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HomeMy WebLinkAboutWestern Arctic Coal Development Project 1985 Department of Community and Regional Affairs 949 E. 36th Avenue, Suite 400, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 A Al P. i Alaska Native Foundation marge acer ity 733 W. 4th Avenue, Suite 2, Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Western Arctic _ Coal Development Project ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT eid gy Se ates ie e Fisk Se eA Eee ee cua as ao arctic slope consulting engineers December ,1985 Prepared for STATE OF ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY AND REGIONAL AFFAIRS and sen et ALASKA NATIVE FOUNDATION State Contract No. LG 210071 Western Arctic Coal Development Project ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT December, 1985 Prepared by S , HANSON ENVIRONMENTAL arctic ope RESEARCH SERVICES engineers arctic slope WESTERN ARCTIC COAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT aaa ting 313 E Street, Suite 3 S Anchorage, Alaska 99501 ‘A SUBSIDIARY OF ARCTIC SLOPE REGIONAL CORPORATION Telephone: (907) 274-4556 December 31, 1985 Ms. Jane Angvik, President 84034.01 Alaska Native Foundation 733 W. 4th Avenue, Suite 2 Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Subject: Western Arctic Coal Development Project Environmental Assessment Dear Ms. Angvik: Arctic Slope Consulting Engineers is pleased to submit this document of the Western Arctic Coal Development Project entitled, Environmental Assessment. This report represents an “environmental information document" of the environs and the proposed development at the Deadfall Syncline prospect site of the Western Arctic Coal Region. Excerpts from the text of this document appear in the Phase II Western Arctic Coal Development Project (WACDP) Final Report. This document will provide the resource agencies and other interested parties with the information necessary to evaluate the environmental implications of the proposed WACDP development, define further environmental information needs, and develop a permitting plan that will allow the orderly progression of the WACDP through the acquisition of necessary authorizations for project implementation. Although additional environmental information is needed in certain specific areas, results of the Environmental Assessment continues to indicate that there are no major environmental constraints to further consideration of the project. The Environmental Assessment presented by this document was conducted and prepared principally by Hanson Environmental Research Services (HERS). HERS efforts in the Environmental Assessment of the WACDP has been invaluable to the progress of both Phase I and II of the Project. Very truly yours, ARCTIC SLOPE CONSULTING ENGINEERS Western Arctic Coal Development Project ent M. Grinage Project Manager KMG:vk EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Overview of Study Results The Western Arctic Coal Development Project (WACDP) is an initiative by the State of Alaska to assess the feasibility of developing the appreciable coal resources of northern Alaska as an alternative fuel for communities in that region. Considerable new and pertinent information developed by the WACDP Component Impact Assessment Preliminary Report (HERS 1985b), the 1985 Summer Site Survey (HERS 1985c), and other reports from WACDP team members was integrated with the Draft Environmental Assessment (HERS 1985a). This provided an effective analysis of the environmental implications of WACDP components and practical approaches to mitigation where such was indicated. Results of careful assessment of preferred alternatives for project components continues to indicate that there are no major environmental constraints ("fatal flaws") to further consideration of the project; however, additional information is needed in certain specific areas. Vegetation types and landforms in a 24 square-mile area of the western portion of the WACDP environs were mapped during July 1985 by performing ground and aerial transects from the foothills near the USCGS Mormon benchmark (proposed mine site) and the Chukchi Sea. That information complements vegetation type maps of the eastern Deadfall Syncline (14 square miles) and the Cape Beaufort (= Cape Sabine) (16 square miles) areas completed last year. Aerial and ground surveys of wildlife resources in the WACDP environs during the July 1985 Summer Site Investigation provided valuable informa- tion on habitat utilization. Important staging areas for belukhas, brood-rearing and staging areas for waterfowl and shorebirds, and denning areas for arctic foxes were identified. The confirmation of Omalik Lagoon as a "perched" tundra thaw lake, with a surface elevation 3.5 ft above mean sea level, requires careful engineering and environmental considerations. = ii <= Inclusion of Point Lay village government and corporation officials in the surveys provided valuable input and comprehensive consideration of project plans. Biological costs to development were estimated by applying population densities of small mammals and birds reported in appropriate studies in northern Alaska to the habitat types expected to be impacted by WACDP components. It is anticipated that the values are reasonable and accept- able guidelines for resource agency judgments of WACDP implications. Highlights of Conclusions and Recommendations Integration of the considerable information developed by WACDP team members provided an effective analysis of the environmental implications of project components and practical approaches to mitigation. Expansion of the environmental data base for the project area and the focussing of the assessment by the screening and selection of preferred options and alter- natives for project components continues to indicate that there are no major environmental constraints ("fatal flaws") to further consideration of the project. Recommendations are made to (a) evaluate anadromous fish habitat in Kuchiak Creek; (b) estimate vital hydrological parameters in the Mormon Creek drainage; (c) ascertain soil behavior under site-specific conditions to evaluate erosion, transport by surface waters, and implications to revege- tation practices; (d) perform site-specific vegetation surveys; (e) determine the status of peregrine falcons in the project environs; (f) examine reported cultural resources in the vicinity of Omalik Lagoon; and (g) generally augment the environmental data base in areas of needed information for input to the Surface Coal Mining Program and other regula- tory agency requirements. - iii - ALASKA [">] WESTERN ARCTIC COAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT _ STUDY AREA SECTION 1.0 2.0 3.0 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Cover (Vegetation Type Map: Western Deadfall Syncline Area) COMET VOGRON ooo cos cicisinis © siein wc winicis se eiarnicicleivisisie'ele cleicivins © cisicl=¢ «cic i EX@EUCIVE SUMAN Y <<<. oe 15 0 cierels o1oie: c1a1s «iniciaicle\olcleleieisie'e do sie icisivin'«) sie ii PUG Gee FUN OS 010 ciclo 5 claiel= aigie'oiaie's elnisialclelaialeloisielclsieie' Wa sleleiele dolar vi LGERE OF) [TAMU OG sss sic rors voc craiprersic eierewre esorsiel oS aleletelelelé/Siaiess, oe isiaisiaieeie vii INTRODUCTION Tat | GeRUNG ole: 0141< c <ip's ow iow o oie leisinnsl o'salereitln o/ola'eiojoia cieieii ae Siciere 1-1 Bog | AMM DOSE aici isicis'<|<(aloieie' «icicle eet fe Cee loiele'si 619 cle ot] ¥le's lai ieee sverele 1-5 hed) Smee GT We Kce.c'c1sh01 5 or0\cie) 0) 0.010 6ier5)e 0 sisieid) so a [o}61816/o sie10's «66 sere 1-6 1G) SHEGRS OF TPLOVMECIOR 6 6.5 c16cis s ccuicnnc cisic'nolsawrisice case 1-7 METHODOLOGY Baki MMeMGCINOG 5.5 wisois'e sre isitie sore taleis o clecerery « wicjoieie/s/5/e 01519) ee es5Ieicie1 2-1 ae) WME RN aioe 01 2)01<}o1 16/5 5:4)2) oe olol #15) «(0% [ale ls > elwleiels's/c\¢la}e) ole /olsic1s) 6° 2-2 mis UMPESGIORS. OF STUDY 2 55 cic 5 oe creiiee cecciocelcicele se cicisicigis 2-4 GA) RIM Eh OWE 01015! 'o/u'e 0701+) 6/0 eielers 5 4\0\01015) @ & siaiginlo] 8 aleieiel o/c cieivicisy='e 2-5 Zo: - | REPAIR CN ONS bois 1210: 17 1010010 s lorerore, 4:5 vies4ies 4 o1s:e: 801615 ig} 910 = lerareiele oie 2-5 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS Stk, MOONE BARU TMG ic ara: o.cis ersie 0 6.4 Helge 6 e1sie) oss s(e10)e! 0 </cidiele «in\e 3-1 3.2. GBGIOGY. . dese e csc bel atatere! oy ecdies$/ 0; feieiaiclore ie wioters| =| s/alorerelerele ae 3-2 Side, MYACONGG VY: Gis. s sc ais.cid se cic ioiieas laraiore/ 4 exetelotel ¢ a (eieserors/ gi eicissalatele iol 3-4 3.4 Ground ana Suvlac®: Water a3. 5 dae scsi cic cccwissewwwsivns cee 3-7 BiBi | SOU Siereccreratoraian< cure nt Ssieits6 6 a6. i615: 6) 616/8:5 0.00. isialele Relsislaicleidiele 3-8 S.5- 1) (ORRSHORG SION Siclcrce oc lciin swe errces a saaiieacsactcscm 3-10 Subse COS6Ual PEAIE SOTNSs ci cscs cccccacscwaesaaiee 3-11 Bede (COOENTINS BBCNS cose cicictnrn comeicnssicissees ccive seeieis 3-11 DoO | VEGECACTON Goo cicerctsiecicioteloieec vicieisiceisisiels weicialeln s cleis|ss cleiwieig 3-14 a7) | WER ORGS 5 6 oe erecta cleo 1 leictorele's oi! o/e oie cieieie.o + 6\sibralsis 6 [ei cisle 6 aleio/s 3-40 3.8 | Figh) and) Wild] tfe Resources)... ciocr 2. cores doe ns:e ee sielacle 3-45 358.1 | Jertestrial Mawmal $sic5< <icrccssc cs scccweccess ss 3-45 Ss8.2 MOPING MOMMETSs 6665s ccccsn cee siiinecsiiicc cicsiccs 3-58 3.833) | FOrreStrlial BirdS\..100).<cicisc scsi cesiccisiev cemuiscg 3-62 Be SaMs EP DGWicaicrcrae ecereiele cielslois(eclscscies «cis nil gd ow biases «Biase ae 3-71 9) |G) TACO ODY crore rey eiescleso «\sie1s/515)5 (c/s 9! ele) cleioiele #18 cisiss!«ielersie: ong 3-74 SLO) SOa [Ge and | Bath yM@by7Yec.c.c « <clcjc/ere cisisinsts os /oleiaielss cinigeics 3-76 Sab UVAI) QUAL TCV sc aoe eiclelecierercicicia siatsicie/e-elclejoiers'¢ +e lersisiere clelerticiere 3-80 Sale Historical] USO... cice c's ciere slerelecisicle’e 6islaiele\e 6 sloieicie + sicieiels sie 3-81 Seid) WANG USS crarsiere wie erel clot] eletelolelolelciciais & cleisisislejsleiele: sev eie oleielrles 3-85 - IV = 4.0 CONCLUSIONS Bel General SUMMA Y.ar5 ores esin sstersiciele viewicicie cleisieie ere icicle cieieierelere 4 4.2 Recommendations for Further Study sicccescnewwswiescewecies 4- 4 4 PP PPP P PrP cia see co ee NM KMWNMNMM MWNWPD eae. § o 8 6 NOS wnre ..e wo 5.0 REFERENCES APPENDICES Continued Integration of Efforts........ceeeeeee Evaluate Kuchiak Creek Anadromous Fish Habitat.. Estimate Hydrologic Parameters of the Mine Area and Affected Drainages .......c.ccccccccccce 4 Perform Site-Specific Vegetation Surveys........ 4 Obtain Additional Soils Information............. 4- GValuate Cultural Resources. <s.ccssiceccceccwnces 4 Determine Peregrine Falcon Eyries in WACDP APG. .ccceceseeeece eee eee eee eee eee 4 Augment the WACDP Environmental Data Base....... 4- Expand Contacts with Resource Agencies.......... 4 ' aun APPL WWwWwre A VEGETATION TYPE MAP, CAPE BEAUFORT AREA B VEGETATION TYPE MAP, EASTERN DEADFALL SYNCLINE AREA Cc LANDFORM AND VEGETATION TYPE MAP, WESTERN DEADFALL SYNCLINE AREA Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2 Figure 3-1 Figure 3-2 LIST OF FIGURES Location Map, Western Arctic Coal Region........ccseeeeeeee 1-2 Project Area, Western Arctic Coal Region........ceeccceeeee 1-4 Generalized Surficial Geology. <cs ac ccic.ncs ccnisnccccenesiens 3-20 Wildlife Resources Observed on WACDP Habitats-July 1985...3-41 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 3-2 3-3 3-5 3-6 3-8 3-9 3-10 LIST OF TABLES Subsurface) Soll Temperatures)ccc.< <icrc cc cic c cccicisicc cisisisiscesis 3-5 Drinking Water Analyses of WACDP Lakes, Deadfall Syneline Aréa-- 26 JUV 106G. <oiniie cccisieinc eeiastbs 64010 se ceisie 3-9 Major Plant Species in Various Habitats of the Cape Beaufort Environs - Western Arctic Coal Development PROTO Ec ice iciace vo 015 cid FE 5S 'n101915 GIRIelMslg' a Rlvicivid so earns CRM EAE Ss IOS 3-26 Estimated Numbers of Animals to be Lost to Mine DEVOTOONERE . cca scmn nes cmiek melee os Meiseas is siegis Ses stele sierelereiere 3-56 Estimated Numbers of Terrestrial Animals to be Lost to Infrastructure Development... ..cccccccccesccccccccccece 3-57 List of Mammals Expected to Occur in Cape Beaufort YG MOINS ooo 6s: era 'ni so: o.0:0:q16 o.0isisis1 oh WIN WE es silat 6 SKinle es cicieie 20.6 3-63 List of Birds Expected to Occur in Cape Beaufort BUT OUS 5 <5 inserdsc: os 6 ie 6:5:415 SV ivisig 6's isin ipo «nda Saieis' oe 45.515 2's 561 3-64 Numbers of Bird Species Reported at Selected North WA AAWRs UOC EURO econ 7s cinieie scintwine 6 Stacie ni 6 0:94.85 55016 686.0 ofr 3-68 Utilization of Vegetation Types by Bird Species........... 3-70 Expected Number of Nests of Various Birds per 10 Acres of Habitat Type in the Deadfall Syncline DORE OPMONG APCD oie :c 0 d:0:0 550055 0s eiisine 50.winielne esisicinie siete 3-72 - vii - 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The Western Arctic Coal Development Project (WACDP) was authorized in June 1984 by appropriation of funds to the State of Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs (ADCRA) in response to a proposal by the Alaska Native Foundation (ANF) that addressed the rural energy costs of the region and its impact on the lifestyle of its citizens. The ANF was retained by ADCRA to administer the grant. The WACDP was divided into two (2) phases. Phase I (July-November 1984) consisted of a 5-month program to accomplish a preliminary economic, technical and environmental evaluation of the coal resource, mine sites and their development, shipping operations, and potential markets. The coal bearing lands of the western arctic lie along the Chukchi Sea coast from Cape Beaufort northeast to the village of Point Lay (Figure 1-1, Location Map). Several reports were generated (see 1.4 Sources of Information) which were evaluated by the ANF for the ADCRA. The evaluation found the coal resource at the Deadfall Syncline prospect area to be vast in quan- tity, high in quality, and with no apparent technical or environmental constraints for mine development. Also, the preliminary economic evalu- ation of the project proved favorable. Phase II was authorized in February 1985 to perform a market evaluation along with a technical, environmental, social, economic/financial feasibil- ity analysis of alternatives for the mine, infrastructure, transportation system, and village end-use scenarios. The outcome of Phase II will be the advancement of the optimum project presented in a document that will assist in determining final project commitment and provide a scope of work that will be necessary to proceed with project permitting, final design, and construction. It is anticipated that 14 months will be required to complete Phase II during 1986. WESTERN ARCTIC COAL REGION Cape Beaufort 4 Ca Teonposs gS SCALE: |" = 20 Miles — WESTERN ARCTIC ~ _ COAL DEVELOPMENT == PROJECT WESTERN ARCTIC COAL REGION LOCATION MAP Prepared by: Date: arctic Aope Nov. 19,1985 engineers A Preliminary Environmental Assessment (HERS 1984) of the Western Arctic Coal Development Project was made during the Phase I Preliminary Economic Evaluation of the two potential coal mine sites in northwest Alaska, some 40 miles south of the village of Point Lay. The prospects, termed Cape Beaufort and Deadfall Syncline, are about 17 miles apart on the north- western flank of the Amatusuk Hills, between the Kukpowruk River and the Chukchi Sea (Figure 1-2, Project Area). With the selection of the Deadfall Syncline prospect for further analysis during Phase II, emphasis was accordingly shifted to a more focused evaluation of environmental parameters in that area while maintaining a regional perspective of resources that might be affected by the proposed development. A Draft Environmental Assessment (HERS 1985a) augmented the preliminary information by concentrating on environmental descriptions and evaluations of the Deadfall Syncline area and the various developments that were anticipated during several proposed coal mining and transportation scenarios. Recommendations of the Phase I Final Report (ASCE 1984), preliminary findings of Phase II, and the continual input of team leaders from various disciplines were coordinated by ASCE in an evolving evaluation of project development alternatives. Engineering, environmental, social,and economic options and alternatives of mine and supporting infrastructure components were assessed and documented in several meetings that screened various proposals according to selected criteria. Concurrent field programs during April and July 1985 developed additional exploration data, engineering information, and environmental details necessary to select preferred alternatives. Documentation of the selection process is provided in a Component Impact Assessment Preliminary Report (HERS 1985b), which dis- cusses potential environmental impacts of project components, mitigative approaches, and areas of information needs. Salient features of that report are incorporated herein. 200 0 200 400 600MILES a ALASKA Kasegaltuk Lagoon < NORTH SLOPE, AK. Q 5 (0 MILES 5 1985 EXPLORATION % Bete PERMIT BOUNDARY ~~ s ‘ 2 ee ae es Mormon Cp hs Benchmarkw, <<“ Omalik 7 _ “J ; DEADFALL. comes SSYNCLINE. ae WESTERN ARCTIC COAL_ DEVELOPMENT PROJECT yc Prepared by: Date: { arctic Aope 2 JAN 1986 ee 1.2 Purpose This Environmental Assessment appreciably extends the Preliminary and Draft Environmental Assessment Reports by incorporating recent information and comprehensive evaluations of specific project components, options, and alternatives. It has been prepared as an integral part of the Implemen- tation of Procedures on the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq. as implemented by Executive Orders 11514 and 11991, and the Council of Environmental Quality (CEQ) Regulations (40 CFR Sections 1500-1508). It represents an “environmental information docu- ment" prepared by Arctic Slope Consulting Engineers (ASCE) for the Alaska Native Foundation and the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs preliminary to application for several permits required from federal, state, and local resource agencies in order to proceed with development of a surface coal mine in the Deadfall Syncline area near Cape Beaufort (= Cape Sabine on some maps) in northwestern Alaska (Figure 1-2, Project Area). This document describes (1) the various components, options, and alterna- tives that were evaluated as a part of the selection of the preferred alternatives, (2) the affected environment, based upon analysis and synthesis of pertinent information on resources of the region obtained from published reports and field surveys, and (3) an assessment of the environ- mental consequences of the alternatives based on available information. Limitations of this assessment are described and a program of studies is suggested to supplement the informational data base. In accordance with the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) [40 CFR 6.703(b)(2)], the proposed alternative is a relatively small, non-Federally funded project of the private enterprise sector, and makes no significant new or additional contribution to existing pollution of the environs. As such, it is appropriate that an Environmental Assessment rather than an Environmental Impact Statement, be prepared and (if appropriate) a Finding of No Significant Impact (FNSI) be rendered by the U.S. Environmental 1 =75) Protection Agency and Alaska Department of Natural Resources-Division of Mining. The FNSI may list mitigation measures necessary to make the recommended alternative environmentally acceptable [40 CFR 6.704(d)]. 1.3 Scope of Work Four major tasks were identified as a scope of work for the Environmental Evaluation (WACDP Task 7): 1.3.1 Prepare an environmental assessment of the Deadfall Syncline area utilizing information developed in Phase I and additional sources, including an onsite visit during the summer of 1985 to more closely evaluate environmental consequences of mine infrastructure; in conjunction with the permitting plan establish contact with all fed- eral, state, and local agencies involved to determine their environ- mental requirements, and obtain review comments from federal, state, and local agencies following their examination of the environmental assessment. 1.3.2 Develop a program of special environmental studies to provide additional information in certain areas that will be identified by various agencies as a part of the review of the draft environmental assessment and permitting plan. 1.3.3 Perform an environmental impact assessment of preliminary mine, port, and infrastructure design components; identify environmental features which would significantly increase project costs and affect project viability; and provide alternatives to project components that meet environmental acceptability standards. 1.3.4 Prepare a permitting plan for the mine, port, and infra- structure concepts selected in Phase II, based on appropriate comments from federal, state, and local agencies. 1.4 Sources of Information Several reports have been issued by Arctic Slope Consulting Engineers (ASCE) and their consultants during Phases I and II of the WACDP; those appropriate to this environmental assessment have been referenced with the narrative portions and Section 6.0 References. A general summary of the initial reports is contained in the Phase I Final Report (ASCE 1984). During Phase II the following WACDP documents have been issued and used for information in the preparation of this report: ASCE. 1985a. WACDP Feasibility Study, Phase II-Task 5: Infra- structure Development. Report prep. for Dept. Community and Regional Affairs and Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. . 1985b. WACDP Phase II, Preliminary Institutional Market Assessment. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. - 1985c. WACDP Preliminary Report, Infrastructure Design. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. Anchorage, AK. ARCTEC Alaska, Inc. 1985. WACDP Phase II-Task 5: Bathymetric Survey Report. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. Hanson Environmental Research Services (HERS). 1985a. WACDP Phase II Technical Memorandum, Draft Environmental Assessment. Report prep for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. - 1985b. WACDP Phase II Preliminary Report, Component Impact Assessment. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. Howard Grey & Associates, Inc. 1985. WACDP Phase II, 1985 Field Program Report. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. Howard Grey & Associates, Anchorage, AK. Ogden Beeman & Associates, Inc. 1985. WACDP Phase II Technical Memorandum, Marine Transportation Evaluation. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. Patrick Burden & Associates. 1985. WACDP Preliminary Report, Financial Options Evaluation. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. i= 7 Pool Engineering, Inc. 1985a. WACDP Preliminary Report, Phase II: Conceptual Mine Design. Report prep. for ASCE. Pool Engineering, Ketchikan, AK. - 1985b. WACDP Phase II Technical Memorandum, Preliminary Mine Design. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. Stephen R. Braund & Associates. 1985. WACDP Phase II Technical Memorandum, Village Socio-Economic Impact. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. In addition to these in-house reports, about 100 agency reports and technical articles that contain environmental information of direct application to a comprehensive assessment of the WACDP are referenced in Section 5.0, References. 2.0 METHODOLOGY 2.1 Objectives The primary objective of this environmental assessment is to provide resource agencies and other interested parties with a comprehensive synthesis of ecological information related to the WACDP environs and the proposed development. That is accomplished by summarizing and supple- menting information presented in the Preliminary Environmental Assessment (HERS 1984), the Draft Environmental Assessment (HERS 1985a), the Component Impact Assessment (HERS 1985b), the 1985 Site Survey (HERS 1985c), and several other referenced reports. Selection of an initial mine site and development plan, transportation corridor, port site(s), and other infrastructure have sufficiently narrowed the area for consideration of environmental impacts that specific evaluations can be made. As before, the evaluation will concentrate on those environmental features that have greatest potential for subsistence value to the native people of the area and, therefore, greatest priority for consideration in permitting the project. The appropriate resource agencies will review this information in the light of their own knowledge, evaluate its completeness, comment on or question areas of inadequate information, and suggest environmental constraints on the engineering methods, procedures, and design of the project. Following a review of this report by resource agencies and other interested parties and formal discussions with their representatives on project details, further information needs will be identified. This will accom- plish another objective, that of further defining environmental studies that will be required as a part of various permit applications pertinent to the WACDP. Negotiation of such studies depends upon details of environ- mental settings, alternatives, and projected impacts which are not com- pletely determined. A third objective, the development of a permitting plan for the orderly progression of the WACDP through the acquisition of necessary authoriza- tions for implementation of project plans, will be achieved through the reasonable accommodation of existing environmental information, specific requirements of the agencies responsible for issuing the several permits identified for the project, and engineering alternatives that mitigate anticipated problems. 