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Document No.2046
Susitna File No.4.3.3
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SUSITNA HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT
HABITAT MANAGEMENT METHODS TO INCREASE
MOOSE BROWSE PRODUCTION IN ALASKA:
A REVIEW,SYNTHESIS,AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION
Report by
Harza-Ebasco Susitna Joint Venture
Prepared for
Alaska Power Authority
Final Report
September 1984
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUM!fA1Y
construction of the Susitna Hydroelectric Project will eliminate or alter
wildlife habitat in the Susitna River drainage,resulting in a decrease in
carrying capacity.Mitigation for these habitat losses will include
designating speci fic lands for habi tat compensation and then increasing
and/or maintaining moose carrying capacity on these lands through habi tat
management techniques.
In Alaska,there has been considerable testing and utilization of mechanical
methods to increase moose browse.The majority of this work has been
conducted in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge (KNWR),commencing with an
active habitat management program in 1954.This has since progressed in
scope and geographical location to extensive habitat enhancement programs
conducted throughout the state.Much of the available information relevant
to increasing moose carrying capacity emphasizes the conversion of mature
vegetation to early successional stages which produce more available moose
browse and the factors which control the amount of browse produced.
Mitigation lands may be one continuous area,but are more likely to be
multiple parcels which may be widely separated.Individual parcels and/or
portions of large parcels should be regarded as management units,and a plan
to achieve the mitigation objectives for the life of the project developed
for each unit.The size of,location of,and vegetation types on mitigation
lands are the pr1.mary factors which determine the appropriate management
techniques required to increase and/or maintain a high carrying capacity.
The area of mitigation lands should be up to ten times larger than the area
of early succeasional vegetation needed at any given time to replace browse
lost by construction of the Susitna Hydroelectric Project.Moose as well as
other species may benefit from a mixture of early successional vegetation
for both browse and cover.Additionally,prescribed burns require more
acreage than what will actually be burned,with consideration for visual
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impacts also requiring larger areas.Browse production can be increased in
all sites where vigorous growth of willow,alder,birch,poplar,and/or
aspen is possible.However,increases in browse product ion are achieved
more easily and cheaply on sites with a high density of willow or aspen
which has become decadent,grown too tall for moose,and/or is overbrowsed.
Crushing is recommended to increase carrying capacity in riparian habitat in
the lower Susitna valley,and may be used in accessible areas where there is
a high density of browse plants which are overbrowsed or growing out 0 f
reach of moose.
Prescribed burning is the preferred habitat management technique to increase
the carrying capacity of most areas for moose.It is the most cost-
effective method for most areas and may be the only cost-effective method
for remote areas.The major drawback of prescribed burning within the area
of potential mitigation lands is the need for flexibility in habitat
management planning in that specific weather and fuel conditions are
required.
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Table of Contents
Section/Title
1.0
2.0
3.0
Introduction
General Moose Ecology
Fire
1
4
7
3.1
3.2
3.3
Wildfire History and Regimes
Interagency Fire Management Plans
Ecological Role of Fire
7
11
12
-3.3.1
3.3.2
Fire Behavior
Effects of Fire on Soils
13
14
3.3.2.1
3.3.2.2
3.3.2.3
Soil Temperature and Permafrost
Soil Nutrients
Runoff and Erosion
14
14
14
3.3.3 Effects of Fire on Forest Vegetation 15
3.3.3.1
3.3.3.2
Well-drained Upland Sites
Poorly-drained,Permafrost Sites
15
16
3.3.4 Effects of Fire on Tundra and Wetlands
-3.3.5 Effects of Fire on Wildlife Other than Moose
3.3.6 Effects of Fire on Moose
3.~.7 Site-Specific Factors Controlling the Effect
of Fire on Moose Carrying Capacity
17
18
19
21
41955/TOC
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3.3.7.1
3.3.7.2
Vegetative Regeneration
Seed Regeneration
i
21
22
Section/Title
Table of Contents (Cont'd)
3.3.7.3
3.3.7.4
Forest Floor Fire Severity
Cover
23
24
3.4 Prescribed Burning 24
3.4.1
3.4.2
Chugach Moose-Fire Management Program
Planned Prescribed Burning Programs
25
31
3.4.2.1
3.4.2.2
3.4.2.3
3.4.2.4
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
Matanuska Valley
Alphabet Hills
Tok
31
32
32
33
4.0 Mechanical Habitat Enhancement 35
4.1 Indirect Methods 35
4.1.1
4.1.2
Agricultural,Mining and Construction
Logging
35
36
4.2 Direct Methods 39
4.2.1 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
Crusning Program 39
4.2.1.1
4.2.1.2
4.2.1.3
4.2.1.4
4.2.1.5
Early Crushing Programs
1966 Crushing Program
1975-1978 Crushing Program
Winter 1983-1984 Crusning Program
Planned Crushing
39
40
40
42
43
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4.2.2 Tok Crushing Program
ii
44
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Section/Title
Table of Contents (Cont'd)
5.0 Recommendations
5.1 General Mitigation Concepts
5.2 Habitat Management Uni t Approach
5.2.1 Size
5.2.2 Vegetation
5.2.3 Habitat Management Techniques
46
46
47
47
49
50
5.2.3.1
5.2.3.2
5.2.3.3
5.2.3.4
5.2.3.5
Agriculture
Logging
Transmission Lines
Chaining and Crushing
Prescribed"Burning
50
50
51
51
52
5.3 Policy Considerations 53
6.0 References 1
7.0 Appendices
Appendix A -Moose Habitat Enhancement
Annotated Bibliography A-l
Appendix B -Common and Scientific Names of Plants
and Animals Cited in the Moose Habitat
Enhancement Report and Annotated
Bibliography B-1
Appendix C -Update of Status of Planned Prescribed Burns C-l
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.Figure
Figure 1
Figure 2
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List of Figures
Description
Fire Planning Management Units Ln the
Susitna Project Area.
Location of Past and Planned Prescribed Burn
Programs in Alaska
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Table
Table 1
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List of Tables
Description Page
Seedling establishment,increase in browse 30
production as compared to control,and preli-
minary calculation of increase in potential
and actual moose carrying capacity for prescribed
burns with and without slashing in the Chugach
National Forest.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION .
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Alaska Power Authority (APA)has submitted a license application to the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)for a two-dam project at the
Devil Canyon and Watana sites on the upper Susitna River.Mitigation for
permanent losses of wildlife habitat resulting from impoundment and facility
construction will include compensation through enhancement of other lands.
Dams,reservoirs,spillways,and damsite borrow areas of the proposed
developments will permanently cover about 50,000 acres of vegetated land and
water within the middle Susitna Basin.Habitat within the affected area
will no longer be available to moose,and displaced moose will compete for
food and space on surrounding lands,potentially reducing browse quality and
thus the carrying capacity of these adjacent ranges.Preliminary estimates
of carrying capacity for all project facilities indicate that wintering
habitat loss will affect an estimated 340 moose (Acres,1983).The reduced
carrying capaci ty of the immediate project area may produce a long-term
deceasing trend in the number of moose present.The loss of moose carrying
capacity likely to result from the project can be mitigated through
increasing the moose carrying capacity of other lands.
Much information has been collected relative to moose habitat enhancement in
Alaska and many studies are currently underway.However,much of these data
have not ~een published and to date no systematic review of the subject has
been made.The purpose of this report is to collect,review,and synth~size
habitat enhancement information pertinent to the Susitna River Basin to
provide information on the cost and effectiveness of habi tat enhancement
techniques for use in refining the mitigation plan for the Susitna
Hydroelectric Project.The specific objectives of the study are to:
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1.Briefly describe moose winter habitat;
2.Describe the types and effects of habitat modification on winter
moose forage;
-3.Generally describe the types and effects of habitat modification
on other resources;and,
4.Evaluate the effectiveness and cost efficiency of types of habitat
modification for the Susitna River Basin.
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This report
from Alaska
conditions.
is based on existing information,and
and adjacent parts of Canada with
The data base covers the range of moose.
focuses on information
similar environmental
A complete list of the references reviewed is provided in the Reference
Section at the end of the report,which includes the literature cited in
this report.The methodology for this review included a thorough literature
search and review of published and unpublished data,and a synthesis of this
information.The literature review included computerized literature
searches,reviews of references collected by Alaskan game researchers and
managers,and review of the literature cited in publications on hand.
Unpublished data and information were acquired via site visits to
logged/burned areas and interviews with Alaskan resource managers and
researchers,including the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G),U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS),u.S.Forest Service (USFS),and U.S.
Bureau of L~nd Management CBLM).
In addition to a review and synthesis of published and unpublished
information,an annotated bibliography of all pertinent literature can be
found in Appendix A.Articles critiqued in this bibiography include
articles concerned with natural and/or assisted moose habitat enhancement j
articles covering south-central or interior Alaskan moose or adjacent
Canada;"landmark"articles frequently referenced fro.m any area on moose
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habitat,general fire effects or related topics;and articles which are the
only source of information on subjects such as fertilization to increase
browse,browse on transmission lines and other rights-of~way,economics of
moose habitat enhancement,and effects of moose habitat enhancement on other
species which occur in Alaska,i.e.,caribou.Of 205 articles referenced in
the bibliography,82 of these articles have been annotated.
Also included in the Appendix is a table of common and scientific names of
plants and animals cited in the annotated bibliography and in the text of
this report (Appendix B).An update of the status of planned prescribed
burns within the state is presented in Appendix C.
The report itself opens with a summary of General Moose Ecology,followed by
two sections entitled Fire and Mechanical Habitat Enchancement.The Fire
section includes discussion of wildfire history and regimes;the state's
interagency fire management plans;ecological effects of fire on soils,
vegetation,wildlife and site-specific factors controlling the effect of
fire on moose carrying capacity;and prescribed burning.The Mechanical
Habitat Enhancement section includes discussion of indirect methods such as
agriculture,mining,and logging,and direct methods,such as crushing.The
report closes with recommendations.
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2.0 GENERAL MOOSE ECOLOGY
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2.0 GENERAL MOOSE ECOLOGY
Moose (Alces alces)are present throughout the boreal forest in North
America.Moose distribution and abundance in Alaska have been and continue
to be very dynamic.Moose increased steadily through the 1950's and early
1960's in response to recurrent wildfires,and stabilized or declined in the
following 15 years in southcentral and interior Alaska due to a series of
severe winters,complicated by deteriorating range conditions,changing
hunting pressures and predation (LeResche et al.1974).
Major habitats important to moose in Alaska include both sera1 and non-seral
communities,as discussed in LeResche et al.(1974),and summarized below.
Non-seral habitats include treeline and wetland shrub communities.Treeline
shrub cODDDunities are'characterized by dwarf birch and willow,with heath
and forb understories.These habitats are used most intensively in summer
and autumn,but are utilized year round by moose in some areas.Wetland
shrub communities (bog areas)occur on the broad alluvial plains common
south of the Brooks Range.These are important during spring and winter,
and support concentrations of moose during calving.Seral communities,
including those created by fire and by glacial or fluvial action,are key
winter ranges in much of Alaska.Fire-created habitats support the greatest
population increases and among the greatest densities of moose in the
state.
The importance of early successional stages to moose is well documented
(Lutz 1960~Spencer and Halaka 1964,Krefting 1974 and Kelsall et al.1977).
Early seral stages of plant succession,especially those areas rich in
aspen,birch an~willow support many moose (Kelsall et al.1977).As forest
succession advances,the quality of the habitats and the numbers of moose
decrease because at maturity the boreal forest shades 'out the understory
browse,and the overstory trees grow beyond the reach of moose (Krefting
1974).In mature coniferous forests moose numbers ar~few and are entirely
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dependent on the quantity and quality of deciduous,browse-producing shurbs
and trees along forest edges (Kelsall et al.1977).
In interior Alaska,as in many northern areas,moose undergo regular
seasonal movements or migrations.Migration of moose appears to be an
adaptation to optimize seasonal use of forage habitats (Coady 1982).In the
middle Susitna Basin as in interior Alaska,moose spend the summer at low
elevations,move to high elevations during fall and remain there throughout
most of the winter (Bishop 1969).lowland and upland climax shrub
communities are heavily utilized during summer and fall.By early winter
moose commonly move to upland and lowland seral communities.During winters
of deep snow,upland seral communities are abandoned in favor of lowland
areas.As the winter advances,moose gradually move from the more open
stands to denser cover (Krefting 1974).Weather conditions,particularly
snow depth and structure are among the most important factors associated
with moose migration (Coady 1974,LeResche 1974).
Moose populations are ultimately limited by the quantity and quality of
winter range (Coady 1982),which is critical to moose survival only during
severe winters (Coady 1974,LeResche et a1.1974).High quality winter
range of moose is characterized by (l)abundant trees and shrubs that are
most preferred by moose as winter browse;(2)consistently low snow depths
in relation to surrounding areas,and (3)good interspersion of young -seral
growth (for forage)and older aged forest stands (for cover)(LeResche et
a1.1974,Peck 1974).Shrub communities,particularly riparian willow
stands provide high quality winter range.Because riparian habitats are
frequently -disturbed by alluvial action,they provide permanent seral
habitats.The nutritional quality of browse (e.g.,amounts of crude
protein,fats -and carbohydrates,digestibility,total calories)is also
important in determining the quality of winter range (Oldemeyer 1974).
It has been well established that moose are primarily a browsing species,
feeding predominantly on deciduous woody browse during-winter months and on
emergent and herbaceous plants as well as leaves and leaders of shrubs and
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trees during the summer (Peck 1974).A thorough review of moose food habits
in North America is summarized in Peek (1974)and a number of studies
have focused on Alaska (Spencer and Chatelain 1953,Spencer and Hakala 1964,
Milke 1969,LeResche and Davis 1973,Cushwa and Coady 1976,Machida 1978).
Although general conclusions are that willow,birch,aspen and poplar are
primary food sources,local and seasonal variations in forage preferences
are important.Food habits of moose are strongly influenced by browse
availability,therefore there are some differences in the importance of
various browse species to moose,with moose distributions closely associated
with the distribution of commonly utilized browse species.Many preferred
species appear characteristic of successional stages,with the importance of
early successional stages to moose previously discussed.Winter forages
vary according to conditions of winter range.The more persistent snows of
interior Alaska require that taller browse species be available for moose in
winter.
The minimum requirements of moose for winter food and cover appear to be
satisfied by a great diversity of habitat types across North America,
suggesting that moose are adaptable to a variety of conditions.
The quality of moose habitats are constantly changing as a result of forest
succession,with populations fluctuating accordingly.Moose adapt favorably
following alteration of vegetation by disturbance such as fire,with
carrying capacity increased because of an increase in the quantity and
quality of available moose browse.Cushwa and Coady (1976)report that,in
Alaska.fire improved habitat through increased productivity and
availability of deciduous woody plants,and that moose responded in reaction
to improved nabitat conditions.In general,moose utilization of optimum
browse peaks 20 to 30 years following fire (Spencer and Hakala 1964,
LeResche et a 1-.1974.Viereck and Schandelmeir 1980),and occasionally
moose browse may be available for 60 to 70 years following fire (Spencer and
Hakala 1964).Species composition.size of burn,rate of growth,diversity
of communities,and ecotone created all determine the impact of a burn on
moose activities (LeResche et al.1974).
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3.0 FIRE
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3.0 FlU
3.1 WILDFIRE HISTORY AND REGIMES
Fire has been a prehistoric and historic controlling factor Ln the
c ircumboreal fores ts of Alaska (Barney 1971,Barney and Stocks 1983,Lutz
1956,Viereck 1973),Canada (Kayall 1968,Kershaw 1977,Rowe and Scotter
1973),Scandinavia (Uggla 1958)and Russia (Barney and Stocks 1983,Lutz
1956)The post-glacial fire record has been studied in sediment cores from
many areas of boreal forest (Barney and Stocks 1983).For example,two
cores from Finland cover the past 7000 years,and indicate that before
permanent settlements were established in the sixth and seventh centuries,
the I1 na tural l1 mean fire intervals for this southern portion of the boreal
forest were 78 years for pine forest and 159 years for mesic spruce forest
[(Tolonen 1978,1980 (cited in Barney and Stocks 1983)].From time of
settlement to the present,the mean fire interval has decreased.Similar
cores from North American boreal forest sites have shown a fire history
dating back thousands of years,with fire intervals of 70-100 years
[(Terasmae and Weeks 1979,Nichols 1969 (cited in Barney and Stocks 1983)].
Approximately 220 million acres of Alaska's total area of 375 million acres
are considered vulnerable to wildfire (Taylor et al.1983).Barney (1971)
estimated that before organized fire suppression began in 1940,1.5 to 2.5
million acres burned annually.From this information,the mean fire
interval for the total area vulnerable to fire can be roughly estimated as
110 years_-Fire suppression has steadily decreased the number of acres
burned each decade,and since 1969 the annual number of acres burned has
decreased to a_level of 375,000 to 625,000 acres,increasing the me~n fire
interval for the total area to 440 years (Taylor et a1.1983).
Exceptional fire years are characteristic of the taiga,and may be
synchronized over large areas.The year 1865 has be_en reported as a big
fire year in the Mackenzie Valley (Northwest Territories,Canada),Jasper
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Park (Canada),Montana,and Minnesota (Viereck and Schandelmeier 1980).The
years 1893,1915,1937, 1941,1950,and 1969 were major fire years in both
Alaska and "the Mackenzie Valley.In Alaska from 1940 to 1978,6 years
(1940,1941, 1950, 1957, 1969,and 1977)accounted for 63%of the area
burned during this 28-year period.Data from Alaska and Canada on area
burned show a rough correlation of annual area burned to a 9-to ll-yeat:
time interval,but neither the existence nor the cause of periodic patterns
in major fire years has been established.
-Fire regimes vary in different parts of Alaska (Figure 1),depending on
climate.The Tanana/Minchumina fire planning area (see Section 3.2 for
discussion of fire planning areas)has a severe fire climate,with low
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precipitation,relatively high summer temperatures,and a high frequency of
lightning which is not accompanied by heavy rainfall.During the 25-year
period for which statistics are available from 1957-1981,approximately 9%
(2.8 million)of the 31 million acres in the planning area burned (ALUC
1982).There were 1716 fires,but only 4%(64)of the fires burned 94%of
the acreage.Lightning caused 52%of the fires and burned 86%of the
acreage.
The Copper River Basin fire planning area (Figure 1)has a different fire
regime.Climate and fuel types are similar to the Tanana/Minchumina area,
but the incidence of lightning-caused fires is much lower 'and the interval
between fires appears to be much longer (ALUC 1984).During the 23-year
period for which statistics are available (1956-1978),approximately .06%
(12,000)of the 19.7 million acres in the planning area burned.Of 584
fires,1%-burned 84%of the total burned acreage.In contrast to the
Tanana/Minchumina area,only 6%of the fires were lightning-caused,and
these burned only 8%of the total burned acreage.
Specific data is available for the Susitna Dam project area from the Copper
River Basin fire management plan.In the management unit bordered by the
Talkeetna Mountains,the Oshetna River,the Susitna ~iver,and the Alaska
Range,only 13 acres of the total area of 2 million acres burned between
1956 and 1978.There was one lightning-caused fire and two man-caused fires.
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11I11.~)1 J 1 J )J 1 1 ]1 1
LOCATION MAP
~o WILES40
~:",.......l'II~"J(Il~.I'hC ~q~£.!....
AI ASK A POWER AUfHOfllTY
FIRE PlANNING
MANAGEMENT UNITt ..
SUSIT~~~ROJECTAMA
SCALE 0
'.'I
LEGEND
FIRE PROTECTION DESlGNATIOHS
c=J UNCLASSIFED
~L1UITED PROTECTION
~UOOlflEO PROTECTION
t·'!::?!::;]l=ULL PROTECTION
tl0'li.i!'D CRITICAL PROTECTION •
_POTENTIAL UITIGATION LANDS
FIRE PLANNING AREAS
<D TANANA MINCHUMINA
®UPPER YUKON TANANA
®FORTY UILE
@ UAT-SU
®COPPER RIVER BASIN
®KUSKOKWIM ILLIAMNA
(j)KENAI
®PRINCE WILLIAU S.E.
HAVE BEEN MAPPED.
I.E.VILLAGES.TOWNS.
CABINS.LODGES.ETC.
