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,.FRANK·MOOLIN &ASSOCIATES INC.
,SALOMON B,ROTHERp
...vv.q.opWARD,-.CLVDE CONSULTANTS
SE~TEMBER 1979
PLAN OF STU DY
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ACRES A'MERICAN INe.QRPORATED
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
-,
SUSITNA HY ROELECTRIC
PROJECT
COOK INLET REGION INC.1 HOLMES &NARVER INC.
R&M CONSULTANTS INC.
TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIALISTS INC.
'"Assodation with:
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ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SUSITNA HYDROELECTRIC
PROJECT
PLAN OF STUDY
PARTe:VOL m
ENVIRONMENTAL APPENDIX
SEPTEMBER 1979
ACRES AMERICAN INCORPORATED
In Association with:
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COOK INLET REGION INC.I HOLMES &NARVER INC.
R&M CONSULTANTS INC.
TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIALISTS INC.
FRANK MOOLIN &ASSOCIATES INC.
SALOMON BROTHERS
WOODWARD -CLYDE CONSULTANTS
ARLIS
Alaska Resources
Library &Informatton Services
Anchorage,Alaska
Copy No.30
i'··'
The contents of thi s proposal are provided
for the sale use of the State of Al aska,
the Alaska Power Authority,and such other
agents of .the Al aska Po~"er Authority as may
be designated to review and evaluate its
contents.Proprietary information is
contained herein.Unauthorized reproduc-
tion or disclosure of the contents,in
whole or in part,to any individual or
organization other than those specified,
without the express approval of an officer
of Acres Jlrnerican,is strictly prohibited.
ARLIS
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Alaska Resources
Library &InfonnatlOn Senllces
Anchorage,Alaska
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PREFACE
Thi s vol ume consi sts of detail ed pl ans of study for each of the major
environmental disciplines to be investigated for the Susitna Hydroelectric
Project.Only those environmental subtasks for which the scope statements
are either too lengthy or too technical for presentation in the main
proposal vol ume are incl uded in this technical appendix.Summaries of
these subtask scope statements and all other environmental subtasks,as
~vell as an overview of the environmental analysis,are presented in Section
A.5.S -Environmental Studies in Volume I of the proposal.Personnel
qual i fi cations and res pons i bil iti es,the environmental stud ies schedul e,
and costs are also presented in other volumes.
As described in Section A.5.8 the environmental analysis will be performed
in two phases.The first phase consists of pre-license appl ication studies
and will culminate in the preparation of an environmental report
(Exhi bit E)for submi ssi on to the Federal Energy Regul atory Commission
(FERC).The second phase involves continued analysis to be performed in
each discipline during the period of license application review.The
results of the second phase studies will be presented in supplementary
environmental reports.The subtask descriptions in this technical appendix
span both phases of the analysis.For a explanation of what is to be
performed in each of the two phases,please refer to the SubtasK Scope
Statements in Section A.5.8 and Section A.6 in Volume 1.
For the purposes of designing thorough plans of study,however,a two-dam
~scheme in the upper Susitna River basin (Watana and Devil Canyon)was
assumed.If another scheme emerges as the primary alternative,the
environmental studies will be modified accordingly.
Acknowl edgement shoul d be accorded to the subcontractors who prav ided Acres
and TES with plans of study that form the basis of the subtasks described
in this technical appendix.The environmental analysis ~'1ill be performed
largely by these exports.In the order in which their discipl ines are
presented,we wish to thank:
Frank Orth &Associates
Bellevue,Washington
Dr.E.James Dixon,Jr.&
George S.Smith
University of Alaska,Fairbankns
Dr.Alan Jubenville
University of Alaska,Fairbanks
Mil io C.Bell
Mukilteo,Washington
Clinton E.Atkinson
Seattle,Washington
Socio-economic Analysis
Cultural Resources
Land Use Analysis and
Recreation Plan
Fisheries Analysis
(Physical Factors)
Fisheries Analysis
(Anadromous Fisheries)
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Dr.Philip S.Gipson
Alaska Cooperative Wildlife
Research Unit,Fairbanks
Dr.Brina Kessel &
Stephen o.MacDonald
University of Alaska,Fairbanks
Dr.Jay D.McKendrick &
Dr.William W.Mitchell
University of Alaska
Agricultural Experiment Station,
Palmer
DR.John J.Koranda
Livermore,California
Wildlife Ecology
(Furbearers)
Wildlife Ecology
(Birds &Non-game
Mammal s)
Pl ant Ecology
Pl ant Ecology
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We also wish to express our gratitude to Dr.Samuel Harbo.University of
Alaska,for his advise and technical guidance during the preparation of the
wildlife ecology section of this Plan of Study.
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(TABLE OF CONTENTS
-SUBTASK 7,05 SOCIO-ECO~OMIC ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION 7.05-1
SCOPE OF WORK 7.05-1
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GENERAL FRAMEWORK FOR PLAN OF STUDY
OUTLINE SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK
APPROACH
DISCUSSION OF STUDY DESIGN
DISCUSSION OF ANALYTICAL METHODS
SIGNIFICANCE OF EXPECTED RESULTS
SCHEDULE
GENERAL REFERENCES
SUBTASK 7.06 CULTURAL RESOURCE ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
CULTURAL CHRONOLOGY
CULTURAL RESOURCES IN THE STUDY AREA
AUTHORITY
SCOPE OF WORK
DISCUSSION OF STEPS
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH AND SAMPLING DESIGN
KEY PERSONNEL
BIBLIOGRAPHY
i
7.0S-1
7.05-3
7.05-10
7.05-10
7.05-11
7.05-17
7 :OS-18 .
7.05~20
7.06-1
7.06-1
7.06-4
7.06-4
7.06-S
7.06-7
7.06-11
7.06-13
7.06-15
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SUBTASK 7.07 LAND USE ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
APPROACH
DISCUSSION
LITERATURE CITED
SUBTASK 7.08 RECREATION PLAN
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVE
APPROACH
SCOPE OF WORK
LITERATURE REVIEW
PROJECTION OF RECREATIONAL USE
QUESTIONNAIRE
ASSESSMENT OF RESDURCE POTENTIAL FOR RECREATION
CONCEPT PLANS
MASTER AREA PLAN
LITERATURE CITED
ADDENDUM A -RECREATION EXPERIENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
MODIFICATION NORMS FOR RESOURCE-ORIENTED ACTIVITIES
ADDENDUM B -CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING QUALITY OF
RECREATION LANDS
SUBTASK 7.10 FISHERIES ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL FACTORS
APPROACH
FIELD SURVEYS
ANADROMOUS FISHERIES STUDIES
APPROACH
ii
7.07-1
7.07-1
7.07-1
7.07-3
7.08-1
7.08-1
7.08-2
7.08-4
7.08-4
7.08-4
7.08-4
7.08-'5
7.08-5
7.08-6
7.08-7
7.08-8
7.08-11
7.10-1
7.10-3
7.10-3
7.10-10
7.10-12
7.10-12
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CONTRIBUTION OF THE SUSITNA SALMON POPULATIONS
TO THE COOK INLET FISHERIES -QUANTITATIVE
SEPARATION OF STOCKS
DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF ADULT AND
JUVENILE·SALMON IN THE LOWER SUSITNA RIVER-
KNOWN SPAWNING STOCKS
DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF ADULT AND JUVENILE
SALMON IN THE LOWER SUSITNA RIVER -UNKNOWN
SPAWNING STOCKS
RELATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS TO THE
ABUNDANCE AND SURVIVAL OF ADULT AND JUVENILE
SALMON IN THE SUSITNA RIVER -FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT
RELATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS TO THE
ABUNDANCE AND SURVIVAL OF ADULT AND JUVENILE
SALMON IN THE SUSITNA RIVER -ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RESIDENT FISHERIES STUDIES
COMPOSITION AND ABUNDANCE OF THE RESIDENT
POPULATIONS OF FISH IN THE UPPER SUSITNA RIVER
PRESENCE (OR ABSENCE)OF ENDANGERED SPECIES
ADDENDA
SPAWNING CRITERIA
TEMPERATURE -EFFECTS ON FISH
SILT AND TURBIDITY
TOXICITIES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
WATER CHEMISTRY
OXYGEN CONCENTRATION AT VARIOUS
TEMPERATURES IN FRESH WATER
METHODS OF MEASURING FOOD-PRODUCING AREAS
RELATIVE SWIMMING SPEEDS OF FISH
PACIFIC SALMON INCUBATION TIME
SUBTASK 7.11 WILDLIFE ECOLOGY ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
BIG GAME
iii
7.10-13
7.10-14
7.10-16
7.10-17
7.10-18
7.10-19
7.10-21
7.10-21
7.10-22
7.10-23
7.10-24
7.10-30
7.10-31
7.10-37
7.10-54
7.10-56
7.1 0-5}
7.10-59
7.10-63
7.11-1
7.11-2
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INTRODUCTION
DATA COLLECTION
MOOSE
CARIBOU
WOLVES
BEARS
WOLVERINE
DALL SHEEP
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
MITIGATION
FURBEARERS
INTRODUCTION
APPROACH
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE I
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE II
BIRDS AND NON-GAME MAMMALS
INTRODUCTION
APPROACH
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE I
AVIFAUNA SURVEY OF THE UPPER SUSITNA
RIVER BASIN (INCLUDING RAPTORS AND
WATERFOWL)
SMALL MA~~AL POPULATIONS AND
HABITAT UTILIZATION
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE II
AVIAN UTILIZATION OF TERRESTRIAL HABITATS
WATERBIRD UTILIZATION OF WETLANDS
SMALL MAMMAL POPULATIONS AND HABITAT
UTILIZATION
LITERATURE CITED
iv
7.11-2
7.11-3
7.11-3
7.11-4
7.11-4
7.11-5
7.11-5
7.11-6
7.11-6
7.11-7
7.11-8
7.11-8
7.11-8
7.11-8
7.11-9
7.11-10
7.11-10
7.11-10
7.11-11
7.11-11
7·11-12
7.11-14
7.11-14
7·11-15
7.11-16
7.11-16
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SUBTASK 7.12 .PLANT ECOLOGY ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVES
APPROACH
DISCUSSION
DATA BASE REVIEW
PLANT COMMUNITY ANALYSIS
VEGETATION COVER MAP
VEGETATION SAMPLING
ENDANGERED OR THREATENED SPECIES
IMPACT ANALYSIS
LITERATURE CITED
SCHEDULE
v
7.12-1
7.12-1
7.12-1
7.12-1
7.12-2
7.12-2
7.12-3
7.12-4
7.12-4
7.12-5
7.12-5
SUBTASK 7.05
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
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7.05-1
INTRODUCTION
An important element of the feasibility of the Susitna Hydroelec-
tric Project is the socio-economic impacts created by its presence.
Such impacts are important not only in their own right but also
because of the intense socio-economic concerns so prevalent in
Alaska.The intensity of these concerns was recently voiced as the
proposed Rampart Project on the Upper Yukon River was defeated.
This project was not undertaken in large part because the home-land
of the Interior Natives,areas of habitat for caribou and other game
animals,and up-strea~and down-stream fisheries would have been
adversely affected.
The purpose of this proposed study is to investigate in detail the
socio-economic impacts associated with the Susitna Hydroelectric
Project.The analysis is responsive to the current set of Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)license application requirements,
but is scheduled to be implemented in two phases to comply with the
anticipated changes in these requirements.Phase I consists of the
pre-license application studies;Phase II consists of post-license
application studies.The socio-economic plan of study was-developed,
and would be implemented,by Frank Orth &Associates.Below is a
detailed presentation of the proposed study~
SCOPE OF WORK
A.GENERAL FRAMEWORK FOR PLAN OF STUDY
The primary objective of this study is to provide socio-economic
studies of sufficient breadth and depth to meet FERC license applic-
ation requirements.To meet these requirements the following tasks
must be accomplished:(1)identify and evaluate significant socio-
economic Project impacts and (2)assess the social and economic
significance of the Project's impacts.These tasks are presented
in Figure 1 in the boxes labeled 8,6-A,6-B,and 9.It should be
noted here that particular emphasis is placed on assessing the
significance of fish and wildlife impacts from commercial,recre-
ational and subslatence perspectives.These assessments are empha-
sized because it is anticipated that they will be important elements
of the socio-economic impact study.
To accomplish the above tasks,it is desirable to divide the study
into two phases.The first phase consists of tasks designed to
identify important socio-economic conditions which are likely to be
impacted by the Project.Based on the findings of Phase I,in-depth
analyses and assessments of potential Proj~ct impacts are performed
in Phase II.The division of tasks insures that only the most
relevant impacts are addressed.The effort saved from not studying
irrelevant impacts may therefore be allocated to providing in-depth
analysis and assessment of important impacts.
Phase I is composed of four tasks.The enumeration of these socio-
economic study tasks and subtasks is not to be confused with the
task breakdown of the overall feasibility study.The first socio-
economic task furnishes background information for the development
1 ~>l )-1 -C--l .~-_cl 1 J
PHASE I I I
PHASE II
1
Li terature
9
7
Economic-Assessment ...
of ImportantCommer-Assess Social Slgn1f1-
cial t Recreatio~al.Determine &Evaluate cance of Project's
&Subsistence F1Sh &Project1s Impact~on Economic Impacts ~n .I~Wildlife-Under Important Commerc1al.Important Commerc1al.
lIWithout Project ll Recreati.onal &Sub-Recreational &.
Conditions sistence Fish &Subsistence Fish &
Wi 1dl i fe Resources Wi 1dl i fe Resources
Forecast of Future
Socio-economic
Conditions in
Absence of
Project
4
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2
Review
Socia-economic
.-
Profile
Development
It
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3
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5
Forecast of .Future
Socio-economic
Conditions in
Presence of
One or Two
Dam Project
f-r+
6-A
Identify &Evaluate I
Significant Socio-~
economic Project
Impacts (exclu.impact~
on fish and wildlife)
.H
Assess Soci.,and
Economic Signifi-
cance of Impact
Evaluation Results.
Preliminary
Socia-economic
Impact
Studies
FIGURE 1:GENERAL FRAMEWORK FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC PLAN OF STUDY
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FRANK ORTH &ASSOCIATES
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7.05-3
of detailed socio-economic conditions (Task 2).Next,the profiles
are used in two ways:(1)to provide information for the screening
of alternative types of hydroelectric projects (Task 3)and (2)
to provide guidance in the selection of socio-economic conditions
to forecast (Task 4).This guidance insures that only the conditions
most likely to be impacted by the project are forecast.The future
socio-economic conditions "without hydroelectric development"are
forecast to serve later as a baseline for comparison.
In Phase II future socio-economic conditions l'with hydroelectric
development l1 are forecast (Task 5);the type of hydroelectric devel-
opment is determined,in part,by the screening process of Task 3
(Footnote 1).Changes in conditions from the first scenario ("with-
out development")to the second scenario ("with hydroelectric devel-
opment")are identified and evaluated in Task 6-A.Task 8,similar
to yet more detailed than Task 6-A,focuses on the project's impact
on fish and wildlife.An assessment of important fish and wildlife
resources is conducted in Task 7 in support of Task 8.Finally,
the social and economic significance of the project's impacts are
assessed (Tasks 6-A and 9).
B.OUTLINE SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK
Exhibit 1 summarizes the proposed scope of work for this study.
The tasks mentioned above are divided into subtasks and intermediate
products resulting.from several of these subtasks are identified.
1.Alternative projects are run through other screens as well .
The final selection of a hydroelectric development project is
determined by synthesizing the screens in some manner to produce
one project for further consideration .
7.05-4
EXHIBIT 1:OUTLINE SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK
PHASE I:
......
TASK
1.Literature review a.
SUB-TASK
Identify socio-economic I-a.
impact studies for sim-
ilar hydroelectric
projects (include for-
eign studies)
PRODUCT
List of socio-economic
impact studies for sim-
ilar hydroelectric
projects
b.Determine the nature
and extent of studies'
impacts
c.Review general socio-
economic conditions in
the Local and General-
ized areas 1 ,and State
of Alaska
d.Assess relevance of
studies'impacts for
Local and Generalized
areas,and for the
State of Alaska
I-b.Table showing socio-
economic impacts,by
project,type,and
degree
I-c.Draft profiles of socio-
economic conditions,
by Areas and State
I-d.Partial list of po-
tential Susitna Project
impacts,by Areas and
State
2.Socio-economic
profile develop-
ment:
a.Identify potential 2-a.
impacts peculiar to
the Local and Generalized
areas,and the State
Table showing poten-
tial Susitna Project
impacts,by Areas and
State
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b.Determine conditions 2
most likely to be im-
pacted,by Areas and
State
c.Develop data collection
guides
d.Collect data and infor-
mation on most vulner-
able conditions at Area
and State level
2-b.Table showing conditions
most likely to be im-
pacted,by Areas and
State
-1
e.Compile data and infor-
mation
The Local Area is in the immediate vicinity of the Project while the generalized
area includes the region surrounding the Local Area as well as the Fairbanks/
Tanana and the Anchorage/Cook 1nlet regions.
2 Conditions will be described by social and economic variables such as population,
per capita income,employment,etc.
FF~ORTH &ASSOCIATES
,.,.,EXHIBIT 1:OUTLINE SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK (continued)7.05-5
TASK SUB--TASk
f.Develop profiles of
socio-economic condi-
tions likely to be
impacted,by Areas and
State
PRODUCT
2-f.Profiles of socio-
economic conditions
likely to be impacted,
by Areas and State
3.Preliminary socio-
economic impact
studies
a.Identify conditions 3-a.
most likely to be im-
pacted,by alternative,
and Areas and State
b.Determine the nature and
degree of potential im-
pacts,by alternative,
and Areas and State
Table showing most
vulnerable conditions
by alternative,and
Areas and State
c.Compare and contrast
impacts of alternative
projects,by alterna-
tive,Areas and State
3-c.Table showing nature
and degree of impacts,
by alternative,and
Areas and State
4.Forecast of future
socio-economic
conditons in ab-
sence of Susitna
Project
a.Identify studies which 4-a.
forecast socio-economic
copditionsin Alaska in
the absence of signi-
ficant hydroelectric
power development
List of socio-economic
conditions forecast
studies
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or,if necessary:
FRANK ORTH &ASSOCIATES
b.Select studies which
have geographically
disaggregated results
for further considera-
tion
c.Develop and apply
study methodology
evaluation criteria
d.Select study(s)and
study(s)results
for adoption
e.Revise study (s)metho-·
dology to allow for
proper geographic dis-'
aggregation and/or new
factors of change
f.Implement revised
methodology
4-b.List of socio-economic
conditions forecast
studies with signifi-
cant geographical dis-
aggregation
4-d.Partial forecast of
future socio-economic
conditions in absence
of Susitna Project
4-f.Forecast of future
socio-economic con-
ditions in absence
of Susitna Project
7.05-6
PRODUCTSUB-TASK
EXHIBIT 1:OUTLINE SUMHARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK (continued)
PHASE II:
TASK
5.Forecast of future
socio-economic
condi tions in
presence of one
and/or two dam
Project
a.Identify conditions
most likely to be im-
pacted,by Areas and
and State,and Project
phase
5-a.Table showing con-
ditions vulnerable
to Project's imple-
mentation,by Areas
and State,and Project
phase
b.Determine the nature 5-b.
and extent to which
future socio-economic
conditions,will be
impacted by the Project's
presence,by Areas and
State,and Project phase
Forecast of future
socio-economic condi-
tions in Project's
presence,by Areas and
State,and Project
phase
c.Compare and contrast
forecasted future
socio-economic condi-
tions with and with-
out the Project
5-c.Table showing fore-
casted future condi-
tions in the absence
of the Project,incre-
mental changes in these
conditions in the
Project's presence,and
future conditions in
the presence of the
Project
6.Identification and
evaluation of
significant socio-
economic Project
impacts
a.Determine which Project 6-a.
impacts create the
largest and/or most
important changes in
the forecasted future
socio-economic condi-
tions without the
Project
List of large and/or
important Project
impacts
"b.Develop criteria {con-
sistent with Exhibit W)
for evaluating the impacts
c.Apply evaluation 6-c.
criteria
Impact evaluations
(text supported by,
perhaps,tables)
r
d.Assess social and
econo~c significance
of impact evaluation
results (excluding the
significance of fish
and wildlife impacts)
6-d.Application of results
(text supported by,
perhaps,tables)
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-FRJrnK ORTH &ASSOCIATES
-.EXHIBIT 1:OUTUNE SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK (continued)7.05--7
TASK
7.Assess economic a.
aspects of impor-
tant commercial,
recreational,and
subsistence fish and
wildlife under "with-
out project condi-
tions"
SUB-TASK
Identify fish and wild-7-a.
life'recources of sig-
nificant or potential
economic value
PRODUCT
List of significant
or potentially high-
value fish and wild-
life resources,by
species or species-
groups,and Areas
.....
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b.Identify,review,and 7-b.
assess existing empiri-
cal fish and wildlife
resource valuation
studies;adopt valua-
tions for important
resources as appro-
priate
c.Develop methodology
to valuate remaining
economically signifi-
cant resources
d.Implement methodology
Partial list of
resource valuations
for significant or
potentially high-value
fish and wildlife
resources,by species
or species-groups,and
Areas
e.Combine results from
existing empirical
studies and new em-
pirical study
f.Address unquantifiable
dimensions ofvalua~
tions;support quanti-
tative findings as
appropriate
7-e.Table showing
resource valuations
for significant or
potentially high-value
fish and wildlife
resources,by species
or species-groups,and
Areas
7-f.Amendments,in tabular
form,to the table in
7-e above
8..Determination and a.
evaluation ,"Jf Pro-
ject impacts on
important commer-
cial,recreational,
and subsistence fish
and wildlife re-
sources
F~~ORTH &ASSOCIATES
Obtain information con-
cerning biological and
environmental impact of
Project on important
resources
EXHIBIT 1:OUTLINE SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK (clmtinued)7.05-8
TASK SUB-TASK
b.Determine economic im-8-b.
pact of Project
(changes in resource
value)on resources
c.Address unquantifiable 8-c.
dimensions of valua-
tions;support quanti-
tive findings as appro-
priate
PRODUCT
Table showing changes
in fish and wildlife
social net present
values,by species or
species-group and
Areas
Amendments,in tabular
form,to the changes
in social net present
value table
r
d.Compare and contrast
quantified economic
valuations "with and
without"}?iroject
e.Compare and contrast
quantified and quali-
fied economic valua-
tions "with and with-
out ll project
8-d.Text discussion sup-
ported by,perhaps,
a table
8-e.Text discussion sup-
ported by,perhaps,
a table
....
....
9..Assessment of the
social signifi-
cance of Project
economic impacts
on important com-
mercial,recrea-
tional,and sub-
sistence fish and
wildlife resources
a.Identify and determine 9-a.
minimum resource con-
ditions and/or stand-
ards for commercial,
recreational,and
other interests
b.Compare the resource 9-b.
standard and/or condi-
tion acceptable to each
interest group to the
expected resource con-
dition following Project
implementation
Table showing m1n1mum
resource conditions
and/or standards,by
interest group and
species or species-
group
Comparison table
c.Discuss the social
significance of com-
parison results
9-c.Text discussion
10.Preparation of
reports
FR~ORTH &ASSOCIATES
a.Develop Procedures Man-lO-a.Procedures Manual
ual containing detailed
¥ork plan and production
schedule for each task
b.Develop outline for reports
EXHIBIT 1:OUTLINE SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED SCOPE OF WORK (continued)7.05-9
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TASK
11.Project management
12.Task management
FRANK ORTH &ASSOCIATES
c.
SUB-TASK
Select intermediate
products
for reports,as
appropriate
Integrate inter-
mediate products in-
to reports,write
reports,and produce
reports
10-I.
10-2.
10~3.
10-4.
10-5.
10-6.
PRODUCT
Procedures Manual
Monthly Progress Reports
Draft Summary of Tasks 1-4
Finalrium1"'1ary of Tasks 1-4
Draft Summary of Tasks 5-9
Final Report
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7·05-10
APPROACH
A.DISCUSSION OF STUDY DESIGN
The study is designed to make efficient and effective use of existing
literature,sttidies,models and highly qualified researchers with
socio-economic impact analysis and Alaska experience.The first three
elements serve to provide b~sic information,relevant methodologies
and reduce the likelihood of duplicative effort.The last element
contributes toward insuring that the most appropriate data bases
are accessed,the most suitable methodologies applied,and that the
results are evaluated and applied in a manner which supports the
objectives of the overall project.
The study is also designed to insure that FERC license application
requirements are adequately addressed.Tasks 1-9 of Figure 1
cover,in a general manner,all the FERC requirements as set forth
in Exhibit W.(Footnote 1).Further,subtasks associated with Tasks
1-9 respond directly to the following components of Exhibit W:
2.3,3.1.3, 3.2.3,and 7.3 Socio-economic Considerations
5.1 Human Resources Impacted
The methods employed in the subtasks develop most fully those socio-
economic considerations which are relevant for the proposed project
and its potential impact on the Alaskan environment.Utilization
of this approach will produce results which are responsive to FERC
license application requirements as well as to the needs of the
citizens of Alaska.
Finally,the study is designed to be performed over a three and one-
half year period.At the end of this period sufficient information
will have been generated to meet the socio-economic requirements of
the FERC license application.Should unexpected problems arise
which impede the performance of critical tasks of this study,they
will be analyzed and solved as quickly as possible.The only type
of problem not having the potential for rapid resolution is that
involving nature and the environment.(Footnote 2).
1.Exhibit W of FERC Order nos.415 and 4l5-C.Under the antici-
pated revis~on of FERC regulations,these items will be incor-
porated into Exhibit E and/or supplemental.environmental reports.
2.An example of this type of problem would be a previously unre-
searched natural resource of potentially high economic value or
significance.If environmental specialists were not able to
provide adequate information within the three and'one-half year
period for a comprehensive economic assessment,then a preliminary
assessment would be made for the FERC license application.If
this information were challenged,or if a refined assessment were
of significant interest,then the preliminary assessment could be
revised SUbsequent to application for the license.
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7.05-11
At present,no problems of this type have been identified.This does
not mean,however,that this situation will not arise during the
study.If this type of problem does arise,an attempt will be made
to produce results (although some may be of a tenative nature)within
the three and Qne-half year period.The study can be easily adapted
to produce final results when sufficient information becomes avail-
able.
B.DISCUSSION OF ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR INDIVIDUAL TASKS AND SUBTASKS
Discussion in this subsection focuses upon subtasks from the Outline
Summary of the Proposed Scope of Work (Exhibit 1)which require
further explanation.Subtask approach and methods,and the relation
among subtasks within a task are the main topics developed.
PHASE I:
1.Literature Review
a.Socio-economic impact studies for hydroelectric projects similar
to the range of proposed projects for the Susitna Vicinity will be
identified.A subcontractor with extensive familiarity with socio-
economic studies will be provided with a data compilation format.
The purpose of this format will be to acq:uire data concerning);he,
subcontractor's past work in socio-economic impact analysis.In
addition the subcontractor will be relied upon to furnish suggestions
regarding strategies for further identification of relevant studies.
Bibliographies and major entities such as the Army Corps of Engineers
will be consulted to identify further hydroelectric studies.It is
anticipated that the major source of bibliographies will be those
found in the studies initially identified.
b.All studies will be placed in a similar data format to facilitate
extraction of impacts,by nature and·degree.The format will be
developed,studies will be reviewed,and the format will be imple-
mented.Data particularly relevant to Alaska will be highlighted
in the format.
c.General socio-economic conditions in the local area (immediate
vicinity of the range of alternative dam sites),the region (the
area surrounding the immediate dam-site vicinity and the Fairbanks/
Tanana and Anchorage/Cook Inlet regions)and the State will be re-
viewed.This review will include:
a review of current major assessments of Alaska
economic conditions,by region;
a review of literature pertaining to the Alaska social/
cultural environment;and
interviews with recognized authorities on Alaska
economic and social conditions,including but
not limited to:
7.05-12
Dr.David Reaume,Alaska Department of Commerce
and Economic Development
Mr.Bob Richards,National Bank of Alaska
Dr.David Kresge,Harvard University and The
Institute of Social and Economic Research,
University of Alaska
Finally,profiles of general socio-economic conditions will be
developed with local,regional,and state geographic orientations.
d.The relevance of impacts,identified and characterized in
lb.,for the State of Alaska will be assessed at local,regional,
and state levels.This assessment will yield a list of impacts,by
geographic area,type and degree,which may be relevant for the
Susitna Project impact studies.
2.Socio-economib Profile Development
The purpose of this task is to develop detailed profiles of socio-
economic conditions most likely to be impacted by a broad range of
alternative Susitna dam projects.Attention is focused only on
those conditions (Footnote 1),which are highly vulnerable.
a.Potential impacts peculiar to the local area,region and state
will be determined.This list of impacts will be combined with those
of ld.to provide a complete list of potential impacts for the broad
range of alternative projects.
b.Next,potential impacts on the list will be assessed for their
relevance to the Susitna Project at the local,regional,and state
levels.Some of the less relevant potential impacts will drop out;
what will remain is a list of socio-economic conditions most likely
to be impacted by the broad range of alternative Susitnaprojects.
c.Data collection guides will be developed to gather information
necessary to support the production of detailed profiles of socio-
economic conditions most likely to be impacted.
d.Data collection guides will be implemented;information will be
gathered at local,regional,and state levels.
1.Socio-economic conditions will be described by social and eco~~
nomic variables ..The range of variables considered for the impact
analyses will include at the minimum the variables mentioned in
Exhibit W,components 2.3,3.1.3,3.2.3,5.1,and 7.3.Only
those relevant for the Susitna Project will remain for treatment
in subsequent tasks.Reasons for eliminating variables from
Exhibit W set will be elaborated.
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7.05-13
e.Information will be compiled in a format conducive to profile
development.
f.Detailed profiles will be developed from the information pre-
sented in e.above and also from the general profiles developed in
lc.
3.Preliminary Socio-economic Impact Studies
Other Susitna Project Team members will provide a narrow range of
alternative dam projects.There will be substantial physical specif-
ication and other information made available on each alternative
project by these team members.
a.Socio-economic conditions most likely to be impacted will be
identified for each alternative,by local area,region and state.
Extensive use will be made of the table developed in 2b.above
showing conditions most likely to be impacted by the broad range
of alternative projects.
b.The nature and degree of potential impacts will be determined
for each alternative by local area,region,and state.Potential
impacts for each alternative will be shown in matrix form at local,
regional,and state levels of geographic aggregation.To the ex-
tent physical and other information allow,an attempt will be made
to show impacts by project phase.(Footnote 2).To arrive at
potential impacts,the economic and social implication of each
alternative will be determined quantitatively,by qualitative
inference,and/or-qualitatively.The nature and degree of potential
impacts will also be determined by project phase to the extent
physical and other information allow.
c.The impacts of alternative projects will
matrix form by local area,region and state.
presentation will be useful in screening the
for socio-economic considerations.
be presented in
This form of results
alternative projects
4.Forecast of Future Socio-economic 80nditions in the Absence of
the Susitna Project
a-f.Studies and methods for forecasting Alaska socio-economic
conditions will be identified and investigated by interacting
with knowledgeable public and private economists.A list of
studies and forecasting approaches will be developed.Next the
studies will be evaluated using,at the minimum,the following
criteria:
2.Each alternative dam project has 4 phases:
Testing
Conceptualization and Design
Construction
Operating
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7.05-14
1.appropriate geographic disaggregation of results;
2.appropriate methodology;
3.appropriate conditions (variables)are forecast;and
4.study is current.
It is anticipated that few if any of the existing studies will pass
all four of the criteria.It is highly likely that geographic disag-
gregation will be inappropriate and/or that the "wrong"variables or
too few variables are forecast.To rectify the situation,the chosen
methodology(s)will be modified to be consistent with the remaining
criteria.The revised methodology(s)will be implemented to produce
a baseline forecast of socio-ecoriomic conditions.
PHASE II:
5.Forecast of Future Socio-economic Conditions in Presence of
One and/or Two Dam Project
Other Susitna Project Team members will provide detailed information
concerning the chosen alternative (i.e.,the hydroelectric project
chosen).
a.Socio-economic conditions most likely to be impacted will be
identified by local area,region,and state,and Project phase.
Extensive use will be made of the tables developed in 2b.and 3a.
above.
b.The nature and extent to which future socio-economic conditions
(see 4f.above)will be impacted by the Project,will be determined
by local area,region,and project phase.One of the three follow-
ing methodologies will be employed:
i.Determine impacts of the project on variables of
concern,at local area,region,and state levels.
Quantify impact on variables directly,or through
qualitative inference.In cases where neither of these
techniques is possible,qualitatively estimate the
impact.Combine these estimates of project impact with
the baseline of 4f.
ii.A forecast of future conditions "with the project"
could be generated by running the model chosen in 4
above.The algebraic difference of the model runs
"with"and "without"the project would represent the
impacts.
iii.Neither of the above.It is very difficult to determine
at present which methodology will be most appropriate.
This is the reason i and ii above are not devleoped
further.The choice and development of methodology for
this part of the analysis will be made after Task 4 has
been completed.
c.Future socio-economic conditions "with"and "without"the
project will be compared and contrasted in a matrix format.
,..,.
