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A Demographic & Employment Analysis of Selected Alaska Rural Communities Vol III 1988
OCS Study MMS 89-0083 Technical Report No. 137 Contract No. 14-12-0001-30385 FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT A DEMOGRAPHIC AND EMPLOYMENT ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ALASKA RURAL COMMUNITIES ‘VOLIME ITI (SOUTHERN COMMUNITIES) In association with s Gillian Smythe & Associates This report has been reviewed by the Minerals Management Service and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Service, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. Thus study was funded by the Minerals Management Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.D. under contract mmber 14-12-0001-30385. September 1988 VOLUME 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION .........0.242404-2-2eee-8 II. METHODS AND TERMS .........24.2.222e6. A. Demographic Terms .........2.ee.. IIt. B. Employment Terms .......2-2.eee8 SECONDARY DATA SOURCES . .......24ee.2.-. A. Available Secondary Literature ...... B. Limitations of Existing Data Series .... IV. COMPARISONS AND TRENDS ........2.202. Vv. Table A. Population .. é . a abe ey 1. Historic Population Trends eats 2. Trends in Village Settlement Patterns. 3. Sources of Population Change .... 4. Population Mobility ..... Te BGO ie I I ee, 6. Sex Ratios ..... 7. Educational Levels . oe © e co ec ce oe 28 ee e - Employment... as 1. Labor Force Participation Rates ite 2. Trends in Composition of Employment . BIBLIOGRAPHY: .. 8s 0 ee Se ew ee wt te we ee LIST OF TABLES 1... General Population Trends in Alaska, L74O$IGC4. eh ee FR SRS e 12 17 17 22 27 27 27 29 32 35 39 40 41 43 44 48 54 28 Table 2 .-. Village Settlement Patterns, 1939 and 1980, Select Northern and Western Alaska Census BORG Fo BEES LEDS ERS eee: Table 3... Changes in Village Settlements, 1950-1980, Northern and Western Alaska ....... Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 10 12 13 14 15 16 Number of Villages, by Size, Northern and Western Alaska Annual Rate of Population Change, 1970 - 1984, United States, State of Alaska and Alaska Natives . Components of Population Change, 1980 - 1985, State of Alaska and Select Census Areas ... . Mobility Status of Population, 1980, United States State of Alaska and Alaska Natives . Mobility Status of Alaska Natives, by Sex and Age, 1975-1980 Mobility Status of Population, 1965 - 1970, United States State of Alaska and Alaska Natives . Median. Age in Years, United States, State of Alaska and Alaska Natives, 1970, 1980 and 1984... e 1950-1980, 1975 <- ° ° Male/Female Ratio, 1970, 1980 and 1984, United States State of Alaska and Alaska Natives ... Percent High School and College Graduates, 1980, Persons 25 Years Old and Over, by Race, United States, State of Alaska and Select Census Areas Labor Force Characteristics, 1980, United States State of Alaska and Alaska Natives . e ° Labor Force Participation Rates, by Race, 1980, United States, State of Alaska and Select Census Areas Residents Per Job, 1970, 1980 and 1985, State of Alaska and Select Census Areas Distribution of Employment by Sector, 1970, State of Alaska and Select Census Areas . Page 31 33 34 36 38 39 40 41 42 45 45 46 49 Page Table 17 ... Distribution of Employment by Sector, 1980, State of Alaska and Select Census Areas .. 50 Table 18 ... Distribution of Employment by Sector, 1986, State of Alaska and Select Census PEORB an eo Se ee le eo elite en ot at SB VOLUME II TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .. . +. © © ee se eo ee ee BARROW .. ee ee ee A. Past Population Trends ee we © © B. Population Composition . . Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment ANAKTUVUK PASS ... e © © © © © A. Past Population Trends Mie eee «6 B. Population Composition .. . Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment KAKTOVIK .. . < cee ee ew A. Past Population Trends cee ee ee B. Population Composition ... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment POINT HOPE .. ° eo ee ee ew A. Past Population Trends ee ne ww B. Population Composition ... c. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment WAINWRIGHT . . ce ecle ew ew & A. Past Population. Trends of ot eile ee B. Population Composition... c. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment KOTZEBUE .. ° ° oe © © we ww A. Past Population Trends oe ee we ww B. Population Composition... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment DEERING ... eee! wwe A. Past Population Trends oe fot os [ouseh ee be B. Population Composition ... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment KIVALINA .. . oe ee ewe e A. Past Population Trends oe © we ww B. Population Composition... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment iv oe ee eoeee eoee oe ee oe ee ee ee oe ee oe ee oe ee oe ee oo ee oo 8 6 ee 8 © eeee oe ee oe ee oe ee oe eo eee oe oe ee oe ee eeee oe ee ee oe oe oo oe ee oo © @ eocee oe ee 59 59 70 81 103 103 112 123 147 147 158 168 195 195 204 217 243 243 261 267 289 289 295 302 307 307 314 321 NOME . A. Past Population Trends oe Seg ies woe B. Population Composition . . . - Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment ° GAMBELL . A. Past Population Trends ernie er pe ele a B. Population Composition... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment UNALAKLEET A. Past Population Trends Be oe oe > ef onl atl B. Population Composition... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table © BNAURWNEH 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 21 22, cece cece oe ee . ° ee oeee ee ee oe ee ee ee oeee eooee eoeee eeee oeee oe ee eoeee TABLES Population Trends, Barrow, 1880 -1985 .. Population Estimates, Barrow, 1880 - 1986 Population Composition, Barrow, 1960 .. Population Composition, Barrow, 1970 .. Population Composition, Barrow, 1980 Population Composition, Barrow, June 1980 Population Composition, Barrow, 1985 .. Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Barrow, 1982 -1985 ... Be hele Inupiat Workforce by Work Category, Barrow, 1985... ei Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Barrow, 1977 ... . Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Barrow, 1977 ot tie os ie Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Barrow, 1978 .... e . . Selected Labor Force Data, Barrow, 1980 e Composition of Employment by Race and Sex, Barrow, June 1980 .... ° fo & Major mone. maces by serrae Barrow, June 1980 .... oes Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Barrow, 1982... ole Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Barrow, 1982 .... fs abe Covered Industry Employment, city of Barrow, 1980... ° « e Covered Industry Employment, “city of Barrow, 1981... ee eo Covered Industry Employment, “city of Barrow, 1982... « oe « Covered Industry Employment, city of Barrow, 1983 ... istic « Covered Industry Employment, “city of Barrow, 1986 oe es nee Swe oeee oeee Page 327 327 334 331 375 375 382 390 399 399 407 418 20 21 22 23 24 25 36 39 40 42 43 44 45 47 48 51 52 53 54 S&S Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 ...Covered Industry Employment, Anaktuvuk 43 ... Covered Industry Employment, Anaktuvuk 44 ... Covered Industry Employment, “anaktuvuk 45 ... Population Trends, Kaktovik, Covered Industry Employment, City of Barrow, 1985... Covered Industry Employment, “city of Barrow, 1986... Population Trends, Anaktuvuk Pass, 1950 - 1985 .... Population Estimates, Anaktuvuk Pass, 1935 - 1986 .. Population Composition, 1969 . ... e Population Composition, 1970 . . - e Population Composition, August 1972 ..... Anaktuvuk Pass, Anaktuvuk Pass, Anaktuvuk Pass, Population Composition, Anaktuvuk Pass, 1980 .. . Population. Composition, July 1980 ... Anaktuvuk Pass, Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Anaktuvuk Pass, 1982 -1985 . Selected Labor Force Data, Anaktuvuk Pass, 1980... Composition of Employment by Race and Sex, Anaktuvuk Pass, July 1980 .. Major Employers by Tree Anaktuvuk Pass, July 1980 .. Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Anaktuvuk Pass, 1982 . Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Anaktuvuk Pass, 1982 Covered Industry Employment, Anaktuvuk Pass Area, 1980 .. Covered Industry Employment, “anaktuvuk Pass Area, 1981 .. Covered Industry Employment, “anaktuvuk Pass Area, 1982 .. Covered Industry Employment, “anaktuvuk Pass Area, 1983 ... Pass Area, 1984... . Pass Area, 1985 ... Pass Area, 1986 ... 1950 - 1985 .... 46 ... Population Estimates, Kaktovik, 1936 - 1987 ..... Page - 56 - 57 - 60 - 61 - 75 - 76 - 77 - 78 - 79 - 80 - 90 - 91 - 92 «. 93 ° 94 - 95 - 96 - 97 - 98 - 99 - 100 - 101 - 105 - 106 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Population Composition, 1970... « . Population Composition, 1980... Population Composition, July 1980 .. B Population Composition, April 1983... Kaktovik, Kaktovik, Kaktovik, ee Kaktovik, Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Kaktovik, 1982 - 1985 Work Force by Work ened Kaktovik, 1987... Average Annual *pull-Time Employment, Kaktovik, 1977... Selected Labor Force Data, Kaktovik, 1980... Composition of Employment by Race and Sex, Kaktovik, July 1980 ..... Major Employers by Sector, aus dea July 1980 ... Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Kaktovik, 1982... Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Kaktovik, 1982... e Covered Industry Employment, Kaktovik Area, 1980... Covered Industry Employment, “ Kaktovik Area, 1981... Covered Industry Employment, “Kaktovik Area, 1982... Covered Industry Employment, “Kaktovik Area, 1983 . . Covered Industry Employment, " Kaktovik Area, 1984... Covered Industry Employment, *Kaktovik Area, 1985... Covered Industry Employment, Kaktovik Area, 1986... Population Trends, “point Hope, 1880 - 1985 .... Population Estimates, Point Hope, 1880 - 1986 ... . Population Composition, Population Composition, Population Composition, June: 1980 . 2 2 « oe Population Composition, Point Hope, 1970 Point Hope, Point Hope, 1980 Point Hope, 1986 Page 118 119 120 121 122 132 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 148 149 163 164 165 166 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Point Hope, 1982 - 1985 ... Inupiat Workforce by Work category, Point Hope, 1986... . Selected Labor Force Data, Point Hope, 1980... Composition of Employment by Race and Sex, Point Hope, June 1980... Major Employers by Sector, Point Hope, June 1980 .. Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Point Hope, 1982... Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Point Hope, 1982 . . Covered Industry Employment, Point Hope Area, 1980 ......2.26-. Covered Industry Employment, Point Hope Area, 1981 ......2.cee6e Covered Industry Employment, Point Hope Area, 1982 ......2... Covered Industry Employment, Point Hope Area, 1983 . Covered Industry Employment, Point Hope Area, 1984 Covered Industry Employment, “point Hope Area, 1985 .....-.24ee-. Covered Industry Employment, Point Hope Area, 1986 ... ee e Population Trends, Wainwright, 1890 - 1985 .... e Population Estimates, Wainwright, 1882 - 1987 .....2.22e2ee Population Composition, Wainwright, JUNG 1955) Oh ce te ee ep ee Population Composition, Wainwright, July 1968 ......-e-e cece Population Composition, Wainwright, Population Composition, Wainwright, April 1977... ete: oes wn lesce Population Composition, Wainwright, 1980... . oe ete. “6. Population Composition, Wainwright, April 1980... ° e Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Wainwright, 1982 - 1985 ... Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Wainwright, 1977 .... ° Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Wainwright, 1977 .. Page 167 180 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 197 198 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 227 228 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 97: 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 Selected Labor Force Data, ese iatet. 1980 .. . . Composition of Employment by Race and Sex, Wainwright, April 1980 ... ‘ Major Employers by Sector, Wainwright, April 1980... ’ ots Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Wainwright, 1982 .... - Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Wainwright, 1982 ... Covered Industry Employment, Wainwright Area, 1980... Covered Industry Employment, “Wainwright Area, 1981... Covered Industry Employment, "Wainwright Area, 1982... Covered Industry Employment, “Wainwright Area, 1983 ... Covered Industry Employment, "wainwright Area, 1984... Covered Industry Employment, "Wainwright Area, 1985... . Covered Industry Employment, Wainwright Area, 1986 .... in te Estimated Population, Traditional Kotzebue Sound Societies, 1800 - 1900 Population of Kotzebue Region Villages, 1920 - 1985 .. o~ «es Population Estimates, Kotzebue, 1800 - 1987 ... e oie e Population Trends, Kotzebue, 1880 - 1985: .... ee Alaska Native Heads of Household by Place of Birth, Kotzebue, 1969 .... Length of Residence in Kotzebue, 1978 . Components of Population Change, Kobuk Census Division, 1970 - 1985 ..... Birth Rates, Kobuk Census Dyrtsion, 1970 - 1980 ... oe Births, By Race of Mother, Kotzebue, 1977 - 1985 ... . oe Natural Increase, Kotzebue, 1977 - 1985 Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Kotzebue, 1982 - 1985 ........ School Enrollments, eet 1975S: - 1987 §«. .. =. Final Enrollment by Grade, “Kotzebue, 1975/76-—1986/8%. ok ee es te Page 230 231 232 233 234 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 244 246 247 249 251 253 254 255 257 257 258 259 260 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 eee eoe coe Population Composition by Sex and Age, Kotzebue, 1960 .... ° ° Population Composition, Kotzebue, 1969" 7 Population Composition, Kotzebue, 1970 . Population Composition, Kotzebue, 1980 . Marital Status, by Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Kotzebue, 1980 ... Household Type and eee! Kotzebue, 1980 .... : Occupations of Employed Persons, Kotzebue, 1978... e ee Selected Labor Force Data, “Kotzebue, 1980... ° ee Covered Industry Employment, city of Kotzebue, 1980 - 1986 ... ec ee Covered Industry Employment, city of Kotzebue, 1977 .... ee ce eb Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1978 .. e ee ee Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1980... e = « « Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1981 .... -~ eee Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1982... “ote S Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1983 .... eS eS Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1984 .... o ek «© Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1985 .... ee ee Covered Industry Employment, “city of Kotzebue, 1986 .. . ee e Employment and Earnings by Industry, City of Kotzebue, 1980 ......... Kotzebue Job List, c 1984... . aes Average Monthly Employment, City of Kotzebue, 1980 - 1986 .......2.. Population Estimates, Deering, 1800 - 1987 ... e . Population Trends, Deering, 1910 - “1985 . Population Composition, Deering, 1970. . Population Composition, Deering, 1980 . . Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Deering, 1980... . . Household Type and Relationship, Deering, 1980 2. 2. 2. 2 we ww eee ec eo ew ewes Page 262 263 264 265 266 266 268 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 282 284 286 290 292 296 297 298 298 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 eee coe coe cee ooe Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Deering, 1982 - 1985 .... . Selected Labor Force Data, Deering, 1980. Covered Industry Employment, Deering Area, 1980 - 1986 ... Seve tete « 2 « « Deering Job List, c 1984 She ee eee ee Population Estimates, ae 1800 - 1987 ... ° Population Trends, Kivalina, 1920 - 1985, Births and Deaths, Kivalina, 1955 - 1959 Population Composition, Kivalina, 1959 . Population Composition, Kivalina, 1970 . Population Composition, Kivalina, 1980 . Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Kivalina, 1980 ... Household Type and Relationship, Kivalina, 1980... we te a Permanent Fund Dividena Recipients, Kivalina, 1982 - 1985 ......4.4.. Sources of Income, Kivalina, 1959... Selected Labor Force Data, Kivalina, 1980 Covered Industry Employment, Kivalina Area, 1980 - 1986 .. oe ee © © «ee Kivalina Job List, c 1984 ote or 7 Population Estimates, Nome, 1880 - 1987 . Population Trends, Nome, 1900 - 1985 .. Population Composition by Sex and -: City of Nome, 1939... . Population Composition by Race, City of Nome, 1939... a Population Composition by Sex and Age, Nome, 1960... . ° e a er Population Composition, None, 1970 jies Population Composition by Sex and Age, Nome, 1975... ° 6 ets Population Composition, Nome, 1980 SE Si Marital Status, by Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Nome, 1980 .. BS eS Household Type and Relationship, Nome, 1980 .... oe oe & © Births, By Race of Mother, “Nome, i977 ~- 1908. . « ° ° 3,00 ° Population and Housing, None, 1981 Poe ee | Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, NOM@):, 1982) =; 1985) eo a OR RK Final Enrollment by Grade, Nome, 1956/57 —. 1986/87). ke eR Ce Page 299 304 305 306 308 312 315 316 317 318 319 319 320 322 324 325 326 328 330 337 337 338 339 340 341 345 345 346 347 348 349 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 cece Employed Workers by Industry ee: City of Nome, 1939... ° ‘ Employment Status of Persons 14 Years Old and Older, City of Nome, 1939 Employed Workers by Major Occupation Group, City of Nome, 1939 .. Average Year-Round Full-Time Employment, Nome and Immediate Vicinity, 1967 Employment by Industry, Nome, November 1979 ... ° e Selected Labor Force Data, Nome, 1980 Covered Industry Employment, City of Nome, 1980 - 1986... . . Covered Industry Employment, city Nome, 1980. . . é Covered Industry Employment, “city Nome, Covered Industry Employment, “city Nome, 1982... é Covered Industry Employment, “city Nome, 1983 . . . j Covered Industry Employment, “city Nome, 1984... . Covered Industry Employment, “city Nome, Covered Industry Employment, “city Nome, 1986 .. . othe Employment by Place of Work, “Nome, 1980 - 1987 ... . Average Monthly Employment, City of Nome, 1980 - 1986 ... eo ee Population Estimates, Gambell, 1878 - 1987 ... e Population Trends, Gambell, 1910 - “1985 Population Composition, Gambell, 1963 . Population Composition, Gambell, 1970 . Population Composition by Sex and Age, Gambell, 1975 .. 1981... ° 1985... . Population Composition, Gambell, “1980 so Marital Status, by Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Gambell, 1980... Household Type and Relationship, “Gambell, 1980... Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Gambell, 1982 - 1985... e Selected Labor Force Data, Gambell, 1980 Covered Industry Employment, St Lawrence Island, 1980 - 1986 ....... Page 353 353 353 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 367 373 377 379 383 384 385 386 388 388 389 393 394 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 Employment, Gambell, 1986 .... ° Employment by Duration and Gender ana Age of Employee, Gambell, 1986 .... Population Estimates, nee 637° 198F -. <. Population Trends Unalakleet, 1880 - “1985 Alaska Native Population Composition, Unalakleet, 1968 ... Population Composition, Unalakleet, 1970. Population Composition by Age and Sex, Unalakleet, 1975... Population Composition, Unalakleet, 1980 Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Unalakleet, 1982 - 1985 ... . Marital Status, by Sex, Persons 15 Years. and Older, Unalakleet , 1980 ..... Household Type and Relationship, Unalakleet, 1980... ° Home Village of Non-Local Native Spouses Unalakleet, 1982... ° e Selected Labor Force Data, Unalakleet, 1980... Covered Industry Employment, “Unalakleet Area, 1980 - 1986 ... Full-Time Employment, Unalakleet, 1982 , Page 395 396 402 404 410 411 412 413 414 415 415 416 420 421 422 VOLUME IIT TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ~~... . 2. 2. © ee we we ee BETHEL .. ° ee ee ww A. Past Population Trends ot ate wetted B. Population Composition . . Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment ALARANUR oo ea tes. & pepe eo of le © eo A. Past Population Trends ....... B. Population Composition .. . Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment SCAMMON BAY... oe © © ww A. Past Population | Trends is Le eve B. Population Composition ... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment ANIAK... e oe ee mye em 6 A. Past Population Trends ole ome ees B. Population Composition ° c. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment DILLINGHAM ... . ce © we ww A. Past Population Trends o ok eo « « © B. Population Composition ... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment TOGIAK .. ° . oe ote or ee” | A. Past Population Trends ©) le fe) ol let es) B. Population Composition . .. c. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment UNALASKA .. Om ee & So A. Past Population Trends + |e eel eile B. Population Composition ... c. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment SAND POINT .. eee & © © A. Past Population. Trends eat let [atl teste | B. Population Composition .. . c. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment NIKOLSKI ... ° . ee ele o & A. Past Population Trends o |S: ee |-et*e |e B. Population Composition... Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment eoeee oe oe oe ee ee ee oe ee oe ee eo ee oe oe oe ee oe ee oeee eeeve oe ee oe ee oo ee oe ee ee oe e@ ooee ee ee ee ee eoeee oe ee oe @ @ oe ee eo 8 @ ee ee eee oe ee oe ee eeee ee eo ee ee eo ee oe ee ee ee Page oe ee oe ee oe ee oe ee oe ee ee eo oo ee eeee xXV 425 425 437 446 465 465 476 483 501 501 512 516 533 533 542 552 565 565 580 583 607 607 617 621 647 647 664 673 693 693 704 717 735 735 741 750 ST PAUL . A. Past Population Trends" ope ee 8 265-6 B. Population Composition .. Cc. Trends in Wage and Salary Employment. APPENDIX Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 coe eee coe ee: 2 8 6 fe © Tee ejects ete. @ « © © e TABLES Population Estimates, Bethel, 1880 - 1987 Population Trends, Bethel, 1910 - 1985 . Population Change, City of Bethel and Bethel Census Area, 1929 - 1985 .. e Components of Population Change, Bethel Census Area, 1970 - 1985... | oe 6 Final Enrollment by Grade, Bethel, 1956/57 - 1986/87 ... 7 Racial Composition of Population, Bethel, 1960 - 1980 ...- oe ee Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Bethel, 1982 - 1985 .. oe Population Composition by Sex and Age, Bethel, 1960... . «re Population Composition by Sex and Age, Bethel, 1965 ..... ° - « Population Composition, Bethel, 1970 -——. Population Composition, Bethel, 1980 .. Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Bethel, 1980 ... . Household Type and Relationship, Bethel, 3960... ot Estimated Employment, city’ of Bethel, 1969 .. Be ° o © Selected Labor. Force Data, "Bethel, 1980 ° Composition of pars saemeey City of Bethel 1978 and 1980 ... « ©! Average Annual Full-Time Employment, City of Bethel, 1980... . e Civilian Labor Force Status, Persons over 16 Years of Age, City of Bethel, 1980 . Average Monthly Employment, city of Bethel, 1980 - 1986 .. « « Covered Industry Employment, “city of. Bethel, 1980 - 1986 .. ° ee Covered Industry Employment, city of Bethel, 1980... ae Covered Industry Employment, “city of Bethel, 1981... . lee Covered Industry Employment, city of Bethel, 1982 oso ie fei ohare bik ede 6 753 753 768 779 799 428 430 433 434 436 438 441 442 442 443 444 445 445 447 448 450 451 454 456 457 458 459 460 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 eee Covered Industry Employment, City of Bethel, 1983... . ee Covered Industry Employment, city of Bethel, 1984... =. Covered Industry Employment, “city of Bethel, 1985 .. oe Covered Industry Employment, “city of Bethel, 1986 .. we. « Number and Population of “villages, Wade Hampton Census Division, 1939 - 1985 ... je 6 Population of Yukon Delta Villages, 1939 -°198S .2. « ee oe Population Estimates, Alakanuk, 1891 - 1987 ... oo @ ele «6 Population Trends, Alakanuk, 1939 - 1985 .. ° o_« Components of Pppihaatéon Change, Wade Hampton Census Division, 1970 - 1985 .. Population Composition, Alakanuk, 1970 . Population Composition, Alakanuk, 1980 . Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Alakanuk, 1982 - 1985 ... . Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years" and Older, Alakanuk, 1980 ....... Household Type and Relationship, Alakanuk, 1980... re Selected Labor Force Data, “Alakanuk, 1980 .. e Opportunities for Cash Incone, “Alakanuk, June 1981 - May 1982 .......... Mean Household Cash Income, By Source, Alakanuk, June 1981 - May 1982 ..... Composition of Employment, Alakanuk, 1982 and 1986 .. ee Covered Industry Employment, ” Alakanuk Area, 1980 - 1986 ... ° Covered Industry Employment, “Alakanuk Area, 1980... ee Covered Industry Employment, “Alakanuk Area, 1981... ee Covered Industry Employment, “Alakanuk Area, 1982 .. ee Covered Industry Employment, “Alakanuk Area, 1983 ... ae Covered Industry Employment, “Alakanuk Area,.1984 2... oe 6 iS eo ee ee te Page 461 462 463 464 469 470 471 472 474 479 480 481 482 482 486 487 487 489 493 494 495 496 497 498 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table . Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 Covered Industry Employment, Alakanuk Area, 1985 ... ee Covered Industry Employment, “Alakanuk Area, 1986 .... : a Number and Population of villages, Wade Hampton Census Division, 1939 - 1985 . . Population of Scammon Bay Area Villages, seen ‘+ 1906S". “ec oy ee, © Population Estimates, Scammon Bay, 3927 1987 << « . on ee eee Population Trends, Scammon Bay, 31839-1985 . < . os © Components of Population. Change, Wade Hampton Census Division, 1970 - 1985 .. Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Scammon Bay , 1980 ..... Household Type and Relationship, Scammon Bay, 1980 .. a Population Composition, Scammon Bay, 1970 .. . oot le Population | Composition, Scammon Bay, 1980... . - © lev. orf er, peter @ Le Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Scammon Bay, 1982 - 1985 ..... é Estimated Employment, Scammon Bay, 1971 ° Selected Labor Force Deke, Scammon Bay, 1980 ... si se a Opportunities for Cash Income, Scammon Bay, June 1981 - May 1982 ...... Mean Household Income, By Source, Scammon Bay, June 1981 - May 1982 ... eit aes Covered Industry Employment, Scammon Bay Area, 1980 - 1986 ... er [eel = Covered Industry Employment, Scammon Bay Area, 1980. . ae Covered Industry Employment, ” Scammon Bay Area, 1981... . eee Covered Industry Employment, Scammon Bay Area, 1982... > bs els Covered Industry Employment, Scammon Bay Area, 1983 ... oe Covered Industry Employment, “Scammon™ Bay Area, 1984. . eo ee Covered Industry Employment, ” Scammon Bay Area, 1985 .... . . = ele Covered Industry Employment, Scammon Bay*Area,. 1986) 23 Pe ee ek Page 499 500 506 507 508 509 510 514 514 517 518 519 520 521 523 523 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 cece Population of Aniak vie oan Villages, amae ~ IS7S . «.-c: 6 oe Population Estimates, Aniak, 1939 - 1987 ... on oft Population Trends, Aniak, 1939 - 1985 ... Final Enrollment by Grade, “aniak, 1956/57 - 1986/87 . . Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Aniak, 1982 - 1985 .... . Population Composition, by Race, city of Aniak, 1970 and 1980... . . Population Composition, by Race, Aniak Sub-Region, 1970 and 1980 . . Age Cohort Comparison, City of Aniak, 1980 and 1985 .... ’ Population Composition, Aniak, “1970 _ Population Composition, Aniak, 1980 . Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Aniak, 1980 . . Household Type and Relationship. Aniak, 1980 ... " Selected Labor Force. Data, Aniak, 1980 Average Monthly Employment, Aniak Sub-Area, 1985 - 1986 ... Covered Industry eee Aniak Area, 1980 - 1986 .. Covered Industry Employment, “aniak” Area, 1980 . Covered Industry Employment, “aniak Area, 1981 ...... Covered Industry Employment, Aniak Area, 1982 . Covered Industry Employment, Aniak Area, 1983 . Covered Industry Employment, Aniak Area, 1984 . Covered Industry Employment, Aniak Area, TOES eo erie om, ewe wie oe Covered Industry Employment, Aniak Area, 1986... . Population Trends, Dillingham and Vicinity, 1890 -1985 .... Population Estimates, Dillingham, 1890 - 1987 ... ° Population Composition, Dillingham, 1970 Population Composition, Dillingham, 1980 Page 537 538 539 540 541 545 545 547 548 549 551 551 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 566 567 584 585 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 cece coe Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Dillingham, 1982 - 1985 . . Selected Labor Force Data, Dillingham, 19860... ous Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Dillingham and Immediate Vicinity, 1980 Government and Non-Profit Corporation Employment, City of Dillingham, 1986 . Covered Industry Employment, Dillingham Area, 1980... Covered Industry Employment, pillingham Area, 1981... Covered Industry Employment, pillingham Area, 1982 ... Covered Industry Employment, “pillingham Area, 1983 ... Covered Industry Employment, ” pillingham Area, 1984... Covered Industry Employment, *pillingham Area, 1985... Covered Industry Employnent, ‘Dillingham Area, 1986... . ° Population Trends, “nogiak, 1880 - 1985, Population Estimates, Togiak, 1880 - 1987 .. oe ee Population Composition, Togiak, 1966 Population Composition, Togiak, 1970 Population Composition, Togiak, 1980 Population Composition, Togiak, 1983 Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Togiak, 1982 - 1985 ... Selected Labor Force Data, Togiak, 1980 _Average Annual Full-Time Employment by Employer, Togiak, 1983 ..... Estimated Cash Income by Souper Togiak, S0R. © «+ «0 Covered Industry. Employment, “Togiak Area, 1980 . Covered Industry Employment, Togiak Area I9ST eee ee +o Covered Industry Employment, Togiak Area, 1982 . Covered Industry Employment, Togiak Area 1983 . Covered Industry Employment, Togiak Area 1984 . Covered Industry Employment, Togiak Area OG e oF of oo! elie | oy of oto atin ee wate . ’ ’ ’ ’ , ’ Page 586 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 608 609 622 623 624 625 626 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 cece cee . Covered Industry Employment, Togiak Area, 1986 .... . ic ee Population of Unalaska Island Villages, 1825... . ous te Population of Unalaska Island Villages, DOST a ec 6 ae! o . een oe ae Racial Composition of Population, Unalaska Island Villages , 1880 .... Historic Population, Unalaska Island, 1880 - 1985 .... °° * ei 8 8 ee Population Estimates, Unalaska TEOR: = 19ST so we oe 0 0 mw et Population Trends, Unalaska, 1880 - 1985 .... . ee Number and Origin of Native Immigrants, Unalaska, July 1967 - December 1969 .. Residents and Non-Residents, City of Unalaska, 1970 - 1981 ... oe Final Enrollment by Grade, Unalaska, 1956/57 - 1986/87 ... © «or 6 Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Unalaska/Dutch Harbor, 1982 - 1985... Population by Race, City of Unalaska, IS7O = T9C0F*. ve Sw wo he ee ee ete Population Composition, Unalaska, 1970 . Population Composition, Unalaska, 1977 . Population Composition, Unalaska, 1980 . Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Unalaska, 1980 ....... Household Type and Relationship, Unalaska, 1980 .... + ; Estimated Employment, City of Unalaska, 1967 - 1986 ... . . Basic and Non-Basic Employment, City of Unalaska, 1967, 1976 and 1980 ..... Annual Average Employment, Unalaska - Dutch Harbor, December 1967 .. . . Estimated eee City of Unalaska, 1969 .... a «6 Average Annual Employnent, “city of Unalaska, 1976... is ie | Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Unalaska, 1980 .... o . Distribution of Employment by Sector, State of Alaska and City of Unalaska, 1980 . s & ew . 6 ociey 6 6-0 Selected Labor Force Data, Unalaska, 198 OF rege oo wo wo el oe en Page 646 651 651 652 653 656 658 661 663 665 666 667 669 670 671 672 672 676 676 677 677 678 679 680 681 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 Covered Industry Employment, Unalaska Area, 1980 - 1986 ... ee Average Monthly Employment, City of Unalaska, 1981 - 1986 ... . Average Annual Unemployment, Selected Census Areas, 1985 - 1987 .. . Covered Industry Employment, Unalaska Area, 1980... ° Covered Industry Employment, “unalaska Area, 1981... . Covered Industry Employment, “Unalaska Area, 1982... . Covered Industry Employment, “Unalaska Area, 1983... ° Covered Industry Employment, “Unalaska Area, 1984 .. 7 Covered Industry. Employment, “Unalaska Area, 1985... . Covered Industry Employment, “Unalaska Area, 1986... . . Historic Population Change, Aleutians East Region, 1880 - 1986... ool ene Population Estimates, Sand Point, 1900 - 1987 ... oe ew ew Population Trends, Sand Point, 1900 - 1985 .. be ee er et ee ve Sand Point Population, “1980 ap tert ert o Trends in Sand Point Population, 1980) = 1985) 2... . . Final Enrollment by Grade, Sand Point, 1956/57 - 1986/87 ... e Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Sand Point, 1982 - 1985 .... Length of Residence, City of Sand Point, 1983... . : Population Composition, Sand “point, 1970. Population Composition, Sand Point, 1980 Population Composition by Residency and Sex, Sand Point, 1980 - 1985 ..... Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Sand Point, 1980 ... ‘. Household Type and Relationship, Sand Point, 1980 .. . SF Average Annual Full-Time Employment, Sand Point, 1967... - . Composition of Employment, Sand Point, ISTE aNd? 197E oe we we wee Page 684 685 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 698 700 701 705 705 706 707 710 73 714 715 716 716 721 722 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 Composition of Employment, Sand Point, June 1980 .. e . ee Selected Labor Force Data, Sand Point, 1980... . Average Monthly Employment, Sand Point Area, 1980 - 1986 .. . Covered Industry Employment, “sana Point Area, 1980 - 1986 .. eee Covered Industry Employment, “sana Point Area, 1980... wh he Covered Industry Employment, “gana Point Area, 1981. . S| &| Ie Covered Industry Employment, “sand Point Area, 1982... o'|e:| | |e Covered Industry Employment, “sand Point Area, 1983... ‘ oo le Covered Industry Employment, Sand Point Area, 1984... © || os! |e Covered Industry Employment, “sand Point Area, 1985... the |e! 0 Covered Industry Employment, “sand Point Area, 1986... Seite 6 © Population Estimates, Nikolski, 1826 - 1987 ... . Population Trends, Nikolski, “1880 - 1985 Population Composition, Nikolski, 1897, 1942 and 1952 .... oes ver Population Composition, Nikolski, 1970 . Population Composition, Nikolski, 1980 . Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, Nikolski, 1980 ....... Household Type and Relationship, Nikolski, 1980... ~. o Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, Nikolski, 1982 - 1985 .... ee Final Enrollment by Grade, Nikolski, 1956/57 - 1986/87 .... = Selected Labor Force Data, Nikolski, 1980 Covered Industry Employment, Nikolski Area, 1980 - 1986 ... . oe ee Population Estimates, St. Paul, 1825 - 1987 ... ° * ° Population Trends, st. Paul, 1880 - 1985 Pribilof Islands Population, 1880 - 1980 Destination and Reason for Permanent Departures from St. Paul, 1926 - 1966 . Page 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 737 738 743 744 745 746 746 748 749 751 752 758 760 760 763 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 aaa 445 446 Summary of Permanent Arrivals and Departures, By Age Group, St. Paul, 1926.- 1966 .... ° ow Natural Increase, St. Paul, 1970 - 1984 Change in Alaska Native Population Composition, St. Paul, 1980 - 1986 . Permanent Fund Dividend Recipients, st Paul, 1982 - 1985 ......e..e.e. Population Composition, St. Paul, 1926 - 1966 .. ox en oh nano Population Composition, St. Paul, 1970 Population Composition, St. Paul, 1980 Population Composition, St. Paul, 1985 Population Composition, St. Paul, 1986 Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, St. Paul, 1926 - 1966 .. Marital Status, By Sex, Persons 15 Years and Older, St. Paul, 1980 ... Household Type and Relationship, st. “paul, 1960: . 2. « «.- Ooo Obie er ce ene ° Composition of Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Workforce, St. Paul, 1956.- 1967. 2+... ° . Selected Labor Force Data, "st. Paul, 1980... . Average Annual Full-Time Employnent, St. Paul, 1980... Covered Industry Employment, “Pribilof Islands Area, 1980 - 1986 ..... St. Paul Native Employment, 1980 .. St. Paul Employment, 1982 . . mes St. Paul Employment, 1980 - 1986 os Covered Industry Employment, Pribilof Islands Area, 1980 .. . Covered Industry Employment, “pribilof Islands Area, 1981... Covered Industry Employment, “pribilof Islands Area, 1982... Covered Industry Employment, * pribilof Islands Area, 1983 ... Covered Industry Employment, pribilof Islands Area, 1984... Covered Industry Employment, “pribilof Islands Area, 1985 ......... ee ee oe ee Page 764 765 766 767 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 778 782 783 784 785 787 788 789 791 792 793 794 795 796 Page Table 447 ... Covered Industry Employment, Pribilof Islands Area, 1986 ............«.797 iL. INTRODUCTION This is the first in of three volumes of a technical reports which compile, describe and analyze population and employment data for 21 rural com-munities in six Native regions of western and northern Alaska. The communities are: Barrow, Anaktuvuk Pass, Kaktovik, Point Hope, Wainwright, Kotzebue, Deering, Kivalina, Nome, Gambell, Unalakleet, Alakanuk, Aniak, Bethel, Scammon Bay, Dillingham, Togiak, Nikolski, St. Paul, Sand Point and Unalaska. This report addresses general issues of methodology and terminology and the problems presented by historic and contemporary data sources. It also provides an overview of some broad demo- graphic and employment trends affecting Alaska Natives or rural Alaska communities compared to State and national trends. Section II defines key terms which will be used in the compilation of demographic and employment data and the methods to be used in the data analysis. Section III evaluates historic and current secondary data sources on community population and employment. Section IV contains detailed historic and current demographic and employment data for the 21 communities and employment data for regional and village Native corporations and for non-profit Native regional service agencies in several of the study communities. XXV Chapter V presents an annotated bibliography of sources of demographic and employment data for the study communities. A brief description of the contents, of the other two volumes of the technical report are: Volume II. This report presents detailed historic and current demographic and employment data for the study communities of Barrow, Anaktuvuk Pass, Kaktovik, Point Hope, Wainwright, Kotzebue, Deering, Kivalina, Nome, Gambell, and Unalakleet. A separate chapter is devoted to each individual community, with each chapter divided into three topical sections: past population trends; population composition; and trends in wage and salary employment. Volume II. This report presents detailed historic and current demographic and employment data for the study communities of Alakanuk, Aniak, Bethel, Scammon Bay, Dillingham, Togiak, Nikolski, St. Paul and Sand Point. A separate chapter is devoted to each individual community, with each chapter divided into three topical sections: past population trends; population composition; and trends in wage and salary employment. xxvi Special Report No. 7, "Regional and Village Corporation Employment Profiles." This report compiles data on current employment by six Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act regional corporations (Arctic Slope Regional Corporation, NANA Regional Corporation, Bering Straits Regional Corporation, Calista Corporation, Bristol Bay Native Corporation and the Aleut Corporation), five regional non-profit service agencies (Maniilaq Association, Kawerak, Inc., Association of Village Council Presidents, Bristol Bay Native Association and Aleutian-Pribilof Islands Association) and ten ANCSA village corporations (Ukpeagvik Inupiat Corporation [Barrow], Olgoonik corporation [Wainwright], Kikiktagruk Inupiat Corporation [Ko- tzebue], Sitnasuak Corporation [Home], Choggiung Ltd. [merger of Dillingham, Ekuk, New Stuyahok and Portage Creek], Togiak Natives Ltd. [Togiak], Tanadgusix Corporation [Saint Paul], Ounalashka Corporation [Unalaska] and Chaluka Corporation [Nikolski]. xxvii BETHEL A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS The 1880 Census recorded a small settlement of 29 persons at the site of present day Bethel, then known as Mumtrekhlagamute Station. Oswalt (1980) reports that the first trading post at Mumtrekhlagamute Station probably opened in the early 1870s, followed by an Alaska Commercial Company post in 1884. At about the same time, Moravian missionaries selected Mumtrekhlagamute Station as the site for a mission and school, conferring the name "Bethel" on the settlement after the day’s biblical text, "God said unto Jacob, Arise, go up to Bethel, and dwell there, and make there an altar unto God that appeared unto thee". Things haven’t been the same at Mumtrekhlagamute Station since. In a region of small, dispersed, often seasonally inhabited camps, Bethel’s role as a water transportation center and mission school site first helped establish it as a permanent settlement. The mission school opened its doors in 1886. Other key events in the community’s early development were the arrival of a medical doctor in 1896, the introduction of reindeer in 1901, establishment of a post office and consecration of the Moravian church building in 1905, and construction of a federal school in 1913, a roadhouse in 1914, a U.S. Army Signal Corps radio station in 1922, a territorial school in 1923 and a federal day school for Native children in 1927. Throughout this period, Bethel remained an active trading center. Nevertheless, many decades passed before Bethel became the dominant center 425 for the lower Kuskokwim River and Kuskokwim delta region. At the turn of the century, the village of Akiak about 30 miles upriver from Bethel was a larger, busier commercial center, due in part to its proximity to the Nyac goldfields. Akiak paralleled Bethel’s early development and from 1918 to 1933 was the site of the region’s first Alaska Native Medical Service ‘hospital. Bethel is situated about 80 miles upriver from the mouth of the Kuskokwim River. The deep water channel to Bethel was first discovered in 1908 and was mapped in 1912 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. By 1915, ocean- going ships began to visit Bethel regularly. Shallow draft ocean-going vessels could actually navigate as far upriver as Aniak and that community was initially a more important transshipment destination for cargo bound upriver. On the other hand, Bethel was better positioned to redistribute inbound freight destined for Southwest coastal and inner Norton Sound communities. In fact, in the late 1800s, Bering Sea Eskimos and Nunivak Islanders traveled to Bethel to trade. By the late 1930s, Bethel had gained a foothold as the region’s center for aviation and government administration. The construction of a 45-bed Native Health Service hospital here in 1939 was a pivotal event as, by that time, the region’s traditional settlement pattern was poised for the thorough-going changes which boosted Bethel’s subsequent growth. The Lower Yukon-Kuskokwim region was Alaska’s last rural region to make the shift from small, dispersed often nomadic settlement groups to the new 426 pattern of sedentary, centralized permanent villages. As recently as 1939, the Census counted 78 settlements in the Bethel census area with an average population of 57 residents and 65 settlements in the Wade Hampton census area with an average population of only 38 residents. Over the next four decades, settlement patterns changed radically. By the 1980 Census, the number of Bethel census area villages had shrunk by half to 35 permanent year-round settlements with an average village size of 314 residents, while the number of Wade Hampton census area villages was reduced by more than three-quarters to only 14 villages with an average of 333 residents. During the four and a half decades from 1939 to 1985, the Bethel census area’s population also tripled from 4,026 to 12,906 persons, largely due to natural increase, making it the largest and fastest growing of the six census areas covered in this study. Bethel’s own rapid growth after 1939 and its emergence as the largest town in Western and arctic Alaska by 1980 is largely a result of the two above- noted trends: the region’s changing settlement patterns and its rapid overall population growth. By 1939, after four decades of slow steady growth, Bethel’s population reached 376, already making it the largest settlement in the Lower Yukon- Kuskokwim region. During and after World War II, Bethel’s pace of growth 427 TABLE 222 POPULATION ESTIMATES BETHEL 80 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1880 29 1890 20 1910 110 1920 221 1929 278 1939 376 1950 651 1957 1,000 Ray, 1959 1958 1,000 Alaska Rural Development Board (per Kozely) 1960 1,258 1,280 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1963 1,538 BIA school census (per Kozely) 1965 1,600 City census 1967 1,750 Federal Field Committee - 1,530 Native; 220 non-Native 1968 2,000 Alaska Area Native Health Service - 1,650 Native 1969 2,000 Federal Field Committee - 1,750 Native; 250 non-Native 1969 2,043 ASHA August survey - 86 percent Native 1970 2,416 2,440 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1975 2,931 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 3,166 U.S. Census Bureau 1980 3,576 1980 3,580* 3,853 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1981 3,549* 3,549 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1982 3,850 U.S. Census Bureau (July) 1982 3,681* 3,681 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1982 3,494 City of Bethel census 1983 3,442* 3,681 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1984 2,930* 3,681 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1985 3,075* 3,681 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1986 4,462 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1987 4,462 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 428 Alaska Department of Labor estimates derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as those cited by the Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses or estimates. Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). : Alaska Department of Labor (1980 - 1985 figures). 429 TABLE 223 POPULATION TRENDS BETHEL — 1910 - 1985 Year Population Percent Change Decennial Annual 1880 29 1890 F 20 -31.0 1900 n.a. 1910 110 550.0 1920 221 100.9 1930 278 25.8 1939 376 35.3 1950 651 73.1 1960 1,258 93.2 1970 2,416 92.1 1980 3,576 48.0 1981 3,549 -0.8 1982 3,681 3.7 1983 3,442 6.5 1984 2,930 -14.9 1985 3,075 4.9 Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 430 accelerated dramatically as it consolidated its position as regional center and more federal and territorial (later State) agencies established field offices here. By 1950, Bethel had clearly become the region’s dominant community as the administration of federal services began to have a significant impact on Western Alaska community development patterns. The central administration of federal " services from Bethel promoted consolidation into fixed settlements oriented to a dominant regional center. Other factors gave impetus to this trend. Most obviously, the availability of better educational, health and transportation services at selected localities facilitated the trend toward fewer, larger permanent villages. Likewise, new air transport, communications and service distribution networks radiating from Bethel, together with Bethel’s expanding wage economy, reinforced the trend to regionalism. Finally, the regionwide population explosion ensuing from better health conditions and increased birth rates gave further impetus to the growth of Bethel and its hinterland villages. Bethel incorporated as a city in 1957, the second community in Western and arctic Alaska (Nome was the first) to assume municipal status. Because of its size and the number of agency personnel located there, Bethel was also usually among the first communities in the region to acquire community improvements such as electricity, a local secondary school and public housing. Meanwhile, Bethel continued to be selected as the location for region-serving amenities such as improved air and water transportation facilities, the first regional high school, a community college, public 431 safety and court facilities and regional health and social service programs. In turn, these community developments further reinforced Bethel’s role as a regional center. By the late 1960s, federal agencies located in Bethel included the Alaska Native Health Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Weather Bureau, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries, U.S. Department of Military Affairs, U.S. Post Office, Office of Economic Opportunity, Arctic Health Research Laboratory and the Alaska Communications System. The lengthening list of State agencies represented in Bethel included the Departments of Education, Highways, Health and Social Services, Labor, and Fish and Game, along with the Division of Aviation, Alaska National Guard, Alaska State Troopers, RuralCAP, Neighborhood Youth Corps and the Alaska State Housing Authority. The net result of these trends was that Bethel’s population grew tenfold between 1939 and 1985, from 376 to 4,006, largely through immigration from its hinterland villages, supplemented by a steady rise in the number of non-Natives pursuing new employment opportunities here. The decades of Bethel’s most rapid growth were 1950-1960 and 1960-1970 when the community’s population doubled and redoubled. Thereafter, population growth slowed. From 1970 to 1980, Bethel grew by 48 percent; from 1980 to 1985, by only 12 percent. During the same period, the population of the Bethel census area as a whole tripled from 4,026 to 12,906 persons. Bethel’s own share of the census 432 area’s population almost quadrupled from 9.3 percent in 1939 to 31.0 percent by 1985. TABLE 224 POPULATION CHANGE CITY OF BETHEL AND BETHEL CENSUS AREA 1929 - 1985 City of Bethel Balance of Area_ Bethel Census Area City as Percent . Percent Percent Percent of Year Number Increase Number Increase Number Increase Census Area 1930 278 1939 376 35.3 3,650 4,026 9.3 1950 651 73.1 4,019 10.1 4,670 16.0 13.9 1960 1,258 93.2 5,102 26.9 6,360 36.2 19.8 1970 2,416 92.1 6,115 19.9 8,531 34.1 28.3 1980 3,576 48.0 7,423 21.4 10,999 28.9 32.5 1985 4,006 12.0 8,900 19.9 12,906 17.3 31.0 Sources: U.S. Census. Alaska Department of Labor. Alaska Department of Labor data on the components of population change in the Bethel census area from 1970 to 1985 suggest some ongoing trends in the dynamics of the region’s recent population growth. During that time, the figures show that all of the region’s net population growth stemmed from natural increase. Net migration trends varied but, overall, there was a small net loss from migration. It is likely there was a net in-migration of non-Natives, especially into Bethel as well as into the region, to staff schools and other public services and for other economic purposes. If so, then this non-Native immigration was more than offset by out-migration of Native residents. 433 TABLE 225 COMPONENTS OF POPULATION CHANGE BETHEL CENSUS AREA 1970 — 1985 Population July 1 to July 1 Average at End Population Rate Per Rate Per Natural Net Annual Rate of Period Change’ Births 1,000 Deaths 1,000 Increase Migrants of Change 1970* 8,917 1970 - 1980* 10,999 2,082 2,451 24.6 549 6.2 1,902 _ 180 2.09 1980 - 1981 11,551 76 316 28.7 56 5.1 260 -183 0.66 1981 - 1982 12,023 472 349 30.2 56 4.8 293 179 4.00 1982 - 1983 12,490 467 382 31.8 66 5.5 316 151 3.81 1983 - 1984 12,797 307 391 31.3 86 6.9 305 2 2.43 1984 - 1985 12,906 109 393 30.7 84 6.6 309 199 . 0.85 1980 - 1985 12,906 1,431 1,831 348 708 52 2.35 * As of April 1. Source: Alaska Department of Labor, Alaska Population Overview, 1985 Estimates. In addition, the Alaska Department of Labor estimates that the region’s annual birth rate since 1980 (ranging between 28.7 and 31.8 per 1,000) has been significantly higher than the average rate (24.6 per 1,000) which prevailed through the 1970s. This trend is consistent with elementary school enrollment figures. Those data show an enrollment increase through the 1960s corresponding with higher birth rates and lower infant mortality during the 1950s, slackening enrollments in the 1970s due to lower birth rates, and a more recent rebound in enrollments due to again rising birth rates. Since 1980, Bethel’s growth compared with that of the region appears to have slowed. If Department of Labor 1985 population estimates for Bethel and the region are accurate, Bethel’s recent average annual growth rate has been its slowest since 1930 and, for the first time since 1939, its hinterland villages were growing faster than Bethel itself. This trend reversal may partly be due to the emergence of sub-regional centers in such communities as Aniak, St. Mary’s and Mountain Village. Another key factor was the construction of local high schools throughout the region. This event strengthened the economies and the cultural hold of the smaller villages which formerly sent their schoolchildren to Bethel or elsewhere for secondary education. (Bethel secondary school enrollment data show a steep rise after the regional high school was opened in 1973, followed by an equally steep drop after construction of the village high schools). Finally, it is plausible that expanded public programs for housing, sanitation facilities, electrification, transportation, education and other improvements raised living standards in the satellite villages and 435 Year 1956/57 1957/58 1958/59 1959/60 1960/61 1961/62 1962/63 1963/64 1964/65 1965/66 1966/67 1967/68 1968/69 1969/70 1970/71 1971/72 1972/73 1973/74 1974/75 1975/76 1976/77 1977/78 1978/79 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 Kind 36 37 50 46 45 59 67 61 71 51 72 70 64 52 63 79 80* 78* 84* 74* 106* 87 ok 62 61 57 50 61 58 65 75 74 75 73 79 109 124 90 105 91 82 66 66 82 78 81 87 106 101 —e 39 51 57 39 44 50 60 47 56 71 60 79 78 83 92 86 72 83 78 59 81 54 73 63 73 87 2 36. 33 34 49 40 42 55 54 . 40 46 60 57 58 88 83 74 78 78 87 75 69 87 59 76 70 FINAL ENROLLMENT BY GRADE BETHEL 1956/57 _- 1986/87 fF. 6 7 8 23. 22 #%418 #20 «14 32. 23 23) «14«o17 27 32 «625 «18d 32. 24 - 32 «2115 53 30 25 27 14 4% 54 26 22 19 43 45 54 24 26 50 38 48 50 23 60 40 40 40 48 49 60 41 45 35 40 55 49 53 38 50 52 45 58 41 60 48 51 39 51 55 66 49 42 43 87 61 57 59 40 96 77 54 61 48 87 90 67 64 56 82 84 85 72 47 91 90 90 90 60 SF 7& 7h: 83 TF 75 70 78 80 76 60 65 74 66 83 84 65 60 65 58 72 68 54 73 65 60 68 61 55 63 69 TABLE 226 * Figures may include Pre-Elementary age children. Source: 436 9 8 14 15 10 10 12 22 28 25 40 30 36 37 74 58 66 99 157 155 145 120 111 73 55 71 54 10 Ung/ Spec 51 54 54 49 45 49 34 15 10 Tot 255 283 297 299 368 393 476 491 507 568 645 701 755 844 896 965 1,015 1,076 1,169 1,123 1,083 987 861 847 856 860 Alaska Department of Education, Educational Finance and Support Services. neutralized some of Bethel’s former appeal for villagers seeking to better their living conditions. Even as Bethel was apparently losing some of its attraction for villagers, many of the new employment opportunities generated over the past decade in Bethel called for professional skills not easily acquired by Bethel’s resident labor force. Consequently, much of the community’s recent growth stems from an influx of non-Native professionals rather than village immigrants. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION As with other Western Alaska communities which have become administrative, service and commercial centers, a steadily increasing share of Bethel’s population has been made up of non-Natives. As recently as 1960, 90 percent of Bethel’s residents were Alaska Natives. By 1970, the town’s population composition was about 77 percent Alaska Native and about 23 percent non-Native. From 1960 to 1970 to 1980, the number of non-Native residents increased from 126 to 537 to 1,159 persons. A Darbyshire and Associates’ sample survey estimated a 1979 population of 3,899 residents, of whom 2,495 were Native (65 percent) and 1,404 were non-Native (34 percent). This split was close to the 1980 Census, which found that non- Natives accounted for about 32 percent of the total population. Although there are no more recent authoritative data on the community’s ethnic composition, it is likely that the number and share of non-Natives has continued to rise since 1980, in step with public sector expansion. 437 TABLE 227 RACIAL COMPOSITION OF POPULATION BETHEL 1960 - 1980 Alaska Native Non-Native Total Year Number Percent - Number Percent Number 1960 1,132 90.0 126 ~=10.0 1,258 1970 1,853 76.7 563. 