.NOT ALL LANDS DESIONA IE
FOR CRITICAL PROTECTION
GULF OF ALASKA
Q TALKEETNA
@)ID
-
The management unit to the east and south of the project area is bordered by
the Susitna River,the Alaska Range,the Richardson Highway,the Glenn
F--Highway,Lake Louise,and the Tyone River;and includes the Alphabet Hills
area and other areas considered for Susitna mitigation lands.In this area
only 342 acres of the total of 3.2 million acres burned during the same time
period.There were 4 'lightning-caused fires and 54 man-caused fires,and
man-caused fires were responsible for 75%of the burned acreage.The two
management areas described above are within the lightning belt,but the
thunderstorms are usually accompanied by enough rainfall to prevent fires
from starting and/or spreading (F.Malotte.1984.Pers.'comm.).
Vegetation in the Copper River Basin however,clearly shows that the general
fire pattern is similar to other areas of Alaska.Accounts of early
explorers.and limited fire records for the time period from 1900 to the
start of organized fire suppression,document a number of large fires.
Vegetation studies for the Susitna Hydroelectric Project have documented the
importance of fire in determining the age.composition.and distribution of
plant communities in the project area •.and have identified more recently
burned areas which provide good lI!0ose habitat.According to F.Malotte
(1984.Pers.comm.),climatic conditions in this area result in fuels which
are generally more moist than fuels in the Interior north of the Alaska
Range.and fire frequency is lower.However,fuel accumulates.and in the
occasional very dry year.large areas burn.
Detailed information on the fire history of the lower Susitna Valley is not
presently available.Fuel loading and moisture conditions are suitable for
burning (F-.-Malotte.1984.Pers.comm.).However,there is very little
lightning,and historically the area has not burned frequently.Man-caused
fires are changing this pattern in the developed areas.
3.2 INTERAGENCY FIRE MANAGEMENT PLANS
Alaska land managers and wildfire protection organjzations are in the
process of changing fire suppression policies.Wildfire suppression is
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administered by the Alaska Department of Natural Resources,the Bureau of
Land Management,and the National Park Service.To reduce organizational
duplication,each agency protects its lands under a cooperative suppression
agreement which is a contractor-client relationship.The Alaska Land Use
Council (ALUC),which was authorized by The Alaska National lnteres t Lands
Conservation Act (ANILCA)and included federal,state,and native land
managers,established a fire-working group to develop the Alaska Interagency
Fire Management Plan.The Alaska Interagency Fire Management Council was
then established to develop fire management plans for wildfires.Objectives
include (1)reducing fire suppression costs,(2)optimizing suppression
resources in major fire years,(3)making fire suppression costs
commensurate with the value gained by protecting the resource,with the
recognition that wildfire is beneficial to many resources,and that
suppression may be more damaging than fire.
The state has been divided into 14 fire planning areas (Figure 1),and the
interagency fire management plan categorizes each area into four management
options:cri tical,full,modified,and limited protec tion.The cri tical
protection option is designed for specific sites where human life or
habitation are present.These sites receive immediate,aggressive,and
continued attack to m1n1m1ze damage,and are the highest priority for
suppression forces.The full protection option identifies areas of high
natural resource value,which receive immediate and aggress ive ac tion to-minimize areas burned.The modified ac tion option provides for ini tial
attack on all new fire starts during the severe burning portion of the fire
season.Fires which escape initial attack are evaluated to develop a
the low risk period of the fire season,
~,the fire be allowed to burn,butmay 1S
to determine if suppression is required.
strategy th~t balances acres burned versus suppression expenditure.During
initial attack is not required and
monitored and continually evaluated
The limited ac tion option is for
areas where fire 1.S desirable or where resources values do not warrant
suppression expenditures.The behavior and spread of the fire is monitored,
but suppression activity is limited to preventing the fire from escaping the
designated area.Critical fir~suppression areas are often small sites such
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as cabins or lodges.Suppression measures such as catlines are used to
protect the site itself,not the surrounding land.
Nine completed plans and five presently being developed will cover the
entire state by mid-1985.In the nine completed plans,approximately
25%of the land is under full protection,25%is under modified protection,
and 50%is under limited protection.Of that land under limited protection,
22%is subject to fire and the remaining 28%is non-burnable (F.Malotte
1984.Pers.comm.).Fire plans will be updated as necessary to accommodate
changes in land use and ownership.
The upper Susitna drainage area is classified as limited action (Figure 1),
with the exception of cabin and lodge sites.These facilities would be
protected,but the surrounding vegetation would be allowed to burn.
Although the lower Susitna Valley was not given planning priority as a fire-
prone area.an interagency fire management plan will probably be developed
in 1985.Because much of this area is presently utilized or is planned for
residential sites,agriculture.and forestry,and because these land uses
exist or are planned in a patchwork pattern,it is likely that most of the
lower Susitna Valley will be designated for critical or full fire
protection.
3.3 ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF FIRE
Excellent reviews and summaries of existing information on fire ecology in
Alaska and other parts of the boreal forest are available,and this effort
will not be ~uplicated in this report (ALUe 1982,Kayll 1968,Kozlowski and
Ahlgren 1974,Ream 1981,Rowe and Scotter 1973,Viereck 1973,Viereck and
Schandelmeier 1980,Wien and MacLean 1983,Yukon Wildlife Branch ,1980).
Pertinent inf~rmation is summarized from these sources and additional papers
cited in the text as background for a more detailed discussion of the
relationship between fire and moose habitat.
,~41955
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-----------------------------------------------------
3.3.1 Fire Behavior
Fire behavior is one of the most important factors·in determining fire
effects."Fire intensity"is a technical description of the rate of energy
transmission at the fire front.The term "fire severityll may be used to
describe the overall effects of the fire on the ecosystem,but is usually
confined to the effects of the fire on the forest floor.In terms of
ecological effects,a high-intensity fire is a hot crown fire which consumes
mucn of the aboveground vegetation,while.a low-intensity fire may leave
large amounts of live vegetation.Either type of fire mayor may not burn
deeply in the organic mat on the forest floor.
Forest floor fire severity is important,because the amount of organic
material removed by the fire affects postfire succession,soil temperature,
permafrost depth,and amount of available nutrients.Fire removes the
forest floor unevenly,leaving a patchy mosal.c.Because of the importance
of this effect to the production of moose browse,classifications of
severity are presented in detail.The four forest floor severity classes
used in the Washington Creek experimental prescribed burns (Viereck et ale
1979)are as follows:(1)heavily bU'rned-deep ash layer present,organic
material consumed or nearly so to mineral soil,no discernable plant parts
remaining;(2)moderately burned-organic layer partially consumed,shallow
ash layer present,parts of woody twigs remaining:(3)lightly burned-
plants cnarred or scorcned but original form of mosses and twigs visible;
(4)unburned-plant parts green and unchanged.These classifications are
most useful to characterize microsites within a burn;Wells et al.(1979
(cited in ~iereck and Scandelmeier 1980))expanded the system to describe
the mosaic of burn patterns in larger area as follows:(1)severely burned-
more than 10%of the area has spots that are heavily burned,more than 80%
moderately burned,the rest ligntly burned;(2)moderately burned-less than
10%heavily burned,but more than 15%moderately burned;(3)lightly burned-
less than 2%heavily burned,less than 15%moderately burned,the rest
lightly burned or not burned.
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--------"-~----------------~----~----~-------------,--~--
-3.3.2 Effects of Fire On Soils
-
3.3.2.1 Soil Temperature and Permafrost.Most of a fire's heat is lost to
the air,and soils are a good insulator.Surface temperatures of 450 0 C
have been demonstrated to have little effect below 5 cm depth.However,the
removal of the organic layer,the change 1n surface albedo,and the removal
of overstory vegetation result in warmer soil temperatures.In areas with
continuous or discontinous permafrost,such as the upper iusitna drainage,
the thickness of the active layer is.increased.For example,at the 1971
Wickersham Dome wildfire,the thaw depth increased from 45 cm in 1971 to 183
cm in 1979 (Viereck and Dryness 1979).Comparisons of active layer
thickness in a number of known-aged burns indicated that the active layer
returns to its original thickness approximately 50 years after fire (Viereck
1973).
3.3.2.2 Soil Nutrients.Warmer soil temperature and greater active layer
thickness increase nutrient turnover and availability of nutrients to
vegetation,increasing site productivity after fire.Burning releases plant
nutrients that were tied up in organic layers,particularly where deep
forest floors have built up because of a slow decomposition rate.Northern
soils tend to be acidic,and pH is dramatically increased by fire.Usually,
exchangeable phosphorous,potassium,calcium,and magnesium also increase
after fire.Considerable amounts of nitrogen are lost as gas through
volatization during burning,but some of the soil nitrogen tied up in the
lower organic layers and in the permafrost may become available to plants as
soils warm and thaw after the fire.
3.3.2.3 Runoff and Erosion.Runoff and erosion do not increase following
most Alaskan fires,due to the high waterb.olding capacity of the soil
organic layers,rapid revege tation,the short thaw season,and low summer
rainfall (Viereck 1973).However,serious erosion has resulted from some
firelines,particulary those constructed on permafrost soils (Hagihara and
Libscomb 1968,Lotspeich et ale 1970).
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14
3.3.3 Effects of Fire on Vegetation
-
""'"
,-.
Forested areas in fire-prone regions of Alaska have been divided into two
major site types to describe general patterns of succession following fire.
On well-drained upland sites (frequently south-facing slopes)the mature
forest vegetation is white spruce.paper birch.aspen.or some combination
of these species.White spruce may gradually invade and eventually dominate
hardwood stands;or if seeds and suitable seedbeds are available,spruce may
establish immediately after fire and even-aged stands may develop.On wet.
poorly drained sites.and/or uplands and lowlands underlain by permafrost.
the mature forest vegetation is dominated by black spruce.Descriptions of
succession are summarized from Foote (983)but include additional
information 'relevant to moose habitat.
3.3.3.1 Well-Drained Upland Sites.On well-drained upland sites,trees,
shrubs,and herbs resprout within a few weeks after the fire,unless the
fire is very late in the season.Aspen produces a high density of root
suckers around each burned tree.Paper birch produces stump sprouts,but
some sprouting ability appears to be lost with age,and not all stumps
produce sprouts.Willows.even if old and decadent,sprout prolifically
immediately after fire.Alder is more susceptible to complete killing by
fire than is willow.and resprouting is less vigorous and prolific.
Depending on the time of year of the burn.aspen"birch and willow shoots
may be one to four feet tall at the end of the season.Rose,high bush
cranberry,bluejoint,and fireweed res prout on lightly and moderately burned
microsites.On moderately burned sites,raspberries,stink currants,
geranium,and Corydal is spp.germinate from buried seed immediately after
the fire (Densmore 1979).
From one to five years after fire,the site 1S dominated by the resprouted
trees,shrubs,and herbs;and by herbs such as fireweed establishing from
seed.Willows may reach a height of 10 feet within 3 years if not heavily
browsed (Wolff 1978).Seedlings of aspen,birch.alder,willow.and (less
41955
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--
--
-
frequently)white spruce begin to establish the first year after the fire,
after seeds have dispersed to the burned site in the fall and spring.
From 6 to 25 years after the fire,tall willow and alder shrubs,and aspen
and paper birch saplings dominate the stands and begin to shade out the
herbs.From 26 to 45 years after fire,aspen and paper birch form a dense
canopy,grow beyond the reach of moose,and begin to thin,and an understory
of small white spruce develops.The most common upland willows,bebb willow
and scouler willow,may grow to tree size,or be shaded out and dec line.
From 46 to 150 years after fire,mature aspen and birch stands,or mixtures
of wnite spruce and aspen or birch are present.Highbush cranberry,rose,
twinflower,and horsetails dominate the understory.Some tree-size willows
may persist,but most die.From 150 to 300 years,mature white spruce
dominates,with a few remaining hardwoods in younger stands.
3.3.3.2 Poorly Drained Permafrost Sites.On cold,wet sites dominated by
black apruce,early success ional stages are similar to well-drained sites,
but later stages differ.Stlortly after fire,willows and alder resprout,
and willows grow rapidly.On lightly and moderately burned microsites,
rose,blueberry,laborador-tea,cloudberry,bluejoint,fireweed,and
horsetail resprout.Raspberries,stink currants,and Corydalis spp.
germinate from buried seed.Black spruce has serotinous cones wtlich survive
all but the most intense fires,and seed dispersal may begin immediately
after fire and continue for several seasons (Zasada et al 1979).
From 1 to 5 years after fire,resprouted shrubs and herbs dominate,and
seedlings_of black spruce,aspen,paper birch,willow,and alder establish.
From 5 to 26 years after fire,willows,alder,low shrubs,and hardwood
saplings dominate,but the stand may be interspersed with young hardwood
trees.The tall shrub layer of willow and alder begins to thin out,but the
low shrub layer increases in cover.These stands are highly flammable and
often burn.
....,
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16
From'51 to 100 years,black spruce and hardwoods mature,followed by a
decline in vigor of hardwoods.willows may die out.Many stands burn in
this stage.From 91 to 200+years after fire,mature black spruce trees,
saplings,and seedlings dominate the stand,most hardwoods die out,and low
shrubs may be reduced in vigor.During the last three stages,feathermosses
invade and grow rapidly,and a thick organic layer develops.This layer
ties up available nutrients,creates colder soil temperatures,and results
in the return of a thin active layer on permafrost sites.
-3.3.4 Effects of Fire on Tundra and Wetlands
-
Barney (1971)stated that 42%of the acreage burned in Alaska between 1950
and 1969 was tundra.The term tundra in this case probably encompasses all
vegetation types not dominated by trees,including shrub-and graminoid-
dominated wetlands and forest-tundra areas dominated by shrubs.These
vegetation types are important to moose,and are generally described as
"non-seral"habitat.It is important to realize that this non-seral habitat
can and does burn,even if burns are not as frequent as in forest
vegetation.
Fire 1S probably important in increasing nutrient availability and browse
productivity in these important moose habitat types.Fire frequencies in
wetlands are relatively low;fires usually occur in very dry years,and most
oft he se fir es bu r non 1y the sur fa ceo r g ani c so i 1s (W i en 1983 ) •
Regeneration through resprouting of shrubs,forbs,and graminoids 1S
generally so rapid that fire effects are visible only for a short period of
time.In_fQrest-tundra,isolated individuals of spruce occur in a matrix of
shrub tundra dominated by dwarf bircn,laborador-tea,blueberry,cranberry,
willow,and lichens.These areas are susceptible to fire due to presence of
lichens and ericacious shrubs (Auclair 1983).In western Alaska and on the
south slopes of the Brooks Range,fire occurs frequently in treeline areas
(Viereck and SChandelmeier 1980).As discussed above under fire history,
past burns Ln forest-tundra are evident in the project area and provide good
41955
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---------------_._------~._-~------_.~-----------------=----
moose habitat,but fire is not frequent.Shrubs rapid ly res prout,but
-lichens and spruce may be slow to re-establish (Auclair 1983).
3.3.5 Effects of Fire on Wildlife Other Than Moose
-
Although this topic is very important,a duplication of the existing
excellent reviews and syntheses will not be attempted.Pertinent
information briefly summarized in this section is from Viereck and Schandel-
meir (1980)and Kellyhouse (1979)unless otherwise cited.
By their continued presence in the fire-prone Alaskan taiga,species are
presumed to be adapted to or tolerant of fire.The problem addressed is
the effect of the conversion of a portion of an area of mature plant
community to an early successional plant community on the carrying capacity
of wildlife species other than moose.Conclusions are based on assumptions
that the maximum size for an area would be about 10,000 acres,that
approximately 40%of the area would be left in mature vegetation,and mature
plant communities would be interspersed to some degree with early
successional plant communities.As will be seen in this report,these are
necessary and reasonable assumptions for a state-of-the-art habitat
conversion program.
Conversion to early successional stages is likely to increase the carrying
capacity of a site for woodpeckers,flickers,alder flycatchers,tree
swallows,savannah sparrows,orange-crowned warblers,dark-eyed juncos,
sharp-tailed grouse (Mossop 1979),ruffed grouse,ptarmigan,geese,ducks,
swans (Buckl-ey 1968,Klein 1971),owls,eagles,falcons,most hawks (ALUe
1982),red-backed voles,meadow voles,muskrats (Kayll 1968),beavers,
least and shor_t-tailed weasels,wolves,and red foxes (Kellyhouse 1979)
and other furbearers (Stephenson 1984).Habitat conversion which emphasizes
a mosaic of young and mature stands is most likely to increase the carrying
capacity for olive-sided flycatchers,western wood peewee,bohemian
waxwings,snowshoe hares (Wolff 1978),lynx and black bears.
41955
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.-
i
'"""
I
Carrying capacity is likely to be reduced for gray jays,black-capped
chickadees,boreal chickadees,varied thrushes,ruby-crowned kinglets,
golden-crowned kinglets,yellow-rumped warblers,Townsend's warblers,pine
siskins,white-winged crossbills,brown creepers,Swainson's thrushes
spruce grouse,sharp-shinned hawks (ALUC 1982),red squirrels,flying
squirrels (Ream 1981),and caribou.Davis et ale (1978)felt that there was
no obvious correlation between fires and caribou in the Nelcnina herd,since
many major fires occurred during the 1940's,yet during the late 1940's
through the 1960 I s the population increased.Caribou populations over a
large area may be controlled by factors other than food,but on a particular
site,the later successional stages following fire or other disturbance are
better habitat for caribou than the early successional stages of the first
25 to 30 years.Since this analysis discusses the effect of habitat
conversion on the carrying capacity of a particular site,the effects on
caribou are listed as negative.Carrying capacity for pine marten may not
be altered in a mosaic where forest provides cover and dens,and the
adjacent early successional vegetation provides an increased prey base
(Archibald 1979).
It is generally recognized that fire increases the carrying capacity of an
area for moose,especially in winter.In Alaska,moose maintain low
populations in non-sera 1 and riparian habitats;but creation of seral fire
habitat,and its subsequent decline after 26 to 30 years,loS the most
important factor in steady increases or declines in moose populations (Bangs
and Bailey-1980,Bailey 1978,Buckley 1968,Chatelain 1954,Coady 1973,
Davis and Franzmann 1979,Krefting 1974a,Leoplod and Darling 1953a,
LeResche et al.1974,Rowe and Scotter 1973,Spencer and Hakala 1964).
Carrying capacity is increased because quantity and quality of available
moose browse increase after fire.The increase varies widely among sites,
and may be affected by proximity to cover or time to regrowth of cover.The
question of whether increased carrying capacity will _be utilized by moose,
-I
3.2.6
41955
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Effects of Fire on Moose
19
and result in a population increase,is addressed in a separate report to be
prepared by Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
In general,,available moose browse is increased for 20 to 30 years following
fire (Spencer and Hakala 1964,Viereck and Schandelmeier 1980),but
occasionally more browse may be available for 60 to 70 years after fire
(Spencer and Hakala 1964).Useful quantitative measurements of increase in
available browse have been made in Alaska;some additional studies have
measured parameters such as stem density,which cannot be readily utilized
to estimate available browse biomass per unit area.
In the Kenai.National Wildlife Refuge from 1971 to 1974,the mean available
browse was 12 lb/acre in mature forest;while available browse in the 1947
burn ranged from 76 to 166 lb/acre,depending on the density of paper
birch,which supplied almost all of the browse (Oldemeyer 1983).Oldemeyer
et a1.(l97n observed that prior to the 1970's,levels of available browse
were higher,and willow and aspen constituted a larger proportion of the
available browse.By 1979,available browse in the 1947 burn had declined
to 36 lb/ac:re.The estimated moose population increased steadily from
approximately 2000 moose in 1949 to a peak of 9000 moose in 1971,then
crashed to 3500 moose in 1975 and stabilized around that level through 1980
(Bangs and nailey 1980).The 1947 Kenai fire burned slowly over a period of
several months,leaving a very large number of unburned inclusions and
maximizing ledge effect.The large,steady moose population increase from
1949 -1971 has been attributed to this fire pattern,which produced large
quantitites of available browse close to co,ver provided by mature forest
(LeResche et-a1.1974,Spencer and Hakala 1964).The sharp decrease from
1975 -1981 has been attributed to a decline in browse quantity and quality
as willows and-aspen died and/or grew out of reach,combined with the
effects of igevere winters (Bangs and Bailey 1980,Oldemeyer et a1.1977).
The 1969 Swanson River burn in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge was a hot
fire that burned most of the vegetation over a large area,leaving few
unburned inclusions.Moose densitites did not increase as rapidly as in the
41955
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20
,~
.....