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7.05-15
6.Identification and Evaluation of Significant Socio-economic
Project Impacts (excluding impacts on fish and wildlife re-
sources)
a-d.Criteria to evaluate the impacts will be developed.These
criter~a will be applied to the results in a systematic manner to
yield impact evaluation results for each phase of the project.
These results will be discussed in depth and then assessed for
social and economic significance.This assessment will include
consideration of impact significance from local and regional
and state perspectives.---
The assessment will focus on changes in population,employment,
patterns of industrial growth,the needs for pUblic services,
and other elements of sections 3.1.3,3.2.3,5.1 and 7.3 of Exhibit
W.Specific emphasis will be placed on (1)the effects of lower
electricity rates on industrial growth,(2)other actions made
economically feasible or precluded by the implementation of the
Project and (3)pUblic services required to support economic
development in the region and state.The social significance
of this development will also be addressed.
Examples
1.
ii.
of the above points of emphasis are the following:
The development of manufacturing and processing industries
in Interior Alaska has been constrained in large part
by the high cost of energy.Lower cost energy may
allow some new industries to gain a foothold and other
established industries to grow more rapidly.This
industrial growth could have significant implications
for population,employment,tax revenues,value of
exports,etc.
The transportation system created to provide access to
the construction site(s)could provide opportunities
for the recreation,tourism,and forest products indus-
tries,among others.These activities,infeasible
without the project,could create significant employment
opportunities as well as provide recreational and
cultural benefits.
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iii.Public services required to support i and ii above.
The development of criteria for the assessment of economic signifi-
cance will include consideration of:(1)contribution to total
employment;(2)enhancement of "off-season"employment opportunities;
(3)contribution to tax base and per capita income,(4)contribution
to value of exports;and (5)contribution to the diversification
of the economic base.The development of criteria for the assess-
ment of social significance will include consideration of:(1)
employment and leisure-time opportunities and their effect on the
social fabric;(2)effects of population change;and (3)the im-
plications of precluding certain activities.
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7.05-16
Suggestions will be offered regarding ways of mitigating the
impacts through public or private actions.Also,ways in which
the results can best be used to support the objectives of the over-
all project will be discussed.
7.Assess Economic Aspects of Important Commercial,Recreational,
and Subsistence Fish and Wildlife Under "Without Project Con...
ditions"
a.Fish and wildlife resources with significant existing or
potential economic value will be identified by using internal
knowledge and contacts,and consulting with other Susitna Project
Team members.These resources will be identified by species or
species-group and area.Areas will now be defined more narrowly
than previously and will be specific to each species or species-
group.The range of a directly impacted species'stock or pop-
ulation will be divided into 3 concentric rings,ellipses,or
other,as appropriate.
b.Existing fish and wildlife studies will be identified and
reviewed.Criteria will be developed to judge the acceptability
of the study methodologies.Results from those studies which pass
the test will be adopted.These valuations will serve as baseline
conditions and will be extended into the future using appropriate
methods.
c-d.Methodologies will be adopted from existing studies or
modified to obtain valuations for important fish and wildlife re-
sources not covered in the studies.(Footnote 1).These valuations
will also be extended through time for comparability (to valuations
of 6b above)and completeness.
e.Valuations from band c-d above will be combined to obtain a
set of valuations for important fish and wildlife resources.
f.Unquantifiable dimensions of the valuations will be addressed
and used in support of the quantitative measures in order to more
completely characterize resource values.
8.Determination and Evaluation of Project Impacts on Important
Commercial,Recreational.Subsistence Fish and Wildlife Re-
sources
a.Environmental specialists on the Susitna Project Team will
provide biological and environmental impact information for potential
use in deriving economic impacts.
b.Information supplied in a.will be translated into economic
values.These values will be quantitative and a partial measure
of the economic impact of the project on resources.The present
1.For some resources this may not be possible or feasible.
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7.05-17
value of the time stream of values "with"and "without"the project
1Ivill be calculated for each species or species-group,by area
(where possible).
c.The quantitative measures of economic impact in b.will be
augmented by qualitative measures where quantitative measures are
lacking or weak.
d.The present value streams of b.above will be compared to
obtain the present value of economic impact by species or species-
group,by area (where possible).
e.Qualitative measures will be used next to support the quanti-
tative measures in d.
9.Assessment of the Social Significance of the Project's Economic
Impacts on Important Commercial,Recreational,and Subsistence
Fish and Wildlife Resources
a.Minimum resource conditions and/or standards will be determined
for each user group.Past and present utilization rates and pat-
terns will play a key role in determing the appropriate minimum
conditions.
b.The minimum resource condition judged to be acceptable to
each user group will be compared to the expected resource condition
"with the project."Differences between these two types of con-
ditions will be quantified to the extent possible.
c.The social significance of comparison results will be discussed.
C.SIGNIFICANCE OF EXPECTED RESULTS
Without an assessment of the expected impact of one's actions,it
is quite difficult to decide whether or not the action is wise.
If the expected disadvantages associated with the action outweigh
the expected advantages to be gained,action would not be wise.
Unfortunately,the assessment process is rarely so simple;problems
emerge in defining advantages and disadvantages,estimating their
magnitude,and judging whether one outweighs the other.
The decision to undertake any large project poses both technical
and political problems.In government,which must frequently be
reactive to disparate groups,the political aspects are generally
most difficult.This study is designed to ease both the technical
and political difficulties inherent in the decision making process.
This study will objectively describe,in quantifiable terms where
appropriate,the expected socio-economic impacts associated with
development of a hydroelectric facility on the Susitna River.A
description of these impacts will aid in both the political and
technical aspects of decision making and planning.
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7.05-18
The impacts will describe the economic and social changes which
will result from the proposed project.Descriptions will deal
with areas such as the effects of a low cost and plentiful energy
supply,alteration of the natural habitat,and forced social,
cultural,and psychological changes.By developing and presenting
such information a legislator or other political decision maker
will b~able to more easily decide which effects are advantages,
which are disadvantages,and whether the former outweigh the latter.
By identifying the expected changes,the technical decision maker
will also be helped.The proposed project may be modified in
various ways to avoid or minimize identified changes perceived
as disadvantages.If such avoidance or minimization is impossible,
other ameliorative steps,outside of the proposed project itself,
may be undertaken.
In summary,the development of socio-economic impact assessments
will help the political decision maker by encouraging a rational
political decision making process,and help the technical decision
maker by allowing him to avoid or minimize problems through project
modification,or ameliorate problems through other actions.
SCHEDULE
The production schedule for the socio-economic portion of the pro-
ject is presented in Exhibit 2.Major tasks are listed in the
left column and their period of performance,in months,on the
right.The period of performance for individual subtasks within
a task is indicated by lower case letters;these letters correspond
to the subtasks of Exhibit 1.
-""~l '""'1 ',······'1 1 '1 t -I 1 1:})1 )I
1.Literature Review
Contractl PHASE I PHASE II .
Awardt)Ji 10 15 20 25--------46 35 4p ---------ir--'P;onths
i I I I I I i I
~•Initiation of Detalledoesign Studies
2.Socio-economic Profile Development
3.PI"t'11m11l-1ry Soc1o-etonl.,l!1c !l1'p~t:t
Studies
4.ForeC:lSt of Future Socfo-~onomic
Condftions fn AbsenCe of Susitna
Project .
S.FOl"KlSt of Fut,,"SOCiO-'<:OflOlllic
Conditions in Presence of One or
Two 0."Project
6.Identification &Eyaluetfon of 5ignif-
•icant Socio-econCllllic Project Impacts
~
i«-·------.-~-~~--~L !_____I b C
r---------------------------~L M ~•__~
m:!:J
[ffi!)d I
7.Assess.Econ<Jftic As~cts of IlIIpOmnt)•";'~
Commercial,Recreational,&Sub-~!b •_
sistence Fish &Wildlife Resources Under "Without Project Conditions"
8.Determination and Evaluation of Project Impacts on Important
Commercfal,Recreational end Subsistence Fish &Wildlife Resources
9.Assessment of'the Social Significance of the Project's Economic Impacts on
Important Commercial,Recreational and Subsistence Fish &Wildlife Resources.
r------'lCoordination Heeting
L ~_::J!JiE
8}ill
EXHIBIT 2:PRODUCTION SCHEDULE FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC PLAN OF STUDY
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1.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Abbott',Jeanne,Pressure Builds Behind Susitna Dam,Anchorage Daily
News,September 10,1978.
7.05-20
2.Alaska Pacific Bank,Alaska Business Trends,Anchorage,Alaska,1977.
3.Foster,Scott,Governor to Seek Legislative Funding For Devil Canyon
Study,Office of the Governor Press Release,Juneau,Alaska,October
25,1978.
4.Kresge,David T.,Morehouse,Thomas A.,Rogers,George W.,Issues in
Alaska Development,University of Washington Press,1977.
5.State of Alaska Division of Economic Enterprise,Alaska Community
Profiles.
6.State of Alaska Division of Economic Enterprise,The Alaska Economic
Information &Reporting System Quarterly Reports,1978-1979.
7.State of Alaska Department of Economic Development,A Performance
Report of the Alaskan Economy,various volumes.
8.State of Alaska Department of Labor,Alaska Economic Trends,various
issues.
9.State of Alaska Department of Labor,Economic Forecasts,1976-1978.
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10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
University of Alaska,Institute of Social and Economic Research,
Review of Business and Economic Conditions,1971-1979.
US Army Corps of Engineers,Plan of Study for Susitna HydI:~!.E0wer
Feasibility Analysis,June 1978.
US Army Corps of Engineers,Supplemental Feasibility Repor~:Hydro-
electric Power and Related Purposes,February,1979.
US Department of Energy,Alaska Power Administration,Pow~.E.Market
Analyses:Upper Susitna River Project,January 1979.
Weeden,Robert B.,and Alaska Conservation Society,~ar'a the
Problems With the Susitna Hydropower Project?,A letter to Alaskan
Legislators,February 29,1979.
-FRANK DRTH &ASSOCIATES
SUBTASK 7.06
CULTURAL RESOURCE ANALYSIS
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7.06-1
INTRODUCTION
The following document is a proposal for the identification and
mitigation of cultural resources which may be adversely affected
by the proposed Susitna Hydropower facility.The proposal con-
sists of sections which concisely discuss the major aspects of
the proposal.The first two sections,Cultural Chronology and
Cultural Resources in the Study Area,provide a brief synopsis
of previous research relevant to the Susitna project.They are
provided as introductory material and should not be regarded as
an in-depth analysis of previous work,as they require consider-
able expansion for a research design.The following section,
entitled Authority,defines and explains both state and federal
legislation which is pertinent to the preservation of cultural
-resources which may be adversely affected by the Susitna project.
The Scope of Work explicates how the University of Alaska Museum
proposes to execute the project in a series of steps,and defines
the activities of each step.The next section,Discussion of
Steps,explains in greater detail what will be accompli'shed in
each step.Section 6,Formulation of Research and Sampling
Designs,provides an explanation of how the Museum will develop
these tools to guide the inventory and mitigation measures.A
brief description of the experience,qualifications,and project
responsibilities of key Museum personnel who will be responsible
for the research effort is also presented.This is followed by
a bibliography.
The archaeological survey and excavation effort proposed by the
University Museum is developed specifically for the Susitna Hydro-
power Project (Devil Canyon and Watana dams)as outlined in the
Susitna Hydropower Plan of Study (1978)prepared by the Alaska
District,U.S.Army Corps of Engineers.In the Corps'plan of
study certain areas for the construction of dams,spillways,
cofferdams,tailrace tunnels,power plants,gate chambers,switch-
yards,access roads,transmission routes,and reservoirs have been
detailed.The University Museum's proposal is based on the above
data,and any changes made in selection of construction areas or
starting date of the environmental studies may also require changes
in the Museum's proposal.
SECTION 1:CULTURAL CHRONOLOGY
The proposed project area is situated between interior Alaska and
the coastal environment of Cook Inlet.Given such a geographic
location it is not unreasonable to expect that the project area
has been influenced by cultural developments and contacts from
both the Alaskan Interior and the North Pacific Coast.Consequently,
it is essential to consider both regions when developing a broad
cultural overview for the study area.Dixon,Smith,and Plasket
(1979,23-25)have recently summarized the cultural chronology
of interior Alaska as follows:
The known prehistory of interior Alaska spans the past
12,000 years,and current research in this area (Dixon
and Plasket 1978;Hoeffecker 1978)and the adjacent
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7.06-2
Yukon territory in Canada (Irving 1978;Morlan 1978)
suggests that early human occupation may have occurred
more than 20,000 years ago.Three of the earliest
dated interior sites that are older than 11,000 years,
and in fairly close proximity to the project area
include the Dry Creek and Moose Creek sites near
Healy,and the Village Site at Healy Lake.As yet
microblades have not been recognized in these early
assemblages and their relationship to Denali is
unclear.
Starting approximately 10,600 years ago,the Denali
Complex (West 1967)appears in interior sites re-
presented by Dry Creek,Donnelly Ridge,the Campus
Site,the Village Site at Healy Lake,the Teklanika
River sites,Batza Tena,and Girls Hill.This distinc-
tive and long lasting stone tool industry is character-
ized by wedge-shaped microcores,microblades,core
tablets,bifacial knives,Donnelly burins and burin
spalls,and end scrapers.It has been suggested (Dumond
1978)that the Denali Complex is a regional variant
of the Northern Archaic Tradition as defined by
Anderson (1968a).The Denali Complex has been dated
to between 8,600 and 4,000 B.C.in interior Alaska.
There is a hiatus of Denali sites in the interior
archeological record after 4,000 B.C.,however several
sites in the Tanana Valley which contain distinctive
Denali elements date to between 2,400 B.C.and A.D.
1,000 and suggest a late persistence of this stone
industry in this area.
Beginning approximately 6,000 years ago,peoples of
the Northern Archaic Tradition (Anderson 1968b)appear
to have expanded from Northern Alaska into the interior.
This newly arrived tradition is in evidence at the Campus
Site,Dry Creek Site,Ratekin Site,Teklanika Sites,
and several sites near Tangle Lakes.The hallmark of
this tradition is notched projectile points,but other
elements include end scrapers,elongated and semi-lunar
bifaces,boulder chip artifacts,large unifaces,notched
pebbles,axes,ha~~erstones,and choppers.Northern
Archaic-related sites are presently known to exist in
the interior until about 1,400 B.C.Hypsithermal advance
of the boreal forest has been correlated with the in-
flux of the Northern Archaic Tradition (Anderson 1968b;
Schwager n.d.).After 1,400 B.C.,it is not clear,
based on eXisting data,whether the Northern Archaic
Tradition provided the basis for later northern
Athapaskan material culture.Between 2,400 B.C.and
A.D.1,000 the archeological record is complex,but by
A.D.1,000 a major technological change had occurred
in the interior with a de-emphasis on stone working.
Several of these archeological assemblages after A.D~1,000
oan clearly be traced through time and linked to recent
Athapaskan groups (Cook and McKennan 1970).Based on lin-
guistic evidence (Krauss 1973),which suggests that 2,000 to
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7.06-3
3,000 years of in situ development would be necessary
to achieve the modern diversity in northern Athapaskan
languages,and the late persistence of certain Northern
Archaic Tradition traits,such as notched points after
1,400 B.C.(West 1973;Holmes 1975),it appears
possible that the Northern Archaic Tradition continuity
may extend to,and provide the bas~s for,the later
identified interior Athapaskan archeological assemblages.
Interior Chronologies
Early Sites
Early Denali
Northern Archaic/Late Denali
Late Prehistoric Athapaskan
Historic
10,000 B.C.
10,000 B.C.
4,500 B.C.
A.D.1,000
A.D.1,850
or greater
-4,500 B.C.
-A.D.1,000
-A.D.1,850
-present
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To the south of the Alaska Range pioneering archeological research
in Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay regions was accomplished by Frederica
deLaguna during the summers of 1930,1931 and 1932.DeLaguna's
field work and sUbsequent analysis led to the delineation of
several culture periods which preceded Tanaina Athapaskan culture
in the Cook Inlet area.These culture periods were named from
the oldest to the youngest:Yukon Island I,II,sUb-III,.III,and
IV (deLaquna 1975:29).The Yukon Island sequence has become the
type sequence for the Kachemak Tradition and most researchers now
use the terms Kachemak I,II,and Sub-III when describing pre-
historic material culture from the Cook Inlet region.These
Kachemak Tradition culture periods are derived directly from
deLaguna's Yukon Island sequence.
William Workman (1977)has attempted to establish a tentative
chronological framework for the Kachemak tradition based on the
relatively scanty radiocarbon data available for the Cook Inlet
region.He (ibid.:33)suggests a second millennium A.D.temporal
placement for the Kachemak IV,which he has added to deLaguna's
three major period sequence.Kachemak IV period is as yet undated
but represents a somewhat nebulous artifact assemblage containing
native copper,triangular slate end blades,and potsherds.It
may represent the remains of both post Kachemak tradition Pacific
Eskimos and early Tanaina Athapaskans (ibid.).A temporal
span between A.D.800 through A.D.0 is proposed for Kachemak III,
A.D.1,200.to 400 B.C.for Kachemak II,and Kachemak I is ascribed
temporal placement to sometime during the second millennium B.C.
(ibid.:34-35).DeLaguna has provided a concise summary of archeo-
logical field research undertaken between 1934 and 1975 in the Cook
Inlet region,and readers are referred to her Preface to the 1975
reprint of "The Archeology of Cook Inlet,Alaska"(deLaguna 1975:
iii-xi)for more detailed information.
Reger (1978)has reported a multicomponent site located on Turnagain
Arm which has been named the Beluga Point Site.The site exhibits
six cultural components,which are:(1)a microblade bearing com-
ponent,(2)a stemmed point component,(3)a Kachemak III related
component,(4)a Norton related component,(5)a lanceolate point
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7.06-4
component,and (6)a level represented by a large scraper which
has been radiocarbon dated to 4,155 B.P.(Reger 1978:1).Based
on comparison with archeological materials from the Alaskan Inte-
rior,the microblade component,and possibly other components,
may be related to archeological materials from Interior Alaska.
SECTION 2:CULTURAL RES~URCES IN THE STUDY AREA
A review of literature directly related to the history and pre-
history of the study area as found in the Alaska Heritage Re-
source Survey and various published and unpublished reports
indicates that six prehistoric and thirteen historic sites have
been recorded within the study area.The apparent paucity of
sites in this area may be attributed to the fact that little
archeological research has been carried out in the study area,
although both Irving (1957)and Bacon (1978)have conducted limited
archeological surveys in the region.In surrounding areas where
archeological research has been more intensive,the number of sites
documented is considerably higher.In the eight (8)U.S.G.S.
quads surrounding the study area,630 historic and prehistoric
sites have been documented.
Sites in the study area and surrounding region can effectively be
organized into the chronologies outlined in the previous section.
More specific in terms of the Late Prehistoric Athapaskan and
Historic periods are activities related to trade prior to white
contact,early exploration,the fur trade industry,gold mining,
and the railroad.These activities would all have had an effect
on the location of historic and prehistoric sites within the study
area.
Because of the minimal quantity of data available on the cultural
resources within the study area,the reconnaissance and intensive
surveys developed for this study are of paramount importance in
identifying cultural resources and providing the appropriate
recommendations as required by law.
SECTION 3:AUTHORITY
As the Susitna Hydropower Project is a federally licensed project
for the State of Alaska,the legal framework and authority for
the consideration of cultural resources are spelled out in a
number of federal and state regulations.As early as 1906 the
Antiquities Act (P.L.59-209)directs the preservation of cultural
resources on public lands.The Historic Preservation Act of
1935 (P.L.74-292)requires the preservation of properties "of
national historical or archeological significance and authorizes
interagency,intergovernmental,and interdisciplinary efforts
for the preservation of such resources."The Reservoir Salvage
Act of 1960 (P.L.86-523)provides for the recovery and pre-
servation of "historical and archeological data"that might be
lost or destroyed as a result of the construction of federally
funded or licensed dams,reservoirs,and attendant facilities and
activities.This law was extensively amended in 1974.The Historic
Preservation Act of 1966 (P.L.89-665)declares it to be a national
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policy to preserve and protect historic and prehistoric sites~
buildings~and objects of natural significance.Continuing with
this policy the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L.
91-180)requires evaluation of the effects of major federal actions
on the environment including cultural resources.The Archeologic,al
and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (P.L.93-291)is an amend-
ment to the Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960.The 1974 Act provides
for the protection of historic and archeological sites
...which might otherwise be irreparably lost or de-
troyed as a result of (1)flooding~the building of
access roads~the erection of workmen's communities~
the relocation of railroads and highways~and other
alterations of terrain~caused by the construction
of a dam by any agency or (2)any alteration of the
terrain caused as a result of any federal construction
project or federally licensed activity or program
(Sec.1).
Section 7 of the Act authorizes that up to 1%of the total budget
of a federally funded or licensed project may be allocated for
archeological survey~recovery~analysis and publication.Exec-
utive Order 11593 directs all federal agencies to make an inventory
of historic and prehistoric properties under their control and to
nominate eligible properties to the National Register of Historic
Places~and to give priority inventory to federally owned prop-
erties to be transferred and/or altered.As the Army Corps of
Engineers are involved in this project at this point in the
negotiations~Army Regulation AR 200-1~Environmental Protection
and Enhancement (l975)~Chapter 8 --Historic Preservation~also
applies.This regulation is a general policy statement (8-4)of
the Department of the Army directing that cultural resources be
located~inventoried~evaluated and qualified sites be nominated
to the National Register of Historic Places.
The Alaska Historic Preservation Act of 1975 reflects the same
spirit concerning cultural resources as the above federal regul-
ations.It is the general policy of the State of Alaska that
before any construction or public improvement of any nature is
undertaken by the state~by a governmental agency of the state~or
by a private person under contract with or licensed by the state~
that the cultural resources must be considered.
SECTION 4:SCOPE OF WORK
The preceding section (entitled "Authorit y ll)clearly defines
what cultural resource preservation efforts are required by federal
and state law to satisfy licensing requirements for the Susitna
Hydropower Project.These tasks include at minimum:(1)Identifi-
cation and documentation of cultural resources within project areas~
(2)formulation and explication of recommendations for mitigation
for each historic or archeological site identified.However~it
is also recognized that the initial studies essential to meet
licensing requirements may have direct impact on cultural resources
which may pose immediate adverse effects.Examples of such
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7.06-6
activities are construction of camps to house study personnel,
test holes to locate proposed borrow areas,access roads to study
locales,etc.Any proposal to identify cultural resources and
make recommendations for preservation must be structured in such
a fashion as to permit mitigation of potential damage to archeo-
logical and historic sites during the course of the impact study.
If such mitigation procedures are not incorporated in to the proposed
action for historic preservation,needless delays and unnecessary
additional costs will be inevitable.This has been repeatedly
demonstrated in other large construction projects which have required
the identification and mitigation of cultural resources for licensing.
This proposal foresees this need and provides methods by which
these delays can be avoided.The proposed historic preservation
efforts should be conceptually divided into (1)the effort neces-
sary to obtain the license,(2)effort necessary to mitigate
possible adverse effects during the course of the study essential
to obtain the license,and (3)effort necessary to mitigate
damage to all historic and prehistoric sites that will be impacted
by the construction phase.
The University Museum will execute a five-step research effort
specifically tailored to satisfy both state and federal legislation
pertinent to cultural resources as necessary to satisfy licensing
requirements and to conduct the related studies also required for
licensing.
The five steps are:
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1)Step I
2)Step II
3)Step III
Essential prefield season tasks,literature re-
view,analysis of the data base,development of
a research design and sampling strategy.Re-
cruitement of personnel and staging for field work,
application for necessary permits.
Reconnaissance level archeological survey of
project areas based on priorities determined by
the sequence of construction events.The needs
of the specific study teams engaged to satisfy
licensing requirements will obtain highest
priority.It is impossible at this point to
project temporal and fiscal requirements for
mitigation efforts for adversely affected sites
during the course of pre-license studies.
Mitigation efforts,if required,will be con-
ducted on a cost reimbursable basis during this
step.
Intensive testing of archeological and historic
sites discovered during Step II.This testing
effort is essential to determine both the hor-
izontal and vertical dimensions of specific
sites,and to estimate reasonably accurately the
kinds of materials contained within them.This
information is necessary to delineate mitigation
measures for any sites potentially subject to
adverse effects.Step II tasks may continue
simultaneously with Step III activities.
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4)Step IV
5)Step V
7.06-7
Final report preparation.The final report will
at a minimum provide the location and description
of every archeological and historic site recorded
during the course of the study.It will also
provide recommendations for mitigating adverse
effects to sites which may be sUbject to dis-
turbance or destruction ,during construction
activities based upon th~data derived from
Steps II and III.
All recovered artifactual material and supporting
documentation will be deposited with the Univer-
sity of Alaska Museum and will be retained as
public information within the State of Alaska.
The collections and supporting documentation
will be curated in accordance with state and
federal requirements pertinent to the preservation
of antiquities .
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It is recognized that effective historic preservation efforts must
be coordinated with other aspects of the Susitna Hydropower Project.
The University Museum will make every reasonable attempt to antic-
ipate the needs of the project pertinent to cultural resources.
However~it will be the responsibility of the prime contractor
to coordinate between subcontractors and to provide the scheduling
information essential to successfully anticipate and to deal
effectively with these needs.
SECTION 5:DISCUSSION OF STEPS
STEP I --PREFIELD SEASON TASKS
Prior to initiating field investigations during the summer of
1980~the University of Alaska Museum will execute the following
tasks:
1)Apply for~and secure a Federal Antiquities Permit and
and state documents that may be necessary for the archeo-
logical portion of the project.(Office of Archeology
and Historic Preservation~Interagency Services Division~
National Park Service~U.S.Department of the Interior~
Washington~D.C.20240;State Archeologist's Office~
State of Alaska~Department of Natural Resources~State
Division of Parks~Anchorage~Alaska).
2)Conduct an exhaustive literature review of available
documents that pertain to the history~prehistory~
ethnography~geology~flora~fauna~and late Pleistocene
and Holocene geology of the areas covered by this project.
Museum staff will utilize the resources of the University
of Alaska Library and Archives~data files of the Univer-
sity Museum~and records at the State Office of History
and Archeology.Consultation with other professionals
who have worked in or have knowledge of the study area
will be utilized as necessary.
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3)The results of the literature search will be used to
synthesize the regional and local cultural chronology
of the study area as well as to provide the basis for
the research design .
4)Air photos of the study area will be examined and their
interpretation will focus on the identification of
probable areas containing cultural resources.
5)Known historic and archeological sites will be plotted
on 1:63,360 scale maps.Each resource will be specifi-
cally identified.A preliminary aerial reconnaissance
of the project area will be conducted.
6)Utilizing the information base produced by the above
research,a research design will be developed to in-
clude a sound professional sampling strategy specifically
designed for the unique needs of this project.
7)Following formulation of the research design and sampling
designs,the Principal Investigator and Project Super-
visor will recruit essential personnel for the field por-
tion of this project.
It is estimated that these pre field season tasks will take approx-
imately five months.Upon completion of the prefield tasks (Step
I),the necessary personnel and data base will be utilized for the
reconnaissance level survey (Step II),and for mitigation of
adverse effects on cultural resources which may possibly be affected
as a result of the licensing study.
STEP II --ARCHEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE
The purpose of this step is to identify,locate,and inventory
archeological and historic sites.These sites will later be
subject to more intensive study.As specified in 36 CFR 66 in the
Federal Register,Vol,42 No.19,a reconnaissance level survey
should be used only as a preliminary tool prior to intensive survey.
The information gathered during Step II of this project will form
the data base for intensive survey in Step III.
As it is not the intent of a reconnaissance level survey to cover
100%of the study area,preselected areas identified in the re-
search design (Step I)will be selected for survey.Within these
areas field crews will implement surface and subsurface testing
procedures in order to locate,document,and inventory historic
and prehistoric sites that may occur in the study area.This
site-specific data will be used to develop and direct Step III
studies.Aerial reconnaissance will also be conducted at the
preselected areas in order to enhance site location during Step
II.Available aerial photographs,as well as LANDSAT photos,
will be reviewed for all preselected areas in order to aid in
locating potential site areas.
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7.06-9
During Step II the darn impoundment areas and associated facilities
will be field surveyed.The proposed primary transmission route
will be field surveyed at a later date.
Based on both state and federal guidelines as discussed in an
earlier section,it is possible that preconstruction studies
may have an adverse impact on cultural resources.These include,
but are not limited to,the installation and operation of seismic
monitoring systems,the examination of foundation conditions for
access roads,geological and soil studies,clearing and surveying
'for access roads and transmission lines,borrow pit exploration
and testing,geophysical subsurface investigations,exploration
and testing for dam site locations,testing in association with
the construction of an a~rstrip,construction of access roads
into the study area,movement of heavy equipment into and within
the study area,or any other preconstruction activities that would
create subsurface disturbances and hence have the potential of
destroying cultural resources.
During Step II every effort will be made to work with other profes-
sionals involved in the Susitna Hydropower Project,to see that
an archeological survey is conducted early in each ground dis-
turbing activity so as to be compatible with the needs of other
portions of the project.If any archeological sites are found
during the course of the survey in areas slated for subsurface
disturbance during preconstruction activities,it will be neces-
sary to undertake immediate mitigating measures.
All archeological and historical sites that will be adversely
impacted by the licensing study for this project will be mitigated
in connection with the regulations of the Advisory Council on
Historic Preservation.These measures include avoidance,pre-
servation,and excavation.If excavation is recommended then it
will be necessary to deploy a crew to each site specified for
this procedure.As it is not known how many and how large these
sites might be,a line item for excavation cannot be included in
this proposal.Instead,it is proposed that if it should become
necessary to excavate any site that will be adversely impacted by
preconstruction studies,the cost of additional personnel and
equipment will be covered on a cost reimbursable basis.
STEP III --INTENSIVE SURVEY
Step III consists of intensive testing of sites located during the
reconnaissance survey (Step II)of the project.Grids will be
established at each site and a sampling scheme applied for testing.
Each square selected for test excavation will be systematically
excavated and all artifacts and features recorded,using standard
archeological field methods.Site maps and soil profiles will
also be prepared.Photographs will be taken to document artifacts
and features in situ as well as to document the site and its
location.Site limits will be delineated and data will be re-
covered for analysis and evaluation.Based on the analysis of this
material,National Register criteria will be applied to see if
the site is eligible for inclusion in the National Register of
7.06-10
Historic Places as specified in the federal regulations that apply
to this project.
Intensive testing will also provide the means for evaluating the
effects of the preconstruct ion and construction phases of the
Susitna Hydropower Project on cultural resources.Each site will
be evaluated and recommendations as to mitigating measures will
be made and incorporated into the final report.Field crews,
teams consisting of three archeologists,will focus Step III efforts
on the dam sites,impoundment areas,access roads,staging areas,
camps,borrow pits,and other potential ground disturbance areas.
STEP IV --ANALYSIS AND REPORT PREPARATION
This step is an integral part of each step of the project.It
entails compilation of the individual reports for the other
steps of the project as well as synthesizes all data recovered
and makes appropriate recommendations for mitigation,if necessary.
Step IV is specifically aimed at the final analysis of the project
in terms of sites located and documented during the other steps.
The final report will include the location,description,and a
mitigation recommendation for each site reported during Steps I,
II,and III.Step IV will include mitigation recommendations,
if necessary ,for the sites located,and an estimated budget
for any archeological excavation that must be done prior to the
start of actual construction of the Hydropower Project as specified
by federal and state regulations.The overall effectiveness of
the research design,field procedures,and analysis will be
discussed.A full-scale report,including sections on the veget-
ation,fauna,geology,history,prehistory,and native populations
will be part of the report.
As presently scheduled,the FERC license application will be
prepared prior to completion of the final cultural resources
report.The cultural resources section of the exhibit will there-
fore be based on the two annual interim reports.This will include
recommendations on as many sites as possible.Certain critical
information,such as radio-carbon determinations of samples
collected during 1981,as well as recommendations on other sites,
will be submitted to FERC in the first supplementary environmental
report.
STEP V
ATION
CURATION OF RECOVERED COLLECTIONS AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENT-
Curation of recovered artifactual material and associated contextual
data will be an ongoing program throughout the duration of the
project.With the University of Alaska Museum performing the
archeological investigations,there will be no packaging and ship-
ping costs to the designated repository or necessity to inventory
the incoming collection.All recovered material and supporting
documentation will be housed at the University of Alaska Museum and
curated in accordance with state and federal requirements pertinent
to the preservation of antiquities.
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SECTION 6:FORMULATION OF RESEARCH AND SAMPLING DESIGNS
RESEARCH DESIGN
The University of Alaska Museum will develop a research design that
will guide this research project and focus reconnaissance and in-
tensive survey toward specific areas that are slated for subsurface
disturbance.Research designs for field studies,such as the Susitna
Hydropower Project,must be carefully formulated in order that
research questions and management interests are taken into account
(Schiffer and Gumerman 1977).The purpose of the research design
is to explicate the methods and techniques for acquiring and
analyzing existing data and to predict the expected outcome of
the analysis (Goodyear et ala 1978).As a result,research
efficiency is improved by producing criteria for determining the
relevance of data and by evaluating criteria for assessing the
adequacy of inferences drawn from the data (Goodyear et ala 1978).
