutritive value and usage of sprouts on the herbicide- treated plots were much poorer than on the cut and burned areas. Broadcast spraying blackjack and post oak brush in Oklahoma with herbicides such as 2,4,5-T and silvex killed 50 percent or more of the oaks and released native grasses (Elwell 1968). The dead trees stood for 10 years or longer and protected the soil from erosion. In the California foothills, frilling and stump treatments with herbicides controlled oaks and caused a five-fold increase in ground forage after 3 years (Harvey et al. 1959). In contrast, Tietjen et al. (1967) observed that broadcast spraying of 2,4-D in a mountain meadow in western Colorado reduced forb abundance and, as a result, reduced populations of the western pocket gopher by 80 to 90 percent. Populations of other small mammal species were not affected. Keith et al. (1959) reported similar results in another area of Colorado. 23 PLANTING AND SEEDING For several decades wildlife managers have been concerned with planting and seeding to provide wildlife food and cover, control soil erosion, and inhibit growth of unwanted vegetation. Numerous studies (Edminster 1941; Graham 1941, 1942, 1947; Dambach 1945, 1948; Allen 1949; Edminster and May 1951; Anderson and Compton 1958; Anderson, W.L. 1965) have documented effects of planting and seeding on wildlife, mostly on farmland and public wildlife management areas. Both short- (1 to 5 years) and long-term effects have been documented, with most of the emphasis on planting and seeding to encourage a single species (e.g., bobwhite, ruffed grouse, white-tailed deer). Literature on planting and seeding ROWs for wildlife is relatively sparse and based primarily on studies in the mid-Atlantic and Southeastern United States. PLANTING AND SEEDING ON RIGHTS-OF-WAY Several significant studies of planting and seeding ROWs were made in the Southeast to determine which species were capable of producing cover that is both valuable to local wildlife and compatible with ROW maintenance. The most economical method to provide good wildlife cover and food, according to Woodhouse and Baynes (1976), is to plant tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and Chinese lespedeza in the main part of the ROW and a 12 foot wide strip of VA-70 type shrub lespedeza along one side. Planting Chinese lespedeza and annual rye (Lolium sp.) on ROWs in Georgia eliminated brush sprouting and seeding, and stabilized soils (Leith 1974). Kihl (1973) advocates seed mixtures of fescue or Chinese lespedeza for erosion control, and 50 percent legumes and 50 percent grasses for wildlife food and cover. The primary ground cover seeded on ROWS in the Southeast, except Florida, is Chinese lespedeza, which serves well as a soil stabilizer but has limited value for wildlife. Seeding WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Planting and Seeding 23 bahigrass (Bahia spp.) with crimson clover (Trifolium pratense) or Kobe lespedeza (Lespedeza striata) effectively retards brush invasion and provides nutritious summer and winter food for local game species (Arner 1966). Annual mowing is the only maintenance required. A greater amount of nutritious wildlife food can be produced anda more economical reduction of woody vegetation can be obtained through the use of mechanical equipment (bulldozer and cultivator) or controlled burning when these treatments are combined with the application of fertilizer and seed, than any other technique now in current use. [Arner 1960] Arner (1960) also reported that seeding maple-leaved viburnum and hairy lespedeza on unscarified soils failed and that hog-peanuts showed some promise, especially in areas with bracken fern. He demonstrated that fertilizing was necessary for survival and seed production of seeded : legumes, partridge-pea, and Kobe lespedeza. Success with planting and seeding on ROWs has prompted a number of utility companies, especially in the Southern United States, to experiment with seeding and to encourage owners of land traversed by ROWs to do the same (North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission 1975). Many of the utilities recommend that interested owners seed with browntop millet, grain sorghum, rye, and oats, or grasses and shrubs. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) seeds ROWs with the objectives of the local landowners in mind; if the landowner has no preference, Kentucky 31 fescue (Festuca arundinacea var.) is sown (Fowler et al. 1976). Although not valuable to most wildlife species, this fescue is excellent for controlling erosion and it is soon replaced by native plants. PLANTING AND SEEDING ON OTHER SITES Grasses and Legumes Various species of grasses and legumes have been recommended for wildlife food and cover. Burger (1973) recommended native grasses because they provide a tall, overhead canopy with open travel space at ground level for small animals. These grasses furnish better cover during northern winters than do brome or other exotics. Richards (1973) stressed using native warm-season grasses, particularly little bluestem, big bluestem, and switchgrass, rather than cool-season grasses in the Northeast. Although they are more difficult to grow than cool-season grasses, these species were recommended for newly-cleared sites. Burger (1973) reported that perennial grasses and forbs provide much good food over a long season when planted in mixtures. Plant and seeding disturbed sites is common in the West. Plummer et al. (1955) and Hungerford (1965) recommend a mixture of species on mountainous lands in the intermountain eco- regions. Tables 23.1 and 23.2 list food patch mixtures and seeding recommendations for wildlife plantings in the Eastern United States. Table 23.3 lists the adaptation and uses of species for seeding in various precipitation and vegetation zones on lowland and mountainous areas in the intermountain ecoregions. Arner (personal communication in Hubbard 1962) recommended sowing fescues, rye grasses, bush-clovers, partridge-peas, and beggar peas for quail management in 101 23 Planting and Seeding Table 23.1 Food Patch Mixtures for Planting in Spring for the Eastern United States Species Pounds Mixture #1 for 5 acres Buckwheat. 10.0 Grain sorghum 9.0 Foxtail millet 15.0 Proso millet 15.0 Kaffir 9.0 Sudangrass 5.0 Soybeans 15.0 Cowpeas 13.0 Vetch _ 9.0 Total pounds 100.0 Mixture #2 for 5 acres Buckwheat 15.0 Foxtail millet 15.0 Sudangrass 15.0 Soybeans 25.0 Cowpeas _30.0 Total pounds 100.0 Mixture #3 for 5 acres Proso millet 17.5 Grain sorghum 25.0 Sunflower 25 Total pounds 50.0 Source: From Shomon et al. 1966. the Southeastern United States. Joselyn and Tate (1972) established that reproduction of ring-necked pheasants on roadsides in Illinois could be substantially increased by replacing bluegrass sods with a mixture of brome and alfalfa (Medicago sp.). Wildlife managers have long advocated use of legumes in wildlife food and cover patches. Legumes dominate the list of perennial forbs high in wildlife and conservation values because they tend to furnish more food (at least as seed) than do grasses, and also promote nitrogen fixation in the soil (Burger 1973). Seeds of legumes often best satisfy the nutritional needs of stressed animals, because they contain up to 31 percent crude protein and are easy to digest (Short and Epps 1976). The lespedezas have been used extensively in wildlife programs in the Southern United States (Davison 1945). Hunter (1954), Rosene (1956), and Gehrken (1956) noted that Chinese lespedeza is site-tolerant, easy to seed, and good for erosion control and wildlife cover. Hunter (1954) reported that bobwhite preferred lespedeza to natural borders for roosting cover and foraging, on a 102 year-round basis, and recommended Chinese and an annual lespedeza as best suited for conditions in Arkansas. Arner (1951), however, reported that Chinese lespedeza was not very palatable to wildlife because ofits high tannic acid content. Chinese lespedeza will produce excellent soil-binding cover on erodible slopes and poor soils where few other plants can survive (Burger 1973). However, the wildlife value of bicolor lespedeza (Lespedeza bicolor) has been highly overrated. Rosene (1952) reported on its several limitations: “First, border plantings 10 years old and over give ground rapidly to woody plant invasion. Second, many plantings lose seed production by their fifth year, and third, a considerable investment in time, fertilizer, and farm equipment seems to be necessary.” The disadvantages of bicolor lespedeza as a food for bobwhite have been well-documented (Blackwell 1955; Durell 1955; Gehrken 1956; Rosene 1956). Other annual species of lespedezas, primarily Kobe and Korean, have been shown to be excellent soil stabilizers when combined with Chinese lespedeza (Hunter 1954). Shrubs and Low-growing Trees Among the numerous shrub and tree species planted for wildlife, those most widely used are autumn olive (Eleaegnus umbellata), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), Chinese lespedeza, and several species of viburnum and dogwood in the East, and sagebrush, saltbush, bitterbrush, and snowberry in the West. McArthur et al. (1974) recommended sagebrush, rabbit brush, mat saltbush, bitterbrush, and snowberry as the most valuable wildlife forages for big game in Utah. Beale and Smith (1970) reported that during the late fall and winter, when nearly all forbs were dry, the diet of antelope was over 91 percent browse—mostly sagebrush and black sagebrush. After a 10 year study in California, Hubbard (1962) recommended bitterbrush as the most valuable herbage producer as well as the most palatable and nutritious plant for deer in the Southwest. Aldon (1973) recommended four-wing saltbush in New Mexico as an excellent soil stabilizer, an all-season forage plant for grazing animals, and good food for cover for wildlife. Borrell (1950) recommended Russian olive (Eleaegnus angustifolia) as one of the best food and cover plants in the West and Midwest. In the East, Edminster (1950) recommended seven species for use as wildlife food: silky dogwood, autumn olive, Chinese lespedeza, tartarian honeysuckle, northern bayberry, multiflora rose, and purple-osier willow (Salix purpurea). He found that tartarian honeysuckle offered good wildlife shelter, especially for shrub-nesting birds, and summer and early fall food for many songbirds. Sheldon and Causey (1974) found Japanese honeysuckle to be the most important year-round food for deer in Alabama. The fruit and dense vegetation of Japanese honeysuckle furnishes food and cover for many other species of mammals and birds (Jackson 1974). Thickets of autumn olive also furnish cover and food for many species of wildlife (Allan and Sheiner 1959). The berries are particularly attractive to songbirds, bobwhite, ruffed grouse, and ring-necked pheasant. Autumn olive is the CHAPTER 6 Planting and Seeding 23 Table 23.2 Seeding Guide for Wildlife Plantings in the Eastern United States Rate of seed Seed per acre Lime Fertilizer Size of patch Planting time Food patch 20 1bs According to 300-400 Ibs per 0.25-1 acre Spring mix #1, #2 lime require- acre 5-10-10 ment test for 6-6.5 pH Food patch 10 Ibs According to 300-400 Ibs per 0.25-1 acre Spring mix #3 lime require- acre 5-10-10 ment test for 6-6.5 pH Rye 3-4 pecks According to 300-400 lbs per 0.25-1 acre Early fall lime require- acre 5-10-10 ment test for 6-6.5 pH Wheat 1-1.5 bu According to 300-400 lbs per 0.25-1 acre Early fall lime require- acre 5-10-10 ment test for 6-6.5 pH Soybeans 0.5-2 bu According to 300-400 lbs per Up to 5 Late spring lime require- acre 5-10-10 acres ment test for 6-6.5 pH Corn 10 Ibs; According to 400-500 Ibs per Up to 5 Late spring 40 in be- lime require- acre 5-10-10 acres tween rows ment test for 6-6.5 pH Japanese millet 25 lbs According to 0.25-1 acre Late spring lime require- ment test for 6-6.5 pH Buckwheat 1-1.5 bu According to 300 lbs per acre 0.25-1 acre Early summer lime require- 5-10-10 ment test for 6-6.5 pH Birdsfoot tre- 6 lbs with According to At seeding 300 lbs 0.25-1 acre Early spring foil with grass 3 lbs or- lime require- per acre 5-10-10 or late sum- chardgrass ment test for Annual top dress- mer 6-6.5 pH ing 300 lbs 0-14-14 Sericea 15 lbs Maintain pH At seeding 300 Ibs Long strips Spring lespedeza 5.8 per acre 5-10-10 Annual top dress- ing 300 Ibs 0-14-14 Bicolor 16 Ibs Maintain pH At seeding 300 lbs Long strips Spring lespedeza 5.8 per acre 5-10-10 Annual top dress- ing 300 Ibs 0-14-14 Source: From Shomon et al. 1966. WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 103 23 Planting and Seeding Table 23.3 Adaptation and Recommended Use of Species for Seeding in Various Precipitation and Vegetation Zones on Lowland and Mountain Areas in the Intermountain Region Lowlands Mountain lands Species Below 8 in precipitation 8-12 in precipitation Above 12 in precipitation Salty soils Mountain brush? Aspen© Subalpine a Grasses Sand dropseed Bottlebrush squirreltail Indian rice-grass Russian wild rye Crested wheatgrass (standard) Crested wheatgrass (fairway) Bulbous bluegrass Bluebunch wheatgrass Beardless wheatgrass Pubescent wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Western wheatgrass Beardless wild rye Big bluegrass Mountain rye Great Basin wild rye Tall wheatgrass Tall fescue B* Bulbous barley Blue wild rye Bearded wheatgrass Smooth brome (southern strain) c* Smooth brome (northern strain) Slender wheatgrass Mountain brome Meadow brome Kentucky bluegrass Tall oat grass Orchardgrass Reed canary-grass Timothy Meadow foxtail Sheep fescue (Sulcata) Red fescue (sod-forming) Subalpine brome Winter rye x X x Legumes? Alfalfa cx Sicklepod milk-vetch c* Chickpea milk-vetch c* Yellow sweet clover Strawberry clover X* Birdsfoot trefoil Mountain lupine Alsike clover BBAAN0 990909007 8xrrwmanaga + + Oe QOAVRBWBaO OxxOWWDPrawmxYyrraoa DWOxQOOOFrPIBxDWDIVO DWDM ExDDDODPWIWD + OF OOYPPrPAOSYPYExXBDWDBDSSDWDWAVVIG DOOWWDDAYxXBDOODW <Dwno oO xDOow Q20Q AWA continued 104 CHAPTER 6 Planting and Seeding 23 Table 23.2 (Concluded) Lowlands Mountain lands a = co c ce vn °o °o oO > - - 4 no o cr » + - a Species “$ s as 9 < 2 Ore = oe a = = a - aA a oO ev Qa zee = or > Pay c - ou NO >o - Cc ov os oe Te a2 ‘3 3 a 3 aa oa aa n 2 =< n Other broadleaf herbs“ Summer cypress X Five-hook bassia X Palmer penstemon xX X X Wastach penstemon X X Showy goldeneye X X X Common cow parsnip Cc i c Sweet anise cx Cc c Shrubs? Winter-fat c Cc c Cc Four-wing saltbush ce c c c Antelope bitterbrush c c Cc c Oldman wormwood X X X Blueberry elder X c Cc oo — Source: From Plummer et al. 1955. Letters indicate the following: A--Proved to be productive and widely adapted for seeding throughout the zone or type. B--Valuable over much of the zone or type, but value or adaptation either more restricted or not as well determined as species designated A. C--Value or adaptation more restricted than those species designated B, but useful in some situations. X--Recommended for special uses or conditions, usually as pure stands. D applicable also for seeding openings in the ponderosa pine zone. “applicable also for seeding openings in Douglas-fir and spruce timber, dan asterisk (*) after a letter indicates that a species is adapted only to better than average sites in the zone or type. shrub most preferred by wildlife managers in Michigan (Zorb 1966). Edminster (1950) recommended the planting of bittersweet because it produces viney tangles and fruits for ruffed grouse, pheasant, bobwhite, rabbits, squirrels, and songbirds. Edminster (1950) also found that multiflora rose was one of the best shrubs for erosion control, wildlife cover, and farm conservation. Use of this shrub, however, is controversial. Many consider it a pest because it spreads easily from seed (Scott 1965), but Burger and Linduska (1967) report that this was not the case in 5 to 7 year old hedgerows which appeared to be used by bobwhite as headquarter areas and travel lanes (see also Kabat and Thompson 1963). Gysel and Lemmien (1955) found that WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES of the seven species of trees and shrubs investigated in Michigan, multiflora rose was the only species used intensively by cottontail, white-tailed deer, and songbirds for both food and cover throughout most of the year. Gordinier (1958) recommended several species for wildlife management in southern Michigan: autumn olive, honeysuckle, multiflora rose, lespedeza, western sand cherry (Prunus besseyi), silky dogwood, and highbush-cranberry. For improved wildlife habitat, he also advocated spacing rows 6 to 8 feet apart, rather than contiguous rows, to permit forb and grass growth between shrubs. LIMITATIONS AND SPECIAL USES l The literature clearly indicates that planting and seeding 105 24 Streambank Management can be an effective and economical technique for ROW maintenance and wildlife management. There are, however, limitations to these techniques. Sometimes the species that is best for retarding growth of unwanted trees may not be the best for wildlife food and cover or for erosion control. Economy and/or site limitations may also restrict the possible seed mixtures and species for planting. In the South, in particular, fertilizer or lime is often needed to insure the success of certain legumes, grasses, and shrubs; the rising cost of fertilizer may limit its use in the future. In arid regions of the United States, lack of precipitation may hinder revegetation after seeding. A study by Northern Arizona State University (1975) showed that on a ROW through a pinyon— juniper woodland in Arizona, unseeded areas revegetated more rapidly than seeded areas. In other areas of the United States, preparation of an adequate seedbed may be costly. Nevertheless, reseeding will probably continue to be used on ROWs and other sites where quick revegetation is needed to prevent soil erosion and to restore biotic productivity (such as after severe burns or clearing of steep slopes or streambanks). The numerous choices of seed mixtures and plant species may also make this technique valuable in other special cases, such as in management of rare or endangered species. 24 STREAMBANK MANAGEMENT Stream crossings deserve special consideration because of the fragility and importance of riparian ecosystems. Opportunities for direct instream manage- ment of fish and wildlife resources (e.g., construction of current deflectors and shelters) are limited by econo- mic and/or legal constraints. Wise management of the streambank vegetation, however, is necessary and feasible for both ROW maintenance and natural resources man- agement. Streambank vegetation can serve the following ecological purposes (Meehan et al. 1977): 1 Stabilize streambanks to prevent soil erosion and sedimentation. 2 Shade the stream, thus minimizing fluctuations in water temperature and maintaining cooler water. 3 Provide food and cover for both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife. 4 Provide overhead cover and shade to protect fish from predators. 5 Produce terrestrial insects that fall into the water and become fish food. 6 Provide leaf litter that stimulates aquatic insect populations, the staple food of many stream- dwelling fish species. Most utility companies are required by law to minimize adverse impacts on streams. Accordingly, most have some type of policy for curbing erosion and sedimentation. Some utilities also avoid using herbicides at stream crossings (Bonneville Power Administration 106 1976). Mortars or helicopters for carrying lead lines allow minimal disturbance of streambanks during transmission line installation; however, this practice can be expensive (Miller 1968; Electrical World 1972). Goodland (1973a) recommended that this practice be mandatory for stream crossings and steep slopes. Tower siting and design that maximizes line clearance over streams can further lessen clearing needs and subsequent disturbance (Dohrenwend 1973). However, where disturbances are unavoidable or have already occurred, some active streambank management may be necessary. Periodic control of streambank vegetation may also enhance fish and wildlife habitat. Effective techniques for erosion control as well as the importance of preventing soil erosion and sedimentation are well documented (American Society of Agricultural Engineers n.d.; Young 1968; and U.S. Forest Service 1969). Numerous authors have recommended planting and seeding for erosion control along streams. Some have recommended certain plant species that are also important food and/or cover for wildlife. Yoakum and Dasmann (1971) suggested that Russian olive provides important wildlife food as well as prevents erosion when planted on streambanks to prevent erosion and provide wildlife cover. Lagler (1952) recommended planting canary-grass, fescues, sod, willow, white cedar, and smooth alder on low streambanks, and pine and hardwoods on high banks. Brush control can sometimes cause erosion along streams. Day (1976) studied effects of herbicide application at nine transmission ROW crossings: one small, one medium-sized, and one large stream in New Hampshire; three similar streams in West Virginia; and three in Georgia. Repeated broadcast spraying of herbicides on riparian areas is undesirable and results in vegetation largely of low-growing herbaceous plant communities, unsuitable as a natural buffer zone for stream habitat. This study indicates that accelerated streambank erosion (i.e., caving, deposition, siltation) and increases in temperature and light intensity can be attributed to the manipulation of riparian vegetation. [Day 1976] The literature indicates that a variety of plants are suitable for erosion control if streambanks are undisturbed. However, ROW stream crossings are attractive to fishermen, hikers, etc., and bank trampling often hinders revegetation. Thorny plants or brushy tangles may effectively discourage foot traffic on erosion- prone streambanks, but this technique has received little attention. Prickly-ash, hawthorn, black raspberry, blackberry, and wild rose controlled erosion by discouraging foot traffic as well as anchoring the soil on an erosion-prone riverbank in northern Michigan (Taube 1967). Fallen trees and brush deter people from trampling erodible banks of a popular Michigan trout stream (Schmidt and Rusz 1974). Streambank vegetation also affects water temperatures (Brown 1969, 1970; Brazier and Brown 1973). Change in stream temperature may be one of the most important impacts of ROWs (Herrington and Heisler 1973). Table 24.1 indicates the temperature changes that might occur with removal of shade and CHAPTER 6 Table 24.1 Increases in Stream Temperature that Might Occur with Removal of Shade Length of stream Rate of flow Flow Temperature exposes (ft) (cu_ft/sec.) direction change (°F) 1,100 1-1.9 E-SE 4 150 -04- .05 s 13 60 -05- .10 N 4 30 (Fireline) .05- .10 N 2 Source: From Brown 1969. Suggests that ROWs may expose sufficient lengths of stream to cause substantial changes in temperatures. Groundwater, however, could moderate such effects. The sensitivity of coldwater fishes to increases in stream temperature is well-documented (Lagler 1952; Hynes 1970). Streambank vegetation can provide important fish cover, particularly in small streams (Lagler 1952; White and Byrnildson 1967; White 1973). Dense, overhanging vegetation is usually more effective fish cover than trees set back from the water’s edge. White (1973) stated that “... even quite broad and dense coverings more than a fraction of a meter (a foot or two) above water surface, such as tree canopy, serve poorly in comparison with objects in the water or very close above stream surface.” Studies by McCrimmon and Kwain (1966) and others of trout responses to vertical variation in cover support this statement. The role of streambank vegetation in providing fish cover in the United States is thoroughly discussed by White and Byrnildson (1967). Some of their conclusions and recommendations regarding bank vegetation along Wisconsin trout streams are summarized below: 1 Low, overhanging vegetation forms excellent shelter for trout. Tall grasses and low brush are best because they provide trout with shade as well as protection from physical disturbances. 2 Trees and high brush that shade important aquatic plants, such as watercress (Barbarea vulgaris), waterweed (Elodea canadensis), and swamp- buttercup, as well as terrestrial grasses and low shrubs, should be removed from banks of streams that will not be excessively warmed by the sun (i.e., those receiving groundwater). Planting trees along streams is not recommended unless reducing stream temperatures is critical. Controlled burning, selective cutting, and selective use of herbicides are possibilities for controlling unwanted trees and high brush along streams. 3 Small willows protect banks from erosion and do not shade streams excessively. Many types of willows maintain relatively deep, tough root systems that control erosion and form banks with inverse ledges and grooves where trout hide. To WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Streambank Management 24 develop and maintain dense stands of saplings necessary for continuous “root revetment,” willows require basal pruning at intervals of about 3 years. Large willows can be detrimental because their shade prevents growth of dense stands of sapling willows, grasses, and aquatic plants. In addition, their limbs split and break easily, fall into streams, and often cause dams that can be detrimental. 4 Alders serve as good cover only when their branches actually drape in the water. They are beneficial only on streams wider than 40 feet and should be prevented from forming dense, contin- uous thickets along small trout streams. 5 Grasses mixed with broadleaved annuals are best for developing food-producing turfs on stream- banks. Streams less than 15 feet wide should be kept entirely free of brush. Along streams 15 to 30 feet wide, very low bushes will not cause damage, but high brush and trees should be cut regularly or eliminated. 6 Canary-grass is excellent for stabilizing banks and providing overhanging cover for trout. It is durable, it grows in dense, continuous stands 2 to 8 feet high, and it drapes in the water during all seasons. Reed canary-grass sometimes dams extremely small channels and so should not be seeded along streams less than 4 feet wide. Many other herbaceous species (e.g., sedges, short grasses) are less beneficial. Bluegrass, with its short blades and weak shallow root system, provides only scanty cover; its turf is too weak to protect even moderately steep banks. Literature on the role of streambank vegetation in providing fish food is scarce. Some terrestrial insects produced on streambank vegetation fall into the water and provide food (Yoakum and Dasmann 1971), but autumn leaf litter may be more important to food production in many streams. Leaf litter adds nutrients and can stimulate primary production in aquatic systems (Goldman 1961). The leaf litter is also colonized by bacteria and is an important food source for stream- dwelling insects (Coopes 1974; Schmidt and Rusz 1974). Streams with banks dominated by deciduous vegetation often produce more aquatic insects than those with coniferous bank cover. Preliminary results of research indicate that the ability of aquatic insects to break down leaf litter varies among tree and shrub species. Further research may show the most advantageous species for streambank vegetation. No single type of vegetation cover is ideal for each of the ecological roles discussed above. Herbaceous or low shrub communities provide little temperature- moderating shade and contribute minimal organic material to streams. Some herbaceous communities are not effective in controlling erosion and provide little fish cover. Others, such as those dominated by canary-grass, provide good overhanging fish cover and prevent bank erosion. Tall shrubs and low-growing trees provide shade, but this shade may not be beneficial to fish. Wildlife considerations further complicate the choice of 107 25 Prescribed Burning plant community. Clearly, management must serve the needs of each individual stream. The use or disuse of herbicides around water courses depends upon policy decisions by different Federal and State agencies and individual utilities. The effects of herbicide contamination on water, soil, vegetation, and aquatic organisms are covered by a wide number of references which were not reviewed in this manual. 25 PRESCRIBED BURNING Prescribed burning, although used extensively for wildlife management and to inhibit growth of unwanted vegetation, is not commonly used on ROWs. Some goals of prescribed burning, however, that may be compatible with ROWs are: 1 Creating favorable conditions for grasses and forbs, especially legumes; 2 Setting back mature woody vegetation to provide browse and other wildlife foods; 3 Returning nutrients to the soil to induce vigorous plant growth and fruiting and to improve nutritive value of plant parts; 4 Stimulating invertebrate populations to provide food for young game birds; 5 Reducing wildfire hazard by removing duff and litter from the forest floor; 6 Removing slash from cutover areas; and 7 Inhibiting growth of unwanted hardwoods. Literature on prescribed burning to improve wildlife habitat is abundant compared with literature on other techniques. There have also been numerous studies documenting effects of wildfires (Lyon and Stickney 1966; Kruse 1972; Hansen 1973; Irwin 1975). Despite substantial use and information on the effects of fire on wildlife habitat, prescribed burning techniques are not well-understood. The effects of prescribed burning depend on variables such as climate, composition and density of the pre-fire cover, inherent soil fertility and moisture, intensity of the fire, time of burning, and time between burns. There has been no systematic study of the relative importance of these variables in determining the structure and composition of post-fire communities, because most studies have been based solely on post-fire observations. Furthermore, most studies have been short-term (1 to 5 years) and deal only with effects on a single game species (e.g., deer, elk, or quail). Prescribed burning has seldom been used for management of ROWs. The associated literature is reviewed below. BURNING ON RIGHTS-OF-WAY The only significant studies of prescribed burning on ROWs were conducted in the Southeast. Arner (1959) found that onan Alabama ROW burning reduced woody vegetation when herbaceous vegetation was sufficient to produce a “hot” fire. He also found that burning combined with fertilizing and seeding greatly increased food available for bobwhite. Cliburn (1967) reported that 108 summer burning on a Mississippi ROW effectively controlled undesirable woody growth, killing hardwoods and pines up to 2.5 inches in diameter and increasing food for deer and rabbits. Arner (1977) recommended prescribed burning for ROW maintenance and to provide food and cover for wildlife, but cautioned, however, that burning on thoroughly bulldozed ROWs is not necessary and is probably harmful to certain bobwhite foods (e.g., Kobe lespedeza) that require some protective shade (e.g., from grasses) (Arner 1960). Hurst (1972) found more insects on burned ROWs than on sprayed ROWs. Despite the effectiveness of prescribed burning for ROW maintenance and wildlife management in the South (Arner 1960; Cliburn 1967), power companies have been reluctant to use this technique because, as Arner stated: Invariably the power company officials voiced the same following objections: 1) The heat generated by fire would damage the suspended lines. 