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HomeMy WebLinkAboutElectrical & Biological Effects of Transmission Lines-A Review 1977 Electrical and Biological Effects of Transmission Lines: A Review ENG 002 Alaska Power Authority LIBRARY COPY Bonneville Power Administration U. S. Department of Energy ee Cattle grazing on the ri Lyons, Oregon. BPA-BIO-78-1 ELECTRICAL AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES: A REVIEW Prepared by J. M. T. D. A. S. S. H. G. M. D. E. T. Re Lee, Jr. Bracken Capon Sarkinen Ihle Perry Eyler U.S. Department of Energy Bonneville Power Administration Portland, Oregon June 1977 Second Printing November 1978 ENG eo7 CONTENTS BOREWORD Iledellielololetiodueiicle lL etel ede edo ouiodiL oh MeN ois ENERO DUCLLONM om cmmyetetontettre ttt atte tote ite tei ell elliireltelil sins CORONA EEE ECTS IS ioncicellllelifolllrellieilieilllclWeillbottellliellLellilelleliLellleliiie AUGPD Le | NOI se lis ie 115! NNl5)1) 1a s1|| ell kallni Electromagnetic Interference . . OZORS Tiare iis iis Hill sMleHlSaiirsHikSHanenil Sime A-CORTELD (EE RPECIS) ||. ic 0 © io ete we Electriicy Pielidiisyisinsas miowis ete. Induced Currents and Voltages Biological Effects of Electric Biological Effects of Electric Magnet c ii PLT Ai siinisiii/aiiinsile . Biological Effects of Magnetic F Biological Effects of Magnetic Field Effects: Specific Cases . Cardiac Pacemakers ... ee Irrigation Equipment .. Flammable Materials .. D-C TRANSMISSION .... olellitelllie Technical Characteristics SSH Induced Currents and Voltages . Biological hE EEeCesi| .ll|!/e!|\/sIleilitell tells - Short Term Long Term Short Term Long Term 10 10 3 3 14 16 18 23 23 26 27 27 28 28 29 31 Su 39 36 APPENDIX A - Grounding Criteria for Objects BU CCC COTE CC Oa Oe OO eee eet cial HASHIM SHH CHIKeHee APPENDIX B - Current and Recent Research Related to Biological Effects of. Transmission Lines’... 2 .). BEBULOCRAPHY eli ieedte ll ceili eiieiieiikeMcuceaelimeleitedieiisiieliirediits ADDENDUM: Research Update . . . ... +. +++ + -+-s © GEOSSARY eae eens Meaielinee ede ei esieedietledlredlcedll ed tl ed kell is FOREWORD This booklet was prepared by an interdisciplinary Biological Studies Task Team set up by the Bonneville Power Administra- tion to review information continually being developed on the biological effects of transmission lines. Team members were: Jack M. Lee, Jr., (Chairman), Dr. T. Dan Bracken, A. Stanley Capon, Stephen H. Sarkinen, and Gary M. Ihle. Past team mebers were Dean E. Perry and Ted R. Eyler. Specifically, this booklet describes the electrical effects of transmission lines and the effects that such lines may have on man and his environment. Some of the methods used by BPA to reduce or eliminate undesirable biological effects are also discussed. The body of this booklet, prepared in June 1977, was not revised for this second printing (November 1978). However, a summary of pertinent information which has become available in the interim is included in the section, "ADDENDUM: RESEARCH UPDATE." We expect that future editions of this booklet will continue to reflect new research findings and reader response. Accord- ingly, the BPA Biological Studies Task Team welcomes comments and suggestions. An attempt was made to avoid technical language in this report. Unfortunately this was not entirely possible and, therefore, a glossary has been included. INTRODUCTION Historically, transmission lines have been built to operate at progressively higher voltages. With each advance in voltage larger amounts of energy were moved more efficiently over lines with greater individual capacity. Now, the voltage of a single such line may exceed 1 million volts. BPA operates over 3,500 miles (5,632 kilometers) of trans- mission lines of 345,000 volts (345 kilovolts) and above. These extra-high-voltage (EHV) lines lowered the cost per kilowatt for transmitting energy and reduced the amount of land needed to move a given amount of power. A BPA standard 500-kV line has almost five times the capacity of a 230-kV line, yet each can be built on rights-of-way of nearly equal width (Fig. 1). Where right-of-way is limited, as across mountain passes, BPA plans to replace existing 230-kV lines with double-circuit 500-kvV lines. Such a double-circuit line will have 15 times the capacity of the 230-kV line. Even higher capacity (ultra-high-voltage) transmission lines will probably be required by the mid-1980's. Prior to the advent of 345-kV lines, the two most noticeable effects of transmission installations were: Uses of land for rights-of-way were sometimes in conflict with other land uses, and transmission facilities changed the appearance of the landscape. In addition, another order of effects charac- teristic of EHV transmission became evident in the 1950's when the first 345-kV lines were built. These effects included: - TV and radio interference during bad weather in areas with marginal reception; - Audible noise during certain weather conditions; and - Electric field effects. Problems occurred close to the lines. The industry learned to refine designs and procedures to hold these effects to reasonable levels. In the context of future development, research at General Electric's Project UHV (ultra-high-voltage) in recent years has produced useful information on voltages up to 1500 kv (General Electric Co. 1975). BPA has constructed a 1.3-mile (2 km)-long prototype 1100/ 1200-kV alternating-current (a-c) line near Lyons, Oregon. A final environmental statement, "Prototype 1100-kV Test Facilities," filed with the Council on Environmental Quality in March 1975, described specific impacts of that project. Information on the 1100/1200-kV test program appears in the BPA publication, "1100/1200-kV Transmission Line Prototype." Biological studies are part of the project (Lee and Rogers 196 ft (59.7 m) SINGLE CIRCUIT _ 1100/1200_KV _ = € DELTA CONFIGURATION Sa t DOUBLE CIRCUIT 500 KV = STACK CONFIGURATION i SINGLE CIRCUIT 500_ KV DELTA CONFIGURATION ae rene ft a (56.4 m) 140 ft RW (42.6 m) I | aS 44 ft ae aah a 37 ‘ 135 ft RW —1 (41 m) SINGLE CIRCUIT 230 KV FLAT CONFIGURATION FIGURE 1 CONFIGURATIONS OF TYPICAL BPA TRANSMISSION TOWERS SCALE IS APPROXIMATE 1976) (see Appendix B). As with previous voltage increases, new effects may be encountered. BPA is confident that 1100/1200-kV facilities can be designed to keep biological effects within the acceptable limits that have been estab- lished by experience with 500-kV lines. Sections that follow describe BPA's current understanding of electrical and biological effects of a-c and d-c transmission lines. They discuss some past, current, and planned research aimed at understanding and mitigating adverse effects of high-voltage transmission lines. Further research may modify or change the information presented here. Information on other types of environmental impacts of transmission lines can be found in other references: Bonneville Power Administration (1974), Kitchings (1974), Goodland (1973), Tillman (1976), and Lee (1977). Electrical effects of a-c transmission lines fall into two broad categories: (1) corona effects, and (2) field effects. Although some of these effects are similar on both a-c and d-c systems, direct-current transmission is covered ina separate section. CORONA EFFECTS Corona occurs in regions of high electric field strength on conductors, insulators, and hardware when sufficient energy is imparted to charged particles to cause ionization of the air. Corona results in radio and television interference, audible noise, and production of oxidants (ozone and nitrous oxides). However, engineers can and do produce line designs that keep the generation of corona and its effects within acceptable limits. Another source of radio and television interference is arcing across small gaps in the hardware. Arcing, which may occur at any voltage, will not be discussed here because it is not unique to high-voltage lines. It can be prevented by good design and proper maintenance. Audible Noise Corona creates audible noise along transmission lines. During all types of weather, air ionizes near irregularities (e.g., nicks, scrapes, insects) on the conductor surface. During foul weather, raindrops, snowflakes, and condensation add to the isolated corona sources that exist in fair weather and cause an increase in corona activity. Audible noise then is mostly caused when drops of water form on the sur- face of the conductor. The noise is a hissing or crackling sound. Near an a-c transmission line a 120-Hz hum is occa- sionally superimposed. The sound level near the transmission line depends on the electric field strength at the conductor surface, the size and number of conductors, and the weather. Transmission line audible noise is usually measured on what is called the "A Scale;" it models how the human ear perceives sound. With the advent of EHV transmission lines, audible noise began to be an environmental concern. The first 500-kV transmission lines constructed by BPA had one 2.5-inch (6.4-cm) diameter conductor for each phase. Audible noise on the right-of-way averaged about 62 dB(A) during rain. Past experience has shown that, with average line noise of approximately 53-59 dB(A) at the edge of the right-of-way, some complaints can be expected from persons living near the line. Numerous complaints can be expected when levels are above 59 dB(A) (Perry 1972). Because of problems with audible noise, BPA has improved line designs and some exist- ing lines of the older type have been reconductored to a newer design with three subconductors per phase. The sound level of BPA's present 500-kV line design which uses three subconductors per phase averages about 50 dB(A) at the edge of the right-of-way during rain. This level does not exceed the nighttime residential limits set by Oregon noise control regulations and is lower than the maximum allowed by Washington State in residential areas. The audible noise level of BPA's standard 500-kV line is also within the guidelines recommended by the U.S. Environ- mental Protection Agency (EPA 1974a). BPA is working with state and Federal regulatory agencies to determine the compatibility of some older transmission lines with current and planned noise regulations. Figure 2 shows an audible noise profile for average levels measured during rain for a BPA 500-kV line, as well as the noise profile predicted for a 1100/1200-kV line. Trans- mission line audible noise decreases at a rate of 3 to 4 dB as distance from the line doubles. For example, 45 dB(A) at 100 feet (30 m) decreases to 41 to 42 dB(A) at 200 feet {6lm). Trees, buildings, and other large objects near a line tend to further reduce this sound. It is estimated that a sound as heard by the human ear is cut in half with a 10 dB(A) decrease in the sound level. The range of ambient (background) noise levels is great. In areas remote from human development levels as low as 15-20 dB(A) may be measured and in urban areas, levels of 80-90 dB(A) are common. High noise levels occur even in the natural environment; for example, waterfalls may produce levels of 85 dB(A) or higher (EPA 1974a). During rain, ambient noise levels average 35 to 45 dB(A) in rural areas. Transmission line noise in rural areas is very near ambient levels beyond the edge of the right-of-way. Table 1 compares transmission line audible noise to common sound sources and shows human responses to noise levels. Most observers consider 50 dB(A) quiet. The National Bureau of Standards and the Electric Power Research Institute are conducting studies of human response to transmission line audible noise and how such noise compares with other environ- mental noises (see Appendix A). During rainy weather when corona noise is highest, domestic animals and many kinds of wildlife are often seen on or near 500-kV rights-of-way. Goodwin (1975) used track counts, direct observation, and time lapse photography to study the effects of a BPA 500-kV line in northern Idaho on migrating deer and elk. He found that line noise levels up to 68 dB(A)--the highest level he measured--did not deter elk, deer, and several other species from crossing or foraging on cleared rights-of-way in a manner consistent with their use of other forest clearings. At least two reports (Klein 1971, Villmo 1972) have mentioned that in Scandinavia, reindeer herders claim that noise from powerlines (no voltages or levels stated) adversely affected reindeer behavior and that the animals were reluctant to cross under newly constructed power lines. It is not clear, however, whether the cleared right-of-way or factors other than noise were responsible for the reported effects. 6 AUDIBLE NOISE — dB(A) Predicted 1100/1200 KV fo. 1.6” (4.1cm) Conductors/Bundle 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 (15m) (30m) (46m) (61m) (76m) (91m) (107m) HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF RIGHT—OF—WAY FEET (METERS) FIGURE 2 — TRANSMISSION LINE AUDIBLE NOISE LATERAL PROFILE FOR RAIN CONDITIONS Table l. Sound Levels and Human Response Noise Level Conversational (Decibels) Response Relationships Carrier Deck Jet Operation Jet Takeoff at 200 feet (61 m) Discotheque Auto Horn at 3 feet (.9 m) Riveting Machine Jet Takeoff at 2,000 feet (610 m) Garbage Truck N.Y. Subway Station Heavy Truck at 50 feet (15 m) Pneumatic Drill at 50 feet (15 m) Alarm Clock Freight Train at 50 feet (15 m) Freeway Traffic at 50 feet (15 m) Air Conditioning Unit at 20 feet (6 m) Light Auto Traffic at 100 feet (30 m) 500 kV Transmission Line (3-conductor bundle; average during rain on edge of right-of-way) 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 10% 60 50 50 Painfully Loud Limit Amplified Speech Maximum Vocal Effort Shouting in ear Very Annoying Hearing Damage Shouting at 2 feet (8 hours) (. 6m) Very Loud Annoying Conversation at 2 feet (.6 m) Telephone Use Loud Difficult Conversation at 2 feet (.6 m) Intrusive Loud Conversation at 4 feet (1.2 m) Normal Conversation at 12 feet (3.7 m) Quiet Table 1. Sound Levels and Human Response (Cont.) -Noise Level Conversational (Decibels) Response Relationships Library 40 Soft Whisper at 15 feet (4.6 m) 30 Very Quiet Broadcasting Studio 20 10 Just Audible 0 Threshold of Hearing * Contribution to hearing impairment begins Note: Decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale. Adapted from: Noise Pollution, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, August 1972. With songbirds and some other kinds of wildlife, increases in background noise can mask communication signals with possible influences on such things as nesting, care of young, and escape from predators (Memphis State University 1971). The possible effects of transmission line audible noise on sensitive wildlife species is being studied by BPA (Lee and Griffith 1977). BPA lines are designed to control the audible noise that corona generates. Variations in the size and number of conductors, phase spacing and configuration are used to reduce noise levels. Lines are built with care so as not to nick or scrape conductors. Electromagnetic Interference Corona on a conductor surface also generates electromagnetic interference (EMI), which is commonly known as static. EMI can disrupt TV and AM radio reception close to a line. The same measures that suppress audible noise also serve to reduce EMI. In some instances, large metal rings are installed to suppress corona at places where insulator strings are attached to the conductor. BPA has designed its 1100/1200-kvV prototype line to meet low audible noise and EMI criteria. Television reception in the proximity of a 500-kV line may suffer interference during foul weather in areas with a low station strength such as those classed as Grade B (signal strength of 224-2509 microvolts per meter) or below by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). These areas are usually far from the transmitter. In general, TV inter- ference can be mitigated by relocating the antenna or by extending an existing TV cable system. Weak AM radio signals next to transmission lines may also be interfered with during foul weather. In remote areas where signal strengths dip below 2,000 microvolts per meter, interference may cccur as far as 500 feet (152 m) froma line. In cities where transmitters are nearby, few EMI problems occur due to EHV lines. FM radio reception is rarely affected. However, should it. occur, the same measures that reduce TV interference will work for FM radio. Ozone In the small volume of air surrounding a conductor where corona is present, chemical reactions take place. They include the production of ozone and nitrous oxides. Experi- ence and studies to date indicate that the amounts of oxidants produced by transmission lines have no adverse effects on humans, animals, or plants. 