The research design will be carefully developed for this project
and will incorporate the following elements (modified from McGimsey
and Davis 1977:72-73):
1.Basis of archeological and anthropological perspective
governing research (theoretical basis).
2.Environmental,archeological,ethnographic,and ethno-
historic contents of the area (literature search).
3.Research goals and rationale (project parameters).
4.Research strategy including sampling method,sample size,
rationale for selection of sampling areas,data recovery
teChniques,analysis procedures,and dissemination of
research results (field methods and data manipulation).
The research design will be developed during Step I of this pro-
ject.It will then guide the 1980 and subsequent field programs.
Flexibility will be incorporated into the research design to meet
effectively the archeological and engineering needs during this
multi-year project.
SAMPLING DESIGN
In an archeological project that includes reconnaissance,intensive
survey,and excavation,it is necessary to develop a sampling design
that takes the needs of each phase into consideration.For the
reconnaissance level survey (Step II)it is necessary to develop
a means of obtaining representative and reliable data based on
research conducted in a limited but selected portion of the study
area.Valid probability statements can then be extrapolated from
the data collected to other parts of the study.
More intensive survey aimed at providing site specific information
(Step III)will require more thorough sampling aimed at determining
the size and nature of specific sites.Step III sampling will be
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implemented for all sites located in areas where preconstruct ion and/
or darn construction has the potential of causing an adverse impact
on cultural resources.As certain activities during the precon-
struction and construction phases of the Susitna Hydropower Project
have been identified as causing surface or subsurface disturbance
(see section entitled Step II),both state and rederal regulations
mandate that all historic and archeological sites be inventoried,
effects of the project on each site be determined,and any adverse
impact mitigated before these projects can proceed.If the appro-
priate mitigating measure is excavation,it is possible that a
third sampling scheme will be necessary if the entire site cannot
be excavated.
Although it may be necessary to develop three separate sampling
schemes for each of the above steps,it is possible at this stage
to examine features that would be applicable to all of them.A
number of sampling schemes are available for studies of this type.
A basic approach is simple random sampling,where units are chosen
at random from the sampling universe.While usually the easiest
approach,it is generally the least precise if any a priori data
are available about site distributions in the study-area (Read 1975).
Also,archeological research has shown that sites are not randomly
distributed on the landscape.Random sampling also presents the
possible drawback that units selected could (and often do)fall
within a very localized section of the study area.Furthermore,
one of the main criteria for simple random sampling is that all
units must be accessible.Because of the topography of the study
area,some areas have difficult access.Such difficult sampling
locales often escalate costs and reduce efficiency.The sampling
scheme that is most amenable to an archeological project of this
type is stratified sampling.
Stratified sampling is best suited for the study area because it
allows the integration of archeological data with historic,
ethnographic,geological,and ecological information to influence
the selection of survey locales.This is very essential to Step
II studies,but must be meshed with project constraints that iden-
tify areas which will be disturbed due to preconstruction or
construction related activities which prioritize locales within the
study area.Experiments show that stratified sampling is an accept-
ed population predictor (Mueller 1974).In stratified sampling
the research unit is subdivided on the basis of some prior know-
ledge (be it scientific or project oriented)into sampling units.
SamplinG units will be based on certain criteria.These include
but are not limited to:(1)temporal units based on current know-
ledge of the cultural chronology of interior Alaska,(2)the known
distribution of archeological site locations for specific time
periods,(3)site locational information gleaned from ethnographic
and historic literature,(4)temporally identified geologic units
which establish maximum and minimum limiting dates for human
occupation and land use within specific geographic locales,(5}
geological processes,and (6)an analysis of topography and ecology
(past and present)of the study area.Areas for survey can then
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be ranked and those areas eXhibiting the highest archeological
potential in locales slated for immediate subsurface disturbance
can be given highest priority for survey~and mitigation if neces-
sary.
KEY PERSONNEL
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR (PI)
The PI bears overall responsibility for the project including re-
search design~obtaining necessary permits~scheduling~crew
selection~prefield training~quality assurance~communication
with other professionals~data collection and analysis~report
preparation and editing~and curation of artifacts.He will have
overall responsibility for seeing that the project complies with
proposed scheduling~budgeting and all state and federal regulations
that apply to cultural resource management.It is expected that
due to administrative responsibilities the PI will not be avail-
able for long periods in the field during this portion of the
project.In this case~the PI will delegate responsibilities to
the Project Supervisor.
The PI for this project will be Dr.E.James Dixon~Jr.(Ph.D.~
Brown University~1979).Dr.Dixon is Curator of Archeology and
Assistant Professor at the University of Alaska Museum~Fairbanks~
and has over 12 years of archeological experience in the state.
He is a member in good standing of the Society of Professional
Archeologists (SOPA)and meets all the requirements for member-
ship in this organization.Dr.Dixon has published numerous
articles on Alaskan archeology and anthropology~has administered
several large archeological contracts~and has prepared compre-
hensive reports for them.Dr.Dixon possesses the necessary
archeology background and administrative experience to fulfill
the requirements of this project.
PROJECT SUPERVISOR (PS)
The Project Supervisor (PS)will have responsibility for directly
supervising all phases of the field work and analysis.He will
collaborate in designing the research~sampling strategy~and
personnel hiring~and will implement programs in the field.
Initial preparation of all reports will be the responsibility of
the PS.The PS will direct all field crews and act on behalf of
the PI in dealing with other project personnel.He will be res-
ponsible for all field equipment and supplies and will direct
field logistics.He will also be responsible for quality assurance
and safety in the field.It will be the responsibiltiy of the PS
to see that all data necessary for completion of the archeological
section of the Susitna Hydropower Proejct are collected in a manner
which meets professional standards.
The PS for this project will be Mr.George S.Smith (M.A.~Univer-
sity of Alaska~1978).Mr.Smith is a Research Associate in Arche-
ology~having been PI and PS on a number of large archeological
projects in remote coastal and interior areas of Alaska.He is
experienced and competent in research design?sampling strategy~
personnel management~supply~field logistics~data collection~
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7.06-14
analysis,and report preparation.He is also one of the leading
experts on zooarcheology in the state.
7.06-15
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alaska,Department of Natural Resources
1977 Resources Bibliography,Susitna River Basin.State
of Alaska Department of Natural Resources,Planning
and Research Section,Anchorage.
Alaska,Office
1973
of History and Archeology
Alaska Heritage Resource Survey Index.Alaska
Division of Parks,Department of Natural Resources,
Anchorage.
Alaska District,Corps of Engineers
1978 Plan of Study for Susitna Hydropower Feasibility
Analysis,Anchorage.
Anderson,D.O.
1968a A Stone Age Campsite at the Gateway to America.
Scientific American 218(6):24-33.
1968b Early Notched Points and
Western American Arctic.
of Alaska Museum,33 p.
Related Assemblages in the
Manuscript on file,University
Bacon,G.
1975
1978
Heritage Resources Along the Upper Susitna River.
Miscellaneous Publications History and Archeology,
.Series No.14,Alaska Division of Parks,Anchorage.
Archeology in the Upper Susitna River Basin.Report to
the Alaska District,Corps of Engineers.C6ntract
Number OACQ 85-78-0017.Manuscript on file,University
of Alaska Museum.
Cook,J.P.and R.A.McKennan
The Village Site at Healy Lake,Alaska.An Interim
Report.Paper presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of
the Society for American Archeology,Mexico City.
-
Dixon,E.J.,
1978
Dixon,E.J.,
1979
deLaguna,F.
1975
Jr.and D.C.Plasket
Archeological Survey and Testing of Cave Deposits Along
the Porcupine River,Alaska.Proposal submitted to the
National Geographic Society.Manuscript on file,Univ-
ersity of Alaska Museum.
Jr.,G.S.Smith and D.C.Plasket
Fort Wainwright Archeological Reconnaissance Research
Strategy.Manuscript on file,Univerity of Alaska Museum.
The Archeology of Cook Inlet,Alaska.Second Edition.
"Alaska Historical Society,Anchorage.
Dumond,D.E.
1978
7.06-16
The Eskimos and Aleuts.Thames and Hudson,London.
Goodyear,A.C. ,
1978
L.M.Raab and T.C.Klinger
The 'Status'of Archeological
Cultural Resource Management.
43(2):159-173.
Research Design in
American Antiquity
Hoeffecker,
1978
J.F.
The North Alaska Range Early Man Project.A Report
to the National Geographic Society and the National
Park Service on the Potential of the North Alaska
Range for Archeological Sites of Pleistocene Age.
Manuscript on file,University of Alaska Museum.
-
Holmes,C.E.
1975
Irving,W.N.
1957
1978
Krauss,M.E.
1973
McGimsey,C.R.
1977
Morlan,R.E.
1978
Mueller,J.W.
1975
Read,R.W.
1975
Reger,D.R,
1978
A Northern Athapaskan Environment System in Diachronic
Perspective.Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology
5(3-4):92-124.
An Archaeological Survey of the Susitna Valley.
Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 6(1).
Pleistocene Archeology in Eastern Beringia.In Early
Man.in America,Occasional Paper No.I,Department of
Anthropology,University of Alberta,Edmonton,pp.96-101.
Na-Dene.Current Trends in Linguistics 10(1):903-978.
and_H_.]i.Davis
The Management of Archeological Resources.The Airlie
Hoch Report Special Publication of the Society Ior
American Archeology.
Early Man in Northern Yukon Territory:Perspectives as
of 1977 ..In Early Man in America,Occasional Papers
No.1,Department of Anthropology,University of Alberta,
Edmonton.pp 78-95.
(edi tor)
Sampling in Archaeology.Univeristy of Arizona Press,
Tucson.
Regional Sampling.In Sampling in Archaeology,ed.by
J.W.Mueller.University of Arizona Press,Tucson.
1977 Excavations on the Beluga Point Site.Paper pre-
sented at the 5th Annual Anthropology Association Conference,
March 17-18,Anchorage.
7.06-17
Notes on the Paleoecology of the Northern Archaic
Tradition.Manuscript on file,University of Alaska
Museum,11 pp.
and G.J.Gurnerman (editors)
Conservation Archeology:A Guide for Cultural
Resource Management Studies.Academic Press,New York.-
-
Schiffer,M.B.
1977
Schwager,C.L.
n.d.
U.S.Bureau of
1952
Reclamation
Susitna River Basin:
development of water
Basin of Alaska.
A report on the potential
resources in the Susitna River
West,F.L.
1967
1973
Workman,W.B.
1977
The Donnelly Ridge Site and the'Definition of an Early
Core and Blade Complex in Central Alaska.American
Antiquity 32(3):350-382.
Old World Affinities of Archeological Complexes from
Tangle Lakes,Central Alaska.Manuscript of paper
read at the International Conference on the Bering Land
Bridge and Its Role for the History of Holarctic Floras
and Faunas in the Late Cenozoic.Khabarovsk.
New Data on the Radiocarbon Chronology of the Kachemak
Bay Sequence.Anthropological Papers of the University
of Alaska 18(2):31-36.
SUBTASK 7.07
LAND USE ANALYSIS
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7.07-1
INTRODUCTION
An assessment of the effects of particular land uses on a specific
environmental setting is not a simple one-for-one relationship.
When one disrupts an essentially pristine environment to develop
a modern hydroelectric project,such as the one proposed for the
upper Susitna River basin,many environmental disruptions can
occur.Some of these disruptions are easily predictable.However,
others may occur which are not as predictable because there are
few,or no previous experiences,on which the experts can rely.
One then begins to rely on theoretical models,integration tech-
niques,and other technological thought to give a "best judgement"
as to what might take place if certain proposed actions (dam
building,transmission lines,roads,etc.)are implemented (Cooley
1967).Land use analysis is one way of obtaining an overview of
the systematic effects of a proposed development;the specific
details of the project are then filled in by the specialists on the
team (Davis 1976).This land use analysis will evaluate the
effects of the proposed project and will provide the basis for an
integral part of the Exhibit E to be submitted to FERC,as well as
the supplementary environmental reports~
APPROACH
The approach is basically a comparision of land use trends to
determine the major effects the project will have on the future
land use of the area,and employs a modification of the McHarg
Overlay Technique (McHarg 1969).The historical land use trends
will be analyzed,the present land use of the project area will
be examined,and an attempt will be made to isolate the factors
and management decisions that have resulted in the land use that
exists.The future land use of the area without the project will
be predicted on the basis of interviews with land owners,land
managers and resource agencies,and a consideration of the resource
potentials and limitations.Unique and significant scenic and
natural features of the area will be identified for consideration
during the impact analysis.The projections of the changes that
will result from the project will be made as a result of the col-
lective "best judgement"of the research team.
DISCUSSION
Dr.Alan Jubenville will serve as the Principal Investigator for
this subtask.He will be responsible for the development of the
study plan,agency coordination,analysis of results,and assess-
ment of land use changes caused by the proposed project.In
addition to his expertise in recreation planning,Dr.Jubenville
is eminently qualified to undertake this analysis.
This land use analysis will evaluate present and future land use
trends to predict the land use changes that would occur in the study
area as a result of the development of the proposed project,and
will evaluate the significance of these changes.The steps that
will be included in this evaluation follow.
,....
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7.07-2
'The first step in the land use analysis will be the identification of
the project area boundaries.These boundaries will include adjacent
lands that will be affected or influenced by the project,as well as
access roads and transmission corridors when th~routes for these
facilities have been identified.The downstream effects will also
be considered in the overall land use ana)ysis.The boundaries will
be refined as updated and more detailed information is made available.
An understanding of the historical land use trends is necessary to
isolate the factors and management decisions that have resulted
in the present land use patterns.This understanding will be
developed through a review of the University Archives materials,
additional published sources,and interviews with agency and native
leaders.All important leads that are obtained will be followed
up.In this type of situation,it is difficult to determine
which information is important until each item has been thoroughly
researched.Thus,while the past trends in land use are relatively
stable,and may not show the dynamic changes typical of,say,the
California coast,cyclic changes certainly have taken place.
A complete description of the present land use will be developed.
A base map and photo file will be developed along with a narrative
description.The present land use will be described in terms of
land ownership and the extent of present uses such as forest
land,recreation,wildlife,developed uses,etc.As much as possible,
this description will include a discussion of the planning efforts
and management decisions that have resulted in the present utiliz-
ation of the land.
To predict the future land use without the project,area lands
will be evaluated in terms of resource potentials and limitations
for alternative uses.This evaluation will be accomplished in
relation to other expected changes that are predicted to occur within
the area;such as,changes in land ownership,access,etc.The
major landowners and land managers will be interviewed to discuss
their future plans for the area.The anticipated changes that are
predicted by the landowners and managers,as well as other agencies,
will provide insight into the most probable future of the land.
Since the area ~s essentially untouched by man,it is extremely
important to identify unique scenic and natural areas so that they
can be considered in the assessment of impacts caused by the project.
Base map and aerial photo surveys will be done based on known or
suspected scenic/unique natural features.Those features that pass
an initial screening will be reviewed on site to describe the feature,
its significance,and the total area involved.
The significant land uses that have been identified during the
previous steps will be examined during field reconnaissance visits
to the area.Particular attention will be given to the land areas
that have been significantly influenced by white man.The intent
is to determine what lasting effects particular local changes in
the landscape (such as a mining operation,logging,community develop-
ment,etc.)have had on the environmental setting.This,coupled
with data collected by project specialists,will aid in the assess-
ment of overall impacts.All field data will be collected using
standarized forms.
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7.07-3
The above steps will result in a description of the present land
use,a description of the most probable future land use of the area
without the proposed project and an identification of unique scenic/
natural areas.In this step all the data that has been generated
will be assimilated and a "best judgement"of the impacts will be
projected.The changes that will be attributable to the project
in the future,and the significance of these changes,cannot be
evaluated without consideration of the changes that would occur
without the project.The evaluation process is illustrated below:
1.Proposition A (Change from present land use)
Area land use with project
(minus)Area land use without project
2.
(equals)Overall change caused by project
Proposition B (Future land use without project)
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Future land use (based on long-term trends)
(minus)Present land use
(equals)Future change without project
3.Proposition C (The real change caused by project)
Overall change caused by project
(minus)Future change without project
(equals)Actual change caused by project
Once the impacts are identified,the magnitude,duration and
significance of the impacts will be evaluated and discussed.The
impacts will be assessed for both the construction and operation
phases of the project.A discussion of measures that could be
used to mitigate the adverse effects will also be provided.
LITERATURE CITED
Cooley,R.A.1967.Alaska:A Challenge in Conservation,
Madison:University of Wisconsin Press.
Davis,D.P.1976.Land Use,New York:McGraw-Hill.
McHarg,I.L.1969.Design With Nature,Garden City,N.Y .
The Natural History Press.
SUBTASK 7.08
RECREATION PLANS
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INTRODUCTION
There may be some controversy generated by the proposed Susitna
Hydroelectric Project,but few people know th~area intimately
and can speak with authority on the potentials or limitations of
the area for other uses.It is relatively isolated yet close to
the greater Anchorage area (nearly 60%of the state's population)
and only 3/4 of a day's driving time from Fairbanks.When con-
sidering hydroelectric development,other uses of the area must
also be considered to maximize the potentials of the area.
This subtask offers a mechanism for providing recreational oppor-
tunities at the proposed project.This will be an important
element in the evaluation of the project since the recreational
use of the area will affect many of the environmental impacts
associated with the project,including socio-economics,fisheries,
wildlife,and land use.The level of recreational development
and the use generated by the provision of public facilities will
be important considerations in the determination of these impacts.
Most recreation planning decisions relate to the development of
access to the area;consequently,the access road,types of facil-
ities,and level of development are critical decisions in encouraging
specific types of recreational opportunities and levels of develop-
ment.This proposal is based on the theorem that recreation plan-
ning,while controlling development and minimizing impacts,is
done for a more important reason -controlling the experience norms
to be offered.As stated by Christiansen (1977,p.23),"This
requires a comparable control to the established norm for all the
supportive services -maintenance,supervision,programming,safety,
security,operations,...-necessary to sustain the predetermined
(recreational experience)norm."
OBJECTIVE
The objective is to prepare a detailed plan that will optimize
public recreational use of the project lands and water,in a manner
that will:
(1)provide the activities and levels of development that
will maximize the quality of the recreation experience;
(2)balance the development of facilities with the carrying
capacity of the natural resources to minimize impacts;
(3)be consistent with planning guidelines and objectives
of the managing agencies;and
(4)maximize compatibility with the proposed operation of
the project and other public uses of the land.
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APPROACH
The basic approach is to develop a master area plan based on the
perceptions of the pUblic,the limitations of the resource,and
the planning gUidelines of the managing agencies.The planning
effort can be divided into a series of steps:(1)literature
review (complete review of pertinent periodicals and texts,and
agency publications relating to Alaska,including the Statewide
Comprehensive Outdoor Recreational Plan),(2)mail questionnaire
(on the perception of Alaskans to varying levels of development),
(3)field assessment of resource potential for recreational use
(using the Criteria for Evaluating Quality of Recreation Lands,
presented in Addendum B),(4)development and evaluation of concept
plans (to meet specific objectives)(Footnote 1),(5)selection of
master area plan,and (6)final review and pUblishing of report
(all affected agencies will be given an opportunity to respond).
An overview of the process is shown in Exhibit 1.
1.For a discussion on concept plans,see Christansen,M.1977.
Park Planning Handbook.New York:John Wiley &Sons,Inc.
p.44-53.
7.08-3
Exhibit 1:Synopsis of Recreation Plan Proposed
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Step I:
Step II:
Literature Review
a.Reservoir planning and management.
b.River recreation.
c.Area planning guidelines.
d.Alaska documents (recreational use).
e.Susitna Valley references (popular and technical).
Mail Questionnaire
a.2,000 Greater Anchorage and Fairbanks residents.
b.Measure perceptions of experience norms,and
aggregate participation relative to these norms
(Addendum A).
c.Measure perceptions of desired management and
visitor service levels.
-
Step III:Assessment of Resource Potential for Recreation
a.Zone the Project area,for activities appropriate
to the general resource capability,level of access,
and anticipated management problems,such as natural
hazards (Jubenville 1976,p.225).
b.Assess resource suitability for specific activities
within these zones,using the Criteria for Evaluating
Quality of Recreation Lands developed by Region
9,U.8.Forest Service (Addendum B).
c.Detailed feasibility studies of the better sites
identified in III.b.
d.Rank-ordering of potential sites for specific
activities.
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Step IV:
Step V:
Step VI:
Concept Plan
a.Design goals and objectives
b.Develop concept plans to meet the goals and
objectives and related criteria .
Master Area Plan
a.Evaluate concept plans.
b.Select the best concept.
c.Develop needed support facilities.
d.Assess level of agency management.
Final Review and PUblishing
a.Jury the final results.
b.Adjust and publish plan.
.....
7.08-4
SCOPE OF WORK
LITERATURE REVIEW
An extensive literature review will be conducted to identify and
make use of existing pertinent information and data.This liter-
ature search will include a complete review of the appropriate
periodicals and texts,as well as agency publications related to
Alaska,including the Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation
Plan.The review will examine the existing literature on reservoir
planning in relation to recreation,river recreation,supply-
demand modeling,systematic approaches to recreation program
planning,and agency publications on participation patterns,
changing socioeconomic factors,and user perceptions of specific
recreational experiences.
PROJECTION OF RECREATIONAL USE
It will be necessary to predict:the initial and future recreational
use that can be expected to occur at the facilities that are
provided as a part of this project.Forecasting is at best a
hazardous enterprise,but predicting the levels of participation
in various recreational activities is an essential ingredient in
recreational planning.The types and numbers of facilities to
be provided and the appropriate level of management cannot be
determined without an estimate of predicted use.
The projections of participation are made more difficult in this
case by the size of the area,the limitation of similar opportunities
within the region,and minimal past use data.The uniqueness of
the area and lack of available data preclude the use of many methods
of projecting participation and suggests the use of the "judgement"
method (Clawson and Knetsch 1966).To predict initial and future
use of the facilities,all available data related to historical,
present,and projected use trends will be analyzed.Indicators
and basic causal factors,such as trends in population,income,
leisure and mobility,will be evaluated.The prime potential market
areas of Anchorage,and secondarily,Fairbanks will be given partic-
ular consideration.
QUESTIONNAIRE
A mail questionnaire will be sent to 2000 Anchorage-Fairbanks
residents to assess their perceptions of the appropriate levels
of recreational development at the proposed reservoirs and their
willingness to participate at those levels of development.The
questionnaire will be designed to determine the combination of
access and facilities (based on descriptions)that people would
respond to best,in terms of indicating a willingness to partic-
ipate.This will provide an aggregate estimation of participation,
in various activities,based on varying levels of recreational
development.This will also give an indication of how to maximize
total recreational use,realizing that the optimum solution is
balancing this use with the capability of the resource to sustain
such use over time.
ASSESSMENT OF RESOURCE POTENTIAL FOR RECREATION
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7.08-5
The Principal Investigator has designed and successfully utilized
similar questionnaires in the past.However,realizing the im-
portance of the questionnaire,the design of the queBtionnaire
will be critically reviewed and be pretested prior to distribution.
Dr.Michael Chubb,a noted researcher and planner on water-based
recreation projects,will critique the questionnaire design,as
well as assist in the concept plan selection.
The number of questionnaires to be distributed-was determined,based
on a desired level of accuracy and an assumed rate of response.
The mailing will be divided between Anchorage and Fairbanks in
proportion to population.One fOllow-up is planned and a second
will be used if necessary.Since Fairbanks will be receiving
fewer questionnaires,an additional mailing may be required if the
desired number of responses is not received after the follow-ups.
/'C'./~~The potential of a given parcel of land for recreational use is .(!
directly related to the benefits that people can derive from V j
using it.The potentials are determined not only by the setting \t
and natural attributes of the site,but also by the capability
of the site to withstand use.Both of these considerations will
be used in the evaluation of the potentials.
An initial evaluation of the project area will be completed in
the lab,using vertical aerial photography to isolate suitable
areas and potential sites.The project lands will be evaluated on
the basis of the general resource capabilities,levels of access,
and anticipated management problems such as natural hazards /~I
(Jubenville 1976).This initial evaluation will determine the ,
zones that have the greatest potential for development.Selected ~
potential sites,visitor attractions and related management concerns \f.
will be located on a base map and evaluated during an initial ,~
field reconnaissance.The summer field seasons will be spent i{
assessing the potential for providing specific opportunities both ;~~
water and land-based,and the inherent limitations of the sites.\
Standardized criteria will be utilized to eliminate personal bias
in the field site evaluation process.The standardized criteria
will be based upon evaluation criteria that were developed by the
U.S.Forest Service (Region 9),but will be modified to more
appropriately fit this particular situation.(A summary of the
criteria developed by Region 9 U.s.Forest Service has been in-
cluded in Addendum B).Those sites that are identified as having
the greatest potential will be further evaluated in the field to
determine their feasibility in terms of providing specific exper-
iences,site durability,safety hazards and related impacts.The
final result of the assessment of resource potential will be a
rank-ordering of the potential sites for specific activities.
CONCEPT PLANS
Prior to the formation of the concept plans,the information that
has been gathered and generated during the planning process (in-
cluding information from other disciplines)will be evaluated and
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7.08-6
synthesized to establish the program goals and objectives.This
will include participation rates,user perceptions,agency goals
(Federal,State,and local),key values (attractors),etc.Once
the program objectives (activities,experience levels,and necessary
site and facility development)are established,three distinctly
different concept plans will be developed that at least minimally
meet those objectives.These concept plans will then be evaluated
and a Master Area Plan will be developed.
MASTER AREA PLAN
The concept plans will be evaluated according to the following
criteria:
(1)
(2 )-C'(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
How well they meet program objectives.
Suitability/feasibility site studies.
Future management problems.
Estimated cost of maintenance and operations.
Impact of recreational use on other key values,e.g.
soils stability,wildlife populations,etc.
Compatibility with the normal maintenance and operations
of the hydroelectric project and other land uses.
A trade-off table will be developed showing how each of the concept
plans were rated on each criterion.After this a panel of experts
(agency and consultants)will be asked to critique the evaluation
of the variables.Adjustments will then be made,and the final
plan will be selected that best meets the criteria (Jubenville 1976,
1978;Rutledge 1971).
The final Master Area Plan will include map(s)showing the location
of the project lands and waters that will be developed for recre-
ational uses,initially and in the future.It will identify the
location,type,and number of the various recreational facilities
planned,initially and in the future.The predictions of recre-
ational use of the facilities will be discussed.The management
responsibilities of the various facilities will be described
and a schedule of recreational development and cost estimates
will also be included.
This Master Area Plan is designed in accordance with the require-
ments of Exhibit R of a FERC license application,under existing
gUidelines.Modifications,if needed,can be made to conform with
the upcoming revision of FERC requirements.The development of
the plan is scheduled to begin in Phase I and to be completed in
Phase II,after detailed design specifications and operational in-
formation is available.
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7.08-7
LITERATURE CITED
Christiansen,M.L.1977.Park Planning Handbook.
New York;John Wiley and Sons.
Clawson,M.,and J.L.Knetsch.1966.Economics of
Outdoor Recreation.Baltimore;Johns Hopkins Press.
Jubenville,A.1976.Outdoor Recreation Planning.
Philadelphia;W.B.Saunders.
Jubenville,A.1978.Outdoor Recreation Management.
Philadelphia;W.B.Saunders.
Rutledge,A.J.1971.Anatomy of a Park.New York;
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Way,D.S.1973.Terrain Analysis.Stroudsburg,PA;
Dowden,Hutchinson &Ross,Inc.
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ADDENDUM A
Table 2.7
Recreation experience and environmental modication norms
for resou rce-oriented activities a
7·08-8
-
Experiencel
Development
level
1
Primitive
2
Secondary
Primitive
Recreation Expenence
Norm
Primary interest is the
feeling of achievement,
sense of adventure and
challenge to the
elements.Small group
participation develops
comaraderie.Fine
opportunities for
solitude.Some activities
may require a high level
of outdoor skills at this
level.Outside
distractions or influences
often very displeasing.
Feeling of
accomplishment is
important but physical
stamina is not essential.
Several small groups may
socialize briefly,then
separate for the majority
of the experience.Some
activities may require a
moderate level of
outdoor skills.Outside
influences tolerated.
Elivi ronmen tal
Modication Norm
Natural primitive
environment is dominant.
Minimum site
modification.Rustic
rudimentary.
improvements designed
for protection of the site
rather than comfort of
the users.Use of
indigenous materials
preferred.Water
provided by participant.
Sanitation provisions
spartan.Site maintenance
by participants.Minimum
controls are subtle.No
obvious means of
regimenMtion.Spacing
informal and extended to
minimize contacts with
others.Motorized access
not provided or
permitted.
Natural environment is
dominant.little site
modification.Rustic or
rudimentary
improvements designed
for protection of the site
rather than comfort of
the users.Use of
synthetic materials
avoided.Water and
sanitation provisions
developed but simple.
Site and facility
maintenance provided at
least seasonally.
Minimum controls are
subtle.little ohvious
regimentation.Spacing
iniormal and extended to
minimize contacts with
others.Motorized access
provided or permitted.
Primary access over
primitive roads.
Christ~ansen 1971
Table 2.1 (Continued)
7.08-9
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hperienre !
Development
Level
3
Intermediate
4
Secondary
Modern
Recreation l'xp<:>rience
I\:orm
A ta.,te of adventure is
important,but a ~ense of
security is present.
Considerations for
convenience and comfort
accepted.Some activities
may require?moderate
level of outdoor skills.
Outside influences
accepted.
Experience provides
change of routine and
surroundings.Apr~rent
opportunities for
socializing with others.
Provisions for
convenience and comfort
expected.Willing to pay
for extras.May rely on
program services for
entertainment as much as
exposure to the
environment.Outside
influences present but
not regarded as
incongruous.
lnvironmental
Environ ment {;'ssentially
natural.Site modiiic.llioll
moderate.facilitil's about
equally for protection of
site and cOlllior\of users.
Design of improvelllents
is usually based on use of
nath"e materials with
contemporary
conservation techniques.
Woller and canitation
provisions adequate and
rt;'gularly mainiained.
rncon SpiCllOUS veh iculJr
trahk controls l'",lIaHv
pro·,·ided.Roae's may be
hard suriaced and tr.3ib
formalized.Primary
access 10 sill.'Ill<ly bE'over
high slanc!;lJd well
traveled roads.Vbitor
information services.if
available j.,infor;"al and
incidental.Security
patrols may he madE:
periodically.
Environment pleasing bUI
necessuily natural.Site
heavily modified.Some
facilities designed strictly
for comiort .md
convenience oi llser~bUI
luxury facilities not
provided.Facility dl'signs
may tend toward and
incorporate synthetic
materials.Extensive lise
of artificial surfJcing oj
roads and trails.
Vehicular traffic controls
presenl and usually
obvious.Primary acCl!SS
USUJlly over paved rodds.
Table 2.1 (Continued)
7.08-10
Experiencei'
Development
level
5
Modern
Recreation Experience
Norm
Pleasing environment
attractive to the tou rist,
the novice or highly
gregarious recreationist.
Opportunity to socialize
with others very
important.Satisfies need
for compensation
experiences.Obvious to
user that he is in secure
situation where ample
provision is made for his
personal comfort.Expects
to be entertained by
program services;does
not expect to find own
amusement.Outside
influences considered
part of the show.
Environmental
Modification Norm
Plant materials usually
native.Visitor
information services
frequently availabre.
Maintenance <lnd security
checks regular and
periodic.Some
programming services
provided.
High degree of site
modication.Facilities
mostly designed for
comfort and convenience
of users include flush
toilets;may include
showers,bath houses,
laundry facilities,and
electrical hookups.
Synthetic materials
commonly used.Formal
warks or su rfaccd trails.
Regimentation of users is
obvious.Access usually
by high speed highways.
Plant materiais may be
foreign to the
environment.Formal
visitor information
services usually available.
Designs formalized and
architecture may be
contemporary.Mowed
lawns and clipped shrubs
not unusual.
Maintenance and security
forces usually visible.
High degree of
programming services .
,.,...
..Adapted from "Recreation Experience levels"from U.S.Department of
Agriculture,Forest Service Manual,233U.5-3 and "National Fore<;!Camp and
Picnic Site levels of EnvironmentJI Modification and Recreation Experiences"
from Forest Service Manual,2331.11c-3.
ADDENDUM B
SELECTION D
CRITERIA FOR
EVALUATING QUALITY
OF RECREATION LANDS*
Occupancy and Observation Sites
A.Attraction.Water attractions will include lakes,impoundments,
major streams,cascades,and scenic rapids.Slow sluggish streams and
small springs would be considered poor attractions.Land features would
include unusual scenic views,outstanding timber stands or groves,histori-
cal areas,archeological areas,geological areas such as caves and rock
formations,botanical areas with rare plant life,or zoological areas having
unusual animal life.In some cases the attraction will be a combination of
both land and water features.
The attraction must be within reasonable distance of the poten tial site.
Usually this will mean about 700 feet for occupancy sites exclusive of
waterfront or buffer zones.On those forests where suitable national forest
land under the above specification will not be available to meet the pro-
jected demand,it will be necessary to consider lands up to one half mile or
more from an attraction.Certain sites might be very attractive which may
serve as a base from which fishing,swimming,or boating can be enjoyed on
one or more nearby lakes or streams.Opportunity to hike along trails to
observe some interesting scenery,or to enjoy historical,geological or other
features,would enhance the attractiveness of such sites.
