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Understanding Electric Utility Operations 1989
UNDERSTANDING ELECTRIC UTILITY OPERATIONS Cooperative Association Z National Rural Electric UNDERSTANDING ELECTRIC UTILITY OPERATIONS Developed by Robert E. Schiller Cooperative Association Z National Rural Electric Management Services Department 1800 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 Phone (202) 857-9765 © Copyright 1989, NRECA Contents — Page ii Contents ACKMOWICC SEMEN US meeemees | merenescncssecervecezsescerscsossescensuss snsrseseconsvasscoeacsvacarsvarsrecressacsceteststeststsrsrsrsrseTseee Introduction Understanding Electric Utility Operations.............scccssesesccecesesceeeeee vi Section 1 Understanding Electric Utility Operations ...............csessscceceseeseeeeees 1 SS PeCific ODjectives\ tess. cersrsttcsecacecccecsecencoess ll Rural: Electric ODjCCtives iceceseccacsezacececactceteccasessasceece-setstorstiesttacewsesrecteees 2 Electric Energy and Power Supply ........:.cccccsssssssessssessesesceseseeseeseeesesees How the Law Views Electricity — by Roy Palk .. : Important Points to Understand .........c.cssessssseseseseseseseseseseeeeteeeneneneneneees IW ork: Order: PrOoCOd Ul e icsescascocacsecscesscocscesessce secsnosssvecseversssescacesoevereees Specific Objectives .............. Job Orders or Service Orders ... AW Or ks OLd ers seereecereccestacenesssresteaan atts isasemttretisessiesrer creete teeters The Work Has Been Completed — Now What? .. = Documents Used in the Work Order Process .........scscsssssesesseseesesseseeees Work Order Flow Chart .....0....cccccssssssessesceseescscesessesessesececscsscescesesceeeese Terms and Definitions........... Important Points to Understand ..........csseeeseseeeeeeeeee Section 3 Fundamentals of Electricity ........... aeese Specific Objectives ........... What is Electricity? ....... Fundamentals of Electricity ..........ccccesscsssesseseesessescsceseescseeeseeseeateees 33) Electrical Structure of Matter... 34 History of Electric Development .........cceseeeeseeeeeees 36 The Law of Electrical Charges .........cccccccssesseseeseseeees 36 Voltage, Potential or Pressure... 37 Electric Current «..<......0se«se0s0« eet, FROSISCADICO Feces cccesesectececessecreessereassetsessser 38 Discoveries More Directly Related to US .....c.c.ccssssssssssseseseseseseseseseseees 40 Divisions of Electrical System .........ccccsesessssssssssssesesesecesscscscsesessssesees 46 Terms and Definitions.............. 47 Important Points to Understand .......cccccccscsssscscsescseesesesceesecscssesesceeeees 49 Contents — Page iii Contents Section 4 Generation Of Electricity cictcccscsescssesessessesetscssossesecsonsesessasossessosuscteates 50 Specific Objectives The Power Plant.... fe The Basic Cycle ease se a atid casa ae esemtedascausensvauncaucuuessonsesousvasusansessses Example of Seminole Electric Cooperative Power Plant Operations ...........ccccsesesseeeeeseseeseseeeeees 56 Nuclear Power Plantiiccccstcstsctssetdesatetpetetcitsvastatacsssssustessestesescestessecece 58 Alternative Energy SOUrCES 72c.-cc.c....csssscsecssssrsessnsenseacssocsusstoussesnentensns 58 Big Wind Turbines to be Scrapped (from “Wisconsin REC News” — January 1987) oo... ceeeeseeeeeee 59 Generating Power Plants: seas eect ses OD) Buckeye Power — Ohio ... Power Grid or Power Tool ......... a00) Important Points to Understand .......ccsccessessecesseseesesseseesessesesseeesessesees 66 Section 5 Substations ........ccccsssssssssssssssssssescesssssececsseseseeseseasceeeseeesesenenenseenseseees Specific ODJECHVES oasis cesctccseusecessesssessosssecstoceselececuusasts susussssacsapceceats Functions of a Substation «0.0... Substation Components and Their Uses . Substation — High Side... eee a Substation — Low Siders cccsscsssscssesssscessssscsssovsasesesestusstesstssatescasoecasssens Safety Procedures in a’ Substation 5.22..25..<<sccscsecssccscts scons sasosesssssecssosonss How to Recognize Possible Problems in a Substation . Important Points to Understand 4 ..2.:2.:.cssccssessesesenseasesostenasssnsesecssseeesenss Section 6 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground ........... 85 Specific Objectives ea encennanreeeasea Types of Construction — Distribution System ou... eeseeeeeeseeeeeeeee 85 Materials Used in Overhead Construction With Curent PriceipemU Mitr weitere Utility Poles Pole Brand, Pole Gain and Drilling Specifications... Dee a eee en CS eee se ee ee ed teases uetsaaatoeetan Examplejof Costs of Creosote Poles i.e oar gta Pole Settin g.oiieae seis csssssscccesntssstcsucnsensveas» Types of Conductors: Primary (Non-Insulated).........cccceseees PLCSR CONGUCIOIS Se cctccccc tec ces cece eee Copperweld Copper Conductors Voltage Drop Hactors see ar ee a eee ge ne eee Clearance of Overhead Conductors .......ceeseseeseeesesseseseseseeteeeeeeeeeeees Contents — Page iv Contents a Overhead: ‘Costiof. a Mileof Lime citceccecesecsesesssesscssscssssstececsaseseeaesssess 106 Major Equipment Used in Overhead Construction .107 Underground Conductor ecccccssecscssstsevsesessseessesessee ess reli) Underground Distribution for Mobile Park or Subdivision . .114 Underground: Cost of a Mile of Line... cesceseeseeeseeseeeeceeeeeees 116 Mermsjand Dehimitions seccrecccecceceseseececeseceececeseesttecsrerenceestmeerteeeeeaee 117 Important Points to Understand: Overhead Construction cteeccccccsecsessraseccesctecccencasescseasnsacecseecsessescees 118 Underground ‘Construction ....5.......2....ccseceascecussossarecssosesasecstorecterss 119 Section 7 Maintenance Programs for the Total System........ssssssssssssssssesere 121 Specific ODjeCtives rerccccceresrecsserasccsstecscesereteseseanstatent trae treetereente eee 121 Distribution Toines -sceccsscecssseccsccececssvecavecsacussascssctscssasscusssuasesstectessoecsess 122 Pole Inspections ...... , Anspection Schedules icscerssccsaecessesssessescnexesseaszssesrssseceesecnececencssterneeetess 122 MMSPECtION! PTOCECUTES \erccecscczesesscscececensescrececsecarentsestssecenseseseueteneresetees 123 Line Equipment Maintenance Schedule 123 PCB Inspections ..........ccccssesesscseseeeeeee “123 OilMest ieeseccersess .124 Meter, Testin giisccccccscecssscseccecserescccecstesaceasacsasesscnezesescssesavectensuctersoereeete 124 Substation Maintenance Schedules ...........ceceeseseseseteteeseeeseeeeaeseeeeeeeeee 125 Right-of-Way Maintenance......... elZs O&M Survey ..eecccccccsesesesetstseseteeeeseseseeseseseseeecseseseaeseseeeeseseeacseees 129 Important Points to Understand .........csssssssssssssesesesesesseeseseeeeeseaeecneees 132 Section 8 Special Equipment ...............00006 Beatuateneaneatesase easeas esenonuceseusvovesscevessess 133 Section One: Distribution Transformers ..........cccccseseseeseseseseseeseeeeees 134 Specific Objectives oo... ccecccsseseseeeeeeeseeeeceseseseeseeeseseeeeseseeeeseeeee Terms and Definitions... : Distribution Transformers ..........cccscsscesesseseeseseseceeeseeeeseeaceeeeseeeees 136 Pole Distribution Transformers ..........:.ssseseseseseeeeseseeeeseseeeeeeeeeeeees 138 Section Two: Other Special Equipment.......... 143 Section Three: Meters and Meter Applications . 147 Specific Objectives oo... ccceeseeseeeeeeeeeeee .147 Terms and Definitions .............csesceeesesesseceseseeeeeeecseseeaeseeeeceesaeaes 148 Metering Equipment 00.0.0... cesesesesecscsesesceseseseseseesescseeaeseseceeeseaes 149 Methods to Steal Electricity by Altering the Meter 157 Warning Used on Meters ..........sceseseseeeeeees : Important Points to Understand .0.......c.ccssssseseseseseseceseseseseseseseeees 159 Acknowledgements — Page V Acknowledgements Acknowledgement of Authorship and Contributions NRECA’s Management Services Department acknowledges the role of Robert E. Schiller, Senior Management Consultant NRECA, in the design, writing and development of this course. Robert Schiller would like to express his appreciation to the following individuals and coop- eratives for their assistance in the development and writing of this course: Fundamentals of Electricity: Development of Videos: Photographs and Information: Operational Slides: Editor: Steve Metheney, Delta Montrose Electric, Colorado Texas Electric Cooperative Association Guadalupe Valley Electric Cooperative, Texas Brian Newton, General Manager, North Central Public Power District Alice Leinbach, NRECA/AHP Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page vi Introductions Understanding Electric Utility Operations Understanding the electric utility operations and how the total system operates is essential for all individuals working in the electric utility industry. This course is designed to allow a participant to have a better understanding of the total electric utility system and an apprecia- tion for the need to have a unified effort from the beginning planning stages, to generation, transmission and distribution of electricity to our members. The course will demonstrate that directors, employees and management must work together as a team, either directly or indirectly, to provide dependable electric service to the membership at the lowest possible cost. This course is designed to give the participant the basic information concerning electric utility operations so they can better understand the cooperation and commitment required by everyone in providing dependable electric service. Participants should leave this course with a basic understanding of the following subjects: 1. Understanding Electric Utility Operations. The participant should have an understanding of the utility planning process, trends within the industry and laws that affect the operations of the utility. 2. Work Order Procedure. The participant will be introduced to the basics of work order procedure and the relationships be- tween inside and outside employees in order to accomplish requirenents of internal record keeping and the construction work pian. 3. Fundamentals of Electricity. The participant will be exposed to the fundamentals of electricity; including basic electric theory, historical development of the industry, terms associated with basic electricity and identification of the divisions of an electri- cal system. 4. Generation of Electricity. The participant will discuss the generation of electricity, identify the basic cycle for electric generation in a power plant and examine how an interconnected power grid system operates. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page vii Introduction 5. 8. Substations. The participant will be introduced to the functions of a substation and the major equipment utilized in its opera- tions. Utility Construction — Overhead and Underground. The partici- pant should have an understanding of overhead and under- ground construction and operating methods. The cost of differ- ent types of equipment and hardware will be discussed. Maintenance Programs for the Total System. The participant should have an understanding of the importance of all mainte- nance programs as well as methods for establishing and main- taining routine maintenance procedures. Special Equipment. The participant should have an operational understanding of meters, transformers and other special equip- ment used on the distribution system. Participants will be introduced to the difference between inventory of materials (account 154) and capitalized items and their effect on the Op- erating Statement and Balance Sheet. The course will include seven videos, slide presentations of special equipment, overhead and underground construction and self examina- tions after each chapter in the text. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 1 Understanding Electric Utility Operations After completion of this chapter, the participant should have an understanding of the utility planning process, trends within the industry and laws that affect the operations of the utility. Specific After completion of this chapter, the participant should be able to: Objectives 1. Understand: a. Long-Range System Plan (LRSP) b. Power Requirements Study (PRS) c. Long-Range Financial Forecast (LRFF) d. Two-Year Construction Work Plan (CWP) e. Annual construction and operating budgets. 2. Understand the need for organization to establish a mission state- ment along with its key performance areas. 3. Understand the concept of “Instant Energy” and how the total utility system must work together. 4. Discuss “How the Law Views Electricity.” Understanding The board of directors or trustees is responsible for setting policy Electric Utility for the utility; including final approval of the Long-Range System Plan Operati ons (LRSP) and the Two-Year Construction Work Plan (CWP). System planning is the careful analysis and evaluation of an electric power system; the consideration of alternative methods of meeting the electric power needs of the consumers; and the selection of the most promising alternatives for providing reliable, environmentally accept- able service at a reasonable cost — a responsibility of management and employees. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 2 In order to accomplish the board’s, management’s and employees’ responsibilities, each organization first must establish its Mission Statement. The mission statement will contain several key perform- ance areas. In this text we will deal with one: Electric Energy and Power Supply. Rural Electric Objectives Rural electric cooperatives, electric membership corporations or public power districts can express their systems’ viewpoints through the vigorous and dynamic pursuit of the following objectives. Electric Energy and Power Supply (Key Performance Area) Rural electric cooperatives must provide area coverage electric service at the lowest possible cost consistent with sound business principles. They must anticipate the expanding energy requirements of their member-consumers in every respect and should achieve the highest standards of quality and continuity employing modern technology. Suggested activities supporting the key performance area: 1. Rural electric cooperatives should develop equitable rate schedules and apply them uniformly. Rates and service charges should provide sufficient margins to cover expenses, return requirements and accomplish long-range financial goals. 2. Rural electric cooperatives should undertake technical research and development to improve electric service. 3. Rural electric cooperatives should anticipate rural energy needs and make adequate provisions for meeting these needs. Several different elements are used in the comprehensive system planning process. These include the long-range plan, econometric studies, the power requirements study, the two-year work plan and the annual work plan. By examining each of these separately we can determine what each of them is, what it does and how it contributes to the overall planning process. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 3 First, the Long-Range System Plan (LRSP) defines long-term trends in a picture of the system as a whole. It gives a direction to go if the current major facilities are not able to handle the load and what to replace them with. Extending out over a twenty- to twenty-five year period, a system’s major components — transmission, substations, major primary feeders — are evaluated in identifiable segments. This evaluation, based on projected load growth, is done from two vantage points; an engineering assessment as to what is needed to best serve the load; and from an economic standpoint to assess which engineering alternative will deliver adequate and reliable service on a cost-effective basis. The engineering assessment also uses what is called single-contingency planning — that is planning that will allow the cooperative to continue to serve if it loses any single major compo- nent in the system. There are transitions or steps built into the long-range system plan based on projected loads coming on the system, and these steps are referenced to years. The basic role of the long-range plan is to give a baseline to measure other planning steps by, and to make planning judgments based on that measurement. Driving the long-range plan and the other planning steps is the Power Requirements Study (PRS). This study, projected over a ten- year period, predicts load growth based on both historical trends and economic data. Cooperative consumers are divided into rate classes for the power requirements study: residential, residential seasonal, small commercial, large commercial and irrigation. Each of these classes offers different load and economic growth characteristics, and each is studied separately, then integrated into the overall study find- ings. Both the numbers of consumers and the numbers of kilowatt- hours are analyzed to determine demand in kilowatts. The power requirements study is related only to load and the growth of that load; not the cooperative’s financial condition. Financial data is dealt with in the Long-Range Financial Forecast (LRFF). This forecast, also made for a ten-year period, presents an accounting of both the major investments the cooperative must make and an estimate of the revenues from kilowatt-hour sales expected during that same time period. In this way, projections of expenses and revenues are balanced against one another. A finite and concrete unit of the system planning process is the Two-Year Construction Work Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 4 Plan (CWP), which by current REA convention covers a two-year time span. In preparing the construction work plan, every element in the entire primary system is evaluated in detail — transmission, substa- tions and distribution lines. These facilities are evaluated on two criteria: 1. Adequacy of service, meaning that voltage needed by con- sumers at all points in the system meets voltage parameters set by the National Electric Safety Code and followed by REA; and 2. Reliability, which measures both numbers of outages in a given year, and the duration of outages. Based on these two criteria, remedies are designed and evaluated on the basis of economic justification. The recommendations in the construction work plan are checked against those in the long-range plan, and an assessment can be made as to how well that yardstick is measuring the development of the cooperative. The two-year construction work plan, along with the data for the first two years of the long-range financial forecast, become the basis for a loan application to achieve the cooperative’s service goals. The two-year construction work plan actually contains two annual construc- tion work plans. Decisions made in developing these are the basis for the cooperative’s detailed budgeting, manpower, purchasing, sched- uling and other planning steps. The shorter the available construc- tion time period, the more critical the annual construction work plan is. In producing the annual plan, projects are first prioritized from an engineering standpoint. A problem will be assessed on the basis of its impact on consumers. A major variation in voltage, though it only affects a few consumers, might get a higher priority than a minor variation in voltage that affects many more consumers, because of the potential liability that the major voltage variation would incur. Once priorities have been established, a second major consideration is the economics of alternative engineering solutions to problems of similar priority. For instance, should the cooperative build a distribution line to a small subdivision with potential for growth, knowing that upgrades will be needed every few years and defer major transmission and substation expense; or go ahead and incur the up-front costs for trans- mission? Which approach is the more cost-effective in the long term? Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 5 NSS es ESS Something else that can have a dramatic impact on system planning and the system’s need to respond to growth is the concept of load management. More and more cooperatives are seeing this as a way of deferring capital-intensive system additions, and of managing whole- sale power costs. Demand-side strategies, including control devices on water heaters and air conditioners, dual-fuel heating, peak alert announcements and incentive rates, are used to reduce system peak demand, as well as to build load in off-peak time. Power supply, the other key element you should look for in the planning process, is the instant energy aspect. That means that all the power a system needs, now and 20 or 30 years from now, must be generated, transmitted and distributed at the exact instant it’s required. That also means the whole system has to be capable of meeting the greatest need, the system peak demand, at any given time. First of all, electricity is generated to meet demand at the time the demand is made. There is no way, with current technology, to store electricity. Generating plants can be used to serve either the base load or the peak load. Base load refers to running the plant at nearly full capacity all the time to meet the bulk of the normal need during the year. Plants used for base load are those that produce electricity as inexpensively as possible, and that generally means those that use the least expensive fuel. Other plants are used to meet peak demand, or the times when demand from the consumer is at its highest and exceeds the capacity of the base load plants. Plants used for peaking are usually those that use more expensive fuels, which depends on the current market conditions. The choice of which plant to use for which part of the load is made based on the economics of each plant available in a system. A system called economic dispatching is used to make the least expensive power available at any given time. Generating plants take a long time to build. With all the planning data to be gathered, fuel supply decisions to be made and environmental regulations to be met, it takes six to eight years to construct an average coal-fired station. About twenty percent more time has been added to construction time, and twenty-five percent more to the cost, because of the need to meet environmental regulations. Fuel used to make steam is a major factor in the decision-making process. Over the life of the plant, the fuel the plant consumes can cost up to three times the initial cost of the physical plant. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 6 Understanding some of the basic terminology concerning power supply billing to your distribution cooperative will also be important in your planning process: Coincident Demand — Coincident demand refers to the maximum demand which occurs at a specific time. It may represent a distri- bution system’s demand at the time of its power supplier’s peak or an individual consumer’s demand at the time of his respective substation peak. Non-Coincident Demand — Non-coincident demand refers to the maximum demand which occurred within‘a certain time interval (15, 30 or 60 minutes) during a billing period such as a month, season or year. Non-coincidental demand measures each delivery and/or consumers with demand meters based on their individual contribution to the maximum demand. Demand Ratchet — When a demand ratchet is applied, the current month’s demand is compared with the previous 11 months’ demand and, if a specified percentage of each of the 11 months or seasonal peak exceeds the present month’s demand, the highest figure is used. Any figure can be used as the percentage such as 60 percent, 75 percent or 100 percent. By using a demand ratchet, a strong price signal is given to encourage demand reduction at the critical times on the electric system. Coupled with the proper load man- agement program, a demand ratchet can provide an effective means to limit capacity requirements as well as an incentive to use power in the off-peak months. One additional key to the planning process is the number of consumers on each mile of line to pay for all the investments. Each investor-owned utility averages 30 to 35 consumers for every mile of line, while municipal systems average as many as 65 consumers per mile. Electric cooperatives, on the other hand, will have an average of six consumers for the same mile of line. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 7 How the Law Views Electricity (excerpts from an article written by Roy Palk, Assistant General Manager, NRECA) An introduction cannot be complete without a brief review of legal viewpoints about electric service. Historically, the courts have viewed electricity as a dangerous instrumentality, a product which may be, and has been considered, extremely dangerous if not properly distrib- uted or if proper care and maintenance has not been utilized in that distribution. See, e.g., the case of Pierce v. United States, 142 F. Supp. 721, affirmed in the case of United States v. Pierce and 235 F. 2nd 466. Another case has considered that the suppliers of electricity are to exercise the highest degree of care. Phelps v. Magnovox Co. of Tennessee, 497 S.W. 2d 898. Further consideration reveals that the supplier of electricity generally is not responsible for dangerous condi- tions on the customer’s line unless that danger is known or a supplier assumes the responsibility for the customer’s lines. Fowler v. Tennes- see Valley Authority, 208 F. Supp. 828, aff'd. 321 F. 2d. In addition, the courts have considered that electric distributors, although required to use the highest degree of care to protect persons, are not insurers of those persons’ safety. City of Chattanooga v. Shack- leford, 298 S.W. 2D 743, 41 TENN. APP. 734. There are numerous references in electric codes which the distribu- tor should be familiar with. There are five basic codes. The most commonly referred to is the National Electric Code. The Code is published by the National Fire Protection Association and is usually adopted by reference by the state legislature. The scope of the National Electrical Code generally covers residential wiring and commercial and industrial wiring of 600 volts or less. This specifically, therefore, excludes facilities of electric utilities as found within the code. Another code which courts use to determine if managers and sys- tems are in compliance (and which may be helpful in defense of claims against the utility) is the the National Standards Institute which specifically includes electricity facilities. Reference to the inclusion is found in the abstract of the 1984 Edition. The Code covers overhead lines and equipment in Part II; Underground Installations in Part III; Work Rules and Required Training for Utility Employees in Part IV; and a section on definitions and special terms of the code. A third Code which may be used by courts regarding any claims is your State Electric Code. A fourth code used by courts regarding claims is the Occupational Safety and Health Act, or OSHA. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 8 There may be other codes which are applicable to claims against utilities, with which the utility may be required to comply. And com- pliance may be examined in light of potential liability. The codes’ applicability stems from any construction methods which are parts of financing agreements, such as those agreements between cooperatives and the Rural Electrification Administration and any REA equivalen- cies, which may become requirements for a municipal electric system. There are several sources of electrical terms which managers, employees and attorneys defending a claim for the utility may use to familiarize themselves. They include: the previously mentioned code book sections; the Electrical Meterman’s Handbook, 6th edition, published by the Edison Electric Institute; the Handbook for Electric Metering, 8th edition, also published by the Edison Electrical Institute; the IEEE Standard of Electric and Electronic Terms; the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission’s Glossary of Electronic Terms; and the Electrical Engineer’s Handbook. There are other texts available at regional technical libraries, such as the engineering library at a local college. Materials, devices and appliances, which must be accepted by the electrical inspector, should be stamped by an approved inspection agency, such as Underwriter’s Laboratory or an equivalent. Further, the utility is allowed to adopt local standards which are superior to the code, but not inferior if the utility chooses to adopt any local standards, i.e. discontinue service when a defective or unlawful condition has been found. 1 Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 9 gE QUE: To OE EEE OO ————— Important Points Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used to Understand one time. . Power Requirements Study (PRS) 11. Base Load Plant 2. Long-Range System Plan(LRSP) 12. Peak Load Plant » — SCMNAHAW Two-Year Construction Work 13. Load Management Plan (CWP) 14. Instant Energy Long-Range Financial Forecast 15. Coincidental Peak (LRFF) 16. Non-Conincidental Peak Annual Operating Budget 17. Mission Statement Rate Classes 18. Board of Directors System Peak Demand 19. Economic Dispatching Demand Ratchet 20. Electricity National Electric Code 21. REA National Standards Institute . A long-range system plan that can span 20-25 years encom- passing the total operating plant. . Predicts load growth based on both historical trends and economic data. . Power plants used for peaking that usually require more expensive fuels, used when demand from consumers exceeds amount of energy that can be produced by base load plant. . Power plants that produce electricity as inexpensively as possible. . Work plan that uses the first two years of a financial fore- cast. Work plan becomes basis for loan application and actually contains two annual construction work plans. Forecast that presents accounting of major investments and an estimate of revenues, equity, capital credit rotation and TIER. . Work plan priced out for next operating period. . Consumers are divided into these based on their load charac- teristics. Method used to control demand of energy in order to favora- bly effect wholesale and retail rates. Highest demand (KW) your system has placed on its power supplier. k. o's Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 10 Amount of dollars your system will pay to the power sup- plier based on your system’s contribution to the peak. It varies with each system from 100 percent to a portion of the peak of record or the current month’s peak demand. To have electricity available when needed. Statement that identifies your system’s intention of operating performance. : Group responsible for setting policies. Dangerous instrumentality as historically viewed by the courts. Code that covers residential wiring of 600 volts or less. Code that covers overhead line and equipment of 600 volts or higher. Highest demand of a system calculated by summing the demand of all metering points. Highest demand on a metering point during the billing period. Used to make the least expensive power available at any given time. Electric cooperatives must follow engineering and construc- tion designs as established by this entity. Work Order Procedure — Page 11 Work Order Procedure After completion of this chapter, participants should have a general understanding of the work order procedure and areas affected both from an accounting and operational standpoint. All participants should have an understanding of the work order procedure because it is from the completion of work orders that many of the activities of the coop- erative are dependent, including requisitioning of loan funds from REA or supplemental lenders. Specific Objectives Job Orders or Service Orders Work Orders After completion of this chapter, the participant should be able to: 1. Understand the purpose of work orders. 2. Understand what happens after the work order is completed. 3. Recognize examples of work orders, staking sheets and REA forms used in the work order process. 4. Understand the terms associated with work order procedures. Job orders or service orders are not the same thing as work orders. Job orders or service orders are usually given to service person- nel to repair a line, reclear right-of-way or connect or disconnect a serv- ice. The cost to perform these activities is expensed to the current month’s operating statement, thereby reducing the margins based on the cost of labor, materials, transportation and certain overhead charges. Work orders are independent capitalized projects of the coopera- tive. Work orders can be for new construction, system improvements, ordinary replacements, services to new homes or businesses, along with capitalized special equipment that includes the purchase price, transpor- tation charges and labor for first-time installation. Each work order is assigned its own identification number by the Engineering or Opera- Work Order Procedure — Page 12 The Work Has Been Completed — Now What? tions Department. This number is then used by all employees working on the work order to keep track of their time for payroll purposes. On any given work order you may find time charged to it by management, engineers, right-of-way crews, construction crews and even office personnel. The work order number is also used in keeping track of the progress of the work order. Many cooperatives have a totally compu- terized work order procedure so at any point in time it is easy to tell at what stage of completion the work is compared to plans. This com- parison is called project management. In addition to keeping track of time worked on the work order, the number is used to charge all inven- tory and equipment to the project. The work order number is an impor- tant tracking tool for management, finance and consumers. It is important to understand that proper work order procedures will result in good inventory control, plant accounting records (CPRs), cash flow and requisitioning of loan funds. Once the construction crew finishes the project, Engineering or Accounting (depending on the size of the organization) will summarize the costs, make sure the inventory was accounted for properly, close the work order and update the cooperative’s continuing property records (CPRs). Then on a monthly, quarterly or an appropriate basis, a professional electrical engineer will inspect the construction accord- ing to REA specifications, noting any changes that must be made in order to comply with construction standards. The professional electri- cal engineer can be an employee of the cooperative (not the general manager), or an outside consultant. This is the time when the REA Form 219 (Inventory of Work Orders) is completed and sent to REA. At this point, the cooperative is not requisitioning loan funds, only asking REA to approve completed work orders against the current two- year construction work plan. If the cooperative wants to requisition loan funds after REA approves the work orders, then the cooperative will submit the REA Form 595. This document is used to report cu- mulative amounts of loan funds approved for advance, advanced and expended, and to request advance of additional funds. Within a matter of days, REA or the supplemental lender will wire-transfer the money to your construction fund trustee account who in turn will transfer the money to the general funds accounts where it will be used by the cooperative to pay bills and invest. The transfer of these funds requires the signature of a board officer and someone approved by the coopera- Work Order Procedure — Page 13 | tive. Two additional REA forms are used in the work order procedure. REA Form 740C is a part of the loan application. It is an itemized list of the planned construction projects and associated costs for which the cooperative is requesting loan funds. After a loan is approved, the cooperative issues work orders and begins work on the projects. REA’s approval comes via REA Form 605. This form delineates which projects may be used to request loan funds, as needed. The cooperative then requisitions loan funds. Work order accounting is a standardized procedure and frequently audited by REA auditors. The work order procedure will affect loans, cost of operations, depreciation, interest, total utility plant and equity of the system. Staking sheets, time sheets and bills of material may vary from one cooperative to another. However, their design must allow the accumu- lation of data in order to maintain proper control and records for the cooperative and REA. Documents Used Staking Sheet in the Work Order Materials Requisition Process Salvaged Materials Return Time Sheet REA Form(s): 219 595 605 740C Work Order Procedure — Page 14 JOB ORDER O DISCONNECTS O METER CHANGE ELECTRIC METER - SECURITY O RECONNECTS O isc. aie LIGHT ORDER OO NEW SERVICE O SECURITY LIGHT SERVICEMAN) -oscececaco-cesoaccoeconsoneoon3¥ 80h Sesteeensamassecesaq~ R/D Ckd. Cycle Acct. DATE ISSUED. 19. No. No. | L 1 [eee] NAME |. =! | I | I I | [ere Fame | \ al i | | | | | T 20 | | | | i! | | | lI —l— | i | j=l | sh | | | I | I | | = {ee | I | — | a=) _— Ee | ed I | | (ee I iit SUCCESSOR TO. PHONE: REASON FOR DISCONTINUING SERVICE OR METER CHANGE. MEMBERSHIP NO. AMOUNT $ ADVANCE PAYMENT NO. AMOUNT $ TO SERVICEMAN DATE WORK ORDER TAKEN BY. TO BE DONE COMPLETED BY. DATE 19. IDENTIFICATION NO. SCHOOL EFFECTIVE BILLING DATE. CO. CODE TAX Credit Class Sales Tax Electric Three Code OCs eee Exempt ——____Heat —~ Phase Coop Mailing Trailer Pole List Section |1_1__|__ Transformer No.|___]__»_J__ Contributions Paid O 0, ———— Breaker L_L_t_1_i_i_l_1i_f Barn Pump Oilwell Other METER READER’S BOOK TEMP. POLE CO-OP NO. MULTIPLY BY ... MAKERS NO. Yes, No. MINIMUM BILL Yes. No. METER READING .... DEMAND READING ... AMOUNT. SECURITY LIGHT O NEW - CONNECT O TRANSFER DISCONNECT O NEW - CONNECT - SECURITY LIGHT ONLY O TRANSFER RECONNECT O RECONNECT O DISCONNECT REMARKS: WORK ORDER NO.____ee sO Contract Has Been Signed O Serviceman - obtain signature on contract attached Effective Billing Date. NUMBER TYPE KWH AMOUNT ADD. REMOVE. FINAL ADDRESS JOB ORDER NO. SARC RSE WORK ORDER NO. 200 LOCATION === RETIREMENT W.O. NO. _200X Twe_l26__ RG._ 28 _ SEc.15_ SHEET NO. _! _ OF | MAP DETAIL NO._246 ——=—«S8tem Designation LINE LEAD SUBDIVISION INDIAN Hits STAKED BY CSB _ DATE _7-30-72 _ BLOCK _ 162 LOT CHECKED BY M.C.H. DATE _8-10-72 _ PRIMARY CABLE SIZE_*2 KIND #2 AL 7 —— ee y_ s Secondary Run T Pp Sec. 1 or Pri R/W Trans- Sect. Ped- | ; Joint ‘Secon- Ped- Ser. Size (bock) | Clear- | Line former Assem. | Grnd. | esto! | c| Misc. with dory estol| Ser. Cable of Run ing Angle UG UM3 UM2-II| UK e| Units Primary Only UK Run Size Meter Remarks | + + + + 375 UG7-15 ! I 86 |2/0 a1 | 15A | Bailey | 120 [4/0 ai | 30a | Perkins 52 [arc il L | | 262 25 | L | 318 65 [oT xe al 126 |2/0 al [15a Bovet 140 [2/0 al | 158 | Lorkin 4/0 Al UK6 4/0 Al ~ | 80 [4 ai | 30a | Mc Donoid 168 |2/0 al | 15a Elmer-Rood crossing 30° long 174 pe Al 15 A Newland - ditto | CABLE No OF LINE CABLE SIZE FT. CABLES FT. AND TYPE PRIMARY 1223 \ 1223. No2 AL SECONDARY 420 - 3 140 40 Al JOINT SECONDARY 648 3 _o0 wea SERVICE 2084 3 694 2/0 AL 600 3 2 4/0_ AL GL e6eg — einpad0id 18PIO YOM Work Order Procedure — Page 16 MATERIAL REQUISITION Sea ELECTRIC COOPERATIVE Requisition Number Work Order Number Title Location Code vistributor Number _ Na DESCRIPTION Quantity ag DESCRIPTION Quantity mat DESCRIPTION Quantity 0030] Poles —25ft (0925 | Straps, Cross Arms 2440_| Wire, No. 6A CPR Weld (0040_| Poles — 30. 0955 | Pole Gains - Grid 2525 | Wire, No. 2 ACSR (0050_| Poles — 35 ft (0960_| Adapter — Insulator 2527 _| Wire, No. 4ACSA (0060_| Poles — 40 f. 1000 _|_Insulators - WirehoWer 2530 | Wire, No. 1/0 ACSR (0070 | Poles — 45 ft 7010] Insulator - Spool, Smal | 537 | Wire, No_2/0 ACSR (0080 | Poles—50ft 1030 [Insulator — Spool, Large 2543_| Wire, No. 4/0 ACSR (0090_| Poles — 55 ft. 1040 | Insulator— Pin Type 2547 | Wire, No. 266.8 MCM ACSA (0100 | Poles — 60ft 1110 |_Ins. Suspension, 6° 2550_| Wire, No. 336.4 MCM ACSR 0110 | Poles — 65 ft 1115 | Post insulator 2555 | Wire, No. 336.4 MCM AAC. 0210] Botts — Carriage 1120 | Post insulator, Hor 2580_| Wire, No. 795 MCM AL. (0230_| Botts — Clevis 1130 | Extension Link 2630 re, No. 6 Duplex (0250_| Bolts —D.A_12 in. 1310 | Ano. - Exp. 135 Sq In Wire, No. 4 Triplex 0252] Bolts —D.A_14in 1315 | Ano. — Exp. 200 Sa. In Wire, No.2 Triplex (0254 | Boks —D.A. 16in. 71320 2670 | Wire, No.1/0 Triplex (0256 | Bolts —D.A_18 in. 1340 x10" 2685 | Wire, No. 4/0 Triplex (0258 | Bolts —D.A_20 in 1350_| Ano. Rd. 6/8 x7 2690_| 336.4 Triplex WP AL_ 0260 | Botts —D.A_22'in 7355_| Ano, Rd. a/4x 8 2700 | Wire, No. 1/0 QDRpIx (0262 | Botts —D.A_24.in 1360_| Ano. Shakle 2705 | Wire, No. 4/0 QDApIx (0264 | Botts —D.A_26in 1410 | Guy Wire 76 2710 | Wire, No. 336.4 ODApIx (0266 | Bolts —D.A_28.in, 141 Wire 376" EHS 750_| Wire, Scra (0268 | Botts — D.A_29 in. 1440_| Guy Cl. 3bor 2884 | 2/0 Triplex URD 10270] Bolts —D.A_32in 1445 | Guy Cl. Bonding Sgie 2885_| Wire, No. 4/0 Triplex URD (0310 | Botts - Eye 56 x & 7450 Ci Bonding Dbis. 2910 | Cable — 15KU Pri, URD 1/0 AL 0315] Bots — Eye 5/8x10™ 1455 | Guy Cl. Bonding Rock '3000_| Connectors, No. 6 CU Bolts — Eye 5/8 x 12™ 1460] Guy Hooks "3001 | Connectors No. 4 CU. 1465 ‘Att. Clamp 6004 "2002 | Connectors, No.2 CU. 1480 | Guy Guard | 3003 |" Connectors, No. 1/0 CU. 1540 | Guy Plato "3004 | Connectors, No. 20 CU 1700] Transformer Mount-Cluster inectors, No. 3/0 CU. 1720 | Platiorm, Aluminum "3006 | Connectors, No. 4/0 CU. 1730 | Ground Rods 3008 | Connectors, No. 250 MCM UG. (0354 | Bolts — Mach. 1/2 x10" 1735 | Transtormer, Adapter, Pl '3010 | Connectors, No. 500 MCM UC. (0355 | Botts — Mach. 1/2 x 12" 1736 | Transformer, Lead Brit 3012 | Connectors. Lg. CU (0356 | Botts — Mach. 5/8 x 6" 1790_| Clevis, Ai 3014 nnectors, CU, Bottons (0357 | Bots — Mach, 5/8 x 8° 1800 | Clevis, SVC. JO-75 ‘3024 | Connectors, AL. CU. Parallel (0358 | Botts — Mach. 5/8 x 10" 7805 | Clevis. SVC. Swinging 3026 | Conn. AL. CU. over Armor (0359 | Botts — Mach, 5/8 x1 1810 'SVC.DE. nn Al (0360_| Botts - Mach, 5/8 x 14" 1815 | Clevis, SVC JO-311 "3030 | Conn, AL. CU. Spit bolt (0361_| Botts — Mach. 5/8 x 16" 1820 | Clovis, Rigid '3042_| Conn. AL_AL. Parallel (0362 | Bolts — Mach. 5/8 x 18° 1 ; 3043 | Conn_AL AL. over Armor (0363 Bots — Mach. 5/8 x 20" 1835 _| DE. Cla Co. Str 3044 | Connectors, AL. AL. (0364_| Botts — Mach. 5/8 x 22" 7940_|_D.E. Clamp, no.4-2/0 ACSA ‘3046 | Conn. - Sec. AL.-412 0365 | Botts — Mach, 5/8 x 2 1945 | D.E. Clamp 4/0-266.8 ACSA 3150 nn. Linkits (0420_| Botts, Single Up Set 8" 1950_|_D.E. Clamp 336.4 ACSR '3580_| Tie Wire - AL. (0425 | Bolts, Single Up Set 10" 7955_|_D.E. Clamp 795 MCM-AL_ 3600 | Tape - AL (0430 | Botts, Single Up Set 12° 7960 | Clamps, Angle Su 3705 | Sleeves, ALS-4/0 (0435 | Botts, Double Up Set 8° 1965 | Post Insulator Clamp 3715 | Sleeves, AL. Large (0440_| Botts, Double Up Set 10" 7980] Wedge Cla 3725 | Sleeves, Copper Bolts, Double Up Set 12" 2000] Clamp, Hot Line CU_Al '3730 | Sleeves, CU. Auto (0550 [[-2005[~Ciamp, Hot Line CU.-AL, '3980_| Sec. Covers URD Washers, Round 2010] Clamp, Hot Line CU. 3990_| Conn. Sec. URD Washers, Square 2012 | Clamp, Hot Line AL. 4200 door Terminator Washers, Curved 2015] Clamp, Hot Line, AL, Li 4205 | Load Break Elbow Nuts, Oval Eye 2020] Clamp, Gr. Rod 4210 | Stess Cones 0650 Nuts, MF 1/2" 2100 Wire, No. 6 Bare CU.-S_D. 4220 Permi Splice (0655_| Nuts, MF5/8" 2110 | Wire, No.6 Bare CU-H.O. 4250_| Polypads URD (0660_|_Nuts, Tmble Eye 2120] Wire, No. 4 Bare CU-H.O. 4255 | Condut 1/2 (0690 _| 3-5/8 x 4.5/8 x 8' Crossarms 2130 | Wire, No.2 Bare CU-H.D. 4260 | Conduit - 4 (0700_| Cross Arms, 4.1/4 x 5-3/4 x8" 2131_| Wire, No.2 Bare Str. 4265 | Conduit 2" 0710] Cross Arms, 3-1/4 x 4.3/4 x 8" 2133 _| Wire, No.2- 3 Std. 8 OU 4270_| Conduit 2-1/2 [T0720 Cross Arms, 3-1/2x 4-1/2 x8" 2140] Wire, No. 1/08. CU.W-H.0., Str 4275 | Conduit 3-1/2" (0725 | Cross Arms, 3-4/4 x 5-4/4 x10" 2150 | Wire, No 2/08. CU.M-HO., Str 4280 | Condut Elbows > 0730] Cross Arms, 3-1/4 x 4-4/4 x10" 2160] Wire, No. 4/0B. CU._M-HD., Str 4285 | Conduit Elbows 2-1/2 0760_| Timber 2° x 8x13" 170 | Wire, No. 350 MCMB. CU 4290 | Condutt Elbows 3-1/2" 0765_| Timber =x 6=x14" 2180 | Wire, No. 500 MCMB. CU. 5015 | Ling. Arresters 10 KV (0810 | Braces, 28" Wood 2305 | Wire, No. 6 WP CU. 5040 | Ling. Arrester Sec. (0820_| Braces, Alley Arm 2310 | Wire, No.4 WP CU. 5060 | Dis. & Arr. Comb. (0830 | Braces, 60" Wood. 2330_| Wire, No.2 WP CU. 5120_| Disconnect 15 KV (0835 | Braces, Vertical 2340 | Wire, No. 1/0 WP CU. 5125 | Disconnect 15 KV WAB (0880_| C-5-A Pole Bracket 350_| Wire, No. 2/0 WP CU. 5210 | Disenct, - Blade 200 AMP (0895 | Pole Top Bracket 2355 | Wire, No_a/0 WP CU 5215_| Disonct. - Blade 400 AMP (0900_| Pins - Pole Top 2360_| Wire, No 4/0 WP CU 5225 | Dis.- Re ss 400 AMP. (0905_| Pins = 1-1/2" 2365 | Wire, No_250 MCM WP CU 5310 | Swohs, - Air Brk 400 AMP. 0910 | Pins — Steel Wide Base 2366 | Wire, No_500 MCM WP CU. 5315 _| Swchs.- Air Brk 600 AMP (0915 | Pins — Stell Bolt Shank “11-2370 | "Wire, No_ 350 MCM WP CU. 6100] Lum. Fix MV 175 WIPC. 0920_| Pins — Strap _ 2430 | Wire, No. 4 CPR Weld 6101_| Lum. Fix MV 175 W/0 PG. 6120_| Lum. Fix MV 400 W/PC. 6125 _| Lum. Fix MV 400 W/O PG. Work Order Procedure — Page 17 Distributor Number ELECTRIC COOPERATIVE cm SALVAGED MATERIALS RETURNED TO STORES Work Order Number Material Recd. By Title Location Code Return to Stores No. tem | DESCRIPTION Quantity} 18 | DESCRIPTION Quantity |] "°" | DESCRIPTION Quantity Tce, 364 Poles & Hardware T110 | Ins. Suspension, © 3006 | Connectors, No. 40 CU 0030_| Poles - 25 ft 1130 sion Link 3008 | Connectors. No_250 MCM UC. (0040 | Poles —30ft 13 Rock T 3012 | Connectors, Lg. CU. 50_| Poles = 35 ft 1340 | Ano_Rg_ Tpl Eye x10" 3014 18. CU, Bottons (0060_| Poles = 40 1350_| Ano. Rd.5/8x7" 3024 | Connectors. AL. CU, Parallel (0070~| Poles = 45 ft 1355 | Ano. Rd. 3/4x8" 3026 | Conn, AL. CU. over Armor 0210 | Bots - Carriage 1360_| Ane. Shakle 3028 | Connectors, AL CU. 0230 | Bots — Clevis 1440 | Guy Cl. 3 bor 3030 | Conn. AL, CU. Spiit bot 0250_| Bots=D.A_12 in. 1445] Guy Cl. Bonding Sgle 3042 | Conn AL_AL. Parallel 2052 | Botts = D.A_14 in. 1450 | Guy Cl Bonding Dbis. 3043] Conn AL-AL over Armor 0254 | Botts = D.A_16in. 1455] Guy Cl Bonding Rock 3044] Connectors, AL. AL Lg. 0256] Bots D.A_18 in. 1460|_Guy Hooks 3046] Conn, - Sec. AL.-412 0258] Bots —D.A_20 in 1465] Guy Att. Clamp 6004 3150 Conn. = Linkits 0260 Bots D.A_22 in, 1480 | Guy Guard ‘Aco. 365 Services 0262 | Bots-D.A_24 in 1540_| Guy Plate 7980 | Wedge Cla (0264 | Botts —D.A_26 in. 1700 | Transformer Mount-Cluster 2630 | Wire, No. 6 Duplex 0266 _| Bots = D.A 28 in. 1720 form, Aluminum Wire, No_4 Triplex 02 =D.A 29 1n. 17 Wire, No-2 Triplex 0270 =DA 32in 1735 | Transform 7 PL 2670 | Wire. No 1/0 Triplex 0310 Eye 56 x8" 1736 | Transformer, 2685 | Wire, No. 4/0 Triplex 15] Bohs — Eye 5/8 x 10" 17 is, Angle 700 | Wire, No_ 1/0 GDRplex Its — x12" 1 .E. Clamp Cu. Wire, Ser (0345_| Botts - Tmble, Eye 578 x8" 1835 | D.E Clamp, Lg. Gu. Str 1800] Clevis, SVC_JO-75 0346] Bots — Tmble, Eye 5/6 x 10° 1940 [D.