23.3 2,416 1980 2,417 67.6 1,159 32.4 3,576 Source: U.S. Census. Various migration data confirm Bethel’s role as a destination for intra- regional migration during the 1950 to 1970 period. For example, ANCSA enrollment data show that about 30 percent of Bethel’s Native residents in 1974 were enrolled to another village, indicating that many Native residents still retained vital ties to their former home communities. This figure was exceeded only by Aniak among the 21 study communities. On the other hand, about 21 percent of the Alaska Natives enrolled to Bethel were living elsewhere, indicating that many Natives with close ties to Bethel had relocated to other places. Census data on previous residency provide some measure of immigration to Bethel from outside the region. According to the 1980 Census, about 12 percent of Bethel residents had lived in a different Alaska census division five years previously and another 21 percent had lived outside Alaska. Thus, fully one-third of Bethel’s 1980 population had moved there from outside the region within the prior five years. It is likely that the 438 bulk of the inter-regional migrants, especially those from outside Alaska, were non-Native. The findings of a 1979 sample survey of Bethel residents conducted as part of a comprehensive planning project suggest an even greater rate of population turnover. Darbyshire and Associates (1979) reported that about one-third of survey respondents had lived in Bethel for 2 years or less and another third had lived in Bethel for 3 to 10 years. Non-Natives were more transient than Natives. The survey found that ‘70 percent of Native respondents, but only 25 percent of non-Natives respondents, had lived in Bethel for 6 years or more. Finally, the survey found that the origin of Bethel’s population was almost evenly split between those coming from the Bethel region and those coming from the lower 48 states. Thirty-seven percent of respondents reported that they originally came from Bethel or nearby villages; while 35 percent reported origins in the continental United States. Only 18 percent reported moving to Bethel from other parts of Alaska. (Note: unaccountably, the reported findings add up only to 90 percent). It may be noted that this sample survey reported far higher rates of extra-regional and outside immigration into the Bethel region than was reported by the 1980 Census. Possibly, the results were skewed by an imperfectly random sample. As a result of differential emigration, most rural Native communities have a large surplus of unmarried adult males compared with unmarried females. Bethel shows a different pattern. Population composition data since 1960 show that the male and female components of Bethel’s Native population have 439 remained evenly balanced in number and symmetric in age distribution. This outcome is perhaps due to Bethel’s role as a destination for intra-regional migrants rather than as point of departure for emigration. On the other hand, the population composition data show that non-Native males outnumbered females by a significant margin in 1980. This imbalance is concentrated in the 20 to 54 year age group and reflects the usual pattern of differential immigration by sex and age among non-Natives. That is, since 1970, there have been many more adult male than female non-Native newcomers to Bethel. As noted above, the age/sex distribution of Bethel’s Native population has been quite symmetric, at least since 1960. However, the median age of Native residents has risen steadily over the past two decades, from 17.0 in 1970 to 20.3 in 1980. Although there are no post-1980 age data exclusively for Native residents, the age distribution of Permanent Fund dividend recipients indicates that the median age continued to rise after 1980, reaching 26.1 years for the population as a whole in 1985, compared with 23.6 years at the time of the 1980 Census. Consistent with other information reported above about non-Native migration patterns, the non-Native population is significantly older. In 1980, the median age for non-Native residents was 28.6. This reflects the presence of many unattached or childless non-Native adults, which gives an upward skew to the age distribution. 440 TABLE 228 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS BETHEL ee ee Obes 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 Oo- 4 423 431 455 5- 9 363 406 10 - 14 330 350 15 - 19 273 303 20 - 24 411 408 25 - 29 425 469 30 - 34 455 514 35 - 39 329 361 40 - 44 243 260 45 - 49 ; 130 127 50 - 54 : 127 135 55 - 59 99 116 60 - 64 57 53 65 - 69 44 44 70 - 74 31 29 75 & over 18 28 Unknown 2 15 5 6 TOTAL 4,018 3,838 3,771 4,064 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 1,424; 18-27 - 844; 28-37 -897; 38-47 - 420; 48-57 - 237; 58-67 - 127; 68-77 - 57; 78+ - 10; Unknown - 2; Total - 4,018. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 423; 5-17 - 869; 18-27 - 799; 28-37 - 876; 38-47 - 426; 48-57 - 244; 58-67 - 115; 68-77 - 57; 78+ - 14; Unknown - 15; Total - 3,838. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 441 TABLE 229 POPULATION COMPOSITION BY SEX AND AGE BETHEL 1960 Age Range Male — Female Total Under 5 years 125 — 119 244 5-14 159 164 323 15 - 24 77 101 178 25 - 34 112 106 218 35 - 44 67 78 145 45 - 54 46 37 83 55 - 64 20 18 38 65 and over 14 15 29 OTA 620 638 1,258 Median Age 18.4 18.6 18.5 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. TABLE 230 POPULATION COMPOSITION BY SEX AND AGE? BETHEL 1965 Age Range Male Female Total 0 - 10 years 271 242 513 11-20 — 141 159 300 21 - 30 88 94 182 31 - 40 77 78 155 41 - 50 62 73 135 51 - 60 34 35 69 60 and over 22 22 44 TOTAL 695 703 1,398 Median Age 16.5 17.9 17.2 4 "Permanent" residents only; does not include another 202 persons considered "transient" government personnel and families. Source: City of Bethel census, per Kozely, 1965. 442 Age Range Under 5 years 5-14 15 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64 65 and over TOTAL Median Age Male 136 295 175 99 77 67 34 31 914 16.5 Age Range Under 5 years 5-9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 - 54 55 - 59 60 - 64 65 and over TOTAL Median Age Note: Source: TABLE 231 POPULATION COMPOSITION BETHEL 1970 Alaska Native Female Total Male 163 299 35 271 566 63 202 377 27 120 219 61 89 166 56 58 125 24 35 69 11 27 58 9 965 1,879 286 17.4 17.0 28.0 otal Male Female Total 171 196 367 203 181 384 155 154 309 132 123 255 70 114 184 102 109 211 58 69 127 62 71 133 71 51 122 56 47 103 35 25 60 26 29 55 19 17 36 40 30 70 1.200 1,216 2,416 IT? 18.2 A) Non-Nativ Female Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and others, excluding White and Negro. U.S. Census. 443 Total 68 127 62 119 89 38 22 12 537 26.0 Age Range Alaska Native Male Female’ Total Under 5 years 167 153 320 S-* 9 127 136 263 10 - 14 146 142 288 15 - 19 162 159 321 20 - 24 135 141 276 25 = 29 122 137 259 30 - 34 79 88 167 35 = 39 72 69 141 40 - 44 40 47 87 45 - 49 34 41 75 50 - 54 35 31 66 55 - 59 30 20 50 60 — 64 13 27 40 65 - 69 16 14 30 70 - 74 14 7 21 75 and over 7 6 13 TOTAL 1,199 1,218 417 Median Age 19.9 20.7 0.3 TABLE 232 POPULATION COMPOSITION BETHEL 1980 Non-Native Male Female 61 37 43 29 42 34 30 32 72 62 100 90 109 88 63 40 36 30 38 20 35 17 10 9 16 9 2 2 2 0 0 1 659 500 29.1 28.1 Total 98 72 76 62 134 190 197 103 190 165 176 191 203 227 176 TABLE 233 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER BETHEL 1980 Marital Status Male Female Single 582 464 Married 576 554 Separated 17 19 Widowed 25 73 Divorced . 72 77 TOTAL 1,272 1,187 Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 234 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP BETHEL 1980 Household Type and Relationship In Family Household Householder Spouse Other Relatives Non-Relative Sub-Total In Non-Family Household Male Householder Female Householder Non-Relative Sub-Total In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution Other Sub-Total TOTAL Source: 1980 Census. 445 Number Percent 718 531 1,670 94 3,013 228 137 149 514 22 27 49 3,576 20. 14. 46. 2. 8 1 4. 4, _ =) iO Pwo oe F ao rnvof. > ON Aan Ore Mm C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT Bethel’s post-war transformation into a transportation, commercial and government center generated an expanding wage economy in which Native residents increasingly participated. According to Kozely, the Alaska Native Health Service hospital was the major employer of Native wage earners in 1965, followed by private employers such as Consolidated Airlines and other transportation firms, the Northern Commercial Company and Bristol Bay cannery operators. (For many years, it was common for Bethel area residents to take seasonal work in the Bristol Bay fish processing industry). However, Kozely also reported that, during this transitional period, 49 percent of the male workforce and 69 percent of the female workforce aged 21 and over was not permanently employed. The 1969 Bethel Comprehensive Plan (Alaska State Housing Authority, 1969) presents a good summary description of the general employment situation that Native residents of Bethel faced at that time. The few sources of earned money income available to the native people of Bethel are in government, construction, commercial fishing and trapping, and with local transportation, retail and service businesses. The Public Health Service Hospital employs a total of about 100 people and many of the unskilled hospital jobs are held by natives. Governmental construction projects throughout the region have provided seasonal employment. The regional high school and dormitory construction and hospital expansion will mean a large, though temporary, increase of local construction employment. Fire fighting work is another important source of money income for the natives. Alaska State Housing Authority (1969 32. An early Alaska Department of Labor employment survey conducted in 1969 and reported in the Alaska Community Survey (Alaska Planning and Management, 446 1972) identified 491 wage jobs. Over 60 percent of these jobs were in government positions, with 14 percent in construction and another 10 percent in trade. Thus, according to this survey, those three sectors then accounted for about 85 percent of total employment. TABLE 235 ESTIMATED EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL pea GR ee Industry Number Percent Agriculture 0 0.0 Mining 0 0.0 Construction 70 14.3 Manufacturing 40 8.1 Trans., Commun. & Util. 15 Sel Trade 50 10.2 Finance 6 1.2 Services 10 2.0 Government 300 61.1 TOTAL 491 100.0 Source: Alaska Planning & Management, 1972. The 1970 Census gave a quite different employment picture, counting many more employees (685) and a dissimilar employment distribution. Also, the Census reported significantly more jobs in transportation and trade and less in construction, manufacturing and the combined categories of public administration and services. Several factors may help explain apparent discrepancies between the 1969 Alaska Department of Labor survey and the 1970 Census. The Census includes self-employed workers not counted by the Alaska Department of Labor survey. Furthermore, the Census assigns public service employment to the service sector. Finally, differences in 447 TABLE 236 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA BETHEL 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 abor Force Stat Alaska Natives All Race Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces 3 0 6 0 6 Civilian Employed 405 332 860 642 1,502 Civilian Unemployed 48 40 71 53 124 Not in Labor Force 269 373 290 444 734 Labor Force Participation Rate 62.0% 49.0% 76.0% 61.0% 68.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 10.6% 10.8% 7.6% 7.6% 7.6% 1970 * * 16.2% 5.2% 11.6% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Industry 1970 1980 Construction 9 81 Manufacturing 11 28 Transportation 50 123 Communications 8 29 Trade 107 171 Finance, Insurance & 10 45 Real Estate Services 239 724 Public Administration 187 286 Other 64 15 TOTAL 685 1,502 * Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. manufacturing and construction employment may be due to seasonal factors. A comparison of 1978 and 1980 employment figures from four different sources (Darbyshire & Associates, 1980; Alaska Consultants, Inc., 1982; 1980 U.S. Census; and Alaska Department of Labor) illustrate how differing definitional, reporting, sampling and estimating procedures can affect "factual" findings. The three surveys presented as inventories or estimates of total employment (Darbyshire; U.S. Census; Alaska Consultants) yielded employment counts of 1,931, 1,502 and 1,691 respectively. Oddly, the Alaska Department of Labor employment data, which include covered employment only and omit self-employed persons, produced by far the highest figure -- 2,604 employees. The Alaska Department of Labor 1980 total employment figure (2,604) for Bethel is clearly erroneous. It exceeds the 1980 Census count of 2,360 persons over 16 years of age for Bethel. In general, it appears that the widespread practice of assigning regionwide employment to headquarters offices has inflated employment figures for Bethel, as for many other regional centers. Two particular discrepancies stand out in the Department of Labor figures. First, the reported local government employment figure (599) appears unaccountably high, more than twice the Alaska Consultants’ figure of 292.5 jobs. Very likely, this is the recurring problem of misallocated regional school district and other headquarters employment. Second, the amount of service sector employment is also implausibly high; this may also stem in part from the attribution of regionwide employment by quasi-public service agencies to their Bethel offices. 449 Darbyshire@ Industry & Assoc. U.S. Census@ (1978) (1980) Agriculture, 47 - Forestry and Fishing Mining - - Construction 98 81 Manufacturing 85 28 Transportation, 220 152 Communication & Public Utilities : Trade 258 171 Finance, Insurance 39 45 & Real Estate Services 857 724 Public Administration 319 286 Government - - Federal - - State ~ - Local - - Miscellaneous/Other 8 15 TOTAL 1,931 1,502 TABLE 237 COMPOSITION OF EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 78 AND 1980 Ak.Cons.> (1980) 30 0 93.5 240.5 238 24 255 796 (303) (200.5) (292.5) 1,691 * Figure withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Qonm Total employment; includes self-employed. Average annual full-time employment; includes self-employed. Covered employment only. Sources: Darbyshire & Associates (1980). U.S. Bureau of the Census special tabulations. Alaska Consultants, Inc. (1982). Alaska Department of Labor special tabulations. 450 192 294 24 840 1,019 (239) (181) (599) 2,604 TABLE 238 AVERAGE ANNUAL FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT@ CITY OF BETHEL 1980 Percent Number Number Industry Number Percent Basic Basic Secondary Agriculture, 30.0 1.8 100 30.0 0.0 Forestry and Fishing Mining 0.0 0.0 --- 0.0 0.0 Contract 93.5 5.5 62 58.0 35.5 Construction Transportation, 240.5 14.2 54 130.0 110.5 Communication & Public Utilities Trade 238.0 14.1 52 124.0 114.0 Finance, Insurance 24.0 1.4 46 11.0 13.0 & Real Estate Service 255.0 15.1 64 164.0 91.0 Government 796.0 47.1 54 426.0 370.0 Federal (303.0) (17.9) (76) (229.5) ( 73.5) State (200.5) (11.9) (73) (145.5) = (55.0) Local (292.5) (17.3) CI7)3* (52-0): °(24E.5) TOTAL 1,691.0 100.0 56 954.0 737.0 4 Includes self-employed personnel. Source: Alaska Consultants, Inc., January 1982. 451 The employment levels (1,931 workers) reported by Darbyshire & Associates for 1978 also appear improbably high when compared with the 1980 workforce size, especially after allowance is made for Bethel’s relatively high unemployment and low labor force participation rates. It can be noted that the Darbyshire & Associates figures were based on a sample survey of a cross-section of businesses and agencies, including at a minimum. the largest employer in each industry type. Reportedly, the "survey sample included one-fifth of the business firms in Bethel and/or the employers of 88 percent of the employed labor force". Possibly, the sampling procedure may have injected an upward bias into the survey results. Also, it may be noted that the Darbyshire survey used the employment classification scheme followed by the Bureau of the Census, but produced significantly different numerical findings. The two remaining sources of 1980 Bethel employment data (U.S. Census; Alaska Consultants) are relatively similar. These two sources classified public service employment differently. The Census classified non- administrative public sector employment as "service". Alaska Consultants, following Alaska Department of Labor procedure, classified direct government employees as "government" and quasi-public agency employees as "service". In fact, the combined tally of service/public administration employment (1,010) by the Census is very close to the combined tally of service/government employment (1,051) by Alaska Consultants. The main discrepancy between these two sources arises in the employment count for the trade and transportation/communication/public utilities 452 sectors. It is not obvious what accounts for these particular differences or for the difference in total employment. However, it may be relevant to observe that the 1980 Census generally appears to have systematically understated employment levels in rural Alaska communities. Regardless of the data discrepancies noted above, all of the employment data sources support certain conclusions about employment trends at Bethel during the 1970s. First, Bethel’s wage economy expanded rapidly over the decade. For example, according to the decennial Census figures, employment rose by 119 percent while population grew by 48 percent from 1970 to 1980. Meanwhile, the number of persons per employee fell from 3.5 persons in 1970 to 2.4 persons in 1980. This index signifies a trend toward a stronger wage economy and more widespread participation in the labor force. Second, by all accounts, Bethel’s wage economy is heavily dependent upon public sector employment. Exact figures vary, but roughly speaking, about half of Bethel’s wage earners are directly employed by government agencies. Transportation, trade and services account for the bulk of the remaining jobs. Local employment in resource-based industries is very minor. Notwithstanding the general improvement in the wage economy just noted, 1980 Census data on labor force status by race indicate that there still remained a wide gulf in Native and non-Native employment and workforce participation rates. For example, according to the Census, 90 percent of Bethel’s non-Native residents over 16 years of age were in the labor force compared with 56 percent of Alaska Natives. About 86 percent of non- Natives of working age were employed, compared with about 50 percent of 453 Natives of working age. The employment and workforce participation rates for Bethel’s non-Natives are well above national norms. Among other things, these statistics reflect the overriding role of economic motives for Bethel’s non-Native adult residents, as well as the incomplete assimilation of Native residents into the wage economy. TABLE 239 CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE STATUS PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS OF AGE CITY OF BETHEL 1980 Not In Employed Unemployed Labor Force Total Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Non-Native Male 455 91.2 23 4.6 21 4.2 499 Female 310 78.7 13 3.3 71 18.0 394 Sub-Total 765 85.7 36° °—S «4.0 92 10.3 893 Alaska Native Male 405 56.1 48 6.6 269 37.3 722 Female 332 44.6 40 5.4 373 50.0 745 Sub-Total 737 50.2 88 6.0 642 43.8 1,467 Total Male 860 70.4 71 5.8 290 23.8 1,221 Female 642 56.4 53 4.6 444 39.0 1,139 Sub-Total 1,502 63.6 124 5.3 734 31.1 2,360 Source: U.S. Census. The Department of Labor’s covered employment data series since 1980 shows a relatively static overall employment picture, with a slight employment loss (-5.6 percent) through 1986. In view of the problematic features of these data, it seems moot to draw firm conclusions about recent trends in 454 Bethel’s structure. The data do show sharp drops in construction employment (plausible) and services employment (implausible), along with increases in State government employment (plausible) and local government employment (exaggerated). Unlike many rural communities, Bethel’s employment levels do not exhibit any strong seasonal variation. Alaska Department of Labor data on average monthly employment levels for 1980 - 1986 indicate that wage employment is actually at its lowest level in the mid-summer months of July and August. However, this anomaly probably stems from the Lower Kuskokwim School District’s reporting its regionwide employment to Bethel. As previously noted, this reporting error inflates local government employment figures during the school year, then exaggerates the employment loss during summer school closure. Taking this distortion into account, it seems more likely that summer is actually the period of peak employment. 455 TABLE 240 AVERAGE MONTHLY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1980 - 1986 Average Monthly January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual Average Source: mp loyment 2,446 2,516 2,569 2,599 2,673 2,575 2,421 2,310 2,605 2,573 2,545 2,495 2,527 456 Percent Dif- ference from An Aver 2% ' a e ° ee ry WNOKANMWHOONS Alaska Department of Labor. TABLE 241 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1980 - 198 Industry Classification 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Mining * * * * * * * Construction 106 162 142 + 106 62 44 23 Manufacturing 36 * » * * * * Transportation, Communication -192 193 203 191 180 153 133 and Public Utilities Trade 294 236 257 270 252 244 248 Finance, Insurance and Real 24 32 42 47 46 43 59 Estate Services 840 615 528 573 595 579 565 Government Federal 239% °° -250:-"".208' - 219% 236; * 72475. 2265 State 181 210 231 251 235 258 260 Local 599 660 732 826 794 900 804 Miscellaneous 25 = > _ 7 - 14 TOTAL 2,604 2.451 2,451 2.619 2,512 2,595 2,457 5 Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 457 Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 69 139 222 22 875 10 204 182 619 Feb Mar Apr May TABLE 242 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1980 84 71 67 69 87 6 5 10 17.134 141 #151 166 178 211 235 257 266 273 308 23 24 23 21 25 857 958 928 1,423 936 10 10 10 32 54 206 210 231 237 += 237 200 226 192 173 114 619 620 615 615 617 99 106 250 335 28 954 46 235 133 545 113 87 249 367 23 911 45 246 131 541 132 16 240 369 22 797 25 264 166 530 . & 163 221 301 25 685 18 270 203 605 184 17 176 308 23 759 19 266 204 621 . B 139 14 176 282 24 695 16 258 252 635 2,351 2,383 2,535 2,510 3,050 2,746 2,747 2,728 2,563 2,522 2,601 2,516 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 243 25 545 256 187 653 TABLE 243 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1981 Feb Mar Apr May Jun fe * * * 120 129 148 #+#%4174 = 228 164.273 -.2:16] 395. «9215 244 244 244 265 262 25 25 31 37 38 649 662 608 623 619 258 260 260 259 259 225 242 254 232 = 173 674 693 689 698 658 ~E 264 213 224 32 930 255 150 503 209 232 228 32 551 258 152 446 144 228 241 33 525 253 204 694 a 141 216 219 34 545 232 225 733 179 213 35 609 224 234 744 124 174 202 38 511 220 243 738 2,233 2,379 2,452 2,497 2,589 2,719 2,752 2,248 2,418 2,399 2,418 2,309 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 104 162 240 37 529 207 203 747 TABLE 244 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1982 99 118 112 123 = 121 170 168 189 198 202. 243° 245 255 255 259 38 413843 2 543, 541 483 493 467 197 195 197 201 203 258 272 280 194 162 788 787 796 785 761 151 268 51 279 43 633 208 164 335 204 266 50 272 45 491 215 184 292 178 264 44 270 46 611 221 236 811 . &B 209 218 13 259 44 593 218 269 876 153 187 14 257 44 424 216 278 900 137 149 246 45 528 217 277 908 2,318 2,428 2,460 2,423 2,371 2,321 2,219 2,124 2,796 2,787 2,559 2,602 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 120 160 247 41 544 77 208 288 943 TABLE 245 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1983 113 96 82 101 100 157. 156 167 189 199 253. 270 286 283 301 48 52 45 44 52 593 608 655 593 570 71 78 * * * 207. 207 200 217 += 234 327. 308 303 256 184 942 9361,015 993 921 122 198 275 48 690 227 172 299 142 215 270 53 552 226 197° 304 151 213 283 48 494 238 218 867 ck 107 235 259 45 492 227 286 865 75 215 256 45 557 215 238 910 64 186 262 44 524 216 239 915 2,671 2,757 2,754 2,885 2,843 2,784 2,320 2,188 2,615 2,566 2,557 2,488 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 178 242 45 545 207 223 914 TABLE 246 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1984 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 64 73 66 58 70 164 159 162 201 199 235 246 245 266 274 45 47 46 47 50 561 566 606 586 626 211 #218 216 216 213 237. 230 «271 «9217 ss- 212 929 928 940 942 647 61 206 265 53 703 262 198 276 51 214 260 46 588 257 199 298 60 215 226 43 598 11 257 237 823 . B 55 197 261 45 598 10 263 281 924 53 138 249 41 601 12 254 256 944 44 133 253 40 560 12 252 255 965 2,470 2,485 2,504 2,592 2,583 2,577 2,290 2,227 2,627 2,681 2,563 2,539 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 51 134 234 41 548 10 260 252 TABLE 247 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 50 156 227 42 583 264 273 59 139 229 "38 585 264 280 1985 139 249 41 596 241 280 155 245 45 568 242 228 37 166 17 250 45 642 242 223 981 1,007 1,032 1,065 1,100 1,074 2,527 2,634 2,674 2,757 2,690 2,837 2,396 2,175 2,613 2,593 2,649 2,597 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 46 169 18 257 45 672 244 234 365 40 167 19 260 42 505 246 246 346 40 177 19 237 45 529 243 257 908 . B 37 175 249 43 565 244 257 965 140 246 46 601 242 275 983 45 124 244 43 558 237 296 975 Industry Classification 5 Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 127 229 59 608 25 234 275 974 TABLE 248 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF BETHEL 1986 14 19 23 16 17 131 113 #118 #4139 += «148 235 219 236 242 241 58 58 60 59 59 605 595 575 582 579 24 24 19 18 14 ' 239° 244 219 220 225 256 289 281 279 263 978 974 960 936 319 16 143 283 61 540 224 226 276 * 22 134 257 61 546 220 239 599 29 139 247 60 546 223 258 894 . & 37 138 262 55 561 217 255 893 137 262 59 536 215 253 926 31 124 268 61 505 221 248 918 2,554 2,548 2,604 2,529 2,588 2,039 2,223 2,460 2,601 2,463 2,466 2,411 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. ALAKANUK A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Alakanuk is located on Alakanuk Slough near the major southern channel of the Yukon River, about 15 miles upriver from the Bering Sea. Neighboring communities include Emmonak and Sheldon Point, about 8 and 14 miles away respectively. In pre-contact and early contact times, the Yukon delta was dotted with innumerable small, seasonal settlement and camp sites. Fixed, year-round villages did not become the prevalent settlement pattern until after World War II. Partly because of their traditional seasonally nomadic lifestyle, partly because of the delta’s lack of commercially attractive resources, the historic record for the Yukon delta/coastal lowlands peoples in pre- contact and early post-contact times is unusually sketchy. As characterized by the authors of Alaska Natives and the Land: . . . the pre-history of the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta Eskimos is a confusing haze. Recorded history of the area is itself very brief; attention by ethnographers and anthropologists must be regarded as slight despite investigations since the 1930’s. Before recorded history there are only traditional tales to go by. Alaska Natives and the Land (1968), p. 178. Alaska Natives and the Land then goes on to identify seven distinct population sub-groups of Yupik-speaking Eskimos in the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta region. Alakanuk residents are classified with the Chnagmiut people who inhabitant the lower Yukon delta and shore of Pastol Bay. Alaska Natives and the Land identified 49 traditional village sites occupied by 465 the Chnagmiut. (Other scholars adopt the term Kwikpagmiut [Wolfe, 1982] or Kuigpagmiut [Fienup-Riordan, 1986] and Fienup-Riordan further distinguishes between the Kuigpagmiut and Pastuligmiut people along Pastol Bay). Wolfe estimates that the Kwikpagmiut numbered about 1,780 people at the time of historic contact, which compares with less than 700 (1939 Census) about a century later. - Even in the absence of detailed historic data about delta settlement patterns in the decades after contact, Fienup-Riordan constructs a vivid account of the cumulative impact of disease epidemics on the population and social organization of the Yukon delta region settlements over the first century of contact. Fienup-Riordan writes: The period between 1833 and 1919 saw a change in both intra- and interregional relations on the Yukon delta, due to dramatic population fluctuations by and large associated with the effects of epidemic diseases in the population of western Alaska. Major epidemics occurred in 1838-39 (smallpox), 1852-53 (influenza), 1861 (influenza), 1900 (measles and influenza) and 1919 (Spanish influenza). The effects of these epidemics varied widely. Some village groups were reduced by over one-half of their precontact population very early in the period (e.g. Pastolik reduced in 1838-39 from 250 to 116 individuals [Zagoskin 1967:281;30]). On the other hand, the inhabitants of some coastal settlements were missed altogether. The net effect, however, was a tremendous dispersal and shift in the population, with many individuals, and individual family groups, seeking refuge with kinsmen or partners in other areas. By 1891, interregional marriage was not unusual, especially between related families in different confederations. Overall population figures as well as reference to the precise effects of specific epidemics are scattered and often unreliable for this period. However, some idea of the magnitude of the change endured during the historic period can be gathered from a comparison of the population figures given by Robaut for 1891 and in a subsequent Catholic census conducted in 1927-28 after both the epidemics of 1900 and 1918-19 had run their course (Coastal Census 1927-28). The most noticeable feature of the second census is the faithful recording of numerous small camps and villages. Altogether 47 distinct populations are noted, ranging in size from 4 to 180, in opposition to Robaut’s 19 village groups. Also, the total population is 600, less than half of 466 the 1,505 recorded as the total for the same area in 1891. Whereas Robaut’s detailed census puts the vast majority of the population in the context of a family group consisting of parents, grandparents and children, the 1928-28 census notes numerous irregular groupings, consisting of widowed and single men and women with and without children. Finally, although none of the groups that Robaut mentions is missing completely from the latter census, many of them are markedly reduced. Robaut’s Alaranaramiut, for example, are reduced from 70 to 27, and the inhabitants of Kashunok from 195 to 88. These figures offer support to the contention that although the Yukon delta as a whole lost approximately 25 percent of its population during the great sickness of 1900, the losses were as much as 50 percent along the coast proper. The area also sustained losses up to 25 percent during the 1918-19 epidemic of Spanish influenza. Fienup-Riordan (1986), pp. 41-43. Fienup-Riordan reports that Yupik Eskimos have lived in the Alakanuk area since pre-historic times. In general, Yupik residents of the Yukon delta had earlier contact with Westerners than traditional peoples of the coastal lowlands south of the Yukon River. Explorers, missionaries, fur buyers, traders and travelers en route up the Yukon River visited the delta camps and settlements and introduced the aboriginal residents to the commercial economy, imported goods, alien diseases and other novelties. Fienup-Riordan cites an 1891 census of the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta which reported 70 Alaranaramiut (see previous quote) living in the vicinity of today’s Alakanuk, but epidemics and other adversities apparently greatly reduced this settlement group. Fienup-Riordan reports that only five families, totaling 27 persons, used Alakanuk as a winter camp as late as 1927. Hrdlicka’s survey (Anthropological Survey in Alaska, 1930) of coastal villages of Western Alaska makes reference to Alakanuk as a "small settlement". The modern village did not begin to take form until the 1930s which saw the start of a local commercial salmon fishery, along with 467 more commercial fur business. Alakanuk was first recorded in the 1939 Census, with a population of 61 persons. In the early 1940s, a cannery was established by the mouth of Alakanuk Slough and following years saw construction of a school, church, post office and other community fixtures. The next two decades witnessed an abrupt fit of sedentarization and village consolidation throughout the Wade Hampton census division, triggered by government programs and facilities being made available at a few fixed locations. The 1939 Census recorded 65 villages -- many no more that a few family camps clustered together -- in the Wade Hampton division. By the 1950 Census, these 63 settlements had imploded into 14 villages and, by 1960, into the 13 villages which survive today. Between 1939 and 1985, Wade Hampton’s population increased by 129 percent while the size of the average village grew from 38 to 430 persons. It is interesting to note that none of the four Yukon delta permanent villages which survive today were among the delta’s largest villages in 1939. Alakanuk’s early improvements -- cannery, school, etc. -- helped the village survive through the 1939-1950 period of village consolidation. Of the 17 Yukon delta villages counted in the 1939 Census, only three were intact by the 1970 Census, plus the "new" village of Sheldon Point. By 1960, Alakanuk’s population reached 278 persons and, by 1970, 414 persons. By the latter date, Alakanuk was firmly established, along with Emmonak, as one of the Yukon delta’s permanent villages. 468 TABLE 249 NUMBER AND POPULATION OF VILLAGES WADE HAMPTON CENSUS DIVISION 1939 - 1985 Number of Total Average Population Year Villages Population Per Village 1939 65 2,441 38 1950 . 20 2,443 122 1960 14 3,128 223 1970 13 3,917 301 1980 13 4,665 359 1985 13 5,591 430 Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1929-1980). Alaska Department of Labor (1985). The trend toward consolidation into permanent year-round settlements fed the growth of Alakanuk and other surviving villages at the expense of now vacated sites. At the same time, better health care and improved environmental health conditions lowered mortality rates and boosted rates of natural increase. Alakanuk’s population grew during each decade from the 1939 Census (61 persons) to the 1980 Census (522 persons). However, the community’s rate of growth has slowed considerably from its peak (1939-1950: +102 percent; 1950-1960: +99 percent) during the period of consolidation. Between 1960 and 1970, Alakanuk’s population growth rate (+49 percent or about 4 percent annually) slowed to slightly more than what could be expected from natural increase alone; migration apparently was no longer the positive growth factor it had been in prior years. Since 1980, Alaska Department of Labor and Department of Community and Regional Affairs population figures 469 Present Villages Alakanuk Emmonak Kotlik Sheldon Point Sub-Total Abandoned Villages Akulurak Buggomuivuk Chaneliak Elutuc Etokmute Fish Village Hamilton Kawignulic New Hamilton Old Hamilton Old Pastolik Pastolik Sunshine Bay Takshak Sub-Total TOTAL Note: The 1939 Census listed 65 villages in the Wade Hampton census The location of many is Therefore, it division. 1939 61 42 35 138 162 29 92 25 12 27 54 13 15 54 11 18 10 18 540 678 TABLE 250 POPULATION OF YUKON DELTA VILLAGES 1939 - 1985 1950 140 67 44 43 294 197 100 43 27 39 406 200 960 1 278 358 57 110 803 93 35 128 931 Most are now abandoned. uncertain or encrypted in enigmatic orthography. is likely that the above table undercounts the number of villages and residents in the Yukon delta in 1939. censuses for the Wade Hampton census area show a small residual population living outside the listed villages, some of which may have lived in the Yukon delta. 1970 414 439 228 125 1,206 1,206 Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1929-1980). Alaska Department of Labor (1985). 470 1980 522 567 293 103 1,485 1,485 1985 536 613 409 124 1,682 1,682 Also, later TABLE 251 POPULATION ESTIMATES ALAKANUK 1891 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1891 70 Robaut (per Fienup-Riordan) 1927-28 oF. Coastal Census (per Fienup- Riordan) 1939 61 1950 140 1957 238 Ray, 1959 1958 296 Alaska Rural Development Board 1960 278 280 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1961 332 BIA school census 1962 : 213 Arctic Health Research Center 1962 343 BIA school census 1963 . 362 BIA school census 1967 447 Federal Field Committee - 437 Native; 10 non-Native 1968 500 Alaska Area Native Health Service - Natives only 1969 440 Federal Field Committee - 430 Native; 10 non-Native 1970 414 420 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1975 524 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 550 U.S. Census Bureau 1980 522 1980 530* 527 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1981 534* 534 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1982 548 U.S. Census Bureau (July) 1982 546* 546 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1983 494* 546 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1984 515* 564 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1985 536* 555 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1986 555 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1987 571 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs * Alaska Department of Labor estimates of July 1 population derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as those cited by the Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses or estimates. Sources: U.S. Census (1939 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1980 - 1985 figures). Sources: Year 1939 1950 1960 1970 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 U.S. Census (1939 - 1980 figures). POPULATION TRENDS 1939 - 1985 TABLE 252 ALAKANUK Population 69 140 278 414 522 534 546 494 515 536 Percent Change Decennial 102.9 98.6 48.9 26.1 Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 472 Annual 2.3 2.2 -9.5 4.3 4.1 indicate only minor growth and this conclusion is supported by Department of Revenue Permanent Fund dividend recipient data. The Department of Labor’s 1985 population estimate was 555 persons, while the Department of Community and Regional Affairs’ most recent estimate was 571 persons for 1987. Alaska Department of Labor data on components of population change for the Wade Hampton census division as a whole since 1970 are consistent with, though not directly confirmatory of, the supposition that Alakanuk’s recent growth accrues mainly from natural increase, with migration a null or perhaps even a negative factor. Between 1970 and 1985, natural increase accounted for all the census division’s net population growth. The regionwide birth rate per 1,000 rose steadily from 27.0 for the 1970 to 1980 decade to 37.1 for 1985, suggesting that the rate of natural increase is rising. Reportedly, there was a slight net loss from inter-regional migration. If the 1980 and later population estimates for Alakanuk are accurate, the community’s growth rate has lagged behind the region’s recent rate of natural increase. This suggests that Alakanuk may now be losing population through emigration. It should be noted that Alakanuk’s growth rate (29 percent) over the 1970 to 1985 period was well below the regional average (43 percent). Fienup-Riordan notes, and this was a matter of necessity during the process of village growth by sedentarization, that the initial settlers of today’s Alakanuk came from dispersed locations throughout the Yukon delta and lower Yukon River. Despite this original diversity, Fienup-Riordan observes that 473 TABLE 253 COMPONENTS OF POPULATION CHANGE WADE HAMPTON CENSUS DIVISION 1970 - 1985 Population July 1 to July 1 Average at End Population Rate Per Rate Per Natural Net Annual Rate of Period _ Change Births 1,000 Deaths 1,000. Increase Migrants _of Change 1970* 3,917 1970 - 1980* 4,665 748 1,194 27.01 230 5.9 964 -216 1.74 1980 - 1981 4,853 -18 144 30.9 22 4.7 122 -139 -0.37 1981 - 1982 5,121 268 161 33.2 21 4.3 140 128 5.37 1982 - 1983 5,363 242 181 35.3 22 4.3 159 83 4.62 1983 - 1984 5,500 137 200 37,3 31 5.8 169 -31 2.52 1984 - 1985 5,591 91 204 37.1 46 8.4 158 -66 1.64 1980 - 1985 5,591 720 890 142 748 -28 2.75 * As of April 1. 1 corrected fram erroneous calculation in source table. Source: Alaska Department of Labor, Alaska Population Overview, 1985 Estimates. an increasing tendency toward local intermarriage is knitting the different village groups together. She notes that: The picture of the contemporary village as a collection of fragmented village groups is also being undercut by the marriage choices made by young villagers over the past 10 years. In Alakanuk, for example, the majority of young people (60 percent) are again choosing spouses from within the village qua village group. Alaranarmiut are marrying Alaranarmiut, which is as it should be. Also, they are, by and large, staying in the village. Of the 30 marriages contracted over the last 10 years, only 12 were to outsiders. Of these 12, one-half left the village to join their spouses, while the other half brought their spouses to live in Alakanuk, using it as a base from which to exploit territory marked out by her parents and their parents’ parents before them. Fienup-Riordan 86 76. Despite the demographic turmoil which prevailed across the Yukon delta lowlands during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Fienup- Riordan attributes a greater degree of territorial stability to this region’s traditional social groups than other scholars have noted for the Kotzebue Sound, Seward Peninsula or inner Norton Sound villages undergoing similar demographic stresses. In her comparative study of three contemporary Yukon delta villages (Alakanuk, Sheldon Point and Scammon Bay) Fienup-Riordan credits the contemporary vitality of these villages to the perpetuation, and even a rebirth, of traditional territorial and social organization and coherence. In conclusion, at present a rough village typology depicts increasing village viability as correlating with the increasing resemblance of the modern village, in social structural terms, to the traditional group, with its prescriptions for marriage within the group and resources exploitation within a relatively fixed range. Fienup-Riordan (1986 ACP 475 Fienup-Riordan concludes her assessment of the local effects of serious harvest disruptions upon Alakanuk, Scammon Bay and Sheldon Point with this appraisal: The disruption would not occur in a socially moribund area. . . The villages under consideration (Alakanuk, Scammon Bay, Sheldon Point) are coherent, stable communities which show evidence of beginning to develop the cultural, as well as social, integrity of the traditional village groups and regional confederations. As such, they are beginning to demonstrate both practical flexibility and ideological self-sufficiency. Fienup-Riordan (1986), p. 320. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION Alakanuk’s racial make-up was virtually unchanged between 1970 (93 percent Alaska Native) and 1980 (94 percent Alaska Native). There are no available data to determine whether post-1980 population changes have altered the town’s racial composition. On the topic of interracial marriage, Fienup-Riordan (1986) observes of Yukon delta marriage patterns generally that "(inter-ethnic marriages) are still relatively infrequent, however, accounting for only three percent of current delta marriages". Presumably, similar circumstances apply to Alakanuk which has only a small non-Native population (about 6 percent in 1980). The 1974 ANCSA data comparing place of enrollment and place of residence for Alaska Natives tends to confirm the notion that the prior influx of newcomers to Alakanuk was primarily from now abandoned nearby villages. These enrollment data show that only 2 percent of the Alaska Natives 476 living in Alakanuk in 1974 were enrolled to another village corporation. This figure seems surprisingly low, since most adult Native residents must have originated from other villages, but may be explained by the villages’ later demise and omission from the eligible villages listed in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. _ The enrollment data also show that a comparatively small share (8 percent) of Alakanuk enrollees were living outside the community in 1974. Overall, the 1974 ANCSA enrollment data suggest that, at least until then, Alakanuk remained a relatively homogeneous and cohesive town. It drew its immigrants primarily from nearby depopulating villages and apparently experienced only a modest emigration of its own Native residents. The 1980 Census statistics on previous place of residence for Alakanuk residents indicated an unusually low rate of population turnover. The Census reported that 97 percent of Alakanuk’s residents in 1980 had lived in the same census division (88 percent in the same house!) five years previously. Only 3 percent of the community’s residents had lived outside the Wade Hampton census division five years before. Alakanuk’s median age in 1970 was 14.9 years, tying it with Deering for the lowest median age among the 21 study communities. (Note that Alakanuk’s 1970 population was originally reported as 265 persons, later revised to 414, but age-specific data are only available for 265 respondents). The median age for males was an extraordinarily low 13.8 years, with 70 percent of the population being under 25 years of age. 477 During the next decade, consistent with the trend throughout rural Alaska, Alakanuk’s median age rose. Nevertheless, according to the 1980 Census, Alakanuk’s median age of 17.9 was the lowest among the 21. study communities, followed by Scammon Bay (19.0). The Department of Revenue’s Permanent Fund dividend recipient data indicate that the community’s median age has continued to rise, reaching 21.4 years in 1985. The distribution of population by age group for Alakanuk according to 1980 Census and 1985 Department of Revenue data indicate a modest drop in the number of children being born. However, this drop does not necessarily portend a slowing rate of natural increase as the fall in the number of births is possibly the echo of an unusually small corresponding adult cohort. Furthermore, as the unusually large age groups now reaching the family formation and childbearing years begins to reproduce, the sheer force of numbers may produce another "baby boom" at Alakanuk, especially if the post-1980 rise in birth rate noted for the region also persists here. At the time of the 1970 Census, Alakanuk’s population was symmetric in age and sex distribution. This changed by 1980 in one important respect. While the overall population was about evenly divided between males and females, there was a substantial excess (1.55:1.00) of single males over females. Comparison of 1970 and 1980 age cohorts indicates that this is the net result of a selective immigration of males rather than emigration of females. In any case, this lack of parity may put a brake on Alakanuk’s rate of natural increase by inhibiting new family formation. 478 Age Range Male Under 5 years 23 5-14 42 15 - 24 15 25 - 34 10 35 - 44 20 45 - 54 8 55 - 64 5 65 and over 2 TOTAL 125 Median Age 14.5 Age Range Under 5 years 5-9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 - 54 55 - 59 60 - 64 65 and over TOTAL Median Age Note: Source: TABLE 254 POPULATION COMPOSITION ALAKANUK 1970 Alaska Native Female Total 19 42 38 80 26 51 8 18 18 38 6 14 4 9 3 5 122 247 16.7 15.4 Total Male Female 26 “19 31 20 16 21 10 18 5 8 6 4 7 6 9 14 11 5 6 5 3 1 3 4 2 0 2 3 137 128 13.8 16.3 U.S. Census. 479 Total Male oOoOrowouww is Non-Native Female In COOK NOWO Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and others, excluding White and Negro. Total — loo COOrFrMNOOW TABLE 255 POPULATION COMPOSITION ALAKANUK 1980 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Male Female’ Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 33 34 67 2 1 3 . Se 9 26 39 65 1 1 2 10 - 14 38 42 80 1 0 1 15 - 19 36 27 63 2 2 4 20 - 24 20 17 37 Oo 2 2 25 - 29 14 15 29 2 1 3 30 - 34 18 13 31 2 1 3 35 = 39 8 5 13 1 2 3 40 - 44 10 10 20 3 2 5 45 - 49 16 15 31 1 1 2 50 - 54 13 6 19 Oo 0 0 55 - 59 9 8 17 Oo 2 2 60 — 64 2 4 6 1 0 1 65 - 69 1 4 5 0 0 0 70 - 74 2 0 2 0 Oo 0 75 and over 2 4 6 Oo 0 0 TOTAL 248 243 491 16 15 31 Median Age 18.8 16.3 17.7 TABLE 256 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS ALAKANUK — 08 es Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 0- 4 56 57 56 5- 9 : 67 56 10 - 14 65 62 15 - 19 71 70 20 - 24 60 54 25 - 29 44 42 30 - 34 : 33 37 35 - 39 26 25 40 - 44 17 15 45 - 49 26 22 50 - 54 27 28 55 - 59 17 18 60 - 64 12 13 65 - 69 6 7 70 - 74 8 7 75 & over 5 5 Unknown 1 1 2 0 TOTAL 527 53 543 517 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 251; 18-27 - 92; 28-37 - 62; 38-47 - 45; 48-57 - 46; 58-67 - 19; 68-77 - 9; 78+ - 2; Unknown - 1; Total - 527. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 56; 5-17 - 182; 18-27 - 112; 28-37 - 65; 38-47 - 38; 48-57 - 50; 58-67 - 21; 68-77 - 9; 78+ - 4; Unknown - 1; Total - 538. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 481 TABLE 257 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER ALAKANUK 1980 Marital Status Male Female Single 73 47 Married 79 78 Separated 5 1 Widowed 6 13 Divorced 0 2 TOTAL 163 141 Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 258 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP ALAKANUK 1980 Household Type and Relationship Number Percent In Family Household Householder 95 18.2% Spouse 76 14.6 Other Relatives 332 63.6 Non-Relative 6 1.1 Sub-Total 509 97.5 In Non-Family Household Male Householder Female Householder Non-Relative Wwn o AnwW Sub-Total 13 2. In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution Other Sub-Total TOTAL 522 100.0% Source: 1980 Census. 482 During the mid-1980s, Alakanuk suffered a suicide epidemic of tragic and demographically significant proportions. Fienup-Riordan reports these facts: At the same time that Alakanuk has been experiencing a minor baby boom, it has also been subject to a remarkably high death rate. Over the period 1982 to 1987, an alarming number of violent deaths have occurred within the village. The majority occurred as suicides over a 16 month period in 1985 and 1986. During this period, seven persons (five men and two women) successfully committed suicide. Another nine attempted suicides have been reported, and it is likely that s significant number of attempts have gone unreported. These suicides and attempted suicides occurred among young adult residents between the ages of 18 and 30. All of the successful suicides were believed to be alcohol and drug related. Fienup-Riordan (1987), p.3-22. While all may hope that the suicide epidemic was a singular episode and not harbinger of a trend, it did underscore the profound impact of substance abuse and related pathological behavior on the community’s wellbeing and long term demographic vitality. Fienup-Riordan also notes high accidental and violent death rates at Alakanuk, often alcohol-related. C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT As a preface to documenting wage and salary employment conditions at Alakanuk, some perspective on the continuing importance of subsistence activities and on the limits of available data sources is needed. The scope of subsistence in Alakanuk’s economy was well described by Wolfe in these terms: Conventional economic indices miss the real base of the (Yukon delta) region’s economic system, however. Yukon delta communities have successfully perdured and grown through a strong and flexible economic system based upon fishing and hunting for local use. The economy has been termed a "mixed economy," 483 referring to the fact that production within the community is a combination of fishing, hunting, gathering, and trapping for local use, and remunerative employment activities such as the commercial sale of fish, seasonal wagework, commercial fur trapping, and cottage industries. The economic system also has been termed a "subsistence-based economy" in recognition that the most stable and reliable economic base of the community is the harvest of renewable wild resources for local use and not the market or wage sector. Wolf 98. 23] As for available employment data sources, reliable wage and salary data for Alakanuk date from 1980. The Alaska Department of Labor’s covered employment data series for the Alakanuk area also includes employment at Emmonak and Sheldon Point. The combined population (737 persons in 1985) of the latter two villages exceeds that of Alakanuk (536 persons). Thus, the Department of Labor data do not provide accurate information on total employment at Alakanuk, although they may suggest employment trends, if Alakanuk is assumed to be representative of the area as a whole. Several other qualifications limit the comprehensiveness of Department of Labor data for Alakanuk. Commercial fishing is not covered nor is out-of- area employment locally recorded, although both forms of employment are important modes of work for Alakanuk’s labor force. Alakanuk residents held 79 commercial set net permits in 1985 (down from 112 in 1976). In 1981-82, commercial fishing accounted for roughly 21 percent of earned household income (Fienup-Riordan, 1986). There are four other sources of recent employment data at Alakanuk apart from that developed by the Alaska Department of Labor: the 1980 Census, a 1981-82 inventory of employment and income compiled by Fienup-Riordan 484 (1986), a 1982 employment survey compiled by Orth & Associates (1983) and a 1986 employment inventory conducted by Fienup-Riordan (Impact Assessment, Inc., 1987a [Draft]). The 1980 Census reported Alakanuk’s total employment at 78 persons. As the Census was taken in April, it did not capture summer employment such as commercial fishing or fish processing. Three-quarters of the employment which the Census did report was in the services/public administration categories, with the remainder shared among the trade, communications and transportation sectors. Fienup-Riordan compiled an inventory of opportunities for local cash employment available to permanent local residents between June 1981 and May 1982. A cross-check of Fienup-Riordan’s findings with other sources (see discussion of the Orth survey below) suggests that her inventory did not include certified positions in the Lower Yukon School District’s Alakanuk School. Also, this inventory did not include self-employment in the commercial salmon or herring fisheries, nor non-local cannery or other non- local employment held by village residents. Fienup-Riordan counted a total of 81 full-time and part-time local job opportunities. Seventy-nine percent of these jobs were with public employers. Thus, the findings of the 1980 Census and Fienup-Riordan’s inventory are roughly in agreement, with some similar omissions, nearly identical total employment counts and similar public sector percentages. 485 TABLE 259 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA ALAKANUK 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Labor Force Status Alaska Natives* All Ra Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces 0 0 0 Civilian Employed 38 40 78 Civilian Unemployed 28 3 31 Not in Labor Force 92 109 201 Labor Force Participation Rate 41.0% 28.0% 35.