Both water and land features on a combined scale will be used for
rating the attraction.The area limitations of 10 acres more or less for a lake
·Deve1op.:d by Region 9.U.S.Forest Service.
Source:Jubenville 1976,pp.351-365.
7.08-11
PLANNING INFORMATION PORTFOLIO
or reservoir shown on U.S.Forest Service Form 17,will not be a factor in
this region.As a guide for our purposes,the water attractions should be
rated as follows:
Lake or reservoir,two or more recreational uses such as swimming,fishing,and boating
possible.I
Fast flowing rivers and other major nonpolluted streams.2
Waterfalls,cascades,sizable springs,or small live streams.3
Slow moving rivers,reservoirs,and lakes which because of size.heavy weed growth,or
shallow waters are suitable only for fishing and/or waterfowl hunting.4
Bog lakes,polluted rivers,and streams which can be made productive.5
As on Form 17.6
The rating items for land features shown under A-2 wi1l be used as
Jisted.Examples of unusual scenery might inclllde areas along the Great
Lakes,views overlooking several lakes,or scenic stretches of rivers.
Examples of other outstanding features might include certain historical
sites such as the Bay Furnace,old forts,trading posts,etc;archeological
areas such as painted rocks,Indian mounds,and exceptional big game,
bird,or waterfowl hunting areas.Parks or meadows in the second item are
confined to the West.Here we will consider exceptional groves or timber
stands,and other pleasing views,vistas,or features that are uncommon but
not necessarily outstanding.On a combined rating scale the minimum
acceptable attraction would have a rating of 8.Quality prescriptions would
be as follows:
7.07-12
-I
Fair attraction
Good alii raction
Outstanding attraction
Minimum Accep/ilble Condl/ions
7-8 Slow rivers and lakes suitable only for fishing or
waterfowl hunting w/o scenic land features,or bog
lakes,polluted streams w!common scenery.
5-6 Waterfalls,cascades,small scenic streams w!common
scenery.Fast flowing major stream w/o scenic features.
1-4 Lake or reservoir suitable for 2 recreation uses
w/common scenery.or unusual scenery w/smalJ live
stream or cascades.
B.Climatic Relief.Most of the forest areas of the region have an
agreeable climate during the summer season,more so than nearby popula-
tion centers.These areas,therefore,afford a good degree of cI imatic relief.
The ratings as shown on the work plan and on U.S.Forest Service
Form 17 will be used.The minimum acceptable rating for this criterion
will be a 4.Quality prescriptions will be as follows:
C.Forest Environment.Environment means the general surroundings
-
-
Fair
Good
Outstanding
4
3
1-2
Minimum Accep/ilble COfldi/wns
0-50
6-10"
1l_15°
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RECREATION LANDS
and "atmosphere"of the site.It is affected by physical conditions in and
around it.Environment is not measurable in precise terms,but it can be
expressed in relative terms.The order of desirability as shown on th~
inventory Form 17 will be used.Interpretation will depend upon the skill of
the examiner.
To assist in rating this criterion,a hypothetical set of conditions are
presented here:
Grade I The site is relatively undisturbed,the timber is fairly uniform in character,
mostly of large poles to saw timber size,not necessarily a closed stand.Very
little evidence of recent logging present.The site is not within sight and sound
ofa noisy highway,nearby commercial enterprise such as a gas station,resort.
tavern or farm.Very little erosion evident.Wildlife species varied but not
necessarily abundant.
Grade 2 The timber stand would be generally similar to above.Minor detractions might
include proximity to a main highway with fairly heavy traffic the noise of which
is audible,or evidence oflastloggingjob present inthe form of small scattered
and half rotted tops on the ground,ora group ofsummerhomes is present near
by.
Grade 3 The timber is scattered or patchy or a very young age class.Some evidence of
recent partial cut is present.Crop.land pasture,or private development bound
one side of the site.
Grade 4 Serious detractions might include:the surrounding area has just been subjected
to a heavy cut of timber with a poorly stocked residual stand,orthe site is sma'll
and is surrounded by crop land,pasture,or other private development,or the
site is open and without cover but is otherwise suitable.
Grade 5 In this class would be included areas that in their present state are not accept-
able for recreation use,but with correction of the conditions would be.Exam-
ples of such situations might include sites that are low,poorly drained,shallow
swamp areas which can be made usable by drdinage or ru ling;sites whe re most
of the ground area is covered with poison ivy;or sites subject to sand blows.
which can be stabilized by establishment of ground cover.
Grade 6 An example ofan unacceptable area would be one that is subject to flooding due
to frequent fluctuation of water levels during the use season and where correc-
tion of the situation is not possible.
The minimum acceptable rating for this criterion will be 5.Quality
prescriptions will be as follows:
7.08-13
Fair
Good
Outstanding
4-5
3
1-2
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
Unacceptable but correction feasible.
Detractions substantial.
Well preserved w/minor detractions.
D.Terrain.Picnicking probably is the least demanding occupancy use
insofar as terrain is concerned.In many cases the terrain can be modified to
make it usable for occupancy use.It is considered that slopes of over 30%
are generally unsuitable for occupancy development.
Terrain usually will not be a limiting factor in rating observation sites,
as many of these sites will be small,inVOlving only minor developments,
and may be accessible only by foot trail.However,terrain is an important
factor where parking,picnic,and sanitary facilities will be necessary in
PLANNING INFOHMATION I'OHTFOLJO
connection with observation sites.This criterion should be rated for obser-
vation sites in the same manner as for occupancy use.
The minimum acceptable rating will be 3.Quality prescriptions will
be as follows:
7.08-14
Fair
Good
Outstanding
3
2
1
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
20-30%slope.
10-20%slope.
0-10%slope.
E.Soil.Fertility ~this term is intended to express the relative difficulty
of establishing or retaining the vegetative cover.The type of soil,aspect,
and topography all have an influence on fertility.For the purpose of this
survey,the following classification of fertility has been made:
Good Medium to well drained silts,sandy clay and clay learns.heavy clay and muck
soils.
Fair Gravelly and sandy loams,moist but well drained sands.
Poor Dry sands,gravels,rock,and eroded soils.
Stability-this term means the resistance of the soil to damage
by erosion or compaction as a result of use.Steepness and length of
slope,kind of soil,amount of cover are all factors that affect stability.
The following conditions describe the various ratings for this term:
Good Not more than 3%slope.Length of slope not more than 100 feet.The soil
is sandy clay or clay loam,heavy clay,or rock.
Fair Slope less than 3%but over 100 feet long.Slopes over 3%but not more than
10%and not over 200 feet in length.The soil is sand or gravelly loam,or
heavy sand.
Poor Slopes arc not over 10%but more than 200 feet Jong,and all slopes over 10%.
The soil is silt,fine sand,or severely eroded.
Depth -the depth of soil affects the supply of water and nutrients to
plants as well as the ability of the forest to withstand winds.In this part of
the region the depth of soil will refer to distance to bed rock or the water
table.This factor wiI1 be rated as follows:
Good
Fair
Poor
Soils more than three feet deep.
Soils between one and three feet deep.
Less than one foot deep.
Permeability -this term in intended to express the ability ofthesoiI to
absorb or to allow water to percolate through it.The texture of the soil has
a direct bearing on this capacity.The coarser the soil,the greater the
permeability.For the purpose of the survey,the soils will be classed as
follows:
Good Sands,gravel,gravelly or sandy loam.
Fair Stony Joam,clay and silt loam.
Poor Heavy clay,or silt.Soil compacted as a result of heavy use such as logging.
Fair
Good
Outstanding
r-
I
I
I
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RECREATION LANDS
Damp,poorly drained,bog or swamp-The soil would not be given
this classification unless most of the site would fan into this class.
Extensive rock exposures,ledges.etc.-extensive rock exposures
may make it prohibitive to develop a potential area for occupancy.
Development may be limited to a small picnic area.If the potential site can
be developed for $3,000.00 per development acre or less,then it can be
considered as feasible.In situations such as this,give this factor an arbi-
trary rating of 3.
The minimum acceptable rating for the soil criterion will be 3.Quality
prescriptions will be as follows:
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
3 Fair fertility,stability,permeability;thin.
2 Good stability;fair fertility,permeability and
depth.
Good fertility,stability,permeability;fair
depth.
F.Shade or Sheller.High shade in this criterion means shade from
trees over 30 feet in height.Low shade is from trees 30 feet or less in
height.When the canopy is composed of both high and low shade,rate it
on the basis of that which is in greatest proportion.Seven conditions of
shade are recognized in order of desirability.No rating will be done on the
basis of a direct shelter or constructed basis.This is for certain western
conditions.
The inventory does not provide for consideration of the composition
of the canopy providing the shade.It is felt that this should receive
consideration.Four sets of canopy conditions have been set up which are
added to Form 17.Briefly,the conditions in order ofquality are described
as follows:
Thrifty mature stands of northem hardwoods,hemlock,pine types,and various mixtures
of these.
Pole rypes would be the same as above,including paper birch,thrifty aspen,and spruce
fir below small sawlog size.
OVermGlUre hardwoods,overmatclre spruce fir;mature aspen.These would include
the overmature,decadent.hollow,unthrifty hardwood and spruce fir stands where
more than a fairly high danger exists from windfall breakage and snow damage,along
with mature aspen.
Saplings and undesirable species would include young stands less than thirty feet high.
Very unthrifty.overmature,and off-site aspen,open fulds that are !xing taken over by
scrub oak,cherry,aspen,etc.,and open areas where planting is necessary.
Form 18 for this criterion has been ~mended to include the composition
rating.It will be scored along with the shade factor.The minimum acceptable
rating will be a 4.The quality prescriptions will be as follows:
·7.08-15
Outstanding
Good
I
2
ltfinimum Acceptable Conditions
High shade 50-100%;pole types.
Low shade 25-50%;pole types.High shade
25-50%;overmature,aspen.High shade
10-25%;thrifty mature fir.
Fair
PLANNING INFORMATION PORTFOLIO
3-4 High and low shllde less than 10%w/sapling
or undesirable hardwood or open areas.
7'.08-16
G.Cover (Compositioll and Density).The term "cover"as used here
includes the vegetation below the shade producing level.It includes the
grasses,shrubs,and reproduction.This type of cover serves to protect the
site from erosion,provide screening,and may contribute to its general
beauty.It also may have a bearing on the cost of site development and
maintenance.
It is difficult to define exact conditions of composition and density of
this low cover.It means having the right amount of a desirable mixture
ofspecies that willprovide enough screening belll'eenfamily units or 011 the
buffer strip around the area,and still allow for adequate circulation of
air.The presence of flowering shrubs would add to the general beauty
of the site.On the other hand,too dense a stand of desirable species of
reproduction in the form of a thicket all over the site would be unde-
sirable.
The fonowing are broad guides which may be of assistance in rating
this criterion:
Composition
Excel/ent-The reproduction may consist of any mixture of the more desirable hard-
woods,hemlock,spruce and fir,or pine along with such shrubs such as dogwood,blue-
berry,serviceberry,snowberry,honeysuckle.Ferns and grasses may be found in the
openings.Poison ivy is present in a small quantity which can be readily eradicated with
he rbicides.
Good-Conifers,the more desirable hardwoods,and shrubs are present in quantity,
but almost 50 percent of the ground cover consists of such species as hazel,scrub oak,
rose,hawthorn,or sweet fern.Poison ivy is present as above.
Fair-Desirable hardwoods and conifers scart:e or absent.The cover consists of a vari-
able mixture of scrub oak,aspen,hazel brush,buckbrush,sweet fern.Small patches
of poison ivy and raspberry or blackberry may be present.
Unsatisfactory -Poison ivy,blackberry,raspberry,nettles,or prickly ash occupy most
of the site in various mixtures.
Density
Excellent-At least 60 percent but not more than 80 percent of the area not occupied
byoverstory trees is Slacked with desirable cover species.Points on the site ata distance
of lao'are intervisible but not clearly so.
Good -30-60 percent of the ground area not occupied by ove rstory trees is stocked with
a good or better composition of species.Points on the area at a distance oflOO'are readily
visible.
Fair-IO-30percent of the ground area not occupied by overstory trees is stocked with a
fair or betler composition of species.There are situations where the stocking of repro-
duction even of desirnble species is too dense,walking over the site may be difficult,
with visibility being limited to a very short distance.This is an undesirnble but not en-
tirely unsatisfactory situation which can be corrected by cutting.It is classified here.
Unsatisfactory -Less than 10 percent of the site is occupied by a fair or beller com-
position of species.
~,
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RECREATION LANDS
The minimum acceptable rating for this criterion will be a4.Quality
prescriptions are as follows:
Minimum At:eeptable Conditions
Fair 3-4 Composition and density unsatisfactory but correction feasible.
Good 2 Composition and density fair or composition excellent wfun-
satisfactory density.
Excellent Excellent composition-good density.Good composition-elt-
cellent density.
H.Domestic Water.The rating of this criterionneeds no explanation.
The formula in the work plan instructions which is also indicated on Form
17 (Instr.12)is applicable to R-9 situations.An examiner of a site may
not be in a good position to make this evaluation.The advice of the ranger,
forest engineer,or other qualified person familiar with problems of local
wells should be consulted before the costs are calculated.The best water
source may not be a well but a lake,stream or nearby spring.
The minimum acceptable rating will be a4.Quality prescriptions are
as follows:
7.08-17
Accessibility
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Minimu.m Acceptable Conditions
1 .Available at low cos!.
2 Available at moderate cost.
3-4 Unavailable.
:~
The relative accessibility of each site will be rated.This will be done
independently of the physical rating.Relative accessibility is based upon
the cost per development (usable)acre ofproviding access from the nearest
existing TOad or road planned for construction by the year 2000 to the
potential site being examined.Internal service roads within the site will
not be considered here.
The following accessil:>ility guidelines will be used in making this
evaluation:
Outstanding accessibility -A site that is accessible by means of an existing road or
water route,or if not accessible,the cost of construction of an access road will not be
more than S1500 per development acre.
Good accessibility -A site that is not accessible and the estimated access road costs
wiII be not more than $1500 to $2500 per development acre.
Fair accessibility-An unaccessible site to which access is considered feasible,pro-
vided road cost will be not more than $2500 to S4000 per development acre.
Unsatisfactory accessibility -Sites which do not meet the above conditions due to
access road costs in excess of $4000 per development acre.
In general,in this region most of the potential sites will be within one-
half mile of either the planned primary or the secondary transportation
system.A SN22 road will generally be standard for providing access to rec-
.....
.-
......
PLANNING INI'ORMATION PORTFOLIO
reation areas.Assistance of the forest engineer should be obtained in pro-
viding estimated average road constmction costs for different conditions
that may be encountered on the forest.
Determination of per acre costs are derived as follows:
road length (mi.)x ave:construction costlmi
==access road cost per development acre
usable area
Data concerning accessibility is recorded in the access road block on the
first page of Form 17.Indicate the information as it appl ies to the various
statements.In those situations where the site is over 1h mile away from
an existing or planned road but access is feasible,modify the next to the
last statement to show this.Under item (9)in the last statement,show the
estimated cost per development acre.
The relative accessibility rating that is obtained will be compared with
the site quality rating.The final rating will be that assigned to site quality,
unless it is higher than the accessibility rating,in which case the latter will
be the final rating.
Potential Waterfront Sites
In making evaluations of the criteria for these sites,keep in mind that
both swimming and boating sites are being considered.Swimming and
boating sites in most cases will be adjunct to occupancy sites.In some
situations,a boating site will serve only as an access point for the launching
of boats.Similarly there may be potential swimming sites suitable for
development not in connection with an occupancy use.
Where the waterfront development site is part of the same area being
examined for occupancy,only the 100 foot waterfront zone will be evalu-
ated for this use.Do not consider part of the occupancy area as to suitabil-
ity for bathhouse or parking purposes.In those cases where the potential
waterfront sites are not in conjunction with a potential occupancy site such
as involving only a swimming or a boat access site to a fishing or waterfowl
lake,the land required for bathhouses and parking areas will also be eval-
uated.
A.Water Temperatures.Average water temperatures during the
summer season may be a limiting factor for swimming activities in some
of the waters in this part of the region.Literature on the subject of water
temperature in swimming pools indicates that the average Jow temperature
should be about 70°.Temperature insofar as a boating site is concerned is
not significant.These sites will be used not only by water sports enthu-
siasts but by fishermen and waterfowl hunters as well.
7.08-18
-
CRITERIA FOR EV ALVA TlNG RECREA TlON LANDS
Quality prescriptions for these two uses will be as follows:
7.08-19
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Swimming
I
2
3·
Minimum
Acceplilble
Conditions
73°+F
68-73°F
60-67°F
Boating
1-2
3
4·
Minimum
Acceptable
Conditions
68-73°F
60-67°F
less than 60°F
-
•Minimum acceptable rating.
B.Shoreline or Flow Fluctuation.This criterion is well explained in the
work plan.It is especially of concern with reservoirs or impoundments
that may be subject to drawdown for flood control or power purposes.
A knowledge of the type of bottom and steepness of the slope would
have a bearingas to whether a fluctuation in water levels would constitute
a detraction.For example,a sandy,gentle slope would still be an attractive
swimming or boating site with more fluctuation than a steeper slope or one
that may have clay,rocks,mud,or stumps exposed when water is drawn
down.This should be kept in mind when these sites are being examined.
Quality ratings are as follows:
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Swimming
1
2
3·
Boating
1
2
3*
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
Fluctuation little or none.
Fluctuation moderate or immaterial.
Major detractions less than!-2 the season.
-
•Minimum acceptable rating.
C.Shoreline-First 20'Above Water.On this region most of the lakes
do not have a clear beach of up to fifty feet.We have arbitrarily set a dis-
tance of twenty feet for consideration here as this might be closer to the
average.As explained in the work plan instructions,this criterion is a mea-
sure of suitability of the site in its natural state as well as an indicator of
development costs.It is recognized that developments can be made to
overcome almost any deficiency.
The various elements to be rated are self-explanatory except the soil-
mud item.Include here heavy soil types as well as mud.In rating this
criterion,a timbered site will be defined as one that has a stocking of
50%or more of poles or larger trees.If the stocking of timber is less than
50%,it will be considered as nontimbered.A timbered site may have
sandy,gravelly,or clay soil.In those situations where a timbered site is
underlaid with clay,rate the site as4.Quality prescriptions are as follows:
Minimum Minimum
Acceptable Acceptable
Swimming Conditions Boating Conditions
Outstanding I Sand 1-2 Gravel
Good 2 Gravel 3 Timbered
Fair 3*Timbered 4-5·Rock
·Minimum acceptability.
-
-
PLANNING INFORMATION PORTFOLIO
D.Bottom,Below Waterlillc to a 5'Depth.The nature of the bollom
affects the suitability of a site for boating and swimming.In rating this
criterion for boating,consider the nature of the bottom to a depth of2 to 3
feet.For swimming,rate the bottom to a wading depth of5 feet.Quality
prescriptions are as follows:
Minimum Minimum
Acceptable Acceptable
Swimming Conditions Boating Conditions
Outstanding 1 Sand 1-2 Gravel
Good 2 Gravel 3-4 Mud
Fair 3'Rock S·Rock
"Minimum acceptability.
E.Distance,Shoreline.The requirements for this criterion as ex-
plained in the work plan are satisfactory and will fit most of the conditions
in this region.It is a measure of drop-offfrom the water line to maximum
wading depth.In those areas where canoeing is a popular sport,it may be
desired to rate a potential boating site for canoeing,particularly a stream
that is not suitable for all around boating.In such situations the distance
to about a three-foot depth will be rated.When a site is rated with this in
mind,appropriate notes should be made in the comments on Form 18.
Quality prescriptions are as follows:
7.08-20
100'or more
50-100'
25-50'
0-25'
Swimming
J
2
3'
4
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Boating
4
3'Fair
2 Good
1 Outstanding
"Minimum acceptability.
F.Industrial or Domestic Pollution.The terms as defined in the work
plan for this criterion need no further explanation and will apply in this
region.Quality prescriptions are as follows:
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Boating
J
2
3"
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
Uncontaminated.
Contaminated.
Light pollution.
"Minimum acceptability.
G.Color and Turbidity.These characteristics as defined in the work
plan will apply to this part of the region.The brown "tea-colored"condi-
tion in many of the waters ofthe Lake States resulting from tannins in solu-
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RECREATION LANDS
tion are not a deterrent to water activities.Quality prescriptions are as
follows:
7.08-21
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Unsatisfactory
Swimming
3
Boating Minimum Acceptable Condition~
I See U.S.Forest Service Form 18 P-26a.
2 See U.S.Forest Service Form 18 P-26a.
3'See U.S.Forest Service Fonn 18 P-26a.
'Minimum acceptability.
H.Wind Velocity and Constancy.Unfavorable winds would be winds
of such velocity as to create conditions on a body of water so as to make
it very difficult or unsafe for the majority of small boats to stay out for the
purpose of general boating,water sports,or fishing.Small boats would be
generally defined as those using outboard motors common today.Swim-
ming,on the other hand,may be enjoyed in spite of windy conditions on
the lake.
It is doubtful that unfavorable wind conditions are much of a factor
except in certain locations along the Great Lakes.Quality prescriptions
are as follows:
Swimming
I
2
3-4·
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Unsatisfactory
·Minimum acceptability.
Boating Minimum Acceptahle Condition~
I See U.S.Forest Service Form 18 P-26a.
2 See U.S.Forest Service Form 18 P-26a.
2*See U.S.Forest Service Form 18 P-26a.
3-4 See U.S.Forest Service Form 18 P-26a.
1
I.Classification of Waters.This classification is meant to show the
management of the waters being considered.Various management may
affect or limit developments that may be contemplated.
Navigable waters according to law are those that are navigable-in-
fact.If a boat can be floated,then the waters are navigable,and they are
public waters.Navigable interstate waters such as the Mississippi and
Ohio Rivers and tributaries thereto are under thejurisdiction ofthe federal
government.The agency in charge is the Corps of Engineers.
Other public waters would include impoundments under thejurisdic-
tion of the Corps of Engineers,Bureau of Reclamation,Fish and Wildlife
Service,Soil Conservation Service,states,other public agencies,as well
as certain natural lakes.
National forest waters would be those impoundments constructed by
the Forest Service and natural lakes entirely surrounded by national forest
ownership.In these cases,the Forest Service controls the developments
on these lands.
Private waters would include private impoundments and for this clas-
sification all natural lakes surrounded by private Jand.
On navigable and public waters usually there are no restrictions to an.
PLANNING INFORMATlON PORTFOLlO
abutting owner in development or use of a swimming or boating site.For
our purposes in this part of the region,navigable and other public waters
are equally satisfactory for these developments.Quality prescriptions
for this criterion are as follows:
7.08-22
Outstanding
Unsatisfactory
SW'imming and Boating
1-3·
4
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
Other public.
Private waters.
"Minimum acceptable rating.
Winter Sports Sites
Criteria for this use are explained on pages 88-92 of the work plan.
Additional explanations are given below for those criteria necessary to
cover conditions as they apply to Region 9.
Acres.In general.areas of less than about 100 acres would not be
considered as a potential winter sports site.This would include parking,
improvements such as a central shelter,as we))as suitable ski terrain.
A.Snow cover or lee.
1.Period of sufficient snow to make sports feasible.Quality pre-
scriptions:
2.Snow texture.
•Minimum acceptability.
-
Outstanding
Good
Fair
Outstanding
Good
Fair
1-2
3
4·
1
2
3"
Minimum Acceptable Conditwns
Snow cover 3 months.
Snow cover 2 months.
Snow cover 1 month.
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
Dry snow 213 of season.
Dry snow 1/2 of season.
Dry snow 1/3 of season.
·Minimum acceptability.
3.Snow depth during peak period.
Outstanding
Good,Fair
1-3
4·
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
Depth 2-3 feet.
Depth 1-2 feet.
"Minimum acceptability.
4.Snowfall as an adverse factor.
Outstanding
Good
Fair
1
2
3·
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
No problems.
Occasional problems.
Problems at least 1/2 of season.
~-
-
"Minimum acceptability.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RECREATION LANDS
5.Period of satisfactory open ice.We have little or none of this
use.It is not necessary to rate this item.
B.Vertical Rise of Slopes.In this region we do not have potential ski
areas with slopes having a vertical rise of more than a few hundred feet.In
making ratings of different sites,cross out the last zero of all the slope
classes shown on Form 19.The range of slope height will then be from 300
feet to 30 feet.Quality prescriptions will then be as follows:
7.08-23
Outstanding 1-2
Good 3-4
Fair 5
Minimum Acceptabfe Conditions
250-300 foot rise.
150-200 foot rise.
100-150 foot rise.
C.Steepness of Slope.The guidelines of what are novice,inter-
mediate,and advanced slopes are indicated on page 89 of the work plan
as well as on Form 19.Quality prescriptions will be as follows:-Outstanding
Good
Fair
1
2
3*
Minimum Acceptable Co!,ditions
40-60%intermediate;w/adequate novice and expert slopes.
Majority intermediate,adequate novice,some expert slopes.
Majority intermediate,no expert slopes.
*Minimum acceptability.
D.Aspect of Slopes.Quality prescriptions:
Outstanding
Good.Fair 2*
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
North slope.
East or west slope.
*Minimum acceptability.
E.Wind Conditions.Quality prescriptions:
Outstanding
Good
Fair
1-2
3
4*
Minimum Acceptable Conditions
Occasional winds and drifting.
Occasional high winds.
Frequent high winds.
•Minimum acceptability.
F.Temperatures.Quality prescriptions:
Outstanding
Good
Fair
1
2
3*
Minimum Acceptable Rating
Generally above O°F.
Above OOF on majority of days.
Befow OOF.
*Minimum acceptability.
G.Avalanche Possibilities.It is believed that there are no avalanche
problems in this region;therefore,all potential winter sports sites can be
given a rating of 1 for this.
H.Slope Protection.Adequate protection would be timber or terrain
t~at would afford protection by cutting down the wind,thereby keeping
PLANNING INFORMATION PORTFOLIO
the snow from blowing from the slope,or by keeping the slope shaded,
thus cutting down the possibility of undue thawing.Quality prescriptions:
7.08-24
Outstanding
Good,Fair 2·
Minimum ACCl'ptobll'Cnnditions
Adequate or not needed.
Adequate for most.
•Minimum acceptability.
1.Cost of Slope Clearing.The relative costs of clearing will bejudged
on the basis of the timber cover on the site as follows:
High Costs Medium well slocked stands of mature hardwoods and pine saw
limber.Well stocked stands of merchanrable pole timber.
Moderate Cost!'Operable,poorly stocked stands of mature hardwood and pine saw
timber.Medium stocked stands of merchantable pole timber.
Lower Costs Poorly stocked stands of merchantable pole timber,nonmer·
chantable pole and sapling stands of variable slocking,'open areas.
Quality prescriptions:
J.Ground Surface Conditions.Quality prescriptions:
•Minimum acceptability.-
Outstanding
Good
Fair
I
2
3·
Minimum Acceptabll'Conditions
Costs low.
Costs moderate.
Costs high.
Outstanding 1-2
Good 3
Fair 4·
~Minimum acceptability.
Minimum ACCl'p/abk Conditions
Some work needed.
Moderate work needed.
Heavy work needed.
K.Availability of Electric Power.For the purpose of rating this item,
consider that electric power is at the site if an existing power line is within
one mile.Quality prescriptions:-Outstanding
Good
Fair
J
2
3*
Minimum Acccp/abll'Conefitions
At sile.
Av.ailable,moderate cost.
Available,high cost.
•Minimum acceptability.
The foHowing criteria as listed on Form 19 will be rated similarly as
shown:
L Parking development costs.
M Convenience of parking location.
o Year-long or seasonal recreation.
Outstanding 1
Good 2
Fair 3 (Minimum acceptability)
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RECREATION LANDS
The following criteria as listed on Form 29 will be rated similarly as
shown:
N Appurtenant service development possibilities.
P Damage to aesthetic view.
Outstanding
Good,Fair 2 (Minimum acceptability)
Accessibility-accessibility will be considered and rated under the
same standards as prescribed for occupancy development sites.
7.08-25
SUBTASK 7,10
FISHERIES ANALYSIS
7.10-1
INTRODUCTION
Cook Inlet is one of the major spawning areas in the State of
Alaska.The commercial catch of salmon reported for Cook Inlet
during the five year period from 1971 to 1975 averaged over 2
million fish per year,and represented an average of 7.4 percent
of the total catch for the State of Alaska during these five years.
In addition to the commercial catch of salmon,th sports fishery
took about 80,000 salmon a year and the personal-use fishery,
an additional 10,000 salmon per year.Sockeye,pink and shum
salmon are by far the most important species in the area;making
up over 90 percent of the total catch from Cook Inlet;coho and
chinook salmon make up the remainder.Chinook and coho,however,
are most favored by the recreational fishermen.
The construction of power dams on the Susitna River can affect
negatively or positively portions of the salmon runs and game
fish resources of the Susitna River Basin.The studies necessary
for the understanding of these effects on the game fish resources
below the dam site are essentially the same as those required to
protect or enhance the salmon resources in the same area.It is
reported that there are no salmon stocks above Devil Canyon be-
cause of the rapids or drop in that section of the river.There
are,however,game fish above that section that obviously will be
affected by the creation of lakes as opposed to the free-flowing
river.
The extent to which the main river will be used,both for spawning
and rearing of commercial species,has yet to be demonstrated.
It is known that both adults and juveniles use the river channel
for transportation to their spawning and rearing areas.The
lack of knowledge on the conditions is generally attributed to the
turbidity of the river,which makes observations difficult and
high production suspect.There may be,as there are in many streams,
a winter-over capacity utilized by fish that normally reside in clear
water tributaries but migrate into areas that have continuous
winter flows and,therefore,this river may play an important part
in their life cycle.This is a part of the needed study.
A survey of the fishery resources should cover a ~omplete cycle.
A two-year program prior to license application,although supplying
essential information about the fishery,is minimal and should be
continued through supplemental studies and continuation of the
proposed work for a period of up to 6 years.
The fish studies proposed at this time have been based upon the
establishment of an "Operations Officer!in Anchorage for coordination
and administration of the studies,and SUbcontracting portions of
the studies to research groups in the University of Alaska.Por-
tions would also be best performed by the Alaska Department of
Fish and Game and other agencies.These research units are com-
petent in the specialized disciplines required,are familiar with
field conditions in Alaska and,in general,provide the most
efficient base for the studies.This plan of study includes pro-
posed research groups for the various aspects of the fisheries in-
i""""
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7.10-2
investigations,although commitments have not yet been obtained
from these groups.In the event that the proposed groups are not
able to un~ertake the work,other qualified groups are available.
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,~
I
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7.10-3
ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL FACTORS
APPROACH
The project,as do all hydroelectric projects in which major storages
are involved,has three periods that must be considered after the
baseline studies have been conducted to establish the extent of
the use of the river by commercial and sports fisheries.These
baseline studies are required to develop criteria for protecting
the fish and,perhaps,in the final period,enhancing them.
The first period is construction,the effects of which,in this
case,may be minor as only road building and cofferdam building
need to be considered as adding to the turbidity of the stream.
This is brought about because it is assumed that no anadromous
fish passage is required beyond the Devil Canyon site.
The second phase is the filling period in which many of the pro-
blems associated with the operation of the project will begin to
appear,wi~h some special problems caused by the fact that the
finally-designed outlet works may not be available.To maintain
a free-flowing river (free of excess nitrogen concentration and
with proper temperatures)would require a more careful design
of the temporary outlet works than might normally be needed.The
effects of temperature,turbidity changes and excessive dissolved
gases will be discussed for the operating stages,but must be
considered also during the filling period.
The third phase is the plant operation,which may include only
partial loading of the units initially and,hence,some spill
during the period before the maximum utilization of the units.
As this is a storage project,particularly with the upper dam in
place and in operation,it must be assumed that there would be
regulation at this point which must be measured for its effects
downstream by lowered flows during transportation and spawning,
egg incubation and fry emergence,and rearing time.For some
species the rearing time may be very limited as the fish leave
immediately after emergence from the gravel.
The low water periods are in the winter.Under operational con-
ditions power discharges will be superimposed on these flows,
thus affecting the ice cover and,potentially,creating an area
free from surface ice but with a new threat of frazil ice.
Channel erosion can ensue as the normal ice cover can be increased
unless the same balance of flow under power regulation matches
the natural relationship of ice to normal existing low flows.
The storage undoubtedly will result in a reasonable flood control,
and it is conceivable that a more permanent type of channel will
result.
,~
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,-
7.10-4
One of the spawning criteria associated with fluctuating flows
is that eggs deposited must not be exposed~particularly to
freezing conditions.The eggs and larvae must remain unmolested
and continuously supplied with adequate exygen.The diminution
of flows through the redds may result in the death of the eggs.
After hatching~the larval oxygen requirement rises but~as the
gills are still inefficient~they require a high level of saturation
of oxygen~without which they may die.