1947 burn,and the difference was attributed to the lack of cover and poor
available browse production (13 lb/acre 10 years after fire).However,by
1983 available browse had increased to 90 lb/acre,and moose densities and
productivity were as high or higher than the 1947 burn at its peak (W.
Regelin.198,4..Pers.comm.).It appears that the hot burn provided many
suitable seedbeds for hardwood regeneration,and that once these seedlings
had grown tall enough to provide both browse and cover,moose carrying
capacity increased dramatically (W.Regelin in 1984.Per.comm.).
Wolff and Zasada (1979)measured available browse in several mature and
early fire successional stands in the Tanana-Yukon uplands of interior
Alaska.Aspen stands 35 and 50 years old had no available browse,while 1,
4,and 7 years after fire available browse in the form of aspen suckers was
198, 113,and 134 lb/acre.A 35-year-old mixed stand of white spruce,p~per
birch,and .alder had no available browse.A burn in closed white spruce-
paper birch forest had 66 lb/acre available browse 16 years after fire,and
60 lb/acre 19 years after fire;most of the browse was willow.Another site
in the same preburn vegetation type in the same burn had 120 lb/acre of
available b:rowse 19 years after fire,approximate~y 75%paper birch and 25%
willow.Mean available browse (all willow)in a 75-year-old mature black
spruce forest was 8 lb/acre,while the burned portion of the same stand
produced 16"43, 45,57,and 67 lb/acre of available browse (all willow)3,
4,5,6 and 7 years after fire,respectively.
3.3.7 Site-Specific Factors Controlling the Effect of Fire on Moose
Carrying Capacity
Moose browse following fire is produced by both vegetative (resprouting)and
seed regenE~ration.-The amount of moose browse produced by vegetative
regeneratiol1 is controlled by what is present on the site before burning,or
to put it e'l7en more plainly,"what you see is what you get".
3.3.7.1 Vegetative Regeneration.The post-fire bX'-owse production from
resprouting of major browse species can be predicted with a fair degree of
41955
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21
.~
I
accuracy before the burn.willows resprout vigorously from the root crown,
and are ral~ely killed even by severe burns,so the number of resprouting
willows will be approximately equal to the number present before the fire.
Paper birch can regenerate by sprouting.However,the buds at the base of
the parent tree,which are the source of sprouts,may be killed by fire;not
all trees res prout even if buds are not killed by fire;and sprouts may be
short-lived (Zasada 1971).Alder may occasionally be killed by hot fires,
and does not resprout as vigorously as willow (Viereck and Scnandelmeier
1980)•
Aspen res prouts from dormant buds on the roots,which are in the mineral
soil and protected from fire.The ability of aspen roots to produce suckers
is great.In the 1971 Wickersham Dome fire,the density of aspen root
suckers was 80,000 per acre the first year following fire (Viereck and
Schandelmeier 1980).TneMay 1983 Rosie Creek fire produced 120,000 aspen
root suckers per acre immediately after the fire,and some suckers grew to 5
feet in hei.gnt wi thin three months (Viereck 1984).Aspen suckers self-th in
rapidly,but the survivors rapidly produce browsable side-twigs.For this
reason,estimates of available browse based on stem counts are particularly
inaccurate for aspen.
3.2.7.2 Seed Regeneration.Factors which control the amount of browse
produced by seed regeneration of major browse species include seed
availability,suitable seedbed area,and weather.Seed rain decreases with
distance from the seed source,so the Sl.ze and shape of the burn loS
important.Paper birch disperses for a distance of at least 2 to 3 tree
heights,~l~is often carried further by the wind (Zasada 1971).Aspen and
willow have light seeds adapted for long-distance dispersal by wind and may
be disperSE!d for several miles,but seed rain is greater close to the parent
plant.Alcier seeds are usually dispersed for several hundred feet,'but may
be carried further by wind or water.Periodicity of maximum seed crops may
also affect the level of seed rain.Paper birch produces large seed crops
every 2 to 4 years;aspen every 4 to 5 years.
41955
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r
-
3.2.1.3 Forest Floor Fire Severity.Forest floor fire severity is the
most importall'lt factor in determining the number of paper birch,aspen,
willow and alder seedlings which will establish following fire.Studies of
regeneration following logging have demonstrated that most paper birch
seedlings establish on mineral soil seedbeds,and that aspen seedlings
establish only on mineral soil seedbeds (Zasada 1911,Zasada and Grigal
1918).In llreas of the Wickersham Dome fire where the pat tern of fores t
floor fire s:everity was classified as light to moderate,very few willow
seedlings had established four years after fire;and all of these seedlings
were on mineral soil exposed by tree tip-ups and in heavily burned
microsites all:the base of trees.Forest fire severity on the adjacent "ALPS
burn"was he,ivy over large areas,and numerous willow seedlings had
established two years after fire.The area of heavily burned microsites and
mineral soil exposed by tree tip-ups was much greater than on the adjacent
Wickersham Dome fire.Densmore (976)sowed seeds of two willow species•
along a 100 m transect in the 1915 "ALPS burn"and observed that seedlings
established only in heavily b~rned microsites.
Zasada etal.(983)conducted a thoro~gh and detailed study of the
relationship between forest floor fire severity and seed regeneration of all
the major blr:owse species.Studies were conducted in the Washington Creek
Fire Ecoloil7 Experimental Area in an area of mature black spruce forest
which was burned in a prescribed fire.Seeds of alder,paper birch,black
spruce,asp,en,balsam poplar,feltleaf willow,bebb willow,and scouler
willow were collected locally and sown at time of natural dispersal in plots
which contained unburned,lightly burned,moderately burned,and heavily
burned fores-t floor microsites (for detailed descriptions of these forest
floor fire severity classes,refer to the section on fire effects on soils).
After three years,alder,black spruce,aspen,balsam poplar,and willow
seedlings Wl!re-present only on heavily burned microsites.About 99%of the
paper bi rch s eedl ings were pres en t on heavi ly burned mic ros i tes,and the
remainder w~!re on moderately burned microsites.It is evident that complete
burning of the organic layer to mineral soil i~.required for seed
regeneration of browse species.
41955
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23
-
3.3.7.4 Cover.Although available winter browse is one of the most
important factors in determining the carrying capacity of an area for moose,
other factors which are more difficult to quantify and less well understood
are also important.One such factor 1.S cover.As discussed above,the
proximity to cover created by interspersion of numerous unburned stands has
been considered to be a major factor in the relatively rapid moose
population increase in the 1947 Kenai burn (LeResche et ale 1974).However,
the 1969 S~ianson River burn is now experiencing a similar increase in moose
populations:,although it was a large burn wbicn provided relatively little
cover for a number of years after the fire (Regelin,1984 Pers.comm.).
Heavy utilization appears to have delayed until the vegetation grew tall
enough to provide cover,but the severity of the burn apparently provided
many suitable seedbeds for establishment of browse species.The methods
used in prescribed burns,as discussed below,generally do not produce large
areas without cover,so the focus can remain on browse production.
3.4 PRESCRIBED BURNING
Prescribed burning has been defined by the U.S.Forest Service as the
skillful application of fire to fuels in a definite area under exacting
conditions such as weather,fuel moisture,and soil moisture,to accomplish
certain planned objectives.Prescribed burning has been used in most
National Forests and many National Parks throughout the contiguous United
States to manage vegetation and wildlife,dupli.cating the effects once
achieved througb natural wildfire.
In 8ritis~Columbia,prescribed burning has been used extensively since the
1970's to increase production of wildlife on remaining habitat,as
mitigation for-the loss of critical big game winter range to settlement,
utility corridors,impoundments,and coal exploration and development
(Eastman 1978).Prescribed burning has been emphasized over other
tecnniques because it is regarded as the most economical and ecologically
beneficial.Prescribed burning has been conducted __to increase carrying
capacity for moose,elk,stone sheep,bighorn sheep,mule deer,and white-
41955
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24
-----------~~----------~-
tailed deer'.Most prescribed burns were spring surface fires in nonforested
or early successional stages.Burns most applicable to Alaska have been
those in nClrtheastern British Columbia,where 100,000 acres have been burned
in the alpine spruce ecotone,aspen stands,and seral shrub-grasslands for
the benefit:of moose,stone sheep,and elk.Prescribed burning in the Yukon
Territory for wildlife manage~ent is still in the experimental stages
(Larson 19(0).
In Alaska,prescribed burning has progressed rapidly through experimental
stages to .in economical and effective program for moose habitat improvement
in Chugach National Forest.1984 is an important year,as prescribed
burning f01:'wildlife habitat management is planned for several areas in the
State.If these prescribed burns are carried out successfully,prescribed
burning will make a giant leap toward becoming an established wildlife
management technique for all of the Alaskan taiga.Figure 2 shows the
locations ()f past and planned prescribed burn programs in the state.
Small-scall~experimental prescribed burns were conducted in a mature black
spruce forest in the Washington Creek Fire Ecology Study Area near Fairbanks
in 1976 and 1978.Fire behavior and forest floor fire severity effects on
soils and vegetation were studied in detail,and tne results have been
discussed in section 3.2 (Friedman 1982,Dyrness and Norum 1983,Van Cleve
and Dyrness 1983,Zasada et al.1983).
.....
3.4.1 Chugach Moose-Fire Management Program
The Chuga~h_Moose-Fire Management Program was initiated in 1977 with the
preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (USDA Forest Service 1977).
The manag.E!ment objective is to maintain and improve habitat for moose,
since,dUE~-tp lack of wildfire,carrying capacity for moose habitat is
decreasing in the Kenai portion of the forest.Of the important browse
species,scouler willow,paper birch,aspen,and cottonwood have grown too
tall to produce much forage,and barclay willow 1S decadent and
unproductive.Over a 10-year period which began in 1977,a total of
approximately 10,000 acres of National Forest land in moose winter range
41955
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25
._----.---------~--------------'---------_._-------------------
l "-y '1 )J 1 .l J ~l y
---------1 I ,~KA I II
ti I I Ilull II'•",n"ANK"i ~
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I.LIiUl..lACIl MOu::.a.:I IUL MANAtJLMCNT PAOGRAM
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MOOSE HABIT AT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMSoTOI<
5
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u
MY
./h .\"~"l.".~;·
y \~,.7 1 ,Il.",l'l,v~;~'~);..f:(\I.VlJll\,~~<nJ,61"ll1'~,'\:;/,~~.,~,,'_,~.r-,\.~'~0'
'-'.,..,;----\';
4..,"·"10
1\~!!l!..!!,i'''''4':A .;!~~l),;"1~.'!.!.L/l"&t~)~~.i ~~$~~.f~~*~/~{lJf'>
~it,~w~
~11)Il>~~)'.J?
tra)~.''.-.'
11_,
~~!l'I~,'iJ !):'>
tv
0\
-
will be treated by prescribed burning,approximately 6%of the forested land
on the Kenai portion of the forest (Figure 2).Approximately 3500 acres
have been burned from 1978 to 1983,and an addi tiona 1 6500 acres have be en
selected fo:1:'burning from 1984 through 1987.Most of the vegetation in
prescribed burn areas is mature stands of white spruce and hardwoods,with
an understory of willow,other shrubs,and grass.
The procedu:re for planning and conducting the prescribed burn program is
described af'follows (R.Moore.1984.Pers.comm.).Selection of areas and
fire planning for each site was conducted with an interdisciplinary team,
starting with examination of aerial photos and continuing with field
evaluations"Biologists selected areas likely to produce good moose habitat
after a burn.The fire expert then determined whether the selected areas
would burn,and if they could be burned safely and economically.Factors
considered included types of fuel,continuity of fuel,access,fuel moisture
content,location of natural control features,and proximity to facilities.
About 50%of the areas 'selected by the biologists turned out to be
unsuitable for burning,which was the reason for the reduction from the
20.000 acres proposed in the Environmental Impact Statement to the present
goal of 10,000 acres.
A fire plan was prepared for each burn unit.A discrete area was marked out
as the actual proposed area for burning.Then a larger surrounding area
with natural fire boundaries was marked out.This is the area within which
it would be acceptable for the fire to burn in case it should go beyond the
initial selected boundaries.Natural fire boundaries included avalanche
tracks,riClgetops (especially those which have tundra and/or rock).other
rock areas,rivers,streams,existing trails and roads,and similar
features.The planned burn area was usually laid out so that it was ~
bordered as much as possible by fuel continuity breaks,such as a shift from
coniferous to deciduous forest.to control the rate and extent of fire
spread.1l'he fire plan included weather and fuel moisture criteria for
burning;ml~thod.pattern,and timing of ignition;and-control me thods.A
profile of the burn was developed which gave the biologists and other
41955
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27
,.....,
resource managers a description of what the results of the burn would be;
how much of the area would be lightly burned,heavily burned,or not burned.
and what the forest floor fire severity would be.
-
-
-
Weather forecasting to determine when weather and fuel conditions will meet
prescription criteria has been a major task of prescribed burning,and daily
observations were necessary.On sites not accessible by road,a remote area
weather station which transmits information has been utilized.Changes in
strategy or tactics have commonly occurred because of changes in the
weather.
Fires in thE!Chugach National Forest were conducted on areas with cut slash
prior to 19:Bl.These areas were either commercial timber sales or public
firewood cutting areas.Remaining slash (mostly white spruce too small for
timber or urNanted by public for firewood)was cut.According to Robert
Moore (1984.Pers.comm.)it was important to plan before cut ting or
crushing exalctly how it would be done to optimize burning conditions.Slash
lay in one direction.parallel to the slope,with as much fuel continuity as
possible.Fire control was more difficult in slashed or crushed areas,but
80 to 100%of the areas burned and some of the fores t floor was heavi ly
burned.
Most areas in the Chugach National Forest have been burned with standing
undisturbed vegetation.The carrier fuel in the Chugach is grass,and
burning has been done very early in the spring.Even large birch trees were
killed,bec.ause at this time of year above-ground plant portions are very
dryas tran:spiration removes water while the ground is still frozen.These
fires have been light fires,with about 50%of the planned area actually
burned.and with the forest floor only lightly burned.
Nelson andWeixelman (1983)described preburn vegetation,fuel loading,and
fire effects;counted numbers,of seedlings and sprouts;and·calculated
available browse biomass and increase in moose carrying capacity for three
.....
slashed and .two non-slashed prescribed burns (Table 1).Al though the
41955
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28
___'~.~ml''''''__.....,---------..~_
j'
I•i
I
,-1 -)•l
Table 1
J I }l ]
oo,p.
,p.....
0\0
\0 VI
N VIo Seedling establishment.increase in browse production as compared to control.and preliminary
calculation of increase ~n potential and actual moose carrying capacity for prescribed burns with
and without slashing in the Chugach National Forest.
Unit
Year
Burned
Fuel
Treatment
Seedlingl
ha
Browse
Increase
(kg/ha)
Available
Use (Moose
days/hal/)
X Area
(ha)
Available
Use (Moose
days)
Actual
Use (Moose
days )11
Juneau 1 1983 None 4.000 34.4 6.9 500 3450 1522
N Juneau 5 1982 None 700 26.0 5.2 535 2782 1196\0
Quartz Creek 34a 1981 Slashed 23.000 131.0 26.2 147 3851 1656
Quartz Creek 6 1979 Slashed 21.000 169.3 33.8 19 656 282
Quartz Creek 13a 1979 Slashed 9,000 67.0 13.4 58 779 335
11 Average daily consumption rate of woody browse per adult moose estimated as 5 kg.
II Average utilization 43%overwinter.
difference in the age of the burns makes comparisons difficult,it ~s
apparent that in units Quartz 34A and Quartz 6,which were heavily burned,
slashed sites in well-drained areas,a large number of seedlings established
and grew rllLpidly to provide a large proportion of the browse biomass within
a few years after fire.The moderately burned,slashed Quartz 13A,had
.~
r
-
fewer seedlings.and the lightly.burned,uns lashed sites have apparently
regenerated primarily from sprouts.although more seedlings may establish in
future gro"ring seasons.These plot s are being moni tared on a year ly bas is,
providing the best data now·av'ailable in Alaska on the relationship between
prefire vegetation;fire intensity and severity;and source,species
composition.and rate of postfire browse production.
The prescribed burning program in the Chugach has shown a steep positive
learning curve.correlated with a steep negative curve ~n cost per acre
burned.The learning curve applies not only to the fire experts and
biologists ~n the U.S.Forest Service.but apparently also to other involved
government<lLl agencies and the public.Early burns were (1)small in size,
,!""",.
(2)util iZI~d a large amount of labor and heavy equipment for preparation,
ignition.,and fire control.(3)observed by a large number of interested
persons,(~~)regarded with skepticism in regard to burnability and benefits,
and with ainxiety in regard to fire control,and (5)very expensive.In
contrast,a 1000 acre unit was burned in 1983 with a helitorch and hand
control,and nobody paid much attention.Only 5 people were required in the
entire bur.ning procedure,and the cost per acre was less than $3.00.The
cost does not include the direct and indirect costs of planning the burn,
monitoring weather conditions,and monitoring fire effects and browse
production after the burn.Similar learning and cost curves may be
experienced in prescribed fire programs in other areas of the state,but
will be ameliorated by experience to date,the efforts of the four or five
fire behavior and use specialists now present in the state,and the changing
attitudes of the agencies and the public.
41955
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30
3.4.2 Planned Prescribed Burning Programs
-!
l"-
I
3.4.2.1 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge.The U.S.Fish and Wildlife
Service has planned a prescribed burning program for the Kenai National
Wildlife Refuge similar to the Chugach program.(M.Hedrick.1984.Pers.
comm.).This program.is included in and would be viable under all of the
alternative~1 presented in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Draft
Comprehensbre Conservation Plan.Environmental Impact Statement,and
Wilderness Review (U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service 1983).Approximately
500,000 aCrl!S would be included in a prescribed burning program (Figure 2).
This area contains the best moose habitat,including 70,000 acres in the
1969 SwanSOlB River burn.300,000 acres in the 1947 burn,and 150,000 acres
that are presently at low carrying capacity for moose and have a potential
for conversion to higher carrying capacity.
At any given time in a 20-year cycle,approximately 10%of this area would
be maintained in an early seral stage.and a balance would be maintained
between early successional habitat and more mature forest.Approximately
5000 acres might be managed each year.primarily with prescribed burning.
The primary use of crushing would be in certain areas where burning is not
possible.and for preparation of firelines.Objectives of the program also
include fUE:ls management.Carefully prescribed burns which are backfired
will protect private property and residential development from burning in a
wildfire,particularly in areas where fuels are allowed to build up under
critical or full fire suppression management.50 far,the plan has received
virtually no opposition from the public or gOlvernmental officials,and seems
to have moderate support.
A prescribed burn in April or May 1984 is planned for the 1700 acres crushed
this past winter in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge by the Alaska
Department of Fish and Game (see below under crushing for further
discussion).Objectives of the prescribed burning include heavy burning of
the forest floor to create suitable seedbeds for establishment of browse
species,rlelease of nutrients,improvement of the visual quality of the
41955
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31
-
-
area,remo1~al of living spruce stumps with protruding branches which may
inhibi t eSltablshiment and growth of seed lings,and des truction of residual
spruce seedlings and small saplings (M.Hedrick,1984.Pers.comm.).The
overall gO~ll is to increase the amount of forage plants in this area,since
crushing provides only as many browse plants as were present before
crushing,~md some parts of the crushed area do not have an adequate number
of browse plants to provide much browse after crushing.To maximize
benefits,the forest floor must be heavily burned (Section 3.3.2)and
burning of uncrushed islands may occur,but this is not considered to be a
problem.Hedrick also stated that Bob Moore,fire management officer for
the Chugach National Forest,had visited the site to develop the fire plan.
Moore exprE!ssed concern that fuel conditions may not be suitable to achieve
the desired level of burn severity,since the crushed material was flattened
down to thE!ground and the heavier logs were crushed.
3.4.2.2 Matanuska Valley.A prescribed burn is also planned for this
summer (1984)for an area of the moose range north of Palmer which was
chained in 1982,and then opened for public firewood cutting,as part of an
Alaska Department of Fish and Game program for increasing the carrying
capacity of the area for moose (Section 4.1.2).The agency managing the
burn will be the Alaska Division of Forestry,and the objectives are the
same as those listed above for the Kenai crushing area.A successful burn
in this ·area would be important,because site conditions are similar to
areas being considered for mitigation lands in the lower Susitna Valley,and
because the area is relatively close to private land and to proposed and
existing rl!sidential development (Figure 2).