10 This discussion will be confined to ozone (03). The amount of nitrous oxides produced by transmission lines is about 10 times less than ozone (Frydman et al., 1972). Ozone is an unstable gas. Its peculiar odor can be detected in concentrations as low as 0.01 ppm (parts per million by volume) by persons with keen smell and most people detect ozone at 0.02 ppm (Jaffe 1967). At such low levels, however, ozone odor detection diminishes rapidly and one becomes unable to smell the ozone after a period of time. Ozone occurs naturally in the atmosphere, diffusing slowly to sea level from the ozone layer 13 to 16 miles (21 to 26 km) above the earth's surface. The layer is a major source of ozone. Another major source of ozone is the action of sunlight on nitrogen dioxide, an important component of automobile exhaust. An electrical discharge through oxygen can dissociate oxygen molecules into free oxygen which may then recombine to form ozone. Lightning and electrical discharges from transmission lines, however, produce minor amounts of ozone. The national primary ambient air quality standard for oxidants (of which ozone is the primary component) is set at 0.08 ppm (l-hour average concentration not to be exceeded more than once a year) to protect the public health and to allow an adequate margin of safety, section 109(b) (1) of the Air Quality Act, 42 U.S.C. 1857c-4(b) (1). Average ozone concentrations usually reported for rural areas are between 0.01-0.03 ppm. In some rural areas, however, ozone concentrations exceeding 0.1 ppm have been measured (Coffey and Satsiuk 1975). Concentrations of 0.5 ppm occur in cities such as Los Angeles and reportedly stem from the action of sunlight on emissions from autos and industrial combustion. Ozone produced by corona on transmission lines is difficult to measure under field conditions due to the small amount produced, its rapid dispersal, and ambient levels that vary widely. Studies by Battelle (Frydman et al., 1972), the American Electric Power Service Corporation and others concluded that no ozone contribution attributable to 765-kV transmission lines was detected during field tests. Sebo et al., (1976) reviewed these and several similar studies and made further laboratory and field measurements. They con- cluded that ground level ozone contributions from EHV trans- mission lines are indistinguishable from ambient concentrations. We expect this will also be the case for 1100/1200-kv. Westinghouse Electric (1973) calculated that the maximum ozone level, above ambient, expected to be produced by two planned 500-kV lines in Montana was 0.0006 - 0.0012 ppm during foul weather. Using the method described by Roach et al. (1973), BPA has calculated that the maximum ground level ozone concentration beneath a 500-kV line is increased approximately 0.0005 ppm above ambient by the line. The EL: same level is calculated for the BPA 1100/1200-kV prototype line under extreme worst case conditions. Ozone concentrations attributable to transmission lines were reportedly measured at the Oak Ridge Reservation of the Energy Research and Development Administration. On one day in April 1972, total ozone concentrations on the edge of the right-of-way, and on the center of the right-of-way of two 500-kV a-c transmission lines measured 0.21 ppm and 0.23 ppm respectively (Auerbach et al., 1973). The ambient ozone concentration measured that day was 0.02 ppm. It was sug- gested in the report that the extremely high ozone concentra- tions may have been due to a moderate temperature inversion. Auerbach (1976) has pointed out that the transmission line ozone concentrations (0.01 - 0.02 ppm) referred to in a more recent Oak Ridge publication (Kitchings et al. 1974:62), were actually based on preliminary measurements taken before the April 1972 measurements. He added that these levels were consistent with what was found to be ambient ozone levels during the 1972 measurements. In a study prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Whitmore’ and Durfee 1973), an estimate was made as to the amount of ozone transmission lines contribute to the atmosphere below an altitude of 1 kilometer in selected U.S. areas. One such area, Los Angeles, California, contains one of the highest concentrations of high-voltage lines in the world. Assuming a half-life of a few hours, the total ozone contribution from transmission lines to the ozone concentra- tion in the area was estimated to be about 0.0001 ppm. The authors of that study concluded that transmission lines contribute little ozone to local levels. Ozone concentrations produced by transmission lines appear to be too low to have any significant effects on humans, animals, or plants. Human respiratory tract irritation becomes clinically manifest at ozone levels between 0.5 and 0.75 ppm (EPA 1974b). Small lab animals developed chronic bronchitis when exposed to doses of 10 ppm ozone for a year (Kitchings 1974). Mice exposed to ozone concentrations of 2.5 ppm for 120 consecutive days developed pulmonary lesions (Penha and Werthamer 1974). It was found, however, that there was a high degree of reversal toward normal conditions after the last exposure. Ozone concentrations from EHV lines are apparently too low to harm even the more sensitive plants. For example, it took a concentration of 0.07 ppm lasting 4 hours to damage eastern white pine and concentra- tions of 0.1 - 0.12 ppm lasting 2 hours to damage sensitive varieties of alfalfa, spinach, clover, oats, radish, corn, and beans (Hill et al. 1970). Some studies have also shown that there is a potential for synergistic effects of ozone with other atmospheric pollutants (Menser and Heggestad 1966). Because of the small amount of ozone produced by transmission lines, however, even these kinds of effects are only remotely possible. 2 A-C FIELD EFFECTS Field effects from a-c transmission lines stem from electric and magnetic fields at the power frequency of 60 Hz in the proximity of high-voltage conductors carrying electric currents. The high voltage creates the electric field. Currents flowing in the conductors are the source of the magnetic field. A useful parameter to quantify the electric and magnetic effects associated with these respective fields is the magnitude of the unperturbed field, that is the magnitude or strength of the field where no large objects are present to interact with the field. In general, electric fields associ- ated with transmission lines are expressed in units of kilovolts/meter (kV/m) and magnetic fields in gauss (G). The earth's average d-c electric field at ground level is 0.13 kV/m. This means that in a vertical direction, between two points 1 meter apart there is a difference in electrical potential of 0.13 kV. Beneath thunderclouds, the d-c field may reach 3 kV/m even in the absence of lightning (Polk 1974). The d-c magnetic field of the earth is about .6 G. Electric Field The electric field surrounding a high-voltage conductor consists of both horizontal and vertical components. The electric field (voltage gradient) is measured and calculated at standard heights above the ground. This permits compari- sons to be made between different lines. The vertical electric field strength 1 meter above ground has been demon- strated to be a valid parameter for the prediction of elec- trostatic effects (Deno 1974, Bracken 1975). For a given conductor-to-ground height, the strength of the electric field does not vary more than 10 to 15 percent for heights up to 3 meters. Because electric field strength can be accurately calculated, transmission lines can be designed with known field strengths at ground level. Equivalent maximum field strengths can be obtained under 500-kV and 1100/1200-kvV lines by increasing the conductor-to-ground clearance of the latter. At distances greater than about 82 feet (25 m) beyond the outside conductor, the conductor height does not have much influence on ground gradients for a given configuration. Another factor that determines field strength is the conductor configuration--the spacing and arrangement of the conductors (see Fig. 1). The electric fields of the three phases of a single high-voltage line tend to cancel one another. Ina delta, or triangular, configuration, the three phases are more compact than in a flat configuration. Thus, the elec- tric field strength near the ground for a delta configura- tion is less than that of a comparable flat configuration at 23 the same height. Similar cancellation effects occur with two or more adjacent transmission lines. The maximum ground level electric field strength beneath multiple lines is not significantly higher than that found beneath the highest voltage line present. Safety requirements determine the mandatory minimum conductor- to-ground clearance (National Electric Safety Code, 6th Edition). However, the clearances for BPA's 1100/1200-kv lines will be greater than the required minimums so as to obtain acceptable field strengths of 8-9 kV/m or less at ground level. Shield wires beneath the conductors can also be used to further reduce the electric field at ground level for critical areas. Figure 3 shows a calculated profile for the maximum vertical electric field strength expected under a BPA double-circuit 500-kvV line at midspan with a conductor-to-ground clearance of 35 feet (10.7 m). The figure also shows a field strength profile for a 1100/1200-kV line with a clearance of 76 feet (23 m). The profiles represent maximum design voltages and elevated conductor temperatures for each class of lines. These field strengths would occur very seldom and then only at the lowest point at the center of a span with minimum clearance. Horizontal electric field strength in the ground beneath EHV transmission lines is typically less than 0.030 v/m (Bridges 1975). Shrubs, trees, fences, distribution lines, or other objects that normally stand on or near the right-of-way reduce the strength of the electric field at ground level. Typically, under energized 500-kV lines, the maximum levels of electric field are about 8 kV/m near midspan at a point slightly beyond the outer conductor, and from 2.5 to 3.5 kV/m at the edge of the right-of-way. The presence of an electric field under a transmission line is sometimes demonstrated with a hand-held fluorescent tube. The tube may light up. This phenomenon has been associated with transmission lines and distribution lines (Young 1974, Ware 1975). It is also possible to light fluorescent tubes in other ways, such as by holding a tube near a television set (Morgan 1975). In all these instances the illumination is much less than that produced by normal use. Induced Currents and Voltages When a conducting object, such as a yehicle or person, is placed in an electric field, currents and voltages are induced in the object. The induced current varies with the electric field strength, the frequency of the field, the size and shape of the object, internal resistance of the object, and grounding resistance. If the object is effectively grounded, then the induced current flows to ground and is called the short-circuit current of the object. 14 ST ELECTRIC FIELD kV/m 12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 1100/1200 KV Delta 76 Ft. (23m) Conductor to Ground Clearance 500 KV Double Circuit Stacked 35 Ft. (11m) Conductor to Ground Clearance (6m) (12m) (18m) (24m) (30m) (37m) (43m) (49m) HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF RIGHT-OF-WAY FEET (METERS) FIGURE 3.— MAXIMUM CALCULATED ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH LEVELS AT 1 METER HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND FOR BPA 500 KV AND 1100/1200 KV TRANSMISSION LINES Measured short-circuit current for some objects in a 60 Hz electric field of 1 kV/m are tabulated below in milliamperes (mA): Person (1.75 m height) 0.016 mA Sedan O.11 mA Camper Truck 0.28 mA Large Trailer Truck 0.6 mA The total short-circuit current for the above objects in any other field strength is found by multiplying the field strength in kV/m times the value given above. Induced current effects fall into two classes: (1) percep- tible short-term shocks, and (2) possible effects due to long-term exposure to electric fields. Exposure to electric fields of the magnitude found under transmission lines results in currents flowing in an orga- nism which are below the perception level. The significance of such currents is the subject of much research today. Biological Effects of Electric Fields: Short Term When a person or animal touches an insulated object within an electric field, steady state current shocks may occur. This can also happen when the person or animal is insulated and the object is grounded. The amount of current that will flow is determined by how well both the object or the person or animal is insulated from ground. The short-circuit current tabulated above is the maximum current an individual could experience in this situation. The values represent worst-case estimates. Conditions conducive to maximum current flow are rare. Shock cases can be classified as below perception, above perception, secondary and primary. The mean perception level for an 180-pound (82 kg) man is about 1.0 mA. It is about two-thirds of that value for a 120-pound (55 kg) woman (Keesey and Letcher 1970). Secondary shocks cause no direct physiological harm, but they may annoy a person and cause his muscles to react involuntarily. Though difficult to define precisely, the lower mean secondary shock level for men is approximately 2 mA (Deno and Zaffanella 1975). Primary shocks can produce direct physiological harm. Their lower level is described as the current at which 99.5 percent of subjects can voluntarily "let go" of the shocking electrode. Keesey and Letcher (1970) fixed the mean let-go level for 180 pound (82 kg) men at 9 mA and for 120 pound (55 kg) women at 6 mA. Their estimate for children was 5 mA. They recommended 16 the children's level be used as a safety standard for the general public, and it has been suggested as a limiting value for electrostatically induced currents under trans- mission lines in the National Electrical Safety Code, (7th Edition). In the list of objects tabulated above, only the large trailer trucks, well insulated from ground, exceed the 5 mA limit under 500-kv and the proposed 1100/1200-kv lines. Conductors for 500-kV transmission lines are designed with higher clearances over public roads where most of these trucks travel. Problems associated with electric shocks from induced cur- rents under transmission lines have been recognized for years in the power industry. Utilities have internal standards for grounding stationary objects such as fences, metal roofs, and antennas (See Appendix A). Other examples of electrostatic coupling and precautions necessary to avoid hazards are touched on in subsequent sections of this report and elsewhere (Reiner 1972, IEEE W.G. 1972, 1973, REA 1976). BPA also publishes information on grounding in a nontechnical booklet titled "Tips on How to Behave near High-Voltage Power Lines." If a person is insulated from ground in an electric field and he touches a grounded object, his body discharges a spark and he may be conscious of a shock. The effect is similar to the discharge one sometimes encounters after walking across a carpet. If the person is grounded and the object is not, he may also experience a shock. Spark dis- charges are a function of both voltage and energy. Energy is measured in joules (J) and is dependent on the size of the object which is discharged and the voltage on the object. Spark discharges reach the perception level when they measure about 0.1 mJ (millijoule); shocks are classed as secondary when they reach a level of 0.5 - 1.5 mJ; the minimum primary shock level is estimated at 25 J (G. E. Co. 1975). The magnitude of spark discharges beneath transmission lines depend greatly on ground conditions and even under worst case conditions for large vehicles, do not approach the 25-J limit. As in the case of steady current shocks, proper grounding mitigates transient voltage shocks from stationary objects. An extra-high-voltage line imparts little energy to an insulated person standing on the ground under the line. The amount of energy stored on the person is so low he could receive under the worst conditions only a minor secondary shock. In tests simulating the spark discharge from an umbrella to a grounded person in a field strength of 2.63 kv/m, Takagi and Muto (1971) found an increase in blood pressure (6-7 mm Hg), following electrical shock. This was about half the increase in blood pressure brought on by a cold day (14 mm Hg). They also compared the increase in blood pressure with that obtained after 1 or 1 1/2 minutes abg/ of going up and down steps (13-14 mm Hg). They concluded that "if the field intensity is less than 3.0 kV/m, the influence the discharge stimulation may have upon people remains, physically as well as mentally, within the range of physiological changes occurring daily around us and are of fugitive phenomena." When a person is in an electric field other phenomena, such as hair stimulation, may be present which cannot be defined in terms of currents (Deno and Zaffenalla 1975). These authors reported the threshold of perception for more than 10 percent of the persons tested was between 10 and 15 kV/m (ground level electric field strength). Researchers at Battelle used a video camera to determine the threshold level for hair stimulation on the ear of an anesthetized swine (Phillips et al. 1976). They saw no apparent hair movement until field strengths at the swine's ear reached about 50-55 kV/m. Biological Effects of Electric Fields: Long Term The advent of extensive transmission systems of 500 kV and higher has raised the question: Will long-term exposure to electric fields and induced currents below the perception level cause biological changes? BPA is not aware of any substantial information that indicates electric fields in the range found beneath BPA transmission lines pose a biological hazard. No standards or regulations exist in the United States for exposure to electric fields at 60 Hz. Transmission line designers have relied on responsible judgment and operation experience. The New York State Public Service Commission conducted extensive public hearings to certify the environ- mental compatibility of 765-kV transmission lines. After more than 10,000 pages of testimony by scientists and engi- neers had been introduced, the State of New York Public Service Commission issued a summary opinion on June 30, 1976. The Commission found there was nothing in the worst case before them to justify the conclusion that 765-kV lines should not be constructed (SNYPSC 1976). Although the Commission authorized construction of the 765-kV lines involved in the case, authorization for energization was withheld pending final outcome of the hearings. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued a request for data (Federal Register, March 18, 1975) with which to determine if there is a need to provide guidance for radia- tion standards for transmission lines above 700 kV. EPA conducted a preliminary analysis of the data and did not identify any acute detrimental health or environmental effects. EPA, in cooperation with the Energy Research and Development Administration plans an in-depth analysis of the data. Regarding the preliminary analysis, EPA feels, "Adverse 18 health effects have not been demonstrated, and speculation about their existence is an inadequate basis to support public health action at this time (Janes 1976:7)." The Office of Telecommunications Policy is coordinating the Federal Government's cooperative multiagency program to evaluate the biological effects of nonionizing radiation (6 Hz - 3000 GHz) (OTP 1975). The experience of the electric utilities indicates that long-term exposure to electric fields at the levels that exist near U.S. transmission lines poses no hazard. A survey of several electric utilities throughout the United States found no reports of long-term effects (Hawaiian Electric 1973). No long-term effects attributable to induced currents have been observed on plants, animals, or humans by BPA. In almost 40 years of operating experience, BPA has never received a documented report of a case where any harmful biological effects occurred to humans that could be attributed to exposure to electric or magnetic fields. This includes persons who work daily around energized high- voltage transmission lines. BPA operates more than 3000 miles (4,800 km) of transmission lines at voltages of 500 kv or higher. Only a few studies have been conducted specifically to determine if electric fields or other parameters of a trans- mission line affect animals and plants in natural environments. One such study was conducted in Indiana to determine if a 765-kV transmission line affected the growth and yield of crops (Hodges et al. 1975). The growth rates, general vigor, color, and other physiological characteristics of plants growing on the right-of-way were measured and compared with plants growing off the right-of-way. The study con- cluded the 765-kV transmission lines did not have any observ- able effect on the growth of wheat, corn, or soybeans nor was there a detectable effect on the grain yield of corn and soybeans. In another study, a survey was made of farmers who lived and worked near 765-kV transmission lines in Ohio (Busby et al. 1974). Eighteen farmers were interviewed and asked to respond to a standard set of questions. The authors of the study concluded from the survey that the safety and comfort of farm workers near a 765-kV line is not signifi- cantly affected by the line. In addition livestock seem to graze under such lines without concern. The survey sampled only overt effects of transmission lines and the authors recommended that further research is needed to determine if transmission lines can cause subtle effects on plants and animals which would occur after long-term exposure. In the study by Goodwin (1975) which was described under the section on "Audible Noise," no adverse effects on wildlife were noted which could be attributed to the electric field produced by the 500-kV transmission line. BIC In the early 1960's the American Electric Power Company sponsored studies of safety practices, field intensities, body currents, and working environments related to high voltage transmission lines. In one of these studies, a group of 11 linemen who performed hot line maintenance on 345-kV lines, were given complete physical examinations at the Johns Hopkins Hospital over a period of 42 months (Kouwenhoven et al. 1967, and Barnes et al. 1967). The study concluded there were no significant changes of any kind in the general physical examinations and the men remained essentially healthy. To hasten the process of obtaining information on long-term effects, tests also were made at Johns Hopkins with mice (Knickerbocker et al. 1967). Twenty-two male mice were exposed to a 60 Hz electric field of 160 kV/m (approximately 20 times the maximum ground level value for a 500-kV line) for 6.5 hours a day for a 10.5 month period. A parallel control group was identically handled but received no exposure to the electric field. The exposed males were bred with nonexposed females. The male offspring did not grow to be quite as heavy as offspring of control animals. The researchers suggested that further studies may clarify this finding. For the exposed males, there was no sign of a detrimental or beneficial effect from the electric field. Research on animals and electric fields is continuing at Johns Hopkins and has been started elsewhere to obtain further data (see Appendix B). Moos (1964) studied the activity of mice exposed to an electric field for periods up to one month. It was reported that when exposed to a 60 Hz field of 0.8 - 1.2 kV/m the mice showed a higher activity at night when compared with control periods. Soviet studies on EHV substation workers reported physio- logical effects attributable to exposure to high electric fields (Asanova and Rakov 1966, cited in Korokova et al. 1972, translations appear in Knickerbocker 1975). The workers were exposed to 50 Hz fields with intensities from 2 to 26 kv/m. The reported effects included greater vari- ability of pulse and arterial blood pressure, reduced sexual potency, and a number of other changes among a high exposure class as compared with a low exposure class. As a result, regulations for Soviet substation workers allowed unlimited exposure to fields less than 5 kV/m and limited exposure times in fields higher than 5 kV/m. Other than reports involving some substations in Spain (Fole 1972, Fole et al. 1974), the complaints by Soviet workers have not been reported for substation workers in other countries including BPA Substations. The effects remain speculative because of the difficulty of showing a direct causal relationship in a complex work environment. 20 Maruvada et al. (1976) believed that the effects reported by the Soviets can be explained by existing stress syndrome theory. In this case stress in the workers could develop as a result of their receiving frequent and sometimes painful transient discharge shocks. It is possible that these shocks rather than the electric field per se may result in biological effects such as nervous reactions, impotence, etc. Bridges (1975, 1977) has pointed out that the Soviets attri- buted the reported effects to the electric field without giving measurements of other factors present in the Russian substation environment which could possibly be important concomitant factors; e.g., acoustical noise, vapor pollutants. A Soviet paper discussed during a US/USSR symposium on UHV transmission in February 1975, reiterated that EHV substa- tion workers had experienced problems (Lyskov et al. 1975). During the oral discussion on the paper, the Soviets added that they attribute the effects reported to long-term exposure. They said the effects disappear in about a month when workers are assigned to jobs outside a high electric field environment. In the USSR there presently are no limits governing similar exposures for the general public living or working near power lines. Russian 500-kV lines have a minimum clearance to ground of 8 m with a maximum field strength of 12 kV/m. The Soviets are conducting further research on which trans- mission lines standards may be based. They feel standards for nonelectrical workers should be different because they are exposed infrequently to electric fields from transmission lines. A Swedish study (Johansson et al. 1973) measured the influence of a 50 Hz field of the intensity that exists in high voltage switchyards on the reaction time, attention, memory, and motor preparedness of man. The study reported no significant differences in the performance or the subjective well-being of the test group compared to a control group. Other studies are frequently cited in papers dealing with this topic. Most were made for purposes other than to provide data that could be related specifically to transmis-— sion lines. Several of the more relevant studies are discussed below. The "Bibliography" lists additional studies not mentioned in the text. However, we believe the information contained in them does not alter the basic conclusions presented in this paper. A number of studies connected with the U.S. Navy's Project Sanguine (renamed Seafarer) investigated biological effects of low-level electric and magnetic fields. Some laboratory studies in the late 1960's using 45 Hz and 75 Hz electric fields up to 20 V/m and magnetic fields up to 2.0 G (approxi- mately four times the maximum ground level value beneath 21 500-kv lines) showed effects; others were inconclusive (Coate et al. 1970). The studies involved a variety of organisms ranging from bacteria to water and land animals. Studies on rat fertility and behavior, canine physiology, becteria mutations, and plant cytogenetics showed no signifi- cant effects. Other studies indicated a possible inhibition of growth in sunflower seedlings, and a possible increase in the percentage of fruit flies born with a fatal defect. More recent studies on the behavior of pigeons and rats using field strength levels up to 7 V/m again found no adverse effects (Rozell 1974). These same studies did not find the adverse genetic effects to fruit flies, which had been suggested by the earlier studies. In another Sanguine study, snap beans grown in a controlled environment and exposed to a 45 Hz 10 V/m field produced more dry matter than unexposed control beans (Gardner et al. 1975). The authors offered no explanation. Research under- way at Pennsylvania State University (RP-129 in Appendix B) using 60 Hz electric fields is expected to provide more conclusive data on the effects of such fields on plants. Studies have been done on personnel working near the Project Sanguine test facility (Krumpe and Tockman 1974). Twenty- four persons exposed to radiations below 100 Hz during a l-year period did not appear to suffer any ill effects attri- butable to the exposure. The Navy's assessment is that available data suggests no acute effects from weak, low- frequency fields on micro-organisms, populations of plants or animals, or humans (Rozzell 1974, Department of the Navy 1977). Studies are continuing. Other studies on the biologic effects of electric fields include those done on possible effects on insects including honeybees (Wellenstein 1976, Warnke 1976). As in other studies dealing with field effects, studies done to date report widely differing results. At least two studies are being conducted to obtain more definitive information on the possible effects of power lines on honeybees (see Appendix B). Scientists are studying the effects of the frequency as well as the strength of the electric field. Gavalas-Medici and Day-Magdaleno (1976) reported on work with monkeys where the monkeys' perception of time was influenced by electric fields. The threshold of influence was between 10 and 56 V/m at 75 Hz and 1 V/m at frequencies below 10 Hz. They noted that "in animals in which field detection is not intimately linked to survival, sensitivity can probably only be revealed in innocuous experiments ... which are characterized by long exposure duration, little external stimulation and low motivational requirements." The research is continuing. 22 Krueger et al. (1972) reported a slight change in young chickens which were continuously exposed until 28 days old to a 60 Hz, 3.4 kV/m electric field and a 45 Hz, 3.6 kV/m field. The study concluded the growth rate was consistently depressed, but not significantly so. One of the most extensive studies of the effects of electric fields on plants and animals is being conducted by researchers from Westinghouse and Pennsylvania State University under contract to EPRI. Preliminary results from this study, RP 129, are given in Table 2. These results are subject to modification as the study progresses. This whole area of work has been reviewed by a study for the Electric Power Research Institute. The IIT Research Institute reviewed approximately 800 papers pertaining to biological effects of electric fields at powerline frequencies. Regarding this review, it was concluded that, "Although the great bulk of evidence suggest that there are. no significant biological effects of electric fields as encountered under extra-high- voltage lines, further research is needed (Bridges 1975:viii).” Currently, several studies are underway on the biological effects of electric fields. More information is being sought to clarify contradictory or inconclusive findings reported by various researchers (see Appendix B). Magnetic Field Figure 4 shows the calculated magnetic profile at 1.5m above the ground under various transmission lines. The maximum magnetic field intensity shown is about 0.6 G (gauss). For comparison, measured 60 Hz magnetic fields found in the vicinity of small appliances are also indicated (Project Sanguine 1972, cited in Kaufman and Michaelson 1974). Two types of possible effects can be identified with the magnetic fields: (1) shocks due to contact with objects where a magnetically induced voltage is present, and (2) long-term biological effects due to magnetically induced voltages and currents. Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields: Short Term Magnetically induced voltages appear at the open ends of partially grounded conducting loops such as fences, irriga- tion pipes and distribution lines parallel to high-voltage circuits. Normally, one end of the conductor is grounded, and the earth serves as the remainder of the loop. A person who completes the loop will be subject to either a steady state or spark discharge shock. 23 Table 2: Preliminary Results of RP 129 which is Sponsored by EPRI and is being Conducted by Westinghouse Advanced Systems Technology and Penn State University 1/ Electric Field Test Species Preliminary Level (60Hz) Duration Tested Results 50 kV/m 11 days Corn No gross effects on germination or growth. 25 - 50 kv/m 7 days Corn Minor leaf tip damage Bluegrass to plants with sharp Alfalfa pointed leaves. 50 kV/m 4-14 days voles” No effects observed in (mice) behavior, activity or outward appearance. 50 kV/m short Chicks No gross effects on periods of motor activity of 17 time day old embryos. No apparent morphological or behavioral abnor- malities were noted after hatching. 40 - 80 kV/m to 21 days Chicks Did not depress growth. Bankoske et al. 1976. 