€ Clamp. no 4-2/0 ACSA 1805 | Clevis, SVC_ Swing 0347 | Bots - Tmble, Eye 5/8. x 12 1945 |D.E Clamp 4/0-266.8 ACSA 1810] Clevis, SVC_DE. 0350_| Botts Mach. 1/2 x1-172" 1950 | D.€- Clamp 396.4 ACSR 1815] Clevis, SVC_JO-311 0351_| Botts = Mach. 1/2 x6" 1955] D.€- Clamp 795 MCM-AL. 1820] Clevis, Rigid 0352] Botts=Mach.1/2x7" 1960 | Cla le Susp. ‘Ace, 373.6 Rural Ligh 0353 | Bolts = Mach 1/2 x8" 2000 | Clamp, Hot Line CU.-AL 0030] Poles = 25 tt (0354 | Botts - Mach. 1/2 x10" 2005 | Clamp. HotLine CU.-AL. (0040 | Poles - 30ft 0355] Bolts = Mach. 1/2.x12" 2010] Clamp, HotLine CU. 0050 | Poles 35 ft (0356 | Botts Mach. 5/6 x6" 2012_| Clamp, Hot Line AL. (0060 | Poles — 40ft 0357 Botts - Mach 5/6x8" 2015 | Clamp, Hot Line, AL. 2630_| Wire, No. 6 Duplex (0358 | Bolts = Mach 5/8 x10" 2020_| Clamp. Gr. Rod 6100 | Lum. Fix MV 175 WIPO. (0359_| Bots - Mach. 5/8 x12" ‘Acc, 265 Ds_& Arr 6101 | Lum_Fix MV 175 WO PG. =Mach.5/8 x14" 5015 _| Ling. Arresters 10 KV 6120 | Lum. Fix MV 400 WRC, (0361_| Bots - Mach. 5/8.x16" 740_| Ling. Arrester Sec, 6125 | Lum. Fix MV 400 W/0 PC. (0362 | Bots - Mach. 5/6. x18" 5060] Dis. & Arr. Com ‘Acc, 373 Street Lights 3 ts — Mach, 5/8 x 20 is_& Art Comb WILB Poles = 25 ft (0364 | Bots = Mach. 5/8 x 22 1 isconnect 15 KV. (0040 | Poles = 30 0365 | Botts - Mach. 5/8 x24" 5125 | Disconnect 15 KV WB (0050_| Poles — 35 ft. 0420 | Botts, Single Up Set 8° 5210] Disonct. - Blade 200 AMP. 0060] Poles = 40 ft 0425 | Botts, Single Up Set 10" 5215 | Disenct.- Blade 400 AMP. 6100] Lum. Fix MV 175 WIPC, 0430 | Botts. Single Up Set 12" 5220_| Dis. - Blade 400 AMP. WB 6101] Lum. Fix MV.175 W/O PC. (0435 | Botts- Double Up Set &* 5225 | Dis. Reg. Bypass 400 AMP. 6120] Lum. Fix MV 400 WIPC. (0440 | Bots. Double Up Set 10" Ace. 365 Conductors 6125 | Lum. Fix MV 400 W/0 PC. (0445 | Bots, Double Up Set 12° 2110] Wire, No. 6 Bare CU-HD. 2630_| Wire, No. 6 Duplex 0550] Screw, Laq. 2120_| Wire, No. 4 Bare CU.-HD. 2527 | Wire, No.4 ACSR (0600_| Washers, Round 2130] Wire, No-2 Bare CU.-HO. (0605 | Washers, Square 2133] Wire, No-2-3 Std BCU. (0610 | Washers Curved 2140] Wire, No-1/0B. CU. M-H.0., St (0640 | Nuts, Oval 150_| Wire, No. 2/08 CU_M-HD.. Str (0660_| Nuts. Thimble Eye 160 | Wire, No. 4B CUM-HD..Sir 0700] Gross Arms, 4.3/4 x5-38x8" 170_| Wire, No_350 MCM B.C 0710 | Gross Arms, 3-9/4 x 4-3/4 x8" 180 | Wire, No. 500 MCMB 07; ross Ams. 3-1/2 4-1/2 x8" Wire, No_6 WP CU. 7 4-9/4 x5-44x10 2310] Wire, No.4 WP CU. 0730 | Gross Arms, 3-9/4 x 4-3/8 x10" 2330 | Wire, No.2 WP CU. 0740 | Cross Arms, Stoo! & 2340] Wire, No. 1/0 WP CU 0760 | Timber 2x8" x13 2350 | Wire. No. 2/0 WP CU. 0765] Timber 4x6"x14 2955 _| Wire, No. 3/0 WP CU. 0810 | Braces, 28° Wood 2360] Wire, No. 4/0 WP CU. (0830 _| Braces, 60° Wood 2365] Wire, No. 250 MCM WP.CU 0900 | Pins - Pole T 2370] Wire No. 350 MCMWP-CU 0905 | Pins — 1-172" 2430_| Wire, No. 4 CPR Weld 0310 | Pins — Steel Wide Base 2440_| Wire, No. 6A CPR Weld 0815 | Pins — Stell Bolt Shank 2525] Wire, No.2 ACSR (0920_| Pins — Strap 2527 | Wire, No.4 ACSA. 0925 _| Swaps, Cross Ams 2530 | Wire, No_10 ACSA Pi 2537_| Wire, No.2/0 ACSR (0955 | Pole Gains — Grd 43_| Wire. No. 4/0 ACSR (0960 (er Insulator ni No.6 CU. 1000] Insulators — Wireholder 3001 | Connectors, No.4 CU. 1010_| Insulator — Small 3002_| Connectors, No. 2. CU. 1030] Insulator = Spool, Lai 3003 | Connectors, No_1/0 CU 1040] Insulator=Pin 7 3004] Con No_20 CU. 3005, Connectors, No. 3/0 CU. DAILY WORK REPORT Work Order Procedure — Page 18 Workmen Description of Work f/1 ae Overhead Line Expenses 583 ue L Meter Expenses at Consumer Installation Expenses 587 | Maintenance of Overhead Lines 593 | MAINTENANCE OF UNDERGROUND LINES 594 | Meter Reading Expenses Consumer Records and Collection Expenses Administrative and General Salaries So Construction Work Orders 107.2| (For! (List work orders by m rand | Retirement Work Orders oa mee d_labpr) (List work orders + oi r_and|show ect pa Ht L Reparted by Approved by Totals lalaleletal Work Order Procedure — Page 19 | or we oy APPRo numa ° auvocer AU MO. 40-81313.5 INVENTORY OF WORK ORDERS v InvEnTORY sumetR I MOmTs ENDING TO: US DEPARTWENT OF AGRICULTURE REA WASHINGTON 25 0.C [3 SYSTEM OESIGwaTiOn ImsTRUCTIONS: Prepare 2copies of this form. Poreard 1 copy 2 wet Or owen TTT to Rural Electrification Adsinistration, Washington 25. D.C. Por detailed ins.ructions see REA Bulletin 184-2. woRK orocr | | GROSS FUNOS REQUIRED OEOUCTIONS fessenillliisio> | SALVAGE RELATING TO LOAN FUNOS: ] ser | cost fer ions sussect com | serine. !TEM | oe | leonsraucrron | TO ADVANCE sftve: | EU TIM | consrmieron | Sl | | 100 1 | 837.10 | 100.00 737.10 150 | 150n | 1 | 25,375.08 | 2,125.65 | 5,352.25 | 22,148.48 200 | 200x | 1 | 15,325.16 | | 8,275.22 7,049.9 300x 1 | | 565.10 | 35x | 2 | | 1,250.00 K 1,815.10) | | Figures shown hereon illustrate the procedure described in the text immediately preceding this form. Work Order 100 relates to new construction Work Order 150 relates to system improvements. ~_—- Work Order 200 relates to ordinary replacements. | | | | | al aN | | } Retirement work orders without replacement should be listed in a group —~T following all others. Work Orders 300x and 315x are in this latter category. AI] | The total of column 8 my be inserted in column 10 as a single deduction, in preference to including in the latter column each individual salvage item relating to retirements without replacement. a TN | Toran | 43,537-9¢ [2,125.65] 8,275.22 | 5,352.25 | 1,815.10] 100.00 | 28,120.42 SUMMARY BY BUDGET ITEMS BORROWER CERTIFICATION Tew AMOUNT We cortsty that the costs of construction shown are the ectusl co. end are reflected im the gon- eral accounting records We further cert thet funda requested haw 1 $28,120.42 dim accordence e1th the pu eof the loan. the p: of the loan contra 2 gage ond REA Bulletins relative to the advance of funds fe. border purposes are Si GRATURE (Wanager) ny Date SiGwatume (Board Approval) J ENGINEER CERTIFICATION “L hereby certify that sufficient inspection has been made of the construction reported by this inventory to give me reasonable assurance that the construction complies with applicuble specifications and standards and mects appropriate code requirements as to strength and safety. This certificatum is in accordance with accept- Wore $26,120.42 _| able engineering practice. Inspection Performed By Firm Signature of Licensed Engineer ~ "Date License Number Work Order Procedure — Page 20 Usoa- FINANCIAL REQUIREMENT & EXPENDITURE STATEMENT FORM APPROVED OM® NO. 40-RO168 1, CORROWER OEBONATION INSTRUCTIONS - Sabet original and iwe copies Inctrections see reverse side of Sheet 4 and REA Rul. 261. Date RECEIVED TOTAL CONSOLIDATE RY BUDGET PURPOSES TOTAL ADVANCE | EXPENDITURES ‘LOAN suDGET ADVANCE TO DATE. @ ic) wo ao @ a Te c AQUUST EO (REA wee only) cere ADJUSTED (REA wee only) GENERATION ADJUSTED (REA use only) 4 NEADQUARTERS PACILITIC! AQIUSTEO (REA wee only) Acquisitions 8 AQJUSTEO (REA use only) 6 Loman ADJUSTED (REA wee only) ‘eLOsno euoseT ADJUSTED (REA use only) Under Step Order or Conditions! Agreements, Exelusive of Com eurrent Loan Stenderd Conditional Agreement AOUsTEO (REA woe only) TOTALS paneresioe reo Berount Uribe Order or Conditional TRAN@MIeHON | CENERATION Dis TRIBUTION STATUS OF CONCURRENT LOANS —_____-_,___ UNDER WHICH THIS REQUEST IS MADE: a REA - OTHER TOTAL (REA & other) LOANEO FOR FACILITIES STANDARD CON: ADVANCED To DATE Tow aL a CERTIFICATION Balance in “‘Cash~Construction Fund--Trustee’’ account (total of column 6) at the close of the period covered by this report is 8. Subject to approval of REA, the corporation requests thet total of column 7 be advanced under the loan contract. | certify that this amount is required for the purposes designated in accordance with provisions of said loan contract, and that proceeds will be deposited in the ‘Cash— Construction Fund--Trustee’ eccount of the bank which is member of the FDIC and will be disbursed only as herein specified in accordance with the provisions of said contract, | further certify that Thave chacked the cash balance shown on this statement in column 6 with the books ond records of the corporation and said balances ore true and correct ond expenditures reported in column S were used for the purposes and in the mounts authorized by the loan contract and previ- ously approved Financial Requirement ond Expenditure Statement. With respect to concurrent loon funds included in this requisition, if any, the total amount of funds edvonced to dete under this designated concurrent loan is as shown above and this request is now made to —__y_,_______ tn accordance with the established procedure for requisitioning and advancing funds under concurrent loans. All loan contract conditions concerning edvance of funds under concurrent loans have been met. ‘Name and Address of Borrower Signstene Tale ~ Authorised Corporate Officer or Manager A USE ONLY APPROVAL OF PAYMENT UNDER LOAN CONTRACT A a ME OMBLTIONAL PPROPRIATION SYMBOL, INSURANCE VERIFIED 1 certify thes the borrower has complied with all the provisions of the Loon Concract therein required to be performed in order to obtain the payment approved! ender this request: that oll certificates, statements, and documents: and the obligations required from the borrower in connection herewith by the provisions Of said Lown Contract have been received, examined, and found to be satisfec- tory; and peymant (s approved in the total edjasted amount shown ia column 7. DATE ~ SOMATURE RECORD OF PAYMENT Work Order Procedure — Page 21 This information is required by REA (7 USC 901 et seq), is used to summarize the types and costs of facilities to be financed by REA, andis not confidential. Form Approved ord No. 0572-0032 COST ESTIMATES AND LOAN BUDGET 0930 86 BORROWER AND LOAN DESIGNATION FOR ELECTRIC BORROWERS To: U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, REA Washington, D. C. 20250 COST ESTIMATES AS OF: (Month, Year) SECTION A COST ESTIMATES LOAN PERIOD: BORROWER'S: =a a. New Line: (Excluding Tie-Lines) USDA-REA 1 Subtotal. ....... c. Conversion and Line Changes ine Desionati Subtotal . . ae vue ree es . New Substations, Switching Stations, Meterting Points, etc Station Designation AVA REA FORM 740c REV 8-83 PAGE 1 OF 4 PAGES Work Order Procedure — Page 22 (COST ESTIMATE AND LOAN BUDGET FOR ELECTRIC BORROWERS BORROWER AND LOAN DESIGNATION BORROWER'S SECTION A COST ESTIMATES (cont.) COST ESTIMATES REA USE ONLY ©. Substation, Switching Station, Metering Point Changes Station Designation Description of Changes REA FORM 740c_ REV 8-83 PAGE 2 OF 4 PAGES f, Miscellaneous Distribution Equipment (1) Transformers and Meters Construction Transformers. Meters Underground Overhead (2) Sets of Service Wire to Increase Capacity. (3) Sectionalizing Equipment (4) Regulators (5) Capacitors (6) Ordinary Replacements ” (8) (9) (10) SUNN 0. conver rncccncceserercesrcoesunersess g. Other Distribution tems (1) Engineering Fees (2) Security Lights (3) (4) 2. TRANSMISSION a. New Line Work Order Procedure — Page 23 ‘COST ESTIMATE AND LOAN BUDGET FOR ELECTRIC BORROWERS [PORROWER ANDLOAN DESIGNATION = AND LOAN DESIGNATION SECTION COST ESTATES (cmt ere, b. New Substations, Switching Station, etc. Station Designation Line and Station Changes Line/Station Designation d. Other Transmission tems (1) RAW Procurement (2) Engineering Fees (3) 4) 6) (6) TOTAL TRANSMISSION 3. GENERATION (Including Step-up Station at Plant) a. FueL__________ Nameplate Rating b. TOTAL GENERATION 4. HEADQUARTERS FACILITIES a. New or additional facilities (Attach REA Form 740g)- b. TOTAL HEADQUARTERS FACILITIES . REA FORM 740c REV 8-83 PAGE 3 OF 4 PAGES Work Order Procedure — Page 24 |COST ESTIMATES AND LOAN BUDGET FOR ELECTRIC BORROWERS: | ROWER AND LOAN DESIGNATION SECTION A. COST ESTIMATES (cont.) eontexruunies | neauseomy | ——— 5. ACQUISITIONS TOTAL ACQUISITIONS TOTAL ALL OTHER.......... SECTION B. SUMMARY OF AMOUNTS AND SOURCES OF FINANCING GRAND TOTAL - ALL COSTS FUNDS AND MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR FACILITIES a Loan Funds ove b. Materials and Special Equipment ¢. General Funds d. Total Available Funds and Materials .............. NEW FINANCING REQUESTED FOR FACILITIES REA LOAN REQUESTED FOR FACILITIES ..... TOTAL SUPPLEMENTAL LOAN REQUESTED ... ‘Name of Supplemental Lender 6. CAPITAL TERM CERTIFICATE PURCHASES (CFC Loan only) 7. SUPPLEMENTAL LOAN REQUESTED FOR FACILITIES . 8. 100% SUPPLEMENTAL LOANS _ (See REA Bulletin 20-14, Att. C)* * Identity in Section A by budget purpose and separate subtotals. SECTION C. CERTIFICATION We, the undersigned, certity that: 1. Upon completion of the electrical facilities contained herein and any others uncompleted at this time but for which financing is available, the system will be capable of adequately and dependably serving the projected load for the Joan period as contained in our current REA approved Power Requirement Study and Construction Work Plan. Negotiations have been or will be initiated with our power supplier, where necessary, to obtain new delivery points and/or additional capacity at existing ones to adequately supply the projected load upon which this oae application is based. The data contained herein and all supporting documents have, to the best of my knowledge, been prepared correctly and in accordance with REA Bulletin 20-2. Signature of Borrower's Manager ‘Signature of Borrower's Manager Corporate Name of Borrower REA FORM 740¢ REV 8-83 PAGE 4 OF 4 PAGES RPT. 901 TALS GUDGET PURPOSE: 1 OISTRIBUTION 1 iz OATE DESCRIPTION 04/22/88 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT 04/22/88 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT 04/22/88 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT 04/22/88 REQ Reg-41574 St-0224 09/03/88 WOKK ORDER # 0488 04/83 03/03/38 WORK ORDER # 0S88 05/88 08/03/88 WORK ORDER # C688 06/88 08/03/48 SPECIAL EUUIPMENT 08/03/88 SPECIAL EWUIPHENT 08/03/88 SPECIAL EQUIPHENT 08/03/88 KEQ Reg-41700 St-0225 09/15/88 REU Reg-41744 St-0226 09/21/88 WORK ORDER # 0788 07/88 09/21/88 WORK ORDER # 0868 08/88 09/21/88 SPECIAL EQULPHENT 09/21/86 SPECIAL EQUIPHKENT U.S.0.A. - RURAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATLON 01/31/88 02/29/88 03/31/88 04/30/88 05/31/88 06/30/88 07/31/88 ™ BORROWER INFORMAILON SYSTEM (BIS) - ELECTRIC LOAN BUDGET AND REQUISITION SYSTEM (LBR) PACE 004 REPORT DATE 09/21/86 STOP OROER/COND AGREEMENT: 5 BALANCE IN RESERVE 2,378,337 .17 25368,924.9S 27363,860.70 2,363,860.70 2,253,510.03 27217,878.46 29 147,217.S4 2,142,700.10 2,103,818.52 2,079,030.40 24079,030.60 2,079,030.60 2,018,710.63 1,865,281.98 1,852,092.49 REPORT: SUMMARY OF 40S TRANSACTION DICKENS ELECTRIC COOP INC SFUR WONEY-TYPE: REA/SUPPLEMENTAL 3 4 TRANSACTION CONSOLIDATED AMOUN) LOAN BUDGET 15,130.85 $,052,000.00 9,412.22 $,052,000.00 5,064.25 S,0S2,000.00 202,000.00 $,052,000.00 110,350.67 $,052,000.00 35,631.57 5,052,000.00 70,660.92 $,052,000.00 4,817.44 —$,052,000.00 38,884.83 5,052,000.00 24,784.92 $,052,000.00 240,000.00 $,052,000.00 284,000.00 5,052,000.00 60,319.97 $052,000.00 153,428.45 5,052,000.00 13,189.27 5,052,000.00 35,631.81 5,052,000.00 08/31/88 1,816,461.18 ADVANCED TO DATE: 0.00 25246,000.00 ' 6 7 & APPROVED NORKAL APPKOVED FUK NO FUNOS INVENTORIES ADVANCE 0.00 0.00 2,473,462.83 0.00 0.00 2,445,075.05 0.00 0.00 2,488,137.30 0.00 0.00 2,688,137.30 0.00 0.00 2,7978,489.97 0.00. 0.00 2,834,121.54 0.00 9.00 2,704,782.46 0.00 0.00 2,909,299.90 0.00 0.00 2,9748,184.48 0.00 0.00 2,972,967.40 0.00 0.00 25972,967.40 0.00 0.00 2,9/2,959.40 0.00 0.00 3,033,287.37 0.00 0.00 3,196,718.02 0.00 0.00 3,199,907.31 0.00 0.00 3,255,558.82 STOP OROER/COND AGREEMENT: 0.00 ALVANCED TU DATE: 2,972,000.00 INS) Sz ebed — einpasoig J8P1O YIOM Work Order Procedure — Page 26 Work Order Flow Chart Long Range Plan 10-Year and 20-Year Load Forecast 2-Year Work Plan REA Form 740C Major Upgrades and New Construction Engineering Dept. 10-Year Member Extension Service Upgrade Security Lights Service Dept. Application Membership Staking Engineer Layout Draw W. O. Additional Charges Right-of-Way Tree Clearing Utilties W. O. Clerk for Entry Picking Slips Warehouse Collect Materials Construction Scheduling Construction Crew Materials and Supplies Financial Forecast Loan Application Approvals Board and Directors REA Supplemental Lender P.S.C. Work Order Procedure — Page 27 Work Order Flow Chart Page 2 of 2 Co-op Pay Expense Engineering Maps and Records W. O. Closed Cost Totaled W. O. Inspection Engineer Board Approval Submit W. O. to REA REA Form 605 Request Reimbursement REA p Supplement Lender Check Deposit in REA Construction Fund Bank Account Transfer to General Fund Reimbursement REA Loan Fund Audit Work Order Warehouse Work Order Procedure — Page 28 Terms and Definitions . Staking Sheet — Document that indicates materials needed, loca- tion and sketch of work to be done. . Bill of Materials — Listing of material needed for construction, usually prepared by the Engineering Department and then given to the warehouse personnel to get inventory when construction is ready. . Work Order Number — Number assigned to a project in order for employees to assign their time, inventory used and equipment cost. The same work order number will remain with the project until all work has been completed. . Time Sheet — A standard form developed to keep track of em- ployees’ time worked on different projects and reflecting miles driven. . REA Form 219 — REA form to summarize total cost of each work order completed less any salvage from requirements. . REA Form 595 — REA form to indicate work order has been completed and inspected. The cooperative uses this form to requi- sition approved loan funds. . Inspection of Work Orders — Work orders must be inspected by a professional electrical engineer (pre-approved by REA) to verify construction was done according to REA specifications. . Capitalized Work Order — Total dollar amount of the project labor, materials and transportation that is depreciated over a fixed period of time. Continuing Property Record (CPR) — A continuing property record is the accounting method to account for the number of construction units the cooperative has in total plant. CPRs are defined by REA. Job Order — Work assignment that is used to do non-capitalized work; i.e., connect, disconnect, reclear right-of-way. Affects direct expenses to current operating report. Work Order Procedure — Page 29 K. REA Form 740C — Part of the loan application which contains an itemized list of planned construction projects and associated costs which will be constructed with the loan funds. L. REA Form 605 — REA’s approval of work completed that may be used to draw down loan funds. 2 Work Order Procedure — Page 30 Important Points Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used to Understand one time. 1. Work Orders 6. Time Sheet 2. Job Orders 7. REA Form 219 3. Staking Sheet 8. REA Form 595 4. Bill of Materials 9. Continuing Property Record (CPR) 5. Work Order Number 10. Work Order Inspection a. REA form used to summarize total ‘cost of each work order completed, less any salvage from retirements. Must be signed by a professional electrical engineer and board ap- proval is required. b. Document that indicates materials needed, location and sketch of work to be done. c. Requires registered professional electrical engineer to ap- prove work order construction. d. Independent capitalized projects. e. Standard form that all employees must complete to indicate to what account or work order to charge their time. f. Cooperative uses this document to requisition loan funds. g. List of materials needed for construction. May also have area for returned or salvaged material. Accounting method to account for the number of construc- tion units the cooperative has in total plant. Number assigned to project in order to account for all costs. Work that is expensed on current operating statement, i.e., connect or disconnect service, right-of-way reclearing. Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 31 Fundamentals of Electricity After completion of this chapter, the participant should understand the fundamentals of electricity. Specific Objectives After completion of this chapter, the participant should be able to: 1. Understand basic electrical theory. 2. Understand the historical development of electricity and individuals responsible for its development. 3. Identify the divisions of an electrical system. Understand terms associated with basic electric theory. What is Earliest man’s only machine was his own body. He fueled it with Electricity? food so he would have the energy to do his work. Later, he domesti- cated animals, fueled them with food and substituted their labor for some of his own. Today we have invented countless machines which do our work for us. We supply them with fuel and they convert it to energy the same way our bodies convert the food we eat into energy to do work. Energy is the capacity to do work. Fuels are sources of stored energy. We also have machines that use fuel to create energy which is then used by other machines to do work. The most common of these ma- chines are electric generators. They convert fuels such as coal, oil and gas into electricity which is used by other machines like drills, saws and toasters to do work. It is always more energy efficient to use fuels directly to do work rather than converting them into energy that ultimately does the work. Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 32 For instance, you could heat your house for more than three years with the coal that is burned to make the electricity which will heat your house for one year. But think about all the work of keeping the heater properly filled with coal, not to mention carrying out the ashes every- day. And who wants a pile of coal in their back yard? While electric- ity may not always be the most energy efficient method, it is often preferred because of convenience. The origin of most of the energy that we use today is the sun. Solar energy takes many forms. The most obvious forms are the warmth and light received from direct sunlight. Plants store energy by using sun- light to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, a simple carbo- hydrate. Glucose is the building block for all other fuels except nuclear fuel. When we eat plants our bodies convert glucose directly into energy. Wood can be burned to create heat energy. For hundreds of millions of years, parts of the earth were covered with swamps filled with plants. These plants died, piled up and became covered with earth. As time passed, the pressure of the earth turned them into coal. Natural gas, another by-product of ancient plants, has been trapped inside the earth for millennia. Oil is the residue of animals that sur- vived by eating plants. Coal, natural gas and oil are all fossil fuels storing energy from the sun which came to earth as light long ago. One-third of the sunlight that reaches earth evaporates water from the seas. Some of this water is deposited by rain on mountaintops. As it rushes back to the sea, energy stored in the water can be harnessed to do work or can be converted into electricity. Sunlight also heats the air near the surface of the earth. It heats the air at the equator more than it does at the poles causing air currents. These air currents are affected by the earth’s rotation to form wind which is another source of solar energy. Man has also invented a device called a photovoltaic cell which can convert sunlight directly into electricity. The sun’s energy comes from a process called fusion. Fussion is the joining of the nucleus of two atoms forming a single new atom. The by-product of this reaction is tremendous amounts of heat and light energy. Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 33 Fundamentals of Electricity The nuclear energy that man has developed comes from splitting the nucleus of certain atoms. This process, called fission, also pro- duces great quantities of energy, though much less than fusion. The main use of nuclear energy is the production of electricity. Electricity is energy. That’s why we call it electric energy. Energy is classified into six major forms: mechanical, heat, light, chemical, electrical and nuclear. All are capable of doing work, but electricity is the most useful form. It can easily be transported over long distances. It can be made from all fuel sources and can be easily converted into other major forms of energy. Electricity can do work that the other energy forms cannot. Without it there would be no telephones, computers or televisions. Because of its versatility, electricity has become the universal energy. To truly understand the characteristics of electricity, one must look at the atom. All matter is made up of atoms. Each atom is made of even smaller particles. These particles are called protons, neutrons and electrons. ATOMS PARTICLES Particles that are positively charged are called protons (+); nega- tively charged particles are called electrons (—); and those particles that are electrically neutral are called neutrons. Electrical Structure of Matter Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 34 Atoms of different chemical elements are identified by the number of protons in the nucleus. All atoms remain electrically neutral, so it is also true that the number of electrons equal the number of protons. (This is not necessarily true of ionized atoms but that is beyond the scope of this introduction.) Consider the hydrogen atom as an example of an atom’s atomic structure. Hydrogen has one proton in its nucleus and one electron. The distribution of electrons within the atom is the significant issue in atomic theory in the study of electricity. Some elements are made up so that they give up electrons easily. When an atom loses the electron, it is then “positively charged.” Those elements which accept (or attract) electrons easily become “negatively charged.” It is obvious then that conductors are made of elements that give up electrons easily and insulators are made of elements that have electrons that are tightly bound (i.e. do not give up electrons easily). Electrons tend to flow to maintain electric balance. That is, they all tend toward electrical equilibrium. All this theory of atomic structure is the fundamental issue in the study of electricity because a force exists between electrostatic charge; and those charges depend on the atomic structure. To expand on the force issue a little further, let’s get into a little bit of mathematical theory involved: Onl HO? D2 FORCE = “A force (of repulsion or attraction) exists between electrostatic charges and that force depends on the amount of each charge “Q1” and “Q2” and inversely on the square of the distance “D” between the charges.” This is Coulomb’s law. It is similar to the law of attraction be- tween planets (Sir Isaac Newton) that causes high tides, gravity, etc. Fundamentals of Electricity - Page 35 One last important point to make about electrostatic charges... Whenever two charges are close to one another, they exert a mutual force on each other. Therefore, any single charged body is surrounded by a region of a special kind: any other charge brought into this same region will encounter a force. The characteristic of this region is called the electric field. The following graphically show what these lines of force would look like if they could be seen. Unlike Charges Like Charges Attract Repel WIV IN FORCES BETWEEN UNLIKE AND LIKE CHARGES 285 AK ELECTRIC FIELD BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND OPPOSITELY CHARGED BODIES SIMILARLY CHARGED BODIES We have talked a lot about the theory on charges at rest (electro- statics), but what about what we are really interested in — the study of moving charges (electrodynamics)? In daily application of electricity, charges are indeed moving. There are many ways to “stimulate” an electric charge to move, but it is important to remember that all methods require the following: A force is required to set the charge into motion. A conducting path must exist. Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 36 The force required to set the charge into motion is called electro- motive force (emf). In the world today this is called voltage. One of the most simple examples that demonstrates these two conditions in causing electric charges to move is a spark (or arc). When charges are built up on your body (one’s fingertips in particular) and the opposite charge exists on your dog’s nose when you get close enough to almost touch his dry, chapped nose, the spark jumps that gap. While your dog is hiding under the bed, you’re thinking about your experience in electrodynamics, and how much better you feel knowing that those charges are now in equilibrium once again. But what was the force? It was the difference in potential between the two charges. What was the path? The path was the air. Yes, the molecules that make up the air will conduct and allow the passage of electron flow. Lighting proves that! History of Electric Development Let’s walk through time and discuss for a bit the history of how all these theories came about and summarize what we have already seen. During this romantic trip through history, we’ll look at the discov- eries that were fundamental to the understanding of electricity. It makes you wonder if some of the discoveries were found through bonafide research or merely curiosities and pranks. We will discuss duFay, Cavendish, Galvani, Volta, Davy, Ampere, Arago, Faraday and others. The Law of Electrical Charges A French scientist, Mr. Charles duFay, discovered that there are two kinds of electric charges: positive (+) and negative (—). The be- havior of these two types of charges led him to the basic law of electricity: “Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.” Mr. duFay further found that all materials can be given an electric charge. One interesting (and later very important to the electric world to come) fact was that metals hold those charges for only a very short time. Metals belong to a class of materials called conductors, in which the previously described atomic structure of the material allow (in fact, encourage) the electrons to move freely. Voltage, Potential or Pressure Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 37 If a charged conductor touches another “uncharged” conductor, electrons will move between the charged conductor and the uncharged conductor so that the charge is spread over both conductors (all matter tends toward equilibrium). If the conductor that was “uncharged” is very large, the smaller conductor is left practically uncharged. The earth is the largest conduc- tor of all. If a charged conductor is touched to the earth, the charge is spread over such a large area that it leaves the previously charged conductor uncharged. This process of removing electric charges is called “grounding.” It is easy to give an object a small positive charge by removing some of the electrons. But as more and more electrons are stripped from the atom, the positive charge on the object becomes stronger. Soon, it becomes difficult to remove any more electrons as they are pulled back very strongly by the increasing positive charge. As each new electron is removed, more work must be done to pull the next electron away. This effect is described that an electric potential, commonly called voltage, is building up on the object. Potential or voltage, is a measure of how work must be done to add or remove electrons. If the charge is doubled, twice as much work must be done to remove additional electrons. Electric Current Electrons flow through a conductor that connects a positive and negative charge. As some electrons flow into the conductor from the negative charge, others flow out of the conductor to the positive charge. Remember that these particles of matter tend to move to reach equilibrium. You could think of these electrons making up the electric current as the cars making up a train. Imagine a long, slow moving train. Sud- denly, the engine gives a jerk. The jerk passes from car to car and is felt at the far end of the train almost immediately. No car has moved very far or fast. But the jerk has moved very quickly from one end of the train to the other. In somewhat the same way, free electrons in a Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 38 conductor do not move very far or very fast. But now suppose that a sudden push is given to the electrons at one end of the conductor. The effect they produce, called the electric signal moves nearly at the speed of light (186,000 miles/second). This is why electricity appears to the human senses to be instantaneous. Resistance Resistance is the term given to the property of certain materials that “resist” the flow of electrons. This concept was developed by an English scientist, Mr. Henry Cavendish (1731-1810). Some materials allow the flow of electrons better than others. Metals have relatively low resistances, therefore are good conductors. Silver, copper and aluminum offer small resistances. Lead and iron, on the other hand have higher resistances but are still good conductors. Other materials such as plastic, glass, dry wood, etc. have extremely high resistances. In fact, their resistances are so high that as a practical matter, do not conduct electricity at all, The materials are called insulators. How is heat and light produced by electric current? Electric appliances such as toasters and curling irons give off heat. Light bulbs are designed to give off more electric produced light than heat. The heating elements in a toaster and the filament in a light bulb are made of a thin metal wire (conductor) that have a high resistance to the flow of electrons (electricity). When the electrons pass among the atoms of these conductors, they keep bumping into the atoms (protons, neutrons and other electrons). When particles (even small ones) bump into one another, heat through friction is given off. If the current is strong enough, so much heat is generated that the conductor glows and produces heat and light. In the late 1700s, Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta simultane- ously discovered the first means of producing a steady current of electricity. Galvani found that the muscles of a dead frog’s legs would twitch if touched by a piece of brass and a piece of iron that were joined together. Galvani got the right answer for the wrong reason, it turns out, as he believed that electricity came from the frog. What he actually discovered was that the types of conductors he used created what is today called a Galvanic Reaction which causes electrons to pass from one conductor to the other (again remembering that all Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 39 matter tends toward equilibrium). Since the frog’s legs completed the path for the flow of electrons, a current passed through the muscles causing them to twitch. Volta, on the other hand, developed a strong source of electricity. He stacked layers of silver, zinc and paper (laden with salt water) on top of each other. (This device is now called a voltaic pile). Both of these discoveries were more significant than people realize today. These discoveries excited people all over the scientific world. Finally, a source of electric current! Electrolysis, the process of breaking down a chemical compound down into its elements by an electric current, was then discovered. Conductors Metal Rods Voltaic Salt Pile Water Hydrogen Oxygen Gas Gas ELECTROLYSIS OF H,O INTO H AND O THROUGH A VOLTAIC PILE. Later, Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829), an English scientist, put several voltaic cells (piles) together to form a battery. With it, he found that if the two terminals were placed at just the right distance from each other, he could generate a continuous spark, called an elec- tric arc. It used to be used as a source of light. Today it is used to melt metals in high temperature electric furnaces and for arc welding. 3 Fundamentals of Electricity - Page 40 Discoveries More Directly Related to Us In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish physicist, made a very significant discovery in the field of electricity. He noticed that when a current passed through a wire, a force was exerted on a nearby mag- netic compass needle. What he found was that electricity and magnet- ism were related in some way. When he held the compass next to the wire, the needle pointed at right angles to the wire. On top of the wire, it swung one way; below the wire, it swung the opposite direction. Wow! The next year, two French scientists, Audre’ Marie Ampere and Francis Arago, discovered that a “coil” of wire carrying an electric current acted just like a bar magnet. If a piece of iron was placed inside the coil, it became magnetized. The two together formed an even stronger magnet. Electric charges and magnets exert forces on adjacent things without touching them! Michael Faraday (1791-1867) was the first to actually develop the idea or concept of electric lines of force. Faraday imagined electric and magnetic “lines of force” stretching out into space from charges and magnets. Magnetic lines of force push or pull on magnets and on the kinds of materials that can be magnetized, such as iron. The line of force around a bar magnet stretch from one end of the magnet to the other (poles). “N ao o~\ ON / NUN \ ie \ \ Just as there are magnetic lines of force around a magnet, there are electric lines of force for electric charges. Fundamentals of Electricity —- Page 41 Another interesting fact about lines of force is that a stationary electric charge has only an electric force field around it, but Oersted found that a moving electric charge (current) causes a magnetic field as well. Electric lines of force around a coil carrying current look just like those around a bar magnet. This discovery of magnetic effects of coils made it possible to measure electric currents. This principle is the one still in use today. The stronger the current is that passes through a coil, the stronger the magnetic field is and therefore the farther a needle (magnetic) is de- flected. One of the next major steps in the development of what electricity can do is when Faraday thought — if an electric current could move a magnet, why not put this force to work? Follow through the example of the simple electric motor that puts all of what Faraday figured out into a practical working machine. N N IN N Ge BE & % w_N) [RBs Sk, we N 1's 21's 318 4\s (1) When the current flows through the coil, the coil becomes a magnet. The coil swings until its north pole lines up with the south pole of the magnet. (2) At this point the direction of the current is reversed. The magnetic poles of the coil are also Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 42 reversed. (3) Because like poles repel, the coil swings again. (4) The new south pole of the coil is attracted to the north pole of the magnet. DIRECTIONS OF CURRENT —————S_— The commutator is used to keep reversing the current passing through the coil. The commutator is attached to the coil, so they turn together. Each brush touches a different section of the turning commutator, so the current passing through the coil is continually reversed. Now the feeling was this electrical “magic” could actually do some work, so efforts were made where it would work even better. Mr. Faraday wasn’t through imagining and thinking. It occured to him that if an electric current produces magnetic lines of force, why couldn’t current be produced by means of magnetism? What he found was something incredible. He pushed a bar magnet into a coil of wire hooked up to a galvanometer. As he pushed the magnet into the coil, he noticed a reading on the meter but when he simply held the magnet still inside the coil, there was no reading on the meter. The current in the coil would only flow while the magnet was moving. What he discovered was that moving lines of force can produce an electric current. He concluded that current was induced in the coil, and he called the process magnetic induction. It was then concluded that you could produce current by moving a magnet within a coil or by turning a coil of wire between the two poles of a magnet. Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 43 This invention by Faraday allowed scientists to “generate” large amounts of current. With this current flow available to study, a Ger- man scientist found a basic law that governed the flow of current in a wire. That scientist was George S. Ohm. He thought of the flow of electricity (current) in a wire much like that of water in a pipe. To get flow of water, you must provide the work (or pressure) to get the water flowing. He realized that work must also be done to move electrons in a wire. In order to do this, he concluded, you must have a difference in potential from one end of the wire to the other (i.e., to have north pole and a south pole). This potential difference is commonly called voltage and is measured in volts. For Mr. Ohm to describe the flow of electrons (current), he needed the current flow measurement as well as the voltage applied to move these electrons. He wanted to know how much electricity passed a certain point in one second. This flow current is called the ampere named for Andre’ Marie Ampere. Thanks to Mr. Oersted’s previous discoveries, Mr. Ohm had accurate measurements to measure both the voltage and current. Mr. Ohm found that there was a definite relationship between the voltage and current for a given wire. He also found that the relation- ship was linear. When he doubled the voltage, the current doubled. When he halved the voltage, the current was halved as well. This is what is referred to today as Ohm’s Law. Mathematically, Ohm’s Law is: Voltage = Current x Resistance in units are: Volts = Amps x Ohms It should be noted that not all materials possess this linear quality that Mr. Ohm discovered, but for metal conductors, it is quite accurate. Once these relationships were all established, the real term “electric power” came into being. The idea of the amount of electricity per unit of time was developed by a Scottish engineer, Mr. James Watt. The amount of electricity per unit of time is called the watt. The simple Fundamentals of Electricity - Page 44 relationship of power was developed. Think of it in terms of the water analogy. Power = Voltage x Current the units are: Watts = Volts x Amps (where volts could be thought of as the water pressure and the amperes could be thought of as the amount of water passing a point) All that we have talked about so far has been for direct current (DC). That is, the current only flows in one direction (from negative to positive). But the current in our electric systems are all alternating current (AC). That is, the current changes direction. In fact, it only flows in one direction at a time for 1/120 of a second. Why do we use alternating current? The main reason is that it is more flexible to use. What does that mean? Well, the voltage levels can be changed with a simple transformer (thanks to Mr. Faraday), whereas that is not simply done with direct current. It is also easier to generate alternating current than direct current. We talked earlier about Ohm’s law. From Ohm’s law and the law developed by Mr. Watt, we find that to transmit power great distances, we want to limit the current to a minimum by maximizing the voltage. What does that mean? Remember power = voltage x current? Well, as you can see, you can get the same power with the product of several voltages and currents. For example, if you wanted to have 10 watts of power delivered you could have any of the combinations of voltage and current to obtain the same result. power = voltage x current 10 watts = 10volts x lamp 10 watts = Svolts x 2amps 10 watts = 2volts x Samps 10 watts = 1 volt x 10amps and so on... Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 45 We said earlier that the current in a wire makes heat (and some- times light). We can reduce that heat (loss) if we minimize our current. We minimize our current by raising the voltage. In the electric power industry, especially for those of us in the rural electric business, one of our objectives is to maintain good voltage to the customers even at the very end of the circuit. If we again think of the voltage as the water pressure, we try to deliver those customers at the end of the line the same pressure as those at the beginning of the line. How does the voltage get to be less? Remember Ohm’s law? Voltage = Current x Resistance Voltage drop follows that same law: Voltage Drop = Current x Resistance If the current is kept small because the voltage has been increased to transmit more power, the product of Current x Resistance is small. This results in less voltage drop. 3 Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 46 Divisions of Electrical System Generation Plant Transformer Transmission Lines Substation Distribution Lines Secondary Lines Distribution Transformer Meter Pole Service Lines SH rOmMMON D> tA) ee Generation Plant Transmission Lines (8) \ Transformer K 1(3) (1) spd Kah Substation os () Meter Pole (0) 3 Fundamentals of Electricity - Page 47 Terms and Definitions Electricity — Energy that can easily be converted into light, heat and power. Ampere — Unit of measure used to determine current flow through a conductor. Volt — Unit of measure of electromotive force. Watt — Unit of measure used to determine the rate of energy supplied. Watt-hour — One watt for one hour. Kilowatt (kW) — One thousand (1,000) watts. Megawatt (mW) — One million (1,000,000) watts. Gigawatt (gW) — One billion (1,000,000,000) watts. Kilowatt-hour (kWh) — 1,000 watts for one hour. Horsepower — Unit of mechanical power equal to 746 watts of electrical power. Direct current (DC) — Current that flows in one direction at a continuous rate. (1) Flows in one direction only. (2) Does not transform easily. Alternating current (AC) — Current that reverses flow from positive to negative and back to positive at regular intervals. (1) Reverses direction of flow at regular intervals. (2) Transforms easily to higher or lower voltages. (3) Produces an alternating magnetic field. (NOTE: Sixty-cycle current reverses flow 120 times per second.) Circuit — Path through with electricity flows. Switch — Device used to open or close a circuit. Circuit breaker — Device used to open a circuit when current flow is too great. (NOTE: Circuit breakers may be reset when they have cooled.) Fundamentals of Electricity —- Page 48 Fuse — Devise used to open a circuit by burning out when current flow becomes too great. Conductor — Any substance through which electrical current can flow easily. EXAMPLE: Wires used in electrical circuits. Insulation — Any substance which will not allow the flow of electrical current in any measurable amount. EXAMPLE: The covering on electrical conductors. Hot wire — Slang for an electrically energized conductor. Potential — Presence of voltage in a conductor. (NOTE: Any conductive substance which has a potential will indicate a vol- tage differential between the substance and ground or another conductor.) Ground — Point of connection of a conductor to assist returning current flow to return to the source or to equalize potential. Neutral — Current-carrying conductor that is connected to a ground. . Common - Current-carrying conductor which may or may not be grounded. Fundamentals of Electricity — Page 49 Important Points Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used to Understand one time. 1. Circuit 9. Ampere 2. Direct Current (DC) 10. Watt 3. Alternating Current (AC) 11. Electricity 4. Horsepower 12. Volt 5. Kilowatt (kW) 13. OHMs 6. Kilowatt-Hour 14. Circuit Breaker 7. Watt-Hour 15. Switch 8. Megawatt (mW) 16. Fuse 17. Amperage a. Unit of mechanical power equal to 746 watts of electrical power. 