3.4.2.3 Alphabet Hills.A prescribed burn is planned for the Alphabet
Hills area,located between the upper end of the Watana dam impoundm~nt area
and the Richardson Highway (Figure 2).The burn will be conducted by the
Bureau of Land Management,and was planned in cooperation with the Alaska
Department of Fish and Game.The objectives of the burn include maintaining
the carrying capacity of the area for moose (R.Toby.1984.Pers.comm.).
The 10,000 acre designated burn area iSi located within natural fire
41955
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-
boundaries.The natural boundaries encompass 50,000 acres,and this area
could be allowed to burn if the fire spread beyond the designated burn
area.
This areawalS scheduled for burning in 1982 and 1983;a burn was at tempted
and failed i.n 1982.According to Robert Moore and F.Malotte (1984.Pers.
COllllll.),the fire plan has been altered to make a successful burn more
likely.Criteria for weather and fuel conditions have been modified,and
the designat:ed burn area now includes a larger extent of more continuous
conifer fuel types.However,as described in the fire management plan (see
above)this area appears to have a low natural fire frequency,and burns
extensively only when unusually dry weather conditions occur.Prescribed
burning in this area will eventually succeed.but may require patience and
long-term planning.
Preburn veg1etation and soil data have been collected by the U.S.Forest
Service-Institute of Northern Forestry and the University of Alaska-Palmer
Agricultural Experimental Station.Because of the relevance of the data for
mitigation planning for the Susitna Hyd~oelectric Project,the Alaska Power
Authority has provided logistical support and funding for part of this
work.
3.4.2.4 Tok.A summer prescribed burn is also planned near Tok (Figure
2)for a 500 acre area of mixed white and black spruce which presently
contains a~nost no browse (D.Kellyhouse.1984.Pers.comm.).The objective
of the burllL is to convert the vegetation type in this area from a closed
mature conifer stand to a hardwood stand with more available moose browse.
The fire plan has been prepared by Rod Norum,fire management specialist at
the Institute of Northern Forestry.The burn site is bordered by existing
roads and the Tok River,and one small fireline has been constructed.The
area has be:en partially logged,so sufficient slash is present for a heavy
burn which will provide seedbeds for establshiment of browse species.The
willow stands along the adjacent Tok River will provide
41955
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33
-
an ample sel!d source.Preburn vegetation plots have been established by the
Institute of Northern Forestry,and postfire succession will be studied.
If the pn~scribed burns described above are carried out,much more
information will be available on the feasibility,benefi ts,and cost of
prescribed burning in the areas proposed as mitigation lands for the Susitna
Hydroelectric Project.
41955
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34
~~.Ji:LLllIklillll:::ii~I~""'-_m _
4.0,MECHANICAL HABITAT ENHANCEMENT'
4.0 MECHANICAL HABITAT ENHANCEMENT
The conversion of less productive mature plant communities to early
succes ional plant communi ties,which produce greater quanti ties of winter
moose browse,can be accomplished indirectly or directly by mecnanical
means.Indirect methods include logging and land clearing for such purposes
as agriculture,mining (including gravel),buildings,trails,roads,and
transmissio,n lines;while direct methods include crushing and chaining.
4.1
4.1.1
I~~IRECT METHODS
Agriculture,Mining and Construction
-In Alaska,for most ot this century,homesteading laws have provided an
impetus for mechanical removal of mature forest and the organic mat,and
p.reparation of an excellent (often fertili.zed)mineral soil seedbed for
establishmemt of willows and hardwood tree seedlings.The resul t has.
frequently been productive winter moose habitat,contributing significantly
to moose populations in the Matanuska Valley,the Tanana Valley,and the
Kenai Peninsula (LeRescne et al.1974)•Wolff and Zasada (1979 )measured
moose winte~r browse production on a homestead 30 miles north of Fairbanks 11
years after agriculture was discontinued.Production of willow,birCh,
alder and aspen browse was 207 kg/ha,a 25-fold increase over the 8 kg/ha in
the surrounding undisturbed 80 year old black spruce forest.
Placer mining created dense,productive seral plant communities along many
streams and probably increased moose populations in the Kuskokwim Mountains
....and the Yukon-Tanana Uplands (LeRescne et al.1974).However,revegetation
has been so slow on some dredged areas that these areas have not provided
maintained in early successional plant communities by clearing,and may
provide a small but sustained production of winter moose browse.Roadsides
and innabited areas have provided habitat in the same way,but the damage to
.-
-
habitat for several decades (Holmes 19B1).Transmission lines are
41955
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35
people and moose from moose-vehicle collisions has usually outweighed any
benefits (LE!Resche et a1.1974).
,~
-4.1.2 Logging
~J
-
To date,logging has not had a major impact on moose habi tat in Alaska,but
has become a major factor in moose population dynamics elsewhere.In the
southern po,rtion of the boreal forest in Ithe United States and Canada,
logging is I10W the principal means by which stands of the older age classes
are removed and young browse-producing stands created,and is considered to
be the major ecological influence on large 'l.111gulates in most of this area
(Krefting 1974,Stelfox 1974,Telfer 1970,Telfer 1972,Telfer and Darphine
1981)•However,particularly in Canada,there has been concern about the
lack of intE!gration of forestry and wlldli fe management (Tel fer and Darphine
1981).A major concern is the size and shape of clearcuts,as studies have
indicated that moose uti lization of winter forage in clearcuts decreases
with distance from cover,and that some areas may not be uti lized due to
lack of C0117er (Eastman 1914,Hamilton et al.1980,Hunt 1976,MacLennan
1975,StelfQx 1914,Thompson and Vukelich 1981).
To date,only a very small area has been logged in Interior Alaska and the
Susitna Valley.Until the 1970's most logging was selective cutting of
white spruce,with some poplar taken for houselogs in the Susitna Valley.
Most recent logging in the Susitna Valley has been state timber sales for
selective cuts of white spruce stands and poplar stands for house logs and
saw timber,and clearcuts of paper birch for firewood (J.Page.1984.Pers.
comm.).M:ost recent timber sales have been small,from 20 acres to a
max iml.lll of 400-500 acres.
Most timber'sale contracts for the past several years have specified that
the contractor leave residual spruce under 9 inches diameter at breast
height (dbh),and that the areas be scarified to provide mineral soil
seedbeds f,or regeneration.Current forestry mana s..eme nt techniques are
41955
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36
~-~,----,-_..........._--,-------------------
-
-
-
designed to minimize white spruce regeneration,since it is a non-browse,
competitive species.However,the requirement for scarification will
increase moolse browse production on logged areas.The same scarification
technique has been successful in increasing hardwood regeneration from seed
in interior forests (zasada 1980)since willow.aspen,and poplar required
mineral soil seedbeds for establishment.and regeneration of paper birch
from seed is greatly enhanced where mineral soil seedbeds are available
(zasada 1971).
Quantitative information on moose browse production on logged taiga sites is
limited.Vi1olf£and Zasada (1979)measured winter browse production and
utilization in a one year old scarified clearcut in an upland mixed stand of
paper birch 'l white spruce,and aspen near Fairbanks.and in 35 and 50 year
old unlogged stands of similar composition.The unlogged stands had no
available bl~owse;the one-year old clearcut produced 16 kg/ha,of which 81%
was utilized by moose.
Available browse and utilization were also measured in an unscarified 4 year
old poplar clearcut at the confluence of the Susitna and Chulitna Rivers
(zasada et a1.1981).The uncut ba Is am poplar fores t had no availab Ie
browse;while 2,3.and 4 years after clearcutting available browse was 5,
9.and 16 kg/ha respectively,mostly balsam poplar root sprouts.Browse
consumed was approximately 2 kg/ha each year,in spite of.the increase in
available browse.Seedlings and root sprouts were most abundant where the
organic mat was disturbed and mineral soil exposed.In April 1984,the
site.which had not been scarified,was dominated by grass and alder (J.
Page.1984.Pers.comm.).Regeneration of poplar,birch and willow was
limited.allld these species produced little browse.However,almost all
available browse had been utilized by moose,including highbush cranberry,
and rose.
Logging,in.the form of public firewood cutting areas,is currently being
used as a lllloose habitat enh·ancement technique in the_Matanuska Valley,an
area north of Palmer,which is managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and
41955
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37
;........
,....
..-
-
Game (ADF&G)as moose range (N.Steen.1984.Pers.comm.).Since moose
browse prodlJLction is a primary goal,classifying this project as an indirect
method is scmewhat arbitrary.
The area is characterized by glacial morraine ridges covered with mature
forest,domi.nated by paper birch with some spl."Uce.The understory is mostly
grass with little or no moose browse.ADF&G,in cooperation with the Alaska
Division oj;Forestry.has an ongoing program to convert mature forest to
productive browse habitat.Long-term management plans are to maintain a
proportion ()f this moose range in early successional plant communities.For
the past several years,access has been created from Fishhook Road to areas
designated for public firewood cutting.The public cut and removed all the
birch and allpenj the spruce,which is not popular as firewood,was then cut
down by forestry technicians.Resprouting of stumps and scattered shrubs
produced some browse,which is heavily utilized.In the summer of 1983,a
bulldozer was used to expose mineral soil seedbeds throughout the firewood
cutting arE!as.Since the scarification was done after seedfall,most
seedlings were raspberries germinating from buried seed.However,birch
seeds were abundant on the plots and many seedlings should establish in
1984.
Since waiting for the public to cut the timber took about 1.5 years,ADF&G
experimented with speeding up the process by chaining 150 acres in 1982.
The public removed the downed deciduous timber,but a number of residual
spruce saplings are still standing.The chaining process produced mineral
soil seedbeds where large trees were tipped over.After one growing season,
mineral soil areas had numerous raspberry and currant seedlings from buried
seed,but few birch seedlings were evident,probably because the growing
season was very dry.Responsibility for mana,gement of the area and creation
of hardwood browse has been turned over to state forestry personnel.The
area is scheduled for prescribed burning in June to remove residual spruce,
reduce slash,and create more mineral soil seedbeds (J.Page.1984.Pers.
comm.).Fuel continuity,however,may not be sufficie~t for the hot burn
which is desired.
-41955
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-
State forestry personnel plan to monitor sprout and seedling regeneration,
in both scaldfied and burned areas.
4.2 DIRECT METHODS
Most mechanical plant control has been conducted in the western United
States to improve livestock grazing ranges,by removing.plant competition or
controlling shrub growth to allow desirable forage plants to become
established or to rejuvenate browse species.Considerable effort has been
expended to develop effective equipnent and techniques (USDA 1982).Methods
include cables and chains pulled by bulldozers,bulldozer adaptations to
facilitate tree removal,and brush cutters and choppers.two chain
variations have been developed to increase vegetation chopping and uprooting
and soil sc:arification during vegetation removaL These are the chain
swivel,whic:h allows the chain to rotate,and the Ely Chain,which has metal
bars on the chain links.The methods used for livestock range improvement
have also bElen applied to increase browse for wildlife on dry shrub habi tats
in the west~!rn United States (Scotter 1960,Yoakum et aL 1980).
4.2.1 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Crushing Program
-
In Alaska,there has been considerable testing and utilization of mechanical
plant contr,ol methods to increase moose browse.The majority of this work
has been C011ducted on the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge (KNWR).
4.2.1.1 E~lrly Crushing Programs.Active habitat management in the KNMR
began in 1954.Mechanical methods began in 1956 with cutting of pole-sized
stands using chain saws.During the 1960'S,tractors with chains,rakes,
angle blade~s,Crossville blades,and F1eko rolling choppers were used to
knock down larger stems.A total of 2400 ha (5760 acres)were mechanically
treated from 1955-1968 (Oldemeyer and Regelin 1980).Crushing was done in
small piotsl 200 to 1000 acres in size,mostly with the rolling choppers
(W.Rege1in.1984.Pers.comm.).No quantitative measurements of moose
browse prod.uction·or utilization were made,and most records of location,
41955
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-----__4 •_
-
timing,methods,and observations for these areas have been lost (W.Regelin
1984.Pers.comm.).Limited recorded observations state that the Skilak
Lake crushed area "has res ponded un be lievab 1y we 11",and verba 1
recollectiotlls describe very high moose use of these areas (Oldemeyer and
Regelin 1980,W.Regelin.1984.Pers.comm.)..
4.2.1.2 1966 Crushing Program.Close to the KNWR,at Quartz Creek in the
Chugach Nati.onal Forest,35 acres of mature spruce birch forest were crushed
in November 1966 using Fleco rollers and a D-8 caterpillar (Culbertson
1976).Results were compared to the 1959 Kenai burn,but the author stated
that concluEdons should be qualified due to pl~oblems in data collection,and
the value of the data was also limited because the only parameters measured
were the number and height of plants..Conclusions of the study were as
follows:<1)spruce and birch re-established or were released on a crushed
or burned site within 2-5 years,(2)within 5 years,density of birch plants
had increased 10 fold on the crushed site,(3)after 10 years,white spruce,
grass,and forbs dominated the crushed site,(4)spruce attained greater
height in l,ess time on crushed sites than on burned sites,probably because
crushing released residual spruce while burning killed them,(5)a
calculated projection indicated that spruce on the crushed site would attain
the same dEmsities as on the burned site given an equal amount of growing
time,but the densities of paper birch would be 4-5 times higher in the burn
and (6)birch densities in the crushed area were probably lower because less
mineral soil was exposed in the crushed site as compared to the burn,since
crushing was done in winter on snow and frozen ground,and the equiIDlent
rode over the top of trees and brush.
4.2.1.3 1975-1978 Crushing Program.Three 40-ton LeTourneau tree crushers
were purch,ued and used to crush burned timber on 9720 acres of the 1969
Swanson Rhrer burn for erosion control and aesthetic impact amelioration.
Effects of this operation on browse regeneration in the 1969 burn are not
known.From 1975 to 1978 the tree crushers were used for moose habitat
enhancement on 6,720 acres of the 1947 burn.Immediately after crushing
was completed in the winter of 1976,high densities of moose were observed
41955
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40
browsing on the downed vegetation,particularly where mature birch and aspen
had been knc)cked down.A dramatic increase in calf survival OVer that of
nearby areas was documented as an important short-term effect of the project
(Sigman 1977).
The Willow lAke area responded very rapidly within two years,but in other
areas resu1t:s were less promising (Oldemeyer 1978).Four growing seasons
after crushing,browse production had increased in 8 of the 10 plots at
Willow Lake,3 of7 stands at the South Moose Research Center,and 5 of 15
stands at ~lystery Creek (Oldemeyer and Regelin 1980).Overall biomass
values for a~ai1ab1e browse were 5 1b/acre for mature forest,36 1b/acre for
the 1947 burn,and 37 1b/acre for the crushed areas.Low values were due in
part to the fact that the study was designed to test hypotheses on the
crushing rel5ponse of a wide variety of vegetation types;including those
which were ,considered unlikely to respond favorably,such as black spruce
stands with a low density of hardwoods.In the analyses,stands were
grouped by site and were not described and compared by pre-crushing
vegetation type.This resulted in an underestimation of the amount and rate
of browse plt'oduction which would occur in a well-designed crushing program
where only stands likely to produce browse would be selected for crushing
(W.Rege1in.1984.Pers.comm.).
The area was re-eva1uated in 1983 and quantitative estimates were made of
browse production (W.Regelin.1984.Pers.comm.).Some of the areas which
were not producing browse in 1979 showed a five-fold increase in browse
production,as compared to the levels which existed before crushing.The
response on these areas has been delayed,and apparently in some vegetation
types as 1011g as 8 years were required for a substantial increase in browse
production"to occur.Also,because.the 1947 burn has decreased in
production since the crushing program was started,the comparison now
between the uncrushed 1947 burn and the crushed areas may be much more
favorable than it was in 1979;a twenty-fold difference in browse production
is now likely.Browse production has dropped very rapidly in the 1947 burn.
In 1971,it:was approximately 100 1b/acre;"by 1980 it had dropped to 30
-41955
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41
I .~LllIilIIlll!i!UI'!Lf!I'l!iI!I'Il!II&l!ll!.r~"'....!i,""._....._........_--------------
..-
-,
lb/acre and is now probably considerab~y lower.Effects.of crushing may
last for as long as 50 years (W.Regelin.1984.Pers.comm..).Al Franzman',
biologist with ADF&G at the KNWR,stated tha,t the crushing program was a
great success (1984.Pers.comm.).He also commented that judging on the
basis of tracks and browsing,moose utilization in crushed areas was very
intense,and much higher than in adjacent uncrushed areas.
Oldemeyer and Regelin (1980)suggested the following guidelines for crushing
programs for moose habitat enhancement:(1)the area to be crushed should be
no smaller Ithan 750 acres to insure adequate dispersal of moose,(2)the
width of the crushed area should be no greater than 400 yd to allow adequate
seed dispersal for hardwood regeneration,and (3)the browse/spruce ratio
for the enti.re area should be greater than 4:1 prior to crushing.Wayne
Regelin stalted recently that moose have overutilized 1500 acre crushed
areas,and suggested that the minimum size for'sites to be managed for moose
habitat should be 10,000 acres,with 60%of the area crushed and the
remainder left undisturbed to provide cover for moose and a seed source for
regeneration,(1984.Pers.COmll1.).Al Franzman stated that time of crushing
was important;winter crushing snapped off black spruce trees,while fall
crushing often jus t bent them over (1984.Pers.comm.).
4.2.1.4 Wi.nter 1983-1984 Crushing Program.This past winter (1983-84),
crushing for:moose habitat enhancement in the KNWR was resumed by the ADF&G,
utilizing the LeTourneau tree crushers.The crushing program was managed
and conductE~d by Ted Spraker and Al Johnson of ADF&G.Information on this
winter's crushing was obtained from discussions with Al Franzman,Wayne
Regelin,and Mike Hedrick,Deputy Manager of the KNWR for the USFWS,and
from a field trip to the crushing site with Hedrick on March 22,1984.
Approximately 1700 acres were crushed near the south end of Skilak Ro~d.
The cost of the program was approximately.$60.00 an acre (M.Hedrick.1984.
Pers.comm.).Most of the crUShing was done in a part of the 1947 burn
which had grown up into dense young black spruce but which contained
overbrowsed willow,birch,and aspen.Most of the browse plants were small
and very dE!cadent,or dead.The area was crushed in an irregular shape,
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",..
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..
crushing only those areas which had been burned in the 1947 burn.Is lands
and areas of mature forest which had been burned Or which had been lightly
burned were left uncrushed to serve as seed source for hardwoods and provide
cover for D~oose.Consideration for visual impact was also a factor;the
irregular c:ontours attempt to fit the conformation of the area's na tural
geographic features,islands of uncrushed vegetation are left,and there is
a visual ba.rrier between the crushed area and the road.The entire crushed
area was covered with a layer of black spruce brancnes to a depth of about 6
incnes to 1 foot.The main trail used by the tree crushers,and the
depressions ln the organic mat created by tne cleats of treecrushers may
provide mineral soil seedbeds.
A prescribE!d burn is scheduled for the crushed area to create mineral soil
seedbeds for hardwood seedlings,release nutrients,improve the visual
quality of the area,remove living spruce stumps with protruding branches
which may inhibit establishment and growth of seedlings,and destroy
residual spruce seedlings and small saplings (Section 3.3.2.1).
4.2.1.5 Planned Crushing.The 1983-1984 winter crUShing project on Skilak
Road is the first phase of a draft project plan for management of early
seral vegetation for moose on the northern Kenai lowlands that has been
developed by ADF&G (Holderman 1983).The management goal of this program is
to maintain 50,000-60,000 acres of moose winter range,exclusive of the 1969
burn,in eclrly sera!veger:ation.This win be accomplished by crushing 3000
acres of unproductive range in the 1947 burn per year over a 20-year period
of rotation.Four areas have been selected on the basis of winter
utilizar:ion by moose,potential of existing vegetation to respond favorably
to crushing,suitability of the terrain for operating crushers,and land
management status wir:hin the refuge.
Specific criteria have been developed for planning crushing within each
area.Areas with steep terrain,wnere crushers cannot operate,will not be
crushed.Crir:ical wildlife features whicrl may be adversely impacted by
crUShing,sucn as nesting and denning sites essential to rare or endangered
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""'",
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species of wildlife,will be identified and avoided.A minimum 300 foot
buffer of ulldisturbed vegetation will be maintained around the perimeter of
all lakes 12 acres or larger and on either side of major streams.