2.2 Approach Our approach to an effective environmental assessment of the WACDP con- tinues along the same course as previously outlined: 2.2.1 Review regulatory agency permit requirements to identify the focus of their interests and concerns about the project and to narrow the lines of inquiry. 2.2.2 Identify sensitive issues and concerns for special emphasis and evaluation in a timely manner. 2.2.3 Analyze current environmental literature and reports on the areas of interest to develop baseline information on individual components (organisms, populations, and communities) of the ecosystems involved in the proposed development. 2.2.4 Synthesize the individual component information into a compre- hensive view of the ecosystem structure and function as a background for evaluation of the environmental implications of WACDP plans. 2.2.5 Assess the value of the Deadfall Syncline ecosystems, with particular attention to the costs of development to the whole system. 2.2.6 Outline areas of missing information, prioritize their acquisi- tion, and initiate measures to obtain the necessary information. 2-2 2.2.7 Develop an effective environmental study program to address areas of concern identified by federal, state, and local resource agencies as required for permits and compliance. We have continued and expanded the resource agency contacts and preliminary discussions that were initiated in Phase I and have synthesized consider- able new environmental literature relevant to various permit application requirements. Of particular importance to this assessment was the success of the 1985 Summer Site Investigation, which established contact with the Cully Corporation officers and government representatives in Point Lay and obtained their views and information on the project area. Close liaison was maintained with engineers involved in the design of WACDP mine components and infrastructure so that all personnel were aware of environmental concerns early in the planning process and could incorporate necessary engineering alternatives in sensitive areas. This was particu- larly important in maintaining the economic viability of the project. In this regard, the vegetative type and landform map prepared for the area between the proposed mine site just west of the Mormon benchmark and the coastline was particularly useful for siting of the transportation corridor and other infrastructure elements. Plans are being made for informal presentations of WACDP schedules, procedures, and prospects to several resource agencies during the remainder of Phase II as a prelude to the more formal pre-application conference for the several permits required for the project. Continued communication and coordination with all involved agencies will be critical to provide insight on scheduling and requirements of permits. 2.3 Limitations of Study A major conclusion of Phase I was the selection of the Deadfall Syncline area as the preferred alternative location, based on the coal resource characteristics, economics, engineering considerations, and environmental evaluations as compared to the Cape Beaufort (= Cape Sabine) prospect area. Subsequently, continuous evaluation by WACDP team leaders of project components, options, and alternatives has established a very clear concept for comprehensive assessment; details of the evaluation and selection process are presented in the several reports listed in Section 1.4, Sources of Information. Structural dimensions of the WACDP environment, such as types and densities of biotic species and the nature of their interrelationships, are fairly well documented by past studies in and near the project area. Site- specific investigations may well refine extrapolations from applicable and appropriate studies; however, reasonably acceptable determinations can be made of anticipated environmental impacts of various WACDP components. Functional dimensions of ecosystems in the area of interest are not so well known and will require further study. Such attributes as productivity, nature and rates of change in population densities, energy flow, and other community responses to environmental changes due to WACDP activities can be broadly anticipated in the context of what we know and understand of the arctic ecosystems involved. Time is inevitably a limitation in most studies, and particularly in environmental investigations, because of the dynamic nature of ecosystems. In the case of the WACDP, concentrated effort during the past year has yielded an expanding environmental data base that suggests that there are no serious limitations to preclude further consideration of the project. An approach described as “adaptive environmental assessment and management" (Holling 1978) is required in such case, wherein data obtained during initial stages of development are used to indicate later effects of that 2-4 development and to formulate changes in further development plans. This will minimize adverse effects, maximize positive effects, yield more information on system responses, and avoid the probability of unexpected consequences. 2.4 Assumptions This environmental assessment is fundamentally based on the premise that (a) the Deadfall Syncline development areas are not considered to be critical habitat for threatened or endangered species of plants or wildlife; (b) water quality standards for receiving waters from mining, camp, and port discharges can be met by incorporating best available engineering technology; and (c) no untoward surprises are encountered as the WACDP proceeds into succeeding stages. These assumptions are con- sidered to be reasonable and acceptable in light of our increasing know- ledge of the project environs, discussions with resource agencies, and constructive dialogue with engineers. 2.5 Definitions Environmental is herein considered in the context of its broadest defini- tion, including consideration of information on area geology, hydrology, soils, vegetation, fish and other wildlife, archaeological sites, cultural aspects, historical use, ground and surface waters, climatology, sea ice, air quality, and land use. It is a broad term, representing the aggregate of external conditions and influences affecting life and development of an organism. It almost always implies a reference to a particular organism such as man, caribou, or other entity. Ecological is a term sometimes used in the same context as "environmental". However, it is properly used in the sense that it is the totality or pattern of relations between organisms and their environment, such as the biology of groups of organisms (populations and communities) and the functional processes involved. It refers to biotic systems exclusive of man. Environmental and ecological terms that occur throughout this assessment are defined as follows: Alpine Growing above timberline, characterized by low-growth stature plants. Alternative A combination of options, at least one for each component, that constitutes an entire functioning project. Beaded Stream A drainage pattern of pools connected by short, relatively straight water courses that results from thermal erosion of interpoly- gonal troughs and intersections of ice wedges. Benthic Of/ the bottom of lakes and oceans. Of/ organisms that live on the bottom of water bodies. Community An association of two or more populations of organisms within common geographic area. Component Necessary part or subdivision of an entire project. Ecosystem The aggregate of biological and physical resources of a geographic area, having de- finable structure and function. Ecotone Forb Habitat Hectare Herb Infrastructure Littoral Mesic Options Pelagic An ecological community of mixed vegetation formed by the overlapping of adjoining plant communities. Any vascular plant other than a grass. The normal situation in which a plant or animal lives. A metric unit of area equal to 2.47 acres. Any vascular plant that is not woody. Facilities required to support a major engineering operation. Of/ the shoreward region of a body of water in which light penetrates to the bottom., in lakes and ponds, from shoreward to the lake-ward limit of rooted aquatic plants,. in oceans, from shoreward to a depth of 600 feet. Characterized by or pertaining to medium moisture conditions. Various locations, alignments, or procedures applicable to each component. Of/ the open water zone of the ocean or lake, with little or no association with the bottom. Permafrost Polygon Population Riparian Wetlands Any substrate material that has continuously maintained a temperature below freezing (32° F or 0° C) for two years or more. Varies from solid rock to solid ice in water content. A complicated honeycomb network beneath ice-rich arctic landscapes, caused by for- mation of thermal contraction cracks in winter, filling of the cracks by meltwater or snow, and freezing and expansion of resultant ice to form underlying wedges. Raised edges (low-center polygons) are indicative of growing ice wedges whereas depressed edges (high-center polygons) reflect decay of usually older ice wedges. A group of organisms, usually of one bio- logical species or common relatives, in a specific habitat. Streamside or on the margin of rivers. Lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor determining soil development and types of plant and animal communities of an area. Cape Beaufort is a topographic feature of the Chukchi Sea coastline at 69°02'N, 163°50'W. The landing area constructed at that location in support of the now-abandoned Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line station (Liz A) is termed "Cape Sabine" on aeronautical charts. Cape Sabine is properly the name of a topographic feature of the coastline at the mouth of the Pit- megea River some 35 miles southwest of Cape Beaufort. During WACDP Phase 2-8 I, coal prospect areas evaluated were termed "Cape Beaufort" and "Deadfall Syncline"; the latter was selected for further investigation and the western portion of that area is the subject of this Environmental Assess- ment. To avoid confusion of the term "Cape Beaufort" with the foregoing, we have used the term "Western Arctic" to refer to the general region and the terms "Cape Beaufort" and "Cape Sabine" to refer to those specific topographic features as represented on USGS Point Lay (A-3 and A-4) and DeLong Mountains (D-4) Quadrangle maps. 3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 3.1 Regional Setting The WACDP region lies in the Northern Foothills section of the Arctic Foothills Province (Wahrhaftig 1965), close to the interface with the Arctic Coastal Plain Province that terminates near the southern end of Kasegaluk Lagoon. Cape Beaufort, also called Cape Sabine on some maps of the area, is located 17 miles southwest of the proposed project mine site. Rolling plateaus, irregular buttes, knobs, mesas, and concentric north- trending ridges with intervening tundra slopes are the principal topo- graphic features. The seacoast in the Cape Beaufort region is mostly "open", or exposed to the sea, with a narrow gravel beach about 30-50 feet wide backed by a steep cliff or terrace that rises abruptly some 10-50 feet to ancient beach terraces covered by moist and wet tundra. Thermokarst formations are common along the northwest-facing slope. The sea bed of the Chukchi Sea abutting the western shoreline of the project is remarkably flat, with more than 80 percent of it being 90-180 feet deep (Grantz et al. 1982) (see Fig. 1-2). A major topographic feature of the WACDP area is Omalik Lagoon, which lies on the coastline some five miles west of the Deadfall Syncline prospect area and represents the southwestern terminus of the Arctic Coastal Plain. It has now been confirmed as being a former shallow tundra thaw pond that is being captured by the sea. Its surface stands 3.5 feet above the mean sea level and it is about 4.5 feet deep. It is part of an extensive series of wetlands that extend north to Kasegaluk Lagoon, which begins some 10 miles from Omalik Lagoon. Kasegaluk Lagoon is considered to be valuable fish and wildlife habitat and is heavily used for subsistence hunting and fishing by the people of Point Lay, located some 40 miles north of the Deadfall Syncline prospect area. Kasegaluk Lagoon has been designated an Area Meriting Special Attention by the North Slope Borough Coastal Manage- ment Program (1984) because of its unique environmental values. The National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska western boundary is located 35 miles east of the prospect area; the Cominco-NANA Red Dog mineral deposit is about 70 miles south of the WACDP area. 3.2 Geology The area of WACDP primary interest is located at the far western terminus of an expansive coal field believed to underlie 30,000 square miles of northern Alaska. A major portion of the coal occurs within the Upper Cretaceous Corwin Formation of the Nanushuk Group consisting mainly of sandstones and shales. The formation at this location occupies the central parts of numerous broad and simple synclinal basins separated by tightly folded and faulted east-trending anticlines. Geologic information developed during the initial WACDP investigations of two coal prospect areas in the Cape Beaufort region and more specific exploration information developed during Phase II (Howard Grey & Asso- ciates 1984a, 1985) indicated that the Nanushuk Group is believed to represent a prograding deltaic depositional system which supplied the Colville Trough with detritus that was shed during the uplift of the ancestral Brooks Range. The low ratio of coarse to fine clastics suggests a low stream gradient and the low sulfur content of the coals suggests fresh water deposition conditions prevailed at that time. Callahan and Martin (1980) state that this may be the product of a wide band of low coastal marshes traversed by numerous streams. Subsequent regional deformation has created a series of broad synclines separated by narrow tightly-folded east-trending anticlines. These anticlines have been further obscured by high angle reverse faults and erosion. Comprehensive discussion of the stratigraphy and seismicity of the general area is contained in Grantz et al. (1982). The project area is located near the axis of the northeast-trending doubly plunging Liz A syncline. Within the project area bedding dips vary from 14 to 30 degrees. Rocks within the Cape Beaufort study area consist of thick heterogeneous sequences of soft siltstone and sandy siltstone; thin claystone beds; medium to fine grained, locally crossbedded sandstone beds up to 50 feet in thickness; and coal seams to 16.5 feet in thickness. Sandstone is the most weather-resistant unit and forms northeast-trending hogbacks. The fine clastic sequences form low saddles or troughs between the sandstone hogbacks. The geology of the Deadfall Syncline project area is quite similar to that in the vicinity of Cape Beaufort. Bedding dips are generally shallower than those at the Cape Beaufort prospect, ranging from 11 to 24 degrees. Four coal seams of such configuration were identified in the Morman Block area during the exploration drilling program; this restricts the plausi- bility of mining the entire syncline (Pool Engineering 1985b). The geologic structure suggests mining along the outcrops in narrow strips except where local topography generally parallels the dip of the coal seams; in such cases, fairly wide pit configurations might be possible. Three of the four coal seams referred to above, each of 8-12 feet in thickness, were considered in the mine design. Total reserves in the Mormon Block West area are estimated at 1.1 to 1.6 million tons recover- able. The rank and quality of the Western Arctic coals is generally high; they range in rank from High Volatile B to A Bituminous, with low ash, low (<0.5%) sulfur, low moisture and high density. Heating values have been determined in the 13,000 to 14,000 BTU per pound range, on an ash-free basis. Overburden thickness ranges from a few feet at hogback exposures to 40-150 feet in exploratory drill holes. Near-surface temperature gradients were estimated by the placement of a thermistor array in a drill hole at each prospect area; the data are summarized in Table 3-1. Additional information on the geology of the Deadfall Syncline area is contained in the WACDP Phase II 1985 Field Program Report (Howard Grey & Associates 1985) and WACDP Final Report. 3.3 Hydrology In arctic areas such as the WACDP, nonsaline groundwater occurs in areas where substantial surface water sources maintain capacities for recharge and continual movement of water within thaw bulbs in the perennially frozen ground. Recharge to the groundwater by precipitation and snowmelt, as is common in subarctic areas, is inhibited by the permafrost situation in northern Alaska (Sloan 1983). As a result, groundwater occurs only in the shallow permeable zones adjacent to lakes and streams from which it receives recharge. Groundwater in the Western Arctic region is not expected to occur because of the lack of lakes and large streams capable of maintaining thaw bulbs. Shallow aquifers on floodplains of creeks are seasonally available, with recharge being directly related to streamflow and precipitation (Waller 1966). During spring breakup, meltwater floods the plain, helps thaw the seasonally frozen area, and recharges the porous deposits. The floodplain water table rises rapidly in response to increased creek flow at breakup and during significant rainfall or snow events during summer months. If not already saturated, the coarse aquifer readily absorbs runoff water and then discharges water back into the stream as the creek stage declines. TABLE 3-1 SUBSURFACE SOIL TEMPERATURES Location Depth Temperature (F) Date (D-M-Y) Cape Beaufort 02-10-84 ~—S*d18-09-84 ~——<08-05-85 DH 84-10* as OO 5! 32 15! 26 20' 24 50' 24 100' 25 Deadfall Syncline DH 84-116** 5! 32 19 10! 32 1 15% 29 1 20' 31 10 TB 85-215d*** Dy 16 10' 14 15" 19 * Located on a southwest-sloping surface covered by low to medium-sized tussocks and low shrubs. ** Located on a sparsely vegetated ridge top sloping to the southwest. Lichen-covered flat sandstone particles cover the surface with low grasses growing between rock particles. **k Located between sandstone ridges in moist cottongrass tussock tundra near proposed mine site. Source: Howard Grey & Associates 1984 and 1985 This recharge-discharge cycle occurs several times during the course of seasonal runoff events. As cold weather sets in, the aquifer steadily discharges water to the stream and may become entirely drained. At freezeup, an ice cover forms on the stream and the floodplain freezes. If this occurs rapidly or is prolonged during a period of little or no snow cover, the water of the stream may be confined with enough hydrostatic pressure to form mounds or bulges in the ice cover. If such a mound fractures, water overflows and forms icings (aufeis); such phenomena may also occur if late autumn rains fill the aquifer just prior to freezeup. Such conditions were noted on creeks of the Cape Beaufort area during October 1984 (ASCE 1984b). Most creeks in the Western Arctic region probably do not maintain year- round aquifers. Without test drilling information, it is assumed that such aquifers may be maintained if certain environmental conditions are met: (1) late autumn rains provide a high creek stage that substantially recharges bank storage of groundwater, (2) severe freezing does not begin early; and (3) adequate snow cover over the stream and aquifer slows frost penetra- tion. Ground water was not encountered beneath the shallow active zone in 1984 and 1985 exploratory drill holes. Deep aquifers may be present where they are recharged by streams flowing across the strike of bedrock, such as occurs most predominantly along the Kukpowruk River some 20 miles east of the project area and to a lesser degree along several of the creeks in the two coal prospect areas. Perennial springs are often good indicators of deep aquifers; such springs may contribute to the flow of streams in the area and be undetected on the surface. Information on springs in the project area is not sufficient to indicate the presence of such deep aquifers. Springs originating from aquifers that are confined by permafrost, bedrock, or both, may fluctuate in response to earth tides, sea tides, and barometric changes. 3.4 Ground and Surface Water The Kukpowruk River is the only major river in the Cape Beaufort-Deadfal1 Syncline area. It originates in the De Long Mountains some 30 miles southeast of Cape Beaufort and flows northerly and parallel to the sea coast for about 125 miles before terminating in Kasegaluk Lagoon about 7 miles south of Point Lay. It is diverted from the WACDP area by the Amatusuk Hills and other topographic elevations that trend northeasterly from near Cape Sabine, at the mouth of the Pitmegea River, for about 50 miles. Only small creeks occur in both the Cape Beaufort and Deadfall Syncline areas, although Kuchiak Creek attains sufficient size and capacity to support anadromous fish in its lower section. In the Deadfall Syncline area, Kuchiak Creek receives runoff from some 62 square miles of watershed area. This area is composed of Kuchiak Creek proper, five tributary streams with individual watersheds of 2.5 to 10 square miles, and about 5 square miles of wetlands situated between the foothills and the seacoast. Estimated flow rates during late August 1984 were 140-160 cubic feet per second (cfs) for Kuchiak Creek proper and 5-40 cfs at several locations on tributaries. Arctic lowland streams during August and September are usually flowing at 3-4% of their total annual discharge, and these flow rate estimates are considered to be useful for scoping purposes rather than for predictive value. As testimony of the ephemeral nature of such estimates, all streams in the project area were reduced to essentially no flow during the 21-27 July 1985 Summer Site Investigation. Flow rates can be expected to be appreciably greater during early summer months (breakup) and to further vary as precipitation on the landscapes is transported downstream following rainstorms and melting of snow and ice. Basins in this region often demonstrate a lag of 3-10 hours between rainfall events and peak discharge. Annual precipitation in the project area is estimated to be 8 inches, including 30 inches of snowfall (Pool Engineering 1985b). The application of rainfall information to the mining plan and procedures is extensively discussed in the referenced report and WACDP Final Report. The most extensive surface water resources of the WACDP environs are the many shallow tundra thaw lakes. The thaw lake cycle has been described by several authors (Billings and Peterson 1980, Britton 1957, Carson and Hussey 1962). The lakes in the project area are generally smaller than those on the more northerly part of the Arctic Coastal Plain; most are 3-6 feet deep, although two lakes sounded during July 1985 were 9-13 feet deep and considered to be plausible water sources. Drinking water analyses performed on single water samples obtained from the two lakes is summarized in Table 3-2 (Duane Miller pers. comm.). 3.5 Soils Low temperatures, sparse precipitation, and strong winds of considerable duration are some of the more important climatic features affecting soil formation in arctic regions (Holowaychuk et al. 1966). Low temperatures are reflected by the continuous permafrost that underlies the region. The permafrost is overlain by an active layer that undergoes seasonal thawing and freezing. The depth of this layer is usually between 6 and 60 inches, with greatest depths being associated with welldrained porous materials and south- and west-facing slopes. Shallower depths of the active layer are found in poorlydrained sites and where a mat of dense vegetation provides insulation. Extensive moss (especially Sphagnum) carpets are particularly effective insulators, as indicated by lower temperatures at their bases compared to other kinds of vegetation. Depth of thaw on 23 July 1985 was <12 inches in low-center polygon areas with large amounts of organic cover and wet conditions compared to 18 inches in the drier high-center polygon areas. Exploration drilling on ridges indicated thaw depth of 10 feet or more (Howard Grey & Associates 1985). 