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Home My WebLink AboutEnergy Consultants Report to the Bering Straits Regional Stategy 1986ENERGY CONSULTANT °S REPORT BERING -StsAlTtsS REGIONAL AZ" STRATEGY AAS. JAMES GURKE JUDY ZIAICKI DECEMBER. 1986 Dow 60 Page List of Tables and Figures List of Abbreviations 1 I. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1 A. Methodology 3 B. Summary of Policies and Recommendations 9 II. UTILITY ISSUES 9 A. Utility Management and Operations 19 B. Electrical Distribution Systems aL Cc. Waste Heat Recapture ou III. SPACE HEATING ISSUES 27 A. Residential Housing 30 B. Housing Programs 34 C. Community Facilities/Public Buildings 37 IV. FUEL COSTS 43 V. ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES 43 A. Coal 44 B. Conservation 45 Cr Fuel Cells 46 Ds Geothermal Energy 47 E. Heat Pumps 47 F. Peat 48 G. Small Hydropower Systems 49 H. Solar Energy 50 i. Wind/Diesel Systems 51 Ore Wood 52 VI. REFERENCES 53 VII. LITERATURE CITED eH H Do p Wm III. III. III. III. EET; a pune IV.1 IV.2 Figure II.1 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Utility Ownership and Management in the Bering Straits Region Electrification Grants FY59-FY86 Annual State PCE Payments AVEC Organizational Structure Regional Electric Profile Sample Heat Recovery Rates Household Fuel Use and Cost Comparative R Values Housing Programs Weatherization Projects Housing Units Receiving LIHEA 1984-1985 Fuel Use by Volume Comparative Fuel Costs 1983 vs. 1986 Jacket Water Waste Heat Recovery System ANICA APA APUC ASHA AVCP AVEC BIA BSHA BSNC BSSD BTU DCRA DHSS DOT/PF HUD ICP KWH LIHEA NESC O&M PV REA RurALCAP USN WTG Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska Bureau Bering Bering Bering LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Native Industries Cooperative Association Power Authority. Public Utilities Commission State Housing Authority Village Council of Presidents Village Electric Cooperative of Indian Affairs Straits Regional Housing Authority Straits Native Corporation Straits School District British Thermal Unit Alaska Alaska Department of Community & Regional Affairs Department of Health & Social Services AK Dept. of Transportation & Public Facilities US Department of Housing and Urban Development Institutional Conservation Program Kilowatt hour Low Income Housing Energy Assistance National Electric Safety Code Operations and Maintenance Photovoltaic Rural Electric Administration Rural Alaska Community Action Program U.S. Navy Wind Turbine Generator I. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS & RECOMMENDATIONS A. METHODOLOGY The attached energy report is drafted as a subsection of a larger planning document entitled The Bering Straits Regional Strategy Plan. The report is- presented as a series of findings and recommendations based upon an extensive review of technical literature, interviews with local individuals having pertinent interests in energy matters, personnel from relevant agencies, as well as site visits to several Bering Straits communities. A very short two month period was available to the consultants to compile data and assemble the report. The principle reason for meeting this deadline was to permit adequate time for review and comments on the nature of the suggestions being made. In the absence of any substantial input by the members of the Regional Strategy, the authors revised the September “Draft Report” to only reflect more current data. Findings and recommendations are presented in four sections: 1) A utility issues section discusses management, generation and distribution concerns and waste heat recapture. Through changes in organizational structure and investment in training or equipment, substantial energy saving are conceivable. 2) A space heating section addresses the increased energy efficiency available through current and appropriate construction standards. 3) A fuel cost section deals with fuel supply and delivery. Only a preliminary analysis of the current system, the section suggests steps to proceed toward a more competitive environment. 4) An alternative energy source and technology section quickly reviews ten options in various stages of development. These options are reviewed according to their relative appropriateness to the Bering Straits region. A dominant factor supporting many of the recommendations in this report is the large regional dependence upon energy subsidies. Electricity has recently been subsidized by state Power Cost Equalization at about $2.24 million per year while home heating costs are subsidized by federal Energy Assistance at about $588,000 annually. Region-wide this translates into $1,342 per household of energy costs not borne by the local residents. Expectations and lifestyles are undoubtedly affected by these economic conditions. The authors purposefully ignored a discussion of subsidies because the future of each program is too - speculative for useful debate. However, an overall -- assumption that drove most of the goal statements presented herein is that utilities and housing agencies would be wise to operate as though subsidies did not exist when making future planning decisions. A downside result of subsidies is the potential for ignoring efficient use of fuel for heating and electricity. As a general observation, profound reductions in heating fuel are available where superinsulation techniques are incorporated into construction. The concept of a home built to require only a small source of space heat is not new to traditional native culture. It predates government housing but has been lost in the struggle to heat existing buildings which fail to satisfy appropriate design standards. Regarding electrical generation, a general tenet held by most experts is that diesel power plants are the only viable alternative for perhaps the next decade. While most communities have adequate capacity to meet future short-term needs, a greater degree of attention to maintenance and operation is warranted. While the state treasury adjusts to decreases in oil revenues, communities will also be likely to have more difficulty in obtaining capital funds for equipment. Extending equipment life to meet community needs will be an increasingly important priority that should not be ignored. Finally, it is noted that what the Bering Straits region needs most to resolve many of the issues identified are people willing to advocate a change in policies. The region will not benefit from this report or any future reconnaissance without a committment to examine alternatives in its energy demand and supply. As a example, while this report speaks strongly in favor of stricter standards in construction to reduce energy consumption, the Kawerak Housing Office went on record in opposition to proposed state thermal standards. All choices in energy policy come at an economic cost and decisions ought to be made as to how these costs will be borne. UTILITY ISSUES Use the representation provided in the AVEC delegate process to require that city/utility func- tions are set in a responsible sanner, i.e., AVEC delegates should attend the annual AVEC conference with an official city agenda for local isprove- nents. Require the utility to train plant operators in essential aechanical, electrical and safety coaponents of utility operation. Operate the utility according to a consistent policy with witten obligations and procedures for the utility, city and custoser. Encourage regional developaent of certified curriculua for electrical trades. In seal] isolated grids, consugers aust bear a greater responsibility not to exceed deaand liaits recommended by the utility. Proposed capital projects which will increase electrical loads should have an energy use ana- lysis subaitted to the utility 30 that planning is adequate to geet new loads. Require enforcement of the National Electric Satety Code in house wiring through the use of certified electricians in all federally funded housing. RESPONSIBLE ABENCY AVEC oor APUC} Util | BSHA} BSSD | City) DORA] FF * * # House} Kawerakk holds RegStrat Ww A formal request from St. Michael should be gade to the Alaska Power Authority tc examine the economics of waste heat recovery assua@ing increased capacity ‘ros interconnection of new loads. Use the technical and financial expertise of the Alaska Power Authority to advance the oppor- tunities for cogeneration. Encourage the &SSD to involve itself in operation and aain- tenance of existing systems and to seek funding options tor other econosically feasible projects. SPACE HEATING [SSUES Formal adoption of Alaska’s oroposed thermal standards for new construction and entorce- nent to eet or exceed those standarcs throughout the region. Advocate ratrofit of existing housing to superinsulated standards, oarticularly HUD 500 units, Identity key people in Kawerak #ho would constitute a study teaa to exaaine LIHEA aanageaent options and aake a recomaendation ta Kawerak, Communicate with the State, its weatherization contractors and regional nousenolds before weatherization projects occur to influence decisions about how and what work is acst accropriate to local interests. APA APUC RESPONSIBLE AGENCY AVEC Util * BSHA | BSSD * * * City * oc 24 NA atiecs r=) nn = House holds Rawerakk RegStrat Involve DOTRPF Division of Planning and Prograaming in design review of school facilities and public buildings for life cycle cost analyses. Require that architectural designs for small public buildings aeet or exceed the standards developed by OCRA. The HSSD should aaintain a management policy of annual involvemant in the Institu- tional Conservation Progras as often as the program can meet identified needs. ur The §$SD should oursue available means to incor- Dorate cogeneration as reolacement for priaary neating olants where economically feasible. cooperative fuel in advance of Be 4s auch as oossidle, aake Ourchases on a orepald cas basis to odtair digcotate | and avoid credit interest rates, Involveaent of the Bering Straits comaunities, parti- cularly Nome, in organiza- tional efforts to exolore alternative fuel delivery oroposals, APA APUC RESPONSISLE AGENCY x2 a rm sie Uti BSHA $$ $30 ity ity a ia) mo Ww Rewer aku RegStrat = m wo oo] a = a ioe) = m >» a m = a AVEC DOT | House] Kawerack : APA} APUC | Util | BSHA | BSSD |] City | OCRA] &PF] holds] Regstrat Explore the feasibility of * governsent-controlled fuel storage in Nome adainistered by the praposed Port Authority. ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES Coal develooment in north- * west Alaska has potential as a origary soace heating fuel and should be evaluated as mining/ transportation options are comaercially explored. Participate in available state * * * and federal housing prograss to decrease space heating loads through increased building thermal efficiency (see Section III). Use state-of-the-art energy * efficient appliances, particu- larly refrigerators, freezers and lignts when replacing old acdeis. applications are desired. Heat puans are not a currently recommended energy alternative tor the region. do not pursue peat development as an energy source at this tise. No further study of aicrohydro is recommended at this tiae. Micronydra development projects nay be warranted for independent power needs but would only be available in sumaer sonths. APA incorporate passive solar prin- ciples into all siting and design of buildings. Until wT technology and econonics iaprive for rural garkets, village scale wind/ diesel systems are not recoamended, Saali wIG's for isolated indesendent hosesteads are technically feasible and aay be an option provided suitable wind soeeds exist. Anemometry studies are recommended. Continue current use of wood for residential ssace heating as disolacement for oil and other non-renewable energy sources Consider wood inappropriate for electrical generation in the region. oo m w “3 => Br wo wo 2 rm x a mn oe rast AVEC APUC | Util | BSHA | BSSD | City * * II. UTILITY ISSUES A. UTILITY MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONS GOAL: MANAGE AND OPERATE UTILITIES IN ACCORD WITH INDUSTRY- WIDE “STANDARD UTILITY PRACTICE”. Background - Utility Management: Utility ownership within the Bering Straits region is composed of two Rural Electrification Administration member cooperatives, one privately owned utility, three city-owned systems and one municipally controlled utility, (Table II.1). In addition to differences in management, other distinguishing features include the sources of financing for capital project : improvements and equipment replacement, and whether or not the utility is regulated by the Alaska Public Utilities Commission (APUC). TABLE II.1 Utility Ownership & Management In the Bering Straits Region Electrical City Owned and Cooperativ ici AVEC: Elim Diomede Brevig Mission - Gambell Golovin City owned dis- Koyuk Nome tribution/BSSD Savoonga White Mountain powerplant Shaktoolik Shishmaref Council - Stebbins Independent power St. Michael by household Wales Solomon - Independent power UVEC: by household Unalakleet Teller - Teller Power Co., Privately owned Alaska state revenues have risen from $333 million in 1975 to a recent high of $4,100 million in 1982 and $3,314 million in 1985. Local benefits have included electrifica- tion grants in excess of $4.2 million (1985 Energy Plan) as well as $500,000 for a failed wind power study and annual 10 Power Cost Equalization payments of $2.5 million, estimated from 1985 figures. Table II.2 illustrates how state grant funds have contributed to the Bering Straits region. Although AVEC communities have benefited less from state grants than other villages, as a whole they are in a stronger position to maintain and improve their utility due to the pooled resources of the cooperative and an independent source of financing (Federal Rural Electrification Administration) when state capital project monies are lean. Electrification projects in AVEC villages have been largely financed by a combination of 2 percent loans from the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) and state contributions made in the early 1970’s. REA loans are used for capital improvements; ongoing operations are supported by utility revenues. AVEC is a regulated cooperative whose tariff Provisions require approval by the APUC. City-owned utilities have developed almost entirely from state grants to purchase power plants and distribution systems. City utilities are exempt from APUC regulation provided their gross revenues do not exceed $50,600 annually or if they are units within municipalities or second-class cities. Nome, Diomede, Golovin and White Mountain are all exempt under this provision. Management is generally a city council function. Sources of ongoing revenue are expected to be met through the rate structure with monies set aside for operation and equipment replacement (typically 8% of installed cost for annual maintenance and 8.7% for replacement--3% for 10 years, sinking fund). © The Teller Power Company is a privately-owned utility. Its rates are regulated by the APUC. Although utility management varies largely due to the above distinctions, in reality several regional characteristics affect the utilities equally: is Utility operations are less strict in village utilities than in urban areas due to the absence of city or utility enforced codes or standards. APUC Docket Number U-84-64 documents numerous issues arising from the absence of preventive maintenance programs. As a general observation, the absence of recognized procedures in purchasing, maintenance and safe operation will be a continuing source of expense for rural communities unless efforts are made to operate in a more uniform manner. ae A source of locally available talent to manage and operate the utilities has not developed to keep pace with need. Turnover rates for village operators are high (Lyon, AVEC) and most individuals come to the job with minimal training or experience. In addition, vocational education at the public school level is difficult to provide. Institutions like Northwest Community College and the Kotzebue Technical Center do not currently provide TABLE II.2 ELECTRIFICATION GRANTS FY 59 - FY 86 (Thousands of Dollars) Bulk Dollars Fuel Bulk Pre FY75- Per Waste Storage Fuel Community — Pop. 75 FY79 FY80 FY81 FY82 FY83 FY84 FY85 FY86 Total Capita Heat Grant Loan PCE Brevig Mission 132 50 60 100 x x Council Diomede 121 17.8 106 100 xX x Elim 202 50 50 x x x xX Gambell 426 x x Golovin 110 225 70 x x Koyuk 185 x xX x Nome 3590 40 943 xX xX xX Savoona 472 50 50 x Shaktoolik 157 0.4 53 x x xX x Shishmaref 436 x X Solomon x xX X Stebbins 316 xX x St. Michael 312 6.5 x Teller 207 537 xX Unalakleet 654 1000 200 xX xX x xX Wales 124 x x xX White Mountain 125 115 170 50 100 x x Totals 7,569 0.4 24.3 40 265 1697 1747 170 400 Source: House Research Agency Report 85-C competency based instruction for those people currently employed by utilities. 3. Because rate payers are subsidized by Power Cost Equalization, the economic impact of inefficient operation is largely buffered. Should PCE be substantially reduced, these factors will play a larger part in actual costs to the consumer. Table II.3 illustrates the importance of state PCE on local economies throughout the region. The effect on local lifestyles is obvious with the recent introduction of electrical appliances and water heaters. At 234 kWH per month per household compared to Anchorage at 683 KWH, total average KWH demand is still low. TABLE I1.3 Annual State PCE Payments (Estimate in Thousands) Diomede $ 43 Nome $ 890 St. Michael $105 Elim 87 Savoonga 158 Unalakleet 183 Gambell 146 Shaktoolik 86 Wales 59 Golovin 52 Shishmaref 178 White Mtn. 43 Koyuk 70 Stebbin 95 Teller 47 Source: Alaska Power Authority Objeotive II.1: Require AVEC to develop a policy and procedures manual so that operators can run the utility according to “standard utility practice” accepted by the industry. Purpose: 1) To reduce maintenance and replacement costs. 2) To increase the safety level of local utilities. 3) To improve the quality of utility service to consumers. Rationale: Preventive maintenance practices are commonly recognized as a first priority in all attempts at ensuring safe, reliable utility operation. For instance, a commonly observed problem in many of the villages served by AVEC is the confusion about responsibilities borne respectively by the city, its operator and the utility, AVEC. An example is “live” pedestal-mounted transformers observed in villages with covers unsecured and damaged. These conditions pose safety concerns yet in interviews with plant operators little indication of how the problem should be resolved was available. Neither were operators necessarily experienced in high voltage maintenance procedures. 13 Other observations obtained by interviews included: HG On the average, the level of prior experience and training for village operators is extremely limited. One operator reported training of one day by the former employee. In another case, an operator is about to retire but no one is being groomed for replacement. AVEC’s membership guidebook implies that O&M personnel will train operators but little evidence exists that this occurs. Rapport between these individuals is so poor in several villages that practically no communication exists. 2s Village level utility boards are assigned technical duties by AVEC such as monthly inspections of distribution systems without regard to their lack of expertise. AVEC’s Incentive Policy assigns electrical system repair, including line splicing, to the operator (page 6, no. 35 and 36). In neither instance could there be found consistent assurance that local personnel even know of this responsibility or are capable of carrying it out. 3. Appliance losses have occurred due to voltage spikes or drops. Customers generally have no recourse but to accept the loss. 4. Environmental concerns arise with regard to waste lube oil. In the absence of consistent policy for disposal, operators do not know what to do. In one village, waste oil was being dumped in a pit at the beach. Other sites had an accumulation of 55 gallon drums filled with the oil. Common to many of the issues investigated is the confusion as to who is responsible and how a remedy is to be carried out. This problem is particularly true to AVEC’s operation. AVEC’s member guidebook contains the following organizational chart (Table II.4), demonstrating the principle of a utility cooperative being controlled by its membership (the consumer) through elected representation. The delegates are presumably the most powerful voices within the organization because they set policy for the general Manager by way of a seven person elected Board. No connection from the Operations and Maintenance block to the village entity in the organizational chart is a noticeable feature of AVEC’s organization. Similarly, the absence of a direct link between the village plant operator and the utility increases the potential for problems in utility operation. On the village level, operating agreements exist between the city and AVEC which require the city to hire a plant operator, select a three person utility board and oversee the election by co-op members of a delegate to attend the annual Coop meeting and elect AVEC directors. A preventive maintenance plan does not exist as a formal operating procedure between AVEC and the city operators. This fact is a concern of the Alaska Public Utilities Commission, expressed in Docket U-84-64. The following quote tacken from the Docket files reaffirms the concern: “The principle weakness in AVEC’s current operation is the lack of a clear chain of accountability from the village operator and the village utility board back to AVEC manage- ment.... This important point has been previously brought out in the management study of AVEC which was performed in 1977 by Arthur Young & Co.: “It is sensible to encourage maximum employment of persons in the village, but supervision must be qualified and broadly experienced. AVEC must be responsible for this supervision. If a local person is good enough to supervise, AVEC should hire him and assume responsiblity for the work." (December 9, 1985 letter from John Farleigh, APUC, to Lloyd Hodson, AVEC). A caveat to this proposal is the fact that AVEC must meet its obligations to REA to ensure financial solvency. Under existing loan agreements, cities are required to employ the operator themselves to minimize labor costs. An analysis of potential savings arising from better on-site maintenance has not occured to weigh the above alternative. Identifying procedures and respective responsibilities serves as a vehicle to meeting “Standard Utility Practice”. It also represents a needs assessment by defining responsib- ilities relative to existing abilities. 