1/ Source: 24 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY — GAUSS (PEAK) Kitchen Mixer a0 Near Handle 1.9 - +} " eee | cemeehsioeeepeeenes | oeeeenenemanenen! SS - ee - aN a hp fe ° yeni omenaenssestenstg | -Speninintenstees ° Sr 1.0 Electric Drill Near Handle 0.9 ‘6 in. (15 cm) Above TV Set ” entertains Seal i San 's Fiel ee err ae 06 Earth’s Field fe | Ne 1100/1200 KV—10,000 A 0.4 ee aes 500 KV DOUBLE CIRCUIT—10,000 A 03 = a . _ —— 7 = 0 100 200 300 (30m) (61m) (91m) HORIZONTAL DISTAN CE FROM CENTER OF RIGHT-OF-WAY FEET (METERS) FIGURE 4. -PROFILE OF CALCULATED MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (60 Hz) AT 1.5m ABOVE GROU LOCALIZED F ND FOR TRANSMISSION LINES COMPARED WITH 1ELDS FROM HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES 25 Threshold and let-go levels are the same as for electrosta- tically coupled currents. Magnetically induced voltages usually are lower and the current higher than in the elec- trostatic case. Here again, proper grounding of objects under transmission lines prevents shocks. Mitigation measures are very effective because objects that are long enough to create a hazard are usually permanent. A complete discussion of practical problems, safeguards, and methods of calculation appear in an IEEE paper (IEEE W. G. 1973) Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields: Long Term Safety standards for whole body exposure to magnetic fields for long periods have been recommended in the United States at 200 G and in the Soviet Union at 300 G (Kaufman and Michaelson 1974). No harmful biological effects are expected from exposure to magnetic fields under transmission lines. This is because the magnetic field levels at which effects occur are generally much higher than levels under powerlines. A two-volume collection of papers edited by M. F. Barnothy (1964) contains descriptions of most of the experiments prior to 1964 that demonstrated biological effects from magnetic fields. With few exceptions, the investigators used magnetic field strengths up to hundreds of times greater than those found beneath transmission lines. However, some studies described possible effects from magnetic fields closer to the maximum associated with transmission lines. Three such studies are referred to below. The study with young chickens (Krueger et al. 1972) mentioned above also tested exposure to low-frequency magnetic fields of 1.2 G at 60 Hz and 1.4 G at 45 Hz. The study concluded that continuous exposure to the low-frequency magnetic field resulted in a significantly reduced growth rate to 28 days of age. The Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory exposed 10 men to a low-intensity magnetic field of 1 G at 45 Hz for periods to 24 hours (Beischer et al. 1973). No effects were noted that could be definitely linked with the magnetic field. However, the researchers found that a delayed increase in serum triglycerides occurred in the men exposed. The authors concluded that, because the number of persons tested was small, a final assessment will depend on establishing a threshold for the biological effect and identifying the relationship between the field strength and the effect. In a set of experiments, the same laboratory exposed monkeys to a 3 G field at 45 Hz. The magnetic field did not signifi- cantly affect any of the known, measured parameters associated with response to stimuli, including reaction time (deLorge 1972). 26 In another program at the Naval Laboratory a large number of monkeys will be exposed to a 2 G, 45 Hz magnetic field for 1 year. An equal number of monkeys in a control group will be matched on a pair basis with the test animals for such things as age, sex, weight, and medical history (Grissett U97S) « Field Effects: Specific Cases Cardiac Pacemakers Current information indicates that with possible rare excep- tions high-voltage lines will not interfere with the perform- ance of pacemakers for heart patients. We are not aware of any case where a transmission line has resulted in any adverse effects to the wearer of a pacemaker. Physicians use pacemakers as a medical solution to atrio- ventricular block in patients. Two basic models have been used. The early model in use about 1966 was asynchronous. This design pulsed the heart ventricles at some preset continuous rate. The asynchronous model did not appear to be greatly influenced by external electromagnetic radiation, according to a study made by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Ruggera and Elder 1971). Later models are synchronous. Based on a triggered or demand design, they sense the depolarization of the heart muscles and act when depolarization does not occur. Their circuitry uses low level energy sensing segments and is sensitive to levels of electromagnetic interference which do not affect the asynchronous model. There are two types of synchronous models, the atrial- synchronous type and ventricular-synchronous type. The atrial type is more sensitive than the ventricular-synchronous type because depolarization of the auricles results in lower voltages than that which result from depolarization of the ventricles. In one study the lowest limit at which an effect was produced was about 1 G for synchronous pacemakers in low frequency (60 Hz) uniform magnetic fields (Valentino et al. 1972). Synchronous pacemakers respond to signals lower than the 5 to 15 millivolts generated by the heart. If energy were induced externally on the electrode or part of the circuitry and caused a voltage increase that exceeded the design specifications of certain components, the pacemaker would not function properly. This could cause an atrio-ventricular block if the pacemaker failed or fibrillation if its rate increased beyond safe bounds. A reliable electromagnetic interference testing company studied this problem. The company told the Division of 2a Electronic Products, Bureau of Radiological Health (BRH), that synchronous pacemakers could be made to change rate, especially when the interference was around 1 Hz or near the paced frequency (Ruggera and Elder 1971). The study said nothing about the effect of 60 Hz frequencies on pacemakers; however, two notable facts emerged. Pacemakers enclosed in metal rather than plastic have higher resistance to inter- ference. Also, if the pacemaker is implanted in the patient, this further decreases the sensitivity to interference. The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) met September 10, 1970, with several pacemaker manufacturers to discuss the possible interference effects on pacemakers. The manufac- turers assured the FDA and BRH that interference testing was underway and that future pacemakers would be less susceptible to electromagnetic interference. In 1974 the City of los Angeles Department of Water and Power tested a simulated cardiac pacemaker implant. It subjected the pacemaker to strong shock currents and strong electrostatic fields. The pacemaker functioned properly in field strengths typical of those found under 500-kV lines. In the tests the lowest field strength at which the pace- maker malfunctioned was 83 kV/m. This is more than nine times the field strength under a 500-kV line. Researchers at the IIT Research Institute in Chicago have conducted a study of the effects of electric fields on cardiac pacemakers. The work was funded by EPRI and the final report is scheduled for release in 1977. Fences In general, induced voltages on fences can be reduced to safe, low levels by grounding at intervals using metal fence posts with proper bonding to the posts. (See Appendix A.) Irrigation Equipment Metal irrigation systems in proximity to transmission lines pose a potential shock hazard because of their size and possible electrical isolation from ground. However, with simple precautions the hazard is eliminated. When moved manually, irrigation systems usually are laid on soil. Because of the ground contact, they present little or no shock hazard. Great care should be exercised when handling lengths of metallic pipe near any overhead conductors. The pipe should be kept in a horizontal position. The big danger near a high-voltage line is the chance that a person may up-end a section of pipe into the conductor overhead. 28 Mobile irrigation systems which move on wheels such as the wheel line and center pivot can build up potentials if well insulated from ground and if parked parallel to a high- voltage transmission line. However, in realistic situations it is difficult to get a high degree of insulation. The insulation is influenced by the type of wheels (metal or rubber), moisture conditions in the soil, and other contact points to ground, such as the central pivot point on a circular system. All irrigation systems should be operated at distances sufficient to avoid direct contact between the water stream and conductors. A solid stream of water should never be directed close to the conductors. When contact between a well broken water stream and transmission line conductors cannot be avoided the clearance between the conductors and the irrigation nozzle should exceed the minimum distances listed in Table 3. Table 3 gives suggested clearances between transmission line conductors and high pressure irrigation nozzles. Because of the small size of a Vermeer system, no problems should occur due to induced voltages; however, extreme care should be taken in moving these systems to avoid tipping them into the conductors. Flammable Materials In designing an electric transmission system, one concern is the possibility that a spark discharge could ignite a flammable mixture, such as gasoline vapor. Such an incident might occur under a transmission line where a vehicle was being fueled. To ignite gasoline vapor would require a voltage between the electrodes of 1.5 kV or higher and sufficient energy--1 to 2mJ--in the spark discharge. To achieve these conditions, the vehicle would have to be well insulated, the pouring spout well grounded, and the spark would have to occur where the fuel air mixture was close to stoichiometric. The chances that all these conditions would be met is remote. An incident where a flammable mixture was ignited has never been reported on the BPA system. The distance between the transmission line conductors and highway and road surfaces normally is increased to provide adequate clearances for cars, buses, and trucks. This reduces the field strength at ground level and lowers the likelihood that an ignition could take place. 29 O€ Table 3. Crest Current Electrical Clearances For Solid Water Streams. = 2 mA. Water Resistivity = 460 ohms. Water Pressure = 80 psi. Nozzle Conductor to Nozzle Clearance *Centerline of Power line to Nozzle Diameter in feet (m) Clearance in Feet (m) in Inches UISakV, 230 kV 345 kv «500 kv 115 kv 230 kV 345 kV 500 kv (cm) line line line line line line line line 3/4 40 45 55 60 55 73. 90 105 (rS9) (12) (14) (17) (18) (17) (23) (27) (32) 7/8 55 60 60 65 70 90 95 110 (2.72) (17) (18) (18) (20) (2) (27) (29) (34) 1 60 65 65 70 75 95 100 2S (25) (18) (20) (20) (21) (23) (29) (3X) (35) 1 1/8 70 a 80 85 85 105 115 130 (2.9) (21) (23) (24) (26) (26) (32) (35) (40), 1 3/8 80 90 95 100 95 120 130 145 (G5) (24) (27) (29) (31) (29) (37) (40) (44) 1 5/8 90 35 100 110 105 125 135 155 (4.1) (27) (29) (31) (34) (32) (38) (41) (47) 1 15/16 LTS 120 130 140 130 150 165 185 (4.9) (35) (37) (40) (43) (40) (46) (50) (56) * These values based on phase to phase spacing of 15 feet (4.6 m) for 115 kv, 30 feet (9.1 m) for 230 kv, 35 feet (10.7 m) for 345 kv, and 45 feet (13.7 m) for 500 kv. D-C TRANSMISSION For long-distance electric power transmission high-voltage direct-current (d-c) is more economical than a-c transmis- sion. A d-c transmission line requires only two sets of conductors (poles) per line, one positive and one negative, as opposed to the three sets of conductors (phases) per line used in a-c transmission. However, expensive stations are required at each end of a d-c line to convert between a.c. and d.c. Conversion is necessary because most appliances, homes, office buildings, farms, and factories are designed to use low-voltage a-c electrical power. Technical Characteristics Since November 1963, BPA has owned and operated a High Voltage Direct Current Test Facility at The Dalles, Oregon. The experience with this facility, coupled with operational experience from the 846-mile (1361 km) long Pacific NW-SW + 400 kv (or 800 kV) d-c intertie which extends from The Dalles, Oregon to Los Angeles, California, provides the data used in this discussion. More complete discussions of the technical characteristics of d-c transmission can be found in a publication from the Electric Power Research Institute (Hill et al. 1977), and in a paper by Bracken et al. (1977). In general, effects due to corona from a d-c line are less than from an a-c line with a peak line-to-ground voltage approximately equal to the line-to-ground voltage of the d-c line. Unlike a-c lines, radio interference and audible noise from d-c lines change little in foul weather and in fact tend to show a slight decrease from fair weather levels. Although little information exists concerning the amount of ozone produced by a d-c line, it is expected to be similar to the insignificant amount produced by a-c lines. Audible noise levels of 35 dB(A) have been measured on the edge of the right-of-way of the Celilo-Sylmar d-c line. This is within normal ambient levels except in certain areas during extremely quiet conditions. Television and FM and AM radio interference are generally not problems with a d-c line. Although corona effects from d-c lines can be readily com- pared with those from a-c lines, d-c electric field effects are significantly different from the a-c case and warrant separate discussion. Equal d-c and a-c field magnitudes do not characterize similar effects. The coupling mechanisms as they relate to proximity effects for the two cases are entirely different. In the d-c case the electric coupling is resistive with charge carriers supplied by natural and 31 corona-generated ions. For a.c. the coupling is capacitive and the currents are the result of the changing electric field. Typically the d-c current coupled to an object is several orders of magnitude smaller than the induced current in an a-c field of comparable amplitude. Electromagnetic induction does not occur near a d-c line because the current flow which causes the magnetic field is undirectional. When a bipolar d-c line is in corona, the unipolar fields existing at each of the conductors repel ions of similar polarity generated in the corona at the conductor surface. These ions migrate toward the conductor of opposite polarity and toward the ground plane causing current to flow between poles and to objects near the line. Maximum calculated ground level current density beneath the + 400-kv d-c Celilo-Sylmar line with a 35-foot (10.7 m) conductor-to-ground clearance is approximately 7 xX 10-8 A/m2, For 40 feet (12 m) of clearance the calculated value is approximately 4 X 107-8 A/m2. These values are calculated from an idealized model for conditions of no wind and there- fore are only representative of expected values under calm conditions. Measurements under the Celilo-Sylmar line with a 40-foot (12 m) clearance have given momentary values to -7.5 X 10-8 A/m2. For comparison, average natural ground level ion current densities reported are 2.4 X 10-1 A/m2 (Chalmers 1967). Recombination of ions of opposite polarity does occur but the net effect of d-c conductors in corona is the creation of ion currents and space charge of like polarity in the proximity of each conductor. This space charge enhances the electric field at ground level above the nominal electric field that would be present if the conductors were not in corona. Nominal electric field is defined as the gradient due to charges on the conductor only. On the + 400 kv Celilo-Sylmar d-c line total electric field strengths of up to -34 kV/m have been measured with 40 feet (12 m) of ground clearance for the conductors. Under the positive conductor maximum levels of approximately +13 kV/m have been measured. The calculated nominal value for the electric field under these measurement conditions is 7-8 kV/m and the calculated total field is 18.6 kV/m. Hence the space charge is seen to significantly enhance the field. This enhancement represents a near maximum value which occurs only under relatively calm conditions. The electric field due to space charge is - highly variable due to wind dispersion of the ions and the total field fluctuates between the maximum described here and the nominal value. Momentary readings above the calcu- lated maximum are therefore not surprising in view of the significant dependence of ion movement on wind. For the 32 Celilo-Sylmar d-c line with 35-foot (10.7 m) conductor-to- ground clearance maximum ion concentration