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 42.4% 7.0% 28.4% 1970 0% 0% 0% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Industry 1970 1980 Construction 0 0 Manufacturing 5 0 Transportation 0 3 Communications 0 7 Trade 1l 10 Finance, Insurance & 0 0 Real Estate Services 5 52 Public Administration 0 6 Other 10 0 TOTAL 21 78 7 Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 486 TABLE 260 OPPORTUNITIES FOR CASH INCOME ALAKANUK NE 1981 - MAY 198 mploym e Jobs Health Aides 4 Bureau of Indian Affairs 11 Lower Yukon School District Kuskokwim Community College Headstart Public Safety Power Plant City Offices 2 Private Trade & Services Transportation Post Office IRA Council Village Corporation National Guard TOTAL | — oO RrPONNWONMNM Sur sar 1 Thirty-four 34 part-time Guard employees not included. Source: Riordan (1986). TABLE 261 MEAN HOUSEHOLD CASH INCOME, BY SOURCE ALAKANUK JUNE 1981 - MAY 1982 Mean House- Source of Income hold Income Percent Commercial fishing $ 3,936.00 21 Full-time employment 8,340.50 46 Seasonal employment 1,653.00 9 Transfer payments 4,515.60 24 TOTAL $17,939.60 100 Note: The above numbers, which are exactly reproduced from the source, appear to incorporate minor arithmetic error(s). Source: Fienup-Riordan (1986). As part of her inventory, Fienup-Riordan collected data on mean household cash income from the following four sources: commercial fishing (21 percent of mean household income), full-time employment (46 percent), seasonal employment (9 percent) and transfer payments (24 percent). The findings of Orth’s survey of 1982 Alakanuk employment indicate a higher level of employment than was reported by either the 1980 Census or Fienup- Riordan. Orth reported 71 full-time jobs and 42 to 47 part-time jobs. According to Orth’s survey, over 80 percent of the full-time jobs and about two-thirds of the part-time jobs were in the public sector. It should be noted that these numbers were inflated by the City of Alakanuk’s sponsorship of some services (pool hall, taxi, sauna) which are usually provided by the private sector. The City of Alakanuk (24 full-time and 19 part-time employees) and the Lower Yukon School District (31 full-time and 8 part-time employees) together accounted for nearly all public employment. Orth’s 1982 survey reported that the Lower Yukon School District had 18 certified (i.e. teaching) staff and 13 classified staff, compared with Fienup-Riordan’s 1981-82 count of 10 jobs locally available through the School District. Like other employment counts discussed above, the Orth survey did not cover commercial fishing or fish processing employment. The findings of Fienup-Riordan’s inventory of Alakanuk’s 1986 local jobs are presented according to the same employer classification scheme used by Orth. This permits ready comparison of recent employment changes. According to Fienup-Riordan’s findings, the number of full-time jobs had dropped from 71 in 1982 to 60 in 1986. There was a net loss of 11 jobs in 488 TABLE 262 COMPOSITION OF EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK ——___1982 AND 1986 Employer 1982 1986 Full-time Part-time Full-time Part-time Local Administration City Office 5 0 3 1 Police Officers 5 0 3 0 Road Maintenance 2 0 2 0 Taxi Drivers 0 2 0 1 Pool Hall Clerks 2 1 0 2 AVEC Operators 0 2 0 2 Clinic Custodian z 0 0 1 Sauna Operators 9 2 5 0 Librarian 0 1 0 1 Miscellaneous 0 1l 0 5 Sub-Total 24 19 13 13 Lower Yukon School District Certified Staff 18 0 15 0 Classified Staff Educational Aides 7 1 8 1 Food Service Personnel 4 0 3 0 Maintenance = 0 2 0 Custodians 0 2 1 1 Cultural Heritage Staff 0 2 1 0 Part-time 0 3 0 0 Sub-Total 31 8 30 2 Federal Tribal Office Personnel 1 0 1 0 Post Office 1 1 1 1 YKHC Health Aides 2 2 2 3 Sub-Total 4 3 4 4 Private Sector Alakanuk Corporation Store Manager 1 0 1 1 Store Employees 6 5 5 6 Corporate Administration 3 3 3 6 Alstrom’s store 1 1-6 1 4 Dan’s Store 1 1 3 2 United Utilities 0 1 0 1 Airline Employees 0 1 0 0 Sub-Total 12 12-17 13 20 TOTAL 71 42-47 60 39 Sources: Orth and Associates, 1983. Impact Assessment, Inc., (draft) 1987a. local government, an early reflection of the retrenchment in local government operations resulting from reduced federal and State revenues. In addition, some part-time jobs were also lost from local government and school district staff. In sum, by 1986, it appears that employment conditions at Alakanuk were already beginning to show the effects of a deteriorating public sector economy. We previously noted several reasons why Department of Labor covered employment data were of limited value for describing employment at Alakanuk. The findings of Fienup-Riordan’s household income survey, together with other documentation which she and Wolfe (1982; 1983) present about the extent of subsistence activities at Alakanuk, further qualify the Department of Labor’s data series. Commercial fishing accounted for 21 percent of earned income reported by Alakanuk households in Fienup- Riordan’s survey and subsistence still makes a major contribution to the economic livelihood of Alakanuk households. For these reasons, it is clear that Department of Labor covered employment data present only a selective glimpse of employment conditions at Alakanuk. Acknowledging these qualifications, the 1980-1986 covered employment data series for the Alakanuk area (which includes Alakanuk, Emmonak and Sheldon Point), shows two trends which may reflect wage employment conditions at Alakanuk as well as throughout the larger area. First, the figures show a generally flat employment trend, with some year to year fluctuations. Annual employment for 1980 and 1985 was identical at 490 184 jobs, rising to 224 jobs in 1986, apparently due to heavy summertime fish processing employment, not necessarily at Alakanuk. The employment trend for the Alakanuk area as a whole is somewhat different from the 1982- 1986 trend in Orth’s and Fienup-Riordan’s data, but that may be due to different geographic coverage. Second, the public sector was the largest single employer, accounting for between 27 percent and 47 percent of annual employment. This level of public sector employment falls below the level noted by Fienup-Riordan, Orth and the 1980 Census. It is also below the level generally prevailing in Native communities in Western and Northern Alaska. However, the difference appears to be that the Department of Labor’s tally of local government employees for the Alakanuk area omits school district employees, whose jobs were instead attributed to district headquarters at Mountain Village. Such an error would explain the improbably low percentage and absolute local government employment figures reported by the Department of Labor. It would also explain why local government employment did not rise to offset the loss of federal employment as Bureau of Indian Affairs schools were transferred to school district management. Public employment aside, Department of Labor tabulations suppressed specific employment data for most industrial classifications, with the exception of the trade sector. The figures for trade show a steady growth, with employment doubling between 1980 and 1986. 491 Overall, the Orth (1983) and Fienup-Riordan 1986 surveys appear to provide the most complete and plausible accounts of wage and salary employment at Alakanuk in recent years. Because of the disparities in the data sources, it is imprudent to infer any employment trends except from the Department of Labor data which, as noted, appear flawed because of significant omissions. Mindful of these shortcomings, the Department of Labor employment data for the Alakanuk area nevertheless show a comparatively static wage economy, with only minor changes in employment levels and employment distribution between 1980 and 1986. 492 TABLE 263 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK AREA** 1980 - 1986 Industry Classification 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 Mining * = 0 0 0 0 Construction 7 * 0 0 0 0 Manufacturing » - _ * * » Transportation, Communication = ~ = iad 7 * and Public Utilities Trade 26 29 31 39 42 46 Finance, Insurance and Real * = = * * * Estate Services 5 7 * - * * Government 80 94 75 51 84 68 Federal 37 42 25 12 18 10 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local 43 52 50 39 66 58 Miscellaneous 0 0 0 ¥ * * TOTA 184 227 191 186 179 184 - Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** — Alakanuk area also includes Emmonak and Sheldon Point. 4 Prorated from nine months of data. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 493 oO lf Industry Classification Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade _ Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 42 oO 2 9 129 TABLE 264 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK AREA** 1980 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 * ; * * * * 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * * * 22 17 23 25 31 oO o o o oO 44 42 42 42 33 0 0 0 0 0 26 70 97 28 28 431 157 209 162 181 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = Alakanuk area also includes Emmonak and Sheldon Point. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 30 29 287 33 on * °o * Ig 16 25 34 83 218 16 21 * °o * i 17 22 Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 43 0 69 187 TABLE 265 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK AREA** 1981 26 28 27 25 34 33 150 175 162 257 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** =~ Alakanuk area also includes Enmmonak and Sheldon Point. | Source: Alaska Department of Labor. * * * * E 21 39 0 62 344 45 0 94 329 * * * * 8 26 41 66 229 Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services - Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 41 0 45 167 40 0 4 6 148 1982 Mar Apr 0 0 o 0 * * * * 0 0 2223 * * 5 6 0 0 45 39 0 0 49 53 52 147 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~~ Alakanuk area also includes Emmonak and Sheldon Point. Source; Alaska Department of Labor. * * o o E 47 Bok Boh 285 * * oO o Ig 38 11 45 140 * * °o °o I 33 Industry Classification gan Mining 0 Construction 0 Manufacturing * Transportation, Communication * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade 42 Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services * Miscellaneous * Government Federal 11 State 0 Local 36 TOTAL 125 TABLE 267 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK AREA** 1983 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 0 oO 0 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * k * * * * * * * * * * at 11 12 11 10 0 0 0 0 0 37 37 29 35 43 16 110 148 166 266 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Alakanuk area also includes Emmonak and Sheldon Point. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. * * °o o E * * o o E 38 50 11 35 316 Sep Oct 0 0 0 oO * * * * 0 0 40 40 * * * * * £ 12 14 0 0 43 53 252 141 * * o °o Ig 38 Industry Classification Jan Mining 0 Construction 0 Manufacturing * Transportation, Communication * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade 35 Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services * Miscellaneous * Government Federal 22 State 0 Local 33 * TOTAL 106 TABLE 268 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK AREA** 1984 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 0 0 0 Oo 0 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * * * 36 32 36 40 47 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 20 20 18 18 17 0 0 0 0 0 32 35 76 67 81 104 107 148 138 182 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = Alakanuk area also includes Enmonak and Sheldon Point. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. °o * * °o ° Ig 17 79 167 40 14 102 196 * * °o °o hs 48 Industry Classification gan Mining 0 Construction 0 Manufacturing * Transportation, Communication * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade 45 Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services * Miscellaneous * Govermment Federal 15 State 0 Local 61 TOTAL 142 TABLE 269 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK AREA** 1985 Feb Mar Apr May Jun Oo 0 0 Oo 0 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 12 11 12 11 9 0 0 0 0 0 59 53 44 1 440 119 119 147) 208 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. *k Alakanuk area also includes Enmonak and Sheldon Point. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. °o * * ° o 8 47 aon ——Industry Classification _ Mind Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 42 15 6 0 52 47 TABLE 270 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ALAKANUK AREA** 1986 Feb Mar Apr. May Jun 41 45 43 52 99 13 18 15 18 7 * * * * * 6 7 2 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 57 63 60 67 82 149 162 153 174 217 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = Alakanuk area also includes Enmonak and Sheldon Point. ‘Source: Alaska Department of Labor. oO * * °o o g * * °o o ig 46 27 40 23 aon o 41 22 Pou SCAMMON BAY A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Scammon Bay is a small, traditional Yupik Eskimo community located on the coastal lowlands between the Yukon and Kuskokwim River deltas, about 80 miles southwest of St. Mary’s and about 150 miles northwest of Bethel. Even today, Scammon Bay residents rely heavily on the harvest of the area’s richly varied subsistence resources: spring and fall sea mammal hunts, summer herring runs, waterfowl, salmon fishing in the Black River area and freshwater fish from tundra lakes and streams. Scammon Bay first appeared in the 1939 decennial Census, about two decades after its founding as a permanent contemporary settlement. The village is sited on the Kun River at the foot of Askinuk Mountain. Although Scammon Bay is not close to other permanent villages (Chevak is 22 air miles away; Hooper Bay, 30 miles; and Sheldon Point, 52 miles), its residents have traditionally made overlapping use of upland subsistence resources with residents of these villages. Scammon Bay families also have important kinship ties to other Yukon River delta and coastal lowland villages. Partly because of their traditional seasonally nomadic lifestyle and partly because of their homeland’s lack of commercial economic attractions, the historic record for the Yukon delta/coastal lowlands peoples in traditional and early post-contact times is unusually sketchy. As characterized by the authors of Alaska Natives and the Land: 501 . . . the pre-history of the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta Eskimos is a confusing haze. Recorded history of the area is itself very brief; attention by ethnographers and anthropologists must be regarded as slight despite investigations since the 1930’s. Before recorded history there are only traditional tales to go by. Alaska Natives and the Land (1968), p. 178. Alaska Natives and the Land then goes on to identify seven distinct population sub-groups of Yupik-speaking Eskimos in the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta region. Scammon Bay residents are classified with the Magemiut, inhabitants of the delta lake country from Cape Romanzof northward almost to the Yukon. According to Oswalt (1968), the Magemiut people numbered about 400 persons at the time of European contact. For the Yukon delta/coastal lowland region alone, Fienup-Riordan (1986) identified 116 separate historic settlement or occupancy sites. Both she and Wolfe (1982) describe a somewhat fluid territorial and social mingling of Magemiut people with the Kuigpagmiut people living in the delta proper to the north over the first century of contact. Even in the absence of detailed historic data about the fate of individual territorial groups such as the Scammon Bay people, Fienup-Riordan constructs a vivid account of the cumulative impact of disease epidemics on the population and social organization of Yukon delta settlements over the first century of contact. Fienup-Riordan writes: The period between 1833 and 1919 saw a change in both intra- and interregional relations on the Yukon delta, due to dramatic population fluctuations by and large associated with the effects of epidemic diseases in the population of western Alaska. Major epidemics occurred in 1838-39 (smallpox), 1852-53 (influenza), 1861 (influenza), 1900 (measles and influenza) and 1919 (Spanish influenza). The effects of these epidemics varied widely. Some 502 village groups were reduced by over one-half of their precontact population very early in the period (e.g. Pastolik reduced in 1838-39 from 250 to 116 individuals [Zagoskin 1967:281;30]). On the other hand, the inhabitants of some coastal settlements were missed altogether. The net effect, however, was a tremendous dispersal and shift in the population, with many individuals, and individual family groups, seeking refuge with kinsmen or partners in other areas. By 1891, interregional marriage was not unusual, especially between related families in different confederations. Overall population figures as well as reference to the precise effects of specific epidemics are scattered and often unreliable for this period. However, some idea of the magnitude of the change endured during the historic period can be gathered from a comparison of the population figures given by Robaut for 1891 and in a subsequent Catholic census conducted in 1927-28 after both the epidemics of 1900 and 1918-19 had run their course (Coastal Census 1927-28). The most noticeable feature of the second census is the faithful recording of numerous small camps and villages. Altogether 47 distinct populations are noted, ranging in size from 4 to 180, in opposition to Robaut’s 19 village groups. Also, the total population is 600, less than half of the 1,505 recorded as the total for the same area in 1891. Whereas Robaut’s detailed census puts the vast majority of the population in the context of a family group consisting of parents, grandparents and children, the 1928-28 census notes numerous irregular groupings, consisting of widowed and single men and women with and without children. . . These figures offer support to the contention that although the Yukon delta as a whole lost approximately 25 percent of its population during the great sickness of 1900, the losses were as much as 50 percent along the coast proper. The area also sustained losses up to 25 percent during the 1918-19 epidemic of Spanish influenza. Fienup-Riordan (1986), pp. 41-43. Fienup-Riordan identified at least seven traditional sites regularly occupied by Scammon Bay area residents during their seasonal rounds. She summarized the typical settlement pattern along the coastal lowlands around the close of the nineteenth century as follows: . « . During a normal year, a regular rotation occurred between the spring coastal camps where sea mammals were sought, the summer fish camps at the river mouths, the fall whitefish, tom cod and blackfish harvest on the tundra flats, and winter ice fishing on the frozen lakes and ponds that dotted the delta. Fienup-Riorda 9 32: 503 Alaska Natives and the Land identified two traditional village sites in the vicinity of Scammon Bay. These were Mariak, a settlement at the foot of Askinuk Mountain near the bank of the Kun River, which is the site of today’s Scammon Bay; and Kutmiut, first reported in 1870 by Dall and now an abandoned site, on the bank of the Kun River about 3 miles east of Scammon Bay. Hrdlicka’s survey (Anthropological Survey in Alaska, 1930) of coastal villages of Western Alaska identified Kutmiut but not Scammon Bay, perhaps indicating that, at the time of his survey, Scammon Bay was not yet recognized as a distinct permanent settlement. Fienup-Riordan (1986) recounts an 1863 report by Netsvetov of a small winter village called Keggatmiut about three miles east of present day Scammon Bay which appears to locate it at or near the village site identified by Dall in 1870 as Kutmiut. According to Fienup-Riordan, after repeated floods made their original village uninhabitable, Keggatmiut settlers relocated around 1920 to the village site traditionally loi as Mariak, later officially renamed Scammon Bay after Captain Charles M. Scammon who served as marine chief of the Western Union Telegraph expedition from 1856 to 1867. Within a few years, a Catholic church, a Covenant mission and a trading post were built and by the 1930s, a small but growing permanent village began to take form. Scammon Bay was first recorded by the Census in 1939, with a population of 88, although Fienup-Riordan cites the Catholic Church’s earlier 1927-28 coastal census population figure of 27. At the time of the 1939 Census, 504 the population of the Wade Hampton census area was still dispersed among many small, seasonally mobile settlement groups. That year’s Census identified 65 settlements in the census area, with an average population of 38. The next two decades witnessed an abrupt fit of sedentarization and village consolidation triggered by government programs and facilities being made available at a few fixed locations. By 1960, the 65 villages recorded by the 1939 Census had collapsed into the 13 villages which survive today. Between 1939 and 1985, Wade Hampton’s population increased by 129 percent while the average village size grew from 38 to 430 persons. Scammon Bay’s growth was boosted by this trend toward consolidation into permanent settlements. Natural increase, amplified by better health care and improved environmental health conditions, also sustained population growth. Scammon Bay has grown in every decade since 1939, reaching 250 persons by the 1980 Census and 304 persons by the Department of Labor’s 1985 estimate. Alaska Department of Labor data on components of population change for the Wade Hampton census division as a whole since 1970 are generally consistent with, although not directly confirmatory of, the supposition that Scammon Bay’s recent growth derives almost wholly from intra-regional migration and natural increase. Between 1970 and 1985, natural increase accounted for all of the census division’s net population growth. The regionwide birth rate per 1,000 rose steadily from 27.0 for the 1970 to 1980 decade to 37.1 by 1985, suggesting a rising rate of natural increase. Reportedly, there was a slight net loss from inter-regional migration, which suggests that a 505 TABLE 271 NUMBER AND POPULATION OF VILLAGES WADE HAMPTON CENSUS DIVISION 1939 - 1985 Number of Total Average Population Year Villages Population _ Per Village 1939 65 2,441 38 1950 20 2,443 122 1960 13 3,128 241 1970 13 3,917 301 1980 13 4,665 359 1985 13 5,591 430 Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1929-1980). Alaska Department of Labor (1985). 506 TABLE 272 POPULATION OF SCAMMON BAY AREA VILLAGES 1929 - 1985 1929 1939 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 Present Villages Chevak 43 230 315 387 466 532 Hooper Bay 209 299 307 460 490 627 686 Scammon Bay 88 103 115 166 250 304 Abandoned Vill Black River 15 Chowhoctol ik 60 98 Kashunuk 163 89 New Knock Hock 122 TOTAL 372 579 860 890 1,043 1,343 1,522 1 Many residents of now-abandoned Kashunuk reportedly relocated to Chevak (Alaska Natives and the Land, 1968). Note: The 1939 Census listed 65 villages in the Wade Hampton census division, most of which are now abandoned. The location and territorial affiliation of many is uncertain or is encrypted in enigmatic orthography. Therefore, it is likely that this table undercounts the number of villages and residents in the Scammon Bay area in 1939. Also, later censuses for the Wade Hampton census area show a small residual population living outside the listed villages, some of which may have lived in the Scammon Bay area. Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1929-1980). Alaska Department of Labor (1985). 507 TABLE 273 POPULATION ESTIMATES SCAMMON BAY 1927 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1927-28 27 Coastal Census (per Fienup- Riordan), recorded as Mariagarmiut 1939 88 1950 103 1957 110 Ray, 1959 1958 115 Alaska Rural Development Board 1960 115 120 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1961 165 BIA school census 1962 163 BIA school census 1963 169 BIA school census 1963 154 Arctic Health Research Center 1966 163 Gazaway (per Tussing, 1969) 1967 190 Federal Field Committee - 188 Native; 2 non-Native 1968 185 Alaska Area Native Health Service 1969 185 Federal Field Committee - 180 Native; 5 non-Native 1970 166 170 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1975 165 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 192 U.S. Census Bureau 1980 250 1980 250* 259 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1981 249* 249 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1982 275 U.S. Census Bureau (July) 1982 251* 251 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1983 286* 251 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1984 296* 297 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1985 304* 303 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1986 303 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1987 326 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs = Alaska Department of Labor estimates of July 1 population derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as those cited by the Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses or estimates. Sources: U.S. Census (1939 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1980 - 1985 figures). TABLE 274 POPULATION TRENDS SCAMMON BAY 1939 - 1985 Year Population Percent Change Decennial Annual 1939 88 1950 103 17.0 1960 : 115 11.7 1970 166 44.3 1980 250 §1.5 1981 249 -0.4 1982 251 8 1983 286 13.9 1984 296 3.5 1985 304 2.7 Sources: U.S. Census (1939 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 509 TABLE 275 COMPONENTS OF POPULATION CHANGE WADE HAMPTON CENSUS DIVISION 1970 - 1985 Population July 1 to July 1 Average at End Population Rate Per Rate Per Natural Net Annual Rate of Period Change Births 1,000 Deaths 1,000 Increase Migrants of Change 1970* 3,917 1970 - 1980* 4,665 748 1,194 27.01 230 5.9 964 -216 1.74 1980 - 1981 4,853 -18 144 30.9 22 4.7 122 -139 -0.37 1981 - 1982 5,121 268 161 33.2 21 4.3 140 128 5.37 1982 - 1983 5,363 242 181 35.3 22 4.3 159 83 4.62 1983 - 1984 5,500 137 200 37.3 31 5.8 169 -31 2.52 1984 - 1985 5,591 91 204 37.1 46 8.4 158 -66 1.64 1980 - 1985 5,591 720 890 142 748 -28 2.75 * As of April 1. 1 Corrected from erroneous calculation in source table. Source: Alaska Department of Labor, Alaska Population Overview, 1985 Estimates. perhaps modest influx of non-Natives into Wade Hampton was offset by a comparable emigration of Alaska Natives from the region. Scammon Bay’s growth rate (83 percent) over this fifteen year period was almost double the regional average (43 percent). Assuming that Scammon Bay’s birth and natural increase rates are about the same as the regional average, it appears that about half of Scammon Bay’s recent population growth is due to a net gain from intra-regional migration. Fienup-Riordan notes, and this was a matter of necessity during the process of village growth by sedentarization, that the initial settlers of today’s Scammon Bay village came from dispersed locations throughout the Yukon delta and the coastal lowlands south to Hooper Bay and Chevak. Today, now that Scammon Bay’s population base has reached adequate size and diversity, Fienup-Riordan notes an increasing tendency to marry locally. She notes further that about three-quarters of today’s spouses who have married into Scammon Bay families have come from Hooper Bay. For these reasons, Fienup- Riordan characterizes Scammon Bay as increasingly "centered", that is, becoming socially more self-sufficient and territorially more definite with subsistence harvest patterns bounded by specific social groups and territory. Despite the demographic turmoil which prevailed across the Yukon delta lowlands during the nineteenth and early twentieth century, Fienup-Riordan attributes a greater degree of territorial stability to this region’s traditional social groups than other scholars have noted for the Kotzebue Sound, Seward Peninsula or inner Norton Sound villages undergoing similar 511 demographic stresses. In fact, in her comparative study of three modern Yukon delta villages (Alakanuk, Sheldon Point and Scammon Bay) Fienup- Riordan credits the contemporary vitality of these villages to the perpetuation, even renaissance, of traditional territorial and social organization and coherence. In conclusion, at present a rough village typology depicts increasing village viability as correlating with the increasing resemblance of the modern village, in social structural terms, to the traditional group, with its prescriptions for marriage within the group and resources exploitation within a relatively fixed range. Fienup-Riordan (1986 Fienup-Riordan caps her assessment of the local effects of serious harvest disruptions with this appraisal of Scammon Bay’s vitality: The disruption would not occur in a socially moribund area. . . The villages under consideration (Alakanuk, Scammon Bay, Sheldon Point) are coherent, stable communities which show evidence of beginning to develop the cultural, as well as social, integrity of the traditional village groups and regional confederations. As such, they are beginning to demonstrate both practical flexibility and ideological self-sufficiency. Fienup-Riordan (1986), p. 320. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION Various demographic indicators consistently show that Scammon Bay is at present a vigorous traditional Yupik community. The 1970 Census reported that entire population of Scammon Bay was Alaska Native. In the 1980 Census, Scammon Bay was reported as 96.4 percent Native, second only to Kivalina among the 21 study communities in its proportion of Alaska Native residency. 512 Another index of Scammon Bay’s demographic stability is the relatively close match of adult males and females. This is unusual among rural Native communities, the demographic balance of which is typically skewed by an excess of unmarried males. In Scammon Bay, the ratio of unmarried single males 15 years and older to unmarried females is_1.17:1.0, lowest among all 21 study communities except for Nikolski. This near match probably reflects Scammon Bay’s ability to hold its young adults and removes one of the critical inhibitions to new family formation and natural increase. Fienup-Riordan studied the composition of households in Alakanuk, Scammon Bay and Sheldon Point. She classified households as focal (both spouses original village residents), central (one spouse an original village resident) or marginal (neither spouse an original village resident). She also counted the number of families in each class with extended family living elsewhere in the region or outside the region. Based on her research findings, Fienup-Riordan concluded that: Unlike Alakanuk and Sheldon’s Point, Scammon Bay has very few marginal families. It has the least historic diversity and is perhaps the most closed community of the three, made up of a core of strong focal families surrounded by central households representing their offspring who have successfully brought in spouses from outside the village and sometimes outside the region. As in Alakanuk, the addition of outsiders is responsible for family extension beyond the village, rather than immigration away from the village. Again, ties outside the village reflect growth, not depletion. Finally, as in Alakanuk, at present the village is not experiencing either marked emigration or immigration. Although many individual as well as households leave the community temporarily, the majority return. Fienup- Riordan (1986 - 21%. 513 TABLE 276 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER SCAMMON BAY ee eee Marital Status Male Female Single 34 29 Married 39 38 Separated 1 0 Widowed 3 2 Divorced 1 0 TOTAL 18 69° Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 277 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP SCAMMON BAY 1980 Household Type and Relationshi Number In Family Household Householder 42 Spouse 37 Other Relatives 165 Non-Relative 1 Sub-Total 245 In Non-Family Household Male Householder Female Householder Non-Relative uo oouw Sub-Total In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution Other Sub-Total TOTAL 250 Source: 1980 Census. 514 Percent 16. 14. 66. o ROMD 98. nr con . cee oO ooo Thus, Scammon Bay does not appear to be losing its young adults to emigration. On the contrary, it is successfully recruiting marriage partners from surrounding villages into Scammon Bay families. On the topic of interracial marriage, Fienup-Riordan (1986) observes of Yukon delta marriage patterns generally that "(inter-ethnic marriages) are still relatively infrequent, however, accounting for only three percent of current delta marriages". Presumably, similar circumstances apply to Scammon Bay which has a negligible non-Native population and is more isolated than the typical Yukon delta village. ANCSA enrollment data further confirm this picture of a relatively closed but stable community. These 1974 enrollment data show that a relatively small share (7 percent) of Scammon Bay’s enrolled Native residents were enrolled elsewhere, while a similarly low share (12 percent) of Scammon Bay enrollees were residing elsewhere. That is, in 1974, few Natives who were affiliated with Scammon Bay’s village corporation lived elsewhere and few Natives living in Scammon Bay were affiliated with another village corporation. This pattern anticipates Fienup-Riordan’s later (1986) observation, previously quoted, that Scammon Bay is experiencing relatively little immigration or permanent out-migration. Scammon Bay’s median age in 1970 was relatively low (16.3), with little difference between median ages for males (17.5) and females (16.0). During the next decade, Scammon Bay’s median age figure rose, but less than in most study communities, reaching 19.0 according to the 1980 Census. Again, 515 there was only a slight spread between the median ages of males (20.4) and females (18.4). The upward movement of this demographic trend continued in following years, rising to 21.6 years in 1985 according to the Alaska Department of Revenue Permanent Fund dividend recipient data. C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT Employment data for Scammon Bay are limited and frequently unreliable. The value of the Alaska Department of Labor’s covered employment data series is depreciated by the fact that the Scammon Bay area includes employment data not only for Scammon Bay but also for Chevak and Hooper Bay, each of which has a larger population (1987 populations of 582 and 776 persons respectively) than Scammon Bay. Also, commercial fishing is not counted in the Department of Labor employment data, although it is an especially important source of employment at Scammon Bay. Reportedly, Scammon Bay residents held 40 gill net permits in 1978 (Darbyshire, 1979) and commercial fishing accounted for roughly 45 percent of local earned income in 1981-82 (Fienup-Riordan, 1986). The 1970 Census reported a total of 12 employed persons in Scammon Bay, all working in public administration and public or private services. An Alaska Department of Labor survey compiled the following year (1971) put Scammon Bay’s employment at 15 persons, all in the public sector except for four jobs in retail sales and one job in air transportation. Both of these employment counts apparently omitted the local labor force’s seasonal work 516 TABLE 278 POPULATION COMPOSITION Male lo ooooo°c[eo SCAMMON BAY puerta |) eee Age Range Alaska Native Male Female Total Under 5 years 13 18 31 5 - 14 28 20 48 15 - 24 15 13 0 25 - 34 11 14 25 35 - 44 6 5 11 45 - 54 3 4 7 55 - 64 4 2 6 65 and over 6 4 10 TOTAL 86 80 166 Median Age [7.5 16.0 16.3 Age Range Total Under 5 years 5-9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 - 54 55 - 59 60 - 64 65 and over TOTAL Median Age Note: Source: Male 13 17 11 _ sg ANNKNMWWUAOW — —~ jon U.S. Census. Female Total 18 31 14 31 6 17 12 17 1 11 12 18 2 7 3 6 2 5 0 2 4 5 0 2 2 4 4 10 80 166 0 16.3 — iD 517 Non-Native Female lo COOCOCCCCO0OO Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and others, excluding White and Negro. Total lo eoooocoo°o°oo TABLE 279 POPULATION COMPOSITION SCAMMON BAY 1980 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 23 16 39 0 0 0 23 16 39 5- 9 18 18 36 0 0 0 18 18 36 10 - 14 12 16 28 0 0. 0 12 16 28 15 - 19 11 16 27 0 0 0 11 16 27 20 - 24 12 13 25 0 0 0 12 13 25 25 - 29 8 7 15 0 0 0 8 7 15 30 - 34 11 6 17 0 0 0 li 6 17, 35 - 39 7 6 13 Oo 0 0 7 6 13 40 - 44 6 3 9 0 0 0 6 3 9 45 - 49 3 4 7 0 0 0 3 4 a 50 - 54 5 3 8 0 0 0 5 3 8 55 - 59 2 3 5 0 0 0 2 3 5 60 — 64 3 3 6 0 0 0 3 3 6 65 - 69 2 1 3 0 0 Oo 2 1 3 70 - 74 3 1 4 0 0 Oo 3 1 4 75 and over 5 3 8 0 0 0 5 3 8 TOTAL 131 119 250 Q 9 9 4131 119 250 Median Age 20.4 18.4 19.0 20.4 18.4 19.0 TABLE 280 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS SCAMMON BAY 1982 - 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 Oo- 4 32 40 35 5- 9 33 36 10 - 14 36 29 15 - 19 30 31 20 - 24 26 22 25 - 29 28 28 30 - 34 20 21 35 - 39 15 16 40 - 44 15 14 45 - 49 7 17 50 - 54 10 3 55 - 59 4 7 60 - 64 4 2 65 - 69° 3 6 70 - 74 3 2 75 & over 9 6 Unknown 0 1 0 4 TOTAL 267 264 283 279 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 125; 18-27 - 50; 28-37 -30; 38-47 - 27; 48-57 - 13; 58-67 - 9; 68-77 - 6; 78+ - 7; Unknown - 0; Total - 267. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 32; 5-17 - 80; 18-27 - 57; 28-37 - 34; 38- 47 - 27; 48-57 - 12; 58-67 - 8; 68-77 - 6; 78+ - 7; Unknown - 1; Total - 264. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 519 involvement in Bristol Bay and Lower Yukon salmon processing plants. Likewise, neither the Census nor the Alaska Department of Labor records any local self-employment in commercial fishing, which was then less widespread than it has since become. Despite these qualifications, it remains clear that job opportunities and wage and salary employment were minimal in Scammon Bay at the start of the 1970s. TABLE 281 ESTIMATED EMPLOYMENT SCAMMON BAY 1971 Employer Number General stores 4 Wien Consolidated Airlines 1 BIA School 5 U.S. Post Office 1 Public Health Service 1 Neighborhood Youth Corps 3 TOTAL 15 Source: Alaska Department of Labor, per Alaska Planning & Management, 1972. The 1980 Census count of employment by industry at Scammon Bay is unarguably, if unaccountably, wrong. To begin with, the Census’s report of the number of persons of workforce age (16 years and over) exceeds the total population for this age group. Also, the Census reported that employed women outnumbered employed men by a count of 59 to 31, a very unlikely division of labor. In fact, the 1980 Census reported that every female in the local labor force (59 females altogether) was employed, at 520 TABLE 282 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA SCAMMON BAY 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Labor Force Status Alaska Natives* All Races Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces 0 0 0 Civilian Employed 31 59 90 Civilian Unemployed 13 0 13 Not in Labor Force 25 17 42 Labor Force Participation Rate 63.0% 77.0% 71.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 29.5% 0% 12.6% 1970 0% 0% = 0% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Industry 1970 1980 Construction 0 0 Manufacturing 0 0 Transportation 0 11 Communications 0 2 Trade 0 14 Finance, Insurance & 0 0 Real Estate Services 6 37 Public Administration 6 26 Other 0 0 TOTAL 12 90 7 Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 521 the same time that it reported a total of only 48 females between 20 and 64 years of age. Lastly, the Census count of 90 jobs in 1980 for this remote, undeveloped village of 250 persons is not credible in view of the rudimentary status of its wage economy. In sum, the 1980 Census should be dismissed as a source of employment data for Scammon Bay. Fienup-Riordan compiled an inventory of opportunities for local cash employment between June 1981 and May 1982 (Fienup-Riordan, 1986). This inventory focused on cash employment opportunities normally open to permanent local residents. That is, it did not include school faculty or similar professional positions held by temporary residents. Neither did it include self-employment in the commercial salmon or herring fisheries, nor non-local cannery or other non-local employment held by village residents. Fienup-Riordan enumerated a total of 40 full-time and part-time local job opportunities. Three-quarters of these jobs were with public employers. As part of the same inventory, Fienup-Riordan collected data on household cash income from four sources: commercial fishing (37.8 percent of mean household income), full-time employment (44.0 percent), seasonal employment (4.8 percent) and transfer payments (13.4 percent). We noted at the outset of this section reasons why the Alaska Department of Labor covered employment data for Scammon Bay were of limited use. The findings of Fienup-Riordan’s household income survey, together with other documentation she presents about the extent of local subsistence activities, impose additional qualifications upon the Department of Labor’s 522 TABLE 283 OPPORTUNITIES FOR CASH INCOME SCAMMON BAY U 981 - MAY Employment Source Jobs Health Aides 2.5 Bureau of Indian Affairs 9 Lower Yukon School District 6 Headstart 2 Public Safety 2 Power Plant 1 City Offices 5 Private Trade & Services 4 Transportation 2 Post Office 1 IRA Council 0.5 Village Corporation 4 National Guard 1 OTA 40 1 seven part-time Guard employees not included. Source: Riordan (1986). TABLE 284 MEAN HOUSEHOLD CASH INCOME, BY SOURCE SCAMMON BAY —____JUNE_1981 - MAY 1982) 00 Mean House- Source of Income hold Income Percent Commercial fishing $ 7,028 37.8 Full-time employment 8,197 44.0 Seasonal employment 890 4.8 Transfer payments 2,495 13.4 TOTAL $18,610 100.0 Source: Riordan (1986). 523 data series. Commercial fishing accounted for more than 40 percent of earned income reported by Scammon Bay households in Fienup-Riordan’s survey and, she reports, subsistence still makes a major contribution to the economic livelihood of Scammon Bay households. From these facts, it is clear that Alaska Department of Labor covered employment data necessarily present a distorted account of the world of work at Scammon Bay. All these qualifications notwithstanding, the covered employment data for the Scammon Bay area, which also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay, exhibit several trends which are probably typical of aspects of wage employment conditions at Scammon Bay. Foremost is that, for the Scammon Bay area as a whole, government accounted directly for most local employment, about 85 percent each year between 1983 and 1986, with local government providing nine out of ten government sector jobs. (This is roughly consistent with Fienup-Riordan’s finding that the public sector provided about 75 percent of local cash employment). Most of the area’s limited private employment was in trade, plus a few jobs in services. There was virtually no basic private sector wage employment reported for the Scammon Bay area. The Department of Labor data show relatively strong employment growth (46.5 percent) for the three village area between 1980 and 1986, but nearly all of this growth was in local government. Since almost all local government employment is funded by State or federal intergovernmental transfers, this trend, together with the exceptional overall level of dependence on public sector employment, suggests that these communities may be vulnerable to severe employment losses as State and federal transfers shrink. 524 TABLE 285 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SCAMMON BAY AREA** 980 - 198 Industry Classification 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction * * * 7 * * * Manufacturing * * * 0 0 0 * Transportation, Communication * bad * * bal * * and Public Utilities Trade 84 131 83 55 65 74 67 Finance, Insurance and Real 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Estate Services * * * * 23 g2 18 Government 367 397, 412 435 502 527 551 Federal 39 44D 29 «20 «20 «021~—=O22 State 12 16 15 17 21 24 20 Local 316 337 368 398 461 482 509 Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 439 563 530 513 598 612 643 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** — Scammon Bay area also included Chevak and Hooper Bay. 4 Prorated from six months of data. b prorated from nine months of data. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 525 Mining 0 Construction * Manufacturing * Transportation, Communication 0 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade / 53 Finance, Insurance and Real oO Estate Services * Miscellaneous 0 Government Federal 34 State 14 Local 334 TOTAL 66 TABLE 286 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SCAMMON BAY AREA** 1980 Feb Mar Apr May Jun o oe oO 0O. 90 0 * 0 48 45 51 54 141 35 36 47 45 39 9 15 10 10 10 331 331 340 356 319 62 461 340 356 319 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Scammon Bay area also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. * * * ° E 101 ° * * * °o Ig 33 16 370 539 112 38 104 39 * * * o IR 92 33 Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL E * * * °o 99 TABLE 287 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SCAMMON BAY AREA** 1981 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 0 0 0 * * 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * * * 0 0 0 0 0 84 90 116 119 126 oO 0 0 0 0 * * * * * 0 0 0 oO 0 47 49 42 41 38 15 14 18 12 19 399 395 382 387 177 77 81 591 593 395 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** — Scammon Bay area also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 46 17 215 515 * * ° o B * * * o ig * * * °o ig 98 128 * 0 48 111 52 103 46 16 396 807 Industry Classification gan . Feb Mining 0 Construction * Manufacturing * Transportation, Communication * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade 90 Finance, Insurance and Real oO Estate Services * Miscellaneous . 0 Government Federal 44 State 14 Local 368 TOTAL 62 TABLE 288 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SCAMMON BAY AREA** 1982 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 42 41 41 42 35 17 15 14 17 14 385 377 399 385 264 579 561 588 577 44 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. *k == Scammon Bay area also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. °o * * o ig o o o ° 57 Industry Classification gan Mini 0 Construction * Manufacturing 0 Transportation, Communication 0 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade 50 Finance, Insurance and Real 0 Estate Services * Miscellaneous 0 Government Federal 15 State 15 Local 448 TOTAL 531 TABLE 289 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT Feb Mar 19 17 440 541 Apr SCAMMON BAY AREA** 1983 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Scammon Bay area also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. E o °o * °o o °o * °o IE 56 52 25 16 140 242 21 19 356 469 o * °o * o Ig 57 55 57 50 61 54 Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 65 58 TABLE 290 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SCAMMON BAY AREA** 1984 Mar Apr May Jun * °o * °o ig 62 . 64 58 63 69 63 56 15 12 14 35 654 649 647 405 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. *k = Scammon Bay area also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 70 13 oO * o * o 8 65 10 70 20 17 552 873 11 19 19 509 629 o 65 10 sos 0 ‘ tion * Manufacturing 0 Transportation, Communication * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade 78 Finance, Insurance and Real 0 Estate Services * Miscellaneous 0 Government Federal 23 State 17 Local 516 TOTAL 47 22 21 562 §89 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** — Scammon Bay area also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. °o 20 35 S75 * °o * oO Ig 67 23 25 622 747 o * °o * o Ig 61 21 16 562 68 Industry Classification gan Mi : . 0 Construction * Manufacturing 0 Transportation, Communication * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade 58 Finance, Insurance and Real 0 Estate Services 22 Miscellaneous 0 Government Federal 23 State 15 Local 591 TOTAL 709 59 20 48 23 23 20 583 897 75 25 23 15 617 755 75 24 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = Scammon Bay area also includes Chevak and Hooper Bay. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 66 13 o 76 wo o * * * o Ig 13 22 24 546 S78 71 18 72 19 18 11 555 698 * * * o I 71 21 A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Aniak is located below the confluence of the Aniak and Kuskokwim Rivers, about 90 miles upriver from Bethel. Details on the community’s early history are sketchy. Oswalt (1980) is the standard source of information about the village’s origins and its post-contact development. Aniak was reportedly the site of a large pre-historic Eskimo village which was abandoned before the Russians first explored the Kuskokwim drainage in the 1830s. Oswalt summarized the modern demographic history of the entire Kuskokwim River drainage (defined as extending from the Kuskokwim’s headwaters above McGrath and Nikolai to the mouth of the Johnson River just below Bethel), of which the Aniak or Middle Kuskokwim sub-region (defined as extending from Lower Kalskag upriver to Stony River and Lime Village) is a minor part, in the following terms: The earliest Kuskokwim population estimate is "up to seven thousand inhabitants" in the 1790s (Davydov, 1977,201), and there were reportedly “not less than 7,000 souls" in 1830 (Wrangell, 1970, 17). The figure of 7,000 was challenged by Lavrentiy A. Zagoskin (1967, 308), who thought it inordinately high. Zagoskin did not visit any settlements farther down the river than "Old" Kalskag, however, and he offered no alternative estimate for the aboriginal population. A reasonable estimate of the inhabitant number for the Kuskokwim drainage in early historic times is perhaps 4,000. Population estimates for widely dispersed villages and census reports for the Russian era are uncommon. The primary source for population figures is the United States decimal censuses. The following numbers summarize the census report and are supplemented by other reliable counts or estimates from 533 contemporary observers. For any particular span either an average for the period or the highest reliable figure is accepted. 1880-89 2,743 1890-99 1,014 1900-09 597 1910-19 514 1920-29 938 1930-39 2,089 1940-49 1,143 1950-59 2,714 1960-69 4,084 1970-79 5,937 The 1880-89 figure seems reliable, and there is no reasonable ground for questioning the accuracy of the 1890-99 figure, even though the population decline of about 1,700 from the previous decade cannot be fully explained. There is no evidence of major emigration, and thus we must assume that the drop resulted from exotic diseases. Moravian mission accounts for 1890-00 include mention of numerous epidemics and a considerable number of deaths, but the frequency and intensity of these epidemics seems insufficient to explain a drop of this magnitude. There clearly was a dramatic population decline following the epidemics of 1900 and 1901. The figures for 1910-19 are again incomplete, but it seems apparent that the number of persons living along the river reached its lowest historic level between 1900 and 1920. A steady rise has occurred since 1920; the 1940-49 figures are quite clearly incomplete. How much of the increase since 1920 can be attributed to an influx of outsiders, whites, Eskimos and Indians alike, cannot be determined from these data. It is striking that by the late 1970s, of the 5,937 population total, 3,377 were living in Aniak, Bethel and McGrath #2. For the communities from Lower Kalskag to Stony River in 1978 the non-native total was 211, and the "native" population was 847. This suggests that locally-born whites and white migrants to the area have begun to constitute a significant proportion of the total population. Oswalt, 1980, pp. 17-18. Oswalt’s account underlines the historic point that, despite the modest influx of Euro-American newcomers, human occupancy in the Kuskokwim River region was unusually scanty from the 1890s until the post-War population revival, the traditional occupants having been reduced by disease to well below pre-contact levels. 534 Rumors of gold brought prospectors to the Middle Kuskokwim River sub-region in the early 1900s and to the Aniak River area about 1912. At that time, the settlement at Aniak consisted only of a few cabins. A post office was established in 1914, but for the next dozen years or so, Aniak comprised little more than a homestead, bunkhouse and store operated by a trader named Johnson. By the mid-1930s, the settlement began to grow. A second store, partly owned by the first Eskimo family to resettle at Aniak, was established in 1936, a territorial school opened in the same year and construction of a paved airfield was begun in 1938). At the time of Aniak’s first appearance in the U.S. Census in 1939, its reported population had grown to 122 persons. As an incipient sub-regional center, Aniak’s subsequent prosperity and growth was tied to the economic and demographic vitality of its hinterland. Some of the sub-region’s once important mining settlements (Napaimute and Georgetown, both now virtually abandoned, and Red Devil, now greatly reduced in size from its peak population) flourished and declined with the fortunes of gold and mercury mining activity. Other surviving communities (Crooked Creek and Sleetmute), once important as staging areas for prospecting and mining, reverted to a mainly subsistence/transfer payment economy. None of the sub-region’s hinterland communities have developed a private economic base. Only Aniak, as government and commercial center for the sub-region, has developed a core of public and support sector employment. 535 As late as 1939, the population of the Middle Kuskokwim sub-region was small and scattered, numbering about 800 persons. That year’s U.S. Census enumerated twelve villages with an average population of 49 persons; plus another 204 persons at isolated sites scattered throughout the sub-region. Even so, Aniak with only 122 residents had already taken a commanding position as the most populous community of this thinly settled sub-region. Over the next four and a half decades, Aniak became steadily more dominant, although the extent of its growth and dominance were limited by its hinterland’s still modest population and economic base and Aniak’s own limitations as a sub-regional rather than fully fledged regional center. Population data show little growth at Aniak during the fifteen years after the 1939 Census, followed by a period of rapid growth in the late 1950s. The community’s population more than doubled from 142 persons in 1950 to 308 by 1960. Aniak’s superior airport facilities proved the key to town growth as government programs and services increasingly penetrated the region. Construction of a White Alice radar-relay facility in 1956 was a pivotal event. According to Oswalt, this project generated job opportunities which drew residents to Aniak from nearby villages, especially from Upper Kalskag and the now vacated village of Napaimute. During the 1960s decade, if Census figures are accurate, Aniak’s population ebbed, falling to 205 persons at the time of the 1970 Census. (We have not found an explanation for the population decline reported by the Census, as it is not corroborated by school enrollment trends). Then, in the next decade, Aniak’s potential as an air transportation and government center 536 Present Villages Aniak Chuathbaluk Crooked Creek Lime Village Lower Kalskag Red Devil Sleetmute Stony River Upper Kalskag 1939 122 48 70! 86 76 Abandoned Villages Kashegaluk Krella Napaimiut Nose Nugammute Parks Balance of Region TOTAL Aniak as % of Region 10 17 75 14 23 11 204 794 15.4% TABLE 293 POPULATION OF ANIAK SUB-REGION VILLAGES 1939 - 1975 1950 142 43 29 88 120 139 44 170 775 18. 3% 1960 308 92 32 122 152 122 147 n/a n/a n/a 1 Recorded in 1939 Census as Old Kalskag. 2 Estimated by proration from Kuskokwim Census Division total population. Sources: U.S. Census Bureau (1939-1980). Alaska Department of Labor (1985). 537 1970 205 94 59 25 183 81 109 74 122 1852 1 1372 18.0% 1980 341 105 108 48 246 39 107 62 129 90 1,301 26.2% 1985 481 124 126 48 281 42 130 92 154 64 1,557 30.9% TABLE 294 POPULATION ESTIMATES ANIAK 1939 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1939 122 1950 142 1958 244 Alaska Rural Development Board 1960 308 1967 : 240 Federal Field Committee - 185 Native; 55 non-Native 1968 125 Alaska Area Native Health Service; apparent undercount 1969 210 Federal Field Committee - 160 Native; 50 non-Native 1970 205 1975 276 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 302 U.S. Census Bureau 1980 341 1980 340* 355 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1981 338* 338 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1982 391 U.S. Census Bureau (July) 1982 351* 351 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1983 458* 459 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1984 476* 483 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1985 481* 475 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1986 518 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1987 518 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs = Alaska Department of Labor estimates of July 1 population derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as those cited by the Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses or estimates. Sources: U.S. Census (1939 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1980 - 1985 figures). 538 TABLE 295 POPULATION TRENDS ANIAK 1939 - 1985 Year Population Percent Change Decennial Annual 1939 122 1950 142 16.4 1960 308 116.9 1970 205 -33.4 1980 341 66.3 1981 338 -0.9 1982 351 3.8 1983 458 30.5 1984 476 3.9 1985 481 1.1 Sources: U.S. Census (1939 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 539 Year 1956/57 1957/58 1958/59 1959/60 1960/61 1961/62 1962/63 1963/64 1964/65 1965/66 1966/67 1967/68 1968/69 1969/70 1970/71 1971/72 1972/73 1973/74 1974/75 1975/76 1976/77 1977/78 1978/79 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 Source: Kind _1 18 12 13 15 5 6 12 13 15 16 20 12 11 10 17 9 7 9 7 10 10 12 5 ll 17. 17 19 «15 2 9 10 8 12 ll 5 11 4 9 9 12 10 12 _ BaINIANWOOO ounga 13 17 orwow 14 14 FINAL ENROLLMENT BY GRADE ANIAK 56/57 _- 1986/87 |» — = NOOR KNWOONOCO _— —_ CoOMmOrNO we aor _ NPR W TABLE 296 fn : i lp _ ee _ _ DWDWWDWWOONNNONNNWOOWOAAA Pout _ _ — = ANPNINHDDHNOANMOL AA wouwna SN _ WWKH WOOTM NNO HNMH OM O1W WUD & WwW awn oo ND KR ONNWOUIHMNIWAPSNMONMWNANOLI ee anow won 9 wo 10 ll _12 2 1 1 2 1 9 4 5 5 6 4 8 8 4 13 7 7 10 8 8 6 9 1 11 11 ao Ung/ Spec Tot 69 62 65 76 55 41 66 52 72 67 80 61 70 72 58 61 67 83 102 102 81 99 88 87 123 143 Alaska Department of Education, Educational Finance and Support Services. 540 TABLE 297 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS ANIAK 1982 - 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 Oo- 4 67 71 79 5- 9 58 64 10 - 14 37 39 15 - 19 28 34 20 - 24 56 48 25 - 29 53 67 30 - 34 54 58 35 - 39 35 43 40 - 44 25 26 45 - 49 22 24 50 - 54 11 13 55 - 59 17 13 60 - 64 9 11 65 - 69 r 9 70 - 74 5 6 75 & over 1 5 Unknown T 4 0 1 TOTAL 489 479 489 540 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 174; 18-27 - 110; 28-37 - 99; 38-47 - 42; 48-57 - 28; 58-67 - 24; 68-77 - 10; 78+ - 1; Unknown - 1; Total - 489. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 67; 5-17 - 109; 18-27 - 101; 28-37 - 89; 38-47 - 47; 48-57 - 29; 58-67 - 24; 68-77 - 7; 78+ - 2; Unknown - 4; Total - 479. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 541 for the Middle Kuskokwim River sub-region began to materialize in full force. The 1980 Census put Aniak’s population at 341 persons. As a government, commercial and distribution center, Aniak continued to thrive during the early 1980s period of heavy public expenditures. The Department of Labor estimated Aniak’s 1985 population at 481 persons, while the Department of Community and Regional Affairs’ 1987 official population figure was 518 persons. In this regard, Aniak’s count of Permanent Fund dividend recipients (1982 - 489 persons; 1983 - 479; 1984 - 489; 1985- 540) confirm substantial post-1980 population growth, with a sharp jump in population around 1985. Aniak’s increasing dominance of its sub-region is evident in its steadily increasing share of the sub-regional population which rose from 18 percent in 1970, to 26 percent in 1980 to 31 percent by 1985. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION During the mining era, the Aniak sub-region’s non-Native population was substantial but transient. By the 1970 Census, the first for which detailed data on the racial composition of this sub-region are available, the area’s mining industry had foundered and most non-Native miners had departed. At Aniak and all other communities in the sub-region (except for Red Devil) Alaska Natives were in the majority, accounting for about 83 percent of the population of both Aniak and the sub-region as a whole. 542 ANCSA enrollment data, however, suggest that migration to and through Aniak by residents of nearby villages was relatively high for some years prior to 1974. According to these data, 42 percent of the Alaska Natives then living in Aniak were enrolled to another village corporation. This was by far the highest proportion among the twenty-one study communities (Bethel was second highest at 31 percent) which averaged 16 percent of Native residents enrolled elsewhere. Aniak also had a relatively high proportion (29 percent) of locally enrolled Natives living elsewhere. Together, these figures suggest intensive intra-regional migration to and through Aniak by Native residents of surrounding villages for some years prior to 1974. Migration data from the 1980 Census are consistent with a relatively high rate of population immigration to Aniak, particularly among non-Native residents. At the time of the 1980 Census, a substantial share (16 percent) of Aniak’s residents had lived outside the region and elsewhere in Alaska five years previously, while a further 14 percent had lived in another state. Presumably, most of these newcomers to Aniak from outside the region or State were non-Natives. The racial composition of Aniak and, to a lesser extent, the sub-region shifted during the spurt of rapid growth which took place after 1970. Between 1970 and 1980, the sub-region as a whole grew by an estimated 14 percent, but almost all of that growth took place in Aniak and in the non- Native share of population. (Note that the 1970 figures for total population and race of sub-region residents were derived, in part, by proration of Census data). Outside Aniak, the total population and racial 543 make-up of the sub-region were virtually static, suggesting that some net emigration of Alaska Natives helped offset natural population increase. Over the 1970 to 1980 decade, Aniak’s Native population grew modestly by 28 percent from 170 to 218 persons, but its non-Native population increased by 251 percent from 35 to 123 persons. By 1980, non-Natives made up 36 percent of Aniak’s total population compared with 17 percent in 1970. Among the twenty-one communities covered in this study, only Unalaska experienced a greater shift in racial composition during the 1970-1980 decade. These figures indicate strongly that Aniak’s growth stemmed almost wholly from immigration of non-Natives. The modest growth of the Native population can largely be accounted for by natural increase, with perhaps a slight net gain from immigration. Alaska Department of Labor population estimates show that Aniak grew substantially after 1980, increasing from 341 persons (1980 Census) to an estimated 481 persons in 1985. During the same period, the remainder of the sub-region grew from 960 to 1,076 persons. A later City of Aniak census count, accepted by the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs, placed the town’s population at 518 persons in 1986. Unfortunately, there are no available data on the racial composition of recent population change. However, these growth figures support an inference that Aniak’s growth continued to derive mainly from an influx of non-Natives from outside the sub-region and only to a lesser extent on intra-regional migration. 544 TABLE 298 POPULATION COMPOSITION, BY RACE CITY OF ANIAK 1970 AND 1980 Percent Change ID ge OBOE 70_- 1980 Number Percent Number Percent Alaska Native 170 82.9% 218 63.9% +28.2% Non-Native 35 17.1 123 36.1 +251.4 TOTAL 205 100.0 341 100.0 +66.3 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. TABLE 299 POPULATION COMPOSITION, BY RACE ANIAK SUB-REGION 1970 AND 1980 Percent Change 1970 1980 1970 - 1980 Number+ Percent Number Percent Alaska Native 947 83.3% 1,009 77.6% +6.5% Non-Native 190 16.7 292 = 22.4 +53.7 TOTAL 1,137! 100.0 1,301 100.0 +14.4 1 The 1970 population for the sub-region was estimated by proration from Kuskokwim Census Division total population. The estimated 185 residents (16.3 percent of total) dwelling outside enumerated villages, whose race is not reported, were prorated in proportion to residents of known race. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 545 A longitudinal comparison of age cohorts for Aniak’s 1980 and 1985 population indicates that the town’s post-1980 growth spurt was due partly to immigration and partly to rising birth rates and natural increase. Matching 1980 Census data against 1985 Alaska Department of Revenue Permanent Fund recipient data, it appears that all age 5-year cohorts under 50 years of age increased in size between 1980 and 1985 but not all age cohorts grew apace. The most marked increase was in the (1980) 25-29 year age group, which grew by 81 percent compared with an overall increase of 58 percent. Although most other age cohorts increased at a lesser rate, the pervasive increases can only be explained by substantial immigration at all age levels. Unfortunately, the Alaska Department of Revenue data do not identify the sex of dividend recipients, so it is not possible to draw inferences about differential migration patterns according to sex. The Department of Revenue 1985 data also counted 79 Aniak residents under five years of age, an 84 percent increase over that age group’s size (43 persons) as recorded by the 1980 Census. The rate of increase in the number of children under 5 years of age was substantially in excess (84 percent compared to 58 percent) of the town’s 1980 to 1985 overall growth _rate, suggesting that rising birth rates account for part of the community’s recent growth. Finally, the Aniak population’s median age changed little between 1980 (24.1 years) and 1985 (25.4 years), again suggesting relatively balanced growth throughout the population’s age structure, rather than growth skewed 546 TABLE 300 AGE COHORT COMPARISON CITY OF ANIAK 0_AN' 8 Size of Age Cohort Percent Change 1980 Ace Cohort _1980:1985 1980 to 1988. Under 5 years 43:64 48.8 5- 9 27:39 44.4 10 - 14 25:34 36.0 15 - 19 40:48 20.0 20 - 24 45:67 34.9 25 - 29 32:58 81.3 30 - 34 29:43 48.3 35 - 39 24:26 8.3 40 - 44 14:24 : 71.4 45 - 49 11313 18.2 50 - 54 15:13 -13.3 55 - 59 17:11 -35.3 60 - 64 10: 9 -10.0 65 - 69 4: 6 50.0 70 and over 5¢' 5 0.0 Born after 1980 :79 Age unknown 2 t TOTAL 341:540 58.4 Median Age: 1980 - 24.1 years 1985 - 25.4 years Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census (1980). Alaska Department of Revenue (1985). 547 TABLE 301 POPULATION COMPOSITION ANIAK ee OS Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 12 10 22 4 1 5 5 - 14 29 25 54 4 9 13 15 - 24 12 9 21 1 2 3 25 - 34 12 11 23 2 2 4 35 - 44 13 10 23 2 2 4 45 - 54 4 4 8 1 1 2 55 - 64 8 8 8 2 0 2 65 and over 2 1 3 2 0 2 TOTAL 92 78 170 18 i 35 Median Age 19.6 19.4 19.5 Age Range Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 16 11 27 5-9 18 17 35 10 - 14 15 1? 32 15 - 19 3 z 10 20 - 24 10 4 14 25 - 29 2 5 Z 30 - 34 12 8 20 35 - 39 9 11 20 40 - 44 6 1 7 45 - 49 5 3 8 50 - 54 0 2 2 55 - 59 6 0 6 60 - 64 4 8 12 65 and over 4 1 5 TOTAL 110 95 205 1.8 15.2 18.5 Median Age 2 Note: Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and others, excluding White and Negro. Source: U.S. Census. 548 —Age Range _ Under 5 years 5- 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 - 54 55 = 59 60 - 64 65 — 69 70 - 74 75 and over TOTAL an_ Age Source: U.S. Census. Alaska Native Male Female Total 14 16 30 15 8 23 12 11 23 17 14 31 15 15 30 10 5 2 12 3 45 4 6 10 5 3 8 3 4 7. 5 2 7 5 3 8 z 2 3 1 3 4 2 1 3 1 0 1 122 96 218 21.2 19.8 20.4 TABLE 302 POPULATION COMPOSITION ANIAK 1980 Non-Native Male Female 6 7 1 3 1 1 2 a 10 5 a1 6 8 6 10 4 4 2 1 3 6 2 4 5 5 2 0 0 Oo 1 0 0 §9 54 32.5 8.8 Total PRR IS oroVoCMmeaobribhonad Ww io le ~ » PNP AOPAO > KO fury 1 je OV by selective migration according to age group or by radical changes in birth or death rates. However, according to the 1980 Census, Aniak then exhibited an extreme case of rural communities’ typical imbalance in the number of single males compared versus single females 15 years of age and older. For Aniak, the ratio of single males aged 15 or more (63) to single females (28) was 2.25:1, highest among all study communities except Unalaska. Reference to 1980 Census data by age and sex and race indicates that this gross imbalance is due mainly to an excess of immigrant adult white males and, to a lesser degree, to an excess of adult Native males in a Native population depleted by selective emigration of young adult Native females. Between 1970 and 1980, the age and sex structure of Aniak’s Alaska Native population was comparatively stable. Age group comparisons indicate little change attributable to net migration, but some natural increase due to rising birth rates. The median age for Native males and females rose slightly, but less than in most Native communities. On the other hand, the 1980 median ages for white males, especially, and females was significantly higher than for Natives, reflecting a population distribution distorted by immigration of adult white males. Again, this discrepancy is symptomatic of a sub-population whose dynamics are governed more by migration trends than natural increase. 550 TABLE 303 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER ANIAK 1980 Marital Stat Male Female Single f 63 28 Married 61 59 Separated 2 2 Widowed 4 9 Divorced 12 6 TOTAL 142 104 Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 304 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP ANIAK 1980 Household Type and Relationship Number Percent In Family Household Householder 71 Spouse 58 Other Relatives 154 Non-Relative 5 Sub-Total 288 In Non-Family Household Male Householder 34 Female Householder 6 Non-Relative 13 Sub-Total 53 In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution Other Sub-Total TOTAL 341 Source: 1980 Census. 551 20. Tf. 45. Ti: 84. 10. 1 3 15. o ano oa Neg s C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT Published sources of wage and salary employment data for Aniak are limited mainly to the Alaska Department of Labor’s covered employment data series. The Department’s Aniak sub-area unfortunately groups employment data for the nearby settlements of Chuathbaluk and Lower and Upper Kalskag together with that of Aniak. Further, there are numerous data omissions due to disclosure regulations and other reasons. Thus, these data do not give a full and accurate count of the number of employed persons in Aniak. Notwithstanding these qualifications, because Aniak dominates this labor area’s wage economy, the Alaska Department of Labor figures probably yield a generally accurate picture of local employment trends. For the same reason, the structure of employment depicted in the Department’s figures may fairly closely resemble Aniak’s employment structure, with one very crucial exception. The Kuspuk School District, which operates schools in eight communities of the Aniak sub-region, is headquartered in Aniak. Examination of the employment data suggests that all school district employment is imputed to Aniak, resulting in a unrealistically high count of local government employment at Aniak. Covered employment in the Aniak sub-area grew by about 22 percent between 1980 and 1985 from 242 to 295 jobs. By comparison, the Department of Labor’s 1985 population estimate for Aniak (481 persons) reflected a 41 percent rise over 1980, while its estimate for the four village sub-area over the same period reflected about a 27 percent increase. Acknowledging 552 the lack of data on the local distribution of employment within the sub- area, it nevertheless appears that any improvements in Aniak’s local employment conditions may have been more than offset by population growth. The Department of Labor employment data series shows a significant shift in the Aniak sub-area’s employment structure between 1980 and 1986. Even in 1980, local government was the dominant employer, accounting for 56 percent of covered employment. This proportion grew steadily in the following years, rising to fully 72 percent of the sub-area’s covered employment by 1986. During the same period, the absolute number of jobs outside local government (that is, private sector plus federal and State government) actually dropped from 106 jobs in 1980 to 81 in 1986. Apparently, the general improvement in local public sector employment opportunities during the first half of the 1980s was not matched by a broadening of the private sector employment base. To the contrary, the Department of Labor data suggest a substantial deterioration in employment conditions outside the local government sector. These trends may foretell a serious economic crunch for Aniak as State and federal government cutbacks in transfers to local governments shrink the revenues which support local government services and programs. 553 TABLE 305 ‘ SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA ANIAK 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Labor Force Status Alaska Natives All Races Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces 0 0 0 0 0 Civilian Employed 29 25 ‘ 75 56 131 Civilian Unemployed 3 3 6 5 11 Not in Labor Force 54 29 68 37 105 Labor Force Participation Rate 37.0% 49.0% 54.0% 62.0% 57.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 9.4% 10.7% 7.4% 8.2% 7.7% 1970 * * 100.0% 0% + #%73.7% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Industry 1970 1980 Construction 0 5 Manufacturing 0 4 Transportation 0 13 Communications 0 7 Trade 0 14 Finance, Insurance & 0 0 Real Estate Services 0 65 Public Administration 0 20 Other 10 3 TOTAL 10 131 7 Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 554 January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual Average Source: TABLE 306 AVERAGE MONTHLY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK SUB-AREA 1985 - 1986 Average Monthly Employment 293 300 307 323 302 253 194 265 318 328 297 314 291 555 Percent Dif- ference from Annual Average +0. +3. +5. +11. +3. -13. -33. -8. +9, +12. +2. +7. ~ se WOR NWoOWeWOMr- Alaska Department of Labor. TABLE 307 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK AREA** 1980 - 1986 Industry Classification 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Mining 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction = 0 0 0 * = * Manufacturing 7 * . * : - * Transportation, Communication 23 23 19 22 332 =619 13 and Public Utilities Trade 11 12 11 14 20 21 20 Finance, Insurance and Real = od 7 as * * * Estate Services * * * * 354 388 37 Government Federal 30 33 20 15 12 10 8 State 2 1 3 2 2a 14 * Local 136 150 155 183 180 196 206 Miscellaneous 0 7 * ~ * ~ * TOTAL 262* 256 239 277 _* 295 292 iss Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** — Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. 4 Prorated from nine months of data. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 556 Industry Classification see Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 16 16 32 118 TABLE 308 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT 16 14 33 130 ANIAK AREA** 1980 Mar Apr May * * * * * * 1 * * we 06192 0 0 0 12 Tk 0 0 0 * * * 0 0 0 Bare 98) 28 3 3 3 127° 145) :138 — 229 235 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 34 13 26 11 33 23 1 68 176 24 °o o 32 23 69 av oO * * o Ig 26 10 34 25 Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 26 11 TABLE 309 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK AREA** 1981 Feb Mar Apr May 25 30 20 20 °o °o °o o * * * * * * * * 0 0 * * * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~~ Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. o E * o °o 22 10 23 11 o 27 o 149 °o * ° ° Ig 31 1 89 218 19 11 18 14 o 17 16 Industry Classification sa Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 20 10 28 83 TABLE 310 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK AREA** 1982 Feb Mar Apr May 19 18 20 18 10 10 10 9 * * * * * * * * * * * * 28 26 27 28 142. 195 201 203 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. E * °o °o 18 11 °o sco & + le so soo & »~oo & 23 11 * * Rok Ld ry 16 12 24 14 32 15 198 290 17 o 16 13 34 16 189 274 Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL Jan 14 4 188 252 TABLE 311 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK AREA** 1983 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 15 15 18 18 20 12 12 14 14 15 16 17 16 14 15 3 3 3 2 1 183. 174 4174 #+%«172~= «182 257 249 74 172 82 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~~ Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 13 34 * ° o g * °o o Ig * °o ° ig 29 o 182 278 24 o 23 14 25 17 27 20 15 201 300 Industry Classification Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government. Federal State Local TOTAL 34 17 19 TABLE 312 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK AREA** 1984 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 29 40 34 33 34 17 17 27 24 27 34 40 * * * Mo. wees ee 18 2 i eee ge gs Gg 179 190 190 195 137 214 BOT oe eee * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 30 19 25 10 116 35 19 41 157 o * * * o Ig * * * o ig * * * o Iz 25 20 41 204 19 38 10 212 20 42 10 207 19 36 10 190 Industry Classification Mini Construction ' Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL E * * ° 17 25 25 7 2 210 288 TABLE 313 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK AREA** 1985 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * * * 16 17 18 17 18 22 22 21 23 22 39 50 48 43 34 7 7 11 a1 12 1 2 2 1 0 189 201 206 195 155 31 290 314 7 302 51 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~~ Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. * * °o E 27 19 31 o 26 19 29 o * * o g 24 20 40 19 19 219 322 13 21 219 * * o i 10 21 218 Industry Classification Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Govermment Federal State Local TOTAL 13 20 36 7 220 29' TABLE 314 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT ANIAK AREA** 1986 boty ob 15 13 11 10 19 21 20 18 20 44 40 41 42 39 9 o 9 9 9 221 214 246 220 = 172 310 299 330 303 256 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = Aniak area also includes Chuathbaluk, Lower Kalskag, Napaimiut and Upper Kalskag. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 11 21 26 °o 25 29 °o * * °o g 14 20 31 13 21 42 o * * o If 13 19 35 a7 21 38 ILLINGHAM A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Dillingham is located at the northern end of Nushagak Bay on its west bank, at the confluence of the Wood and Nushagak Rivers. Although the Dillingham area has a long history of settlement, the community owes its modern origins to development of the Bristol Bay commercial salmon fishery near the end of the nineteenth century. This industry, together with the 1918- 1919 influenza epidemic and locational decisions by government agencies and others have been the major forces contributing to changes in the population dynamics of the Nushagak Bay and Nushagak River areas. Throughout its recorded history, the Nushagak region has been occupied by Yupik speaking Eskimos. According to VanStone (1971), Yupik penetration of the Nushagak River system took place at some unknown time during the prehistoric period when people moved inland from the Bering Sea coast. VanStone identified two Eskimo sub-groups in this area: the Aglegmiut who lived around Nushagak Bay and the Kiatagmiut who occupied the Nushagak and the lower Mulchatna River areas and areas to the west. VanStone noted that although the territory of the Aglegmiut had an estimated population of 1,900 at the beginning of the historic period, probably no more than 500 persons lived around the shores of Nushagak Bay. The population of the Kiatagmiut at the time of contact was estimated to be about 400. 565 TABLE 315 POPULATION TRENDS DILLINGHAM AND VICINITY ——___1890 - 1985 Year Population Percent Cha Dillingham \Kanakanak Total Decennial Annual 1890 166 53 219 1900 145 50* 195 -11.0 1910 165 50* 215 10.3 1920 182 36 218 1.4 1929 85 177 262 20.2 1939 278 113 391 49.2 1950 577 54 631 61.4 1960 424 ad 800** 26.8 1970 914*** 14.2 1980 1,563 71.0 1981 1,670 6.8 1982 1,791 7.2 1983 1,896 5.9 1984 2,073 9.3 1985 2,141 3.3 * Estimates by Rogers (1955) based upon history of cannery operations and other data. ** No population for Kanakanak was recorded by the 1960 Census. The Alaska State Housing Authority (June 1971) estimated the population of the immediate Dillingham area at that time to be approximately 800. *** Kanakanak and Wood River Village were included within Dillingham’s corporate limits upon its incorporation in 1963. Sources: U.S. Census (1890 - 1980 figures). Rogers, 1955. Alaska State Housing Authority, June 1971. Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 566 TABLE 316 POPULATION ESTIMATES DILLINGHAM 1890 - 1987 ear Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1890 219* 1900 195* 1910 215* 1920 218* 1929 262* 1939 391* 1950 631* 1957 850 Ray, 1959 1960 800* 1967 1,200 Bureau of Indian Affairs - includes 500 non-Natives 1967 1,200 Federal Field Committee - includes 500 non-Natives 1968 1,000 Alaska Area Native Health Service - includes 150 non- Natives 1969 1,000 Federal Field Committee - includes 150 non-Natives 1970 914 960 Alaska State Housing Authority (Oct. estimate) 1975 1,160 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 1,207 U.S. Census Bureau 1979 1,400 Policy Analysts, Inc. 1980 1,563 1,656 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1981 1,656** 1,670 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1982 lr, 7915" 1,841 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1982 1,689 U.S. Census Bureau 1983 1,896** 1,896 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1984 2,073** 2,026 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1985 2,141** 2,100 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1986 2,153 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1987 2,153 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 567 kk Estimates of total population of Dillingham vicinity developed by Rogers and others. Alaska Department of Labor estimates derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as Department of Community and Regional Affairs estimates, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses undertaken by the City of Dillingham. Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Rogers, 1955. Alaska State Housing Authority, June 1971. Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 568 The first outsider to visit Bristol Bay was Captain Cook in 1778 who gave the bay its name but did not land there. Russian penetration into the Nushagak region reportedly dates back to the 1790s, first by Bocharov and subsequently by plunderers from a rival trading company. In 1818, a party of Russian-American Company employees was sent from Kodiak Island to explore the territory north of Bristol Bay. During these explorations, a trading post, Alexandrovski Redoubt, was established at the mouth of the Nushagak River. It was the first Company post north of the Alaska Peninsula and served as a base of operations for further exploration not only in Bristol Bay but also in the Lower Kuskokwim region where Kolmakovski Redoubt (near Aniak) was established in 1841. VanStone (1984) notes that the most obvious change wrought by the Russians on the region’s aboriginal inhabitants was the modification of traditional subsistence cycles. In order to obtain trade goods, Eskimos placed greater emphasis on fur trapping activities. By spending more time pursuing game with little or no food value, the Eskimos thus became increasingly dependent on the trading posts. In 1841, the first Russian Orthodox church north of the Alaska Peninsula was established at Alexandrovski Redoubt and missionaries began to penetrate the Nushagak River country. Vanstone (1971) indicated that since missionaries were seldom able to visit the many villages in the region more than twice a year, it is likely that residents were marginal participants in the newly introduced faith. Nevertheless, the establishment of a church 569 at Alexandrovski and the construction of chapels at certain interior villages did play an important role in changing settlement patterns. Another impact of the Russians (and later, of the Americans) on Eskimos of this area was exposure of the Native population to new diseases. During the early years, two smallpox epidemics swept through the region, the first some time before 1832 and a second in 1838-39 (VanStone, 1967). Although the number of deaths is uncertain, several hundred persons in the Bristol Bay area perished during the second epidemic and casualties from the first were described as "considerable" in Russian-American Company records. Survivors of these epidemics were also exposed to a range of other Western diseases which adversely affected their general health. For some time after the U.S. purchase of Alaska in 1867, little exploration was undertaken in the Nushagak region except for the activities of missionaries and occasional trappers and traders. The Alaska Commercial Company eventually took over the assets of the Russian-American Company and Maintained the post at Alexandrovski, then called Nushagak. This company dominated trade in the region throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth. In addition, the Russian Orthodox church continued to send priests to the region and remains the major religious influence here today. The Moravians established a mission and school called Carmel at the village of Kanulik near Nushagak in 1886 but its influence was never great and the mission was abandoned in 1906. 570 The 1880 Census listed no settlements on the west side of Nushagak Bay, presumably because that area was not visited since it was certainly inhabited at the time. Except where noted, all of the people counted in the following places were Eskimo: Settlement Location . Population Igushek Igushik River 74 Anagnak Wood River 87 Nushegak (Alexandrovsk) Nushagak Bay (E. shore) 178* Kanulik Nushagak Bay (E. shore) 142 Ekuk Nushagak Bay (E. shore) 112 Agivivak Nushagak River 52 Kakuak Nushagak River 104 Akulvikchuk Nushagak River 72 Kalignak Nushagak River 91 Akuliakhpuk Tikchik Lakes 83 Molchatna villages Mulchatna River 180** Total 1,175 * Population of Nushegak included 1 white, 86 creoles and 91 Eskimos. ** ~~ Population all listed as Athabascan Indians. Of far greater significance for the acculturation of the people of the Nushagak region than either Christianity or the fur trade was the commercial salmon industry which first became established in Bristol Bay during the 1880s. At first, salmon taken here were salted, but the invention of the canning process soon enabled the salmon runs to be more fully utilized. Between 1884 and 1903, ten canneries were constructed at various points on Nushagak Bay. These included Alaska Packers’ "Scandinavian" cannery a mile south of the old village of Chogiung (within Dillingham’s present corporate limits) in 1885 and the Bristol Bay Canning Company cannery built at 571 Bradford, near modern day Kanakanak (also within Dillingham’s present corporate boundaries) in 1886. In 1890, a fish trap was constructed at Wood River and, in 1901, another two canneries were built in the immediate Dillingham area. The 1890 Census listed the following places in the Nushagak region, including Bradford and Kanakanak in the immediate Dillingham area: ttl Location Population Nushagak Nushagak Bay (E. shore) 268 Carmel Nushagak Bay (E. shore) 189 Kanulik Nushagak Bay (E. shore) 54 Yekuk Nushagak Bay (E. shore) 65 Bradford Nushagak Bay (W. shore) 166 Kanakanak Nushagak Bay (W. shore) 53 Stugarok Nushagak Bay (W. shore) 7 Agivavik Nushagak River 30 Akgulurigiglak Nushagak River 61 Kakwok Nushagak River 45 Agulukpukmiut Tikchik Lakes 22 Akakhpuk Nushagak region 9 Total 969 Early Census population statistics for the Nushagak region in general and the immediate Dillingham area in particular are not always reliable or complete. Furthermore, Census counts were not always taken at the same time of year, making comparisons misleading given the extreme seasonality of fishing and fish processing activities in this region which resulted not only in major differences in total population but also the location of that population. The 1890 Census appears to have been undertaken, at least in part, during the summer as it includes some cannery populations, most notably at Bradford where the 167 residents included 83 whites, 1 Indian and 83 Mongolians (i.e. Chinese laborers). Finally, confusion over place 572 names makes it difficult in some cases to ascertain which groups of people or what places were actually being counted. For example, population figures given for Kanakanak sometimes appear to refer to the traditional village of Kanakanak, at others to New Kanakanak or Bradford (but now called Kanakanak), and yet at others to the traditional village of Chogiung (the site of the present town of Dillingham) or to some combination of these settlements. VanStone (1971) considers that such confusion makes the official 1900, 1910 and 1920 Census figures for the Dillingham area particularly questionable. In 1899-1900, a major epidemic of influenza and measles struck the Bristol Bay area. At Carmel, every child under the age of two died and the Orthodox Church reported 111 deaths among its parishioners in 1899, about four times the usual number (VanStone, 1967). Many local residents blamed the spread of disease on the 1900 Census, an association which is believed to have been another factor adversely affecting that Census’ accuracy. Famine followed the epidemic and Eskimos in the region were observed to be still in a destitute condition as late as 1902. The 1900 Census listed only three settlements in the Nushagak region: Carmel with 381 people, "Knakanak" village with 145 people and Nushagak village with 324 people. Other villages in the region were doubtless counted, but their populations were not listed separately by this Census. By 1905, Bradford was called New Kanakanak (as opposed to the traditional village of Kanakanak about one mile to the south). VanStone considers it likely that the population of New Kanakanak varied between 140 and 170 573 during the 1900 to 1910 period. Rogers (1955), however, estimates the combined population of the New Kanakanak and Chogiung areas to have been closer to 195 in 1900 and about 215 in 1910. (Rogers included Bradford as well as Chogiung in his estimates for Dillingham and based his estimates for New Kanakanak on cannery and other data). Regardless of which estimate is the more accurate, the fishing and fish processing industry continued to dominate the economy of the region. About ten canneries operated on Nushagak Bay during this period, with the heaviest concentration of population at the time being on the east side of Nushagak Bay. VanStone (1967) notes that the years 1908-1910 can be considered a high point of the fishing industry in this area. Perhaps the most serious period of illness ever to occur in the Nushagak region was the 1918-1919 influenza epidemic. The Moravians reported that 200 people living around Nushagak Bay, including both whites and Eskimos, had died (VanStone, 1967). Certainly, many small villages on Nushagak Bay and along the Nushagak River were either wiped out or were abandoned by the few survivors. Every person in the large villages of Igushik and Kanakanak either died or moved away and only 8 persons are said to have survived at Chogiung. The Wood River area appears to have been especially hard hit as its Eskimo population was virtually wiped out and people did not begin to move back into the area until the late 1920s (VanStone, 1967). VanStone estimates the total population of the entire Nushagak Bay area after the epidemic as being not more than 500. He further notes that the 1918-1919 epidemic was probably the single most important factor affecting contemporary settlement patterns in the Nushagak River region. 574 In 1918, a Bureau of Education building at New Kanakanak was enlarged and remodeled for use as a hospital and, in the following year, construction was begun on an orphanage to care for orphans created by the influenza epidemic. This facility further impacted regional settlement patterns as, after leaving the orphanage, many young men and women chose to remain in the Nushagak region rather than return to their original homes. The Kanakanak hospital subsequently became associated with the Alaska Native Health Service, an association which has remained to the present day. The 1920 Census listed 182 persons at Chogiung village (i.e. Dillingham) and another 36 at Dillingham village (i.e. New Kanakanak) for a total of 218, representing a 1.4 percent increase over the total number estimated by Rogers (1955) to live in the area in 1910. Although the accuracy of both censuses is questionable, it seems likely that the impact of the influenza epidemic on the immediate Dillingham area was partially masked by the influx of hospital patients, orphans and others to the newly constructed facilities at New Kanakanak. Whereas Nushagak suffered a precipitous decline in population between 1910 and 1920, Dillingham (Dillingham and New Kanakanak) was now the clearly dominant population center on Nushagak Bay. In the meantime, the fishing and fish processing industry continued as the major economic activity in the region although the industry had changed since the early years when most fishing was done by migrant whites and the canneries used hand labor which was largely provided by imported Chinese workers. Canneries had become increasingly mechanized, first with the 575 "Iron Chink" which was introduced in 1903 and was in general use between 1911 and 1913, and later with the introduction of high speed cannery lines during the 1920s. This mechanization reduced the necessary labor by about three-quarters (VanStone, 1967). Filipino and Mexican workers outnumbered Chinese by 1918, primarily because of the indefinite extension of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1904. Also, despite considerable prejudice against them and their abilities as workers, increasing numbers of Eskimos were able to obtain employment in the canneries, particularly at the peak of the season. However, as late as 1937, only 194 Eskimos out of a total workforce of 4,328 were employed as cannery workers in Southwest Alaska (VanStone, 1967). Although some improvements in cannery employment opportunities had been realized, Eskimo participation in commercial fishing remained minimal. As late as 1929, there were only 28 resident boats in the whole of Bristol Bay and these were owned by whites or mixed bloods (VanStone, 1967). Shortly after 1929, a few Eskimos began using sailboats and gear supplied by the canneries but it was not until after World War II that Eskimos participated fully in the industry. The 1930 Census counted 85 people at Dillingham and 177 at Kanakanak, for a total of 262, representing a 20.2 percent increase over the number counted here in 1920. Another 55 persons were counted at Wood River village which is within Dillingham’s present corporate limits. If this settlement is included, the population of the Dillingham vicinity rose 45.4 percent between 1920 and 1930. 576 During the 1930s, fishing was periodically curtailed for conservation purposes. This was reflected in fluctuations in the numbers of operating canneries from season to season and in the consolidation of plants. For example, only one shore cannery and two floating canneries operated in Nushagak Bay in 1935. The number rose to eight in 1936, fell to two in 1938 and rose again to six in 1939 (VanStone, 1967). The 1939 Census counted 278 people in Dillingham and another 113 at Kanakanak for a total of 391. No separate listing for Wood River village was given and it is unknown if it was included in the figure for Dillingham. World War II brought significant change to the Bristol Bay region in general and to the Nushagak Bay area in particular. Manpower shortages resulted in the fish processing industry having to draw more and more on resident, mostly Alaska Native, sources of labor. The heaviest recruitment came from areas adjacent to the various canneries although people from outside the region were also attracted here. Although there was a partial return to the reliance on Outside labor following World War II, the proportion of Alaska residents remained higher than before the war and in some districts remained at about the wartime level (Rogers, 1955). The 1950 Census counted 577 persons at Dillingham village and another 54 at Kanakanak village, for a combined total of 631. This represented a significant 61.4 percent increase in population since 1940. Rogers (1955) 577 notes that slightly over three-quarters (78.6 percent) of the new residents were Alaska Natives, primarily drawn to Dillingham from other sections of the Bristol Bay region. Aside from the salmon industry, Rogers ascribes Dillingham’s increasing dominance to the greater availability of government facilities and services and for the tendency of people to concentrate at strategic points. During the 1950s, changes in fishing regulations finally permitted the use of power boats on Bristol Bay. In 1951, 631 of the 717 boats fishing in Bristol Bay were sailboats. By 1954, power boats accounted for 697 of the 712 vessels fishing in Bristol Bay. Changes in ownership of gear also occurred during this period. Previously, the canneries had owned all fishing gear except for beach set nets. With the conversion of their boats to power, the canneries inaugurated a program of sale and rental of boats and gear to independent fishermen. In 1952, there were 20 independently owned boats fishing here. This number had increased to 150 by 1955 (Rogers, 1955). The combination of greater numbers of residents employed in canneries and increased ownership of gear by independent fishermen had the effect of keeping a larger share of income derived from the fishery within the local area. (It should be noted, however, that declines in the salmon catch following World War II were reflected in corresponding declines in total income to fishermen). In addition, the higher proportion of independent fishermen promoted greater interest in diversification of fishing effort. Also during this period, floating freezer vessels became increasingly 578 important in the Bristol Bay area although at this time their product was subsequently canned. The 1960 Census counted 424 persons at Dillingham but listed no population for Kanakanak. However, the Alaska State Housing Authority (June 1971) concluded that probably close to 800 persons lived within Dillingham’s present corporate limits at that time. During the 1960s, Eskimo participation in the Nushagak salmon fishery underwent a ica increase (VanStone, 1967). Also during this period, Dillingham formally incorporated as a city with boundaries encompassing a 22 square mile area which included Kanakanak, Nelsonville (Olsonville) and Wood River village as well as the Dillingham townsite, thus ending the ambiguity of Census results for the community. The 1970 Census counted 914 persons within Dillingham’s corporate limits, representing only a modest increase from the 800 persons estimated by the Alaska State Housing Authority to have lived in the same area in 1960. During the 1970s, several events of significance to Dillingham’s population and economic growth occurred. Since passage of the Alaska Native Claims Act in 1971, Dillingham has functioned as a center of activities for the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, the Choggiung, Ltd. village corporation and regional non-profit Native corporations. In addition, Dillingham’s importance as a regional center was further strengthened by increased State spending in rural Alaska during the 1970s through the mid-1980s, including the selection of Dillingham as 579 headquarters for the Southwest Region REAA (Rural Education Attendance Area). Major changes in the region’s fisheries have also occurred. These include institution of a limited entry permit system for the salmon fisheries in 1974, a shift in emphasis by the salmon industry from a canned to a frozen product, and a recovery in red salmon catches beginning in the late 1970s. The inauguration of a large scale commercial herring sac roe fishery in the Togiak district in 1977 also had an impact on Dillingham. The 1980 Census counted 1,563 persons in Dillingham, a 71 percent increase over the 914 persons counted here in 1970. Much of this increase was due to in-migration by non-Natives. Subsequent population estimates by the Alaska Department of Labor indicate further healthy rates of population growth, with the 1985 estimate of 2,141 persons being 37 percent greater than the number counted by the 1980 Census. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION Unlike other communities on Nushagak Bay, Dillingham’s population is fairly evenly divided among Alaska Native and non-Natives. Historically, the immediate Dillingham area was occupied by several Eskimo villages. The first major influx of non-Natives, initially a combination of whites plus Chinese laborers, came during the 1880s when the first canneries were constructed here. Epidemics in 1900 and 1918-1919 greatly reduced the number of Native residents. However, the construction of government orphanage facilities (subsequently converted to a regional hospital) at Kanakanak and, later, opportunities for participation in the fishing and 580 fish processing industry and the greater availability of government facilities and services, attracted Natives from other areas of Bristol Bay to Dillingham. More recently, expanded State and local government services have served to increase the proportion of non-Natives in the community. Detailed population composition data over time for Dillingham are not available, except for information contained in the 1970 and 1980 Censuses and Alaska Permanent Fund dividend statistics. According to the 1970 Census, non-Natives accounted for slightly over one-third of Dillingham’s population. At that time, non-Natives aged between 25 and 34 outnumbered Natives and, although Natives in all other adult age groups outnumbered non-Natives, it was apparent that there was a significant and permanent non-Native presence in the community. The greatest disparity between ethnic groups was in the under 25 age ranges, where 72.4 percent of the population were Alaska Natives. In 1980, non-Natives made up 43 percent of Dillingham’s population. However, non-Natives accounted for 56 percent of the community’s adult population between the ages of 25 and 54. Natives predominated among persons aged 55 and older (63.7 percent) and those under the age of 25 (62.4 percent). Nevertheless, it was apparent that Dillingham could no longer be considered a primarily Native community. Dillingham’s racial composition also varies seasonally. During the commercial salmon season, i.e. the summer months, there is an influx of Alaska Natives from elsewhere in the region and adjoining regions plus an 581 even greater influx of non-Natives from other areas of Alaska and the nation. The racial composition of these temporary residents is not reflected in current Census statistics. As elsewhere in rural Alaska, the age characteristics of Dillingham’s Alaska Native and non-Native populations are dissimilar. In 1970, the median age for Alaska Native males was 16.6 and that for females was 17.1. By contrast the median age for non-Native males and females in the same year was 28.2 and 32.0 respectively. The major factor in the low median age of Alaska Natives was high birth rates, with 43.2 percent of the population then being under the age of 15. However, there were indications that birth rates had begun to decline by 1970 as the under 5 age range was slightly less well represented than the 5 to 9 and 10 to 14 age groups. As elsewhere in the State, the widespread introduction of birth control measures by the U.S. Public Health Service during the 1960s is believed to have been a major factor in declining birth rates at that time. By 1980, the median age of Dillingham’s Alaska Native population had risen to 20.9 for males and 21.4 for females. On the other hand, the median age of the non-Native population was 29.9 for males and 27.8 for females, largely unchanged from that recorded for non-Natives here in 1970. The proportion of Alaska Natives in the very young age groups fell significantly between 1970 (when 14.3 percent were under the age of 5) and 1980 (when children under the age of 5 accounted for 9.7 percent of the community’s Alaska Native population). In 1980, the number of Alaska 582 Natives in the under 5 and 5 to 9 age ranges was significantly less than those aged between 10 and 14 and between 15 and 19. However, the size of the 10 to 19 age range in 1980 (accounting for 28.2 percent of Dillingham’s Alaska Native population in that year) has implications for future population growth as many of these people are now in their childbearing years. This is borne out by Permanent Fund Dividend statistics which show an increasing number of young children in the community. Household densities are another indicator of population change. The 1970 Census recorded an average of 3.8 Sarsons per unit in Dillingham, low by rural Alaska standards at the time. In 1980, the Census found the average number of persons per unit in the community had fallen slightly to 3.3. However, it is likely that most of the change was due to increases in the number of non-Natives who typically have fewer dependents. C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT The commercial fishing and fish processing industry has been important in the Dillingham area since the 1880s. However, the community’s modern economy dates from the World War II period which marked the first time that local residents were able to participate to a significant extent in that industry, first in seafood processing and, later, in commercial fishing activities. 583 —Age_Range _ Under 5 years 5- 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 - 54 55 - 59 60 - 64 65 - 69 70 - 74 75 and over TOTAL ian ——Alaska Native _ Female Male 42 92) ) (49 ( 38) ) (35 ( 17) ) (17 42 78) ) (62 ( 28) ) (29 ( 26) ) (18 Total 84 170) ) (111 ( 66) ) (64 ( 43) ) TABLE 317 POPULATION COMPOSITION DILLINGHAM 1970 Non-Native Male Female 16 13 41) 42) ) ) (16 (121 ( ( 34) 37) ) ) (18 (18 ( ( 13) 23) ) ) (21 (121 ( ( ) ) 8) 4) ) ) 167 159 28.2 32.0 Total 29 83) ) (27 ( 71) ) (36 ( 36) ) (32 TABLE 318 POPULATION COMPOSITION DILLINGHAM 1980 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 43 43 86 30 36 66 73 79 152 52" 9 52 36 88 31 321 62 83 67 150 10 - 14 55 56 411 25 18 43 80 74 154 15 - 19 61 79 140 28 18 46 89 97 186 20 - 24 48 44 92 25 27 52 73 71 144 25 - 29 38 39 77 45 41 86 83 80 163 30 - 34 28 27 55 56 43 99 84 70 154 35 - 39 23 24 47 45 28 73 68 52 120 40 - 44 25 23 48 22 20 42 47 43 90 45 - 49 19 15 34 23 15 38 42 30 72 50 - 54 9 18 27 17 11 28 26 29 55 55 - 59 13 16 29 2 3 5 15 19 34 60 - 64 8 15 2a 5 10 15 2 25 38 65 - 69 4 7 13 2 2 4 6 9 15 70 - 74 6 6 12 8 0 8 14 6 20 75 and over 7 4 11 3 2 5 10 6 16 TOTAL 439 452 891 367 305 672 806 757 1,563 Median Age 0.9 21.4 21.1 29.9 27.8 28.9 25.3 24.4 4.9 TABLE 319 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS DILLINGHAM 1982 _- 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 o- 4 181 213 205 5-9 176 - 193 10 - 14 156 173 15 - 19 160 149 20 - 24 192 198 25 - 29 239 231 30 - 34 229 257 35 - 39 165 183 40 - 44 128 140 45 - 49 82 87 50 - 54 72 72 55 - 59 48 57 60 - 64 32 33 65 - 69 26 26 70 - 74 17 19 75 & over 24 29 Unknown 3 6 3 5 TOTAL 1843 $1,885 1,962 = ~~ 2,057 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 623; 18-27 - 407; 28-37 -368; 38-47 - 209; 48-57 - 127; 58-67 - 66; 68-77 - 32; 78+ - 8; Unknown - 3; Total - 1,843. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 181; 5-17 - 427; 18-27 - 383; 28-37 - 432; 38-47 - 211; 48-57 - 131; 58-67 - 64; 68-77 - 36; 78+ - 14; Unknown - 6; Total - 1,885. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 586 Rogers (1955) noted that prior to World War II, almost all of the personnel connected with the operations of the fishing and fish processing industry in the Bristol Bay region were imported from outside Alaska. The acute labor shortages created by the War caused the industry to draw increasingly on resident sources of labor (mostly Alaska Natives). After the War, there was a partial return to the former reliance on Outside labor but the proportion of residents continued at a level higher than hat before the War and, in some districts, remained at about the wartime level. Rogers noted that the PAF cannery in Dillingham (the only local cannery operating at the time of his visit to the community) used increasing proportions of residents during 1942, 1943 and 1944 and that, by 1945, was using all residents except for a half dozen. or so key personnel. Rogers further noted that the same company continued to rely on local residents for all but these few key positions. The second major change in the fishing and fish processing industry following World War II were changes in gear and ownership of that gear. In 1951, the fishing regulations were changed to permit the use of power boats in this area and these vessels rapidly displaced the sail boats which had been used here. (The number of power boats rose from 86 to 697 between 1951 and 1954, while the number of sail boats dropped from 631 to 15 during the same period). At the same time, a change in the ownership of gear also toukl hate’ Previously, the canneries had owned all fishing gear except for beach set nets. However, with the conversion of their boats to power, they also inaugurated a program of sale and rental of boats and gear to 587 independent fishermen. In 1952, there were twenty independently owned boats fishing. This number had increased to 150 by 1955 (Rogers, 1955). Aside from fishing and fish processing, Rogers (1955) reported that the principal government payroll in the immediate Dillingham area was provided by the Kanakanak Alaska Native Service hospital which had 40 to 45 employees and was planning to increase that number to between 45 and 50 personnel. Of the hospital jobs, about 26 were filled by local residents, with the remaining 24 being in the professional and technical categories and were filled from outside the region. Other government employment at the time included the Alaska Road Commission which employed a full-time road superintendent and a maintenance crew of 3 to 4 men plus a seasonal construction crew of between 10 and 12 men. A third major source of government employment was the Dillingham Territorial School which then had 10 teachers (with an 11th planned to be added). The only other industry then bringing money into the Dillingham area was a small cinnabar mining operation near Aleknagik. Local businesses noted by Rogers included two local airlines, three general stores, a hardware and appliance store, two restaurants, a bakery, a petroleum products agency, two movie houses and a taxi operator. In 1971, the Alaska State Housing Authority found that about one-third of the people it surveyed in Dillingham listed fishing as their occupation. However, it was also noted that close to half of these people were unemployed for much of the remainder of the year. Total employment at the 588 U.S. Public Health Service’s hospital at Kanakanak in 1971 was 52. At that time, there were also reportedly 41 State employees in the general Dillingham area (although not necessarily based in Dillingham). In addition, the transportation sector was noted as being significant in the local economy, with Wien Consolidated Airlines, Western Alaska Airlines and freight lighterage operations being the major employers. Alaska Consultants, Inc. (January 1982) conducted a field count of employment in Dillingham for the U.S. Minerals Management Service in October 1980. Each employer in the community was contacted to obtain average annual full-time employment information and the results were then categorized by Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code. In addition, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game provided information on the number of units of drift gill net and set gill net gear for the 1980 Nushagak district salmon season and on the number of units of seine gear and gill net gear registered for the 1980 Bristol Bay herring fishery. The number of gear units were then multiplied by average crew sizes to obtain an estimate of the total number of fishermen. Finally, the number of months fished were taken into account to derive an annual average full-time employment figure for salmon and herring fishermen based out of Dillingham. No attempt was made to allocate fishing and fish processing employment between local and side Yoca residents. However, at that time, the Nushagak District was primarily fished by State residents (normally about 85 percent), most of whom lived in the Nushagak watershed area. 589 Other fisheries-related employment in the Dillingham area, including that on board floating processors during the 1980 salmon and herring seasons, plus fish buyers and persons engaged in flying the product out of the region was also estimated with the assistance of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and was converted to average annual full-time employment equivalents. Overall, Dillingham was found to have a total of 828 jobs on an average annual full-time basis in 1980. One-third of these jobs were directly associated with fishing and fish processing, while some other fisheries- related employment was associated with the transportation, communication and public utilities sector (flying fish out of the region) and the trade sector (fish buyers). After fishing and fish processing, the government sector was the next largest in Dillingham in 1980, with an annual average of 180 full-time job equivalents. By October 1980, the federal government had become a minor direct employer in Dillingham (responsibility for operation of the Kanakanak hospital was contracted out to the Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation effective October 1, 1980) with a total of only 16 jobs, of which the Federal Aviation Administration and the Post Office were the major employers. The State accounted for 44 jobs, the largest number of which were associated with the Department of Fish and Game and the Department of Public Safety. 