2) Wooden poles (still used on a number of lines) would catch fire. 3) The cost of preventing fires from spreading to adjacent forest lands would be prohibitive. Investigations at Mississippi State University refuted the validity of these objections. Maximum-minimum thermometers were suspended approximately 12 feet above the ground where the controlled burning was going on. The maximum temperatures did not exceed 150° F and rarely attained this temperature. A power line right-of-way over one mile in length containing wooden poles was burned without any protection provided for the poles. During the burning operation, the poles were watched by personnel with fire fighting equipment, but no portion of these poles was ignited. Costs would be increased only slightly if poles surrounded by highly inflammable vegetation were protected by plowing a fire lane. In most instances such precautions would not be necessary. It was found that the total cost of fire plowing, burning (using 5 men), and travel time to and from the burned area was well under $7.00 per acre. Foresters for large wood-using industries in the area report strip burning costs as low as $4.00 per acre. [Arner 1960] Concerns of utilities regarding the use of this technique include possible violations of air pollution standards, safety, liability for damage to adjacent lands, and a general lack of expertise to do the job. Also, in many areas of the country, waiting for proper weather conditions (wind, temperature, moisture, etc.) would be costly to the utility and would disrupt maintenance schedules. The discussion that follows covers general effects of burning throughout various regions of the country. No discussion of the methodology itself is included. BURNING ON OTHER SITES Effects on Plant Nutritive Values Several authors have demonstrated that burning often improves the nutritive value of plants because it returns nutrients to the soil (Vlamis et al. 1955; Dills 1970). Asherine (1974) measured food values in serviceberry, redstem ceanothus, mountain maple, and willow after burning in Idaho. He found that protein content was lower in redstem ceanothus after burning but higher in the three other species. The fat content of all four species was lower the first year after burning, but higher the second. He attributed the preference of big game for burned sites to the succulence of the plant tissue. In another study in Idaho, Leege (1969) found that spring- CHAPTER 6 burned serviceberry twig growth was 26 percent higher in protein than unburned serviceberry twig growth. Einarsen (1946) reported that browse in burned areas was richer in protein and enabled deer to survive better in winter. In the Southeast, Greene (1935) and Daubenmire (1968) found that plants on burned areas contained more protein, calcium, and phosphorus than those on unburned areas. DeWitt and Derby (1955) reported that the protein content of greenbrier, red maple, and flowering dogwood foliage in Tennessee increased significantly the first season after a low-intensity fire, but found no effects in the second year; high-intensity fires produced significant increases in protein content in both years. Lay (1957) found that burning in spring and summer increased the protein content of browse as much as 43 percent and the phosphoric acid content as much as 78 percent, although burning in any season produced some increases over pre-burn levels. Brunett (1971) compared effects of prescribed burning, cutting, and herbicide application on the palatability and nutritive value of deer browse in Louisiana. He reported that burning and cutting produced more nutritious sprouts of some species, while burning produced superior values in other species (e.g., yaupon). Ribinski (1968) found that wildfires in a mixed-oak forest in Pennsylvania did not greatly alter the protein content of red maple, white sassafras, and witch-hazel. Effects on Vegetation and Wildlife The effects of fire vary in different geographic areas (Ahlgren 1963; Vogl 1967). Some of the documented effects of burning on vegetation and wildlife in the United States are discussed below. Northwestern United States — Several studies in the Northwest have shown that fire can greatly alter vegetation and improve habitat for certain wildlife. Inan intensive study of vegetation before and after a fire in northern Idaho, Leege (1968) found increased sprouting of all shrub species following the burn. Moore (1976) reported that redstem ceanothus seedlings (a preferred elk browse) sprouted in abundance after “hot burns.” Orme and Leege (1974) found that emergence, growth, and survival of redstem were better after fall burning than following spring burning in Idaho. Hotter fires produced the best results. They recommended that burning be done in the fall after frost cures herbaceous fuels and before rain. On 9 of 11 winter elk ranges in Glacier National Park (Montana) periodically burned since 1910, secondary succession after burning has been characterized by a mosaic pattern of shrub and conifer communities, related apparently to moisture gradients (Martinka 1974). Leege and Hickey (1971) made a detailed analysis of vegetative composition before and after another burn in Idaho and found that only 3 of 11 species of shrubs did not grow back after burning. Fire was unsuccessful in stimulating regrowth of mountain-ash (Krefting et al. 1956). Lyon (1976) found that revegetation was very slow after a very hot fire in a lodgepole pine—Douglas-fir community in the northern WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Prescribed Burning 25 Rocky Mountains: vegetation covered only 35.7 percent of the area after 4 years. Meadow-sweet and dwarf huckleberry constituted 90 percent of the shrub cover after the fire, and only pre-fire species were found on the burned site. In a study of another fire in Idaho, Lyon (1966) found that total ground coverage was 69 percent 2 years after the fire, and shrub density and multiple sprouting had doubled. Two species, snowberry and elderberry, became more prolific than before the fire, while mountain-ash was eliminated. Lyon estimated that forage values doubled following the fire, that wildlife values would peak about 15 years after it, and that the vegetation would return to pre-fire character in about 40 years. North Central United States — Fire has also been shown to benefit wildlife habitats in the North Central United States. Irwin (1975) reported that both moose and deer heavily used a burned area previously dominated by balsam fir and white birch in northern Minnesota. Ahlgren (1966) reported a large invasion of deer mice in burned jack pine tracts in northeastern Minnesota. He noted that most of the diet of deer mice is seeds, which are more available after a fire because of the serotinous cones of jack pine. Red-backed vole and chipmunks did not frequent the burned area until the third year following the fire when there was a greater variety of fruits and seeds and denser cover. Ammann (1963) found that sharp-tailed grouse habitat in northern Michigan was improved by various treatments including prescribed burning, which increased the abundance of blueberry, an important food for sharp-tailed grouse. Vogl (1967) summarized effects of fire on prairies, northern pine—hardwoods, bracken grasslands, and pine barrens in Wisconsin: !. Controlled burning of prairie vegetation produces spectacular increases in green herbage. This is maintained for grasses and forbs the second season after burning, but shrubs return to pre-burn levels. The ground cover reverts to pre-burn conditions within 4 to 6 years, and burning once during this time helps to maintain maximum productivity. Initial burns may have to be conducted almost every other year until the brush is reduced. After that, fires at less frequent intervals, perhaps once every 10 years, can maintain brush prairie savanna. 2. Fires often convert northern pine forest to dense tangles of chest-high bracken fern, blackberry, and hazelnut, and tree sprouts and root suckers. Single burns usually do not transform the site, but only result in a temporarily disturbed version of the pre-burn vegetation. Repeated hot fires can convert northern pine hardwoods to bracken grasslands, “stump prairies,” or barrens. 3. Fire, especially hot fires, stimulate bracken grasslands. Fire retards invading trees and expands bracken grasslands. The dense shade-producing canopy of bracken fern and competition from grasses also helps retard tree invasion. The wildlife manager’s problem is not so much to maintain such openings, but to make them more productive to wild- life. Intense burns increase juneberry and blueberry (excellent grouse and deer foods) and wild lettuce (Lactuca, sp., a deer browse) and decrease the less valuable bracken fern. 4. Hot fires reduce oak and jack pine. Intervals should be about 10 years to allow for buildup of fuels necessary for a hot fire to set back trees and stimulate blueberries and june- berries. Prairie grouse also flourish after such treatments. 109 25 Prescribed Burning Fire is essential to natural reproduction of jack pine. Prescribed burning of jack pine barrens in northern Michigan is part of the on-going management program for the endangered Kirtland’s warbler (Mayfield 1960; Line 1964). Jack pine thickets resulted from a wildfire in Wisconsin in 1925; a dramatic increase in the population of snowshoe hares followed (Grange 1965). Fire also stimulates aspen root suckers, a staple of deer and rabbits (Strothmann and Zasada 1957). In the North Central United States there is lush herb growth following fire (Vogl 1964). Species present on burns are mostly annuals, reproduced by seed, with a few vegetatively sprouting species. Vogl also noted that fire often retards growth of brush species for at least 2 years after burning, allowing other plants, including trees, to become established. Westemeir (1972) recommended prescribed burning to improve and maintain greater prairie chicken habitat in Illinois. He compared March and August burning: . .. nesting hens were more attracted to the vegetation that develops after an August burn . . . . March burns appear better for encouraging the development of native prairie vegetation and stimulating legumes. Burning in August appears better for such domestic grasses as redtop and timothy, which have matured and are essentially dormant in August. ...a desirable feature of burning in August in southern Illinois is that nearly 2 months of the growing season are still left, during which a sod can green up before frost... March burns usually result in more complete removal of vegetative debris and there is little time for vegetative growth and duff accumulation prior to the initiation of the earliest... nests .. . [Westemeir 1972] Fire has also been used to maintain prairies in Minnesota (Tester and Marshall 1962) and North Dakota (Kirsh and Kruse 1972). The effects of fire on oak—hickory types in the Missouri Ozarks have been the subject of two investigations. In a 10 year study, Loomis (1977) found that wildlife food grew in large quantities for 4 years after a fire. Thereafter, production greatly decreased but was still well above that on the unburned control area. Lewis et al. (1964) found that summer or early fall burning produced more wildlife food than spring burning. Forbs and legumes (preferred by deer and turkeys) increased, and the proportion of grasses decreased. Hardwood sprout survival was reduced by burning in summer or fall, but not in the spring. However, fall burning was not recommended because of the amount of bare soil it leaves exposed over winter on the steep slopes of the Ozarks. Northeastern United States — Hallisey and Wood (1976) found that burning scrub oak in central Pennsylvania did not eliminate pre-fire species nor enhance the invasion of new ones. The ratio of herbs, woody shoots, and foliage to the total production also was essentially unchanged by fire. However, total forage production on burned plots was double that on unburned plots, regardless of the number of times they had been burned or the time elapsed since last burning. They recommended burning every 5 years for maintaining maximum woody browse. Sharp (1971) studied the effects of fire on grouse foods in oak—hickory habitats in Pennsylvania. He found that 110 key food plants, including sedges, panic-grasses, grape, and elderberry appeared after the burn even though none of these could be found before burning. He concluded that fire benefits ruffed grouse habitat by: 1) cleaning up litter and accumulated mulch, 2) rejuvenating plants, and 3) preventing and controlling diseases in grouse food plants. He suggested fires every 2 to 5 years to maintain good grouse habitat. Euler (1974) noted four times as many songbirds feeding on recently burned areas as on unburned areas in New York. He stated that spring fires are effective in maintaining openings where principle invading species are red maple, sugar maple, and white pine. Arrow-wood and nannyberry, both woody shrubs, produced up to 1.7 new stems for every stem that was burned. Ruffed grouse and white-tailed deer used burned areas extensively. The most striking change following burns in Connecticut grasslands was the production of more floriferous, more vigorous, and taller stands of bluestem (Niering et al. 1970). Burning forest stands in Connecticut generally reduced the density of smaller stems within the understory with no major observable damage to larger trees up to 12 inches in diameter. One year after burning, there was 100 percent mortality of black birch in the | to 2 inch class; stem kill of 1 to 2 inch hickory and black and white oak exceeded 50 percent. Shrub cover, especially greenbrier, was drastically reduced by a combination of fire and subsequent rabbit browsing. However, burning favored spotted winter- green, flowering dogwood, and shrubby viburnum. Southeastern United States — In the Southeast, prescribed burning has long been used by both foresters and wildlife managers to maintain subclimax vegetational communities. Table 25.1 summarizes some recommendations of the U.S. Forest Service for burning for wildlife in the South. Annual burning is necessary to maintain high-quality bobwhite habitat: Birds especially attracted to recently burned-over ground are robins by the hundreds or thousands, bluebirds, mourning doves in flocks, mature sparrows, both migratory and resident, flickers and other woodpeckers that become feeders on burns, pine warblers, and many others. Quail and turkey are also attracted to burns. [Stoddard 1931] Lay (1956) found that burning ina southern pine forest increased 3 of the 4 most desirable deer browse species: French mulberry (Calicarpa americana), herbs, and viburnum. Yaupon, American holly, greenbrier, raspberries, blackberries, herbs, grasses, and sedges were reduced by the burn. Burning increased available deer browse in Tennessee (Dills 1970) and in Virginia (Mumaw 1965). Two post- burn growing seasons were required before available browse production in a burned mixed-pine—hardwood forest surpassed that on similar unburned areas (Dills 1970). Burning, therefore, could be effectively and inexpensively used by wildlife managers to manipulate deer range. Forage grasses and native legumes were more than twice as abundant after a burn on pasture land (Greene CHAPTER 6 Table 25.1 Some Wildlife and Cover Types for which Prescribed Burning is Recommended by the U.S. Forest Service for Habitat Management in Southern National Forests Species /group Summary of reconmendat ions Wild turkey Burn pines every 3-5 years; exclude fire from other cover types and transition zones between hardwood swamps and pines; burns in December to February are best. Bobwhite quail Burn pine types in winter. Ruffed grouse Burn bear oak-dominated slopes to retain openings and to revive decadent or overstory- suppressed bear oak stands. Mourning dove Burn open pines; winter burns are preferred. Woodcock Burn pine types at 5-8 intervals in early winter. Wood duck Burn pocosin, titi, and savannah cover types. Songbirds Burn pine stands and openings during winter. Red-cockaded woodpecker Burn to maintain parklike stands in winter. Fox squirrel Make cool winter burns at 4-5 year intervals in pine types. White-tailed deer Burn pine stands on a 3-5 year rotation; favor late winter burns; preserve open prairies by burning. Black bear Burn pine stands every 3-4 years. Wild hogs Burn pines every 2-3 years during winter for huckleberries, and every 3-5 years where huckleberries are scarce. Raccoon Burn to maintain openings and to regenerate bear oak. Rabbits Burn pines every 3-5 years. Alligator Burn pocosin, titi, and Carolina bays during late summer or fall if they become choked with woody vegetation. An area-wide analysis should precede any use of fire in alligator habitat. Source: Summarized from U.S. Forest Service 1971. 1935). Prescribed burning improves blueberry production and the quality and quantity of forage (Jenkins 1950). Prescribed burning can help revive decadent or suppressed stands of bear oak and thus improve habitat for ruffed grouse, raccoons, and other wildlife (U.S. Forest Service 1971). Vigorous new stands of reed appear immediately after fire (Hughes 1966); the greatest foliage production of this species isexpected 3 to 4 years after burning in open cane, and 2 to 3 years after burning in forested range (Hughes 1957). Some studies, however, have revealed negative aspects of prescribed burning and indicate that, as elsewhere, the season for burning is important in the Southeast. Brunett (1971) reported that summer burning in Louisiana created favorable conditions for germination and growth of loblolly pine and tremendously decreased the amount of brush. He also stated that burning too frequently (e.g., every | or 2 years) in winter can eliminate some choice browse plants. He concluded that burning in winter every 3 years was most desirable and recommended that no summer burning be done on deer range. Stoddard (1963) suggested that there may be temporary reductions in some wildlife foods after burning, since many fruit- bearing shrubs, such as huckleberry, blueberry, WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Prescribed Burning 25 blackberry, dewberry, gooseberry, inkberry, dwarf oak, chinquapin, and a few others, cannot fruit the year of a burn. However, they bear heavily 2 to 4 years after fire. Stoddard (1962) and Mobley et al. (1973) recommended against summer burning where there might be significant mortality of ground-nesting birds or other wildlife. Some authors have stated that fire is generally destructive to pine and hardwood trees in the Southeast (Moore 1956; Dixon 1965). Davis and Cooper (1963) suggested that prescribed burning destroys young pines less than 15 feet high. Moore (1956) found that burns during August in Alabama killed many hardwood saplings and almost eliminated pine reproduction. Winter burns (during the dormant season) usually do not kill hardwoods but simply “knock them back” (Dixon 1965). Southwestern United States — Prescribed burning has been used extensively in the Southwest to improve livestock range and wildlife habitat. However, most of this burning has been in the California brushfields (e.g., chaparral and chamise types), and in the mesquite, sagebrush, semidesert shrub, juniper—pinyon wood- lands, and other shrub and low tree communities where little transmission ROW maintenance is necessary. Hence, active management of transmission ROWSs for wildlife in these areas is not likely to be economically feasible. There have been several studies, however, on prescribed burning and wildfires in some southwest grasslands and in pine—hardwood types in upland areas (Weaver 1951, 1958, 1959; Biswell 1958, 1963, 1967, 1972; Burcham 1959; Kallander 1969; Lawrence and Biswell 1972). Prescribed burning in ponderosa pine communities in California allowed more herbaceous vegetation, greatly reduced tree reproduction in the understory, and added great variety to any ponderosa pine grassland (Biswell 1972). These findings are supported by similar findings of Weaver (1951, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1967) and others. Heady (1972) reviewed literature on prescribed burning in oak woodland—grass types in California and concluded that fire usually does not significantly alter the pre-fire seed crop in annual-dominated grasslands and has little impact beyond temporary changes in botanical composition. He further stated that prescribed burning is no longer used to control certain undesirable annual grasses and that there is no other reason for extensive burning of annual grassland. Although there is little literature on the effects of fire on wildlife habitat in areas of the Southwest often invaded by tall-growing trees, it appears that prescribed burning can be effective in increasing wildlife food and cover in ponderosa pine grasslands and certain other cover types. There is little information on burning montane chaparral to improve wildlife habitat; however, the well-documented benefits of burning lowland chaparral types suggest that fire would be effective. Effects similar to those in the Northwestern United States (e.g., vigorous sprouting and fruiting, increased yields of forage) can be expected when shrubs are burned. 111 26 Additional Wildlife Habitat Considerations / 27 However, the literature suggests that results may vary depending on the amount of precipitation after the burn (Gartner and Thompson 1972). Revegetation may be delayed in dry years, so burning in fall or winter may produce more dependable revegetation. 26 ADDITIONAL WILDLIFE HABITAT CONSIDERATIONS WETLANDS Wetlands are areas where the water table is at, near, or above the surface of the land during a significant part of most years (Sather 1976). These areas include marshes, mudflats, swamps, bogs, wet meadows, flood plains, and the margins of rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Streambank management was discussed in section 24. ROW ownership, adjacent land ownership, and the narrow width of the ROW make it infeasible for utilities to manage wetlands for wildlife. Instead, utilities attempt to minimize wetland impacts of ROW construction and maintenance. Construction and maintenance in wetlands may cause direct habitat loss, addition of chemicals and suspended solids, and modification of water levels and flow regimes (Carvell 1976). Besides the direct degradation or loss of habitat for waterfowl, fishes, and furbearers, the fluctuation of water levels caused by flooding or draining may be detrimental to marginal vegetation (Boelter and Close 1974). In long, linear construction projects, a drainage ditch, spoil bank, or access road may act as a dam that retards or prevents normal water movement. These special features become critical in coastal areas where interference with freshwater flow causes saltwater intrusion into the wetlands (Darnell 1976). Where access roads are to be maintained in wetlands, cross-drainage should be permitted to maintain existing drainage patterns. Activities such as placement of transmission towers will disturb the submerged soil in the wetland causing redistribution of sediments, nutrients, etc.; increased turbidity; and, possibly, modification of water circulation patterns. Increased turbidity reduces light penetration, which in turn reduces photosynthesis but increases water temperature (Darnell 1976). Damage to aquatic organisms depends on the duration of increase in fine sediment; however, invertebrates recolonize quickly after fine sediment has been removed (Crabtree et al. 1978). Mortality of waterfowl and other birds (e.g., pelicans, raptors, shorebirds) through collisions with transmission lines in wetland areas is a matter of growing concern (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1978). Recent bibliographies (Avery et al. 1978; Dailey 1978; and Asplundh Environmental Services 1979) summarize the available information on this subject. Compared to other reported sources of mortality, waterfowl losses at 112 Summary transmission lines may not be great overall (Stout and Cornwell 1976; Anderson 1978), but the impact of this mortality source on local populations may be significant (Harrison 1962). Not only are waterfowl and other birds killed by transmission lines, but the lines may affect the flight behavior of birds (Meyer 1978). The presence of overhead lines and supporting towers may render otherwise suitable wetland habitat unattractive to certain species of birds. Such an effect, however, has never been documented. Research currently in progress in Oregon (Lee 1978) and Minnesota (Welford and Korschgen n.d.), and now being developed in North Dakota (Trauger 1979), will give further insight into the direct and indirect effects of transmission lines on birds in wetland habitat, and will hopefully provide means for predicting future impacts and for mitigating them when necessary. To reduce the incidence of bird collisions, it has been recommended that transmission lines not be sited through wetlands (Anderson 1978; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1978), but not all wetlands are high risk collision areas, and other factors must also be considered when evaluating impacts of powerlines (Meyer 1978). ENDANGERED/THREATENED SPECIES HABITAT Perhaps one of the most environmentally difficult situations a utility company faces is that of an endangered or threatened species on an existing or planned ROW. Many endangered/threatened species habitats have already been identified by State or Federal wildlife agencies. For such sensitive habitats, consideration should be given to identifying the extent of the habitats, which could vary from a few square feet to several miles. Sometimes routing around such species habitat may be possible. Close cooperation between utility personnel and State or Federal biologists is needed at this point. A management plan may be developed that is compatible to both the species’ habitats and the utility. While a ROW may create an edge area beneficial to certain wildlife species, at the same time it may also bisect a habitat. Terborgh (1974) pointed out that fragmenting habitats may result in isolated habitats too small to support the species it originally supported. A ROW may act as a barrier to animal movement (Schreiber and Graves 1977) and, in the case of certain endangered species, could possibly cause reproductive isolation (Schreiber et al. 1976). There is currently insufficient information to assess adequately this “barrier effect.” 27 SUMMARY A variety of techniques exists for providing fish and wildlife habitat while maintaining vegetation on transmission line ROWs in a variety of biotic communities. Mechanical techniques to . remove vegetation completely often: 1) temporarily eliminate site protection and most wildlife cover, 2) remove or bunch nutrient capital, and 3) maximize microclimate extremes. CHAPTER 6 The effects depend mainly on pretreatment cover, degree of soil disturbance, and method of slash disposal. Brush piling is a valuable technique for habitat management and can help minimize adverse effects of clearing to a number of wildlife species. Chipping or burning brush piles is expensive and has little or no wildlife benefit. Studies have shown that bulldozing to simply topple trees can improve habitat for certain wildlife without scarification, but this technique has aesthetic drawbacks. Of the mechanical techniques, selective cutting, if carefully planned, has the most potential for wildlife, but may not be economically feasible in areas with limited access or with dense cover types. Herbicide application is among the most frequently used techniques for ROW maintenance. There are many kinds of herbicides and application methods. This technique does not physically disturb the soil and, if properly planned and used, can effectively enhance wildlife habitat. However, care must be taken to avoid contamination of nontarget species, degradation of water quality through runoff, and residual effects due to bioaccumulation and the persistence of some chemicals. Planting and seeding can meet the specific require- ments of selected fish and wildlife species. Seeding is often necessary to prevent soil erosion and restore wildlife values after bulldozing, disking, or severe burns; however, costs are often high. Prescribed burning is often used by wildlife biologists to enhance production of herbs and shrubs. Plant nutritive values often increase greatly after burning. Burning also makes possible the germination of seeds of certain species (e.g., jack pine). However, utility companies have seldom used prescribed burning because of safety concerns, lack of experienced personnel, air pollution regulations, and potential damage to transmission facilities. There is no single technique or single cover type clearly best suited for ROW management in all situations. Choice of technique and cover type should be made with careful consideration of the land around a particular area as well as pretreatment cover in the ROW itself. Combinations of techniques (e.g., bulldozing and seeding, spraying and burning, selective cutting and brush piling) can sometimes minimize adverse impacts of a single technique and maximize wildlife values. REFERENCES Ahlgren, C.E. 1963. Some basic ecological factors in pre- scribed burning in northeastern Minnesota. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 2:143-149. . 1966. Small mammals and reforestation after prescribed burning. J. For. 64(9):614-618. Aldon, E.F. 1973. Revegetating disturbed areas in the semi- arid Southwest. J. Soil Water Conserv. 28:223-225. Allan, P.F., and W.W. Sheiner. 1959. Autumn olive for wildlife and other conservation uses. U.S. Dept. Agric. Leaflet 458. 8 pp. WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Summary 27 / References Allen, D.L. 1949. Agronomic practices in relation to wildlife. J. Soil Water Conserv. 4:107-116, 128. Ambrose, R.E. 1975. The effect of small-tract clearcutting on populations of birds and small mammals. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Tennessee. 311 pp. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. n.d. Erosion and sediment control on urban and construction sites: an annotated bibliography, 2nd ed. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. Spec. Publ. SP-0475. 33 pp. Ammann, G.A. 1963. 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R&D Rep. 81. 14 pp. Appendixes GENERAL APPENDIX A List of Selected Plants Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Eastern United States Eastern United States (Continued Acacia Acacia rigidula 2520 Bedstraw Galium circaezans 2310 Agrimony Agrimonia spp. 2210 Bedstraw, cleavers Galium aparine 2210, 2320, 2510 Agrimony, common Agrimonia eupatoria 2310 Bedstraw, fragrant Galium triflorum 2110, 2210 Air plant Frllandsta a spp. 4110 Bedstraw, hairy Galium pilosum 2320 Alder, smooth Alnus rugosa 2110, 2210 Bedstraw, pretty Galium concinnum 2210 Alder, smooth Alnus Serculate ata 2320 Bedstraw, rough Galium asprelTum 2110 Alder, speckled Alnus rugosa 2110, 2240 Beech Fagus grandifolia 2110, 2210, 2310, mers white Chath cum Sciminata 2210, 2320 2320 exander Angelica atropurpurea 2210 Beech, blue Carpinus caroliniana 2110, 2210, 2310, Aloe, American Agave virginica 2210 2320 Alvaradoa, Mexican Alvaradoa amorphioides 4110 Beechdrops, Virginia Epifagus virginiana 2310 Amorpha, Beggar ticks Bidens spp. 2510 clusterspike Amorpha herbacea 2320 Beggar ticks Bidens mitis 4110 Anemone, rue- Anemone quinquefolia 2110, (2210) Beggar ticks Bidens pilosa 4110 Anemone, rue- Anemone? 1a Bellflower, American Campanula americana 2310 tha ctr ‘oides 2210, (2310), 2320 |Bellwort Uvularia spp. 2110 Anemone, wood- Anemone quinguefolia 2110, 2210 Bellwort Uvularia perfoliata 2210 Anemonella Anemonella Bellwort, large- thalictroides (2210), 2310, (2320)] flowered Uvularia grandiflora 2110, 2210 Arbutus, trailing rpigaee repens repens 2110, 2210, 2320 Bergamot, wild Monarda fistulosa 2320 Arrow-root Thalia geniculata 4110 Bilberry, sour-top Vaccinium myrtillc myrtilloides 2110 Arrow-wood Vibra dentatia dentatum 2110, 2210 Birch, black Betula lenta 2210 Arrow-wood, downy Viburnum Tafinesquianum uianum 2110, 2320 Birch, bog Betula pumila 2110 Arrowhead Sacitae Ce a spp. 2320 Birch, gray Betula Popu ifolia 2110, 2210 Ash, black Fraxinus nigra 2110, 2210 Birch, paper Betula a papyrifera 2110, 2210 Ash, Carolina Fraxinus caroliniana 2310, 2320, 4110 Birch, river Betula a ra 2210, 2310, 2320 Ash, green Fraxinus pennsylvanica 2210, 2310, 2320, Birch, yellow Betula lutea 2110, 2210 2510, 2530 Bishop's-cap Mitella nuda 2110 Ash, mountain- Sorbus americana 2110, 2210 Bitter bush Hicramnia, a pentandra 4110 Ash, pumpkin Fraxinus tomentosa 2310, 2320 Bittersweet CeTastrus scandens 2210, 2310 Ash, white Fraxinus americana 2110, 2210, 2310, Black-eyed Susan Rudbeckia hirta 2210 2320 Blackberry Rubus spp. 2320, 2510 Aspen, large-toothed Populus grandidentata 2110, 2210 Blackberry Rubus a allegheniensis 2110, 2210, 2510 Aspen, trembling Pouplus tremuloides 2110, 2210 Blackbrush Acacia amentacea 2520 Aster Aster spp. 2110, 2210 Blackroot Pterocaulon Aster Aster caroliniensis 4110 pycnostachyun 4110 Aster Aster concolor 2310 Bladdernut Staphylea trifolia 2210, 2320, 2510 Aster Aster elodes 2320 Bladderwort, awn Utricularia subulata 2310, 2320 Aster, calico Aster Tateriflorus 2310 Bladderwort, horned Utricularia cornuta 2310 Aster, hairy Aster pilosus 2320 Blazing-star Liatris punctata 2210, (2510), (2530) Aster, heath Aster ericoides 2320, 2530 Bloodroot Sanguinaria canadensis 2110, 2210, 2310, Aster, large-leaved Aster macrophyllus 2110, 2210 2320 Aster, meadow Aster puniceus (2110), 2210 Blue flag Iris versicolor 2110, 2210, 2320 Aster, purple- Blue flag, southern Iris virginica 2210 stemmed Aster puniceus 2110, (2210) Blueberry Vaccinium spp. 2110 Aster, single-stem Blueberry, Blue Ridge Vaccinium vacillans (2210), 2320 bog Aster hemisphericus 2320 Blueberry, ground Vaccinium myrsinites 2310, (4110) Avens, white Geum canadense 2210 Blueberry, highbush- Vaccinium corymbosum 2210 Azalea, smooth Rhododendron Blueberry, low early Vaccinium vacillans 2210, (2320) arborescens 2210 Blueberry, low late Vaccinium angustifolium 2210 Azalea, swamp Rhododendron viscosum 2310 Blueberry, shiny Vaccinium myrsinites (2310), 4110 Blueberry, smallcluster rabbit-eye Vaccinium virgatum var. Bachélor's button, tenelTum 2310 white Polygala baldwinii 4110 Bluestem, big Andropogon gerardi 2510, 2530 Baldcypress Taxodium distichum 2210, 2310, 2320, Bluestem, cabaris Andropogon capillipes 2320 4110 Bluestem, cane Andropogon barbinodis 2520, 2530 Baldcypress, pond Taxodium ascendens 2310, 2320, 4110 Bluestem, gulf Indrobocon jogon maritimus 2310 Balsamscale Elyonurus tripsacoides 4110 Bluestem, little Andropogon scoparius (2210), (2310), 2510, Baneberry, red ctaea rubra 2110, 2210 a So tokaa Baneberry, white Actaea pachypoda 2110, 2210, 2320 Bluestem, sand Andropogon hallii 2510, 2520, Banyan tree, wild Ficus cferifotis 4110 Bluestem, seacoast Andropogon littoralis 2510, 2520 Barley, little Hordeum eum pusillum 2520, 2530 Bluestem, silver indropogon ‘saccharoides 2520 Basil Satureja calamintha 2210 Bluets, common Houstonia caerulea 2320 Basswood Tilia americana 2110, 2210 Bluets, purple Houstonia jurpurea 2310 Basswood, white Tilia heterophylla 2210, 2310, 2320 Bogbean Menyanthes trifoliata 2110 Batis Batis maritima 4110 Boneset Eupatorium perfoliatum 2210 Bayberry, northern Myrica pensylvanica 2310, 2320 Boneset, false Kuhnia eupatorioides 2310 Bearberry rrctostaphylos uva-ursi 2110 Borreria Borreria terminalis 4110 Beautyberry, Box-elder Acer negundo 2110, 2210, 2310, American Callicarpa americana 2310, 2320, 4110 2320, 2530 Bedstraw Galium spp. 2210 Bracken See "Ferns" continued continued 124 General Appendix General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Eastern United States (Continued Brome, annual Brome, downy Brome, Japanese Broomsedge Broomsedge Broomweed Broonweed Brownhair Buckbrush Buckeye, Ohio Buckeye, painted Buckeye, sweet Buckeye, yellow Buckthorn Buckthorn, alder- leaved Buckthorn, false Buckthorn, yellow Buckwheat-tree Bugleweed Bulrush Bulrush, American Burning-bush Bustic Buttercup, kidneyleaf- Buttercup, swamp- Butterfly-weed Butternut Butterwort, small Butterwort, yellow Buttonbush, common Buttonplant, smooth Buttonweed Buttonweed, rough Buttonwood Cabbage, skunk Cajeput tree Camellia, mountain- Cane Cane, southern Cankerberry Caper tree, bay- leaved Caper tree, Jamaica Capeweed Cardinal flower Carpetweed Carrion-flower Carrot, wild Cat-claw Cat-claw Cat-tail Cat-tail, narrowleaf T, Catalpa, northern Catalpa, southern Cedar, white Cheat Cherry, black Cherry, Carolina laurel Cherry, choke- Cherry, fire Cherry, West Indian Bromus spp. Bromus tectorum Bromus japonicus Andropogon scoparius Andropogon virginicus Gutierrezia spp. Gutierrezia dracunculoides Tephrosia spicata Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Aesculus glabra Aesculus sylvatica Aesculus octandra Aesculus octandra Bumelia reclinata Rhamnus alnifolia Bumelia lanuginosa Rhamnus caroliniana Cliftonia monophylla Ajuga reptans Scirpus spp. Scirpus americanus Euonymus atropurpureus Dipholis salicifolia Ranunculus abortivus Ranunculus septentrionalis Asclepias tuberosa duglans cinerea Pinguicula pumila Pinguicula lutea Cephalanthus occidentalis Spermacoce glabra Diodia virginiana Diodia teres Conocarpus erecta Symplocarpus foetidus 2530 2510 2530 2210, 2310, (2510), (2520), (2530) 2310, 2320 2520 2520 2310 (2210), (2510), 2530 2210 2320 2210 2210 4110 2110 2210, 2310 2210 2310 2210 2310, 2510 2510 2210, (2320) 4110 2210 2110, 2210 2110, 2310, 2320 2210, 2310 2320 2310 2210, 2310, 2320, 4110 2310 4110 2530 4110 2210 Melaleuca quinquenervia 4110 Stewartia pentagyna Arund i aria gigantea Arundinaria tecta Solanum bahamense Capparis flexuosa Capparis cynophalophora Lippia nodiflora Lobelia cardinalis Mollugo verticillata Smilax herbacea Daucus carota Pithecellobium keyense Schrankia nuttallii Typha latifolia