Vegetation buffers of at least 300 feet will also be kept along public roads
and trails.As described above for this past:winter!s crushing,vegetation
will be crusned in irregular patterns following natural geographic and
vegetation patterns.Vegetation will be classified into crush potential and
low crush potential.The crusn potential category will include forest
stands with a high proportion of any combination of aspen,birch,and willow
and a low proportion of spruce.The amount of crush potential vegetation
should be 60%of the area to be managed,a criterion met in all four
selected habitat areas.Habitat areas will be managed to'provide a
combination of feeding areas,cover,and edge habitat for moose,and to
provide adequate seed sources for hardwood regeneration.Crush units of
750-1500 acres will be considered adequate to avoid overbrowsing,and
maximum wiath of crush units will be 400 yards •
A crUShing program for moose habitat enhancement has been conducted and is
being expanded near Tok,in the same area as the planned prescribed burn.
Information on this program was obtained from discussions and a field trip
to the sitl~with Dave Kellyhouse,ADF&G biologist,in March 1984.In the
Tok Valley,moose utilize nonseral treeline habitat until snow becomes too
deep.They then move down to riparian habitat along the Tok River,and this
habitat may become limiting in severe wint.ers.The crushing program is
concentrated on willow stands along the Tok River.These stands are
dominated by mature feltleaf willow up to 20 feet tall,and are producing
very little~browse whicn is not out of reach of moose.The stands occur in
linear areas along old sloughs and point bars.To plan the crushing
program,alerial photos were taken of the riparian habitat along the Tok
River during the fall,when color changes clearly indicate the presence of
different types of vegetation.Stands and scattered plants of willow could
be easily seen,and tall stands of feltleaf willow in areas suitable for
crushing were selected.
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4.2.2
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TokCrushing Program
44
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r
In the winter of 1981-82,30 acres were cru,shed along an old slough.Work
was done 'iiith a JD-450 caterpillar tractor,which was effective but too
small to be efficient.Cost per acre was approximately $35.00.The first
growing SI!aSOn after crushing,willows resprouted rapidly with a high
productivity of large shoots.Deep snow came relatively early in the winter
of 1982-83,and moose moved down to the river in November and December.
Almost all.of the new shoots produced in the crusned area were browsed.
During thE~second growing season,productivity increased,with many large
shoots up to 1 m long.This winter,moose did not.come down to the Tok
River ripBlrian habitat until February,so at time of observation in early
March utilization was not as intense as the previous winter.Although
qualitative observations were made,no quantitative studies comparing browse
production and utilization in crusned and uncrushed areas have been
conducted.During the site visit,available and browsed twigs were counted
on 4 m
2 plots,one each in uncrusned and crushed areas.The uncrushed plot
had 43 av,ai lable twigs,none browsed.The crushed plot had 290 Blvai lab le
twigs,wit.h 30%browsed,suggesting a five-fold increase in available twigs
2 years a,fter crushing.Since the twigs in the crushed area were mucil
larger than those in the uncrushed area,the increase in browse biomass in
the crushe:d area,estimated visually,was probably greater than ten-fold.
Since the crusning was done in narrow strips,following the natural contours
of the willow stands,the aerial and ground visual impac t was minimal,
although the crushed areas stayed greener.later in the fall.
Tne crUShing program has been expanded,and an additional 300-400 acres of
mature feltleaf willow stands were to be crushed in March.A larger tractor
was to b,e used to snap off willows more easily.In future programs,
KellyhousE!is cons idering crUShing more mature stands which contain both
balsam poplars and willows.This crUShing program appears to be producing a
very high quantity and quality of moose browse with minimal effort.Almost
all of the browse produced is of feltleaf willow,a species highly preferred
by moose.
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~,
5.0 RECOKHIBDATIOBS
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ConstructioDI of the Susitna Hydroelectric Project will eliminate or alter
moose habit,at in the Susitna River drainage,resulting in a decrease in
carrying capacity.This impact will be mitigated in part by designating
lands withill or adjacent to the Susitna drainage for which the major land
use objecti,re will be increasing the carrying capacity for moose and other
species.This report has presented much of the available information
relevant tel managing habitat to increase and maintain moose carrying
capacity.The emphasis has been on the conv'ersion of mature vegetation to
early sucesl,ional stages which produce more available moose browse,and on
the factors which control the amount of browse produced.This information
can be utilized in both the selection of mitigation lands and the
development of habitat management plans.
5.0 GENERAL MITIGATION CONCEPT
The general concept being considered for mitigating moose habitat losses
resulting f:rom the Susitna Project is to designate specific lands as habitat
compensatiolll lands and then to increase a,nd/or maintain moose carrying
capacity on these lands through habitat management techniques.The habitat
management techniques discussed in this report are relevant to this
approach.The entire area being considered for mitigation lands has a low
frequency of wildfire,and the lower Susitna drainage has and will have full
suppression fire management.Unless the mitigation lands of high current
moose carrying capacity include mostly non-seral habitat and/or seral
riparian habitat,habitat management techniques will most likely be required
to maintaio,the high carrying capacity of thes-e areas for the life of the
project.Similarly,if mitigation lands with low current,but high
potential,moose carrying capacity are selected,habitat management
techniques will be required to create and m,aLintain high carrying capacity.
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~1_lBrmr.I!!U!ljM~'I>""i!l'!.'!""'--'_
5.2 Habitllt Management Unit Approach
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.-
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The areas being considered for mitigation lands for moose are located within
the upper Susitna drainage,the area east to the Richardson Highway,and the
lower Susitna drainage.Mitigation lands may be one continuous area,but
are more likely to be multiple parcels which may be widely separated.
Individual parcels and/or portions of large parcels should be regarded as
management units,and a plan to achieve the mitigation objectives for the
life of each project developed for each unit..The selection of mitigation
lands is acl:ually an important part of the habitat management plan,since
the size,vegetation type and location of mitigation lands determine the
appropriate management techniques;and these parameters are also the
interrelated factors which control the carrying capacity of mitigation lands
for the life of the project.
5.2.1 Size
The acreage set aside for mitigation lands should be larger than the acreage
to be managed for productive winter browse habitat for several reasons,
including;
Moose benefit from (but probably do not require)a mixture of
m~lture forest which provides cover,and early successional habitat
which produces a large amount of available browse.Recommended
p]~oportions are 40%mature vegetation and 60%early successional
vE!getation for a given habitat management unit,and the maximum
rl!commended width for a mechanically cleared area is 400 yards
(Oldemeyer and Regelin 1980).
......
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i
I
2•
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Species other than moose may benefit from a mixture of mature and
e'lrly successional vegetation.For some,the benefits of the edge
e'ffect ameliorate the loss of mature forest;for other species,
cilrrying capacity will be reduced by the _loss of part of the
m,ature forest,but preserving part of the forest within a
47
management unit may at least maintain a smaller population of
these species.
3.Proximi ty of mature vegetation insl'lres a good seed source for
regeneration of browse species such as paper birch and aspen.
.....
....
4.
5.
6.
7.
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At'eas with a high potential for regenerating to productive moose
bt'owse are often patchy.Since meChanical clearing has a high
CCISt per acre,an irregular clearing pattern wnich leaves areas of
low browse regeneration potential undisturbed may be desirable •
Prescribed burning may be conducted in small units to achieve the
Selme effect,or the size of the burn unit may be increased to
include many patches.
Prescribed burns require more acreage than wnat will actually be
burned.A prescribed burn is conducted within a designated area
surrounded by natural fire boundaries thus encompassing a larger
rl~gion within whicn burning would be acceptable if the fire
escaped the designated area.Al.so,most prescribed burns in
unslashed vegetation do not burn the entire area,but leave
inclusions and fingers of unburned vegetation.
Consideration for visual impacts may require larger areas.Visual
barriers of mature vegetation may need to be maintained,and
irregular boundaries which follow natural contours reduce the
visual impac t of mechanically cleared areas and slashed
prescribed burns.
The period for increased productioltl of mOose browse usually lasts
for 20 to 30 years following disturbance,but the mitigation for
loss of habitat is desired for a longer period of time.
Therefore the same area can be mecnanically cleared on.a 20-year
rotation,but sufficient fuel for repeated prescribed burning may
not accumulate on such a snort rotation cycle.It may be more
48
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.....
desirable to have habitat management units which are large enough
that only 10 to 20%needs to oemanaged as early successional
hnoitat at any given time,thus allowing for a longer rotation
cycle or at least more freedom in determining the oest rotation
c~,cle for individual sites within the unit.
In summary,the area of mitigation land should oe 2 to 10 times larger than
the area of early successional vegetation actually needed at any given time
to replace 'browse lost oy construction of the Susitna Hydroelectric Projec·t.
The size depends on the haoitat management technique;twice as large may oe
adequate wl:lere repeated crushing is planned,10 times as large would oe
optimal for prescrioed ourning in remote areas.
Mitigation lands may oe geographically scattered in different management
units,out to insure adequate dispersal of moose and avoid overorowsing,the
mLnLmum area of early successional haoitat at a given time within a
management unit should oe 750 acres (Oldemeyer and Regelin 1980),and an
area greate~r than 1500 acres is preferred (Regelin personal cOllllllunication).
5.2.2 V'egetation
Browse production can be increased in all sites wnere vigorous growth of
willow,alder,birch,poplar,and/or aspen is possible.However,increases
in browse production are achieved more easily and cheaply on sites with a
high density of willow or aspen which has become decadent,grown too tall
for moose,and/or is overbrowsed.These species will resprout vigorously
after a lignt prescribed burn or crushing.If these species are absent or
present only in low densities,more difficult and/or expensive techniques
may be required to remove the forest floor and produce mineral soil
seedbeds.
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5.2.3 Halbitat Management Techniques
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5.2.:3.1 Agriculture.Clearing for short-term agriculture has been an
important factor in increasing carrying capacity for moose within the area
being considered for mitigation lands.Agricultural clearing is continuing
on a large scale,and may increase or decrease the overall carrying capacity
of the area during the life of the project,but is basically an uncontrolled
factor which cannot be integrated into habitat management planning.
5.2.2.2 Lo~.In contrast to agriculture,logging can be regarded as a
technique tel increase carrying capacity for moose if there is coordination
between wildlife managers and foresters.Such coordination has resulted in
successful lIIl00Se habitat enhancement programs in the Chugach National Forest
and the Matanuska Valley.Browse production depends both on pre-logging
vegetation ~lnd on post-logging site preparation.Willows,paper birch,and
poplar will resprout after logging.Seedlings of these species require
mineral soil.Pos t-logging scarification to produce mineral soil seedbeds
is now required on state timber sales in the Susitna Valley.The
effectivl!Ueu of post-logging scarification itl producing browse is currently
being evalu,ated in the Matanuska Valley.Prescribed burning of slash has
been very effective in increasing browse on logged areas in Chugach National
Forest,and the combination of logging and prescribed burning is recommended
as a techni.que to increase carrying capacity on project mitigation lands.
Some potential mitigation lands in the lower Susitna Valley include
merchantabl,e timber stands for which state foresters have high hopes of
commercial timber sales during the life of the project (J.Page.1984.Pers.
comm.).Current plans include several thousand acres of timber sales in
road-accessible areas.
Some of th,ese sales could be included in mitigation plans.However,the
timing and extent of sales in more remote areas is uncertain.For any
habitat management units in these areas,it may be necessary to develop a
mitigation plan which would produce an adequate increase ~n carrying
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capacity without logging of merchantable timber,and add habitat management
plans for logged areas opportunistically.
5.2.3.3~rransmission lines.Browse production on transmission line
corridors tends to increase where mature forst is replaced with saplings,
shrubs,and herbs for the life of the project.The amount of browse
produced is dependent on a number of factors.including the number of
resprouting willows and hardwood trees,extent of mineral soil seedbeds
created for establishment of seedlings of browse species,and the frequency
of line vegetation maintenance.
5.2.3.4 Chaining~crushing.Crushing or chaining are strongly
recommended as techniques to increase carrying capacity in riparian habitat
in the lower Susitna Valley.Riparian shrub stands.particularly willow
stands,which have grown too tall for moose and/or become decadent can be
crushed or chained during the winter.Resprouting the following growing
season prodllLces a rapid and large increase in available browse which should
last for 10 to 20 years,after which the crushing or chaining may be
repeated.Compared to other techniques,this technique in riparian
vegetation has the most predictable results and is likely to produce the
most browse per unit area.
In addition to the riparian shrub type,ch.lllining and/or crushing is most
likely to be effective in other vegetation types where there is a high
density of browse plants which are over-browsed or growing out of reach of
moose.Such situations include existing burns,abandoned homestead fields,
and possibl~r non-seral habitat.After fire has been used to establish good
densities o:E browse plants on mitigation lands,chaining or crushing 10 to
20 years later may be useful to maintain carrying capacity since fuel
loading may not be sufficient to allow reburning.Crushing or chaining may
also be use:d to improve fuel conditions for effective ground fire in non-
merchantabll!timber.
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-
-
-
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....,
.-
Chaining and/or crushing has several major limitations.First,the
technique of:ten does not create suitable seedbeds for browse species and
therefore,for predictably good results,is best used only where resprouting
will produce adequate browse.Second,chaining or crushing is estimated to
be 5 to 10 times more expensive than prescribed burning.Third,additional
costs and difficulties of transporting catapillar tractors or crushers to
remote areas probably limit this technique to areas within a few miles of
existing roads.
5.2.3.5 Px'escribed burning.Prescribed burning is the preferred habitat
management technique to increase the carrying capacity of most areas for
moose.It i.s the most cost-effective method for most areas and may be the
only cost-effective method for remote areas,since properly planned
prescribed burns can utilize natural fire boundaries and do not require
heavy equipm:ent.
Prescribed burning will not be effective if fuel loading and continuity are
not adequat1e,and this should be considered when mitigation lands are
selected wh'ere burning is the desirable oT.'only feasible technique to
increase carrying capacity.The major drawback of prescribed burning within
the area of potential mitigation lands is the need for patience and
flexibility in habitat management planning.The weather and fuel conditions
for an effel::tive prescribed burn may not occur when desired;for example,
ideal conditions in some areas may occur only once in every three years.
However,given that the habitat is to be managed over the life of the
project,mitigation goals could be effectively achieved.
5.3 POLICY CONSIDERATIONS
Some Alask.am resource managers differ on whether prescribed burning or
crushing is the best approach to increase calrrying capacity for moose.For
example,otlle agency has a prescribed burn program planned for the Kenai
National Wildlife Refuge (Section 3.3.2.1);another has a crushing program
planned (Section 4.2.1).Managers generally agree that burning is more
41955
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52
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..."
....
desirable but they differ in their assessment of the feasibility of
prescribed burning.Feasibility concerns include negative attitudes toward
prescribed burning from government sectors and private citizens who are used
to suppressing fire,not using it;and the uncertainty and delays which
often result from wai ting for optimal fuel and weather condi tions.These
concerns may be reduced if planned prescribed burns are successful •
41955
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-
UFEUHClS
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Canada.Pages 69-74 in 52nd Annu.Meet.Woodlands Section,Can.Pulp &
Paper Assos.Paper &Pulp Mag.of Canada.W5 Index 2566 (B-1)ODC
31:156.
Telfer,E.S.1970.Winter habitat selection by moose and white-tailed
deer.J.wildl.Manage.34:553-559.
Telfer,E.S.1971.
New Brunswick.
Forage yield and browse utilization on logged areas in
Can.J.For.Res.2:346-350.
...-Telfer,E.S •
forest.
1972.The effect of logging on wildlife in the boreal
Can.Society of Wildl.and Fish.Ecol.Annu.Meeting ••9pp.
Telfer,E.S.1978.Cervid distribution,browse and snow cover in Alberta.
J.Wildl.Manage.42:352-361.
Telfer,E.S.and T.C.Darphine.1981.
management on Canadian forest lands.
358-368
Problems facing wildlife habitat
Trans.N.5mer.Wild.Conf.46:
41955
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66
Terasmae,J.and
paleoclimate.
N.C.Weeks.1979.Natural
Can.Field-Nat.93:116-125.
fires as an index of
-
/\/
f\
Thompson,LD.and M.F.Vukelich.1981.Use of logged habitats in winter
by moose cows with calves in northeastern Ontario.Can.J.Zool.59:
2103-2114.
Trigg,W.M.1971.Fire season climatic zones of mainland Alaska.USDA
For.Serv.,Pacific N.W.For.and Range Exp.Sta.,Portland,Oregon.
Res.Pap.PNW-126.13pp.
Ugg1a,E..1958.Ecological effects of fire on north Swedish forests.
lnst.Plant Ecology,Univ.Uppsa1a, Uppsa1a,Sweden.A1mqist and
Wikse11s Boktoycker,AB.18pp.
U.s.Department of Agriculture Forest Service.1977.Environmental
statement for the Chugach moose-fire management program.USDA For.
Serv.,Chugach Nat1.For.Rep.USDA-FS-RIO-FES (ADM)77-07.146pp.
u.S.Department of Agriculture Forest Service.1982.History of the
vegetative rehabilitation and equipment workshop (VREW)1946-1981.
USDA For.Servo Equipment Development Ctr.2200-Range-8222-2805.66
pp.
u.S.Fish and Wildlife Service.1983.Kenai National Wildlife Refuge:
Summary draft comprehensive conservation plan,environmental impact
statement and wilderness review.u.S.Fish and Wildlife Service,
Region 7,Anchorage,Alaska.18 pp.
Usher,R.G.1978.The response of moose and woody browse to clearing in
the boreal mixed wood zone of Alberta.MS.Thesis,Univ.of Calgary,
Alberta.137pp.
Vallee J.,R.Joyal and R.Couture,1976.Observations on regeneration of
food species for moose in clear cut stands in Mastigauche Park,
Quebec.Proc.N.Amer.Moose Conf.Workshop 12:54-69.
Vallee,J.,R.Couture,and R.Joyal.1976.
cut ting trees which make up the diet of
155-164.
Study of regeneration after
moose.Phytoprotection 57:
Van Ballenberghe,V.1978.Migratory behavior of moose in southcentra1
Alaska.Proc.Intl.Conf.Game Biol.13:103-109.
Van Cleve,K.and C.T.Dyrness.1983.Effects of forest -floor disturbance
on soil-solution nutrient composition in a black spruce ecosystem.
Can.J.For.Res.13:894-902.
Viereck,L.A.1970.Forest succession and soil development adjacent to the
Chena River in interior Alaska.Arctic Alp.Res.2:1-26.
41955
840920
67
Viereck,
3:
L.A.1973.
465-495.
Wildfire in the taiga of Alaska.Quarternary Res.
Viereck,L.A.1975.Forest ecology of the Alaska taiga.Proc.Circumpolar
Conf.on Northern Ecology,September 1975.Ottawa,Forest Service,
U~S.Dept.Agriculture.22pp.
Viereck,L.A.1982.Effects of fire and firelines on active layer thickness
and soil temperatures in interior Alaska.Proc.Can.Permafrost Conf.
4:123-135.
Viereck,L.A.1983.The effects of fire in black spruce ecosystems of
Alaska and northern Canada.Pages 201-220 in R.W.Wein and D.A.
MacLean,eds.The role of fire in northern circumpolar ecosystems.
John Wiley &Sons,New York.
Viereck,L.A.1984.Data on file.
For.Serv.,Fairbanks,Alaska.
Institute of Northern Forestry,USDA
-
Viereck,L.A.and C.T.Dryness.1979.Ecological effects of the Wickersham
Dome fire near Fairbanks,Alaska.USDA·For.Servo Pacific N.W.For.
and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon.Gen.Tech.Rep.PNW-90.7lpp.
Viereck,L.A.,M.J.Foote,C.T.Dyrness,K.Van Cleve,K.Kane,and R.
Seifert.1979.Preliminary results of experimental fires in the black
spruce type of interior Alaska.USDA For.Serv.,Pacific N.W.For.
and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon,Res.Note PNW-132.28pp.
Viereck,L.A.and L.A.Schandelmeier.1980.Effects of fire in Alaska and
adjacent Canada - a literature review.USDI Bureau of Land Management,
Alaska.Tech.Rep.6.l24pp.
Walker,R.1980.Progress report (1979)on the Chugach moose-fire program.
Pages 66-122 in M.Hoefs,and D.Russell,eds.Wildlife and Wildfire;
Proc.of a workshop,Yukon Wildlife Branch,Whitehorse,Yukon,November
27-28,1979.
Wein,R.W.1983.Fire behavior and ecological effects in organic terrain.