at_midspan with no wind is calculated to be about 105 ions/cm>. Average ground level ion concentrations reported by Chalmers (1967) are less than 103 ions/cm3. Much of BPA's experience with d-c electric fields has been gained from a test line with conductor configurations operated at voltages in excess of what would be used on an operating line. Results from the test line can represent extreme conditions and serve to verify our understanding of d-c electric field phenomena but do not always characterize actual operation. For example, a maximum total field strength at ground level of 40kV/m was calculated for the test line operating at + 600 kV with bundles of four, 1.2 inch (3 cm) subconductors on the positive and negative poles, a 46-foot (14 m) pole spacing, and 42-foot (13 m) conductor height. Fields of this value have been measured under the line in calm conditions. In this case, the calculated nominal electric field due to conductor voltage only was 12 kV/m. The maximum calculated electric field is the sum of the electric field due to voltage and that due to ions. It must be emphasized that in the d-c case the electric field strength does not adequately characterize the proximity effects. The direct current which is intercepted by a person or object is of more significance because it can readily be compared with the d-c threshold of perception and let-go levels. Induced Currents and Voltages Shock tolerance levels for d.c. are much higher than- for a.c. (Dalziel 1959). The mean threshold for perception of d.c. by men (women) is 5.2 mA (3.5 mA) compared with 1.0 mA (0.7 mA) for ac. Direct current of 60 mA represents the release current for 0.5 percent of men. This is analogous to the 9-mA value for a-c let-go current. The let-go or involuntary muscle contraction reaction does not occur with d.c. but with high currents it becomes very painful to "release" a current-carrying conductor. Hence the term "release current" refers to a psychological rather than a physiological limit. The ion current intercepted by persons or objects beneath d-c lines is many times below the perception level. Measure- ments made at The Dalles Test Site in electric fields of 40 kV/m showed only 0.003-0.004 mA current interception by a person with arms raised directly beneath the +600-kV d-c line (Hill et al. 1977). The maximum measured current from a 45-foot (13.7-m) long tractor trailer under a similar test 33 line in Canada was about 0.05 mA with a 40-foot (12-m) ground clearance and 0.15 mA with ground clearance of 33 feet (10 m) (Morris and Morse 1967). Situations can arise where a person or structure is well insulated. Accumulation of charge on the insulated object will take place and a voltage difference with respect to ground results. Voltage is a function of the field strength, but cannot exceed the corona limiting voltage of the object. For example, barbed wire fences will not assume a higher voltage than 25 kV because at that voltage corona occurs at the tips of the barbs and the voltage stabilizes. Even this magnitude of voltage is very rare due to the extreme conditions of dryness required. Table 4 shows statistical data obtained at The Dalles Test Site on test fences and a metal roof under the described conditions. Typical levels of current and stored energy are given along with the associated shock sensation for a spark discharge of the given energy. These stored energies can be compared with the shock experienced when touching a door knob after walking across a nylon carpet. For such a shock the energy level is typically 4.5 millijoules. Thus, a fence 130 feet (40 m) long on the right-of-way could reach this level of stored energy in very dry weather. The 50 millijoule shock from an 800-foot (244-m) fence on the right-of-way parallel to the line and 15 feet (4.6 m) out- side the conductor could be classed as a definite annoyance. A 250-millijoule shock is definitely uncomfortable. How- ever, the 6,000 feet (1,829 m) of parallel fence on a trans- mission line right-of-way which is required for this level, is a rare occurrence. In any event, one metal post attached to the fence is sufficient to drain the energy below percep- tible levels. It is BPA practice to ground fences on and adjacent to transmission rights-of-way (Appendix A). Several metal ag posts are usually used. The 2,000-foot2 (186-m*) building, 100 feet (30 m) from the line as simulated by a metal roof, poses no problems as far as stored energy or short circuit current magnitudes are concerned. Tests made by BPA with vehicles on soil, asphalt, and con- crete surfaces show that present-day tires have a sufficiently low resistance (R) to ground (R < 20 M2 on gravel where MQ = 1 million ohms, R < 200 Mf on asphalt) to limit the potential on vehicles to several hundred volts. The vehicle will therefore not store enough energy to ignite gasoline or deliver a shock. All these examples point out the improbability of receiving perceivable shocks in the proximity of a d-c transmission line. As of this writing, BPA has not received any complaints about electrostatic shocks due to the Celilo-Sylmar d-c line. 34 se Table 4. Results of Tests Made on Barbed Wire Fences and Metal Sheets Close to the Operating + 600 kV D-C Test Line at The Dalles, Oregon Distance Length or Size of Structure to Attain Energy (Shock Sensation) Shown from Average 2 md 5 md “50 mJ 250 mJ (Very) Object Line Current (Barely Perceptible) (Perceptible) (Annoying) (Uncomfortable) Single Strand of 5 ft. 0.36 uA/ft. 67 £e. 132) ft. 767 ft. 4920 ft. barbed wire fence (4.6 m) (1.3 uA/m) (20 m) (40 m) (240 m) (1500 m) with 20 foot (6 m) post spacing. Re- sistance of each 60 ft. 0.18 uA/ft. 1968 ft. -6 mile 4.4 miles 6.2 miles wood post = 860 M2 (17 m) (0.6 uA/m) (600 m) (1 km) (7 km) (10 km) (Edge R.O.W.) Capacitance = 2.3 pfd/ft. (7.50 pF/m) Metal roof on wood posts Resistance of each 100 ft. 4 un/200 ft.? 2000 £t.? post = 860 MQ (30 m) (0.2 uA/m*) (186 m*) Capacitance = 100 pF per 300 ft; (18.5 m*) of metal Subjective tests with nine men in conditions of 60 percent relative humidity at The Dalles Test Site indicate that when an individual is well insulated from ground, a d-c field of 22 kV/m can be perceived as a slight tingling of the scalp (Hill et al. 1977). Test site personnel have indicated that perception levels and field strengths would both be affected by humidity. The personnel also noted that with normal footwear there was generally no perception of the field, even at 40 kV/m. Biological Effects As described above, one main difference between a-c and d-c transmission lines is the nature and magnitude of the elec- tric field. Very little research has been specifically conducted to determine if organisms are affected by the electric fields and ion currents of a d-c transmission line. One of the first studies of plants and animals on a d-c transmission line right-of-way is a study sponsored by BPA and conducted by an intern with the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. The study began in June 1976 and will run through July 1977. The study, conducted along the Oregon portion of the Celilo-Sylmar line, involved natural vegetation, crops, wildlife, and domestic animals. Preliminary findings of the study after several hundred hours of observations do not indicate that there are any significant adverse biological effects attributable to electrical properties of the d-c line (Griffith, to be published). Some research has been conducted in which plants and animals were exposed in laboratory situations to d-c electric fields having similar magnitudes as transmission lines. Numerous -Sstudies have been done on the biological effects of ions (Krueger and Reed 1976). No definite conclusions can be drawn from these studies which can be directly applied to the case of a d-c transmission line. Possible effects could be related to the electric field, positive and negative ions, or to the combined effects of these factors. Few of the studies reviewed contain sufficient quantitative informa- tion to determine the relationship of these parameters in the experimental environment. Some of the more relevant research is described below. Although electric field levels are given, Bridges (1975) has pointed out that measurement of the actual d-c field inside laboratory cages was probably not part of any studies made to date because of the lack of suitably small d-c electric field measuring instruments. In a study with insects, Edwards (1961) found that a d-c electric field of 18 kV/m changed the timing of pupation and egg laying in butterflies. Insects (98) were placed in each of four boxes. Two of the boxes were controls (no field), 36 one was wired for a continuous d-c field and the other an intermittent field. It was found that pupation for insects in the box with the continuous field was later (by approxi- mately 1 day) than for insects in the other boxes. The mortality was slightly higher (3) in the continuous field as compared to the intermittant (1) and the controls (1 and 0). Mose and Fisher (1970) exposed five mice to a constant electrostatic field of 23.8 kv/m for a period of 15 days. As compared to a control group, for the exposed animals it was reported that running activity, food and drinking water consumption and body temperature all rose by a statistically significant amount. None of these effects were reported to have adversely affected the exposed animals. In another study, groups of 8-20 male rats were exposed continuously for 30 days to d-c electric fields (Marino et. al. 1974). Field strengths ranged from 0.6-19.7 kV/m vertical, and 0.3-9.8 kV/m horizontal. The rats were reported to have adapted easily to the field and exhibited no overt abnormal behavior. Relative to controls, the exposed animals showed no differences in weight gain and a histologic examination of internal organs revealed no significant differences. Of the 60 rats exposed to the vertical electric field, 10 developed secondary glaucoma in the right eye. Glaucoma did not develop in any of the other animals including those in the horizontal field controls. The electric field was also reported to have altered serum proteins and produced chromo- somal abnormalities in the exposed rats. To our knowledge, these findings have not been confirmed by other researchers. In reviewing this study, Bridges (1975) observed that the rats were not given an ophthalmologic examination prior to the tests.and it is possible the observed conditions existed prior to the study. In another study with rats, a total of 240 animals were exposed to d-c electric fields of 1.6kV/m and 16kV/m (Mayyasi and Terry 1969). Following a few hours exposure it was found that relative to controls, adult rats had significantly reduced error scores (choice of doors in a maze), and that the swimming rate was increased for all rats (escape from water served as a physiological measure). Terry et. al. (1969) also studied the effects of negative air ions (lowest concentrations were 7 x 106 ions/cm3) on learning in rats. They reported that males showed significantly lower error scores in negatively ionized air. The authors suggested that further investigations consider the combined effects of both air ionization and electric fields. Lott and McCain (1973) studied rats to determine if they were "aware" of changes in an external electrical field. A total of 60 animals were tested. Half were exposed to a continuous d-c positive electric field of 10 kV/m for at least 90 minutes and half to a pulsed field (20 V at 640 Hz/100 msec). As measured by implanted electrodes, exposed ao rats showed a statistically significant increase in brain activity (EEG) which was reported as indicating the rats were aware of the electric field. It should be pointed out that implanted devices can concentrate electrical currents within the body possibly resulting in greater current levels than what would exist in the absence of the device. For humans, it has been reported that beneficial biological effects of d-c electrical fields can apparently result from the combined action of a positive field and suspended nega- tive ions in the air (Beal 1974). For example, reported effects include improved performance and healing, and a lessening of pain and allergic disorders. In contrast, positive ions can result in decreased performance, disposi- tion, and reaction time (Duffee and Schutz 1961). Beal (1974) also observed that erratic effects of ions on people as reported in the literature may have resulted from the lack of a proper electric field. In one of the studies done with humans, ten emotionally dis- turbed children were studied in an attempt to determine if a positive d-c field (estimated at 1.2 kV/m) would have an effect on their behavior (Jones 1975). There were indications that the field was effective in (1) increasing attention to task with six of the ten subjects (2) decreasing frequency of deviant behavior in five subjects and (3) increasing arithmetic rate and accuracy in two subjects. Carson (1967) also reported effects on people exposed to a d-c electric field. Thirty to forty people exposed to a l kV/m positive field for 2 hours showed a marked increase in mental performance (typing and soldering). Many studies have been done on the effects of d-c electric fields on plants. A literature review by: Wheaton (1970) references numerous studies which have been done on the effects of electrical energy on plants (both a.c. and d.c.). Wheaton's review found that the response of plants to treat- ment with electrical energy is quite varied. Some studies reported that d-c electric fields significantly enhanced plant growth, and others reported decreased plant growth as a result of such fields. Response is apparently affected by several factors which include the type of plant, species of plant, stage of development of the plant, method used to apply the energy, and duration and intensity of energy application. Most reported effects were a result of exposure to d-c electric fields significantly higher than those found beneath d-c transmission lines. In most laboratory studies, the electric field to which plants are exposed is fairly uniform and of a set magnitude for a given length of time. Plants beneath a d-c trans- mission line would be subject to electric fields and/or ion concentrations which vary widely with environmental changes; e.g., wind. 38 A number of studies involving the effects of electric fields on plants have been done by L.E. Murr at Pennsylvania State University. In one study, Murr (1966a) exposed corn and bean plants to d-c fields from 20-80 kV/m. The soil in which the plants were grown was of positive polarity with respect to a negative upper electrode (the condition which occurs during storm activity). With a field strength of 20 kV/m Murr reported an approximate 10 percent decrease in dry weight in the leaves of bean plants. The reported effects were not linear; for example, with a field strength of 60 kv/m, there was an approximate 10 percent increase in dry weight. In another study, Murr (1966b) found that a d-c field strength of about 100 kV/m for extended time (over 10 hours) was necessary to induce physical leaf damage in bean and corn plants. Bachman and Reichmanis (1973) exposed barley plants (plants negative) to high d-c fields. They reported that growth was retarded for field levels above 200 kV/m and enhanced at fields below that level. Further, the enhancement was greater at 50 kv/m (the lowest level tested) than at 150 kV/m. Although enhanced growth was observed, it occurred during early growth and at the end of the growing period the final plant size was about the same as if no field had been applied. To investigate possible effects of a d-c transmission line on crops, during the WICHE/BPA study (Appendix B), 1,250 wheat plants were sampled immediately prior to harvest. The overall heights of the plants were measured and samples of the grain were collected and analyzed. No statistically Significant differences in mean plant height or in viability of the seeds between plants on and off the Celilo-Sylmar + 400-kv d-c line right-of-way were evident (Griffith, to be _published). In November 1975 the IIT Research Institute submitted a final report to EPRI consisting of a state-of-the-art review of biological effects of HV transmission and a research plan. This project (RP-381-1) considered both a-c and d-c overhead transmission, with the primary emphasis on a.c. In the final report in the section, "Detailed Review of Literature," five studies dealing with d-c biological effects were described. Regarding these studies, the report stated that: "In summary, the rather sparse amount of literature reviewed indicates with but one exception, which is highly questionable, the lack of hazardous effects (Bridges 1975:98)." (The exception referred to is apparently Marino et. al. 1974.) The report further stated: "Additional research seems warranted, particularly to determine the biological limits of future high-voltage overhead d-c transmission line technology." BPA, EPRI, and ERDA are among those considering initiating biological studies related to d-c transmission. As mentioned above, BPA sponsored a WICHE intern to conduct a biological study of the Oregon portion of the d-c intertie transmission 39 line. A final report is expected by September 1977. BPA personnel are also engaged in research to better quantify the electrical environment in proximity to d-c transmission lines. BPA's operating experience with the Celilo-Sylmar d-c line and the d-c test line, its research, and a review of pertinent literature has not yet identified any effects from the fields and ion currents associated with a high-voltage d-c transmission line which pose a biological hazard. 