ha angustifolia Catalpa speciosa Catalpa bignonioides Thuja occidentalis Bromus secalinus — Prunus. serotina Prunus caroliniana Prunus virginiana Prunus pensylvanica Prunus myrtifolia continued 2210 2210, 2310, 2320 2210, 2310, 2320 4110 4110 4110 4110 2320 2510 2210, 2320 2210, 2320 4110 2210, 2510 2210, 2210, 2320, 2510 2320 2310 2310 2110 2530 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2310 2110, 2210, 2510 2110, 2210 4110 Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Eastern United States (Continued Chestnut Castanea dentata 2210, 2320 Chew stick Gouania lupuloides 4110 Chinquapin Castanea pumila 2210, 2310, 2320 Chinquapin, Ozark Castanea ozarkensis 2210 Chokeberry, black Aronia melanocarpa 2210 Chokeberry, red Aronia arbutifolia 2210, 2320 Christmas berry Lycium carolinianum 4110 Cicely, sweet Osmorhiza claytoni 2110, 2210, 2310 Cinnamon, wild Canella alba 4110 Cinquefoil Potentilla spp. 2210 Clearweed Pilea pumila 2210 Clematis, curly Clematis crispa 2320 Clethra, summer- sweet , Clethra alnifolia 2310 Clover, bush- Lespedeza spp. 2210, (2510) Club-moss Lycopodium spp. 2110, 2210 Club-moss, bristly Lycopodium annotinum 2110 Club-moss, Carolina Lycopodium carolinianum 2310 Club-moss, foxtail Lycopodium alopecuroides 2310, 2320 Club-moss, shining Lycopodium Tucidulum 2110 Cocklebur Xanthium spp. 2110 Coffee, wild Colubrina arborescens ae Coffee, wild Psychotria undata 4110 Cohosh, blue Cau ophy um thalictroides 2110, 2210, 2320 Coltsfoot, sweet Petasites palmatus 2110 Columbine Aquilegia canadensis 2110, 2320 Comfrey, wild Cynoglossum virginianum 2210 Compass plant Silphium Jaciniatum 2510, 2530 Coneflower Rudbeckia spp. 2520 Coneflower, clasping Rudbeckia amplexicaulis 2510 Coneflower, prairie Ratibida columnifera 2520, 2530 Conradina Conradina grandif ora 4110 Coontie Zamia pumila 4110 Coral bean Erythrina herbacea 4110 Coralberry Symphoricarpos spp. 2510 Coralberry Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 2210, (2510), (2530) Coreopsis Coreopsis falcata 2320 Coreopsis, 1 2530 narrowleaf Coreopsis lanceolata 3 Cornel, dwarf Cornus canadensis 2110 Cornel, stiff Cornus foemina 4110 Cottonwood 2510 Cottonwood, eastern Cottonwood, plains Cow-wheat. Crab's eye Crabwood Cranberry Cranberry, highbush- Cranberry, smal] Cress, bitter Cress, spring- Cross-vine Croton Croton, Croton, Croton, Croton, Crowfoot Crown-beard Crown-beard, yellow Cucumber-root Cucumber-tree Cudweed Currant, black Currant, flowering Currant, skunk Currant, swamp Currant, swamp red New Mexican pineland Texas tropic Populus spp. Populus deltoides Populus sargentii etampyran Tineare Abrus preca. s Gymnanthes lucida Vaccinium macrocarpon Viburnum trilobum Vaccinium oxycoccos Cardamine douglassti Cardamine bulbosa Bignonia capreolata Croton spp. Croton punctatus Croton linearis Croton texensis Croton glandulosus fanuncutus spp Verbesina laciniata Verbesina occidentalis Medeola virginiana Magnolia acuminata Gnaphalium falcatum Ribes americanum Ribes odoratum Ribes. qTanduTosun Ribes lacustre Ribes triste continued 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2530 2110, 2210 4110 4110 2110 2110 2110 2210 2210 2210, 2310, 2320 2310, 2510, 2520 2320 4110 2520, 2530 2510 2110 4110 2320 2110, 2210 2210, 2310, 2320 2510, 2530 2110 2530 2110 2110 2110 ry A: List of Selected Plants 125 General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Eastern United States (Continued Eastern United States (Continued) Dahoon Ilex cassine 4110, 2310 Ferns (Continued) : Daisy, Englemann Engelmannia pinnatifida 2520 Christmas fern Polystichum Daisy, ox-eye- Chrysanthemum acrostichoides 2210, 2310, 2320 Teucanthemum 2110, 2320 Cinnamon fern Qsmunda cinnamomea 2110, 2210, 2310, Dandelion Taraxacum officionale 2110 2320 Deerberry Vaccinium stamineum 2210, 2310, 2320 Climbing fern Lygodium palmatum 2210 Devil's claws Pisonia aculeata 4110 Goldie's fern Dryopterus goldiana 2210 Dewberry Rubus flagellaris 2210 Hay-scented fern Dennstaedtia Dewberry Rubus hispidus 2110, (2210) punctilobula 2110, 2210, 2320 Dewberry, southern Rubus trivialis 2310 Interrupted fern Osmunda claytoniana 2110, 2210, 2320 Dewberry, swamp Rubus hispidus (2110), 2210 Lady-fern Athyrium filix-femina 2210, 2310 Dilly, wild Manilkara bahamensis 4110 Leather fern Acrostichum Dittany Cunila origanoides — 2210 danaeaefolium 4110 Dog fennel Eupatorium Maidenhair fern Adiantum pedatum 2110, 2210, 2310, capillifolium 2310, 4110 2320 Dogbane Apocynum Marsh fern Dryopteris thelypteris 2310 androsaemi fol ium 2110, 2210 Marsh fern, Dogwood, alternate- southern Thelypteris palustris leaved Cornus alternifolia 2110, 2210 var. haleana 4110 Dogwood, flowering Cornus florida 2210, 2310, 2320 Mid-sorus fern, Dogwood, gray S paniculata aie toothed Blechnum serrulatum 4110 Dogwood, Jamaica- dia piscipula 0 Oak-fern Dryopterus disjuncta 2110 Dogwood, pale Cornus obliqua 2210 Ostrich fern Pteretis pensylvanica 2110, 2210 Dogwood, red-osier Cornus stolonifera 2110, 2210 Rattlesnake fern Botrychit chiun virgintanu virginianum 2110, 2210, 2310 Dogwood, round- Resurrection fern Polypodium Jeaved Cornus rugosa 2110, 2210 olypodioides 2310 Dogwood, silky Cornus amomum 2110, 2210, 2310, Royal fern Osmunda regalis 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2320, 4110 Dogwood, swamp Cornus stricta 2310, 2320 Sensitive fern Onoclea sensi s 2110, 2210, 2310 Dropseed, sand Sporobolus cryptandrus 2530 Sweet-fern Comptonia peregrina 2110, 2210 Duck-potato Sagittaria latifolia 2110 Sword fern, giant Nephrolepis biserrata 4110 Dutchman's-breeches Dicentra cucullaria 2210 Wood fern Peers spinulosa 2110, 2210 Dutchman's-pipe vine Aristolochia durior 2210 Wood fern, crested Dryopteris cristata 2110 Fescue, meadow- Festuca elatior 2110, 2210 Fescue, six-weeks Festuca octoflora 2530 Elder, common Elder, red-berried Elephant- foot Elm, American Elm, Elm, Elm, Elm, red rock September slippery Elm, water- Elm, winged Eriogonum Eriogonum, annual Eryngium, fragrant Euonymus, trailing Eupatorium Eupatorium Eupatorium, semaphore Eupatorium, villous Euphorbia Euphorbia, ipecac Everlasting, pearly Falsecypress Farkleberry Ferns: Beech fern Beech fern, broad Boston fern Bracken fern Bracken fern Chain fern Chain fern, netted Chain fern, Virginia Sambucus canadensis Sambucus pubens Elephantopus tomentosus Ulmus americana Ulmus Ulmus rubra thomasii Ulmus serotina Ulmus rubra Planera aquatica Ulmus alata Eriogonum tomentosum Eriogonum annuum Eryngium aromaticum Euonymus obovatus Eupatorium spp. Eupatorium album Eupatorium mikanioides Eupatorium villosum 2110, 2210, 2310, 2510 2110, 2210 2320 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510, 2530 2210, 2320 2110, 2210 2320 2210, (2320) 2310, 2320 2210, 2310, 2320 2310 2520, 4110 2210 2310 2310 2530 4110 4110 Euphorbia polygonifolia 2320 Euphorbia ipecacuanhae Anaphalis margaritacea Chamaecyparis thyoides Vaccinium arboreum Oryopteris phegopteris Oryopteris hexagonoptera Nephrolepis exaltata Pteridium aquilinum Pteridium aquilinum var. caudatum Woodwardia spp. Woodwardia areolata Woodwaraia virginica cont inued 2320 2110, 2210 2320 2320 2310, 2310, 2110 2210 4110 2110, 2210, 2310 4110 2310 2310 2310, 2320 Fetter-bush lyonia Fiddlewood Fig, strangler Figwort, Maryland Fir, balsam Fireweed Fireweed Flatsedge Flatsedge Flatsedge Flaveria Flaveria Flax Fleabane Fleabane, daisy- Fleabane, early whitetop Fleabane, marsh Fleabane, southern Fogfruit Foxglove, false Foxtail Frostweed Fringe-tree Fumitory Garlic, field Garlic-mustard Gay-feather, dotted Gay-feather, pinkscale Gay-feather, Geiger tree Gentian Geranium, wild Gerardia Gerardia Gerardia tall Lyonia lucida Citharexylum fruticosum Ficus aurea Scrophularia marilandica Abies balsamea Epilobium Cyperus spp. Cyperus ligularis Cyperus planifolius Flaveria latifolia Flaveria linearis Linum carteri Erigeron spp- spp. Erigeron annuus Erigeron vernus Pluchea rosea Erigeron quercifolius Fippia stoechadifolia Agalinus fasciculata Setaria spp. Helianthemum nashii_ Chionanthus virginicus Fumaria officinalis Allium vineale jaria officinalis Liatris punctata Liatris tenuifolia Liatris scariosa fasciculata flava Gerard Gerarida linifolia continued angustifolium Erechtites hieracifolia 2310, 2320, 4110 4110 4110 2310 2110 2110 2210 2310, 4110 4110 4110 4110 4110 4110 2530 2110 2320 4110 4110 4110 4110 2210, 4110 4110 2210, 2320 2320 2320 2210 (2210), 2510, 2530 2310 2310 4110 2310 2210 2310 2310 2310 A RN A A I RS SR RRR NR 126 General Appendix General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Eastern United States Ginger, arum wild Ginger, wild Ginseng Glasswort, annual Globe mallow Goat's-beard, false Goldaster Goldaster, Maryland Golden-glow Goldenrod Goldenrod Goldenrod Goldenrod Goldenrod Goldenrod, Goldenrod, Goldenrod, Goldenrod, barren Goldenrod, Goldenrod, Goldenstar Goldthread Gooseberry Gooseberry, Florida Gooseberry, pasture Gopher apple Grama, black Grama, blue Grama, hairy Grama, side-oats Grama, Texas Grape Grape, Grape, Grape, Grape, fragrant Missouri oldfield pine silver zigzag fox muscadine Oregon- possum- Grape, river-bank Grape, wild Grasses: Barnyard grass Beardgrass Beardgrass Beardgrass, bushy Bentgrass, upland Bermuda grass Blowout-grass Blue-eyed grass Blue-joint grass Bluegrass Bluegrass, Canada Bluegrass, Kentucky Bristlegrass, green Bristlegrass, yellow Bromegrass Buffalo grass Canary-grass Cheatgrass Cordgrass Cordgrass, gulf Cordgrass, marsh- hay Cordgrass, prairie Cordgrass, smooth Cotton-grass Crabgrass, hairy Cutgrass, rice Dallis-grass Fingergrass Gamagrass, eastern Gamagrass, Florida Asarum arifolium Asarum canadense Panax quinquefol ium Salicornea bigelovii Sphaeralcea spp. Astilbe biternata Chrysopsis scabrella Chrysopsis mariana Rudbeckia laciniata Solidago spp. Solidago microcephala Solidago petiolaris Solidago salicina sempervirens Solidago Solidago odora Solidago missouriensis Solidago nemoralis Solidago fistulosa Solidago bicolor Solidago flexicaulis Chrysogonum viri Coptis groenlandica Ribes spp. Ribes echinel1lum Ribes cynosbati Licania michauxii BouteToua eriopoda Bouteloua gracilis Bouteloua hirsuta Bouteloua curtipendula Bouteloua rigidiseta Vitis spp. Vitis labrusca Vitis rotundifolia Mahonia trifolioata Cissus sicyoides riparia Vitis vulpina Echinochloa crusgalli Andropogon spp. Andropogon cabanisii Androgogon glomeratus igrostis perennans Cynodon dactyTon Redfieldia flexuosa Sisyrinchium spp. Calamagrostis canadensis Poa spp. Poa compressa Poa pratensis Setaria viridis Setaria lutescens See "Brome Buchloe dactyloides Phalaris arundinacea See "Cheat Spartina bakeri Spartina spartinae Spartina patens Spartina pectinata Spartina alterniflora Eriophorum spp. Digitaria sanguinalis Leersia oryzoides Paspalum dilatatum Chloris glauca Tripsacum dactyloides Tripsacum floridanum continued janum 2310, Continued 2320 2110, 2210 2210 4110 2510 2210 4110 2310 2210 2110, 2210, 2530 4110 2310 2320 4110 2310 2530 2320 2320 2320 2310 2320 2110 2210, 2320 2110, 4110 2530 2520, 2520 2520, 2520 2210, 2210 2320, 2520 4110 2210 2510 2510 2210 2530 2530 2310, 2510 4110 2510, 2520, 2530 4110 4110 4110 2210 2320 2530 2210, 2320 2210 2530 2110, 2530 2210 2530 2110, 2510, 2530 2530 2520, 2210 4110 2510 2320 (2210), 2510, 2530 2510 2110 2320, 2530 2510 2320 4110 2510, 2530 4110 Eastern United States (Continued) Grasses (Continued): Grama grass Indian-grass Key grass Lovegrass Lovegrass, gummy Lovegrass, sand Lovegrass, tumble Marsh-grass Meadowgrass, fowl- Meadowgrass, salt Needlegrass, Texas Nutgrass, yellow Panic-grass Plume grass, sugarcane Porcupine-grass Poverty-grass Reedgrass Rice-grass, Indian Rice-grass, upland Saltgrass Saltgrass, inland Sawgrass Sawgrass, Jamaica Silk grass Star-grass Star-grass, golden Star-grass, whitetube Switchgrass Tooth-ache grass Tumblegrass Umbrella grass, Florida Umbrella grass, whi te-topped Wheatgrass, slender Wheatgrass, western Wind-mill grass Witchgrass, common Yellow-eyed grass Green dragon Greenbrier Greenbrier Greenbrier Greenbrier Greenbrier, bristly Greenbrier, herbaceous Greenbrier, laurel- leaved Greenbrier, redbead Greenbrier, saw Ground-cedar Ground-cherry Ground-cherry, field Ground-pine Groundsel Gum, black Hackberry, common Hackberry, sugar Hardhack Hat pin See "Grama" Sorghastrum nutans fonanthochTos ittoralis Eragrostis spp. ragrostis curtipedicellata Eragrostis trichodes 4110 2510 2530 2530 2510, 2520, 2530 Eragrostis sessilispica 2510, 2530 Spartina pectinata Glyceria striata 2210 Puccinellia nuttalliana 2530 Stipa lTeucotricha 2510, 2520 Cyperus esculentus 2510 Panicum spp. 2510, 4110 Erianthus giganteus 4110 Stipa spartea 2530 Danthonia spicata 2110, 2210 Calamagrostis aneapansa 2110, 2530 Oryzopsis hymenoides 2530 Oryzopsis asperifolia 2110, 2210 Distichlis spicata 4110 Distichlis stricta 2530 Cladium jamaicense 4110 Mariscus jamaicensis 2310 Chrysopsis graminifolia 4110 etris aurea 2320 Hypoxis ‘antha 2320 Aletris farinosa 2320 Panicum virgatum 2530, 4110 Ctenium aromaticum 2320 Schedonnardus paniculatus 2520 Dichromena floridensis 4110 Dichromena colorata 4110 Agropyron trachycaulum 2530 Agropyron smithii 2530 Chloris verticillata 2530 Panicum capillare «2530 Xyris elliottii 4110 Arisaema dracontium 2210, 2310 Smilax spp. 2320, 2510 Smilax auriculata 4110 ‘Smilax glauca 2210, 2310 ‘Smilax havanensis 4110 Smilax hispida 2210, 2510 Smilax herbacea 2210, (2320) Smilax laurifolia 2310, 2320, 4110 Smilax walter? 2310 Smilax bona-nox 2310, 2510 Lycopodium complanatum 2110 Physalis spp. 2310 Physalis viscosa 2510 Lycopodium obscurum 2110 jaccharis halimifolia 4110 Nyssa sylvatica 2210, 2310, 2320 Celtis occidentalis 2510, 2530 Celti laevigata 2310, ‘omentosa 2110, Spiraea Eriocaulon decangulare 4110 continued 2320 2210 2210, (2510), (2530) 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510, 2520, 2210, 2310, 2320, A: List of Selected Plants 127 General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Common name Scientific name Province(s)@ ‘| Eastern United States (Continued Hawkweed Hieraceum spp. 2110 Hawthorn Crataegus spp. 2110, 2210, 2310, 2510 Hawthorn Crataegus consanguinea 2310 Hawthorn rataegus elliptica 2320 Hawthorn Crataegus robur 2310 Hawthorn, May rataegus aestivalis 2310 Hawthorn, one-flower 2320 Hazelnut, beaked Hazelnut, common Heliotrope Heliotrope, pineland Hellebore, false Hemlock Hemp, button Hemp, Indian Hempweed, climbing Hepatica Hepatica, acute- lobed Hepatica, round- lobed Hercules'-club Hickory, bitternut Hickory, Carolina mockernut pignut Hickory, Hickory, red sand shagbark Hickory, Hickory, Hickory, Hickory, shellbark Hickory, Texas Hickory, water Hippocratea Hobblebush Hog-peanut Holly Holly, American Holly, deciduous Holly, mountain Holly, tawnyberry Honewort Honeysuckle Honeysuckle, Honeysuckle, Honeysuckle, Honeysuckle, Japanese Honeysuckle, fly- Honeysuckle, tartarian Hop-hornbeam bush fly- hairy swamp- Horse-gentian, common Horsetail Horsetail, common Horseweed Huckleberry Huckleberry, dwarf Hydrangea, wild Hypericum Hyssop, water Indigo-berry, white Indigo, wild Indigo, wild Crataegus uniflora Corylus cornuta Corylus americana Heliotropium indicum Heliotropium polyphy Tum Veratrum viride Tsuga canadensis Boehmeria cylindrica Apocynum cannabinum Mikania scandens Hepatica spp. Hepatica acutiloba Hepatica americana Aralia spinosa Carya cordiformis Carya carolinae- septentrionalis Carya tomentosa Carya glabra Carya ovalis Carya pallida Carya ovata Carya laciniosa Carya texana Carya aquatica Hippocratea volubilis Viburnum alnifolium — Amphicarpa bracteata Ilex coriacea Tlex opaca Tlex decidua Nemopanthus mucronatus Tlex krugiana rryptotaenta canadensis Lonicera spp. Diervilla lonicera Lonicera canadensis Lonicers rsuta Lonicera japonica Lonicera oblongifolia Lonicera tartarica Ostrya virginiana Triosteum perfoliatum Equisetum spp. Equisetum arvense conyza canadensis Gaylussacia baccata GayTussacia dumosa Hydrangea arborescens Hypericum spp. Bacopa monnieri Randia aculeata Baptisia lanceolata japtisia tinctoria Indigo, Atlantic wild Baptisia Teucantha continued 2110, 2210, 2320 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2310 4110 2210 2110, 2210 4110 2320 4110 2110 2210 2310 2210, 2310 2210, 2310, 2320 2320 2210, 2310, 2320 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2320 2320 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510, 2530 2210 2210, 2510 2310, 2320 4110 2110 2110, 2320 2210, 2110, 2110, 4110 2210 2210 2110, 2110, 2110, 2320 2210 2310, 2320 2210, (2320) 2210 2210 2210 2210 2110 2110 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320 2320 2110, 2210 2210 2510, 2530 2110, 2210, 2320 2310, 2320 2210, 2320 2310 4110 4110 2310 2210 2530 Eastern United States (Continued Indigo, blue wild Indigo, plains wild Indigobush Inkberry Inkwood Iris, bay Iris, vernal Ironweed Ironwood, black Jack-in-the-pulpit Jack-in-the-pulpit, smal] Jacob's-ladder Jessamine, Carolina Jewelweed Joe-Pye-weed, spotted John's-cabbage Jointweed Juneberry Juneberry Juniper, common Kalmia, sandhill Knotweed Kochia Kudzu Labrador-tea Ladies'-tresses Ladies '-tresses, southern Lady's-slipper Lady's-slipper, common Lady's-slipper, yellow Lamb's-quarters Larkspar, dwarf Larkspar, rock Laurel, bog- Laurel, mountain- Leadplant Leadplant Leafcup Leather-leaf Leatherwood Leek, wild Lespedeza Lespedeza, Chinese Lespedeza, common Lespedeza, hairy Lespedeza, Korean Leucothoe, coast Leucothoe, sweetbells Licorice, wild Lily, corn- Lily-of-the-valley, wild Lily, rain Lily, spider Lily, trout- Lily, white water Limbo, gumbo Lime, wild Lion's-foot Lizard's-tail Baptisia minor Baptisia leucophaea Amorpha fruticusa Tlex glabra Exothea paniculata Iris tridentata Iris verna Vernonia blodgettii Krugiodendron ferreum Arisaema atrorubens Arisaema triphyllum Polemonium van-bruntiae sempervirens Impatiens capensis Gelsemium Cupatorian maculatum Hydrophy1 lum virginianum Polygonella polygama AmeTanchier spp. Amelanchier canadensis Juniperus communis Kalmia hirsuta Polygonum spp. Kochi scoparia Pueraria lobata Ledum groenlandicum Spiranthes vernalis Spiranthes praecox Cypripedium spp. Cypripedium acaule Cypripedium calceolus Chenopod um album De nium tricorne DeTphinium carolinianum 2210 Kalmia polifolia Kalmia latifolia Amorpha spp. Amorpha canescens. Polymnia canadensis frateedaphne calyculata Dirca palustris Allium tricoccum Lespedeza spp. Lespedeza cuneata Lespedeza striata Lespedeza hirta Lespedeza stipulacea xillaris Leucothoe a Leucothoe racemosa Galium lanceolatum Clintonia borealis Maianthemum canadense Zephyranthes simpson Hymenocallis latifolia Erythronium americanum Nymphaea odorata Bursera simaruba Zanthoxy um fagara renanthes serpentaria Saururus cernuus continued 2510, 2530 2510 2510 2310, 2320, 4110 4110 2320 2320 4110 4110 2210, 2310 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320 2210 2310, 2320 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320 2210 2110, 2210 2320, 4110 (2110), 2210 2210 2210 2310 2110, 2210 2530 2320 2110 4110 2310 2110 2210 2210 2530 2210 2110 2110, 2210, 2320 2530 2310, 2510, 2530 2210 2110, 2320 2110, 2210 2110, 2210 (2210), 2510 2320 2310 2310 2510 2320 2310, 2320 2210 2110 2110, 4110 4110 2110, 4110 4110 4110 2110 2210, 2210 2210, (2320) 2320 128 General Appendix ee General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)? [ Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Eastern United States (Continued Eastern United States (Continued Lobelia Lobelia glandulosa 2310 Mint, musky Hyptis alata 4110 Lobelia, pale-spike- Lobelia siphilitica 2320 Mist flower Eupatorium coelestinum 2310, 4110 Loblolly bay Gordonia lasianthus 2320 Mistletoe, Christmas Locust, black Locust, honey- Locust, little Locust, water- Locustberry Loosestrife Loosestrife, whorled Lopseed Love vine Lupine Lupine, gully Lupine, sundial Lycopodium Magnolia Magnolia, bigleaf Magnolia, southern Magnolia, sweet bay Magnolia, umbrella Mahoe, seaside Mahogany, West Indian Maiden-cane Maleberry Mallow, salt marsh Manchineel Mandarin, nodding Mangrove, black Mangrove, red Mangrove, white Maple, Florida Maple, mountain Maple, red Maple, silver Maple, Maple, striped sugar Marigold, marsh- Marlberry Marsh-pink Mastic, wild May-apple Mayflower, Canada Meadow-beauty Meadow-beauty Meadow-rue Meadow-rue, early Meadow-sweet Mermaid weed Mesquite Mesquite, vine- Milfoil, water- Milk bark Milk-vetch, groundp1um Milkpea Milkpea Milkweed Milkweed, swamp- Milkweed, West Coast Milkweed, whorled Mint, mountain- Mint, Atlantic mounta in- — Robinia pseudo-acacia Gleditsia triacanthos Robinia nana Gleditsia aquatica Byrsonima cuneata Lythrum flagellare Lysimachia quadrifolia Phryma lTeptostachya Cassytha filiformis Lupinus villosus Lupinus diffusus Lupinus perennis Lycopodium obscurum Magnolia spp. Magnolia macrophylla Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia virginiana Magnolia tripetala Thespea populnea Panicum hemitomon Lyonia ligustrina Kosteletzkya virginica Hippomane manicinella Disporum maculatum Avicennia germinans Rhizophora mangle Laguncularia racemosa Acer floridanum Acer spicatum Acer rubrum Acer saccharinum Acer pensylvanicum Acer saccharum Caltha palustris Ardisia escallonoides Sabatia grandiflora Mastichodendron foetidissimum PodophyTlum peltatum Maianthemum canadense Rhexia alifanus mariana Thalictrum revolutum Thalictrum dioi Spiraea latifolia Proserpinaca pectinata Prosopis juliflora Panicum obtusum Myriophy11um exalbescens Drypetes diversifolia Astragalus caryocarpus Galactia spp. Galactia regularis Asclepias spp. Asclepias incarnata Asclepias hytolaccoides Asclepias verticillata Pycnanthemum flexuosum Pycnanthemum incanum continued A: List of Selected Plants 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2320 2310 4110 4110 2210 2110, 2210 4110 2310 2320 2310 2110 2210 2310, 2320 2310 2310, 2320, 4110 2310, 2320 4110 4110 2310 2210, 2320 4110 4110 2210 4110 4110 4110 2310, 2320 2110, 2210 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320, 4110 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320 2110, 2210 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320 2110, 2210 4110 4110 4110 2210, 2110, 2320, 2310 2320 2210, 2110, 4110 2520, 2520 2320 (2210) 4110 2310 (2210) 2530 2110 4110 2510 2320 4110 2210, 2210, 2520 4110 2310 2310 2210 2320 American- Miterwort Miterwort, false Moonseed Moss, haircap Muhly Muhly Muhly, sandhill Mulberry, Indian Mulberry, red Mullein, common Mustard, garlic- Myrsine Myrtle-of-the-river Nannyberry Necklace pod Needle-and-thread Nettle Nettle, stinging Nettle, tall Nettle, wood- New Jersey tea Nicker, gray Nightshade, bittersweet Nightshade, enchanter's Nightshade, enchanter's Ninebark Ninebark Nuisache Oak, Oak, Oak, bear black blackjack Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, bluejack bluejack bur Chapman's cherrybark Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, chestnut chinquapin dwarf dwarf post jack live Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, laurel-leaved myrtle northern red over-cup pin post Oak, red Oak, red Oak, sand live Oak, scarlet Oak, shingle Oak, shinnery Oak, Shumard's red Oak, Spanish Phoradendron flavescens 2310 Cynoctonum mitreola Tiarella cordifolia Menispermum canadense Polytrichum spp. Muhlenbergia spp. 4110 2110, 2210 2210 2110 2310 Muhlenbergia capillaris 4110 Muhlenbergia pungens Morinda royoc Morus rubra Verbascum thapsus. Alliaria officinalis Myrsine guianensis Calyptranthes zuzygium Viburnum lentago Sophora tomentosa Stipa comata Urtica spp. Urt dioica Urtica procera Laportea canade! Ceano ame. nsi anus Caesalpinia crista Solanum dulcamara Circaea canadensis Circaea lutetiana Physocarpus capitatus Physocarpus opulifolius Acacia farnesiana Quercus ilicifolia Quercus velutina Quercus marilandica uercus cinerea uercus incana Quercus macrocarpa Quercus chapmanii Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia uercus prinus uercus prinoides uercus pumila juercus margaretta uercus ellipsoidalis uercus virginian : ; Le a laurifolia myrtifolia borealis lyrata alustris stellata jluercu juercu juercu juercu juercus uercu! Pe uercus borealis var. E z juercus rubra i Quercus virginiana var. geminata uercus coccinea uercus imbricaria juercus mohriana uercus shumardii Quercus falcata continued a 2530 4110 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 2320, 2510 2210 4110 4110 2110, 2210 4110 2530 2110 2210 2110, 2210 2210, 2320 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320 4110 2210 2110 2210 2210 2210 2520 2210 2210, 2310, 2320 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510, 2530 2310 2320 2210, 2510, 2530 4110 2310, 2320 2210, 2310, 2320 2210 2310, 2320, 4110 2310, 2320 2210, 2510 2310, 2320, 2510, 2520, 4110 2210, 2310, 2320 2310, 4110 2110, 2210, 2510 2210, 2310, 2320 2210, 2310 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510, 2530 2310 2210, 2320 2310 2210, 2320 2210, 2310 2530 2210, 2310, 2320 2210, 2310, 2320 nn en ee aE EEE EEE EEE EEE General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Eastern United States (Continued Oak, swamp-white Oak, Texas Oak, turkey Oak, water Oak, white Oak, willow Oak, yellow OiTnut Olive, black Orchis, round-leaved Osmanthus, devilwood Osmunda Ox-eye, sea Ox-eye, sea Palafoxia Palm, Everglades Palm, royal Palm, silver Palmetto, cabbage Palmetto, dwarf Palmetto, saw Panicum, beaked Panicum, bitter Panicum, torpedo Papaya Paradise tree Paronychia Parrot's-feather, farewell Parsnip, water Partridge-berry Partridge-pea Partridge-pea Partridge-pea Partridge-pea, showy Paspalum Paspalum Paspalum Paspalum, fringeleaf Paspalum, sand Passion-flower Pawpaw Pawpaw Pawpaw, small flower Pawpaw, sprawling Pecan Pedicularis, early Pencil-flower Pennyroyal Pennywort, largeleaf Penstemon Penstemon, smooth Pepper tree, Brazilian Pepper-vine Persimmon, common Phlox, blue Phlox, downy Phlox, trailing Pickerlweed Pigweed, rough Pimpernel, water Pinckneya Pine, Australian- Pine, jack Pine, loblolly Pine, longleaf Quercus bicolor 2210, 2320 Quercus texana 2310 Quercus laevis 2310, 2320 Quercus nigra 2310, 2320 Quercus alba 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 Quercus phellos 2210, 2320 Quercus muhlenbergii 2210, 2310, 2510 Pyrularia pubera 2210 Bucida buceras 4110 Habenaria orbiculata 2110 Osmanthus americanus 2310, 2320 Osmunda spp. 2310 Borrichia arborescens 4110 Borrichia frutescens 4110 Palafoxia feayi 4110 Acoelorrhaphe wrightii 4110 Roystonea elata 4110 Coccothrinax argentea 4110 Sabal palmetto 2320, 4110 Sabal minor 2310 Serenoa repens 2310, 4110 Panicum anceps 2510 amarum 2320 Panicum repens 2310 Papaya carica 4110 Simaruba glauca 4110 Paronychia americana 4110 Myriophy11um heterophy]1um 2320 Sium suave 2110 Mitchella repens 2110, 2210, 2310, 2320 Cassia spp. 2520 bahamensis 4110 Cassia derringianus 4110 Chamaecrista fasciculata 2310 Paspalum spp. 2510, 2520 Paspalum monostachyum 4110 Paspalum setaceum 4110 Paspalum ciliatifolium 2510 Paspalum stramineum 2530 Passiflora lutea 2210, 2320 Asimina reticulata 4110 Asimina triloba 2210, 2310, 2320 Asimina parviflora 2310, 2320 Asimina pygmaea 2310 Carya illinoensis 2210, 2510 Pedicula canadensis 2320 Stylosanthes biflora 2210 Satureja rigida 4110 Hydrocotyle bonariensis 2310 Penstemon australis 2320 Penstemon laevigatus 2310 Schinus terebinthifolius 4110 Ampelopsis arborea 2310, 2510, 4110 Diospyros virginiana 2210, 2310, 2320, 2510 Phlox divaricata 2210, 2310 Phlox pilosa 2310 Phlox nivalis 2320 Pontederia lanceolata 4110 Amaranthus retroflexus 2530 Samolus ebracteatus 4110 Pinckneya pubens 2310 Casuarina € equisetifolia 4110 jus banksiana 2110 us taeda 2310, 2320 Pinus palustris 2310, 2320 continued Common name Pine, Pine, Pine, Pine, Pine, Pine, Pine, E pitch pond red sand shortleaf slash south Florida slash Pine, Pine, table-mountain Pine, Pine, spruce Virginia white Pinxter- flower Pipsissewa, common Pitcher-plant Pitcher-plant, hooded Pitcher-plant, trumpet Plantain, rattlesnake Plum Plum, Plum, Plum, Plum, Plum, Plum, Plum, Plum, American Canada chicksaw coco darling Guiana Mexican wild Pogonia, rose Poison ivy Poison oak Poison sumac Poisonwood Pokeweed Polygala Polygala Polygala Polygala Polygala, blood Polygala, fringed Polygala, orange Polypody, golden Poplar, balsam- Poplar, swamp Possum-haw Potato tree Prairie clover Prairie clover Prairie clover, purple Prairie clover, silky Prickly-ash Prickly-ash, Hercules '-club Prickly pear Primrose, common evening- Privet, pineland Privet, swamp- Puccoon Purslane, marsh Purslane, water- Pussy" Pyrola, one-flowered s-toes Quinine, wild Scientific name Province(s)® ited States (Continued Pinus rigida 2210 inus serotina 2310, 2320 resinosa 2110 2310, 4110 2210, 2310, 2320 2310 Pinus elliottii var. densa 4110 Pinus glabra 2310 Pinus pungens 2210 Pinus virginiana 2210, 2320 Pinus strobus 2110, 2210 Rhododendron nudiflorum 2210, 2310, 2320 Chimaphila umbellata 2320 Sarracenia purpurea 2110, 2320 Sarracenia minor 2310 Sarracenia flava 2310, 2320 Goodyera pubescens 2320 Prunus spp. 2510 Prunus americana (2210), (2320), 2510, 2530 Prunus nigra 2110 Prunus angustifolia 2320, 2530 Chrysobalanus icaco 4110 Reynosia septentrionalis a Drypetes laterifolia 4110 Prunus mexicana 2510 Prunus americana 2210, 2320, (2510), (2530) Pogonia ophioglossoides 2320 Rhus radicans 2210, 2310, 2320, 4110 Rhus toxicodendron 2320 Rhus vernix 2210, 2310, 2320 Metopium toxiferum 4110 ytoTacca americana 2210, 2510 Polygala boykinii 4110 Polygala cymosa 2310 Polygala grandiflora 4110 Polygala nana 4110 Polygala sanguinea 2310 Polygala paucifolia 2110, 2210 Polygala lutea 2320 Polypodium aureum 4110 Populus balsamifera 2110 Populus heterophylla 2320 Tex decidua (2110), (2210), 2320 Solanum erianthum 4110 Petalostemum spp. 2530 PetaTostemum carneum 4110 Petalostemum purpureum 2530 Petalostemum villosum 2530 Zanthoxylum americanum 2210 Zanthoxy}um clava- herculis 2310 Opuntia compressa 4110 Qenothera biennis 2320 Forestiera pinetorum 4110 Forestiera acuminata 2210, 2310 Lithospermum canescens 2210 Ludwigia repens 4110 Ludwigia palustris 2210 Antennaria spp. 2110, 2210 Pyrola secunda 2110 Parthenium integrifolium 2320 continued 130 General Appendix LS General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Scientific name Province(s)? Eastern United States (Continued Ragweed Ragweed, common Ragweed, giant Ragweed, western Raisin, wild- Raspberry, black Raspberry, dwarf Raspberry, red Rattan vine Rattlesnake-master Rattlesnake-root Red bay Red-root Redbud Redcedar, eastern Redtop Reed Rhododendron Rhododendron Rice, wild Rice, southern wild Rose, Carolina Rose mallow, scarlet Rose, wild Rose, wild Rosemary, bog- Rosinweed Rubber vine Rue, goat's- Rush Rush Rush, beak Rush, beak Rush, beak Rush, needlegrass Rye, Canada wild Sagebrush, sand St. Andrew's cross St. John's-wort St. John's-wort St. John's-wort St. John's-wort St. John's-wort, marsh- St. Peter's-wort Sagewort, Louisiana Samson, black Sand-myrtle, box Sandbur Sandbur Sandbur, dune Sandheath Sandreed, prairie Sandwort, Carolina Sandwort, grove- Sapodilla Sarsaparilla, wild Sassafras, white Satin leaf Scorpion-weed Scouring-rush Scurf pea, lemon Scurf pea, many flower Scurf pea, silverleaf Scurf pea, slimflower Ambrosia spp. Ambrosia artemisiifolia Ambrosia trifida Ambrosia psilostachya Viburnut ssinoides Rubus 01 Rubus pubescens Rubus idaeus Berchemia scandens Eryngium yuccifolium Prenanthes alba Persea borbonia Lachnanthes caro Agrostis alba Phragmites communis Rhododendron spp. R lendron maximum Zizania aquatica Zizaniopsis miliacea Rosa carolina Hibiscus lasiocarpus Rosa spp. Rosa acicularis Andromeda glaucophylla Silphium spp. Rhabdadenia biflora Tephrosia virginiana Juncus spp. Juncus marginatus Rhynchospora corniculata Rhynchospora grayii Rhynchospora mega locarpa Juncus roemerianus Elymus canadensis Artemisia filifolia Ascyrum hypericoides Hypericum fasciculatum Hypericum hypericoides Hypericum myrtifolium Hypericum petiolatum Hypericum virginicum Ascyrum stans Artemisia Tudoviciana Echinacea angustifolia Leiophyllum buxifolium Cenchrus incertus Cenchrus pauciflorus Cenchrus tribuloides Ceratiola ericoides Calamovilfa longifolia Arenaria caroliniana Arenaria lateriflora Manilkara zapoda Aralia nudicaulis Sassafras albidum Chrysophylium o forme Phacelia bipinnatifida Equisetum hyemale Psoralea lanceolata Psoralea floribunda Psoralea argophylla Psoralea tenuiflora continued Province(s)® Common name 2510, 2520 Sea blite 2320, 2510, 2530, Sea-grape 4110 Sea-oats 2210, 2320, 2510, Sea-rocket 2530 Sea-rocket, American 2510, 2520, 2530 Sedge 2110, 2210 2210 Sedge 2110 Sedge 2110, 2210 Sedge (2310), (2320), 4110 |Sedge, vernal 2210 Seedbox 2110 Seedbox 2310, 2320, 4110 Seedbox 4110 Selfheal, common 2210, 2310, 2320 Sensitive plant, 2210, 2310, 2320, wild 2530 Serviceberry 2110, 2510, 2530 Serviceberry 2110, 2310 Sesuvitum 2310 Silverbel] 2110, 2210 Silverbell, Carolina 2110 Silverbell, two-wing 2320, 2510 Skullcap 2310, 2320 Skullcap, hyssop 2310 2210, 2510, 2530 Smartweed 2110 Smartweed 2110 Smartweed, water 2510 Smilacina, three- 4110 leaved 2210, 2310 Snakeroot, black 2210, 2310, 2320 Snakeroot, button 4110 Snakeroot, Sampson's 4110 Snakeroot, white 4110 Snakeweed, broom Sneezeweed 4110 Snowbell, bigleaf 2320, 4110 Snowberry 2510, 2530 Snowberry, creeping Snowberry, western 2530 Soapberry, southern 2210 Soapweed, small 4110 Solomon's-seal 2320 Solomon's-seal, 4110 false 2310 Solomon's-seal, hairy 2110, 2210, 2310 Sorrel, sheep- 2210 Sorrel, wood- 2530 Sourwood 2530 Sphagnum 2310, 2320 Spicebush 4110 Spiderwort 2530 Spikenard 2310 Spiraea, meadow 2310, 4110 Spleenwort 2530 Spleenwort 2320 Spleenwort 2210 4110 Spleenwort, 2110, 2210 narrowleaf 2210, 2310, 2320 Spring-beauty 4110 Spruce, black 2210 Spruce, red 2310 Spruce, white 2530 Spurge Spurge 2530 Spurge, Allegheny- Spurge, flowering 2530 Squaw-root Squirrel-corn 2530 Stagger-bush Eastern United States (Continued Suaeda linearis 4110 Coccoloba uvifera 4110 Uniola paniculata 2320 Caki : 2320 2310 2510 Carex grayii 2210 Carex intumescens 2210 Carex stricta 2210 Carex pensylvanica a Ludwigia spp. 2320 Ludwigia alternifolia 2310 pucaigre pilosa 2310 Prunella vulgaris 2320 Cassia nictitans 2210 Amelanchier spp. 2110, AmeTanchier 2210, 2320 2210 carolina 2310, Halesia diptera 2310 Scutellaria spp. 2210 Scutellaria integrifolia 2310 Polygonum spp. 2110, Polygonum pensylvanicum 2210 Polygonum punctatum 4110 Smilacina trifolia 2110 Sanicula gregaria 2210, Eryngium yuccifolium var. synchaetum 4110 Psoralea psoralioides 2210 Eupatorium rugosum 2110, Gutierrezia sarothrae 2520 Helenium tenuifolium 2210 Styrax grandifolia 2320 qumphoricarpos albus 2210 Gaultheria hispidula 2110 Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Sapindus saponaria 4110 Yucca glauca 2530 Polygonatum biflorum 2210, Smilacina racemosa 2110, Polygonatum pubescens 2110, Rumex acetosella 2110, Oxalis montana 2110 Oxydendrum arboreum 2210, Sphagnum spp. 2110 Lindera benzoin 2210, radescantia virginiana 2210 Aralia racemosa 2110, Spiraea latifolia Se splenium spp. 2210 