Pages 81-95 in R.W.We in and D.A.MacLean,eds.The role of fire in
northern circ~polar ecosys tems.John Wiley &Sons,New York.,
Wein,R.W.and D.A.MacLean,eds.1983.The role of
circumpolar ecosystems.John Wiley &Sons,New York.
fire in northern
/
Olff,J.O.1976.Utilization of hardwood browse by moose on the Tanana
floodplain of interior Alaska.USDA For.Servo Res.Note PNW.267:
\;1-7.
Wolff,J.O.1978.Food habits of snowshoe hares in_interior Alaska.J.
wildl.Manage.42:148-153.
41955
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68
Wolff,J .0.1978.
interior Alaska.
Burning and browsing effects on willow growth 1n
J.Wildl.Manage.42:135-140.
-,
I~
.-
Wolff,J.O.,and J.e.Zasada.1979.Moose habitat and forest succession on
the Tanana river floodplain and Yukon-Tanana uplands.Proc.N.Amer.
Moose Conf.Workshop 15:213-244.
Yoakum,L.,W.P.Dasmann,H.R.Sanderson,C.M.Nixon,and H.S.'Crawford.
1980.Wildlife Habitat Improvement Techniques,Ch.20.Pages 329-403
in S.D.Schemnitz,ed.Wildlife Manage.Techniques Manual,4th
Edition,1980.Wildl.Society Inc.,Washington,D.C.
Zasada,J.C.1971.Natural regeneration of interior Alaska forests -seed,
seedbed and vegetative reproduction considerations.Pages 231-246 in
C.W.Slaughter,R.J.Barney and G.M.Hansen,eds.Fire in the northern
environment;Proceedings of a Symposium.April 1971,Fairbanks,
Alaska,USDA For.Serv.,Pacific N.W.For.and Range Exp.Stn.,
Portland,Oregon.
Zasada,J.C.1980.Some considerations in the natural regeneration of white
spruce in interior Alaska.Pages 25-30 in M.Murray and R.M.
VanVeldhuizen,eds.Forest regeneration athigh lattitudes.Proc.
Intl.Workshop.November 1979.Fairbanks,Alaska.USDA For.Serv.,
Pacific N.W.For.and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon.Gen.Tech.
Rep.PNW-I07.52 pp.
Zasada,J.C.and D.F.Grigal.1978.The effects of silvicultural systems
and seedbed preparation on natural regneration of white spruce and
associated species in interior Alaska.Pages 213-220 in C.A.Hollis
and A.E.Squillace,eds.Proc.N.Amer.For.Bio.Workshop 5.Vniv.
of Florida.
Zasada,J.C.R.A Norum,R.M.Veldhuizen,and C.E.Teutsch.1983.
Artifical regeneration of trees and tall shrubs in experimentally
burned upland black spruce/feathermoss stands in Alaska.Can.J.For.
Res.13:903-913.
Zasada,J.C.,L.A.Viereck and J.M.Foote.1979.Black spruce seed fall and
seedling establishment.Pages 42-49 in L.A.Viereck and C.T.Dyrness,
eds.Ecological effects of the Wickershal Dome Fire near Fairbanks,
Alaska.USDA For.Serv.,Pacific N.W.For.and Range Exp.Stn.,
Portland,Oregon.Gen.Tech.Rep.PNW-90.71 pp.
j ZaSada,J.C.,L.A.ViereCk,M.J.Foote,R.H.Parkenson,J.O.Wolff,and L.A.
Lankford,Jr.1981.Natural regene!ation of balsam poplar following
harvesting in the Susitna Valley,Alaska.For.Chron.57:57-65.
Zivnuska,J .A.1972.Economic tradeoffs in fire management.Pages 69-74
in Fire in the environment symposium,May 197_2,Denver,Colorado.
USDA For.Servo
41955
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69
-Per.oual C~nication
.Franzmann.A.1984.Biologist.
Department of Fish and Game.
February 29.1984.
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge,Alaska
Kenai,Alaska.Personal Communication.
..-Hedrick.M.1984.Deputy Refuge Manager.Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service.Kenai.Alaska.Personal Communication.
March 22.1984.
Kellyhouse.D.1984.Biologist.Alaska Department of Fish and Game,
Tok.Alaska.Personal Communication March 6.1984.
Malotte,F.1984.Fire Planning Coordinator.Alaska Department of Natural
Resources,Anchorage,Alaska.Personal Communication.April 10.1984.
Moore,R.1984.Fire Management Officer.Chugach National Forest.Personal
Communication.March 8,1984.
Page,J.1984.Forester.Alaska Division of Forestry.Anchorage,Alaska.
Personal Communication.April 3.1984.
Regelin.W.1984.Biologist.Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
Fairbanks,Alaska.Personal Communication.March 5,1984.
Steen,N.1984 •.Biologist,Alaska Department of Fish and Game,
Alaska Personal Communication.March 28,1984.
Palmer.
Toby,R.1984.Biologist,Alaska Department of Fish and Game,Glennallen,
Alaska.Personal Communication.April 10,1984.
41955
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(
APPENDIX A
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-
-,I
Appendix A
MOOSE HABITAT ENHANCEMENT
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
-
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Ahlgren,I.F.and C.E.Ahlgren.1960.Ecological effects of forest fires.
Bot.Rev.26:483-533.
This paper is a literature review concerning the extent of forest fires and
their effects on soil and various forms of life,including lower plants,
plant diseases and pests,bacteria,invertebrates,vertebrates and plant
succession;grasses,shrubs,and trees.Only tree species characteristic of
the northern boreal forest,including jack pine,white pine,r~d pine,paper
birch,aspen,black spruce and white spruce are discussed.The author
concludes that each combination of region,climate,forest tree association,
soil type,and plant species must be considered individually to determine
the effect of fire.In general,fire has been frequent in forests and has
been a major factor in determining the direction and rate of plant
succession.Fire frequently results in an increase in moss,lichen and
liverwort cover,and definite patterns of post-fire plant succession exist.
A vigorous regrowth of herbs,grasses,and shrubs occur frequently following
fire and the effect of fire on tree reproduction varies with species.
Alaska Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit.1963.,Effects of fire on
1'-'
Alaskan Wildlife.Alaska Coop.wildl.Res.Unit,Univ.Alaska,College
(Fairbanks).Quarterly Progress Report,ACWRU,14(3):13-29.
This report presents data accumulated over a 10-year period (1951-1961)on
the 529,000-ac Porcupine River Burn in north-central Alaska.The objectives
of this study were to determine qualitative and quantitative effects of
various intensities of burning on populations of wildlife vertebrates;to
study vegetative composition in relation to the preceding objectives;and
to determine the seral stages and rates of succession following the burn.
The quantitative results corraborate qualitative observations:a progres-
sive change in both vegetation and animal populations occurs.The original
white spruce vegetation was replaced by a shrub stage with a marked increase
in grass cover.In 1961 aspen and willow were the dominant shrubs,indicat-
ing a gradual succession into a sub-climax forest.Mammal populations
(including moose)slowly incr~ased,apparently in proportion to the
increased development of the shrub layer.Little or no soil change occurred
since the 1950 burn;the Aa horizon was still absent from the soil
profile.
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Asherin,D.A.1973.Prescribed burning effects on nutrition,production and
big game use of key northern Idaho browse species.Ph.D Thesis,Univ.
of Idaho,Moscow.96pp.
The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of prescribed
burning on browse yield and the nutritive value of key browse species,and
to compare big game use of burned and non-burned sites in three spring burns
in southern and central Idaho.Nutrient analysis of mountain maple,
serviceberry,redstem ceanothus and willow indicate species specific
responses to spring burning.Overall,there was a temporary increase in
browse quality on burned compared to nonburned sites as determined by
chemical analysis of crude protien,fat,crude fiber,ash,nitrogen-free
extract,calcium,phosphorus and moisture.Total production of the four
browse species in the burn far exceeded control plant production by the end
of the study.Pellet group and utilization counts substantiate higher
swmnerand winter use of burned compared to nonburned sites by big game
(white-tailed deer and elk).Burning scattered areas of a range appears
more beneficial than burning one area of the same acreage,as nonburned land
seems to receive a regrowth stimulus from adjacent burns.
Bailey,T.N.1978.Moose populations on the Kenai National Moose Range.
Proc.N.Amer.Moose Conf.Workshop 14:1-20.
This paper reviews and summarizes information on moose numbers,population
composition,productivity,mortality,physiological condition,and migratory
behavior on the Kenai National Moose Range (KNMR).Habitat manipulation for
moose includes logging,prescribed burning,and mechanical crushing.Logg-
ing,as a management tool,has been difficult to implement.Prescribed
burning has been unsuccessful,although the technique appears to have con-
siderable potential.Mechanical tree crushing by 40-ton Le Tourneau tree
crushers haa been the most effective habitat management tool to date on the
KNMR.Harvest control,in addition to these habitat manipulation tech-
niques,is also used to manage moose.A vigorous range rehabilitation pro-
gram may be complicated by increased energy costs,establishment of wilder-
ness areas,potential public opposition to vegetation manipulation programs,
and an increasing demand to consider other species influenced by habitat
managemen t •
41955/A
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,..........
--Ballard,W.B.,K.P.Taylor,S.H.Eide,T.H.Spraker,and A.Franzmann.
,I"-
-
,.-
1980.Upper Susitna valley moose population study.Alaska Dept.Fish
and Game Fed.Aid in Wildl.Restoration Final Rep.Proj.W-17-9,W-17-
10 and W-17-1l,Job 1.20R.102pp.
The purpose of this study was to determine population identi ties and sea-
sonal movement patterns of moose in the Upper Susitna River Valley,and to
determine'potential impacts of the Susitna River Hydroelectric power devel-
opment on moose.Results showed that some cows traveled to areas outside
their normal winter and summer ranges for breeding.Most,however,remained
within or near their wintering areas.Some cows also had movements that did
not fit typical migration patterns exhibited by others.Approximately 94%
and 82%,respectively,of the mortality to collared and uncollared calves
occurred by July 19 of each year.During the 3 years of this study,adult
cow mortali ty averaged 6%.Four discrete populations of moose were identi-
fied:Clearwater Mountains-Western Alphabet Hills;Upper Susi tna River;
Upper Nenana-Brushkana;Susitna River.Moose commonly cross the Susitna
River in winter.It is possible that the Devil Mt.area is only used by
moose during relatively severe winters.
Bangs,E.E.and T.N.Bailey.1980.Interrelationships of weather,fire and
moose on the Kenai National Moose Range,Alaska.
Moose Conf.Workshop 16:255-275.
Proc.N.Amer.
This study examines the effects of weather on moose,especially the effects
of severe winters on moose population density,reproductive rates and food
availability.This paper also reviews the history of moose populations and
the influence of fire on moose population dynamics within 688,000 ha of the
Kenai National Moose Range in south-central Alaska,much of which has been
repeatedly burned since the 1900's.Spring calf counts,composition counts
and winter density and distribution counts were conducted with aerial
surveys from 1949 through 1979.Several successive years of severe winter
weather slowed population increases and accelerated the rate of decline,
while mild winter weather accelerated population increases or dampened their
decline.Weather appears to modify population structure,although habitat
quality probably determines population density and reproductive rates.Data
indicate a positive response in moose productivity and density to distur-
bance by wildfire.
~
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Barney,R.J.1971.Wildfire in Alaska some historical and projected
effects and aspects.Pages 51-59 in C.W.Slaughter,R.J.Barney and
G.N.Hansen,eds.Fire in the northern environment -Proceedings of a
symposium.April 1971,FairbankS,AlasKa.USDA For.Serv.,Pacific
-
N.W.For.and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon.
This paper discusses some of the historical aspects of wildfire in interior
AlasKa,focusing from 1940 to the present,and includes discussion of known
impacts of fire and speculated and projected impacts of wildfire.Effects
of fire surpression efforts are discussed in terms of economy,ecology and
management objectives.Annually,approximately 1 million acres were burned
from 1940 -1969.In 1969,fire losses were in excess of $16 million,with
Ilbusiness ll lost due to smoke created by fires.Although fire should be
excluded from choice white spruce sites because of its commercial value,
fire can also increase site quality and production by destroying the insula-
tion moss and organic layer.Current technology exists to control wildfires,
to exclude wildfire in Alaska or to allow fires to burn.
Bendell,J.F.1974.Effects of fire on birds and mammals.Pages 73-133 in
-T.T.Kozlowsky and C.E.Ahlgren,eds.Fire and ecosystems,Academic
-
-
Press,New York.
Numerous species of birds and mammals are discussed in relation to topics
such as reactions to fire,long-term effects of fire,species change after
fire,cnange in density and trend after fire,wildlife effects of fire,
speciation in flammable habitats,and adaptations of birds and mammals to
flammable habitat.Moose are discussed in relation to a case history
comparison of fire and moose abundance on the Kenai Peninsula.It was
concluded that moose abundance was not related to forest fires in any simple
fashion.Some of the causes of variation in relationships between fire and
moose may have been due to changes in local distribution of moose,the
variable response of vegetation to burning,and intrinsic properties of the
stock that influenced population growth.
41955/A
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Buckley,J.L.1958.Effects of fire on Alaskan wildlife.Proc.Soc.Amer.
Foresters 58:123-126.
This short paper discusses the effects of fire,both direct and indirect on
hydrology,vegetation (including plant succession following fire),and wild-
life in Alaska.Fire causes melting of permafrost which allows surface
water to percolate into the ground,lowering the water table.Although this
water recession reduces available habitat,open areas left behind by fire
attract waterfowl.Fire produces thaw ponds which become colonized by peat-
producing vegetation,leading to the formation of bogs.Fire produces
favorable habitat for most animals,especially moose,and reduces habitat
necessary for caribou.Wildlife are affected by changing hydrologic
relations and vegetative composition resulting from fire."
Coady,J.W.1973.Evaluation of moose range and habitat utilization in
interior Alaska.Pages 1-25 inJ.W.Coady,Interior moose studies,
-
Vol.1.Alaska Dept.Fish and Game Fed.Aid in wildl.
Prog.Rep.Proj.W-17-4 and W-17-5.
Restoration
The purpose of this study was to make a vegetation map and characterize the
botanical composition and soil conditions of major vegetation types in the
Tanana Flats,evaluate browse preference by both moose and hares,and to
analyze moose rumen for various nutritional data.Results show that in the
Tanana Flats moose commonly feed in herbaceous bogs from spring thaw to late
summer,however,greatest use appeared to be in early to midsummer.During
late summer moose may feed more frequently on herbaceous and woody browse in
heath bog and tall shrub communities.The Tanana Flats do not appear to be
good winter moose range,and observations of large scale emigration confirms
this.However,fires have created some suitable winter habitat especially
where the permafrost has been reduced,which has resulted in an increase in
palatable species (willow,poplar,and paper birch).Moose rumen data show
that spruce does not constitute a major portion of its diet,and that spruce
is not used as an emergency food.
41955/A
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Coady,J .W.1974.Evaluation of moose range and habitat utilization in
interior Alaska.Pages 1-12 1n J.W.Coady,Interior moose studies,
-
-
VoL II.Alaska Dept.Fish and Game Fed.Aid in Wildl.Restoration
Prog.Rep.Proj.W-17-6.
This report is part of a longer study to identify major vegetation types in
Tanana Flats and adjacent portions of Game Management Unit 20 B to evaluate
browse use and preference,and to monitor seasonal distribution and composi-
tion of moose populations.Eight aerial surveys and a radio-collar survey
were conducted over a 260 sq.km.count area from July I,1973 through June
30,1974.Aerial surveys over the Tanana Flats area showed a gradual
decline in total moose from 196 in June to Sl in January and an increse by
106 in May,suggesting an emigration from the flats between mid-summer and
late fall and a return between late winter and early summer.Radio collar
studies indicated greater usage by coniferous and deciduous habitats
throughout the year than aerial surveys indicated.It is suggested that
bulls prefer less dense low shrub and tall shrub areas than do either lone
cows or cows with calves.
Cowan,I.McT.,W.S.Hoar and J.Hatter.1950.The effect of forest
..-
succession upon the quantity and upon the nutritive values of woody
plants used as food by moose.Can.J.Res.Sec.(D)28:249-271.
This study investigated 3 stages of forest succession growing under nearly
identical conditions of soil and climate.The quantity of available moose
browse,and carotene and ascorbic acid content of 17 palatable and unpalat-
able trees and shrubs was determined.Values for moisture,protein,carbo-
hydrate,ether extractives,and total mineral content were also determined.
These analyses were conducted primarily during winter.The study site was
located adjacent to the airport at Quensel,British Columbia.The results
of this study confirm earlier reports that nutrients available from plants
are at their lowest point during winter (plant dormancy).Thus,the group
of trees and shrubs available as moose browse in the study area were
uniformly of low nutritive quality.Exceptions included high protein values
of Sheperdia spp.twigs and Populus tremuloides bark;high ether-etractive
values of Abies ~,Populus trichocarpa,and bark of ~tremuloides;and
a high carbohydrate rating of Usnea spp.Nutritive quality and palatability
are not necessarily related.-----rt was concluded that the most desirable
winter range for moose will be one well diversified as to species composi-
tion and age of stands but predominantly of new growth following deforesta-
tion.The authors suggest that moose are adapted ~o living upon lower
quality nutrients than are domestic ungulates.
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Culbertson,J.L.1976.Mile 43 moose range crushing 10 year analysis and
comparison to the effects of the 1959 Kenai Lake fire.Progress Rep.
Chugach National Forest.8pp.
This paper is a 10 year progress report discussing the results of mechanic-
ally crushing a spruce and hardwood forest to induce sprouting,seeding,and
new growth of browse plants.This project occurred about 2 miles NE of the
Sunrise Inn west of Quartz Creek.The project was successful;the cost-
benefit ratio was favorable.After the forest canopy was removed,spruce
competition for light was reduced and birch increased on the site by a
factor of 1/3 in 2 years,and by a factor of 10 by 5 years.Birch estab-
lishment on south facing slopes was 4-5 times more dense than on north
slopes.Spruce and grass-forb growth appeared to have become dominant
within 10 years.Problems occurred with breakdowns of the equipment,and it
was difficult operating equipment on rolling and steep terrain.
Cushwa,C.T.and J.Coady.1976.Food habits of moose (Alces alces)in------
Alaska:A preliminary study using rumen contents analysis.Can.
-
-
-
Field-Nat.90:11-16.
This study at tempted to quantify moose food consumption over a one-year
period of four seasons:winter (Nov-Mar),s pring (Apr-May),summer (Jun-
Aug),and fall (Sep-oct).Moose rumen samples were collected from the
Fairbanks and Kenai Peninsula areas.The greatest number of samples for
Fairbanks and Kenai were obtained during the winter.Winter habitats of
moose near Fairbanks consist primarily of shrub and deciduous tree
communities.Winter habitats of moose on the Kenai Peninsula consist
primarily of shrub and deciduous tree communities.In the winter,moose in
the Fairbanks area most frequently ate willow,birch,and aspen in
decreasing order;spruce was not consumed near Fairbanks.On the Kenai,
birch ,aspen,and willow are most frequently eaten in the winter.This
difference-is attributed primarily to food availability,not to differences
in preference.The overall results for all four seasons indicate both
seasonal and regional variation in moose-habitat interactions.However,the
small sample .size obtained within season and location precluded a formal
statistical analysis.Nevertheless,these preliminary data are in basic
agreement with similar rumen content studies previously conducted in the
.Susitna region.
4l955/A
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Davis,J.L.,and A.W.Franzmann.1979.Fire-moose-caribou interrelation-
ships:A review and assessment.Proc.N Amer.Moose Conf.Workshop
-
--
-
-
15:1-18.
Extirpation of caribou from the Kenai Peninsula in the early 1900's and the
subsequent increase in moose numbers is frequently cited as a classic
example of a faunal change which resulted from fire-initiated plant
succession.This paper reviews the validity of such cause and effect
observations,and concludes that factors other than fire were most likely
responsible for past declines in caribou;also,creating or enhancing moose
habitat by burning is not necessarily detrimental to caribou.Hunting
mortality was suggested as the cause of caribou decline from the Kenai
Peninsula..Evidence shows that moose have been present on the Kenai since
at least the earliest recorded times.despite claims that moose did not
appear here until the 1870's.
DeWitt,J.B.and J.V.Derby.1955.Changes in the nutritive value of
browse plants following forest fires.J.Wildl.Manage 19:65-70
Studies were conducted to'determine chemical compos~t~on and nutritive value
of four species of plants used as deer browse,and to determine the effects
of low-and high-intensity fires upon chemical composition of the browse.