40 APPENDIX A GROUNDING CRITERIA FOR OBJECTS SUBJECT TO INDUCED VOLTAGE If a fence, insulated from ground, parallels and is close to an energized transmission line, a voltage will be electro- statically induced on the metal strands of the fence. The voltage will be at the same potential as the electric field at that point and is not dependent on the length of the parallel. The current-to-ground is directly proportional to the length of the parallel fencing. It is possible, depend- ing upon the quality of the insulation and the proximity of the energized conductors, to induce a high voltage on an insulated strand of fencing. Voltages and currents can also be established by electromagnetic induction. 7 Grounding Policy It is BPA's policy to ground all wire fences, metal buildings, and other metal objects that are within specified distances of 500-kV lines. Where the lines are less than 500 kV, conducting objects are grounded only after receipt of complaint and a proper investiga- tion indicates the need. The policy is applied as follows. An Fences ie Nonelectric Fences a. Ground those fences that cross at right angles or obliquely at points of entry every 200 feet (61m) and each side of a break, if necessary. b. Ground at each end, at every 200 feet, (61 m) and at each side of a random break, those parallel fences that are: (1) One hundred and fifty feet (46 m) or more in length and 125 feet (38 m) or less from the outside conductor. (2) One-half mile or more in length and 125 to 250 feet (38 to 76 m) from the outside conductor. 2. Electric Fences a. Install filters in all electric fences in the vicinity of a-c lines that cross the right-of-way and at intervals not to exceed 2,500 feet (762 m) in those lines that are parallel, less than 60 feet 41 (18 m) from the outside conductor, and more than 1,000 feet (305 m) in length. For those fences 60 to 125 feet (18 to 38 m) from the outside conductor and at least 2,000 feet (610 m) in length, install filters at intervals of not more than 5,000 feet (1,524 m). Db. Replace with an Underwriters Laboratory (UL) approved charger all those that do not have a UL approval. Buildings Ground all buildings that have a metal roof or metal sides or both when they are: Within 100 feet (30 m) of the outside conductor. 2h One hundred to one hundred and fifty feet (30 to 46 m) from the outside conductor when the building has 2,000 square feet (186 m2) or more of metallic surface. 3. Within 250 feet (76 m) of the outside conductor and are used to store flammable or explosive items. ‘ Wheel Type Irrigation System The following safety practices should be observed when working with long, wheel-type irrigation systems within 50 feet (15 m) of high-voltage conductors: I Ls Ground the irrigation system before touching it. This can be done by connecting the movable section of pipe to a solid ground, such as a header pipe valve or driven ground rod with a length of No. 8 wire fitted with battery clips. Ze Where possible, especially with circular systems, park the irrigation line at right angles to the transmission line before per- forming maintenance. If the main section has to be disconnected from the pivot point and the pipe is parallel to and within 50 feet (15 m) of a high-voltage line, the disconnected pipe sections should be connected to a driven ground rod. 42 Other Objects (Gutters, downspouts, etc.) Ground all such objects when they are: or Within 100 feet (30 m) of the outside conductor. Ze Are 150 feet (46 m) or longer and within 100 to 150 feet (30 to 46 m) from the outside conductor. 43 APPENDIX B CURRENT AND RECENT RESEARCH RELATED TO BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES EPRI - IIT Research Institute (RP 381-1) A contract to review literature on biological effects and outline a long-range program for EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) study into the effects of electric fields on the environment. Study coordinated by the Energy Systems Environ- ment and the Conservation Division of EPRI. Final report issued November 1975 (Bridges 1975). EPRI - IIT Research Institute (RP 857) A contract to update the state-of-the art study initiated by RP 381, abstract foreign literature and translate key docu- ments, provide technical support for the EPRI Hv effects program, determine the applicability of various Project Sanguine data to powerline environments, and study internal currents and dosimetry associated with Hv fields. Contract period from August 1976 through July 1977. EPRI - Westinghouse-Penn State (RP 129) A research contract to study gross effects of high-stress electric fields on plant germination and growth. Also will study effects on small birds and mammals, and soils. Long- term studies will be carried out at Waltz Mill at a special ecological experiment laboratory. Research Period, August 1974 to March 1977. EPRI - University of Illinois (RP 934) Dr. Greenberg, University of Illinois, completed a feasibility report to study possible effects of an a-c transmission line on honeybees. The study, which began during 1976, will involve placing honeybee hives beneath a new 765-kV transmission line before and after energization of the line. Observations of bee behavior and other parameters will be made. EPRI - Equitable Environmental Health, Inc. (TPS 76-639) A project to examine the feasibility of studying epidemiology of electrical linemen was conducted during 1976 by EEH. EPRI - Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories (RP 581-1) (RP 799) A 6-month project (RP 581-1), completed in December 1975, demonstrated the feasibility of using Hanford miniature swine in research on the biological effects of long-term exposure to electric fields (Phillips et. al. 1976). A follow up study 44 (RP 799) is underway in which swine will be exposed to single- phase 60 Hz fields to 30 kV/m for 12 to 13 months. It is expected that the results will help define parameters to be studied in a clinical program of medical examinations of linemen. The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) will fund a portion of the study involving small animals. EPRI - IIT Research Institute (RP 679) This project included studies of the possible effects that electric fields may have on cardiac pacemakers. Laboratory tests were conducted. They included tests with baboons in which pacemakers had been implanted. Contract period, September 1975 through December 1976. Bonneville Power Administration - Battelle-Pacific Northwest Laboratories A research contract to study vegetation, wildlife, honeybees, and domestic animals at the site of BPA's prototype 1100/1200-kv transmission line near Lyons, Oregon. The study began in April 1976 and will extend through October 1978. The results of the study, along with engineering and economic considerations, will provide information for determining the acceptability of 1100/ 1200 kV for use in the Pacific Northwest transmission grid. U.S. Department of Navy - Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory Exposure of human volunteers to controlled exposure of electric and magnetic fields. Laboratory tests have progressed in stages starting with short-term exposure of lower primates and then Man, progressing to several months' exposure. Tests will be made to study metabolic effects, autonomic nervous system response, and central nervous system performance. A study started in 1975 exposed primates to a 2G, 45 Hz field. At the time this report was printed, preliminary results had not yet been announced. Principle investigators: D. E. Beischer and J. D. Grissett. State of Wisconsin - U. of Wisconsin A study of the effects of electric fields (45 Hz, 10V/m) on plant and microbial metabolism. Principal investigator: W. R. Gardner, Dept. of Soil Science. Final report completed in January 1975. AEP ASEA UHV Research Project Research facility: American Electric Power Service Corp; Ohio Brass Frank B. Black Research Center; ASEA Mfg. Co.; Hydro- Quebec IREQ Lab. American Electric Power Service Corp.; 2 Broadway; New York, New York 10004. Sponsor(s): American Electric Power Service Corp.; ASEA; Ohio Brass Co.; Hydro- Quebec. Duration: January 1969-1978. Funding: Proprietary. 45 Description: Objective of the research is to establish prac- tical limits of ultra-high-voltage for the transmission of electric power. Indiana and Michigan Electric Company and Others Research facility: American Electric Power Service Corp.; 2 Broadway; New York, New York 10004. Investigator(s): Scherer, H. N., Jr. Sponsor(s): Indiana & Michigan Electric Co.; Ohio Power Co.; Kentucky Power Co.; Appalachian Power Co. Duration: 1965 to 1976. Funding: Proprietary. Environ- mental effects of 765-kV transmission under all types of weather conditions; radio and television influence; ozone production, if any; and induced voltage effects are all being researched in order to confirm basic knowledge considered in the initial design. Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc. Title: Review of the Ecological Influence of High Intensity Electric Fields. Research Facility: Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc., Attn: E. A. Helbush; 900 Richards St.; Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Sponsor(s): Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc. Duration: 1973. Description: To review existing literature and survey other utilities concerning the effects of high- intensity electric fields on people, animals, plants, and soils. American Electric Power Service Corporation Title: EHV and UHV Transmission Lines and Audible Noise Research Facility: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139. Investigator(s): Wilson, G. O. Sponsor(s): American Electric Power Service Corp. Duration: September 1967 through August 1974. Funding: Proprietary. Description: The purpose of this project is to quantify the sources of acoustic noise emanating from EHV and UHV transmission lines. Tennessee Valley Authority Title: Causes and Characteristics of Sounds Produced by Transformers and Reactors. Research facility: Tennessee Valley Authority, Div. of Transmission Planning and Engineer- ing, Chattanooga Bank Bldg., Chattanooga, Tennessee 37402. Investigator(s): St. Clair, B. C. Sponsor(s): Tennessee Valley Authority. Duration: 1973 to indefinite. Description: An investigation of the causes and characteristics of sounds produced by transformers and reactors. EPRI - Project UHV (RP 68) Title: UHV Transmission (Project RP 68). Research facility: General Electric Co., 100 Woodlawn Avenue, Pittsfield, Maryland 01201. Investigator(s): Zaffanella, L. E. Sponsor(s): Edison 46 Electric Institute; Electric Power Research Institute; U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bonneville Power Administration; Tennessee Valley Authority; American Public Power Association. Duration: January 1965 -- continuing. Funding: Proprietary. Description: Project UHV has supplied much of the data neces- sary for the preliminary design of UHV transmission systems. Environmental work includes: (1) Consideration of methods to reduce the audible noise levels that occur on UHV lines in wet weather, (2) Contamination flashover performance of long insulator strings, and correlations of flashover performance characteristics with the requirements of lower voltage lines, (3) Further development of the theoretical concepts involved in the study of wet weather radio and audible noise, corona loss, drop formation on conductors, and flashover of contaminated surfaces in fog, and (4) Evaluation of the effects of charging currents of UHV lines and study of ozone and nitrous oxide generation. Location: Massachusetts. IEEE Working Group on Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Effects of Overhead Transmission Lines Ongoing studies of electrostatic and electromagnetic effects of transmission lines for establishing field strength criteria for right-of-way use. ERDA/EES - National Bureau of Standards, Sound Division This project is an attempt to apply modern psychological study techniques by using tapes of transmission line noises in con- trolled experiments where subjects are given alternate choices of audible stimulae. A pilot study was conducted to determine the extent of further research. The 27-month project began in January 1976. EPA/ERDA/DBER - Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories Fruit flies are being used in preliminary biological tests with low-level electric fields. The 24-month project began in September 1975. EPA/DHEW/ONR - University of California, Los Angeles Dr. Ross Adey investigated the effects of electromagnetic fields on the central nervous system of mammals. The test environment simulated conditions near transmission lines. Contract period, August 1975 through August 1976. Bonneville Power Administration - Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE) This is a study of the possible effects of a + 400 kV d-c transmission line on plants, wildlife, and domestic animals. The 13-month long study began in June 1976 and is being conducted along the Oregon portion of the Celilo-Sylmar d-c line. Plants and animals are systematically sampled on the 47 right-of-way and in control areas off the right-of-way. Parameters studied include species diversity and relative abundance, and animal behavior. Bonneville Power Administration - Morlan Nelson, Tundra Films This is a study to determine the status of raptor (hawks, eagles, osprey) nesting on BPA transmission line structures and to evaluate the use of artifical raptor nest platforms installed on transmission structures. During periodic helicopter patrol flights, nests will be located and checked to estimate the amount of annual raptor production occurring. On a small sample of structures, the electric field strength in the structures near nests will be measured to determine the levels to which the birds are exposed. The study began in January 1977 and is continuing. Electric Power Research Institute - Bolt Beranek and Newman EPRI is sponsoring a study of human response to low-level sound associated with transformer and high-voltage trans- mission line operation. The objective of the study is to determine, in terms of human response, if low-level sound associated with transformer and high-voltage transmission line operation is qualitatively different from other low- level noise. The 18-month study began in March 1977. 48 BIBLIOGRAPHY Adey, Ross. 1974. Letter from Dr. Ross Adey, UCLA School of Medicine, to Dean Perry, Bonneville Power Administration, July 8, 1974. Asanova, T. P. and A. I. Rakov. 1966. The State of Health of Persons Working in Electric Field of Outdoor 400-kvV and 500-kV Switchyards. Hygiene of Labor and Professional Diseases, 5. Auerbach, S. I., D. J. Nelson, and E. G. Struxness. 1973. Environmental Sciences Division Annual Progress Report for Period ending September 30, 1972. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Auerbach, S. I. 1976. Letter from Dr. S. I. Auerbach, Director Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory to Jack Lee, Bonneville Power Administration, April, 19, 1976. Bachman, C. H. and M. Reichmanis. 1973. Some Effects of High Electrical Fields on Barley Growth. Int. J. Biometeor 17(3): 253-262. Baker, R. E. 1974. Project Sanguine: Overview and Status of the Navy's ELF Communications Concept. Pages 83-90 in Llaurado, J. G. et. al. (editors) Biological and Clinical Effects of Low-Frequency Magnetic and Electric Fields. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. 345pp. Bankoske, J. W., H. B. Graves, and G. W. McKee, 1976. The Effects of High Voltage Electric Fields on the Growth and Development of Plants and Animals. Pages 112-123, in Tillman, R. (editor) Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Environmental Concerns in Rights-of-way Management. Mississippi State University. Mississippi State. 