14 Nn TABLE II.4 AVEC ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE CITY COUNCIL PLANT OPERATOR CITY UTILITY BOARD The plant operator is hired | The Utility Board consists of by the City Council. The 3 members who are appointed by City has control of local the City Council. The Board utility employees. regulates plant operation and maintenance and keeps the Headquarters staff informed. VILLAGE MEMBERS ELECT DELEGATE TO ANNUAL MEETING The village meets in December and selects a delegate to attend the annual Co-op meeting in Anchorage in March of each year. ELECT 7 DIRECTORS (2 OR 3 EVERY YEAR) THIS BOARD SETS OPERATION POLICIES ——, H GENERA Member Services IRES L MANAGER Operations Logistics Finance and Control 16 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: x Use the representation provided in the AVEC delegate process to require that city/utility functions are met in a responsible manner, i.e., AVEC delegates should attend the annual AVEC conference with an official city agenda for local improvements. x Require the utility to train plant operators in essen- tial mechanical, electrical and safety components of utility operation. * Operate the utility according to a consistent policy with written obligations and procedures for the utility, city and customer. * Encourage regional development of certification curriculum for electrical trades. Background - Powerhouse and Generation Conditions: All eighteen cities in the Bering Straits region are generating electricity with diesel electric power plants. In the diesel engine operation, air is compressed in a cylinder to a high pressure and temperature above the fuel ignition point. Fuel oil is injected into the compressed air where it burns, converting thermal energy to mechanical energy by way of a piston driven shaft. The shaft, in turn, drives the generator. Diesel-electric generation is one of the more efficient simple cycle conversions of chemical energy (fuel) into electricity, but it comes at a price. Operating life considerations require the burning of only high grade liquid petroleum. Throughout the region, No. 1 fuel oil is used exclusively. Its energy content per gallon, measured in British Thermal Units (BTUs), ranges between 128,000 and 138,000 BTU. The optimum efficiency achieved in this thermal to mechanical conversion is about 31 percent for the high rpm (1800 rpm) machines currently in use throughout Alaska. (Large displacement, 900 rpm machines are reported to approach 38 percent efficiencies but have not penetrated Alaska markets. ) A kilowatt hour (kwh) of electricity contains 3414 BTU. Assuming the fuel used is of the highest grade, at 138,000 BTU/gal., 31 percent operation efficiency produces 42,780 BTU/gal. of energy converted into electricity, or 12.5 kwh/gal. This might represent a near term goal sought by small power plants like those in the Bering Straits region. Objective II.2: Establish a load management program within each city-owned utility and within the AVEC cooperative. Purpose: To determine the best use of available equipment by monitoring and documenting the daily operating characteristics of the power plant. Rationale: Diesel-electric units have variable operating characteristics, subject to daily and seasonal changes in the load, which affect efficiency. Diesel units are preferably base loaded, operating with a fairly constant demand to ensure highest fuel use and longer term operation between overhauls. Table II.5 lists the installed capacity, engine configurations, fuel use and average demand for the majority of the region’s communities. The “average demand” figure is based on annual net generation divided by 8760 hours, or one year. Table II.5 also lists the heat rates achieved by each of reporting utilities. These rates are converted into kwh’s per gallon to simplify comparisons. The importance of the table is twofold: 1) The average demand for the villages is small relative to equipment capacities. Provided equipment and methods exist to match output to load, the potential for an improved operating match is substantial; and 2) the fuel use achieved by power Plants throughout the region varies by nearly 30 percent. Fuel oil has traditionally been the single largest expense in utility operation. The relationship of equipment operation and maintenance to fuel usage is important as a basis of a long term strategy to provide least-cost energy. The low heat rates achieved in communities such as Teller suggests that 20 percent improvement in fuel use is possible. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * In small isolated grids, consumers must bear a greater responsibility not to exceed demand limits recommended by the utility. * Proposed capital projects which will increase electri- cal loads should have an energy use analysis submitted to the utility so that planning is adequate to meet new loads. TABLE II.5 REGIONAL ELECTRIC PROFILE Heat Heat Nameplate Conf ig- Net Gener- Average Peak Fuel Use Rate (b) Rate Utility Location Capacity uration ation (mwh) Demand (kw) MW (1000 Gal) (BTU/KWH) (KWH/Gal) AVEC Elim 231 436 64 od 45 14,362 9.5 AVEC Gambell 460 974 144 2 95 13,552 10.0 AVEC Koyuk 270 430 63 or 45 14,413 9.4 AVEC St. Michael 340 593 87 ol 57 13,339 10.2 AVEC Savoonga 650 1056 155 02 96 12,643 10.8 AVEC Shaktoolik 200 1 105 339 50 el 38 15,705 8.7 2 75 AVEC Shishmaref 600 922 136 a2 94 14,101 9.6 AVEC Stebbins 205 S37, 82 ol 57 14,188 9.6 AVEC Wales Z55 212 3h ol 25 16,184 8.4 NJUB Nome 6968 19870 2930 4.0 1543 10,768 12.6 Teller Power Co. Teller 445 600(E) 88 -6 49 11,234 12.1 UVEC Unalakleet 1860+30(a) 3211 47 «2 228 9,866 13.8 City Golovin 265 D3 5 2 130 City White Mountain N/A City Brevig Mission 355 2 235 1 865 N/A (a) cogenerated (b) at 136,000 BTU/gal. SOURCES: Alaska Electric Power Statistics, 1984 Alaska Power Administration Alaska Energy Plan 1985 Regional Data Summary, Alaska Power Authority Oo B. ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS GOAL: DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. AND SERVICE ENTRIES SHOULD BE BUILT TO ENSURE SAFE, EFFICIENT USE OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY. Background: Three areas of general interest are identified from review of APUC files, village inspections and interviews with APA and AVEC personnel: 1. Service entries and house wiring in many homes does not meet National Electrical Safety Code requirements. These are not utility responsibilities and in some instances, are cause for disconnection by the utility to prevent accidents. Common problems include poor groundings and improper connec- tions to outside equipment. 2a Ground level utilidors are cause for much concern due to their vulnerability to abuse from motorized vehicles. Several villages have recently been converted to overhead 7200 volt primary systems and residents have reported much better utility service. 3. In several instances, utility interconnection with other load centers may be a legitimate option to resolve certain problems caused by the very small loads in isolated diesel systems. Objective II.3: Residential service entrances and wiring should be upgraded to meet NEC and Rural Electrification Administration standards. Purpose: Improved safety. Rationale: In many previous HUD and BIA construction projects, certified electricians were not required to install house wiring. With increased use of electrical appliances, particularly where water and sewer systems are installed, the potential for overloaded circuitry and resultant fires and home damage is increased. These problems may then be unfairly attributed to the utility. In the absence of city enforcement of electrical codes, little more can be expected than to use repair funds to address obvious problems. Practically speaking, the only effective enforcement and repair of problems will likely be achieved through subsequent appropriations to HUD and BIA construction projects. 4 20 POLICY RECOMMENDATION: x Require enforcement of the National Electrical Safety Code in wiring or houses through the use of certified electricians in all federally-funded housing. Objective II.4: Consolidate loads where economically feas- ible to increase efficiency. Purpose: Improve economies of scale. Rationale: Two locally proposed projects have been explored to determine the practicality of load consolidation: 1) the addition of the U.S. Navy surveillance station in Wales to the local power grid, and 2) construction of a tie-line between St. Michael and Stebbins. Both cases require the interest and consent of AVEC which services all three villages. Preliminary consideration of the Navy intertie appears to hold little promise due to the Navy’s need for reliability. AVEC has shown no interest in pursuing this objective. The St. Michael-Stebbins tie-line proposal has been dis- cussed over several years in concert with the desire to have an interconnecting road. An intertie has also been sugges- ted to the Alaska Power Authority and was included in several budget requests for construction. A primitive ground cable was attempted at one time but had no practical operating history due to abuse from off-road vehicles. The primary purpose of interconnection is to increase efficiency by operating a single, larger power plant with the second plant in reserve. Preliminary plans center on St. Michael as the prime power center. The additional load would greatly enhance the economics of waste heat recovery for St. Michael. Waste heat recovery in Stebbins was determined to be uneco- nomical to develop according to a 1984 APA study. Problems associated with the proposal include the need to double the capacity of St. Michael’s largest generator. (AVEC would not agree to run machines in parallel for extended periods of time due to decreased fuel efficiency, the need for expensive synchronizing gear, and additional maintenance. Fuel storage may also be an issue if privately owned tanks in St. Michael were not available for AVEC’s use. POLICY RECOMMENDATION: * A formal request from St. Michael should be made to the Alaska Power Authority to examine the economics of waste heat recovery assuming increased capacity from interconnection of new loads. 21 c. WASTE HEAT RECAPTURE GOAL: INSTALL COGENERATION FACILITIES IN EVERY COMMUNITY WHERE IT IS ECONOMICALLY FEASIBLE. Background: Diesel generator sets operating at near optimum conditions will typically convert fuel oil energy into electricity at a level of 30 percent efficiency. The remaining fuel energy is lost as heat and unspent fuel, exhibiting an energy profile approximately as follows: 20-30% Shaft horsepower (electricity) 24-30% Jacket cooling water (heat) 6- 7% Engine radiation (heat) 6% Unburned fuel The 24% - 30% heat lost to jacket cooling water clearly demonstrates the reason behind heat capture as a means of increasing conversion efficiency of fuel oil to useable power or heat. Recovery of jacket cooling water heat is the most typical waste heat application in Alaskan villages due to its sim- plicity and reliability (Figure II.1). Stack exhaust can be used for heating but requires a higher level of automatic controls, greater operator skill and frequent cleaning. Ecomonic feasibility is subject to the size of the power Plant and respective loads, and to the distance between the plant and the building to be heated. Three hundred feet or less is an accepted distance in village applications. Table II.6 indicates the annual recoverable heat at various diesel unit sizes and generating efficiencies, assuming that only jacket water heat is recovered. For comparison purposes, the recently constructed school in Shaktoolik is known to have a heating load of about 3240 million BTU, per annual average. An example of potential benefits is expected at the Nome- Beltz High School where the Nome Joint Utilities will operate a satellite 500 kw generator. Jacket and stack recovery is expected to increase total fuel efficiency to over 80 percent and provide nearly 100 percent of the school’s heating needs. Technical data collection to assess preliminary design and cost considerations is relatively standard and can be obtained by a qualified engineer in a short time. The Alaska Power Authority is the most logical source of information and assistance in carrying out waste heat eval- uation and design review. Figure II-1 JACKET WATER WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM P =PUMP HE=HEAT EXCHANGER TS=THERMOSTATIC SWITCH FM=FAN MOTOR V =THERMOSTATIC VALVE SOURCE ' ACRES AMERICAN, 1962 R A D I A T 0 R nm tu 23 TABLE II.6 SAMPLE HEAT RECOVERY RATES (In 10° Btu/year at 3 Efficiency Rates) Generator Annual Output (10° Btu) at: Size (KW) KWH 12 KWH/gal 10 KWH/gal 8 KWH/gal 50 175,200 671.6 805.9 1,007.4 75 262, 800 1,007.4 1,208.9 1,511.1 100 350, 400 1,343.2 1,611.8 2,014.8 200 700, 800 2,686.4 3,223.6 4,029.6 Assumes 138,000 Btu/gal fuel, 0.40 load factor. SOURCE: Acres American Reconnaissance Study Generator operating efficiencies also benefit from waste heat projects due to the reduced station load when cooling fans and other regulating equipment are removed. Unala- kleet, for instance, has a combined jacket water/stack recovery system serving the high school, administration building and other public buildings. With good operating practices a fuel use rate of about 14 kWh/gallon as well as substantial heat savings are achieved. Objeotive II.5: Complete a region-wide reconnaissance to evaluate technical and institutional conditions for waste heat recapture. Purpose: 1. To provide a clear understanding of the bene- fits and costs associated with a project. 