These studies were conducted at the Patuxent Research Refuge,Maryland and
consisted of comparing burned and nonburned (control)plots.Results showed
that protein contents of roundleaf greenbriers.red maple and flowering
dogwood foliage were significantly higher in the season following a low-
intensity fire,but no effects could be determined in the second year.The
high-intensity fire produced significant increases in protein contents of
roundleaf greenbrier,red maple,flowering dogwood,and white oak;effects
were still apparent ewo years later.
41955/A
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8
Eastman,D.S.1974.Habitat use by moose of burns,cutovers and forests in
northcentral British Columbia.
10:238-256.
Proc.N.Amer.Moose Conf.Workshop.
-
Overwinter use of burns,logged and unlogged forests by moose was studied in
eight study sites in the sub-boreal'spruce zone wi th in 50 miles of Prince
George,British Columbia from 1971 -1973 for dry,modal and wet environ-
ments.Habitat use was revealed by post-winter pellet group surveys and
tagged twig transects,with the averge moose density l/sq.mile.'Recent
clearcuts were least used,with developing vegetation providing little
browse when snow depths were greater than 3 feet.Partially logged stands
11-20 years old were the preferred winter habitat type at most sites,pro-
viding both browse and shelter.The two burns showed greater winter pellet
group densities than those in forested and clearcut areas and equaled those
in most partial cutovers.In all habitat types,winter use was greatest at
the ecotones.Conflicting data of hign pellet group densities and low rates
of browsing indicate that forests provide for non-feeding activities,sucn
as shelter in late winter,with burns and cutovers important feeding areas
in early winter.This conflicting data demonstrates the need to assess
habitat use by more than one method.
Eastwood,D.S.1977.Habitat selection and use in winter by moose in sub-
-
,-
-.
boreal forests of northcentral British Columbia,and relationships to
forestry.Ph.D.Thesis,University of British Columbia,Vancouver.
The paper reviewed herein was the Abstract from the thes is.This study of
winter habitat selection was conducted in an 11,000 Km 2 area of northcentral
British Columbia.Wintering moose used partial cutovers and burns more than
coniferous forests;deciduous forests and recent clearcuts were used least.
Winter use increased from near zero after a recent disturbance,to a peak
sometime between 10 and 25 years later;use then declined to low levels
between 25 and 90 years,and seemed to stabilize in the mature forest stage
at slightly higher levels.Moose had catholic diets but ate primarily de-
ciduous browse most of the year.Selection of bedding sites by moose varied
with snow depth;in deeper snows moose bedded closer to larger trees in the
denser canopies of forest stands..Snow acts to trigger migration.,':loose
management recommendations are discussed in the thes is but are not covered
in the Abstract.
41955/A
840920
9
Euler,D.The economic impact of prescribed burning on moose hunting.J.
-
Environ.Manage.3:1-5.
This paper provides a preliminary estimate of the monetary benefits which
can be realized as a result of the favorable habitat created for moose due
to pescribed burning.Three studies in eastern North America (Hansen.
Krefting and Kurmis.1973;Spencer and Hakala.1964;Williamson.1972)
where moose populations have increased following fire are used to estimate
benefits provided by moose through hunting.An assumption of 20%harvest of
standing crop is used.Estimated revenues ranged from $0.17 to $4.31 per
acre per year for 32 years,with 0.01 to 0.04 days per acre per year for 32
years provided in days of recreation provided to the hunter.Costs of
burning vary form $0.25 per acre to several hundred dollars per acre.It is
concluded that if the cost of burning exceeds the benefi ts.other values
will have to justify burning.
Foote,J.M.1983.Classification,description and dynamics of plant
communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska.
Serv ••Pacific N.W.and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon.
PNW-30T.108pp.
USDA For.
Res.Pap.
.....
This study describes plant communities in the taiga of Alaska,and orders
these community types into successional patterns for wnite spruce and black
spruce sites.130 forest stands ranging in age from 1 month postfire to 200
years,located in interior Alaska south of the Yukon river were sampled.
Succession was divided into six developmental stages;newly burned.moss-
herb,tall shrub-sapling,dense tree,hardwood (or hardwood-spruce)and
spruce.Patterns of change in the two successional series are described and
compared.In addition.12 mature forest community types were identified and
described.While white spruce sites are characterized by well drained soils
and a lack of permafrost,black spruce sites have poorly drained soils and
an abundance of permafrost.Fire is more common on black spruce sites.
41955/A
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10
.....Franzmann,A.W.,P.O.Arneson,R.E.LeResche,and J.L.Davis.1974.
.....
.....
Development and testing of new techniques for moose management.Alaska
Dept.Fish and Game Final Rep.Fed.Aid in Wildl.Res toration Pro j.
W-17-2 to W-17-6,Job 1.6 R.54pp •
This paper provides a detailed summary of numerous types of moose management
tecnniques such as drugs,marking devices,telemetric tracking,aerial-count
census evaluation studies,and pellet counts.However,no specific
information regarding mOose habitat enhancement is given •
Grenier P.,B.Bernier,and J.Bedard.1977.The effect of forest
!~
i
-
fertilization on crude protein content,growth,and use by mOose (Alces
alces)of paper birch (Betula papyrifera)in Laurentides Park,Quebec.
Froc.N.Amer.Moose Conf.Workshop 13:258-278.
Experimentl;were conducted to determine the effect of fertilization on the
crude protein content,growth,and use by moose of paper birch.Although an
increase ill tne protein content of paper birch was noted following applica-
tion of a[J]Dlonium nitrate and urea,the results did not show an increase in
vegeta ti ve growth or in brows ing by moose.The lack 0 f a prefer ence by
moose for foraging on fertilized vegetation versus non-fertilized vegetation
does not agree with results reported by others.The results may have been a
consequenCI:!of the poor influence of the fertilizers on the quality and
quanti ty of forage produced.This may be due to the N being leacned by a
2.7 cm rain falling shortly after treatment,or because paper birch did not
need additional N in this environment.
41955/A
840920
11
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Hamilton,G.D.and P.D.Drysdale.1975.Effects of cutover width on browse
utili2:ation by moose.Proc.N.Amer.Moose Conf.Workshop 11:1-12.'
Two clear-cuts in the Dog River area of Thunder Bay District were studied to
examine the relationship between browse utilization by moose and distance
from cover.Moose density,hunting pressure,browse preference and
abundance,snow depth and distance from cover were assumed to influence
browse utilization,with all factors held constant except distance from
cover.Moose densities in two cutovers of 200 and 75 areas respectively
were appro<dmately 0.8 moose/sq.mile,with util ization determined by the
presence of browse stems.Distance from cover exceeded 200 meters in the
larger cut··over and were less than 100 meters in the smaller cut.In the
clear cut portion of the larger cut-over,utilization declined significantly
with increased distance from cover,especially beyond 40 meters,and dropped
to zero at 100 me ters.There were no significant changes in use wi th
respect to distance from cover in the smaller cut-over.Cut-overs less than
200 meters in width are too small to alter moose usage patterns,with the
maximum distance from cover possibly limiting browse utilization.
Holdermann,D.A.1983.Draft project plan:Management of early seral
vegetation for moose on the northern Kenai lowlands.Alaska Dept.Fish
and Game,Division of Game,Juneau,Alaska.16pp.
This paper discusses a draft plan to initiate moose habitat enhancement
through the use of three 40-ton LeTourneau tree crushers on the Kenai
National Wi.ldlife Refuge.The goal of the crushing program is to maintain
50,000-60,000 acres of moose winter range,inclusive of the 1969 burn,in
early seral vegetation.This is to be accomplished by crUShing 3,000
acres/yr o.E unproductive range at 4 different locations in the 1947 burn
over a 20 year period of rotation.A 20 year rotation was chosen because
experience suggests that maximum browse production occurs 15-20 years after
crushing,and that production and availability begin to significantly
decline after 25 years.Sixty percent of the surface area in each habitat
area will be designated for crushing,and the remaining 40%of the area will
be allowed to follow a course of natural succession.Habitat areas will be
managed to provide a beneficial combination of feeding areas,cover,and
edge habitat for moose.Irregular,convoluted patterns wi 11 be crusned;
square,rectangular,and repeating patterns will be avoided.
4l955/A
840920
12
,~,
Johnson,A.1975.History of fires on the Kenai inoose range.Canadian-
Alask.aL fire seminar,Oct.7,1975,Unpubl.Rep.4pp.
This paper is based on a seminar presen~ation.The 1947 Burn on the Kenai
Range is rE!garded as the biggest factor in increasing moose to their highest
levels in historic time.About 310,000 acres burned in all types of the
interior forest.Vegeta~ional changes relevan~to moose include:white and
black spruce are common and began to regenerate immediately after the burn;
there was heavy revegetation of aspen from stump sprouts and later from
seedlings;birch covered nearly 1/5 of the burn area,mostly from
reseeding;willow reproduction varied in intens ity of growth ~hroughout the
burn,and showed evidence of heavy browsing.Vegetation following a burn is
determined by the previous s~and but tends to favor hardwoods;a mixed stand
of hardwoods is more favorable for moose forage than a pure s~and;after
perhaps 20 years the stand will have a tendency to go ~o spruce;under
suitable conditions the most favorable period for moose forage occurs from 5
to 20 years post fire.Besides fire,moose habitat enhancement is being
tested by timber sales to remove old growth trees and by mechanical
crushers.
Joyal,R.1976.W'inter foods of moose in La Verendyre Park,Quebec:An
evaluation of two browse survey methods.Can.J.Zool.54:1765-1770.
W'inter foods of moose inhabiting mixed forest areas in La Verendyre Park,
Quebec Werl!determined by estimating browse units,which identifiec:J.key
species in the diet,and by twig counts,which gave the proportion of each
species browsed by weight.The two methods are compared.A total of 21
species offered available food,but only 12 were browsed.Mountain maple,
the most important species in the diet,was eaten proportionally to its
availability.Moose preferred willows and trembling aspen,which showed the
highest availability:utilization ratio.Succulence and palatability
control preference,with the color of needles influencing palatability.In
conclusion,browse estimations were accurate enough to find and rank key
species reliably as to availability and use.
41955/A
840920
13
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Kelleyhouse,D.G.1980.Fire/wildlife
in H.Hoefs and D.Russell,eds.
workshop.Nov.27-28,1979.Yukon
Canada.
relationships in Alaska.Pages 1-35
Wildlife and wild fire;proc.of a
Wildlife Branch,Whitehorse,Yukon,
,-
!
I"""',
This report attempts to summarize and compare existing knowledge concerning
the effects of fire on wildlife.The effectiveness with which man is
controlling fires in interior Alaska has resulted in fewer fires which is
seen as a threat to greater wildlife diversity because of a lack of habitat
diversity.Wildfire effects on populations of herbivores (small rodents,
hares,birds,waterfowl,muskrat,beaver,moose,and caribou)and carnivores
are discussled.The relationship between numbers of moose and increased
forage production is noted •.The use of burns is dependent on the amount of
cover available near and within burns.The effects of fire on moose also
depend on their historical use patterns of traditional summer and winter
areas,and migratory corridors.The effects of fire upon caribou are
controversial,and the assumption that the correlation between fires and
caribou population declines is a cause and effect relationship is
inaccurate.The author concludes with a discussion predicting wildlife
response to fire and evaluating a fire for probable effects upon wildlife.
Kelsall,J.P.,E.S.Telfer and T.O.Wright.1977.The effects of fire on
the ecology of the boreal forest with particular reference to the
Canadi';ln north:A review and selected bibliography.Can.Wildt.Servo
Occas.Pap.32.58pp.
This review analyzes literature relevant to the effects of fire lon the
boreal fore~lt,and on its related wildlife resources,with particular refer-
ence to the Canadian north.Alaska publications were also reviewed.It was
concluded that fire is the most important factor influencing the ecology of
the northern boreal forest;that fire and the resulting forest mosaic are
natural features of long standing;and that the boreal forest can be
characterized as a fire-dependent ecosystem.The flora and fauna of the
forest have evolved in response and adaptation to the frequency,extent,and
intensity Clf fire.With some possible exceptions,a mosaic of varied
successional stages in the boreal forest provides a richer habitat for a
more varied and abundant fauna than does the monotypic spruce forest
characteristic of unburned areas.Specific attention is given to the
effects of fire on soil,hydrology,vegetation,and wildlife.The wildlife
review includes a 3-page discussion on moose in the Canadian north and
Alaska,covering moose distribution as it relates to successional stage,
population fluctuation,and moose habitat and forest succession.The
effects of fire on vegetation,types of forest burned,forest succession,
and the mosaic effect is further discussed in the vegetation review.The
authors conclude that the optimum successional stages for moose occur
between 11 '!lOd 30 years after burning.
41955/A
840920
14
Kershaw,K.A.and W.R.Rouse.1976.The impact of fire on forest and tundra
ecosystems Final Report 1975.Arctic Land Use Res.Program,Dept.
Indian Affairs and North.Develop.ALUR Rep.75-62-63.54pp.
This study examined the chronological development of vegetation,soil pro-
perties,and microc limate fo Howing fire in the southern Northwest Terri-
tories,east of Great Slave lake.Open spruce-lichen woodland is the
dominant vE!getation type.The study was restric ted to black spruce-licnen
woodland dominated drumlins due to their relatively constant size,snape and
orientation.The study area is within the winter foraging range for large
numbers of caribou.It is concluded that in the absence of forest fires the
spru~~-lichen forest would develop into a spruce-moss woodland.Burning is
accompanied by a hotter soil and a hotter,drier atmosphere for a period of
50 years.If large areas are burned,this will exert a strong des iccating
influence on non-burned areas downwind,wnicn will greatly increase evapora-
tion from ponds and small lakes.
Fire Ecol.Conf.9:161-209.-
Komarek,E.V.1969.Fire and animal behavior.Proc.Annu.Tall Timbers
-
This article is a general discussion of the reaction and behavior of animals
to fire,:;moke and the resulting burned ground.The author makes the
following observations:in the wild,animals have no innate fear 0 f fire and
in most cases effectively avoid any injury from fires;many animals seek out
recently burned areas since fire ash is high in calcium,potash,phos phate
and trace minerals;regrowth in burns are sought out by wildlife because of
higher prol:ein and nutrients in the re-establishing vegetation.
41955/A
840920
lS
Krefting,L.W.1974.Moose distribution and habitat selection l.n north-
_.
central North America.Natura1iste can.101:81-100
This paper reviews the available information pertaining to moose distribu-
tion and habitat selection in Manitoba,Ontario and the Lake States,with a
discussion clf present and historic status of moose,and factors affecting
their range and habitat selection.Moose populations are constantly
changing because of forest succession,with the highest moose densities
associated led th subcl imax fores ts.Fac tors promoting second-growth fores ts
include fire,defoliation of mature forests by the spruce budworm,and
logging activities.Factors that decrease the availability of browse
include overbrowsing by moose,fire surpression activities,and forest
succession;with climax species shading out browse species.Summer and
winter home ranges for moose require different kinds of habitats.In
winter,movements and habitat selection are influenced by the depth and
quality of snow.As winter advances,moose gradually move from open stands
to more dense cover.The author concludes that there is a lack of informa-
tion on moose distribution and habitat,with further documentation needed
concerning burns,logging,and their effect on moose.
management in the Yukon.
Larson,D.1979.General comments on prescribed burning and moose
Pages 175-176 in M.Hoefs and D.Russell,
eds.Wildlife and wildfire;Proc.of a workshop.Nov.27-28,1979.
Yukon \Jildlife Branch,Whitehorse,Yukon,Canada.
This brief paper discusses how moose should be managed in the Yukon.While
the author acknowledges the documented benefits of prescribed burning (as in
Alaska),he feels that not enough is known of the ecological relationships
between moose and its habitat (as in the Yukon)to warrant this method of
treatment at the present time.A recommended course of ac tion would
include:clonsideration of prescribed burning as part of an overall resource
management plan for all species,resources,and various user groups;forgo
active burning at the present time because of a lack of baseline data and
financial constraints;try to curb present fire suppression policies;use
prescribed burning on specific populations with specific objectives only
after baseline data are collected.
4l955/A
840920
16
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>
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Leopold,A.S ..and F.F.Darling.1953.Effects of land use on moose and
caribou in Alaska.Trans.N.Amer.Wildl.Conf.18:553-562.
This article discusses the ecological requirements and the factors that
influence thj!population dynamics of moose and caribou.Past and present
game managem>ent practices in Alaska are described,·and recommendations to
achieve "optimumll sized herds are included.While moose inhabit sub-climax
successional stages of vegetation,caribou range consists of climax forests.
Human influences,most importantly fire,have caused significant increases
in moose populations,while these same influences coupled with wolf preda-
tion and the introduction of reindeer in Alaska have caused a decrease in
caribou.Pl:edator control methods have helped moose populations.It is
suggested that management programs provide for both moose and caribou by
conducting experimental burns of designated moose ranges while excluding
fire from thl!remaining caribou ranges.
LeResche,R.E.and J.L.Davis.1973.Importance of nonbrowse foods to moose
on the Kenai Peninsula,Alaska.J.Wildl.Manage.37:279-287.
This paper describes the observations made on food intake of three tame
moose at the Kenai Moose Research Center to quantify the observed "catholic"
food tastes of moose for nonbrowse foods.It had previous ly been observed
that they consume,especially in spring and summer,forbs,grasses,
mushrooms,.lichens ,and practically all other floral components of their
environment.Bite sizes were classified in four categories for summer and
winter observations.Forty-six percent of 28,423 bites taken by the moose
in July and August consisted of birch leaves;5%were of willow species;4%
were leaves and twigs of dwarf birch.Thus,during summer,65%of all bites
taken were parts of woody browse.The remaining forage consisted of forbs
(25%)J graSEles (3%),sedges (4%),and aquatics (3%).Alder,aspen,lowbush
cranberry,lichens,and mushrooms (mostly Boletus spp.)were taken in trace
amounts.A total of 50 nonbrowse species were recorded as eaten by moose.
In winter ..moose on normal range consumed 72%birch stems,21%lowbursh
cranberry,and 6%willow and alder.On depleted range,moose ate only 23%
browse;the remainder consisted of lichens (mostly Peltigera spp.)and
cranberry.The availablility of understory forage species during part of
the winter is probably an Unportant factor in supporting the very high moose
densities f()und on the Kenai Peninsula.
4l955/A
840920
17
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LeResche,R.E ••R.H.Bishop and J.W.Coady.1974.Distribution and
habitats of moose in Alaska.Alaska Dept.Fish and Game.Fairbanks.
Alaska.
This review decribes past and present distribution of moose in southeas t.
southcentral and nothern Alaska.including the upper and lower Susitna
Valleys.and also discusses the major habitats important to moose.Four
major climax c01lDDunity habitat "types"are discussed in general terms.
including upland willow or birch dominated communities.lowland bog areas.
and seral c01!QDunities.including those created by fire and by glacial or
fluvial action.Fire-created habitats support the greatest moose population
explosions and among the greatest densities of moose in the state.but are
the least permanent of the habitats discussed.Species composition.size of
burn.rate of growth,diversity of communities and ecotone created determine
the impact of a burn on moose populations.Moose increased steadily through
the 1950's and early 1960's in response to recurrent wildfires.and in
southcentral and Interior Alaska have siQce stabilized or declined due to a
series of slevere winters.·complicated by deteriorating range conditions,
changing hunting pressures and predation.
LeResche.R.E ••R.H.Bishop and J.W.Coady.1974.Distribution and
habitats of moose in Alaska.Naturalist can.101:143-178.
This paper is the slightly condensed version of the above referenced
LeResche.Bishop and Coady paper put out by the Alaska Dept.Fish and Game.
1974.
41955/A
840920
18
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Lotspeicn,F.B.,E.Vl.Mueller and P.J.Frey.1970.Effects of large scale
forest fires on water quality in interior Alaska.USDI,Federal Vlater
Pollution Control Administration,Alaska Water Laboratory,College
(Fairbanks),Alaska.115pp.
The purpos4:!of this study was to develop information on the relationship of
forest fires and water quality of Alaskan streams,and to understand the
requirements necessary to implement measures to control stream erosion,e.g.
revegetation,erosion prevention,etc.The study showed that there was no
statistically significant change in the benthic fauna of the streams that
could be attributed to the effects of fire.Fire control methods may cause
more serious,long-lasting damage to the aquatic ecosystem within the burned
area than the fire itself.No significant detrimental effect was noted for
burned soils;very little mineral soil was exposed by burning,possibly due
to the thickness of the organic layers.Only the organic layer is useful in
diagnosing the change in soil chemistry.