335 pp. Barnes, H. C., A. J. McElroy, and J. H. Charkow. 1967. Rational Analysis of Electric Fields in Live Line Working. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. PAS-86(4) :482-492 Barnothy, M. F. (editor) 1964. Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields - 2 volumes. Plenum Press, New York. Bawin, S. M., J. G. Rochelle, and W. R. Adey. 1974. Reinforce- ment of Transient Brain Rhythms by Amplitude-Modulated VHF Fields. Pages 172-186, in Llaurado, J. G. et. al. (editors) Biological and Clinical Effects of Low- Frequency Magnetic and Electric Fields. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. 345 pp. 49 Beal, J. B. 1974. Electrostatic Fields, Electromagnetic Fields, and Ions-Mind/Body/Environment Interrelationships. Pages 520 in Llaurado, J. G. et. al. (editors) Biological and Clinical Effects of Low-Frequency Magnetic and Electric Fields. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. 345 pp. Beischer, D. E., J. D. Grissett, and R. E. Mitchell. 1973. Exposure of Man to Magnetic Fields Alternating at Extremely Low Frequency. Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory. Pensacola, Florida. 31 pp. Bonneville Power Administration. 1974. General Construction and Maintenance Program. Bonneville Power Administration, U.S. Department of the Interior. Portland, Oregon. Bracken, T. D. 1975. Field Measurements and Calculations of Electrostatic Effects of Overhead Transmission Lines. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-95 p. 494. Bracken, T. D., A. S. Capon, and D. V. Montgomery, 1977. Ground Level Electric Fields and Ion Currents on The Celilo-Sylmar + 400-kV D-C Intertie During Fair Weather. Paper submitted for presentation at the IEEE 1977 Summer Power Meeting. Bridges, J. E. (Principal Investigator) 1975. Final Report to Electric Power Research Institute for RP 381l- 1. (2 vols.) I -- Biological Effects of High Voltage Electric Fields: State-of-the-Art Review and Program Plan. II -- Bibliography on Biological Effects of Electric Fields. IIT Research Institute. Chicago, Ill. Bridges, J. E. 1977. Environmental Considerations Concerning the Biological Effects of 60 Hertz Electric Field Environments. Paper presented at the 1977 IEEE Winter Power Meeting. Busby, K., D. Driscoll, and W. E. Washbon. 1974. A Field Survey of Farmer Experience With 765-kV Transmission Lines. Report issued by the Agricultural Resources Commission, State Campus. Albany, New York. Carson, R. W. 1967. Anti-Fatigue Device Works by Creating Electric Field. Product Engineering. February 13, 1967. pp. 53-55. Cassiano, O., S. Troncone, and Q. Carta. 1966. Electrical Fields: Some Neurovegetative Responses in Man. Minerva Anestesiolgica. 32:30-32. Translated from Italian for BPA by Leo Kanner Associates. May, 1976. Chalmers, J. A. 1967. Atmospheric Electricity. Permagon Press, Oxford. 50 Coate, W. B. et. al. 1970. Project Sanguine Biological Effects Test Program Pilot Studies Final Report. Prepared for Naval Electronics Systems Command Head- quarters. Washington, D.C. Coffey, P. E. and W. N. Stasiuk. 1975. Evidence of Atmospheric Transport of Ozone into Urban Areas. Environmental Science and Technology. 9(1):59-62. deLorge, J. 1972. Operant behavior of rhesus monkeys in the presence of extremely low frequency - low intensity magnetic and electric fields: Experiment 1. Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory. Pensacola, Florida. Dalziel, C. F. and W. R. Lee 1969. Lethal Electric Currents. IEEE Spectrum. February. Dalziel, C. F. 1959. The Effects of Electric Shock on Man. Safety and Fire Protection Bulletin No. 7. USAEC. Deno, D. 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IIT Research Institute Report No. 737237. Villmo, L. 1972. The Scandinavia Viewpoint. Pages 4-9 in Budieks,) |i) Rip bye Ca) Lent’ ,| Dek. |Kilein), |andior.|/G.))/Wha-te (editors). Proceedings of the First Internation Reindeer and Caribou Symposium. Biological Papers of The Univer- sity of Alaska Special Report No. 1. Fairbanks. Ware, B. J. 1975. A critique of: Pollution by Electrical Transmission by L. B. Young and H. P. Young in the December 1974 issue of Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 31:51]-52. Warnke, U., 1976. Effects of Electric Charges on Honeybees. Bee World 1976. pp. 50-56. Wellenstein, G., 1973. The Influence of High-Tension Lines on Honeybee Colonies (Apis mellifical L.). Zeitschrift Fur Angewandte Entomologie, pp. 86-94. Translated from German for Battelle-Northwest by Addis Translations International. Westinghouse Electric Corporation. 1973. Colstrip Generation and Transmission Project. Applicants Environmental Analysis. Westinghouse Environmental Systems. Wheaton, F. W. 1970. Influence of Electrical Energy on Plants: A Review. Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Maryland, College Park. Whitmore, F. C. and R. L. Durfee. 1973. Determination of Coronal Ozone Production by High-Voltage Power Trans- mission Lines. Prepared by VERSAR Incorporated, Springfield, Virginia for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Young, L. B. 1973. Power Over People. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York. 216 pp. Young, L-)| Bi.),| and) HH. P.| Young)..||/1974 2) | Pollution by Electrical Transmission. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 30 (10) :34-38. 59 ADDENDUM: RESEARCH UPDATE Public and scientific interest in the possible effects of transmission lines, especially those of electric fields, continues to run high. We believe, however, the information developed since this booklet was first published in June of 1977 further indicates the low probability that the fields produced by BPA transmission lines pose any hazard to animals or people. This finding is also consistent with conclusions reached by the majority of other reviews we have seen of biologic effects of transmission line electric fields. These include the following (see references at end of this addendum): Kaufman and Michaelson (1974), Sheppard and Eisenbud (1977), Banks et al. (1977), Hylten-Cavallius et al. (1975), Janes (1976), Bridges (1975), Miller and Kaufman (1978), Kornberg (1976a), (1976b), (1977), SNYPSC (1976), and Atoian (1978). In contrast, relatively few reviewers of current literature have suggested that electric fields of the strength found near transmission lines in the United States appear to pose a biological hazard. These include Young (1974), Young and Young (1974) Young (1978), and Marino and Becker (1977). Since this booklet was first published in June 1977, a final opinion in the cases concerning 765-kV lines was issued by the State of New York Public Service Commission (SNYPSC 1978) (see page 18 of this booklet). The Commission concluded the possible effects of ozone need not be further considered and that any adverse effects of audible noise on people could be handled on a case-by-case basis. The overall risk to pacemaker wearers was concluded to be minimal although copies of the final opinion were to be sent to pacemaker manufacturers and to cardiologists in New York State. Regarding electric and magnetic fields, the Commission concluded, "Although the record before us is, in many ways, reassuring--it does not show that the electric and magnetic fields of the lines as proposed will produce effects endangering human health and safety--it contains unrefuted references of possible risks that we cannot responsibly ignore" (SNYPSC 1978:39). The Commission decided to initially require that the width of rights-of-way for 765-kV lines be set so that electric field strength at the right-of-way edge would not exceed that produced by 345-kV lines (approximately 1.6 kV/m). On the right-of-way itself, however, electric field strengths up to 11.8 kV/m will be allowed. Farming and other activities normally permitted on 345-kV rights-of-way will also be permitted on 765-kV rights-of-way. This was in 60 part based on the widely accepted long-term operation of 345-kV lines in New York State (the highest transmission line voltage in the State at that time). To obtain data for answering the unresolved questions raised during the hearings a research program will be initiated by the Public Service Commission. During the hearings two of eight witnesses testifying on biologic effects suggested the electric field of the 765-kV lines would pose some health hazard. These were Drs. Marino and Becker, researchers at the Veterans Administration Hospital in Syracuse, New York. They reported that studies done with rats and mice exposed to 60-Hz electric fields up to 15-kV/m cause adverse biologic effects (Marino et al. 1974; Marino et al. 1976a, 1976b; Marino et al. 1977). Such effects included decreased growth, increased mortality, and changes in serum proteins and corticoids. The researchers acknowledged, however, that shocks received by animals when drinking or eating may have been responsible for at least some of the reported effects (Marino et al., 1976a:566). Others have also pointed out that, in addition to the possible effects of shocks, some of the research cited above employed questionable statistical procedure and research protocol (Miller and Kaufman 1978:11, Matias and Colbeth 1978:98). The research of Marino et al. does suggest the possibility for effects, and it is an indication of the need for further research to resolve inconclusive or contradictory research findings..: In relating the results of the New York State hearings to the BPA system it can be pointed out that BPA has operated 500-ky transmission lines successfully since the mid-1960's. No adverse health effects to animals or people due to the electric fields of these lines have been reported. This is based on operating experience and the results of biological research conducted for BPA transmission lines since 1974 (Lee and Griffith 1978). If 500-kV lines had been operational in New York State, the electric field strengths at the edge of the 765-kV right-of-way would likely have been based on that voltage rather than 345-kv. In addition to the hearings in New York State, "biologic effects" questions were also raised in California during hearings involving 500-kV transmission lines (Urban 1977). The staff of the California State Energy Resources Conservation and Development Commission concluded that, although the 500-kV lines may cause biological effects, they could not conclude the lines would cause biological effects (Urban 1977). They added that it could not be determined whether 61 such effects would be hazardous. In the final decision, the Commission required the builder of the proposed 500-kV lines to provide information on the economic feasibility of reducing the electric field at the edge of the right-of-way to various levels--specifically, of 0.1 kV/m, 0.2 kV/m, and 1 kV/m (Anonymous 1977). The construction of a +400-kV d-c transmission line in North Dakota and Minnesota gained national attention as a result of some local violent opposition to the line (Ames 1978). "Biologic effects" questions were raised during the hearings on this line. However, as in most cases, these were among Many questions and issues raised by people who, for a variety of reasons, did not want the line constructed. In response to questions and concerns voiced during the hearings on the d-c line, a report on public health and safety effects of transmission lines was prepared by the Minnesota Department of Health (Banks et al. 1977). The report (page III-19) concluded, "Although it is not possible to say that there is no risk, thus far both epidemiological and laboratory studies have failed--for various reasons--to indict transmission lines as a health hazard. As yet there is no evidence whatsoever suggesting any effect on health or a sense of well being from intermittent exposure experienced in the transmission line environment." Probably the most extensive study underway specifically designed to produce data for assessing the possible effects of transmission line electric fields on animals, is being conducted by Battelle Northwest Laboratories of Richland, Washington. Test animals include mice, rats, and swine. The third interim report (BNWL 1978) describes the results of initial screening studies in which rats and mice were exposed to 60-Hz electric fields of 100-kV/m for up to 60 days. Biological studies included: hematology and serum chemistry, immunology, pathology, metabolic status and growth, bone growth and structure, endocrinology and male reproduction, cardiovascular function, central nervous system, neurophysiology, reproduction and growth, and animal behavior. This represents one of the most comprehensive studies of this type yet done, and Battelle researchers are going to great lengths to insure that scientific protocol is strictly followed. Results of the screening studies indicated the electric field had no statistically significant, reproducible effects except in the behavioral experiments. Rats given a choice spent more time out of the electric field when it was 90- kV/m or higher. The results of three experiments showed trends which suggest the possibility of the following effects: 62 (1) decreases in the immunity system; (2) increased prostate infection; and (3) increased excitability of nerve functions. Further studies are underway which include longer (4-month) exposure periods designed to evaluate these potential effects. The Battelle research to date has not confirmed the kind of effects reported by researchers at the New York Veterans Administration Hospital described above. The IIT Research Institute study on cardiac pacemakers mentioned as in progress on page 28 of this booklet has been completed. During the study it was found that 60-hZ electric fields such as those produced by extra-high-voltage (EHV) transmission lines are unlikely to interfere with the vast majority of pacemaker patients (Bridges et al. 1978, Frazier et al. 1978). Under certain conditions, approximately 3 percent of pacemaker patients could experience pacemaker reversion to the asynchronous mode. As stated by the researchers, "There is, however, no agreement among cardiovascular specialists about the seriousness (or even the existence) of the problems associated with prolonged operation in the asynchronous mode. Periods of operation in this mode are considered to be acceptable, and in fact are commonly induced by cardiologists to check performance of pacemakers in their patients." (Bridges et al. 1978:4) Patients most susceptible to the above situation are those having an abdominal implant and monopolar lead configuration. At the time this was written, the final report on the IIT Research Institute pacemaker study (RP 679-1) had not been issued by the Electric Power Research Institute. Further review of the study by cardiologists was expected. Research on pacemakers is also being conducted at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Jenkins and Woody 1978). This work also indicates that electric and magnetic fields produced by transmission lines can affect performance of some types of pacemakers under certain conditions. We are aware of only one instance in which a pacemaker wearer may have experienced some effects from being near a BPA transmission line. Persons who would like further information on this subject can check with their physicians and their nearest BPA office. A study involving magnetic fields conducted at the Naval Laboratory is mentioned on page 27 of this booklet. In this study rhesus monkeys were periodically exposed to a 2G, 72- 80-Hz magnetic field over a l-year period (Grissett et al. 1977). A horizontal electric field of up to 28 V/m was also present. The study found exposed males gained weight at a slightly greater rate than males in the control group. It was also found that, compared to controls, exposed females had slightly lower serum triglycerides and respiratory quotients. The researchers reported the exposed animals appeared to be quite healthy, and there was no indication the observed effects had any adverse clinical significance. €3 Environmental studies of BPA transmission lines are continuing and preliminary results of the 1200-kV project (see page 2) are available (Rogers et al. 1978, Lee et al. 1978). Studies at the 1200-kV site include natural vegetation, crops, wildlife, cattle, and honeybees. Initial results indicate the electric field and audible noise from the prototype 1200-kV line have not resulted in any deleterious environmental effects. As expected, some Douglas fir trees near the line have experienced needle-tip burn similar to that documented for trees near 500-kV lines (Zaffanella and Deno 1978). The line has had no adverse effects on crop growth and cattle show no aversion to grazing beneath the line. During the first year of the honeybee studies, there was no significant difference in the