3-8 TABLE 3-2 DRINKING WATER ANALYSES OF WACDP LAKES, L - U Element Detection Concentration (mg/1) Limit Mormon Lake* South Lake** Arsenic 0.05 <0.001 <0.001 Barium 1.0 <0.05 <0.05 Cadmium 0.010 <0.002 <0.002 Chromium 0.05 0.01 0.01 Fluoride 2.4 0.10 0.10 Lead 0.05 <0.01 <0.01 Mercury 0.002 <0.002 <0.002 Nitrate-Nitrogen 10.0 <0.10 <0.10 Selenium 0.01 <0.001 <0.001 Silver 0.05 <0.01 <0.01 Turbidity 1 NTU 3.0 16.0 * Located in Section 18 Range 47 W Township 3 S, area 25 acres ** Located in Section 25 Range 48 W Township 3 S, area 12 acres Expected soil temperatures are low, as indicated by the readings shown in Table 3-1. Based upon these data and measurements made at Cape Thompson (Holowaychuk et al. 1966), temperatures in the upper inch of soil probably do not exceed 50° F during the summer months. In wetter sites with a continuous vegetation mat, the surface soil temperatures are probably near 40° F. Drier sites, especially those with dark-colored surficial mater- ials, are probably in the 45-50° F range. Subsurface soil temperatures in the Cape Beaufort and Deadfall Syncline exploration areas during September and October were above freezing to depths of about 10 feet (Table 3-1). The moderating effect on subsurface soil temperatures by the insulating surface cover is demonstrated by differences in seasonal temperatures measured in boreholes in various habitats. Surficial geology of the WACDP environs is summarized in the 1985 Field Program Report (Howard Grey & Associates 1985), which recognized three distinctly different terrains: offshore, coastal plain, and foothills. 3.5.1 Offshore Soils Test borings made at 1000' and 6000' seaward of the beach near Omalik Lagoon showed the upper few feet of substrate to consist of thin, apparently discontinuous layers of mud, well-graded sands, gravels, and detrital coals. This material is apparently deposited by long- shore currents, and is shifted about by storms and near-shore cur- rents. This material thins to seaward, and is underlain by a combi- nation of silts, clays, and sands containing some angular gravels. Although difficult to determine at the time of boring (4-7 April 1985), the soils did not appear to be frozen. 3 - 10 3.5.2 Coastal Plain Soils Soils on the bottom of Omalik Lagoon are sandy silts and clayey- sandy-silts, black to gray in color, and contain some minor angular gravels. The borings were thawed below 7-8 feet, probably due to brine zones. A layer of saturated sands was encountered at 18-19 feet and extended to 22-23 feet below the soil surface. Elsewhere on the Coastal Plain in the WACDP environs, surface soils consist of 2-3 inches of organic material covering 1-2 feet of icy organic silts, which overlie fine sandy clayey ice and silty fine sands. The soil borings were frozen throughout the boring depth (10-15 feet) during April 1985. Such lacustrine (originating in lakes) and marsh deposits consisting of organic rich silts and clays with very high ice contents occur over a large part of the Coastal Plain. They may be >20 feet in depth and are probably underlain by drier sandy-silty clays or silty clayey sands. 3.5.3 Foothills Soils Borings obtained during 1984 and 1985 contained two distinct soil types in foothills substrates; fine-grained soils beneath the Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra and Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra; and coarse- grained, well-drained soils on the sandstone ridges. Beneath the vegetation of moist and wet areas the soils consist of organic silts, icy sandy silts and silty fine sands similar to those found on the Coastal Plain but with lower moisture and more gravels. Excessively drained portions of ridges support soils that are ex- tremely porous, low in fines, and exposed to appreciable runoff. Well-drained soils are characterized by intermittent water saturation in the lower portion and good aeration in the upper part in summer; 3-11 subsoils are usually dark brown, indicating adequate aeration and oxi- dation. Poorly-drained soils are saturated for various periods in summer and only partially aerated; they vary in color from dark grayish brown to dark gray as they progress from slightly to entirely deficient aeration and oxidation. Such soils are found on extensive gently sloping or nearly level areas of the region that have little or no runoff. Wettest soils are very dark gray and are found in depres- sions where shallow ponding occurs throughout the summer season. Detailed lithologies above and below two coal seams in the east- central portion of the Mormon Block West area, termed DFS-5 and DFS-8, were obtained in 1984 (Howard Grey & Associates 1984b). These seams are believed to be extensions of the same coal bed on the basis of their geologic setting. Unconsolidated deposits ranged from 3 feet at ridgetops to 35 feet downslope of the synclinal feature. Soils above the coal seams consisted of organic silt overlying a silt-to- sandy silt deposit. Ice content was moderate to high near the surface and decreased with depth. A silt and clay mixture was encountered at the 20-35'depths. Frozen soils overlaid a sandstone unit that varied in thickness from 13 feet at the ridgetop drillhole location to 60 feet at the downslope hole location. The sandstone composition varied from fine-grained with massive bedding to thin- bedded silty sandstones with numerous detrital coal partings. The overburden immediately above the coal seams typically consisted of silty-sandstone or siltstone up to 10 feet thick. A thin clay layer occasionally was encountered just above the coal seams and a thick sequence of siltstone lay beneath the coal. Most soils of the area are colluvium, having accumulated at the foot of slopes from gravitational forces; alluvium deposits by running water occur as linear features along streamcourses. These vary in composition from very gravelly on ridges to finegrained in basins. Soils on ridgetops and upper slopes reflect the underlying bedrock. 3) 12 Rubble surfaces consisting of brown to reddish-colored eroded sand- stone particles from sand to boulder size are common on ridgetops, particularly on north- and northeast-facing slopes. Such soils are generally porous and well-drained. Scattered patches of thin organic silty soil occur with the gravelly soils generally associated with grasses and low shrubs. On gently sloping ridges and south- to southwest-facing ridge slopes, the gravels are mixed with varying amounts of sands and silts. The gravelly soils extend from a few inches to as much as 10 feet below the surface. Particle size generally increases with depth, and color changes from an oxidized brown to a non-oxidized gray. This weathered residual bedrock material grades into an unweathered bedrock with depth. Downslope away from the ridges, soils become siltier and with a decrease in gravel content. Soil moisture in the form of ice also increases with the fine-grained soils. In low-lying areas, such as between sandstone ridges, soils consist primarily of organic silts, inorganic silts, and clays. These are locally mixed with fine-grained detrital coal particles as well as some sands and gravels. Colors vary from brown to gray to black, depending upon their oxidation. These soils are encountered through- out the project area where drainage and runoff are poor. Soil moisture or ice occurs throughout these soils. Profiles visible in bank exposures along the coast indicate that ice varies from massive lenses of 5 to 6 feet thick to small, barely visible interstitial ice. Such soils reach maximum thickness between ridges and in low-lying flat areas on the Coastal Plain. Downslope movement in such situations produces solifluction slopes where gradients are >7-10 degrees, generally considered to be strongly sloping (Holowaychuk et al. 1966). 3 - 13 Alluvial deposits consisting of coarse sands and gravels to cobbley gravels occur in all streams and creeks within the project area. Along portions of some of the creeks and larger drainages, notably Kahkatak Creek in the Cape Beaufort region, small terraces composed of 5-10 feet of coarse gravels have been formed. Moderate- to well-sorted deposits of clean sands and gravel occur across the 30 to 50-foot wide beach between the Chukchi Sea and the steep cliffs to the south of Omalik Lagoon, and comprise the 300-foot wide barrier beach between the Lagoon and the Sea in the project environs. Sands are typically fine- to medium-grained quartz particles apparently weathered from local sandstone outcrops. Well-rounded cobbles are composed of chert and quartzite weathered from unidentified sources upstream. Angular sandstone outcrops are found in stream channels and divert the direction of flow. 3.6 Vegetation The WACDP area supports primarily low arctic vegetation typical of the Arctic Foothills physiogeographic province of northwestern Alaska (Spetzman 1959). The considerable topographic heterogeneity of the foothills abutting the coastal areas and concentric ridges provides diverse habitats for plant communities that are representative of dry alpine tundra, moist tussock tundra, wet sedge meadows, riparian willow stands, and coastal wetlands. Most of the region being considered for coal development is composed of the first three major habitat types. Four major vegetation types were defined in the WACDP environs for effec- tive mapping and evaluation: 3 - 14 Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra Windswept slopes and ridges with well-drained soils dominated by mountain avens (Dryas spp.), dwarf willows (Salix spp.), and other shrubs, several species of sedges, grasses, mosses, and lichens. Referred to by other investigators as “cushion plant-herb lichen" (Bliss 1978); “Dryas fell-field" (Johnson et al. 1966), “alpine Dryas type" (Hanson 1953), and "dry upland meadows" (Spetzman 1959). "Dryas tundra" Level IV of Viereck, Dyrness, and Batten (1982). Rolling topography and small basins and valley floors where soil drainage is intermediate to poor and the active layer (seasonal depth of thaw) is 12-20 inches; dominated by cottongrass (Erio- phorum vaginatum), prostrate shrubs of willows and birch (Betula nana); various species of heath (Laborador tea, crow-berry, cranberry, blueberry, and heather); abundant moss ground cover; and often with several species of sedges, grasses, and forbs. S)-705 Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra Termed by others "cottongrass tussock-sub shrub tundra" (Bliss 1978), “Eriophorum tussock" (Johnson et al. 1966); "cotton- grass sedge-dwarf heath shrub complex" (Hanson 1953); and “niggerhead tundra" (Spetzman 1959). "Sedge tussock-mixed shrub- Sphagnum bog" (Level IV) of Vie- reck, Dyrness, and Batten (1982). Wet meadows or areas where drainage is impeded, dominated by sedges (especially Carex aquatilis), grasses, and herbs, with a nearly continuous cover of mosses of several species. This type often intergrades with Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra, particularly in areas of shallow drainage, or extensive flat areas, and on margins of streams and ponds. Comparable to "“sedge-moss and sedge-grass-moss" (Bliss 1978); "Eriophorum-Carex wet meadow" (Johnson et al. 1966); "freshwater marsh herb type (Hanson 1953); and “wet sedge meadows" (Spetzman 1959). "Wet sedge meadow tundra" and "sedge-willow tundra" Level IV of Viereck, Dyrness, and Batten (1982). 3 - 16 Riparian Wil low-Sedge-Forb Streamside communities or isolated pockets of taller (3-6 ft) willows, mostly Salix alaxensis. S. lanata. and S. planifolia along freshwater streams. Often with a substantial understory of sedge (Carex aqua- tilis) and several forbs. Corre- lated with warmer soils in summer, soils with better drainage, and deep (3-6 ft) active layers, and deep winter snow that melts in spring. Similar to “tall shrub tundra" (Bliss 1978); "gravel-bar-and bench communities (Johnson et al. 1966), and "feltleaf willow shrub type” (Hanson 1953). “Open low shrub scrub-low willow" (Levels III and IV) of Viereck, Dyrness, and Batten (1982). Mapping of these types was accomplished by performing numerous transects through representative stands and communities. Specific analyses were performed within 41 quarter-square-mile sites in the Cape Beaufort area and 44 such sites in the Deadfall Syncline area during August 1984. Survey data were initially mapped on 1:31,680 (1 inch=0.5 mi) topographic maps and then transferred to 1:13,000 (1 inch=0.2 mi) maps traced from color infrared aerial photos that showed the vegetation mosaic in sharp detail. Although the various vegetation types were sharply delineated on the vegetation maps, the intergrading of adjacent plant communities, termed 3-17 ecotones, was common. Such conditions are a recognized ecological condi- tion that is somewhat subjective and difficult to map at the scale used here; it can be adequately described only by intensive field methods on a much smaller scale. Vegetation type maps of the Cape Beaufort and eastern portion of the Deadfall Syncline areas are presented in Appendices A and B. Vegetation types and landforms in the WACDP western area were mapped in July 1985 by performing several ground and aerial transects from the foothills near the USCGS Mormon benchmark, or mine site, and the Chukchi Sea. Field maps prepared from the large-scale (1:13,000) vegetation type maps were groundtruthed and landforms were noted, particularly the distribution of low- and high-center polygons, wet meadows, beaded streams, and non-patterned ground. The area mapped in 1985 adjoins the vegetation type map of the eastern portion of the Deadfall Syncline area prepared in 1984, shows greater detail, and includes the mine and infrastructure alignments (Appendix C). Comparison of the vegetation type and landform map (Appendix C) with the generalized surficial geology map (Figure 3-1) illustrates the correlation of plant communities to their substrate. The high center polygons are associated with coastal plain deposits belonging to the Gubik Formation consisting of organic silts, icy silt-silty ice, fine sandy silts and clays, and fine and medium sands. Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra is usually associated with these same general areas, and were the preferred areas for alignment of roads and location of infrastructure. Wet Sedge- Moss Tundra is found in low center polygons and wet meadows, which corre- late with the lacustrine and marsh deposits containing organic material, silts and clays as substrate; many of these areas in the western part of the project environs are constituents of "“basin-complex" wetlands, accord- ing to the classification system of Bergman et al. (1977). Such areas were avoided to the maximum extent possible in selecting alignments for infra- structure (HERS 1985b). Open freshwater systems were most often found in the remnants of these drained basins and the beaded streams that defined 3 - 18 the routes of ephemeral streamcourses that captured the former lakes and drained them to lower elevations. Near the coastline, the beaded streams become estuaries as the runoff waters during breakup erode the barrier beaches and contact the sea, allowing saline waters to penetrate inland and modify the landscape. High center polygons and non-patterned ground jointly occupy the higher (>100 ft above mean sea level) elevations of the area, which are underlain with colluvium deposits of gravels, sands, silts, and clays. Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra is the common vegetation type of these areas. Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra occurs on the scree/bedrock deposits that typify the concentric sandstone outcrops of the area on which the coal seams outcrop. Most of these areas are located above 250 feet in eleva- tion. Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra commonly occurs in the gentle swales between the sandstone ridges, with linear Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra communities represented in the drainage alignments. The best represen- tative stands of Riparian-Willow-Sedge-Forb vegetation type were located in the upper reaches of the several ephemeral streams of the WACDP area. Such communities were not mapped in the western part (Appendix C) because their extent was much more limited than in the eastern portion (Appendix B). 3 - 19 a WESTERN ARCTIC COAL DEVELOPMENT my ; See iy PROJECT “ ‘ ‘ apes ; SV pe GENERALIZED me BASE MAP OE ED NE TL AOE SL | fers |SURFICIAL GEOLOGY USGS 1:63360 POINT LAY A-3 AND A-4 QUADRANGLE —se = ———————— eee HOWARD GREY & | ont cant . ' : Os ASSOCIATES, INC | FIG 3-1 The eastern portion of the Deadfall Syncline area (Appendix B) is predomi- nantly Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra, with two large wetlands of Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra of about 0.5 and 2.1 square miles located in the south- central portion of the area adjacent to the Kuchiak Block West and East mining units considered in the Preliminary Mine Design (Pool Engineering 1985b). Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra occurs along the ridge tops and rock outcrops in this prospect area as well; these “hogbacks" trend generally northwest-southeast in the westerly sections and gradually turn to north- south orientation in the easterly part, graphically defining the synclinal structure. The 14-square-mile area mapped in Appendix B is estimated to contain 45-50% Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra, 25-30% Dry Alpine- Fellfield Tundra, and 25-30% Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra. Comparison of the ground survey results with the North Slope Borough Geographical Information System (GIS) maps of the area provides a contrast of classifications. The GIS map (1:250,000 scale) of the Cape Beaufort area categorizes the area as 90% moist tundra and 10% a combination of cushion plant-herb-lichen and dwarf shrub-heath communities. The same map classifies the eastern portion of the Deadfall Syncline area as 95% moist cottongrass tussocks and 5% low shrubs and heath communities. These differences in classification between the two mapping efforts result from the 20-fold difference in mapping scales, as might be expected. Comparison of Appendices A and B shows the more even balance of habitats in the eastern portion of the Deadfall Syncline area compared to the Cape Beaufort environs. Not so apparent to a cursory examination is the greater amount of ecotones, or overlapping, of the Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra and Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra types in the southeast quadrant of the Appendix B. Also, the several creeks that are tributary to Kuchiak Creek are more accurately described as beaded streams, or a series of pools about 2-3 feet deep interconnected by very shallow ephemeral streams that are swift- flowing during runoff events. This was very apparent during the very dry 1985 summer, compared to the August 1984 observations made during a series of rain and snow storms. A small (0.7 acre) lake occurs in the wetland 3-20 area located in the center of the eastern portion of the Deadfall Syncline area, along with several small thaw ponds throughout the low-lying basin interspersed with small ridges. Most ponds in this basin are elongated as they follow the polygon troughs in which thermal erosion of the underlying permafrost ice wedges is gradually creating a beaded stream system. Should the small lake continue to grow in extent, it is probably destined for a relatively short lifetime before it will be drained by the develop- ment of drainage into Kuchiak Creek. A lake of about 0.5 by 0.5 mile dimensions lies about 1.5 miles east of the area and is the major water body in the eastern Deadfall Syncline area other than Kuchiak Creek; it drains northeasterly some nine miles to the Kukpowruk River. It is separated from the Kuchiak Creek drainage by a ridge of about 485 feet elevation that trends northeast-southwest from the main range of Amatusuk Hills that bound Kuchiak Creek drainage on the southeast side. The westerly boundary of the Kuchiak Creek drainage is formed by a ridge that begins at an elevation of 1350 feet in the Amatusuk Hills some eight miles south of the proposed mine site, meanders north to the USCGS benchmark "Mormon" (elevation 504 feet) at the proposed mine site, and terminates at the point where Kuchiak Creek bends northwesterly, some three miles north of the project area. With the selection of the western portion of the Mormon Block of the Deadfall Syncline area as the preferred alternative for development (HERS 1985b), emphasis was placed upon comprehensive analysis of potential environmental impacts upon ecosystems in that area. It is estimated that about 180 acres of habitat, mostly Dry Alpine-Fellfield and Moist Cotton- grass Tussock Tundra Types, with lesser amounts of Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra areas and Riparian Willow-Forb-Herb in drainage areas, will be disturbed by mining activities exclusive of infrastructure such as the haul road, camp, and airstrip. At the base case mining rate of 50,000 tons per year (tpy), about 12 acres per year are expected to require seeding and fertilization, and about 6 acres of new disturbance will result. At Year 4 in the 3 - 22 proposed schedule (Pool Engineering 1985b) production reaches 64,000 tpy and increases to 156,000 tpy at Year 10. At that time, most of the southern portion of Section 16, Range 47 W, Township 3 S would be involved in the development. Reclamation of mined lands will be accomplished according to detailed plans acceptable to the Alaska Department of Natural Resources-Division of Mining. Engineering estimates indicate that Approxi- mate Original Contour (AOC) regulations can be attained, and suitable revegetation procedures can be established according to the most recent information (Kubanis 1982; Bliss 1978; Chapin and Chapin 1980). A roadway alignment of 5.4 miles was initially selected during the July 1985 Summer Site Investigation. The route was based upon (a) the mine site located in the Mormon Block West site; (b) the camp and airstrip locations near the mine site; (c) the potable water source midway between the mine and port sites; and (d) a port site at the northwest corner of Omalik Lagoon. Selection of the route was dependent on the nature of the soils to be traversed (Howard Grey & Associates 1985), because of the need to preserve existing permafrost conditions to the maximum extent possible. One-third of the route crosses wet meadows and low center polygons of the Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra type and two-thirds is located in high center polygons supporting Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra. The route selection avoids crossing major drainages and beaded streams where seasonal freshets could prove a problem with maintaining culverts. Assuming a road width of 24 feet (plus 3' of shoulder) with turnouts every 2000', a total area of about 19 acres of habitat would be covered by 4' of gravel underlain with engineering fabric. An additional zone of impact will undoubtedly border the road due to interruption of sheet flow across the tundra (impounding), drifted snow, vehicle movement, dust, and other disturbances. 3 - 23 Impoundment of surface runoff by tundra roads has long been recognized as an environmental impact of appreciable extent in northern Alaska areas. Long-term impacts upon vegetation in impounded areas result in elimination of all but watertolerant species (Walker et al. 1980), which in turn result in changes in animal populations in altered areas (Hanson and Eberhardt 1982; Hohenberger, Rudholm, and Hanson 1982; McCaffery, Burgess, and Hanson 1982, Troy 1982). Increased snow drifting along roads, particularly those oriented across the path of prevailing winter winds, and accelerated snow melt in spring due to road dust caused by traffic tend to exacerbate the drainage problems. However, these environmental impacts can be mitigated by judicious engineering practices that include cooperation of environ- mental and engineering personnel in selecting alignment of linear struc- tures, attention to snow plowing procedures, and proper design of culverts. Lichens and mosses are most sensitive to heavy dustfall (Walker et al. 1980); however, the limited amount of traffic expected to be associated with the modest mining activity considered in this project is not antici- pated to cause measureable damage. An initial airstrip to be used in startup of the mine will usurp about 7 acres of habitat, about evenly divided between high center polygons supporting Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra and Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra. Once production reaches 50,000 tpy a dedicated, FAA-approved airstrip would be constructed about 1000' north of the initial strip and occupy about 14 acres, about two-thirds of which would be Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra with appreciable willows along streamcourses and the remaining one-third would be in Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra. Due to the shortage of gravel in the area, the initial strip may be removed to provide material for the dedicated airstrip; in such case, care would be taken to remove the material in a manner to least disturb the original cover and rehabilitate the uncovered area. 3 - 24 No threatened or endangered plant species are known to occur in the WACDP environs. Proper consideration will be given to such biota in comprehen- sive evaluations to be proposed for habitats scheduled for development, particularly those in which such rare plants as the Kokrines oxytrope (Oxytropis kokrinensis) and Erigeron muirii, both known to occur in west- ern Brooks Range environments, might be found. Such plants may be more common than currently reported, in which case their candidacy for threat- ened status may be reconsidered. A list of the major plant species expected to be found in various habitats of the WACDP environs is presented in Table 3-3. 