If the redds were to be smothered by wash load or suspended load~
which may drop and become a part of the bed by decreased velocities~
the water percolation through the gravel is reduced and the eggs~
larvae or alevins can be smothered~thus stable river beds and banks
are required during these critical times in the life cycle.It
must be noted that there are very close requirements for suitable
spawning areas as to velocity~water depth and gravel size.The
eggs~once laid~have a requirement of day degree temperatures to
hatch;this requirement must be met.Under normal conditions
this is met by the spring or early summer temperatures.The storage
of water generally reduces summer temperature unless drawn specif-
ically from the warmer surface water~or unless drawn from proper
levels.The incoming water in a reservoir will seek various levels
because of its density at inflow temperatures.There may also be
stratification of entrapped silt because of density layering.
Because of the size of these reservoirs~it is obvious that there
will be no materials brought to the river section below and it may
be assurnedthat the channel below the structure will become a
degrading channel and~hence~will be subject to attack of its
bank until the bed is stablized.
The above generalized statement of the problem is intended only
to indicate why there is a need to first obtain baseline data in
order to answer the questions that will present themselves prin-
cipally during the filling and operating periods.
To obtain baseline data~it is obvious that much of the data
are needed to develop the economics of the power site~as well as
to answer construction problems.While the operation of the power
plant may not exactly fit the best requirements for fish mainten-
ance or enhancement~the load levels must be known and the proposed
reservoir mode regulations known.It would be senseless to duplicate
any of the data on flow and temperature and it might be best merely
to expand the field work to include any additional work for fisheries
needs during the general hydrological studies.All physical con-
ditions~such as reservoir capacities~are a part of the power
studies and can be utilized directly for limnological purposes
and should not be duplicated in the fisheries studies.
The temperature gathering usually is not a major requirement in
hydroelectric studies and perhaps here the requirement of the
various stocks of fish would take precedence.Unless some unusual
situation exists within the reservoir~the limnological work for
the fisheries would make it possible to suggest the adequate
location for multiple outlets for temperature control or for the
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7.10-5
elimination of entrapped turbidity layers.This,then,might be
deemed more important to the fisheries and should be included in
the fisheries studies.
To what extent power generation would be influenced by the need
for maintaining stable channels if fish were not present may de-
fine the interrelationship between the needed fisheries and power
investigations in the channel.Whichever appeared to have the
greatest need for study should satisfy the other.The best,in
fact,might be a combination study.
The question of ice cover in the river,brought about by a major
development,does not have a good background experience.It
would be desirable first to take a look at the literature to find
the problems that may have arisen in sub-Arctic zones for high
mountain areas.Frazil ice in large quantities has caused minor
jams and channel changes and certainly is a problem at shallow
intakes.Once the ice cover is formed over a river,it would be
undesirable to have the formed conduit under the ice blocked at
any point and the water routed over the ice surface,if there were
fish resident in the stream or its pools,or eggs or larvae in
the bed.
The end result of fluctuating flows in the river can produce an
ice-free area below the powerhouse,but does not necessarily
guarantee that frazil ice would not form.This ice-free area,
if brought about by 4°C water from a deep intake,could result in
fish coming to such an area to avoid the colder waters and bring
into being a now nonexistent predator problem,if young or juvenile
salmon or trout are over-wintering in the main river.
From a fisheries standpoint,we need to know the composition of
the bed and whether there is a surface pavement which,if lost,
would speed the stream degradation or permit rapid erosion.In
other words,the stability of the initial stream bed should be
measured.
The geological work in the lake,which should be undertaken to
determine if any unusuai outcrops of metal will be inundated,
should be undertaken.It is assumed that the engineers involved
in the construction will probably be more concerned with land-
slides than would the fisheries people;however,there have been
some problems associated with landslides in lakes that have affected
pUblic safety and have also caused periods of cloudy water.As
a major geological survey is to be made of the two proposed
storage basins,it might be expected that the questions raised for
fisheries needs could be easily answered by such surveys,or
by an additional crew member rather than an additional party.
During the filling period,when water must be by-passed,or during
the early part of the power generation at the project,there may
be a spill.One of the major problems that has recently arisen is
plunging flows into deep stilling basins which entrap air,thus
bringing the dissolved nitrogen above critical level.It would be
necessary to know,then,the type of spill that is proposed during
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7.10-6
the filling period,as well as the potential for spill during the
critical times for fish in the early power generation.The nitrogen
problem has been corrected at the Columbia River dams,but it has
been rather costly,hoth in money and in fish.A deep outlet,of
course,could solve the problems of temperature regulation before
the reservoir reaches the level set for the beginning of power
generation.Parts of this stu~y would be contained in a limno-
logical review for partially-filled,filled and operating lake
reservoirs.
The lakes will inundate a flowing stream section of the river,
which mayor may not be a major supplier of trout.When the lakes
are filled,it would be expected that they would become a part
of the recreational fisheries potential of the area.This area
that is now relatively inaccessible will become accessible be-
cause of construction activities,which will permit float planes
to land and take off and fishing camps to be established.These
reservoirs can also be used as a jumping-off place for lakes in
this watershed now fished lightly.Usually,newly-formed lakes
are highly productive for a short period of time and they become
well-used during this time.
The proposed study would examine the basin area above the dam
site to determine specifically the extent of the fish stocks,their
intermovement and interrelationships,and the general effect that
these new reservoirs will have on the basin area.If the river
fishery is as indicated (low)then the new areas would become more
productive and it would be desirable to predict such changes for
a reservoir management program .
Table 1 is an outline summary of "work items ll within the fisheries
analysis,primarily physical factors and impact issues to be
investigated.These ~tems are organized into three categories:
baseline studies,prediction of construction impacts,and prediction
of operational impacts.
7.10-7
TABLE 1.FISHERIES STUDIES-
CHECK LIST OF NEEDED WORK ITEMS
BASELINE STUDIES (RIVER AS IS)
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l.
2.
Location of spawning areas -Rearing areas,mld/0 ),/r;t&I'l'6'\)w~S;f $~'V\AJHh'",\c~~~t-\J~;
Effects on channels of turbidity,bed load and flow levels I~"'_·'
C;;""_~,IJ-..t'-'·'f
A.Develop hydrographs at damsites and selected sites,
upstream and downstream
B.Develop hydro graphs on tributary streams downstream
from damsite.Turbidity levels in such streams
(Requires gauging station or reasonable number of
miscellaneous checks)
,~
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3.River cross section for typical reaches
A.Transects
B.River profiles
C.Flight pictures at various river stages
D.Maps
4.Frazil ice,if formed
5.Anchor ice,if formed
6.Ice cover -continuous or partially open
A.Winter flows (Under the ice -over the ice)
B.Average thickness of surface ice
7.!Jater temperatures
A.Main river
B.Tributaries
C.Natural lakes
8.Water Quality
A.lvlineral
B.Gas balance
C.Turbidity (will change)
D.~ash load estimate (will cease)
9.Bottom types
A.Gravel sizes
B.If a surface pavement exists
-10.
7.10-8
Bank stability,as affected by scour r~c,;J cL·,,~·x·~..o
J (,)
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11.Geology of the reservoir areas
A.Metal bearing strata
B.Slide potentials
PREDICTION OF CONTRUCTION IMPACTS
Time of elements
A.Cofferdam
B.Method of river diversion
C.Silt control
D.General pollution control
2.Filling time
Means of by-passing necessary flows
A.Avoid plunging flows and excess nitrogen
B.Temperature level of water to be passed
C.Temperature profiles (computed)
D.Turbidity changes (computed)
3.Water stages
A.Runoff patterns below dam will be altered
B.Silt content in the river areas will be altered
C.Gas content may be altered
D.Temperature in both summer and winter will be changed
Day degrees needed for eggs to hatch and fish to
grow (Growth pattern predictions)
4.Ice cover may be changed
Effect of extra winter water
5.Frazil ice may present new problems
PREDICTION OF OPERATIONAL IMPACTS
1.Expected loads -such flows are related to natural flows
2.Draw down or filling
A.Summer flow changes
B.Winter flow changes
3.Intake level (or levels)for control
4.Expected spill,if any
5.Scour as affected by changing flow during normal flows
from tributary streams
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7.10-9
6.Bank scour
7.Icing
New ice-free area -predation and small fish accumulation
8.Changed ice.Thickness affecting temperature and downstream
movement
9.Added light and added food production
10.Potential for added productive area
11.Lost productive areas
12.Formation of new lakes,which will need to be managed -
A complete study above the dams is required
7.10-10
FIELD SURVEYS
Field surveys of the physical factors which affect the fisheries
of the Susitna River will be performed during summer and winter
periods.These surveys can be divided into those to be performed
downstream,i.e.below Devil Canyon (or Gold Creek)and those to
be performed upstream,i.e.above Devil Canyon (or Gold Creek),1n
relation to the proposed dam sites.The physical factors,including
flow,turbidity and temperature,and water quality measurements will
be taken by R&M at their gauging stations.Additionally,temperature
data will be collected as a part of all fisheries field surveys.
Survey crews will also obtain data on fish populations;however,
population studies are described further in a later section of this
plan of study.
DOWNSTREAM SURVEYS
'I,
Salmon and steelhead may not now utilize the main stream channel
for spawning or rearing because of either excessively fine suspended
materials or wash loads.If it is found that fish are now using
the stream areas,the work will be concentrated in these areas.
If it 1s found that there is no present utilization,potential
areas will be identified.These may become available owing to
the fact that the suspended load may be mostly eliminated because
of the large reservoirs.
Water samples will be taken (by R&M)in order to determine the
changes that might take place,and to identify any trace metals
that could cause problems.Dissolved oxygen and nitrogen will be
examined continually.
The survey of the stream areas will include cross sections,river
bed and water surface slopes and changing water levels for deter-
mining wetted area.
Winter crews will collect data to be used in the identification of
any new problems that might arise from added winter flows that
affect the ice cover.It 1s expected to utilize eXisting surveys,
both terrestrial and aerial,and,if reference stations are not
available,to utilize data from the railroad surveys for reference
points to keep the surveys in balance.Reference boundaries will
be set at useful areas to be included in the aerial photography
to determine the relationship of flow to wetted area for use in
the study of the new flow conditions to be created.
Runoff data,as has been gathered by others and augmented as
necessary,will be utilized.
Tr~ibutary streams will be measured for their flow input,
ature regime and water quality.
The composition of the river bed will be examined along with typical
areas of the bank for potential future scour and stability.
Winter crews will measure the depth of ice cover and the extent
of open areas.The spring break-up will be followed as it may
effect erosion and,hence,channel changes.
7.10-11 p1~{
t;~'rl-J
'(\ol(
As physical requirements for a good spawning bed are known,such
areas can be identified as to velocity,depth and bottom stability,
and as to whether they will remain wetted throughout the critical
hatching and rearing periods.
R&M will collect water quality samples throughout the year,in-
cluding the winter period.If species are to be introduced into new
areas of the river,they must have known tolerance levels for any
known metals that may be present in the watershed.
Temperature readings will be taken in order to insure that the
necessary heat (as measured in day degrees above 32 o F)will be
satisfied within the existing limits of the species.It has been
found that less than normal temperatures at migration time slow
the movement of the young in their seaward migration.The extent
of any temperature shift below normal can only be determined from
the as-is records and then calculated for the new regime created
by the reservoir regulation.
UPSTREAM SURVEYS
c(p'.
Physical data will include an estimate of the flow input through-11!~V~
out the year from important tributaries and temperature measure-a1 vr
ments throughout the watershed,including bathythermograph records
within the lakes as a part of the study for determining new reser-
voir temperature levels.Certain key streams would be sampled
to determine seasonal fluctuation in populations,growth rates and
food preferred by the fish.
"'!~~;.;>r"
;f/r/t(~/~-{;•
Survey crews will perform the field work necessary to obtain
data on fish populations and food potential in the principal
recreational fishing areas.The principal species involved are
Arctic Grayling,Lake Trout,Ling,Rainbow Tro t,Whitefish and
Dolly Varden/Arctic Char.
Fishing effort will be determined from the census cards of the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game.~
/,4,L .•
r {~C'7
The winter program will be principally concerned with ice cover and
water quality;both directed toward a better understanding of the
conditions that will be created in the new reservoirs.
Stream measurements above the reservoir areas will be made to
determine whether there exist suitable spawning areas.
7.10-12
ANADROMOUS FISHERIES STUDIES
APPROACH
From river surveys made during the late 1950's,it was established
that salmon do not ascend above Devil Canyon,approximately 130
miles above the mouth of the Susitna River.ThUS,we are not
concerned with the elimination of salmon runs due to the location
and height of the dam(s)but only with the effect that design
and operation of the dams might have upon migration and survival
of juvenile and adult salmon in the main channel of the lower
Susitna River,and upon possible spawning in the main channel,~
although there is no report to date that such spawning exists.)
There are many ways that the amount and quality of water released
from dams can affect the migration and survival of salmon in the
lower Susitna River.Very low flows during the winter months
might seriously affect the salmon,coho and chinook,that remain
in the streams and rivers for one/year5before going to sea.
-3
We know that salmon frequently enter their spawning streams when
there is an increase in water flow and frequently will remain off
the mouth of a stream waiting for rising water.Whether this is
true for a major access river,like the Susitna,is not known.The
effect of temperature on the development and growth of the eggs
and young salmon needs to be quantified in such form that it can
be used .in the design and operation of the Susitna project.
At the same time,this project presents an unusual opportunity to
incorporate into the design of the dams,and their operational
schedules,features that would actually enhance the production
of salmon in the lower Susitna watershed.We know from experience
at existing dams in the Columbia river and elsewhere that temper-
ature of the water below a dam can be modified to favor the pro-
duction of salmon by placing the turbine intake at lower depths.
We are also awar~that much silt will settle out in the reservoirs,
providing ~,t-.ter -water for the produc tion of salmon in the streams
below.But what about the increased vulnerability of the young
salmon to predation from the increased visibility?Again,as
far as known,no intensive study has been made of the effect of
turbidity on the survival of young salmon.~L r')1;-v...r C <..;...!'-<v".
ThUS,two of the studies proposed for the Susitna will be designed
to define the movement of young and adult salmon throu h the lower
Sus tna River an e rela~on 0 certain environment nditl
t-eJ tile!!'migration 1llld Sm'V va.though difficult and complex,
~~~rart will be maae ~0 de~lop a series of temperature,
turbidity and flow conditions that would provide optimal conditions
for salmon migration and survival in the lower Susitna River,and
hopefully,the data could be incorporated with the other operational
criteria of the Susitna project.
The remaining study will provide the basis for evaluation of the
contribution (i.e.,the importance)of the Susitna River salmon
runs to the Cook Inlet fisheries -data essential to establishing
the importance of the Susitna salmon to the economy of the Cook
Inlet region as a whole.The only practical way to approach this
\
WORK PLAN
-7.10-13
problem is by use of differences in racial characteristics between
the Susitna salmon stocks and those entering the other tributaries \~
to Cook Inlet.In this case~it is proposed that two different ~~
approaches be taken~one using differences in the growth patterns ~.J
of scales and the other using genetic differences in the water ~V~~
soluble proteins (enzymes)as detected by electrophoretic analysis~vr:1
of tissue.Both of these methods have been tested and used to )a
some extent on the Cook Inlet salmon.We know,for example~the \
red salmon from the Susitna river tributaries can be statistically
separated from those runs to the Kenai and Kasilof rivers by both
methods and a combination of the two methods will increase the
accuracy of identification.The study proposed here will use
both methods,supplementing existing work by increasing the size
and frequency of sampling and including all five species.
Ideally,since the Pacific salmon are cyclic in years of return,
these studies should continue through at least one complete cycle.
Differences do occur between the different year classes.The
results obtained prior to license application may show,at least,
the degree of variation that might be expected from year-to-year
but with wide limits of confidence.The real danger is,of course,
the unpredictable conditions or events that might occur in anyone
year.For example,anyone year could be completely abnormal withJ'respect to weather or the fish and would make interpretation of the/'\y,'results very difficult.Therefore,these studies will continue
through Phase II (post-license application).If time were available,
the period of study should be extended for a total of six years.
/Xv~CCONTRIBUTION OF THE SUSITNA SALMON POPULATIONS TO THE COOK INLET
~'.~-FISHERIES -QUANTITATIVE SEPARATION OF STOCKS
~OBJECTIVE
~The objective of this study is to identify races of the Susitna
River salmon taken by the commercial and recreational (including
personal-use)fisheries in Cook Inlet,and to determine quantit-
atively the portion of the total catch originating in the Susitna
River drainage.
BACKGROUND
The salmon originating in the Susitna River drainage pass through
an intensive commercial and recreational fisheries,extending for
about 120 miles from Anchor Point to the vicinity of the mouth
of the Susitna River.The Susitna River stocks of salmon are inter-
mixed throughout the entire fishery with other very large stocks
of salmon spawning on the Kenai Penninsula,in tributaries of
Kachimak Bay and along the western shore of the Inlet.Any feasi-~
billty study of the Susitna River projects will require an assess-~.t
ment of the contribution of the Susitna River populations to the ~
commercial and the recreational fisheries.V'.A n~f"{I~lit "'~oP
Fortunately,the catch data from the commercial fisheries are
relatively accurate (based on buyer'S receipts)and divided into
7.10-14
sub-areas of capture.Records of the recreational fisheries are
obtained by card census,estimated to be about 85%of the total
effort,and will provide information on catch and fishing effort.
Identification and separation of the various stocks of salmon
will be made by use of differences in scale patterns and genetic
characteristics determined by electrophoretic analysis of tissue
samples.These differences have already been found to exist in
races of sockeye salmon in Cook Inlet and the runs to the Susitna
'river have been statistically separated from salmon from the other
major spawning areas.The program calls for the regular collection
of scales and tissue samples from the canneries and salmon buying
stations and from the recreational fishermen in the Cook Inlet
area,and from the major salmon spawning streams (both in the Susitna
River watershed and from other major spawning areas).
DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF ADULT AND JUVENILE SALMON IN THE LOWER
SUSITNA RIVER -KNOWN SPAWNING STOCKS
Fish and Game (Research Unit,
(Juneau);Electrophoretic
Alaska Department or
Anchorage);Scales
University of Alaska
analysis of tissue
Laboratory analysis -
This project will require one sampling team of two men for a four
month period (May to September).The crew will require car trans-
portation and at times,a boat or charter plane.It is estimated
that a total of 6,000 scale and tissue samples will be collected
from the fisheries and spawning streams (excluding the Susitna)for
racial determination by the research units of the Alaska Department
of Fish and Game (Anchorage)and the Department of Fisheries and
Natural Resources,University of Alaska (Juneau),if i~~an be.A ~~
arranged.,',l (\"A /\_,.:t::~~~eX.ff~./_'....-=:.-11~V-_()eJi~W ~tJ
PROPOSED AGENCIES -L ,~~.~~~~/~~~
Field collections -~.~~.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game,or
University of Alaska (Juneau or Fairbanks)
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to determine the location and impor-
tance of every known salmon spawning area in the lower Susitna
River,the time of spawning and most important,the time and
migratory pattern of the various species and races of salmon
ascending the lower Susitna River on their way to the spawning
grounds.
-BACKGROUND
7.10-15
t?
~.
/
The location of all known salmon spawning areas in the lower Susitna
River drainage in the early 1960's (and based on information provided
by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game)'is documented in a pub-
lication by the Principal Investigator (Atkinson et al.1967).Be-\
cause of the inaccessibility of much of the area and the turbidity 0'~
of the water,the extent of the spawning areas and enumeration of ~,(.;
the total escapements of many of the runs are difficult to obtain.~I .~
However,the Alaska Department of Fish and Game regularly surveys ......,lA 1
'
the various spawning areas,frequently by plane,and obtains an ~I~
index of abundance of the individual runs which are valuable in
their year-to-year comparisons of the success of spawning.
/.V
\.
The migratory pattern or length of stay in freshwater for the ~
various species of salmon becomes very important in the design and 7
operational schedule of dams proposed on the Susitna River.So ~
far as known there is no lnfGrmation available on the migration
of young salmon out of the Susitna River.We know that sockeye
salmon will remain for one year or more in lakes or "springs ll located
near their spawning grounds.Pink salmon migrate to sea immediately
after emerging from the gravel,and frequently spawn in intertidal
areas.Chum salmon frequently spend a short time in fresh water
and may feed during this period of residence.Chinook and coho
salmon young will spend a year or more in residence in the fresh-
water streams or rivers,migrating to sea in their second year of
life.If young chinook and coho remain in the lower Susitna /
River during their period of freshwater residence,then the design
and operational schedule of the proposed dams should be such as
to assure an adequate supply of water for the fish all year around.
If,on the other hand,it was found that the young coho and chinook
spend most of their juvenile residence in the tributary streams,then
the flow from the dam can be operated with considerably more flex-
ibility.
This information from the annual surveys and estimates of the
Alaska Department ofFish and Game continue to be available and would
form the base for this study.
At the same time,very little is known of the migratory pattern of
the adult salmon as they leave Cook Inlet and move upstream on
their way to their I'home ll streams.For example,some races of
salmon are known to move very rapidly through a river system;other
races will move slower,frequently going in and out of the mouth of
a river several times before the final migration upstream.There
is a very significant difference between the rates of migration of
those fish entering the river first and the n late"arrivals.This
migration pattern becomes extremely important in this case since
the amount of water to be released from the dams must be completely
adequate at all times to guarantee the salmon easy mig~ation through /
the lower Susitna River.'I 1 P -GJ 1-S{-~\~
(\_~oJ-jJ'-"LlJPA,C\VA cJ
~J y-J ~~
7.10-16
WORK PLAN
This study will require a very close coordination with the management
biologists of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game,and the Depart-
ment should be encouraged to expand the number of observations made
of the various spawning grounds,with support,if necessary-,from
this program.I I-t-~.~abSb~.
It is felt that an estimate of the total escapement to the Susitna
River would be useful in this study,but not essential.We are .
more interested in the movement of salmon upstream and for this,(2.~'
it is suggested that a tagging experiment might be most practical,\r
using a coded wire tagged on the adults with recoveries mainly ~
from the personal-use fishery along the Susitna river.Salmon for
tagging can be obtained from the fish wheels operating near the
mouth of the river.It would be difficult to obtain tags from
the various spawning areas because of the general inaccessibility
of the areas,but dead salmon,where they accumulate in any quantity,
might offer some possibility of recovery.
Finally,it is proposed to try to trace to movement of certain
races of salmon upstream by identifying certain Itgene-types"
associated with the electrophoretic analysis of tissue.
The downstream migration of young salmon will be determined by
fishing large fyke nets at two or three stations along the Susi~na
River,and the collections will be supplemented by the use of
beach seines and electric shocking equipment.Information will be
obtained on age,size,sex,etc.,specimens retained for stomach
analysis,and tissue samples taken for electrophoretic analysis to
determine racial origin.
One crew of two men will be assigned to the field work with the
close coordination with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game.A.P~D AGENCY cJ(~-~l\\),~/Alaska Department of Fish and Game~~~University of Alaska (Juneau and Fairbanks)~.A.~~l~',DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF ADULT AND JUVENILE SALMON IN THE LOWER ~~.
V SUSITNA RIVER -~UNKNOWN SPAWNING STOC~S ~
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to discover unknown salmon spawning
areas in the lower Susitna River proper and the associated charac-
teristics of the river channel and the extent the area might be
affected by-the proposed water projects.
BACKGROUND
Available information limits all known salmon spawning areas to the
various tributaries of the lower Susitna River.No salmon spawning
areas have been reported from the lower Susitna River channel proper.
-
7.10-17
The presence or absence of spawning grounds in this portion of
the river must be confirmed beyond all reasonable doubt.If salmon
spawning grounds in the main river are not known nor not reported in
this study but later discovered and verified by outsiders,then
there would arise a problem of credibility for the entire study;if
spawning grounds are discovered in the main channel,then provisions
must be made for maintenance and even expansion of the spawning
areas and must be taken into consideration 1n the design and oper-
ation of the proposed dams.
WORK PLAN u~
Although the field crews associated with other aspects of the )
fisheries program and the staffs of the Alaska Department of Fis g
and Game and the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service should be alerted
to our search for salmon spawning grounds in the lower Susltna
river,the best approach to this kind of a problem would be to offer
a reward of,say,$1,000 for anyone discovering a new salmon spawning
area that can be verified in the field by our own field crew or
the management staff of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game.In
addition to the discovery of possible spawning areas,the excite-
ment of a reward would draw attention to the program and our efforts
to obtain the best information possible.
PROPOSED AGENCY
A5 Program Direction Unit (internal),in cooperation with the\Z Alaska Department of Fish and Game.l(~;lORELATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS TO THE ABUNDANCE AND SURVIVAL)1/OF ADULT AND JUVENILE SALMON IN THE SUSITNA RIVER -FRESHWATER EN-
VIRONMENT
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to examine the relation of temperature,
turbidity,food,predation and similar environmental factors on the
abundance and survival of adult and juvenile salmon in the Susitna
river.
BACKGROUND
This is a very broad subject which has occupied the atten on of
a number of researchers,and the relation between the v ious en-
vironmental factors and the survival and abundance 0 salmon is still
not clearly understood.For example~turbid water which is charac-
teristic of the Susitna river,is frequently low 'in food production
but the poor visibility in turbid water may well act as a screen
against predators.There is a relation,of course between temper-
ature~food and growth,and the larger the young fish,the less
vulnerable they are to predation.Many of these factors have been
studied independently but there has been little success in trying to
relate the combination of factors to the ultimate survival of young
salmon.
7.10-18
Similarly,for adult salmon,we know that stream flow (and perhaps
precipitation)is an attractant for adult fish to enter a stream
and begin the migration upstream.We know that higher stream flows
with faster current will require a greater effort for the salmon
to ascend a stream and if the current or obstacles require too much
energy,the salmon,with its limited energy supply will die enroute,
unspawned.
Although difficult to obtain and analyze)this kind of information
is essential to the Susitna Project since it establishes the criteria
needed in the design and operation of the proposed dams.
WORK PLAN
In this study,more than in the other proposed studies,much isolated
work has been done over the years by various research laboratories.
The pUblications are scattered and the information fragmentary but
the knowledge of these previous studies could avoid costly duplication
of work and supplement the proposed studies.Accordingly,an inten-
sive review of the literature will be performed to compile a summary
of the state of the knowledge.
At the same time that the various !11 a borat ory "experiments are in
progress)the field crew making the study of movement and survival
of juvenile and adult salmon in the lower Susitna River will be
responsible for the collection of juvenile samples for stomach
contents,age,size and sex,etc.The information collected from
the temperature,water,and turbidity gauges (by R&M)will be
forwarded directly to the Operations Office.
PROPOSED AGENCY
University of Alaska (Juneau,Fairbanks or Seward)in cooper-
ation with the appropriate field crews of the Alaska Depart-
ment of Fish and Game.
RELATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS TO THE ABUNDANCE AND SURVIVAL
OF ADULT AND JUVENILE SALMON IN THE SUSITNA RIVER -ESTUARINE EN-
VIRONMENT
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to examine the relation between the
temperature,food,salinity,predation and similar environmental
factors to the movement of young salmon through the estuarine area
and their survival.
BACKGROUND
There is a growing evidence to show that one of the most critical
stages in the survival of salmon occurs during the estuarine period
of life.The release of young salmon from the hatcheries in Japan
is timed to coincide with periods of plankton bloom in the estuaries.
The International Pacific Salmon Commission has conducted extensive
studies of the relation between survival of young pink salmon and
the food present during their stay in the delta area of the Fraser
River.In this study,the observations should concentrate on the
7.10-19
relation of stream flow to the extent of the estuarine area,the
relation of stream flow to the production of planktonic food for
the young salmon and how long the young salmon would normally remain
in the estuarine area.The information will be used to establish
optimum water flows for the passage of the young salmon through the
estuarine area.
The passage of the adult salmon through the estuary does not appear
to be as critical as for the young salmon but certainly,as mentioned \
previously,the amount of water flow,or fluctuations in flow,will
attract the adult salmon into the rivers to begin their spawning~
migration.
C\.."?
WORK PLAN ~~
One team,composed of a Study Leader and two assistants,will conduct
the study of young and adult salmon passing through the estuarine
area and in the lower reaches of the Susitna River.Basically,
the study will consist of measuring the salinity,temperature,pos-
sibly the chemical composition of the water,and the amount of
planktonic food present and the amount and kinds being taken by
the young salmon during their stay in the estuarine area.
~wAlthOUgh later modification may be made to the experimental designJ)proposed at this time,tentatively the study will call for the
definition of estuarine conditions during periods of high,average ~
~and low discharge flows from the Susitna River and during high,mean
and low tides.The station pattern would consist of three transects rt
~at and off the mouth of the Susitna River,of five stations each,)~/
J and five river stations with the upper station above the influence\cr~/
o of salt water.1J II \I
\/\)Both the juvenile and adult salmon should be present in the estuarine
area at the same time.The juvenile salmon will be sampled by
small trawl (or other gear)and the adults by test gill net/purse
seine fishing in the estuary and fish wheel in the Susitna River
proper.The passage of runs of salmon through the estuary and river
may be obtained from catch and effort data.
PROPOSED AGENCY
Institute of Marine Science (Dr.Tsuneo Nishiyama,Fisheries
Oceanographer),University of Alaska (Fairbanks)
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
Arctic Environmental Information Data Center (University of Alaska).
1974.Alaska regional profiles:Southcentral Region.(Prepared
for the Office of the Governor,State of Alaska).University
of Alaska,Arctic Environmental Information Data Center
(Anchorage).Volume II.220 pages (approx.)
1.References and background material used in ~he preparation of
the anadromous fisheries proposal but not cited ~se,except
Atkinson et al.(1967).
7.10-20
Atkinson,C.E.,J.H.Rose and T.O.Duncan.
1967.Salmon of the North Pacific Ocean:Part IV.Spawning
populations of North Pacific salmon.4.Pacific salmon
in the United States.International North Pacific Fisheries
Commission (Vancouver,B.C.),Bulletin 23.223 pages.
Bethe,M.L.,and P.V.Krasnowski
1979.Stock separation studies of Cook Inlet sockeye salmon
based on scale pattern analysis,1977.Alaska Department
of Fish and Game,Informational Leaflet 180.31 pages.
Donnelly,R.F.,K.R.Johnson and D.E.Bevan.
1979.Stock separation studies.(Use of electrophoretic methods
to identify pink salmon stocks).In 1978 Research in
Fisheries.University of Washington (Seattle),Contribution
No.500 (March 1979).Page 24 and 25.
Krasnowski,P.V.,and M.L.Bethe.
1978.Stock separation studies of Alaskan salmon based on scale
pattern analysis.Alaska Department of Fish and Game,In-
formational Leaflet No.175.37 pages.
Namtvedt,T.8.,N.V.Friese,D.L.Wa1tmyer and K.A.Webster.
1978.Investigations of Cook Inlet sockeye salmon.Alaska Depart-
ment of Fish and Game (Anadromous Fish Conservation Act,
Project No.AFe-53).123 pages.
Tyler,R.W.
1961.Cook Inlet tagging.In Research in Fisheries 1960.
University of Washington (Seattle),Contribution 116.
Pages 28 and 29.
Yancey,
1963.
R.M.,and F.V.Thorsteinson.
The king salmon of Cook Inlet Alaska.U.S.Fish and Wild-
life Service,Special Scientific Report -Fisheries,
Number 440.18 pages.
7.10-21
RESIDENT FISHERIES STUDIES
Although data on resident fish populations will be collected in con-
junction with the studies of physical factors previously described,
several studies warrant individual descriptions.Following are
summaries of studies to be performed concerning (1)the composition
and abundance of resident fish populations and (2)the presence (or
absence)of endangered fish species.Thes~studies are scheduled
to be performed during Phase I (pre-license application).
COMPOSITION AND ABUNDANCE OF THE RESIDENT POPULATIONS OF FISH IN
THE UPPER SUSITNA RIVER
OBJECTIVE
To survey the populations of resident fish in the upper Susitna
river drainage,determine the species present and their relative
abundance,and assess the loss to the streams that will be flooded
by the proposed reservoirs.
BACKGROUND
I The upper Susitna River became an important recreational fishing
area after the construction of the Alaskan Highway between Delta
and Valdez.In 1978,about 45,000 fishing days effort was spent in
the upper Susitna for recreational fishing with a catch between
35,000 and 40,000 fish -Arctic Grayling,Lake Trout,Ling,Rainbow
Trout,Whitefish and Dolly Varden/Arctic Char,in order of importance.
It is believed,however,that most of the areas presently heavily
fished are located near the headwaters of the upper Susitna and not
in the more inaccessible area to be flooded by the proposed dams.
WORK PLAN
The upper Susitna covers rugged,isolated terrain and will be
difficult to survey adequately.The area to be flooded should be
surveyed in some detail;the upstream area should be sampled rather
grossly but sufficient for comparison with the streams that will be
flooded.Certain key streams should be sampled several times during
the year to determine seasonal fluctuations in abundance.The
fishing effort and catch will be determined from the census cards
of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
To adequately cover the upper Susitna watershed,it is proposed to
use four survey teams of three men each in addition to the Survey
Chief,and support personnel for supplies and communications.The
upper Susitna is accessible in one area by car (the Alaskan Highway)
and by float planes on the several lakes.The crews will need to
establish base camps,with radio communication and protection from
marauding bears.The crew will,of course,need the usual limno-
logical equipment and fishing nets and electric shocking equipment.