amount of honey produced by bees under the line compared with those located away from the line. Biological studies at the 1200-kV site are expected to continue through the summer of 1979. Data on possible effects of electric fields on animal physiology are probably best obtained by laboratory studies. Therefore, BPA is continuing to review results of laboratory studies being conducted elsewhere in order to supplement results of the 1200-kV project. Some recent studies have produced evidence which indicates that birds can perceive a-c magnetic and electric fields at strengths comparable to those of the earth's d-c fields (e.g., Larkin and Sutherland 1977). Whether such fields disrupt avian flight orientation, provide environmental location information to flying birds or have no effect at all is not clear. BPA research to date does not indicate that transmission line magnetic and/or electric fields cause disorientation in flying birds. Birds seldom if ever perch on transmission line conductors presumably because of the strong field which exists very near the conductors. BPA is involved in research which may provide more definitive information on this subject (Lee 1978). It is possible that at sufficiently high levels electric and even magnetic fields can cause deleterious biologic effects. BPA's investigation of this subject; as well as those of most reviewers cited above, indicates that the field strengths at which such effects may occur are significantly higher than the levels found beneath BPA lines. Because of continued public and scientific interest in this subject, extensive research projects are underway to investigate the possible biologic effects of 60-Hz electric fields. The U.S. Department of Energy and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) are funding a large part of this research at an annual rate of approximately $3 million dollars (Comar 1977:2). This 64 research is employing electric field strength levels up to several times higher than those of transmission lines in an effort to determine thresholds at which biologic effects may occur. Thus far, preliminary results show even these higher field strengths (to 100-kV/m) result in few if any biological effects (Ragan et al. 1977, Phillips 1978). It should be pointed out that evidence produced by most of the research cited above was not considered during the New York State hearings. One reason is that some studies had not gone beyond their initial stages at the time of the hearings. A recent EPRI publication provided additional insight as to the background and reasons’for conducting research on electric fields. "No experiment thus far has clearly established that electric fields even 20 times as high as those encountered under 765-kV transmission lines can cause a biological effect of significance. If electric fields can cause biological effects, it appears that they will be subtle, possibly elusive, and extremely difficult to identify." (Kornberg 1977:11) "No experiment, no matter how large or how well designed, can tell us that electric fields will produce zero biological effects. What we do hope to accomplish is, first of all, to repeat the usual exposures under carefully controlled conditions to provide more reliable data than are now available. Then we plan to identify any of the subtle effects that could occur from high-voltage transmission lines and, if found, relate them to effects on humans. This should help in determining if and at what point the risk from increasingly higher transmission voltages becomes significant enough to be a limiting factor." (Comar 1977:3) 65 REFERENCES CITED IN ADDENDUM Ames, S. 1978. Tail of The Dragon. Rain. August/September. pp. 8-11. Anonymous. 1977. In the Matter of: San Diego Gas and Electric Company Notice of Intention to File Application for Certification of Site and Related Facilities. Decision. Docket No. 76-NOI-2. State Energy Resources Conservation and Development Commission of the State of California. Sacramento. Atoian, G. E. 1978. Are There Biological and Physiological Effects Due to Extra High Voltage Installations? IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS- 97-1. pp. 8-18. Banks, R. S., C. M. Kanniainen, and R. D. Clark. 1977. Public Health and Safety Effects of High-Voltage Overhead Transmission Lines: An Analysis for the Minnesota Environmental Quality Board. Minnesota Department of Health. Minneapolis. Battelle Northwest Laboratories (BNWL) 1978. Biological Effects of High Strength Electric Fields on Small Laboratory Animals. Annual Report April 1977 to March 1978.. Prepared for U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Electric Energy Systems, Washington, D.C. 185 pp. Bridges, J. E. (Principal Investigator) 1975. Final Report to Electric Power Research Institute for RP 381-1. (2 vols.) I -- Biological Effects of High Voltage Electric Fields: State-of-the-Art Review and Program Plan. II -- Bibliography on Biological Effects of Electric Fields. IIT Research Institute. Chicago, Ill. Bridges, J. E., M. J. Frazier, and R. G. Hauser. 1978. The Effect of 60 Hertz Electric Fields and Currents on Implanted Cardiac Pacemakers. IEEE 1978 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility Conference Record, Atlanta, Georgia, June 20-22, pp. 258-265. Comar, C. 1977. Controversy Over High Voltage Effects. Electric Power Research Institute Journal 2(5) :2-3. Frazier, M. J., J. E. Bridges, and R. G. Hauser. 1978. Internal Body Potentials and Currents from ELF Electric Fields and Household Appliances. IEEE 1978 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility Conference Record, Atlanta, Georgia, June 20-22, pp. 266-272. 66 Grissett, J. D., J. L. Kupper, M. J. Kessler, R. J. Brown, G. D. Prettyman, L. L. Cook, and T. A. Griner. 1977. Exposure of Primates for One Year to Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with ELF Communications Systems. Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory. Pensacola, Florida. 315 pp. Hylten-Cavallius, N., P. S. Maruvada, N. G. Trinh, and N. Cote. 1975. Some Ecological Effects of High Voltage Power Lines; A Study of Literature. Report No. IREQ- 1160. Institut de recherche de 1'Hydro-Quebec. Verennes, Quebec, Canada. Janes, D. E. 1976. Background Information on Extra-High- Voltage Overhead Electric Transmission Lines. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Electromagnetic Radiation Analysis Branch, Environmental Analysis Division, Washington, D.C. Jenkins, B. M. and J. A. Woody. 1978. Cardiac Pacemaker Responses to Power Frequency Signals. IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility Conference Record, Atlanta, Georgia, June 20-22, pp. 273-277. Kaufman, G. E. and S. M. Michaelson. 1974. Critical Review of the Biological Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields. Pages 49-61 in Llaurado, J. G. et al. (editors) Biological and Clinical Effects of Low-Frequency Magnetic and Electric Fields. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. Kornberg, H. A. 1976b. Biological Effects of Electric Fields. Pages 51-64 in RGE-FRA, ISSN 0035-3116, 1976- 07 Special Issue. Kornberg, H. A. 1977. Concern Overhead. Electric Power Research Institute Journal 2(5):6-13. Kornberg, H. A. 1976a. EPRI's Research Program on Biological Effects of Electric Fields. Pages 136-141 in Tillman, R. (ed.) Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Environmental Concerns in Rights-of-Way Management. Mississippi State University. Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. Mississippi State. Larkin, R. P., and P. J. Sutherland. 1977. Migratory Birds Respond to Project Seafarer's Electromagnetic Field. Science 195:777-778. 67 Lee, J. M., Jr. 1978. Effects of Transmission Lines on Bird Flights: Studies of Bonneville Power Administration Lines. Pages 53-68 in M. L. Avery (ed). Impacts of Transmission Lines on Birds in Flight. Proceedings of the Workshop on Impact of Transmission Lines on Migratory Birds. Jan. 31 - Feb. 2, 1978, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Stock Number 024-010-00481-9. Lee, J. M., Jr., and D. B. Griffith. 1978. Transmission Line Audible Noise and Wildlife. Pages 105-168 in J. L. Fletcher, and R. G. Busnel (eds.). Effects of Noise on Wildlife. Academic Press, New York. 305 pp. Lee, J. M., Jr., L. E. Rogers, and T. D. Bracken. 1978. Electric and Magnetic Fields as Considerations in Environmental Studies of Transmission Lines. Paper presented at the 18th annual Hanford Life Sciences Symposium, Biological Effects of Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields. Richland, Washington. October 16-18, 197 Sis (In Press) Marino, A. A. and R. O. Becker. 1977. Biological Effects of Extremely Low Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields: A Review. Physiological Chemistry and Physics 9(2) :131- 147. Marino, A. A., R. O. Becker, and B. Ullrich. 1976a. The Effect of Continuous Exposure to Low-Frequency Electric Fields on Three Generations of Mice; A Pilot Study. Separatum Experientia 32:565-566. Marino, A. A., T. J. Berger, B. P. Austin, and R. 0. Becker, and F. X. Hart. 1977. In Vivo Bioelectrochemical Changes Associated With Exposure to Extremely Low Frequency Electric Fields. Physiological Chemistry and Physics Journal. 9(4). (In Press) Marino, A. A., T. J. Berger, J. T. Mitchell, B. A. Duhacek, and R. O. Becker. 1974. Electric fields in Selected Biologic Systems. Pages 436-444, in A. R. Kiboff and R. A. Rinaldi (eds.), Electrically Mediated Growth Mechanisms in Living Systems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Vol. 238. 593 pp. Matias, T. R. and H. L. Colbeth. 1978. Cases 26529 and 26559 Recommended Decision of the Administrative Law Judges on the Health and Safety Effects of 765-kV Transmission Lines. State of New York, Public Service Commission. Albany. 68 Miller, M. W. and G. E. Kaufman. 1978. High-Voltage Overhead. Environment 20(1) :6-36. Urban, M. J. 1977. -Concurrent Brief of the Staff of the State Energy Resources Conservation and Development Commission on the Acceptability of the Sundesert Notice of Intention. Docket No: 76-NOI-2. Sacramento, California. Phillips, R. D. (Project Manager). . 1978. Biological Effects of High Strength Electric Fields on Small Laboratory Animals. Annual Report April 1, 1977, to February 28, 1978. Prepared for Electrical Energy Systems Division, Department of Energy ‘by Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories. Richland, Washington. Ragan, H. A., M. J. Pipes, W. T. Kaune, and R. D. Phillips. 1977. Hematologic and Serum-Chemistry Evaluations in Rats Exposed to 60 Hz Electric Fields. Page 126 in Abstracts of Scientific Papers. 1977 International Symposium on the Biological Effects of Electric Fields. October 30 - November 4, 1977. Airlie, Virginia. Rogers, L. E., R. O. Gilbert, J. M. Lee Jr., and T. D. Bracken. 1978. BPA 1100kV Transmission System Development - Environmental Studies. Paper Approved for Presentation at the 1979 IEEE Winter PES Meeting, New York, February 4-9. Sheppard,:A. R. and M. Eisenbud. 1977. Biologic Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields of Extremely Low Frequency. New York University Press. New York. State of New York Public Service Commission (SNYPSC). 1976. Opinion and Order Authorizing Erection of Support Structures and Conductors (765-kV). Opinion No. 76-12. Case 26529. Power Authority of the State of New York. Albany. State of New York Public Service Commission (SNYPSC). 1978. Opinion No. 78-13. Opinion and Order Determining Health and Safety Issues, Imposing Operating Conditions, and Authorizing, in Case 26529, Operation Pursuant to Those Conditions. Albany, New York. Young, L. B. 1974. Power Over People. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York. 69 Young, L. B., and H. P. Young. 1974. Pollution by Electrical Transmission. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 30(10) :34- 38. Young, L. B., 1978. Danger: High Voltage. Environment. 20(4): 16-38. Zaffanella, L. E., and D. W. Deno. 1978. Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Effects of Ultra-High-Voltage Transmission Lines. Final Report of Research Project 566-1. Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California. 70 GLOS SARY Ambient - Surrounding, or background. Ampere - (abv. A) A unit of electric current (flow of electrons). One volt across 1 ohm of resistance causes 1 ampere of current to flow. Amplitude Modulation (AM) - Process used in standard radio broadcasting in which a continuous high-frequency carrier wave is caused to vary in amplitude by the action of another wave containing information. Atrioventricular - Pertaining to the chambers and valves of the heart. The heart contains four pumping chambers (two auricles and two ventricles) and a system of valves to assist the flow of blood through the heart. Bundle - Refers to the number of conductors used per phase in transmission systems. The conductors in bundles of two or more are separated several inches by a spacer and in the present BPA system, commonly consist of single, two bundle, or three bundle configurations. The 1100/1200-kV prototype line ‘uses an 8-bundle configuration. Capacitance - That property of an arrangement of conductors and dielectrics which permits the storage of electricity when potential differences exist between the conductors. It is expressed as the ratio of a quantity of electricity to a potential differences. A farad is the capacitance value that will store a charge of one coulomb when a potential difference of one volt exists across the terminals of the capacitor. In alternating current, a farad is the capacitance value that will pass a current of one ampere when the voltage across the capacitor is changing at the rate of one volt per second. Corona - Corona is a discharge which occurs when the potential applied to a conductor exceeds the dielectric strength of the surrounding insulation. [In all cases, it causes a power loss. On a transmission line, corona appears when the applied potential ionizes the air. Under certain circumstances it can be seen in bluish tufts or streamers surrounding the conductor, and generally a hissing sound can be heard. If corona is intense, one can smell ozone. Sharp edges, points, abrasions, etc., precipitate discharge causing radio and TV interference. 71 Corona Loss - Energy dissipation due to corona on transmission line conductors and hardware. Cytogenetics - Dealing with cells and heredity. Delta Configuration - Term given to a transmission system suspension tower in which the two outside insulator strings are in the same horizontal plane. The center string is supported at a higher level. This conductor arrangement permits closer phase spacing thereby providing better electrical characteristics. Electric Field - The measure of the force exerted on a unit electrical charge at a point in space. The source of the electric fields around transmission lines are the charges on the high voltage conductors. Electrode - A conductor usually metal by means of which an electric current passes into or out of a fluid or an organic material. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) - The disruption of electromagnetic waves over the entire frequency spectrum from 10 Hz to 100 MHz. EMI can directly or indirectly contribute to a degradation in performance in radios and television. Electromagnetic Radiation - A form of energy characterized by transversely oscillating electric and magnetic fields which Peoneys=ee at approximately 186,000 miles per second (3x108 m/sec.) in free space. Electromagnetic Wave - The radiant energy produced by an alternating electric charge examples of which are radio and visible light waves. Electromagnetically Coupled - Electrical coupling between two objects through the changing magnetic field. A changing magnetic field through a loop induces a current in that loop. Electrostatic Coupling - Electrical coupling between objects through the electric field, as in a capacitor. An object insulated between a high voltage transmission line and ground assumes some voltage intermediate between the two. Environmental Impact - A change due to natural or man-made cause, in existing conditions whether beneficial or adverse, affecting organisms and their sur- roundings. 72 Transmission Line - A transmission line is used to transport electric power from the generating plant to the power using center, generally of 115-kV and above. Unperturbed Field - An electric or magnetic field which has not been significantly distorted due to the presence of some object or body. It is a useful reference parameter for assessing the field effects of transmission lines. Voltage Gradient - Synonomous with electric field strength. The rate at which voltage increases or decreases along a conductor or through a dielectric such as air. Zo