Athyrium spp. 2210 Athyrium thelypteroides 2110, Athyrium pycnocarpon 2310 Claytonia virginica 2210, Picea mariana 2110 Picea rubrens 2110 Picea glauca 2110 Euphorbia spp. 2510 uphorbia polyphylla 4110 Pachysandra procumbens 2210, Euphorbia corollata 2310, Conopholis americana 2310, Dicentra canadensis 2110, Lyonia fruticosa 4110 continued 2110, 2210, 2320, (2210) 2320 2320 2210 2310 2210, 2320 (2210), 2510, (2530) 2310, 2320 2210, 2320 2210 2210 2310, 2320 2320 2210 2210 2310, 2320 2320 2310 2320, 2530 2320 2210 nS A: List of Selected Plants 131 ee General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)@ L Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Eastern United States (Continued Eastern United States (Continued Stagger-bush Lyonia mariana 2320 Toothwort Dentaria laciniata 2210 Star-flower Trientalis borealis 2110 Torchwood, balsam Amyris balsamifera 4110 Stewartia, Virginia Stewartia malacodendron 2310 Tread-softly, risky Cnidoscolus stimulosus 2320 Stickseed Hakelia virginiana 2510 Trefoil, tick- Desmodium spp. 2210, 2310, 2320 Stillingia Stillingia aquatica 4110 Trefoil, tick- Desmodium grandiflorum 2210 Stipulicida Stipulicida setacea 4110 Trefoil, tick- Desmodium rotundifolium 2210 Stonecrop, wild Sedum ternatum 2210 Trema Trema ‘antha 4110 Stopper, Spanish Eugenia myrtoides 4110 Tridens, hairy Tridens pilosus 2530 Stopper, white Eugenia axillaris 4110 Trillium Trillium spp. 2110, 2210, 2310 Strawberry, barren Waldsteinia Trillium Trillium lanceolatum 2310 fragarioides 2110 Trillium, Huger's Trillium hugeri 2310 Strawberry-bush Euonymus americanus 2210, 2310, 2320 Trillium, large- Strawberry, wild Fragaria virginiana 2110, 2210, 2320 flowered Trillium grandiflorum 2110, 2210 Sumac Rhus spp. 2110 Trillium, nodding Trillium cernuum 2210 Sumac, fragrant Rhus aromatica 2210 Trumpet-creeper Campsis radicans 2210, 2320 Sumac, poison Rhus vernix 2210, 2310, 2320 Tul ip-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera 2210, 2310, 2320 Sumac, shining Rhus copallina 2310, 2320 Tupelo, swamp black Nyssa sylvatica var. Sumac, smooth Rhus glabra 2210, 2320, 2510 biflora 2310, 2320 Sumac, staghorn hus typhina 2210 Tupelo, water Nyssa aquatica 2310, 2320 Sumpweed bricata 2320 Twinflower Linnaea borealis 2110 Sundew ifolia 2310 Twinleaf Jeffersonia diphylla 2210 Sundew Drosera rotundifolia 2110, 2320 Twisted-stalk Streptopus roseus 2110 Sunflower Helianthus spp. 2110, 2210, 2510, 2520, 2530 Sun flower Helianthus Varnish tree Dodonea viscosa 4110 angustifolius 2210 Velvetseed Guettarda scabra 4110 Sunflower Helianthus radula 2310 Venus-fly-trap Dionaea muscipula 2320 Sunflower, ashy Helianthus mollis 2510 Venus's looking- Sunflower common Helianthus annuus 2510, 2520, 2530 glass, clasping Specularia perfoliata 2310 Sunflower, plains Helianthus petiolaris 2510, 2530 Verbena, woolly Verbena stricta 2510 Sunflower, sawtooth Helianthus Viburnum, black-haw Viburnum prunifolium 2110, 2320 grosseserratus 2530 Viburnum, maple- Sunflower, stiff Helianthus rigidus 2530 leaved Viburnum acerifolium 2110, 2210, 2320 Sunnybell, white Schoenolirion elliottii 4110 Viburnum, possum-haw Viburnum nudum 2320 Supplejack, Alabama Berchemia scandens 2310, 2320, (4110) |Viburnum, rusty Sweet gale Myrica gale 2110 black-haw Viburnum rufidulum 2310, 2320 Sweet shrub, common Calycanthus floridus 2320 Violet Viola spp. 2110, 2210, 2310, Sweet-spire Itea virginica 2210, 2310, 2320 2320 Sweetflag Acorus calamus 2110 Violet, birdfoot- Viola pedata 2210 Sweet gum Liquidambar styraciflua 2210, 2310, 2320 Violet, dog's-tooth- Erythronium americanum 2110, (2210), 2320 Sweetleaf, common Symplocos tinctoria 2310 Violet, downy yellow Viola pubescens 2210 Sycamore Platanus occidentalis 2210, 2310, 2320, Violet, pale Viola pallens 2110 2510 Violet, primrose Viola primulifolia 2320 Synandra Synandra hispidula 2210 Violet, swamp white Viola incognita 2110 Virginia creeper Parthenocissus Tal lowwood Ximenia americana 4110 quinquefolia 2210, 2210, 2310, Tamarack Larix laricina 2110 2320, 2510, 4110 Tamarind, wild Lysiloma latisiliqua 4110 Virgin's-bower Clematis virginiana 2110 Tarflower Befaria racemosa 4110 Teaberry Gaultheria procumbens 2110, 2210 Tearthumb, arrow- Wahoo Euonymus atropurpureus 2210, 2320 leaved Polygonum sagittata 2210 Walnut, black duglans nigra 2210, 2310, 2320, Tetrazygia Tetrazygia bicolor 4110 2510 Thatch, brittle Thrinax microcarpa 4110 Waterleaf Hydrophyllum spp. 2210 Thatch palm, Florida Thrinax parviflora 4110 Wax-myrtle, southern Myrica cerifera 2310, 2320, 4110 Thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus 2110 Whitewood Schoepfia schreberi 4110 Thistle, purple Cirsium horridulum 4110 Willow Salix spp. 2110, 2210, 2310, Thistle, Russian Salsola iberica 2530 2510 Thistle, Russian Salsola kali 2320 Willow, black Salix nigra 2210, 2310, 2320 Three-awn, Willow, coastal arrowfeather Aristida purpurascens 2310 plain Salix caroliniana 4110 Three-awn, Willow, prairie Salix humilis 2210 bottlebrush Aristida spiciformis 2310 Willow, shrubby Salix spp. 2110, 2210 Three-awn, pineland Aristida stricta 2320 Winterberry Tlex decidua 2110, (2210), (2320) Three-awn, prairie Aristida oligantha 2320, 2510 Winterberry Tlex verticillata 2210, 2320 Thoroughwort Eupatorium perfoliatum 2210 Winterberry, Tickclover Desmodium rigidum 2310 mountain Ilex montana 2210 Tickseed Coreopsis lewtonii 4110 Wintergreen, spotted Chimaphila maculata 2110, 2320 Tie-tongue Coccoloba diversifolia 4110 Witch-hazel Hamamelis virginiana 2210, 2310, 2320 Tillandsia, Wood-poppy StyTophorum diphyllum 2210 treebeard Tillandsia usneoides 2310 Woodbine Lonicera sempervirens 2210, 2310, 2320 Titi Cyrilla racemiflora 2310, 2320 Woodbine Parthenocissus inserta 2210 Toadflax Linaria spp. 2310 Woodrush Luzula spp. 2110 Toadshade Trillium sessile 2210 Woodvine Lonicera canadensis 2110, (2210) Toothwort Dentaria spp. 2310 continued continued i CUE EE EEIEEEII SII SISSEISSEEE EER 132 General Appendix i General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)?® Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Eastern United States (Continued Yam Yarrow Yaupon Yellowroot Yel lowwood Yel lowwood Yew Yucca Yucca, Adam's needle Yucca, moundlily Zenobia, green kok ke Re Abrojo, grayleaf Abrojo, spiny Acacia Acacia Acacia, mescat Agave, desert Agave, Palmer Agave, Parry Agave, rough Agave, Shott Agoseris, annual Agoseris, false Agoseris, pale Alder, Arizona Alder, mountain Alder, red Alder, thinleaf Alder, white Algaroba Algodoncillo Allthorn Alumroot, small-leaf Amargoso, chaparro Amole Anacahuite Anemone, Lyall Anemone, Oregon Anemone, Piper Anemone, Antelope brush Arnica, broadleaf Arnica, heartleaf Arnica, orange Arnica, smal1- flowered Arrow-weed Arrowhead Ash Ash, Oregon three leaf Angelica, shining Dioscorea hirticaulis Achillea millefolium Tiex vomitoria Xanthorhiza ~ simplicissima Cladrastis lutea Zanthoxylum flavum Taxus canadensis Yucca spp. Yucca filamentosa Yucca gloriosa Zenobia pulverulenta kok Kk KR ek Rk Western United States Condalia lycioides Condalia spathulata Acacia spp. Acacia vernicosa Acacia constricta Agave deserti Agave palmeri Agave parryi Agave asperrima gave shottii Agoseris heterophy1la Microseris troximoides Hus 2b Jauca Alnus oblongifolia nus eee ja nus rul Yubra Alnus tenuifolia a aa chomp fotie ifolia Prosopis glandulosa a um thurber7 Festela a texana Heuchera micrantha Castela texana Agave shottii ordia boisieria Anemone Tyallii Anemone oregana Anemone piperi Anemone deltoidea Angelica arguta urshia tridentata a latifolia Arn. cordifolia Arnica fulgens Arnica discoidea essaria sericea Sagittaria spp. Fraxinus spp. Fraxinus latifolia Ash, sitka mountain- Sorbus sitchensis Ash, velvet Aspen, golden Fraxinus velutina Populus tremuloides continued 2210 2110, 2210 2310, 2320 2320 2210 4110 2110 2320 2310 2310 2320 kk ke Oe Rk 3140, 3210, 3220, 3120 3140, 3210, 3220 3210 3140, 3210 3140, 3210, "3120 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, "3120 3140, 3210, "3120 3210 3140, 3210, 3130 3120, 3130 M3110 3140, 3210, M3120 M3120, P3130 2410;°M3110 M3120, P3130 3130, M2410, M2620 3210 3140, 3210, 3220 3210 M2410 3210 3140, 3210, 3220 3210 2410 M2410 M2410 2410, M2410 M2410 (3130), 3210, 3220, (2110), M2610, M2620, (M3110), M3120, P3130, (A3140) M2110, M2410 3130, M2110, 2410, M3110 3130 3220, 3220, 3220 M2410 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410 3220 2410 M2410 3140, 3210, M3120 (3116), (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2110), (M3110), M3120, P3130 Western United States (Continued) Aspen, quaking Aspen, trembling Aster Chilian crag desert heath hoary Aster, Aster, Aster, Aster, Aster, Aster, Aster, Aster, Aster, leafy Majave roughleaf shasta Avens Avens, largeleaf Avens, three- flowered Azalea, western Baccharis Baccharis, Emory Bahia, plains Balsam, white Balsamroot, arrowleaf Balsamroot, Carey's Balsamroot, deltoid Balsamroot, Hooker Balsamroot, serrated Balsamscale, woolspike Baneberry Barberry Barberry Barley, foxtail Barley, meadow Bassia, five-hook Beadlily Beadlily, red Beakrush Bearberry Beard tongue Beavertail Bedstraw Bedstraw, Bedstraw, Bedstraw, Bedstraw, Bedstraw, scented Bee-brush, common Beebalm Beeplant, Rocky Mountain Cleaver's northern obscure shrubby sweet- Populus tremuloides Populus tremuloides Aster spp. Aster chilensis Aster scopulorum Aster abatus Aster ericoides Wachaeranthera canescens Aster foliaceus Aster abatus Aster raduTinus Machaeranthera shastensis Geum spp. Geum macrophy11um Geum triflorum Rhododendron occidentale Baccharis spp. Baccharis —— Bahia oppositifolia Abies Tastocarpa Balsamorhiza sagittata Balsamorhiza careyana Balsamorhiza deltoidea Balsamorhiza hookert Balsamorhiza serrata Elyonurus barbiculmus Actaea rubra Berberis haematocarpa Berberis fremontii Hordeum mat Hordeum brachyantherium Bassia hyssopifolia Tlintonta oni fora Clintonia andrewsiana Rhynchospora albus Arctostaphylos ursi Penstemon spp. Opuntia basilaris ae arine boreale e : aes ao Toum Galium multiflorum a teilone Aloysia gratissima Nonarda la spp. Cleome serrulata continued 3110, 3130, 3140, (3210), 3220, M2110, M3110, M3120, P3130 (3110), (3130), 3140, 3210, (3220), (M2110), (M3110), M3120, (P3130) 3130, 3140, M3110, P3130 2410, M2410 3130 3220 3110 3130 M2110 3220 2410 M2410 3130 3130 3120 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M3120 3140 (3130), (M2110), (M2410), M3120, P3130 3120, 3130, M2110, P3130 3120, 3130 2410, M2410 3130 3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2110, M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 M3120, P3130 2410 3130, P3130 M2110, M2410 M2410 2410 (2410), (3130), (M2110), M2410, (3110), M3120, P3130 (3110), (3130), M3110 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 2410, M3110 2410, M2110, M2410 3130, M2110 M2410 M2410 2410, M2110, M2410 3210 M3120, P3130 3140, P3130 A: List of Selected Plants 133 LUTE E EEE EIIEISSIIIISEIS IESE General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)® ‘Western United States (Continued Bellflower, Scouler Besseya, red Bilberry, dwarf Birch, bog Birch, paper Birch, river Bird's-beak, slender Bisbirinda Biscuit root Bistort, American Bitterbrush Blackberry, strawberry- leaf Blackberry, trailing Blackbrush Blackbrush Blackbrush Bladder-nut, Bolander's Bladderpod Bladderpod Bladderpod, Oregon doub le Bladderwort, common Blazing-star Blazing-star Blazing-star Blazing-star Blazing-star, Venus Bleeding-heart Blennosperma, common 8 lepharipappus Blow-wives Bluebell] Bluebells Blueberry Blueberry, Alaska Blueberry, delicious Blueberry, evergreen turkeyfoot Bluejoint Bluestem, Bluestem, big cane Bluestem, little Bluestem, Bluestem, Bolandra, Box-elder sand silver Sierra Box thorn Boxleaf, myrtle Boxwood, Oregon Boykinia, large- flowered Boykinia, slender Bracken Bramble, dwarf Brickellia, California Brittle bush Campanula scouleri esseya rubra Vaccinium myrtillus Betula glandulosa Betula al Betula occidentalis Cordylanthus viscidus Castela texana Lomatium spp. Polygonum bistortoides urshia tridentata Rubus pedatus Rubus urs inus Acacia rigidula Coleogyne ramosissima Jourensis cernua Staphylea bolanderi someris arborea Lesquerella spp. Physaria oregana Utricularia vulgaris Ciatris pun punctate a Mentzelia spp. Mentzelia laevicaulis Mentzelia nitens Mentzelia Dicentra formosa Blennosperma nanum Blepharipappus scaber chyrachaena mollis anula rotundifolia Mertensia spp. Vaccinium oreophyl1um Vaccinium alaskaense ee > Vaccinium deliciosum Vaccinium ovatum Andropogon gerardii Andropogon gerardii Andropogon barbinodis Andropogon scoparius Andropogon hallii Andropogon saccharoides Bo aire californica Acer negundo Lycium cooperi achystima myrsinites Pachystima myrsinites Boykinia major Boykinia elata See "Ferns" Rubus lasiococcus Brickellia californica Encelia farinosa M2410 3120 M2110 M3110 M2110 M3110 M2410 3210 3130, P3130 M2410 3130, 3210, 3220, M2110, (M2610), (M2620), M3110, M3120, P3130, A3140 M2410 2410, M2410 3210 3130, 3220, P3130 3140, 3210 M2610 M2620 3110 3130 3130 (3110), 3140, P3130 3140, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130 3220 3220 M2410 2610 M2410, M2610 2610 3130, (M3110), P3130 M3110 M3120, P3130 M2410 M2410 M2410 (3110), 3140, P3130 3110, 3140, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3110, 3140, 3210, P3130 3110 3210 M2610 3140, 3210, M3120, A3140 3130, P3130 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2110), (M2410), (M2610), M3120, P3130 (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, M2110, M2410, M2610, M3120, P3130 M2410 M2410 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3220, M3120 Western United States Brome, California Brome, Columbia Brome, downy Brome, Brome, Japanese mountain Brome, mountain red rescue Brome, Brome, Broom, Scotch Buckbrush Buckbrush, common Buckthorn Buckthorn, birchleaf Buckthorn, California Buckthorn, hollyleaf Buckthorn, red berry barestem cushion deer desert desert desert Douglas mat northern rock slender sulvur Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, Buckwheat, wild Buckwheat, wild Buckwheat, wild Budsage Budsagebrush Buffalo-gourd Buffaloberry Buffaloberry Bugbane, false thyme Bullnettle Bulrush Bulrush Bulrush, alkalai Bulrush, American great Bulrush, salt-marsh Bulrush, three- square Bur-reed Bur sage Bur sage, skeletonleaf Bur sage, triangle Bur sage, white Bur sage, woolly Bromus carinatus Bromus vulgaris Bromus tectorum Bromus japonicus Bromus carinatus Bromus marginatus Bromus rubens Bromu: atus Cystisus scoparius Ceanothus fendleri Ceanothus cuneatus Rhamnus crocea Rhamnus betulaefolia Rhamnus californica Rhamnus crocea Rhamnus crocea Eriogonum nudum Erjogonum ova ifoliun riogonum wri 1 Eriogonum deserticola Eriogonum heracleoides riogonum strictum Eriogonum douglasii faespitosum riogonum riogonum compos itum riogonum Continued) 3130, M2110, M2410, M3120, P3130 2410, M2110, M2410, M3110 3110, (3120), (3130), (M2110), P3130, A3140 2410, 3110, 3120 (3130), (M2110), M3120, P3130 3130, 3220, M3120, P3130 3220, M3120 (3130), (M2110), M3120, P3130 2410 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2410), M3120 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2410), (M2620), M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M2410, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2410), M3120 M2410 3130, P3130 3140, 3220, M3120 3220 3120, 3130 3130 3190 3130 3130 haerocephalum 3130 sp p! Eriogonum microthecum 130 Tiogonum umbe}latum Eriogonum thymoides ogonum spp. r Erfogonun deserticola Tiogonum fasciculatum Artemisia spinescens Artemisia spinescens Cucurbita foetidissima Shepherdia spp. hepherdia canadensis rautvetteria carolinensis Solanum elaeagifolium Scirpus spp. Scirpus pallidus cirpus olneyi Scirpus validus Scirpus paludosus Scirpus americanus Sparganium spp. Ambrosia deltoidea Franseria discolor Ambrosia deTtoidea Ambrosia dumosa Ambrosia-eriocentra 3110, 3130, M2410, M3110 3130 3110, 3130, P3130 3220 M2620 (3130), P3130 (3130), P3130 3210 P3130 M2110, M3110 M2610 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, M2410, M3120 3210 3130 3130 3130, 3140, M3120 3220, M3120 M2410 3140, 3220, M3120 3140, P3130 3140, 3220, 3220 3220 M3120 Brodiaea, Douglas' Brodiaea douglasii 3120, 3130 Burroweed Hap Topaj us tenuisectus 3140, 3210, 3220 Brodiaea, purplehead Brodiaea pulchella M2410 Bursera, elephant Bursera microphylla 3220 Brome Bromus spp. M2410, M3110, M3120,} Buttercup Ranunculus spp. M3120, P3130 P3130 continued continued 134 General Appendix LSS General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Common name Scientific name Province(s)@ Western United States (Continued Buttercup, California Buttercup, western Buttonsage Buttonweed, rough Cabbage, skunk Cacanapo Cactus, barbed-wire Cactus, barrel Cactus, cream Cactus, desert Christmas fish-hook f ish-hook giant hedgehog Cactus, Cactus, Cactus, Cactus, Cactus, hedgehog Cactus, Cactus, Cactus, Cactus, Cactus, organpipe pancake pear pincushion pincushion rainbow California tea Calliandra, hairy- leaved Calypso Camas, common Camino Camote-de-raton Camphor-weed Canatilla Candlewood Cane, Georgia Caraway, mountain Carpenteria Carrizo Cascara Cat-claw Cat-claw Cat-claw Cat-tail Cat-tail, common Cat-tail, narrow- leaved Catalpa, desert Catsear, spotted Ceanothus Ceanothus, blue- blossum Ceanothus, desert Ceanothus, dwarf Cedar, incense- Cedar, Port-Orford Celery, wild Cenizo Century plant, mescal Ranunculus californicus M2410 Ranunculus occidentalis 2410 Artemisia spinescens Diodia teres Lysichitum americanum untia lindheimeri Cereus pentagonus Ferocactus wislizenii Mammillaria gummifera Opuntia leptocaulis Mammillaria spp. Mammillaria microcarpa Cereus giganteus Echinocereus spp. Echinocereus enneacanthus Cereus thurberi Opuntia chlorotica oryphantha vivipara Mammillaria spp. Echinocereus pectinatus 3140, Psoralea physodes Calliandra eriophylla Calypso bulbosa amassia quamash Leucophy] lum tutescens Hoffmanseggia spp. Pluchea camphorata Ephedra trifurca Ouquieria splendens Arundo donax Aletes acaulis Carpenteria californica Arundo donax Rhamnus purshiana Acacia greggii Mimosa spp. Mimosa biuncifera Typha spp. Typha latifolia Typha angustifolia Chilopsis linearis Hypochaeris radicata Ceanothus spp. Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Ceanothus greggii Ceanothus prostratus Uibocedrus decurrens Chamaecyparis awsoniana (3130), P3130 M3110 2410, M2410 3210 3210 3140, 3210, M3120 3140, 3210, M3210 3220, 3220, 3140, 3210, M3210 3140, 3210 3140, 3220, 3140, 3220, 3140, 3220, P3130 3220, M3120 M3120 M3120, 3210 3140, 3220, 3140, 3210, 3140, 3210 3140, 3210 3210, M3120 M2410 M3120 3220 3220, 3140, 3210, 3220 2410, M2110 2410 3210 3140, 3210, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3140, 3210, M3120 3210 M3110 M2610 3210 2410, M2410 3140, 3210, M3120 3210 3140, 3210, M3120 3140, 3210, M3120 3130, M2410 3220 3220 3220, 3220, 3220, 3220, 31900, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2610), M3120 M2410 M2620, M3110 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410 2410, M2410, M2610, M2620 M2410 Apiastrum angustifolium M2610 Leucophyllum frutescens 3210 Agave palmeri continued 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Western United States (Continued Adenostoma fasciculatum M2610, M2620 Chamise, common Chamiso Chaparral broom Chapparo prieto Cheat Checkermal low, meadow Checkermallow, rose Cherioni Cherry, bitter Cherry, mazzard Cherry, western choke- Cherry, wild Cherry, wild Chess, downy Chicalote Chickweed, Chickweed, Chickweed, Chickweed, Chickweed, Chilicote common common field jagged shining China-tree, wild Chinquapin, giant Chinquapin, Sierra Chittanwood Cholla Cholla Cholla, Cholla, cane cane devil jumping Stanly tree Whipple Cholla, Cholla, Cholla, Cholla, Cholla, Chopo Christmas berry Cinquefoil Cinquefoil, beauty Cinquefoil, bush Cinquefoil, Norwegian Cinquefoil, shrubby Circaea, Alpine Clapweed Clematis, Columbia Cliff-brake, Oregon Cliffbush Cliffrose Clover Clover, big-headed Clover, long-stalked Clover, mountain Atriplex canescens Baccharis consanguinea Acacia rigidula Bromus tectorum Sidalcea campestris Sidatcea virgata Sapindus ‘drummondi Prunus emarginata Prunus avium Prunus virginiana Prunus spp. Prunus emarginata Bromus tectorum Argemone intermedia Cerastium algatun media tellaria Cerastium arvense Holosteum umbellatum SteNaria nitens Erythring abel liformis Sapindus drummondi, Castanopsis chrysophylla Castanopsis sempervirens Gath see Opuntia leptocaulis Opuntia imbricata jpuntia spinosior Opuntia stanlyi ee Se a Stanlyi jpuntia imbricata asp ee Populus arizonica Heteromeles arbutifolia Potentilla spp. Potentilla gracilis Potentilla fruticosa Potentilla norvegica Potentilla fruticose Circaea alpina Ej phedra antisyphilitica Jematis columbiana Cryptogramma densa Jamesia americana Lowania mexicana Trifolium Trifolium Trifolium Trifolium continued Jongipes fendleri nocarpon macrocepha lun (3130), 3140, 3220, P3130, (A3140) 2610 3210 (3110), 3120, 3130, M2110, P3130, A3140 2410 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410, M2610, M3110, M3120, P3130 2410 3110, 3130, M2110, M2410, P3130 3140, M3120 (M2410), (M2610), (M3110), M3120, P3130 (3110), (3120), (3130), (M2110), P3130, (A3140) 3140, P3130 M2410 M2410 M2110 3120, 3130 3120, M2110 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410, M2620 M2610, M2620 3210 (3130), 3220, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210 3140, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210 3140, 3210, 3220 3210, 3220, P3130 3210 M2410, M2620 3130, M3110, M3120, P3130 3120, 3130, M2110 M3120, P3130 M2110 M3120, P3130 2410, 3130, M2410 3140, 3210, 3220 M2110 M2410 3140, 3220, M2610, M3110, M3120, P3130 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130, A3140 3130 3130 M3120, P3130 SS A: List of Selected Plants 135 a Common name General Appendix A (continued) Scientific name Province(s)? Common name Scientific name Western United States Douglas-fir Douglas-fir, big cone Dove weed Dove weed Draba, vernal Dropseed Dropseed, black Dropseed, hairy Dropseed, pine Dropseed, sand Durango root Eastwoodia Elder, Arizona Elder, Canadian Elder, Mexican Elderberry Elderberry, blue Elderberry, red Elephant-tree Ephedra, vine Eriogonum, annual Eriogonum, slenderbush Eriogonum, snowy Everlasting, pearly Everlasting, pinewoods Everlasting, woodrush Fairy duster Fairybells, Hooker's Fairybells, Smith's Fairybells, wartberry False-caraway, mountain Felt-thorn, bald- leaved Felt-thorn, white Fendlerella Ferns: Bracken fern Brittle fern Pseudotsuga menziesii Pseudotsuga macrocarpa Croton spp. Croton texensis Draba verna Sporobolus spp. Sporebo! us interruptus Blepharoneuron tricholepis Blepharoneuron tricholepis Sporobolus cryptandrus Datisca glomerata Eastwoodia elegans Sambucus mexicana Sambucus cerulea Sambucus mexicana ‘Sambucus spp. Sambucus cerulea Sambucus racemosa Bursera microphy'ta Ephedra antisypl tica Erogonum annuum Eriogonum microthecum Er ogonut niveum inaphalis margaritacea Antennaria geyeri Antennaria luzuloides Calliandra eriophylla Disporum hooker sporum smithii Disporum trachycarpum Perideridia bolanderi Tetradymia glabrata etradymia comosa Fendlerella utahensis Pteridium aquilinum Cystopteris fragilis continued Continued 2410, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M2110, M2410, M2610, M3110, M3120, P3130 M2610 3140, 3210, 3220 (3110), 3140, 3210, 3220 3120, 3130 3140, 3210, 3220 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3110, 3130, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 M2620 M2620 3210 3130, 3220, (M2410), (M2620), M3120, P3130 3210 3130, 3140, M3120, P3130 (3130), (3220), M241 M2620, (M3120), (P3130) 3130, M2410, M3110, M3120, P3130 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 3110 3130, 3140, P3130 3130 3130, M2410 3130 3130 3140, 3210, 3220 M2410 M2410 M2110 M2410 3130, P3130 3130, P3130 3220, M3120, P3130 2410, 3140, 3210, M2410, M3120, P3130 M2110, M3110 Ferns (Continued): Chain fern Deer fern Lady-fern Maidenhair fern Oak-fern Shield-fern, coastal Sword fern Sword fern, rock Wood fern, mountain Fernbush Fescue Fescue, Arizona Fescue, California Fescue, eight- flowered Fescue, Idaho meadow Nuttall's red rough sheep six-weeks Fescue, Fescue, Fescue, Fescue, Fescue, Fescue, Fescue, Fescue, Fescue, spike Thurber western Filaree Fir, balsam Fir, corkbark Fir, grand noble Pacific silver shasta red subalpine Fir, Fir, Fir, Fir, Fir, white Fir, white Fire-cracker flower Fireweed Flag Flag, blue Flannel bush Flax, wild blue Fleabane Fleabane Fleabane F leabane, Alice Fleabane, annual Fleabane, Bloomer Woodwardia fimbriata Blechnum spicant Athyrium filix-femina Adiantum pedatum Gymnocarpium dryopteris He arguta stichum munitum oly: Polystichum scopulinum Dryopteris austriaca Chamaebatiaria millefolium Festuca spp. Festuca arizonica Festuca californica | octoflora idahoensis Festuca pratensis Festuca microstachys Festuca rubra Festuca scabrella Festuca ovina Festuca octoflora Hesperochloa kingii Festuca thurberi Festuca occidentalis Abies lasiocarpa Abies grandis Abies procera AoTes ee es magnifica asiocarpa 13) 'S Abies concolor Abies Abies lasiocarpa Brodiaea Ida-Maia Epilobium angustifol tun Iris missourtensis Iris missouriensis Fremontia californica Linum perenne rigeron spp. rigeron divergens Erigeron flagellaris rigeron aliceae Erigeron annuus rigeron bloomeri continued Province(s)® We rn_United States (Continued) M2410, M2610, M2620 2410, M2410, M2620 2410, M2110, M2410 M2410 M2110, M2410 2410 2410, M2410 2410 M2410 3210, 3220, M2610, M3120, P3130 M3110, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 2410 2410, (3110), 3120, 3130 2410, 3110, 3120, 3130, M2110, M2410, 3110, P3130 2410 3120, 3130 2410, M3120, P3130 M2110 M2410 (2410), 3110, (3120), (3130) 3130, M2110 M3120, P3130 2410, 3130, M2410, M3110 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 (3110), 3140, (3210), 3220, (M2110), (M2410), (M3110), M3120, P3130 (3130), (M2110), (M2410), M3120, P3130 2410, 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110 M2410 M2410 M2410, M2610 3130, M2110, M2410, M3120, P3130 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M2410, M2610, M3110, M3120, P3130 (3130), (M2110), (M2410), M3120, P3130 M2410 3130, M2410 (3120) , (3130) ,M3120, P3130 (3120) ,(3130), M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410 3130, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3220, M3120, P3130 M2410 M2410 2410 i 136 General Appendix —_ OO SSSSSSSSFSSSSSSSSSSSFFFFSse Common name Scientific name General Appendix A (continued) Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Western United States (Continued Fleabane, dwarf Mountain Fleabane, lineleaf Fleabane, longleaf Fleabane, salt-marsh Fleabane, showy Fleabane, threadleaf Fleabane, threadleaf Foam bush Foamflower, coolwort Foxglove Foxtail, marsh Fremont, California Fringe, purple Fringecup, Alaska Fringecup, slender Fringecup, smal]- flowered Galleta, big Galrezia, showy Gay- feather Gay-feather, dotted Erigeron compositus Erigeron Tinearis Erigeron corymbosus uchea camphorata Erigeron eae rigeron ifolius Erigeron fotiosus Holodiscus dumosus Tiarella unifoliata Digitalis purpurea Alopecurus geniculatus Fremontia californica Phacelia spp. Tellima grandiflora Lithophragma bulbifera M2110 3130 3120, 3130 3210, 3220 M2110 3130 M2410 (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2410), (M3110), M3120, P3130 M2410 M2410 2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M2610 »M2620,M3120 M3110 2410, M2410 3120, 3130 Lithophragma parviflora 3120, M2110 Hilaria rigida Galrezia speciosa Liatris spp. Liatris punctata Gayophytum, Nuttall's Gayophytum nuttallii Geranium Geranium, cranesbil1 Geranium, cut-leaved Geranium, sticky Gilia, globe Gilia, granite Gilia, smal1- flowered Ginger, wild Globe mallow Globe mallow Globe mallow Globe mallow Globe mallow, scarlet Geranium spp. Geranium richardsonii Geranium dissectum Geranium viscosissimum Gilia capitala Leptodactylon pungens Gilia minutiflora Asarum candatum Sphaeralcea spp. Sphaeralcea ambigua Sphaeralcea fendleri Sphaeralcea grossalarirefolia Sphaeralcea coccinea Globeflower, American Trollius laxus Goatnut Goat's-beard Goldaster Goldaster, hairy Golden banner Golden stars, common Goldenhead Goldenrod Goldenrod, Canada Goldenrod, coastal Goldenweed Goldenweed Goldthread, Goldthread, Gooseberry Gooseberry Gooseberry Gooseberry Gooseberry, Gooseberry, Gooseberry, Gooseberry, Gooseberry, Gooseberry, Goosefoot Goosefoot, slimleaf cutleaf western canyon hupa orange pioneer siskiyou swamp Grama Grama, black Ribes Simmondsia chinensis Aruncus sylvester Chrysopsis villosa var. bolanderi Chrysopsis villosa hermopsis divaricarpa oomeria crocea Acamptop appus pe Solidago spp. | Solidago canadensis 0 lidago ‘ap Topapp’ Hap a racemosa ‘optis laciniata oes occidentalis ibes spp. es californicum Ribes inebrians Ribes velutinum Ribes menziesii es marshallii Ribes Hinetorum Ribes Tobbii Ribes binominatum acustre enopodium album Chenopodium leptophyT1um Bouteloria spp. BouteToua eriopoda cont inued spathulata jus lanceolatus 3220 M2620 3110 3110, 3140, P3130 3130 3130, M3110, P3130 M2110, M3120, P3130 2410 3120, 3130 M2410 P3130, (3130) 3130 M2410 3210, 3220, P3130 3130, P3130 M3120, P3130 3130, P3130 3110 M2110 3140, 3220, M3120 (M2620) M2410 M2410 3130, 3140, P3130 M3110 M2620 3220 M3110, M3120, P3130 M2110 M2410 3130, P3130 M2410 M2410 M2110 3130, M3120, P3130 M2410 3110 3130, P3130 M2410 M2410 3140, 3210 M2410 M2410 M2110, M2410 3140, P3130 3140, P3130 A3140 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 Western United States (Continued) Grama, blue Grama, Chino ‘ Grama, hairy red Rothrock Grama, Grama, Grama, side-oats six-weeks slender sprucetop Grama, Grama, Grama, Grape, canyon Grape, Grape, Oregon- Oregon- Grasses: Arrowgrass Barnyard grass Bear grass Bear grass Bear grass Beardgrass, cane Bentgrass Bentgrass, Hall's Bentgrass, Idaho Bentgrass, winter Bermuda grass Blue-eyed grass Blue-eyed grass, golden Blue-eyed grass, Idaho Bluegrass Bluegrass, Canada Bluegrass, Cusick Bluegrass, Fendler Bluegrass, fowl Bluegrass, Kentucky Bluegrass, Merrill's Bluegrass, Nevada Bluegrass, pine Bluegrass, plains Bluegrass, Sandberg Bluegrass, Sandberg Bluegrass, wheeler Bristlegrass, green Bristlegrass, yellow Bromegrass Buffalo grass Bullgrass Canary-grass, reed Cheatgrass Colusa grass Crabgrass Deergrass Bouteloua gracilis Bouteloua breviseta Bouteloua hirsuta Bouteloua trifida BouteToua rothrockii Bouteloua curtipendula Bouteloua barbata BouteToua filiformis Bouteloua chondrosioides vitis arizonica Berberis nervosa Berberis repens Triglochin spp. chinochloa crusgalli Nolina microcarpa Nolina texana Xerophyllum tenax Andropogon barbinodis Agrostis spp. paresis hallii Agrostis idahoensis Agrostis scabra Lynodon dactyTon Sisyrinchium californicum Sisyrinchium angustifolium 2 spp. 0a compressa Poa cus tckti Poa fendleriana Poa palustris Poa pratensis Poa ampla Poa nevadensis Poa scabrella Poa arida Poa sandbergii Poa secunda Poa nervosa Setaria viridis Setaria lutescens ee rome Buchloe dactyloides Muh lenbergia emers leyi Phalaris arundinacea See "Cheat" Anthochloa colusana Digitaria itaria sanguinalis Tis MuhYenbergia rigens continued 3110, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, P3130 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3 3110, 3140, 3 10, 3220, M3120, P3130 3210 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 2410, M2410, M3110 3130, 3220, M2110, M3110, M3120, P3130 3130 3110 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 M2110; M2410, M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, §3120 2410, (M3120), (P3130) 2410 2410 2110 3140, 3210, 3220, 3120 2410 M2410 2410 3130, M3120, P3130 3130 3130 3130, 3220, M3120, P3130, A3140 M2410 2410, 3130, M3110, M3120, P3130 3120, 3130, M2110 3130, P3130 2410, M2110 3140, P3130 3120, 3130, P3130 3130 3130, M3110 3110 3110 M2410, 3110, 3140, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3130 2610 3110 3140, 3220, M3120, P3130 3210, rr A: List of Selected Plants 137 ns General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Western United States (Continued Grasses (Continued): Fluffgrass Galleta grass Gama grass, eastern Grama grass Hairgrass, slender Hairgrass, tufted Deschampsia caespitosa Indian-grass Tridens puchellus Hilaria jamesii Tripsacum dactyloides ee “Grama” Deschampsia elongata orghastrum nutans Junegrass, mountainKoeleria cristata Junegrass, prairie Lovegrass, gummy Lovegrass, Lehmann Lovegrass, plains Manna grass Muttongrass Needlegrass Needlegrass, Columbian Needlegrass, Needlegrass, Lemmon Needlegrass, Letterman Needlegrass, subalpine Needlegrass, Thurber Needlegrass, western green Oat grass Oat grass, few- flowered wild Oniongrass Oniongrass, Alaska Oniongrass, showy Orchardgrass Peppergrass, yellow-f lowered Pinegrass Podgrass, shore Reedgrass, bluejoint Reedgrass, Pacific Reedgrass, plains Rice-grass, Indian Rice-grass, pinyon Rice-grass, roughleaf Ring grass Saltgrass Saltgrass, desert Schismus grass Slough grass Koeleria cristata Eragrostis curtipedicellata Eragrostis lehmanniana ragrostis intermedia Glyceria spp. Poa fendleriana Stipa spp. aot columbiana Stipa viridula Stipa lemmonii Stipa lettermani Stipa columbiana Stipa thurberiana Stipa occidentalis Danthonia spp. Danthonia unispicata metice bulbosa Melica subulata MeTica spectabilis Dactylis glomerata Lepidium perfoliatum Calamagrostis rubescens Triglochin maritimum Calamagrostis canadensis Calamagrostis nutkaensis Calamagrostis montanensis Oryzopsis hymenoides Piptochsetiun imbriatum Oryzopsis asperifolia Muhlenbergia torreyi Distichlis spicata Distichlis stricta Schismus barbatus Bechmannia syzigachne continued 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3130, 3140, P3130 3110 3130, M2110, M2410 2410, M3120, P3130 3110, 3140, P3130 (3110), (3120), (3130) 3140, 3210, 3220, (M3110), M3120, P3130, (A3140) 3110, 3120, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3110, M3120, P3130, A3140 3110 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 M2410 (3130), 3220, M3120, P3130, (A3140) 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130, A3140 3130, M3120, P3130 3110 2410, M2410 3130, M3120, P3130 (3130), M3120, P3130 3130 2410, 3120, 3130, M2410, M3110 M3120, P3130 3130 M3120, P3130 2410 M2410 2410 3130 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110 M2410 3130, M2110 M2410 3130 3110, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 P3130, A3140 3210, 3220, P3130 M2110 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M2410, M3120 3130, P3130 M3120 2410 Grasses (Continued): Switchgrass Sword-grass Ticklegrass Tobosa-grass Vanilla grass Velvet grass Vernal grass, sweet Wheatgrass Wheatgrass, bearded Wheatgrass, bluebunch Wheatgrass, slender Wheatgrass, thickspike Wheatgrass, western Widgeon-grass Gray-thorn Greasewood Greasewood Greenbrier, California Gromwell, western Ground-cedar Ground-cone Groundse] Groundsel