3) =1e9) TABLE 3-3 MAJOR PLANT SPECIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS OF THE CAPE BEAUFORT ENVIRONS WESTERN ARCTIC COAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Scientific Name Common Name Mosses (Lycopodiaceae and Seliginellaceae) Lycopodium selago appressum Club moss Seliginella sibirica Horsetails (Equisetaceae) Equisetum variegatum Equisetum scirpioides Equisetum arvense Grasses (Gramineae) Hierochloe alpina Alopecurus alpinus Phippsia algida Arctagrostis latifolia Calamagrostis holmii Calamagrostis purpurescens Deschampsia caespitosa Deschampsia brevifolia Trisetum spicatum Poa arctica Poa alpigena Spike moss Holy grass Alpine foxtail Snow grass Polar grass Bluejoint Bluejoint Bluegrass 3 - 26 Habitat tundra and mountains dry exposed areas, ridges alpine tundra alpine heaths variable habitats alpine meadows & heaths, rocky slopes wet, sandy, stony soi] in tundra and mountains bogs, wet places, snow beds-- mostly on tundra wet meadows, along rivers, on tundra mossy tundra rocks & cliffs, calcareous soils riverbanks, meadows, shorelines wet places in tundra, riverbanks, solifluction soil tundra, dry mountain areas, snow beds dry places in tundra, in mountains & thickets grassy slopes, gravel bars Scientific Name Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Grasses (Gramineae) continued Poa glauca Poa lanata Poa malacantha Arctophila fulva Dupontia fisheri Puccinellia phraganodes Festuca altaica Festuca brachyphylla Festuea baffinensis Festuca rubra Bromus pumpel1]ianus Agropyron boreale Elymus arenarius Sedges (Cyperaceae) Eriophorum angustifolium Eriophorum scheuchzeri Eriophorum russeolum Eriophorum vaginatum Kobresia simpliciuscula Kobresia sibirica Carex nardina Carex scirpoidea Carex rupestris Carex maritima Carex lachenali Pendant grass Tundra grass Alkali grass Fescue grass Brome Wheatgrass Lyme grass Cottongrass Cottongrass Cottongrass Cottongrass sedge 3 - 27 Habitat dry slopes, sandy places, variable meadows meadows & stony slopes on tundra & in mountains. polygon tundra; lakeshores & stream banks sandy shores, wet meadows, wet tundra salt & brackish marshes along shores wide ecological tolerance sandy & rocky places in tundra sandy & rocky places in tundra moist & sandy places in tundra meadows, dry grassy slopes riverbanks, hillsides sandy shores & riverbanks wet bogs & shores wet places, peaty soil wet places moist places calcareous rocky slopes, heaths wet places dryground in foothills meadows, heaths, wet places dry ridges in foothills & moun tains shores, sandy soil alpine tundra, snow beds Table 3-3 (continued) Scientific Name Sedges (Cyperaceae) continued Carex glareosa Carex bigelowli Carex lugens Carex aquatilis Carex subspathacea Carex podocarpa Carex microchaeta Carex rariflora Carex atrofusca Carex misandra Carex capillaris Carex rotundata Carex membranacea Rushes (Juncaceae) Juncus arcticus Juncus castaneus Juncus biglumis Luzula wahlenbergii Luzula arcuata Luzula tundricola Luzula arctica Luzula confusa Luzula multiflora Common Name Rush Wood rush Lilies (Liliaceae and Melanthaceae) Tofieldia coccinea Tofieldia pusilla Lloydia serotina False asphodel Alp lily 3 - 28 Habitat brackish marshes dry places, solifluction slopes tundra bogs shallow water, marshes, tundra coastal salt marshes meadows, moist places meadows, wet places bogs, pond margins wet places sandy & stony places moist and dry places wet places, swamps, muskeg wet places wet places, river flats wet places moist gravel, pond margins wet tundra dry places in foothills tundra & mountain tundra tundra & mountain tundra dry heaths grassy places stony, dry places; heaths, poly- gon tundra wet places, heaths Rocky places, alpine meadows, heaths Scientific Name Willows (Salicaceae) Salix reticulata Salix polaris Salix phlebophylla Salix rotundifolia Salix arctica Salix fuscescens Salix ovalifolia Salix glauca Salix niphoclada Salix hastata Willows (Salicaceae) Salix alexensis Salix pulchra Birch (Betulaceae) Betula nana Buckwheats (Polygonaccae) Koenigia islandica Rumex arcticus Rumex acetosa Oxyria digyna Polygonum viviparum Polygonum bistorta Perslanes (Portulacaeae) Claytonia acutifolia Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Netted willow Feltleaf willow Owarf birch Sorrel Mountain sorrel Bistort Spring beauty 3 - 29 Habitat dry and moist areas of tundra below snow beds arctic & alpine lichen & moss tundra, ridges arctic & alpine lichen tundra, rocky dry tundra wet meadows, tundra bogs salt marshes & shores thickets along rivers along rivers, in wet meadows river bars along creeks & rivers wide ecological tolerance; most common willow tundra bogs gravel bars, snow beds scattered in wet places steep ridges, grassy slopes wet places, snow beds snow beds, stream banks widespread in snow beds, solifluction slopes elevated ridges in wet meadows, stony slopes Scientific Name TABLE 3-3 (continued) Common Name Chickweeds or Pinks (Caryophy]]aceae) Stellaria humifusa Stellaria crassifolia Stellaria monantha Stellaria longipes Stellaria lacta Stellaria edwardsii Cerastium beeringianum Cerastium jenisejense Sagina intermedia Arenaria macrocarpa Arenaria arctica Arenaria dicranoides Arenaria rubella Arenaria rossii Arenaria physodes Honckenya peploides Silene acaulis Melandrium apetalum Melandrium affine Dianthus repens Mouse-ear chickweed Pearlwort Sandwort Moss campion Carnation 3 - 30 Habitat saline marshes & brackish meadows gravel bars, snow beds stony places, gravel bars dry alpine tundra, wet meadows, solifluction slopes stony places, ridges stony places, ridges dry alpine tundra, solifluction slopes dry alpine tundra, solifluction slopes wet gravel bars, moist open soil rocky slopes and ridges, moist open soil dry ridges, gravel bars, other dry habitats alpine tundra, rocky places rocky & sandy places, alpine tundra moist & alpine tundra moist, sandy places, gravel bars beaches, sandy shores sandy soil, alpine tundra dry, grassy slopes; wet meadows, solifluction slopes dry places, soil pockets in talus slopes sandy & rocky places, alpine tundra Scientific Name Buttercups (Ranunculaceae) Delphinium brachycentrum Aconitum delphinifolium Anemone richardsonii Anemone parviflora Anemone narcissiflora Anemone multiceps Ranunculus gmelini Ranunculus hyperboreus Ranunculus pallasii Ranunculus lapponicus Ranunculus nivalis Ranunculus sulphureus Ranunculus pygmaeus Ranunculus pedatifidus Oxygraphis glacialis Thalictrum alpinum Poppies (Papaveraceae) Papaver macounii Papaver radicatum Corydalis (Fumariaceae) Corydalis pauciflora Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Larkspur Monkshood Anemone Buttercup Meadow rue Arctic poppy 3 - 31 Habitat Snow beds, solifluction slopes, tundra meadows wet meadows, snow beds Snow beds, moist grass & sedge meadows snow beds, solifluction slopes, wet Places alpine tundra, solifluction slopes, moist meadows calcareous soils, snow beds, alpine tundra smal] tundra ponds smal] tundra ponds, wet meadows smal] tundra ponds wet streamsides stream banks, wet meadows, snow bed wet meadows, snow beds wet gravel bars, snow beds, wet meadows wet meadows, solifluction slopes gravel areas below snow beds calcareous soils, alpine meadows, solifluction slopes grassy meadows, solifluction slopes, frost mounds talus slopes, gravel bars, alpine tundra fellfields ridged wet meadows, beaches Scientific Name Mustards (Cruciferae) Cochlearia officianalis Eutrema edwardsii Cardamine bellidifolia Cardamine pratensis Cardamine microphylla Cardamine purpurea Cardamine digitata Draba alpina Draba borealis Draba nivalis Draba caesia Draba pseudopilosa Draba pilosa Draba macrocarpa Draba hirta Draba longipes Smelowskia calycina Smelowskia borealis Arabis lyrata Erysimum pallasii Braya purpurascens Braya bartlettiana Parrya nudicaulis Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Scurvy grass Bittercress Cuckoo flower Rock cress 3 = 82 Habitat gravel beaches wet meadow ridges & hummocks, solifluction slopes wet meadow ridges, wet gravel bars, snow beds wet meadows, gravel bars gravel bars, wet meadows wet meadows, gravel bars, snow beds wet meadows, gravel bars, snow beds dry sites in wet meadows, south- facing slopes solifluction slopes, gravel areas alpine tundra, gravel bars, ridges alpine tundra, rocky outcrops dry sites in wet meadows, gravel areas dry sites in wet meadows, gravel areas rocky outcrops, talus slopes wet meadows, snow beds, gravel bars wet meadows, snow beds, gravel bars talus slopes, alpine tundra calcareous rocks, talus slopes and ridges gravel bars of streams rocky outcrops alpine tundra fellfields, steep slopes solifluction slopes alpine tundra fellfields, frost mounds Scientific Saxifrages (Saxifragaceae) Boykinia richardsonii Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga Saxifraga oppositifolia eschscholtzii serpyllifolia hirculus flagellaris bronchialis tricuspidata punctata cernua radiata rivularis davurica nivalis reflexa hieracifolia caespitosa Chrysosplenium tetrandum Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Boykinia Purple mountain saxifrage Cushion saxifrage Bog saxifrage Spider plant Spotted saxifrage Prickly saxifrage Bulblet saxifrage Brook saxifrage Snow saxifrage Stiff-stemmed saxifrage Tufted saxifrage Water carpet 3 - 33 Habitat tundra meadows, along creeks alpine fellfields, heaths, _ solifluction slopes calcareous gravels, alpine tundra fellfields calcareous gravels, alpine tundra fellfields wet meadows, solifluction slopes snow beds alpine fellfields, along creeks talus slopes, alpine fellfields talus slopes, alpine fellfields, rocky outcrops wet meadows, frost mounds, solifluction slopes wet meadows, solifluction slopes, alpine fellfields wet meadows, gravel bars wet places, snow beds, alpine fellfields snow beds, alpine fellfields dry slopes, alpine fellfields dry slopes, alpine fellfields solifluction slopes wet meadow ridges, slopes, alpine fellfields wet meadow ridges, snow beds solifluction wet meadows, snow beds Scientific Name Parnassus (Parnassiaceae) Parnassia palustris Parnassia kotzebuei Roses (Rosaceae) Rubus chamaemorus Potentilla palustris Potentilla fruticosa Potentilla biflora Potentilla uniflora Potentilla hyparctica Potentilla hookeriana Potentilla pulchella Potentilla egedii Geum glaciale Dryas octopetala Dryas integrifolia Legumes (Leguminosae) Lupinus arcticus Astragalus alpinus Astragalus polaris Astragalus australis Astragalus umbellatus Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Bog star Cloudberry Marsh Fivefinger Mountain avens Lupine Milk vetch 3 - 34 Habitat wet meadows, heaths snow beds, stream banks and terraces wet meadows, tussock tundra wet meadows, tundra pond margins wet meadows, snow beds alpine tundra, talus slopes, rocky ridges alpine tundra, talus slopes, rocky ridges wet meadows, strangmoor, snow beds dry slopes, calcareous rocks, fell- fields sandy soils, polygon areas coastal meadows, saline areas fellfields, solifluction slopes common plant of fellfields common plant of solifluction slopes, wet meadows alpine fellfields, gravel bars, terraces alpine fellfields, gravel bars, terraces sand & gravel streamsides, beaches gravel bars, shale slopes, dry areas alpine fellfields, sand and gravel areas Scientific Name Table 3-2 (continued) Common Name Legumes (Leguminosae) continued Oxytropis mertensiana Oxytropis maydelliana Oxytropis arctica Oxytropis nigrescens Oxytropis pygmaea Oxytropis gracilis Oxytropis glutinosa Hedysarum mackenzii Hedysarum alpinum Violets (Violaceae) Viola epipsila Fireweeds (Onagraceae) Epilobium angustifolium Epilobium latifolium Epilobium davuricum Milfoils (Hippuridaceae) Hippuris vulgaris Parsleys (Umbelliferae) Cnidium cnidiifolium Conioselinum chinense Angelica lucida Bupleurum americanum Wintergreens (Pyrolaceae) Pyrola grandiflora Ramischia secunda Masu Marsh violet Fireweed River beauty Mare's tail Hemlock parsley 3 = 35 Habitat alpine fellfields alpine fellfields, stony slopes anc ridges moist tundra, river gravel bars alpine fellfields, talus slopes calcareous soils of alpine fell- fields, talus slopes alpine fellfields, talus slopes alpine fellfields, ridges, gravel bars Alpine fellfields, ridges, gravel bars snow beds, gravel slopes, terraces snow beds snow beds river bars, sandy soil bogs, wet meadows tundra ponds, brackish meadows wet meadows, river banks dry shale slopes, limestone slopes saline marshes, sea front banks alpine fellfields, dry sites wet meadows, moist areas snow beds, heaths Scientific Name Heaths (Ericaceae) Empetrum nigrum Ledum decumbens Rhododendron lapponicum Cassiope tetragona Andromeda polifolia Arctostaphylos alpina Vaccinium vitis-idaea \ Vaccinium uliginosum Primroses (Primulaceae) Primula tschuktschorum Primula borealis ( Androsace chamaejasme Androsace septentrionalis Androsace ochotensis Dodecatheon frigidum Gentians (Gentianaceae) Gentiana tenella Gentiana glauca Gentiana propinqua Gentiana prostrata Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Crowberry Laborador tea Lapland rosebay Heather Bearberry Lingonberry Blueberry Primrose Shooting star 3 - 36 Habitat snow beds, heaths common plant of fellfields, moist tundra snow beds, moist slopes common plant of snow beds wet meadows snow beds, fellfields, gravel bars moist tundra, fellfields, stream- banks moist tundra, fellfields, stream- banks snow beds, wet meadows saline meadows, shorelines dry sand & gravel, fellfields, frost scars dry sand & gravel, fellfields, frost scars alpine fellfields, dry areas moist solifluction slopes, stream banks saline marshes alpine meadows, stream banks with willows talus slopes, alpine fellfields stream banks, talus slopes Scientific Name Phlox (Polemoniaceae) Phiox sibirica Polemonium acutiflorum Polemonium boreale Borages (Boraginaceae) Eritrichium chamissonis Eritrichium splendens Myosotis alpestris Mertensia maritima Figworts (Scrophulariaceae) Lagotis glauca Castelleja pallida Pedicularis verticillata Pedicularis labradorica Pedicularis pennellii Pedicularis langsdorfii Pedicularis sudetica Pedicularis capitata Peticularis lanata Peticularis oederi Valerians (Valerianaceae) Valeriana capitata Moschatels (Adoxaceae) Adoxa moschatellina Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Jacob's ladder Forget-me-not Oysterleaf Indian paintbrush Lousewort 3 - 37 Habitat alpine fellfields, gravel slopes wet meadow ridges, frost mounds, stream banks alpine fellfields, talus slopes, stream banks alpine fellfields alpine fellfields moist slopes, ridgetops beach sand & gravel strands wet frost scars, solifluction slopes, fellfields gravel bars, snow beds, fellfiela gravel bars, fellfields snow beds, stream banks wet meadows, solifluction slopes wide ecological tolerance and distribution wet and saline meadows, solifluction slopes fellfields, solifluction slopes, snow beds fellfields, solifluction slopes, snow beds fellfields, solifluction slopes wet meadows, solifluction slopes, terraces disturbed areas, moist habitats Scientific Name Bluebells (Campanulaceae) Campanula lasiocarpa Campanula uniflora Composites (Compositae) Solidago multiradiata Aster sibericus Erigeron humilis Erigeron hyperboreus Erigeron grandiflorus Antennaria monocephala Antennaria alaskana Matricaria ambigua Chrysanthemum integrifolium Chrysanthemum arcticum Artemisia glomerata Artemisia globularia Artemisia tilesii Artemisia arctica Artemisia borealis Artemisia trifurcata Petasites frigidus Arnica lessingii Arnica louiseana TABLE 3-3 (continued) Common Name Bellflower Goldenrod Aster Fleabane Pussytoes Chrysanthemum Wormwood Coltsfoot 3 - 38 Habitat alpine fellfields, talus slopes limestone outcrops, beach embank- ments well-drained slopes and ridges, fellfields snow beds, sand & gravel areas snow beds, wet meadows dry slopes and ridges, fellfields sandy soils alpine fellfields, snow beds, solifluction slopes alpine fellfields, snow beds, talus slopes sand & gravel beaches alpine fellfietds, rocky ridges wet meadows, beach marshes alpine fellfields, talus slopes rocky slopes, alpine fellfields sandy & gravelly soils along drain ages alpine fellfields, gravel bars, dry habitats talus slopes, sandy soils talus slopes, alpine fellfields wet meadows, moist tussock meadows snow beds alpine fellfields, gravel bars stony slopes, alpine fellfields, gravel beaches Scientific Name Senecio congestus Senecio fuscatus Senecio atropurpureus Senecio conterminus Senecio lugens Senecio resedifolius Saussurea angustifolia Taraxacum ceratophylum Taraxacum phymatocarpum Crepis nana Table 3-3 (continued) Common Name Marsh fleabane Dandelion Hawk 's-beard 3 - 39 Habitat wet meadow ridges, gravel bars alpine meadows moist tundra & wet meadows alpine fellfields snow beds, sandy soils along streams alpine fellfields, solifluction slopes snow beds, alpine fellfields, wet meadows gravel bars, dry habitats alpine fellfields, frost scars gravel & sandy soils, talus slopes 3.7 Wetlands Coastal wetlands occupy about 30 square miles of the WACDP environs between Omalik Creek on the south and Kuchiak Creek on the north (Figure 3-2). The area contains all stages of the thaw-lake cycle that predominates in the evolution of tundra wetlands (Bergman et al. 1977; Billings and Peterson 1980; Britton 1957, Walker and Brewer 1977). These stages are summarized as follows: 1) 4) 5) Initial formation of polygonal frost contraction cracks in Gubik Formation sediments that were newly exposed by uplift of the Arctic Coastal Plain, beginning approximately 25,000 years ago; Filling of the cracks with snow and meltwater, and subsequent freezing and expansion to form an ice wedge that grows in width at the rate of about 1 mm per year; Lateral pressure of the growing ice wedge produces polygon ridges and troughs to form low center polygons; Water areas in polygon centers grow into thaw lakes by erosion of polygon rims under influence of wind and solar energy inputs; ice wedges remain below the surface of the lakes, Lakes continue to grow until captured and drained by small streams that develop through thermal erosion and deepening of polygon troughs; and Large high center polygons develop in shallow drained-lake basins as troughs above ice wedges again become evident. As troughs deepen through thermokarst erosion the large high center polygons subdivide into strongly polygonized tundra with pronounced ridges, which evolve into low center polygons and begin the cycle over again. 3 - 40 5 PR Poel AREA Se MORMON NUMBERS OF VARIOUS WILDLIFE SPECIES O WHITE-FRONTED GEESE CANADA GEESE TUNDRA SWANS PINTAILS ARCTIC LOONS RED-THROATED LOONS GLAUCOUS GULLS GRIZZLY BEAR CARIBOU } WETLAND BASIN COMPLEX [____] PROJECT COMPONENT (APPROX) 2-41 2 MILES WESTERN ARCTIC COAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Wildlife Resources Observed on WACDP Habitat- July 1985 Prepared by. W.C. HANSON Date: SHANSON ENVIRONMENTAL; _!SNOV85 RESEARCH SERVICES | gigure 3-2 The wetlands area contains a mosaic of basin-complexes; beaded streams; deep-open, deep-Arctophila, shallow-Carex, and shallow-Arctophila lakes and ponds that are prime areas for waterfowl and shorebirds, similar to comparable areas on the North Slope (Derksen, Rothe, and Eldridge 1981). During the 21-27 July 1985 Summer Site Investigation, several flocks of waterfowl, particularly white-fronted geese, were observed on deep-open (Class V of Bergman et al. 1977) lakes. The principal use was for brood- rearing and molting, and the preferred lake size was >20 acres. Lakes of that size were usually in Class V, while smaller lakes were usually termed Class III (shallow-Arctophila) wetlands. Class III wetlands were espec- ially important for red-throated loons (Figure 3-2). Proposed WACDP developments obviously have important implications for the wetlands in this area. The location of the initial mine site would interdict the drainage of the ephemeral stream ("Mormon Creek") that annually discharges appreciable runoff into the Class III thaw lake ("Mormon Lake"). The Preferred Alternative for mine development (HERS 1985b, Pool Engineering 1985b) prescribes initial containment of mine drainage in sediment ponds within each of the mine cuts and then discharge to the "Mormon Creek" streamcourse that crosses the coal seams and flows for about two miles through a wet meadow to "Mormon Lake". The meandering nature of the drainage and appreciable vegetation mat would probably inter- cept most of the discharged sediment before it arrived at the lake, with some carryover of colloidal-sized particles which would be finally treated by the physical properties of the lake. This preferable option must be evaluated by regulatory agencies who will review the mining plan for compliance with water quality standards. Details and descriptions of drainage control parameters are discussed in the Pool Engineering, Inc. (1985) report. Analyses of soils and bedrock from the proposed mine area indicate that effluent waters from the mine will be within limits proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1984) and the State of Alaska Department 3 - 42 of Environmental Conservation (Kolankiewicz 198Z). A major concern of re- source agencies is acidity of mine drainage, which in the WACDP case of low sulfur (<0.5%) coal is not expected to be a concern. Consideration will be given to appropriate procedures to control nitrate discharges by reason- able fertilization of revegetated areas, alternative blasting methods, and proper wastewater disposal practices. Diversion of periodic runoff from the 320 acres of "Mormon Creek" watershed has not been proposed in the preliminary mine plan. If resource agencies conclude that such is necessary and practical, the wet meadow and drainage located in the northern part of Section 21 Range 47 W Township 3 S, about 1000 1500 feet south of the DFS-2 coal seam and at about the same contour, would be a logical diversion recipient. However, drainage patterns in the area clearly show that the "Mormon Lake" basin will be the eventual out- fall and that the alternative drainage would have a significantly (40%) shorter travel distance for environmental adjustment. "Mormon Lake" is about 9' deep in its larger western portion and about 25 acres in area. It is a Class III lake formed by coalescing of three sinall lakes that remained or formed after the 160-acre parent lake was drained. Its configuration apparently makes it of marginal use to waterfowl, par- ticularly for brood-rearing and molting habitat for waterfowl. Omalik Lagoon is a large thaw lake being claimed by the sea, a fact confirmed during the 1985 Summer Site Investigation. Its surface stands 3.5 feet above mean sea level and it is 4.5 feet deep. WACDP plans for construction of a port site within the lagoon during Year 3 of the project would have to include adequate diking to prevent draining the lagoon when the 130'-wide entrance channel is dredged. It should be noted that Omalik Lagoon has in the recent past been at least partially drained by natural breaching of the 280'-wide barrier beach. Aerial photos taken in August 1957 show a breach at the northwest corner of the "lagoon" and extensive shallow and emergent areas within the "lagoon". Similar photos taken in July 1980 show a breach in the center of the barrier beach, with extensive 3 - 43 shallow areas nearly identical to those shown in the 1957 photos. Such natural episodes are probably fairly frequent occurrences and may occur as a result of “wind tides", periods of strong storm winds and high tides during open water seasons. Several large logs on the upper drift line on the north shore of the "lagoon" testify to the significant overtopping of the barrier beach during such events. Importation of large amounts of seawater into the "lagoon" would probably alter the chemical balance of the aquatic habitat and require surviving biota to withstand wide ranges of environmental variables. A further constraint on biota is posed by the relatively shallow nature of the "lagoon", which fosters frequent high suspended sediment loads in the water during the open water season. During the 21-27 July 1985 Summer Site Investigation the waters were strongly wind-mixed and sediment-laden for several days during that period. Boring logs taken at two locations within the "lagoon" on 7 April 1985 showed it to be solidly frozen throughout the 4.5' depth (Howard Grey & Associates 1985), illustrating another substantial constraint on aquatic life in the water body. Observations during the 1985 Summer Site Investigation indicated that the "lagoon" is extremely limited in biological production and its primary value to wildlife is for brood rearing, molting, and migration staging for waterfowl. The emergent wetlands at the south end of the "lagoon" partic- ularly provide extensive habitat of alkali grass (Puccinellia phraganodes) , sedges (Carex subspathacea) and other grasses. Environmental impacts that might result from the 5.4-mile roadway between the mine site and port have been previously discussed under Section 3.6 Vegetation, which emphasized the importance of judicious location of roadway alignment and proper engineering practices to avoid impounding of 3 - 44 runoff. The roadway alignment shown in Appendix C avoids wettest areas and follows the natural divide between two drainage systems in the western part of the road corridor. The 10-acre thaw lake located in the northern part of Section 25 Range 48 W Township 3 S is proposed as a potable water source in the WACDP. Three soundings of 9, 10, and 13 feet were obtained during the 1985 Summer Site Investigation. Drinking water analyses of water samples from this lake and from "Mormon Lake" are shown in Table 3-2. 