2. To determine how and who would be responsible for funding, operations and maintenance. Rationale: Waste heat systems already exist in the region but have achieved only marginal success. Their operations have been tarnished by 1) several design flaws including poor material choices in pipe and solder which caused leakage of transport fluids, 2) incomplete identification of maintenance responsiblities by the Alaska Power Authority (designers), the utility, and the public schools who receive the heat, and 3) changes in operation and demand after the system was installed. Reconnaissance investigations for waste heat recapture have occurred for a number of Bering Straits villages and are contained in a report entitled “Rural Energy Construc-tion Program, 1984-1985", produced for the APA. Reviews of APA 24 studies and discussion with their Rural Projects staff permits the following generalizations: Brevig Mission: The existing BSSD power plant has a heat recovery system that functions but could be improved . It is recommended that the school power plant be operated by the city utility. The city-owned module generator could then be used by the BSSD as back up. Diomede: A new power plant with cogeneration is expected in operation by the end of 1986. Elim: A waste heat system which carried nearly 100 percent of the school heat load is currently inoperable due to fluid leaks. Repairs are under negotiation between AVEC and APA. Gambell: A re-evaluation of the new power plant location must occur. If the distance between the powerhouse and school is not too great, the electrical load in Gambell makes the project attractive. Golovin: The APA is currently doing some preliminary design estimates. Inconclusive data as of yet. Koyuk: No reconnaissance work on waste heat performed yet. Nome: Federal Department of Energy funds have been obtained to examine a comprehensive district heating project. A satellite cogenerating plant at the high school is expected to be completed in 1986. Savoonga: Situation similar to Elim. A repair strategy is being negotiated between AVEC and APA. Shaktoolik: Waste heat recovery to supply the city water project is under construction. Shishmaref: Evaluated by APA and determined to be feasible, particularly if built with APA design criteria and forced accounting. Estimated cost $406,000; estimated annual savings $46,479. Stebbins: Determined to be infeasible due to low load and distance between school and powerhouse. It is recommended that Stebbins and St. Michael resume discussions with AVEC and the APA to build an intertie. St. Michael: Evaluated by APA and determined to be feasible, particularly if load was increased through a distribution line to Stebbins. Installation cost (with an intertie) $701,012; estimated annual savings $58,666. Teller: Infeasible due to the use of an existing system supplying private facilities. 25 Unalakleet: Currently contains a comprehensive system with some capacity for expansion. Wales: Evaluated by APA and determined to be feasible for supplying the washeteria and water system, conditional upon the extent of local support in construction. Estimated cost $190,700; estimated annual savings $19,140. White Mountain: The new location of the power plant relative to the school improves the potential feasibility. No reconnaisance work on waste heat performed as yet. The cost estimates included above assume Davis-Bacon labor costs. Even assuming a forced accounting method for installation, capital costs for cogeneration can be significant. However, design life for the projects is twenty years, so accrued savings can result in simple paybacks of seven years in many cases. The APA has funded most previous construction through legislative grants. With decreased revenues, alternative methods are being sought. The most promising is the use of tax free bonds where either municipal or school facilities are the cogeneration partners with the utility. Preliminary discussion with APA personnel indicates that state ownership and lease management is being considered. Schools or cities would be responsible for the bond interest payments and maintenance of the secondary loop in the system. This appears to be a very practical near-term option. Because the BSSD is potentially the largest benefactor from cogeneration, the school board would have to actively involve itself in support of most new construction. AVEC, being the largest utility in the villages, has the highest potential for delivery of waste heat while the schools tend to be the logical recipient. Previous system installations were somewhat on a demonstration basis, paid for by the State and then assigned to AVEC. A concern involving maintenance costs has arisen for AVEC for two reasons: 1) Political pressures have been exerted upon AVEC not to sell the heat but to deliver it free to the schools. This ignores the need for revenue to maintain the system. 2) Even if sales were to occur, AVEC would see little benefit to its revenue because Power Cost Equalization payments may then be reduced on a prorated basis. As a cooperative utility, AVEC has little financial incentive to own or operate cogeneration facilities. This can be remedied partially by having school maintenance personnel attend to the so-called “secondary loop" of a facility (Figure II.1). The utility is then only responsible for the primary loop essential to the cooling of its power plant. The reduced station load is sufficient to pay back the primary loop maintenance cost. The school systems’s benefits would be significant in spite of the ene 26 added responsibilities, assuming equipment is in sound working order upon acceptance. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * Use the technical and financial expertise of the Alaska Power Authority to advance the opportunities for cogeneration. * Encourage the BSSD to involve itself in operation and maintenance of existing systems and to seek funding options for other economically feasible projects. 27 III. SPACE HEATING ISSUES A. RESIDENTIAL HOUSING GOAL: CONSTRUCT NEW HOUSING AND RETROFIT EXISTING HOUSING TO IMPROVE COMFORT AND REDUCE HIGH HEATING COSTS. Background: Approximately 2000 housing units exist in the Bering Straits region. Number one fuel oil is the predominant home heating fuel with about 900,000 gallons per year consumption. Cut wood is used as an alternate fuel in White Mountain and Elim. Driftwood is a primary heating fuel in Shaktoolik and, to a large extent, in Unalakleet. The average number of heating degree days in the region is 14,600 with wind speeds averaging between 8 and 16 mph. In 1984, RurALCAP conducted a survey of energy use among village households, some of which were in the region. Table III.1 indicates some of the survey results. TABLE III.1 Household Fuel Use and Cost Fuel Type Consumption as a Percent Cost as a Percent of Total Fuels Used of Total Fuel Cost R1 Fuel Oil 61% 45.5% Gasoline 30 24.8 Electricity 5 19.8 Propane 3 6.9 Blazo 1 3.0 In general, the majority of rural energy costs are related to home heating. This, combined with the subarctic climate and windy conditions of most coastal villages, is evidence enough for the need to seek efficiency through well- insulated, well-constructed homes. The State of Alaska has been working on the development of “thermal standards" for new construction which take into account the regional differences in heating degree days and fuel costs. Table III.2 demonstrates the variations, in general terms, of insulation levels thought to be necessary in support of the value of energy efficiency. TABLE III.2 Comparative R Values Ceiling Wall Floor Window HUD 500 Project (late 70’s) 27 19 19 2 HUD 400 Project (early 80’s) 38 19 30 2 DCRA Proposed Min. Standards 38 30 43 3 Superinsulation Design 60 40 56 3 The variations in fuel demand resulting from these different design criteria are profound. HUD 500 houses in the Bering Straits region are reported to have fuel consumption rates on the order of 1500 gallons per year. HUD 400 houses have been using fuel at a rate of 800 gallons per year. Superinsulated homes in Nome are reported to consume about 200 gallons of fuel for houses substantially larger than HUD dimensions. Current residential design is inadequate for the colder regions of the state. For example, HUD housing, which constitutes 436 units, or 36 percent of the village housing, is characterized by a single thermal standard, despite the wide differences in climate. Many of the other housing projects, including those of BIA and the Alaska State Housing Authority, are requiring excessively high maintenance as well as energy costs due to inappropriate design for the region (Bering Straits Housing Authority Site Reports). Over the past decade very little emphasis has been given to home heating costs by the State of Alaska energy programs in spite of the high percentage of energy dollars directed toward space heating (House Research Agency Report 83-C). The fact that the region generates very little new housing besides that provided by HUD or BIA is, therefore, cause to examine ways in which these agencies can be influenced to build to extremely high efficiency levels. Objective III.1: All new housing in the region should meet or exceed the proposed DCRA standards. Purpose: To reduce life cycle costs of local housing. Rationale: Using the example of the existing 189 HUD 500 housing units, energy savings on the order of 50 percent could be expected if the proposed state standards were met (Arctic Energy Systems, energy profiles). Conservatively stated, this translates into 150,000 gallons per year in fuel oil to small purchasers or homeowners. Over the past five years since these homes have been occupied, the total dollar savings to the local economy would equal $1.5 million at a constant fuel oil cost of $1.50 per gallon. 29 Savings of this magnitude are potentially available under two equally important scenarios. First, the Bering Straits Housing Authority and the housing program within Kawerak Inc. represent direct opportunities to influence HUD and BIA, respectively. Projections of up to 45 new homes in the region are being made for the 1987 building season. A clear message that superinsulated construction be examined by HUD and BIA is essential as a means of promoting long term self sufficiency versus dependency on the vagaries of fuel oil supply and pricing. A fire insurance rebuild of a St. Michael house has been accomplished using superinsulation techniques: offset double wall construction for increased insulation value, an air-vapor barrier to ensure minimal infiltration rates, an air-to-air heat exchanger to ensure good ventilation, and new polymer type window casings with high R-value glass. Anticipated fuel costs are $360 annually for a 960 square foot house, assuming $1.50 per gallon fuel oil cost. This project should be significant to the region as a demonstration to be used or improved upon. New housing subsequently planned for the region might then be required to contain an “energy detail sheet" in the design specifications for use by the contractor/builder. Second, these same local agencies can influence home retrofits when or if funds are available. The most promising retrofit would occur under terms being negotiated in the class action lawsuit by HUD 500 occupants against the federal government (Ungott v. Hodel, D. Alaska Civ. No:N82- 004). The Bering Straits Regional Strategy has begun to undertake a retrofit design option, with approval from the Bering Straits Housing Autority. Should a cash or repair settlement occur, the Housing Authority will be prepared to offer HUD and home owners blueprints and cost estimates for a superinsulated retrofit. As is the case for new construction, a test case to demonstrate the effectiveness of this strategy is important to widespread acceptance. Additional sources of funding may be sought through the Alaska Department of Health and Social Services to finance a model retrofit. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * Formal adoption of Alaska’s proposed thermal standards for new construction and enforcement to meet or exceed those standards throughout the region. * Advocate the retrofit of existing housing to super- insulated standards, particularly HUD 500 units. B. HOUSING PROGRAMS Background: State weatherization and federally funded energy assistance payments (LIHEA) are provided region-wide. They address problems created by inadequate housing (too little insulation) and the high cost of fuel in relatively poor cash economies. Table III.3 describes the nature and funding sources of the programs currently available. TABLE III.3 HOUSING PROGRAMS Program Description __Administrator ._ General Features Low Income Weatherization Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) Federal Housing Repair Federally funded, State DCRA Admini- stered, w/work performed by federally recognized contractors, i.e., RuralCAP Federally funded, State DHSS Admin- istered. Local tribal non-profits can choose to administer the program Federally funded, locally administered by both the Bering Straits Housing Authority (HUD $) or Kawerak, Inc. (BIA $) Weatherization materials & instal- lation provided to qualified households. Con- tracts are restric- ted by geographic criteria with ex- penditures @ approx $2000 per house. Energy assis- tance monies are provided to quali- fied households through diesel fuel payments to vendors Weatherization funds are also available Home repair and incidental weather- ization through annually appro- priated funds. Restricted to housing constructed under HUD & BIA Since 1980, approximately 246 homes in the Bering Straits region have received weatherization assistance from the State of Alaska valued at approximately $874,379 III. 4). the households in the region. Inc. was the prime contractor, (Table This represents assistance forabout 10 percent of Except in 1985 when Kawerak, all other contracts were performed by firms either from outside the region such as RurALCAP or by a local entity such as the city government. 31 Funding for low-income weatherization is currently derived from federal monies (approx. 90 percent) and state assistance. TABLE III.4 WEATHERIZATION PROJECTS APPROX. NUMBER OF DOLLAR —___LOCATION.___=YEAR __—-HOMES SERVED AMOUNT Diomede 1984 34 $155, 346 Gambell 1986 55 199,173 Golovin 1985 23 75,542 Nome 1984 31 126,329 (King Island) 1985 18 66,025 Savoonga 1985 15 39,600 1986 24 87,600 Teller 1985 21 69,764 Wales 1983 25 ______55, 000 TOTAL 246 $874,379 SOURCE: AK Department of Community and Regional Affairs The Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) provides federal block grants to the Alaska Department of Health and Social Services (DHSS) Division of Public Assistance and to regional tribal non-profit organizations. The purpose of the program is primarily to subsidize the cost of home heating for low income Alaskans. Funding in FY85 was $11.7 million statewide, of which $588,377 was made in transfer payments to the Bering Straits region (Table TIT. 5); 32 TABLE III.5 HOUSING UNITS RECEIVING LIHEA 1984-1985 1984 1985 Community Hones Recipients $ Recipients $ Brevig Mission 41 32 22,025 31 23,401 Diomede 33 (See Nome) Elim 48 34 21,681 36 21,998 Gambell 163 78 59,163 79 69, 798 Golovin 37 (See Nome) Koyuk 48 31 20,573 35 25, 464 Nome* 917 186 104, 536 159 101,932 St. Michael 73 51 36,100 47 33, 826 Savoonga 158 77 59,550 88 78,899 Shaktoolik 56 24 15,549 20 12,304 Shishmaref 94 83 58, 253 83 61,588 Stebbins 82 65 41,314 49 26,981 Teller 63 48 34, 906 39 29,663 ’ Unalakleet 200 82 54, 943 86 64, 000 Wales 54 25 17,350 28 21,600 i White Mtn. 41 31 19,689 33 16,923 TOTALS 2123 851 567,994 813 $588,377 * DHSS combined Nome, Diomede, Golovin, Council & Solomon in data entry. Source: 1986 Alaska Energy Plan Objective III.2: Assume regional responsibility for housing programs to ensure local control and relevance. Purpose: To produce responsible choices that provide a necessary service and jobs to local economics through the exercising of local control. Rationale: LIHEAP provides up to 15 percent of its state block grant to the Department of Community and Regional Affairs for statewide weatherization disbursements. The consequences of this existing funding procedure are twofold: 1) Contracts to perform weatherization are restricted to federally-acknowledged contractors such as RurALCAP, and 2) LIHEA weatherizgation funds are distributed into the state weatherization program without regard to geographic apportionment. In other words, there is no guarantee that the Bering Straits region will receive its geographical proportionate share of LIHEA weatherization funds. An alternative to state management is possible, however. Kawerak, Inc., as a tribal non-profit agency could administer the program for the Bering Straits region under direct contract to the federal government. With Kawerak as administrator, the 15 percent weatherization monies from the 33 state block grant could then be used locally under very liberal guidelines. Assuming that grant conditions remain constant, as much as $92,200 would be available annually to implement projects in the region. Tanana Chiefs Conference has installed high efficiency wood stoves, for example, resulting in 40 percent reductions in wood consumption. Regional administration may present some obstacles but the benefits are significant. Duplication of administrative formats already developed by Tanana Chiefs Conference, the Association of Village Council Presidents (AVCP) and DHSS would simplify matters. Overhead is allowable at 10 percent of the total grant award or about $73,500 based upon current funding. Outreach and bookkeeping could be handled through existing social service and accounting offices. Management could be incorporated into Kawerak’s housing office with assistance from the Bering Straits Housing Authority in implementing projects. At a time when revenue sharing has suffered increasing cutbacks, these funds could prove to be very effective in improving local housing and Kawerak’s scope of services. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * Identify key people in Kawerak who would constitute a study team to examine LIHEA management options and make a recommendation to Kawerak. * Communicate with the state, its weatherization contractors and regional households before weatherization projects occur to influence decisions about how and what work is most appropriate to local interests. Cc. COMMUNITY FACILITIES/PUBLIC BUILDINGS GOAL: PROVIDE FACILITIES WHICH MEET LOCAL NEEDS AT THE LOWEST LIFE CYCLE COST TO THE COMMUNITY. Background: Heating requirements for non-residential buildings in the Bering Straits region, exclusive of Nome, are approximately 740,210 gallons of fuel oil annually. About 474,410 gallons, or 64 percent, is consumed in school facilities and 265,800 gallons, or 36 percent, in public buildings such as city offices, washeterias, clinics, city garages, multi-purpose buildings and commercial enterprises. The cost to the region’s economy is difficult to ascertain because fuel prices vary depending upon whether bulk fuel storage is available to each facility or in a community and whether wholesale fuel purchases are made. The Bering Straits School District made fuel purchases in 1986 at $1.05 per gallon while retail costs have been as high as $2.23. Assuming that many smaller facilities are subject to retail costs for fuel, remarkable dollar savings can be anticipated through improved efficiency and conservation techniques. The energy efficiency of these facilities varies considerably across the region. Variations result from insulation levels, quality of construction, type of mechanical heating and ventilation systems, and building maintenance. In some of the older Public Health Service washeterias, only 2x4 wall studs were employed in construction. This limited insulation levels to Ril in the wall. Ceiling insulation is often only R19 as is the floor. More recent facilities tend to have 2x6 wall studs with R19 insulation and R30 in the roof and perhaps in the floor. Due to the necessity of meeting wind shear stress, auditoriums of BSSD schools are usually 2x10 stud design with approximately R27 insulation. Floors and ceilings are reported to be in the R30 range in newer construction. Wind action has a significant impact upon infiltration rates, and the demand placed upon heating systems. However, the use of exterior ’skins’ such as Tyvek have not been incorporated in recent constuction. Except for the new Wales city office/clinic/post office which incorporates an R60 geodesic dome design, no other facility in the region approximates superinsulation or DRCA standards. Objective III.3: All new sohool and community facility construction shall meet established standards recommended by the State of Alaska. 35 Purpose: 1) To minimize operating expenses and future dependencies on variable fuel costs through building designs which incorporate life cycle cost criteria, and 2) To increase comfort levels through superin- sulated construction. Rationale: As early as 1979, the Alaska legislature recognized the need to establish building standards for new construction to reduce operating costs in arctic conditions. Alaska Statute AS 46.11.0100 requires that all public facilities of the state shall comply with standards developed by DOT/PF. Unfortunately from a conservation standpoint, this law is not applied to other facilities funded by the state but granted to local entities such as cities and schools. The net effect is that many projects funded through legislative grants, Rural Development Assistance and Community Block grants have insulation levels far below those expected in arctic regions. In many cases buildings are approximately the design type found in Seattle. The design life of most buildings is 30 years and in real terms much longer. Although oil prices at the well head are the lowest in over ten years, wholesale fuel prices to the region are still well over $1.00 per gallon. Assuming current cost at $1.25/gallon and the Alaska Power Authority’s fuel cost escalation rate of 3 percent per year (real), a 3000 square foot community building using 2500 gallons of fuel oil annually will require $90,000 (1986 dollars) for its operating life. Reductions on the order of 50 percent are presently available where appropriate construction and maintenance standards are in place. Potential savings represent significant cash payments that are presently circulated only once through local fuel lighterage. Dollars not spent on an import commodity like fuel could otherwise be spent and respent locally, supporting local jobs and creating local multipliers (A. Lovins, 1985). POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * Involve