Most of the survey work will be conducted in the summer months.
7.10-22
PROPOSED AGENCY
Alaska Cooperative Fishery Unit (Federal-State-University),
University of Alaska (Fairbanks)
~PRESENCE (OR ABSENCE)OF ENDANGERED SPECIES
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study 1s to conduct a thorough search of the
Susitna River watershed for the presence (or absence)of endangered
fish species,determine the effect of the proposed dams on the
survival of those species and make recommendations of methods,if
possible,for their protection.
BACKGROUND
The Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969 and subsequent
regulations give the Secretary of Interior broad powers to protect
a species of fish whose existence is threatened with destruction,
drastic modification,or severe curtailment.The extent of these
powers are already well-demonstrated by the famous case of the snail
darter.Accordingly,every effort must be made to determine if any
endangered species lives within the area to be inundated by the
reservoirs,or in the lower Susitna river.If such species are
found in this area,then recommendations should be made of methods
that would adequately offset any threat or loss of the species.
WORK PLAN
The study will require,first of all,a careful review of the
endangered species list to determine those species,if any,which
one would expect to find in the area affected by the proposed
Susitna water project.If any endangered species is suspected to
live within the area of study,a special effort will be made by
the various field crews,perhaps supplemented by a special search
team,to discover the presence of the species and the extent of its
distribution within the watershed.Remedial measures might include
the establishment of a special sanctuary for protection and pro-
pagation of the species,the transplant of the species to another
area,or similar plans.
It is very important,in order to establish credibility to the
findings and recommendations,that this study be made by a recognized
expert in the taxonomy and distribution of Alaskan fishes.In
addition)this investigator will require some technical assistance
for review of the literature,examination of specimens and the
possible field collection.
PROPOSED AGENCY
Taxonomist (Dr.Willimovsky,University of British Columbia,or
Dr.Morrow,formerly University of Alaska)
--,
-
.-
ADDENDA
TO SUBTASK 7.10
FISHERIES ANALYSIS
7.10-23
-
-
7.10-24
SPAWNING CRITERIA
The general requirements are an environment in which the adults
are able to spawn with a minimum of molestation~the nest is pro-
tected during the egg incubation period,the newly-hatched fry
are sheltered,and growth and migration are allowed to proceed
without interruption.
Salmonoid fish are gravel nest builders.
As oxygen is a requirement for egg development and for support
of newly-hatched juveniles,streams that have oxygen levels of
near saturation are the best producers.Supersaturation of nitro-
gen above a level of 104 ppm is dangerous.
Silt has a negative effect on spawning conditions.
In general,salmon and trout spawn in the same general stream
areas,with depth factors somewhat commensurate with the weight
of the fish.Trout select areas ranging from 6 inches to 2.5
feet in depth;salmon spawn between ranges of 9 inches and 3.5
feet.
Generally,the velocity at the bed of the stream (over the spawn-
ing bed)is less than the sustained speed of the fish,which gives
velocities ranging between 1.5 and 3 fps.As stream bed composi-
tion is a factor of slope and flow (quantity)the spawning bed
composition may vary from .75 inch diameter to 4 inches diameter
on a normal grading curve.The beds are usually constructed in
stable areas of a stream at riffles or reaches.Deposited eggs
may be destroyed if the beds become dried~frozen or devoid of
oxygen during the incubation period.Eggs kept damp and supplied
with oxygen will hatch,but the newly hatched fry require flowing
water for survival.
The redds vary in size as shown in the following table:
7.10-25
*Approximate weight in pounds,average area of redds,and
area recommended per spawning pair for artificial spawning
channels,for several species of fish by various authors.
Species
Chinook
a.summer &
fall run
b.spring run
Coho
Chums
Sockeye
Chinook
(spring run)
Pinks
Trout
Reference
Burner
"
"
"
"
Chambers
et al
Hourston
MacKinnon
Stuart
Approx.
Average
Wt.-lbs.
25
15
9
10
3
5
l(?)
Average
Area of
Redd -
sq.yds.
6.1
3.9
3.4
2.7
2.1
13
0.7
0.3
Area recom-
mended per
spawning
pair-sq.yds.
24
16
14
11
8
0.7
2
t#"'.:
*Clay,C.H.,"Design of fishways and other fish facilities.1l
Canada Department of Fisheries,Ottawa.1961.
During the spawning act a defense area is enforced by the spawn~
ing pair against encroachment.The general size of this area is
shown in the above table.In the best spawning areas in streams,
redds may overlap by sUbsequent spawners.The eggs are laid in
clusters and covered by gravel.A square foot of good spawning
bed contains from 125 to 200 eggs.False redds may be dug and
abandoned;pink salmon particularly are noted for this phenomenon.
When spawning grounds are overcrowded,spawning may occur in un-
desirable areas,resulting in little or no production.If fish
are denied access to proper spawning grounds,females may die
unspawned or the eggs may be deformed.
Temperature is a major factor in success of spawning,and during
their tender stage,eggs are particularly sensitive to adverse
temperature changes.
The physical measurements of spawning grounds have been taken
from a number of sources and represent hundreds of measurements
of desirable spawning reaches of river.Velocities,depths and
flows must match the timing of runs and temperature requirements.
Absence of one of these factors is sufficient to negate the effec-
tiveness of others.
Anadromous stocks,which do not feed from the time of entry into
fresh water,live on their stored energy.
7.10-26
Figure 1
3 E"D5E OF WATER
VELOC ITt DJ 5 TR.18 UTION
CURVE
SE\...ECTE!:I C"f>T/I'1UM RANG E OF
V EL.O<:.tTY FO R SPE.CI ES 1,\.1
STR.EAM,
VELOCITY
_...--~WlbTH OF CROS~~E'-TION c.ONTAlm4J6..
OPTIMUM VEL.OCITY RANGE
I-'-~~-&--J-i
W1D"'rH OF CReSS SE<:.T10N C:ONTA.I~
OPTimUM V£'-OCITY AND DEPTH ~
DEPTH
S~l...Ec..TED Of'TlI'iI UM.RAMC,E.
O'F "tlEF'""t''K FOR SPECI E-S ltJ
STREA.M.
<:Ross
WI'D1'<l OF CROSS .SE<:'110N CONmIN~N6
OPTtM.UM l)e?TH RAN6E
O---,.~:-_~---,_W:.:..:::A.TS~;::R~5~U:=R.;:::...:A...:;C.=E=-"':L-~_--=-__-':""_--/,"'::""'_
k
l(l
~~.J~
K
fuQZ,-+-----~~--l.------------_+_;.-.-----
,~FISH VEl.OeI1l'-TAKEN AT .sP,Q..WN IN.G DE"PTf-\,"I,:e.0.4 ~t AE£)vE EclT0M.
'it~De..?TH EXAGGER.ATEb F6R C-L.AR.1T'/CNT\-\tS bJA..GRAM·
METHOb 61=A.?P UCATIO N 0 F O"PTIMUM
C.R\TERlA.TO A "PAR.TICU LAR STUD'!5EC.TIO}-.J.
Wd:ihinsbn ~tatt.De.pa ..tl>1e...t of"Fi:ihe~le..:;.
1:I ...a......."]'2.-19-Go7 ~1:~/l.c.~e.
Figure 2 7.10-27
\\\~\,..
\\\
VELeY'ITY AIII/).'h \\--VELIDEPTIICOt-BIY£'~.PEPTi CITY
!;\
\\\
\\\
)\\
\,
\
/\
\
\,..I
.\
\
\
~\
\
\
\
\:
\1
'~\',
\
,
'"1\'"'\'\'.....,
)\
\,
)
"J
~V //
,/
",
~+o:-_;v""--"1.----~
...,::::;~o o FEET 20 ~60 80 /00 120
AMOUNT OF ..5ECTfOtV HAVING OPTIMUM SPAWNING CONDITfO,l./1.
.2.00
1400
1000
~
1200
-'l~
~1000'.J
~I
~
Q
l;:800.-
W:::;:
......600~
,»~
400
SPAWNING CHARAc.TERlSTjC CURVES,TypICAL STREAM
WaShfn'j+OII ~hJ"D"-p",,..t,,,e.o-t o\'F,":;nv·ic,
"tlr'~LoI'I '.1'l.-la-,-'1 t3'j ~~AG.E£
..~,.
"""f
7.10-28
REFERENCES
Chambers,John S'.'George H.Allen,and Richard T.Pressey,
"Research relating to study of spawning grounds in natural areas."
Washington Department of Fisheries,Unpublished Annual report to
U.S.Army Corps of Engineers,Contract No.DA 35026-Eng-20572.
Olympia.1955.
Pressey,Richard T.,John S.Chambers,and George H.Allen,
tlResearch relating to study of spawning grounds in natural
~reas."Washington State Department of Fisheries,Unpublished
Progress report,February 1 to March 1,1955,to U.S.Army .
Corps of Engineers,Contract No.DA 35026-Eng-20572.Olympia •
1955.
~~ttley,C.,"Loss of weight by rainbow trout at spawning
time.".Transactions of the American Fisheries Society,
67:207-210.1937.
McNeil,William J.,and Warren H.Ahnell,lISuccess of pink salmon
spawning relative to size of spawning bed materials.1I U.S.Fish
and Wi~dlife Service,Special Scientific Report -Fisheries No.
469.Washington,D.C.January,1964.
Olson,P.A.,and R.F.Foster,"Temperature tolerance of eggs
and young of Columbia River chinook salmon."Transactions of
the American Fisheries Society,85:203-207.19~5.
Terhune,L.D.B.,lithe Mark VI groundwater standpipe for measur-
ing seepage through salmon spawning gravel."Fisheries Research
Board of Canada,Journal,15(5):1027-1063.September,1958.
Coble,Daniel VI.,"Influence of water exchange and dissolved
oxygen in redds on survival of steelhead trout embryos."
Transactions of the American Fisheries Society,90(4):469-474.
Cctober,1961.
McIrvin,Ronald David,"Fine particle movement through a granular
bed."~s thesis.University of Washington,Seattle,Washington.
1965.
Sheridan,William 1.,IIWaterflow through a salmon spawning riffle
in Southeastern Alaska.I 'U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service,Spec-
ial Scientific Report -Fisheries No.407.Washington,D.C.
1962.
-
. -..:1
Sheridan,William L.,"Relation of stream temperatures to timing
of pink salmon escapements in Southeast Alaska."H.R.MacMillan
Lectures in Fisheries -"Symposium on pink salmon,"pp.87-102.
University of British Columbia,Vancouver.1962.
Wickett,W.P.,"Review of certain envirorunental factors affect-
ing the production of pink and chum salmon."Fisheries Research
Board of Canada,Journal,15(5).1103-1126.September,1958.
Canada Department of Fisheries,"Punt1edge River:the fisheries
problems associated with the power development of the Puntledge
River,Vancouver Island,B.C."Vancouver,B.C.O;;tober,1958.
Burner,C.J.,"Characteristics of spawning nests of Columbia River
salmon."Fishery Bulletin,52(61):97-110.Washington,D.C.1951.
Krokhin,E.M.,and F.V.Krogius,"Study of the basin of the
Bo1shaya River and its salmon spawning places."Translated by
Dmi tri Khrenov (Nlarch 1950)from Bulletin of the Pacific Scientific
Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography (U.S.S.R.)9:3-150.1937.
Vaux,Walter G.,"Interchange of stream and intragravel water in a
salmon spawning riffle."U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service,Special
Scientific Report -Fisheries No.405.Washington,D.C.March,
1962.
McNeil,William J.,"Effect of the spawning bed envirorunent on
reproduction of pink and chum salmon."U.S.Fish and Wildlife
Service,Fishery Bulletin 65(2):495-523.Washington,D.C.1966 •
sa10,Ernest O.and William H.Bayliff,"Artificial and natural
production of silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)at Minter
Creek,Washington."Washington State Department of Fisheries,
Research Bulletin 4.January,1958.(revision of the senior
author's Ph Dthesis)
McNeil,William J.,"Environmental factors affecting survival of
young.salmon in spawning beds and their possible relation to
logging.II U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service,Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries,Manuscript report no.64-1.Washington,D.C.
April,1964.
7.10-30
TEMPERATURE -EFFECTS ON FISH
Natural environmental temperature changes impose stresses on fish
populations.Over many years various species and subspecies have
adjusted to upper and lower levels,within which are optimum ranges.
Exhibits A to K show ranges for fish common to the Pacific Coast
regions.
When natural or artificial phenomena cause shifts away from opti-
mum ranges,the populations are depressed.Usually,under natural
cyclic conditions,the stressing is not repeated in successive
years.
In dealing with cold-water species,it has been found that adults
may die unspawned if sUbjected to long periods of higher than nor-
mal temperatures.Adult fish have been known to cease migrating
when sUbjected to extreme temperatures.
During the egg's tender stage,which may exist during the first
half of the incubation period,elevated or lowered temperatures
from the upper or lower tolerance range result in increased mortal-
ities.During this stage,a sudden raising or lowering of tempera-
tures can cause excessive mortalities.
Spawning may cease if the temperature drops near or below the lower
tolerance range.
Growth of the young is also related to temperature levels.Gen-
erally,all cold-water fish cease growing at temperatures above
68 0 F.because of increased metabolic rate.
As temperature affects the gas equilibrium in water,a nitrogen
embolism can be caused and oxygen deficiencies created.
Heat is a synergistic effect and must be considered when
measuring other stresses within the environment.
Fish are capable of sensing a temperature differential of less
than .5 0 F.
--
-
7.10-31
SILT AND TURBIDITY
In considering the effects of transported sediments on stream
beds and fisheries,it is necessary to distinguish between the
types of sediment.
Bed load is material moving on or near the bed.
It may consist of materials rolled or slid along
the bed in substantially continuous contact with
the bed.
Turbidity is caused by fine materials,mainly
inorganic,although it also can be caused by
organic materials,or a combination of both.
Turbidity should not be confused with water color,which is
due to staining action.Pigment extracts from vegetation often
occur in solution in acid swamps and bogs,imparting a brown
color to waters emanating from them.Dyes and other highly
colored substances frequently present in industrial wastes also
may stain water.Since pigments in solution,as well as parti-
cles in suspension,reduce the amount of light transmitted,the
color of water affects turbidimetBr readings,making them too
high.
Turbidity in lakes and reservoirs commonly is determined as
that depth at which a Secchi disc reading is obtainable.There
are at least three recognized methods of measuring turbidity.
Where the Jackson turbidity meter is used,the assumption has
been made that one Jackson Turbidity Unit (JTU)is equal to one
ppm on a silica scale.Other methods give readings in parts per
million or weight per unit volume.
Sedimentation is a result of the settling-out or deposition
of suspended materials.This occurs mainly in quiet waters,as
lakes,reservoirs,and stream sections with low velocities.
Particles causing bed load or turbidity may be deposited or sus-
pended,depending on the velocity,and become interchangeable.
The sedimentation rates follow Stokes'Law and depend upon (1)
the density of the fluid (water)through which the particle is
falling,(2)the density or relative weight of the particle,that
is,the specific gravity of the particle,and (3)the size of the
particle.A sedimentation time of one hour usually is used as an
index.As the density of water varies with temperature,a cor-
rection must be made.
Some reservoirs are so constructed that they can be flushed
periodically to remove the accumulated sediment.When such
reservoirs are located upstream from the spawning areas of
anadromous fish,the resultant heavy load of silt deposited down-
stream during flushing may interfere with spawning and seriously
reduce successful egg incubation.
Silt may occur as a result of natural causes,such as land slides,
the washing of glacial flour and normal bank cutting or bed ero-
-
7.10-32
sion.In addition silt materials can be deposited from mlnlng
activities,gravel washing,land use and forestry practices.
Excess turbidity from organic materials in the process of oxida-
tion may reduce oxygen below safe levels.
Relatively large quantities (500 to 1,000 ppm)of suspended water-
borne material can be carried for short periods of time without
detriment to fish.The catch of fish is affected above levels
of 30 JTU,as visual references are lost.Primary food production
is lowered above levels of 25 JTU.
The effect of bed load is not so well defined by ppm or volume.
Its presence can kill buried eggs or alevins by denying water
interchange and can smother food organisms.
Experimental data indicate that in the Scott River,California,
the organisms,which averaged 249 per square foot above the
silt-laden tributary,were reduced to 36 organisms below.This
is verified by work below placer ciines in Alaska,where fine mater-
ials were deposited on the bed of a stream.It was found in the
Stilliguamish River in Washington that 50 to 100 percent of the
eggs deposited were lost,owing to the low permeability of the
river bed below a natural slide.Work in Bluewater Creek in
the State of Montana has indicated that when the sediment load in
the stream was reduced,the trout production was materially
increased and the rough fish production reduced.Studies con-
ducted after a natural slide in the Chilcotin River in British
Columbia indicated that salmonoid fish will not move in streams
where the silt content is above 4,000 ppm.Streams with silt
loads averaging between 80 and 400 ppm should not be considered
good areas for supporting fresh water fisheries;streams with less
than 25 ppm may be expected to support good fresh water fisheries.
The following is a comparison of lake production and turbidity
levels:
pounds of fish
per acre
Clear lakes below 25 ppm
Intermediate lakes (25 to 100 ppm)
MUddy lakes over 100 ppm
160
94
30
Some species of fish will not spawn in excessively turbid water,
such as bass and bluegill.Female salmon and trout,in the course
of their prespawning activity,will wash the silt away from the
gravel in the redd.However,when the deposition of an excess
amount of silt occurs throughout the redd after spawning has
been complet~d,there is a resultant interference with the pro-
per percolation of water upward through the redd,loss of dissolved
oxygen,and lack of proper removal of catabolic products.This
"smothering"of eggs also promotes the growth of fungus,which
)~.
,,-
7.10-33
may spread from dead eggs throughout the entire redd.The extent
of the harmful effects of siltation on the spawning and egg incu-
bation of salmon and trout depends upon the amount and type of
material deposited,as well as the time of occurrence.When silt
contains clay particles,resembling loam,it may form a hard,
compact crust over the stream bed which spawning fish are unable to
remove,thus rendering the spawning area unusable.The same con-
dition may occur when organic materials,such as wood pulp fibers,
are mixed with silt,forming an impenetrable mat over the spawning
rubble.Silt also may contain toxic residues from industrial or
agricultural wastes which may be lethal to developing eggs and
alevins.
Generally,salmonoid eggs will suffer a mortality of 85 percent
when 15 to 20 percent of the voids are filled with sediment.
Properly constructed sediment basins,built in connection with
road bUilding activities,gravel wash and mining operations,which
effectively remove the sediment,are recommended to eliminate this
source of silt.
Most experimental work has shown that whereas fish can survive
high concentrations of suspended matter for short periods,pro-
longed exposure to some types of materials in most species re-
sults in a thickening of the cells of the respiratory epithelium
(so-called clubbed gills)and the eventual fusion of adjacent
gill lamellae,definitely interfering with respiration.Fish
do not have gill cleaners for removing foreign matter,and must
rely on the flow of water through the gill chambers,the pro-
duction of lubricating mucous and intermittent "coughing."
Evidence of gill irritation in trout and salmon fingerlings held
in turbid water has been noted frequently by fish culturists,and
is considered a common avenue of infection for fungi and patho-
genic bacteria.
It is apparent that some species,such as salmon,suffer more
physical distress in turbid water than do others.
Fine materials that cause turbidity are detrimental in hatchery
operations,coating the eggs and thus reducing the necessary
oxygen interchange.
Figure 1 gives a graphic presentation of survival versus
apparent velocity through the gravel redds.
-
90
80
70
60
-'~;;:
0<:>.......~O
'"......
0<......
40
0
!O
0
20
0
10
0 0
0
Figure 1
~__-----o
/
I
0.01 0.0 a .0.0!
APPARENT VELOCITY IN CENTlIolETERS PER S"COND
0.0.
7.10-34
Rebtioll between rate of flow of water through a gravel bed and the
survival of eyed sockeye eggs in the gravel.
Figure 2 7.10-35
~'u
.2u>
'-o
.:
'1•..;...::::...;"'u<I.r:c--
C -N ._C
""""'::'v
...:~t_
l):£
::>
C
'0
..,.;
"3
;:;...
filii _&:
"Co
~..
...
'"~
ci
'"..o
<>
'"..
o
<>
ooo
a2~~f ~~~~~2
1HDIJM All tlJNIJ J.Nl:!tlJd
-.,--.-...I ...\----'\"-"\"-1--,-I
_._-
I 1 I I,"-__L~
AI
I
V~V I17I
If /...
ty If...
i t
I I I 1/-~:-
I --i7T i
~t---I-
i !/i~lYr~U"~i tL s Ii i
I ---:'1 -s I---[-1---'j---.1
!./'7
V /----~
V l/l--"h"----~~1--'\.
~-
~0;
~~V I---
---~~
I
~-
-
7.10-36
REFERENCES
Cooper,A.C.,"The effect of transported stream sediments on the
survival of sockeye and pink salmon eggs and alevin."International
Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission,Bulletin XVIII.New West-
minster,B.C.1965.
Marcuson,Pat,"Stream sediment investigation."Montana Fish and
Game Department,Fisheries Division,South Central Montana Fishery
Study.Job Completion Report,Research Project Segment.Project
No.F-20-R-13,Job No.III.Helena,Montana.Unpublished.October
1,1967 through September 30,1968.
Peters,John C.,"The effects of stream sedimentation on trout
embryo survival."Montana Fish and Game Department,Billings,
Montana.1962.
Mclrvin,Ronald David,"Fine particle movement through a granular
bed."M.S.thesis.University of Washington,Seattle,Washington.
1965.
Heg,Robert T.,"Stillaguamish slide study:summary of data obtained
by Research Division during 1952."Unpublished report.Washington
Department of Fisheries,Olympia,Washington.1952.
McNeil,William J.,"Environmental factors affecting survival of
young salmon in spawning beds and their possible relation to
logging."U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service,Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries,Manuscript Report No.64-1.Washington,D.C.April,
1964..
U.S.Federal Water Control Administration,Northwest Region,Alaska
Water Laboratory,"Effects of placer mining on water quality in
Alaska."College,Alaska.February,1969.
Kuenen,P.H.and F.L.Humbert,"Bibliography of turbidity currents
and turbities."in "Turbidities"(Developments in sedimentology,"
Volume 3),editied by A.H.Bouma and A.Brouwer.
Smith,Osgood R.,"Placer mining silt and its relation to salmon
and trout on the Pacific Coast."Transactions of the American
Fisheries Society,69:225-230.1939.
The above are a few selected references.There are a number of
on-going studies on the effects of siltation on salmonid fish,
only some of which have been published.They are not yet annotated,
but are available for review and use in the Susitna project.
-
7.10-37
TOXICITIES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Remarks
Barium
Boron
CadF·ium
ChromiLli"ll
Appears to be less cumulative:in the body than 801;1('other
metallic poisons.Indications are that in the carbonate
or sulfate form it is relatively insoluble e.nd therefore
not apt to be present 1.n solution.In Hashington most
s t)~ee.ms contain sufficient bicarbonate to precipitate all
hut l:lip.ute amounts of barium.Could be present in col-
loidal susrensi0~,a chelate,an organic compound,or in
otller 't:ays.
Althotlbh boron may be toxic to humans and animals in high
concentrations,there appears to be so little likelihood
of such concentre,tions be,ing reached that boren is not
considered a hazard.Boron is believed to be present in
Hashington \\Iaters in 01.1ly trace amounts.
The Dept.of Health,Education and Helfare,Public Health
Service,Drinl:in~'"':ater Standards.imposes a mandatory
limit on cadmium of 0.01 mg/l,on the basis of its toxic-
ity to humans.Cadmium appears to be som,~·.vhat cumulative
in the body.
Chromit;m does not:appear to be cumulative in the hody.
The U.S.P.H.S.Ij_mit is derived partially from the fact
that 0.05 m6 /1 is about the 10'.}('r limit of d'2.tcctability
of hexavalent chromium.PublishE'd inforLlation indicates
tlwt Iilueh 13r(;er concentrations are \-Jitllout adverse ef-
fects upon hmlans,and it is probabl~that the U.S.l'.H.S.
limit of:0.05 In:::,!'l is extremely conservative.
Chromium app'22l"S toxic to pl'Jntf;,but the level at
\·]hich toxic effects bq:,iu to 12 discernible appears to be
not less thaD 1.0 ng/l.
Goal*
Standard*~':
"""'
Barium
Goal
Standard
Boron
Goal
Standard
Goal
Standard
Cadmium
Goal
Standard
Goal
Standard
Chromium
Goal
Standard
Goal
Standard
Limits
W.Q.C.
Fresh Hater
0.01 mg/l
0.05 mg/l
Salt \'!ater
0.05 mg/1
0.06 mg/1
Fresh Water
0.1 mg/1
0.3 mg/l
Salt Water
4.7 mg/l
5.5 mg/l
Fresh \-Ja ter
0.0005 mg/l
0.001 mg/l
Salt \~ater
0.00011 mg/l
0.00013 mg/l
Fresh Water
Trace
0.01 mg/l
Salt \~ater
0.00005 mg/l
0.00006 mg/l
7.10-38
Fish
WQC suggests a limit of 5.0 mg/l is
to protect fish and aquatic life
from toxic effects.
Fish appear to be quite sensitive
to cadmium.In addition there
appears to be a synergistic effect
between cadmium and other metals,
notably zinc.The lowest concen-
tration indicated as being lethal
to fish is equal to the U.S.P.R.S.
limit of 0.01 mg/l.Salmon fry
are reported to have been killed
by 0.03 mg/l of cadmium together
with 0.15 mg/l of zinc.
Fish are less sensitive to chromium
than are other organisms in the
aquatic food chain.Concentrations
of-0.016 mg/l and less appear toxic
to organisms such as Daphnia magna,
although the evidence is not unani-
mous on this point.
***
Sec last page
of table.
r
Copper
Iron
Lead
7.10-39
Remarks
The-U.S.P.H.S.Drinking Water Standards recommended limit
on copper is 1.0 mg/l.
Copper is essential to plant life,but toxic when
present in excess.The permissible range appears to lie
belm"about 0.1 mg/l for-the most sensitive macroscopic
plants.
Threshold toxic limits of copper to animals appear to
be substantially higher than the limit proposed for human
use.
Copper sulfate is widely used as a cheap and effective
algicide;however,in hard water the margin between the dos-
age required as an effective algicide and the toxic level
for fish is very narrow,and may result in fish kills.
Marine biota are sensitive to copper.Oyster larvae
require some copper (0.05-0.06 mg/l),but toxic effects
begin to occur between 0.1 and 0.5 mg/l.
Stock and wildlife require some iron as do humans.There
is no evidence to indicate that the toxicity threshold for
animals is substantially lm,er than for humans.
Irrigated agriculture is relatively unaffected by
iron.Some iron appears to-be beneficial to certain
plants.
The U.S.P.R.S.Drinking Water Standards mandatory limit
on lead concentration is 0.05 mg/l.This limit is based
on the toxicity of lead,enhanced by its tendency to
accumulate in the body.
There is some evidence that lead is injurious to
plants,but the thre.shold concentrations appear to be
well ~bove the U.S.P.ll.S.Drinking 1'later Standards limit.
Animals are sensitive to lead poisoning,as are
humans,and apparently to about the same extent.
Aquatic life also is susceptible to toxic effects
from lead,although the mechanism by 'lh{~h the damage
occurs may be different.-
Goal
Standard
Salt Hater-Goal Less than 0.05
mg/l
Standard Less than 0.06
.-mg/l
Copper
Limits
W.Q.C.
Fresh Hater
0~02 mg/l
0.05 .mg/l above
riaturalbackground
7.10-40
Fish
The effects of copper on fish appear
to be magnified enormously by symbi-
otic association with zinc!cadmium!
phosphate!chlorine!mercury and other
materials.Concentrations of copper
as low as 0.015 mg/l have been reported
as toxic.The effect of copper is
pronounced in soft water!possibly be-
cause copper carbonate precipitates .
from hard water and thus limits the
concentration of copper in solution.
Other aquatic organisms of importance
to the food chain of fish are quite
sensitive to copper.The maximum
concentration of copper sulfate for
trout is 0.014;carp 0.30!and gold
fish 0.50.
Iron
Fresh Hater
Goal 0.0 mg/l)-Total
Standard 0.1 mg/l)iron
above
natural
content
Salt Hater
Goal 0.1 mg/l
Standard 0.2 mg/l
Fish may be adversely affected by dis-
solved iron!although the amount of
iron in solution (ferrous iron)will
be extremely small in well-aerated
streams,i.e.!those capable of sup-
porting fish.There is some evidence
that concentrations as 10\1 as 0.2
mg/l of ferrous iron may be deleteri-
ours!but some fish are knm·m to
thrive at higher concentrations.
Lead
Fresh Hater
Goal Limit of
detectability
Standard 0.02 mg/l
......,
Goal
Standard
Salt Hater
0.00003 mg/l
0.004 mg/l
As in the case of certain other toxics!
lead appears more toxic to fish life
in soft than in hard water.Reduc-
tion of the oxygen saturation percen-
tage appears to accentuate the effect
of lead somewhat.Toxic effects from
lead have been reported in fish at
concentrations as low as 0.01 mg/l!
although other tests have shown absence
of toxic effects at concentrations as
high as [1.0 mg/!.
Hanganese
Potassium
Selenium
Silver
7.10-41
Remarks
The U.S.P.R.S.Drinking Water Standarps recommended limit
on manganese of 0.05 mg/l is based on esthetic and econ-
omic as well as physiological considerations.The physio-
logical hazards from excessive manganese are of dubious
nature and occur at uncertain threshold concentration
values,but it is apparent that 0.05 mg/l is substanti-
ally below any toxicity threshold.
Excessive concentrations of manganese may be harmful
to plants,but the threshold levels of damage appear sub-
stantially higher than the Drinking Water Standards limit.
Animals appear to be unaffected by manganese at con-
centrations substantially higher than the U.S.P.R.S.limit.
101ithin the limits imposed by commonly accepted standards,
potassium has a negligible effect on most beneficial uses
.of water.
Some potassium is essential to plant nourishment,and
it is commonly used as an ingredient (K 20)in fertilizers
to stimulate plankton growth in ponds.The range of con-
centration for this us~is on the order of 0-5 mg/l.
The U.S.P.R.S Drinking Water Standards impose a mandatory
limit on selenium of 0.01 mg/l,based on toxicity.
Plants can tolerate much more selenium than can humans.
However,food crops will incorporate some selenium into cne
edible portions and seleniuQ poisoning can result from eat-
ing the plants.This effect is not believed.to be detect-
able when the concentration of selenium in irrigation water
is below 0.01 mg/l.
Stock and wildlife are susceptible to selenium poison-
ing,the result being known as alkali disease or blind
staggers.This can result from ingestion of feed gro~nl
on selenium-rich soil,or from selenium-bearing water.It
is believed that cattle can tolerate 0.4 to 0.5 mg/l without
shouing toxic effects,and this probably represeu ts the
order of magnitude of tolerance of other animals.
The U.S.P.H.S.Drinking Water Standards mandatory limit on
silver is 0.05 mg/l.This limit is based primarily on the
cosmetic effect of silver excessive inge3tion resulting in
a permanent discoloration of the skin and eyes.From the
effects of silver on humans.it \wuld be expected that
levels safe for human consumption would be entirely safe
for terrestrial animals.
-
7.10-42
Goal
Standard
,~
Limits
Manganese W.Q.C.
Fresh Hater
Trace.
0.01 mg/l
total Mn
Fish
Fish appear to have some tolerance for
manganese and at the limLt of 0.05 mg/l
it probably is not detrimental to them.
Goal
Standard
Salt Hater
0.002 mg/l
0.04 mg/l
Adverse effects upon fish are reported at
potassium concentrations on the order of
50 mg/l,especially in soft water and water
low in total salt content.
Hater
i.5 mg/l
5.0 mg/l
Salt Hater
380 mg/l
450 mg/l
Goal
Standard
Potassium F hres
Goal
Standard
....Selenium
Fresh
Goal
Standard
Salt
Goal
Standard
i.Jater
Limit of
d~tect
ability
0.002 mg/l
Water
0.004 mg/l
0.005 mg/l
Fish appear to be somewhat more sensitive
to selenium than are humans.Quantitative
data are scarce,but it would appear that
the conservative limit established by the
U.S.P.R.S.Drinking Water Standards for
human consumption is probably acceptable
for most,if not all,fish.Fish apparent-
ly concentrate selenium in their livers,as
a result of ingestion of selenium which
enters the food chain at the plankton level.
Silver
Goal
Standard
-
,~
Fresh i-later
Goal Limit of
detccta-
bility
Standard 0.003 mg/l
Salt Hater
0.0003 mg/l
0.0004 mg/l
Fish are quite sensitive to silver,lethal
effects having been observed at concentra-
tions as low as 0.003 liB/I.
Plankton appear to be somewhat less
sensitive than fish,but the difference is
slight and,from the limited data available,
may be more apparent than real.
-
i~
-
.-
Sodium
Zinc
Ammonia
nitroge.n
Cyanide
7.10-43
Remarks
Because sodiur.1 is a \J<lste product of many beneficial uses
of water and has little adverse effect upon water in
limited amounts,the use of a river to carry sodium is of
less importance than other additives.