3.8 Fish and Wildlife Resources 3.8.1 Terrestrial Mammals The WACDP environs are seasonally used by the Western Arctic Caribou Herd, which currently numbers about 190,000 animals. The core calving area for this herd is usually located near the headwaters of the Utukok River, about 50-60 airline miles to the east of the proposed development area and in the northern part of the Arctic Foothills Province. The Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra community is the most important habitat for calving; most of the calves are born during late May or early June in this habitat type or in upland meadows of Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra adjacent to it at elevations between 500 to 1000 feet. The importance of the tussock habitat type to caribou calving has been demonstrated in several studies which concluded that cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) is the most important food of caribou at this critical period (Kuropat and Bryant 1980; Lent 1966; Whitten and Cameron 1980). Caribou rely on this vegetation community to such an extent that the timing of the arrival of caribou onto the calving grounds is closely correlated with the melting of snow from the tussock tops and appearance of the sedge buds that are a preferred food of the cows. Exceptional conditions, such as unusually deep snows on spring migration routes, may delay the arrival of the cows 3 - 45 and force them to calve in anomolous areas; however, the usual condition is the arrival of caribou at their core calving area on the Utukok River headwaters on or about the first of June. During the early 1960's, the Arctic Caribou Herd occupied 2,000 to 6,000 square miles of core calving area and an additional 4,000 square miles of peripheral calving area each year in the Utukok River headwaters. At that time, the Arctic Caribou Herd numbered about 160,000 to 200,000 animals. The population increased to about 244,000 animals in 1970 and then decreased dramatically to about 60,000 animals in 1975 as a result of overharvesting, mortality from wolves, and poor survival of young animals that were required for population maintenance (Davis, Valkenberg, and Reynolds 1980). Since that time, major changes in management and favorable environmental conditions have resulted in the herd increasing at an annual rate of 14 percent (Davis 1980) to approximately 160,000-170,000 in 1981-1983 (Davis, Valkenburg, and Boertje 1982; Valkenburg, Davis, and Karczmarczyk 1983) . The period of decreased population allowed the identification of discrete caribou herds which are presumed to have existed for consid- erable time but were not separable during the period of high popula- tion. The determinant of a "herd" is the use of a traditional calving area, although the social structure is less fixed during other seasons of the year (Valkenburg, Davis, and Boertje 1983). This has led to the observation that individual caribou do not maintain long-term social bonds and the basic units of caribou social structure can be considered to be “temporary, tenuous associations of individuals", as described by Lent (1966), or "open social units", in the terms of Bergerud (1974). Presently, the animals formerly grouped under the collective term of "Arctic Caribou Herd" are now referred to as (1) the Central Arctic Herd of 5,000-6,000 animals that calve near Prudhoe Bay and winter on the northern flank of the Brooks Range north of Atigun Pass; (2) the Teshekpuk Lake Herd of 4,000-5,000 animals that 3 - 46 calve on the northern periphery of Teshekpuk Lake and winter in an area on the southwest side of that lake; and (3) the Western Arctic Herd, that calves in northwestern Alaska and winters mainly in the region between Kivalina and the Kobuk River Valley. In recent years, large fractions (up to 40 percent) of the Western Arctic Herd have wintered on the Coastal Plain portion of the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska. These animals apparently begin calving in the northern portion of the 6,000-10,000 square-mile area of highest use during this period; the core calving area is about 1,100-1,800 square miles of optimum habitat located generally in the center of the total (core plus peripheral) calving area (Lent 1966). There is no general agreement as to the biological significance of the year-to- year variation in caribou distribution over the calving area. However, environmental variables such as snow cover phenology (Lent 1966) and forage quality (Kuropat and Bryant 1980) appear to be major influences on calving ground occupancy and timing. Caribou of the Western Arctic Herd normally leave their calving grounds near mid-June and begin a series of movements that takes them westerly toward the headwaters of the Wulik, Kivalina, Kukpuk, and Kukpowruk Rivers (Valkenburg, Davis, and Karczmarczyk 1983). They arrive there in late June and form post-calving aggregations of all age and sex groups and then begin a counter-clockwise movement, initially eastward, during early July. Dispersal of the large concentrations into small groups occurs as the northerly movements begin, which bring the caribou back to the Coastal Plain after cross- ing the Colville River about mid-July. The animals are then dis- tributed over the coastal tundra between the Utukok River and the mouth of the Colville River. Insect harassment may induce the animals to move to sand and gravel deltas of major rivers on the Arctic Ocean or to higher elevations on the northern flanks of the Brooks Range mountains until early August, when they once more are widely scattered over the Coastal Plain habitats. 3 - 47 The fall migration of caribou usually begins in mid-August. A majority of the Western Arctic Herd moves through the western portion of the Brooks Range with variable, and occasionally large-scale, movements along the western coastline (USEPA/USDOI 1984). The WACDP area is located on the outer fringe of these movements and can be expected to receive only limited use by caribou. There is always the possibility of recurrence of local concentrations of caribou, as noted by the presence of herds of 25,000 to 100,000 animals near Cape Sabine (mouth of the Pitmegea River) in summers of 1957 and 1958 (Childs 1969) and the wintering of a few thousand animals along the Point Lay-Cape Lisburne coastline in 1961 and 1962 (Lent 1966). Small numbers of caribou are seasonally resident in the Deadfall Syncline area, as indicated by observations made during 1984 and 1985 field investigations. Bands of 3-25 animals were seen in the eastern portion of the Deadfall Syncline area during August 1984, grazing on sedges, willows and other succulent vegetation in wet meadows and snowshed communities. By comparison, only a few scattered animals were present in the western portion of the WACDP environs during the July 1985 field survey. During spring months of 1985, small bands of <20 animals were seen in the area and estimated to total about 150 animals (Howard Grey, pers. comm. 24 June 1985, Steve Denton, pers. comm. 3 May 1985). A few caribou calves were seen in the project environs during late May, apparently representing "peripheral animals" of the major calving aggregation (Valkenburg, Davis and Boertje 1983) of the expanding Western Arctic Herd. The WACDP environs represent the type of windblown, open winter range preferred by the caribou for reasons of food availability rather than quality or quantity or it may also be avoidance of greater predation in forested areas further south (Valkenburg, Davis, and Karczmarczyk 1983). The animals in the project area during spring months foraged on the windswept sandstone ridges, where they apparently found willows, lichens, sedges, and other vegetation. 3 - 48 Our observations of adult caribou and calves in the Western Arctic region are consistent with larger studies of caribou movements and distribution in northwestern Alaska that were accomplished by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG) as part of the NPR-A 105 (c) program. Those studies consisted of about 12 random aerial transects during April-May and late June-early July during the years 1976-1979 (Jim Davis, ADFG, pers. comm. 9 May 1985). During that time, a group of about 75 caribou were found calving for a short period of time in an area southeast of Point Lay and just northwest of the dry alpine tundra areas of the Amatusuk Hills, in which the Deadfall Syncline area is located. This was apparently a temporary phenomenon. Current monitoring of the Western Arctic Herd is conducted by ADFG from its Nome office, with additional information on seasonal distri- butions in the Red Dog Mine environs being gathered by Cominco Alaska, Inc. (Dames and Moore 1983). The WACDP environs are used by a relatively few animals compared to surrounding areas (USEPA-USDOI 1984) . The adaptability of caribou to the presence of humans and resource developments in circumpolar regions has been recently (and heatedly) discussed (Bergerud, Jakimchuk, and Carruthers 1985a and 1985b; Whitten and Cameron 1985; Klein and White 1985). A major difficulty in predicting, measuring, and evaluating the human impacts on popula- tion status of caribou (or other wildlife resources) is the complex matrix of parameters and the dynamic nature of the ecosystems. In the case of caribou utilizing the Deadfall Syncline area, there is also the added difficulty of low numbers of animals in a remote area on the fringe of the major calving area and migration routes of a very large caribou herd. Conclusions as to the response of these animals to the proposed development will have to be carefully considered to avoid confounding associations due to chance, social bonding, site affinity, or other phenomena (Valkenburg, Davis, and Boertje 1983). 3 - 49 Grizzly bears are considered to be scattered or locally abundant in the WACDP environs, depending upon season of the year. During late August 1984, about 4-6 bears were in the area, particularly along the coastline that contained the carcasses of marine mammals. Dead walruses and at least one dead gray whale on the beach between the mouths of Kahkatak and Kuchiak Creeks provided carrion to supplement the bear's normal diet of caribou, ground squirrels, other small mammals, and vegetation. Tracks and sign of other bears were seen at inland locations where the animals foraged on grasses and ground squirrels. During 1985, single bears were seen during mid-May about seven miles south of Cape Beaufort and inland about three miles from the coastline (Howard Grey, pers. comm. 24 June 1985) and on 25 July along the lower section of Omalik Creek. These observations are consistent with information from local residents (Donald Neakok, Point Lay, pers. comm. 25 July 1985), that grizzly bears are more numerous on the coastline during August, when the sea ice retreats and marine mammal carcasses are beached by winds and currents. The location of WACDP components, with a port site on Omalik Lagoon connected to the mine site near Mormon benchmark by a 5.4 mile road, will require attention to grizzly bears that will probably patrol the coastal corridor during the open water season. The area between Cape Beaufort and the mouth of Kuchiak Creek, with its anadromous fish runs providing another food resource for the bears, must be considered to be a prime area for encounters with humans and facilities. Mitigative measures will be taken to facilitate the crossing and passing of WACDP installations, prevention of pauperization of bears at solid waste disposal facilities and by human feeding, and institution of a program to avoid human-animal contacts of any form. 3 - 50 Wolverines are an important fur resource of the WACDP region, partic- ularly the Amatusuk Hills that lie to the east and south of the proposed project area. At least three Point Lay hunters take about six animals each during the late winter-early spring trapping season (Willard Neakok, Point Lay, pers. comm. 28 August 1984; Donald Neakok, Point Lay, pers. comm. 24 July 1985). Scattered individual animals were seen on a few occasions during early and mid-May 1985 in connection with the exploration drilling program (Howard Grey pers. comm. 24 June 1985) that maintained camps near the Mormon benchmark and at Cape Beaufort. Arctic and red foxes are also taken by Point Lay trappers, who consider the foothills habitats to the east of the WACDP area to be most valuable for the taking of furbearers. Hunters from other villages, such as Barrow and Point Hope, were also in the area during mid-May 1985 (Howard Grey, pers. comm. 24 June 1985) and during July 1985. About 30-40 foxes are trapped by the Point Lay people during a season (Willard Neakok, pers. comm. 28 August 1984; Donald Neakok, Point Lay, pers. comm. 24 July 1985), with more arctic foxes being taken than red foxes. Only a portion of the foxes are obtained from the WACDP area per se; a majority of arctic foxes being taken suggests that most of the trapping effort is made on the coastal plain and adjoining sea ice environments. An arctic fox den was found near the northwest corner of Omalik Lagoon in July 1985 and proper steps were taken to create a zone of nondisturbance around it for engineer- ing guidance. Red foxes were reported near Mormon benchmark during late April 1985, and a den was suspected about two miles south of that location (Howard Grey, pers. comm. 24 June 1985). The presence of good populations of bears, foxes, and wolverines indicates a fairly stable food base of small mammals, which would also support less-visible mammals such as short-tailed weasels (ermine) and shrews as well as the normal complement of avian predators. Red- backed voles, tundra voles, singing voles, brown lemmings, collared 3 = 1, (or varying) lemmings, arctic shrews, masked shrews, short-tailed weasels, and least weasels are expected to be present in varying population densities dependent upon habitat types and cyclic phenom- ena. The red-backed vole is typically associated with cottongrass tussocks, the dominant vegetation of the Cape Beaufort region, and is probably the most widespread and common small mammal of the area. It is an important prey item for shrews, weasels, foxes, and wolverines. Tundra voles are generally distributed over several vegetation types and are usually more abundant in wet sedge (Carex) meadows than other habitats. Its close relative, the singing vole, has a much more restricted distribution and is commonly found in willow communities and not associated with other mammal species (Pruitt 1966). Both tundra and singing voles are prey for the several predators of the region, and the tundra vole is probably more important because of its broader ecological distribution. These generalizations have been substantiated by a recent study of the ecological distribution of small mammals in the De Long Mountains at the proposed site of the Lik mineral prospect development (Douglass 1984) and are consistent with the conclusions of Batzli and Jung (1980) from studies near Atqasuk. Brown and collared lemmings are usually associated in habitats of a wide variety, with a tendency for collared lemmings to be more abundant in dry and moist habitat types (such as the ecotones between Dry Alpine-Fellfield and Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra and with the latter) and brown lemmings to predominate in wet habitat types, such as Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra. This reflects their dietary habits, in which collared lemmings select for dicotyledons such as willows and other low-growing shrubs, while brown lemmings forage primarily on monocotyledons such as sedges (Carex and Eriophorum). Tundra voles, by comparison, have been shown to feed on grasses as much as sedges and to include willows and a variety of forbs in their diet. 3 - 52 Both brown and collared lemmings undergo dramatic population fluctua- tions that induce similar, but delayed, cycles in the abundance of those carnivores that depend upon the lemmings for a substantial part of their food base. This relationship was readily apparent during the 1985 spring and summer WACDP field operations. An abundance of snowy owls on the coastal plain portions of the project area (up to one owl per two square miles) was noted in late April, and jaegers became in- creasingly common as the snow cover melted and began nesting shortly thereafter (Howard Grey, pers. comm. 24 June 1985). Lemmings appeared in large numbers with the melting of the snow and were abundant throughout the summer. Snowy owls remained at their earlier numbers at least through July, and appreciable numbers of short-eared owls, jaegers, rough-legged hawks, and marsh hawks were seen in the WACDP environs during the Summer Site Investigation. The arctic fox den at the northwest corner of Omalik Lagoon contained at least five pups, and the adult female was observed to catch several lemmings to feed her young with only a 45 minute hunt within 100 meters of the den. Recent studies in northern Alaska have illustrated the marked response of arctic foxes to their lemming food base and the important implica- tions to rabies incidence during population peaks of arctic foxes (Eberhardt, Garrott, and Hanson 1983; Eberhardt et al. 1982). Red foxes are usually associated with foothills and coastal plain habitats (Eberhardt 1977). In such associations, they are able to utilize a more diverse food base of terrestrial animals during winter, rather than being suited for the sea ice habitats utilized by arctic foxes. Thus, red foxes are considered to be more abundant in the areas of interest to the WACDP, with the provision for protection of the arctic fox den described previously. Arctic ground squirrels are an important and obvious part of the biota in the WACDP area, inhabiting the numerous ridges and terraces that provide well-drained soils for burrows. In these habitats they perform extensive excavations, fertilization, and other activities 3 - 53 that provide sites for grasses, willows, and other plants to become established. They are important prey for short-tailed weasels and grizzly bears, who expend considerable energy in digging through burrow systems in pursuit of squirrels. Although quantitative information was not obtained, it was apparent that ground squirrels are more abundant in the Cape Beaufort area than in the Deadfall Syncline area. Similarly, ground squirrels were apparently more abundant at the coastal location of Cape Thompson (Pruitt 1966) and less common in the De Long Mountains (Douglass 1984). Within the Deadfall Syncline area, the animals are more abundant near the Mormon benchmark and eastward, rather than in the lower elevations. One sandstone ridge on the DFS-4 coal seam contained five burrow systems in the 3000' length surveyed. Hoary marmots inhabit many of the same rock outcrops colonized by ground squirrels in the Cape Beaufort area. Preliminary surveys of a series of eight ridges that begin immediately east of the Cape Beaufort camp and extend some four miles to the south indicated that 25-50 marmots were in the area. The full extent of the colony was not determined and the onset of snow and cold weather in late August 1984 reduced their aboveground activities to occasional periods. Several individuals and at least two families of marmots were observed; the family groups consisted of two adults and three juveniles in one and two adults and two juveniles in the other. None were seen during limited surveys of the sandstone outcrops near Mormon benchmark during July 1985. Hoary marmots are discontinuously distributed through the Brooks Range and Arctic Foothills, and are still highly prized for their pelts. As recently as the early 1960's, residents of Point Hope and Anaktuvuk Pass made walking treks of 150 miles to secure marmot pelts for sale or personal use in making parkas. Although modern synthetic materials have largely replaced the traditional use of animal skins in Eskimo culture, the proximity of the Cape Beaufort marmot colony to commonly-used travel routes along the coast places the colony at risk in the event of heavy untilization. Only a few 3 - 54 marmots have been reported to occur in the Cape Sabine (mouth of the Pitmegea River) area (Childs 1969), and we have not yet found them in the Deadfall Syncline area although a thorough search has not been made for them. Greater utilization of the area as a result of coal resource development may have an impact on this resource through native hunting pressure. Estimates of terrestrial wildlife resources expected to be lost by habitat disruption and change by WACDP mine and infrastructure developments were made by careful consideration of amounts of various habitats to be impacted and population densities of birds and mammals reported from appropriate studies in northern Alaska. It is antici- pated that the values, presented in Tables 3-4 and 3-5, are reason- able and acceptable guidelines for resource agency judgments. 3 - 55 95 ~ £ TABLE 3-4 ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF ANIMALS LOST TO MINE DEVELOPMENT Year 1 Year 5 Year 10 6-7 Acres Disturbed 80-100 Acres Disturbed 170-200 Acres Disturbed Species No Recovery 12-20 " Recovered 40-60 "Recovered Mammals (Individuals) Ground squirrel 3-10 10-40 10-40 Tundra vole 4-20 20-100 40-200 Singing vole 4-12 20-60 200-400 Red-backed vole 4-12 20-60 350-700 Varying lemming 2-4 10-20 15-25 Brown lemming 1-2 5-10 10-20 Arctic shrew 1-2 5-10 10-20 Birds (Nesting Pairs) Golden-plover 1 1 1-2 Black-bellied plover dl 1 1-2 Semipalmated plover 1 1-2 1-2 Long-tailed jaeger i iL 1-2 Short-eared owl 1 1 1-2 Lapland longspur 1 3-7 8-12 Sources: Batzli and Jung 1980; Childs 1969; Douglass 1984; Hanson and Eberhardt 1982; McCaffrey, Burgess, and Hanson 1982; Williamson, Thompson, and Hines 1966. ES NE TABLE 3-5 ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS LOST TO INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT Roadwa Airstrip Camp 10 Acres 10 Acres 7 Acres Acres 2 Acres Species Moist Tundra Wet Tundra Initial Dedicated Wet Tundra ppecites DUEL Lat LSU Lat vearceted met tundra Mammals (Individuals) Ground squirrel 1-2 0 3-10 0 0 Tundra vole 10-20 10-50 7-10 15-20 1-5 Singing vole 5-10 10-20 5-10 10-20 1 Red-backed vole 50-100 10-50 35-50 70-100 1-5 Varying lemming 20-40 10-20 7-15 15-30 2-20 Brown lemming 10-50 20-200 20-200 40-400 2-20 Arctic shrew 10-50 10-20 5-10 10-20 1-2 Birds (Nesting Pairs) Shorebirds* 2-3 1-2 1-2 2-4 1 Lapland longspur 1-2 1 1-2 1-2 0 Other s** 1-2 1 iL 2 0 * Golden plover, black-bellied plover, semipalmated plover, pectoral sandpiper, long-billed dowitcher, semipalmated sandpiper, dunlin and others. ** Willow ptarmigan, long-tailed jaeger, short-eared owl, snowy owl, redpoll and others Sources: Batzli and Jung 1980; Douglass 1984; Hanson and Eberhardt 1982; Hohenberger, Rudholm, and Hanson 1982; McCaffrey, Burgess, and Hanson 1982; Myers and Pitelka 1980; Spindler and Miller 1983; Williamson, Thompson, and Hines 1966. 