1,000,000 Watts. c. Unit of measure of electrical pressure. d. Device used to open a circuit by burning out when current flow becomes too great. e. Current that flows in one direction at a continuous rate. f. Unit of measure used to determine current flow through a conductor. Path through which electricity flows. Energy that can easily be converted into light, heat and power. i. If given an appliance having 1250 wattage divided by volt- age, you are calculating to find j. Device used to open or close a circuit. k. Units in which electrical resistance is measured. m. Current that reverses flow from positive to negative and back at regular intervals. Occurs 60 times per second. n. 1000 watts. o. 1000 watts for one hour. ____ p._ Unit of measure used to determine the rate of energy sup- plied. ____ q._- Device used to open a circuit when current flow is too great. tr. One watt for one hour. aa Generation of Electricity — Page 50 Generation of Electricity Specific Objectives After completion of this chapter, the participant should have an understanding of power production and be able to identify the basic cycle for electric generation in a power plant. After completion of this chapter, the participant should be able to: 1. Understand the power production process using hydro, thermal and nuclear power. 2. Understand how an interconnected power grid operates. 3. Become familiar with power production terminology. Generation of Electricity In a basic alternator (alternating current generator) a conductor or group of conductors resolves in a magnetic field. Because of the continuously changing relative position of the conductors and the corresponding lines of force, the induced voltage is continuously changing, or alternating, and the output current of the alternator is the alternating current. The alternating current varies in direction and in quantity at regular intervals. It rises up to a maximum in one direction, then decreases to zero, rises again to the maximum value (this time in the opposite direction), then heads back to zero, then repeats itself over and over again. The number of times it repeats itself per second is called the frequency. The frequency of alternating current and alternating volt- ages is measured in cycles per second. It was named after another scientist, Mr. Hertz. | max. (VOLTAGE OR _ 0 CURRENT) ,’ ’ | min. Generation of Electricity —- Page 51 The basics of the generation of alternating electric current is by MOVING A CONDUCTOR (rotating it) ina STATIONARY MAGNETIC FIELD. The lines of force created by the magnetic field (called flux lines) are what created the varying magnitudes of current. The exact voltages created depends upon the number of lines of flux the conductor cut. When the conductors are perpendicular to the flux, they are said to cut the maximum lines. As they move away from perpendicular to parallel they move through zero flux on to negative maximum flux, and so on. VOLTAGE N, S. north and south poles 0 to 11. conductor positions 3, 9. maximum voltage values The voltage wave generated by this varying flux follows a sine curve. The time on the horizontal is measured in degrees. Remember that the conductor cuts through various intensities of flux as it proceeds around the circles of the generator. The circle can be thought of as a compass or protractor. All the way around is 360 degrees, 1/2 the way is 180 degrees, and so on. TIME IN DEGREES Generation of Electricity — Page 52 This is how the alternating current voltages and currents are created at the power plants. Current carrying conductors pass through various (time varying) flux lines to create sinusoidal voltages and currents. Electrical energy is produced on a large scale in power plants. From the power plants, electricity is transmitted to distribution organi- zations through a system of substations, transmission conductors, steel tower, underground and overhead conductors, poles, transformer, etc. The amount of energy passing through this system at any one time is extremely high. We measure it in millions of kilowatts. The Power Plant Electrical energy is produced in power plants by generators. Each generator is driven by a turbine. The energy input to the turbine is water (hydro) energy, steam or gas (thermal) energy, or nuclear energy. The power plant converts the input energy (hydro, thermal, nuclear) into output energy (electricity). Hydro Power Plants In a hydro plant, water drives a water turbine. Water flows from an elevated reservoir through a pipe, strikes the turbine (water wheel) blades, and causes the turbine to rotate. So, the potential energy of the water is converted into the mechanical energy of the rotating turbine. The mechanical energy of the water wheel can be varied by regulating the amount of water flowing through the turbine. In a hydroelectric power station, water level is raised by a dam, and the turbine is located at the foot of the dam. The turbine is mounted either vertically or horizontally, and it can be one of many types, depending on the height of water available. Thermal Power Plant In a thermal power plant, the turbine is driven by steam. Steam is produced in a boiler by adding heat to water. The heat is obtained from the burning of fuel. This heat is then given to water, which produces steam and drives a turbine in the conventional way. The energy due to heat is known as thermal energy. 4 Generation of Electricity — Page 53 Tere The Basic Cycle A steam power station includes the following major equipment: ¢ Boiler ¢ Turbine-generator * Condenser « Condensate pump ¢ Boiler feed pump ¢ Fuel burner Fuel is supplied to the boiler through the control valve. The steam produced in the boiler passes through the turbine control valve into the turbine, where it causes rotation of the turbine-generator. The action of the generator results in production of electrical energy. Steam is exhausted from the turbine into the condenser, where contact with the cooling water tubes causes the steam to condense. The cooling water is known as circulating water. There is no direct contact between the condensate and the circulating water. The condensate is outside the condenser tubes, and the circulating water is inside the tubes. The condensate pump extracts the condensate from the condenser. The condensate is pumped into the boiler by the boiler feed pump. If the generator load remains constant, and if we ignore leaks and losses, the closed cycle remains in a balanced state. There will be continuous circulation through the boiler, turbine, condenser, pump, boiler, etc. To help in understanding how the fossil plant cycle works, we will review the functions of the basic equipment used in a modern steam power plant. 1. Fuel Oil System — Pipework, tanks, valves, pumps, heaters, etc., that supply fuel oil to the boiler. (The fuel may also be gas or coal.) 2. Boiler — Transforms water into steam by adding heat from the products of combustion. 3. Boiler F.D. Fan — Forced draft fan provides combustion air to the boiler. 4. Stack — Discharges products of combustion to atmosphere. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Generation of Electricity — Page 54 Boiler I.D. Fan — Induced draft fan extracts burned gases from the furnace. Main Steam System — Pipework, valves, etc., which conduct steam from the boiler to the turbine. Turbine Steam Control Valve — Controls the quantity of steam passing through the turbine. Turbine — Produces mechanical energy by the expansion of steam passing through the turbine. Generator — Receives mechanical energy from the turbine and produces electrical energy. Condenser — Condenses exhaust steam into water. Condensate and Feed System — Pipework, valves, drains, vents, etc., interconnecting condensate pump, feedwater pump, feedwater heater, boiler feed valve and boiler. Cooling Tower — Required in some plants where a closed cycle circulating water system is used. Condensate Pump — Pumps condensate. Extraction Steam — Steam extracted from the latter stages of the turbine for use within the cycle. Circulating Water System — Pipework, pumps and valves that provide cooling water to the condenser tubes for extraction of heat from the exhaust steam. Feedwater Heater — Heat exchanger that uses extraction steam to raise feedwater temperature. Boiler Feed Pump — Pumps water into the boiler under high pressure. Feedwater Control Valve — Controls the quantity of feedwater entering the boiler. Generation of Electricity — Page 55 19. Demineralizer of Evaporizer — Produces distilled water for make-up; that is, compensation for losses from the steam and condensate system. Basic Cycle for Electric Generation (6) MAIN STEAM SYSTEM Al Generation of Electricity —- Page 56 Example of Seminole Electric Cooperative Power Plant Operations Seminole Electric Cooperative’s power plant burns coal to produce electricity. The plant, which incorporates state-of-the-art technology, is located near the St. Johns River in northeast Florida’s Putnam County. While the many plant operating systems are complex in design, the basic concepts of power generation are relatively simple: Pulverized coal is blown into the furnace through a stream of hot air where it is ignited and burned. Water is pumped from deep wells on the site, chemically treated, and then heated as it flows through the boiler tubes hanging inside the furnace. This high-quality boiler water is flashed into steam in the upper- half of the elongated steam drum positioned at the top of the boiler. The force of this high-energy steam against fan-like blades inside the turbine turns a shaft coupled to the generator. Steam enters the turbine’s high-pressure section at 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit and at a pressure of 2,400 pounds per square inch. Electricity is produced when a magnetic field is created between the windings of the rotating shaft’s rotor and the windings of the stationary stator. Electricity is produced at 23,000 volts and then stepped up through transformers to 230,000 volts for efficient transmis- sion over high-voltage power lines. Low-pressure steam leaves the low-pressure turbine section and enters the condenser. Steam inside the condenser is transformed back into boiler feedwater as it passes over and through a network of 40,000 one-inch diameter tubes. The hot vapor’s heat is transferred to the circulating water flowing inside the condenser tubes. Circulating water, now warm from the heat transfer, is pumped up inside a cooling tower and sprayed over a distribution network of material that resembles a radiator core. The cooling tower’s hyperbolic shape creates a natural draft for the air entering through the base. As the warmer water falls downward through the tower, it is cooled by the air rising upward. Seminole’s power plant must produce electricity in an environ- mentally sensitive climate characterized by strict and enforceable Generation of Electricity — Page 57 performance standards. The plant’s pollution control systems have been certified by environmental regulators as having the “‘best available control technology.” Two major by-products of coal combustion are fly ash and sulfur dioxide. Electrostatic precipitators remove more than 99 percent of all fly ash. The flue gas desulfurization (FGD) system neutralizes about 90 percent of all sulfur dioxide emissions in what are commonly called “scrubbers.” A significant $230 million capital investment for plant environ- mental protection equipment represents approximately 25 percent of the project’s cost. SEMINOLE ELECTRIC COOPERATIVE’S POWER PLANT DESIGN Ua: Generation of Electricity — Page 58 Nuclear Power Plant Nothing is burned or exploded in a nuclear power plant. The fuel is a form of uranium dioxide pellets containing about three percent (3%) uranium. Each pellet is about the size of the end of your little finger and will supply about the same heat energy as a ton of coal. The pellets are arranged in long, vertical tubes within the reactor. These rods regulate a process that results in atoms “invisibly flying apart” or “fissioning.” As the atomic pieces plow through the fuels pellets, they generate heat by a kind of friction. When the nucleus of each atom fissions, it shoots out particles called “‘neurons,” which cause more fissions as they hit the nuclei of other uranium atoms; thus, causing a chain reaction of one fission triggering the others. The non- fissionable material in the pellet act as a natural safety feature because it slows down the chain reaction as it gets hotter. Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Alternative Energy Sources Alternative energy sources are not ready to play a big role in electricity generation. Neither solar nor wind energy is sufficiently developed to produce large amounts of electric power. Solar panels are being used where small amounts of electricity are needed. They provide electricity for such uses as railroad warning signals, research sights and remote communication equipment. But even solar’s most ardent backers do not argue that sun power can generate enough elec- tricity to become a major energy factor. Windmills provide some supplemental power at experimental installations around the U.S., especially in California, but few utilities can rely on them because of Generation of Electricity — Page 59 problems with cost, reliability and durability. Nuclear fusion, in which light atoms of hydrogen, extractable from sea water, are fused to provide energy, is likely to remain an elusive dream for the remainder of the century. Scientists have yet to achieve a self-sustaining fusion reaction in the laboratory, much less design a commercial fusion reactor. eR Big Wind Turbines to be Scrapped ("Wisconsin REC News” — Jan. 1987) Generating Power Plants One of the more dramatic research projects to come out of the energy crisis has ended. The giant wind turbines in the Goodnue Hills near Goldendale, Wash., are standing idle while the federal govern- ment seeks buyers for the generators, gearboxes and other salvageable parts. The rest will be scrapped. The project had neck-bending proportions, with 200-foot towers supporting 100-ton rotors with blades as long as football fields. The three turbines were capable of generating 7.5 megawatts of power (about enough to light up 2,000 homes) when operating at peak effi- ciency. Total cost of the project is estimated at $55 million. According to an Associated Press report, the project, “plagued by costly breakdowns and outages, couldn’ t compete with less expensive hydroelectricity, falling oil prices and a shift in national energy pol- icy.” Peter Goldman, program manager for the Department of En- ergy, was quoted as saying that the outcome of the project might have been different if oil prices had continued to rise. Current central station generating plants vary widely in plant capacity from 20 mW to 1250 mW and cost per installed kW can be as high as $5,000. Within the electric industry, the trend in the 1970s was to build large power plants in order to achieve economics of scale and keep the cost of electricity affordable, and in some areas “cheap” com- pared to other energy forms. However, to run at the generating plants’ most efficient and effective cost per unit of output, they must operate at near load capacity. Expectation in the industry is that future power plants will return to smaller sizes, probably, not to exceed 450 mW. Again, sizing and multiple plants have advantages within a power system. Additional development by independent power producers Generation of Electricity - Page 60 and cogenerators are increasing their role in providing electricity for themselves and selling excess or firm power to the power suppliers. The basic overview of the operations of a power plant design is simple, yet involved and complex with the many different systems that must function in concert to achieve maximum efficiency of the total generating plant. Power plant employees MUST have a continuous training and evaluation program. Procedures must be maintained to meet operating conditions and, no matter how small or insignificant a problem may seem, it must be checked, documented and reported immediately to supervisors. Buckeye Power — Ohio Buckeye Power operates two coal-fired plants at 600 mW and 630 mW respectively. Buckeye Power has developed a video presentation on the operations of their power plants for this course. We greatly appreciate their contribution to this basic electric course. Power Grid or Power Tool The total power system is a network of generators, transformers, transmission conductors, interconnections and various other pieces of equipment that connects a system’s instant energy requirements to the power supplier. Power plants may be located hundreds of miles away from the distribution system’s consumers; however, through a series of interconnected power plants and transmission grids, electric energy can be made available using economic dispatching during high demand periods or on a routine basis. The exhibit on the following page shows a simple interconnected power system serving arural electric system. Power is supplied to the distribution system through a transmission network then distributed to the individual consumers using the distribution system’s equipment. The electricity is supplied to the distribution system by three power plants. Generation of Electricity - Page 61 (A) Plant is hydro electric station. (B) Plant uses coal for fuel. (C) Plant uses natural gas. INTERCONNECTED POWER SUPPLIER Rural Electric Cooperative The load demand and generating capabilities of the systems are as follows: Cooperative Load Demand = 650mW Hydro Power Plant Capacity = 400mW Coal Power Plant Capacity = 200mW Natural Gas Power Plant Capacity = 150mW Total Generating Capacity = 750 mW Electricity cannot be stored economically in large quantities. The load being generated at all times must equal the demand to the consum- Generation of Electricity — Page 62 OOOO .. — ——<<—<— ers. So, when the cooperative is consuming 650 mW of power, the power plants must be generating exactly 650 mW of power. Generated Load = Consumers’ Demand In the example, we have total generating capacity of 750 mW; we have 100 mW reserve capacity when the system is requiring 650 mW. So we have a choice of how to distribute the 650 mW load demand along our three power plants. Our decision is generally based on economies of the least cost per mW generating costs. The (A) plant (hydro) is the least expensive source of power, since no fuel is re- quired. The (B) plant (coal) is more efficient at this time because the (C) plant (natural gas) costs more per mW to generate electricity than coal. (NOTE: This changes with the national and international market price of oil, gas and coal.) That is, (B) plant’s overall generating cost is less than (C) plant. For these reasons, the load distribution will be as follows: (A) Plant — Hydro Power Generation = 400mW (B) Plant — Coal Power Generation = 200mW (C) Plant — Natural Gas Power Generation = 50 mW Total Generation = 650mW In normal practice, the more efficient stations are base-loaded, which means they are run as close to full capacity as possible in order to realize economy of scale in production. The next most efficient station then generates the remainder of the required demand. With this configuration, it leaves the generating organization a reserve capacity of 100 mW at (C) plant. This reserve capacity is used if (A) or (B) plant generation is interrupted. This is another advantage of interconnected systems along with meeting federal requirements for reserve capacity. Because the load demand of consumers is not constant throughout the year, month or day, the production must equal the demand. The load demand of the cooperative may fall to as little as 200 mW during the night. When this happens, both (B) and (C) plants can be taken out of service or run at a convenient minimum load because of the time required to bring the power plants on-line from a cold start and in anticipation of the morning consumer peak demand. Generation of Electricity — Page 63 To increase the efficiency of the power plants and reduce the cost of power to individual distribution systems, the G&T needs to produce and sell power in its off-peak times. Understanding your individual distribution and power supplier’s load demand curves will allow both you and your G&T to work in concert to reduce system peaks and increase sales in off-peak times by creative rate designs and incentives. Several generating companies and G&T organizations may be interconnected into an electrical power and transmission grid. This interconnection allows optimal use of the total power plants’ capacity, and lowest possible cost of power to the overall consumers of a G&T. Control of the power system must be coordinated 24 hours a day by load dispatchers. Each generating station receives loading instructions from these sources. Your power supplier may be in a pooling arrange- ment in order to buy needed capacity at different levels. Load dis- patchers are constantly looking for economy power from the power grid and in some cases generating plants may sit idle because power can be purchased from the grid cheaper than generating. This is the case when demand is low and one of the utilities in the grid has a large single unit plant producing power. In order to reduce the cost per mW of the total plant, they will offer power at a bargain price to the grid. In some cases, sales of power in the grid do not result in an exchange of money, but use a term called banking. This is simply a credit on the books of the selling utility that the receiving utility owes them “X” amount of power and a dollar booked value. Economy power is scheduled from the power grid when the G&T plans for scheduled maintenance of the power plants. Generation of Electricity — Page 64 = x 5 a e Ey 5 Sm 3 = = Z = + » wo D - Oo 100 90 0 0° 60 50 (spucsnoy |) NM MONTHLY LOAD FACTOR 4IN3943d Generation of Electricity — Page 65 DEC 85 JAN 84 JAN 85 1983-1985 JAN 83 | Generation of Electricity — Page 66 Important Points Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used to Understand one time. BAN as ha) bpd Power Grid Load Factor Hydroelectric Plant Diesel Plant Thermal Plant 1 S599 SON Instant Energy Turbine Nuclear Plant Co-generation Load Demand a. Basic relationship between consumer demand and power generation. b. Transforms the heat energy of steam into rotating mechani- cal energy. c. Electrical power generated by using flowing water to turn generators. d. Generation plant powered by steam created by oil, coal or natural gas heat. e. Generation plant powered by steam created by atomic energy. f. Manufacturing firm or individual who is generating their own electricity and sells their excess to G&T or power company. g. Group of generators that provide power to each other as needed on a prearranged basis. h. Percentage amount of time your system or individual is using its maximum capacity. The formula to figure it is: Annual kWh Sales (kWh) divided by system peak demand divided by 8760 hours in year equals the annual i. Generation plant powered by a diesel fueled engine. Fluctuating amount of electricity needed by individuals based on characteristics, i.e. season, time-of-day, type of load. Generation of Electricity — Page 67 Label the components in the following diagram: ao Generator Stack Fuel Supply Boiler Tubes Turbine Fuel Control Valve Main Steam System Turbine Steam Control Valve Circulating Water System Condensate Pump Boiler Feed Pump Feedwater Control Valve PASE ROMMON D> Specific Objectives Substations Substations — Page 68 Substations After completion of this chapter, the participant should have an understanding of the components and operations of a substation. After completion of this chapter, the participant should be able to: 1. Understand functions of a substation. 