Groundsel, arrowleaf Groundsel, Bolander's Groundsel, cleftleaf Groundsel, common Groundsel, western Groundsmoke, hairstem Grouseberry Guajillo Guazacan Gumdrop tree Gumweed Gumweed, curlycup Gutterweed Hackberry, Hackberry, common desert Hackberry, netleaf Hackberry, spiny Hackberry, western Halogeton Hap lopappus, Bloomer's Haplopappus, narrow- leaved Haplopappus, palouse Harebel] Panicum virgatum Scirpus americans Agrostis spp. Hilaria mutica Hierochloe occidentalis Holcus Tanatus Anthoxanthum odoratum Agropyron spp. Agropyron caninum Agropyron spicatum Agropyron trachycaulum Agropyron dasystachyum Agropyron smithii Ruppia maritima Condalia lycioides Larrea divaricata Sarcobatus vermiculatus Smilax californica Lithospermum ruderale Juniperus comunis Boschniakia hookeri Senecio spp. Senecio serra Senecia triangularis Senecio bolanderi Senecio streptanthifolius Senecio vulgaris Senecio integerrimus Gayophytum ramosiss imum Vaccinium scopariun Acacia berlandieri Porlieria angustifolia Zizyphus obtusifolia Grindelia hirsutula Grindelia hirsutu'a Grindelia squarrosa Senecio serra Celtis occidentalis Celtis pallida Celtis reticulata Celtis pallida Halogeton glomeratus Hap lopappus bloomer Hap lopappus HapTopappus gous Western United States (Continued 3110, 3140, P3130 M3120 (2410), M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220 M2410 2410, M2410 M2410 M3110, M3120, P3130 2410 3110, 3120, 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110, P3130 M3120, P3130, A3140 3130, P3130 3110, 3130, 3140, P3130, A3140 3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3130, P3130, A3140 M2610 3120, 3130 (3130) ,(M2110), (M2110), M3120, P3130 M2410 3140, 3210, P3130 3130, M3120, P3130 M2110 M2410 M2110 2410 3120, 3130, M2110 M2410 3130 M2110, M2410, M3110 3210 3210 3210 M2410 3140, P3130 (3130), M3120, P3130 3110 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3110, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 (3110), (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, (P3130) 3130, P3130 M2410 stenophylus 3130 jatriforms 3120 Campanula rotundifolia (3130), M3110, P3130 continued i 138 General Appendix Ss General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)@ Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Western United States (Continued Harebell, California Campanula prenanthoides M2410 Hawksbeard repis acuminata 3130, P3130 Hawksbeard, slender Crepis ‘atrabarba 3130 Hawkweed, hounds tongue Hieracium cynoglossoides 3130, M2410 Hawkweed, slender Hieracium gracile M2110 Hawkweed, western Hieracium albertinum 3120, M3110 Hawkweed, white Hieracium albif lorum 2410, M2410, M3110 Hawthorn Crataegus spp. 3130 Hawthorn, Columbia Crataegus columbiana 3130, M2110 Hawthorn, Douglas Hazelnut, California Heather, red mountain Hedge-nettle, great Hedge-parsley, field Heliotrope, turnsole Hellebore, American false rataegus douglasii Corylus cornuta Phyl lodoce empetriformis Stachys mexicana orilis arvensis He jotropium confertifolium Veratrum viride Hellebore, California false Helleborine, giant Hemitomes Hemlock, mountain Hemlock, western Hermidium Heron-bill Hidden flower Himalaya-berry Hojase Holacantha Hollisteria Hollygrape Hollyhock, desert- Holozonia Honeysuck le Honeysuckle Honeysuckle, black- fruited Hop-sage, spiny Hop-sage, spiny Hop-tree Hopbush Hornwort, common Horse bean, littleleaf Horse chestnut Horsebrush, gray Horsemint Horsenettle, silver Horsenettle, white Horsetail Horsetail, common Horseweed Houndstongue, great Huajillo Huckleberry, big Huckleberry, big Huckleberry, dwarf Huckleberry, globe Huck leberry, ovalleaf Huckleberry, red Hutchinsia Hyssop, nettleleaf giant Incienso Indian bean Veratrum californicum cariiom cum Epipactis gigantea lemitomes congestum pou Pepto ane aE, ‘suga heterophy11. Hermidium alipes Erodium c: ‘circuterium Cryptantha spp. Rubus procerus Flourensta cernua Holacantha emoryi Hollisteria lanata Berberis fremontii Sphaeralcea ambigua Holozonia filipes Lonicera spp. Lonicera hispidula == involucrata ex spinosa or Eman auinien telea trifoliata Dodonaea viscosa Ceratoph, yTTum demers um Cercidium microphyl1um Resculus californica Tetradymia canescens Monarda spp. Solanum elaeagifolium SoTanum elaeagifolium Equisetum spp. quisetum arvense vate Sanadensis ossum grande Calliandra eriophylla ita ee, Vaccinium ‘uliginosum — Vaccinium caespitosum vaccine opt Vaccinum globulare Vaccinium ovalifolium Vaccinium Barvitolium Hutchinsia procumbens Agastache urticifolia Encelia farinosa 2410, 3110, 3130, M2110 2410, M2110, M2410 M2110 M2410 2410 3210 M2110, M2410 M2410 M2410 M2620 M2110, M2410 2410, M2110, M2410 3130, P3130 (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, P3130 M2410 3210 3140, 3140, 3220, M3120 2610, M2620 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 (3130), P3130 M2610, M2620 M3110 M2410 M2410, M3120, P3130 3130 3130, 3220, P3130 3130, P3130 3140, 3220, M3120 3130 3140, 3220, M3120 2610, M2410, M2620 3130 M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 M2410 M2110 3110 M2410 3140, 2410, 3130 M2110 M2110 3210, 3220 M2410 M2410 M2410 P3130 2410, 2410, 3130, M2410 3140, 3220, M3120 Erythrina flabelliformis 3140, 3210, 3220, continued 3120 Western United States (Continued Indian root Indigobush Indigobush Indigobush Inkweed Inside-out flower, white Iodine weed Todinebush Iris, Rocky Mountain Iris, siskiyou Iris, slender-tubed Iris, western Iris, wild Ironwood Jaboncillo Jacamilla Janusia Javelina bush Jepsonia, coast Jerusalem-thorn doint-fir Joint-fir Joint-fir, longleaf Jojoba Joshua tree Juniper Juniper, alligator Juniper, common Juniper, Juniper, creeping dwarf Juniper, one-seeded Juniper, Rocky Mountain Juniper, Utah Juniper, western Juniper, western Juniper, western Kelloggia Kidneywood Kidneywood Kinnikkinnik Knotweed Knotweed, wing Kochia Labrador-tea Labrador-tea, bog Ladies'-tresses Lomatium spp. (3130), P3130 DaTea mollis 3220, M3120 Dalea spinosa 3220 Psorothamnus polydenius 3130, P3130 Suaeda torreyana 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Vancouveria hexandra M2410 Suaeda torreyana 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Allenrolfea occidentalis 2610, (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Iris missouriensis (3120), (3130), M3120, P3130 Iris bracteata M2410 Iris cl ‘chrysophy11a M2410 Tris missouriensis 3120, 3130, (M3120), (P3130) Iris douglasiana M2410 3140, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, Oineya tesota Sapindus drummondi M3120 Jatropha cathartica 3210 anusia gracilis 3210, 3220, M3120 Condalia ericoides 3140, 3210, 3220 Jepsonia parryi M2620 ar Fopkieonia aculcata 3210 Ephedra antisyphilitica 3140, 3210, 3220 phedra torreyana 3130, P3130 phedra trifurca 3140; 3210, 3220 immondsia chinensis ie M2620, M3120 Yucca brevifolia 3220 3110, P3130 Juniperus spp. Juniperus deppeana 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 @130), M2110, M2410, (M3110), (M3120), (P3130) M2110 3130, (M2110), M3110, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130, 3210, 3220, 2110, M3110, M3120, P3130, A3140 3130, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130, M2610, M3110 (3130), 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 (3130), 3210, 3220, (M2110), (M3110), M3120, P3130, (A3140) Kelloggia gallioides M2610, M2620 Eysenhardtta polystachya 3140, 3210, 3220 Eysenhardtia texana 3210 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 2410, 3130, M2110, M3110, M3120, Juniperus communis Juniperus horizontalis uniperus communis Juniperus monosperma Juniperus scopulorun Juniperus osteosperma Juniperus occidentalis juniperus osteosperma Juniperus scopulorum P3130 Polygonum aviculare 3110 Polygonum majus M2410 Kochia scoparia 3110 Ledum glandulosum M2110 Ledum groenlandicum 2410, M2110, M2410 Spiranthes spp. M3110 continued A: List of Selected Plants 139 General Appendix A (continued) [ Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)° Western United States (Continued Lady's-slipper Cypripedium Faseicu atum M2410 Lady's-slipper, mountain Cypripedium montanum M2110 Lady's-slipper, yellow Cypripedium calceolus 2110 Lamb's-quarters henopodium album 3140, P3130 Larch, subalpine Larch, western Larkspur Larkspur Larkspur Larkspur, plains Laurel, California- Laurel, mountain- Laurel, pale Lavender, desert Leatherwood, western Legenere Lenscale Indian miner's miner's Lettuce, Lettuce, Lettuce, Lettuce, prickly Lettuce, wall Leucothoe, western Licoriceroot, pars leyleaf Lignum vitae Lilac, California chocolate Columbia Indian pond lamb 's- tongue lily, lily, Lily, Lily, fawn Lily, mariposa Lily-of-the-valley, false Lily, sego Lily, white-f lowered rush Linanthus, thread- stemmed Lippia, Wright Listera, northwest Loco, speck lepod Loco, white Locoweed Locoweed, white Locust, honey- Locust, mock Locust, New Mexican Loeflingia, California Lomatium, barestem Lomatium, bigseed Lomatium, lace- leaved Lomatium MacDougal Lomatium, nineleaf Lotebush Lotebush Lotebush Lotus, Torrey's Lousewort, leafy Larix lyallii Larix occidentalis Delphinium spp. Delphinium andersoni Delphinium occidentale M2110, M3110 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110 M3120, P3130 3130, P3130 3130 3110 Delphinium virescens imbellutaria californicaM2410, M2610, M2620 Rhus ovata Kalmia polifolia Hyptis emoryi Dirca occidentalis Tegen: — re limosa Atriplex Jentiformis a sibirica a perfoliata a spathulata Lactuca serriola Lactuca muralis Teucothoe davisiae tigusticun aplifolian apiifolium forlieria angus tt raustifoTia greggii Ceanothus 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2610), M3120 2410, M2410 3220 M2620 2610 (3130), 3220, M3120, P3130 M2410 M2410 M2410 3120, 3130 M2410 M2610 2410, M2410 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Fritillaria atropurpurea M2410 Lilium columbianum Nuphar polysepalum Erythronium grandif lorum See "Mariposa lily" dilatatum nuttallii Schoenolirion album Maianthemum Calochortus Linanthus pharnaceoides Ci ippia wrighti Listera cordata Astragalus lentiginosus ae spp. Pees lamberti Astragalus bisulcatus Prosopis glanduTosa Amorpha californica Robinia neomexicana Loeflingia squarrosa Lomatium nudicaule Lomatium macrocarpum Lomatium dissectum Lomatium macdougalii Lomatium triternatum Somatium triernatum Condalia spp. Condalia lycioides Zizyphus obtusifolia Lotus obTongifolius Pedicularis racemosa continued M2410 M2110, M2410 M2110 M2410 (3130), P3130 M2410, M2610 3130 3140, 3210 M2410 3130 3140, P3130 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, P3130 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 2610, M2620 M2410 3120, 3130, M2110, M2410 3120, 3130, M2110 3130 3120, 3130, M2410 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3210 M2410 M2410 Lovage, Gray's Luetkea Luina, silverback Lungwort, broad- leaved jLupine Lupine Lupine Lupine, Lupine, Lupine, Lupine, Lupine, Lupine, Lycium, broadleaf rock silky tailcup tree velvet Anderson Lycium, Cooper's Lycium, pale Lyre-pod, Coulter's Madrone Madrone, Arizona Madrono Maguey cenizo Mahonia, red Mammi llaria Manzanita Manzanita Manzanita, Manzanita, big-berry common Manzanita, eastwood Manzanita, Manzanita, gray greenleaf Manzanita, hairy Manzanita, Manzanita, mariposa pine-mat Manzanita, pointleaf Manzanita, white- leaved Maple, bigleaf Maple, bigtooth Maple, Rocky Mountain Maple, vine Mariola Mariposa Mariposa Mariposa pod Mariposa elegant Mariposa lily, green-banded Mariposa lily, Tolmie's Matchweed, yellow- green Mats, yellow lily lily lily, big lily, Ligusticun gray uetkea pectinata Luina hypoteuca Mertensia ciliata Rertensia ciliata Lupinus spp. Lupinus argenteus Lupinus qeeery Cupinus latifolius upinus Saxosus Lupinus sericeus up inus coudats Lupinus. arboreus. Lats nus Teucophy lus Tycium andersonii andersonii Lycium coo) ‘cooperi Tetum pallidum — Lyrocarpa coulteri Arbutus menziesii Arbutus arizonica Arbutus arizonica Agave asperrima Berberis haematocarpa Mammillaria spp. Arctostaphylos pringlei Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Arctostaphylos glauca Arctostaphylos manzanita Arctostaphylos glandulosa Arctostaphylos cinerea Arctostaphylos patula Arctostaphylos columbiana Western United States (Continued M2410 M2610 M2410 M2410 3130, 3140, 3210, M3120, P3130 M3110 M2410 M2410, M3110 3130 3120, 3130, M2110 3130, M3110, P3130 M2410 3130, M2410 3220 (3130), P3130 3210, 3220 M2620 2410, M2410, M2610, 2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 (2410), (3130), (M2110), (M3110), M3120, P3130 M2620 M2620 M2620 2410 3130, 3220, M2410, M2620, M3120, P3130 M2410 Arctostaphylos mariposa M2610 Arctostaphylos nevadensis Arctostaphylos pungens Arctostaphylos viscida Acer macrophy]1um Acer grandidentatum Acer glabrum Acer circinatum Farthenium incanum TaTochortus Tuteus Calochortus nuttallii Calochartus nitidus Calochortus elegans Calochortus macrocarpus Calochortus tolmiei Gutierrezia lucida Sanicula arctopoides continued 3130, M2410, M2610 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410, M2620 2410, M2410, M2620 3130, 3140; 3210, M3120, P3130 3130, 3140, M2110, M3120, P3130 2410, M2410 3140, 3210 M2410 3130, P3130 3130 M2410 3120, 3130 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220 M2410 140 General Appendix General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Western United States (Continued Meadow-rue Meadow-rue, western Melic, false Menodora, spiny Mescal Mescal bean Mesquite Mesquite, Mesquite, Mesquite, Mesquite, curly false honey honey screwbean velvet. Mesquite, Mesquite, Mesquite, vine Mexican tea Mexican tea Microcala, American Microsteris, pink Milfoil Milk-vetch Milk-vetch Milk-vetch Milk-vetch, balloon Milk-vetch, narrowleaf Milk-vetch, Pursh's Milk-vetch, Spalding's Milk-vetch, starved Milk-vetch, threadstalk Milkweed, climbing Mi lkwort Milkwort, California Mimosa Mimosa, velvet pod Mistletoe, American dwarf Misteltoe, Douglas dwarf Miterwort Miterwort, cross- shaped Mock orange Mock orange, Lewis Monardella Monkey-f lower, bush Monkey-f lower, yellow Montia, narrow- leaved Monument plant Mormon tea Mormon tea Mormon tea Mormon tea Mortonia, scurfy Mountain-lover Mountain-mahogany Mountain-mahogany, birchleaf Thalictrum fendleri Thalictrum occidentale 3130, 3220, M3120, P3130 M2110, M2410 Schizachne purpurascens M2110 Menodora spinescens Agave parryi Sophora spp. rosopis juliflora Hilaria belangeri Calliandra ee Prosopis glandulosa rosopis juliflora Prosopis pubescens rosopis juliflora Panicum obtusum Ephedra spp. Ephedra trifurea Microcala Achillea spp. Astraga us spp. Astragalus bisulcatus Astragalus humistratus Astragalus whitneyi Astragalus stenophyl lus Astragalus purshii Astragalus spaldingii Astragalus miser Astragalus filipes arcostemma spp. Polygala spp. Polygala californica Mimosa spp. a Mimosa dysocarpa Arceuthobium americanum Arceuthobium douglasii Mitella spp. Mitella stauropetala PhiladeIphus oe us Philadelphus Tewisii Monardella odoratissima Mimulus aurantiacus Mimulus guttatus Montia linearis Frasera speciosa Ephedra spp. Ephedra nevadensis edra trifurca Ephedra viridis Mortonia scabrella Pachystima myrsinites Cercocarpus montanus Cercocarpus betuloides continued 3220 3140, 3210, M3120 3140, 3210, 3140, 3210, M3120 3140, 3210, 3140, 3210, 3210 3140, 3210, M3120 3210, 3220, 3140, 3210, M3120 3140, 3210, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220 3220, 3220 3220, 3220 3220 3220, M3120 3220, 3220 adrangularis M2610, M2620 qu. : Microsteris gracilis 3120, 3130 (3130), M3110, P3130 3110, 3130, M3110, P3130 3140, P3130 3140, 3210 M2410 3130 3130 3120, 3130 3130 3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, P3130 M2410 3210 3210, 3220 M2110 M2110 M2410 M2110, M2410 3220, M3120 2410, 3130, M2110, M2410 M2410 M2410, M2620 M2410 3120 M3110 2410, 3130, P3130 P3130 3140, 3210, 3220 3130, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210 (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2110), (M2410), (M2610), M3120, P3130 3130, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M2620, M3120 Province(s)® Western United States (Continued Mountain-mahogany, curlleaf Mountain-mahogany, hairy Mountain-mahogany, Wright Mountain misery Mountain spray Mousetail, bristly Muh ly Muhly, bush Muhly, mountain Muhly, Muhly, pullup ring Muhly, Muhly, sandhill screwleaf Muhly, spike Mulberry, Texas Mullein, great Mullein, turkey Mustard Mustard, pinnate tansy Mustard, tower Navarretia, short- stemmed Needle-and-thread Nemacladus Nettle, bigsting Nettle, western Nightshade Ninebark Ninebark Ninebark, mallow Nolina, Bigelow Nolina, tree Nutmeg, California Oak, Arizona white Oak, blue Oak, bur Oak, California black Oak, California scrub Oak, California scrub Oak, Oak, Oak, canyon live coastal live Emory Oak, Oak, Gambel evergreen white Quercus Cercocarpus ledifolius 3130, 3220, M2410, M2620, M3110, M3120, P3130 Cercocarpus breviflorus 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 Cercocarpus breviflorus 3140, (3210), 3220, Chamaebatia foliolosa Holodiscus dumosus Myosurus aristatus Muhlenbergia spp. Muh lenbergia porteri Muhlenbergia montana Muh lenbergia filiformis Muhlenbergia torreyi Muh lenbergia pungens Muhlenbergia virescens Muhlenbergia wrightii Morus a a Verbascum thapsus Eremocarpus setigerus ruciterae spp. Descurainia pinnata Arabis glabra Navarretia divaricata Stipa ¢ Nemacladus qlanduliferus Urtica dioica Hesperocnide tenella Solanum elaeagifolium Physocarpus capitatus Physocarpus monogynus hysocarpus malvaceus Nolina je lovii ig Nolina bigelovii Torreya californica Quercus arizonica Quercus douglasii Quercus macrocarpa Quercus dumosa Quercus turbinela uercus chrysolepis ae eee Quercus emoryT cnge iene} gambelii, Quercus continued M3120, P3130 M2610 (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2410), (M3110), M3120, P3130 3130 3140, 3210, 3220, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3110 3140, 3210, M3120, P3130 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, M3120 M3120, P3130 2610 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3130 M2110 M2410 3110, 3130, M2110, P3130 3220, M3120 3130 M2610 3140, 3210, 3220 M2410, M3110 3220, M3120 M2110, M2410 3220 3220 M2610, M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 2610, M2620 3110 M2410, M2610 M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 M2410, M2610, M2620 M2410, M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2620 3110, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3110, M3120, P3130 A: List of Selected Plants 141 General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Scientific name *Province(s)® Western United States (Conti Oak, gray Oak, Oak, Oak, Havard interior live Mexican blue Oak, Oak, Oak, Oak, netleaf Oregon white Palmer scrub Oak, Oak, shinnery shrub live Oak, silverleaf Oak, Oak, tanbark- turbinella Oak, Oak, valley white leaf Ocean spray Ocean spray Ocotillo Odontostomum, Hartweg's Olive, desert Onion Orchid, Alaska rein Orchid, bog Orchid, canyon bog Oso berry Owlclover, mountain Oxalis, Oregon Paintbrush Paintbrush, Indian Paintbrush, scarlet Paintbrush, yellow Painted-cup, seaside Palm, California fan Palma Palmilla Palmilla Palo amarillo Palo-de-hierro Paloblanco Paloverde Quercus grisea Quercus havardii Quercus wislizenii Quercus oblongifolia Quercus reticulata Quercus garryana uercus palmeri uercus turbinella Quercus havardii Quercus turbinella Quercus hypoleucoides Lithocarpus densiflora Quercus Jobata Quercus hypoleucoides Holodiscus discolor Holodiscus dumosus Fouquieria splendens Odontostomum hartwegi Forestiera angustifolia Allium acuminatum Habenaria unalascensis Habena spp. Habenaria sparsiflora Osmaronta cerasiformis Orthocarpus imbricatus Oxalis oregana Castilleja chromosa astilleja spp. Castilleja miniata Casti Jeja Tutescens astilleja latifolia fashingtonia filifera ucca torreyi Yucca spp. Yucca elata Aloysia gratissima Ineya tesota Celtis reticulata Cercidium texanum ued 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, P3130 M2610, M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 2410, M2410 3140, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3129 M2410, M2610, M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 2610 3140, (3210), 3220 M3120 2410, 3130, M2110, M2410 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M2410, M3110, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2610 3210 3130, M2410 M3110 M2410 2410, M2410 M2410 P3130 M2610, M2620 3130, P3130 3140, 3210, M3120, P3130 3130, M2410 3120 M2410 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220 (3110), (3140), 3210 3140, 3210, 3220 3210 3140, 3220, M3120 (3110), (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3210 Province(s)? | Common name We lestern United States (Continued Paspalum, sand Paspalum stramineum 3110 Pea-bush Dalea mollis 3220, M3120 Peavine Tathyrus graminifolius 3140, 3210 Peavine Lathyrus leucanthus M3120, P3130 Peavine, aspen Lathyrus Teucanthus M3120, P3130 Peavine, few- flowered Lathyrus pauciflorus M2410 Peavine, Nevada athyrus nevadensis M2110, M2410 Pennycress Thlaspi arvense 3130 Penstemon Penstemon spp. 3110, 3130, (M3110) Penstemon, bush Penstemon ee 3220 Penstemon, Cusick's Penstemon cusicki 3130 Penstemon, gay Penstemon Taetus M2410 Penstemon, matroot Penstemon radicosus 3130 Penstemon, scabland Penstemon deustus 3130 Penstemon, stiffleaf Penstemon aridus 3130 Peony, western Paeonia brownii 3130, M2620 Pepperweed, prairie Tepidium densiflorum 3140, P3130 Phacelia, varileaf Phacelia heterophylla 3130, M2410 Phlox Phlox spp. 3130, P3130 Phlox Phlox caespitosa M3120, P3130 Phlox, Hood's Phlox hoodii 3130, P3130 Phlox, longleaf Phiox longifolia 3120, 3130, P3130 Phlox, periwinkle Phiox adsurgens M2410 Phlox, showy Phlox speciosa M2410 Phlox, shrubby peptocacty lon Pungens 3130, P3130 Phlox, spreading Ox usa 3130, M2410 Phlox, tufted Phlox douglasii M3110 Pickleweed Salicornia spp. M2410 Pickelweed Allenrolfea occidentalis (2610), 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Pine, Apache Pinus latifolia 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Pine, Arizona Pinus latifolia (3140), 3210, (3220) (M3120) Pine, bishop Pinus muricata M2410 Pine, bristle-cone Pinus aristata 3130, M3120, P3130 Pine, Chihuahua Pinus leiophylla 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 Pine, Coulter Pinus coulteri M2610 Pine, digger Pinus sabiniana M2410, M2610, M2620 Pine, foxtail Pinus aristata (3130), M3120, P3130 Pine, Jeffrey Pinus jeffreyi M2410, M2610 Pine, knobcone Pinus attenuata M2410, M2620 Pine, limber Pinus flexilis 3130, 3220, M2110, M3110, M3120, P3130, A3140 Pine, lodgepole Pinus contorta 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110 Pine, Monterey Pinus radiata 2410 Pine, pinyon See "Pinyon" Pine, ponderosa Pinus ponderosa 3110, 3130, 3140, Pine, Rocky Mountain white Pinus flexilis 3210, 3220, M2110, M2410,M2610,M3110, M3120 ,P3130.A3140 (3130), 3220, (M2110), (M3110), M3120, P3130, (A3140) Paloverde, blue Cercidium floridum 3140, 3210, 3220, Pine, sugar Pinus lambertiana M2410, M2610 M3120 Pine, white Pinus monticola M2110, M2410, M2610 Paloverde, border Cercidium floridum 3140, 3210, 3220, Pine, white Pinus reflexa 3140, 3210 M3120 Pine, whitebark Pinus albicaulis 3130, M2110, M3110, Paloverde, foothill Cercidium microphyllum 3140, 3220, M3120 A3140 Paloverde, Pinesap Hypopitys monotropa M2410 littleleaf Cercidium microphyllum 3140, 3220, M3120 |Pinesap, fringed ee Paloverde, yellow ercidium microphyllum 3140, 3220, M3120 : . fimbriolata M2610, M2620 Panalero Forestiera angustifolia 3210 Pingwing Hymeno x Paper-bag bush Salazaria mexicana 3220 ain quinguesquemata = 3140, 3210 Parsley, Howell's Pingwing Hymenoxys richardsonii 3130, P3130 desert Lomatium howellii M2410 Pinque Hymenoxys Parsley, water Denanthe sarmentosa M2410 quinquesquemata 3140, 3210 Parsley, wiskbroom Harbounia trachyp eura M3110 Parsnip, cow Heracleum lanatum 3130, M2410 Parsnip, water- Berula erecta 3130 continued continued 142 General Appendix Common name Scientific name General Appendix A (continued) Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)* Western United States (Continued Pinque Pinyon, Colorado Pinyon, Mexican Pinyon pine Pinyon, Rocky Mountain Pinyon, singleleaf as richardsonii inus edu Pinus cembroides Pinus edulis Pinus edulis Pinus monophylla (3130), P3130 3130, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 (3130), 3210, (3220), M3120, (P3130) (3130), 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130, 3220, M3120, P3130 Pipe-vine, CaliforniaAristolochia californicaM2610, M2620 Pitahaya Pitcher-plant, California Plantain, rattlesnake Plantain, fringed water- Plum, chickasaw Plume, Apache Poison ivy Poison oak Poison vetch, narrow leaf Poison vetch, timber Polemonium, skunk leaf Pondweed Poplar, trembling Popote Popotilla Poppy, matilija Poppy, prickle Poppy, tree Poppy, wind Porterella Potato, rat Poverty weed Prairie clover Prairie clover, purple Prairie clover, silky Prickly pear Prickly pear Prickly pear, brittle Prickly pear, dollarjoint Prickly pear, little Prickly pear, Prickly pear, nopal plains Prickly pear, Prickly pear, Rita Prickly pear, Primrose Primrose, evening- Primrose, evening- Primrose, pale evening- purple Santa Texas Cereus thurberi 3140, 3220, M3210 Darlingtonia californica M2410, M2610 Goodyera oblongifolia Machaerocarpus californicus Prunus angustifolia Fallugia paradoxa Rhus radicans Rhus diversi loba Astragalus pectinatus stragalus convallarius Polemonium pulcherrimum Potamogeton spp. Populus tremuloides Ephedra antisyphilitica Ephedra trifurca omneya coulteri Argemone intermedia lendromecon rigida StyTomecon heterophylla orterella carnosula Hoffmansegaie spp. Iva axillaris Petalostemum SPP- Petalostemum Purpureum Petalostemum villosum puntia spp. jpuntia phaeacantha Opuntia fragilis Opuntia chlorotica Opuntia fragilis Opuntia lindheimeri Opuntia polycantha Opuntia violacea Opuntia chlorotica Opuntia lindheimeri Primula spp. Oenothera spp. Denothera multijuga Oenothera pallida continued 2410, M2110, M2410 2610 3110 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140 2410, M2410, M2620 3140, P3130 3130 M2410 3130, 3220 (3110), (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2110), (M3110), M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 M2620 3140, P3130 M2610 2610 M2610 3140, 3210, 3220 3130, P3130 3140, P3130 3110 3110 3130, 3220, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 (3140), 3210, (3220), (M3120), (P3130) 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3210 3110, 3140, 3210, 3220 ,P 3130 3140, 3210 3140, 3210, 3220 3210 3130, 3220, P3130 M3110, M3120 3220, M3120 3140, P3130 Prince's-pine, western Prince's plume Pterostegia Puccoon Pussy's-toes Pussy's-toes, flattop Pussy's-toes, littleleaf Pussy's-toes, Pussy's-toes, narrow leaf Pussy's-toes, Pussy's-toes, Pyrola, large Pyrola, toothed Pyrola, whitevein Tow rosy tall Quai Ibrush Rabbit brush Rabbit brush Rabbit brush Rabbit brush, Parry Rabbit brush, whitestem gray Ragger, Texas Ragweed Ragweed, canyon Raspberry Raspberry Raspberry, Raspberry, Raspberry, Raspberry, Ratany black boulder red western Ratany, white Redbud, western Redcedar, western Redtop, spike Redwood Reed Reed, giant Retama Rhododendron, white Rigiopappus Rockcress, bristly- leaved Rockcress, hoary Rockcress, Holboel] Rose, Arizona Rose, baldhip Rose mallow Rose, Nootka Rose, sweetbriar Rose, wild Rose, Woods’ Prince's-pine, little Chimaphila menziesii Chimaphila umbellata tanleya pinnatifida Western United States (Continued M2410 3130, M2110, M2410 3220 Pterostegia drymaroides 2610 Uithospermun multiflorum Antennaria spp. Antennaria corymbosa Antennaria parvifolia Antennaria dimorpha Antenaria stenophylla Antennaria rosea ntennaria A we Pyrola asarifolia 7 Pyrola dentata Pyrola picta Atriplex lentiformis Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Chrysothamnus parryi Chrysothamnus nauseosus var. albicaulis Leucophy1 lum frutescens rosia psilostachya Ambrosia ambrosioides Rubus spp. Rubus strigosa Rubus Teucodermis Rubus deliciousus Rubus idaeus Rubus leucodermis KramerTa parvifolia Krameria grayi Cercis occidentalis Thuja plicata Agrostis spp. Sequoia sempervirens hragmites communis Arundo donax Pa aculeata Rhododendron, Pacific Rhododendron macrophy | lum Rhododendron albiflorum Rigiopappus Jeptocladus Arabis rectissima Arabis puberula Arabis holboellii Rosa arizonica Rosa gymnocarpa Hibiscus spp. Rosa nutkana Rosa eglanteria Rosa spp. Rosa woodsii, continued M3110 3130, M3110 3130 3130 3130, M2110 M3110 3130, M2110, M3110 M2110 M2110, M2410 M2410 3130, M2110, M2410 (3130), 3220, M3120, P3130 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3110, 3130, 3210, 3220, M2410, M3120, P3130, A3140 3130, 3220, P3130 M3120, P3130 3120, 3130 3210 3110, 3220, 3220, P3130 M3120 3140, M3120 3220, M3120, P3130 M2110, (M2410) M3110 2110 (M2110), M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3220, M3120 M2610, M2620 2410, M2110, M2410 (2410), M3120, P3130 M2410° 3130, 3210, 3220, M3120 3210 3210 M2410 M2410 M2610 3130 M2110 3130 3140, 3210 2410, M2110, M2410 3210, M3120 2410, 3120, M2110 2410 3110, 3130, M3110, P3130 3120, M2410 A: List of Selected Plants 143 General Appendix A (continued) Common name Western United States (Continued Rush Rush Rush, common Rusty leaf Rye, blue wild Rye, Canada wild Rye, creeping wild Rye, wild Rye, wild Rye, yellow wild Sacahuista Sacahuista Sacahuiste Sacahuiste Sacaton Sacaton, alkalai Sage, black Sage, bladder Sage, coastal Sage, Mojave Sage, pasture Sage, prairie Sage, purple Sage, white Sagebrush Sagebrush Sagebrush Sagebrush, big Sagebrush, black low Pacific sand Sagebrush, Sagebrush, Sagebrush, stiff three-tip Sagebrush, Sagebrush, Saguaro St. John's-wort, common Salal Salsify, yellow Saltbush, big desert four-wing Saltbush, Saltbush, Saltbush, Saltbush, Saltbush, Saltcedar gardner mat spiny Samphire Samphire, Utah Samson, black Sandberry Sandbur Sandcorn Sandpaper bush Sandreed, big Sandreed, prairie Sandwort Sandwort, bigleaf Sandwort, dense- flowered Sanicle, purple Scientific name : + Province(s) Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Juncus spp. Juncus torreyi Juncus effusus Menziesia ferruginea Elymus gTaucus Elymus canadensis ymus triticoides re 7 ertigreys Elymus #Tavescens Nolina microcarpa Nolina texana Nolina microcarpa NoTina texana Sporobolus wrightii Sporobolus airoides alvia mellifera Salazaria ana Artemisia californica Salvia mohavensis Artemisia frigida Artemisia gnaphaloides Leucophyllum frutescens alvia apiana Artemisia spp. Artemista ludoviciana a Artemisia Spinescens Artemisia tridentata Artemisia nova Artemisia Artemisia Artemisia arbuscula campestris filifolia Artemisia rigida Artemisia tripartita Cereus giganteus Hypericum perforatum aultheria shallon Tragopogon dubius Atriplex Tentiformis Atriplex polycarpa Atriplex canescens Atriplex nuttallii triplex spp. Atriplex confertifolia amarix pentandra Salicornia rubra Satlicornia utahensis chinacea Ech a ifoTia Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Cenchrus pauciflorus Zigadenus cee rtonia scabrella Calamovilfa gant. Calamovilfa longifolia renaria spp. Arenaria macrophylla Arenaria congesta Sanicula bipinnatifida continued 2410,; 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3110, M3120, P3130 3220 M2410 2410, M2110 2410, 3130, M2410 3110 3130 3130, 3130, 3130 M2110, P3130 P3130 3210, 3140, 3210, 3140, 3140, 3130, M2620 3220 2610 3220 3110, 3110 3210 M2620 3130, 3220, 3220 3210, 3220 3210, 3210, P3130 3220 3220 3220 M2110, M3110 3220, P3130 M3120, P3130 3130, P3130 3130, 3210, 3220, M2110, M3110, M3120, P3139, A3140 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130 M2110 3110, 3140, 3210, 3220, P3130 3130 3120, 3130 3140, 3220, M3120 2410, M2410 2410, M2410 3120 3130, 3220, M3120 P3130 3220, M3120 3130, 3140, 3220, P3130, A3140 3130, P3130 A3140 (3130), 3220, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, 3120 3130 3130 3110 (2410), (3130), (M2110), (M3110), M3120, P3130 3110 (3130), P3130 3140, 3210 3110 3110 A3140 M2110, 2410 3130 2410 Western United States (Continued Aralia nudicaulis Saxifraga integrifolia Scouring-rush quisetum hyemale Scurf pea, lemon soralea lanceolata Scurf pea, silverleaf Psoralea argo hylla Sarsaparilla, wild Saxifraga, northwestern Scurf pea, slender Psoralea tenuiflora Scurf pea, slimf lower Psoralea tenuiflora Sea blite Suaeda nigra Sea blite, Torrey Suaeda torreyana Sedge Carex spp. Sedge Carex filifolia Sedge, Dewey Tarex deweyana Sedge, elk Carex geyeri Sedge, Hood Carex hoodii Sedge, long-stoloned Carex pensylvanica Sedge, needleleaf Carex eleocharis Sedge, northwestern Carex concinnoides Sedge, Ross Carex rossi Sedge, slough Carex obnupta Sedge, threadleaf Carex Fitivotia Sedge, upland Carex heliophila Seepweed Suaeda spp. Seepwillow Baccharis glutinosa Selaginella, Wallace's Selaginella wallacei Selfheal, common Senna, shrubby Sequoia, giant Serviceberry Serviceberry Prunella vulgaris Cassia wislizeni Sequoia gigantea gantea elanchier spp. AmeTanchier alnifolia Serviceberry, Utah Amelanchier utahensis Shadscale Atriplex confertifolia Shadscale Atriplex lentiformis Shadscale Atriplex nutallii Shield-pod, California Dithyrea californica Shoestring, devil's Polygonum viviparum Shooting star, broad- leaved Silene, Douglas Silk-tassel Silk-tassel iene Garrya Garrya Garrya wrightii Silk-tassel, Fremont Garrya fremontii Silver-leaf, big louglasii elliptica avescens Silk-tasse] bend Leucophyllum minus Skeletonplant, rush Lygodesmia juncea Smartweed Polygonum spp. Smoke tree Dalea spinosa Smokethorn Dalea spinosa Snakeroot, Peck's Sanicula peckiana Snakeroot, Sierra Sanicula graveolens Snakeroot , western ‘Sanicula crassicaulis Snakeweed Gutierrezia spp. Snakeweed Gutierrezia lucida Snakeweed Gutierrezia Sarothrae Snakeweed, broom Gutierrezia sarothrae continued Dodecatheon hendersonii M2110 2410 M2110, M2410 3110, 3130 3110 (3110), 3140, P3130 3110, 3140, P3130 3130, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 2410, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M2410, M3110, M3120, P3130 (3110), (3120), A3140 M2410 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110 M2110 2410, M2410 3110 M2410 3130, M3110 M2410 3110, 3120, (A3140) 3110 3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 2110 M2410 3140, 3210 M2610 A3140 2410, 3110, 3130, 3210, M2110, M2410, M3110, M3120, P3130 3130, 3220, P3130 3130, 3220, P3130 (3130), 3220, M3120, P3130 (3130), P3130 M2620 A3140 2410 3130 M2410, M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410, M2620 3210 3140, P3130 m24i0 3220 3220 2410 M2110, M2410 2410 3140, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220 (3110), (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3110, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 144 General Appendix General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)? Common name Scientific name Province(s)* Western United States (Continued Snakewood Sneezeweed