3.8.2 Marine Mammals Marine mammals, particularly belukhas (white whales), are an important subsistence resource for the Point Lay people, who report that the nearshore area off Omalik Lagoon is a staging area for the animals. In support of this, a pod of about 320 adult and young belukhas were observed feeding in an area 0.5 mile wide and 2.0 miles long adjacent to the coastline in that area on 22 July 1985. The whales were often 750-1000 feet from the beach in waters about 6-8 feet deep, and were obviously foraging in the sediments, as indicated by mud plumes in the water. Foraging by marine mammals in such shallows must be marginal at best, due to the substantial scouring by sea ice each year, and is probably restricted to mobile marine biota that repopulate the shallow areas or follow the coastline as the Alaska Coastal Current brings warmer, less saline water to the region. Water temperature and native hunting activities were concluded to be major factors influenc- ing belukha distribution at the mouth of the MacKenzie River (Fraker et al. 1979). Belukhas are common along the Cape Beaufort coast during late June until early September. Point Lay people hunt these animals farther north, with the closest hunting reported to be at Naokok Pass into Kasegaluk Lagoon. The marine berthing facility of the proposed WACDP is the component which will have the major environmental impacts of concern to belukhas. The facility will provide moorage for tugs, barges, and other marine transportation systems, as well as accommodating a coal stockpile, a coal handling/loading system, fuel deliveries and storage, and movement of equipment and materials on shore. Physical constraints such as coastline features and bathymetry (ARCTEC Alaska, Inc. 1985) narrowed the optimum location to within three miles of 3 - 58 Omalik Lagoon, and this was further refined to the immediate area of the lagoon by the decision to locate the mine at the Mormon Block West site and data obtained during the 1985 Summer Site Investigation. The preferred alternative for the marine berthing facility consists of initially utilizing an offshore loading method with an earth ramp or gabion dock; an onshore coal stockpile; a four-acre dredged turning and mooring basin; a 130'-wide by 1300' -long lead-in channel; and deposition of dredged material in the shallow northwest corner of Omalik Lagoon to provide an 3.2 acre pad for the coal stockpile and fuel storage pad. This facility would be utilized during the initial development of the WACDP, when coal production would be approximately 20,000 tpy during the first year and gradually increase to about 50,000 tpy in the third year. At that point, the Omalik Lagoon Dredged Channel and Turning Basin concept would begin; this would involve an additional 19 acres in the northwestern corner of Omalik Lagoon being added to the 3.2 acre stockpile pad. About 11 acres of this additional area would be diked and then dredged to form a turning basin, barge berthing facility, and a 130'-wide entrance through the barrier beach. Diking would be necessary because of the "perched" nature of the lagoon, as discussed previously under Section 3.7, Wetlands. Placement of the dredged material within the lagoon serves three important purposes: (1) the marine and lagoon sediments are similar in nature, both being saline and relatively low in biological productivity due to environmental rigors; (2) it provides fill material that would otherwise have to be found elsewhere; and (3) placement of dredged material on adjacent wetlands would require twice the area, it would have to be diked, and the area would be essentially unuseable for other purposes. The importance of avoiding contact of seawater and saline sediments with terrestrial freshwater habitats is illustrated in experimental results from application of 2000 liters (= 528 U.S. gallons) to eight 40-140 square-meter (=130-459 square foot) plots of tundra ranging from dry to wet moisture content at Prudhoe 3 - 59 Bay (Simmons et al. 1983). One year after treatment, live vegetative cover was reduced by 61-86% and the number of vascular plant taxa was reduced by 20-73%, depending upon the moisture category of the plot. The placement of marine sediments on terrestrial environments would be an even greater impact and seriously constrain rehabilitation efforts at the end of the project. Environmental impacts of the dredging also include the effects of dredging noise on belukhas, which spend varying amounts of time in the port vicintiy. Dredges produce underwater sounds that are generally similar to those reported for various equipment associated with offshore petroleum operations. Belukhas have been reported to come within 1200' of a working dredge in the Canadian Beaufort Sea without showing signs of avoidance (Fraker 1984). Movement of the sound source appears to be a critical consideration for acceptance by marine mammals, probably reflecting their learned avoidance of native hunting methods utilizing outboard motors. Therefore, some avoidance of the port area is expected during the dredging and barging activities. However, no major impacts that would materially affect subsistence hunting of belukhas by the Point Lay people are expected under the modest operating schedules envisioned in the WACDP. Several other marine mammals are important subsistence resources for the Point Lay people, several of whom use the existing facilities at Cape Beaufort (former Liz A Distant Early Warning Site). Bearded seals are a prime species taken at this and other sites north to Icy Cape during the spring months and to Point Lay in fall months; this reflects the earlier formation of sea ice in northern areas and the southward movement of seals with advancing ice conditions. Ringed and spotted seals are also taken during the ice-covered and open- water seasons, respectively. Ringed seals are more numerous and more readily taken by hunters who are hunting bearded seals. Walruses are not commonly encountered near Cape Beaufort, as they tend to be more closely associated with the drifting pack ice farther offshore. 3 - 60 Winter and spring months' distribution of marine mammals along the coastline is closely linked to various habitat types. Polar bears den in deep gullies or snowdrift areas onshore and hunt seals in all sea ice areas. Two sets of polar bear tracks were seen at the Cape Beaufort camp during early May 1985 and seals were particularly abundant on the sea ice at that location (Howard Grey, pers. comm. 24 June 1985). Pilots of light aircraft flying along the coastline between Cape Beaufort and Point Lay reported polar bears on the pack ice, and ground personnel reported numerous fox tracks on the shore- line in the area just south of Omalik Lagoon. Arctic foxes also forage on the shorefast ice, obtaining remains of seals killed by polar bears and preying on ringed seal pups in birth lairs. This seal-polar bear-arctic fox relationship is vital to the long-range movements observed in arctic foxes tagged in northern Alaska and recovered at distances of up to 2000 kilometers (1200 miles) (Eber- hardt and Hanson 1978). Gray whales feed on a variety of marine invertebrates in the shallow waters of the Chukchi Sea during summer and dead individuals have been washed ashore near Cape Beaufort, as observed during August 1984. Such carcasses provide a substantial food resource for grizzly bears, foxes, and other scavengers. Gray whales are considered to be most frequently encountered in the eastern Chukchi Sea during the late sum- mer months of August and September, following their major feeding activities in the central Chukchi Sea (Marquette and Braham 1982). They predominantly occur in shallow (<165 feet) continental shelf waters from St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea to just north of Cape Lisburne. Sightings since 1958 have not included any animals in Ledyard Bay proper. 3 - 61 Bowhead whales migrate northward along the major polynya in the ice pack that occurs along the northwest Alaska coastline in early spring and provides the vital route to the bowhead summering grounds in the vicinity of the MacKenzie River Delta. This massive lead forms too far offshore for effective whaling by the Point Lay people, who may join with crews of Wainwright and Barrow to obtain this important cultural resource. A list of mammals expected to occur in various habitats of the Cape Beaufort environs is presented in Table 3-6. 3.8.3 Terrestrial Birds A variety of waterfowl and shorebirds utilize the diverse habitats of the WACDP environs, as indicated by the list of 90 bird species expected to occur in the area, based on a past study conducted at Cape Sabine (mouth of the Pitmegea River) (Childs 1969), presented in Table 3-7. This list is considered to be a conservative estimate of birds expected to be eventually encountered in the project area, when compared to a greater number (120) documented at Cape Thompson (Williamson, Thompson, and Hines 1966). Part of the difference be- tween the two studies is the seasonality of the Cape Sabine study (summer only), the 3-4 times greater effort in the Cape Thompson studies, and the inclusion of large sea cliff-nesting colonies of marine birds in those results. Of the 120 bird species recorded at Cape Thompson, about half (65) were known to breed there and, of these, only 34 were actually found to nest in the Ogotoruk Valley and the surrounding area of the Cape Thompson environs. These numbers are only slightly greater than the number of species (55) documented or suspected of nesting in the Cape Sabine area. A comparison of total number of bird species reported at these.and other locations in northern Alaska is shown in Table 3-8. 3 - 62 TABLE 3-6 LIST OF MAMMALS EXPECTED TO OCCUR IN CAPE BEAUFORT ENVIRONS! Scientific Name Sorex cinereus Sorex arcticus Marmota caligata Spermophilus parryii Dicrostonyx torquatus Lemmus sibiricus Clethrionomys rutilis Microtus oeconomus Microtus gregalis Delphinapterus leucas Orcinus orca Eschrichtius robustus Balaena mysticetus Canis lupus Alopex lagopus Vulpes vulpes Ursus arctos Ursus maritimus Mustela erminea Mustela nivalis Gulo gulo QOdobenus rosmarus Phoca vitulina Phoca hispida Erignathus barbatus Rangifer tarandus 1 Sources: Childs, H.E., Jr. 1969. Cape Sabine, northwestern Alaska. Common Name Cinereous shrew Arctic shrew Hoary marmot Arctic ground squirrel Collared lemming Brown lemming Red-backed vole Tundra vole Singing vole White whale Pacific killer whale Gray whale Bowhead whale Gray wolf Arctic fox Red fox Grizzly bear Polar bear Ermine Least weasel Wolverine Walrus Harbor seal Ringed seal Bearded seal Barren-ground caribou Habitat Sedge-wlllow wet meadow Sedge-willow wet meadow Rock outcrops, alpine tundra Bluffs, alluvial terraces Moist cottongrass tussocks Sedge-willow wet meadow Moist cottongrass tussocks Sedge wet meadow Riparian willows Offshore Offshore Of fshore Offshore Foothills Pingos, frost mounds Riparian Beaches, tundra, foothills Sea ice, denning on coast Moist and wet meadows Moist and wet meadows Moist and wet meadows Offshore Offshore and estuaries Offshore Offshore Tundra and foothills Birds and mammals of the Pitmegea River region, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. Bee, J.W. and E.R. Hall. 1956. Mammals of northern Alaska on the Arctic Slope. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ. No. 8. Lawrence. 3 - 63 Biol. Papers Univ. Alaska No. 10. Univ. Kansas, LIST OF BIRDS EXPECTED TO OCCUR IN CAPE BEAUFORT ENVIRONS! Scientific Name Gavia adamsii Gavia arctica Gavia stellata Podiceps grisegena TABLE 3-7 Common Name Yellow-billed Loon Arctic loon Red-throated loon* Red-necked grebe Phalacrocorax pelagicus Pelagic cormorant Cygnus columbianus Branta canadensis Branta bernicla Chen canagica Anser albifrons Chen caerulescens Anas platyrhynchos Anas acuta Anas crecca Anas formosa Anas americana Anas clypeata Aythya marila Clangula hyemalis Tundra swan Canada goose Brant Emperor goose White-fronted goose Snow goose Mal lard Pintail Green-winged teal Baikal teal American widgeon Shoveler Greater scaup Oldsquaw Histrionicus histrionicus Harlequin duck Polysticta stelleri Somateria mollissima Somateria spectabilis Somateria fisheri Melanitta fusca Melanitta nigra Mergus serrator Buteo lagopus Steller's eider Common eider King eider Spectacled eider White-winged soter Black scoter Red-breasted merganser Rough- legged hawk 3 - 64 Nests Resident Migrant Transient/Rare X(1) Summer <x «— -« <~ <~ ~—~ «< Table 3-7 (continued) Summer Scientific Name Common Name Nests Resident Migrant Transient/Rare Aquila chrysaetos Circus cyaneus Golden eagle Northern harrier Falco rusticolus Gyrfalcon X Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon X Lagopus lagopus Willow ptarmigan X Lagopus mutus Grus canadensis Rock ptarmigan Sandhill crane X(several) Charadrius semipalmatus Semipalmated plover X Charadrius vociferus Killdeer X Pluvialis dominica Lesser golden-plover X(5) Arenaria interpres Ruddy turnstone X Gallinago gallinago Common snipe Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel X Actitis macularia Spotted sandpiper X Tringa flavipes Lesser yellowlegs X Calidris canutus Knot X Calidris melanotos Pectoral sandpiper* X(5-10) Calidris bairdii Baird's sandpiper Calidris alpina Dunlin. X(5-10) Limnodromus scolopaceus Long-billed dowitcher* X(2-3) Calidris pusilla Semipalmated sandpiper* X(10-20) Calidris mauri Western sandpiper X(10-20) Tryngites subruficollis Buff-breasted sandpiper Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed godwit X Calidris alba Sander ling Phalaropus lobatus Red-necked phalarope X Stercorarius pomarinus Pomarine jaeger X Stercorarius parasiticus Parasitic jaeger X X 3 - 65 Table 3-7 (continued) Scientific Name Common Name Nests pectdenk Migrant Transient/Rare Stercorarius longicaudus Long-tailed jaeger. X(1) Larus hyperboreus Glaucous gull X X Larus canus Mew Gull X? X Pagophila eburnea Ivory gull X Rissa tridactyla Black-legged kittiwake X Xema sabini Sabine's gull X Sterna paradisaea Arctic tern X Uria lomvia Thick-billed murre X Cyclorrhynchus psittacula Parakeet auklet X Nyctea scandiaca Snowy owl X X Asio flammeus Short-eared owl X Sayornis saya Say's phoebe X Eremophila alpestris Horned lark X Tachycineta thalassina Violet-green swallow X Hirundo rustica Barn swallow X Corvus corax Common raven xX Turdus migratorius Robin X Ixoreus naevius Varied thrush X Catharus minimus Gray-checked thrush X Qenanthe oenanthe Wheatear X Luscinia svecica Bluethroat X? X Phylloscopus borealis Arctic warbler X Motacilla flava Yellow wagtail@ X(2) Anthus spinoletta Water pipit X Lanius excubitor Northern shrike X Wilsonia pusilla Wilson's warbler X Acanthis flammea Redpol1* X( several) Passerculus sandwichensis Savannah sparrow* X(5-10) 3 - 66 Table 3-7 (continued) Scientific Name Common Name Nests gecko Migrant Transient/Rare dunco hyemalis Dark-eyed junco X Spizella arborea Tree sparrow Zonotrichia leucophrys White-crowned sparrow xX Passerella iliaca Fox sparrow X? Calcarius lapponicus Lapland longspur* X(200) Plectrophenax nivalis Snow bunting X * Important breeder; numbers in parentheses, e.g. (5-10), is estimated number of pairs per square mile at Cape Sabine 1 source: Childs, H.E., Jr. 1969. Birds and mammals of the Pitmegea River region, Cape Sabine, northwestern Alaska. Biol. Papers Univ. Alaska No. 10. Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. 3 - 67 TABLE 3-8 NUMBERS OF BIRD SPECIES REPORTED AT SELECTED NORTH ALASKA LOCALITIES Number of Number of Authority Locality Species. Nesting Species Grinnel 1900 Kotzebue Sound 150 68* Hines 1963 Upper Noatak River 83 -- Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959 Barrow 126 48* Irving 1960 Anaktuvuk Pass 106 59 Kessel and Cade 1958 Colville River 87 52 Maher 1959 Kaolak River 34 23 Williamson et. al. 1966 Cape Thompson 120 65. Childs 1969 Cape Sabine 90 55 * Approximate 3 - 68 Further refinement of expected bird utilization of the WACDP habitats can be made on the basis of the Cape Thompson and other studies. The four major vegetation types used in mapping the WACDP areas (Appen- dices A, B, and C) have almost identical correlaries in the Cape Thompson investigators' “ecological formations", as shown in Table 3-9. Those data were based upon (1) daily observations of birds within each type during three field seasons; and (2) an evaluation of the importance of a type to the various life functions of the birds, such as nesting, feeding, migration, staging, or resting. The dis- tribution of breeding birds in the WACDP area and other northern environments is controlled primarily by the presence or absence of an acceptable ecosystem component, such as a particular vegetation type with certain other features, and secondarily by climatic factors. The importance of climatic factors is illustrated by the fact that even though open prairie-like habitats in temperate areas of North America are often less diverse in habitat composition compared to arctic areas such as Deadfall Syncline, they support greater numbers of bird species. Climatic extremes in northern areas impose significant restrictions on reproductive efforts and abilities of birds to adapt to critical timing schedules such as short summer periods to accom- plish those efforts. This accounts for the high number of migrant species in arctic areas and applies particularly to the small pas- serine (perching and song bird) species, such as Lapland longspurs and savannah sparrows. These two species are highly adapted to the arctic environment and respond to the lack of competition from other species by occupying and utilizing a wide range of vegetation types and by often achieving high population densities. This occupancy of a rigorous environment exacts a toll on the population by appreciable predation, particularly during low population cycles of small mammals, and exposure of nests to unseasonal weather events such as late spring and early autumn snow storms. 3 - 69 TABLE 3-9 UTILIZATION OF VEGETATION TYPES BY BIRD SPECIES Habitat Type Number of Number of Species Species with Study Area Cape Thompson! Utilizing Type Primary Preference Moist Cottongrass Eriophorum tussock 20 8 Tussock Tundra tundra Wet Sedge-Moss Carex meadow tundra 27 13 Tundra Riparian Willow- Riparian Willows 25 11 Sedge-Forb Dry Alpine-Fellfield Dryas fell-field 15 6 Tundra 1 Source: Williamson, Thompson and Hines 1966. 3 - 70 Extrapolation of Cape Thompson and Cape Sabine bird data to WACDP areas is presented in Table 3-10, which provides estimates of numbers of bird species and nests expected in various vegetation types. This information was also used in estimating the numbers of birds expected to be lost to mine and infrastructure developments (Tables 3-4 and 3-5). These tentative estimates are based upon comparison of habi- tats, topography, climate, and other environmental variables that may have important influences upon bird utilization of the areas. Ten acres was adopted for the land unit of consideration because that amount of land was convenient for reference to resource development as perceived in the WACDP. Intensive, well-designed studies of birds in various habitats of the WACDP environs may provide an expedient evaluation of these estimates and serve as an effective monitoring method in the future. 3.8.4 Fish Fish resources in the WACDP area include several marine species and a few freshwater species. Kuchiak Creek, which has received preeminent consideration in our planning, is reported to support modest runs of pink and chum salmon and arctic char, with a few silver and dog salmon also present (William Tracey and Terry Harding, Point Lay, pers. comm. 24 July 1985). About 200-300 fish are reportedly taken in that subsistence fishing effort each year. A recent study at Point Lay (Craig and Schmidt 1985) indicated a total subsistence harvest of about 450 pounds of fish by Point Lay people in 1983; that estimate appears conservative or may include primarily fisheries other than the Kuchiak Creek take. 3) = 71 TABLE 3-10 EXPECTED NUMBER OF NESTS OF VARIOUS BIRDS PER 10 ACRES OF HABITAT TYPE IN THE DEADFALL SYNCLINE DEVELOPMENT AREA Per 10 Acres Number of Number of Vegetation Type Species Nests Major Species Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra Hawks Deadfall Syncline 1-2 1-2 ptarmigan plovers few songbirds Moist Cottongrass Tussock Waterfowl Tundra shorebirds Deadfall Syncline 4-5 4-5 ptarmigan jaegers songbirds Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra Waterfowl Deadfall Syncline 4-6 8-10 shorebirds ptarmigan jaegers songbirds Riparian Willow-Sedge-Forb Songbirds Deadfall Syncline 8-10 10-15 shorebirds ptarmigan owls sie 72 Marine fish resources in the proposed project area are principally arctic cod, saffron cod, Pacific herring, boreal smelt, and walleye pollock. In addition, fourhorn sculpin, sandlance, and capelin serve as food for higher vertebrate consumers (Craig 1983; Fechhelm et al. 1984). Fish species composition differs between nearshore and offshore waters, between the northeastern Chukchi Sea and adjacent regions, and between coastal habitats separated by cold-water bar- riers. Inshore Ledyard Bay is one of the largest cold-water barriers along the entire Cape Lisburne to Barrow coastline. Arctic cod from Ledyard Bay are very adept at exploiting a variety of food resources and trophic niches. This adaptability probably accounts for their great success in arctic marine waters by preying upon copepods, amphipods, and mysids (Lowry and Frost 1981). Arctic cod are an important food for a variety of marine mammals and sea- birds, and no alternate food resource of equivalent value appears to exist in the area (Sekerak 1982). For example, the estimated 400,000 seabirds at Cape Thompson consumed about 25 million arctic cod annu- ally. The relative availability of cod and other important forage fishes has been proposed as a major factor in observed fluctuations in the distribution and reproductive success of these seabirds and marine mammals (Springer, Roseneau, and Johnson 1979; Lowry, Frost, and Burns 1980). The overall composition of marine fish fauna in the Chukchi Sea is basically characteristic of arctic areas, with a low diversity of species. This fauna is enriched by continual input of more southerly species which apparently disperse northward with the Alaska Coastal Current. This contribution of relatively warm and productive waters from the Bering Sea combines with the long daylength and open water season to produce the high standing stocks of marine food web compo- nents of the region. 3 - 73 3.9 Climatology The Western Arctic region has an arctic marine climate characterized by long and moderately cold winters and short, cool summers. This results from the anticyclonic (clockwise) circulation that dominates over the polar cap and the high-pressure dome that exists throughout most of the year. This dome conditions the lower atmospheric circulation of the anticyclone with intense cyclonic storms originating in Icelandic and Aleutian low pressure systems. Following these intense cyclonic disturbances that pass along its periphery, the cold dome of high pressure forces air rapidly southward toward low pressure areas. This frontal zone extends from eastern Siberia to Alaska, passing through the Bering Sea far to the south of the northwestern part of Alaska. Most of the major storms originating from that area only inirequently influence the Cape Beaufort weather. WACDP environs receive 8-10 inches of precipitation annually, including 20-30 inches of snow that comes in small increments. Most precipitation occurs during July and August (Selkregg 1974). The snow cover is strongly drifted by the appreciable winds in the area and the low relief, particu- larly in the coastal wetlands areas below 100' elevation. Prevailing winds in the project area are from the northeast, while Cape Lisburne has a signigicant component (about 25%) of its winds from the south and southwest. Wind direction along the coast has been correlated with measured atmospheric pressure at Point Barrow and Cape Lisburne; greater pressure at Point Barrow than at Cape Lisburne produces northeast winds, and vice versa (Lewbel and Gallaway 1984). Circulation patterns on the inner shelf of the Chukchi Sea are highly influenced by meteorological forcing of such winds. Almost one-fourth of these winds are greater than 17 knots in late winter (January-March) and 10% of the July winds are of that speed. These appreciable winds during the summer season combine with the long fetch over open water to produce high seas and rough water that makes the Western Arctic project area somewhat inhospitable to open boat travel. The WACDP Marine Transportation Evaluation Technical Memorandum 3 - 74 (Ogden Beeman & Associates 1985) evaluated the sea ice and wave conditions related to proposed project operations, and concluded that wave heights of <1.0 meter could be expected 74% of the time. The protection from the northeast-to-south quadrant provided by land masses is an important consideration in the evaluation. Hazardous wave heights of more than 3.5 meters are expected to be rare and wave heights of 2.5 meters to be infrequent. The evaluation concluded that wave conditions and wind speeds in the project area were not expected to impose significant constraints on the shipping activities. Storm surges are expected to occur infrequently during the month of October (Brower et al. 1977) and to require engineering considerations in the Omalik Lagoon area, as discussed earlier. Such surges, also termed wind tides, probably played a major role in causing breaches in the Omalik Lagoon barrier beach in the past. Temperatures in the area of interest range from -6°F to -20°F for minimums during midwinter (January) and 40°F to 50°F in midsummer. Variances from these ranges are naturally expected, with greatest concern for extremely low (-40°F) temperatures that may curtail mining operations, and high winds with low temperatures that produce windchill and blizzard conditions that May suspend operations. Temperatures during the geotechnical drilling program conducted during the first two weeks of April 1985 ranged from -15° to -40°F, winds ranged from calm to 50 knots, and whiteout conditions were common. Temperatures remained below O°F until May and winds ranged up to 30 knots, whiteout conditions were also common during this period (Howard Grey, pers. comm. 24 June 1985). Daylength in the project area varies from about 5 hours of sunlight plus twilight in December and January to 24 hours from early May through mid-August (Pool Engineering 1985b). Visibility during summer months is predominantly (75-80%) greater than five nautical miles and about 15% of the time is less than two nautical miles (U.S. Department of Commerce 1977). The low visibility value is associated with fog, which is expected to occur 15-20% of the time in summer. 