590 Employment in the service sector was also well represented in Dillingham in 1980 with an annual average of 144 jobs. Three major employers in this sector were the Bristol Bay Area Hospital, the Bristol Bay Native Association and the Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation which perform regional health and social service functions. Other significant employers in the service sector in 1980 included two hotels, a regional housing authority and a fishermen’s cooperative organization. The trade sector employed an annual average of 101 persons in 1980, closely followed by the transportation, communication and public utilities sector with 96 jobs. The contract construction sector was estimated to employ an annual average of 34 full-time job equivalents, with the major project at the time being construction of a new elementary school. Finally, 18 jobs were counted in the finance, insurance and real estate sector. These jobs consisted of employment with the Bristol Bay Corporation (the main office of which is located in Anchorage) and Choggiung, Ltd. (the local ANCSA village corporation) and a bank. An attempt was made by Alaska Consultants, Inc. to compare the average annual full-time employment counted in the field in October 1980 with covered employment data for the Dillingham, Kanakanak, Aleknagik and Manokotak area compiled by the Alaska Department of Labor for the 1970 to 1979 period. However, because of differences in definition (e.g. covered employment excludes almost all fishermen), changes in unemployment insurance coverage (e.g. few local government employees were covered by unemployment insurance before the late 1970s and were therefore excluded 591 from covered employment statistics), disclosure regulations and apparent misallocations of employment (e.g. the Department of Labor counted al] employees of the Southwest Region Schools REAA as being in Dillingham), meaningful comparisons were somewhat tenuous. In addition to the 1980 Alaska Consultants, Inc. field count of employment in Dillingham, 1980 Census labor force and employment information for the community (including some comparisons with 1970) were examined. It should be noted that Census data are collected from individuals rather than employers. It should also be noted that fisheries-related employment in Dillingham is highly seasonal and that a significant share of jobs in that industry are held by temporary residents who are not present in the community at the time of the Census. Given those qualifications, the total local labor force figure of 656 for the community recorded by the 1980 Census is understandable although it does not provide an accurate picture of actual employment conditions. However, the Census breakdown of employment by industry for 1980 (and also for 1970) appears to be grossly inaccurate. Labor force participation rates quoted by the 1980 Census also seem suspect. Impact Assessment, Inc. (August 1984) noted that Dillingham residents held 201 drift gillnet permits and 109 set gillnet permits in 1983 but local employment statistics cited in Technical Report No. 123 were all derived from the 1980 report by Alaska Consultants, Inc. Several other reports prepared in the early 1980s, including the community profile (DOWL 592 Engineers, January 1982) and a Corps of Engineers small boat harbor study (May 1985) also used 1980 data developed by Alaska Consultants, Inc. More recently, the Subsistence Division of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (Fall et al., December 1986) undertook a comprehensive examination of Dillingham’s cash and subsistence economies. The authors noted that persons with Dillingham addresses held a total of 343 limited entry permits (224 drift gillnet permits and 119 set gillnet permits) in 1984, up slightly from 1983. However, they also noted that non-Alaska residents hold a very large portion of the jobs and earn most of the income generated by the commercial fishing industry in Dillingham and other Southwest Alaska communities. In 1984, for example, 73.8 percent of the employees in the manufacturing sector (almost entirely fish processing) of the Dillingham census district (i.e. the Bristol Bay region excluding the Bristol Bay Borough) were non-Alaska residents. These non-residents earned almost three-quarters (73.2 percent) of the wages paid to manufacturing employees in the region. Fall et al (December 1986) further noted that Limited Entry permit data indicates that participation by Bristol Bay residents in commercial fishing is declining, even though the number of permits held by Dillingham residents increased between 1979 and 1984. (However, they appear to have decreased since 1984 as the October 1987 profile by the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference listed 315 Dillingham residents as holding commercial salmon fishing permits, down from 343 in 1984). All told, Bristol Bay residents lost 220 permits between 1975 and 1983. In addition, Limited 593 Entry permit data indicates that non-local residents earn considerably more than local fishermen, possibly because of superior gear and vessels. For example, non-residents fishing with drift gear in Bristol Bay in 1982 had an average gross income of $42,956, compared with $32,124 for local fishermen. Aside from the salmon fishery, Dillingham residents continue to participate in the Togiak herring fishery. Fall et al (December 1986) noted that Dillingham residents held 176 Bristol Bay herring permits in 1984. Of this total figure, 151 fished with drift gill nets and the remaining 25 with purse seines. Thirteen other Dillingham residents held herring permits for the Norton Sound or the Kuskokwim districts in 1984. In 1986, the Division of Subsistence (Fall et al, December 1986) updated employment figures for the government sector and portions of the service sector of Dillingham’s economy (see Table). A comparison of these figures with those compiled by Alaska Consultants, Inc. in 1980 indicates that virtually no change occurred in federal and State government employment in Dillingham between 1980 and 1986 and that increases in the local government and service sectors were probably modest. Fall et al (December 1986) also briefly described the remaining employment sectors although no detailed count was provided. They noted that Choggiung, Ltd., the local village ANCSA corporation, had a total of about 70 year-round and another 45 seasonal employees spread among a number of different businesses in 1986. Aside from its central office, those 594 businesses included a lumber yard and hardware supply company, a hotel and restaurant, a construction company and a cable television franchise. Other businesses in the community in 1986 included two banks, another hotel, three additional restaurants, two supermarkets, three auto service stations, another lumber yard, two fuel companies and several snowmachine and outboard motor dealers. Four local air taxi services also employed local residents, as did one major airline. Fall et al also noted the existence of a number of smaller businesses, including a travel agency, three gift shops, a beauty shop, a janitorial service, two video rental stores, an alterations and fabric sales shop, an electronics store, a trash collection service and several local taxi companies, as well as a weekly newspaper and a number of self-employed skilled laborers and tradesmen. Alaska Department of Labor monthly covered employment statistics for the Dillingham area between 1980 and 1986 were examined and checked against counts by Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Fall et al to see if they provide a reliable sare of community employment information. However, because _ covered employment data excludes almost all fishermen, the value of this data series is seriously diminished in a region such as Bristol Bay with an economy heavily dependent on the fishing and fish processing industry. In addition, it appears that the Department of Labor has counted all Southwest Region REAA employment in Dillingham. “This seriously distorts Department of Labor data on local government employment. Similarly, Department of Labor figures for federal government employment are too high, possibly because employment associated with the Kanakanak hospital may not have been transferred to the service sector when operation of this facility was 595 assumed by the Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation. However, employment counted by the Department of Labor in the service sector also appears to be much too high and may also include non-profit corporation employment elsewhere in the region. After making allowances for omissions in State figures resulting from the exclusion of self-employed persons and other groups such as religious organizations, the Department of Labor data series does have some value in measuring changes in employment in the immediate Dillingham area. In particular, it does indicate the extreme seasonality of manufacturing (i.e. fish processing) employment. However, the series should be used with caution in view of the limitations cited above. Dillingham has a relatively complex economy. Unfortunately, except for the 1980 count by Alaska Consultants, Inc., together with partial updates by Fall et al in 1986, reliable information on employment in the community has not been compiled in recent years. Ideally, a new field count of employment should be undertaken, preferably one which attempted to measure average annual full-time employment, before any other data series such as that produced by the Department of Labor, could be used with any degree of confidence. Major changes in the Bristol Bay fishing and fish processing industry have taken place during the last ten years. While changes in the industry in general have been extensively documented, the impacts of those changes on employment in communities such as Dillingham are less well known. 596 TABLE 320 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA DILLINGHAM 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Labor Force Status Alaska Natives All Races Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces 0 0 0 0 0 Civilian Employed 149 110 391 265 656 Civilian Unemployed 8 23 14 26 40 Not in Labor Force 99 179 118 241 359 Labor Force Participation Rate 61.0% 42.0% 77.0% 54.0% 65.0% Unemp]oyment Rate: 1980 5.1% 17.3% 3.5% 8.9% 5.7% 1970 * * 16.5% 5.7% 11.5% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Industry 1970 1980 Construction 10 44 Manufacturing 0 15 Transportation 43 56 Communications 13 26 Trade 41 79 Finance, Insurance & 0 51 Real Estate Services 109 258 Public Administration 27 97 Other 26 . 30 TOTAL 269 656 7 Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 597 TABLE 321 AVERAGE ANNUAL FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT DILLINGHAM AND IMMEDIATE VICINITY 1980 Industry % Basic Classification Number of Total % Basic Number Agriculture, 100 12.1 100 100 Forestry and Fishing Mining 0 0.0 --- 0 Contract 34 4.1 29 10 Construction Manufacturing 155 18.7 97 151 Transportation, 96 11.6 58 56 Communication & Public Utilities Trade 101 12.2 46 46 Finance, Insurance 18 2.2 56 10 & Real Estate Service 144 17.4 69 99 Government 180 21.7 26 47 Federal ( 16) (1.9) (44) ( 7) State ( 44) ¢ 5.3) (32) (14) Local (120) (14.5) (22) (26) TOTAL 828 00.0 63 519 Note: Figures include self-employed personnel. Source: Alaska Consultants, Inc., January 1982. 598 Secondary Number 0 24 40 55 jd oooh ww w io wo POWW ~row TABLE 322 GOVERNMENT AND NON-PROFIT CORPORATION EMPLOYMENT CITY OF DILLINGHAM 1986 Number of Employee Full-Time Seasonal Federal Government U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 0 5 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 6 1 U.S. Post Office 5 0 U.S. Federal Aviation Administration 5 0 State Government Alaska Court System Dept. of Commerce & Economic Dev. Dept. of Community & Reg. Affairs Dept. of Fish and Game Dept. of Health & Social Services Dept. of Labor (Employment Center) Dept. of Law (District Attorney’s Off.) Dept. of Public Safety Alaska State Troopers Div. of Fish & Wildlife Protection Div. of Motor Vehicles (contracted to Dept. of Transportation & Pub. Fac. Legislative Affairs Office University of Alaska Cross-Cultural Education Dev. Marine Advisory Program Rural Development Program Rural Education Center Local Government Bristol Bay Coastal Resource Area Prog. 2 City of Dillingham 40* Dillingham City Schools 80 Southwest Region Schools 18** Wr NWO Wre Ww o ity of Dillingham nooo NNO~KNO orooo°o°o RNMP oONnNre oouwo Non-Profit Corporations Alaska Legal Services 2 Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation 100*** Bristol Bay Area Housing Authority 6 Bristol Bay Native Association 25 Naanquaq Day Care Center 2 TOTAL 333 = Includes 10 part-time positions ** - Dillingham office only; includes one part-time position. *** Includes 5 part-time staff. Is eaorooe Source: Fall et al., December 1986. 980 Industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mining 0 Oo Oo 0 0 0 Oo 0 0 0 0 0 Construction 13 12 10 13 23 42 66 76 61 54 42 25 » Manufacturing 82 151 #4119 77+ «=©131 «#181 749 448 3112 568 326 180 Transportation, Communication 62 64 65 61 76 75 64 72 73 76 77 81 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 4 4 3 * * * * * * * * * Retail Trade 76 83 92 91 97 103 96 100 94 75 56 69 Finance, Insurance and Real 31 28 28 30 27 25 26 28 32 15 26 17 Estate Services 202 230 182 302 281 216 282 293 217 277 266 278 Miscellaneous 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * * Government Federal 85 84 87 97 102 97 99 101 96 96 90 84 State 52 52 53 53 56 56 58 56 61 55 57 55 Local 307. 310 316 323 329 232 #« «108 99 261 313 316 # £317 TOTAL 914 1,018 955 1,052 1,128 1,037 1,594 1,318 1,229 1,541 1,266 1,116 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Dillingham area also includes Aleknagik, Clarks Point and Manokotak. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 1981 ——Industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction * * * 25 32 33 36 48 55 47 Manufacturing 106 176 269 332 420 468 942 485 442 166 Transportation, Communication 63 64 ~ 70 83 83 106 100 104 100 108 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 3 3 5 * * * * * * * Retail Trade 69 66 69 70 84 94 87 91 91 72 Finance, Insurance and Real 18 18 18 20 16 21 20 25 23 19 Estate Services 318 377 385 409 395 384 284 257 200 186 Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * * Government. Federal 82 82 84 82 79 80 81 79 77 68 State 58 5x 59 62 67 63 75 66 63 59 Local 329 341 342 337 330 220 169 #4189 323 335 TOTAL 1,073 1,203 1,324 1,432 1,516 1,481 1,807 1,357 1,388 1,069 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. *k = Dillingham area also includes Aleknagik, Clarks Point and Manokotak. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 46 61 81 74 21 163 ok 27 34 71 81 23 139 Industry Classification Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 31 32 57 67 21 206 °o 32 30 58 75 23 220 60 64 341 211 40 71 62 75 23 205 57 71 359 33 269 77 20 301 16 63 79 356 38 303 73 21 281 17 61 75 426 38 376 89 76 25 241 69 54 72 269 50 1,370 87 75 26 265 55 77 181 ° 70 822 87 88 28 265 54 72 214 o 76 336 89 80 25 230 54 73 339 o B 72 129 83 79 25 214 52 74 372 65 47 61 84 26 222 53 85 370 45 45 74 84 26 232 56 Wi 374 975 1,281 1,367 1,314 2,203 1,712 1,310 1,111 1,026 1,026 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Dillingham area also includes Aleknagik, Clarks Point and Manokotak. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 33 42 62 81 32 208 54 76 366 o & 32 44 61 91 34 250 55 79 402 37 44 70 101 28 242 12 53 81 383 29 34 70 94 30 244 58 77 394 36 201 74 102 32 245 57 69 377 41 239 80 116 30 244 58 62 340 49 972 77 34 335 56 56 57 171 °o 48 408 87 33 288 47 52 56 199 o 49 140 77 34 259 46 52 56 371 a 40 44 76 114 33 203 58 55 381 28 38 81 111 31 208 55, 63 393 966 1,060 1,058 1,041 1,205 1,224 1,909 1,313 1,173 1,012 1,018 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Dillingham area also includes Aleknagik, Clarks Point and Manokotak. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. ok 19 38 89 106 31 187 57 57 382 277 Industry Classification Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL ee 13 22 72 104 32 165 55 55 393 221 TABLE 327 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT DILLINGHAM AREA** 1984 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 21 19 177 405 597 72 68 78 77 85 97 105 102 120 148 31 31 42 37 36 168 172 257 271 = 285 62 58 61 59 57 64 74 76 79 75 410 399 392 400 342 30 1,549 100 140 39 334 “1k 63 85 163 33 1,215 118 126 42 311 66 81 176 26 829 112 117 43 295 63 66 374 . & 32 103 126 112 51 279 64 62 383 26 39 103 108 46 267 61 66 389 . & 13 35 106 108 42 274 57 61 380 943 945 1,206 1,471 1,652 2,512 2,177 1,935 1,218 1,112 1,082 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Dillingham area also includes Aleknagik, Clarks Point and Manokotak. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. TABLE 328 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT DILLINGHAM AREA** 1985 Industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mining * * * * * * * * * * * * Construction 11 7 7 8 20 35 51 54 62 45 40 33 Manufacturing 41 38 88 187 249 501 1,183 485 313 82 38 38 Transportation, Communication 92 86 96 82 91 110 143 159 145 109 100 98 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 4 4 4 5 3 5 6 5 4 4 2 2 Retail Trade 96 94 98 102 114 134 117 + #«2«©1114 a4. 36 CRs. Finance, Insurance and Real 36 39 «=. 39 41 48 68 ao 65 77 67 75 94 Estate Services 253 257 264 282 285 305 312 334 306 282 258 261 Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * * * * Government Federal 60 59 57 58 63 59 57 57 56 55 53 61 State 58 60 79 84 87 88 87 15. 66 64 78 77 Local 391 410 403 406 392 258 141 152 346 376 406 382 TOTAL 1,042 1,054 1,135 1,255 1,352 1,566 2,170 1,503 1,492 1,209 1,169 1,157 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Dillingham area also includes Aleknagik, Clarks Point and Manokotak. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL bo. B 40 89 105 72 262 56 68 377 TABLE 329 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT DILLINGHAM AREA** 1986 Feb Mar Apr May Jun * #4 42 128 285 430 478 97 84 112 116 110 107. «118 «#4133 147 = 161 72 80 58 59 65 262 274 276 270 297 54 53 49 49 52 65 80 81 82 90 391 409 412 400 304 26 927 107 148 393 55 82 171 36 699 112 157 64 367 55 73 185 44 360 104 147 65 325 59 67 332 . & 36 35 121 138 89 274 55 62 371 16 27 103 125 98 261 53 65 364 62 97 120 76 255 52 65 363 1,097 1,106 1,248 1,428 1,584 1,596 1,973 1,756 1,510 1,187 1,120 1,106 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Dillingham area also includes Aleknagik, Clarks Point and Manokotak. Source; Alaska Department of Labor. A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Although the Togiak Bay area has a long history of settlement, it remained relatively isolated from outsiders for much longer than other coastal areas in the Bristol Bay region. Captain Cook passed through Bristol Bay in 1778 and reportedly sent a party ashore at Cape Newenham, but did not visit Togiak Bay. The Togiak area was also bypassed by Russian fur seal and sea otter hunters who began their push northward beyond the Alaska Peninsula after decimating the herds in the Aleutians and Pribilof Islands. The first recorded visit of outsiders to Togiak Bay occurred in 1818 in connection with the establishment of Fort Alexandrovsk at Nushagak. At that time, a party continued around the coast to the Togiak River and on to Cape Newenham and the mouth of the Kuskokwim, before returning to Nushagak. During the next several years, further surveys were made in the Bristol Bay area. Under Yanovski, the third governor of Russian America, the shores of Bristol Bay and the Bering Sea north to the mouth of the Kuskokwim were explored. From 1822 to 1824 the area between Norton Sound and Bristol Bay received further detailed investigation by the party of Kramchenko, Etolin and Wassilief under the direction of Muravief. By 1826, when Sarichef published his atlas of Alaska, the bay, river, lake and village all bearing the name Togiak had been recorded. 607 POPULATION TRENDS TOGIAK 1880 _- 1985 Year Population Percent Change . Decennial Annual 1880 276*. 1890 94* -65.9 1920 91 - 3.2** 1929 71 -22.0 1939 56*** -21.1 1950 108 92.9 1960 220 103.7 1970 383 74.1 1980 470 22.7 1981 511 8.7 1982 507 0.8 1983 531 4.7 1984 554 4.3 1985 556 0.4 = 1880 and 1890 population listed for Togiagamute (Togiagamiut). ** Increase recorded for 1890 to 1920 period. ** The 1939 Census listed Togiak with a population of 10 and Togiak Bay with a population of 46. Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 608 TABLE 331 POPULATION ESTIMATES TOGIAK 1880 - 1987 Year Census her Estim: Sources of Other Estimates 1880 276* 1890 94* 1900 Not listed 1910 Not listed 93 Bureau of Indian Affairs 1920 91 1929 71 1937 56 Bureau of Indian Affairs 1939 56** 1945 71 Orth, 1967 1950 108 1957 174 Ray, 1959 1960 220 1963 314 Bureau of Indian Affairs 1966 409 Bureau of Indian Affairs - includes Twin Hills 1967 423 Bureau of Indian Affairs - includes 5 whites 1967 381 Federal Field Committee - includes 5 whites 1968 400 Alaska Area Native Health Service 1969 400 Federal Field Committee - includes 5 whites 1970 383 1973 375 U.S. Dept. of the Interior - includes 6 whites 1975 492 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 567 U.S. Census Bureau 1980 470 ‘ger Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1981 Slivee 511 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1982 507*** 545 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1982 493 U.S. Census Bureau 1983 531*** 545 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. kk kek 1984 554*** 554 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1985 556*** 556 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1986 623 Dept. Community/Regional Aff. 1987 646 City of Togiak 1880 and 1890 population listed for Togiagamute (Togiagamiut). The 1939 Census listed Togiak with a population of 10 and Togiak Bay with a population of 46. . Alaska Department of Labor estimates derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as Department of Community and Regional Affairs estimates, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses undertaken by the City of Togiak. Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 610 According to Kowta (1963), the people of Togiak were not described separately in the literature prior to Petroff’s account undertaken as part of the 1880 Census. However, VanStone (1967) considers it likely that a Russian Orthodox chapel had been established here by the 1870s. Petroff described residents of the Togiak area as leading a totally nomadic lifestyle, with people living upriver never having seen white men before his visit. He ascended the Togiak River, noting the presence of six villages along its course as well as others along the coast between between Cape Newenham and Cape Constantine, as follows: Settlement Location Population Aziavigamute Hagemeister Strait 132 Togiagamute Togiak River 276 Ikaliukha Togiak River 192 Tunniakhpuk Togiak River 137 Kassianmute Togiak River 615 Nulatok Togiak River 211 Kissaiakh Togiak River 181 Annugannok Togiak River 214 Togiak Station Togiak Bay 24 Ooallikh Togiak Bay 68 Kul luk Kulukak Bay 65 Total 2,115 During the 1880s, the commercial salmon industry became established in the Bristol Bay region with the opening of the first cannery in 1884 at Kanulik on Nushagak Bay. In the same year, Moravian missionaries made a difficult overland crossing from Goodnews Bay to Nushagak only to find both the Nushagak and Togiak areas already claimed by the Russian Orthodox priest at Nushagak. However, early salmon industry and missionary activities in the region largely bypassed the Togiak area. 611 Elliott noted in 1887, apparently based on the findings of the 1880 Census, that no other region of Alaska was as densely settled as the Togiak River. By 1890, a branch trading post of Fort Alexandrovsk had been established on Togiak Bay but the area remained largely isolated from the outside world. However, despite probable inaccuracies in enumeration (both overcount ing by the 1880 Census and undercounting by the 1890 Census), a major decline. in population of the area evidently took place between 1880 and 1890. The 1890 Census recorded only the following settlements between Cape Newenham and Cape Constantine: Settlement ion Population Aziavigamiut Hagemeister Strait 90 Ikalinkamiut Togiak River 60 Kassiachamiut Togiak River 50 Togiagamiut Togiak River 94 Togiak Togiak Bay 14 Total 308 In 1897, a U.S. Geological Survey party led by Spurr and Post descended the Togiak River from the lake to the coast, noting the presence of four native villages and Togiak station. Spurr and Post claimed to be the first whites to traverse the river since Petroff. However, in the years following, the Togiak area became increasingly influenced by outside forces, with the Moravians erecting a small chapel and stationing a missionary couple here in 1899. Reportedly, 276 new people were immediately enrolled to the Moravian church as a result of these activities. The Togiak area was not listed separately by the 1900 or the 1910 Censuses (although the Bureau of Indian Affairs’ estimate of 93 persons at Togiak in 612 1910 probably derives from the 1910 Census) and details relating to events during this period are sketchy although a government school was established at Togiak by 1910, indicating that a significant population remained in the area. According to Henkelman and Vitt (1985), Togiak was hit by a serious influenza epidemic in 1900. Later, the 1918-1919 influenza epidemic devastated the Bristol Bay region, presumably also affecting Togiak. Many small villages in the region simply disappeared during this period due to a combination. of deaths from influenza and the moving away of survivors. Togiak saw an influx of residents from the Yukon-Kuskokwim region following the epidemic although it is not clear exactly when these people arrived. The 1920 Census listed only 91 persons at Togiak village and another 83 persons at Kulukak village on Kulukak Bay. The 1929 Census recorded 71 persons at Togiak, 22 percent less than the number given by the 1920 Census. Three other settlements between Cape Newenham and Cape Constantine were also listed in 1929. These were Uzavigiakamut village (believed to be the same village as Aziavigamute and Aziavigamiut cited by the 1880 and 1890 Censuses respectively) with 63 persons, Kulukak with a population of 28 and Tokelung (presumably referring to the former village of Tuklung on the east shore of Kulukak Bay) with 39 people. The 1939 Census counted only 10 people at Togiak but recorded another 46 persons at Togiak Bay. Other settlements in the area between Cape Newenham and Cape Constantine at that time were Kulukak with a population of 55 and 613 Kashiagamut (formerly recorded as Kassianmute and Kassiachamiut in 1880 and 1890 respectively) with a population of 33. The listing of population at Togiak and Togiak Bay in 1939 reflected the movement of village people from Old Togiak to a new site on the west bank of the Togiak River. Reportedly, heavy winter snowfalls made wood gathering difficult at Old Togiak and people gradually moved to a new site on the opposite bank of the river where snow tended only to make deep drifts on the beach and a trail made the task of gathering wood much easier. In addition, a slough behind the new site provided a good shelter for boats. According to DOWL Engineers (January 1982), there were only 2 or 3 people left in Old Togiak by 1940. During the mid-1940s, the founding of Manokotak (located on the Igushik River, 25 miles southwest of Dillingham) resulted in some out-migration from Togiak. This new settlement also attracted migrants from other villages in the Togiak area, including Tuklung and Kulukak (DOWL Engineers, January 1982). DOWL Engineers noted that the Bureau of Indian Affairs school at Togiak, presumably at the Old Togiak site, was closed in 1938 and that there was no school in the village until 1950. The 1950 Census recorded 108 persons living in Togiak, a 92.9 percent increase over the number counted at Togiak/Togiak Bay in 1939 despite some out-migration. Another 30 persons were counted at Tuklung on Kulukak Bay. 614 In 1960, Togiak was the only community listed by the Census in the area between Cape Newenham and Cape Constantine. At that time, a total of 220 people were counted in the community, a healthy 103.7 percent increase over the number counted in 1950. In part, this increase resulted from in- migration encouraged by the Bureau of Indian Affairs following the construction of a school at Togiak in 1950. The village saw some construction activity during the late 1950s when a permanent 2-classroom school was completed and a National Guard armory was built. A post office was established in the community in 1959. However, the most significant economic event of the 1950 to 1960 decade was the establishment of the Togiak Fisheries cannery near the community in 1954. Togiak experienced severe flooding in October 1964 which caused much damage in the community and also destroyed the Togiak Fisheries cannery. The cannery was rebuilt but 3 or 4 Togiak households established the nearby community of Twin Hills in 1965, reportedly to avoid the recurrent flooding problems (DOWL Engineers, January 1982). In 1970, Togiak and Twin Hills were the only communities listed by the Census in the area between Cape Newenham and Cape Constantine. Togiak’s population then numbered 383, a 74.1 percent growth since 1960 despite some out-migration during the decade to Twin Hills. During the 1970s, major improvements in community infrastructure were undertaken, including the construction of 30 houses by the Alaska State Housing Authority in 1974 and a major upgrading and expansion of the Togiak school in 1973 and 1974. 615 Between 1970 and 1980, Togiak’s population rose another 22.7 percent to 470, despite some further out-migration. Impact Assessment, Inc. (August 1984) noted that Manokotak is believed to have absorbed a significant portion of the 46 persons who out-migrated from Togiak during the 1970 to 1980 decade. However, high rates of natural increase in Togiak during this period resulted in a net gain in community population. Since 1980, Togiak’s population has continued to grow. The Alaska Department of Labor estimated the community’s 1985 population at 556, an 18.3 percent increase. The community population estimate submitted to the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs in 1986 indicated a total population of 623 persons, while a 1987 census conducted by the City of Togiak counted a total of 646 people. Aside from permanent and quasi-permanent (school teachers, etc.) residents of Togiak, the community experiences a major influx of commercial fishermen and some processing plant workers (working offshore and onshore) from outside the: local area during the short but intense salmon and herring fishing seasons. According to City of Togiak estimates, the total population of the Togiak Bay area (including floating processors) at the peak of the season is close to 2,600. This number has grown during the past ten years as a result of increased interest by Bristol Bay fishermen in the Togiak salmon fishery and since large scale exploitation of Togiak Bay herring resources began in 1977. 616 B. POPULATION COMPOSITION The outstanding feature of Togiak’s population is that most residents are Yupik Eskimos. Historically, the only non-Natives living in Togiak have been teachers and missionaries plus an occasional trader. This is still essentially true although the number of non-Natives has increased from around 5 in the 1960s to 27 at the time of the 1980 Census. In 1970, Alaska Natives made up 98.4 percent of Togiak’s population. Despite a significant increase in the number of non-Natives between 1970 and 1980, mainly because of the establishment of a local high school program, Alaska Natives still accounted for 94.3 percent of the community’s residents at the time of the 1980 Census. The population characteristics of Togiak’s Alaska Native and non-Native residents are dissimilar. According to the 1980 Census, the non-Native population was almost exclusively made up of young and middle aged adults plus a small number of young children. The median age of the non-Native population in 1980 was 32.5 for males and 28.8 for females, much older than that for Togiak Natives, although it is reasonably typical of rural Alaska schoolteachers and is comparable with national norms. In addition to the 1970 and 1980 Censuses, detailed population surveys in Togiak have been undertaken by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1966 and by Wolfe et al in 1983. Using these data, supplemented by Permanent Fund dividend and other statistics, a review of changes in the age and sex 617 characteristics of Togiak’s Alaska Native population was undertaken to ascertain changes which have occurred since the 1960s. In 1966, the Bureau of Indian Affairs found the median age of Togiak males and females to be 14.3 and 13.8 respectively. The major factor in the extreme youth of the local population appears to have been high birth rates although higher rates of infant survival were undoubtedly also a factor. Togiak males outnumbered females in 1966 but only by a small margin (50.6 to 49.4 percent). By the time of the 1970 Census, the median age of the community’s Alaska Native population had risen to 16.3 for males and 15.8 for females. The widespread introduction of birth control measures by the U.S. Public Health Service during the 1960s is believed to have been the major reason for the increased median age as the community’s under 5 age group in 1970 was slightly less well represented than the 5 to 9 and 10 to 14 age ranges. Alaska Native males outnumbered females by a 53.6 to a 46.4 percent margin in 1970. This male to female ratio was more unbalanced than that recorded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs four years earlier, although it is not known if the Bureau derived its data by use of a community survey or by other means. The 1980 Census confirmed the trend to a higher median age of Togiak’s population. By this time, the median age of Alaska Native males had risen to 22.8 and that of females to 20.9 (with the community as a whole registering a slightly higher median age of 23.5 for males and 21.4 for 618 females). In 1980, Alaska Natives under the age of 5 accounted for 7.8 percent of Togiak’s total Native population, substantially less than the 14.9 percent recorded for the same age group by the 1970 Census. In 1980, the largest single age groups in the community were the 15 to 19 and 20 to 24 age ranges, i.e. persons born before the Public Health Service’s birth control campaign in the mid-1960s. The male to female ratio, however, was more even than was the case for Alaska Natives in the community in 1970. In 1980, males outnumbered females only slightly by a 50.9 to a 49.1 percent margin. In the near future, the childbearing and migration decisions made by Togiak’s largest population group, i.e. young adults, will determine future rates of community growth. As is indicated by Wolfe et al’s 1983 survey, the under 5 age range is again increasing both in number and as a proportion of total village population (up to 10 percent). Alaska Permanent Fund dividend statistics for 1985 indicate that the proportion of Togiak’s population under the age of 5 rose even further to 12.1 percent. This trend is likely to continue simply because of the relatively large number of young adults in the community rather than any increase in birth rates. Furthermore, according to Togiak’s city manager, few young adults currently leave the community and, when local residents do marry persons from outside the village, their spouses tend to migrate to Togiak. If this situation persists, the number of young children in the village is even more likely to continue to increase, at least during the next five years. 619 The other notable change in Togiak’s population composition between 1980 and 1983 was an increase in the proportion of males who accounted for 53.8 percent of the community’s "permanent" (i.e. excluding most school teachers) in 1983. The principal reasons for this change appear to be some out-migration of young adult females aged between 20 and 24 plus a much higher proportion of males than females in the under 5 age range. Household densities are another indicator of population change. However, although family sizes have doubtless declined, comparisons of household size over time in Togiak and most other rural Alaska communities are misleading. In 1966, the Bureau of Indian Affairs found the mean household size in Togiak (including four families who had recently moved to Twin Hills) to be 5.6. This was similar to the 5.8 persons per unit cited by the 1970 Census. However, the construction of new housing during the 1970s by the Alaska State Housing Authority and the Bristol Bay Housing Authority (using HUD funds) has served to increase the number of available units. Thus, the 1980 Census found an average of 4.6 persons per unit in Togiak. In 1983, Wolfe et al found the average household size in the community to have risen to 5.3 but this apparent increase is again misleading since it is probably due in large part to Wolfe’s exclusion of most school teachers rather than to any significant change in family size. The influence of strong family and other ties among Togiak residents continues to be a major factor in the stability of the community’s Eskimo population. As part of their 1983 work in the community, Wolfe et al ascertained the birthplaces of heads of household. In Togiak’s case, it 620 would have been useful to also know the age of the heads of household since this would have provided better definition of the various periods of in- migration from locations such as Osviak and the Kuskokwim River. However, the following list of birth places does indicate that most Togiak residents originated from either the Togiak Bay or Lower Kuskokwim areas. _ogation t Percentage New Togiak 20 Old Togiak 6 Osviak (Aziavigamute) 16 Togiak River 12 Tundra villages 3 Bristol Bay 10 Kuskokwim River 11 Central Bering Sea coast 13 Other 9 TOTAL 100 C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT There is no published information available which documents the extent of participation by Togiak area residents in the regional cash economy in the early years of the commercial fishing and fish processing industry. However, it is assumed to have been minimal since Alaska Natives were generally excluded from the harvesting sector of the Bristol Bay fishery until after World War II by strong unions controlled by fishermen from California and Seattle (Wolfe et al, February 1984). Moreover, prior to World War II, few Natives were employed by the canneries as the processors relied heavily on Chinese and, later, on Filipino and Mexican contract labor which was seen as being more reliable. According to VanStone (1967), out of 4,328 cannery workers in Southwest Alaska in 1937, only 194 were 621 TABLE 332 POPULATION COMPOSITION TOGIAK 1966 —Age Range _ ——___Number ; Male Female Total Under 14 years 103 103 206 1¢- 24 a 74 25 - 34 22 23 45 35 - 44 21 21 42 45 - 64 21 15 36 65 and over 3 3 6 TOTAL 207 202 409 Median Age 14.3 13.8 13.9 Source: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1966. 622 TABLE 333 POPULATION COMPOSITION TOGIAK 1970 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 33 23 56 0 0 Oo 33 23 56 5-9 63) 62) 125) 0) 0) 0) 29 33 62 10 - 14 ) ) ) ) ) ) 34 29 63 15 - 19 (42 (36 (78 (0 qa qa 31 25 56 20 - 24 ( ( ( ( ( ( 11 12 23 25 - 29 17) 14) 31) 2) 1)" 3) 9 9 18 30 - 34 ) ) ) ) ) ) 10 6 16 35 - 39 (21 (lg } (39 (0 (2 (2 9 12 21 40 - 44 ( ( ( ( ( ( 12 8 20 45 - 49 14) 12) 26) 0) 0) 0) 7 8 15 50 - 54 ) ) ) ) ) ) 7 4 11 55 - 59 (6 (6 (12 (0 (0 (0 4 3 7 60 - 64 ( ( ( ( ( ( 2 3 5 65 - 69 ) ) ys ) ) ) 2 2 4 70 - 74 6) 4) 10) 0) 0) 0) 2 0 2 75 and over ) ) ) ) ) ) 2 2 4 TOTAL 202 175 377 2 4 §& 204 179 383 Median Age 16.3 15.8 16.0 30.0 34.9 32.7 16.0 16.0 16.0 TOGIAK 1980 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Male Female’ Total - Male Female Total Under 5 years 15 20 35 2 1 3 5- 9 18 22 40 Oo 1 1 10 - 14 33 27 60 Oo 0 0 15 - 19 31 35 66 o 1 z 20 - 24 30 33 63 1 1 2 25 - 29 28 18 46 3 4 7 30 - 34 11 6 17 3 1 4 35 - 39 4 11 15 4 2 6 40 - 44 9 7 16 Oo 0 Oo 45 - 49 10 11 21 1 1 2 50 - 54 13 7 20 0 1 1 55 - 59 10 11 21 0 0 0 60 — 64 7 3 10 Oo 0 0 65 - 69 3 4 7 Oo Oo Oo 70 - 74 2 3 5 Oo oO Oo 75 and over 3 1 4 0 0 0 TOTAL 227 219 446 14 13 27 Median Age 2.8 0.9 1.8 32.5 8.8 29.9 TABLE 334 POPULATION COMPOSITION Total Male Female Total 17 21 38 18 23 41 33 27 60 31 36 67 31 34 65 31 22 53 14 7 21 8 13 21 9 7 16 11 12 23 13 8 21 10 11 21 7 3 10 3 4 7 2 3 5 3 1 4 241 232 473 23.5 21:4 22.4 TABLE 335 POPULATION COMPOSITION TOGIAK 1983 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Total Male Female Total Male Female Total . Male Female Total Under 5 years 31 22 53 §2- 9 22 20 42 10 - 14 29 28 57 15 - 19 32 34 66 20 - 24 42 30 72 25 = 29 32 35 67 30 - 34 29 15 44 35 - 39 9 7 16 40 - 44 10 9 19 45 - 49 10 11 21 50 - 54 16 9 25 55 =- 59 6 9 15 60 — 64 9 6 35 65 and over 8 10 18 TOTAL 285 245 530 Median Age 23.5 23.2 3.3 Note: Population figures exclude "temporary" village residents, a definition which includes most school teachers. Total village population in 1983 was estimated by the City of Togiak to total 545 persons. Source: Wolfe et al., February 1984. TABLE 336 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS TOGIAK 1982 - 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 o- 4 52 65 69 5- 9 45 47 10 - 14 55 50 15 - 19 57 61 20 - 24 69 67 25 - 29 65 66 30 - 34 50 58 35 - 39 24 29 40 - 44 22 24 45 - 49 21 19 50 - 54 18 21 55 - 59 16 16 60 - 64 19 21 65 - 69 . 9 8 70 - 74 8 5 75 & over 3 6 Unknown 0 2 1 4 TOTAL 524 547 547 571 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 193; 18-27 - 126; 28-37 -80; 38-47 - 44; 48-57 - 38; 58-67 - 27; 68-77 - 14; 78+ - 2; Unknown - 0; Total - 524. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 52; 5-17 - 138; 18-27 - 138; 28-37 - 87; 38-47 - 47; 48-57 - 37; 58-67 - 30; 68-77 - 14; 78+ -2; Unknown - 2; Total - 547. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 626 Alaska Natives. Native residents of the Bristol Bay region maintained largely traditional lifestyles based on hunting, fishing and trapping until World War II when conscription reduced the "Outside" fishing and fish processing labor force and canneries became more reliant on local workers. At some point during the early years of the twentieth century, reindeer herding was established in the Bristol Bay area. However, this reportedly ended in the 1940s as a result of a combination of poor herding techniques, severe winter weather and other factors (U.S. Department of the Interior, Alaska Planning Group, 1974). The reindeer industry was reactivated in the late 1960s when reindeer were loaned to three individuals from Togiak to enable them to start a privately owned herd on Hagemeister Island (Bureau of Indian Affairs, August 1966). This herd numbered approximately 435 head by 1972 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Alaska Planning Group, 1974) and today there are around 700 to 800 animals on the island (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, personal communication). However, it is now owned by a single individual who purchased it from the local village corporation during the late 1970s (Wolfe et al, February 1984). The Togiak salmon fishery did not develop as a commercial fishery until after World War II when buying scows from canneries near Dillingham began coming over to Togiak Bay. According to Wolfe et al (February 1984), these early buying efforts were haphazard. During this period, many Togiak families traveled by boat to Dillingham each season and camped on the 627 beaches below town where they put up fish for their own consumption and did wage labor for the canneries. Togiak’s modern economy dates from 1954 when the first cannery was established in the Togiak Bay area (Wolfe et al, February 1984). This provided a stable local buyer of fish and allowed the development of a local fishery. Village participation in commercial salmon fishing activities increased rapidly thereafter and the seasonal movement to Dillingham ceased almost immediately. Togiak men and their sons did the harvesting while many of the wives and daughters went to work in the cannery. The National Guard also became a significant source of cash income for many village households and construction of an armory in Togiak was undertaken in 1959 (Kowta, 1963). The earliest comprehensive report on wage and salary employment in the Togiak area was undertaken by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1966. This report noted that only 3 local men and one woman were employed full-time. The remainder of the labor force was employed on the annual salmon run, with a few also aacaaee by the commercial salmon industry during the winter months, presumably in maintenance or caretaker occupations. The labor force at that time was broken down as follows: In labor force (over 14) 82 31 113 Not in labor force (over 14) 11 48 59 Total 93 79 172 628 Although some villagers fished for canneries in the Dillingham area, most fished for Togiak Fisheries located just across the mouth of the Togiak River. That company was seen as the main reason for Togiak’s rapid population growth and its relative prosperity. However, there was no village store at the time and subsistence activities remained a major focus of village existence. The 1970s marked another period of major economic change for Togiak. After passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971, Togiak Natives, Ltd. became a significant force in the local economy. A high school program was added in the mid-1970s which not only enabled students to complete their education in their home town but also increased the number of non-Natives in the village and provided some additional job opportunities for local residents. Although it was a significant source of temporary employment in some rural areas of the State, construction of the Trans Alaska Pipeline project had little economic impact on Togiak. According to Alyeska Pipeline Service Company records (Alaska Review of Social and Economic Conditions, February 1978), only 4 Togiak residents (or 1 percent of the number enrolled to Togiak Natives, Ltd.) worked at least temporarily on this project at some point between 1974 and 1977. The major economic event of the 1970s in Togiak was the dramatic expansion of the commercial herring sac roe fishery in this area in 1977 which resulted in a major influx of processors, purse seiners and non-local gillnetters into Togiak Bay. Local fishermen were slow to enter this 629 fishery, instead focusing their efforts on the herring roe-on-kelp fishery which requires much less initial investment in gear. The Alaska Planning Group, U.S. Department of the Interior (1974) estimated that about 225 Togiak residents bought commercial fishing licenses in 1972, and additional persons were employed by fish processing plants in the area, while still others traveled outside the local area to work in processing plants elsewhere in the Bristol Bay: region. Virtually all adult residents of the community were said to derive income from some aspect of the commercial fishing industry. Trapping was the only other significant local industry relying on a natural resource, with Togiak residents contributing heavily to the Dillingham beaver round-up. Most wage employment in the Togiak area in 1972 continued to be seasonal, with opportunities greatest during the summer. In addition to fishing and fish processing, lighterage operations employed significant numbers of people when the barges arrived with the yearly supply of groceries, fuel and other goods. Village housing or other construction projects also periodically provided summer employment, while some people traveled to other areas of the State for construction jobs. The 1972 report also noted that Togiak area residents were sometimes employed on an emergency basis by the Bureau of Land Management to fight forest fires, but that no one had been employed in that capacity in either 1971 or 1972. The Army National Guard was another source of part-time 630 employment and a few people were noted to be employed full-time, mostly by the school, post office and health agencies and by village stores. 1980 Census labor force and employment information for Togiak (including some comparisons with 1970) were examined for this report. Total 1980 employment data for Togiak appear to be reasonably accurate when compared with subsequent (1983) analyses undertaken by Wolfe et al (February 1984). However, unemployment rates are misleading for a community like Togiak which has a highly seasonal economy. Had the Census been taken in July rather than April, for example, recorded unemployment rates for Togiak would have been minimal. Furthermore, Census Bureau allocations of employment by industry in Togiak for 1970 and 1980 do not accurately reflect the situation in the community, even allowing for differences in industry definition. In a community profile of Togiak, DOWL Engineers (1982) noted the community’s heavy depentinice on subsistence activities, with the cash economy continuing to center around the commercial fishing and fish processing industry. However, that industry had broadened as a result of the institution of a large scale commercial herring fishery in Togiak Bay in 1977. At the time of the DOWL report, three fish processing facilities were located near Togiak. Togiak Fisheries, located on the opposite shore from the community, continued to be the major employer. Kachemak Seafoods had a plant at the edge of the town and the local village corporation was in the process of constructing a new cannery, Togiak Eskimo Seafoods, near the Kachemak Seafoods plant. 631 Participation by Togiak residents in commercial fishing activities continued to be high. According to DOWL Engineers, 50 set net permits and 100 to 150 drift net permits were held by Togiak residents. Very few local persons were said to participate in the herring sac roe fishery, but about 200 people were estimated to be involved in harvesting herring roe on kelp. Non-fisheries employment in Togiak in 1981 included 16 persons (probably not all of them full-time) employed in a wide variety of municipal functions; 2 health aides; 16 full-time school instructors and 5 part-time teacher aides. The village also had a cooperative store (established in 1970 with financing from the Community Enterprise Development Corporation), a National Guard armory, two churches (Moravian and Seventh Day Adventist) and a transportation company office. Wolfe et al. (February 1984) undertook a comprehensive analysis of wage and salary employment in Togiak in 1983. (Other reports published at about the same time - Payne and Braund, November 1983; and Impact Assessment, Inc., August 1984; were also reviewed but Wolfe’s data were the most complete). The results of that work have been further analyzed for this report and converted into estimated average annual full-time employment. The major omission in terms of average annual full-time employment (although a deliberate one) is that Wolfe’s count excludes non-Togiak residents who participate in the local commercial salmon and herring fisheries and who contribute to the local economy. The scale of the local fishing and fish processing industry is therefore greatly understated. In addition, most 632 school teachers were excluded on the basis that they were not "permanent" community residents. However, the breakdown of employment by industry and employer does provide considerable insight into changes in the local economy which have occurred during the past twenty years, especially when viewed in conjunction with estimated sources of income for the same year (also compiled by Wolfe et al). According to Wolfe, 136 Togiak residents participated in the area’s salmon fishery during 1982. Although salmon begin entering Togiak Bay in mid-June and continue through August, effort by most Togiak-based fishermen is concentrated in July, with few fishing more than five days per week. When converted to average annual full-time employment, the Togiak salmon fishery represents only about 11 jobs. Also during 1982, 19 Togiak residents participated in the herring sac roe fishery, while 53 local persons were engaged in the herring roe-on-kelp fishery. The length of season for these fisheries is of even shorter duration than the salmon fishery, with herring sac roe being taken during Fag erioot period and the two or three herring roe-on-kelp openings being limited to a few days. Together, the herring fisheries were estimated to employ an annual average full-time equivalent of 1 local person. Although Togiak’s commercial salmon and herring fisheries are estimated to employ an average annual full-time equivalent of only about 12 persons, the fishing industry is by far the greatest source of cash income in the village. Wolfe (February 1984) estimated that income from this industry in 1982 represented two-thirds of total village cash income or, if transfer 633 and dividend payments are excluded, for 77.9 percent of total wage and salary income. Thus, the importance of the fishing industry to Togiak is far greater than that indicated by average annual full-time employment equivalent statistics. Furthermore, the opportunities afforded by commercial fishing in this area not only enable Togiak residents to earn significant amounts of cash income in a very short period but also provide them with large blocks of time for subsistence pursuits. The share of the total Togiak salmon fishery earned by local fishermen has steadily declined since 1976, due primarily to increased participation by non-local fishermen. In 1976, village fishermen delivered 70.7 percent of the total value of salmon caught in the Togiak district. By 1982, this had fallen to 53.2 percent. Wolfe also noted that the number of permits fished by Togiak residents decreased from a peak of 125 in 1979 to 116 in 1982, primarily because of revocation of interim-use permits and transfers of permits out of the community. He further noted that another six locally held interim-use drift gillnet permits were lost through adjudication and revocation between 1982 and 1983. Fish processing employment accounted for an annual equivalent of only 6 full-time jobs for Togiak residents in 1983. According to Wolfe (February 1984), Kachemak Seafoods employed approximately 40 local persons (mostly teenagers and young adults but no adult men) during the peak of the salmon season and 8 local women worked at the nearby Togiak Fish cannery. 634 Local participation in fish processing activities by Togiak residents has declined over the years. Wolfe noted that few males now work in seafood processing as fishing is seen as more rewarding, both economically and socially. In addition, adult women have increasingly become involved in fishing and made up over 20 percent of the local permit holders in 1982. However, while Togiak males primarily hold drift permits, the females primarily hold set gillnet permits. The government sector was the major source of full-time employment in Togiak in 1983, with the largest employers being the Southwest Region Schools and the City of Togiak. Wolfe’s employment figures for Southwest Region Schools are understated as they exclude almost all teachers on the basis that they are not "permanent" community residents. Employment in the government sector has increased markedly over the past twenty years, primarily because of increased State spending for education and local government support programs. Employment by Togiak Natives, Ltd., the local ANCSA village corporation, accounted for an estimated average annual equivalent of 6.5 persons in 1983, spread among the contract construction, trade and the finance, insurance and real estate sectors. Other employment in the community in 1983 amounted to an equivalent of 8.5 full-time jobs in 1983, mainly in the trade and service sectors. In its profile of Togiak (October 1987), the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference included some employment data. These data are not directly 635 comparable with earlier statistics compiled by Wolfe and others because they do not take employment seasonality into account. The number of locally held commercial salmon fishery permits in 1986 was the same as in 1983, although it is not known how many of those permits were fished in the latter year. In general, the composition of employment in Togiak in 1986 appears to have changed little from that described by Wolfe et al. However, the plant formerly operated by Kachemak Seafoods is now operated by T.E.A.M. Seafoods which also leases the buildings constructed by Togiak Natives, Ltd. According to the city manager, these shore facilities were not utilized for seafood processing during 1987 but will be used for that purpose during the 1988 season. The nearby Togiak Fisheries plant continues to operate in the same manner as in prior years. Finally, Alaska Department of Labor monthly employment statistics for the Togiak area (which includes the nearby village of Twin Hills) were examined to see if they could provide a reliable time series by which trends in employment in the community could be assessed. For Togiak, this data series has a serious limitation in that covered employment excludes fishermen, the major source of community employment and income. In addition, local employment by the Southwest Region Schools appears to be counted at Dillingham, the school district headquarters, while that for most other sectors is not available because of disclosure regulations. Within these limitations, however, the series does have some value in that it provides a degree of insight into the total scale of fish processing operations in the Togiak area. 636 TABLE 337 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA TOGIAK 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Labor Force Status Alaska Natives All Races Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces 0 0 0 0 0 Civilian Employed 13 18 27 33 60 Civilian Unemployed 81 57 81 57 138 Not in Labor Force 50 68 53 68 121 Labor Force Participation Rate 65.0% 52.0% 67.0% 56.0% 62.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 86.2% 76.0% 75.0% 63.3% 69.7% 1970 * * 19.2% 0.0% 11.6% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 ———Industry Construction Manufacturing Transportation Communications Trade Finance, Insurance & Real Estate Services Public Administration Other ; TOTAL E B Mm mw iO Noo NOF WOW ico oun oONnNMmooeo ju * Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 637 TABLE 338 AVERAGE ANNUAL FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT BY EMPLOYER* TOGIAK 1983 Industry Classification Number Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 12.0 (136 fishermen/1 month plus herring fishery) (12.0)* Mining 0.0 Contract Construction 2.0 (Togiak Natives Ltd.) ( 2.0)* Manufacturing 6.0 (Togiak Fish Cannery) ( 1.0)* (Kachemak Seafoods) ( 5.0)* Transportation, Communication and 1.0 Public Utilities (AVEC) 5) (United Utilities) 5) Trade 0 (Togiak Natives Store) (Co-op Store) (Fuel Custodian) a FOR RR OOS FPWWNMNMONLWOO ° ° e ° or ~— * (6 Family Stores) -0)* Finance, Insurance and Real Estate -0 (Togiak Natives Ltd.) -0) Service 0 (Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation) 0) Government 31.5 Federal (Post Office) ( 1.5) State Local (City of Togiak) (14.0) (Southwest Region Schools) (14.0)** (Village Public Safety Officers) ( 2.0) TOTAL 66.5 * Estimated. Fishing and fish processing employment includes Togiak residents only. Fishing employment data are for 1982. ** Teachers (excluding aides) counted as full-time employees. Note: Other local employment and income was derived from airport Maintenance, Food Stamp fee processing, weather observation and National Guard activities. Source: Wolfe et al. February 1984. 