Sneezeweed, Bigelows Snowberry Snowberry Snowberry Snowberry, common Snowberry, round- leaved Snowberry, western Snowqueen Soapberry, western Soapbush Soapweed, small Solomon plume, starry Solomon's-seal, false Sophora Sorrel, wood- Spanish bayonet Spanish dagger Spanish dagger Spanish dagger Speedwell, purslane Spiderflower, bee Spikerush Spikerush Spikerush, needle Spinach, cattle Spiraea, Douglas Spiraea, shinyleaf Spring gold Spruce, blue Spruce, Colorado Spruce, Engelmann Spruce, Spruce, Spruce, Spruce, Spurge Squawbush Squawbush silver Sitka weeping white Squirreltail Squirreltail, big Squirreltail, bottlebrush Star-flower Columbrina texensis Helenium hoopesi Hetenium bigelovii Symphoricarpos spp. Symphoricarpos mollis Symphoricarpos oreophi lus Symphoricarpos albus Cpa rotundifolius Symphoricarpos occidentalis seeturis reniformis ‘apindus drummondi Porlieria angustifolia Yucca glauca Smilacina stellata Smilacina racemosa Sophora spp. Oxalis spp. Yucca torreyi Yucca baccata Yucca schidigera Yucca torreyi Veronica peregrina Cleome serrulata Eleocharis spp. Eleocharis rostellata Eteocharis acicularis at as carpa Spiraea douglasii piraea betulifolia rocidium mult Picea pungens Picea pungens enge Imannii Picea Picea pungens Picea sitchensis Picea b' Picea glauca Euphorbia spp. ondalia spathulata Rhus trilobata Sitanion hystrix Sitanion jubatum Sitanion hystrix Trientalis latifolia continued 3210 M3120, P3130 M2410 3130, M2410, P3130, A3140 M2410 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 2410, 3110, 3120, 3130, M211¢, M2410, M3110 3130 3110, M2110 2410 3140, 3210, 3220, 3120 3210 3140, P3130 M2110, M2410, M3110 M2110, M2410, M3110 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, 3120, P3130 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 2410 (3140), P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3190 2410 3220, M3120 2410, M2410, M3110 3130, M2110, M2410 2610 M3110, M3120, P3130 (M3119), M3129, P3130 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110, M3120, P3130 (M3110), M3120, P3130 M2410 M2410 M2110 3110 3140, 3210, (3220) 3110, 3130, 3140, 3210, 3220, 2410, M3120, P3130 (2410), (3110), (3130), 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2410), (M3110), 3120, P3130 2410 2410, 3110, 3130, 3140, (3210), 3220, M2410, M3110, M3120, (P3130) M2410 [——— Starwort, crisped Starwort, northern Stickleaf Stickseed, western Stickseed, Jessica Stingaree-bush Stonecrop Stonecrop, wormleaf Stonewort, creamy Strawberry Strawberry Strawberry, sand Strawberry, Virginia Sugar bush Sugarstick Sumac Sumac, Sumac, Sumac, Sumac, Sumac, Sumac, Sumac, desert fragrant laurel mahogany Mearns prairie scarlet Sumac, smooth Sumac, sugar Sun-drops Sun-drops Sunf lower Sunf lower Sunf lower, woolly Sunflower, Sunflower, common desert- false Sunflower, false Sunflower, prairie Sweet-scented shrub, western Sweetroot Sweetroot, mountain Sweetroot, purple Sycamore, Arizona Tamarisk Tanglehead Tansybush Tapiro Tarbush Tarweed, least Tarweed, stinking Tarweed, woodland Tauschia, glaucous Tauschia, Kellogg's Teasel, common Teposote Tesajo Tesota palo fierro The lypody Thimbleberry Thistle, Collin's Thistle, common Thistle, common Sycamore, California Stellaria crispa Stellaria calycantha Mentzelia spp. Lappula redowskii Hackelia jessicae ickeringia montana edum lanceolatum Sedum stenopetalum Sedum oregonense Fragaria ovalis ‘agaria vesca r Fragaria chiloensis Fragaria virginiana Rhus ovata Allotropa virgata us Spp. Rhus microphylla Rhus aromatica Rhus Taurina Rhus integrifolia ifolia Rhus oe a Rhus Tanceolata Rhus glabra Rhus glabra Rhus ovata QOenothera spp. Denothera multi juga Helianthus spp. Helianthus annuus Eriophyllum lanatum Garea canescens Helianthella guiness Helianthella uniflora Helianthus petiolaris Calycanthus occidentalis Osmorhiza spp. Osmorhiza chilensis Osmorhiza purpurea PYatanus wrightii Platanus racemosa Tamarix pentandra Heteropogon contortus Chamaebatiaria milTefolium Sambucus mexicana Flourensia cernua Madia minima Madia glomerata Madia madioides auschia glauca kelloggii sylvestris auschia Dipsacus x Ephedra trifurca Opuntia Teptocaulis Olneya tesota TheTypodtum sagittatum Rubus parviflorus SaTsola collina Cirsium arvense Cirsium vulgare continued Western United States (Continued M2410 M2110 3140, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130 M2410 "2610 M3110 3130 M2410 M3110, M3120, P3130 2410, M2410, M3110 2410, 3130, M2110, M2410 3130, M3110 3140, 3210, 3220, 2620, M3120 2410 3210 3210 3110 M2620 M2620 3140, 3210, 3220 3140 (3130), 3140, 3210, §3120 3130, 3140, 3210, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, (M2620), M3120 (M3110), 3120 3220, 3120 3110 3110, 3220, M3120 2410, 3130, M2410 M3120 M3120, P3130 3120 3110, 3140, P3130 M2610 M2110 2410, M2110, M2410 M3110 3140, M3120 M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220 3210, (3220), (M2610) (M3120), P3130 3210 3140, 3210 3130 3130 2410 M2410 M2410 3130 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3220, M3120 3130, P3130 2410, M2110, M2410 3110 2410 3130 A: List of Selected Plants 145 Common name Scientific name Province(s)? General Appendix A (continued) Common name Western United States (Continued Thistle, Russian Thistle, Russian Thistle, Russian Thornbush, Anderson Three-awn Three-awn Three-awn, red Three-awn, purple Thrift Thurberia Timothy, alpine Timothy, mountain Timothy, Texas- Tobacco brush Tobacco, tree Tofieldia Toothwort Toothwort, slender Tornillo Torote Trail plant Trillium, purple Trillium, white Trisetum, nodding Trisetum, spike Trisetum, tall Trompillo Tumb leweed Turpentine-brush Twayblade, northern Twayb lade, western Twinf lower Twisted-stalk, clasping- leaved Twisted-stalk, purple Umbrella plant Una de gato Valerian, Sitka Varadulce Varadulce Verbena, hairy sand Verbena, large- bracted Verbena, sand Vervain Vetch, American Violet Violet, Violet, Violet, Violet, Violet, Violet, tinged Violet, round- leaved Violet, upland yellow Violet, western long-spurred Beckwith's Canada evergreen marsh pine purple- Salsola spp. Salsola iberica Salsola kal Lycium andersonii Aristida spp. Aristida longiseta Aristida longiseta Aristida purpurea Armeria maritima Gossypium thurberi Phieum alpinum Phieum alpinum Tycurus’ ah eoides Ceanothus velutinus Nicotiana glauca Tofieldia qlutinosa Dentaria californica facgamine dam pulcherrima Prosopis wbescene Bursera microphyl] Adenceaiion Bieplor Trillium petiolatum Trillium ovatum Trisetum cernuum setum spicatum Trisetum canescens Solanum elaeagifolium Satsola iberica Leap aricifolius Listera borealis Listera caurina Linnaea borealis 3140, P3130 3110 3130, P3130 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 (3110), (3139), 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3119, 3139, 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3140, 3210 2410 3140, 3210, 3220 M2410, M3120, P3130 (M2410), M3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 3130, M2410, M3110, P3130 M2620 M2410 M2410 2410 3210, 3220, M3120 3220 2410, M2110, M2110 M2410 M2410 M3120, P3130 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220 M2610 M2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410 M2410 M2110, M2410 Streptopus amplexifolius M2110, M2410 Streptopus roseus Peltiphy1lum petabn Acacia greqgii Valeriana sitchensis Eysenhardtia texana M2410 M2610 3140, 3210, M3120 3220, M2110, M2410 3210 Eysenhardtia polystachya3140, 3210, 3220 Abronia Josa Verbena bracteata Abronia latifolia Verbena spp. one SPP Vicia americana Viola spp. jola beckw Viola canaden Viola sempervirens i palustris Jobata <| jo | <| Purpurea orbiculata nuttallii Viola adunca continued 3220 3110 M2410 3210 2410, 3220, M2110, M2410, M3120, P3130 3130, M3120, P3130 3130, P3130 3140, 3210, M2110 M2410 M2110 M2410 3130 M2110 2410, M2110 2410, M2110 Scientific name Province(s)* Western United States (Continued Viola glabella M2110, M2410 Violet, wood Virginia creeper Virgin's-lower, climbing purple Virgin's-lower, matted purple Wait-a-bit Wait-a-minute bush Wallflower, rough Walnut, Arizona Water nymph, holly- leaved Watercress Waterleaf, baldhead Waterleaf, Fendler Myrtle, wax- Wheat, Indian Whispering bells White brush White brush White bush White-thorn White-thorn White-thorn, mountain Whortleberry Willow Willow Willow, Willow, Willow, Willow, Willow, Willow, River Willow, arroyo Bebb black Bonp land coast Columbia desert- fire Goodding Willow, Willow, mountain Pacific rigid Scouler's soft-leaved stinking Willow, Willow, Willow, Willow, Willow, Willow, Willow, yellow Willowweed, autumn Willowweed, small- flowered Wind flower Wingscale Winter-fat Wintergreen Wintergreen, one- sided Wolfberry Wolfberry Wolftail Woodnymph Woodrush Parthenocissus inserta Clematis pseudoalpina Clematis tenuiloba Mimosa biuncifera Mimosa biuncifera Erysimum asperum dugilans major Najas marina Rorippa spp. Hydrophyllum capitatum HydrophytTun fendlert californica Plantago patagonica Emmenanthe penduliflora Aloysia gratissima Lyspia wrighti Aloysia gratissima Acacia constricta Acacia vernicosa Ceanothus cordulatus Vaccinium oreophy lum Salix Spp. Salix amygdaloides Salix Tasiolepis Salix bebbiana Salix scouleriana Salix bonplandiana Salix hookeriana Salix flu Chilopsis linearis Salix scouleriana Salix gooddingii Salix scouleriana Salix lasiandra Salix rigida Salix scouleriana Salix ses: olia Amorpha Salix taxifolia Epilobium paniculatum Epilobium minutum Pulsatilla patens Atriplex canescens Eurotia Janata Gaultheria ovatifolia Pyrola secunda Lycium spp. Lycium berlandieri Tycurus phleoides Pyrola uniflora tuzula hitchcockii, continued 3140, M3120 M2110 M2110 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 M2410 3140, M3120 3130 3140, 3210, M3120 M2110 3130 M2410 3120, 3130 M2610, M2620 3210 3140, 3210 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140, 3210 3220, M2610 M3120, P3130 2410, 3130, 3140, 3210, M2410, M3110, M3120, A3140 M3119 3220 M2110 (2410), M3120, P3130 3220, M3120 M2410 2410, M2110 3140, 3210, 3220, M2620, M3120 (2410), 3120, P3130 3140, 3210, 3220, M3129 (2410), "3120, P3130 2410, M2110, M2410 2410 2410, “3120, P3130 2410 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3140 3120, 3130, M2110 3130, M2410 M3110 (3130), 3140, 3220, P3130, (A3140) 3130, 3140, 3220, P3130 M2410 M2110, M2410, M3110 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 3210 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120, P3130 M2110 M2110 146 General Appendix General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)* Western United States (Continued Woodrush, spreading Wormwood Wormwood Wormwood, linearleaf Wyethia, mulesears Yampah, Gairdner Yarrow Yarrow Yarrow, false Yarrow, western Yellow cups Yerba buena Yerba DeSelva Yerba mansa Yerba santa Yerba santa Yew, western Yucca Yucca, Mojave Yucca, soaptree Yucca, soaptree Yucca, tree Zinnia, desert Zinnia, desert Luzula divaricata a spinescens Artemisia dracunculus Wyethia amplextcaulis Perideridia gairdneri Achillea spp. Achillea lanulosa Chaenactis douglasii Achillea millefolium Oenothera brevipes Satureja a asii ipplea modesta nemopsis californica riodictyon angustifolium Eriodictyon californicum Taxus brevifolia Yucca spp. Yucca schidigera Yucca spp. Yucca elata Yucca brevifolia Zinnia grandiflora Zinnia pumila M2410 (3130), 3220, P3130 (3130), P3130 M3110 3130, P3130 M2110 3130, (M3110), P3130 3140, 3210, M3120 P3130 3130 2410, 3120, 3130, M2110, M2410, M3110 3220 2410 M2410, M2620 2610, M2620 3140, 3210, 3220, M3120 2610, M2620 2410, M2110, M2410 M2610, M2626 3110, 3140, 3210 3220 (3110), (3140), 3210 3140, 3210, 3220 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 3140, 3210, 3220 RRR RRR RR RR RR RRR RRR RR RR RR RRR RR RE Aconite Alder, green Andros ace Anemone, narcissus- flowered Ash, green mountain- Aspen, quaking Avens Avens, Drummond mountain- Avens, entire-leaf mountain- Avens, white mountain- Azalea, Alpine Bearberry Bearberry, Alpine Bearberry, red- fruited Birch, Alaska bog Birch, dwarf Arctic Birch, paper Birch, resin Alaska Aconitum delphinifolium 1220 Alnus crispa Androsace ochotensis Anemone narcissiflora us scopulina Populus tremuloides Geum rotundifolium Dryas drummondii Oryas octapetala Dryas integrifolia Loiseleuria procumbens 1310, 1320, M1310 1220 M1310 M1310 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 M1310 M1310 1210, 1310 1210, M1310 M1210, M1310 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 1220, M1210, M1310 Arctostaphylos alpina 1220, M1210, M1310 Arctostaphylos rubra alix fuscescens Betula nana Betula papyrifera Betula glandulosa continued 1310, 1320, M1310 1220, M1210 1210, 1220, M1210, M1310 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 1210, 1220, 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 Alaska (Continued Bistort Bistort, Alpine Bistort, mountain meadow Blueberry, bog Blueberry, early Buffaloberry Cinquefoil, villous Cloud berry Coltsfoot, Arctic sweet Cranberry, bog Cranberry, highbush- Cranberry, mountain Crowberry Currant, American red Daisy Elderberry, Pacific red Ferns: Fragile fern Licorice-fern Fescue Fireweed Fireweed Gale, sweet Geranium, northern Goldenrod Grasses: Bluegrass Cottongrass Cottongrass Grass Hairgrass Hairgrass Hollygrass, Alpine Oatgrass, downy Reedgrass, bluejoint Ryegrass, beach Heath, blue mountain Heather, club-mocs mountain Heather, four-angled mountain Horsetail Juniper, common Kobresia Labrador-tea Labrador-tea Labrador-tea Labrador-tea, narrowleaf Polygonum bistortordes Polygonum viviparum Polygonum bistorta Vaccinum uliginosum Vaccinium ovalifolium Shepherdia canadensis Potentilla villosa Rubus chamaemorus Petasites frigidus Vaccinium gxycoccos Viburnum edule Vaccinium vitis-idaea Empetrum nigrum Ribes triste Erigerson spp. Sambucus callicarpa Cystopteris fragilis olypodium vulgare estuca brachyphylla angustifolium EpiTobium EpiTobium atifo Tum Myrica gale eranium erianthum Solidago spp. Poa spp. 1310, 1320 1210, M1310 1210 1220, 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 1220 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 M1310 M1310 1220 1220, M1310 1220, 1310, 1320 1210, 1220, 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 1310, 1320, M1310 1310, 1320 M1310 1220 M1310 M1310 1220, M1210 1210, M1210, M1310 1210 1220 M1310 M1310 1210, M1310 Erfophorum augustifolium!220 Eriophorum vaginatum risetum spp. Deschampsia spp. Deschampsia caespitora Hierochloe alpina risetum subspicatum Calamagrostis angsdorf fii Elymus mollis Phyllodoce coerula Cassiope lycopodioides Cassiope tetragona Equisetum spp. Juniperus communis Kobresia myosuriodes Ledum groenlandicum Ledum palustre procumbens Cedum decumbens Ledum continued 1220 1210 1210 1220 M1310 M1310 M1310 M1310 1220 M1310 1220, M1210, M1310 1310, 1320 M1210, M1310 1210 1310, 1320 M1310 1220 1210, 1220, M1210, 1310 A: List of Selected Plants 147 General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)* Common name Scientific name Province(s)* Leather-leaf Lichen Lichen, hair Lichen, Iceland Lichen, reindeer Lousewort Lousewort Lupine, Arctic Meadow- rue Mosses: Campion moss Haircap moss Peat moss Woolly moss Oxytrope, blackish Parsnip, cow Pea, beach Poppy, Arctic Poplar, balsam- Poplar, black Primrose, northern Rose, prickly Rosebay, Lapland Rosemary, bog Rush Rush, two-flowered Sagebrush, Alaskan Sandwort, Arctic Sandwort, long- podded Sandwort, sea-beach Saxifrage Sedge Sedge Sedge Sedge, aquatic Senecio Silverweed, Pacific Spruce, black Spruce, white Tamarack Vetch Willow Willow Willow Willow Willow Willow Willow Willow, Arctic Willow, Barclay Willow, barren- ground Willow, Bebb Willow, diamondleaf Alaska (Continued ——|—— Chamaedaphne calyculata M1310 e Alectoria pubescens Cetravia hepatizon Cladonia spp. Pedicularis spp. Pedicularis pennellii Tupinus arcticus Thalictrum kemense Silene acaulis Polytrichiun spp. Sphagnum spp. Rhacomitrium anuginosum Oxytropis nigrescens Heracleum Janatum Papaver radicatum oni ulus balsamifera Opulus trichocarpa rimula borealis Rosa acicularis Rhododendron Tapponicum Andromeda polifolia Eleocharis spp. Juncus biglumis Artemisia alaskana Avenaria arctica Avenaria macrocarpa Honkenya peploides Saxifraga spp. arex spp. Carex microchaeta yarex Eriophorum spp. arex aquatilis Senecio pe Potentilla egedii Picea mariana Picea glauc : Larix laricina Vicia spp. Ma io, x spp. arbutifolius Sees candida ‘chamissanis x Janata x pulchra ix arctica ix barclayi x br aa alix bebbiana Salix planifolia | jo» oo quad x | cy 22 a Ss 2 E my a x continued ‘abrosa 1220 1220 1220 1210 1210 1220 1220 M1310 1220 1220 1210 1210 1220 M1310 M1310 1210 1310, 1320, M1310 1310, 1320 1220 1310, 1320, M1210 M1210, M1310 1210 1210 1220 1310, 1320 1220 1220 M1310 1210, 1220 1210, M1310 1220 1210 1220 1310 1220 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 1310, 1320 1310, 1320 1210, 1220 1220 1220, M1210 1210, M1310 M1210 1210 1220 1220 M1310 M1310 1310, 1320 1210, 1220 Willow, feltleaf Willow, littleleaf Willow, ovalleaf Willow, netleaf Willow, Scouler Willow, undergreen Wood-rush, alpine Wood-rush, northern Wood-rush, snow Wormwood Aalii Aalii Abutilon, hoary Ae he Ahakea Ahakea Ahakea Aheahea Aiea Akala Akia Akoko Akoko Alaa Alaa Alaalawainui Alahee Albizia, molucca Amau Ardisia, shoebutton Andropogon Ash, tropical Asp lenium Athyrium Bagras Bamboo, common Banana Blackberry Blechnum Bluegum Bluegum, Sydney Breadfruit Castorbean Christmas berry Club-moss Coconut palm Cook-pine Cypress, Monterey Deschampsia Dropseed, African Dropseed, West Indian Oryopteris Ekaha Alaska (Continued Salix alexensis Salix arbusculoides Salix ovalifolia Salix reticulata Salix scouleriana Salix ‘commutata Luzula arcuata TuzuTa ‘confusa Luzula nivalis Artemisia alaschcensis 1210, 1310, 1320, M1210, M1310 1210, 1310, 1320, M1310 1210, 1220 1210, 1220, M1210 1310, 1320 M1310 M1310 1220 1220 M1310 Hawaii Dodonaea eriocarpa M4210 Dodonaea sandwicensis 4210 Abutilon grandifolium M4210 Polypodium pellucidum M4210 Zanthoxylum spp. M4210 Bobea elatior M4210 Bobea mannii M4210 Bobea sandwicensis M4210 Thenopodium oahuense M4210 Nothocestrum latifolium M4210 ubus hawaiiens M4210 Wikstroemia spp. M4210 Euphorbia spp. M4210 Euphorbia celastroides M4210 Planchonella spathulata M4210 anchonella spp. M4210 Peperomia spp. M4210 anthium odoratum 4210 Albizia falcata M4210 Sadleria spp. M4210 Ardisia humilis M4210 Andropogon spp. M4210 Fraxinus uhdei 4210 Asplenium spp. M4210 Athyrium spp. M4210 Eucalyptus deglupta 4210 ambusa vulgaris M4210 Musa spp. M4210 Rubus penetrans M4210 Blechnum occidentale M4210 ucalyptus globulus M4210 ucalyptus saligna M4210 Artocarpus altilis M4210 Ricinus communi§ M4210 Schinus terebinthifolius M4210 Lycopodium spp. M4210 Cocos nucifera M4210 Araucaria columnaris M4210 Cupressus macrophylla 4210 Deschampsia australis M4210 porobulus capensis M4210 Sporobulus indicus M4210 Oryopteris spp. M4210 Elaphoglossum spp. M4210 continued 148 General Appendix General Appendix A (continued) Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Common name Scientific name Province(s)® Hawaii (Continued Hawaii (Continued Ferns: Kupaoa Raillardia spp. M4210 Filmy fern Trichomanes spp. M4210 Golden fern Pityogramma chrysophy 11a M4210 Lama Diospyros ferrea M4210 Sword fern Nephrolepis spp. M4210 Lantana antana camara — M4210 Fire tree rica faya M4210 Lemon gum Eucalyptus citriodora M4210 Fireweed Erechtites heiracifolia M4210 Loulu Pritchard? spp. M4210 Foxtail, bristly Setaria verticillata M4210 Mahogony, swamp Eucalyptus robusta M4210 Ginger, white Hedychium coronarium M4210 a Alyxia 2 ivaefonats nee Ginger, yellow ledychium flavescens M4210 ‘ole lertera granadensi Gosmore ypochaeris radicata M4210 ree Ca paris sandwichiana mato Grasses: jamal Pipturus spp. Buffel grass Cenchrus ciliaris 4210 Mamani ophora chrysophila 4210 Finserarass, aid qopindus, saponar a tas feather Chloris virgata M4210 Jango jangife: Glenwood grass Sacciolepis indica M4210 Manono Gouldia terminalis M4210 Guinea grass anicum maximum M4210 Mao Abutilon tncanum M4210 Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum M4210 tao ; Sossyp tua oe ie Lovegrass, lar japele e di . Hawaiian Eragrostis grandis M4210 Maple, Queensland Flindersia brayleyana 4210 Mollasses grass Me aie minutiflora M4210 Maua XyTosma hawaiiense M4210 Napier grass Pennisetum purpurea M4210 Mehame ntidesma platyphyllum M4210 Orchardgrass Dactylis glomerata M4210 Mehamehame Drypetes jh. anthotdes M4210 Pangolagrass Digitaria decumbens M4210 Melas tome, Malabar Melastoma malabathricum M4210 Paragrass Panicum purpurascens M4210 Melochia Melochia indica aan Pili grass Heteropogon contortus M4210 Moa Psilotum nudum M4210 Plush grass Chloris radiata M4210 Monkeypod Pithece]lobium saman ae Quakgrass Panicum repens M4210 Mountain apple Eugenia malaccensis x i Velvet grass Holcus lanatus M4210 Myrtle, downy Rhodomyrtus tomentosa M4210 Guava Psidium quajava “ee Red Ri i Gum, Re ver Eucalyptus camauldulenis iherlae Oubsutta spp. Ha20 Haha Clermontia spp. M4210 Naio Myoporum sandwicense hain Hahanui Cyanea spp. M4210 Naupaka caevola spp. a Hala Pandanus spp. M4210 Nehe Tipochaeta SPP. naz10 Halapepe Pleomele aurea M4210 Neneleau hus sandwicensis Hamakua pamakani Eupatorium riparium M4210 Hao Rauvolfia spp. M4210 l "4210 Hapuu Cibotium SPP M4210 Ohelo Vaccinium spp. hain Hau Hibiscus tiliaceus M4210 Ohe makai Reyno dsia ane ee 7 Hioscores bulbifera = ™4210 hie etrosideras colina 4210 Ohia ha Eugenia sandwicensis M4210 leie Freycinetia arborea M4210 Olapa eirodendron spp. M4210 Tliahi Santalum spp. M4210 Olomea FerrottetTa tetia Santee Iliahi Santalum el lipticum M4210 Olopua smanthus san an lima Sida SPP. M4210 Oph jog lossum ioglossum Po nie Indian pluchea PTuchea indica M4210 Opiuma thecellobium dulce nai Ironwood Casuarina equisetifolia M4210 Opuhe Urera spp. Jacaranda Jacaranda mimosifolia 4210 Painiu Astelia spp. 4210 = Eeaenfa casint TT Palea Spheres usa waz Palapalai crolepia ae vice i i i M4210 Kalamoho Pellaea ternifolia M4210 Pamakani, Maui upatorium odoratum Kamakahala Tabordia spp. M4210 pena pantie spp. ; fee ro Pe nate Papernark 7 Suc Bicerendea M4210 Kawau ex anomala ween Keahi Nesoluma chrysophyl ls M4210 Penngaort murah Faspalun ba spp M4210 Kepau, papala Pisonia umbe era M4210 > 7 y. Kiawe’ Prosaie 5 pe + rea Pepper tree schipie wD us maoT0 Kilau teridium aquilinum ce feta te cans ee a ge Koa haole eucaena leucocephala 4210 jia es bentaphy lla MazI0 Kolea Myrsine Jessertiana M4210 ite Fee spp. 4210 Kolea laulii Myrsine sandwicensis M4210 ine poreoik Wien ate Bae haters ite (Mazi Kolomona Cassia floribunda M4210 Polspodiim” stan Se 4210 Kookoolau Bidens spp. M4210 ‘ Koster's curse mia hirta Kukui Aleurites moluccana M4210 Puakala a BuCe oy Maio Kului Nototrichium TW Pukiawe Styphelia tameiameia sandwicense M4210 continued continued —_— SSS —._ ao... ne A: List of Selected Plants 149 General Appendix A (concluded) Common name Scientific name Province(s)?@ Rattlebox Redtop Redwood, coast Rose apple Sedge Selaginella Sel fheal Silk-oak Stenogyne Sugi Thimbleberry Toon, Australian Tulip, African Hawaii_(Continued Crotolaria incana Rhynchelytrum repens Sequoia sempervirens Eugenia jambos Cyperus cyperoides Selaginella spp. Prunella vulgaris Grevillea robusta Stenogyne spp. Cryptomeria japonica Rubus rosaefolius Toona ciliata Spathodea campanulata M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 Common name Uki Uki Uki Ukiuki Uluhe Uluhe, giant Umbrella plant Uulei Waiowi Wattle, black Wiliwili Scientific name Hawaii (Continued Cladium leptostachyum Gahnia beechyi Machaerina gahniformis Dianella sandwicensis Dicranopteris spp. Hilcriopteris pinnata Cyperus alternifolius Osteomeles anthylidifolia Psidium cattleianum Acacia decurrens Erythrina sandwicensis Province(s)® M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 M4210 an Province number in parenthesis indicates that the plant is listed in that province with a different common name only. Ae A RR A A ER Se A 150 General Appendix a GENERAL APPENDIX B List of Selected Wildlife Common name Scientific name Key* Common name Scientific name Key Mammals, Mammals (Continued) Aplo dontia See "Beaver, mountain" Glutton See "Wolverine" Goat, feral Capra hircus W Goat, mountain reamnos americanus W Badger Taxidea taxus EW* Gophers: Bat, big-eared Plecotus rafinesquii S-ET Pocket, eastern Geomys spp. E Bat, eastern big-eared Plecotus rafinesquii S-ET Pocket, western homoi momys spp. W Bat, Townsend's big-eared Plecotus townsen S-ET Colonial pocket Geomys colonus S-ET Bat, western big-eared Plecotus townsendii S-ET Plains pocket eomys bursarius S-ET Bat, evening Nycticeius humeralis S-ET Sherman's pocket Geomys fFontenalus S-ET Bat, gray Myotis grisescens E* Groundhog See "Woodchuck” Bat, Hawaiian See "Bat, Hawaiian hoary" Bat, Hawaiian hoary Lasiurus cinereus semotus w Bat, Indiana Myotis sodalis E* Hare, snowshoe Lepus americanus EW Bat, Keen's Myotis keenii S-ET |Hare, varying Hare, snowshoe" Bat, southeastern Myotis austroriparius S-ET | Hog, wild See "Pig, feral" Bear, black Ursus americanus EW Horse, feral Equus caballus W Bear, Florida black Ursus americanus floridanus S-ET Se Bear, northern black Ursus americanus americanus S-ET Bear, grizzly Ursus arctos w Jackrabbit, black-tailed ta us californicus EW* Bear, polar Thalarctos maritimus W-NC | Jackrabbit, white-sided Lepus caTlotis gaillardi S-ET Beaver Castor canadensis EW Jackrabbit, white-tailed cepus Lepus tomsendit EW* Beaver, mountain Aplodontia rufa W-NC | Jaguar Felis onca we Bison Bison bison W Javelina See "Peccary” Boar, wild See "Pig, feral" Bobcat Lynx rufus EW Buffalo, American See "Bison" Lemming, southern bog Synaptomys cooperi S-ET Burro, feral Equus asinus W Lion, mountain Felis concolor EW* Lion, Yuma mountain Felis concolor browni S-ET ynx Lynx lynx EW* Cane-cutter See "Rabbit, swamp" 7 Caribou Rangifer tarandus Cat, ringtail See "Ringtai Chickaree Tamiasciurus douglasi W-NC | Manatee See "Manatee, West Indian" Chipmunk, eastern Tamias, striatus T Manatee, Florida Trichechus manatus —* Chipmunk, least Eutamias quadriuittatus T Manatee, West Indian Trichechus manatus S-ET Chipmunk, Townsend Eutamias townsendii T Margay Felis wiedit S-ET Civet See "Ringtai Marmot See "Woodchuck" Coati Nasua nasua W Marmots, western Marmota spp. W Coatimundi See “Coati Marten Martes americana EW-NC* Cougar See "Lion, mountain" Marten, pine Martes ai americana, S-ET Cougar, eastern Felis concolor cougar S-ET | Mink Mustela vison EW Coyote Canis Tatrans EWw* Mole, star-nosed Condylura cristata S-ET Moose Mees aces EW Mouflon Ovis musimon W Deer, axis Axis axis W Mouse, Alabama Gulf Beach Peromyscus polionotus Deer, black-tailed See "Deer, mule" ammobates S-ET Deer, mule Odocoileus hemionus EW Mouse, big-eared Peromyscus truei T Deer, Virginia See “Deer, white-tailed" Mouse, cotton pormuscus gossypinus T Deer, white-tailed Odocoileus virginianus EW Mouse, deer Peromyscus maniculatus T Deer, Columbian white- Mouse, Cloudland deer Peromyscus maniculatus tailed Qdocoileus virginianus nubiterrae S-ET Teucurus S-ET |Mouse, dusky-footed Peromyscus boylei T nN ot Mouse, golden hrotomys nuttallit S-ET Mouse, grasshopper Inychomys naeenaster S-ET Elk Cervus elaphus EW Mouse, plains harvest aS tee 's montanus S-ET Elk, Rocky Mountain Cervus elaphus nelsoni Ssp. |Mouse, salt marsh harvest Reithrodontomys raviventris W* Elk, Roosevelt Cervus elaphus roosevelti of Mouse, western harvest Reithrodontomys megalotis S-ET Elk, tule Cervus 2g us nannodes elk |Mouse, house ms musculus T Ermine See "Weasel, shorttail Mouse, jumping papas sp. T Mouse, meadow jumping Zapus hudsonius T Mouse, woodland jumping Napeozapus insi insignis S-ET Ferret, black-footed Mustela nigripes —EW* |Mouse, Perdido Bay Beach Peromyscus polionotus Fisher Martes pennanti EW-NC trissytlepsis S-ET Fox, arctic Alopex Tagopus W Mouse, pocket Perognathus sp. T Fox, gray Urocyon cinereoargenteus EW Mouse, plains pocket Peroganathus flavescens flavescens S-ET Fox, island Urocyon Tittoralis S-ET joues rene red-backed Clethrionomys gapperi maurus S-ET Fox, kit Vulpes macrotis we use, white-footed Peromyscus leucopus T Fox, San Joaquin kit Vulpes macrotis mutica S-ET | Musk ox vibos moschatus W Fox, red Tpes vulpes EW Muskrat Ondatra zibethici Zibethicus EW Fox, swift Yipes “ velox EWw* Myotis, gray Myotis grisescens S-ET Fox, northern swift Vulpes veTox ox hebes S-ET | Myotis, Indiana otis sodalis S-ET Myotis, Keene's Myotis keenit~ keenii S-ET continued continued B: List of Selected Wildlife 151 i General Appendix B (continued) Common name Scientific name Key* Common name Scientific name Key? Mammals (Continued Mammals (Continued) Myotis, small-footed Myotis leibii S-ET |Skunk, hooded Mephitis macroura EW Myotis, southeastern Myotis austroriparius S-ET |Skunk, spotted Spilogale putorius EW* Skunk, striped ite itis mephitis EW Squirrel, Abert's ee "Squirrel, tassel-eared"” Nutria Myocastor coypus EW Squirrel, Douglas See "Chickaree” Squirrel, northern flying Glaucomys sabrinus EW-NC Squirrel, southern flying Glaucomys voTans EW-NC* Ocelot Felis pardalis W* Squirrel, Apache fox ciurus apache W Opossum Didelphis virginiana EW Squirrel, Delvarva Peninsula Otter, river Lutra canadensis EW* fox Sciurus niger cinereus S-ET Otter, sea Enhydra lutris S-ET |Squirrel, eastern fox ScTurus niger EW Squirrel, Arizona gray See "Squirrel, western gray" . Squirrel, eastern gray Scuirus carolinensis EW-NC Panther See "Lion, mountain" Squirrel, western gray Sciurus griseus W-NC Panther, Florida Felis concolor coryi S-ET Squirrel, Franklin's ground Spermophilus franklini S-ET Peccary Jayassu tajacu W Squirrel, golden-mantled Phenacomys, tree Phenacomys spp. W-NC ground Callosphermophilus sp. T Pig, feral Sus’ scrofa EW-NC |Squirrel, Mohave ground Spermophilus mohavensis S-ET Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum EW-NC*! Squirrel, kaibab See "Sautrrels tassel-eared" Prairie dog, black-tailed Cynomys Audouicianus EW Squirrel, red Tamiasciurus hudsonicus EW-NC Prairie dog, Utah Cynomys parvidens EW* Squirrel, spruce See "Squirrel, re Prairie dog, white-tailed | Cynomys Teucurus EW Squirrel, tassel-eared Scivrus aberti W-NC Pronghorn Antilocapra americana EW leon ame Pronghorn, Mexican Antilocapra americana mexicana S-ET |Vole, meadow Microtus pennsylvanicus T Pronghorn, Sonoran Antilocapra americana Vole, Oregon Microtus oregoni i sonoriensis S-ET Vole, prairie Microtus ochrogaster Puma See "Lion, mountain" ochrogaster S-ET Vole, pine Microtus pinetorum S-ET Hi i Vole, red-backed Clethrionomys gapperi S-ET Rabbit, brush sylvilagus bachnani W — |¥ole: boreal redback Clethriononys gappert T Rabbit, Audubon cottontail See "Rabbit, See sean Vole, Richardson Micron eras ison T Rabbit, desert cottontail Sylvilagus audubonii Vole, woodland Microtus pinetorum S-ET Rabbit, eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus EW 7 i ii, Rabbit, mountain cottontail See "Rabbit, Nuttall cottontail" Rabbit, New England Wapiti See "Elk" cottontail Ss aa us bransitionalis ‘ Weasel, least Mustela nivalis EW* Rabbit, Nuttall's cottontail Sylvilagus nuttallii Weasel, long-tailed Mustela frenata EW* Rabbit, marsh Sylvitagus palustris E Weasel, shorttail Mustela erminea EW Rabbit, Pygmy Sylvilagus idahoensis W Whales AIT Federally listed species S-ET Rabbit, swamp Sylvilagus aquaticus Er Wolf See "Wolf, gray" Raccoon Procyon lotor EW Wolf, gray Canis lupus EW* Rat, cotton ‘igmodon sp. T Wolf, red Canis rufus E* Rat, Hispid cotton Sigmos lon hispidus S-ET |Wolf, northern Rocky Te a hoe a : Ae eae roray 7 i : 7 Mountain nis lupus irremotus S-ET t, Fresno kangaroo ipodomys nitratoides exilis S- Wolf, eastern timber ee "Wolf, gray Rat, Morro Bay kangaroo ipodomys heermann Wolverine Gulo gulo (gulo luscus) W-NC* morroensis We Woodchuck Marmota monax E Rat, Ord's kangaroo Dipodomys ordii W SS Rat, Stephen's kangaroo Dipodomys Stephensi S-ET |e tk kk k kh ok ok ok ke ke ke ek kk kw * * * Rat, Norway Rattus norvegicus I Rat, rice Oryzomus palustris S-ET Birds Rat, wood Neotoma floridana magister S-ET a Rat, eastern wood Neotoma floridana S-ET |heo See "Stilt, Hawaiian" Ringtail Bassariscus astutus. W Akakane See "Akepa" Akepa Loxops coccinea W , Akepa, Hawaii Loxops maculata coccinea S-ET Seal, Guadalupe fur Arctocephalus townsendi S-ET |Akepa, Maui Loxops maculata ochracea S-ET Seal, Hawaiian Monachus schauinsTandi S-ET | Akepeuie See "Akepa ese Sheep, bighorn Ovis canadensis we Akialoa, Kauai Hemignathus procerus we Sheep, California bighorn Ovis canadensis californiana S-ET Akiapolaau Hemignathus wilsoni we Sheep, peninsular bighorn Ovis canadensis cremnabates S-ET Alae See "Gallinule, Hawaiian" Sheep, desert Ovis canadensis mexicana S-ET |Alae keo keo See "Coot, Hawaiian" Sheep, Dall Ovis dalli Alae ula See "Gallinule, Hawaiian" Sheep, feral Ovis aries W Albatross, short-tailed Diomedea albatrus we Sheep, white See Sheep, Dall W Amakihi, Maui Loxops vicens wilsoni S-ET Shrew, Bachman's Sorex longirostris S-ET | Amaui See "Thrush, large Kauai and Shrew, common Sorex cinereus S-ET Thrush, Malokai" Shrew, least Cryptotis parva S-ET Jani, smooth-billed Crotophaga ani N-ST Shrew, masked orex cinereus T Ao See "Shearwater, Newell's" Shrew, shorttail Blarina brevicauda T Avocet, American Recurvirostra americana N-WSm Shrew, smoky Sorex fumeus T Shrew, southeastern Sorex Tongirostris S-ET Shrew, Trowbridge Sorex trowbr: ge T Skunk, hog-nosed Conepatus Teuconotus EW continued continued Ee General Appendix 152 General Appendix B (continued) Common name Scientific name Key? Common name Scientific name Key* Birds (Continued Birds (Continued Baldpate See "Wigeon, American" Dove, ground Cotumbina passerina N-ST Becard, rose-throated Platyparis aglaiae richmondi S-ET |Dove, mourning Zenaida macroura EW Bittern, American Botaurus lentiginosus S-ET |Dove, turtle See "Dove, mourning" Bittern, least Ixobrychus exilis S-ET |Dove, white-fronted Leptotila verreauxi N-ST Blackbird, Brewer's Euphagus cyanocephalus N-LT* |Dove, white-winged Zenaida asiatica EW, Blackbird, red-winged Agelaius phoeniceus N-WFm N-ST Blackbird, rusty Euphagus carolinus N-ST |Duck, black Anas rubripes N-SG Blackbird, tri-colored Agelaius tricolor N-WFm |Duck, harlequin Histrionicus histrionicus N-DG Blackbird, yellow-headed Xanthocephalus Duck, Hawaiian Anas wyvilliana we } 7 N-WFnt |Duck, laysan See "Teal, Laysan" Bluebird, eastern N-CT |Duck, Mexican Anas platyrhynchos diazi we Bluebird, mountain N-CT |Duck, mottled Anas fulvigula N-SG* Bluebind: western Sialia mexic N-CT |Duck, ring-necked Aythya collaris N-DG Bluethroat Luscinia svecica N-GL |Duck, ruddy Oxyura jamaicensis N-DG Bobo] ink Dolichonyx oryzivorous N-GF* |Duck, black-bellied Bufflehead Bucephala albeola N-DC whistling Dendrocygna autumnalis N-TD* Bunting, indigo Passerina cyanea N-ST |Duck, fulvous whistling Dendrocygna bicolor N-TD Bunting, lark Calamospiza melanocorys N-GF* |Duck, wood Aix sponsa N-SC Bunting, lazuli Passerina amoena N-ST Bunting, McKay's P ectrophenax hyperboreus N-GF Bunting, painted