DOT/PF Division of Planning and Programming in design review of school facilities and public buildings for life cycle cost analyses. * Require that architectural designs for small public buildings meet or exceed the thermal standards developed by DCRA. Objective III.4: Prioritize school facilities according to need and perform detailed energy audits to result in energy retrofits. Heating fuel costs for the Bering Straits School District in 1985 were in excess of $570,000. Most of the burden of carrying these costs has fallen upon the state through an allocation formula to meet the needs of rural school districts. As oil revenues fluctuate, the burden of operating costs will likely become a local issue. Several options for reducing operating overhead are available currently or are near term options. The Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs Division of Community Development provides 50 percent matching funds for technical assistance and implementation of energy conservation measures. The Institutional Conservation Program (ICP) is federally funded and has been in existence since 1978. The Bering Straits School District has not participated in the program and there is a general misgiving that requirements are excessive. New procedures have recently been implemented at the state level to streamline application and delivery, and funds are usually available to timely applicants. Involvement of the school board and maintenance staff in developing a program to implement ICP resources is recommended. A popular method of implementing conservation at the individual building level is to allow a percentage of savings to be retained by the schools. A second opportunity for reduced school costs is the use of captured waste heat from local diesel power plants. The Alaska Power Authority bond counsel has been seeking methods for providing tax-free bonds for construction of cogene- rating facilities. An agreement between the APA, the utility and the BSSD would be required to initiate bond sales. As it is presently envisioned, schools would receive the heat at no charge but would be required to maintain the secondary loop of a waste heat system, that is, that portion between the generator heat exchanger and the school. In larger communities such as Gambell and Saint Michael/ Stebbins (assuming an intertie), close to 100 percent of the school’s heat load could be met by waste heat recapture. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * The Bering Straits School District should maintain a management policy of annual involvement in the Institutional Conservation Program as often as the program can meet identified needs. * The BSSD should pursue available means to incorporate cogeneration as replacement for primary heating plants where economically feasible. 37 IV. FUEL COSTS GOAL: DELIVERY OF THE HIGHEST QUALITY OIL AT THE LOWEST COMPETITIVE COST. Background: Among the multitude of energy-related concerns identified in this report, the issues of delivery and retail mark-ups in fuel cost are common to almost every western Alaska community. Taken as a whole, the regional demand for fuel oil is still relatively small and its limited market has not influenced competitive opportunities on either the wholesale or retail levels. Table IV.1 indicates the total estimated volumes of fuel oil used by the region. TABLE IV.1 FUEL USE BY VOLUME Fuel Consumption for Fuel Consumption Electrical Cogeneration for Heating 1,980,000 gal. Villages 1,550,000 gal. 1,700,000 gal. Nome 5,300,000 gal. 3,680,000 gal. TOTALS 6,850,000 gal. Source: Holden & Associates, 1982 Fuel purchase and storage tends to be handled through isolated transactions without benefit of cooperative buying. Local buyers at the community level may include: -AVEC, with utility tank farms in 9 of 14 cities -BSSD, with storage in every village, -City purchases for heating and utility fuel oil, -Village corporation stores, private enterprises and individual purchases. As a consequence, suppliers have delivered fuel oil from a single barge at a variety of in-the-tank costs. The variation in school versus city purchase prices are an example with BSSD paying $1.05 per gallon and the cities $1.25 per gallon in 1986. Retail costs in Nome stand at about $1.39 per gallon for fuel oil bought wholesale at $1.08 per gallon, a 29 percent markup. 1986 village prices demonstrate yet another range: Unalakleet wholesale prices were approximately $1.19 per gallon; retail price was $2.05 for a 72 percent markup. Koyuk received fuel at about $1.24 per gallon; retail was $1.75 for a 41 percent markup. Closer examination of the changes in wholesale, delivered and retail costs over the Past three years are illustrated below. While wholesale cost (FOB Seattle) has decreased 55 percent from $.88 to $.40 per gallon, delivered village costs have decreased only 28 percent and village retail costs have shown only 8% average reduction (Table IV.2). TABLE IV.2 COMPARATIVE FUEL COSTS 1983 VS. 1986 1983 1986 $/gal. % markup $/gal. % markup Refinery .88 - .40 * - Dutch Harbor .97 7 7102 105 (wholesale) Nome 1.41 33 1.08 32 (wholesale) Villages iene 24 1.24 15 (wholesale) Retail 2.20 36 eae 63 Source: House Research Agency * Estimate. Not verified by vendors A House Research Agency report entitled Rural Energy: An Overview of Programs and Policy makes the point that the base cost of energy in rural Alaska is only part of the problem. “The cost of distributing energy and of operating and maintaining energy supply systems; the costs of reserving sufficient capital to cover eventual replacement of production facilities; and administrative costs are every bit as important as the cost of producing the energy”. While it is true that certain high fixed costs will always exist in remote regions of the state, an estimation of numerous variable costs is warranted. Bulk fuel purchases and storage have only recently been introduced region-wide and appear to offer an example of strengthened markets through cooperation. The relative absence of competition in fuel delivery has become common knowledge throughout western coastal Alaska. The current lack of competition would appear to require even larger regional cooperation to effectively consolidate a market which would attract competitive delivery proposals. 39 Objective IV.1: To organize 1987 fuel purchase plans to ensure cooperative buying. Purpose: To reduce local cost of fuel. Rationale: Bulk fuel purchasing already occurs among a limited number of villages through the Alaska Native Industries Cooperative Association (ANICA). About half of the region’s villages participated in the 1986 cooperative purchase through their IRA stores, and prices were $1.08 for landed gasoline ($.17 tax included). Their figures represent savings of $.16 for oil and $.17 for gasoline over costs reported by other independent purchasers. ANICA has full time staff in Seattle to organize, buy and ship fuel. The ANICA fuel coordinator, Ron Corley, has indicated an interest in expanding the scope of service to further improve economies. Coordination with BIA and use of government-owned barge service has proven effective in the past, although they also seek competitive bids from Crowley and Northline Marine. ANICA contends that savings are more likely in competitive fuel buying than in freight. Participation in ANICA’s bulk fuel program requires a deposit equivalent to one annual inventory. Purchase terms vary between cash payment and credit with terms. Insurance costs for fuel and storage tanks is covered by ANICA for participants in their program. A second source of cooperative buying exists through the Bering Straits School District. Their bulk rate was $1.05 delivered in 1986. Delivery occurs in every village in the region to serve the schools. Some benefits such as credit purchases are not available. Prepaid purchases would likely be required, usually resulting in one to two percent discounts in price. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * Coordinate cooperative fuel purchases well in advance of ordering deadlines. x As much as possible, make purchases on a prepaid cash basis to obtain discounts and avoid credit interest rates. Objective IV.2: To report on fuel purchasing and delivery options to develop sources of competitively priced fuels. Purpose: 1) To effectively communicate with other western Alaskan communities dependent on a single fuel supply option. 2) To present a more attractive market to potential fuel wholesalers and shippers. Rationale: The Bering Straits region is not unique in its dependence on the consortium of Pacific Pioneer and Crowley Maritime which provides, exclusively, fuel buying and transport. All western Alaska has been affected by the absence of com-petition for a number of years. Northwest Alaska is affected to a larger extent by shipping distance which accounts for an average price increase of $.24 to $.48 per gallon from Dutch Harbor. Although the current suppliers do constitute a monopoly, the State of Alaska Attorney General has discovered no evidence that it has restricted trade. However, while wholesale prices for fuel have come down about 50 percent since 1983, the delivered price of fuel to the region has declined about 23 percent. Profits notwithstanding, marginal rate in- creases may be due to numerous overhead costs and an element of risk in marketing. Sales volumes must be accurately assessed well in advance of actual sales. A certain degree of speculation is then involved in the number and volume of barge leases. Sources in the business stress that the match of sales to volumes delivered is risky and cause of much uncertainty in calculating profit margins. Village deliveries are lightered directly from the larger barges to eliminate intermediary storage costs. Lighterage costs in Nome will be greatly reduced with the port develop- ment and the ability to offload fuel by pipeline to local storage. In Nome, Arctic Lighterage has its own tank farm and a lease from the Army Corps of Engineers on a second tank farm. They operate in concert with Pacific Pioneer and Crowley in wholesale fuel supply. Future control of fuel storage should be a priority worthy of examination by the proposed Port Authority. The primary benefit of city control of storage for utility fuel needs would be in the opportunity to independently seek supplies from outside of the current consortium. Notwithstanding the fuel options that are available to re- duce marginal delivery costs, rural Alaska will likely con- tinue to depend upon fuel oil as its primary energy source for the next decade. High transportation costs may also be an unavoidable fact. The House Research Agency report quoted earlier continues to state another facet of that reality: “The real challenge facing rural Alaskans is not that of finding cheap energy alternatives, but of finding opportunities to supplement cash income sufficiently to 41 maintain accustomed living standards...(sic)". Although fuel cost delivery options deserve examination, economic development must at least keep pace with cost. If not, the examination of alternatives must then change to meet a more appropriate definition of the problem; namely, to make larger strides in conserving fuel and/or increasing efficiencies in its use. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: x Involvement of the Bering Straits communities, particu- larly Nome, in organizational efforts to explore alternative fuel delivery proposals. * Explore the feasibility of government-controlled fuel storage in Nome administered by the proposed Port Authority. V. ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES Spurred initially by the 1973 oil embargo, but fueled later by increased desire to match energy source and technology to energy demand, interest in alternate energy sources and technologies has grown in the past decade, It is important that Alaskans at all levels of the decision-making process stay aware of the growing diversity of energy options available to meet site specific conditions in different regions and communities. Many new technologies are being developed, perhaps replacing or complementing currently used fossil fuels. The State of Alaska has spent many millions of dollars in past years to inventory and evaluate many of these alternate energy sources and technologies. In preparing this section of the report, we reviewed the information presented by the State and its consultants in order to make recommen-dations specific to the Bering Straits region. Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from this work is that no one energy source or technology is the one answer to a region’s diverse energy needs. In the following review, each technology is addressed separately, but it becomes clear and should not be forgotten that a carefully balanced mix of two or more of these technologies, (i.e., geothermal with the organic rankine cycle engine, or wind with diesel, or conservation and passive solar with diesel heat) may be the most flexible and least costly alternative in the long and/or short term for a community or region. A. COAL Recent investigation of the potential for coal development in the northwest arctic region is encouraging. Studies have con-centrated on the Cape Beaufort area and the Deadfall Syncline area where a combined total of potential re- sources is estimated to be 84 million tons, or a 420 year supply for the region based on mining of 200,000 tons per year. Arctic Slope Consulting Engineers (1984) suggest that coal from these project areas could displace over 50 million gallons of fuel oil currently used for space heating by the year 2008. This would result in substantial cost savings to every community in the region, even if the coal deposits were not fully developed. Additional study of the Western Arctic Coal Development Project is currently being completed. This work should be reviewed carefully by the region, particularly with respect to the issues of fuel delivery, fuel storage and replacement of existing space heating equipment as disussed earlier in this report. 44 POLICY RECOMMENDATION: x Coal development in northwest Alaska has potential as a primary space heating fuel and should be evaluated as mining/transportation options are commercially explored. B. CONSERVATION In recent years, concerns and recommendations dealing with increased energy efficiency and reduced energy costs have addressed the demand side of the issue, that is, if less energy is needed, then new technologies and installa-tions may not be necessary, thus saving overall energy costs. As discussed earlier in this report, there have been and currently are several programs and mechanisms to effect energy conservation in space heating to reduce this demand. The major emphasis of these programs is improved building techniques and higher insulation levels as a means of reduc- ing the heat load of a given building. Other measures such as the use of a fuel oil monitor heater with a high effi- ciency heat exchanger and a blower motor can increase burning efficiencies to 85-95 percent compared with the pot boiler efficiency of 50 percent. With this improved burner, a house that now uses 20 barrels of oil per winter would instead burn 14.5 barrels. Less known, but equally appropriate, are recent technical improvements in lighting and appliances that decrease elec- trical demand significantly. For example, refrigerators and freezers are estimated to consume 50 percent of the total monthly electrical load, or approximately 135 kwh per month in an average AVEC village. Currently available on the market is a refrigerator which uses only 10 percent of the electricity of the leading low-energy use refrigerator. Replacement of an existing unit with this new energy- efficient appliance could save 121 kwh or $196 per year at an assumed $.135/kwh cost of power. Similarly, fluorescent lighting fixtures which use only a fraction of the power of standard incandescent bulbs are commercially available. The original cost of these bulbs is high ($7-$34) but payback periods of two years could be realized at rural power rates. Relamping of an entire village could increase the available capacity of some diesel systems and avoid expensive replacement to satisfy peak power requirements. Gnas wasabi ec in nae we 45 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * Participate in available state and federal housing Programs to decrease space heating loads through increased building thermal efficiency (see Section III). * Use state-of-the-art energy efficient appliances, particularly refrigerators, freezers and lights, when replacing old models. c. FUEL CELLS The fuel cell is a continuously fueled battery which con- verts chemical energy directly into direct current (DC) ele- etricity through a catalyzed chemical reaction. Energy is generated continuously until the fuel and oxidant supply is stopped. Unlike thermal combustion processes which are lim- ited in efficiency by the Carnot cycle, fuel cells have a high overall electrical system efficiency (40%) which is not dependent upon load. With use of the waste heat from the chemical process, efficiencies as high as 80% can be reached. Fuel cells can be constructed in almost any size without significant variation in performance. An additional feature of fuel cells which would be desireable in rural Alaska is that the modular nature of the installation allows easy upgrading of capacity as demand increases. In April, 1983 the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT/PF) completed an analysis of the potential for fuel cell power plants in rural Alaska, concentrating on the state-of-the-art methanol-fueled phos- Phoric acid fuel cell (PAFC). After addressing the safety, operation, reliability, maintenance and cost aspects of the PAFC, DOT/PF concluded that the fuel cell industry was not sufficiently mature to capitalize on the inherent advantages of the technology over diesel-electric systems for rural power applications. Primary disadvantages are: Lis A logical control system or microprocessor is necessary to monitor stack temperature, cell inversion on start-up, and reformer output under varying loads. ie Highly skilled labor is needed for annual stack maintenance. Routine maintenance could be accomplished with low skill labor. 3. The investment cost is slightly more than double that of an equivalently sized diesel plant. 46 4. Assuming diesel fuel costs $2.14/gal and methanol costs $1.47/gal delivered to a village, the PAFC would produce electricity 14% more expensively than diesel at 100% capacity and 15% cheaper than diesel at 30% capacity. Fuel cells are a clean, quiet and highly efficient alterna- tive to diesel power generation with flexibility in design that would suggest successful application for use in rural Alaska. With additional development and maturation in the industry, fuel cells could become a viable source of power either as a replacement or as a complement to diesel generation. POLICY RECOMMENDATION: x As fuel cell technology becomes commercially available, its use in rural communities may become prevalent. No recommendation at this time. D. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Geothermal heat has been studied for Alaska and the Seward Peninsula in particular in the past several years. It can provide thermal or electrical power when adequate temperatures are available. In order for a geothermal source to be viable for development, it must provide the following: Ls A relatively shallow heat source so that drilling and extraction costs are not excessive. ar A fluid to act as the heat transfer medium. 3. Reservoir conditions capable of delivering adequate fluid to the surface. 4, A nearby market for the energy produced so transporta-— tion heat losses are minimized. Eight thermal springs are known to exist in the Bering Straits region, with current use primarily bathing and recreation by local residents and an infrequent tourist. Surface temperatures at these sites are from 17 to 88 degrees Celcius (C) with estimated reservoir temperatures of 63-161 degrees C. At Pilgrim Hot Springs, the most studied of these identified sites, six wells ranging from 60 to 1000 feet were drilled from 1979 to 1982, penetrating a shallow reservoir with temperatures ranging from 90-146 degrees C. In 1982, Economides (1982) suggested that these six wells could produce over 300 gallons of 90 degree C water per minute and that the flow could be greatly increased with pumping. 47 Technology for electrical production from sites with water temperatures below 150 degrees Celsius is still in the developmental stage. Hydrogeothermal energy at these low temperatures is best used for process heat and space heat applications. The studies at Pilgrim Springs and elsewhere in the Seward Peninsula suggest a geological rift system that bodes well for geothermal development of these lower temperature resources. Alaska law treats all geothermal resources below 120 degrees C as water resources, thereby supporting low and/or fixed fuel costs for the energy. Development costs tend to be high due to the typical remoteness and lack of transportation to geothermal sites and because development time is five or more years. POLICY RECOMMENDATION: * Consider known thermal spring sites as locations for economic development where heat applications are desired. E. HEAT PUMPS A heat pump is a device that extracts heat from a relatively cool area, delivering it to a warm area through a phase change medium. The efficiency of a heat pump varies signif- icantly with the outdoor temperature. The heat pump capacity is usually not adequate to meet the heating demand below a “balance point" of 25-35 degrees Farenheit. At this point, auxiliary heat must be supplied also. As a result of this, heat pumps are often sized with a capacity much larger than demand. The initial installation cost of a heat pump system can also be 15-30 percent higher than the installation cost of a conventional heating system. POLICY RECOMMENDATION: * Heat pumps are not a currently recommended energy al- ternative for the region. F. PEAT It has been estimated that there are 27 million acres of potentially fuel grade peat in Alaska. No detailed inventory of peat deposit depth or quality has been compiled for the Bering Straits region. The potential of peat as an alternative source of energy for space heating and/or electrical generation in the region is considered to be very low for several reasons: 1) Raw peat is bulky and heavy, leading to high transportation costs; 2) The region’s high rainfall and lack of solar energy for drying would require 48 costly means of mechanical drying before burning; and 3) Fuel grade peat is an unknown resource due to the lack of inventory in the region. POLICY RECOMMENDATION: x Do not pursue peat development as an energy source at this time. G. SMALL HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS In December, 1979, the U.S. Department of Energy, Alaska Power Administration, published a report entitled "Small Hydroelectric Inventory of Villages Served by Alaska Village Electric Cooperative". Included in the report are discus- sions of hydroelectric potential for Elim, Wales, Koyuk, Shaktoolik and Shishmaref. Elim was the only Bering Straits community offering development possibilities. In May, 1981, the U.S. Corps of Engineers published a subse- quent reconnaissance level report that included sites in Brevig Mission/Teller, Elim, White Mountain, Golovin, Nome and Wales. All of the sites had benefit to cost ratios below 1.0; that is, there was no annual net gain to offset the high capital costs associated with hydroelectric projects. The primary failings of most of the Bering Straits sites include: Le A poor match between the potential output of a hydro- electric facility and the electric demand in the communi- ties. Due to weather conditions and stream flow, the highest demand months and periods of highest potential power are inversely related. Diesel generation would continue to be necessary in mid-winter months. 