2. Identify major equipment within the substation. 3. Understand terms associated with substations. 4. Understand safety procedures in substations. 5. Recognize possible problems in substations. Substations can be either owned by the generating and transmission organization or by the distribution cooperative. Metering by your power supplier on the low side of the substation means that the power supplier is incurring the line loss in the substation and the distribution system will pay for the line loss in your power bill. Metering on the high side of the substation will result in the distribution system paying for the line loss in the line loss calculation. Some systems make ownership of a substation based on Times Interest Earned Ratio (TIER) requirements of REA. Distribution systems must have a minimum of 1.5 TIER and the G&T must have 1.0 TIER. Substations are the point of delivery. In order for service to begin properly, inspections should be made at least once a month of all substations, with reports given to the board of directors in a Key Per- formance Area Report (KPAR). The main purposes should be to: 1. Recognize conditions which might cause equipment damage, service interruptions or hazards to employees or the public. 2. Check the conditions and operation of devices needed for Substations — Page 69 voltage control and reliable operation. 3. Record load currents and other data required for engineering and operations. Annual inspections should include testing of insulating oil (for possible PCB contamination) and operations checks of circuit breakers, relays and control equipment. Substations are expensive. They can cost from $250,000 for a simple 69 KV to over $1 million depending on design and voltage. Systems should evaluate the feasibility for insuring all substations against vandalism, system failure or natural disasters. Functions of a Substation 1. Provide a distribution point as close as possible to a load center. 2. Provide a metering point for distribution power. 3. Provide protection for the power transformer and the transmission line. 4. Transform transmission voltage to distribution voltage. 5. Regulate voltage. Substations — Page 70 D The Substation: f Vy t} x 1B High Side Transformers to Low Side 69 KV Reduce Voltage 7.2KV Substations — Page 71 Substation Components and Their Uses Transmission Line — Supplies power to substation. Air-Break Switch — Serves as disconnect point between transmis- sion line and substation. Lightning Arrestor — Protects the substation from high voltage surges. High-Side Fuse — Fuse that serves to protect the high voltage side of the substation. Power Transformer — Regulator that transforms transmission voltage to distribution voltage and maintains a constant outgoing voltage. Air-Break Switch Operating Handle — Opens and closes air- break switch. Voltage Regulator Panel — Indicates tap position, voltage, time delay, relay position and resistance and reactance compensation settings. Transformer-Regulator Indicator Gauge — Indicates tempera- ture and oil level. Potential Transformer — Supplies potential to kilowatt-hour meter. Current Transformer — Supplies proportionate amount of line current to meter. Metering Cabinet — Houses meters for substation. Instantaneous Ammeter — Shows amperage on each phase. . Demand Meter — Shows the highest amount of current required and the time it was required. Kilowatt-Hour Meter — Shows the kilowatt-hours registered. Bus Bar — Heavy conductor made of copper or aluminum wire which distributes power to each bay of the substation. Substations — Page 72 Substation Bay — Houses three lightning arrestors, three by-pass switches and three oil circuit reclosers. Substation Ground — Connects substation and substation fence to grounding grid. Grounding Grid — Buried metal mat or conductor under and around a substation. By-Pass Switch — Switch which changes current flow around a piece of equipment. Oil Current Recloser — Switch which protects the substation transformer from short circuits on distribution lines. Bay — Section of a substation which contains one secondary three- phase circuit. Disconnect Switch — Switch used for heavy loads when taking circuit in or out of service. Substations — Page 73 D Substation — High Side Components of the high side of a substation: D. High-Side Fuse A. Transmission Line SL See ( OK GNES XS Se eee B. Air-Break Switch C. Lightning Arrestor This portion of the substation is responsible for accepting high-voltage (69 KV or above, depending on transmission line and substation) from the transmission line. The substation is protected with high-side fuses in case of high voltage surges. Lightning arrestors protect the substation from high- voltage surges, especially from lightning. Substations — Page 74 F. Air-Break Switch Operating Handle (Note the CAUTION sign — Always put Safety First) Substations — Page 75 Substation Capacitor Bank Capacitors off-set the current losses and voltage drop caused by induction. Substations — Page 76 E. Power Transformers hh rm a 5 eo MS ee DS OS IS RS Se oe Oe . Pa ‘ee These power transformers are single-phase units rated at 69 KV each. The substation power trans- formation may be accomplished with one three-phase transformer unit. The power transformers reduce the transmission voltage from 69 KV to 7.2 KV. Substations — Page 77 G. Voltage Regulator Panel Voltage regulators maintain the voltage level within prescribed limits. The voltage regulator panel indicates tap position, voltage, time delay relay position and resistance and reactance compensation settings. The two round dials above the panel indicate temperature and level of oil. Substations — Page 78 D Substation — Low Side I. Potential Transformer K. Metering Cabinet 8 a J. Current Transformer Re oe wea v s M. Demand Meter L. Instantaneous Ammeter N. Kilowatt-Hour Meter The potential transformer supplies potential to kilowatt-hour meter. Current transformer supplies proportionate amount of line current to meter. The metering cabinet houses the meters for the substation. In this case, losses in power transformers are on the power supplier’s side. Inside the meter box, ihe metering equipment includes (1) instantaneous ammeter, which shows amperage on each phase; (2) demand meter, which shows the highest amount of current required and time it was required; and, (3) kilowatt-hour meter which shows the kilowatt-hours registered. Substations — Page 79 O. Bus Bars with Disconnect Switches Bus Bars are heavy conductors made of copper or aluminum wire which distribute power to each bay of the substation. Substations — Page 80 D P. Substation Bays C. Lightning Arrestor VY. Disconnect Switches T. Oil Circuit Recloser Lightning arrestors on the low side protect the substation the same as the high side. Oil circuit recloser is a switch which protects the substation transformer from short circuits on distribution lines. The disconnect switch is used to take a circuit off-line or put it on. (Note the lineman’s use of safety equipment.) Substations — Page 81 Q. Substation Ground R. Grounding Grid Each leg of the substation, as well as each section of fence, is solidly grounded to the ground grid under and around the substation. D Substations — Page 82 Safety Procedures in a Substation Working within and around substations can be one of the most hazardous jobs a lineman performs. Only experienced linemen, prop- erly trained, should be allowed to work in this environment. Never should a lineman work in a substation without qualified backup. When approaching live parts, do not approach or take any conduc- tive object within distances as follows: Nominal Voltage h Ph Distance (kV) (m) (ft) 1 to 34.5 0.66 2.0 46 0.8 2D 69 and 115 1.0 3.0 138 and 161 LI 3:5 230 16 5.0 345 251| U5 500 40 12.0 700 5.0 16.5 Precautions to observe within a substation: A. Do not go into a substation alone. B. Be alert to higher voltage, possible stray voltage and static elec- tricity stored in transformers immediately after taking off line. C. Do not store material in a substation. D. Keep substation gates locked except when working inside. E. Do not open high side fuses under load. F. Do not open air-break switch under load. G. Do not close by-pass switches except on oil circuit reclosers. Substations — Page 83 D How to Recognize | 1. Arcing Sound Possible Problems : ; Burning connection in station a Substatio Insulator breakdown Switch not properly closed 2. Excessive Heat in Transformer Transformer overload Insulation breakdown in windings Cooling fans inoperative 3. Broken Porcelain or Glass Insulator broken Lightning arrestor blown 4. Oil on Ground or Structure Leaking gasket on transformer or recloser Broken bushing on transformer or recloser Hole shot in transformer or recloser S Substations — Page 84 Important Points to Understand Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used one time. 1. Substation 7. High-Side Fuse 2. Low-Side Metering 8. Air-Break Switch 3. Grounding Grid 9. Transmission Line 4. Power Transformers 10. Station Arrestors 5. Oil Circuit Recloser 11. Voltage Drop 6. Regulators 12. Bus Bar Transforms transmission voltage to distribution voltage. Fuse which protects the transmission line from a short circuit in a substation. Switch designed to open a circuit which is not under heavy load. Switch which protects the substation transformer from short circuits on distribution lines. Line that carries high voltage to substation 69 KV and above. Regulates voltage on low side of substation within pre- scribed limits. Metering from power supplier that will cause the line loss in power transformers to be their expense, not the distribution system’s. Transformer that converts high voltages to distribution voltages. Buried metal mat or conductor under and around a substa- tion. Lightning arrestor designed to protect a substation trans- former from high voltage surges. Caused by additional load requirements by the consumer above the design of the utility plant that may cause equip- ment not to work properly. Heavy conductor or bar which distributes current in a substation. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 85 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground After completion of this chapter, the participant should have an understanding of overhead construction methods and the cost of differ- ent types of equipment and hardware used. Specific Objectives Types of Construction — Distribution System After completion of this chapter, the participant should be able to: 1. Understand terms associated with overhead and underground construction. 2. Identify types of construction used for distribution and transmission construction. 3. Review hardware, poles, conductor and transportation equipment commonly used in overhead and underground construction. 4. Identify clearance requirements for conductors. 5. Review underground subdivision design. Rural electric distribution cooperatives use four basic types of construction for distribution systems. The following grades of con- struction with a “V” prefix are 14.4/24.9-volt construction (REA Form 803). The construction diagram gives the material needed to construct the assembly and angle of construction acceptance. Any construction grade without the “V” designates 7.2/12.5-volt construction. Asa participant, it is important to understand that the cooperative must complete construction according to REA Engineering Specifications. The conformance to these specifications allows standardization throughout the program, the ability to assist other systems in time of need and reduction of material cost because of the standardization of inventory. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 86 VAI —- VBI - vcI - VDC-CI One primary conductor with one neutral conductor — usually referred to as single-phase. Two primary conductors with one neutral conductor — sometimes referred to as V-phase. Three primary conductors with one neutral conductor — usually referred to as three-phase. Six primary conductors with one neutral conductor — usually referred to as double circuit. See all four distribution construction designs together on page 92. Materials Used in Overhead Construction with Current Price per Unit (Note: A partial list of commonly used materials is given below. It does not contain all materials used in overhead construction. Prices will vary.) PRICE A. 5/8" x 10" Machine Bolt — Attaches hardware $ .82 and equipment to poles. B. 3/4" x 10" Machine Bolt — Used in heavier 1.75 distribution and transmission line construction for pole stubbing. C. 1/2" x 6" Machine Bolt — Used to bolt standard .62 crossarm braces to crossarm. D. 3/8" x 4-1/2" Carriage Bolt— Used to bolt stan- 31 dard crossarm braces to crossarm. E. 20" Double Arming Bolt — Used to bolt cross- 2.34 arms together when two or more crossarms are used. F. 5/8" x 10" Eye Bolt — Used where a dead end 2.65 in the primary or neutral is constructed. G. 5/8" x 10" Thimble Eye Bolt — Used with guy 2.10 wire on overhead guys. H. 5/8" Eye Nut — Used on the back side of an eye 1.62 bolt when a double dead end is constructed. I. 5/8" x 10" Upset Bolt — Used in the neutral 2.68 position on primary structure for attaching the neutral conductor. J. Double Upset Bolt — Used to hold conductor 3.18 and extended distance from pole. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 87 6 Pe eC Peeerr ere iter itt K. Dead-End Shoe — Used to secure a conductor Ted5) at a dead end. L. Clevis Swinging — Used to hold a spool 1.85 insulator. M. 3" Spool Insulator — Used with both large and .83 small clevises for service dead ends and neutral dead ends and on upset bolts. N. 3" Wire Holder — Used for screwing into wood 2.20 or clamping around pipe. O. 2-1/4" x 11/16" Square Washer — Used with .20 all bolts when nut does not tighten against other hardware. P. 5/8" Anchor Shackle — Used to connect eye Sy bolts or eye bolt and nut together. Q. Suspension Insulator (bell) — Used to dead 5.30 end or suspend conductor or angle poles or is hung below crossarm to suspend conductor on higher voltage systems. R. Anchor — Used with rod for attaching guy wire to 12.83 hold against conductor strain. S. Insulator Pin — Used on a crossarm to attach an 2.20 insulator. T. Connector — Connects conductors together that .78 are under strain. U. 5/8" Locknut — Used on all bolts. .15 V. 20" Pole Top Pin — Bolts to top of pole to hold 5.45 insulator. W. Butt Plate — Fastens to the bottom of a pole for a 4.20 ground. X. 8' Crossarm — 3-3/4" x 4-3/4" x 8' 14.82 Y. 10'Crossarm— 3-3/4" x 4-3/4" x 10! 19.26 Z. 60" Wood Brace 11.35/pair Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 88 Position of guy LL tit req'd.) Neutral MATERIAL o_| 1 linsutator, pin type b [1 [Pin, pole top Bolt singlalupset: insulated, (VAI (i Locknuts (VAIA only } 14.4/24.9 KV PRIMARY I— PHASE, 0? TO 5° ANGLE, SINGLE PRIMARY SUPPORT Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 89 Position of Guy when req'd. Specify VBIA for offset neutral assembly 0. MATERIAL 2 insulator, pin type Bolt, mochine, 5/8"x req'd. length i Bolt, corriage, 3/8'x 4 V2" j Screw, log, (/2"x 4" (VBI only) Wosher, square 2 1/4" Pin, crossorm, steel, 5/8’ x 14" Lh | 3 2 \_|Crossorm, 3 1/2" x 4 /2'x 8'-0" {i a ok [ii Locknuts 14.4/249 KV, TWO PHASE CROSSARM CONSTRUCTION, 0° TO 5° ANGLE SINGLE PRIMARY SUPPORT VBI,VBIA Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 90 Position of Guy when req'd. | | ee bs- Specify VCIB for offset neutral assembly MATERIAL NO. MATERIAL Insulotor, pin type | Broce, wood, 28" ie Pin, pole top, 20" 2 |Bolt, corrioge, V8" x 41/2" | | Bolt, machine, S/8'x req'd length Screw, log, /2"x 4", (VCt only) Wosher, square 2 1/4" MNEs Bolt, single upset, insuloted ,(VCI only) Pin, crossorm, steel, 5/8"x 14" {nH ra Locknuts Crossorm, 3 V2" x 4 1/2" x 8-0" lee i! [Bracket, offset, insulated, (VCIB only) rew,log, /2"04",(VCIB only) 144/249 KV, 3- PHASE CROSSARM CONSTRUCTION- SINGLE PRIMARY SUPPORT O TO 5° ANGLE Jan 1,1963 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 91 Bolt, machine, Ye x rea’d length Bolt, machine, /o" x req'd length Bg" xia" Ya" x10'-0" 144/249 KV, 3- PHASE CROSSARIA CONS TRUCTION-OOUBLE CIRCUIT SINGLE PRIMARY SUPPORT AT 0° TO S*ANGLE 2X-ARM TYPE Types of Construction Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 92 69 kV Do uble Circuit Single Pole Transmission Line Structures 69 kV Two Pole Single Circuit 69 kV Single Circuit Single Pole €6 e6eg — punosBiepun pue peayseno :uononsysuog Ayinn Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 94 Utility Poles The cost of utility poles makes up approximately 26 percent to 31 percent of the total utility plant (example only... your system may be the same or vary greatly). Purchasing quality poles is a necessity since they are depreciated up to thirty-five years. The following indicates what a pole is required to have upon purchase. With the cost of poles at 26 to 31 percent of the total utility plant, a close-up view on how utility poles are made should add to a better understanding for the necessity in buying quality wood products. In addition, system liability insurance, because of the number of poles, adds greatly to the total cost, especially if poles are not tested and replaced as needed. Pole Brand, Pole Gain and Drilling Specifications Preservative Creosote Treatments — Oil borne treatment — Lacks uniformity in retention period — Messy, black-colored Pentachlorophenol — Oil borne treatment — EPA is after penta — Clean, natural looking pole CCA — Water borne — Excellent preservative — “Hard” poles, crews dislike CCA poles — Natural looking poles Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 95 © Example of Costs | Length Class Price Length Class Price of Creosote Poles 25' C3 $50.00 30' C3 62.00 C4 44.80 C4 60.25 C5 39.80 C5 56.50 C6 36.60 C6 46.60 C7 29.00 C7 40.00 35) C2 100.00 40' Cl 133.50 C3 89.50 ie? 128.50 C4 85.00 G3 118.00 C5 75.00 C4 112.50 C6 63.00 GS 92.50 C7 51.25 C6 75.00 45' Cl 162.00 50' Cl 211.50 C2 148.00 C2 190.00 C3 132.40 C3 132.50 C4 124.50 C4 155.00 CS 109.25 ab Cl 258.00 60' Cl 332.50 2232.00 2S 20:50) C3 198.50 (C32 73:00) C4 170.00 CANN 243'50) Pole Setting The minimum depth for setting poles shall be as follows: Length of Setting in Setting in All Pole Soil Solid Rock 20 feet 4.0 feet 3.0 feet 25 5.0 35) 30 55) 355) 35 6.0 4.0 40 6.0 4.0 45 6.5 4.5 50 7.0 4.5 55 eS 5:0) 60 8.0 0 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 96 “Setting in Soil” specifications shall apply: a. Where poles are to be set in soil. b. Where there is a layer of soil of more than two feet in depth over solid rock. c. Where the hole in solid rock is not substantially vertical or the diameter of the hole at the surface of the rock exceeds approximately twice the diameter of the pole at the same level. “Setting in All Solid Rock” specifications shall apply where poles are to be set in solid rock and where the hole is substantially vertical, approximately uniform in diameter and large enough to permit the use of tamping bars the full depth of the hole. Where there is a layer of soil two feet or less in depth over solid tock, the depth of the hole shall be the depth of the soil in addition to the depth specified under “Setting in All Solid Rock” provided, how- ever, that such depth shall not exceed the depth specified under “Set- ting in Soil.” On sloping ground, the depth of the hole always shall be measured from the low side of the hole. Poles shall be set so that alternate crossarm gains face in opposite directions, except at terminals and dead ends where the gains of the last two poles shall be on the side facing the terminal or dead end. On unusually long spands, the poles shall be set so that the crossarm comes on the side of the pole away from the long span. Where pole top pins are used, they shall be on the opposite side of the pole from the gain, with the flat side against the poles. Poles shall be set in alignment and plumb except at corners, termi- nals, angles, junctions or other points of strain, where they shall be set and raked against the strain so that the conductors shall be in line. Poles shall be raked against the conductor strain not less than one inch for each ten feet of pole length nor more than two inches for each ten feet of pole after conductors are installed at the required tension. Pole backfill must be thoroughly tamped the full depth. Excess dirt must be banked around the pole. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 97 Pole Brand, Pole Gain, and Drilling Specifications Gain To Be Not, Over 1/2” Deep 1/2" Supplier's Monogram Month and Year Treated Scribe 2” Species, Preservative Code—#/CU. FT. Class—Length 10’ - 50° & Shorter 14’ - 55’ & Longer POLE BRANDS [ Butt Branded with Class and Length 6 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 98 Types of Conductors: Primary (Non-Insulated) The cost of various types of conductors makes up approximately 30 percent to 34 percent of the total utility plant (example only ... your system may be the same, or vary greatly). Sizing conductor properly is essential when performing construction for today and in future years. As a participant it is important to understand the proper sizing of conductor. Although a smaller size may save some money initially, proper sizing will save the organization big dollars over the life of the conductor in service reliability and even help to reduce line loss. Types of Conductors: CWC - Copperweld Copper Conductor — This conductor has been used in systems for many years. Again, this is being replaced with more efficient ACSR. This conductor, when exposed to extreme cold weather, will contract and break easier than ACSR. ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced — In recent years, ACSR conductor has been the primary conductor used in utility plants. The above two conductors are the primary conductors used in overhead construction for primary voltages. There are many sizes of each, depending on the capacity requirements. Some organizations standardize the size of conductors on their system for efficiency and ability to maintain fewer number of inventory items. You may find an organization with #4/0 ACSR as their backbone of the system coming from the substation on all three phase circuits, then dropping down to #1/0 for V-phase and single phase construction. Your consulting engineer or in-house professional electrical engineer will design the sizing of conductor in your long-range system plan. To give you some idea of conductor size costs and approximate current carrying capacity for ACSR and copperweld copper conductor, review the following charts. This should prove interesting, especially when you consider that your cooperative will have hundreds or even thousands of miles of conductor. Sizing of conductor relates directly to the basic electrical theory. 