638 TABLE 339 ESTIMATED CASH INCOME BY SOURCE TOGIAK 1982 Without Transfer and With Transfer and Dividend Payments Dividend Payments Source of Income Income Percentage Income Percentage Commercial fishery $3,061,000 77.9 $3,061,000 66.6 State and federal 398,000 10.1 398,000 8.7 employment City of Togiak 171,000 4.4 171,000 3.7 Togiak Natives, Ltd. 86,000 2.2 86,000 1.9 Commercial trapping 10,000 0.2 10,000 0.2 Cannery employment 60,000 1.5 60,000 1.3 Other employment** 141,000 3.6 141,000 3.1 Transfer payments*** 138,000 3.0 Dividend payments 530,000 11.5 TOTAL $3,927,000 100.0 $4,595,000 100.0 7 Excludes income from non-resident teachers, family-operated stores and temporary employment. ** Includes employment by AVEC, Cooperative Store, United Utilities, airline agents, airline pilots and private fuel distributor. *** Includes public assistance, food stamps and energy assistance. Source: Wolfe et al. February 1984. 639 TABLE 340 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT TOGIAK AREA** 1980 Industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction * * * * * * * * * * Manufacturing * * * 14 36 54 116 146 80 18 Transportation, Commmnication * * * 0 0 0 * * * * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oo Retail Trade * * * * * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real oO oO 0 0 0 oO 0 oO oO * Estate Services * * * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 Government Federal 2 2 2 0 0 Oo Oo 0 0 0 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local 13 19 17 17 20 18 15 12 21 TOTAL 23 28 27 35 $1 86 148 174 112 38 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = Togiak area also includes Twin Hills. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. oo oo TABLE 341 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT TOGIAK AREA** 1981 ——industry Classification. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction * * * * * * * * Manufacturing 8 4 5 * * * 125 142 Transportation, Communication * * * * * * 25 25 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 Oo 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Government Federal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local TOTAL 24 20 19 37 = 132 87 153 170 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = =©6 Togiak area also includes Twin Hills. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. —— ~ 2 & 82 30 11 oo TABLE 342 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT TOGIAK AREA** 1982 ——Industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Mining 0 © 60 6 60 606 0 6 0 0 Construction * * * * * * * * * ra Manufacturing 4 5 3 4 14 108 99 127 103 11 Transportation, Communication * * * * * * * * * * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 Oo 0 Oo Oo 0 0 Government Federal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local 24 20 21 22 23 28 22 26 40 49 TOTAL 24 20 21 35 53 147 140 174 162 83 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Togiak area also includes Twin Hills. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. TABLE 343 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT TOGIAK AREA** 1983 Industry Classification Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Mining ee ee en Construction * * * * * * Manufacturing 1 2 7 214 (245 244 Transportation, Communication * * * * * * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 Government Federal 0 0 0 0 0 0 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local 26 18 29 22 22 17 TOTAL 32 35 51 249 292 285 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Togiak area also includes Twin Hills. Source; Alaska Department of Labor. ~ o °o ——industry Classification _ Jan Mining 0 Construction * Manufacturing * Transportation, Communication 0 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade * Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services * Miscellaneous * Government Federal 0 State 0 Local 19 TOTAL 42 TABLE 344 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT TOGIAK AREA** 1984 Mar Apr ) 0 * * * 13 0 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * 0 0 0 0 1g 31 5359 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~=Togiak area also includes Twin Hills. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. o E 20 113 11 104 TABLE 345 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT TOGIAK AREA** 1985 i 0 Construction * Manufacturing * Industry Classification Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 * * Oo Transportation, Communication 0 _ and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * Government Federal 0 0 0 Oo 0 State 0 0 0 0 0 Local 16 15 14 15 15 TOTAL 39 34 36 176 34 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~=Togiak area also includes Twin Hills. Source; Alaska Department of Labor. sic o 418 °o 17 Mining 0 Construction * Manufacturing 17 Transportation, Communication 0 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade * Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services * Miscellaneous 0 Government Federal 0 State 0 Local 22 TOTAL 59 TABLE 346 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT TOGIAK AREA** * o ig 17 1986 Apr ~ of 198 0 0 25 46 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~=Togiak area also includes Twin Hills. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. roo UNALASK: A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Unalaska is located on Unalaska Island in the Fox Islands group in the eastern Aleutian Islands, about 800 miles southwest of Anchorage. As eighteenth century Russian explorers and fur traders progressed eastward along the Aleutian Island chain in their quest for commercially valuable furs, the numerous traditional Aleut villages throughout the Fox Islands were inevitably drawn into the sphere of Russian influence. Reportedly, the Russian explorer Chirikof was the first European to sight Unalaska Island in 1741 (Bancroft, 1886), although the first landing by Russians did not take place until 1762. These first contacts led to hostile confrontations with the Aleut occupants and to forcible pacification, with many Aleut deaths (Bancroft, 1886). Around 1765, the Russian merchant Glotov established a permanent settlement at Iliuliuk on Unalaska Bay as the center for the region’s fur hunting operations. The disruption of traditional Aleut settlement patterns in this area then began in earnest. The aboriginal Aleut population can be subdivided into two broad sub-areas, based on dialectic differences: the western Atka district made up of the Andreanof, Rat and Near Islands; and the eastern Unalaska district made up of the Fox Islands group, the Pribilof Islands (settled after 1786 ee Aleuts relocated mainly from the Unalaska district), the Shumagin Islands and the lower Alaska Peninsula. For purposes of describing the historic evolution of Unalaska village itself, it is helpful to use a smaller sub- 647 region which includes the settlements of Unalaska Island and nearby Sidanak Island. Estimates of the aboriginal Aleut population prior to Russian contact are debatable. Laughlin (1980) accepts an estimated pre-contact population of about 16,000 Aleuts overall, of whom 10,000 to 11,000 lived in the Unalaska district. The post-contact population of Unalaska and other nearby settlements has been relatively well documented. Within decades of Russian contact, the Aleut population declined precipitously. Military oppression, resettlement, disease and seafaring hazards each played a part. The Russian overlords also impressed Aleut men into service as hunters and laborers for their ventures in Kodiak, Sitka, Yakutat and even California. In the early 1800s, the Russians sent many Aleut families, mainly from the Unalaska area, to colonize the Pribilof Islands. Veniaminov put the 1781 Aleut population of the Unalaska district at 1,900 persons, already less than a fifth of the pre-contact level. An 1818 Russian census of the Aleut population (Petroff, 1883) recorded a total Aleut population of 1,469 persons, the majority of whom (1,022) lived in the Fox Islands group. Baron Wrangell (Petroff, 1884), reported three settlements (Iliuliuk, Biorka and Chernovsky) on Unalaska Island in 1825, with a total combined population of 403 persons, the largest of which was Iliuliuk with 333 people. "Iliuliuk", a former name for Unalaska, possibly encompassed a number of small settlements on the shore of Unalaska Bay. (Biorka, which 648 was actually on nearby Sidanak Island, was often included with Unalaska Island settlements). Veniaminov’s more painstaking 1831 census counted 11 villages in the Unalaska sub-region, for a total area population of 516 persons. Unalaska, with 196 residents, was the largest settlement. Based on these censuses, it appears that in this era the Unalaska sub-region’s Aleut population ranged between 500 and 600 persons. Of course, by this time, traditional Unalaska area settlement patterns had already been shattered by massive depopulation and forced resettlement under Russian control. It is also noteworthy that these early censuses consistently enumerated more female than male Aleuts, a circumstance that may be due to the risks which male fur seal hunters encountered at sea. Finally, a census of the inhabitants of Russian America conducted in 1863, shortly before Alaska’s purchase by the United States, counted a total of 2,428 Aleuts, unfortunately not allocated by place. This figure is only slightly higher than the 1825 census of all Aleuts (1,851 persons, not including perhaps 400 Pribilof Islanders) and Veniaminov’s 1841 estimated total Aleut population of 2,247 persons. The consistency of these data suggest that there was no major change in the overall size of the Aleut population between 1825 and the United States’ purchase of Alaska, although there probably were significant intra-regional population shifts. The first official United States census of Alaska (1880) recorded 783 persons at five Unalaska Island villages, of which Unalaska village (406 persons) was largest. By that date, Unalaska’s role as a meeting place ' between the region’s traditional Aleut communities and Indo-European 649 outlanders had put its signature on the population. The 1880 Census classified nearly half of Unalaska village’s population as "creole" or "white", while the more traditional villages were still almost wholly unmixed Aleut. A distinguishing feature of Unalaska’s post-contact history has been its unique suitability to further the fickle economic and territorial ambitions of extra-regional interests. The main reason for Unalaska’s periodic but passing conscription into national and international schemes has been its superior natural harbor close to Unimak Pass, the major North Pacific shipping route between the American Northwest and Asia’s North Pacific ports and Alaska’s arctic waters and ports. The Russian fur hunters first chose Unalaska as the command center for their fur harvest and shipping operations in the eastern Aleutian Islands. Later, under American rule, Unalaska became a supply depot, coaling station and port of refuge for whaling and pioneer fishing fleets sailing arctic waters. Similarly, by the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Unalaska was the port of entry for all of Western Alaska. It served as a marshalling area for gold rush era miners, supplies and construction materials en route, first to the Klondike via the Yukon River and later to Nome and the Seward Peninsula gold fields. (Note: Unalaska’s 1900 Census population of 428 persons was not exceeded until World War II). For a time, Unalaska was one of the busiest ports on America’s West coast. After the gold rush era waned, several small salteries and canneries for herring, salmon and whale meat operated for a time around Unalaska (Martinson, 1973). Unalaska also 650 TABLE 347 POPULATION OF UNALASKA ISLAND VILLAGES 1825 Village Male Female Total Iliuliuk 152 181 333 Biorka 11 16 27 Chernovsky 22 21 43 OTA 184 219 403 Source: Wrangell, per Petroff (1884). TABLE 348 POPULATION OF UNALASKA ISLAND VILLAGES 1831 Village Male Female Total Unalaska Island Iliuliuk 90 106 196 Natuikinak 6 9 15 Pestriakaf 18 21 39 Vesselovsky 7 8 15 Makushin 15 20 35 Koshigin 18 23 41 Chernovsky 20 24 a4 Imaguak 15 1? 32 Kalekhta 6 8 14 Bobrovskuia 21 20 41 Sub-Total 216 256 472 Sidanak Island Biorka 17 27 44 TOTAL 233 283 516 Source: Veniaminov, per Petroff (1884). 651 TABLE 349 RACIAL COMPOSITION OF POPULATION UNALASKA ISLAND VILLAGES 1880 Village Aleut Creole White Unalaska 230 162 14 Biorka 133 6 1 Chernovsky 94 4 3 Kashega 73 -- 1 Makushin 31 30 1 2TOTAL 561 202 20 Source: Petroff (1884). 652 Village 1880 1890 1900 Unalaska 406 317 428 Biorka 140 57 48 Chernovsky 101 78 61 Dutch Harbor Village Kashega 74 46 °&52 Makushin 62 $1 71 TOTAL 83 549 660 Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Jones (1973). TABLE 350 HISTORIC POPULATION UNALASKA ISLAND 1910 281 1880 - 1985 1920 1929 299 226 46 22 51 38 17 51. 38 47 341 1939 298 20 26 52 26 1950 1960 173 218 173 18 41970 1980 1985 342 1,322 1,331 became a supply and trading center for the fox farming enterprises which flourished briefly in the region during the 1910s and 1920s. Unalaska’s strategic military significance for modern North Pacific naval and air operations and as a “back door" route to Eastern Europe was recognized even before the outbreak of World War II. Faulkner (1987) provides a concise account of the military operations around Unalaska/Dutch Harbor, including the United States’ local build-up of naval, army and air installations before and during the War. As the War ended and the military installations were decommissioned, there was a lull as Unalaska regrouped as a community. Then, in the early 1960s, exploitation of the king crab commercial fishery propelled Unalaska toward its next transformation: as a major port for landing, processing and transshipment of North Pacific seafoods. However, Unalaska’s new fishing economy suffered a series of booms and busts as the commercial fishing industry harvested, then over-harvested, newly exploited king and tanner crab, shrimp and halibut grounds. These events underlined the cyclic instability of Unalaska’s economic role in a poorly managed commercial fishery. More recently, with implementation of the 1976 Fishery Conservation and Management Act, Unalaska has re-emerged as a support center and transshipment point for a growing domestic Bering Sea groundfish fishery, with uncertain potential for an enlarged role in certain processing operations. And, for the time being, Unalaska’s role as a major support base for OCS oil and gas operations remains prospective, 654 pending the outcome of exploration for commercial petroleum reserves in the Bering Sea offshore region. After 1880, the population figures for the Unalaska sub-region’s Aleut population show two significant trends. First, the sub-region’s total Aleut population follows a generally downward trend, although the true pace of decline is obscured by incomplete Census coverage in 1910, 1920 and, perhaps, 1929. Unalaska suffered repeatedly from epidemics. A measles outbreak killed a third of the town’s residents in 1890 and the 1919 influenza epidemic took about a fourth of the population (Surla, 1970). Second, except for Unalaska, all of the sub-region’s traditional villages were slowly dwindling in population even before the War, with many of their residents relocating to Unalaska. Jones (1973) cites a 1940 household census of the six Unalaska Island villages which found that 35 of 37 migrants from Chernovsky, Makushin, Biorka and Kashega had moved to Unalaska. Jones (1969) attributes Unalaska’s attraction for nearby villages’ residents to its superior employment and community services. For example, Unalaska had a school since 1890 (only one other Unalaska sub- region village, Kashega, had its own school for a few years), a resident doctor around 1900 and a Bureau of Indian Affairs-operated hospital in 1934. The wartime evacuation and government resettlement policies brought this prolonged process of village abandonment to a sudden climax. Whereas in 1939 there were six occupied villages and 406 persons on Unalaska Island, by 1950 there was a single settlement at Unalaska with 173, mostly Aleut, 655 TABLE 351 POPULATION ESTIMATES UNALASKA 1805 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1805 360 Per Jones, 1969 1825 333 Wrangell, per Petroff 1831 196 Veniaminov, per Petroff 1834 196 Per Jones, 1969 1879 304 Per Jones, 1969 1880 406 1890 317 1897 250 Per Jones, 1969 1900 428 269 Hooper, per Jones, 1969 1910 281 1920 299 1929 243* 1939 350** 1950 173 1960 218 220 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1967 254 City of Unalaska files 1967 246 Per Jones, 1969 1967 320 Federal Field Committee - 182 Native; 138 non-Native 1967 500 ASHA, 1967 1969 350 Federal Field Committee - 225 Native; 125 non-Native 1970 342 350 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1970 306 Jones, 1969 1970 475 Jones & Jones, per Surla, 1970 1972 548 City of Unalaska census, per Impact Assessment Inc., 1983 1973 510 City of Unalaska census, per - Impact Assessment Inc., 1983 1975 417 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 510 U.S. Census Bureau 656 1977 1980 1,322 1980 1,380*** 1981 1,944*** 1982 1982 1,922*** 1983 1,677*** 1984 1,447*** 1985 1,331*** 1986 1987 Alaska Consultants, Inc., 1981 Tryck, Nyman and Hayes, 1977 Dept Dept U.S. Dept. Dept. Dept. Dept. Dept. Dept. . Community/Regional Affairs . Community/Regional Affairs Census Bureau (July) Community/Regional Affairs Community/Regional Affairs Community/Regional Affairs Community/Regional Affairs Community/Regional Affairs Community/Regional Affairs * Includes 17 residents of Dutch Harbor Village. ** Includes 52 residents of Dutch Harbor Village. *** Alaska Department of Labor estimates derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as those cited by the Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses or estimates. Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1980 - 1985 figures). 657 TABLE 352 POPULATION TRENDS UNALASKA 1880 - 1985 Year Population Percent Change Decennial Annual 1880 406 1890 317 -21.9 1900 428 35.0 1910 281 -34.3 1920 299 6.4 1930 226 -24.4 1939 298 31.9 1950 173 -41.9 1960 218 26.0 1970 342 56.9 1980 1,322 286.5 1981 1,944 47.0 1982 1,922 -1.1 1983 1,677 -12.7 1984 1,447 -13.7 1985 1,331 -8.0 Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 658 residents. Unfortunately, the demographic snapshots logged by the decennial Censuses took place before and after the War years and, thus, do not fully reflect the traumatic events of the 1940s: the wholesale evacuation of the Unalaska sub-region’s Aleut population to Southeast Alaska in the summer of 1942; the rapid establishment and decommissioning of a 10,000+ person army, naval and air garrison on Unalaska Island; and the 1945 resettlement of part of the Island’s evacuated pre-war Aleut population exclusively to Unalaska. In any case, the 1950 Census count of 173 residents at Unalaska marked a contemporary low point in the community’s demographic and economic history. Jones (1973) juxtaposed the voluntary process of pre-War village population shifts with the coercive manner of the wartime dislocations: The now deserted villages of Biorka, Kashega, Chernovsky, and Makushin did not have local economies sufficient to support their populations after sea otter hunting ended. . . In the prewar period, members of these villages were moving to Unalaska, the nuclear village, which offered the best job opportunities and community services in the Unalaska village complex. This migration was interrupted early in World War II when the federal government evacuated all Unalaska Aleuts to southeastern Alaska. When the evacuation ended in 1945, the government completed the consolidation process; it returned evacuees to Unalaska Village, and officials informed them that no government services would be provided to the other villages. Jones (1973 pp. 17-18. Although Unalaska’s Aleut residents were all evacuated in June 1942 due to World War II (non-Natives were allowed to remain) and replaced by a 10,000+ military garrison, the community managed, remarkably, to regain its Aleut identity after the war. Once hostilities abated, the military. quickly decommissioned most of its facilities and departed (Faulkner, 1987). The 659 submarine facilities were decommissioned in May 1945 and the air station reduced in June 1945. The naval base was decommissioned and all naval personnel gone by 1947. When the apparent danger of Japanese invasion was dispelled, the federal government returned most Unalaska Aleuts to their home community. However, the government allowed residents of the Island’s outlying communities (Makushin, Kashega, Biorka) to resettle only to Unalaska. This policy was the death knell for the Island’s other fading villages. Some of their residents returned to Unalaska, while others were dispersed to other parts of the State and nation. Thus, the ironic aftermath of the Wartime evacuation and garrisoning was to consolidate Unalaska’s status as the sub-region’s primary Aleut community, though at the expense of the rest of the Island’s traditional communities and with substantial loss in the size of the sub-region’s total Aleut population. Following World War II, the community’s Aleut population began a steady rebound, until sudden development of the king crab fisheries overwhelmed the traditional population. After the wartime demise of the other Unalaska Island villages, Unalaska’s superior economic and living conditions attracted some Aleut residents from other Aleutian villages as well as returning emigres from outside the region. For example, a 1969 survey by Jones (Surla, 1970) tallied 43 Native immigrants to Unalaska between 1967 and 1969, 25 of whom relocated from other Aleutian villages and 14 who returned from outside the region (Anchorage, Kodiak and Seattle). 660 TABLE 353 NUMBER AND ORIGIN OF NATIVE IMMIGRANTS UNALASKA JU 967 _- DECEMB 69 Pl rigi ers Families Aleutian Villages Nikolski 6 2 Atka 4 2 Akutan 2 1 False Pass 13 3 Other Alaska Native Villages 4 2 Anchorage 4 1 Kodiak 8 2 Seattle 2 1 TOTAL 43 14 Source: Dorothy M. Jones, December 1969 survey, cited in Surla (1970). However, other data suggest that the extent of ongoing immigration to Unalaska from other villages may have been less than Jones’ figures imply. For instance, data on ANCSA enrollment patterns as of 1974 indicate that only 22 of 181 enrolled Alaska Natives then living in Unalaska were enrolled to other village corporations, suggesting that only a small share of Unalaska’s Native residents retained strong ties to other villages. On the other hand, over 40 percent of the persons enrolled to Unalaska’s village corporation actually lived elsewhere. Together, these enrollment figures suggest, though inconclusively, that Unalaska had experienced a net out-migration of Aleut residents in the years prior to 1974. On the other hand, comparison of the 1970 Census count of Unalaska’s Native residents (113 persons) and the 1974 enrollment figure (181 persons) appear to imply 661 a sudden influx of Natives. But this latter inference is debatable, since this pre-ANCSA Census appears to have classified as non-Native many persons who would be regarded as Alaska Native under ANCSA’s terms. As recently as the 1970 Census, Unalaska was still a small (178 residents, 164 transients), mostly Aleut (63 percent) village. Thereafter, the community’s character changed rapidly. The development of the king crab commercial fishing and processing industry brought a flood of newcomers and transients. The October 1977 census conducted by Tryck, Nyman and Hayes (1977) as part of a City comprehensive plan registered an almost six-fold increase in population to 1,971 persons (615 residents, 1,256 transients). After 1970, interpretation of population (and employment) trends for Unalaska becomes complicated by the prominent role that seasonal and non- resident workers have come to play in the town’s population and workforce. According to official Census figures, Unalaska’s population climbed from 342 persons in 1970 to 1,322 persons in 1980, about equally divided between residents and non-residents. Six hundred persons were living in group quarters (e.g. bunkhouses, dormitories and commercial fishing vessels) and thus, most likely, were transient. However, city officials believed that the 1980 decennial Census substantially undercounted the community’s population and arranged for a special State Department of Labor-assisted and certified municipal census in 1981. This latter census recorded 469 dwelling units, compared with the 1980 Census’ 323 dwelling units, convincing evidence that the official Census was indeed faulty. 662 The 1981 census population count was 1,944 persons (1,054 residents, 890 transients). According to the Department of Labor (Alaska Population Overview, 1981), the discrepancy in transient population figures for 1977, 1980 and 1981 is at least partly due to seasonal variations in the timing of the population counts. However, the Department of Labor attributes the 1980 Census undercount of permanent residents to careless Census procedures which resulted in many local households being overlooked. In sum, the 1980 Census total population figure for Unalaska is very likely wrong and the detailed population data warrants cautious analysis. The population data indicate that Unalaska has characteristically had a core of transient workers in recent years, but the data do not reflect the turnover rate of this transient component of the local population. TABLE 354 RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS CITY OF UNALASKA 1970 - 1981 Residents Non-Residents Total Year Number Percent Number Percent Number 19701 178 52.0 164 48.0 342 19722 430 78.5 118 21.5 548 19773 615 31.2 1,256 68.8 1,971 19801 722 54.6 600 45.4 1,322 19814 1,054 54.2 890 45.8 1,944 U.S. Bureau of the Census. City of Unalaska census, per Impact Associates, Inc., 1983. Tryck, Nyman and Hayes, 1977. Alaska Department of Labor, 1981 Alaska Population Overview. PwWwNne Source: Adapted from Impact Assessment, Inc., 1983. 663 Post-1980 population estimates compiled for Unalaska by the Alaska Department of Labor, the Department of Community and Regional Affairs and the U.S. Bureau of the Census differ widely from each other and from year to year. This variability testifies to the volatility of Unalaska’s employment base and to the impermanence of the transient element of its workforce. Two current data series which better reflect trends within the permanent resident population are school enrollments and Permanent Fund dividend recipients. Alaska Department of Education final enrollment figures for Unalaska peaked at 186 students in 1980/81, dropped to 128 students in 1984/85 and rebounded to 154 students in 1986/87. According to the Alaska Department of Revenue, the number of Permanent Fund dividend recipients at Unalaska fell from 1,211 in 1982 to 939 in 1985, similarly indicating a downward trend in the permanent population during the 1982 to 1985 period. Thus, these data series suggest that Unalaska’s permanent resident population has fluctuated since 1980, with perhaps a modest overall decline as of 1985. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION The racial composition of Unalaska’s population has shifted drastically with the resurgence of the commercial fishing and fish processing industry here in the 1960s. Three population counts by race since 1970 show that the number of Unalaska’s Alaska Native residents rose from 113 in 1970, to 178 in 1977, and to 200 in 1980. (As earlier noted, the 1970 Census may 664 Year 1956/57 1957/58 1958/59 1959/60 1960/61 1961/62 1962/63 1963/64 1964/65 1965/66 1966/67 1967/68 1968/69 1969/70 1970/71 1971/72 1972/73 1973/74 1974/75 1975/76 1976/77 1977/78 1978/79 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 _ 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 Kind 8 11 11 7 2 8 10* 10* 12* 10* 11 14 14* 15 10 8 16 16 ay _— e roy . ee NON ORM RN DWOONAONOWWNM-H WO Re eee eee FPWOONONM — wor 19 a ‘ AWONWONMAONONDONDOWOUN _ NAWMW Ree ee Bee OUnPOLPUHUIAO Jo |» OP AUTMIWOWOWDOWOUMAMWONAAWOUMOMD 17 11 12 17 FINAL ENROLLMENT BY GRADE 1956/57 _- 1986/87 — ee _ SNH DOWOWOWDOONANARWOARAOA- eee ee oOur-OnNnPoOnnr ry won TABLE 355 5 ee e ood WOWWDANMUINYNNMOWDOWDOWOMDWAHOAHDLAOUHPNY UNALASKA iD ry ee Ae NONMOWWUDDANKH WHO AMUN WUoP [all seal eel eel apd al anal - RPOONNWWUO @ 7 a hoe Ree Ree bo AADADWOWOMOKHANAHAHHHAHOUUAPWUO Ree ee PwWOWrH > Co ry w ONONDWONMKHPAAANYNWODLS bot ee Wot pot WODPALPWOOWWOMHPD * Figures may include Pre-Elementary age children. Source: 665 9 ) WODFPADHNMO~A w Ree meee NONNALUAP ron _ meee PPNOW Ung/ 10 _11 _12 Spec Tot 45 45 45 53 50 51 53 59 1 52 78 57 77 76 80 112 119 113 103 117 122 117 133 10 142 10 166 10 186 17 167 15 157 9 131 6 128 11 141 3 154 ~ DPN IYNADNM- ee ee _ ANAM UIIAYOOWOHADONMWO DANNY WP watt ee Peeled ~ ee - AK DH WOMUIYHNMWOPMYNODH OOH Dee Alaska Department of Education, Educational Finance and Support Services. TABLE 356 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS UNALASKA/DUTCH HARBOR 1982 - 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 Oo- 4 62 54 66 5- 9 39 58 10 - 14 50 44 15 - 19 42 . 41 20 - 24 105 96 25 - 29 158 156 30 - 34 139 135 35 - 39 114 130 40 - 44 61 83 45 - 49 31 38 50 - 54 24 27 55 - 59 34 34 60 - 64 14 15 65 - 69 4 4 70 - 74 5 5 75 & over 2 4 Unknown 0 3 1 3 TOTAL 1,211 918 877 939 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 221; 18-27 - 347; 28-37 -378; 38-47 - 132; 48-57 - 90; 58-67 - 35; 68-77 - 6; 78+ - 2; Unknown - 0; Total - 1,211. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 62; 5-17 - 126; 18-27 - 232; 28-37 - 288; 38-47 - 111; 48-57 - 61; 58-67 - 28; 68-77 - 5; 78+ - 2; Unknown - 3; Total - 918. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 666 understate the number of Alaska Natives and the 1980 Census under-reported total population). According to 1974 ANCSA enrollment data, Unalaska then had 181 Alaska Native residents, not including infants born after the 1971 passage of the Claims Act. However, post-1970 increases in the non-Native and transient populations have outstripped Native population growth. While Natives made up 63 percent of the 1970 Census population, by the 1980 Census they accounted for only 15 percent. Although both the 1970 and 1980 Censuses were flawed, these data nevertheless suggest the extent of change in racial composition which overtook the community in the 1970-1980 decade. TABLE 357 POPULATION BY RACE CITY OF UNALASKA 1970 _- 1980 1970* 1977** 1973*** # % # % # % Native 113 63.4 178 28.9 200 15.1 Non-Native 56 31.0 387 62.9 848 64.1 Other 9 4.6 50 8.1 274 20.8 TOTAL. 178 100.0 615 100.0 1,322 100.0 Sources: * U.S. Bureau of the Census (note: transients not included). ** = Tryck, Nyman and Hayes, 1977. *** U.S. Bureau of the Census. The growing role of transient workers is visible in population figures for Unalaska for the past decade. First, three independent population counts in 1977, 1980 and 1981 found a high ratio of transients, ranging from 68.8 percent (Tryck, Nyman and Hayes, 1977), to 45.4 percent (1980 Census), to 45.8 percent (1981 special municipal census). The detailed population 667 composition data compiled by the 1980 Census are heavily skewed by the presence of non-Native males in the 20-34 age group. This age group bulge reflects the presence of a large, predominantly young adult male transient workforce employed in the local commercial fishing and seafood processing industry. Unalaska’s skewed age and sex population distribution undermine the significance of 1980 Census median age figures for its non-Native and total population. Likewise, the already existing flaws in the 1980 Census put the validity of 1980 detailed population data altogether in doubt. Still, the detailed population data show the skewed characteristics appropriate to a large, non-Native, mostly young male adult transient workforce. That is, the age/sex distribution is distorted toward a heavy over-representation of non-Natives between 20-39 years of age and, within that age group, a heavy over-representation of males. The imbalance of non-Native males and females is evident by comparing the number of single males over 15 years of age (400 persons) and single females (159 persons). Unalaska exhibits the most extreme imbalance of all 21 study communities in this case. Otherwise, the Census data suggest that the median age of the Native population remained relatively stable, but that an imbalance in the relative size of the Native male and female sub-populations widened substantially from 1970 to 1980. 668 TABLE 358 POPULATION COMPOSITION UNALASKA 1970 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 6 7 13 3 1 4 5 - 14 15 16 31 4 4 8 15 - 24 10 11 21 5 4 9 25 - 34 4 5 9 12 6 18 35 - 44 15 8 23 2 0 2 45 - 54 7 4 ll 6 5 11 55 - 64 6 5 11 2 2 4 65 and over 1 2 3 0 0 0 TOTA 64 58 122 34 22 56 Median Age 27.5 20.9 23.3 29.6 29.2 29.2 Age Range Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 9 8 17 5-9 8 12 20 10 - 14 ll 8 19 15 - 19 8 7 15 20 - 24 7 8 15 25 - 29 11 5 16 30 - 34 5 6 11 35 - 39 10 5 15 40 - 44 7 3 10 45 - 49 8 5 13 50 - 54 5 4 9 55 - 59 5 6 11 60 - 64 3 1 4 65 and over 1 2 3 TOTAL 98 80 178 23.4 26.3 Median Age 29.1 Note: Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and others, excluding White and Negro. Source: U.S. Census. 669 TABLE 359 POPULATION COMPOSITION UNALASKA 1977 Age Range Male Female Total 0-4 23 18 41 5 - 12 28 40 68 13 - 17 28 19 47 18 - 24 46 46 92 25 - 34 107 56 163 35 - 44 42 23 65 45 -. 54 40 22 62 55 - 64 19 14 33 65 - 74 4 2 6 75 and over 1 0 1 Unknown 22 15 37 TOTAL 360 255 615 Median Age 0.2 5.9 28.7 Note: Permanent residents only; does not include 1,256 non-residents present in Unalaska at the time of the census. Source: City of Unalaska census, September 26 to October 8, 1977, conducted by Tryck, Nyman and Hayes and the City of Unalaska (Tryck, Nyman and Hayes, 1977). 670 TABLE 360 POPULATION COMPOSITION UNALASKA 1980 __Age Range _ Alaska Native Non-Native Total Male Female Total Male Female’ Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 8 3 11 21 14 35 29 17 46 §-.9 13 9 22 13 19 32 26 28 54 10 - 14 6 12 18 12 18 30 18 30 48 15 - 19 16 10 26 44 29 73 60 39 99 20 - 24 17 2 28 176 111 287 193 122 315 25 = 29 11 10 28 173 80 253 184 90 274 30 - 34 18 8 26 139 41 180 157 49 206 35 - 39 3 5 8 56 21 77 59 26 85 40 - 44 5 2 7 30 12 42 35 14 49 45 - 49 7 1 8 25 12 37 32 13 45 50 - 54 7 4 11 22 12 34 29 16 45 55 - 59 4 2 6 16 7 23 20 9 29 60 - 64 2 0 2 7 6 13 9 6 18 65 - 69 2 1 3 2 2 4 4 3 7 70 - 74 0 1 . 1 0 1 ~ 1 2 75 and over = 1 2 2 0 1 2 1 3 TOTAL 120 80 200 738 384 1,122 858 464 =: 1,322 Median Age 25.2 23.0 24.2 28.0 25.1 27.1 27.8 24.8 26.8 TABLE 361 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER UNALASKA Se Marital Status Male emal Single 400 159 Married 241 166 Separated 7 Widowed 9 Divorced 100 48 TOTAL 785 389 Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 362 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP UNALASKA 1980 Household Type and Relationship In Family Household Householder Spouse Other Relatives Non-Relative Sub-Total In Non-Family Household Male Householder Female Householder Non-Relative Sub-Total In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution Other Sub-Total TOTAL Source: 1980 Census. 672 Number 156 116 213 23 508 112 36 66 214 598 600 Percent _ — —HO- oie tere oo Mi 38. orn © ny ono 16. mr 45. 45.4 100.0% C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT The first modern seafood processing plant at Unalaska was established in 1962. By 1967, there were five processing plants and, by 1976, there were eight. Since passage of the Fishery Conservation and Management Act in 1976, the preferential access of domestic fishing vessels to fisheries resources within the 200-mile conservation zone has fostered the emergence of a significant domestic Bering Sea groundfish industry. It has also caused a reorientation of Unalaska’s economic support functions for the region’s commercial fishing industry and pursuit of some role in shore- based processing of groundfish. For example, in January 1987, Alyeska Seafoods, Inc. began operation of its new $20 million processing and surimi production plant at Unalaska. Unalaska’s commitment to enlarge its role in the groundfish industry has accelerated in recent years and is not fully reflected in employment data ending in 1986. Recent, pending and proposed private investment related to the groundfish industry includes the construction of new docks, fuel tank farms, shipyard facilities and dry docks, warehouses, surimi plants, additional seafood processing plant capacity, hotels, bunkhouses and recreational facilities (Alaska Construction & Oil, July 1987). These improvements are geared to capitalize on the economic opportunities represented by growing domestic involvement in the Bering Sea commercial fishery which, in 1987, reportedly brought some 800 fishing/processing vessels to make about 4,000 calls at the port of Unalaska to purchase various types of support services (Anchorage Times, May 23, 1988). 673 The growth trend of wage and salary employment at Unalaska over the past two decades can be documented from various sources of employment data. (Note: the 1970 Census’ employment count of 59 persons is clearly in error and is ignored in the following analysis). Even as early as 1967, about five years after the inauguration of Unalaska’s modern seafood industry, the distinctive features of the community’s present economic structure were already emerging. These structural features include: a strong export sector dominated by the commercial fishing and fish processing industry; a correspondingly weak support sector, especially in its trade and services components; an economy dominated by private sector activities, with a relatively modest, though not necessarily deficient, public sector; a Proneness to annual and long-term economic and employment cycles; and a heavy reliance on transient labor. Three separate employment surveys, conducted in 1967 (Alaska State Housing Authority), 1976 (Tryck, Nyman and Hayes) and 1980 (Alaska Consultants, Inc.) consistently show that: o commercial fishing and seafood processing accounted for between 82 and 90 percent of total employment; all of this employment may be attributed to basic or export industries. 0 support sector employment accounted for between 7 and 12 percent of total employment. The employment multiplier was about 10:1, i.e. 10 basic jobs generated only 1 non-basic job. o the private sector consistently accounted for about 95 percent of total employment; the public sector, mainly local government, for 674 about 5 percent. By comparison, the public sector accounted for about 32 percent of Statewide employment in 1980. o the level of economic and employment activity fluctuated in step with seasonal and periodic cycles in resource harvest levels. (See discussion of Alaska Department of Labor monthly employment data for 1981 to 1986 below). Data previously presented from five population censuses taken between 1970 and 1981 show that non-residents accounted for between 22 and 69 percent of Unalaska’s population. It can be inferred from detailed population composition data that this non-resident population is chiefly made up of transient young adult males. Surla (1970) observed that the make-up of Unalaska’s commercial fishing fleet provides an interesting contrast to the fleets at King Cove and Sand Point. Surla commented on the minimal participation of Unalaska’s Aleut men in the commercial fishery and contrasted this situation with the very successful enterprise of Aleut commercial fishermen in King Cove (Sand Point offers another example). From 1980 through 1986, Unalaska’s employment levels have been prone to decided annual and seasonal fluctuations. For example, Alaska Department of Labor covered employment figures show that Unalaska’s average annual employment swung from 1,415 jobs in 1980, up to 1,595 in 1981, down to 969 by 1985 and up again to 1,072 in 1986. (Note that the Department’s employment data for the Unalaska area also include Akutan). Most of this 675 Year 1967 1969 1970 1976 1980 1980 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Employment 323 326 59 989 1,003 1,415* 1,600 1,595* 1,274* 1,221* 969* 995* 1,072* TABLE 363 ESTIMATED EMPLOYMENT CITY OF UNALASKA 1967_- 1986 Source; Scope of Coverage ASHA, 1967; average annual employment. Alaska Planning and Management, 1972; Alaska Department of Labor wage & salary employment estimate. U.S. Census Bureau; total employment. Tryck, Nyman and Hayes, 1977; average annual employment. . U.S. Census Bureau; total employment. Alaska Department of Labor; average annual nonagricultural wage & salary employment. Alaska Consultants, Inc., 1981; average annual employment. Alaska Department of Labor; average annual nonagricultural wage & salary employment. * Data are for the Unalaska area, including Akutan. Year 1967 1976 1980 Sources: TABLE 364 BASIC AND NON-BASIC EMPLOYMENT CITY OF UNALASKA 1967, 1976 AND 1980 Employment PAPEEE BEER Basic Number Percent 299 92.6 875 88.5 1,442 90.1 Non-Basic Total Number Percent Number Percent 24 7.4 323 100.0 114 11.5 989 100.0 158 9.9 1,600 100.0 Alaska State Housing Authority, 1967. Tryck, Nyman and Hayes, 1977. Alaska Consultants, Inc., 1981. 676 TABLE 365 ANNUAL AVERAGE EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA - DUTCH HARBOR DECEMB 67 Employment Basic Service Total Percent Fishing 140 0 140 43.3 Fish Processing 150 0 150 46.4 Transportation, Communi- 7 4 11 3.4 cations and Utilities Retail Trade 0 12 12 3.7 Government 2 8 10 3.1 4 TOTAL 299 24 323 100.0 1 Employment generated by export industries and other sources of outside money. 2 Employment depending upon money circulating within the community. Source: Alaska State Housing Authority (1967). TABLE 366 ESTIMATED EMPLOYMENT CITY OF UNALASKA 1969 Industry Number Agriculture 2 Mining 0 Construction 1 Manufacturing 290 Trans., Commun., Util. 11 Trade 12 Finance 0 Services 0 Government 10 TOTAL 326 Source: Alaska Planning and Management, 1972. 677 TABLE 367 AVERAGE ANNUAL EMPLOYMENT! CITY OF UNALASKA 1976 Percent Basic Secondary Industry Number Percent Basic Number Number Fishing 44 4.4 100 44 0 Mining 2 0.2 100 2 0 Contract Copstruction 0 0.0 -- -- -- Manufacture 815 82.4 100 815 0 Transportation, Communi- 16 1.6 37 6 10 cation & Public Utilities Trade 29 2.9 21 6 23 Finance, Insurance & 1 0.1 0 0 1 Real Estate Service 25 2.5 0 0 25 Government 57 5.7 3.5 2 55 Federal / (18) (1.8) ( 0) ( 0) (18) State ( 3) (0.3) (67) ( 2) (1) Local (36) (3.6) ( 0) ( 0) (36) TOTAL 989 100.0 89 875 114 1 This table shows the average annual total employment in Unalaska by industry type for the year 1976 and the portion of the economy which is basic and secondary. The table is based on Alaska Department of Labor data, plus some fairly extensive field work by the consultant (Tryck, Nyman and Hayes) to arrive at the "true" employment picture in Unalaska. The Department of Labor data has some acknowledged shortcomings, such as not covering self- employed individuals and making only estimates of State and local government employment. 2 Includes seafood processing. Source: Tryck, Nyman and Hayes (1977). 678 TABLE 368 AVERAGE ANNUAL FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA 1980 % Basic Secondary Classification Number of Total % Basic Number Number Agriculture, 150 9.4 100 150 0 Forestry and Fishing Mining 2 0.1 100 2 0 Contract 12 0.8 42 5 7 Construction Manufacturing 1,166 72.9 100 1,166 0 Transportation, 57 3.6 60 34 23 Communication & Public Utilities Trade 60 _ 3.8 60 32 28 Finance, Insurance 27 1.7 74 20 7 & Real Estate Service 44 2.8 61 27 17 Government 82 5.1 7 6 76 Federal ( 9) (0.6) (44) (4) ( 5) State | (10) (0.6) (20) (2) ( 8) Local (64) (4.0) ( 0) (0) (64) 158 TOTAL 600 100.0 90 1,442 Note: Figures include self-employed persons and military personnel. Source: Alaska Consultants, Inc., May 1981. 679 TABLE 369 DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYMENT BY SECTOR STATE OF ALASKA AND CITY OF UNALASKA 1980 State of Alaska Industry Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Mining Contract Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communi- cation & Public Utilities Trade Finance, Insurance & Real Estate Service Government Federal State Local Miscellaneous TOTAL 0.3% — Re We onworn PN OoOONwW oe + eo : NwWOrAW ww oONwWww eon nano — E City of Unalaska 9.4% ~“ ew WNroo aan iO - S POOUNM 1 ONDAHO® NO DAwoOL Sew Note: State of Alaska data cover civilian non-agricultural wage and salary employment only; City of Unalaska data include self-employed and military personnel. Sources: Alaska Department of Labor, Statistical Quarterly for State of Alaska data. Alaska Consultants, Inc., 1981, for City of Unalaska data. 680 —____Labor Force Status Armed Forces 0 0 Civilian Employed 61 26 285 1,003 Civilian Unemployed 21 0 Not in Labor Force 17 24 81 Labor Force Participation Rate 82.0% 52.0% 96.0% 78.0% 90.0% Unemployment Rate: . 1980 25.6% 0% 3.4% 1.7% 2.9% 1970 * * 0% TABLE 370 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA UNALASKA 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Alaska Natives Male Female EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Al ndust 1970 1980 Construction 0 25 Manufacturing : 18 630 Transportation 0 47 Communications 5 3 Trade 16 80 Finance, Insurance & 0 20 Real Estate Services 7 76 Public Administration 0 52 Other 13 70 TOTAL 59 1,003 Races Male Female Total * Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 681 year to year volatility can be traced to the cyclic ups and downs of the seafood processing industry. In recent years, Unalaska’s employment has also shown marked seasonal variations, although not as extreme as fisheries economies (e.g. Bristol Bay) dominated by a few highly seasonal species such as red salmon. Over the six year period from 1981 to 1986, monthly employment at Unalaska was well above average for the months of May through August, and well below average for the winter months of November through February. In some years, peak month employment was more than double off-month employment. Again, the source of this volatility can be traced to the seafood processing industry. This seasonality has persisted despite the relative diversity and extended harvest season of seafood species processed at or supported from Unalaska. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the labor force participation rate at Unalaska is high and the unemployment rate exceptionally low. According to Alaska Department of Labor official unemployment data, the Aleutian Islands census area consistently shows the lowest unemployment rate of all of the State’s twenty-three census areas. Over the three year period from 1985 to 1987, the Aleutian Islands’ annual unemployment rate (2.6 percent, 3.4 percent and 3.6 percent respectively) was less than half that of the next lowest census area and less than a third of the Statewide average. The most plausible explanation for the census area’s chronically low unemployment is the transient, work-oriented nature of the bulk of its fishing and seafood processing workforce. Unlike permanent residents whose 682 family and social ties keep them in their communities even when work is short, these transient workers come to work and, when work is unavailable, leave to pursue employment in other labor markets. Few remain in the region to swell the unemployment rolls or depress the labor force participation rate. Unalaska, of course, illustrates in an extreme way this transient quality of the Aleutian Islands labor force. 683 TABLE 371 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1980 - 1986 Industry Classification 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Mining 0 0 * bad bad * * Construction : * 124 * 162 234 843 14 Manufacturing 1,056 1,241 893 842 616 644 730 Transportation, Communications 37 67 86 100 72 69 75 and Public Utilities Trade 63 73 68 61 55 60 65 Finance, Insurance and Real 302 49392 8646 28 31 29 31 Estate Services 19 194 ga 7a 8 ll 8a Government 108 #135 143 154 136 141 133 Federal 21 21 17 16 13 15 15 State 2 5 7 11 13 11 7 Local 85 109 119 127 110 115 1ii Miscellaneous bad * ' bad * * bad TOTAL 1,415 1,595 1,274 1.221 969 995 1,072 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also included Akutan. 4 Prorated from nine months of data. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 684 TABLE 372 AVERAGE MONTHLY EMPLOYMENT CITY OF UNALASKA 1981 - 1986 Percent Dif- Average Monthly ference from m nt Annual Average January 892 -24.0% February 1,049 -10.6 March 1,271 +8.3 April 1,255 +6.9 May 1,293 +10.1 June 1,346 +14.7 July 1,393 +18.7 August 1,355 +15.4 September 1,205 +2.6 October 1,166 -0.7 November 1,003 -14.6 December 854 -27.3 Annual Average 1,174 Source: Alaska Department of Labor. TABLE 373 AVERAGE ANNUAL UNEMPLOYMENT! SELECTED CENSUS AREAS 985 - 1987 Annual Unemployment Rate Census Area 1985 1986 987 Aleutian Islands 2.6% 3.4% 3.6% Dillingham 7.1 8.0 8.8 Anchorage Borough 7.2 8.4 8.5 Juneau Borough 7.9 8.5 7.3 Kodiak Island Borough 8.4 7.9 6.1 North Slope Borough 8.8 6.0 5.9 Statewide Average 9.6 10.9 10.8 1 This table displays average annual unemployment rates for the 6 census areas of the State’s 23 census areas which had the lowest unemployment rates during the 1985-1987 period. Source: Alaska Department of Labor, Alaska Economic Trends, March 1988. 685 Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous - Government Federal State Local TOTAL 471 25 44 21 24 21 2 76 TABLE 374 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1980 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 0 0 0 * * 2 2 5 879 1,083 1,168 1,180 1,089 29 29 27 28 29 59 63 57 63 63 20 23 20 23 28 21 21 18 16 21 24 24 21 22 20 2 2 2 2 1 77 98 81 86 59 1,010 31 55 37 22 18 1 74 Aug 0 8 776 33 63 56 24 20 1 74 Sep 0 4 Oct 0 * 2) || Dec 0 * 1,067 1,500 1,365 1,085 33 71 45 18 18 2 90 57 74 18 4 102 58 74 14 21 4 104 59 66 14 23 2 101 694 1,118 1,350 1,404 1,430 1,323 1,261 1,062 1,352 1,820 1,687 1,395 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also includes Akutan. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL E * ° 680 59 80 34 13 24 2 91 TABLE 375 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1981 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 0 0 0 * * 3 6 9 787 1,219 1,346 1,364 1,550 53 66 57 55 54 * * * * * 84 85 79 80 72 32 35 38 34 41 13 13 15 17 20 * * * * * 20 20 23 23 24 3 J 7 8 4 85 102 119 116 120 o E 10 Aug Sep Oct 0 0 0 19 18 20 zo & 1,390 1,238 1,571 1,631 1,241 98 67 45 25 24 3 106 106 39 26 24 6 107 90 69 49 32 20 3 70 57 67 18 5 130 56 71 18 6 137 ° B 11 871 55 57 18 6 120 992 1,086 1,553 1,697 1,713 1,901 1,776 1,637 1,930 1,998 1,630 1,223 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also includes Akutan. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 519 57 65 60 Feb Mar Apr May TABLE 376 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1982 . 0 0 * * * * 19 28 26 786 1,053 1,034 1,041 1,113 58 65 80 79 87 58 58 74 73 76 54 61 58 60 48 16 17 17 16 17 9 12 11 11 3 122) #131 #113~=«#113 81 29 1,156 110 67 37 11 17 2 91 36 982 106 72 40 13 18 4 104 34 1,210 105 19 6 139 «af 793 100 19 9 138 866 1,123 1,422 1,422 1,436 1,466 1,526 1,381 1,639 1,231 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also includes Akutan. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 564 96 66 33 * * Ik 459 87 61 31 17 130 Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing ‘ Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 571 88 62 27 16 8 131 TABLE 377 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1983 Feb Mar Apr May Jun * * * * * 10 21 9 16 19 872 1,134 846 902 901 91 88 85 92 96 58 55 57 61 65 28 29 31 25 27 16 15 16 16 16 11 15 15 9 1 124 129 134 132 134 910 1,115 1,102 110 107 * * 61 61 25 27 7 6 * * 15 18 5 5 103. 105 116 16 14 130 . & 33 674 118 62 25 10 16 21 129 917 1,221 1,497 1,205 1,277 1,287 1,283 1,474 1,510 1,102 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also includes Akutan. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 23 558 112 62 28 10 520 94 65 27 Industry Classification fae Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 490 115 53 27 TABLE 378 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1984 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 551 629 657 773 841 117-131 43 62 55 55 53 59 53 58 29 30 35 33 34 11 10 9 7 8 15 14 14 14 15 12 18 17 15 12 123. 117 «#109 «#114 = 103 18 942 57 56 32 11 7 76 34 845 52 57 35 12 3 88 925 1,023 996 1,129 1,185 1,248 1,176 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also includes Akutan. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 31 560 57 55 31 . & 36 426 61 53 30 29 398 61 © * I 274 52 53 30 11 22 117 S09 Industry Classification aah Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade ' Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL Jan * 6 376 49 53 30 13 TABLE 379 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1985 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 486 577 640 629 727 64 52 66 76 85 45 48 48 57 64 29 26 26 25 26 11 10 10 13 12 10 7 10 8 11 12 20 20 10 4 112. «#110 116 = 123 96 Jud 802 875 967 283 1,062 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also includes Akutan. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Jul Aug * * 1300« 1,012 1,038 83-82 * * 66 81 37-33 12 a1 * * 14:16 2 2 101 105 * 20 885 66 69 33 . B 28 524 73 63 26 11 23 10 118 203 24 444 69 66 31 . B 11 386 67 63 30 Industry Classification Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 692 57 23 7 124 TABLE 380 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT UNALASKA AREA** 1986 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 800 892 904 855 842 68 73 83 95 77 57 56 51 63 70 35 34 32 23 30 10 10 9 8 8 21 19 11 14 17 8 11 12 11 8 1260 «6©1260«©6115)— Ss 1117 99 18 840 67 65 37 15 2 101 18 738 65 28 14 2 102 1,023 1,138 1,258 1,243 1,217 1,176 1,157 1,049 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Unalaska area also includes Akutan. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 20 630 65 82 26 13 98 270 . & 18 599 79 85 26 23 102 264 15 493 86 73 26 479 77 64 27 SAND_POINT A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Sand Point is located about 570 miles southwest of Anchorage on the north coast of Popof Island, part of the Shumagin Island group off the southern flank of the Alaska Peninsula. Popof Island is named after Sila and Ivan Popof who hunted and traded furs here in 1762-63. "Sand Point" derives from the designation assigned by a passing U.S. Coast Guard vessel in 1872 to the general area where the community eventually developed. Today, Sand Point is the largest community in the newly established (1987) Aleutians East Borough which encompasses the lower Alaska Peninsula and nearby islands as far west as Akutan Pass. While there were many traditional settlement sites in the Shumagin Islands, Sand Point apparently was not an important historic village. For example, Alaska Natives and the Land does not list Sand Point as an historic village site. Instead, Sand Point’s recent emergence as the region’s dominant community is the climax of a two-century long process of economic and demographic change within the region. The aboriginal Aleut population was generally subdivided into two sub- areas, based on dialectic differences: the western Atka district made up of the Andreanof, Rat and Near Islands; and the Unalaska district made up of the Fox, Pribilof (settled after 1786 by Aleuts relocated mainly from the Unalaska district) and Shumagin Islands and the lower Alaska Peninsula. 