Passerina ciris N-ST* |Eagle, bald Haliaeetus leucocephalus S-ET Bunting, snow Plectrophenax ni N-GF |Eagle, northern bald Haliaeetus lTeucocephalus Bunting, varied Passerina vers N-ST alascanus Ew* Bushtit Psaltriparus m: N-ST Eagle, southern bald Haliaeetus leucocephalus Buzzard See wuiture, turkey" eucocephalus EW* Eagle» ee 4 ui a chrysaetos Si gret, cattle ubulcus ibis Canvasback Aythya valisineria N-DG |Egret, common Casmerodius albus T Caracara Caracara cheriway audubonii S-ET |Egret, great Casmerodius albus egretta S-ET Cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis N-ST JEgret, reddish Dichromanassa rufescens S-ET Catbird, gray Dumetella carolinensis N-ST JEgret, snowy Egretta thula brewsteri S-ET Chachalaca Ortalis vetula E Chat, yellow-breasted Icteria virens N-ST Chickadee, .black-capped Parus atricapillus N-CT |Falcon, aplomado Falco femoralis Chickadee, boreal Parus hudsonicus N-CT septentrionalis S-ET Chickadee, Carolina Parus carolinensis N-CT |Falcon, peregrine Falco peregrinus EW* Chickadee, chestnut-backed Parus rufescens N-CT |Falcon, American peregrine Falco peregrinus anatum S-ET Chickadee, gray-headed Parus cinctus N-CT |Falcon, Arctic peregrine Falco peregrinus tundrius S-ET Chickadee, Mexican Parus sclateri N-CT |Falcon, prairie Falco mexicanus W Chickadee, mountain Parus gambeli N-CT |Finch, Cassin's Carpodacus cassinii N-LT Chickenhawk See "Vulture, turkey" Finch, house Carpodacus mexicanus N-ST Chuck-will's-widow Caprimulgus carolinensis N-GW |Finch, Laysan Psittirostra cantans cantans W* Condor, California ymnogyps californianus we Finch, Nihoa Psittirostra cantans ultima W* Coot, American Fulica americana N-WFm |Finch, purple Carpodacus purpureus N-LT Coot, Hawaiian Fulica americana alai Ww Flicker, common Co aptes auratus N-CT Cormorant, double-crested Phalacrocorax auritus S-ET |Flicker, gilded ee "Flicker, common" Cowbird, bronzed Molothrus aeneus N-LT |Flicker, yellow-shafted See "Flicker, common" Cowbird, brown-headed Molothrus ater N-ST |Flycatcher, Acadian Empidonax virescens N-LT Crane, sandhill Grus canaden: N-WSm* |Flycatcher, alder Empidonax alnorum N-ST Crane, greater sandhill Grus canadensis tabida S-ET |Flycatcher, ash-throated Myiarchus cinerascens N-CT Crane, Mississippi sandhill Grus canadensis pulla E* Flycatcher, beardless Camptostoma imberbe T Crane, whooping Grus americana Ew* Flycatcher, buff-breasted Empidonax fulvifrons Creeper Loxops maculata W eus S-ET Creeper, brown terthia familiaris N-LT* |Flycatcher, Wied's crested wydechas tyrannulus N-CT Creeper, Hawaii Loxops maculata mana S-ET |Flycatcher, dusky Empidonax oberholseri N-ST Creeper, Molokai Loxops maculata flammea S-ET |Flycatcher, gray Empidonax wrightii N-ST Creeper, Oahu Loxops maculata maculata S-ET |Flycatcher, great-crested iiyprarchus crinitus N-CT Crossbill, red Loxia curvirostra N-LT |Flycatcher, least Empidonax minimus N-ST Crossbill, white-winged Loxia Teucoptera N-LT |Flycatcher, olive-sided Nuttallornis borealis N-LT Crow, common Corvus brachyrhynchos N-LT |Flycatcher, scissor-tailed Muscivora forficata N-LT Crow, fish Corvus ossifragus N-LT* |Flycatcher, sulphur-bellied Myjodynastos uteiventris Crow, Hawaiian Corvus tropicus We swarthi S-ET Crow, northwestern Corvus caurinus N-LT |Flycatcher, Traill's See "Flycatcher, Alder" Cuckoo, black-billed Coccyzus erythropthalmus N-ST |Flycatcher, vermillion Pyrocephalus rubinus N-LT Cuckoo, yellow-billed Coccyzus americanus Flycatcher, willow Empidonax traillit N-ST N-ST |Flycatcher, yellow-bellied Empidonax flaviventris N-GW Cuckoo, California yellow-billed Coccyzus americanus identalis S-ET |Gadwal] fnas strepera N-SG Curlew, Eskimo EW* Gallinule, common Gallinula chloropus N-WFm* Curlew, long-billed N-GF |Gallinule, Hawaiian Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis w* Gallinule, purple Porphyrula martinica N-WFm* Dickcissel Spiza americana N-GF |Gnatcatcher, black-tailed Polioptila melanura N-ST Dipper Cinclus mexicanus N-WFr |Gnatcatcher, blue-gray Polioptila caerulea N-LT continued continued 153 B: List of Selected Wildlife —————————— General Appendix B (continued) Common name Scientific name Key® Common name Scientific name Key Birds (Continued Birds (Continued Godwit, marbled Limosa fedoa N-WFm | I‘ iwi Vestiaria coccinea S-ET Goldeneye, Barrow's Bucephala islandica N-DC [Io See "Hawk, Hawajian" Goldeneye, common Bucephala clangula N-DC Goldfinch, American Carduelis tristis N-ST Goldfinch, green-backed ee "Goldfinch, Tesser" Jay, blue Cyanocitta cristata N-LT Goldfinch, Lawrence's Carduelis lawrencei N-ST | Jay, Canada ee "Jay, gray’ Goldfinch, lesser Carduelis psaltria T Jay, gray Perisoreus canadensis N-LT Goose, Canada Branta canadensis EW Jay, green Cyanocorax yncas N-ST Goose, Aleutian Canada Branta canadensis Jeucopareia W* Jay, Mexican Aphelocoma ultramarina N-LT Goose, Hawaiian Branta sandvicensis w* Jay, pinyon Gymnorhinus cyanocepnalus N-LT Goose, snow Chen hyperborea T Jay, scrub Aphe ocoma coerulescens N-ST Goshawk Accipiter gentilis W Jay, Stellar's Cyanocitta stelleri N-LT Grackle, boat-tailed Cassidix major N-WSm,]Junco, dark-eyed Junco hyemalis NG, N-WFm |-ST Grackle, common Quiscalus quiscalus T Junco, gray-headed Junco caniceps N-GW Grackle, great-tailed Cassidix mexicanus N-WSm,}Junco, Mexican See "Junco, yellow-eyed" N-WFm | Junco, Oregon See "Junco, dark-eyed" Grebe, eared Podiceps caspicus S-ET |Junco, slate-colored See “Junco, dark-eyed" Grosbeak, black-headed Pheucticus melanocephalus N-ST |Junco, white-winged See "Junco, dark-eyed" Grosbeak, blue Guiraca caerulea N-ST |Junco, yellow-eyed dunco phaeonotus N-GW Grosbeak, evening Hesperiphona vespertina N-LT Grosbeak, pine Pinicola enucleator N-LT Grosbeak, rose-breasted Pheucticus ludovicianus N-LT | Kamao See "Thrush, large Kauai" Grouse, blue Dendragapus obscurus W Kamau See "Thrush, large Kauai" Grouse, Frankin's See "Grouse, spruce” Kestrel, American Falco sparverius EW Grouse, Richardson's See "Grouse, blue" Kildeer Charadrius vociferus N-GF Grouse, ruffed Bonasa umbellus EW* Kingbird, Cassin's Tyrannus vociferans N-LT Grouse, sage Centrocercus urophaisanus we Kingbird, eastern Tyrannus tyrannus N-LT Grouse, sharp-tailed Pedioecetes phasianellus EW* Kingbird, thick-billed Tyrannus crassirostris N-LT Grouse, prairie sharp- Kingbird, western rannus verticalis N-LT* tailed Pediocetes phasianellus Kingfisher, belted Negacery e alcyon N-LT jamesii S-ET |Kingfisher, green Chloroceryle americana N-CE Grouse, spruce Canachites canadensis EW Kinglet, golden-crowned Regulus satrapa N-LT Kinglet, ruby-crowned Regulus calendula N-LT i , 7 7 Kite, Florida Everglade Rostrhamus sociabilis : larrier, northern ircus cyaneus plumbeus Hawk, black Buteogallus a. anthracinus S-ET |Kite, Mississippi Ictinia mississippiensis E* Hawk, broad-winged Buteo platypterus EW* Kite, swallow-tailed Elanoides forficatus E Hawk, Cooper's Accipiter cooperii EW* Kite, white-tailed Elanus Teucurus EW Hawk, duck See Falcon, peregrine S-ET | Koki See "Gallinule, Hawaiian" Hawk, ferruginous Buteo regalis EW Koloa See "Duck, Hawaiian" Hawk, gray Buteo mitidus S-ET |Koloa Maoli See "Duck, Hawaiian" Hawk, Hawaiian Buteo solitarius w* Kukuluaeo See "Stilt, Hawaiian" Hawk, marsh Circus cyaneus S-ET Hawk, pigeon See "Merlin". Hawk, red-shouldered Buteo lineatus EW* Lark, horned Eremophila alpestris N-GF Hawk, red-tailed Buteo jamaicensis EW Longspur, chestnut-collared Calcarius ornatus N-GF Hawk, rough-legged Buteo lagopus EW Longspur, Lapland Calcarius apponicus N-GF Hawk, sharp-shinned Accipiter Striatus Ew* Longspur, McCown's Rhynchophanes mccownii N-GF Hawk, sparrow See "Kestrel, American” Longspur, Smith's alcarius pictus N-GF Hawk, zone-tailed Buteo albonotatus S-ET Hawk, Swainson's Buteo swainsoni EW* Heron, great blue Ardea herodias T Magpie, black-billed Pica pica N-ST Heron, green Butorides virescens T Magpie, yellow-billed Pica nuttalli N-ST Heron, little blue Florida caerulea S-ET |Mallard Anas p atyrhynchos N-SG Heron, Lousiana Hydranassa tricolor T Martin, purple Progne subis T Heron, black-crowned night Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli S-ET Meadowlark, eastern turnelTa magna N-GF Heron, yellow-crowned night Nyctanassa violacea S-ET |Meadowlark, western Sturnella neglecta N-GF Honeycreeper, crested Palmeria dolei we Merganser, American See Merganser, common" Hummingbird, Allen's Selasphorus sasin N-ST |Merganser, common Mergus merganser N-DC Hummingbird, Anna's Calypte anna N-ST |Merganser, hooded Lophodytes cucullatus N-DC Hummingbird, black-chinned Archilochus alexandri N-ST |Merganser, red-breasted lergus serrator N-DG Hummingbird, blue-throated Lampornis clemenciae N-ST |Merlin Falco columbarius EW* Hummingbird, broad-billed Cynanthus latirostris N-ST |Millerbird, Nihoa Acrocephalus familiaris kingi W* Hummingbird, broad-tailed eTasphorus platycercus N-ST | Mockingbird Mimus polyglottos N-ST Hummingbird, buff-bellied Amazilia yucatanensis N-ST Hummingbird, calliope Stellula calliope N-ST Hummingbird, Costa's Calypte costae N-ST | Nene See "Goose, Hawaiian" Hummingbird, Lucifer Calothorax lucifer N-ST | Nighthawk, common Chordeiles minor N-GF Hummingbird, Rivoli's Eugenes fulgens N-ST | Nighthawk, lesser Chordeiles acutipennis N-GF Hummingbird, ruby-throated Archilochus colubris N-ST | Nukupuu, Kauai Hemignathus ueidus hanapepe W* Hummingbird, rufous SeTasphorus rufus N-ST | Nukupuu, Maui emignat us Tucidus affinis wW* Hummingbird, violet-crowned Amazilia verticalis N-ST | Nutcracker, Clark's jucifraga columbiana N-LT Hummingbird, white-eared Hylocharis leucotis N-ST |Nuthatch, brown-headed Sitta pusilla N-CT continued continued eS General Appendix 154 EE TEEEEEEEEEEEEEEIEEEE General Appendix B (continued) Common name Scientific name eT Common name Scientific name Key? Birds (Continued Birds (Continued Nuthatch, pygmy Sitta pygmaea N-CT |Ptarmigan, white-tailed Lagopus leucurus We Nuthatch, red-breasted Sitta canadensis N-CT | Puaiohi See "Thrush, smal] Kauai" Nuthatch, white-breasted Sitta carolinensis N-CT | Pyrrhuloxia Cardinalis sinuata N-ST Olomau See "Thrush, large Kauai and Quail, bobwhite Colinus virginianus EW* Thrush, Molokai" Quail, masked bobwhite Colinus virginianus ridgwayi W Oo, Kauai Moho braccatus We Quail, California Lophortyx cali fornicus W Oriole, Baltimore See “Oriole, northern" N-LT |Quail, Gambel's Lophortyx gambelii W Oriole, black-headed Icterus graduacauda N-LT |Quail, Montezuma Cyrtonyx montezumae W Oriole, Bullock's See "Oriole, northern" Quail, mountain Oreortyx pictus W Oriole, hooded Icterus cucullatus N-GL, |Quail, scaled Callipepla si ti W Tenia N-GW , Gallipepla squamata Oriole, northern Icterus galbula Oriole, orchard Tcterus spurtus N-LT Oriole, Scott's Icterus parisorum N-ST |Rail, black Laterallus jamaicensis N-WSrtt Osprey Pandion haliaetus EW* Rail, California black Laterallus jamaicensis Ou Psittirostra psittacea We coturnicolus S-ET Ouzel, water See “Dipper Rail, California clapper Rallus longirostris obsoletus W* Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus N-GW |Rail, light-footed clapper Rallus longirostris evipes W* Owl, barn Tyto alba E* Rail, Yuma clapper Rallus longirostris yumanensis W* Owl, barred Strix varia S-ET |Rail, king Rallus elegans N-WFm* Owl, burrowing Athene cunicularia EW* Rail, sora ora Owl, great horned Bubo virginianus EW Rail, Virginia Rallus limicola N-WFm Owl, Hawaiian Asio flammeus sandwichensis S-ET |Rail, yellow Coturnicops noveboracensis S-ET Owl, long-eared Asio otus E* Raven See “Raven, common Owl, short-eared Asio flanmeus —E* Raven, common Corvus corax N-LT* Owl, northern spotted Strix occidentalis caurina S-ET | Raven, white-necked Corvus ee saree Redpoll, common Carduelis flammea x Redpoll, hoary Carduelis hornemanni T Palila Psittirostra bailleui we Redstart, American Setophaga ruticilla N-LT Parrot, thick-billed Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha W Redstart, painted Myjoborus pictus N-GW Parrotbill, Maui Pseudonestor santhogheye we Robin, American urdus migratorius N-LT Partridge, chukar Alectoris chuk. W Partridge, European See "Partridge, Gray" : Partridge, gray Perdix perdix Sandpiper, buff-breasted Tryngites subruficollis T Partridge, Hungarian See “Partridge, Gray" EW Sandpiper, least Calidris minutilla N-WSm, Parula, northern Parula americana N-LT i 4 vite Paurague fyctidromus albicollis N-GL |Sandpiper, solitary Tringa solitaria |-WSm, Pelican, brown elecanus occidentalis EW* N-WFm Pelican, California brown Pelecanus occidentalis S-ET |Sandpiper, spotted Actitis macularia N-GF Pelican, eastern brown Pelecanus occidentalis Sandpiper, upland Bartramia Tongicauda N-GF* carolinensis S-ET |Sandpiper, western Calidris mauri N-WSm, Pelican, white Pelecanus erythrorhunchos S-ET N-WFm Petrel, Hawaiian dark- Pterodroma phaeopygia Sapsucker, red-breasted See Sapsucker, yellow-bellied N-CT rumped sandwichensis W* Sapsucker, Williamson's ophyrap cus thyroideus N-CT Petrel, Hawaiian storm Oceanodroma castro Sapsucker, yellow-bellied pl yrap cus varius N-CT cryptoleucuro S-ET |Scaup, lesser thya affinis A N-DG Pewee, eastern wood Contopus virens N-LT |Scoter, surf Melanitta perspicillata N-DG Pewee, western wood ontopus sordidulus N-LT |Scoter, white-winged Melanitta degTan N-DG Phainopepla Phainopepla nitens N-LT |Seedeater, white-collared oro) a torqueola I N-ST Phalarope, northern Lobipes Tobatus N-WSm,| Shearwater, Newell's uffinus puffinus newelli we N-WFm | Shoveler, northern Anas clypeata N-SG Phalarope, Wilson's Steganopus tricolor N-WFm*| Shrike, loggerhead Canius Tudovicianus N-ST* Pheasant, ring-necked Phasianus colchicus EW Siskin, pine Carduelis pinus N-LT Phoebe, eastern Sayornis phoebe T Skylark Alauda arvensis N-GF Phoebe, Say's Sayornis saya S-ET |Snipe, common Capella ‘gallinago EW Pigeon, band-tailed Columba fasciata W Snipe, Wilson's ee “Snipe, common" Pintail Anas acuta N-SG |Solitaire, Townsend's tyades tes townsendi N-CE Pipit, Sprague's Anthus spragueii N-GF |Sora orzana carolina N-WFm Pipit, water Anthus spinoletta N-GF |Sparrow, Bachman's Aimophila aestivalis S-ET Plover, mountain Charadrius montanus S-ET |Sparrow, Baird's Ammodramus bairdii N-GF Plover, piping Charadrius melodus S-ET |Sparrow, black-chinned Spizella atrogularis N-ST Plover, snowy Charadrius alexandrinus S-ET |Sparrow, black-throated Amphispiza bilineata N-ST Plover, western snowy Charadrius alexandrinus Sparrow, Botteri's Aimophila botterii N-GL nivosus S-ET |Sparrow, Brewer's Spizella breweri N-GL Plover, upland Bartramia longicauda S-ET |Sparrow, Cape Sable iemos iza maritima mirabilis E Poor-will Phalaenopti lus nuttallii N-GL |Sparrow, Cassin's Kimo, fila cassinii N-GL Poo-uli Melamprosops phaeosoma we Sparrow, chipping pizella passerina N-ST, Prairie chicken, greater Tympanuchus cupido EW* N-LT Prairie chicken, Attwater's Sparrow, clay-colored Spizella pallida N-GL,. greater Tympanuchus cupido attwateri E* N-ST Prairie chicken, lesser Tympanuchus pa idicinctus we Sparrow, field Spizella pusilla eae N-ST continued continued EEE B: List of Selected Wildlife General Appendix B (continued) Common name Scientific name Key? Common name Scientific name Key? Birds (Continued Birds (Continued Sparrow, fox Passerella iliaca N-GL, | Thrush, Molokai Phaeornis obscurus rutha w N-ST | Thrush, Swainson's Catharus ustulatus N-ST Sparrow, golden-crowned Zonotrichia atricapilla N-GL, | Thrush, varied Txoreus naevius N-ST N-ST Sparrow, grasshopper Ammodramus savannarum N-GF* | Thrush, wood Hylocichla mustelina N-LT Sparrow, Harris’ Zonotrichia querula T Timberdoodle See "Woodcock" Sparrow, Henslow's Ammodramus hensTowsi N-GF* | Titmouse, black-crested See “Titmouse, tufted" Sparrow, Ipswich Passerculus princeps S-ET |Titmouse, bridled See "Titmouse, tufted" Sparrow, lark i Chondestes grammacus N-GF Titmouse, plain Parus inornatus N-CT Sparrow, LeConte's Ammospiza leconte N-GF |Titmouse, tufted Parus bicolor N-CT Sparrow, Lincoln's Melospiza lincolnii N-WFm | Towhee, Abert's Pipilo aberti N-ST Sparrow, olive Arremonops rufivirgata N-ST | Towhee, brown Pipilo fuscus N-ST Sparrow, rufous-crowned Aimophila ruficeps N-GL | Towhee, green-tailed Pipilo chlorurus N-ST Sparrow, rufus-winged Aimophita carpalis N-ST | Towhee, rufus-sided Pipilo erythrophthalmus N-ST Sparrow, sage Amphispiza belli N-ST | Towhee, spotted See "Towhee, rufus-sided" Sparrow, savannah Passerculus sandwichensis N-GF | Trogon, coppery-tailed Trogon elegans canescens S-ET SPaEROW, alae savannah Passerculus sandwichensi S-ET | Turkey, wild Meleagris gallopavo EW parrow, seaside Ammospiza m N-WSm Sparrow, dusky seaside Ammospiza ma . nigrescens E Uau See "Petrel, Hawaiian dark-rumped" Sparrow, sharp-tailed Ammospiza caudacuta N-WFm | Quau See "Petrel, Hawaiian dark-rumped" Sparrow, song Melospiza melodia iia Uwau See "Petrel, Hawaiian dark-rumped" NesT’ Sparrow, Santa Barbara song Melospiza melodia graminea W Veery Catharus fuscescens N-ST* Sparrow, swamp MeTospiza georgiana N-WFm | yerdin Auriparus flaviceps N-CT Sparrow, tree Spizella arborea T Vireo, Bell's Vireo bellit N-ST Sparrow, vesper Pooecetes gramineus N-GF* | Vireo, black-capped Vireo atricapilla N-ST Sparrow, white-crowned Zonotrichia leucophyrys ler Vireo, Hutton's Vireo huttoni N-ST * Vireo, Philadelphia Vireo philadelphicus N-LT Sparrow, white-throated Zonotrichia albicollis N-GW, | Vireo, eyed Vireo olivaceus N-LT Starling St 1 : an Vireo, solitary Vireo solitarius. N-LT rlin urnus vulgaris 7 Vireo, warblini reo gilvus N-LT Stilt, black-necked Himantopus mexicanus N-WFm | Vireo, white-eyed reo griseus N-ST Stilt, Hawaiian Himantopus himantopus Vireo, yellow-green reo flavoviridis N-LT Meera ae aie i all Vireo, yellow-throated Vireo flavifrons att wallow, ban Iparia riparia e Vulture, black Coragyps atratus ET Swallow, cave Petrochelidon fulva N-CE | Vulture, turkey Cathartes aura EW Swallow, cliff Petrochelidon pyrrhonata S-ET Swallow, rough-winged Stelgidopteryx ruficollis N-CE Swallow, tree Iridoprocne bicolor N-CT |Wagtail, yellow Motacilla flava N-GL Swallow, violet-green ‘achycineta thalassina N-CT |Warbler, Arctic PhyTloscopus borealis N-GL Swift, Vaux's Chaetura vauxi N-CT |Warbler, Bachman's Vermivora bachmanii E* Warbler, bay-breasted Dendroica castanea N-LT 7 ' Warbler, black-and-white Mniotilta varia N-GW Tanager, hepatic Piranga flava N-LT | Warbler, Blackburnian Dendroica fusca N-LT Tanager, scarlet Piranga olivacea N-LT | Warbler, blackpoll Dendroica striata N-LT Tanager, summer Piranga rubra N-LT |Warbler, black-throated blue Dendroica caerulescens N-ST Corrs ha oi Firangs udoviciana Mice Warbler, black-throated gray Dendroica nigrescens NST, eal, ue-winger nas discors = N-L Teal, cinnamon Anas cyanoptera N-SG |Warbler, black-throated Teal, green-winged Anas crecca N-SG green Dendroica virens N-LT Teal, Laysan Anas laysanensis Ww Warbler, blue-winged Vermivora pinus N-GL* Tern, black Chidonias niger . N-WFnt | Warbler, Calaveras See "Warbler, Nashville" gen: pacar Sterna iriundo- hirano =e Warbler, Canada Wilsonia canadensis N-GW ern, Forster's erna forsteri i= Warbler, Cape May Dendroica tigrina N-LT Tern, least Sterna albifrons S-ET | Warbler, cerulean Dendroica cerulea N-LT Tern, California least Sterna albifrons browni Ww Warbler, chestnut-sided Dendroica pensyTvanica N-ST Tern, interior least Sterna albifrons athalassos S-ET Warbler, Colima Vermivora crissalis N-GW Tern, roseate Sterna dougallii S-ET |Warbler, Connecticut Oporornis agilis N-WFm Tern, white Gygis a A S-ET | Warbler, golden-cheeked Dendroica chrysoparia N-LT Thrasher, Bendire's Toxostoma bendirei N-ST |Warbler, golden-winged Vermivora chrysoptera N-GL Thrasher, brown Toxostoma rufum nioe: Warbler, Grace's Dendroica graciae N-LT Warbler, hermit Dendroica occidentalis N-LT Thrasher, California Toxostoma redivivum N-ST | Warbler, hooded Wilsonia citrina N-ST Thrasher, crissal Toxostoma dorsale N-ST |Warbler, Kentucky Oporornis formosus N~GW,, Thrasher, curve-billed Toxostoma curvirostre N-ST N-ST Thrasher, LeConte's Toxostoma Tecontei N-ST |Warbler, Kirtland's Dendroica kirtlandii E* Thrasher, long-billed Toxostoma longirostre N-ST |Warbler, Lucy's Vermivora luciae N-CT Thrasher, sage Oreoscoptes montanus N-ST |Warbler, MacGillivray's Qporornis tolmiei N-GL Thrush, hermit Cotharus quetates N-Gu | Verbler, mourning Oporamnts phitadetphia NGL > Catharus gu’ - jarbler, mourning jorornis philadelphia | Thrush, large Kauai Phaeor! obscurus myadestina W* Warbler, myrtle Dendroica coronata T Thrush, small Kauai Phaeornis palmeri we Warbler, Nashville Vermivora ruficapilla N-GW continued continued 156 General Appendix General Appendix B (continued) Common name Scientific name key? | Common name Scientific name Key? Birds (Continued Amphibians and reptiles (Continued Warbler, olive Peucedramus taeniatus N-LT |Boa, southern rubber Charina bottae umbrieata S-ET Warbler, olive-backed See "Warbler, tropical parula" Warbler, orange-crowned Vermivora celata N-GL, N-ST | Copperbelly, northern Natrix erythrogaster neglecta = ET Warbler, palm Dendroica palmarum N-ST, | Copperhead, northern Agkistrodon contortix N-WFm |Crocodile, American Crocodylus acutus E Warbler, pine Dendroica pinus N-LT Warbler, prairie Dendroica discolor N-ST Warbler, prothonotary Protonotaria citrea N-CT |Frog, Strecker's chorus Pseudacris streckeri S-ET Warbler, red-faced Cardellina rubi N-GW | Frog, Illinois chorus Pseudacris streckeri Warbler, Swainson's Lymnothlypis swainsonii N-ST* illinoensis S-ET Warbler, Tennessee Vermivora peregrina N-WFm | Frog, cricket Acris crepitans S-ET Warbler, tropical parula Parula pi tiayumi N-GW Frog, dusky gopher Rana areolata sevosa S-ET Warbler, Virginia's Vermivora v virginiae N-GL | Frog, western spotted Rana pretiosa S-ET Warbler, Wilson's Wilsonia pusilla N-WFm |Froa, western bird-voiced Warbler, worm-eating Helmitheros vermivorus N-GW tree Hyla avivoca avivoca S-ET Warbler, yellow Dendroica petechia N-ST | Frog, green tree Hyla cinerea S-ET Warbler, yellow-rumped Dendroica coronata N-LT |Frog, Pine Barrens tree Hyla andersoni S-ET Warbler, yellow-throated Dendroica dominica N-LT | Frog, wood Rana sylvatica S-ET Waterthrush, Louisiana Seiurus motacilla N-CE Waterthrush, Northern Seiurus noveboracensis N-WEm Waxwing, Bohemian Bombycilla garrula N-LT |Gila monster Heloderma suspectum S-ET Waxwing, cedar Bombycilla cedrorum N-ST Whip poor-will Caprimulgus vociferus N-GW Wigeon, American Anas americana N-SG |Hellbender Cryptobranchus alleganiensis S-ET Woodcock, American Philohela minor E Woodpecker, acorn Melanerpes formicivorus N-CT Woodpecker, Arizona Picoides arizonae N-CT |Kingsnake, speckled Lampropeltis getulus S-ET Woodpecker, downy Picoides pubescens N-CT Woodpecker, Gila Melanerpes uropygialis N-CT Woodpecker, golden-fronted Melanerpes aurifrons N-CT |Lizard, slender glass Ophisaurus attenuatus S-ET Woodpecker, hairy Picoides losus N-CT Lizard, western slender na set Woodpecker, ivory-billed Campephilus principalis S-ET glass phisaurus attenuatus a Woodpecker, ladder-backed Picoides scalaris N-CT |Lizard, blunt-nosed leopard Crotaphytus ‘stlus wW* Woodpecker, Lewis’ Melanerpes lewis N-CT Woodpecker, Nuttall's Picoides nuttallii. N-CT Woodpecker, pileated Dryocopus , pileatus EW Massasauga Sistrurus catenatus S-ET Woodpecker, red-bellied Melanerpes carolinus N-CT Woodpecker, red-cockaded Picoides borealis E* Woodpecker, red-headed Melanerpes erythrocephalus N-CT* Woodpecker, black-backed Newt, central Notophthalmus viridescens S-ET three-toed Picoides arcticus N-CT Woodpecker, white-headed Picoides albolarvatus N-CT Wren, Bewick's hryomanes bewickii N-CT* | Peeper, spring Hyla crucifer S-ET Wren, brown-throated Troglodytes brunneicollis N-CT Wren, cactus Campylorhynchus brunnei capil lus N-ST |Racer, Alameda striped Masticophis lateralis Wren, canyon Catherpes mexicanus N-CE euryxanthus S-ET Wren, Carolina Thryothorus ludovicianus N-CT |Rattlesnake, canebrake Crotalus horridus Wren, house Troglodytes aedon N-CT 1 atricaudatus = Wren, long-billed marsh Cistothorus palustris N-WSm,| Rattlesnake, prairie Crotalus viridis - N-WFm | Rattlesnake, western pygmy Sistrurus meliarius streckeri S-ET Wren, rock Salpinctes obsoletus. N-CE |Rattlesnake, ridge-nosed Crotalus willardi silus S-ET Wren, short-billed marsh Cistothorus platensis N-WFm*] Rattlesnake, timber Crotalus horridus S-ET Wren, winter Troglodytes troglodytes N-CT Wrentit Chamaea fasciata N-ST Salamander, Texas blind Typhlomolge rathbuni —* Yellowlegs, greater Tringa melanoleucus N-WSm,| Salamander, blue-spotted Ambystoma Jaterale S-ET N-WFm | Salamander, cave Eurycea lucifuga S-ET Yellowlegs, lesser Tringa flavipes N-WSm,| Salamander, Tennessee cave Gyrenophilus palleucus S-ET N-WFm | Salamander, Cascade Cavern Eurycea latitans S-ET Yellowthroat, common Geothlypis trichas N-ST, | Salamander, dwarf Manculus quadridigitatus S-ET N-WSm,| Salamander, dusky Desmognathus fuscus S-ET N-WFm | Salamander, Fern Bank Eurycea pterophi a S-ET Salamander, flatwoods fabystona cingulatum S-ET Salamander, four-toed Hemidactylium scutatum S-ET Salamander, green Aneides aeneus S-ET Salamander, Jefferson Ambystoma jeffersonianum S-ET Salamander, triploid se eee ek ee eRe idl Jefferson's Ambystoma platineum S-ET Salamander, limestone Hydromantes brunus S-ET Amphibians and reptiles Salamander, Santa Cruz long-toed Ambystoma macrodactylum Alligator, American Alligator mississippiensis —* croceum we Salamander, marbled Ambystoma opacum S-ET continued continued 157 B: List of Selected Wildlife General Appendix B (continued) “ Common name Scientific name Key* Common name Scientific name Key® Amphibians and reptiles (Continued Amphibians and reptiles (Continued Salamander, Oklahoma Eurycea tynerenis S-ET | Toad, eastern narrow-mouthed Gastrophryne carolinensis S-ET Salamander, northern red seudotriton ruber ruber S-ET |Tortoise, desert Gopherus agassizi S-ET Salamander, Red Hills Phaeognathus hubrichii S-ET |Tortoise, gopher Gopherus polyphemus S-ET Salamander, San Marcos Eurycea nana S-ET |Turtle, Blanding's Emydoidea blandin S-ET Salamander, shasta Hydromantes shastae S-ET |Turtle, bog Clemmys muhlenbergi S-ET scyemeaier Hd Ambystoma platineum S-ET pure iee eastern bog Terrapene carolina carolina He alamander, skiyou urtle, ornate box Terrapene ornata -' Mountain Plethodon stormi S-ET Salamander, desert slender Batrachoseps aridus we Turtle, Atlantic green Chelonia mydas mydas S-ET Salamander, Kern Canyon Turtle, Atlantic hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata slender Batrachoseps simatus S-ET imbricata S-ET Salamander, Tehachapi Turtle, hieroglyphic Pseudemys concinna slender Batrachoseps stebbinsi S-ET se hieroglyphica S-ET Salamander, small-mouthed Ambystoma texanum S-ET Salamander, three-toed Fah means S-ET Salamander, eastern tiger ‘stoma tirginum tirginum S-ET |Turtle, Atlantic leatherback Dermochelys coreacea coreacea S-ET Salamander, Wehrle's Plethodon wehrlei S-ET |Turtle, Atlantic loggerhead Caretta caretta S-ET Salamander, zig-zag Plethodon dorsalis S-ET |Turtle, false map Graptemys pseudogeographica S-ET avec een oe Siren intermedia cer Turtle, eastern mud Kinosternon subrubrum ink, blue-taile Eumeces fasciatus ET subrubrum S-ET Skink, coal Eumeces anthracinus skink th 1 & anthracinus S-ET | Turtle, Illinois mud Kinosternon flavescens nk, southern coa umeces anthracinus spooneri S-ET PluviaTis S-ET |Turtle, Sonoran mud Kinosternon sonoriense T Skink, five-lined Eumeces fasciatus S-ET |Turtle, flattened musk Sternotherus minor depressus S-ET Skink, Great Plains Eumeces obsoletus S-ET |Turtle, Alabama red-bellied Pseudemys alabamensis S-ET Slider Pseudemys floridana x Turtle, red-eared Chrysemys scripta S-ET concinna S-ET |Turtle, Atlantic Ridley Le} Yaocke! 's kempi S-ET Snake, brown Storeria dekayi S-ET |Turtle, black-knobbed sawback Graptemys nigrinoda S-ET Snake, corn ETaphe guttata S-ET |Turtle, ringed sawback Graptemys oculifera S-ET Snake, southeastern crowned Tantilla coronata coronata S-ET |Turtle, yellow-blotched Snake, eastern earth Haldea valeriae valeriae S-ET sawback Graptemys flavimaculata S-ET Snake, mountain earth Haldea valeriae pulchra S-ET |Turtle, alligator snapping Macroclemys temminckii S-ET Snake, western earth Haldea valeriae Bec S-ET |Turtle, spiny softshell rionyx spiniferus S-ET Snake, Butler's garter hamnophis butleri S-ET |Turtle, spotted Clemnys guttata S-ET onake oe plains garter Thamnophis radix radix S-ET |Turtle, wood Clemnys inscuTpta S-ET Snake, giant garter Thamnophis couchi gigas S-ET Snake, San Francisco garter jamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia we Whip, coach Masticophis flagellum S-ET Snake, smooth green Opheodrys vernalis blanchardi S-ET Pe Snake, eastern hognose Heterodon p atyrhinos S-ET J[* * * * *# # & & “ws ee eet eke ene Snake, southern hognose Heterodon simus S-ET Fish Snake, western fomose Heterodon nasicus S-ET Snake, eastern indigo Drymarchon corais couperi S-ET |Bloater Coregonus hoyi S-ET Snake, prairie king Lampropeltis calligaster S-ET |Boneytail, pahranagat ila robusta US-ET* Snake, lined Tropidoclonion Tineatum S-ET |Bullhead, brown Ictalurus nebulosus S-ET me ri mud Farancia abacura reinwardti S-ET |Burbot Lota Tota S-ET nake, black pine Pituophis melanoleucus oding! S-ET Snake, Florida pine Pituophis melanoleucus Cavefish, Alabama jpgeplatyrn nos poulsoni S-ET mugitus S-ET |Cavefish, northern yopsis spelaea S-ET Snake, northern pine Pituophis melanoleucus Cavefish, Ozark opsis rosae S-ET melanoleucus S-ET |Cavefish, southern Typbtienehys subterraneous S-ET Snake, green Natrix septemvittata S-ET |Cavefish, spring Chologaster a assizi S-ET Snake, rainbow Farancia erytrogramma Chub, bigeye a opsis amblops S-ET erytrogramma S-ET |Chub, bonytail a elegans S-ET oneter a He Elaphe Obs0 eta S-ET |Chub, gila Gila intermedia S-ET nake, Great Plains rat aphe guttata S-ET |Chub, gravel Hybopsts x punctata S-ET Snake, northern red-bellied Storeria occipitomaculata S-ET |Chub, humpback a a cypha US-ET* Snake, eastern ribbon Thamnophis sauritus S-ET |Chub, lake Couesius plumbeus S-ET Snake, western ribbon Thamnophis proximus S-ET |Chub, Mohave Gila mohavensis US-ET* Snake, scarlet emophora coccinea copei S-ET |Club, Owens tui Gila bicolor S-ET Snake, broad-banded water Nerodia fasciata S-ET |Chub, sicklefin Hybopsis meeki S-ET Snake, diamondback water Natrix rhombifera S-ET |Chub, silver Hybopsis storeriana S-ET Snake, Graham's water Natrix graham S-ET |Chub, slender Hybopsis cahni S-ET Snake, green water Natrix cee opion S-ET |Chub, Arkansas River Snake, Kirtland's water Natrix kirtlan S-ET speckled Hybopsis aestivalis ouaiee yellow-bellied water Natrix erythrogaster S-ET tetranemus S-ET nake, whip Mastico, its f agel lum S-ET |Chub, spotfin Hybopsis monacha S-ET Spadefoot, western Scaphiopus bombifrons S-ET |Chub, sturgeon Hybopsis gilida S-ET Stinkpot ternotherus odoratus S-ET |Chub, thicktail ila crassicauda S-ET Chubsucker, lake Erimyzon sucetta oe Cisco ‘Oregonus artedii - Toad, Houston Bufo houstonensis E* Cisco, blackfin Coregonus nigripinnis S-ET continued continued 158 General Appendix RR A Re SR General Appendix B (continued) Common name Scientific name Key? Common name Scientific name Key? — Fish (Continued Fish (Continued Cisco, deepwater Coregonus johannae S-ET |Herring, lake Coregonus artedii S-ET Cisco, longjaw Coregonus alpenae US-ET*| Herring, skipjack osa C rysoch oris S-ET Cisco, shortjaw Coregonus zenithicus S=ET Cisco, shortnose Coregonus reighardi S-ET Cui-ui Chasmistes cujus US-ET*) Killifish, banded Fundulus diaphanus S-ET Cutthroat, Colorado River Salmo clarki pleuriticus S-ET |Killifish, Pahrump Empetrichyt ys latos US-ET* Cutthroat, greenback Salmo clarki stomias S-ET |Killifish, plains Fundulus kansae S-ET Cutthroat, Rio Grande Salmo clarki virginalis S-ET |Kiyi Coregonus kiyi S-ET Dace, finescale Phoxinus neogaeus S-ET |Lamprey, Allegheny brook Ichthyomyzon greeleyi S-ET Dace, Kendall Warm Springs Rhinichthys osculus US-ET |Lamprey, American brook Lampetra lamottei S-ET Dace, Moapa Moapa coriacea US-ET |Lamprey, northern brook Ichthyomyzon fossor S-ET Dace, pear] Semotilus margarita S-ET |Lamprey, southern brook Ichthyomyzon gagei S-ET Dace, northern redbelly Phoxinus eos S-ET |Lamprey, chestnut Ichthyomyzon castaneus S-ET Dace, southern red-bellied Chrosomus erythrogaster S-ET |Lamprey, Ohio Tchthyomyzon bdellium S-ET Dace, redside Clinostomus elongatus S-ET |Lamprey, silver Tchthyomyzon unicuspis S-ET Dace, rosyside Clinostomus funduloides S-ET |Longperch, reticulate Percina sp. S-ET Darter, amber S-ET Darter, Arkansas Etheostoma cragini S-ET Darter, bayou Etheostoma rubrum US-ET*| Madtom Notorus sp. S-ET Darter, bluebreast Etheostoma ‘camurum S-ET |Madtom, frecklebelly Notorus munitus S-ET Darter, bluestripe ercina cymatotaenia S-ET |Madtom, mountain Notorus eleutherus S-ET Darter, bluntnose Etheostoma chlorosomum S-ET |Madtom, neosho Notorus placidus S-ET Darter, central johnny Etheostoma nigrum nigrum S-ET |Madtom, northern Notorus stigmosus S-ET Darter, channel Percina copelandi S-ET |Madtom, Scioto Notorus trautmani US-ET* Darter, coldwater Etheostoma ditrema S-ET |Madtom, yellowfin Notorus flavipinnis S-ET Darter, coppercheek Etheostoma sp. S-ET |Minnow, brassy Hybognathus hankinsoni S-ET Darter, crystal Ammocrypta asprella S-ET |Minnow, loach Tiaroga cobitus S-ET Darter, duskytail theostoma sp. S-ET |Minnow, Ozark Dionda nubila S-ET Darter, fountain Etheostoma fonticola US-ET*| Minnow, pugnose Opsopoeodus emiliae S-ET Darter, freckled Percina lenticula S-ET |Minnow, silverjaw ricymba buccata S-ET Darter, gilt Percina oe S-ET |Minnow, tonguetied xoglossum laurae S-ET Darter, goldline Percina ai aurolineata S-ET |Minnow, eastern slim Finephales tenel lus tenellus parviceps S-ET Darter, goldstripe Feheostons- parvipin arvipinne S-ET |Mooneye Hiodon tergisus S-ET Darter, harlequin Etheostoma histria S-ET |Mudminnow, central Umbra 1 S-ET Darter, Iowa Etheostoma exile S-ET |Muskellunge, Great Lakes Esox masquinongy masquinon: S-ET Darter, least Etheostoma microperca S-ET |Muskellunge, Ohio River Esox masquinongy ohioensis ohioensis S-ET Darter, longhead Percina macrocephs a S-ET Darter, longnose Percina nasuta S-ET Darter, Maryland Etheostoma sellare lare US-ET | Paddlefish Polydon spathula S-ET Darter, mud Etheostoma asprigene S-ET |Perch, trout Percopsis omiscomaycus S-ET Darter, niangua Etheostoma nianguae S-ET |Pickeral, grass Esox americanus vermiculatus S-ET Darter, Okaloosa Etheostoma okaloosae oosae US-ET Darter, orangethroat Etheostoma spectabile S-ET |Pike, blue Stizostedion vitreum glaucum US-ET* Darter, Plains orangethroat Etheostoma 5, spectabile Pirateperch Aphredoderus ‘sayanus S-ET pulcheTTum S-ET | Pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus S-ET Darter, river fercina shumardi S-ET |Pupfish, Comanche Springs Cyprinodon elegans US-ET* Darter, eastern sand Ammocrypta pellucida S-ET |Pupfish, Cottonball Marsh Cyprinodon milleri S-ET Darter, western sand Ammocrypta clara S-ET |Pupfish, Devil's