6 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 99 ACSR Conductors Copperweld Copper Conductors Voltage Drop Factors Current — Carry ni iz Price Capacity (Amperes) #4-7/1 Swanate $1.071/lb. 140 #2-6/1 Sparrow -985/lb. 180 #1/0-6/1 Raven 951/\b. 230 #2/0-6/1 Quail -856/lb. 270 #3/0-6/1 Pigeon .929/Ib. 300 #4/0-6/1 Penguin .933/b. 340 336.4 mcm — 18/1 Merlin 1.071/lb. 530 Current — Carry 8A $1.775/b. 100 Service Conductor — Cable that runs from transformer pole to meter- ing point. As with primary conductor, service conductor can come in various sizes and be utilized based on the sizing of the load. Service conductor has, as a weatherproofing, a coating of neoprene or of braided cotton saturated with an asphalt compound. n r Si Price #4 Triplex $ .272/ft. #2 Triplex -357/ft. #1/0 Triplex 554/ft. Conductors have a very low resistance to electricity flow. The cumulative effect of conducting electricity over long distances is increased resistance to current flow resulting in lower voltage as distance increases from the source. This is returned to as voltage drops. It is effected by the diameter and type of wire as well as the distance travelled. Voltage drop increases as wire size decreases and as length of wire increases. 90 percent Power Factor 7200 KVA Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 100 Copper Aluminum Capacity Size __Size -Amps- lg 26 _36 4/0 336 530 452 3/0 266 460 514 2/0 4/0 340 2.86 1.43 606 1/0 3/0 300 3.18 1.59 .701 2 1/0 230 4.22 2AM .966 4 2 180 5.45 2.72 1.38 6 4 140 7.36 3.68 2.03 8 6 100 10.30 5.15 3.03 Example: What is the voltage drop for a load of 1000 kW at the end of 2 miles of 39 #2 ACSR? Answer: 7 (1000 KW) (2 Miles) (1.38) = 1000 = 2.76 V How is conductor tied to the insulators, connected together in the middle of a span or rejoined when it breaks? Cooperatives use three basic methods to protect line conductor at supports: Price 1. Preformed Armor Rod $ 6.29 ea. 2. Armor Tape 228.75 /ewt or 2.29/Ib. 3. Preformed Tie 2.86 ea. When the conductor breaks or when joining ends of conductor in the middle of a span, the piece of hardware used is called a sleeve. Sleeves are designed for each type and size of conductor. The figure below shows a sleeve and procedure to install. Price #4 ACSR Sleeve $ 3.80 ea. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 101 Clearance of Overhead Conductors Directors are probably aware of conductor clearance problems more than any other because of potential liability problems or maybe from discussions in the board room about a farmer pulling down the conductor with his combine or an accident where a TV antenna blew over on the conductor during installation. The following will give a minimum clearances over roofs and from building walls, and clearance from ground for conductors. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 102 Methods To Protect Line Conductor At Supports Preformed Armor Rod Copper, Bronze, or Aluminum. Aluminum Rods are Used Only on Aluminum Conductor Neutral and Secondary Dead End Assembly Aluminum Conductor Only Preformed Tie. ” Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 103 __No4ACSR SLEEVE | +d ALUMINUM SLEEVE\_ Sleeves are morked to Cs 4D indicate conductor size STetl SLEEVE Se ef ESS SSS SSS AGSR READY FOR SPLICING Aluminum sleeve slipped bock on cable SSS Sooo Sree STEEL SLEEVE PRESSED Friction Tape ON STEEL CORE COMPLETED SPLICE DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING A.CS.R SPLICE | Slip Aluminum Sleeve on cable far enough back to be vut of the woy Cuf back Aluminum Strands ot end of cable Y"more thon holf the length of steel! sleeve 2 Insert steel core wires inthe steel! sleeve and press with inner groove of tool Press entire length of siseve starting atthe middie ond working toward the ends. Leove obout Ue" spoce between presses. 3 Straighten steel sleeve by hommering carefully against o suitable block 4.Ploce o piece of friction tope on the cable to mark the position of the end of the Aluminum sleeve such that if will be centered on the splice. 5 Clean conductor by wirebrushing, paint the stéel siceve and the adjacent cable that will be covered by the aluminum sleeve,with o surtable corrosion inhibitor. §.Slip the Aluminum sleeve in place ond press with the outer groove of tool using the same procedure os with the stael sleeve 7 Straighten entire splice by hommering carefully ogainst ao suitable block. 8 Splice shall not be within 10 feet of insulotor. SPLICING GUIDE-COMPRESSION TYPE ACSR_ CONDUCTOR Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 104 6 Clearance from Ground for Conductors 750 Volts or Less 16° 13° Over Roads, Streets, Alleys and Parking Lots Subject to Truck Traffic Over Residential Driveways and Commercial Areas not Subject to Truck Traffic Farm Land, Pasture, Forest, Orchards Spaces and Ways Accessible to Pedestrians Only Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 105 Minimum Clearance Over Roofs and from Building Walls 15,000 to 50,000 Volts 8.700 to 15,000 Volts Lf 750 to 8,700 Volts ik 0 to 750 Volts 10" i V Bs Building Wall Wall Side Clearance Building Roof (Accessible to Pedestrians ) Vertical Clearance a Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 106 6 Overhead: Cost of In order to make a utility plant operate in an efficient manner, a Mile of Line things must come together in a coordinated effort. Many people ask what a mile of line should cost. The following are examples only. Costs at your system will vary according to terrain, conductor size and labor cost. Single Phase 3-Phase Colorado (mountains) $ 20,500 $ 42,100 Texas (west, open country) $ 11,800 $ 12,200 Nebraska (open country) $ 7,400 $ 13,200 Ohio (woods) $ 18,500 $ 34,000 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 107 6 Major Equipment Used in Overhead Construction Hole Digger Derrick — Digs pole and anchor holes; sets and pulls poles. $82,000 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 108 6 Pole Truck and Trailer — Carries poles and materials to job site. Price $55,400 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 109 6 Conductor-Stringing Trailer — Carries reels of primary and service conductor to job site. Price $27,585 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 110 6 Bucket Truck — Assists linemen in reaching and working near energized conductors. Price Small $26,300 Price Large $67,000 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 111 6 Portable Substation — Used in case substation transformer is not functioning. Price $478,966 138 KV 25,000 KVA 6 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 112 Underground Conductor There are two major types of underground conductor: 15 Service or Secondary Cable — Underground cable that runs from the transformer or pedestal to metering point. The ditch for service conductor in some cooperatives may be up to 36 inches deep with some systems requiring a conduit. It must be buried at least 24 inches deep. Primary Cable — High voltage cable which runs from source of power to transformer or protective equipment. Primary cable is usually buried 36 to 42 inches deep. Type Price 4/0 URD 600 V R/N $ .86/ft. Sweetbriar #2 Solid Alum 15KV URR .62/ft. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 113 Secondary And Service Cable Primary Cable Concentric Neutral NI Insulation Conductor Semi-Conducting Material Strand Shield Outer Semi-Conducting Jacket Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 114 Underground Distribution for Mobile Park or Subdivision When a developer comes to the cooperative starting a new subdivi- sion prior to the sale of any lots, utility personnel sometimes gets a little skeptical because many have built services and the project never developed. The cooperative should have well-defined line extension policies for individuals requiring different classes of service as well as developers if under the regulation of a commission. For those not under a commission, a set policy for line extension is a must. Note: Concerning the overhead power source, or take-off point, of the underground distribution system, it is important to recognize that power may be fed from point A or B or both. If fed from both points, line will be open at point C. Underground Distribution System Cp +— Overhead Power Source Primary O Transformer —---— Secondary 4 Pedestal aelelereisiele Service SLL o6eg — punosBiapup pue peaysano :uononsjsuog Ann Power may be fed from point “A” or “B”’ or both. If fed from both points, line will be open at point “C’’. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 116 6 Underground: In order to make a utility plant operate in an efficient manner, Cost of a Mile things must come together in a coordinated effort. Many people ask of Line what a mile of line should cost. The following are examples only. Costs at your system will vary according to terrain, conductor size and labor cost. Single Phase 3-Phase Colorado (mountains) $ 63,000 $ 105,000 Texas (west, open country) $ 14,100 $ 20,300 Nebraska (open country) $ 12,000 $ 28,000 Ohio (woods) $ 25,000 $ 46,000 Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 117 Terms and A. Service Cable — Underground cable which runs from transformer Definitions or pedestal to metering point. B. Secondary Cable — Heavy underground cable which runs from transformer to pedestal. C. Primary Cable — High-voltage cable which runs from source of power to transformer or protective equipment. D. Riser — Length of conduit installed on a pole or on a building to protect underground cable above the ground. E. Pedestal — Buried or partially buried enclosure used as a point of connection for secondary and service cable. F, Terminator — Unit installed on the ends of primary cable. G. Concentric Neutral — Conductor spiraled around insulation con- ductor or conductors in both high- and low-voltage cable. (NOTE: The concentric neutral may be either a round wire or flat strap conductor.) H. Underground Distribution System — Area of housing or business fed by underground power lines. I. Switching Cabinet — Metal enclosure which contains equipment for changing circuit feeds or loads from one circuit to another. J. Vault — Fiber or concrete enclosure installed below grade to house transformer or switching gear. K. Feed-Through Bushing — Bushing used on transformers and switching gear for connecting elbow terminators. (Note: It is often called a “flower pot.”) Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 118 6 Important Points Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used to Understand: one time. Overhead Construction 1. Approved Material List 12. Construction Units 2. Replacement 13. Utility Poles 3. Safety and Training Program 14. Creosote 4. REA Engineering Specifications 15. Pole Brand 5. Average Cost 16. Class 5 Pole 6. Special Equipment 17. Voltage Drop 7. Phase 18. Carrying Capacity 8. Line Loss (amps) 9. Protective Ground 19. 16 feet 10. Grounding 20. Service Conductor 11. HH 21. Neutral Conductor 22. Sleeve ___ a._- Ground installed to protect persons which may come in contact with equipment. ____b.._ Indicates on pole; class-length of pole, suppliers monogram, month and year treated, species and preservative. ___c._:- Single, two-phase, three-phase and underbuilt are all differ- ent styles of ___ d..-s Carries current flow. ___ e.._:~ Proper sizing of conductor will help reduce ___ f.._- Used to splice two conductors together. _____g._: Process to prevent injury, protect lines and equipment and drain unwanted voltage and current. ___—h. A treatment used for wood poles, penta and CCA are two others. ____ i. Makes up between 26 percent to 31 percent of the total utility plant. ____ j._ Indicates 3-phase primary line on system maps. ____k. Most overhead conductor (ACSR) is not insulated. Type of conductor that is insulated. __ 1. Minimum clearance from ground for 750 volts or less over roads, streets, etc. ____ m. One consideration in sizing the proper conductor. n. A 35 foot pole would measure at least 19" circumference at the top and at least 29" circumference 6' from the butt. Its class is Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 119 . A hot line is called ___ p._ All material used by an REA cooperative must be listed on an ; q. When material is salvaged, it must be brought back into stock at the rt. Board of directors is responsible to assure the cooperative has a s. Difference between kWh purchased and sold. t. A cooperative classifies construction as new, service, under- ground or u. All cooperatives must construct lines and equipment accord- ing to v. Equipment that is capitalized and put into utility plant along with first time installation charges and freight is known as Underground Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used Construction one time. 1. Corrosion 6. Primary Cable 2. Line Extension Policy 7. Riser 3. Aid to Construction 8. Pedestal 4. Service Cable 9. Padmount Transformer 5. Secondary Cable 10. Conduit a. High-voltage cable which runs from source of power to transformer or protective equipment. b. Written document that explains number of feet and cost for installing electric service. c. Buried or partially buried enclosure used as a point of con- nection for secondary and service cable. d. Underground cable which runs from transformer or pedestal to metering point. e. Underground conductor is placed in when conductor is under driveways, walks, etc., for ease of possible replace- ment. f. Transformer that sets on concrete or fiberglass pad on the ground. Utility Construction: Overhead and Underground — Page 120 g. Amount of money paid by consumer, either refundable or not, depending on cooperative policy. h. Process where the concentric neutral around underground conductor deteriorates. i. Heavy underground cable which runs from transformer to pedestal. ___— j._-—« Length of conduit installed on a pole or on a building to protect underground cable above the ground. Understanding Electric Utility Operations — Page 121 Maintenance Programs for the Total System After completion of the chapter, the participant should have an understanding of the importance of all maintenance programs as well as methods for establishing and maintaining routine maintenance procedures. Specific After completion of this chapter, the participant should be able to: Objectives MUI l 1. Understand the need for a continuing program of system mainte- nance for: Distribution Lines Pole Inspections Line Equipment Maintenance PCB Inspection Meter Testing Substation Maintenance Right-of-Way Maintenance =n 9=BOlS_ 2. Identify specific areas that will cost more in the long run if mainte- nance is not performed. Maintenance Programs for the Total System A cooperative needs a systematic method of inspecting and check- ing the condition of the electric system. The National Electrical Safety Code Requires that electrical lines and equipment be tested adequately to insure public safety (Article 214). The maintenance programs should consist of right-of-way reclear- ing, pole treating and inspection, equipment inspections, substation inspections, line inspections and transportation equipment. Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 122 Distribution Lines A cooperative’s electric lines are probably the hardest item to maintain a vigilant check on due to the number of miles of line in- volved. Each cooperative participant should be expected to observe the electric lines as they perform their daily tasks. It is imperative for reliability and liability reasons that someone be routinely inspecting the electric system. When a maintenance problem has been defined, immediate action to correct the problem should take place. Pole Inspections Poles should be inspected and treated on a regular basis to prolong pole life. REA Bulletin 161-4 is an excellent document on pole treat- ing and inspection. Pole Life Years Untreated southern yellow pine 3 years Treated southern pine 25 years Treated and retreated every 10 years 10 years Reason for Decay Poles are a food source for fungi and insects. Moisture, oxygen, food and either fungi or insects are needed to cause decay. Preserva- tives merely “poison” the food source of the fungi and insects. Inspection Area Years Schedules Southeast 8-12 years North and Central 10-12 years Western 12-15 years Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 123 U Inspection 1. Treat any poles when installed if the pole has been in the yard for a Procedures year or longer. 2. Groundline inspect (18" below groundline) all poles over 10 years old. Treat with a preservative past. 3. Bore and pour any pole that cannot be groundline treated. Line Equipment Line Regulators Maintenance a Schedule ‘alibration yearly Inspection/Oil filtering 3 years (50,000 operations) Visual inspection monthly Line OCRS and Oil Swite! Inspect, record operations and replace oil 3 years Capacitor Banks (only visual inspections are required for capacitor banks.) Fixed banks annually Switched banks semi-annually PCB Inspections Polychlorinated Biphenyl oil-filled equipment requires special handling. For reference, NRECA has developed a PCB Operations Manual. Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 124 Oil Test Oil testing is critical to proper operation of high voltage electrical equipment. Ideally, oil should be tested yearly in all oil-filled equip- ment; realistically most equipment can “survive” a three-year test cycle which most cooperatives can schedule. The exception is transmission equipment and substation transformers which need to be tested yearly. The following tests are most important: 1. Dielectric Test — Shows whether the oil is electrically safe to use and is mainly affected by contamination such as trash and free water. ¢ Oil dielectric should be greater than 23KV. 2. Neutralization Number — This test measures the acidity of the oil, which is the standard method of determining the oxidation reaction of the oil. The by-products of oxidation will remain dissolved in the oil unit until it has all it can hold, then the oxidation by-prod- ucts will deposit in the form of a heavy sludge. ¢ Neutralization number (acidity) should be less than .16 mg/koh/g. 3. Interfacial Tension — This is the most sensitive test for early deterioration of oil. It is similar to the neutralization test in that it also measures levels of oxidation. It is a good indication of oil’s ability to hold water. ¢ IFT should be greater than 24 dynes/cm. 4. Color — Visual check for contaminates. Meter Testing A firm cycle for testing of all meters needs to be developed. Me- ters are your cash registers. If your cooperative operates under a public utility commission, guidelines for testing meters have been established. 3-Phase large industrial yearly Single phase residential 8 — 10 year cycle Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 125 Substation Substation maintenance schedules should include the following: Maintenance . Schedules Visually Inspect and record data monthly Breaker trip check yearly Breaker inspection every 3 years Relay test every 3 years Regulator inspection every 3 years Regulator control calibration yearly Oil filtering every 3 years Voltage check monthly Right-of-Way A definite schedule for right-of-way reclearing should be estab- Maintenance lished and followed to help insure a reliable and safe electrical system. Right-of-way reclearing will consist of ground line reclearing, tree trimming or chemical spraying. There are three methods of right-of- way clearing. In properly preparing a right-of-way maintenance program, the advantages and disadvantages of each of the following three methods should be considered: Hand Clearing Hand clearing requires little investment in equipment, can be done near any type of crop, utilizes casual labor and presents less terrain limitations that would be involved with equipment other than hand tools. This method may be more hazardous to workmen due to the frequency of accidents involving hand tools, felling trees and working over rough terrain. This method is most expensive in man-hours per acre. More selectivity can be employed if the workmen are trained to remove only undesirable species. These can be cut before they grow to an unobjectionable size leaving low growing plant species. This also Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 126 solves, in many cases, the problem of brush disposal in that the low growing species will mask the cut brush. Cut stumps may be herbicide-treated to prevent resprouting. If herbicide stump spraying is not employed, resprouting may compound the right-of-way problems in a year or two. Mechanical Clearing Mechanical clearing can be done with various types of equipment and can leave a clear right-of-way. Bulldozers have been used for complete tree removal. Total clearing of the right-of-way is, in many instances, not environmentally acceptable in that it removes plant life indiscriminately, leaves the soil susceptible to erosion or requires re- establishing a grass or low shrub cover. Mowing with bush hogs or heavy chipping machines gives uniform mown appearance. In some areas a mown appearance may look artificial as contrasted to low shrub growth. Mowing usually requires two to three mowings per season. Brush can no longer be disposed of by burning in many areas, and with either hand cutting or mechanical clearing, it may have to be disposed of by chipping. The chips should be spread rather than left in piles. Piles of chips are unsightly, can ignite by spontaneous combus- tion and do not serve to provide erosion control. Large trunks can sometimes be sold as saw logs, pulpwood or firewood. When these methods are not feasible, the logs should be left in locations so as not to interfere with access to the right-of-way by utility vehicles. Chemical Control Chemical control offers a variety of methods which may be used for complete control, or which may be combined with cutting methods. It permits fast coverage per unit of area, provides for long-term control of undesirable vegetation, permits selectivity in allowing desirable vegetation to remain and can be versatile in application techniques to best suit the prevailing conditions. Chemical right-of-way control is subject to Federal, state and local regulations. Compliance with these regulations requires time and effort to educate and qualify applicators. These regulations are usually available from the local county agent. Due to continuing and frequent Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 127 changes in the Federal and state laws governing herbicides, the services of a licensed, registered contractor are recommended. Applicators are required to pass tests and be certified. These tests encompass herbicide effectiveness, restrictions in use, handling, disposal and safety proce- dures of application. In addition, the contractor should assume liability for damage to field crops or adjacent properties. Herbicides are registered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for control of weeds and brush on the right-of-way. They are subject to several Federal restrictions regarding application around homes, lakes, ponds, ditch banks, on recreational areas and on all food crops. These Federal restrictions are printed on the label of the con- tainer of any herbicide which is shipped in interstate commerce and should be followed explicitly. Other fundamental restrictions such as the control of chemical sprays to prevent drift damage to sensitive crops have applied for many years. Much of the public reaction against chemical methods of right-of- way control is generated by the aesthetics. Brownout of the foliage as it dies appears to be a major problem in this regard. The effects of brownout can be minimized by selecting, implementing and timing of the proper technique. Typical Cycle Bush Hogging 2-1/2 years Tree Trimming 5 years Hot Spot Trimming 2-1/2 years Fence Row Herbicide 5 years Chemical Spraying 4 years Calculations have shown that a mile of line recleared in conven- tional trimming method costs approximately $1,650 per mile; while aerial spraying with side trimming costs about $65 per mile; and spraying by tractor is $75 per mile. (Examples only ... actual costs will vary based on your system’s terrain and the last time the right-of-way was cleared.) Clearing by traditional methods versus chemical is a decision for individual systems. In addition to manual clearing, the equipment on the following page are a sample of equipment used for ground clearing. Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 128 Bush Hog $6,185 Kershaw $109,345 Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 129 O & M Survey REA requires an operations and maintenance survey at least every three years as part of the support for a Construction Work Plan Loan. The O & M survey is not a comprehensive maintenance program, but a spot check of how well a cooperative’s maintenance programs are working. Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 130 BEFORE CLEARING CLEARING RIGHT-OF-WAY GUIDE ea alte —————— eee | Jon |, 1962 US GOVERNMENT FRINTING OFFICE 1975 O- 576-123 For sale by the Superintendent +f Documents US Government Printing Office Washington DC 20402 Prue 230 Stock Number 001 010-00014-0 Catalog Number A be 2 ( 76/8/969 « ° 2 rr) oa n Before Trimming Right Way Wrong Way 30IND ONINWINL 33YL Note No parts of tree should be closer than 6'-0" from open wiring Trimming should leave tree with symmetrical appearance LEL ebeg — wajshsg /e}0] 9y} 10} swesHoig eoUeUB}UIeEW U Maintenance Programs for the Total System — Page 132 Important Points to Understand Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used one time. 1. Maintenance Expense 7. Maintenance 2. Ground Level Pole Treatment Right-of-Way 3. Insects 8. Chemical Control 4. Regulator 9. Minimum 5. Key Indicators Right-of-Way 6. PCBs 10. Breaker a. Without proper maintenance of this area, it will cost the cooperative in outages and line loss. b. Report developed by management and reported to board of directors that measure performance against standards. c. Cost that affects current operating statement. d. When your lights blink three times before going out, the system is trying to clear the problem. e. Least expensive way to maintain right-of-way once it has been cut. f. The cooperative is responsible to assure that a policy has been developed concerning handling and disposal of _____ g._- Process of retreating ground portion of poles in order to extend their life span. h. Equipment that maintains voltage within a prescribed limit. Equipment should be check annually. i. Cooperative distribution lines should have a minimum of 10 feet on both sides of the pole. ____—j._~—« Poles decay because of fungi and Special Equipment — Page 133 Special Equipment Special Equipment After completion of this chapter, the employee should have an understanding of special equipment used in the utility system. The employee should be able to understand the difference between inven- tory of materials (account 154) and special equipment that is capital- ized upon delivery. This chapter is divided into three sections: 1. Distribution Transformers 2. Other Special Equipment 3. Meters and Meter Application Special equipment is capitalized along with first time installation of labor cost plus transportation when received into the warehouse, unlike other construction materials which are capitalized when they are used in a work order. Special equipment is treated this way because it can be moved around the system fairly easily. A transformer may be used in several locations during its life, unlike poles which usually remain in the same place once installed. Special Equipment — Page 134 Section One: Distribution Transformers After completion of this section, the employees should have an understanding of distribution transformers, terms, types and functions. Specific Objectives Terms and Definitions After completion of this section, the employee should be able to: 1. Understand terms associated with transformers. 2. Understand functions of a transformer. 3. Be able to list the parts of CSP transformer. 4. Know the kinds of transformers. 5. Know the types of transformers. 6. Know whether to buy new transformers or rebuilt transformers. A. Transformer Tank — Metal enclosure which houses the trans- former core, coils and cooling oil. B. High-Voltage Bushing — Bushing made of porcelain or other nonconductive material which insulates high voltage from the transformer tank. C. Low-Voltage Bushing — Bushing made of nonconductive material which insulates the low voltage from the transformer tank. D. CSP Transformer — Transformer which has a built-in, low- voltage circuit breaker. CSP stands for “contains self-protection.” E. Conventional Transformer — Transformer installed with an external fuse for protection. Conventional transformers may have more than one high-voltage bushing. Special Equipment — Page 135 F. Core and Coil Assembly — Unit composed of primary and secon- dary windings on a laminated metal core. G. KVA (kilovolt-ampere) — Rating of a transformer. KVA is the apparent power rather than the true power. KVA is found by multiplying the secondary voltage by the full load amperes and dividing by 1000. H. Impedance — Opposition to current flow in an alternating current circuit. I. Primary Winding — Winding to which voltage is applied. J. Secondary Winding — Winding from which voltage is taken. K. Tap Changer — Unit in some transformers which increases or decreases the number of turns on the primary winding. L. Transformer Oil — Oil used in transformer tank to insulate and cool core and coil assembly. M. Transformer-Turns Ratio — Turns on the primary winding related to turns on the secondary winding. Example: 7200-volt primary 120-volt secondary Ratio = 60 to 1 7200. _ 1290 = 60 N. Polarity — Indicates direction of current flow through the primary winding with respect to the director of current flow through the secondary winding. Special Equipment — Page 136 Distribution Transformers 1 The cost of various types of transformers is approximately 16 to 20 percent of the total utility plant. (Example only ... your system may be the same or vary greatly.) As with all the equipment used in electric distribution, choosing the right transformer is not just a “coin-flipping” decision. Functions of a Transformer Transfers current from one circuit to another with no physical connection. Transforms voltage from high voltage to low voltage. Example: Step-down transformer Transforms voltage from low voltage to high voltage. Example: Step-up transformer Parts of a CSP Transformer ATT Ramo > High-Voltage Bushing Low-Voltage Bushing Low-Voltage Low-Voltage Lead Transformer Tank Transformer Coil Tank Grounding Lug Internal High-Voltage Fuse Lightning Arrestor Low-Voltage Circuit Breaker Reset Handle Transformer Core Additive and Subtractive Polarity A. Additive Polarity — Current flowing in one direction in the primary winding and in the opposite direction in the secondary winding. Subtractive Polarity — Current flowing in the same direction in both primary and secondary windings. Kinds of Transformers A. B. Oil-Cooled Air-Cooled Special Equipment — Page 137 5. Types of Transformers A. Pole Mount — Oil-cooled transformer with side-mounted hang- ers installed on a pole. B. Padmount — Oil-cooled transformer installed on a plastic or concrete pad in commercial or residential underground distribu- tion system. C. Submersible — Oil-cooled transformer installed in a concrete or fiber vault for residential distribution. D. Direct Buried — Oil-cooled transformer buried in the soil and used for residential distribution. E. Potential Transformer — Air-cooled transformer used to reduce voltage for testing or metering purposes. (NOTE: Potential transformers are sometimes referred to as instrument trans- formers.) F, Current Transformer — Air-cooled transformer used with meter- ing equipment. G. Autotransformer — Oil-cooled transformer in which the primary and secondary have a common winding. (NOTE: Autotrans- formers are most efficient when the voltage difference between the primary and secondary is not great.) 6. Oil-Cooled and Air-Cooled Transformers A. Oil-cooled 1. Pole Mount Example: CSP or conventional 2. Padmount 3. Submersible 4. Direct Buried 5. Autotransformer B. Air-Cooled 1. Potential 2. Current a. High-Voltage b. Low-Voltage 7. Anew 12470 GRD Y/7200 to 120/240 15 KVA CSP costs approxi- mately $465.00. A rebuilt unit from and REA authorized repair facility can be used. Both transformers meet the minimum require- Pole Distribution Transformers Special Equipment — Page 138 ments of REA. REA will lend money to buy rebuilt units, as well as new ones. Another factor in your selection of distribution transformers deals with transformer loss evaluations which can help a cooperative lower total system losses. PRICE 10 KVA Conventional $ 347.00 10 KVA CSP $ 404.00 15 KVA Conventional $ 408.00 15 KVA CSP $ 465.00 25 KVA Conventional $ 494.00 25 KVA CSP $ 550.00 Depending on the size of the load, the cooperative may select different sizes of transformers. Sometimes the load will require a bank of trans- formers as in the following pictures serving a water pumping station. Special Equipment — Page 139 Padmount Distribution Transformer PRICE 25 KVA Single-Phase $749.00 500 KVA Three-Phase $7,000.00 Parts Of CSP Transformer High-Voltage Bushing Sia Internal High-Voltage Fuse Lightning Arrester Low-Voltage Circuit Low-Voltage Circuit Breaker Breaker Reset Handle Low-Voltage Leads Transformer Tank Transformer Coils Tank Grounding Lug OIL COVERS CORE AND COIL ASSEMBLY Ovl e6eg — uawidinbg je1l9eds Oil-Cooled Transformers Pole Mount (CSP or Conventional) Submersible Direct Buried Pad Mount Autotransformer LpL e6eg — JUewdinby je1seds POTENTIAL High Voltage Air-Cooled Transformers CURRENT Low Voltage High Voltage Zyl ebeg — Juswdinbg je19eds Special Equipment — Page 143 Section Two: Other Special Equipment Materials other than poles, conductor, transformers and meters, can range from complex in design to basic in function. However, this variety of other types of materials and/or equipment can amount to 14 percent to 21 percent of the total utility plant. (Example only ... your system may be the same or vary greatly.) It is, therefore, par- ticularly important for the employee to be able to recognize special equipment. Special Equipment — Page 144 Single-Phase Independent Operating Oil Circuit Breaker (OCR) — Each OCR is independent of the other in its operation. On VB phase line, you would have two OCRs; on VA you would have one OCR. Special Equipment — Page 145 Voltage Regulator — Maintains a system voltage level within prescribed limits. In reality, the volt- age level is determined by the limits set for voltage delivered to the consumer’s meter — 114 to 126 volts as set forth in the ANSI Standards. Allowing for distribution transformer and service connec- tion drops, the corresponding limits of 118 to 126 volts are established for the primary line. Voltage Regulators can be on single-phase line, V-phase or as the picture indicates, three-phase. Special Equipment — Page 146 Capacitor — Offsets the current losses and voltage drop caused by induction. Capacitors can be used to improve a system’s power factor which can lower billing charges and free-up system capacity. Capacitors can also reduce voltage drop on a feeder. Capacitors: use power factor improvement, reduce voltage drop, free-up system capacity, reduce line and transformer losses, and improve efficiency of substation transformers. WPYWNE Special Equipment — Page 147 Section Three: Meters and Meter Applications After completion of this section, the employee should have an understanding of metering terms and symbols. The employee should be able to select meters for various applications and be able to explain how a meter functions. Specific After completion of this section, the employee should be able to: Objectives Ms 25 Identify types of meters used on different types of services. List general types of meters. List classes of meters and the current carrying capacity of each. Identify meter voltage ratings to types of services. Understand the correct procedure for selecting a meter. Understand terms associated with metering. Special Equipment — Page 148 Terms and | A. Power — Rate at which an electrical circuit performs work. Definitions B. Energy — Power multiplied by time. Example: Power in a circuit = 5 kW Amount of time power is used = 2 hours 2 x 5 = 10 kilowatt-hours Watt-Hour Meter — Instrument which measures electrical energy. Register — Gear train arranged to count the revolutions of a meter disc. Watt-Hour — One watt for one hour. Kilowatt-Hour — One thousand watts for one hour. Stator — Stationary part of a meter which prodnces a magnetic flux that causes the meter disc to turn. Damping System — Magnet or magnets which cause a retarding force on the meter disc. Demand — Power requirements (kW) over a period of time, usually 15, 30 or 60 minutes. Detent — Device installed on a meter to prevent the meter from running backwards; then current flow through the meter is re- versed. Uni-Directional Register — Meter register which registers energy even if meter is installed upside down. Potential Indicator — Small lamp that indicates the presence of voltage on the potential coil. Polyphase Meter — Combination of single-phase meter stators in a single unit. Class — Maximum current-carrying capability of a meter. Special Equipment — Page 149 Q. Self-Contained Meter — Meter which carries entire load of cur- rent through its current coils. P. Transformer-Rated Meter — Meter that is used with current transformers to measure electrical energy. Q._ K, (Meter Constant) — Watt-hours per revolution of the meter disc. R._ R, (Register Ratio) — Ratio of revolutions of the first register shaft to each revolution of the first pointer shaft. S. First Reduction — Ratio of revolutions of the meter disc to one revolution of the first register shaft. T. Current Transformer Ratio — Relationship of current flow through a current transformer to the output current. Example: Current transformer rating 200 to 5 Ratio = Current capacity divided by output current a = 40 to 1 ratio (NOTE: A current flow through a 200 to 5 current transformer of 40 amperes will induce one ampere of output current which flows through and is registered by the kilowatt-hour meter. The meter reading would be multiplied by 40 to get the correct amount of energy used.) Metering The cost of various types of meters make up approximately 2 to 5 Equipment percent of the total utility plant. (Example only ... your system may be the same or vary greatly.) Although this percentage may seem small, the importance of the metering equipment is vital and proper selection and installation is a “must.” 1. General Types of Meters A. Self-Contained B. Transformer-Rated Special Equipment — Page 150 A. B. A. B. ie DD} Aw > 2. Meter Types by Base Construction Socket Base (“S” Base) Bottom Connected (“‘A” Base) 3. Meter Classes and Current Carrying Capacities Class 10 - Maximum Current of 10 Amperes Class 20 — Maximum Current of 20 Amperes Class 100 — Maximum Current of 100 Amperes Class 200 — Maximum Current of 200 Amperes 4. Meter Coordination with Service Types Single-Phase, Two-Wire Service — Use Two-Wire Meter Single-Phase, Three-Wire Service — Use Three-Wire Meter Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Service — Use Three-Wire Delta Meter Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta Service — Use Four-Wire Delta Meter Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Service — Use Four-Wire Wye Meter 5. Voltage Rating of Meters for Various Services A. Single-Phase, Two-Wire Service — Voltage rating is the same as phase-to-ground voltage of service. Example: 120 volt, two-wire service uses 120-volt, two- wire meter. Single-Phase, Three-Wire Service — Voltage rating is the same as phase-to-phase voltage of service. Example: 120/240-volt, three-wire service uses 240-volt, three-wire meter. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Service — Voltage rating is phase-to-phase voltage of service. Example: 480-volt, three-wire, three-phase services uses 480-volt, three-wire, three-phase meter. Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta Service — Voltage rating is the same as phase-to-phase voltage of service. Example: 120/240-volt, four-wire services uses 240-volt, four-wire meter. Special Equipment — Page 151 Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Service — Voltage rating is the same as phase-to-ground voltage of service. Example: 120/208-volt, four-wire services uses 120-volt, four-wire wye meter; 277/480-volt, four-wire wye services uses 240-volt, four-wire wye meter. Current Transformer Metering Uses Loads greater than 200 amperes Voltages of 480 or higher Locations where it would be impractical to install a large metering conductor. . Uses of Self-Contained Meters Loads of 200 amperes or less Voltages of 480 or less (NOTE: It is recommended that current transformer metering be used on 480-volt services; however, 480-volt, self-contained meters are used on small 480-volt loads.) . Procedure for Selecting Correct Meter A. Bs Determine class of meter needed B. Determine voltage to be metered Cc D. Determine phase of meter Example: Single or Three . Determine Service Connection Example: Wye or Delta Determine Wires of Meter Example: 2,3,4 Methods to Determine Correct Voltage Rating A. B. Wye-Connected Service — Meter voltage will be line-to-ground voltage of service. Delta-Connected Service — Meter voltage will be line-to-line voltage of service. (NOTE: An exception to the methods listed is the meter for 277/480-volt wye-connected service. Even though the line-to- Special Equipment — Page 152 ground voltage is 277 volts, the meter voltage for this applica- tion is 240 volts.) 10. Types of Services and Their Uses A. B. Two-Wire, Single-Phase 120-Volt Service — Billboards, shal- low well pumps and small dwellings. Three-Wire, Single-Phase 120/240-Volt Service — Most resi- dences and small industrial locations. PRICE: $32.50 Four-Wire, Three-Phase 120/240-Volt Delta Service — Resi- dences where three-phase power is needed for heating or air- conditioning and industrial locations where small, three-phase power is needed with large light loads. Three-Wire, Three-Phase 240- or 480-Volt Delta Service — Power loads only for oil field and irrigation pumps. Four-Wire, Three-Phase 120/208-Volt Wye Service — Apart- ment complexes where both light and power loads may be heavy. Four-Wire, Three-Phase 277/480-Volt Wye Service — Commer- cial and industrial areas where long circuit distances can be made with small conductor. Meter Register First Reduction Revolutions of worm drive “A” to one revolution of gear “B” (Usually 100 to 1 or 50 to 1) €S} e6eg — yuewidinbg jelseds Watt-Hour Meter Stator Potential Coil Line Voltage Lo ; Current Coil Line Load Potential Coil Magnetic Flux uh Current Coil Magnetic Flux SL e6eg — Juawidinbg jeiseds Gear Train Ta, *o Polyphase Meter SSL e6eg — Juewdinbg jelseds Register Ratio First Pointer Shatt C2 > R, Reduction From A To B 9S e6eg — Juewidinby jelseds Special Equipment — Page 157 Methods to Steal Some methods of electricity theft which have been detected include: Electricity by Altering the Meter 1) |The meter is inverted between reading cycles to show less con- sumption. 2. The “boots” installed on terminals when service is disconnected are removed or cut. 3. The glass cover is removed from the meter and dials are physically turned back. 4. A stolen meter is installed between cycles so that limited con- sumption is registered on the meter assigned to the account. 5. The meter is by-passed with jumpers before energy reaches the meter. This is sometimes accomplished in the attic or the base- ment of a residence at the weather head. 6. Jumper wires are installed inside the meter so that it does not register accurately. 7. A high resistance wire is installed inside the meter to replace the “potential lead” to reduce registration. 8. The internal lead seal, or T-seal, is removed and the calibration screw adjusted so that the meter registers inaccurately. 9. The cover of the meter is removed and the disc jammed, gears filed or the jewel in the disc shaft removed or damaged to prevent the meter from registering. 10. A hole is drilled in the glass cover and a foreign object inserted to jam the disc. 11. The glass cover is removed and foreign material is placed on the gears to slow or stop them from turning. (Example: candle wax, heavy grease) 12. The potential clip, on the back of the meter, used for testing is opened so that the meter does not register. 13. The meter is damaged to stop it from registering, and service continues. 14. “Time clock” or “switch” is wired into the potential clip on the back of the meter to control the amount of consumption registered. 15. Jumpers are installed in the meter base, parallel with the meter, wired to blocks, line to load, then meter replaced in socket. 16. Metering by-pass assembly engaged to divert current. 17. Jumpers installed in open base (no meter). Special Equipment — Page 158 ee a anaemia Warning Notice NoTIcE Used on Meters THIS METER IS LEGALLY SEALED DO NOT BREAK THIS SEAL Up To $500 FINE OR ONE YEAR IMPRISONMENT IS PROVIDED FOR ANYONE TAMPERING WITH THIS METER, BREAKING THIS SEAL OR ATTACHING ANY WIRE OR OTHER DEVICE WHICH WOULD PERMIT THE FLOW OF UNMETERED OR UNAUTHORIZED ELECTRICITY TO THESE PREMISES. IF SEAL IS BROKEN NOTIFY COOPERATIVE OFFICE. Special Equipment — Page 159 Important Points Match the terms to the correct definition. All answers can only be used to Understand one time. 1. Multiplier 6. CSP Transformer 2. System Peak Demand 7. Padmount Transformer 3. Class 8. KVA 4. Residential Meter 9. Core Loss 5. 2kWh 10. Conventional Transformer 11. Capacitor a. Maximum current carrying capability of a meter. b. Turning a meter upside down will allow electricity to the house and subtract for each kWh used. c. Transformer used in underground construction. d. Some meters indicate for each number registered on the meter, it actually means the consumers used 10-50-1000, etc., kWh. e. The highest period of power requirements (kW) over a period of time, usually 15, 30 or 60 minutes. f. Equipment used to offset the current losses and voltage drop caused by induction. ____ g._ Most commonly used meter — three-wire, single-phase, 120- 240 volt service. h. Transformer that requires adding an external fuse for protec- tion. i. A way to calculate the best transformer buy over a period of time. ____ j._- Transformer having its own internal breaker. k. Rating of a transformer. Cooperative Association ZY) National Rural Electric Management Services Department 1800 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 Phone (202) 857-9765