Sodium,like several other solutes in water,may
indicate the presence of sewage or agricultural drainage.
It is a conservative pollutant because most sodium salts
are highly soluble and hence no removal occurs in either
water treatment or sewage treatment processes.~{here the
natural sodium load is small the sodium concentration can
serve as a pollution index.
The U.S.P.R.S.Drinking Water Standards recommended limit
on zinc of 5.0 mg/l is based on esthetic effects.Zinc is
"essential to human nutrition and,while toxic in large
amounts,is not adverse physiologically within the range of
esthetic acceptability.
Zinc is essential to plant nutrition and,as with
humans,can be toxic ~f present to excess.Values as low
as 3 mg!l have been observed to be harmful.
The adverse effects of zinc to stock and wildlife are
comparable to the effects on humans.Some synergistic
effects appear to occur when zinc is present in combination
with selenium,copper and possibly other materials.
The U.S.P.R.S.Drinking Water Standards lists no limit for
an~onia nitrogen,although the ~1HO European Drinking Water
Standards set a recommended limit of 0.5 mg/l as NH 4 •How-
ever,any such limits ar~based on the presence of anunonia
being an indicator of organic pollution rather than on its
toxicity.
Because of its potentially toxic effects on fish and
because of the fact that it indicates organic pollution of
'vater and serves as a nutrient for nuisance gro'ivth.the
following limits are proposed for ammonia nitrogen.
The U.S.P.ll.S.Drinking Hater Standards contain both recom-
mended (0.01 mg!l)and the wandatory (0.2 mg/l)limits for
cyanide.These limits"arc b<lsed on toxicity.but the deri-
vation of them ~ppears to be founded more on toxicity to
fish than to hU;:1ans.
Stock and wildlife appear no more sensitive toward
cyanide than do humans.
-
7.10-44
Limits
Sodium \v.Q.C.
Fresh \vater
Goal 10 mg!l over
natural con-
centration
Standard 35 mg!l over
natural con-
centration
Fish
Goal
Standard
Salt Hater
10,500 mg!l
12,500 mg!l
Standard
Fresh
Goal
-
Zinc
Salt
Goal
Standard
\\'ater
Limit of detect-
ability
Limit of detect-
ability
\-later
0.01 mg!l
0.012 mg!l
Fish are strongly affected by zinc.Con-
centrations as low as 0.01 mg!l have been
observed to be lethal.The toxicity of
zinc is greatest in soft water.Shell-
fish appear less sensitive to zinc than
do s~.,rimmers,but are able to concentrate
zinc from large amounts of water,possibly
by ingestio~of plankton which concentrate
zinc from the water.
-
Fish appear quite sensitive to cyanide,
more so than do lm'7er forms of aquatic
life.The lowest concentration at which
toxic effects are noted is 0.05 mg!l
(trout);but 0.02 mg!l were survived by
trout for a period of 27 day·s.In view of
the other data cited,the U.S.P.H.S.reCOQ-
mended limit (0.01 mg/l)is probably a
reasonable limit for safety to all aquatic life.
Fish appear to be more affected by undis-
sociated anunonium hydroxide (N1-1 4 0B)than
by the ammonium ion (NH 4+).Thus the
toxici.ty of a given concentration of am-
monia to fish increases with increasing
pH.As with most other toxicants,the
effects of ammonia are increased at low
oxygen concentrations.The concentra-
tions of ammonia at ~"hich fish suf fer
distress are variously reported at from
0.3 mg/l upward,but the majority of
values indicated lie above 1.0 mg!l.
\·!atcr
None detect-
able
0.01 mg/l
Hater
0.005 mg!l
0.01 mG/l
Hater
0.3 mg!l
0.5 mg!l
Salt Hater
0.0025 mg!l
.0.003 mg!l
Goal
Standard
Goal
Standard
Goal
Standard
Salt
Cyanide
Fresh
Goal
Standard
Ammonia
nitrogen
Fresh
-
-
7.10-45
Remarks
Fluoride The U.S.P.R.S.Drinking Water Standards mandatory fluoride
limit varies from 0.6 to 1.7 rug/I,depending in part on the
average air temperature and hence the amount of water con-
sumed per day.For drinking purposes,fluoride is generally
considered to be a valuable addition to water.Too much
fluoride,however,leads to mottled tooth enamel and in
high doses it can be toxic.
The threshold concentration of fluoride in water at
which damage to irrigated crops begins to occur appears to
lie bet\07een 10 and 100 mg/1.
1.0 mg!l of fluoride seems to have no deleterious
effect on livestock.
Nitrate A major problem with ~itrate is eutrophication.Blooms of
algae and other aquatic plants have severe economic and
esthetic effects,affect fish and other aquatic life,
including the killing of fish when a bloom dies and deoxy-
genation occurs,and cause serious problems in water treat-
ment for domestic use.Blooms of algae and massive growths
of other aquatic plants are possible when the nitrate con-
tent in the presence of other essential nutrients is about
0.5 mg!l or more .
.Based on considerations of eutrophication alone,the
following limits for nitrate are used.
remove immediately all excess
This can be done by vigorously
excess gas is released to the
easy to
supply.
so that
Water ,dll absorb only a certain amount of nitrogen from
the air at atmospheric pressure and at a given ten~erature.
Hhen the air is under pressure the water becomes super-
saturated with dissolved gases (oxygen,nitrogen,and carbon
dioxide).Excess nitrogen often occurs in spring or well
\.;rater.It also may result from air entering the intake side
ofa ¥~t~r pump,or from air entering the intake of a
gravity pipe line and being forced into solution by the
gravity head on the line.Sudden \o]arming of ,.;rater may cause
su~ersaturatiou.
It is not ahlays
nitrogen from a water
breaking up the water
atmosphere.
Nitrogen
Goal
Standard
....
Limits
Fluoride \ol.Q.C.
Fresh Hater
Goal 0.5 mg/1
Salt Hater
1.3 mg/1
1.5 trig/1
7.10-46
Fish.
Fish and other aa~uatic life appear to be
affected by fluoride in much the same way
as do land animals,and in approximately
the same concentration ranges.The lowest
concentration at which adverse effects are
reported (slower and poorer hatching)
(species not identified)is 1.5 mg/1.
Nitrate
Fresh
Goal
Standard
Nitrogen
Hater
0.1 mg/1
.natura1
tent
0.4 mg/1
natural
tent
above
con-
above
con-
Fish appear relatively indifferent to
ni~ra,te,although the associated nitrite
can be toxic to the~.Nitrite is an inter-
Dlediate compound betHeen n1.trate.and the
more reduced forms of nitrogen and seldom
persis.ts long as nitrate,being readily
oxidized or reduced.
Salt Water
Goal Less than
0.6 mg/1
Standard 0.6 mg/1
Saturation Of the excess gases in supersaturated water,
nitrogen is least tolerated by fish.Nitro-
gen is absorbed into the blood stream,
causing gas bubbles \.,rhich result in death
of the fish.Fry will develop a visible gas
bubble in the body cavity.
The percent of nitrogen saturation in
water which is detrimental or lethal to
salmon is as fol1ows:--
Fry--103%
Fingerlings and year1ings--ll3%(lethal)
--105-112%(eye
daniage and blind-
ness)
Adult salmon---------------l18%(eye
damage)
,~
.-
,-
Phosphates
Radio-
activity
Surfactants
.Hydrogen
sulfide
(H 2 S)
7.10-47
Remarks
Phosphates are of concern primarily because of the fact
that phosphorus.being a fertilizer.frequently present
naturally only in limited amounts.can contribute to the
growth of aquatic organisms.especially when water is
impounded.Such growths can reach severe nuisance pro~
portions even with very small phosphate concentrations.
Heavy algal blooms have been observed in lakes when the
phosphate concentration exceeds 0.03 mg/1.
The effects of radioactivity in surface waters are extremly
complex.However.there appears to be no safe threshold
below which no damage to man or other living organisms
will result from exposure to ionizing radiation.Any
exposure is detrimental.It appears that concentration is
by far the most serious effect.Radionuclides in the
aquatic or marine environment may affect organisms by (a)
direct radiation from the water or accumulated bottom sedi-
ments.(b)absorption of radioactive material on the body
surfaces,(c)absorption through cell meniliranes of soluble
substances.and Cd)irtgestion or radionuc1ides along with
food and water.For herbivores and carnivores,including
fish,ingestion of radionucl~des concentrated by 1mver forms
of life appears to be the major route of accumulation.
Surfactants are also known as surface-acting agents or
detergents.The surfactant formerly in widespread use in
household washing products was ABS,which presented a
considerable problem.The surfactant used almost exclu-
sively since 1965 is LAS,which is more readily biodegradable.
The U.S.P.R.S.Drinking Water Standards recommended
limit for ABS is 0.5 mg/1.The substitution of terms and
retention of the former limits would appear reasonable for
LAS •
The sources of H2 S in water include natural processes of
decomposition.sewage and industrial wastes.such as those
from tanneries,paper mills,textile mills.chemical plants,
and gas-manufacturin~works.It is a major component of
Kraft mill waste liquors,Hhich is the principal source"of
this type of pollution in the Pacific North\vest.
In the presence of certain su1fur~utilizing bacteria,
sulfides and 1I 2 S can be oxidized to colloidal sulfur.and
these bacteria or their deposits may be considered as
corollary pollutants.
Goal
Standard
Goal
Standard
Limits
Phosphates W.Q.C.
Fresh Hater
0.03 mg/l
0.15 mg/l
Salt Hater
0.3 mg/l
0.4 mg/l
7.10-48
:Fish
phosphates are of no direct toxic signifi-
cance to fish.However,like nitrogen
compounds,they present a eutrophication
problem.\.;then a plant bloom dies and
deoxygenation occurs fish kills may result.
Radio-
activity
Goal
Fresh and Salt
Hater
No induced
radioactivity
U.S.P.H.S.
Drinking
'Water
Standards
Exposure to humans and fishes can be in-
creased profoundly by consumption of food
products such as shellfish or plankton,
some of which concentrate radionuclides
within themselves from large amounts of
wate.r.
The present radioactivity in the
Columbia River poses no direct somatic
hazard toward fish.
Surfactants
Fresh and Sal t "later
Goal Trace
Standard 0.10 mg/l
Hydrogen sulfide
.The maximum concentra-
tion of H2S tolerated by
fish is \nthin the range
of 0.3-1.0 mg/l.Chinook
salmon have survived in '
tests at a H2S concentra-
tion of 0.3 mg/I,cut-
throat trout at 0.5 mg/l,
and silver salmon at
0.7 mg/l.
Fish and aquatic organisms are subject to
toxic effects of surfactants;the concen-
tration necessary to produce such effects
appear to be one or more orders of magni-
tude greater than the U.S.P.H.S.Drinking
Water Standards (0.5 mg/l),for the most
part.
HZS at a concentration of 10 mg/l has been
reported as toxic to a salmon and trout in
24 hours.
At a concentration of 10.0 mg/l it is
reported as toxic to trout in 15 minutes.
.....
.-
Methanethiol
Hethyl ethyl
Ketone
Phenol and
Phenolic
Compounds
Hercury
7.10-49
Remarks
This gas is also knmvn as methyl mercaptan,and occurs
in ~raft pulp mill wastes.At certain concentrations
and \'1ater temperatures it can be highly toxic to fish.
This is a widely used liquid solvent in industry.It
is used in the manufactu~e of synthetic resins,and is
highly soluble in \-later.Bio-assays indicate that at
certain concentrations it is toxic to fish.
Phenolic \-lastes arise from the distillation of \-1Ood,
from chemical plants,gas \-lorks,oil refineries and
other industrial operations,as well as from human
and animal refuse.Phenol is commonly used in the
manufacture of synthetic-resins and other industrial
compounds.It is highly soluble in water.
Phenol is bi.ologically dissimilated in a concen-
tration of 1.0 mg/l at 20 0 C.in 1 to 7 days under
aerobic conditions.At 4°C.(39.2 F)complete dis-
similation required 5-19 days.Under anaerobic condi-
tions dissimilation occurs at a slower rate.
The U.S.P.B.S.Drinking Hater Standards recom-
mended limit of 0.001 mg/l for phenol is primarily an
esthetic limit,based upon the undesirable taste
imparted to \'1ater by chlorination \vhen even minute
a~ounts of phenol are present.
Hercury has been found to be inert.but enters the
aquatic food chain and becomes concentrated in fish
and is transferred from prey to predator .
Methanethiol
Limits
lJ.Q.C.
7.10-50
.Fish
TT T f °C.\~ater emp.0 ··test,
NinimUlll concentration
for complete kill,mg/l.
Naximum concentration for
no kill,mg/1.
Methyl ethyl Ketone
Water temp.of test,°C.
Fish adversely affected,
24 and 48 hours,mg/l
TLm,24 and 48 hours,mg/l
TLm,24,48,and 96 hours,
mg/l
Chinook Salmon
15.5-19.5
0.9
0.5
Bluegill
20.0
3,380
5,640
Silver Salmon
12-18
1.75
0.7
Gambusia
20.0
5,600
Ct.Trout
9-15
1.2
0.9
Phenol and Phenolic Compounds
Fresh Hater
Goal Limit of detecta-
bility
Standard 0.0005 mg/l
Salt '~ater
Goal 0.04 mg/l
Standard 0.05 rug/l
Fish gre reported to have been harmed by
phenol concentrations as low as 0.079 mg/l.
However,the taste of fish may be affected
by subtoxic levels of phenol in the water.
The reported lethal co~centrations of
phenolic compounds for fish vary widely not
only because of the common variables such
as species,temperature,time of contact,
dissolved oxygen and mineral quality of
water,but also because of synergistic and
antagonistic effects of other substances in
the y]ater.Many phenolic substances are
more toxic than pure phenol.
--
Mercury
Fresh Hater
Goal Limit of detecta-
bility
Standard 0.05 mg/l
(interim)
At this time mercury kills hnve not been
reported.
Niscellancous
7.10-51
Remarks
There are a large number of miscellaneous toxicants
that may be present in industrial effluents.These
would include mercaptans,sulfides,resins,chlorine
and residues from metal processing.These are also
contained in pulp mill effluents.They can be
readily reduced to near zero levels by effective
effluent treatment.Because of their adverse effect
and because they are amenable to removal from waste
streams,concentrations of these effluents should not
exceed the limits of reliable analytical detectability.
I"lisce11aneous
Goal
Standard
Goal
Standard
Limits
H.Q.C.
Fresh Hater
None detectable
None detectable
Salt Hater
None detectable
None detectable
7.10-52 .
In'addition to their direct toxic
effects on fish,vUlich may be
considerable,some of these efflu-
ent products,as spent sulfite
liquor,may exert indirect harmful
effects such as deoxygenation and
eutrophication.
*Goal,the more restrictive of the quality criteria,is defined as
the desirable value of water quality parameters.which mayor may
not be practicable at the present time.
**Standard.the less restrictive of the quality criteria,is pro~
posed as an objective to be ac~ieved or maintained immediately
or within a short period of time.
-
7.10-53
REFERENCES
McKee,Jack Edward,and Harold W.Wolf,"Water quality criteria."
California state Water Quality Control Board,Publication 3-A.
Second edition.Sacramento,California.1963.
Sylvester,Robert 0.,and Carl A.Rambow,"Water quality of the
State of Washington."Volume IV of "An Initial Study of the
Water Resources of the state of Washington."Washington State
Water Research Center,Pullman,Washington.1967.
Jones,J.R.Ericksen,"Fish and River Pollution."Butterv/orths,
London.1964.
7.10-55
(all readings in mg/liter)
South central Alaska streams
Dick Creek
Nr.Cordova
South ~·orK
Campbell Creek
at Canyon Houth
Nr.Anchorage
North Fork
Campbell Creek
Nr.Anchorage
Campbell Creek
Nr.Spenard
Meals Lake
at Cordova
I~'Acidity Aug.
Sept.
6.0
6.8
Sept.25,1975 Sept.25 6.4 Sept.25 6.4 June
..----------------.-----
,~
Alkalinity
(total hardness)"11
-
Ammonia Sept.0.00 It 0.03 0.03
Cadmium
(soft ~ater)"0.000
Cadmium
(hard ""ater)"0.000 "0.000 "0.000
Cbrorniurn
Copper Aug.
Sept.
<0.0;1.0
<0.010 "
Zinc Aug.
Sept.
0.010
0.020 "0.000
0.050
._0.001 _
Dissolved
Nitrate &Nitrite
June 0.01
1.100
0.005..._...__"
"
-------~--------------_._-------
"1.900
..(}._90'O_Q.iL ~~0.QOOOO._.__~~_.O.00000_-. ···
0.33
0.75
0.000
Aug.
Sept.
Sept.
Nitrogen
~Hvdro~en sulfide
.:L:.::e=a.;::d ~,~'..J.Jo.OOL ~....0.002
Mercury (organic
or inorganic)
-
Polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCB's)
Total suspended and Aug.10
settleable solids Sept.2
~
Iron Aug.0.320
Sept.0.060
N0 3 Nitrate Nitrate &Nitrite~
Aug.0.03
Sept.0.05
,....
2-4 D
Malathion
,-..
-
-
OXYGEN CONCENTRATES AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES IN FRESHWATER
7.10-56
7.10-57
METHODS OF MEASURING FOOD-PRODUCING AREAS
Figure 1
~.-~l(v /000
~t
~
\J
it 800
~-ws.......600~
RE:ARJ NG Cf-JAR.AC.TERJSTIC c..URVE.OF TYPICAL STREAM
-Wdshlnrt0n state bepa,.t.mllK"l.of Fisherie)
bra...":I'Z -I~''-7 B'j:.]G,Al.€:i!
,1/PP/?OXII1A TE POINTe:,1=
'ovERBANK FL.OW ~
I
/
L-------~----o o ~20 46 60 80 100 120
RELATIVE U.:5ABLE.FOOD PRCJ!:JUCTIOA/AREA,?£R CENT
400
Zoo
1400
1200
I~OO
-
-
-
7.10-58
,~
Figure 2
1000
~,
.950STANDARDDEVIATION :lC
.900 z
1"-'.0
.850 l-
e-:zu0u
.800 u
en I.L.t 0
IIJ .750 I-<I'l ZZIIJ-u 1.0 .700 !::?~110-
I.L.
::;)IIJ
~.8 .650 0u,
In
:I:.6 .600u«
:l
0 .4I-
<I'l
§.2
a:
I-
~.0
60 2.4
~~5 2.2~•
IIJ 50 •7.0 2.0a:,....,::>
';;i I,.:!"""a:45 6.5 1.8 -IIJ I c:Tc..I ..::i:......
~40
,
6.0 ~1.6 u
"
,-~
~a:I u «w 35 I I 5.5 1.4 z';;i f I ::>3:
FAUNA \)
\ I ~~.f
30 •5.0~1.2 ~
\I.L.0
\BOTTOM I-0 g4.5 1.0\IIJ\I
/';;i\•\...4.00:.8•.......~...,//'-/\"3.5 .6,/.,../',,•
3.0 .4
JUNE JULY AUG.SEPT.OCT.NOI.DEC.JAN.FEB.MAR.APR.MAY
1962 1963 I!-
-Condition of the trout (K)in relation to utilization and
abundance of bottom organisms,rate of flow and stream temperature.
RELATIVE SWIMMING SPEEDS OF FISH
RELAT\VE 5WIMM1NG SPEEDS
OF AvER ....GE SIZED ADULTS AS SHoWN
7.10-59
mIIIIIIIII £<01'.I.,~CRU1Sll'i ;:o:,PSED~
ITIIill $V5TAlt<SO ,"pet::D"
Bll.~.:..~53 DARTIN :;,EoPEE'D
~I!IIIm-"---
[II2"P.,ff~i 1\HI fo::'....ULO&,J-.4
I me~
-
IllI!IIlIffi'""i~11111 -
~illlIIlIIIIl:=a ...oj
~.;ro.~
:;;;ig'i;1!II [ill ---
;+i~~r~·~1 I
III,i
BIT-1IIt::~~'!'.•;."~.....
I[[)lllllllli l;Y':"4..~?;;~I 1I111!IIII1"-..--<
.A~~i3iillllllllillili 1l111l1l ,,',
mITIIillillIlIIIIIIIIill ;,
o 8 11 16 %Q ,...
VElOCITY \N FEeT I'H.CONO~
Figure 1
"'CCLIMAT10NTEMFE.RMUP.'~Ff\H RENHEIT
-4-1 50 59 6'3 77
7.10-60
-
U I.:U
L!l
Vl~
U.1.00
0
~
0.O.7!iI/)
~
~
t/)
5 o.~o
ff
0.2.5
•I
I
II I
I ,,,
I I
I I
I'I I
ULTIMATE UP;;i:R ~
U.THAL TEMPERAT\X\ES ~I
I II.-I'
!S 10 15 ZO ~
ACCL.IMA1ION 1't!MPCRA"URE CENTIORAO"
?>5 ~
.0.....
30 ~o
(\
-25 g
0-
~'l
20 IS
~
~
15 :5a:o
10
-'
-
"....
-
MAXIMUM SUSTAINED CRUlS1NG SPEED OF SOCKE:YE AND COHO
UNDERYSAoRLI NGS IN RELATION TO TEMPE.RATL)RE:.
-
-
-
7.10-61
REFERENCES
Black,Edgar C.,"Energy stores and metabolism in relation to muscular
activity in fishes."In H.R.Hacmillan Lectures in Fisheries,"The
Investigation of Fish-Power Problems,"pp.51-67.Symposium held at
the University of British Columbia,April 29-30,1957,edited by P.A.
Larkin.University of British Columbia,Institute of Fisheries,
Vancouver.1958.
Black,Edgar C.,Anne Robertson Connor,Kwok-Cheung Lam,and
Wing-gay Chiu,"Changes in glycogen,pyruvate and lactate in
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)during and following muscular
activity."Fisheries Research Board·of Canada,Journal,19(3):
409-436.May,1962.
The Progressive Fish-Culturist,27(3):157.JUly,1955.(News
note on swimming speeds.)
Gray,James,"How fishes swim."Scientific American,197(2):48-65.
August,1957.
Davis,Gerald E.,Jack Foster,Charles E.Warren,and Peter Doudoroff,
liThe influence of oxygen concentration on the swimming performance of
juvenile Pacific salmon at ·various temperatures."Transactions of the
American Fisheries Society,92(2):111-124.April,1963.
MacKinnon,Dixon,and William S.Hoar,IIResponses of coho and chum
salmon fry to current."Fisheries Research Board of Canada,Journal,
10(8):523-538.November,1953.
Williams,I.V.,"Implication of water quality and salinity in the
survival of Fraser River sockeye smolts."International Pacific Salmon
Fisheries Commission,Progress Report No.22.New Westminster,B. C.
1969.
Idler,D.R.,and W.A.Clemens,"The energy expenditures of Fraser
River sockeye salmon during the spawning migration to Chilko and Stuart
Lakes.1I International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission,Progress
Report No.6.New Westminster,B.C.1959.
Fields,Paul E.,Ronald J.Adkins,and Gary L.Finger,"The swimming
ability of immature silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)measured in
an experimental flume.1I University of Washington,School of Fish-
eries,Technical Report No.9.Seattle.1954.
,~
-
,.....
7.10-62
Paulik,Gerald J.,and Allan C.DeLacy,"Changes in the swimming
ability of Columbia River sockeye salmon during upstream migration."
College of Fisheries,Technical Report 46,University of Washington,
Seattle.1958..
Brett,J.R.,M.Hollands,and D.F.Alderdice,"The effect of
temperature on the cruising speed of young sockeye and coho salmon."
Fisheries Research Board of Canada,Journal,15(4):587-605.July,1958.
Connor,Anne R.,Carl H.Elling,Edgar C.Black,Gerald B.Collins,
Joseph R.Gauley,and Edward Trevor-Smith,"Changes in glycogen and
lactate levels in migrating salmonid fishes ascending experimental
'endless'fishways."Fisheries Research Board of Canada,Journal,
21(2):255-290.March,1964.
Paulik,G.J.,A.C.DeLacy,and E.F.Stacy,liThe effect of rest
on the swimming performance of fatigued adult silver salmon."
School of Fisheries,Technical Report 31,University of Washington,
Seattle.1957.
Brett,J.R.,"The relation of size to the rate of oxygen consumption
and sustained swimming speed of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)."
Fisheries Research Board of Canada,Journal,22(6):1491-150l.
November,1965~
Paulik,G.J.,and A.C.DeLacy,"Swimming abilities of upstream
migrant silver salmon,sockeye salmon and steelhead at several water
velocities."School of Fisheries,Technical Report 44,University
of Washington,Seattle.1957.
.....
7.10-63
PACIF Ie SFILr.iG>1 INCUBATICN TU.~ES (Fahrenheit Degrees)AT 50°
Species
Chinook
Coho
Sockeye
Chum
Average
Temp.Units
900
850
1300-1400
900
Temperature Units
Average Water
Temperature -320
=Approximate
Number of
Days to Hatch
Pink 1050 (Temp below 400 F lethal prior to eyed stage)
Source:Donaldson,L.R.(Personal communication)
,.....
-
Species
Chinook
Coho
Sockeye
Chum
Temperature
Units to Hatching
900
850
1200
950
.-
Pink 1050
Source:Simon,R.C.,1963.Chromosome morphology and species evolution
in the five North American species of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus).
Journal of Morphology,Vol.ll2(l):77-97 •
--F-
Pink Salmon
7.10-64
{rJote:Pink salmon will not survive temperatures below 400 F
prior to blastopore closure (Eyed stage))
-
-
-
Temperature Units Temperature Units
Temperature to Hatching to Swim Up stage
40 1003 1520
42 1115 1690
44 1172 1776
46
48 1309 1984
50
54 1467 2222
Chum Salmon
-Source:E.L.Brannon (Personal communication)
Soures:Withler,F.C.&R.B.Morley,1970.Sex-related parental
influences on early development of Pacific salmon.Journ.
Fish.Res.Sd.Canada,27(12):2197-2214.
-
Species
Sockeye
Chum
Pink
Temperature Units
to Hatching
1345
974
1150
Mean Length at
Ha tchino(mm)
22.50
25.24
22.96
SUBTASK 7.11
WILDLIFE ECOLOGY ANALYSIS
-
7.11-1
INTRODUCTION
Following are detailed scope statements submitted to expand upon
the summaries presented in the main volume of this plan of study.
'rhe detailed scope statements are arranged in a similar fashion
as the summary statements and include big game,furbearers,and
birds and non-game mammals.
The general philosophy upon which the approach to the wildlife
ecology program was developed is that the wildlife community re-
presents a system;this system is connected by means of a complex
variety of interrelationships,and is influenced by the nature
and distribution of plant communities.In order to assess the
impact of the Susitna Project on anyone component of the system
it is necessary to have at hand baseline data on all members of
the system.Therefore,the following plan of study provides for
the collection of data on each major group of wildlife species,
and although emphasis is placed on some species,such as big game,
no group is ignored or covered in a cursory fashion.To take
other than this approach would result in an inadequate effort and
reduce our ability to make accurate impact predictions and recommend
meaningful mitigation measures on anyone component of the system.
r
,....
I
I
,-
-
-
,.,...
-
,....
7.11-2
BIG GAME
INTRODUCTION
Although TES proposes,in general,to approach the impact eval-
uation of the wildlife resources of the upper Susitna River basin
by considering all components of the faunal community,we recognize,
and agree with,the fact that big game species have a unique
importance in this case.There is little doubt that to the people
of Alaska,and to the major resource agencies,big game is a
very valuable resource and is thus worthy of major consideration
in the impact analysis for the Susitna Project.Therefore,much
consideration was given to the best manner of addressing this
issue during the development of our plan of study(POS).
During the several years that .preceded the development of this
POS many recommendations have been made concerning what steps,
and levels of effort,should be employed to adequately deal with
the big game impact issue.After reviewing many of these recom-
mendations,TES believes that the program (Footnote 1),proposed
by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G)was best suited
to the needs of this study.We agree with the objectives outlined
in that proposal and the methods needed to accomplish the objectives,
as well as the duration of the studies required to collect and
analyze the data.
There are two portions of the ADF&G proposal which we feel were
not adequately addressed and are not in accordance with our desire
to investigate the total faunal community.The first area of dis-
agreement is the concern for furbearers and small game.We feel
that an inadequate effort was proposed by ADF&G in regards to these
groups;therefore,TES has proposed a considerably greater effort
than that ind~cated in the ADF&G proposal.Details of our proposal
concerning these groups can be found in the sections entitled
llFurbearers ll and IlBirds and Non-game Mammals".The section of our
proposal on Birds and Non-game Mammals also demonstrates a much
greater effort in regards to non-game species than the cursory
effort proposed by ADF&G.
We have,therefore,removed those items from the ADF&G proposal
and suggest that the ADF&G proposal in regards to moose,caribou,
bears,wolves,wolverines,and Dall sheep be implemented by the
Alaska Power Authority as the best approach to addressing the big
game situation.One change is recommended,however,in regards
to moose.The ADF&G proposal included a section dealing with
mitigation measures for moose.We feel that it is premature to
move forward on this issue until more information is gathered
in the field.Therefore,we recommend that ADF&G reevaluate the
moose mitigation program and associated cost estimates following
2 years of data colle~tion.As stated in the main proposal volume,
1.Issued as Appendix II to the March 1978 report by K.P.Taylor
and W.B.Ballard,(Moose Movements and Habitat Use along the
Upper Susitna River - A Preliminary Study of Potential Impacts
of the Devils Canyon Hydroelectric Project).
-
-
i""'"
7.11-3
we recommend that the Alaska Power Authority contract directly
with ADF&G to conduct the studies proposed in their March 1978
proposal,and designate TES to administer the technical aspects
of the contract in order to maximize coordination with oth~r
portions of the wildlife ecology analysis
DATA COLLECTION
In accordance with the aforementioned recommendations,the fol10wing
data collection procedures have been taken directly from the ADF&G
proposal.These procedures adequately represent what·TES feels
should be done to secure the data necessary for art accurate impact
analysis.
MOOSE
Habitat Analysis
A habitat type map of the proposed impoundment areas,all drain-
ages flowing into the impoundments,access and transmission corridors
and the downstream floodplain should be prepared during the first
two years of the study.This map should be of sufficient detail
to permit delineation of specific habitats favored by moose and
must be accompanied by sufficient ground truth data to identify
the distribution and abundance of moose browse species.In order
to accomplish this it is essential that the principal investigators
of moose studies work directly with the habitat mappers.
Studies of the effects of water table and influence of water level
fluctuations on vegetation,particularly moose browse species,
along the floodplain of the Susitna River should be initiated
immediately.A map of areas where changes in flow caused by the
dams will alter the vegetation,either through changes in soil
moisture or by allowing plant succession to occur,should be
prepared.Emphasis should be placed on areas of high moose use
such as the lower Susitna River.
Detailed studies of vegetation in important moose wintering areas
should be conducted to identify plant species used by moose and
quantify their presence,use and trends.Study areas would be
identified from data collected under the moose studies.
Schedule:1980 -1984.
Population Analysis
During 1977,12 moose were radio collared and 14 others were collared
with visually identifiable collars.These moose were tracked from
March to December 1977.Under this study,tracking of those moose
will be continued,to further delineate the ranges of that sub-
population.
Additional moose will be radio collared in drainages along the south
side of the proposed impoundment area and in riparian habitats along
the mainstem below Devils Canyon.
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7.11-4
Each radio collared moose will be relocated regularly.For each
relocation the exact location,habitat type,activity of the moose
and association with other animals will be recorded.
A random stratified census and seasonal sex and age composition
counts will be conducted on subpopulations most likely to be
affected by the Susitna Hydropower Project.Concentrations of
moose will be mapped throughout the area whenever the opportunity
arises.
These data will be used to identify sUbpopulations using areas to
be impacted,to determine the seasonal ranges and migration routes
of each sUbpopulation and to estimate the size and composition of
those sUbpopulations most likely to be impacted.Locations of
moose will be overlayed on habitat maps to determine the degree
of use of certain habitat types as well as specific habitats.
This information will be analyzed by sUbpopulation,season,sex
and age class and reproductive status.Areas likely to be altered
by the project that are critical to a sUbpopulation will be iden-
tified and recommended for more detailed vegetation studies.
Schedule:1980 -1984.
CARIBOU
Caribou on both sides of the Susitna River will be radio collared
during the breeding season.Monitoring flights will be made at
a relatively low intensity (approximately monthly)throughout
most of the year to determine if more than one population exists
in the area and to determine seasonal ranges of each population
identified.More intensive monitoring flights will be made during
the periods of precalving and postcalving movements and winter
shift to determine present migration routes and the timing of
migration.It will be necessary to repeat this procedure for
several years to determine variation among years.
Traditional migration routes will be determined by mapping trails and
will be compared with present routes.
Potential alternative ranges will be identlfied and evaluated using
the modified Hult Surlander method of range analysis.These ranges
will be compared with Nelchina ranges that have been studied for a
number of years.
Schedule:1980 -1984.
WOLVES
Two to four wolves will be radio collared in each pack whose ter-
ritory is believed to include potential impoundment areas and
construction sites.The numbers of wolves in each pack will be
determined,each pack!s territory will be delineated and the degree
and nature of use of potential impact areas will be determined
through repeated relocations and observation of activities.