Hole Cyprinodon diabolis US-ET* Darter, slackwater Etheostoma boschungi S-ET |Pupfish, Leon Springs Cyprinodon bovinus S-ET Darter, slenderhead Percina phoxocephala S-ET |Pupfish, Owens River Cyprinodon radiosus US-ET* Darter, snail Percina tanasi US-ET*] Pupfish, Tecopa rinodon nevandensis Darter, spottail Etheostoma_ toma squamiceps S-ET calidae US-ET* Darter, spotted Etheostoma maculatum S-ET |Pupfish, Warm Springs Cyprinodon nevandensis Darter, stargazing Percina uranidea S-ET pectoralis US-ET Darter, swamp Etheostoma swaini S-ET Darter, Tippecanoe Etheostoma tippecanoe S-ET Darter, trispot Etheostoma trisella S-ET |Redhorse, black Moxostoma duquesnei S-ET Darter, Tuscumbia Etheostoma tuscumbia S-ET |Redhorse, greater Moxostoma valenciennesi S-ET Darter, variegated Etheostoma variatum S-ET |Redhorse, river Moxostoma carinatum S-ET Darter, warrior muscadine Percina sp. “ssp. S-ET Darter, watercress Etheostoma nuchale US-ET*) Sculpin, rough Cottus asperrimus S-ET Sculpin, pygmy Cottus Jaeus S-ET » American Anguilla rostrata S-ET |Shad, Alabama Alosa osa aittanae S-ET Shiner, beautiful Notropis formosus S-ET Shiner, bigeye Notropis boops S-ET Gambusia, amistad Gambusia amistadensis S-ET |Shiner, bigmouth lotropis dorsalis S-ET Gambusia, Big Bend Gambusia gaigei US-ET*] Shiner, blacknose Notropis heterolepis S-ET Gambusia, Clear Creek Gambusia heterochir US-ET*] Shiner, bluehead Notropis sp. S-ET Gambusia, Pecos Gambusia nobilis US-ET*] Shiner, bluntnose lotropis simus S-ET Gambusia, San Marcos Gambusia georgei S-ET |Shiner, Cahaba Notropis sp. S-ET Gar, alligator Lepisosteus spatula S-ET |Shiner, ghost Notropis buchanani S-ET Gar, shortnose Lepisosteus platostomus S-ET |Shiner, popeye Notropis ariommus S-ET Gar, spotted Lepisosteus oculatus S-ET continued continued B: List of Selected Wildlife 159 General Appendix B (concluded) Common name Scientific name Key? Common name Scientific name Key® Fish (Continued Fish (Continued Shiner, proserpine Notropis proserpinus S-ET | Sucker, Modoc Catostomus microps S-ET Shiner, pugnose Notropis anogenus S-ET |Sucker, razorback Xyrauchen texanus S-ET Shiner, ribbon Notropis fumeus S-ET | Sucker, shortnose Chasmistes brevirostris S-ET Shiner, rosefin Notropis ardens S-ET | Sunfish, bantam Lepomis symetricus S-ET Shiner, sabine Notropis sabinae S-ET |Sunfish, longear Lepomis megalotis Et Shiner, silver Notropis photogenis S-ET |Sunfish, pygmy Elassoma sp. S-ET Shiner, silverband Notropis shumardi S-ET Shiner, Topeka Notropis topeka S-ET Shiner, weed Notropis texanus S-ET | Tomcod, Atlantic picrogadus tomcod S-ET Silverside, Mississippi Menidia audens S-ET | Topminnow, Barren's Fundulus sp. S-ET Squawfish, Colorado River Ptychocheilus lucius US-ET*] Topminnow, Gila Poeciliopsis identalis US-ET* Stickleback, brook Culaea inconstans S-ET | Topminnow, plains Fundulus sc us S-ET Stickleback, unarmored Gasterosterus aculeatus Topminnow, starhead Fundulus notti S-ET three-spined williamsoni US-ET*] Topminnow, Yaqui Poeciliopsis occidentalis Stoneroller, Mexican Campostoma ornatum pricei S-ET sonoriensis S-ET Sturgeon caphirhyncus sp. S-ET |Trout, Arizona Salmo apache US-ET* Sturgeon, Atlantic \cipenser oxyrhynchus S-ET |Trout, Gila Salmo gilae US-ET* Sturgeon, lake Acipenser fulvescens S-ET |Trout, greenback cutthroat Salmo clarki stomias US-ET Sturgeon, pallid Scaphirhynchus albus S-ET | Trout, Lahontan cutthroat Salmo clarki henshawi US-ET Sturgeon, shortnose Acipenser brevirostrum US-ET*| Trout, Paiute cutthroat Salmo clarki seleniris US-ET Sturgeon, shovelnose Scaphirhyncus platorynchus S-ET |Trout, Utah cutthroat Salmo clarki utah S-ET Sucker, blue Cycleptus elongatus S-ET Sucker, humpback Xyrauchen texanus S-ET Sucker, longnose Catostomus catostomus S-ET |Whitefish, lake Coregonus clupeaformis S-ET Sucker, Lost River Catostomus luxatus S-ET |Woundfin Plagopterus argentissimus US-ET* ®The following key letters indicate where information concerning the wildlife species can be located. E - Eastern United States. See Figures 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 for provinces and page numbers. W - Western United States. See Figures 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 for provinces and page numbers. EW - Eastern and Western United States. See Figures 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 for provinces and page numbers. E-NC - Eastern United States--probably not compatible with ROWs. See Figure 6.1A for provinces and status. W-NC - Western United States--probably not compatible with ROWs. See Figure 6.1A for provinces and status. EW-NC - Eastern and Western United States--probably not compatible with ROWs. See Figure 6.1A for provinces and status. US-ET - U.S. endangered/threatened fish. See Table 6.4 for range. S-ET - State endangered/threatened fish and wildlife. T - Species is referred to in the text only. (N)_ - See Table 6.2N for the range and nesting habitat indicated by the following: N-GF - Ground nesting birds/fields, grasslands, pastures, tundra N-GL_ - Ground nesting birds/late succession types N-GW - Ground nesting birds/woodland edge N-ST - Shrub, small tree nesting birds N-LT - Large tree nesting birds N-CE - Cavity nesting birds/earth burrows N-CT - Cavity nesting birds/tree cavities N-WSm - Wetland nesting birds/saltwater - marsh, bay, tundra N-WFm - Wetland nesting birds/freshwater - marsh, bog, lake, pond N-WFr - Wetland nesting birds/freshwater - rivers, streams, creeks N-DC - Diving ducks - cavity nesters N-DG - Diving ducks - ground nesters N-SC - Surface (puddle) ducks - cavity nesters N-SG - Surface (puddle) ducks - ground nesters N-TD - Tree (whistling) ducks (*) - An asterisk following key letters indicates that the species is also on a State endangered/threatened fish and wildlife list. See Table 6.5 for States and status. NOTE: The lists of State endangered/threatened species were used almost verbatim as received from the States. No attempt was made to reconcile all of the nomenclatural discrepancies present in these lists. 160 General Appendix GENERAL APPENDIX C Approximate Equivalents" of Decimals to Fractions and English to Metric Measurements and Temperatures" Measurements Temperatures English° Metric English Metric English Metric oF °c +02 (1/50) in = .5 mm Tin = 2.5 cm 25 ft = 7.6m 12 = -11.1 -03 (1/32) in = -8 mm 2 in = 5.1 cm 30 ft = 9.1m 16 = -8.9 -04 (1/25) in = 1.0 mm 3 in = 7.6 cm 35 ft = 10.7 m 20 = -6.7 -05 (1/20) in = 1.3 mm 4 in = 10.2 cm 40 ft = 12.2m 24 = -4.4 -06 (1/16) in = 1.5 mm 5 in = 12.7 cm 45 ft = 13.7 m 28 = -2.2 -07 (1/15) in = 1.7 mm 6 in = 15.2 cm 50 ft = 15.2m 32 = 0.0 -08 (1/12) in = 2.1 mm 7 in = 17.8 cm 55 ft = 16.8m 36 = 2.2 -09 (3/32) in = 2.3 mm 8 in = 20.3 cm 60 ft = 18.3 m 40 = 4.4 +1 (1/10) in = 9 2.5 mm 9 in = 22.9 cm 65 ft = 19.8 m 44 = 6.7 -13 (1/8) in = 3.2 mm 10 in = 25.4 cm 70 ft = 21.3m 48 = 8.9 +17 (1/6) in = 4.3 mm 11 in = 27.9 cm 75 ft = 22.9m 62 = 11.1 +2 (1/5) in = 5.17 mm lft = -3m 80 ft = 24.4 m 56 = 13.3 -25 (1/4) in = 6.4 mm 2 ft = -6m 85 ft = 25.9 m 60 = 15.6 -28 (7/25) in = 7.1 mm 3 ft = 9m 90 ft = 27.4m 64 = 17.8 -33 (1/3) in = 8.4 mm 4 ft = 1.2m 95 ft = 29.0 m 68 = 20.0 -38 (3/8) in = 9.6 m 5 ft = 1.5m 100 ft = 30.5m 72 = 22.2 «4 (2/5) in = 10.2 mm 6 ft = 1.8m 110 ft = 33.5 m 76 = 24.4 «5 (1/2) in = 12.7 mm 7 ft = 2.1m 120 ft = 36.6m 80 = 26.7 -6 (3/5) in = 15.2 mm 8 ft = 2.4m 130 ft = 39.6m 84 = 28.9 -63 (5/8) in = 15.9 mm 9ft = 2.7m 140 ft = 42.7 m 88 = 31.1 -67 (2/3) in = 16.9 mm 10 ft = 3.0m 150 ft = 45.7 m 92 = 33.3 +75 (3/4) in = 19.1 mm 15 ft = 4.6m 175 ft = 53.3 m 96 = 35.6 +8 (4/5) in = 20.3 mm 20 ft = 6.1m 200 ft = 61.0 m 100 = 37.8 Exact equivalents can be found by using the following equations: Decimals from ih aed the upper numeral by the lower numeral. (Example: 3/8 = 3+8 = .375 Centimeters or millimeters from inches--(1 in = 2.54 cm or 25.4 mm). Multiply the number of inches by 2.54 for centimeters or 25.4 for millimeters. (Examples: 3 in = 3 x 2.54 = 7.62 cm; 3/5 in = .6 x 25.4 = 15.24 mn) Meters or centimeters from feet--(1 ft = .3048 m or 30.48 cm). Multiply the number of feet by .3048 for meters or 30.48 for centimeters. (Examples: 30 ft = 30 x .3048 = 9.144 m; 2 ft = 2 x 30.48 = 60.96 cm) Degrees Celsius from degrees Fahrenheit--(°C = (°F - 32) x 5/9). Subtract 32 from the de- grees Fahrenheit and multiply by 5/9. (Example: 72°F - 32 x 5 +9 = 22.2222222°C) To find the equivalent of a number of degrees difference or change in temperature in Fahrenheit to the number of degrees difference in Celsius, multiply the Fahrenheit number by 5/9. Example: A temperature rise of 5°F = a rise of about 2.8°C--5 x 5 +9 = 2.7777777) >abbreviations used in this table are: in--inch(es) mm--mil]imeter(s) °F--degrees Fahrenheit ft--foot (feet) cm--centimeter(s) °C--degrees Celsius m--meter(s) “Fractional equivalents of decimals are shown in parenthesis with inches and the metric equivalent of that fraction of an inch, since most decimals were used with inches in the text. ARR A, A EPS SE SER EN C: English to Metric Equivalents 161 achene A one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit with seed attached to fruit wall at one point only, derived from a superior ovary. acorn The fruit of the oak; a nut in a hardened scaly cup. aggregate fruit A group of separate fruits developed from one flower. allelopathicinhibition The influence of one living plant upon another due to secretion of toxic substances. alluvial soil A soil, recently deposited by running water, showing practically no horizon development (save Al formation) or other modification. alternating current (AC) A current that reverses direction in regular cycles. altricial Referring to those birds that after hatching are helpless and require parental care for a period of time. annual Living one year. anthesis The time when the flower expands and opens or the process of expansion and opening. anthocarp Structure in which fruit is united with perianth or receptacle. apical dominance The upward growth of terminal shoot meristems that inhibits the growth of underlying lateral buds. awn A bristle-shaped appendage at the end or on the back or edge of an organ. axil The angle formed between a plant axis and any organ developing from it (e.g., a leaf axil). barrier effect The inhibition of the movement or reproductive behavior of an endangered species when its habitat is fragmented bya ROW. basal leaves With branches from ground level. bench Level or gently sloping land surrounded by steeper slopes above and below it. berry Fleshy fruit. biennial Living two years; usually flowering the second year. bifid Forked; that is, having two equal parts. bipinnate A leaf two times pinnately compounded. blowdown An area where wind has blown over all tall-growing vegetation. bog An extremely wet, poorly drained area characterized by a float- ing, spongy mat of vegetation, composed of sphagnum, sedges, and heaths. bract Modified leaf found in the inflorescence. browse Leaves, stems, twigs, bark, and wood of woody plants con- sumed by animals. bulb A short, erect, underground stem surrounded by fleshy leaves. bur Any rough or prickly involucre or pericarp. cabling A vegetation maintenance technique in which a 150 foot to 200 foot 1.5 inch cable is dragged between two tractors to break off or uproot plants. caespitose See “cespitose.” calcareous soils Of soils made alkaline by calcium carbonate or calcium magnesium bicarbonate. callus Wound tissue. Generally, soft parenchymatous tissue that develops after the wounding of a plant, tending to cover the wound. Specifically, a caplike mass of callose that covers the sieve plates of nonfunctioning sieve tubes. calyx The outermost layer of modified leaves, sepals. canopy A network of the uppermost branches of a forest which partially or fully cover the understory. capsule A dry, dehiscent fruit derived from a two or more carpelled ovary. Glossary carpellate Plant with female or pistillate flowers. caryopsis A one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit with the seed coat attached to the fruit wall. cauline Leaves more or less distributed evenly on a stem. cespitose Short, much-branched; a plant forming a cushion. chaining A vegetation maintenance technique in which a heavy anchor chain is dragged between two tractors to break off or uproot plants. chipping A process of slash disposal in which a machine is used to grind up large pieces of wood into small chips. circuit, double Referring to a transmission line that has two separate circuits (each with three phases). circuit,single Referring toa transmission line that has only one electri- cal circuit consisting of three phases. clear cut Removal of all trees in an area in one cutting operation. coalesce To grow together or into one body. coalescent The union of similar parts (e.g., the petals of a flower). coma A tuft of hairs especially at the tips of seeds. community An assemblage of animal and plant populations that live together in a prescribed area or habitat. compaction Firm, concentrated soil caused by pressure on top layers (e.g., bulldozing). composites Members of the plant family Compositae (Asteraceae). conductor A substance, body, or device that readily conducts heat, electricity, sound, etc. cone The reproductive structure of pine, fir, and other conifers, consisting of an axis to which are attached many woody, overlapping scales which bear seeds. conifer (coniferous) Cone-bearing. continental Having large annual and daily ranges in temperature. cordate Of a conventional heart shape. corm The enlarged, solid, fleshy base of a stem with scales; an upright underground storage stem. corolla The whorl of petals above the sepals. corymb A flat-topped or convex indeterminate cluster of flowers. cover Plants or objects used by wildlife for protection from predators and adverse weather and for rearing their young. cover type The dominant plant type covering an area (e.g., aspen cover type). culm A stem of a grass (e.g., bamboo); sometimes a sedge that is typically hollow between nodes. culvert A drainage device designed to prevent erosion near roads. cuneate Obitriangular; inversely triangular. danger tree Any tree adjacent to a transmission line right-of-way that could fall into or otherwise endanger the line. dieback A diseased condition of the peripheral, aboveground struc- tures of woody plants caused by parasites or other agents (e.g., winter injury). deciduous Of any plant organ or group of organs that is shed naturally — leaf-losing. Of perennial plants that are normally leafless for some time during the year. decumbent Reclining or lying on the ground with the tips ascending. deer yard An area of heavy cover where deer congregate in winter for food and shelter. dehiscent Opening regularly by valves, slits, etc., as a capsule or anther. deltoid Triangular in shape. dentate Toothed; referring to margins of leaves. 163 Glossary den tree A tree, either hollow or having holes, that is utilized by various animals for cover and nesting. digitate Several members arising from the summit of support. Said especially of spikes from the summit of a stalk of clustered flowers. dioecious Unisexual flowers; having the staminate and pistillate on different plants. Also refers to gymnosperms with pollen and seed cones on different individuals. direct current (DC) Electric current with no change in the direction of electron flow and with only slightly varied magnitude. disking A vegetation maintenance technique that cuts, lifts, and inverts vegetation while scarifying the soil. diurnal Active during the day. drupe (druplet) A fleshy fruit with a stony endocarp. A druplet is a small drupe. ecological characteristics The basic information about a species, including distribution, habitat, reproduction, growth characteristics and needs, and responses to habitat changes. ecosystem The interaction of a community of living organisms with their nonliving surroundings. ecotone The transition zone between two or more biotic communities (e.g., the ecotone between forest and prairie). edge The transition zone between two or more vegetation types (i.e., the edge between a field and a forest). ellipsoid Solidly-shaped, with an elliptical outline. elliptic With widest axis at midpoint of structure and with margins symmetrically curved. endangered species A species whose chances for survival are in imme- diate danger. Endangered Species Act of 1973—PL93-205; 87 Stat. 884 A law providing a means to protect and conserve endangered or threatened species and their habitats. endemic Native to a particular region. epiphyte A plant growing on, but not nourished by, another plant. epicormic Growing from a dormant bud exposed to light and air. exotic species A species not native to a geographical area in which it is found. fascicle A bundle or cluster of flowers. feral Having reverted to a wild state after being domesticated at one time (e.g., feral hogs). filter strip A protective area of absorbent, undisturbed soil between access roads and streams, preventing runoff. flashover A sudden electrical surge between two conductors that causes an arc. flats Level tracts of land with little or no relief. follicle A dry, dehiscent fruit derived from one carpel that splits along a suture. forage All plants available to wildlife or livestock for feeding. fronds Leaves of a fern. fuelbreak A cleared strip in a wooded area that serves as a line of fire defense. furbearer A mammal commonly harvested for its hide. fusiform In spindle shape; that is, widest at the middle and tapering gradually to each pointed end, the body being circular in cross- section. gestation The length of time from conception to birth. girdling The act of encircling a tree with cuts through the cambium layer to kill the tree. glabrous Smooth; not hairy. glacial drift A deposit of soils and minerals transported by a glacier. glacial till A clay subsoil originally transported and deposited by a glacier. glandular hairs Hair-bearing glands or glandlike appendages. globose Spherical, globular. glumes Bracts, usually occurring in pairs, at the base of a grass spikelet. 164 grading A restoration method to return soil to its original contour on construction sites that will no longer be used. habit Characteristic mode of growth or occurrence in plants. habitat An area where an organism and all its life requirements can be found; the natural environment of a plant or animal. halophyte A plant that is more or less restricted to saline soil or to sites that are influenced by salt water. heath layer A layer of vegetation consisting of members of the Ericaceae. hinge-cutting The act of cutting through a tree trunk enough to fell it but leave a strip of wood and bark attached. home range The area within which an animal commonly travels to find all its life requirements. hummock A round, conical hollock or knoll; a slight rise in ground- level. indehiscent Not opening by valves, or any other means; persistently closed. inflorescence The flowering part of a plant, and especially the mode of its movement. insectivorous Adapted to feeding on insects. insulator A material of such low conductivity that the flow of current through it can usually be neglected. interspersion The actual mixing of habitat types at an edge. involute Having edges rolled inward over upper surface. kilovolt (kV) A unit of electromotive force equal to 1000 volts. lanceolate Lance-shaped; about 4 times as long as wide and broadest below or about the middle. lacustrine Relating to or formed in lakes. leaflet A distinct and separate segment of a leaf. legume A usually dry, dehiscent fruit derived from one carpel that splits along two sutures. lemmas Outer scales subtending a grass floret. lenticular Lens-shaped; biconvex. ligulate Having a tonguelike outgrowth at the base of blade or top of sheath. loam A soil consisting of an easily crumbled mixture of clay, sand, and silt. locule Compartment of an anther; ovary cavity. loess A loam mixture, ranging from clay to fine sand with calcareous elements, that is extensively prevalent in the Continental U.S. marsh A low, treeless, wet area, characterized by sedges, rushes, and cattails. mericarp A portion of fruit that seemingly matured asa separate fruit. metamorphic Changing mineral constitution; compact, highly crystalline. moraines A deposit of glacial drift at the foot or sides or along the bottom of a glacier; typically ridges of irregular form, save for the ground moraine which is gently rolling or hummocky, and composed largely of till. muck farm A cultivated area of wet, fertile soil marked by the presence of decaying plant matter. muskegs A tract of partly forested peatland supporting mosses (typically sphagnum), shrubby plants, and scattered spruce and larch. nocturnal Active at night. oblanceolate Lanceolate with the broadest part toward the apex. obovate Inversely ovate. obovoid Having the form of an egg with the broad end apical. omnivore An animal that eats both plant and animal matter. oolitic Consisting of calcareous, granular limestone; sometimes containing silica or iron oxide. orbicular Circular. outwash Soils and minerals transported down slopes by rainwater to settle on adjacent lower land. ovate With widest axis below middle and with margins symmetrically curved; egg-shaped. ovoid fruit Fruit having an oval or ovate body. palatability The degree of desirability of a plant as food to an animal. palmately compound Leaflets arising from one point at end of a petiole. panicle Branched inflorescence with clusters of flowers. papilla A minute, nipple-shaped projection. Pappus_Bristly or scaly calyx in composites. parasitic Growing on and deriving nourishment from another organism. perennial Living more than two years. perianth In angiosperms, the floral envelope generally differentiated into a calyx (an outer layer of sepals) and a corolla (an inner ring of petals). pericarp Fruit wall. perigynium Fused scales, a sac, around the pistil or ovary. petiolate With a petiole or leaf stalk. phloem The tissues of the inner bark, characterized by the presence of sieve tubes and serving for the transport of foodstuffs. pinnate Leaflets arranged along a common axis, the rachis. pneumatophores Submerged or exposed roots that have a respiratory function. pocosin An upland swamp of the southeast coastal plain. pod A dry, dehiscent fruit. Podzolic Refers to soils that are matted at the surface; developed in a moist climate with coniferous and other vegetative influences. pome A fleshy fruit derived from an inferior compound ovary and receptacle. precocial Referring to those birds that are active and able to move about at an early age. prescribed burn Intentional burning of an area under selected fuel, moisture, and wind conditions to be able to contain the fire to a desired area and intensity. prickles Sharp-pointed projections from the epidermis or cortex of any organ. prostrate Trailing or lying flat, not rooting at the nodes. puberulent Covered with soft, minute hairs. pubescent Covered with dense or scattered hairs. pyriform Pear-shaped. raceme Unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with clusters of flowers. rachis The elongated axis of an inflorescence. rating The operating limit of a conductor, expressed in voltage frequency. reniform Kidney-shaped. resistance That property of a conductor in virtue of which the passage of a current is opposed, causing electric energy to be transformed into heat. reticulate With veins forming a network. revolute With the margins or the tip rolled backward. rhizome (rhizomatous) A stem, generally modified (particularly for storing food materials), that grows below the ground surface and produces adventitious roots, scale leaves, and suckers irregularly along its length, not just at nodes. riparian Relating to or bordering a natural waterway. roller chopping A maintenance method creating minimum slash and disturbance by flattening and cutting smaller vegetation with a biade mounted on metal drums. root revetment An underground network of roots that sustains a stream embankment, preventing erosion. root sucker A shoot arising horizontally from a root below ground level. rootstock A root-bearing plant or plant part, generally a stem or root, onto which another plant part is grafted; or, the collective roots ina stand, capable of sprouting. rosulate Leaves from a cluster (rosette) developed in a crowded crown of circles or spirals. samara A winged, dry fruit. Glossary savanna Essentially lowland, tropical and subtropical grassland, with a scattering of trees and shrubs. scabrous Covered with rough projections, harsh to touch. scalping A maintenance method that uses a heavy blade to scrape the plants and topsoil layer off a site. scapes Naked, or lightly scaled, flowering stems arising from the ground. searify To break or loosen hard ground. scarious Thin and dry, appearing shriveled. scat Animal fecal matter. schizocarp A dry fruit with the carpels separating at maturity. selective cut Removal of trees with certain specific qualities such as those of a given species or size. semimarine Referring toa climate controlled by oceanic winds and air masses with a relatively limited range in temperature and high humidity. sepal One of the flower parts of an outer series forming a calyx. serrate Saw-toothed; teeth sharp and ascending, with a 1/16 to 1/8 inch distance to midrib or midvein. sessile Without a petiole or leaf stalk. shelterbelt A strip of tall-growing plants planted or left standing in prairie areas to help reduce wind erosion of topsoil. silicle A dry, dehiscent fruit derived from two or more carpels that dehisce along two sutures and which has a persistent partition after dehiscence and is as broad or broader than long. silique A silicle-type fruit that is longer than broad. slash Woody material left after a cutting operation. snag A standing dead tree from which most of the branches have fallen. spadix Unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with flowers embedded in the rachis. spathe A sheathing leaf subtending or enclosing an inflorescence. spathulate Oblong or obovate apically with a long attenuate base. species A group of individuals reproductively isolated from other groups of individuals under natural conditions. spicate Arranged in or resembling a spike. spikelets Small spikes; the basic inflorescence unit in grasses and sedges. sporangium Spore sac; a structure containing spores. spore A reproductive body, characteristic of the lower plants, con- sisting of one or a few cells and never containing an embryo. staghead The leafless or dead uppermost branches of a tree. static or ground wire A lead from an electrical apparatus to the ground or to a grounded connnection. stellate Star-shaped. stipules Paired scales, spines, glands, or bladelike structures at the base of a petiole. stolon (stoloniferous) A stem or branch from a base plant that grows along or down to the ground surface, taking root at its nodes. strobilus Stem with short internodes and spore-bearing appendages. subherbaceous Slightly having the characteristics of an herb, somewhat leaflike in color and texture. subsidence Flattened soil caused by pressure on top layers (e.g., bulldozing). succulent Juicy, fresh. sunscald Injury of woody plants caused by intense summer heat and light, characterized by local tissue death and occasionally, cankers. swamp A wet area that usually has standing trees. tableland A broad, elevated plain; plateau; mesa. threatened species Likely to become endangered in the near future. trifoliate Three leaflets, pinnately compounded with terminal leaflets longer than lateral; palmately compounded with leaflets equal in length. trigonous Three-angled. trilocular Having three loculi chambers or cells. tripinnate Referring to a leaf compounded three times. 165 Glossary tubercle A small tuber or tuberlike body, often due to symbiotic relation of organisms. tufted Formed into a tuft or cluster of short-stalked flowers, leaves, or other vegetation, growing from a common point. tuberoid roots Fleshy, thickened roots, resembling a tuber. umbels Flat-topped or convex inflorescence with the flower stalks arising from a common point. understory Foilage consisting of seedlings, shrubs, or herbs that lies beneath and is shaded by canopy or taller plants. ungulate A hoofed mammal. utricle A small, bladdery or inflated, one-seeded, dry fruit. villous Having long and soft (not interwoven) hairs. 166 voltage Electromotive force, expressed in volts (v). wetland Any area where the water table is near or above the surface of the land during a significant part of the year. whorl A group of leaves or other structures at a single node. wildlife All nondomesticated animals living in a natural environment. windthrow Uprooting and inversion of trees by strong winds. wolf tree A tree of dominant size and position that usurps light and space from smaller understory, preventing its growth. xeric Low or deficient in moisture for the support of plant life. xerophyte A plant with the adapted structures for survival in a xeric or highly acid or saline environment (e.g., epidermal thickening, dense pubescence, resinous coating). Subject Index, by Section Number, for Volume 1 AC transmission, 4 additives, 22 aerial application of herbicides, 22 aesthetics. 18. 20 air pollution, 18, 25 alpha naphthalene acetic acid. 22 aminotriazole. 22 ammate, 22 ammonium sulfamate. 22 assembly sites. 15 atrazine. 22 barrier effect. 26 basal spraying. 15. 22 bear. 20 bird collisions. 26 bird communities. 20 blanket spraying. 22 bobwhite. 23. 25 bormacil. 22 breeding bird diversity. 20 broadcast chemical spraying. 15. 22 browse deer. 20. 22. 25 production, 20 browsers. effect on revegetation. 18 brush clamps. 20 brush control on streambanks, 24 brush piles. 18. 21 size and shape. 21 wildlife use. 21 right-of-way. 21 brushraking. 15 bulldozing. 20 burning (see also prescribed burning) pile and burn. 15 pit. 15 cable-pulling sites. 15 cabling. 20 capital clearing. cost. 16 chain saw cutting. 15 chaining. 20 chipmunks. 25 chipping. 15. 20 clear cutting. 6. 20 clearance requirements. transmission line. 4 cost. clearing and maintenance. 16 cottontail. 20. 21. 23 cover types on right-of-way herbaceous. 19 stable shrub, 19, 22 U-shaped. 19. 20 culverts. 15 cut and stump spraying. 15 cutworms. 20 2.4-D. 22 danger trees. 18 darbutalate, 22 DC transmission, 4 deer. 20. 22. 23. 25 browse. 20. 22. 25 mice. 25 yards, 18 den trees. 20 dicamba, 22 dichlobenil, 22 dieback, 18 disking, 15, 20 diuron, 22 diversity. breeding birds. 20 dormant stem spraying. 15, 22 drainage dips. 15 drainage patterns. 18. 26 drop. lop. and leave. 15, 20 dry herbicide application, 15 easement right-of-way, 10 Eastern U.S. clear cutting effects in. 20 herbicide use in, 22 planting and seeding in, 23 prescribed burning in, 25 selective cutting in, 20 elk. 20 eminent domain. |! emulsions. invert, 22 endangered threatened species. 26 erosion prevention and control, 15. 20. 23. 24 erosion problems associated with bulldozing, 20 streambanks, 18. 24 extra high voltage. 4 fee right-of-way. 9 fenuron, 22 filter strips, 15 fire hazard. 20 fire potential, 18 fish cover, 24 fish food production, 24 flashover. 4 forage values, 25 fords. 15 formula. community structure. 18 foxes, 21 frilling. 15 girdling. 15, 20 grading. 15 greater prairie chicken, 25 grouse, 22. 25 growth inhibitors, 15 herbicide application methods. 15 effects on wildlife habitat, 22 types. 22 use near streams. 24 high voltage. 4 hinge cutting. 20 hormone growth regulators. 22 hypo-hatchet. 15 indigo bunting. 20 insect pests. 20 Kirtland’s warble>. 25 maleic hydrazide. 22 management plan. formulation. | management priorities. identification. | management strategies. 2 management zones. 18 monuron, 22 moose. 25 mowing, I5 North Central U.S. clear cutting effects in, 20 herbicide use in, 22 planting and seeding in, 23 prescribed burning in, 25 selective cutting in, 20 Northwestern U.S. clear cutting effects in, 20 herbicide use in, 22 prescribed burning in, 25 selective cutting in, 20 nutritive value of plants. 25 pheasant. ring-necked. 21 picloram, 22 pileated woodpecker, 20 plant communities general key, 2 methods of describing. 18 plant toxins, 22 planting and seeding grasses and legumes, 23 shrubs and trees, 23 limitations, 23 rights-of-way, 15, 23 plowing. 15, 20 pocket gopher, 22 prairie chicken, greater. 25 prescribed burning. 15, 25 pushing. 15 quail. 20 rabbits. 20. 21, 22. 25 raccoons. 21, 22. 25 raptors. 18 rating. 4 red-backed vole. 25 red-cockaded woodpecker. 20 reliability. 4 relocation of vegetation. 15 reproductive isolation. 26 resource assessment, | data collection. 18 data requirements, 17 evaluation guidelines. 18 restoration methods. 15 right-of-way access planning. 6 access rights, 12 acquisition, 6, 7. 8 brush disposal. 6 construction. 6 initial vegetation clearing. 6 maintenance rights. 13 selection process. 5 width requirements. 4 ring-necked pheasant. 21. 23 roller chopping. 15 rotary mowers. 20 ruffed grouse. 20. 21. 23. 25 167 sand dune communities, 18 scaled quail, 21 scalping, 15, 20 seedbed preparation, 20, 22, 23 seeding (see plant and seeding) selective cutting, 20 on right-of-way, 6, 20 selective spraying, 22 sensitivity of vegetation to disturbance communities affected, 18 criteria for evaluating, 18 shallow-rooted species, 18 sharp-tailed grouse, 22, 25 sheardozing, 15 silvex, 22 simazine, 22 skidding, 20 skunks, 21 slash piling, 15 slash removal, 15 small mammals, 20, 21, 22, 25 snags, 18, 20 snowshoe hare, 20, 25 sociability, 18 soil application of herbicides, 22 erosion, 15, 18, 20, 23, 24 sterilants, 15 168 soils, effect on vegetation, 18 songbirds, 21, 23, 25 Southeastern U.S. clear cutting effects in, 20 herbicide use in, 22 planting and seeding in, 23 prescribed burning in, 25 selective cutting in, 20 Southwestern U.S. clear cutting effects in, 20 planting and seeding in, 23 prescribed burning in, 25 selective cutting in, 20 squirrels, 20, 22 stem/ foliage spraying, 15, 22 streambank management, 24 streams, sensitivity to disturbance, 18 structure design, 4 stump spraying, 22 sunscald, 18 surface geology, influence on vegetation, 18 2,4,5-T, 22 tower sites, 15 tree injectors, 15, 22 trimming, 15 tundra communities, 18 turbidity, 26 turkey, 21, 22, 25 U-shaped right-of-way, 19, 20 ultra high voltage, 4 upland game birds, 20, 21 vegetation maintenance methods costs, 16 Eastern U.S., use in, 16 nonselective, 15 selective, 15 Western U.S., use in, 16 vigor, 18 water temperature, 18, 24, 26 waterbars, 15 waterfowl, 26 watertable, drainage patterns, 18 wetlands, 26 bird collisions with transmission lines in, 26 drainage alterations of, 18, 26 effects of right-of-way construction and main- tenance on, 26 white-tailed deer, 20, 23, 25 wildlife management definition, 14 land use rights implications, 14 windthrow, 18 woodchucks, 21 woodcock, 21 woodpeckers, 18, 20 ‘yfy U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979-651-587