2. Potential sites would require expensive tie lines to carry electrical energy to the communities. 3. Permafrost conditions throughout the region place extreme design requirements on water impoundment and power houses, thus increasing cost. Subsequent, more detailed analysis was performed in Nome and Elim by the Corps of Engineers and the Alaska Power Autho- rity. The Nome River, Sulphur Creek and David Creek were studied individually and in a combined plan. The generation capacity of the combined sites would be 840 kw; total energy production would be 3.4 million kWH per year. Available power would exist for only 6 to 7 months, however. On September 27, 1984 a Notice of Completion of Negative Feasibility was filed with a recommendation that no further study be continued at this time. Ag The Alaska Power Authority completed its analysis of the Elim site in the spring of 1986 and recently filed a findings and recommendation with its Board of Directors. Hydroelectric development at Elim was determined to be economically infeasibl and no further study was recommended. POLICY RECOMMENDATION: x No further study of microhydro is recommended at this time. Micro-hydro development projects may be warranted for independent power needs but would only be available in summer months. Hq. SOLAR ENERGY Solar energy is used for both electricity production and for space heating. The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy is by means of a solar, or photovoltaic (PY) cell, usually arranged in a cluster called a solar array. The high latitude and frequently cloudy conditions in the Bering Straits region, in addition to seasonal periodicity of sunlight, would require a large capacity of expensive battery storage to back-up the solar array in order to provide continuous or reliable power. This contri- butes to a very high capital cost for PY, with a present solar cell cost of about $10 per watt plus necessary inver- ters, electrical distribution system, support system and storage. A more practical use of solar energy in the Bering Straits region is for space heating. Passive heating systems operate without mechanical devices and take advantage of sun, reflective surfaces and the principle of convection where less dense warm air tends to rise while more dense, cooler air moves downward. In contrast, active solar heating systems need an auxiliary energy source, usually electrical, to operate pumps and fans to circulate air and often a separate heat-absorbing fluid. The high cost of installing and operating an active solar heating system which could carry the total annual heating load of a Bering Straits house is prohibitive due to the large energy storage system needed and the specialized superinsulated construction required. Instead, residents should concentrate on the benefits of passive solar heating in all building construction. Building siting, orientation, shape and relationship to other buildings and natural features are all cost-free factors involved in successful utilization of existing, free thermal energy. Considerations such as the size and orientation of windows and doors and the layout of interior space to enhance capture and storage of solar heat can contribute to making solar energy an important secondary source of thermal heat. 50 POLICY RECOMMENDATION: x Incorporate passive solar principles into all siting and design of buildings. Ts WIND/DIESEL SYSTEMS Among the alternate energy technologies, wind turbine generators (WTG’s) are probably the most advanced in commercial development. Theoretically, their introduction into diesel-based power systems ought to be economically attractive. However, installations in Alaska, Canada and other remote arctic sites have neither demonstrated economic feasibility nor adequately resolved technical concerns for integration of the two systems to produce reliable power. Problems arise from the limitations in maintaining system frequency. Power fluctuations occur because the output of a WTG whose capacity typically exceeds 100 kw varies even for the best available equipment. A paper presented at a 1985 wind/diesel symposium states the problem clearly: "The integration of wind and diesel units into an economical resource mix for small isolated power systems is difficult because the resource with the uncontrolled energy supply (wind) must be used as much as possible and the resource with the controlled energy supply (diesel fuel) as little as possible. Significant economic benefits are unlikely unless the diesel contribution is eliminated or at least partially reduced during periods of high winds"(Hinrichsen, 1985). Standby operation of diesel generators increases fuel consumption and reduces engine life. Complete shutdown is impractical because a decrease in wind speeds would lead to frequency decay and system collapse. Wind power turbines are a success in California because the power output of the WTG’s is only a fraction of the load handled by a complex electrical grid. In Alaskan villages almost the opposite situation exists: the capacity of the best available wind equipment actually exceeds the average energy demand, thereby threatening the synchronous operation of the diesel generator. These problems are recognized as legitimate concerns for a utility. AVEC tariff provisions specifically limit the size of a wind turbine generator to 5 percent of the installed capacity of the largest operating diesel unit. Local examples of partial success do exist as in Wales, where two 2.5 KW machines are metered in the washeteria, providing 100 percent system load at various times. This comes at a price, however, as one of the machines suffered a catastrophic failure when it snapped off the tower due to a brake failure. Wales’ perserverance at maintaining the equipment, as well as the fact that machinery was donated and still represents an experiment, is a tribute to their strong local interest. No economic incentive has been generated in other communities subject to state-supported projects including Unalakleet (30 kw installed), Teller (2.5 kw), and Shishmaref (5 kw).° Very good commercially available WTG’s exist for the isolated homesteads seeking a small power source (less than 10 kw) and battery storage (Marier, 1981). These systems have been integrated with photovoltaic collectors and other means to ensure year-round electrical energy. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: * Until WTG technology and economics improve for rural markets, village scale wind/diesel systems are not recommended. x Small WTG’s for isolated, independent homesteads are technically feasible and may be an option provided suitable wind speeds exist. Anemometry studies are recommended. J. WOOD Wood is currently gathered and used for residential space heating in many of the Bering Strait villages. Residents of White Mountain and Elim are able to cut wood from around their villages; other vilages, particularly those on westward-facing exposed shores, are able to collect driftwood originating in the Yukon River system. A calculation of the thermal energy provided by this wood resource has not been made as such a figure would entail a house by house village inventory of usage. It appears that the present supply is adequate for current uses, and that driftwood can appropriately be called a renewable resource for energy purposes. The burning of this wood, however, creates greater wear on stoves and stovepipes than usual because of the higher temperatures achieved and the corrosive action of salts. POLICY RECOMMENDATION: * Continue current use of wood for residential space heating as displacement for oil and other non-renewable energy sources. Consider wood inappropriate for electrical generation in the region. Paula Anderson Eugene Asiksik Norm Bair Fred Bradley Loretta Bullard Ron Corley Jim Dore Peter Hansen Dan Harrelson Bob Hix Susan Holtzen Don Jackson Phil Kaluga Lyle Larson John Lyons Sue Miller Charles Nelson Steven Olanna Isaac Oxereok Eileen Rehwald Dan Richard Mike Rohn Don Smith Peter Sokolov Arnold Takak Doug Walling Bob Walsh Jeff Weltzin Alan Yost 52 REFERENCES Alaska Village Electric Cooperative Mayor, Shaktoolik DCRA, Anchorage Elim, Regional Strategy Executive Committee Member Kawerak, Inc. ANICA Fuel Coordinator Architect Alaska Power Authority Bering Straits Housing Authority Attorney, City of Nome Attorney, HUD AVEC delegate, Shaktoolik Arctic Energy Systems, Nome City Manager, Nome Alaska Village Electric Cooperative Department of Education, Juneau Kawerak, Inc. Mayor, Brevig Mission AVEC operator, Wales DHSS Energy Assistance Program City Manager, Wales Bering Straits School District DCRA, Nome Alaska Public Utilities Commission AVEC operator, Shaktoolik Pacific Pioneer, Anchorage DCRA, Nome Tanana Chiefs Conference Rural Electrification Administa- tion, Anchorage 53 LITERATURE CITED Acres American, 1982, Reconnaissance Study of Energy Requirements and Alternatives. Alaska Power Authority. Alaska Department of Commerce amd Economic Development. 1985 and 1986. Alaska’s Energy Plan. Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs, Office of Energy Programs. 1986. Energy Conservation Standards for New Residential Buildings. Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. 1983. Fuel Cell Power Plants in Rural Alaska. AK DOT/PF Report No. AK-RD-84-02. Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. 1983. Thermal Standards for Small Rural Schools. Report No. AK-RD-83-04. Alaska Power Authority. 1985. Alaska Electric Power Statistics en % Alaska Village Electric Cooperative Inc. 1983. By-Laws. Arctic Slope Consulting Engineers, 1984. Western Arctic Coal Development Project. Alaska Native Foundation. Bargava, Raj and Associates, 1984. Rural Energy Construction Program, 1984-85. Alaska Power Authority. Davis, Neil, 1984. Energy/Alaska. University of Alaska Press. Economides, M.J., 1982. An Evaluation of the Drilling and Reservoir Engineering Analysis done at Pilgrim Hot Springs. Alaska in the Summer of 1982. Final report submitted to AK DEPD by University of Alaska. Glasstone, S., U.S. Department of Energy, June, 1982. Energy Deskbook. U.S. Department of Commerce National Technical Information Service. Hinrichsen, Eric H. June, 1985. System Issues in Small Power Systems with Wind and Diesel Resources. Power Technologies, Inc. Holden & Associates, 1982. Bering Straits Energy Planning, 3 vol. for Bering Straits School District. House Research Agency, January, 1982. Potential for Local Coal Use in Rural Alaska. House Research Agency Report 81- 2. Alaska State Legislature. House Research Agency, February, 1985. Rural Energy: An Overview of Programs and Policy. House Research Agency Report 85-C. Alaska State Legislature. Lovins, Amory, 1985. Negawatts: A Practical Remedy for Megawatts. Address to National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners. Marier, Donald, 1981. Wind Power for the Homeowner. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. Stefano and Associates, Inc. 1984. Fuel Cell Assessment. Appendix C-2 Draft Bethel Area Power Plan Feasibility Assessment. Prepared for Harza Eng. Co. and the Alaska Power Authority. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1972. Northwest Alaska Economic and Transportation Prospects. ISER, University of Alaska. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Septemeber 22, 1984. Notice of Completion of Negative Feasibility, memorandum. 54