693 Some scholars, e.g. Laughlin (1980), further split the western district into two distinct dialectic sub-districts. For purposes of describing the historic evolution of the Sand Point community, it is useful to divide the Unalaska district into three sub- groups centered around the Fox Islands, the Pribilof Islands and the lower Alaska Peninsula with its adjacent islands, including the Shumagin, Krenitzin and Sanak Island groups. The latter sub-group coincides with today’s Aleutians East region, within which Sand Point is the most prominent community. Estimates of the aboriginal Aleut population prior to Russian contact are debatable. Laughlin (1980) accepts an estimated pre-contact population of about 16,000 Aleuts overall, of whom 10,000 to 11,000 lived in the Unalaska district. Within decades of Russian contact, the native Aleut population declined precipitously. Veniaminov put the 1781 Aleut population of the Unalaska district at 1,900, about a fifth of the pre- contact level. An 1818 Russian census of the Aleut population (Petroff, 1883) recorded a total Aleut population of 1,469 persons. Another census in 1825 recorded some 787 Aleuts in the Aleutians East region and another 1,064 Aleuts in the rest of the Aleutians, but did not include the Pribilof Islands with a population then estimated at about 400 persons. Next, Veniaminov’s 1831 census enumerated twelve villages with a total population of 680 Aleuts in what is today termed the Aleutians East region. Veniaminov reported one settlement each on the islands of Akutan (13 694 persons), Avatanok (49), Unalga (23), Tigalda (97) Unimak (91) and Unga (116), and three on the island of Akouna (85), plus three villages (Belkofski - 102; Pavlov - 59; and Morzhovoi - 45) on the Alaska Peninsula mainland. Of course, by this date, traditional settlement patterns had already been obliterated by massive depopulation and forced resettlement under Russian control. A later population estimate by Veniaminov put the 1841 Aleut population of the Unalaska and Atka districts at 1,497 and 750 persons respectively. Neither Veniaminov nor the 1818 or 1825 censuses identified any contemporary settlement at Sand Point or elsewhere on Popof Island. There are discrepancies between the 1825 and 1831 censuses for the Aleutians East region. For example, Veniaminov omits some large villages enumerated in the 1825 census, but records substantially larger populations for some other villages. Still, taken as a whole, these various censuses support a conclusion that the Native population of the Aleutians East region numbered 900 to 1,000 persons in the 1830s. Finally, a census of the inhabitants of Russian America conducted in 1863 shortly before the U.S. purchase counted a total of 2,428 Aleuts, unfortunately not allocated by place. This figure is only slightly higher than the 1825 census (1,851 persons, not including perhaps 400 Pribilof Islanders) and Veniaminov’s 1841 estimate (2,247). The consistency of these data suggests that there was no major change in the overall size of the Aleut population between 1825 and the United States’ purchase of 695 © Alaska, although there probably were significant intra-regional population shifts. The modern Sand Point community originated in 1887 as a cod fishing station (with -a post office established in 1891) to supply and service the pioneering Bering Sea codfish industry. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the Shumagin Islands saw a variety of unsuccessful commercial enterprises. A coal mine/coaling station operated at Coal Harbor from about 1870 to 1890. Gold was discovered on Unga Island and, later, on Popof Island and supported a number of small mining operations. In addition, trapping for fur-bearers and fox farming were minor industries until fur prices collapsed in the 1930s. During this era, Sand Point remained a minor settlement, exceeded in size by numerous other traditional, fishing and mining communities. Sand Point was first noted by the Census in 1890, when it was included among Popof Island’s 146 residents. The 1900 Census reported 16 residents at Sand Point. At the turn of the century and for some time thereafter, the traditional villages of Unga and Belkofski continued to be the premier communities in the Shumagin Island group and on the nearby Alaska Peninsula mainland respectively, as they had been at the time of Veniaminov’s 1830 census. Sand Point grew slowly after 1900 and, as late as 1939, was still a minor community of 99 residents. Sand Point and the other communities of the eastern Aleutians/western Alaska Peninsula were unaffected by the wartime 696 relocations which disrupted some of the more westerly communities of the Aleutian chain. However, during the post-War period, the region’s settlements tended to consolidate into the few communities which enjoyed a more secure economic base. Many of the traditional villages had poor harbors, a circumstance which impaired their viability in the developing commercial fishing industry. The economic foundation of Sand Point’s future growth - commercial fishing and seafood processing - was laid even before World War II when the Alaska Pacific Salmon Co. established a salmon cannery here in the 1930s and Aleutian Cold Storage built a halibut processing plant in 1946. In 1955, Wakefield Fisheries leased ‘part of Aleutian Cold Storage’s plant to process king crab, then bought and converted the plant to crab processing in 1957. The local king crab fishery boomed in the early 1960s but crashed in 1967 due to overharvesting. After the State imposed king crab harvest quotas, Wakefield Fisheries shifted to processing tanner crab and shrimp. The cycle of overharvest and decline was repeated with the commercial shrimp fishery, resulting in closure of that fishery until stocks recover. Nevertheless, Sand Point has been fortunate in having access to a diverse marine resource base - salmon, shrimp, crab, halibut and groundfish - and has gradually developed a balanced and diversified commercial fishing and seafood processing industry. 697 Village Group? 1880 1890 Shumagin Village Complex Sand Point Unga 185 159 Unga I. (ex.village) Popof Island 146 Pirate Cove 7 Vosnesaensky 22 43 Coal Harbor 15 Apollo Village Squaw Harbor Semeonovsky 3 Korovin 41 Sub-Total 214 404 North Peninsula Village Complex Port Moller Nelson Lagoon Herendeen Bay Sub-Total South Peninsula Village Complex King Cove Cold Bay Belkofski 268 185 Morzhovoi 100° —s «6&8 Nikolaievsky 43 Thin Point 231 Ozernoi 45 Sub-Total 411 529 TABLE 381 HISTORIC POPULATION CHANGE ALEUTIANS EAST REGION 1880 — 1986 1900 1910 1920 1929 1939 1950 16 60 69 99 107 175 108 313 150 152 107 79 98 20% 87 79% 45 13 301 108 471 219 409 272 45 33 51 13 51 58 33 135 162 147 129 123 140 119 81* 60 22 17 228 189 145 292 281 297 290 86 57 433 2% 65b 424 43 43 283 256 59 598 625 59 59 460 228 688 890 69 547 250 797 713 157 870 Village Group? 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1929 1939 1950 1960 1970 1980 1986 41987 Unimak Village Complex : False Pass 59x 88k 42 41 62 70 715 na Pauloff Harbor 62 52 61 68 77 399 Sanak 132 39 Ikatan 29 Company Harbor 14% 45 22% Unimak Village 59 88 Sub-Total 132 14 107. +192 276 ©6139 «©9110 101 70 75 n/a Isolated Village/Akutan Complex Akutan 65 80 60* 66 71 80 86 107 101 169 189 #274 Akoon (Akun) 55 Avatanok 19 Sub-Total 139 80 66 71 80 86 107 101 169 189 #274 TOTAL 764 1,145 543 108 884 627 1,115 811 955 1,267 1,611 2,020 2,091 Note: The early (1880-1930) Census counts for the region were incomplete and inconsistent and are best taken as a minimum population count for some villages or islands. The 1910 Census, which recorded only 108 residents at Unga for the entire region, was especially incomplete. Also, totals and subtotals may understate actual population since the sum of enumerations by place may omit persons living outside named places. Definition of village groups adapted from Jones (1973). According to Jones (1973), population declined to 21 persons by 1971. Listed as Protossof. According to Jones (1973), population declined to 3 persons by 1971. aan Sources: U.S. Census, except asterisked (*) figures are from Jones (1973); 1986 and 1987 figures are from Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs. TABLE 382 POPULATION ESTIMATES SAND POINT 1900 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1900 16 1920 60 1929 69 1939 99 1950 107 1960 254 260 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1967 353 Federal Field Committee - 289 Native; 64 non-Native 1968 375 Alaska Area Native Health Service - 310 Natives 1969 375 Federal Field Committee - 310 Native; 65 non-Native 1970 360 360 Ak. Department of Labor (July) 1975 429 U.S. Census Bureau 1976 448 U.S. Census Bureau 1980 625 1980 650* 794 City of Sand Point (June) 1981 697* 846 City of Sand Point (June) 1982 697 U.S. Census Bureau (July) 1982 797* : 795 City of Sand Point (June) 1983 889* 889 City of Sand Point (June) 1984 632* 870 City of Sand Point (June) 1985 671* 896 City of Sand Point (June) 1985 900 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1986 890 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 1987 890 Dept. Community/Regional Affairs 7 Alaska Department of Labor estimates of July 1 population derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as those cited by the City of Sand Point, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses or estimates. Sources: U.S. Census (1900 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1980 - 1985 figures). 700 TABLE 383 POPULATION TRENDS SAND POINT 1900 - 1985 Year Population Percent Change Decennial Annual 1900 16 1920 - 60 1930 69 15.0 1939 99 43.5 1950 107 8.1 1960 254 137.4 1970 360 41.7 1980 625 73.6 1981 697 11.5 1982 797 14.3 1983 889 11.5 1984 632 -28.9 1985 671 6.2 Sources: U.S. Census (1920 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). 701 Sand Point grew substantially during every post-War decade from 107 persons in 1950 to 254 persons in 1960, 360 persons in 1970, and 625 persons in 1980. The Department of Community and Regional Affairs’ most recent (1987) population estimate for Sand Point was 890 persons. Much of Sand Point’s pre-1980 growth accrued from immigration of Aleut residents from nearby communities (Unga, Squaw Harbor, Belkofski and Pauloff Harbor) whose economic decline coincided with Sand Point’s economic advance. (Sand Point has a residential area locally known as Little Sanak, named for relocatees from Sanak Island). Sand Point was a progressive community, receptive to and economically able to absorb emigrants from these now depopulated villages. By one report (Division of Community Planning, 1983), almost the entire membership of the Sanak Corporation (Pauloff Harbor, 25 members) and Unga Corporation (45 members) now live in Sand Point, reflecting the general migration from those traditional villages into Sand Point. The City’s 1981 Comprehensive Plan makes a similar point: Migration trends to Sand Point from other communities in the area are very apparent. Many residents of Sand Point came from Unga, King Cove, Squaw Harbor, Sanak and other Aleutian communities. In fact, there has been relatively little permanent migration into Sand Point from outside the Alaska Peninsula, as reflected by the fact that slightly over 87% of its 1978 population is of Aleut origin due to migration in the community. The Aleut population in 1970 was 74.4%. This migration trend has attributed to much of Sand Point’s rapid increase in population. It differs drastically from current trends of the Aleutian Islands as a whole where there has been a negative migration of over 700 people since 1970. City of Sand Point Community Comprehensive Plan, January 1981. 702 During the early stages of Sand Point’s development as a commercial fishing port, its resident Aleut and mixed Aleut-Scandinavian population kept and expanded its participation in the prosperous locally-based commercial fishing fleet. For the most part, transients rather than residents filled the less remunerative positions in the seafood processing workforce. This enabled Sand Point to retain its identity as a predominantly Aleut fishing community, even as it prospered and grew. The seasonal presence of transient fishermen and processing workers injects some confusion into local population figures. For example, the April 1980 Census counted 625 residents (577 household residents, 48 persons living in group quarters). Two months later, the City’s own census counted 794 residents (587 household residents, 96 persons in group quarters and 109 persons living on boats in the harbor), with the difference almost wholly attributable to the seasonal rise in transients. In the years between 1980 and 1985, the City’s June census count of transients ranged from 205 to 273 persons. The discrepancies in 1980 and later years between Alaska Department of Labor and City of Sand Point population figures may be explained by seasonal variations and decisions about whether to include or exclude transients from the City’s official population. The implications of these seasonal population variations are further discussed in the next section on population composition. Sand Point’s modest spurt in its number of household residents is largely the result of an intensive local housing construction program. Between 703 1978 and 1986, 41 publicly-assisted housing units were built, with an additional 20 homes scheduled for construction in the Meadow Creek subdivision by the Aleutian Housing Authority. The City’s annual censuses show that the post-1980 growth in household residents from 587 persons to 640 persons by 1985 kept pace with an increase in the number of households allowed by the supply of new homes. Thus, between 1980 and 1985, the City’s figures show an 19 percent increase in the number of households and a 9 percent increase in permanent residents. In assessing city population trends since 1980, it is noteworthy that, despite some year to year fluctuations, school enrollment, Permanent Fund dividend recipients and covered employment levels showed little net change between 1980 and 1985 or 1986. This again suggests that the large spread between the 1980 Census count of 625 residents and the City’s own much higher annual census figures in 1980 and later years is chiefly due to different census methods, not massive population changes. Apart from the above-noted increase in household residents, it appears likely that Sand Point’s permanent population grew little between 1980 and 1986. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION Sand Point retained its predominantly Aleut ethnic character through 1970, partly due to the intra-regional pattern of migration into the community. The 1970 Census indicated that 72 percent of the community’s residents were Alaska Native. A subsequent study (Impact Assessment, Inc., 1987) reported 704 TABLE 384 SAND POINT POPULATION 1980 U.S. Census City Census April 1980 June _ 1980 Residents in households 577 587 Number of households 186 171 Persons/household 3.1 3.4 Persons in transit none 2 Persons in group quarters 48 96 Persons living on boats none 109 in harbor Number of boats in harbor none 44 used for residence Total persons counted 625 794 Sources: U.S. Census. City of Sand Point census. u TABLE 385 TRENDS IN SAND POINT POPULATION ee 198F = 1985 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 Residents in households 587 581 584 616 N/A Number of households 171 178 177 192 N/A Persons/household 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.2 N/A Persons in transit 2 2 0 0 N/A Persons in group quarters 96 103 53 99 N/A Persons living on boats 109 160 158 174 N/A Total persons counted 794 846 795 889 870 Source: City of Sand Point census, conducted annually in June. 705 1985 640 203 3.1 59 192 896 TABLE 386 FINAL ENROLLMENT BY GRADE SAND POINT 1956/57 _- 1986/87 Ung/ —Year_ Kind 1 2 3 4 5 6 TZ 8 9 10 _11 _12 Spec Tot 1956/57 1 6 5 4 4 6 5 5 46 1957/58 9 8 7 5 5 4 6 4 48 1958/59 107 7 es 52 1959/60 6 8 6 6 7 6 4 5 2 50 1960/61 6 6 10 7 7 7 5 4 1 53 1961/62 9 3 7 9 9 6 7 § 55 1962/63 7 9 3 6 9 9 5 6 54 1963/64 §— 109-4 6. 8 7 324-3 61 1964/65 14 7 13 9 3 6 8 8 70 1965/66 13 15 6 11 8 3 4 8 68 1966/67 11 #9 15 5 10 7 3 = 5 65 1967/68 12 11 #8 17 6 8 7 3 72 1968/69 10—_11-—__9-—_7—_16- 6-6-7 72 1969/70 1970/71 12 21 #7 #14 #10 4 #2 8 98 1971/72 13 10 15 19 8 16 10 5 2 9 125 1972/73, 14 12 10 12 #18 9 17 #212 #3 «16 «9 ~ «#141 133 1973/74 14 9 11 12 13 #14 #10 #14 #1 #4 #12 «6 «2 132 1974/75 4 15 9 11 11 #12 #16 #9 15 10 5 8 § 130 1975/76 11* 7 16 411 10 11 13 #17 «8 #15 #8 3 #«210 140 1976/77 1977/78 1978/79 s* 9 10 8 5 11 8 Il Il 12 1 8 15 131 1979/80** 17. 7 5 9 8 6 14 12 11 9 10 15 8 131 1980/81 8 4 4 8 9 3 6 3 8 1l 9 9 2 114 1981/82 15 12 12 7 #7 #8 3 #7 #15 #%8 10 6 8 118 1982/88 13 15 6 12 4 7 #5 5 6 144 6 9 6 108 1983/84 9 11 12 6 11 6 7 5 5 5 14 6 9 106 1984/85 9 6 11 13 9 1 7 8 5 6 7 12 § 109 1985/86 19* 8 8 12 11 #7 #12 #6 1 =#7 «5 «7 UU 123 1986/87 16 16 7 #7 #13 10 7 12 #7 #9 10 6 6 126 * Figures may include Pre-Elementary age children. ** 1979/80 final enrollment figures include 11 students enrolled at Sand Point Christian. Source: Alaska Department of Education, Educational Finance and Support Services. 706 TABLE 387 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS SAND POINT 1982 - 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 o- 4 , 60 67 54 5- 9 ; 41 53 lo - 14 38 40 15-19 37 47 20 - 24 59 45 25 - 29 65 66 30 - 34 63 48 35 - 39 44 53 40 - 44 40 38 45 - 49 26 29 50 - 54 25 26 55 - 59 21 22 60 - 64 13 13 65 - 69 13 13 70 - 74 6 6 75 & over 4 5 Unknown i) 1 0 0 TOTAL 603 550 562 558 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 175; 18-27 - 128; 28-37 -134; 38-47 - 78; 48-57 - 46; 58-67 - 31; 68-77 - 10; 78+ - 1; Unknown - 0; Total - 603. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 60; 5-17 - 107; 18-27 - 117; 28-37 - 113; 38-47 - 64; 48-57 - 49; 58-67 - 26; 68-77 - 11; 78+ - 23; Unknown - 1; Total - 550. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 707 that by 1978, Aleuts made up 87 percent of the local population, allegedly due to the continuing influx of Native villagers and, perhaps, a stronger post-ANCSA inclination to assert Native origins. However, according to the 1980 Census, the Native share of the community’s population had fallen to 57 percent. Clearly, one or both of these counts of Aleuts is substantially in error. In this regard, it may be noted that according to ANCSA enrollment data, there were 328 Alaska Natives residing in Sand Point in 1974. Two hundred and sixty of these residents were enrolled to the Shumagin Village Corporation (i.e. Sand Point) and 68 were enrolled to other village corporations. These data, along with 1980 Census data, fall short of confirming a picture of wholesale relocation of village populations to Sand Point in the early and mid-1970s. However, ANCSA enrollments by village do not necessarily reflect village origins as enrollees may choose to enroll to their new home community. A plausible and consistent interpretation of the various data is that (1) the 1970 Census understated Sand Point’s Alaska Native population; (2) the apparent percentage increase in Native residents by 1974 is for the most part a nominal result of the ANCSA enrollment criteria rather than an actual increase; (3) that some relocated villagers enrolled to the Shumagin Village Corporation rather than the corporation of their home village; (4) that Sand Point’s percentage of non-Native residents increased during the period of rapid growth which occurred from 1970 to 1980 (average annual 708 rate: 5.7 percent); and (5) that the claim of 87 percent Alaska Native residency as late as 1978 is mistaken. Coincidentally, the 1974 ANCSA enrollment data indicate that 140 enrollees of the Shumagin Village Corporation lived outside Sand Point at that time. Comparison of this figure with the number of non-local enrollees (68) then living at Sand Point suggests that Sand Point’s net migration of Aleut residents was negative up to that time. The 1980 Census data on place of residence five years previously also fail to confirm an above-average rate of immigration into Sand Point. The share (75 percent) of 1980 residents who had lived in the same census division in 1975 was near the median for the 22 study communities. Unfortunately, the Census does not distinguish between intra-city and intra-regional changes in residency. However, recent newcomers to Sand Point from outside the region were much more likely to have come from outside Alaska (17 percent) than from elsewhere in Alaska (8 percent). This statistic may be an indicator of Sand Point’s strong economic ties to the Pacific Northwest states. A 1983 survey of the length of residence of a sample of Sand Point citizens offers another possible indication of the rate of population migration and turnover at Sand Point. According to this survey, 46 percent of Sand Point’s 1983 population had lived there for more than 20 years and another 28 percent for 6 to 20 years. Only 26 percent were reported to have moved to Sand Point within the last five years. However, the relatively low 709 population turnover implied by these data is not consistent with the growth and immigration rates observed over the past two decades. Possibly, the survey sample was not a representative cross-section of the community’s population. The 1970 Census data indicate that Sand Point’s Native and non-Native populations were then statistically distinct but were both comparatively balanced in sex distribution and symmetric in age profile. Apart from a very large number of infant males, the total population was about evenly divided by sex and age. However, there was a large spread in the median age for Alaska Native residents, which was very young (16.8 years), and a much older non-Native population (31.6 years). TABLE 388 LENGTH OF RESIDENCE CITY OF SAND POINT 1983 Years of Residence Number Percent 0- 5 "7 26.0 6 - 10 14 13.5 11 - 15 10 9.6 16 - 20 5 4.8 20 years + 48 46.1 TOTAL 104 100.0 Note: Based on random sample of 104 householders from a total of 196 households. Source: Aleutians East CRSA, undated. 710 By the time of the 1980 Census, the demographic picture had become more complex. By then, a substantial imbalance had developed in the number of young adult (20 to 34 years) males and females for both Alaska Natives (60 males, 38 females) and non-Natives (74 males, 55 females) alike. In the case of non-Natives, this imbalance was probably a result of selective immigration of adult males; in the case of Natives, probably a combination of selective immigration of adult males and emigration of young adult females. The age distribution of Alaska Natives was slightly pinched in for the youngest age groups, suggesting that birth rates had fallen during the preceding decade. On the other hand, the age profile of the non-Native population was very distorted. About half of the non-Native residents were concentrated in the 20 to 34 age group, suggesting a large influx of unattached or childless young adults. Seasonal transients not counted by the Census but included in the City’s censuses would probably magnify this distortion. Changes in median age for both Natives and non-Natives between 1970 and 1980 show sign of some demographic trends noted above. Overall, the median age rose from 21.1 to 24.1 years. For Alaska Natives, the median age jumped from 16.8 to 23.0 years, consistent with slowing birth rates and the progressive aging of an earlier baby-boom cohort. On the other hand, the non-Native median age fell from 31.6 to 25.2 years, consistent with the hypothesis of a disproportionate immigration of young adults. Age data for Sand Point Permanent Fund dividend recipients (1985 median age - 28.1 years) suggest that the aging trend for the population as a whole continued after 1980. 711 The City of Sand Point’s own census, conducted annually in June, illustrates another important feature of the community’s population composition - the number of seasonal transients. Where the April 1980 U.S. Census counted 625 residents (577 household residents and 48 persons in group quarters), the City’s June 1980 census counted 794 persons (587 household residents, 96 persons in group quarters and 109 persons living on boats in the harbor). The City’s census figures reflect both the seasonal increase in temporary processing plant workers and the passing presence of the transient commercial fishing fleet. Furthermore, year to year comparisons of City census data between 1980 and 1985 indicate that the resident household population has been relatively stable, mainly growing with the availability of new housing. The same data indicate that the community’s transient population fluctuates with the changing fortunes of the commercial fishing industry. City censuses establish another point about the different make-up of the resident and transient populations. They show that the permanent resident population is about evenly divided between males and females but that the transient fishing and fish processing workforce is overwhelmingly (ranging from 84 to 94 percent) male. The inclusion of persons living in group quarters in the 1980 Census city population count may distort the data on male/female ratios. Company policies in force at that time meant that group quarters residents were 712 TABLE 389 POPULATION COMPOSITION SAND POINT 1970 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Male Female’ Total Male. Female Total Under 5 years 34 16 50 4 2 6 5-14 35 41 76 4 7 11 15 - 24 23 25 48 8 11 19 25 - 34 17 19 36 9 7 16 35 - 44 18 12 30 3 5 8 45 - 54 7 7 14 ll 5 16 55 - 64 4 6 10 6 6 12 65 and over 1 3 4 3 1 4 TOTAL 139 129 268 48 44 92 Median Age 15.4 18.2 16.8 34.4 28.6 31.6 Age Range Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 38 18 56 5-9 22 32 54 10 - 14 17 16 33 15 - 19 11 18 29 20 - 24 20 18 38 25 - 29 17 13 30 30 - 34 9 13 22 35 - 39 13 10 23 40 - 44 8 7 15 45 - 49 11 3 14 50 - 54 7 9 16 55 - 59 7 6 13 60 - 64 3 6 9 65 and over 4 4 8 TOTAL 187 173 360 Median Age 23.8 20.8 21.1 Note: Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and others, excluding White and Negro. Source: U.S. Census. 713 TABLE 390 POPULATION COMPOSITION SAND POINT 1980 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 15 19 34 10 13 23 5-9 22 18 40 6 7 13 10 - 14 17 15 32 10 5 15 15 - 19 20 28 48 17 14 31 20 - 24 25 17 42 29 21 50 25 - 29 16 14 30 31 26 57 30 - 34 19 7 26 14 8 22 35 - 39 11 11 22 10 10 20 40 - 44 10 10 20 7 6 13 45 - 49 9 4 13 6 2 8 50 - 54 11 8 19 5 3 8 55 - 59 4 3 7 2 0 2 60 - 64 5 6 11 3 2 5 65 - 69 4 3 7 1 0 1 70 - 74 0 3 3 oO Oo 0 75 and over 1 2 3 0 0 0 TOTAL 189 168 357 4151 4117 268 Median Age 4.2 21.3 0 25.6 24.8 25.2 Source: U.S. Census. PRPPNWENWNNND FOMUMnnARUPoOsesysa Jud > iO cS le Ko) Total Female Total 32 57 25 53 20 47 42 79 38 92 40 87 15 48 21 42 16 33 6 21 11 27 3 9 8 16 3 8 3 3 2 3 285 625 23. 24.1 TABLE 391 POPULATION COMPOSITION BY RESIDENCY AND SEX@ SAND POINT 1980 - 1985 Residency a ee ee a 98 eo Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Resident Male 302 52 302 52 314 54 329 53 350 55 Female 285 48 279 48 270 46 287 47 290 45 Transient Male 174 84 227 86 198 94 252 92 241 94 Female 33 16 38 14 13 6 21 8 15 6 TOTAL 794 846 795 889 896 By Residency Residents 587 74 581 69 584 73 616 69 640 71 Transients 207 26 265 31 211 27 273 31 256 29 By Sex . Male 476 60 529 63 512 64 581 65 591 © 66 Female 318 40 317 37 283 36 308 35 305 34 4 Detailed data not available for 1984. Source: City of Sand Point annual census. TABLE 392 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER SAND POINT 1980 Marital Status Male Female Single 108 64 Married 127 119 Separated 6 6 Widowed 3 7 Divorced 16 12 OTA 260 208 Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 393 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP SAND POINT 1980 Household Type and Relationship Number Percent In Family Household Householder 126 20.2% Spouse 106 17.0 Other Relatives 259 41.4 Non-Relative 5 8 Sub-Total "496 79.4 In Non-Family Household Male Householder 48 7.7 Female Householder 12 1.9 Non-Relative 21 3.4 Sub-Total 81 13.0 In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution 0 0.0 Other 48 7.6 Sub-Total 48 7.6 TOTAL 625 100.0 Source: 1980 Census. 716 mostly unattached adult males. That factor accounts for the excess (1.69:1.0) of single males over single females aged 15 or more age noted by the 1980 Census. C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT The numerous federal, State, city and private employment surveys done over the past 15 years for Sand Point differ in many respects but concur on some key points. First, commercial fishing and seafood processing consistently account for most employment, ranging from 75 to 90 percent depending upon the time of year and annual catch levels. Second, the resident workforce is committed to and successful at commercial fishing. On the other hand, most processing employment and part of the Sand Point-serviced commercial fishing fleet is staffed by transients. Third, the local economy is robust. While the prosperity of some individual fisheries is shaky, this is offset by the diverse commercial fishing opportunities open to the Sand Point fleet. An early ~alement survey by Alaska Consultants (1970) estimated Sand Point’s average annual full-time employment at 148 positions in 1967. At that time, commercial fishing (80 jobs) and manufacturing, i.e. seafood processing (50 jobs), dominated the local economy, providing 88 percent of that year’s employment. Similarly, the Corps of Engineers (1974) and Bomhoff & Associates (1976) both estimated that fishing-related employment accounted for over 80 717 : worker cureovent ‘in the. seafood processing fodistrg was very high; Bomhoff reported that Pacific Pearl employed 350 persons to fill 80 positions in its Sand Point plant im 1976. | Z A June 1980 city “employment survey - counted 538 jobs at Sand Point, of which about. a7 percent were ‘related to Commercial ‘fishing (52 percent) or seafood processing (35 percent). However, that survey requires two qualifications. First, the reported level of comercial fishing employment suggests that the survey may have counted transient commercial fishermen as part of Sand Point’s employment base. Second, June is a month of above-average fishing and transient processing employment at Sand Point. Thus, the total employment counted by this survey (538 jobs) is not necessarily representative of the employment situation of Sand Point’s resident workforce, nor does it accurately measure annual average employment. Those conclusions are supported by both the 1980 Census and Alaska Department of Labor employment data series. The April 1980 Census enumerated a total of 276 employed persons at Sand Point, including fishermen and other self-employed persons. By comparison, the Alaska Department of Labor’s average annual covered employment series, which excludes self-employed persons, counted 243 employees for the Sand Point area that year. (Note that the Sand Point area also includes a minor amount of employment reported for Port Moller and Nelson Lagoon). 718 These different survey results underline the critical importance of standards for definitions (who is a resident?), timing (when was the survey conducted and for what period of work?) and coverage (are self-employed persons included?) for employment surveys. This is especially true for an economy such as Sand Point’s which characteristically engages a large transient workforce on a seasonal basis and has many self-employed residents in an industry subject to seasonal and annual cycles. Alaska Department of Labor data suggest the intensity of Sand Point’s annual and seasonal wage employment fluctuations. Between 1980 and 1986, annual covered employment has averaged between 191 and 256 workers, reflecting the ups and downs of processing activity which itself is a result of fluctuating harvest activity and catch landings. The monthly employment data over the same period illustrate the seasonality of the local seafood processing industry. For the 1980-1986 period, monthly employment during July, August and September was 42 percent to 63 percent above the annual average, while monthly employment for November through April was 21 percent to 29 percent below the annual average. As an extreme example, between June and July 1980, manufacturing (i.e. seafood processing) employment jumped from about 50 jobs to 471 jobs. Under the circumstances, Sand Point is fortunate to be able to tap a short-term transient labor force as needed to meet its seasonal labor demands. Finally, the Alaska Department of Labor covered employment series offers some signs of trends in the size and composition of Sand Point’s economy. There is no conclusive overall growth trend. According to Department of 719 Labor data, between 1980 and 1986, employment dipped in poor fishing years and rose in good years. For many specific employment sectors, the data are spotty or missing due to disclosure limitations. Still, it is clear that local government was a strong growth sector: local public sector employment tripled from 20 jobs in 1980 to 62 jobs in 1986. Even so, government employment accounted for only about a quarter of total employment (less, if self-employed persons were counted), a relatively low share when compared with most rural Alaska communities. The recent formation of the Aleutians East Borough may further boost Sand Point’s local government employment. Department of Labor figures for trade employment are also spotty, but suggest there was some recent expansion in that sector. A recent report by Impact Assessment, Inc. (1987) also indicates an impression of trade sector growth. Nevertheless, despite the community’s relative affluence, trade, services and other support sector employment remains low when compared with total employment. The transient nature of much of Sand Point’s workforce partly explains the local economy’s low employment multiplier. 720 TABLE 394 AVERAGE ANNUAL FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT 1967 Industry Classification Number Percent Agriculture, Forestry and 80 54.0 Fishing Mining 0 0.0 Contract Construction : 2 1.4 Manufacturing 50 33.7 Transportation, Communication and 1 0.7 Public Utilities Trade 4 2.7 Finance, Insurance and Real 0 0.0 Estate Service 2 1.4 Government 9 6.1 Federal (2) (1.4) State (6) (4.1) Local (1) (0.7) TOTAL 148 100.0 Note: Figures for contract construction, -trade and government sectors estimated based on partial information. Source: Alaska Consultants, 1970. 721 TABLE 395 COMPOSITION OF EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT 1974 AND 1976 ndustr 1974 1976 Commercial Fishing 53 658 Seafood Processing 71 g1a Domestic & Services 12 19 Government 3 6 Transportation 1 6 TOTAL 150 li 4 Bomhoff & Associates estimate. Seafood processing includes 16 resident and 65 transient workers. Note: The Bomhoff study says its 1977 employment survey found the Pacific Pearl plant employed 350 persons over the year, but a majority were transients who stayed only one to three months. Eighty employees were required for operation of the Pacific Pearl plant and 15-20 persons for the New England Fish Company plant. Sources: Corps of Engineers, 1974. Bomhoff & Associates, 1977. 722 SAND POINT ——__JUNE 1980 SE angustry I ein Number Commercial Fishing 279 Seafood Processing 189 Commercial Services 17 Construction 4 Transportation 7 Education 18 Technical/Professional Services 20 Federal Government 3 State Government 5 Local Government 8 Corporations/Non-Profit Organizations 6 TOTAL 538 Source: City of Sand Point survey, June 1980. TABLE 396 COMPOSITION OF EMPLOYMENT 723 wu : we wae : ie eS oe HUOHDEWWUNHO — oe ‘E TABLE 397 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA SAND POINT 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Labor Force Status Alaska Natives All _ Races Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces 0 0 0 12 12 Civilian Employed 62 19 195 81 276 Civilian Unemployed 8 4 8 4 12 Not in Labor Force 64 80 73 102 175 Labor Force Participation Rate 52.0% 22.0% 42.0% 22.0% 31.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 11.4% 17.4% 3.7% 7.6% 5.0% 1970 - * 39.4% 37.5% 39.2% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Industry 1970 1980 Construction 4 6 Manufacturing 46 41 Transportation 8 25 Communications 0 10 Trade 0 53 Finance, Insurance & 0 0 Real Estate Services 18 56 Public Administration 0 19 Other 28 74 TOTAL 104 276 7 Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 724 TABLE 398 AVERAGE MONTHLY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1980 - 1986 Average Monthly Employment January 169 February 165 March 160 April 178 May 197 June 236 July 333 August 365 September 318 October 229 November 177 December 167 Annual Average Source: 224 725 Percent Dif- ference from Annual Aver -24.6% -26. -28. -20. -12. +5. +48. +62. +42. +2. -21. -25. PONCON PK UINW Alaska Department of Labor. TABLE 399 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1980 - 1986 Industry Classification 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 * Construction * 7 0 * * * 0 Manufacturing * * 1252 1068 * * 1064 Transportation, Communication 10 9 9 12 14 16 19 and Public Utilities Trade 172 178 = 22 264 * * * Finance, Insurance and Real 0 = = = * * * Estate Services . * * 7 * * * Government 27 27 35 45 61 70 66 Federal 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 State 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 Local 20 21 29 40 56 64 62 Miscellaneous * * * * * * * TOTAL 243 22 191 192 22 256 824 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. 4 Prorated from nine months of data. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 726 TABLE 400 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1980 Industry Classification Jan Feb Mar Apr May gun Jul Aug Sep Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 oO 0 0 Construction 0 0 0 * * * * * * Manufacturing * * * * * *& ATL 446 314 Transportation, Communication 12 6 7 9 9 12 11 11 11 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * 17 18 18 19 19 18 Finance, Insurance and Real 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Estate Services 0 0 0 * * * * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * Government. Federal 3 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 State 1 8 7 6 4 2 2 1 4 Local 9 9 9 34 35 33 22 24 35 TOTAL 43 131 52 60 151 183 29 505 392 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. Source; Alaska Department of Labor. ~ o B —— 176 126 16 * * Saw el Wo 101 11 16 * * Saw TABLE 401 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1981 ——Industry Classification. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction * * * 0 0 0 0 0 0 Manufacturing * * * 134 152 183 246 215 220 Transportation, Communication 10 10 11 12 10 7 7 9 9 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 * * * * * * Retail Trade 14 14 14 * * * 18 21 18 Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * Government : Federal 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 State 5 3 6 5 6 3 2 2 1 Local 15 11 11 11 10 11 11 12 14 TOTAL 103 82 85 182 199 226 289 264 266 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. —s Ig 340 10 18 WWh 425 oo K 140 1982 ——Industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Manufacturing * * * 70 73 139 190 190 224 Transportation, Communication 6 7 7 7 9 7 8 7 8 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade * * * * * * * * * Retail Trade 20 21 21 22 23 23 22 22 23 Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * Government Federal 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 State 2 6 6 3 2 0 2 4 Local 12 15 15 36 38 36 13 12 40 TOTAL 445 159 #151 151 154 215 240 241 306 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. o o R 124 13 24 oo & 59 13 24 TABLE 403 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1983 Industry Classification Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction 0 0 0 * * * * * * Manufacturing * * * 59 99 165 209 156 168 Transportation, Communication 10 11 10 8 12 11 10 16 17 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade * * * * * * 0 Oo 0 Retail Trade 27 23 22 24 29 30 28 26 25 Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * 7 * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * Government Federal 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 State 3 6 4 4 3 1 Oo 1 2 Local 37 37 38 40 41 44 29 25 45 TOTAL 138 133 166 4151 202 270 291 242 275 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. Source; Alaska Department of Labor. ~o & 48 15 24 15 38 14 TABLE 404 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1984 Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction * * * * * * * * * Manufacturing * * * * * * 337 307 228 Transportation, Communication 16 14 13 12 14 14 13 15 13 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Oo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * Government Federal 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 State 1 1 6 6 0 0 0 2 Local 65 66 58 63 62 54 37 30 46 TOTAL 30 143 172 40 81 71 32 393 328 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. * * °o i 14 TABLE 405 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1985 Industry Classification Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oo 0 Construction * * * * * * * * * Manufacturing * * * * * * 179 364 228 Transportation, Communication 14 15 14 16 16 17 15 10 16 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * Goverment Federal 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 State 1 4 5 7 2 1 0 0 2 Local 60 60 53 57 56 49 51 61 69 TOTAL 230 225 217 239 230 219 300 490 365 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. Source; Alaska Department of Labor. * * * Ig 20 * * * i 21 TABLE 406 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT SAND POINT AREA** 1986 Industry Classification Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Mining * * * * * * * * * Construction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Manufacturing * * * 62 99 132 . 132 291 152 Transportation, Communication 20 . 19 19 18 19 18 17 20 22 and Public Utilities : Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * 42 46 38 Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * * * * Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * Government Federal 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 State 1 1 3 4 4 3 0 1 1 Local 76 77 79 87 85 54 48 51 71 TOTAL . 293 283 178 222 260 267 252 420 294 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Sand Point area also includes Nelson Lagoon, Port Moller, Squaw Harbor and Unga. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. . »~ & 42 18 42 25 15 42 ~» & 22 19 34 NIKOLSK A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS Nikolski is located on Umnak Island in the Fox Island group of the Aleutian Islands, about 100 miles west of Unalaska. Along with Gambell on St. Lawrence Island and St. Paul in the Pribilof Islands, Nikolski lies at the very western perimeter of Alaska’s civilian settlements. Nikolski is endowed with an exceptionally productive subsistence habitat but is burdened by its shallow, poorly protected natural harbor on Nikolski Bay. Nikolski is an ancient settlement site. Laughlin estimated its human habitation to date back 4,000 years. Archaeological evidence confirms it as one of the earliest sites for Aleut-Eskimo occupation. Because of the community’s interest to archaeologists, ethnographers and historians, Nikolski’s past and contemporary history are relatively well documented. Nikolski (aboriginal name Chaluka) was presumably first sighted by Chirikof in 1741, but it was not known to be visited by Europeans until the Russian fur hunter Glotov "discovered" Umnak Island in 1759. Then, as throughout the Aleutians under the oppressive reign of the fur traders, life at Nikolski got grim. This was the start of an era which saw the Aleuts, once Alaska’s most numerous aboriginal group, decline from an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 before contact to about 2,250 by 1834 (Veniaminov), to about 1,400 by 1848 and, in another year, after a smallpox epidemic, to an estimated 900 people. Scholars disagree about the exact size of the Aleut 735 population at contact and about later censuses, but all concur that the first, few decades of Russian penetration dealt irreparable damage to Aleut society and family life. Berreman summarized the post-contact fate of Nikolski, in a few harsh words: "Thereafter, the people were killed, exploited, forced to work for the Russians, and genetically mixed with the Russians". In short order, Glotov’s massacres, disease and the risks of fur hunting reduced Umnak Island’s original twenty-two original villages and 2,000 to 2,500 Aleuts to three villages with a total population of perhaps 700 to 750 persons. By the time of Bishop Veniaminov’s visit to the Island in 1826, the results of Russian domination were even more apparent. Only two villages remained with a total combined population of 109 persons, Nikolski (83 residents, including 38 males and 45 females) and a second smaller village, now defunct. Today, even the outlook for Nikolski, the last surviving village on Umnak Island, seems unsure. Berreman speculates that Nikolski’s total population remained fairly constant for a century after Veniaminov’s visit. The 1890 Census counted a total of 94 residents (47 males and 47 females) on Umnak Island, noting that the Island’s population was by then concentrated in a single settlement. Hooper’s 1897 census noted a population of 98 persons (44 males and 54 females). It is possible that the 1890 and Hooper’s censuses were incomplete as Berreman cites local informants who alleged a population of around 120 persons during the 1900 to 1910 period. 736 TABLE 407 POPULATION ESTIMATES NIKOLSKI 1826 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1826 83 Veniaminov 1880 127 1890 94 1897 98 Hooper (per Berreman) 1900-1910 120 Berreman 1920 83 1929 109 1938 85 Laughlin: and Marsh 1939 97 : 1940 92 . BIA (per Jones) 1942 72 Berreman 1950 64 59 Banks 1952 56 Berreman 1957 64 Ray, 1959 1960 92 1967 65 Federal Field Committee - 61 Native; 4 non-Native 1968 70 Alaska Area Native Health Service 1969 65 Federal Field Committee - 60 Native; 5 non-Native 1970 57 62 Jones 1980 50 1983 41* 1984 45* 1985 46* * Alaska Department of Labor estimates of July 1 population derived using U.S. Census methodology. Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1983 - 1985 figures). 737 TABLE 408 POPULATION TRENDS NIKOLSKI ——__1880 - 1985 _ Year : Population Percent Change : Decennial Annual 1880 127 1890 94 -26.0 1920 83 1930 109 31.3 1939 97 -11.0 1950 64 -34.0 1960 92 43.8 1970 57 -38.0 1980 50 -12.3 1983 41 . 1984 45 9.8 1985 46 2.2 Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1983 - 1985 figures). 738 Apart from church buildings, the Russian era and the first decades of American jurisdiction seemingly brought few material benefits or developments to Nikolski. Then as now, shallow and exposed Nikolski Bay discouraged marine industries. Before the Alaska Commercial Company opened the first store here around 1900, residents generally subsisted on local resources, plus staples periodically obtained in trade with passing vessels. For decades, that store and later stores seem to have been barely marginal operations, reflective of Nikolski’s poor commercial economy. Nikolski never became host for a local commercial fishery and the sea otter harvest was outlawed under American jurisdiction. For a while, fox trapping yielded minor income. Then, when fox pelt prices rose in the mid- 1920s, the village prospered until eight hunters perished in a shipwreck. The first local school was built in 1922; previously, children had to go to a church school in Unalaska for education. In 1926, ranching operations, first sheep and later also cattle, were started near Nikolski, providing occasional paid work for local residents as ranch hands. The 1920, 1930 and 1939 Censuses recorded populations of 83, 109 and 97 persons respectively, indicating a period of comparative demographic stability. Then, Japan invaded the western Aleutians and the entire population of Nikolski was evacuated to Wards Lake near Ketchikan in Southeast Alaska. An American military outpost, subsequently used as a White Alice site and later as an Alascom communications site until 1977, was installed on Black Hill overlooking the village. 739 During their stay in Southeast Alaska, Nikolski residents were newly exposed to urban comforts and attractions and to well paid work in that region’s timber, fishing and other industries. Still, even in exile, village cohesion remained strong. All but six of the surviving exiles chose to return to Nikolski when the chance arose in late 1945. Unhappily, thirteen persons - 16 percent of the original eighty evacuees - died during the three years at Wards Lake (Berreman, 1963). For a time after the return to Nikolski, it was common for perhaps fifteen village men and boys to go to the Pribilofs during the summer months to work at sealing. A smaller number sought seasonal work outside the village in fisheries-related occupations. But at Nikolski, the only paid jobs open to local residents were that of the postmaster and ranch work, plus handicrafts. Still, Kozely (1963) found cause to praise the industriousness of local men and the progressiveness of the village in looking after community needs. Between 1950 and 1980, all of the population counts fell within a range of 50 to 70 persons, except for the 1960 Census which reported a puzzlingly high 92 residents. However, changes in population composition over that period, further discussed below, foretold imminent population decline. Indeed, the population figures after the late 1960s show a generally downward trend, falling to 50 residents by the 1980 Census and fewer still in subsequent Alaska Department of Labor estimates. 740 B. POPULATION COMPOSITION There are good historic demographic data available for Nikolski, including breakdowns by age and sex for 1897, 1942 and 1952, as well as the 1970 and 1980 Censuses. Except for the period when the military installation was operational, there have never. been more than a few whites resident at Nikolski. That remains the case today. The 1970 Census counted five non-Natives, the 1980 Census only two. While the misfortunes of history mean that most modern Aleuts are of mixed racial stock, Berreman cites local informants who insisted vigorously that little mixing occurred at Nikolski. Nikolski’s changing sex ratio reflects the changing circumstances of local life. Population counts from the Russian era consistently show a prevalence of females, probably the result of male conscription and fatalities from fighting and hunting. After the United States assumed jurisdiction, the opposite pattern asserted itself. Certainly, by 1942 and thereafter, males predominated, sometimes by a wide margin. Berreman notes that out-migration, especially by young women leaving to be married, was high before 1942. Between 1942 and 1952, there were seventeen emigrants; all but two of those relocated outside the region. Berreman (1963) also observed that not a single youngster who had gone outside the village for education had yet returned to live there. 741 Ironically, Kozely, in his 1963 community survey, saw a core of youthful industrious people, determined to stay and make a better life for their children at Nikolski. But the more perceptive Berreman, also writing in 1963, already saw the premonitory signs of a community in decline. Berreman documents the substantial excess of deaths over births and emigrants over immigrants between 1942 and 1952. The absolute birth rate was low, too low to replace the losses to emigration and mortality. Berreman attributes the low birth rate partly to disease and poor nutrition, partly to out-marriage of women because of an imbalanced sex ratio and partly to prohibitions on inter-marriage among the community’s few family groups. Commenting on the 1952 population figures, Berreman even then sees "an impressive lack of children under ten years of age". The climax of these trends is plain in the population composition data for 1970 and 1980. In 1970, the median age for males was 45.8 years, for females 32.5 years. By 1980, the medians were 47.5 and 32.5 respectively and Permanent Fund data for 1985 shows a median age of 50.8 for the total population. These are the highest medians among the twenty-one study communities. In all these years, there is an increasingly "impressive lack of children under ten years of age". This is reflected in school enrollments, which declined from 12 students in the Spring of 1980 to 5 in the Spring of 1987. Department of Community and Regional Affairs staff report that, in order to keep the elementary school open for the two local school children, it has been necessary to recruit a teacher with three school-age children. 742 TABLE 409 POPULATION COMPOSITION NIKOLSKI 1897, 1942 AND 1952 Age Range 1897 1942 1952 Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 2 7 9 5 3 8 1 1 2 5-9 6 3 9 6 3 9 2 3 5 10 - 14 3 5 8 4 5 9 5 2 7 15 - 19 8 3 AE 7 4 at 5 2 7 20 - 24 4 6 10 1 3 4 2 1 3 25 = 29 4 8 +2 5 2 6 3 3 6 30 - 34 6 4 10 2 3 5 1 2 3 35 = 39 4 5 9 5 2 7 3 0 3 40 - 44 3 6 9 i. 2 3 2 2 4 45 - 49 3 2 5 1 0 1 5 3 8 50 = 54 0 i ai 2 i 3 2 1 3 55 - 59 0 2 2 2 i 3 0 0 0 60 - 64 0 1 1 2 0 2 2 1 3 65 and over 1 I 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 TOTAL 44 54 28 44 28 72 34 22 56 Median Age 24.4 Zis2 26.0 22.5 19.4 19.8 29.2 29.2 28.8 Sources: 1897 data collected by Hooper (per Berreman, 1963); 1942 and 1952 data, Berreman, 1963. TABLE 410 POPULATION COMPOSITION NIKOLSKI 1970 Age Range Alaska Native Non-Native Male Female Total : Male Female Total Under 5 years 1 3 4 0 0 ) 5-14 2 7 9 0 0 0 15 - 24 3 0 3 0 1 1 25 - 34 5 4 9 0 0 0 35 - 44 4 3 7 0 0 0 45 - 54 6 2 8 0 0 0 55 - 64 6 3 9 1 2 3 65 and over 1 2 3 1 0 1 TOTAL 28 24 52 2 3 5 Median Age 43.8 31.3 37.1 Age Range Total Male Female’ Total Under 5 years 1 3 4 5-9 1 3 4 10 - 14 1 4 5 15 - 19 1 0 1 20 - 24 2 pi 3 25 - 29 1 3 4 30 - 34 4 1 5 35 - 39 2 1 3 40 - 44 2 2 4 45-49 - 3 1 4 50 - 54 3 1 4 55 - 59 4 1 5 60 - 64 3 4 7 65 and over 2 2 4 TOTAL 30 27 57 Median Age 45.8 2.5 39.9 Note: Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and others, excluding White and Negro. Source: U.S. Census. 744 TABLE 411 POPULATION COMPOSITION NIKOLSKT 1980 Total Male Female Total Non-Native Female Total Male Alaska Native Female Total Male SCWNOYTNAMNANYTYINNONN OSONMNYNOANNA Tr AANA O SOMMNOOANONMNMAAYTAN ooooo0oo0o0o00000000o ooooo0oo0o0o00o0o0ce0o000°o ecoCCCoCOC OOOO oOCOOOOS SCMWOYTNAMNANNTYINNONN ONMNSTNOANNA dA ANA O SMNMOODANONNMNAAYTAN Under 5 years 5- 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 -— 54 55 - 59 60 - 64 65 - 69 70 - 74 75 and over U.S. oe TABLE 412 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER NIKOLSKI 1980 Marital Status Male Female Single 3 5 Married 10 10 Separated 1 1 Widowed 4 1 Divorced 3 1 TOTAL 2l 18 Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 746 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP NIKOLSKI 1980 Household Type and Relationship Number Percent In Family Household Householder 11 22.0% Spouse 10 20.0 Other Relatives 17 34.0° Non-Relative 0 0.0 Sub-Total 38 76.0 In Non-Family Household Male Householder 10 Female Householder 2 0 20. 4 Non-Relative 0 oe oO ooo Sub-Total 12 24. In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution Other Sub-Total TOTAL 50 100.0% Source: 1980 Census. 746 Jones (1973) characterized Nikolski as an isolated village, without strong social or economic ties to any other Aleutian communities. She observed that, despite the practice of seasonal commuting to St. Paul, Cold Bay, Unalaska and other spots for temporary work, the lures of work and more comfortable living conditions were not strong enough to attract Nikolski men to relocate permanently. This is unlike several other, less isolated smal] Aleutian villages whose populations have gravitated to nearby larger settlements such as Unalaska or Sand Point. The cross-tabulations of 1974 residence and enrollment data for ANCSA enrollees fit this picture of a community in slow decline. At that time, none of the 53 enrolled Natives living at Nikolski were enrolled to another village, suggesting virtually no immigration of Natives into Nikolski from elsewhere. On the other hand, about 28 percent of the enrollees to Nikolski were then living in other communities. However, the 1980 Census reported that 34 percent of Nikolski residents had lived elsewhere in Alaska five years earlier. This was by far the highest rate of intra-State migration counted for any of the study villages and, in view of other contradictory data, appears to be in error. In sum, Nikolski appears unable to hold its young people or to attract newcomers, with too few marriageable young adults to sustain itself over the long run. After four millennia of near continuous human settlement, Nikolski appears bound for gradual abandonment. 747 TABLE 414 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS NIKOLSKI 1982 - 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 Oo- 4 1 0 1 5- 9 0 2 10 - 14 2 0 15 - 19 5 4 20 - 24 2 3 25 - 29 1 3 30 - 34 0 0 35 - 39 1 0 40 - 44 1 2 45 - 49 6 4 50 - 54 4 3 55 - 59 2 4 60 - 64 2 1 65 - 69 4 3 70 - 74 4 3 75 & over 3 3 Unknown 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 44 41 37 36 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 10; 18-27 - 3; 28-37 -3; 38-47 - 8; 48-57 - 6; 58-67 - 6; 68-77 - 7; 78+ - 1; Unknown - 0; Total - 44. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 1; 5-17 - 8; 18-27 - 3; 28-37 - 1; 38-47- 9; 48-57 - 5; 58-67 - 5; 68-77 - 8; 78+ - 1; Unknown - 0; Total - 41. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 748 Year 1956/57 1957/58 1958/59 1959/60 1960/61 1961/62 1962/63 1963/64 1964/65 1965/66 1966/67 1967/68 1968/69 1969/70 1970/71 1971/72 1972/73 1973/74 1974/75 1975/76 1976/77 1977/78 1978/79 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 Source: TABLE 415 FINAL ENROLLMENT BY GRADE NIKOLSKI 956/57 - 1986/87 Ung/ Kind 1b 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 _11 _12 Spec 1 1 2 0 4 0 2 0 1 1 3 3 0 4 0 2 1 1 1 3 3 0 4 1 1 1 1 1 4 0 0 3 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 2 3 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 3 2 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 3 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 2 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 3 0 1 1 2 1 0 2 1 3 0 1 J 2 1 0 2 1 3 2 3 0 1 3 2 0 2 1 1 2 0 1 2 1 0 2 2 1 I 0 1 1 2 I 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 0 2 1 1 3 0 1 1 1 0 3 1 1 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 Alaska Department of Education, Educational Finance and Support Services. 