3 - 75 3.10 Sea Ice and Bathymetry The sea bed in this region is gently sloping, composed of gravel and rock overlain by a few feet of mud, well-graded sands, gravels, and detrital coals (Howard Grey & Associates 1985). It is heavily scoured in shallows less than 30' deep. That contour is approximately 3.5 miles off the coastline, leaving a broad area depauperate of benthic organisms. The sea ice usually approaches the shore during early October and the sea is more than 85% ice-covered by the end of the month. Consolidated or shorefast ice then remains in the area until the pack ice retreats in mid-summer (July-August). Storms and other phenomena may drive sea ice ashore and pile it to heights of 30' or more. Accessibility to the proposed port site at Omalik Lagoon, and to northern delivery points, is regulated by sea ice coverage and distribution. The Marine Transportation Evaluation technical memorandum (Ogden Beeman & Associates 1985) shows that sea ice remains north of the port site (located at Latitude 69.1 N, Longitude 163.5 W) during July-October, thus allowing a 75 day working season on average. The Alaska Coastal Current brings warmer, less saline water into the Western Arctic region, raising sea temperatures up to 40-45°F in summer (AhInas and Garrison 1984). The coastal current in this area is northeast at 0.5-1.5 knots. This warmer water and movement is partially responsible (along with prevailing northeast winds) for the large polynya that normally appears in spring months and expedites the northward movement of bowhead whales along the coastline to Barrow and beyond. Under certain meteoro- logical conditions, this current has been observed to reverse itself and flow to the southwest. Normally it is nearshore, of relatively high velocity (1.0-1.5 kt), and independent of local winds. During the summer of 1981, it was found to reverse for periods of 5-7 days for about 40% of the open-water season (Wilson et al. 1981), reflecting its barotropic nature. Speeds and directions of the current are generally uniform from top to bottom, with trajectories paralleling the depth contours. Fleming and 3 - 76 Heggarty (1966) estimated the residence time of water in the southeastern Chukchi Sea (south of Point Hope) during summer to be about 10 days on the basis of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the water; however, more recent data (Ingraham et al. 1972) indicated that distri- bution of dissolved nutrients showed horizontal gradients which may have been the result of photosynthetic activity in the upper 10 meters (30 ft) of moving water. If so, the residence time of the water in the eastern Chukchi Sea may be longer than 10 days. An anticyclonic (clockwise) eddy in Ledyard Bay produces locally weak and variable currents of about 0.5 kt northeast; near Point Lay this current increases to 1.0-1.7 kt (Ingraham et al. 1972; Coachman, Aagaard, and Tripp 1975). The open-water season in the Chukchi Sea varies seasonally with the position of the polar ice pack, which responds to winds and the extent of the winter ice pack advance, which is dependent upon insolation, winter air temperatures, and wind. August and September are months of least sea ice in the Chukchi Sea in general; the heavy pack ice begins to approach the north coasts in mid-September and slush ice begins to form in lagoons and nearshore areas by early October. Formation of landfast ice usually begins in November and slowly builds seaward. By the end of winter (April), the shorefast ice may extend to the 60' isobath and reach a thickness of 6-7 feet (Howard Grey & Associates 1985). Shallow inshore areas and lagoons usually freeze to the bottom. First-year ice often builds up very rapidly during late winter and spring in the eastern Chukchi Sea due to the persistent polynya along the coast (Stringer, Zender-Romick, and Groves 1982; Ahinas and Garrison 1984). Within the polynya, open water and very cold air temperatures result in continuous ice formation. This polynya is formed by the prevailing northeast wind pushing the ice offshore and the subsequent warming of the waters by increasing sunlight, keeping the polynya open from January onward. Its average width during February-April 3-77 is often less than 0.6 mile but then increases in width as warming pro- gresses; maximum widths are often observed close inshore in Ledyard Bay, where during May 1981 it gradually increased from 0.6 mi to 30 mi wide. Pack ice composed of both first-year ice a few feet in thickness and multi-year ice up to 15-20 ft thick occupies nearly the entire Chukchi Sea in winter. It generally moves northwesterly in response to the strong prevailing winds from the northeast and northerly oceanic flow (Coachman, Aagaard, and Tripp 1975). Changes in wind direction, reverse in ice trans- port direction, or grounding of deep-keeled floes can cause repeated episodes of compression and expansion of the pack ice. Long rubble fields and pressure ridges form in the eastern Chukchi Sea as a result of the dynamic nature of the pack ice, and an extremely active flaw zone and lead system separates the fast ice and moving pack ice. This lead system develops into the Chukchi polynya, within which new ice is constantly being formed, detached, piled, and transported southward through Bering Strait (Pritchard 1978; Morris 1981). Large-scale pack ice movement to the south occurs a few times each year when "bottlenecks" of ice form at the Bering Strait and then release under pressure (Lewbel 1984). At such times, the entire length of the eastern Chukchi Sea ice pack may move as a single mass, causing tremendous rubble flow along the shear zone. Moderate ridging usually occurs near the 60 ft isobath in the Ledyard Bay area, with severe ridging further offshore in an area trending northeasterly from Cape Lisburne (Stringer, Zender-Romick, and Groves 1982). The shallow nature of the eastern Chukchi Sea results in severe ice gouging in the northern areas because of the transport of deep-keeled ice through the Barrow Sea Valley (Grantz et al. 1982). Much of the sea bed is remarkably flat, gradually deepening from about 6 ft approximately 1000 ft from shore at Omalik Lagoon, to 12 ft at 2700 ft, and to 18 ft at 6000 ft offshore (ARCTEC Alaska, Inc. 1985). It then increases to about 30 ft some 3.5 mi offshore and 60 ft about 40 mi offshore (Grantz et al. 1982). The inshore measurements were obtained as a part of an April 1985 Bathy- metric Survey for the Omalik Lagoon port site and are consistent with the 3 - 78 National Ocean Survey (NOS) chart (1975) of the area but somewhat shal- lower than shown on the USGS Pt. Lay A-3 and A-4 Quadrangle (1955). Isobaths of less than 12 ft generally followed the coastline at a constant distance over the 15,000 ft length of the survey. A bulge away from the coastline in water depths greater than 10-12 ft offshore of the proposed port site on Omalik Lagoon was probably due to dissipation of a sand bar that was associated with the transitory channel that formed when the barrier beach was breached. These results illustrate the important effects of wave action and longshore current transport of geologic materials. Bathymetric observations by the NOAA Ship Surveyor during 1984 (Phillips 1984) in Ledyard Bay indicated a 15 ft greater depth at 60 mi offshore (total depth 125 ft) than shown on NOS Chart 16005 (1980) and an 8 ft greater depth at 14 mi offshore (total depth 72 ft). These discrepancies were possibly explained by (1) inaccurate or differing navigational accuracy; (2) poor location of local features such as shoals; (3) differing track lines of the two surveys; or (4) changes in the sea floor. The latter possibility is quite real considering that the continental shelf in general has very little sediment cover and could be an erosional surface. Ice gouging and substantial currents are active processes leading to erosion and lowering of sea floor features. Rates of coastal erosion have been estimated at 6-18 ft/yr in the area between Icy Cape and Barrow (Short 1979); although similar information is not available south of Icy Cape, there is evidence that the coastline is retreating. The USCGS monument "Omalik North" at the northwestern corner of Omalik Lagoon, originally placed to the requisite four inches above the ground surface during the 1950's, now lies completely exposed at the beach-tundra interface at that location. It is four ft long and was presumably placed some distance inland from the sea shore at the time of installation. 3) = 179) 3.11 Air Quality Northwestern Alaska has no significant air pollution sources and it is designated an “attainment area", or area that has attained the low levels of air pollution so designated, by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Measurements in similar remote areas suggest that air pollutant concentrations are less than the following; particulates, 30 micrograms per cubic meter; nitrogen oxides, 10 micrograms per cubic meter; sulfur dioxide, 3 micrograms per cubic meter; ozone, 60 micrograms per cubic meter; and carbon monoxide, 500 micrograms per cubic meter. "Arctic haze" is a topic of current concern in northern Alaska. This atmospheric pollution primarily originates from smelting and industrial areas in the Soviet Union (70%), central Europe (25%), and northeastern North America (5%) (Lowenthal and Rahn 1985). This aerosol originates as a gas, sulfur dioxide, and changes to sulfate aerosol along the path to the arctic regions. The environmental implications of this pollution have not been evaluated and there is much conjecture as to the consequences of continued deposition on northern landscapes. Sulfur dioxide has been shown to be especially toxic to lichens (Moser, Nash, and Clark 1980; Schofield, Clark and Hamilton 1970), which are an important winter forage for caribou. The transfer of worldwide fallout through the 1960-1980 period (Hanson 1982, Hanson and Thomas 1983) demonstrated the potential for human impli- cations of another low-level atmospheric pollutant. WACDP coals have been shown to contain <0.5% sulfur, making them among the lowest ranking for contaminants and indicating there should be minimal concern for consequences of their combustion. The friable soils on exposed sandstone ridgetops may be sources of natural particulates during strong winds. Observations made at Cape Thompson showed that strong winter winds created large bare areas and transported 3 - 80 surface dust downwind for considerable distances. Similar observations have been made along the openings of river and lake systems at the northern edge of the Brooks Range Mountains. 3.12 Historical Use The WACDP area has been used rather sparingly by coastal Eskimos during both historical and archaeological times, as indicated by the age and number of settlement sites in the area. Five house pits are located at the mouth of the confluence of Amatusuk and Kahgeatuk Creeks, about 5 miles southeast of Omalik Lagoon, and two sites are at the mouth of Kuchiak Creek. Several environmental features that characterize other settlement areas along arctic coastlines are missing in the Western Arctic region. First, there is no point of land jutting into the Chukchi Sea which would provide several advantages to maritime hunters such as occur at major villages from Point Hope to Point Barrow. Bowhead whale and other marine mammal hunting potential would be a prime consideration in such circumstances. Second, there is no lagoon in the immediate area to support seal and belukha hunting or fishing to any degree. Omalik Lagoon is actually a tundra thaw lake that is being claimed by the sea; its surface stands 3.5 feet above mean sea level and it is 4.5 feet deep. It does not receive a major freshwater stream that might provide organic inputs and foster greater productivity, including a salmon spawning habitat. Third, topography and habitats of the Western Arctic area do not support appreciable numbers of caribou for extended periods of time. Although caribou may spend varying amounts of time in the area, the main routes of caribou movement lie to the east. Very few antlers or other signs of caribou harvest are found in the area, suggesting that few animals are consistently taken by hunters. Coastal travelers in winter months may encounter limited numbers of animals, such as noted by field operations conducted during April and May of 1985, but no major harvest capable of supporting even a modest popula- tion seems to have been available in this area. Finally, the exposure of 3 - 81 the Western Arctic coastline to rough seas during the open water season imposes restrictions on summer travel to more productive areas. Current Point Lay residents utilize the WACDP environs primarily during winter and spring months, avoiding the unprotected coastline that offers so few resources during summer and fall months. Waterfowl hunting would appear to be a subsistence activity best suited to the coastal wetlands in the vi- cinity of Omalik Lagoon. The preceding detractions of the area compared to more productive sites presumably caused a focus of cultural activities to more northerly locations. The recent resettlement of Point Lay is part of a continuing series of historic and archaeological events documenting the long-term occupation of the area by native peoples. Many of the current residents are descended from Utukok and Kukpowruk River groups (Utukamiut and Kukparungmiut), and those geographic areas form a large part of the present-day subsistence use territory. Prehistoric archaeological sites along the Utukok River, which some researchers place at more than 7,000 years of age, demonstrate the antiq- uity of aboriginal habitation along this major travel route to the inter- ior. Tunalik, near Icy Cape, is also considered to be of this time frame. The Utukamiut Eskimos lived in the upper reaches of the river, and while primarily being caribou hunters, some would come to the coast to trade and participate in sea mammal hunting. Travel down the river occurred in spring during high water and the sea ice breakup. The spring movement involved 50 to 75 boats and several hundred people. The degree of coastal resource utilization appears to have shifted over time to the point where the people had a dual orientation to coast and inland. Utukamiut could opt to winter at their permanent houses at Icy Cape where they also had ice cellars, or they could remain inland. They participated in spring bowhead whaling at Icy Cape, summer walrus hunting, and seal and belukha hunting in Kasegaluk Lagoon. Trading fairs at the 3 - 82 mouth of the Utukok River drew them there in the summer and to Icy Cape for winter messenger feasts. By the early part of this century, the Utukamiut centered their lives more on the coast than in the interior. Trading ships would stop off Icy Cape in the late 1800's to trade with the natives (called Kayaakserevigmiuts), who had a small settlement there with one community house (qalgi). After the turn of the century, a store was opened and was restocked by trading schooners. At least one other store was opened in the 1920's and a school was built in 1930. A reindeer herd was also kept in the Icy Cape-Point Lay area. All these attractions plus the long-term cultural associations must have had an effect on the settle- ment patterns of the nearby Inupiat groups, centralizing them on the coast for longer and longer periods of time. Trapping, however, kept at least part of the family members away during the winter. Today's elders of Point Lay, and others who have moved to Wainwright, recall being raised in the 1920's at historic places such as Naokok, Kuchiak, and Cully. They were called Kalimiut and lived at various small camps before gradually consolidating at Point Lay about the time the Icy Cape school was moved there (by skin boat and launch) in 1930. The village and school settled on an offshore barrier island next to the old historic site of Cully. With a store and school to draw people, Point Lay's population grew to 117 in 1940. The reindeer herd was declining, however, as was the case in other northern areas, and by 1949 no deer were kept at Point Lay. The post-war construction boom touched Point Lay in several ways. It provided jobs in the early 1950's through the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and later with the DEW-line sites at Point Lay, Icy Cape, and Cape Beaufort. But construction at the former two sites disturbed graves and archaeological sites. After a short period of economic activity the villagers began to leave Point Lay and the U.S. census that listed a pop- ulation of 75 in 1950 did not list Point Lay at all for the next 30 years, although one family remained. 3 - 83 In 1970, there was a movement back to the old village on the barrier island. The Arctic Slope Regional Corporation aided the villagers in their return. Old houses were reinhabited and the old school reopened in early 1971. Not all people chose to return. Some live in Wainwright today, and close family ties bind the two groups to each other and to common sub- sistence territories. Further historical information on Point Lay is contained in reports by Alaska Consultants (1983), Schneider and Bennett (1979); and Stephen R. Braund & Associates (1985). Records of cultural resources were searched for evidence of human habita- tion sites in the Omalik Lagoon area. No such records were found in the Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (Greg Dickson, Alaska DGGS, pers. comm. 10 May 1985). However, the North Slope Borough Cultural Resource Site Inven- tory contains a record of Site #1300 on Omalik Lagoon that was used during the 1930's as a winter house site. Further identified as Traditional Land Use Inventory Site Pt. Lay #4 (Aumalik), it is purported to be at the southwest end of the lagoon although Warren Neakok of Point Lay recalled seeing ruins at the north end of the lagoon some 20 years ago. A recent (1984) reconnaisance of the area by David Libbey and Edwin S. Hall, Jr. and a cultural resource specialist from Point Lay failed to find the site, and it is presumed to have eroded into the sea (E.S. Hall, Jr. pers. comm. 11 March 1985). Further search was made during the July 1985 summer site visit but also to no avail. Historical evidence suggests that the site was probably located at the southwest corner of Omalik Lagoon near the mouth of Omalik Creek, which enters the Chukchi Sea about 0.25 mile south of the lagoon. 3 - 84 3.13 Land Use Land use of the WACDP environs is predominantly by Point Lay people engaged in subsistence activities. Several studies and reports of such land uses have previously been made (Alaska Consultants 1983, Braund and Burnham 1984, Schneider and Bennett 1979, Stephen R. Braund & Associates 1985) and are briefly summarized here. Caribou, fish, and belukha whales comprise the most significant sub- sistence resources utilized by Point Lay residents, with ancillary harvest- ing of furbearers, seals, and walruses. Seals and walrus are not as intensively used as in the past due to the reduction of dog teams and the present adequate supply of caribou and other food resources. Sea mammal exploitation may increase if fluctuations in the caribou population or regulatory restrictions decrease the supply. Point Lay's subsistence usage areas comprise a coastal region from Icy Cape to Cape Beaufort and inland along the Kukpowruk River and into the De Long Mountains. Some villagers are descended from the Utukok River people and hunters still use that familiar territory for hunting. Many Point Lay people have lived in Wainwright and still retain close family ties there. Thus, there are several overlapping areas of subsistence usage with Wainwright hunters, such as in the Beaufort and Raven basins up the Kukpowruk River where each group goes for hunting and trapping of fur- bearers. Icy Cape is another area that each village uses for waterfowl hunting. Wainwright hunters occasionally hunt caribou in the western Brooks Range near the southeast corner of the National Petroleum Reserve- Alaska, which is also used by many Point Lay people. In March and April both villages may hunt wolves, foxes, and wolverines in the Amatusuk Hills south and east of the WACDP area. During summer months, the Utukamiut usually scattered along the coastline to distribute the hunting effort for seals, walruses, and waterfowl. Just before dispersing, many groups met at certain sites such as Aksraitchiagvik 3 - 85 = @& oe near the Utukok River delta where they had stored possessions and food. Summer gear and other supplies were exchanged for winter materials, trading with other families was conducted, and games were played. Dall sheep were apparently more abundant in the De Long Mountains in those times and were hunted. Walrus were taken in traditional places, as were mussels, clams, and other foods. Summer is still a busy time for Point Lay subsistence activities. Boats are used for coastal and river travel in place of tundra travel, of which an increasing amount occurs by use of all-terrain vehicles such as "three- wheelers". Caribou are taken along the coast and around Icy Cape. Water- fowl and eggs continue to be taken in early summer. Openlead sealing is done in early June, with many animals taken later during the annual walrus hunt at Icy Cape. Gill nets are set in coastal places such as river mouths, at ocean passes, in Kasegaluk Lagoon and at the popular Kitkik Point. The season lasts from early July to late September. The nets are moved about 15 miles up the Kukpowruk River in September for grayling. A variety of salmon, whitefish, flounder, smelt, herring, bullhead, and an occasional char are taken. Almost all the village residents are engaged in fishing during the summer. Fish taken in the lagoon and lower Kokolik River consist primarily of marine species such as Pacific herring, arctic and saffron cod, capelin, fourhorn sculpin, and arctic flounder. Anadromous fish are taken at low catch rates (3 fish per 24-hr gill net set), with the important species being rainbow smelt, a few pink and chum salmon, arctic char, and arctic cisco. The apparent scarcity of anadromous fish in these coastal waters is considered to reflect the small river drainages with marginal significance as anadromous fish streams (Craig and Schmidt 1985). About six families take an estimated 200-300 pink and chum salmon, a few silver salmon, and an occasional dog salmon at the mouth of Kuchiak Creek during late July-early August (William Tracey and Terry Harding, Point Lay, pers. comm. 24 July 1985) . 3 - 86 ~ Subsistence fishing represents only a small portion of the total sub- sistence harvest of resources at Point Lay. Belukhas are the most impor- tant marine resource (Braund and Burnham 1984) and caribou are the most important terrestrial resource (Schneider and Bennett 1979). The usage of some areas has changed in recent years with the resettlement of the village. Until trading posts and schools drew people to permanent settlements like Icy Cape, small groups of families from the Utukok and Kukpowruk Rivers occupied the present Point Lay-Icy Cape-De Long Mountains territory. Their subsistence activities were similar to today's with modifications occuring in intensity of usage, location, and tools and transportation. Seasonal activities are necessary to fully utilize subsistence resources. These typically begin with the spring bowhead whale hunt by most coastal villages. While Point Lay is not a reliable location for bowhead whales, Icy Cape has greater potential. As recently as 1939 two crews at Point Lay took two whales (one was lost during butchering) and Icy Cape last hunted whales in 1940. Wainwright whalers have recently resumed whaling at Icy Cape. Permanent seasonal houses and ice cellars were maintained at the old Icy Cape settlement of Tulageak after 1900 by Utukok River people for use during spring whaling and summer walrus hunting. In prehistoric times, large villages such as Kayaasiuvik were main whaling and trading areas for Utukok and Icy Cape peoples. Migratory waterfowl and eggs are currently taken during May and June at coastal sites and along inland rivers. Specific areas, such as the islands in Kasegaluk Lagoon north of the village and along the barrier islands, yield large quantities of eggs which are used by the villagers. Ground squirrels are taken near the village. Hoary marmots are hunted in the Amatusuk Hills, where other furbearers might also be found. April is a good time for sealing, which is done when the seals spend appreciable time basking on top of the sea ice. Seals are found all along the coast, with 3 - 87 the Kasegaluk Lagoon and its passes into the ocean being favored spots. Snowmobiles are used to hunt caribou as they move to the coast for the summer, or in the Amatusuk and Kiklupiklak Hills. As the sea ice retreats in June, the walrus migrate north past Point Lay, and the villagers conduct their annual hunt. Walruses are found with ice floes from Omalik Lagoon north to Icy Cape, where most of the recent hunts have been conducted. An estimated 100-500 animals are taken annually, mostly by Wainwright and Barrow hunters (Fay 1982). Communal belukha whale hunts are conducted in the lagoons and shallow bays in early July. The west side of Icy Cape and the passes north of the village are favorite sites. As in the walrus hunts, all available hunters participate. Boats are used to herd the belukhas into shallow water where they can easily be retrieved after being killed. Occasionally, belukhas can also be taken in August. Berries and other edible plants are collected along the coast, inland along rivers, and near the historic site of Cully. As fall approaches, prepara- tions are made for ice fishing. Snowmobiles are taken by boat up the Kukpowruk River and left at camp sites to be used after freezeup. The fall migration of waterfowl attracts some hunters to the productive sites near Icy Cape. Caribou hunting is actively pursued from late August to October at inland locations in an attempt to fill the ice cellars for winter. Whole families engage in fall grayling fishing up the Kukpowruk River, even after the school year has begun. Nets are used until freezeup and then hook and line is used through the ice. Net fishing under the ice is not practiced. Traditional ice fishing sites are still used by villagers today. One especially popular site is 15 miles up the river, called Naokok's or #1 camp. Berry picking is combined with fishing trips and coal is sometimes brought back to the village after freezeup by snowmobile from the site on the Kukpowruk, or by boat before freezeup. 