Specifically,all den sites,rendezvous sites and favored hunting
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7.11-5
areas will be mapped.These data will be used to determine the
degree of dependence of wolves on various areas that will be
impacted by the Project.
Dependency on various prey species will be determined by scat
analysis and observation of hunting behavior and kills.This
information will be used in conjunction with data from the accom-
paning studies of prey species~particularly the moose study~
to estimate indirect impacts on wolves caused by a reduction in
prey availability.
Field activities and manpower for this study will be integrated with
the moose stUdy.Wolves frequently will be tagged and relocated
at the same time as moose.Full funding of the moose study is re-
quired for the successful implementation of this study.
Schedule:1980 -1984.
BEARS
Bears will be radio collared in the project area.Movements in
and around the area will be monitored.Den sites and concentra-
tion areas will be mapped.
Bear numbers will be estimated through marked/unmarked ratios
observed during spring and fall composition counts and by recording
all bears seen during tracking flights.
Field activities for this study will be closely integrated with
those for the moose and wolf studies.Full funding of the moose
study is required for the successful implementation of this study.
Schedule:1980 -1983.
WOLVERINE
A limited number of wolverines will be radio collared and tracked
in conjunction with other telemetry studies in the area.Home
ranges~movement patterns~and seasonal habitat use will be deter-
mined by systematic relocation of radio collared animals.
A systematic aerial survey of wolverines and their tracks will be
made in conjunction with wolf studies to determine the distribution
and numbers of wolverines using the area.
These data will be used to estimate the number of wolverines using
the impoundment areas~determine the degree of dependence of certain
wolverines on those areas and identify specific areas of importance
to wolverines.
Schedule:1980 -1982.
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7.11-6
DALL SHEEP
Aerial surveys will be conducted to determine th~size or the sheep
population and to delineate seasonal ranges.
Schedule:1980 -1982.
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
As stated in the main proposal volume,TES proposes to obtain the
services of an individual,or group,outside of the Alaska Depart-
ment of Fish and Game to perform an independent impact assessment
on big game.Because the impact of the Susitna Project on big
game is one of the major issues associated with this project,we
did not feel that sufficient time existed to select an expert
prior to the submission of this plan of study.Therefore,we
propose to utilize the first year of the study (1980)to determine
which individual is best qualified to assist on this aspect of the
study effort.The two criteria that will be applied in the selection
process are:(1)expert qualifications in dealing with the species
involved,and also familiarity with these species in similar
taiga/tundra ecosystems,and (2)total independence from any interest
or concerns with the study area or the political aspects of Alaskan
wildlife resource management.
The impact assessment will deal with both short-term impacts,such
as construction activity,as well as long-term impacts which could
involve disruption of movement patterns or predator-prey dynamics.
The impact zone on these species will be very large and probably
include the entire upper Susitna River basin as well as downstream
portions,particularly to Talkeetna where major changes in flooding
patterns,and thus riparian habitat will take place.
Of paramount importance in the impact assessment throughout the
impact zone will be the location and distribution of critical
habitat,particularly in regards to potential barriers created by
the impoundments.This will be of prime importance to moose and
caribou,species whose annual habitat needs vary from season to
season and also differ under various weather conditions.An
associated concern,particularly in regards to wolves,and to a
lesser extent bears,will be the location of denning sites.Whether
or not traditionally used wolf dens are flooded,or disturbed by
human activity,will likely influence the occurrence,at least in
the near future,of wolves in the Susitna basin.
Although the specifics of the impact assessment effort will be of
a dynamic nature,and thus sUbject to change as the baseline
data are collected and engineering information received,the general
philosophy underlining the assessment will be to consider the entire
terrestrial system and not only one isolated species at a time.
Impacts on one big game species will certainly result in associated
impacts on other components of the community,both faunal and floral .
Likewise,impacts on some non-game components of the system will
possibly have an indirect impact on a particular big game species.
It is for this reason that the wildlife study proposed by TES
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7.11-7
thoroughly covers all components of the terrestrial system.To
do otherwise would result in data voids which could reduce the
accuracy of impact predictions on big game,or other faunal groups.
MITIGATION
Operating under the assumption that the net effect of the Susitna
Project on big game will be of a negative nature,it will be neces-
sary to consider mitigation measures that can be taken.Mitigation
measures can be grouped into two categories.First are efforts
that can be implemented to reduce the impact of the project on the
game populations within the study area or impact zone.Such steps
as a schedule of water releases designed to minimize the obstruction
of movement patterns,or the use of prescribed burning downstream
to replace the effects of flooding in the maintenance of early
successional plant growth in the riparian zone can be arranged
as mitigative efforts.The second type of mitigation measures
involve the improvement of habitat outside of the impact zone
to increase game populations to an extent which would compensate
for losses attributable to the dams.
In either case it will require the collection of at least two
years'data before enough is known about likely impacts so that a
mitigation plan can be formulated.The plan of study proposed
by TES includes time and expenses to consider and identify possible
mitigative alternatives.However,at this point in time,based
on the available information,it would have been premature and highly
speculative to propose a full-scale effort to develop a mitigation
plan.It is,therefore,recommended that during 1982 either ADF&G
or TES submit to the APA a proposal and associated cost estimate
to develop a mitigation plan.At that point sufficient information,
both of a biological and engineering natur~will exist upon which
to structure a well designed program to address the issue of
mitigation efforts for big game.
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7.11-8
FURBEARERS
INTRODUCTION
The tasks described herein are designed to assess the probable
effects of the Susitna Hydroelectric Project upon furbearers.
Furbearers to be investigated include red foxes,coyotes,lynx,
pine martens,beavers,muskrats,and river otters.A team of
researchers will work with Dr.Gipson to develop a concise and
factual assessment of furbearer resources in the region and to
project impacts of the project upon these resources.
We must recognize that various furbearers will probably be affected
differently by the proposed project.Some may decline in abundance
while others may respond in a.positive manner to the man-modified
environment.The critical elements to assess are the net effects
of the project upon each furbearer species,and then the net effects
of the project upon the interacting system of plants and animals
of which the furbearers are part.
APPROACH
The studies described below were designed to assess probable im-
pacts of the Susitna Hydroelectric Project upon furbearers of
the Susitna drainage.Studies of furbearers will be synchronized
with field and laboratory investigations conducted by project
personnel preparing vegetation cover type maps and conducting
studies of project impacts upon other terrestrial mammals and
birds.
A two phase approach will be followed and will include three steps:
(1)a thorough review of the literature relating to physiography of the
region,the wildlife and plant resources,and the needs of Alaskan
people that utilize the wildlife resources,including sport trappers,
subsistence trappers,hunters,and non-consumptive wildlife enthusi-
asts,(2)field investigations to provide essential data about fur-
bearers and their habitats that is not presently available for the
region,and (3)analysis and synthesis of data and development of
predictions of impacts of the project.
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE I
Phase I (1980 and 1981)will focus on essential data for a generalized
assessment of the project upon furbearer populations.The primary
effort during Phase I will be directed at determining seasonal
abundances and critical foraging areas of the respective furbearers
in the vicinity of the two impoundments and long downstream portions
of the Susitna River that will be influenced by modified stream
temperatures and flows.
Phase I field work for each furbearer species will include seasonal
population surveys,and mapping of favored foraging areas.A com-
bination of aerial surveys and intense work on the ground and on
the river will be employed.
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7.11-9
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE II
During Phase II (1982,1983,and 1984)emphasis will be placed on
gathering long term data and assessing long term impacts.In order
to achieve these goals it will be necessary to determineth~home ranges
and seasonal movement patterns of each furbearer species.Radio tele-
metry will be used during Phase II to aid in locating and monitoring
furbearers.In addition,information concerning food habits and
predator-prey dynamics will be considered during Phase II.Phase
II activities will include continued monitoring of study animals to
determine annual movements,long term population changes and adapta-
tions by furbearers to altered environments.
Furbearer harvest records,pelt prices and sUbsistence uses of
furbearer pelts from the impact zone will be reviewed and a survey
of trappers in interior Alaska will be made to evaluate the economic
importance of furbearers to primary user groups.Local residents
of areas adjacent to the impact zone will be interviewed to deter-
mine the importance of furbearers to their style of life.Members
of conservation organizations concerned primarily with observat~on
and photography of wildlife will be surveyed to assess the importance
of furbearers to non-consumptive wildlife enthusiasts.
Based on collected data,appropriate mitigation alternatives will be
considered during Phase II.There are presently a few possible
mitigative actions that could be taken in regards to some furbearer
species;hopefully,others will be developed during the course of the
furbearer study.For example,controlled burning in downstream
areas may be effective in maintaining desirable early successional
stages of plant growth.Another possibility may be to release a
substantial flow of water in early spring to coincide with melting
of river ice so that high water and floating ice will scour the river
banks and gravel bars to remove old growth vegetation and encourage
early successional vegetation.A third possibility may be to utilize
vegetat~on crushing machines,such as those employed on the Kenai
National Moose Range,to remove old growth vegetation.A fourth
consideration will be to assess possible desirable effects of permit-
ting the downstream riparian vegetation to mature .
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7.11-10
BIROS AND NON~GAME MAMMALS
INTRODUCTION
Almost nothing is known of the birds and small or non-game mammals
of the upper Susitna River basin.The U.S.Army Corps of Engineers
(1977)states that "unknown numbers of game birds ...(and)....
other small birds are found throughout the Upper Susitna River Basin
in varying number rt ;they fail to mention small or non-game mammals.
It appears,however,that the region is somewhat typical of other
regions of central Alaska taiga and alpine tundra.On the basis of
this similarity,there are probably 160 or more species of birds
that use the upper Susitna River basin with some regularity,either
as residents and/or breeders or as migrants and visitants,and per-
haps 18 species of small~to medium-sized non-game mammals.
The only specific bird studies that have been done in the region are
two cliff-nesting raptor surveys sponsored by the U.S.Fish and Wild-
life Service,"Survey of the Peregrine Falcon and other raptors in
the proposed Susitna River reservoir impoundment area"in 1974,and
"Raptor studies along the proposed Susitna powerline corridors ..."
in 1975.These brief surveys found no evidence of the endangered
Peregrine Falcon nesting in the immediate vicinity of either proposed
dam site,but their status should be rechecked before human activity
in the area increases significantly.
Additionally,personnel of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game
report that the Susitna River basin between the Copper River-Susitna
uplands and Gold Creek may be a major east-west migration corridor,
at least for waterfowl.
The small mammals of the region have never been surveyed and are
essentially unknown,except by inference.
The overall objective of the studies proposed below is to determine
what species of birds and small-to medium-sized mammals use the
upper Susitna River basin in the vicintiy of the proposed impoundments
and to determine on a seasonal basis the habitats in which they are
found and their abundance.These data can then be used to evaluate
habitat potential in the area,to extrapolate population data for
given geographic or habitat units within the region,and to evaluate
possible mitigative measures,should they prove necessary .
APPROACH
We propose to use an extensive approach as well as an intensive
approach for these studies.The extensive bird study (Phase I)will
alert us to the presence of possibly unexpected species or unexpected
concentrations of species,and it will enable us to compare the avi-
fauna (species,relative abundance,habitat use,and seasonal chrono-
logies)with better-known Alaska taigas,giving us a better base for
predictions.The extensive study will also provide natural history
and other data on species not found in the habitats of the intensive
study sites.The extensive avian study will be conducted during Phase
I (1980 and 1981)and will provide a sound data base upon which to'
organize a meaningful intensive survey during Phase II (1982 and 1983).
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7.11-11
'rhe intensive study sites in the upland and wetland habitats (Phase
II)will provide data on bird species composition and density in
each of the most extensive habitats of the region,providing,among
other things,an indication of habitat uniqueness and prod~ctivity.r These intensive sites should provide data that can be extrapolated
I to similar habitats throughout the upper basin and should provide
a basis for predicting faunal changes based on habitat changes
caused by environmental alternatives,including changes in water
level.The small mammal effort will start in Phase I and continue
through Phase II in order to cover the 4-year period needed to
adequately document the cyclic population changes demonstrated by
Jmembers of this group.In general,the small mammal data will en-
able an analysis similar to that performed for birds.
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE I
AVIFAUNALSURVEY OF THE UPPERSUSITNA RIVER BASIN (INCLUDING RAPTORS
AND WATERFOWL)
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A survey of the avifauna of the upper Susitna River basin will be
conducted within an approximate 10-mile band on either side of the
river,from Gold Creek to the upriver location above which the im-
poundment will not influence the current habitat (approximately
2000 square miles).Particular attention will be paid to long-lived
species,those that are particularly sensitive to human disturbance,
those subject to hunting pressure,and any endangered species (raptors,
cranes,swans,grouse and ptarmigan,etc.).
Objectives
a.Determine all species of birds using the region.
b.Determine,on a seasonal basis (winter,summer,spring and
fall migration),each species'relative abundance and
general habitat use.
c.Determine spring and fall migration dates (earliest,latest,
peak)and,insofar as time permits,the seasonal chronologies
of each species.
d.Determine extent and type of use of the area by the peregrine,
bald eagle,and osprey (endangered or threatened species).
Methods
a.More or less continous field observations will be conducted
from about 10 Apr~l until mid-October,and at least one mid-
winter period of observation will be undertaken.
b.All habitats of the region will be visited on a regular
basis throughout the migration and summer periods,and all
birds seen or heard will be recorded.This activity will
provide data on seasonal use of the entire region by birds
and provide a basis for determining the relative abundance
of various species by season.
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7.11""12
c.Time spent (or distance traveled)by the observer in various
habitats will be recorded,to provide a basis for determining
relative abundance of species within habitats as well as a
general indication of habitat productivity.(These data will
supplement those from the intensive survey to be conducted
during Phase II and will include habitats not sampled during
Phase II.)
d.Dates indicative of seasonal chronologies will be recorded
(migration,nesting,fledging,molting,etc.).
e.One (perhaps two)aerial surveys will be made each year to
search for evidence of large nesting raptors--osprey,bald
and golden eagles,peregrine,and gyrfalcon.
f.Aerial surveys of waterfowl will be conducted over wetland
areas periodically throughout the migration and summer seasons.
Significance of Results
The results of this study will provide:
a.A comprehensive overview of the avifauna of the region,in-
cluding seasonal chronologies and relative abundance.This
overview of a relatively unknown region will allow compari-
sons with better-known Alaska taigas;and,based on similar-
ities or consistent differences,should enable conclusions
and predictions for the Susitna area after only a few seasons'
field work.
b.EVidence,during the first season,of possibly unexpected
species or unexpected concentrations of species.(Is there
a migratory movement of Sandhill Cranes through here?How
large is the waterfowl movement?Etc.)
c.Data on the extent of raptor populations in the region.
Since the 1974 USFWS survey found nothing untoward in respect
to raptors of the region,a separate task to substantiate
this information appears unnecessary.
d.Data on the occurrence and general utilization by waterfowl
of wetlands during migration and breeding.This information
will be used to develop a more detailed study plan for ob-
taining information on the type and degree of use of the
different wetland types of the region during Phase II,if
more intensive work appears necessary.
SMALL MAMMAL POPULATIONS AND HABITAT UTILIZATION
Objectives
a.Determine all species of small and medium-sized non-game
mammals occurring in the region.
b.Determine for each of the major habitats of the region,
species composition,relative abundance,and habitat use.
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7.11-13
Methods
a.Trapline transects will be established in each or the major
terrestrial h~bitats in the vicinity or the prop~sed dam
sites and in several wetland habitats.
b.Censusing of the smallest mammals (shrews,voles,.and mice)
will be conducted using the North American Census of Small
Mammals snap-trapping tecfmique (Calhouri,1948).Two
parallel transects will be established,each a straight
line,289 m long,consisting of 20 trap stations.At each
station,a maximum of three snap-traps and one pitfall trap
will be set for three consecutive nights.
c.One late-spring/early-summer,one rall,and possibly one
winter census will be conducted on each of the habitat
plots.Sampling will be conducted during 1980 and 1981
of Phase I and continued through Phase II (1982 and 1983).
d.Habitat data at each trap site will be gathered in coordin-
ation with that gathered for the avian studies,using the
point-centered quarter method of Cottam and Curtis (1956),
with additional variables used to quantify ground cover and
other microhabitat variables.If a winter census is made,
snow cover characteristics will be sampled (e.g.,snow
depth,density and hardness,layering,etc.).
e.For each of the habitats censused,mammal species composition
and relative abundance will be calculated.
f.For each small mammal species of sufficient sample size,
quantification of macro-and micro-habitat preferences will
be attempted.
g.More general methods will be used to quantify the presence
of such species as the little brown bat,collared pika,
snowshoe hare,hoary marmot,arctic ground squirrel,red
squirrel,or flying squirrel.Within the study plots,the
relative amount of sightings and sign (burrow entrances,
cone "middens,"scat,etc.)will be tabulated,and attempts
will be made to locate and map any concentrations of hoary
marmot and arctic ground squirrel.
h.Some random trapping will be conducted,as time and oppor-
tunity permit,in other parts of the upper Susitna River
basin area and in lesser habitats not covered by the main
plots,in order to permit the detection of species in the
area that may not occur on the intensive plots.
Significance of Results
The results of this study will provide,for small and non-game mammals,
data on species composition,relative abundance,and habitat prefer-
ences that can be used in determining the effects of habitat loss and
alterations resulting from the proposed dam construction and subsequent
impoundment of water in the upper Susitna River basin.
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7.11-14
SCOPE OF WORK -PHASE II
AVIAN UTILIZATION OF TERRESTRIAL HABITATS
Objective
a.Determine,for each of the major upland habitats,the type
and degree of use by birds,including species composition
and density during summer and winter.
Methods
a.Census plots will be established in each of the major ter-
restrial habitats in the vicinity of the proposed dam sites.
Wherever possible,these plots will be square 10-ha plots
on sites of uniform habitat.
b.Habitats will be selected on the basis of Kessel's (in
press),"Avian habitat classification for Alaska,II a
system which appears largely compatible with Walker et al.
(MS),llA large scale (1:6000)vegetation mapping method
for northern Alaska."A priori,it appears that avian
utilization of 8-10 habItats should be examined.
c.Censusing will be done with a modification of the territory
mapping method (Williams 1936,Kendeigh 1944,International
Bird Census Committee 1970).During the breeding season,
7-9 censuses will b~conducted on each plot;1 or 2 censuses
will be conducted.during the winter months.
d.The habitat for each bird census plot will be sampled in
detail,using the point-centered quarter method of Cottam
and Curtis (1956),with modifications to inclUde sampling
of ground cover and shrub vegetation.
e.For each of the major habitats censused,avian species
composition and density will be calculated.
f.For each of the more common bird species in the upland
habitats,determination of habitat preferences will be
attempted through the use of multivariate statistical
techniques (1983 only).
Significance of Results
The results of this study will provide quantitative data significant
to the evaluation of the environmental impact of the Susitna Hydro-
electric Project .
.....a.
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b.
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We will know which of the terrestrial habitats in the upper
Susitna River basin support the greatest density and the
greatest diversity of birds,and which the least.
We will know what different kinds of birds use the major
habitats of the upper Susitna River basin;and we will know
something of the individaul habitat preferences of these
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7.11-15
species and the abundance (density)or each species in these
major habitats.
c.These data on habitat productivity and avian habitat
preferences will provide insights into the effects of con-
struction activities and subsequent impoundments on the
avifauna of the region.It will show which species will
be most affected,for example,when construction involves
white spruce forests or shrub thickets as opposed to
deciduous forests,and vice versa.Conversely,it will be
possible to predict what species will be attracted to the
region after construction,based on habitat changes caused
by construction (revegetation)or changes in water level
(changes in substrate moisture alter vegetative habitats).
d.Should it prove desirable,based on a vegetation map,it
should be possible,through extrapolation,to roughly
estimate the number of birds of each species that will be
displaced from terrestrial habitats as a result of habitat
destruction caused by construction and impoundments.
WATERBIRD UTILIZATION OF WETLANDSl
Objective
a.Determine,for each of the major wetland habitat types of
the region,the type and degree of utilization by waterbirds,
especially loons,grebes,and waterfowl.
Methods
a.Wetlands will be classified as to habitats and habitat types,
based on such characteristics as size and depth of pond,
type of shoreline,presence of submergent and emergent
vegetation,wet meadows,depth and size of streams and speed
of current,etc.
b.Species composition and density of waterbirds using the
various habitat types will be determined on a seasonal
basis--migration,nesting,brood-rearing,and molting.
c.Aerial and ground census methods will be selected on the
basis of the background information obtained during Phase I.
Significance of Results
Wetland habitats,in general,are among the most productive of all
habitats;and waterfowl include many important game species for
North American hunters.Hence,if the upper Susitna River basin is,
indeed,a major waterfowl migration flyway,or if significant wet-
land areas are to be flooded (or to be formed by flooding),informa-
tion on the type of use and amount of use by various waterbirds must
1.To be initiated in 1982 only if results of Phase I observations
indicate need.
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7.11-16
be known.Such knowledge will be required to evaluate the overall
environmental impact of the hydroelectric -project ~f significant
quantities of waterbirds and wetlands occur in the region.
SMALL MAMMAL POPULATIONS AND HABITAT UTILIZATION
Objective
The objective of the Phase II portion of the small mammal effort
is to gather data over an additional two-year period in order to
adequately describe this very important component of the terrestrial
system.
Methods
Phase II methodology will be basically the same as Phase I.It
is likely,however,that some refinement in sampling methodolQgy
will occur based on knowledge accumulated during Phase L This
will serve to meet the dynamic needs of this project,and also
insure that optimal results are obtained.
Significance of Results
As stated previously,many small mammal species in taiga and tundra
communities display cyclic properties.Therefore,a minimum of
four years is needed to document the extent of density changes.
This information is extremely important because the population levels
of small to medium-sized mammals have far-reaching impacts on the
other members of the faunal community.In order to adequately
predict the impacts to be expected from the Susitna Project it will
be necessary to document this key component of the terrestrial
system and establish the role played by this group in the ecology
of the upper Susitna River basin.
LITERATURE CITED
Calhoun,J.B.1948.North American census of small mammals.
Release No.1,Rodent Ecology Project,Johns Hopkins University.
Baltimore,Maryland.
Cottam,G.,and J.T.Curtis.1956.The use of distance measures
in phytosociological sampling.Ecology 36;451-460.
International Bird Census Committee.1970.Recommendations for an
international standard for a mapping method in bird census work.
Audubon Field Notes 24;727-736.
Kendeigh,C.S.1944.Measurement of bird populations.Ecol.Monogr.
14:67-106.
U.S.Army Corps of Engineers.1977.Final environmental impact
statement,Upper Susitna River basin,southcentral railbelt
area,Alaska.Washington,D.C.
7.11-17
U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service.1974.Survey of the Peregrine
Falcon and other raptors in the proprised Susitna River
reservoir impoundment areas.
U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service (and other agencies).1975.Raptor
studies along the proposed Susitna powerline corridors~oil
pipeline,and in the Yukon and Colville River regions of Alaska.
Williams~A.B.1936.
climax community.
The composition and dynamics of a beech-maple
Ecol.Monogr.6:317-408.
SUETASK 7.12
PLANT ECOLOGY ANALYSIS
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7.12-1
DB ..'ECT I YES
The objectives of the plant ecology program are to map and char-
acterize the vegetation and habitat types occurring in the areas
to be affected by the proposed Susitna Hydroelectric Project in a
qualitative and quantitative sense and to predict impacts that will
result from the proposed facilities.
APPROACH
Vegetation types will be mapped on topographic maps of the area
as well as on LANDSAT,high-altitude (U2),and low level aerial
photography.Respective land areas covered by each vegetation/
habitat type will be determined by manual planimetry or computer
integration from LANDSAT imagery after the types have been circum-
scribed.Ground verification will be determined by the accessibil-
ity of outlying portions of the Susitna River area and the time
constraints imposed by a relatively short field season.Quantita-
tive sampling will be performed in the major vegetation types.
Sensitive habitats,especially wetlands and those containing
endangered or threatened species of plants,will be emphasized,
and any natural landmarks (U.S.National Park Service Programs)
in the area will also be noted.
Impact assessment of the overall ecological effects of the dam
project and the siting of transmission lines will be made as the
proposed routes are announced,and the field studies are com-
pleted.Data presented in the reports will be supported by
available regional literature.
DISCUSSION
The characterization of vegetation types within an area provides a
great deal of information for use in environmental studies.Such
information is not only used for the prediction of impacts on
plant communities,but it is also used in predicting wildlife
habitat removal and changes in land use patterns.Past FERC
license applications have usually included vegetation cover type
maps,a detailed description of vegetation types,a discussion
of threatened or endangered species,and a description of vegeta-
tion impacts.The proposed study includes these tasks.
DATA BASE REVIEW
Comprehensive searches of ~he scientific literature will be made
to generate a bibliographic and actual data base on the Susitna
Region,and on similar types of vegetation in Alaska and adjacent
Canada.These studies will consist of literature searches in
standard bibliographic sources (Biological Abstracts,Wildlife
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7.12-2
Review,etc.),data collation from literature on methods and
other studies of Alaskan vegetation,government institution reports,
and vegetation impact studies in other northern regions.Methods
used in other quantitative ecological studies of boreal forest
or taiga in other northern regions will be included in the searches.
Literature dealing with the effect of water level changes on
riparian vegetation,such as Teskey and Hinckley (1977),will
also be reviewed.A list of the plant species encountered will
be produced,with identifications checked ~n floristic works
available at this time,such as Hulten (1968),and known collec-
tions of Alaskan plants in herbaria.
PLANT COMMUNITY ANALYSIS
VEGETATION COVER MAP
The use of LANDSAT imagery and high altitude (U2)photography
will be used to map vegetation types in the Susitna River Basin.
The vegetation is primarily boreal forest types and upland tundra.
This type of photography has proven adequate to delineate the types
occurring in the area according to recent experience of staff
of the Alaska Agricultural Experiment Station (AAES).Low-level
aerial photography (aerial quadrants)has been used to obtain
quantitative information in boreal forest types in central Canada
and is currently being used in the Susitna River Basin by the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service and U.S.Forest Service.With a cali-
brated camera system,the number of stems,height,and general cover
values can be obtained.The aerometric studies (aerial photography)
involve detailed study of LANDSAT imagery in black and white,color
(false IR and conventional),and mUlti-spectral photography as
it becomes available for Alaska from recent satellite launches.
The vegetation/cover map will be prepared for the proposed im-
poundment areas,transmission corridor,access road corridor,
and some of the downstream flood plain of the Susitna River.The
extent and intensity of the mapping in the downstream flood plain
will depend upon water level fluctuations.For the purposes of
the vegetation mapping,coverage will concentrate on the flood
plain downstream to Talkeetna,since it is anticipated that this
will be the area of greatest vegetation and habitat impact due to
the changes in flow caused by the impoundments.
Preparation of the cover map will begin in early 1980 with the
acquisition of LANDSAT and presently available color/IR aerial
photography of the Susitna River Basin.Study of the LANDSAT
imagery will yield an initial delineation of vegetation types in
the Susitna River Valley which will be preliminary and require ex-
tensive field verification.The initial mapping effort will
attempt to delineate the occurrence of wetland areas.This will
be done to aid in the compliance with Section 404 of the Clean
Water Act prior to surface disturbing activity.
Field verification of vegetation types will be performed pri-
marily during the 1980 field season,but it will continue during
the following field seasons as selected areas and stands of vege-
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i
7.12-3
tation are studied and sampled by various quantitative ecological
methods.Respective land areas covered by each vegetation type will
be determined by manual planimetry or computer integration from the
LANDSAT imagery.A table showing the acreage of each vegetation
type and percent of total study area acreage will be presented
in the report.
VEGETATION SAMPLING
Quantitative vegetation data will be obtained from proven tech-
niques employed by plant ecologists and forest scientists in deter-
mining the distribution of plant species in vegetation types and
in describing community structure.Relationships of plant commun-
ities to topographic,geological,and edaphic factors will also be
noted.
Herbaceous and ~ow shrub layer vegetation will be sampled by
clipping 0.25 mquadrats in the various habit~t types.In a
current study at the AAES this method has been used successfully
to measure biomass in a range of vegetation types in the Matanuska
Valley.The communities in the Matanuska Valley study included
representative types similar to those in the proposed study areas.
Variance estimates from the Matanuska Valley study will be used to
calculate the number of samples required in the Susitna Project.
Browse biomass will be calculated from canopy cover measurements on
aerial photographic imagery.Regression equations will be devel-
oped to relate canopy cover for the several,but well defined
shrub types in the Susitna Valley.This will necessitate har-
vesting methods on several selective representative sites.Tim-
ber resources will be calculated from aerial photographic type maps
verified by field checks using standard mensuration practices of
the U.S.Forest Service and the State of Alaska,Division of Forestry.
Whenever possible,data will be recorded directly on computer-
compatible forms in the field as the quantitative sampling is done.
With the large mass of data anticipated,the only feasible means of
maintaining organized and accessible files are in a computer data
base.Recent experience at the University of Alaska during Inter-
national Biological Program (IBP)tundra biome studies will be
useful in this area.
Field data from quantitative sampling methods will be transferred
from field forms to punched cards and entered in the computer data
base.Recall and printout of the data on any site and for any
season in the Susitna River area will be possible.Surveyor's
land designations shall be used so that any study site may be
found on readily available maps.If advanced statistical
studies are required or d€sirable,ordination and canonical
analysis can be made of the vegetation stand data by an avail-.
able scientist who has made similar analysis of forest vegetatlon
types.
7.12-4
Photographic map verification will begin in the June-September,
1980 period.Quantitative sampling will begin in 1983.The use
of the Devil Canyon lodge or field camps in the Susitna River area
as forward field camps for the plant ecology teams is anticipated,
with the AAES at Palmer being used as the staging area.Remote
field camps will be made in approved areas utilizing helicopter
drops to minimize vehicular impact.Equipment necessary for re-
mote field camps will be obtained for the program.
The field season (June-September)will be divided into 3-5 periods
of 3-4 weeks during which one or two senior scientists will be
present in the Susitna River area and be assisted by three or
four junior personnel.
Aquatic plant communities will be studied by an appropriate botani-
cal expert beginning in the 1983 field season.Aquatic plants will
be described wherever they occur,and notes on frequency,abundance,
and vigor will be made in the field survey.The aquatic flora is
not large and most of the species are known to the botanical
team.
ENDANGERED OR THREATENED SPECIES
Presently there are no plant species listed for Alaska as endan-
gered or threatened by federal or state authorities.However,
six species have been proposed by the Fish and Wildlife Service
(USDI 1976)for protection as endangered species under the
Endangered Species Act of 1973.For these six species distribu-
tion and habitat information will be assembled from literature
and herbaria sources.Known stations and potential habitats
for these species in the study area will be searched to determine
the present status.
IMPACT ANALYSIS
All potential impacts of the proposed projects on vegetation will
be discussed in the reports.The accuracy of impact predictions
will vary depending upon the area under consideration.For the
impoundment areas and transmission line rights-of-way,very
accurate values of the total acreage of each vegetation type to be
destroyed by the proposed facilities can be determined.The ef-
fect of the proposed facilities on downstream flood plain vegeta-
tion will be more difficult to accurately predict.Vegetational
changes will occur in this area as a result of:possible changes
in spring flooding,year-round ground water level changes,and,
potentially,ice damage.The physical changes will result in a
number of interacting vegetation changes.
Spring flooding and high water tables during certain times of the
year are probably instrumental in the perpetuation of certain
riparian plant communities.The dams will regulate flow which
should result in decreased spring flooding.This may be offset
to a certain extent by melting ice,if a substantial ice bUildup
occurs below the dam.Decreased flooding may permit riparian
7.12-5
habitats to develop along successional pathways into more mature
communities.This is,of course,a long-term process,but it
may eventually result in a reduction in the amount of the exist-
ing plant communities.The long-term loss of this type of habi-
tat may,however,be temporarily offset to a certain extent by
shrubs invading onto gravel bars and other areas that were pre-
viously devoid of vegetation as a result of flooding and
scouring activity.
As previously mentioned,the downstream flood plain will provide
a number of interesting problems.Plant ecological information
will be used in conjunction with various physical data to aid in
predicting changes.Depending upon the accuracy with which the
botany personnel feel that they can predict vegetation changes,
a map indicating type and extent of changes may be produced.
Supplementary field information required for predicting impacts
will be acquired during the 1981 field season,with more detailed
quantitative data and impact information being collected in 1982
and 1983.
LITERATURE CITED
Hulten,E.
tories.
1968.Flora of Alaska and neighboring terri-
Stanford University Press,Stanford,CA.
r
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_.
Teskey,R.O.,and T.M.Hinkley.1977.Impact of water
level changes on woody riparian and wetland communities.
USDI Fish and Wildlife Service,Office of Biological
Services,FWS/OBS-77/58.
USDI.1976.Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants,
proposed endangered status for some 1700 U.S.vascular
plant taxa.United States Department of the Interior.
Fish and Wildlife Service.Fed.Reg.40:24524-24571.
SCHEDULE
Certain aspects of the program will be initiated at the start of
the project and continue for its duratiori.·In each year,planning
and methods refinement will be performed in the first quarter,
field sampling in the second and third quarters,and report
preparation will be concentrated in the fourth quarter.