749 14 12 11 aa C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT The data on labor force and employment for Nikolski are spotty and of limited value. The 1970 Census reported a total of 23 employed persons: 11 in public administration, 7 in manufacturing and 5 in services, but these numbers seem high in light of other circumstantial information about the dearth of local employment. The 1980 Census reported 14 employees in six categories of industry. Due to disclosure limitations, the Alaska Department of Labor has released only total average annual employment data for Nikolski for 1985 (10 employees) and 1986 (9 employees). The 1980 Census indicated a low labor force participation rate for males (53 percent) and females (33 percent) alike, consistent with an older population with many retirees. In the absence of local commercial resources, Chaluka Corporation, the village ANCSA corporation, has not been able to stimulate economic development although it has taken over operation of the sheep ranch. 750 TABLE 416 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA NIKOLSKI 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 Labor Force Status Alaska Natives All Races Male Female Male Female Total Armed Forces - = 0 0 0 Civilian Employed * * 8 6 14 Civilian Unemployed * * 0 0 0 Not in Labor Force * 7 r 12 19 Labor Force Participation Rate = - 53.0% 33.0% 42.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 * 7 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 1970 * * 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 Industry 1970 1980 Construction 0 0 Manufacturing 7 1 Transportation 0 2 Communications 0 1 Trade 0 0 Finance, Insurance & 0 2 Real Estate Services 5 6 Public Administration 11 0 Other 0 2 TOTAL 23 14 * Data missing or suppressed. Note that no non-Natives were counted at Nikolski by the 1980 Census. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 751 TABLE 417 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT NIKOLSKI AREA 1980 - 1986 1982 Industry Classification 1980 Mining * Construction * Manufacturing _ Transportation, Communication = and Public Utilities Trade * Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services ” Government * Federal 7 State * Local ~ Miscellaneous - TOTAL * 1981 * * * ee ee * * * * * * + ee * * i+ 1983 + ee OF * * (+ * * * * * ee 1* x Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 752 ee ee * * ee eH * * ko A. PAST POPULATION TRENDS St. Paul’s commercial origins and colonial history, together with those of St. George, are unique among today’s rural Alaska Native villages. By the last quarter of the eighteenth century, the Aleutian Islands sea otter stocks were already suffering from the effects of intensive harvesting promoted by the Russian fur traders. Depletion of this prime fur-bearing species encouraged a search for the hitherto undiscovered breeding grounds of the northern fur seal, another potential source of valuable pelts. St. Paul Island, then as now the world’s major breeding grounds’ for the northern fur seal, was "discovered" by Russian voyagers in 1786. At the time, the Island was uninhabited and archaeological research to date has found signs of only passing human use prior to "discovery". News of the abundant fur seal stocks on the Pribilofs prompted several fur traders to set up harvest operations the very next year. Since the Islands were unpopulated and remote from other settlements, there was no indigenous labor supply to be impressed to harvest and butcher thé fur seals, as was the custom elsewhere under the reign of the promyshleniki. Therefore, the fur merchants brought Aleut hunters to the Pribilofs to carry out this work. 753 At first, Aleut work crews were brought to the Pribilofs only seasonally, but eventually year-round settlements were established on both St. Paul and St. George. The settlements’ economies were founded exclusively on the fur sealing industry. From the start, subsistence played a supplemental role, augmenting commercial goods supplied by the merchants in exchange for labor. But the availability of subsistence resources was fortuitous and not a pre-condition for St. Paul’s origin, as would be the case for a traditional community. According to Veniaminov, the first Aleut relocatees to St. Paul came from Atka and Siberia, later augmented, according to Petroff, by more transplants from Unalaska and Atka. However, these villages are not necessarily the true homes of the relocatees since, by the 1780s, the fur traders’ policy of centralizing the aboriginal population of the eastern Aleutian Islands had already commingled the residents of the scores of original scattered villages into a few settlements, including Unalaska and Atka. Indeed, the Russians’ resettlement of Aleuts to the Pribilofs to work in the fur industry was just another example of the pervasive disruption of traditional settlement patterns promoted by the Russians to facilitate centralization and control over the Aleuts. Following this policy, the Russians also resettled Aleut hunters and laborers to Kodiak, Southeast Alaska, California and the Russian-owned Commander Islands at the far western end of the Aleutian Chain. The Russian era was only the first episode in an unfortunate history of involuntary relocations which prompted 754 one researcher (Stein, 1977) to comment that, "the Aleuts have been relocated perhaps earlier, more often, and more recently than any other North American Native group." Once settled on the Islands, the relocatees were virtually at the mercy of the fur entrepreneurs for their survival. Isolation inhibited unapproved travel, since the Pribilofs are about 240 miles from the Aleutian Chain and about 300 miles from the Alaska mainland. The Islands’ limited subsistence resource base necessitated some household reliance upon imported foodstuffs and, thus, some family dependency upon wage labor in the seal harvesting industry. Early censuses for the Pribilof Islands include a reported population of 379 persons (188 males and 191 females) in 1819 (Kostlivtzof, per Petroff, 1883) and 182 persons (88 males and 94 females) in 1831 (Veniaminov, per Petroff, 1883). An 1825 census put the population for St. Paul alone at 130 persons (Dmytryshyn, per Jones, 1969). Longevity data indicate that aboriginal Aleuts had a relatively long natural life expectancy. Nevertheless, Laughlin (1980) cites vital statistics data showing that, in the latter part of the nineteenth century, Pribilovians’ life expectancy was decidedly shorter than that of Aleuts in the Aleutian Islands. Laughlin attributes this difference mainly to nutritional deficiencies suffered by the Pribilof Islanders. 755 For most of the period of Russian ownership, St. Paul was managed by the Russian American Company. After the sale of Alaska to the U.S. in 1867, there followed a couple of years of chaotic management. To settle matters, the U.S. government awarded exclusive twenty year leases to private firms to manage the Islands’ commercial and community affairs, first to the Alaska Commercial Company, and later to the North American Commercial Company. However, excessive harvests led to a decline in the fur seal population, a depressed industry and an extended period of poverty for Pribilof Islanders. With passage of the Fur Seal Act of 1910, the federal government put an end to the practice of private leasing. Nevertheless, the essential dependency of the Islanders was perpetuated by substituting direct federal control, specifically by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (later, the National Marine Fisheries Service). For many years, the federal government proved no more generous a taskmaster than private commerce. Like residents of other outlying Aleut communities, the residents of St. Paul (and St. George) were evacuated during World War II. Without advance notice, a U.S. naval ship arrived in June 1942 to transport 294 St. Paul Islanders to a relocation camp at Funter Bay on Admiralty Island near Juneau in Southeast Alaska. Most St. Paul Islanders were returned home in 1944, when it became evident that the Pacific War posed no threat to the Island. Federal administration of the Pribilof Island communities continued until terminated by the Fur Seal Act Amendments adopted in 1983. That 756 legislation mandated termination of federal administration, turnover of ownership and management of community facilities and services to local entities, and creation of a trust fund of $20 million ($12 million for St. Paul and $8 million for St. George) to develop an alternative economy. Coincidentally, execution of the Indian Claims Commission settlement of 1979 resulted in the award of a further $8.5 million to the two Pribilof communities in 1983 as partial compensation for historic inequities at the hands of the federal government. At about the same time, St. Paul embarked on a series of concurrent capital projects for community and economic development including breakwater/harbor development, federally-aided housing and sanitation facilities and power generation. The first official federal Census of the Pribilof Islands in 1880 counted 390 persons, of whom 298 were St. Paul residents. From that time to the present, St. Paul has continued to be the more populous of the two Pribilof Island communities. After 1880, St. Paul’s population declined slowly, then revived again, slowly regaining its 1880 level by about the 1939 Census. Thereafter, the town’s population has grown every decennial Census, reaching 551 persons by 1980. Since 1980, various annual population estimates have ranged from a high of 595 persons to a low of 466 persons (Department of Community and Regional Affairs 1987 official count). Differences among the various population estimates leave uncertain whether there was a definite downward trend after 1980. The Department of Revenue’s data on the number of local Permanent Fund dividend recipients are similarly ambiguous. 757 “TABLE 418 POPULATION ESTIMATES ST. PAUL 1825 - 1987 Year Census Other Estimates Sources of Other Estimates 1825 130 Dmytryshyn - Colonial Russian America 1870 239 Elliott (includes 8 whites) 1872 235 Elliott, 1898 1876 243 St. Paul Community Study 1880 298 1887 237 U.S. Treasury Dept., 1889 1888 227 U.S. Treasury Dept., 1889 1890 241 213 U.S. Treasury Dept., 1898 1892 196 U.S. Treasury Dept., 1898 1894 204 U.S. Treasury Dept., 1898 1895 207 U.S. Treasury Dept., 1898 1910 201 1920 212 1926 202 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1927 189 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1929 247 1930 222 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1931 232 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1932 232 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1933 230 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1934 233 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1935 227 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1936 256 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1937 256 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1938 253 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1939 299 259 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1940 261 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1942 189 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1943 241 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1944 254 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1945 257 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1946 275 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1947 287 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1948 291 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1949 291 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) 1950 359 308 1951 311 1952 323 1953 322 1954 326 1955 340 1956 326 1957 334 1958 319 1959 345 1960 378 380 1960 350 1961 337 1962 340 1963 330 1964 355 1965 347 1966 380 1967 453 1967 433 1969 435 1970 478 480 1970 455 1975 540 1976 588 1979 567 1980 551 1980 580* 567 1981 591* 591 1982 595* 595 1982 1983 528* 595 1984 491* 595 1985 466* 595 1986 595 1986 473 1987 466 BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) Ak. Department of Labor (July) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) BCF (St. Paul Community Study) St. Paul Community Study Federal Field Committee - 409 Native; 24 non-Native Federal Field Committee - 410 Native; 25 non-Native Ak. Department of Labor (July) AEIDC U.S. Census Bureau U.S. Census Bureau Management & Planning Services - 509 Native; 58 non-Native Dept. Community/Regional Affairs Dept. Community/Regional Affairs U.S. Census Bureau (July) Dept. Community/Regional Affairs Dept. Community/Regional Affairs Dept. Community/Regional Affairs Dept. Community/Regional Affairs Dept. Community/Regional Affairs Impact Assessment, Inc. - "effective" residents Dept. Community/Regional Affairs * Alaska Department of Labor estimates of July 1 population derived using U.S. Census methodology. Where these figures are the same as those cited by the Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the Department of Labor accepted local censuses or estimates. Sources: U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1980 - 1985 figures). Year Sources: 1880 1890 1910 1920 1930 1939 1950 1960 1970 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 POPU TABLE 419 LATION TRENDS ST. PAUL 1880 _- 1985 Population 298 241 201 212 247 299 359 378 478 551 591 595 528 491 466 U.S. Census (1880 - 1980 figures). Alaska Department of Labor (1981 - 1985 figures). Year 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1929 1939 1950 1960 1970 1980 Source: U.S. Census. TABLE 420 PRIBILOF ISLANDS POPULATION 1880 - 1980 Saint Paul Saint George 298 92 244 93 n/a n/a 201 90 212 138 247 153 299 183 359 187 378 n/a 478 163 551 158 760 Percent Chan Decennial Annual -19.1 5.5 16.5 21.1 20.1 5.3 26.5 15.3 ' _ Pribilof Islands 390 337 n/a 291 350 400 482 546 n/a 671 709 rFOWNW For most of the twentieth century, it appears that selective out-migration has played a key role in dampening the rate of St. Paul’s growth. The St. Paul Community Study compiled data on net migration and the destinations and reasons for departure of permanent emigrants from St. Paul for the 1926-1966 period. Over that time, it appears that net migration was a null factor in population growth. However, the demographic picture takes on different meaning when sex and age traits of migrants are considered. Twice as many females (110) as males (56) left St. Paul permanently between 1926 and 1966. Traditional marriage patterns played a key part in this difference. Marital considerations (marriage, loss of spouse by divorce or death, reunion of family) were the motive for 70 percent of female emigrants whose reasons were known. On the other hand, employment and military service were the primary motives of male emigrants; marital considerations were of concern to only 4 percent of emigrant males. The loss of young adult females who left for reasons related to marriage was partly offset by an immigration of females, mainly from St. George and other Aleutian communities. Still, there was a net loss of 35 females in the 15-34 year age group. The resulting sex imbalance presumably depressed rates of family formation and natural increase. Nevertheless, natural increase appears to account for most of the town’s 1970-1980 population growth from 478 persons (1970 Census) to 551 persons (1980 Census). According to the Alaska Bureau of Vital Statistics, natural 761 increase contributed 59 of a total net increase of 73 new residents over that period. There were some shifts in this pattern of population change between 1980 and 1986. Overall, based on the 1986 population survey conducted by Impact Assessment, Inc., there appeared to be little net change due to migration in the number of Alaska Native males and females between 1980 and 1986. In fact, once mortality losses are considered, the data suggest a modest net immigration. (Parenthetically, however, we should note that the Impact Assessment, Inc. survey used a slightly more inclusive social definition of community residency [persons who "belonged" to the permanent community, regardless of place of residence] rather than the Census’s standard of physical residency at the time of the Census). However, a cohort comparison pinpoints a noteworthy but puzzling loss of teenage (1986 age group: 15 to 19 years) males (minus 14 persons) and females (minus 14 persons). The 1985 distribution by age of Permanent Fund dividend recipients was examined to check this discrepancy. The Permanent Fund records belied the loss of young adults noted in the Impact Assessment, Inc. survey. Lacking more compelling documentation, any recent trends in migration patterns among young adults are regarded as inconclusive. As will be more fully discussed later, mobility for seasonal employment to and from St. Paul has traditionally been high. Some St. Paul men have habitually traveled to Aleutian and Bristol Bay communities for temporary work in seafood processing, Jongshoring and other seasonal jobs. 762 TABLE 421 DESTINATION AND REASON FOR PERMANENT DEPARTURES FROM ST. PAUL 26 - 1966 Reason for Destination Male Female Departure Male Female St. George 8 22 Marriage 0 51 Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula 4 30 Widowed 1 5 Anchorage Area 3 7 Divorced 0 5 Bristol Bay 3 1 Bachelor 1 0 Southeast Alaska 9 19 Accompanying or joining spouse 1 8 California 3 8 Adopted 5 5 Other States 3 5 Military 9 0 Unknown 17 13 Work 13 0 School 3 0 Unknown 10 12 TOTAL 56 10 TOTAL 56 110 Source: St. Paul Community Study, 1968. 763 TABLE 422 SUMMARY OF PERMANENT ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES, BY AGE GROUP ST. PAUL 926 - 1966 Age Group Departed 0-14 15-34 35-49 50 + Unknown Total Male 17 24 9 2 4 56 Female 20 74 ll 1 4 110 Total 37 98 20 3 8 166 Arrived Male 34 24 10 7 1 76 Female 31 39 9 5 4 88 Total 65 63 19 12 5 164 Difference Male +17 0 +1 5 -3 +20 Female +11 -35 -2 +4 0 -22 Total 28 -35 -1 +9 -3 -2 Source: St. Paul Community Study, 1968. 764 TABLE 423 NATURAL INCREASE ST. PAUL 1970 - 1984 Year Births Deaths Increase 1970 10 1 +9 1971 8 2 +6 1972 6 4 +2 1973 12 3 +9 1974 10 8 +2 1975 9 2 +7 1976 18 2 +16 1977 9 4 +5 1978 10 2 +8 1979 1 6 -5 1980 14 5 +9 1981 8 8 0 1982 15 7 +8 1983 13 5 +8 1984 20 8 +12 TOTAL 1970-1984 163 67 +96 Source: Bureau of Vital Statistics, Alaska Department of Health and Social Services. 765 TABLE 424 CHANGE IN ALASKA NATIVE POPULATION COMPOSITION ST. PAUL 1980 - 1986 al Female L Change Change Age Range 1980 1986 1980-86 1980 1986 1980-86 Under 5 years 33 29 +29 22 23 +23 5- 9 26 25 -8 21 21 -1 10 - 14 37 22 -4 27 21 0 15 - 19 30 23 -14 29 13 -14 20 - 24 18 27 -3 21 23 -6 25 - 29 20 24 +6 18 20 -1 30 - 34 26 23 +3 13 14 -4 35 - 39 14 24 -2 10 18 +5 40 - 44 13 11 -3 13 13 +3 45 - 49 11 13 0 8 13 0 50 - 54 10 9 -2 3 10 +2 55 - 59 15 9 -1 9 4 +1 60 - 64 9 8 -7 8 4 -5 65 - 69 8 8 -1 7 8 0 70 - 74 2 3 -5 2 5 -2 75 and over 0 2 0 0 1 -1 TOTAL 272 260 x12 211 211 0 Sources: 1980 U.S. Census. Impact Assessment, Inc., 1987. 766 TABLE 425 PERMANENT FUND DIVIDEND RECIPIENTS ST. PAUL 1982 - 1985 Age Group 1982 1983 1984 1985 o- 4 40 36 48 5- 9 41 50 10 - 14 43 46 15 - 19 43 45 20 - 24 28 46 25 - 29 18 46 30 - 34 33 35 35 - 39 37 43 40 - 44 24 28 45 - 49 21 26 50 - 54 : 18 18 55 - 59 11 14 60 - 64 14 15 65 - 69 12 11 70 - 74 12 13 75 & over : 3 3 Unknown 1 1 1 1 TOTAL 494 439 395 488 Note: 1982 age breakdown: 0-17 - 190; 18-27 - 73; 28-37 -90; 38-47 - 58; 48-57 - 36; 58-67 - 31; 68-77 - 15; 78+ - 0; Unknown - 1; Total - 494. 1983 age breakdown: 0-4 - 40; 5-17 - 120; 18-27 - 64; 28-37 - 77; 38-47 - 59; 48-57 - 32; 58-67 - 30; 68-77 - 15; 78+ -1; Unknown - 1; Total - 439. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue. 767 Conversely, men from other Aleutian communities such as Nikolski and Unalaska frequently went to St. Paul to work in the fur seal harvest. B. POPULATION COMPOSITION At the time of the first official Census in 1880, St. Paul’s population was overwhelmingly Aleut (95 percent) in its racial composition. The 1970 Census reported exactly the same percentage of Aleuts. St. Paul’s long- term racial stability may be regarded as unusual inasmuch as it was settled as a commercial enterprise and was not truly a traditional community . Mostnon-traditional communities founded primarily for commercial purposes were predominantly non-Native and were vacated once their commercial reason for being waned. That St. Paul is still mostly Aleut is partly a measure of the Pribilofs’ remoteness and partly a result of the closed society which developed under protective federal management. Possibly, it is also a sign that the living, working and wage conditions prevailing under Russian and federal management were unattractive to outsiders except for short-term employment, perhaps even necessitating the controlled labor market which prevailed during much of the period of federal management. The number of non-Natives at St. Paul tripled between 1970 and 1980 from 22 to 68 persons. This change reflected the increased involvement of educational and other government personnel in the delivery of local community services and in fur seal management activities. It is possible that this trend has reversed since the turnover of management of community affairs to local entities in 1983, but there are no confirmatory data. 768 In 1970, the median age of St. Paul’s Native residents was comparatively high at 21.1 years. The median age for males (23.2 years) was higher than that for females (19.2 years). Among the study communities, only Unalaska and Nikolski, both special cases, showed higher median ages in 1970. Speculatively, the relatively high age of St. Paul’s population may be accounted for by the comparative stability of its isolated population and by the absence of a birth rate "spike" which affected most rural Native villages in the 1950s. The picture had changed little by the 1980 Census. In 1980, the overall median age of St. Paul’s Alaska Native residents was 22.2, with the median being 22.9 for males and 21.7 for females. In this regard, St. Paul departed from the prevailing trend for the 1970-1980 decade which saw the median age for most Native villages climb by about five years. The distribution of St. Paul’s Alaska Native population by sex has been chronically and markedly asymmetric for many decades. The explanation rests with the longstanding inclination of young adult females to emigrate at a much higher rate than males. This tendency was documented in the earlier discussion of historic reasons for emigration from St. Paul. The demographic stamp of this differential emigration is visible in the general excess of marriage-age males in every age/sex distribution since 1936 and, more specifically, in the excess of single males who regularly outnumbered single females by twofold to fivefold. 769 In 1970, the Census reported a slight surplus of Alaska Native males (226) over females (202). At that time, the statistically significant discrepancy was almost wholly concentrated in the 35 to 44 year age group in which males (30) outnumbered females (14). By the 1980 Census, the gross discrepancy was greater (272 Alaska Native males versus 211 females). However, the difference was partly a matter of chance, since it stemmed from an excess (+26 persons) of males over females under 15 years of age. This latter imbalance does not reflect selective migration, but it may become a factor in the community’s population dynamics as that age group matures to childbearing age. Among older residents, however, differential migration does appear to have been a factor. When the 1970 age group cohorts between 15 and 64 years of age are compared with their 1980 counterparts (25 to 74), the pattern indicates a substantial immigration of young adult males (1980 age group: 25 to 34 years) offset by modest declines in older age groups, probably attributable to natural mortality. The pattern of change among female cohorts was significantly different: all cohorts lost population, but the loss was most marked in the youngest cohort (1980 age group: 15 to 24 years). This loss confirms the supposition of an exodus of young females during that period. According to the 1980 Census, the number of single males 15 years and older (89 persons) was double that of single females (45 persons). While almost all of the study communities were imbalanced in this respect, few were as extreme as St. Paul. Eventually, the imbalance is likely to inhibit family 770 formation and childbearing rates and, in due time, to depress the rate of natural population increase. The St. Paul Community Study provides substantial background on the temporary and permanent emigration patterns of St. Paul Natives during the middle third of the twentieth century. During this period, there was significant circulation of St. Paul residents to areas outside the Pribilofs for such purposes as temporary employment, military service, education and marriage. However, most of these persons were sojourners who maintained close ties with and usually returned to St. Paul. Except for an apparent influx of St. George Islanders during the 1950s and 1960s, St. Paul does not appear to have ever attracted much immigration from other Alaska Native communities. Presumably, the remoteness of the Pribilofs accounts for this. According to ANCSA enrollment data, ninety- nine percent of St. Paul’s Native residents in 1974 belonged to the St. Paul (Tanadgusix) village corporation. On the other hand, about 23 percent of enrollees to the Tanadgusix Corporation lived outside the community. St. Paul may now be entering a period of population volatility, especially among the more mobile and economically aspiring young adults. It is plausible that the community’s economy will experience some short term duress as construction projects taper off and the trust and transfer funds, which have been used in recent years to support local public sector employment, dwindle. There is a chance that private sector employment in fisheries and/or petroleum support activities may eventually offset some of 771 TABLE 426 POPULATION COMPOSITION ST. PAUL 1926 - 1966 1926 1936 1946 1956 1966 Age Range Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total o-4 lo 619 29 20. 26 46 2300«21 44 29-28 57 34 38 72 5-9 22 «12 34 32.13 45 27-23 50 30-26 56 26027 53 10-14 15 13 28 8 18 26 17.23 40 22-20 42 32. at 52 15 - 19 1100617 28 2. «(15 36 27, «14 42 2222 44 36031 67 20 - 24 11 9 20 12 5 17 9 14 23 16.22 38 2320 43 25 - 29 3 2 5 10 10 20 25 11 36 30 6 36 20 «(14 34 30 - 34 5 8 13 11 6 17 8 6 14 10 «12 22 le 13 29 35 - 39 9 6 15 4 3 7 9 9 18 48 33 16 3 19 40 - 44 6 2 8 3 6 9 1 3 14 8 5 13 10 10 20 45 - 49 4 5 9 9 4 13 3 3 6 8 9 17 20,011 31 50 - 54 0 4 4 2 2 4 3 6 9 8 4 12 10 9 19 55 - 59 4 2 6 3 4 7 6 1 7 2 3 5 6 6 12 60 - 64 2 2 4 oO 1 1 a 2 3 oO 3 3 8 2 10 65 + 3 3 6 2 3 5 2 5 7 5 2 7 6 4 10 TOTAL 4105 1040-209 137, Gs 253 s42 313 27H 3885 262-209 7 Median Age 17.7 17.5 17.5 17.1 15.5 16.4 18.5 16.6 17.7 20.9 18.1 19.3 20.2 18.1 19.4 Source: St. Paul Commmity Study, 1968. Age Range Under 5 years 5 - 14 15 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64 65 and over TOTAL Median Age Male 31 53 36 28 30 23 19 6 226 TABLE 427 POPULATION COMPOSITION ST. PAUL ee Os Alaska Nativ Female Total 25 56 61 114 37 73 25 53 14 44 21 44 15 34 4 10 202 428 Age Range Under 5 years Male COfKHNON S kes Total Male Female Total 35 25 60 33 37 70 22 24 46 25 22 47 11 16 27 17 12 29 13 17 30 16 8 24 15 6 21 12 12 24 15 13 28 12 10 22 7 5 12 6 4 10 239 «= 21k 450 22.3 19.5 20.5 others, excluding White and Negro. 5-9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 - 54 55 - 59 60 - 64 65 and over TOTAL Median Age Note: Source: U.S. Census. 773 Non-Native Female ho oorfrorfrroo Native is defined as Aleut, Eskimo, Indian and Total 8 COOFRDHNS TABLE 428 POPULATION COMPOSITION ST. PAUL 1980 __Age Range _ Alaska Native Non-Native Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 5 years 33 22 55 2 6 8 35 28 63 5-9 26 21 47 3 2 5 29 23 52 10 - 14 37 27 64 0 1 1 37 28 65 1i§ - 19 30 29 59 6 0 6 36 29 65 20 - 24 18 21 39 11 2 13 29 23 52 25 - 29 20 18 38 3 4 Zz 23 22 45 30 - 34 26 13 29 9 7 16 25 20 55 35 - 39 14 10 24 4 1 5 18 11 29 40 - 44 13 13 26 3 0 3 16 13 29 45 - 49 11 8 19 0 1 1 11 9 20 50 - 54 10 3 13 1 0 1 11 3 14 55 - 59 15 9 24 0 1 1 15 12 25 60 — 64 9 8 17 1 0 1 10 8 18 65 - 69 8 7 15 0 0 Oo 8 7. 15 70 - 74 2 2 4 0 0 0 2 2 4 75 and over 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 272 211 483 43 25 68 315 236 551 Median Age 22.9 1.7 2.2 24.9 27.5 26.8 23.0 21.4 22. TABLE 429 POPULATION COMPOSITION ST. PAUL 1985 Age Range Male Female Total Under 5 years 31 29 60 5-9 35 25 60 10 - 14 23 23 46 15 - 19 33 26 59 20 - 24 34 25 59 25 - 29 23 23 46 30 - 34 23 17 40 35 - 39 24 20 44 40 - 44 16 9 25 45 - 49 9 14 23 50 - 54 11 8 29 55 - 59 15 3 18 60 - 64 7 8 15 65 and over . 10 14 24 TOTAL 294 244 538 Median Age 23.9 23.9 23.8 Source: City of St. Paul household census (per Braund, 1986). 775 TABLE 430 POPULATION COMPOSITION ST. PAUL 1986 Age Range Male Female Total Under 5 years 29 23 52 5-9 25 21 46 10 - 14 22 21 43 15 - 19 23 13 36 20 - 24 27 23 50 25 - 29 24 20 44 30 - 34 23 14 37 35 - 39 24 18 42 40 - 44 11 13 24 45 - 49 13 13 26 50 - 54 9 10 19 55 - 59 9 4 13 60 - 64 8 4 12 65 and over 13 14 27 TOTAL 260 21 471 Median Age 25.9 26.3 26.0 Source: Impact Assessment, Inc., 1987. 776 TABLE 431 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER ST. PAUL 1926 - 1966 Marital Status Married Widowed Single Total 1926 Male 33 7 6 46 Female 31 12 2 45 Total 64 19 8 91 1936 Male 38 3 13 54 Female 34 10 1 45 Total 72 13 14 99 1946 Male 46 (Ct; 8 22 76 Female 45 10 6 61 Total 91 18 28 137 1956 Male 58 8 42 108 Female 54 12 13 79 Total 112 20 55 187 1966 Male 74 12 49 135 Female 72 10 10 92 Total 146 22 59 226 Source: St. Paul Community Study. 777 TABLE 432 MARITAL STATUS, BY SEX PERSONS 15 YEARS AND OLDER ST. PAUL 1980 Marital Status Male Female Single 89 45 Married 100 90 Separated 3 Widowed 13 Divorced 6 TOTAL 241 157 Source: 1980 Census. TABLE 433 HOUSEHOLD TYPE AND RELATIONSHIP ST. PAUL 1980 Household Type and Relationship Number Percent In Family Household Householder 113 20.5% Spouse 84 15.2 Other Relatives 300 54.4 Non-Relative 8 T.5 Sub-Total 505 91.7 In Non-Family Household Male Householder 11 2.0 Female Householder 2 4 Non-Relative 9 1.6 Sub-Total 22 4.0 In Group Quarters Inmate of Institution 0 0.0 Other 24 4.3 Sub-Total 24 4.3 TOTAL 551 100.0% Source: 1980 Census. 778 the public sector employment shrinkage, but that eventuality is an uncertain and distant prospect. C. TRENDS IN WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT Due to St. Paul’s commercial origins in a setting with limited subsistence opportunities, the town’s residents have long been dependent upon wage labor and the cash economy. The St. Paul Community Study provides a general history of St. Paul residents’ working conditions under federal management. Based on records of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, which was virtually the only local employer, that study also presents a detailed account of local employment and earnings for the 1956-1967 period. The employment figures indicate that through the 1950s, the level of employment at St. Paul was exceptionally high for a rural Alaska community. For example, in 1956, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries provided 97 permanent and 21 temporary jobs for St. Paul residents, mostly in the sealing industry. At that time, the total male population between 20 and 64 years old was 103 persons and the corresponding female population was 76 persons. By rural Alaska standards, this employment/workforce ratio represented an exceptionally high level of workforce participation and employment. The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries data also show that a substantial non-resident workforce was engaged to supplement the resident workforce in the sealing industry at that time. 779 By the mid-1960s, the fur seal industry had declined and employment levels slumped. The number of permanent jobs for residents fell by more than half between 1956 and 1966, although temporary employment increased. The number of jobs held by non-residents dropped even more steeply. St. Paul employment patterns for the 1980 to 1986 period have been documented by the Bureau of the Census, the Alaska Department of Labor and in several special employment surveys. The 1980 Census counted 113 persons who worked at St. Paul. This figure is comparable with a field survey of average annual full-time employment in St. Paul conducted in 1980 by Alaska Consultants, Inc. That survey found a total of 122.5 full-time job equivalents, slightly over three-quarters of which were in the government sector. The Alaska Department of Labor covered employment data series unfortunatel y combines data for both St. Paul and St. George into a single Pribilof Islands area. Thus, it is not possible to isolate employment specifically for St. Paul. Nevertheless, the Department of Labor data for the 1980-1986 period do show the dominant role of the federal government in local employment in the Pribilofs prior to the termination of federal administration in 1983. After 1983, local government became the primary employer of record in place of the federal government. The federal and local governments’ extensive sponsorship of commercial activities which would ordinarily operate in the private sector also detracts from the usefulness of Department of Labor data, since much employment related to 780 trade, services, transportation, etc. is artificially classified as government employment. It also appears that the Department of Labor data understate actual employment levels. For example, its data series shows no construction employment for the two islands during a period of extraordinary construction activity which employed many local residents. A likely explanation for this omission is that contractors based outside the area reported their St. Paul employment to their headquarters jurisdictions. Lastly, internal discrepancies in the Department’s monthly employment figures raise questions about the utility of the data for trend analysis. In addition to the 1980 Census and 1980 Alaska Consultants, Inc. survey, four other surveys of St. Paul resident employment have been compiled since 1980. These are the Institute of Social and Economic Research for 1980 employment; C.W. Smythe for 1982 employment; Braund & Associates for 1985; and Impact Assessment Inc. for 1986. Because these four surveys were compiled under different auspices according to different standards, care should be taken in drawing conclusions about apparent changes in employment conditions. Nevertheless, longitudinal comparison of the employment data compiled from these sources clearly shows the significance of the switch-over from federal to local management of most of the community’s public and commercial enterprises. National Marine Fisheries Service employment fell from 173 positions in 1982 to 3 positions in 1986. Coincidentally, suspension of the commercial harvest of fur seals is reflected in a drop of employment in related harvest and processing 781 Year 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 Source: TABLE 434 COMPOSITION OF BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES WORKFORCE ST. PAUL 1956 _- 1967 int Paul Resi Permanent 97 93 94 98 91 94 96 53 50 42 44 42 St. Paul Community Study, 1968. Temporary Total 21 118 35 128 17 111 31 129 40 131 37 131 n/a n/a n/a n/a 76 126 86 128 102 146 83 125 782 Estimated Total Non-Residents 109 95 81 94 103 69 77 69 57 46 36 34 Total Workforce 227 223 191 223 234 200 n/a n/a 183 174 182 159 TABLE 435 SELECTED LABOR FORCE DATA ST. PAUL 1980 LABOR FORCE STATUS, PERSONS OVER 16 YEARS, 1980 abo Alaska Natives Male Female Armed Forces 0 0 Civilian Employed 70 27 Civilian Unemployed 3 3 Not in Labor Force 143 109 Labor Force Participation Rate 33.0% 21.0% Unemployment Rate: 1980 4.1% 10.0% 1970 * * EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970 AND 1980 str g Construction Manufacturing Transportation Communications Trade Finance, Insurance & Real Estate Services Public Administration Other TOTAL le oO ia on wo oumoo°o°o 7 Data missing or suppressed. Source: U.S. Census, 1980. 783 All Rai Male Female Total 54 0 54 78 35 113 3 3 6 143 114 257 36.0% 25.0% 31.0% Sd Toe 5.0% 39.4% 37.5% 39.2% 1980 3 0 0 0 1 6 27 74 2 113 Industry Classification Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Mining Contract Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication & Public Utilities Trade Finance, Insurance & Real Estate Services Government Federal State Local TOTAL Note: Source: TABLE 436 AVERAGE ANNUAL FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT 1980 ST. PAUL % Number of Total 1.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.8 L.5 1.2 18.5 15.1 5.0 4.1 3.5 2.9 92.0 15.4 (60.5) (49.4) (1.0) ( 0.8) (30.5) (24.9) 122.5 100.0 784 Basic Secondary % Basic Number Number 50 0.5 0.5 --- 0.0 0.0 --- 0.0 0.0 100 1.0 0.0 0 0.0 1.5 22 4.0 14.5 100 5.0 0.0 43 1.5 2.0 61 56.0 36.0 (93) (56.0) ( 4.5) ( 0) ( 0.0) ( 1.0) ( 0) ( 0.0) (30.5) 56 68.0 54.5 Alaska Consultants, Inc., May 1981. Figures include self-employed persons and 25 military personnel. TABLE 437 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT PRIBILOF ISLANDS AREA** 1980 - 1986 Industry Classification 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Manufacturing > 0 0 * * * 7 Transportation, Communication 0 0 0 0 * * 0 and Public Utilities Trade | * * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * hea Estate Services 69 624 * * * * * Government 156 157 179 181 4192 160 165 Federal 122 #120 «©6118 = =113 77 24 23 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local 34 37 61 68 115 136 142 Miscellaneous > * = 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 231 304 291 11 380 315 313 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. 4 Prorated from six months of data. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 785 operations. Meanwhile, City of St. Paul employment rose from 11 positions in 1982 to 75 in 1986. Comparison of total employment recorded by the four surveys suggests that local employment, measured in full-time equivalents, peaked at 240 jobs in 1985. This peak coincided with the busiest period of local public works construction and with fulfillment of the City’s policy to provide employment opportunities to bridge the transition from federal administration to a more fully developed private business sector. Again, it is worth noting that this level of employment (240 full-time equivalent jobs for a population estimated variously from 466 to 595 persons) implies atypically high labor force participation and employment rates for a rural Alaska village. Comparison of the full-time equivalent employment for 1965 (240.5 positions according to Braund & Associates, 1986) and for 1986 (148.5 positions according to Impact Assessment, Inc., 1987) indicates that employment conditions abruptly deteriorated in 1986. A good share of the City of St. Paul’s employment is funded by declining intergovernmental transfers and non-recurring revenues borrowed from the St. Paul Trust Fund. Likewise, one-time federal and State capital grants to build port improvements designed to foster independent private economic development also boosted resident employment. The employment drop from 1985 to 1986 probably portends further deterioration in the local employment situation, unless the community’s hopes to achieve a substantial support role in the Bering Sea groundfish industry or other marine-related industries are realized. 786 TABLE 438 ST. PAUL NATIVE EMPLOYMENT 1980 Average Total Number of Weeks Weeks Per Per Year Total Percent Number Employed Part-time Part-time Number of Total Employer Full-time Part-tine Worker Workers § Employed Employment NMFS 17 22 28 616 135 55.3 96¢ 8 768 Clinic 2 2 40 80 4 1.6 School 13 13 5.3 City 7 3 25 75 10 4.1 TDX Corporation 6 6 2.5 Seal By-Products 6 4 24 6 2.5 Seal Fur Processing 14 6 84 14 5.7 Reindeer Antler Processing 15 3 45 15 6.1 Hotel 4 12 48 4 1.6 Restaurant 15 12 180 15 6.1 Store 10 10 4.1 Tavern 3 3 1.2 Gas Station 1 1 0.4 Reeve/PO 1 1 12 12 2 0.8 Alaska Tours & Marketing 2 12 24 2 0.8 Coast Guard 2 2 0.8 Weather Service 2 2 0.8 TOTAL 64 180 NA 1,956 244 99.7 @ Includes near full-time workers such as school personnel hired for 9 or 10 months of the year. b wpart-time indefinites" who worked more than 6 months of the year. © Includes "temporaries" and "part-time indefinites" who worked less than 6 months of the year. Source: ISER, undated. TABLE 439 ST. PAUL EMPLOYMENT 1982 Employer Full-Time . Part-Time NMFS 15 158 Public Health Service 1 School District 12 (12) Store and Tavern Community Council City Village Public Safety U.S. Postal Service Aleutian/Pribilof Island Assoc. Reeve Aleutian Airways TDX Corporation Management King Eider Hotel Restaurant Seal By-products Small Boat Fishery Fish Processing Plant U.S Coast Guard ~~ ONNWHNOOCKOCOUDCOFNOFwo — ~ U.S. Weather Service The Shelter Summer Youth Program TOTAL =~ ~ of o OPOANANONMNHNWOD ar ia — SS os |” Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate non-Native ° employment. Source: Smythe, 1983, cited in Dames and Moore, 1983. 788 TABLE 440 19823 19854 19854 1986 1986 Total Total =‘ F.T.E. Total = F.T.E. Empl. Empl. Empl. Empl. Empl. 1980_- 1986 19802 F.T.E. El. ST. PAUL EMPLOYMENT 19801 Total Enpl. Employer National Marine Fisheries Service U.S. Post Office essennssssseoeseogsoneseco CeO Oe Se et ey i red Pet 1) A I 6 MH OH 6 ONY EL OO SSS COI AO CD S a ea N Saguseseoceooonroesgunoesoqne FEE HO. oH ER ED OD: et: SP ON: ee eae ee OD OYE COT OD eT HO ~ ON N o RVOsssvdrtggerrgggouowrg enesssconsoosooocsseo $4 nee ate NO ety WwANe avggsvaginge+gagsogygn 4 Gas Station Store and Tavern Seal Harvest Tanadgusix Corporation Seal Processing Antler Processing Restaurant Auto Shop Catering Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Assoc. Clinic National Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin. Hotel Federal District Court Federal Aviation Administration Coast Guard Fish and Wildlife Service Pribilof School District IRA Community Council City of St. Paul Public Safety SAINT PAUL EMPLOYMENT (cont. ) Tourism NA NA 2 2 1.0 NA Airlines NA NA 2 5 4.5 6 Restaurants 15 3.5 16 7 3.0 6 ocs NA NA NA 25 19.0 NA Construction NA NA NA 50 19.0 24 Other NA NA 21 5 2.0 NA TOTAL 242 149.0 287 346 240.5 217 1 ISER undated. 2 Computation of F.T.E. (full-time equivalent) from ISER undated and Dames and Moore, 1983. 3 smythe (1983), as cited in Braund, 1986. 4 Braund, 1986. 5 Impact Assessment, Inc. survey. Source: Impact Assessment, 1987. 5 ir ° oo B28 Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL 108 45 264 TABLE 441 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT PRIBILOF ISLANDS AREA** Feb Mar 1980 Apr 60 115 0 48 126 52 120 0 46 83 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 81 144 1 6 60 114 0 43 253 66 119 0 46 273 Industry Classification Jan ee 0 Construction 0 Manufacturing 0 Transportation, Communication 0 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade * Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services 63 Miscellaneous * Government Federal 112 State 1 Local 11 TOTAL 16 TABLE 442 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT PRIBILOF ISLANDS AREA** 1981 Mar Apr May Jun OHO ETO TOs HILO Feb 0 0 0 0 0 iS) 1 Nn nN ico 278 316 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~~ Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Jul Oct Nov 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * 109 109 0 0 54 51 282 270 Mini Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Government Federal State Local TOTAL Jan °o 49 114 oO 52 245 TABLE 443 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT PRIBILOF ISLANDS AREA** Feb 0 0 Mar 0 1982 Apr 0 112 0 63 290 May 0 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Jun 0 o o °o 125 0 70 328 * °o IS ack FE ook * o * o iB iB In Ron Industry Classification Jan Mining 0 Construction 0 Manufacturing 0 Transportation, Communication 0 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 Retail Trade * Finance, Insurance and Real * Estate Services * Miscellaneous 0 Government Federal 109 State 0 Local 70 TOTAL 290 TABLE 444 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT PRIBILOF ISLANDS AREA** 1983 Mar Apr May Jun 0 0 0 0 0 Feb 0 0 0 0 0 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 109 0 0 0 0 0 66 68 70 74 37 293 302 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** = Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 110 27 278 Aug Sep 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * * * * * * 0 0 10 «111 0 0 45 60 271 244 oO 127 73 340 Industry Classification oo Construction Manufacturing Transportation, Communication and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade Retail Trade Finance, Insurance and Real Estate Services Miscellaneous Govermment Federal State Local TOTAL Jan 0 PRIBILOF ISLANDS AREA** 1984 Feb Mar Apr May 0 0 0 0 0 0 125 0 119 Ail 0 0 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** ~Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. Sd o °o * °o 5 LS] Rok S jw 1985 Industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Mining 0 0 0 0 0 oO Construction 0 0 0 0 0 0 Manufacturing * * * * * * Transportation, Communication * * * * * * and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 oO 0 Government Federal 25 25 21 25 24 29 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local 129 137 145 146 141 124 TOTAL 293 ° 292 301 315 305 33 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 23 0 115 368 Aug Sep 0 0 0 0 * * 0 0 0 0 * * * * * * ty) 0 230021 0 0 129 124 394 286 141 294 TABLE 447 COVERED INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT PRIBILOF ISLANDS AREA** 1986 . industry Classification _ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mining 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Manufacturing * * * * * & * “ * * * * Transportation, Communication 0 0 oO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 and Public Utilities Wholesale Trade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail Trade * * * * * * * * * * * * Finance, Insurance and Real * * * * * * * * * * * * Estate Services * * * * * * & * * * * * Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Government Federal 24 27 24 22 20 20 20 19 23 22 23 26 State 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Local 141 #144 154 150 149 113 110 122 143 #4153 159 + 169 TOTAL 299 302 311 317 325 313 336 336 310 296 299 312 * Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. ** Pribilof Islands area includes both St. Paul and St. George. Source: Alaska Department of Labor. APPENDIX TABLE A-1 PLACE OF RESIDENCE AND ANCSA ENROLLMENT ALASKA NATIVE POPULATION OF STUDY COMMUNITIES, 1974 ro iv 74 By Current Residence By Place Enrolled To Enrolled ; Residing At Current Enrolled Where Residing Community Total § Residence Elsewhere Total Enrolled Elsewhere Alakanuk 437 428 9 467 428 39 Anaktuvuk Pass 124 114 10 132 114 18 Aniak 306 178 128 250 178 72 Barrow 1,936 1,594 342 2,041 1,594 447 Bethel 1,960 1,363 597 1,726 1,363 363 Deering 131 111 20 159 111 48 Dillingham 659 592 67 925 592 333 Gambel | 336 332 4 429 332 97 Kaktovik 108 101 r 112 101 ll Kivalina 179 173 6 191 173 18 Kotzebue 1,561 1,464 97 1,983 1,464 519 Nikolski 53 53 0 74 53 21 Nome 1,683 1,249 434 2,060 1,249 811 Point Hope 372 352 20 500 352 148 Saint Paul 429 425 4 549 425 124 Sand Point 328 260 68 400 260 140 Scammon Bay 182 169 13 192 169 23 Togiak 383 375 8 400 375 25 Unalakleet 474 439 35 839 439 400 Unalaska 181 159 22 268 159 109 Wainwright 344 308 36 371 308 63 TOTAL 12,166 10,239 1,927 14,068 10,239 3,829 PERCENT 100.0% 84.2% 15.8% 100.0% 12.8% 27.2% Source: Robert R. Nathan Associates, Inc., n.d. A-1 TABLE A-2 RESIDENCY AND ANCSA ENROLLMENT KA_NA U N_OF 9 Percent Enrolled Percent Locally Native Residents Enrolled Native Community Enrolled Elsewhere Residing Elsewhere Alakanuk 2.1 8.4 Anaktuvuk Pass 8.1 13.6 Aniak 41.8 28.8 Barrow 17.7 21.9 Bethel 30.5 21.0 Deering 15.3 30.2 Dillingham 10.2 36.0 Gambe11 1.2 22.6 Kaktovik 6.5 9.8 Kivalina 3.4 9.4 Kotzebue 6.2 26.2 Nikolski 0.0 28.4 Nome 25.8 39.4 Point Hope 5.4 29.6 Saint Paul 9 22.6 Sand Point 20.7 35.0 Scammon Bay 7.1 12.0 Togiak 2.1 6.3 Unalakleet’ 7.4 47.7 Unalaska 12.2 40.7 Wainwright 10.5 17.0 AVERAG 15.8 27.2 Source: Robert R. Nathan Associates, Inc., n.d. A-2 TABLE A-3 RESIDENCE IN 1975, PERSONS 5 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER Pi N T 0 vision. Same Other Same Different Community = § Jotal House House State State Abroad Alakanuk 97.4% 87.6% 9.8% -- 2.7% -- Anaktuvuk Pass. 97.6 65.5 32.1 -- 2.4 -- Aniak 69.5 44.0 25.5 15.9 13.9 7 Barrow 77.5 51.2 26.3 11.5 10.4 5 Bethel 66.8 39.1 27.7 12.5 19.4 1.3 Deering 60.9 37.0 23.9 15.2 23.9 -- Dillingham 67.9 33.6 34.3 14.0 17.6 5 Gambel] 96.2 82.3 13.9 3.8 -- -- Kaktovik 91.5 55.1 36.4 7.3 1.2 -- Kivalina 89.4 79.8 9.6 10.6 -- -- Kotzebue 80.9 37.4 43.5 ~ 6.2 15.7 -2 Nikolski 65.9 54.5 11.4 34.1 -- -- Nome 70.1 48.0 22.1 10.3 18.7 1.0 Point Hope 8435 41.9 42.6 5.8 8.5 1.2 Saint Paul 82.2 56.0 26.2 8.2 9.2 a) Sand Point 74.7 44.1 30.6 8.2 17.1 oe Scammon Bay 84.1 60.8 23.3 5.8 10.1 -- Togiak 89.6 82.8 6.8 4.0 6.4 -- Unalakleet 83.8 67.0 16.8 11.9 4.0 2 Unalaska 22.4 16.2 6.2 13.8 53.1 10.7 Wainwright 95.3 67.5 27.8 -- 4.7 -- Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. A-3 TABLE A-4 ALASKAN NATIVE PIPELINE WORKERS STUDY COMMUNITIES No. of % of Native No. of Individual 1976 Membership Jobs Held Natives Native Mem- Working on Community by Natives Hired bership Pipeline Alakanuk * - = = Anaktuvuk Pass 15 8 132 6.1 Aniak 21 16 249 6.4 Barrow 308 117 2,029 5.8 Bethel 185 87 1,724 5.0 Deering 10 4 162 2.5 Dillingham “HII 46 925 4.9 Gambe11 9 4 427 9 Kaktovik 35 10 112 8.9 Kivalina 68 31 185 16.8 Kotzebue 333 130 1,976 6.6 Nikol ski 7 - * * Nome 338 140 2,041 6.9 Point Hope 106 38 498 7.6 Saint Paul 7 5 540 9 Sand Point 7 4 401 1.0 Scammon Bay 8 4 190 2.1 Togiak 10 4 399 1.0 Unalakleet 120 52 827 6.3 Unalaska 26 9 268 3.4 Wainwright 24 14 369 3.8 Subtotal 1,741 723 13,454 5.4 Balance 13,306 5,047 65,050 TF 7.3 TOTAL 15,047 5,770 $78,504 * None or data not available. Source: Alaska Native Hire on the Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline Project, ISER. A-4 TABLE A-5 MARITAL STATUS OF MALES, 15 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER STUDY COMMUNITIES, 1980 Community Single Married Separated Widowed. Divorced Total Alakanuk 73 79 5 6 0 163 Anaktuvuk Pass 30 38 1 1 70 Aniak 63 61 2 4 12 142 Barrow 434 363 10 20 57 884 Bethel 582 576 47 25 72 1,272 Deering 22 23 1 0 3 49 Dillingham 212 298 6 9 45 570 Gambe11 91 66 1 7 1 166 Kaktovik 38 27 0 0 2 67 Kivalina 36 40 0 0 4 80 Kotzebue 317 337 9 17 46 726 Nikolski : 3 10 1 4 3 21 Nome 400 381 19 17 54 871 Point Hope 88 73 1 5 6 173 Saint Paul 89 100 4 11 10 214 Sand Point 108 127 6 3 16 260 Scammon Bay 34 39 1 3 1 78 Togiak 91 73 1 3 5 173 Unalakleet 118 97 6 5 9 235 Unalaska 400 241 36 8 100 785 Wainwright 71 68 9 1 151 50 Bans R & TOTAL 3.300 3,117 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. A-5 TABLE A-6 MARITAL STATUS OF FEMALES, 15 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER STUDY NITIES 80 Community Single Married Separated Widowed Divorced [Total Alakanuk 47 78 1 13 2 141 Anaktuvuk Pass 22 36 0 5 1 64 Aniak 28 59 2 9 ; 6 104 Barrow 265 336 10 33 58 702 Bethel 464 554 19 73 77 ¥5187 Deering . 15 23 3 1 2 44 Dillingham 156 290 13 36 42 537 Gambel1 41 65 0 12 1 119 Kaktovik 26 27 0 3 2 58 Kivalina 30 38 0 2 4 74 Kotzebue 225 326 10 43 43 647 Nikolski 5 10 1 1 1 18 Nome 251 371 20 65 67 774 Point Hope 53 71 2 T 1 134 Saint Paul 45 90 3 13 6 157 Sand Point 64 119 6 7 12 208 Scammon Bay 29 38 0 2 0 69 Togiak 72 72 1 1l 2 158 Unalakleet 70 99 5 14 9 197 Unalaska 159 166 7 9 48 389 Wainwright 42 68 4 6 2 119 TOTAL 2,109 2,936 104 365 386 5,900 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. A-6 TABLE A-7 NUMBER OF FEDERAL INCOME TAX RETURNS FILED SELECTED ALASKA COMMUNITIES 77 981 ANI Community 1977 1978 1981 _1982 Alakanuk 111 103 110 105 Anaktuvuk Pass 43 74 81 88 Aniak 152 151 167 178 Barrow 898 985 1,139 1,187 Bethel 1,362 1,436 1,668 1,795 Deering 33 34 39 56 Dillingham 510 562 677 813 Gambe11 91 93 113 128 Kaktovik 100 93 126 128 Kivalina 71 73 71 66 Kotzebue 826 832 918 1,022 Nikolski 21 21 21 21 Nome 1,122 1,171 1,330 1,431 Point Hope 99 150 163 173 Saint Paul 190 189 227 226 Sand Point 197 206 223 240 Scammon Bay 47 51 52 56 Togiak 179 159 159 174 Unalakleet 266 282 234 274 Unalaska* 364 407 595 562 Wainwright 134 171 176 190 * Data for Unalaska and Dutch Harbor combined. Source: Alaska Department of Revenue (from Internal Revenue Service data. A-7 TABLE A-8 COMPONENTS OF POPULATION CHANGE STATE OF ALASKA AND SELECTED CENSUS DIVISIONS a eR tee ul Population at End Population Rate Per Rate Per Natural Net Average Annual Rate Census Area wot Period _Change Births _1,000_ Deaths _1,000_ Increase Migrants __ of Change __ Alaska 1970 302,583 1970 - 1980 401,851 99,268 77,760 25.7 15,390 531 62,370 36,898 2.82 1980 - 1981 433,800 14,000 9,911 24.7 1,703 4.2 8,208 5,792 3.28 1981 - 1982 465,200 31,400 10,781 24.9 1,755 4.0 9,026 22,374 6.99 1982 - 1983 497,600 32,400 11,723 25.2 1,850 4.0 9,873 22,527 6.73 1983 - 1984 522,000 24,400 12,307 24.7 1,938 3.9 10,374 14,026 4.79 1984 - 1985 539,600 17,600 12,693 24.3 2,030 3.9 10,663 6,938 3.32 1980 - 1985 539,600 119,800 57,415 9,271 48,144 71,656 4.99 North $1 B ee 1970 3,451 1970 - 1980 4,199 748 823 23.8 242 7.0 581 167 1.96 1980 - 1981 4,593 181 133 31.7 27 6.4 106 75 4.02 1981 - 1982 4,798 205 147 32.0 25 5.4 122 83 4.37 1982 - 1983 5,064 266 158 32.9 28 5.8 130 136 5.39 1983 - 1984 5,313 249 172 34.0 26 5.1 146 103 4.80 1984 - 1985 5,510 197 179 33.7 28 5.3 151 46 3.64 1980 - 1985 5,510 1,098 789 134 655 443 4.43 Northwest Arctic Borough 1970 4,048 1970 - 1980 4,831 783 1,207 29.8 276 6.8 931 -148 1.76 1980 - 1981 4,965 -65 158 32.7 34 7.0 124 -188 -1.30 1981 - 1982 5,177 212 163 32.8 37 7.5 126 86 4.18 1982 - 1983 5,500 323 185 35.7 40 Ted 145 178 6.05 1983 - 1984 5,683 183 201 36.5 39 Z<l 162 21 3.27 1984 - 1985 5,790 107 192 33.8 41 7.2 151 - 43 1.87 1980 - 1985 5,790 760 899 191 708 52 2.81 July 1 to July 1 Population at End Population Rate Per Rate Per Natural Net Average Annual Rate Census Area ___of Period _ _Change Births _1,000 Deaths _1,000_ Increase Migrants __ of Change __ Nome 1970 5,749 1970 - 1980 6,537 788 1,563 27.2 528 = «9.2 1,035 ° -247 1.28 1980 - 1981 6,925 104 . 194 29.7 578.7 137 - 32 1.51 1981 - 1982 7,116 191 196 =. 28.3 61 8.8 135 56 2.72 1982 - 1983 7,546 430 217 30.5 55 7.7 162 268 5.87 1983 - 1984 7,778 232 234 = 31.0 49s «6.5 185 47 3.03 1984 - 1985 7,815 37 228 3=— 29.3 55 7.1 173 -135 0.47 1980 - 1985 7,815 994 1,069 277 792 202 2.72 Wade Hampton 1970 3,917 1970 - 1980 4,665 748 =.1,194 = 30.5 230 35.9 964 -216 1.74 1980 - 1981 4,853 -18 144 =. 30.9 22.447 122 -139 -0.37 1981 - 1982 5,121 268 161 33.2 214.3 140 128 5.37 1982 - 1983 5,363 242 181 35.3 22.443 159 83 4.62 1983 - 1984 5,500 137 200 = 37.3 31 5.8 169 - 31 2.52 1984 - 1985 5,591 91 204 = 37.1 46884 158 - 66 1.64 1980 - 1985 5,591 720 890 142 748 - 28 2.75 Bethel 1970 8,917 1970 - 1980 10,999 2,082 2,451 27.5 549 «6.2 1,902 180 2.09 1980 - 1981 11,551 76 316 = 28.7 56 «5. 1 260 -183 0.66 1981 - 1982 12,023 472 349 = 30.2 56 = 4.8 293 179 * 4.00 1982 - 1983 12,490 467 3820 31.8 66 «65.5 316 151 3.81 1983 - 1984 12,797 307 391 31.3 86 6 «46.9 305 2 2.43 1984 - 1985 12,906 109 393 30.7 84 —s«6.6 309 -199 0.85 1980 - 1985 12,906 1,431 1,831 348 1,483 - 52 2.35 Ju i Population at End Population Rate Per Rate Per Natural Net ‘Average Annual Rate Census Area of Period —thange Births _1,000_ Deaths 1,000 _ Increase Migrants __ of Change Dillingham 1970 3,892 1970 - 1980 4,616 724 891 22.9 256 6.6 635 89 1.70 1980 - 198] 4,772 -48 120 26.0 22 4.8 98 -145 -1.00 1981 - 1982 5,061 289 135 28,3 29 6.1 106 183 5.88 1982 - 1983 5,379 318 159 31.4 35 6.9 124 194 6.09 1983 - 1984 5,605 226 154 28.6 28 5.2 126 100 4.12 1984 - 1985 5,707 102 160 28.5 26 4.6 134 - 31 1.80 1980 - 1985 5,707 887 728 140 588 299 oo 3.37 Aleutian Islands 1970 7,834 : 1970 - 1980 7,768 -66 1,232 15.7 197 2.5 1,035 -1,101 -0.08 1980 - 198] 8,477 324 161 20.7 29 3.7 132 192 3.90 1981 - 1982 8,435 -42 173 20.4 32 3.8 141 -182 -0.50 1982 - 1983 8,366 -69 183 21.7 34 4.0 149 -217 -0.82 1983 - 1984 8,522 156 173 20,7 31 3.7 142 14 1.85 1984 - 1985 9,061 539 156 18.3 30 3.5 126 413 6.13 1980 - 1985 9,061 908 846 156 690 218 2.11 Source; Alaska Department of Labor, Research and Analysis, 1987. As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nation- ally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water re- sources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cul- tural vaiues of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recrea- tion. The Department assesses our en- ergy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interest of all our people. The De- partment also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation com- munities and for people who live in Island Territories under U.S. Administration.