3 - 88 Moose are a newcomer to the area and are taken when the occasional oppor- tunity presents itself. One moose was seen along a small stream that enters the south end of the Kasegaluk Lagoon and about six miles north of Kuchiak Creek on 25 July 1985. Spotted seals are hunted in early fall months when they are fat and do not sink after being shot. During winter, native groups that remained inland concentrated on caribou hunting and fishing. Certain productive sites such as Avignak were sometimes used all winter. Fish were stored there and retrieved when supplies were low at other places. Coastal groups took seals by a method of breathing-hole hunting that is rarely practiced anymore. Polar bears were hunted. In the recent past, long traplines of 50 miles or more were set inland along rivers. Five days might be required to check them using a dog team. Snowshoes were also used to tend the lines which were maintained at various locations between Icy Cape and Cape Beaufort. Current use of the Western Arctic environs by the people of Point Lay centers on the availability of shelter. Abandoned DEW-line buildings at Cape Beaufort (former Liz A Site) and a modified utility trailer at the mouth of Kuchiak Creek provide facilities for several families that hunt, trap, and fish those areas. Residents of Point Hope, Barrow, and Wainwright also use the shelters during various periods of the year. 3 - 89 4.0 CONCLUSIONS 4.1 General Summary Evaluation of the environmental resources within the general area of interest for proposed development by the Western Arctic Coal Project was concentrated in the western portion of the Deadfall Syncline area during mid-1985 with the decision to locate the proposed mine near the Mormon benchmark and west of Kuchiak Creek. Subsequent decisions on supporting infrastructure proposed a marine berthing facility at the northern end of Omalik Lagoon with connecting coal stockpile, fuel storage, and coal handling/loading facilities; a personnel camp and vehicle maintenance facility near the mine site; a 5.4-mile roadway connecting the coastal port site and inland camp-mine sites; and selection of a tundra thaw lake midway between the mine and port as a potable water source. A Component Impact Assessment Prelimimary Report (HERS 1985b) was prepared to document the evaluation of potential environmental impacts of WACDP components through a screening of engineering, environmental, social, and economic options. The screening process included a 21-27 July 1985 Site Investigation that brought engineering and environmental personnel together on-site to comprehensively evaluate various options and to place the proposed developments in environmental perspective. Environmental assess- ment of the WACDP included results of the 1985 analyses performed by all team members, preliminary environmental assessments performed during WACDP Phase I and early Phase II, input from the people of Point Lay, and discussions with resource agencies. Integration of the considerable information developed by WACDP team members provided an effective analysis of the environmental implications of project components and practical approaches to mitigation. Expansion of the environmental data base for the project area and the focussing of the assessment by the selection of preferred alternatives for project com- ponents continues to indicate that there are no major environmental constraints ("fatal flaws") to further consideration of the project. Additional information is needed regarding soil behavior under site- specific conditions to evaluate erosion, transport by surface waters, and revegetation practices. These data also have application to water quality considerations. Recommendations are made to evaluate anadromous fish habitat on Kuchiak Creek, even though that drainage will be avoided during the first 10 years of the proposed project; to estimate vital hydrological parameters in the "Mormon Lake" drainage; perform site specific vegetation surveys; ascertain the status of peregrine falcons in the project environs; examine reported cultural resources in the area of Omalik Lagoon; and generally augment the environmental data base in areas of needed information for input to the Alaska Surface Coal Mining Program and other regulatory agency require- ments. Biological costs to development were estimated by applying population densities of small mammals and birds reported in appropriate studies in northern Alaska to the habitat types expected to be impacted by WACDP components. Intensive, well designed studies of small mammals and birds in the WACDP environs may provide an evaluation of those estimates and serve as an effective monitoring method in the future. Careful alignment of the 5.4-mile roadway connecting the mine and port sites was practiced during the 1985 Summer Site Investigation; this provides for best engineering practices, avoidance of drainages that might represent culverting prob- lems, and maintains the integrity of wetlands that are important nesting, feeding, brood-rearing, and migration staging areas for waterfowl and shorebirds. The major project impact on belukhas is expected to be noise from dredging and barging operations near Omalik Lagoon. Scheduling of such operations to occur during mid-July to late September-early October will avoid the subsistence hunting of belukhas by the Point Lay people. No major impacts of project development to the small numbers of caribou that are seasonally resident in the WACDP environs or to furbearer populations that are hunted in the Amatusuk Hills south and east of the Deadfall Syncline area are envisioned. 4.2 Recommendations for Further Study Development of the WACDP environmental resource base has promoted compre- hensive evaluation of project components as they have evolved from the conceptual stage to practical applications and proposals. Assuming that a decision will be made to proceed with project development, additional environmental information should be obtained and developed in the following areas: 4.2.1 Continued Integration of Efforts Close coordination of further development activities such as detailed mine and infrastructure design, exploration drilling, pilot mining projects, economic analyses, socio-economic studies, and environ- mental evaluation needs to be a high priority item. Information exchanges will become increasingly important as shorter time frames for decisions on procedures become necessary. 4.2.2 Evaluate Kuchiak Creek Anadromous Fish Habitat Pink and chum salmon use Kuchiak Creek for spawning and rearing habitat. About 200-300 fish are taken annually by Point Lay residents who are concerned with WACDP implications to this subsistence re- source. Plans to evaluate the situation during July 1985 were thwarted by the unavailability of ADFG personnel and unusually low ‘i128 flow of Kuchiak Creek. Another attempt should be made during late July-early August of 1986 or next summer field season in the project area. 4.2.3 Estimate Hydrologic Parameters of the Mine Area and Affected Drainages Water quality and quantity data are a major requirement of the Alaska Surface Coal Mining Program and the NPDES permit application to be processed by the USEPA. Acquisition of baseline data should begin as soon as possible in order to satisfy permitting agencies in the event that another arid year such 1985 prevents effective gathering of information. 4.2.4 Perform Site-Specific Vegetation Surveys Surveys are recommended to (a) obtain essential information on planned mine and infrastructure emplacements; (b) designate reference areas for equivalency and suitability of revegetation standards; (c) determine presence of threatened or endangered plant species; and (d) provide more detailed estimates of animal populations to be affected by proposed development activities. 4.2.5 Obtain Additional Soils Information The uncertainty of soils behavior under site-specific mining condi- tions constrains the realistic evaluation of erosion and soil trans- port by surface water until practical experience in the area provides more definitive information. The adequacy of project design to meet the suspended solids limit of 35 mg/1 should be evaluated by soils tests and information obtained from representative field sites. If a pilot-scale mining operation is contemplated to provide better detailed design and cost reliability, revegetation plots should be in- cluded in study design in experimental and reference areas to evaluate runoff, reclamation, and revegetation procedures. 4.2.6 Evaluate Cultural Resources A qualified archaeologist will be required to evaluate the question- able remains of NSB Historical Resources Inventory Site #1300 at the southern end of Omalik Lagoon. 4.2.7 Determine Peregrine Falcon Eyries in WACDP Area Peregrine falcons are an endangered species reported to nest along the Pitmegea and Kukpowruk Rivers in the Cape Beaufort (= Cape Sabine) region. Although the WACDP will not directly affect the falcons, they are a valued regional resource that should be adequately evaluated as part of environmental assessment. 4.2.8 Augment the WACDP Environmental Data Base Highly significant results were obtained during the 21-27 July 1985 Summer Site Investigation. Additional information on waterfowl and shorebird utilization of wetlands habitats, large and small mammal populations in various habitat types, definition of belukha staging and feeding areas, resources of Omalik Lagoon, and other environ- mental resources of the WACDP environs will improve our ability to evaluate component impacts. 4.2.9 Expand Contacts with Resource Agencies Communication of WACDP status and plans to resource agencies will expedite their consideration of permitting and compliance questions and thus shorten the permitting process. Effective presentation of the appreciable information now in hand will greatly enhance the project. 5.0 REFERENCES Ahinas, K., and G.R. Garrison. 1984. Satellite and oceanographic observa- tions of the warm coastal current in the Chukchi Sea. Arctic 37:244- 254. Alaska Consultants, Inc. 1983. Background for Planning: Village of Point Lay. Report prep. for North Slope Borough. Anchorage, AK. ARCTEC Alaska, Inc. 1985. WACDP Phase II-Task 5: Bathymetric Survey. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. Arctic Slope Consulting Engineers (ASCE). 1984. WACDP Preliminary Economic Evaluation, Phase I Final Report. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation and Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. - 1985a. WACODP Feasibility Study, Phase II-Task 5. Infrastructure Development. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation and Alaska Dept. Community and Regional Affairs. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. . 1985b. WACDP Phase II, Preliminary Institutional Market Assess- ment. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. - 1985c. WACDP Phase II Preliminary Report, Infrastructure Design. Report prep. for Alaska Native Foundation. ASCE, Anchorage, AK. Batzli, G.0. and H-J.G. Jung. 1980. Nutritional ecology of microtine rodents: resource utilization near Atkasook, Alaska. Arctic Alp. Res. 12:483-499. Bergerud, A.T., R.D. Jakimchuk, and D.R. Carruthers. 1985a. The buffalo of the north: caribou (Rangifer tarandus) and human developments. Arctic 37:7-22. and . 1985b. Letter to the editor,. (response to Whitten anc and Cameron 1985 and Klein and White 1985). Arctic 37:294-295. Bergman, R.D., R.L. Howard, K.F. Abraham, and M.W. Weller. 1977. Water birds and their wetland resources in relation to oi] development at Storkersen Point, Alaska. U.S. Dept. Interior Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publ. 129. USFWS, Washington, D.C. Billings, W.D. amd K.M. Peterson. 1980. Vegetational change and ice-wedge polygons through the thaw-lake cycle in arctic Alaska. Arctic Alp. Res. 12..413-432. Bliss, L.C. 1978. Vegetation and revegetation within permafrost terrain. Pages 31-50 in Proceedings of the third international conference of permafrost, vol. 2. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Braund, S. and D. Burnham. 1984. Subsistence economics and marine resource use patterns. Pages 167-215 in J.C. Truett, editor., The Barrow Arch environment and possible consequences oi planned offshore oil and gas development. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assess- ment Program, NOAA/Ocean Assessments Division, Anchorage, AK. Britton, M.E. 1957. Vegetation of the arctic tundra. Pages 26-72 in H.P. Hansen, editor. Arctic biology. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon. Brower, W.A.,0r., H.W. Searby, J.L. Wise, H.F. Diaz, and A.J. Prechtel. 1977. Climatic atlas of the outer continental shelf waters and coastal regions of Alaska, vol. III-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea. Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center, University of Alaska, Anchorage, AK. Callahan, J.E. and G.C. Martin. 1985. Coal occurrences of the Nanushuk Group western Arctic, Alaska (an update). In Focus on Alaska's coal 80. Mineral Industry Research Laboratory Report No. 47. University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Chapin, F.S., III, and M.C. Chapin. 1980. Revegetation of an arctic disturbed site by native tundra species. Jour. Appl. Ecol. 17:449- 456. Childs, H.E., Jr. 1969. Birds and mammals of the Pitmegea River region, Cape Sabine, northwestern Alaska. Biological Papers No. 10. University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Coachman, L.K., K. Aagaard, and R.B. Tripp. 1975. Bering Strait-The regional physical oceanography. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA. Craig, P.C. 1984. Fish Resources. Pages 111-131 in J.C. Truett, editor. The Barrow Arch environment and possible consequences of planned offshore oi1 and gas development. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, NOAA Ocean Assessments Division, Anchorage, AK. and D. Schmidt. 1985. Fish resources at Point Lay, Alaska. Report prep. for North Slope Borough Materials Source Division. LGL Alaska Research Associates, Inc. Anchorage, AK. Dames and Moore. 1983. Environmental baseline studies, Red Dog Project. Report prep. for Cominco Alaska, Inc. Anchorage, AK. Davis, J.L., P. Valkenburg, and R. Boertje. 1982. Home range use, social structure, and habitat selection of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd. Final Report prep. for U.S. National Park Service contract CX 9100-8- 0032. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, Fairbanks, AK. Derksen, D.V., T.C. Rothe, and W.D. Eldridge. 1981. Use of wetland habitats by birds in the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska. U.S. Dept. Interior Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publ. 141. Available from U.S. Supt. Documents, Washington, D.C. Dietz, R.S., A.J. Carsola, E.C. Buffington, and C.J. Shipek. 1964. Sediment and topography of the Alaska shelves. Pages 241-256 in R.L. Miller, editor. Papers in marine geology: Shepard commemorative volume. MacMillan, NY. Douglass, R.J. 1984. Ecological distribution of small mammals in the De Long Mountains of northwestern Alaska. Arctic 37:148-154. Eberhardt, L.E., and W.C. Hanson. 1978. Long-distance movements of arctic foxes tagged in northern Alaska. Canadian Field-Natur. 92:386-389. » R.L. Garrott, and W.C. Hanson. 1983. Winter movements of arctic foxes in a petroleum development area. Canadian Field-Natur. 97:66-70. » W.C. Hanson, J.L. Bengtson, R.A. Garrott, and E.E. Hanson. 1982. Arctic fox home range characteristics in an oi] development area. J. Wild]. Manage. 46:183-192. Eberhardt, W. 1977. The biology of arctic and red foxes along the Arctic Slope portion of the trans-Alaska pipeline corridor. Thesis. Univer- sity of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Fay, F.H., 1982. Ecology and biology of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger. North American Fauna No. 74. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Fraker, M.A. 1984. Balaena mysticetus: whales, oi], and whaling in the Arctic. Sohio Alaska Petroleum Company, Anchorage, AK. , C.D. Gordon, J.W. McDonald, J.K.B. Ford, and G. Cambers. 1979. White whale (Delphinapterus leucas) distribution and abundance and the relationship to physical and chemical characteristics in the MacKenzie Estuary. Tech. Rep. No. 863, Western Region Fisheries and Marine Service, Dept. Fish and Environ., Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Gabrielson, I.N. and F.C. Lincoln. 1959. The birds of Alaska. Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania and Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. R47W R46W {2 9 10 HABITAT TYPE AND BIOTIC IMPORTANCE EE TUR ANCE Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra Dryas octopetala, Carex bigelowii, Salix rotundifolia, Salix anche es rctostaphylos a pina, etula nana, Cassiope tetragona, Cedum decui ens, and several grasses and Tichens. These communities dominated by mountain avens (Dryas), dry site species of sedges and grasses, prostrate forms of willows, mosses and lichens are most common on windswept slopes and ridges. Arctic ground squirrels and hoary marmots are commonly found in this habitat type. Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra Eriophorum Vaginatum, Betula nana, Salix pulchra, Ledum ecumbens, Carex aquatilis, Vaccinium uliginosum, Sphagnum spp., and Several grasses, sedges and forbs. These communities are the most extensive and richest in plant diversity. They are also favorite feeding grounds for caribou during calving and summer grazing periods. Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra Carex aquatilis, Salix pulchra, Salix rotundifolia, Salix reticulata, Dryas inte rifolia, Cassiope tetra ona, Sphagnum spp., and several other species of Carex, mosses, and grasses. These wetlands are important nesting and feeding areas for waterfowl and shorebirds and summer range for caribou. Wet meadows in alpine settings are heavily used by arctic ground Squirrels and hoary marmots. Riparian Willow-Sedge-Forb Salix alaxensis, Salix pulchras Carex aquatilis, Epilobium Tatifolium, Artemisia tilesii, Lupinus arcticus, and several other species of perennial herbs, shrubs, and grasses. These streamside communities vary considerably in composition, depending upon exposure and distance from the coast. A rich understory of grasses and herbs is common. Arctic ground Squirrels, ptarmigan, and several species of small mammals are commonly found in this habitat type. Open Freshwater Systems 1 MILE SCALE 1:13,000 WESTERN ARCTIC COAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT VEGETATION TYPE MAP EASTERN DEADFALL SYNCLINE AREA Prepared by: Date : HANSON ENVIRONMENTAL 10-20-84 RESEARCH SERVICES W.C. HANSON APPENDIX B BoA a aS Re a HABITAT TYPE AND BIOTIC IMPORTANCE ABBREVIATIONS : Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra Low Center Polygons, usually associated , . . with Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra. Dryas octopetala, Dryas integrifolia, Carex j : bigelowii, Salix rotundifolia, Salix plani- High Center Polygons, usually associated folia Spp. pulchra, Arctostaphylos alpina, with Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra at Betula nana, Cassiope tetragona, Ledum de- lower elevations («100 ASL). cumbens, and several grasses and lichens. Wet Meadow, with typical wet Sedge-Moss These communities dominated by mountain avens Tundra vegetation. (Dryas), dry site species of sedges and Non-Patterned, usually found in Cotton- grasses, prostrate forms of willows, mosses grass Tussock Tundra at higher eleva- and lichens are most common on windswept tions (>100' ASL). slopes and ridges. Arctic ground squirrels and hoary marmots are commonly found in this habitat type throughout the year. Caribou graze these areas in winter. Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra Eriophorum vaginatum, Betula nana, Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra, Ledum decumbens, Carex aguatilis, Vaccinium uliginosum, Sphagnum spp., and several grasses, sedges and forbs. These communities are very extensive and most diverse. They are favorite feeding grounds for caribou during calving and summer grazing periods. Small mammals, particularly voles, are associated with this habitat type. Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra Carex aguatilis, Salix planifolia ssp. pul- chra, Salix reticulata, Salix ovalifolia, Dryas integrifolia, Cassiope tetragona ,Sphag- num spp., and several other species of sedges, mosses and grasses. These wetlands are important nesting, brood- rearing, and staging areas for waterfowl and shorebirds and summer range for caribou. Wet meadows in alpine settings are heavily used by arctic ground squirrels. Small mammals, par- ticularly lemmings, are associated with this habitat type. Open Freshwater or Estuarine Systems Carex aquatilis, Arctophila fulva, Carex sub- Spathacea and Puccinellia phryganodes. Various classes of the thaw-lake cycle are particularly abundant at elevations less than 100' ASL. Most lakes are part of basin com- plexes that have been partially drained. Large (>20 acres) lakes are important brood- rearing and molting areas for white-fronted and Canada geese, pintail and oldsquaw ducks, and arctic and red-throated loons. Estuaries have similar use. TYPE 2000 4000FT. (a eel VEGETATION WESTERN ARCTIC ... COAL DEVELOPMENT ee PROJECT SCALE: 1:13,000 / IMILE=5-9/32 PHOTOGRAPHY JULY 1980 LANDFORM & VEGETATION TYPE MAP WESTERN DEADFALL SYNCLINE AREA Prepared by: W.C. HANSON Date: HANSON AUG 1985 ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH SERVICES APPENDIX C —~w as emer aries ART NT TTR - HABITAT TYPE AND BIOTIC IMPORTANCE ENG EMPORT ANCE Dry Alpine-Fellfield Tundra Dryas octo etala, Carex bi elowii, Salix rotundifolia, Salix SRE ee retostaphylos alpina, Betula nana, Cassiope tetragona, Cedum decumbens, an several grasses and lichens. These communities dominated by mountain avens (Dryas), dry site species of sedges and grasses, prostrate forms of willows, mosses and lichens are most common On windswept slopes and ridges. Arctic ground squirrels and hoary marmots are commonly found in this habitat type. Moist Cottongrass Tussock Tundra Eriophorum Vaginatum, Betula nana, Salix pulchra, Ledum ecumbens, Carex aquatilis, Vaccinium uliginosum, Phagnum spp., SeCUMDeENS. and several grasses, sedges and forbs. These communities are the most extensive and richest in plant diversity. They are also favorite feeding grounds for caribou during calving and summer grazing periods. Wet Sedge-Moss Tundra Carex aquatilis, Salix pulchra, Salix rotundifolia, Salix reticulata, Dryas integrifolia, Cassiope tetragona, Sphagnum spp., and several other species of Carex, mosses, and grasses. These wetlands are important nesting and feeding areas for waterfowl and shorebirds and summer range for caribou. Wet meadows in alpine settings are heavily used by arctic ground squirrels and hoary marmots. Riparian Willow-Sedge-Forb Salix alaxensis, Salix pulchra, Carex aquatilis, Epilobium atifolium, Artemisia tilesii, Lupinus arcticus, and severa ‘other Speci Sees other species of perennial herbs, shrubs, and grasses. These streamside communities vary considerably in composition, depending upon exposure and distance from the coast. A rich understory of grasses and herbs is common. Arctic ground squirrels, ptarmigan, and several species of small mammals are commonly found in this habitat type. Bare Ground or Disturbed Area Thermokarst areas, braided streambeds, or other areas of disturbance. Variable plant communities of pioneer species or recessive plant associations in altered situations. Open Freshwater Systems Vehicle Tracks WESTERN ARCTIC e COAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT VEGETATION TYPE MAP CAPE BEAUFORT AREA Prepared by: HANSON ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH SERVICES W.C. HANSON Date: 10-20-84 APPENDIX A