Lutz,H.J.1956.Ecological effects of forest fires 1.n the interior of
Alaska.
121pp.
USDA For.Serv.,Alaska For.Res.Cent.Tech.Bull.1133.
-,
This study discusses the effects of fire on forests in the interior of
Alaska;including effects on trees,subordinate forest vegetation and
succession after fire;soils,including humus layers,physical and chemical
properties;hydrology;wildlife,including fur-bearers,moose and caribou;
and economic development.From 1949 to 1952,data on 103 sample plots,11
transects and 860 milacre quadrants were recorded and analyzed.The effect
of fire on white spruce,black spruce,paper birch,quaking aspen and balsam
poplar,and the following succession are discussed in detail.As a result
of fire,the climax white spruce stands on moderately well drained sites
have been replaced by stands of paper birch and quaking aspen.Fires have
less effec:t in changing forest composition of black spruce stands si tuated
in low lying areas.Fire has a positive influence on some properties of
soils,inc:luding the mobilization of some plant nutrients.Fire exhibits a
negative impact on fur-bearing animals and ~aribou,but provides favorable
habitat for moose.Widespread uncontrolled fire destroys valuable timber
and surpresses tourism,but prescribed burning of appropriate areas can
produce desirable ecological effects.
41955/A
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19
Lutz,H.J.1960.Fire as an ecological factor 1n the boreal forest of
-
Alaska.J.Forestry 58:454-460.
Boreal forests are by their nature flammable,and several lines of data
indicate that fires were a part of the boreal forest environment long before
the advent of earliest man.This paper discusses the effects of fire on
boreal vegetation and soi 1.However,these data are not directly relevant
to the issue of moose habitat enhancement.The author notes that in other
regions,including the boreal forest of northern Europe,the techniques of
controlled burning as a management tool have been worked out and success-
fully applied.He therefore advocates the use of fire as a tool to favor
establishment of new vegetation and to effect game management.No special
conclusions are reached regarding the relationship between controlled fires
and enhancement of moose habitat.
Macnida,S.1978.Preferential use of willow by moose in interior Alaska.
Alaska Coop.Wildl.Res.Unit,Univ.Alaska,Fairbanks.
28pp.
Unpubl.Rep.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate wnether between-species or within-
species food preference occurred among willow species in a burn regrowtn
area.The relationship of protein content to food preference was also
investigated.The study area was located at the Wickersham Fire Ecology
Study Site,20-mile Elliot Highway,in Interior Alaska.Mean browse
production and utilization varied from 0 to 37.7 percent for the 1976-77
winter,and from 0.8 to 50.2 percent during the 1977-78 winter.Observa-
tions show that overall,Salix alaxenis is most preferred,~planifolia is
next,and S.hastata and S.scouleriana are least preferred.These results
compare favorably to othe7 studies conducted in Interior Alaska.Within-
species preference patterns suggest a preference by moose for stems browsed
yearly,and avoidance of those stems not browsed previously.The same
preferenCE!pattern was found to exist between plants of the same species.
Protein Cl:>ntent was unrelated to patterns of between-plant preference.The
author concluded that range evaluation studies need to take into account
with-species preferences,and the habitat improvement work such as controll-
ed burns and mecnanical crushing need to take into account which browse
species will grow back and in what quantity.
4l955!A
840920
20
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,~
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Martin,R.E.,C.T.Cushwa and R.L.Miller.1969.Fire as a physical factor
in wildland management.Proc.Annu.Tall Timbers Fire Ecol.Conf.9:
271-287.
This paper discusses some physical factors of importance in the use of fire.
The stages of fuel combustion,moisture of fuels,fuel removal,fire temper-
atures and lethal temperatures (to plants)are discussed.The importance of
duff or soil layers in protecting living tissues is demonstrated by rough
calculations.The signi ficance of needle scorch due to prescribed burning
during moist fuel conditions is discussed.
McNicol,J.G.and F.F.Gilbert.1980.Late winter use of upland cutovers by
moose.J.Wildl.Manage.44:363-371.
The utilization of mixed-species cutovers by moose during late winter was
examined to determine the relationships between browse,coniferous cover,
and edge within and bordering these cutovers.Biweekly aerial track counts
and ground examinations were carried out on sixteen upland cutovers,10 to
15 years in age,near Thunder Bay,Ontario,ranging in size from 49 to 2,830
ha.Paper birch,willow,mountain ash,pin cherry and trembl ing aspen
constituted about 80%of the total recorded browse consumed by moose.The
scattered-residual cover type was preferred by moos~and provided the most
diverse browsing opportunities over the dense-conifer,open and open-planted
cover types.Use of these habitats is regulated by snow conditions.The
edge between residual conifer and open areas within cutovers seemed to be
more important to moose than the peripheral edge around cutovers.The
number of use areas/ha increased with decreasing size of cutover,regardless
of hunting pressure or snow conditions on the cutover.
Milke,G.C.1969.Some moose-willow relationships in the interior of
-
Alaska.MS.Thesis,Univ.of Alaska,Fairbanks.79 pp •
This paper exam,ined moose-willow relationships on several moose ranges in
interior Alaska.Study sites included the Dry Creek study area (S.portion
of Tanana Flats),Paxson Lake (Alaska Range),Little Clearwater Creek (54mi.
w.of Paxson,AK.),Gunn Creek Flat (13 mi.N.of Paxson,AK.),Taylor
41955/A
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21
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Highway (200 mi.SE.of Fairbanks),Wood River (30 mi.E.of Mt.Mckinley
National Park)and Tanana River (1 mi S.of Fairbanks).Salix interior,S.
alaxensis,~arbusculoides,and ~pulchra were found to~ost preferred
by moose.~alaxensis and ~pulchra are probably the most important
browse species due to their high palatability,wide distribution and high
abundance.Moderately palatable willow species were eaten to a greater
degee when occurring with highly preferred species.Nei ther the relative
abundance nor density of a species noticeably affects its degree of use.
Although the degree of browsing that is sustained by a given species appears
correlated with plant height,preferabili ty is probably influenced more by
inherent palatability.·Moose management implications are that only the
amount of browsing sustained by the highly and moderately preferred willow
species Sh'DUld be considered when assessing moose range conditions or the
relationship of moose density to food supply.When environmental
manipulaticm becomes possible,only the growth of preferred species should
be considered.
Nelson,K.J.and D.Weixelman.1983.Moose-fire vegetation surey progress
District,Alaska.Unpubl.Rep.37pp.-
report for 1983.USDA For.Servo Chugacn National Forest,Seward
Tnis vegetation survey is a continuation of previous years'surveys of the
Chugach Prescribed Burn Program in the national forest portion of the Kenai
Peninsula.Hardwood moose browse production was measured in five prescribed
burn units and two wildfire sites and was compared with production in
adjacent control sites.Browse production averaged 71.8 kg/ha in the non-
slashed burn units and 41.1 kg/ha in the control units,a 1.74 fold increase
(174%).Browse production in slashed and burned units averaged a 2.94 fold
increase over control units for the three areas surveyed.Production in the
two older wildfire sites averaged a 16.56 fold increase in the burn vs.
control,14 and 24 years post burn.Slashed burns in each case produced
more seed lings per hectare and incurred higher tree kilJ than nons lashed
burns,thus influencing the post burn succession to a greater degree.Both
slashed and nons lashed burns were effective at stimulating trunk sprouting
of hardwood browse species.Potential moose carrying capacity realized by
burning the five units surveyed was estimated at 11,600 moose-days vs
approximately 4,991 moose-days as indicated by browse percentages.A log-
aritnmic relationship was established between percent grass cover in the
preburn sl:a te and resul ting burn coverage for the nons lashed burn uni t
surveyed.
41955/A
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22
.....
Oldemeyer,J.L.1983.Browse production and its use by moose and snowshoe
hares alt the Kenai Moose Research Center,Alaska.J.wi ld.Manage.
47:486-496.
The effect of different moose densities on paper birch production and use
was studied for 4 years at the Moose Research Center (MRC)on the Kenai
National Wildlife Refuge (KNWR),Alaska.Production and use of quaking
aspen and willow were also estimated,and the impact of snowshoe hares on
paper birch evaluated.The study was conducted in four 2.6 km 2 enclosures
within a 125,500 ha area burned in 1947,where moose densities ranged from
1,237 to 5,851 moose-days/pen/winter from 1971-1974.5 vegetative types
important fc)r browsing;including dense,medium,and thin birch-spruce
regrowth;spruce-birch regrowth;and thin mature hardwoods;showed a
significant difference in per-plant production the first 3 years.By 1973,
different moose densities influenced plant production,which ranged from
3.7 gjplant (pen 3)to 6.9 gjplant (pen O.Birch produced an average of
102 kgjha in the 4 pens while willow and aspen combined produced 3.7 kgjha
in 1974.Birch use by moose and hares ranged from 31.8 to 83.3%of current
annual production.Birch plants were subdivided into those browsed only by
moose,only by hares,and those browsed by both.During the 4 years,hares
brows ed a grea ter percentage of tagged plan ts than did moose.Brows in g
levels of aspen in the fall and spring were 40.7 and·57.8%respectively with
browsing of willows 55 and 70%respectively.It is indicated that willow
and aspen are less tolerant of browsing than birch.
Oldemeyer,J.L.,A.W.Franzmann,A.L.Brundage,P.O.Arneson,and A.
1977 •Browse quality and the Kenai moose population.J.
Flynn.
Wildt.
Manage.41:533-542.
This study was the first to report on all of the major components of wild
ungulate nutrition.Characteristics used to describe browse quality
included in vitro dry-matter disappearance (IVDMD),fiber content,protein
content,ancl ~concentration of 18 mineral elements.This study was con-
ducted on the Kenai National Moose Range at the Kenai Moose Research Center,
which is located in the NW lowlands of the Peninsula.Five major summer and
41955/A
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23
-
-
winter browse species were investigated:paper birch,aspen,willow,alder
and lowbush cranberry.Dwarf bircn was also tested.The results show.low
winter levels of protein in all plant species,and low levels of manganese
and several other trace elements.Seasonal differences in mineral
concentrations were striking.During summer,alder and lowbush cranberry
were significantly more digestible than the other four plant species.In
winter,aspen and lowbush cranberry were the most digestible,willow and
paper birch were intermediate,and alder was least digestible.Three
observations of Kenai moose lead the authors to suspect that the winter diet
tor moose on the Kenai is energy deficient:they weigh less than tnose in
comparable areas;the percentage of pregnant moose is less than elsewnere;
and the Kenai moose population is declining.The authors attribute these
changes to a great change in plant species composition.The current winter
range is dominated by paper birch,wnich overall was ranked poorest in
winter nutritional quality.Previously there was a mixture of birCh,
willow,aspen and perhaps some alder.The results,therefore,show the
importance of browse variety in moose diet.
Oldemeyer,J.L.,and W.L.Regelin.1980.Response of vegetation to tree
crushing in Alaska.Proc.N.Amer.Moose Conf.and Workshop 16:429-
443.
This study evaluates the effects of using LeTourneau tree crushers on moose
forage in the Kenai National Moose Range.Three areas were mecnanically
treated,and the pattern of crushing changed during the 4 years of the
study.The results were different at each site.At Willow Lake study area,
browse densities were higher in 8 of 10 sample stands,and subdominant
browse species made up a larger proportion of the browse population than
before crushing.At South Moose ResearCh Center (SMRC)an improvement in
the browse population has been slower than at Willow Lake,but the 4 year
densities are higher than the 2 year,indicating that the area is beginning
to respond favorably.The authors hesitate to make conclusions regarding
the third area,the Mystery Creek site.In all areas,except part of the
Mystery Cr.area,spruce density was decreased by at least 70%.Density in
the Mystery Cr.area was reduced 53%in.8 stands of spruce wnicn averaged
less than I m in height.The proper interspersion of food and cover
provided optimum moose habitat.Areas too thoroughly disturbed resulted in
less moose use probably because of the lack of cover.
41955/A
840920
24
Peek,J.M.1972.Adaptations to the burn:moose and deer studies.
Naturaliste 23:8-14.
This paper appears to be for a general audience.Research was initiated in
NE Minnesota following a fire in an area known as Little sioux Burn.
Research objectives included:obtaining data on moose and deer
distributions;conducting a moose census;determining group sizes;and
estimating r:he percentages of calves,yearlings,cows,and bulls in the
moose population.Population census data revealed a high percentage of
yearling moose on the burn,which implied that the fire had created habitat
which resulted in a shift in distribution of yearlings in the general area
of the Burn.Factors which contibuted to a shift include intolerance of
yearlings by bulls during the breeding season,and by cows with newborn
calves.It is also suggested that adult moose tend to remain resident in a
given territory rather than move around as yearlings do.Burned areas
provide a place for yearlings to move into,without being as harassed as in
established habitats.The abundance of forage would tend to keep them there
as they matured into adults.
Peek,J.M.1974.A review of moose food habits studies in North America.
-
Naturaliste can.101:195-215.
This article reviews 41 studies of moose food habits,including 13 from the
intermountain west,22 from Canada,Minnesota,Isle Royal and Maine and 6
from Alaska.Spencer and Chatelain (1953)found that 95%of Alaskan moose
winter forage consisted of willow,birch,aspen and cottonwood.Murie
(1944)considered willows the major summer and winter food of moose in Mt.
McKinley Park,while conifers were unimportant because the predominant
species (white and black spruce)are unpalatable.Spencer and Hakala (1964)
and Hosley (1949)recorded willows to be important to Kenai moose.LeResche
and Davis (1973)observed that winter forages varied according to range
conditions on the Kenai.Milke (1969)reported moose preference for various
willow species,and noted a correlation between plant density and intensity
of browsing.The role of aquatic vegetation in the diet of moose is
addressed in several studies.Although general conclusions reveal willow
important to Alaskan moose,local variations in forage preferences are
important.The author concludes that the majority of these studies do not
depict food habitats well enough to adequately compare annual,seasonal and
habitat-type forage use patterns.
4l955/A
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25
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-
Peek,J.M.1974.Initial response of moose to a forest fire ~n northeastern
Minnesota.Amer.MidI.Nat.91:435-438.
Previous studies have noted that moose populations often increase following
fires because of the proliferation of palatable forage.This study was
designed to determine if the observed increase in moose populations is due
to improved productivity and survival,or to iDDD.igration.These factors
were evaluated over a 2 year period on a 14,600 acre burn in northeastern
Minnesota.Substantial iimnigration to the burn occurred within 6 months
after the fire.Apparently immigration of yearlings and perhaps other moose
to this bUI~n contributed substantially to the population buildup.This
capability serves as an important function in the adaptation to survival in
boreal fOrelJt,where mature spruce-fir and jackpine cODDD.unities produce very
little forage for moose and fires may create an abudance of woody browse
quite rapidly.
Peek,J .M.,R.E.LeResche and D.R.Stevens.1974.Dynamics of moose
r-
I
aggregations in Alaska,Minnesota and Montana.J.Mammal.55:126-
137.
Distributions of annual aggregation patterns in three populations of moose
occupying different habitats in Kenai,Alaska,southeastern Montana and
northeastern Montana were evaluated.Aggregation sizes were related to
different activities,relationships and characterstics;including habi tat
characteristics such as forage sources,topography and cover distribution.
Group sizes were the highest and most variable in the Kenai population which
was the most dense of the three populations studied.The largest group
sizes in the Kenai occurred when moose were occupying the alpine tundra.
The authors concluded that aggregrations from mid-winter to spring are
primarily related to forage location and cover.In addition,the solitary,
aggressive nature of the cow with calf may be an attempt to minimize
intraspecific competition and facilitate access to the best forage.Aggre-
gations during the prerut,rutting and postrutting periods can be attributed
in part to environmental factors including access to high quality forage
supplies in early winter.
41955/A
840920
26
-
-
Peek,J.M.,M.D.Scott,L.J.Nelson,D.J.Pierce,and L.L.Irwin.1982.
Role of cover in habitat management for big game in northwestern USA.
Trans.N.Amer.Wildl.Conf.47:363-373.
The objectives of this paper are to review and evaluate studies of cover use
patterns of big game,and to discuss the relationship between cover prefer-
ence and requirement.In mountainous yegions of the northwestern U.S.,
moose are usually restricted to areas where snows are less than 90 em.
Where snow depths approach this depth,cover is critical;cover is less
_critical where snow depths average less than 90 em.Shiras moose use of
cover types varies during the year,and between years,reflecting
differences in winter severity.Use of more open communities J including
.clearcuts and burns,is associated with selection of cooler micro-climates,
cooler times of the day,and year.
Peek,J.M.,D.L.Urich and R.J.Mackie.1976.Moose habitat selection and
relati()nships to forest managment in northeas tern Minnesota.Wi ldl.
Monogr.No.48.65pp
Objectives of this study were to determine numbers,age and sex compos1t10n,
and aggregation patterns of the moose population,its year long habitat use
and forage use patterns for comprehensive forest resource management pur-
poses.The study area in the Superior National Forest in Central Lake
County,Minnesota encompassed 1,958 Km 2 of high intensity moose range.
This study includes detailed discussion of food habi ts (including monthly
and seasonn 1 trends,browse preferences,brows e ut i 1 iza tion and forage
trends and relationships);habitat use (including seasonal use of
terrestrial habitats and use of aquatic habitats,and nutrient content of
common undl!rstory species);and characteristics of coni fer plantations
related to use by moose (including shrub composition,density,production,
shrub nutrient levels and soil nutrient levels).Aquatic communities and
sparsely stocked stands were most frequently used by moose in early summer.
Upland habitats dominated by aspen and white birch,moderately to sparsely
stocked,an.d relatively mature received the major share of the use during
summer.Shifts in habitat use as summer progressed may be correlated with
decreased palatability of open grown species.The winter period
encompassed the most pronounced changes in habitat use.Moose aggregations
were highest in late fall and early winter.In conclusion,habitat
selection by moose in the area could be correlated primarily with forage and
cover requirements and breeding behavoir.
41955/A
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27
Ream,C.H.1981.The effects of fire and other disturbances on small
mammals and their predators:An annotated bibiliography.USDA For.
Servo General Tech.Report INT-106.
Exp.Stn.,Ogden,Utah.55pp.
Intermountain Fores t and Range
This annotated bibliography contains 237 references related to the effects
of fire,logging,grazing and herbicides on small mammals and their preda-
tors.Because the major effects of disturbances on'small mamals is the
modification of vegetation,references describing specific habitat require-
ments are included.Publications dealing with predator-prey relationships
where small mammals are the prey species have been included.Emphasis is on
western coniferous forests,with other geographical areas cited.Although
contradictions exist,general responses to the effects of fire can be
predicted by most species.Publications are listed alphabetically by author
with a keywork index.
Regelin,iJ.L.,A.W.Franzmann,and C.C.SChwartz.1980.Short-term effects
of nitrogen fertilization upon production of mOose forage in Alaska.
Proc.N.Amer.Moose Conf.Workshop 16:392-397.
This study reports on the effects of fertilizing plots of black spruce and
white spruce-paper birch mixed forest types,at the Moose Research Center on
Kenai Peninsula.The plots had been burned in the 1947 fire and were
disturbed by Le Tourneau tree crushers in 1976,one year before treatment
with nitrogen applied as ammonium sulfate or urea.Results showed that
nitrogen fertilization would not be an effective treatment for snort-term
improvement of forage production.Growth of forb and shrub species were not
changed.Only grass species (mostly Calamagrostis canadensis)increased due
to fertilization.This may have a detrimental effect on moose because
grasses are seldom eaten and they compete with preferred forbs and shrubs.
Thus,nitrogen fertilization is not recommended as a short-term method for
increasing forage production for moose in this area.
41955/A
840920
28
-
Jio""'--.
Rowe,J.S.,and G.W.Scotter.1973.Fire in the boreal forest.Quaternary
Res.3,:444-464.
This paper discusses the ecological interrelationships between fire and the
flora and fauna of the boreal forest.Since fire initiates and terminates
succession,it exerts both short-term and long-term effects.The often
stated relationship of fire to u more browse,more moose"is simplistic.
However,there is evidence that browse species available to deer and moose
on recently burned-over areas are generally superior in quality as well as
in quantity.This may be due in part to the increase in available nitrates
and other minerals.There is ample evidence that productivity can be higher
in early stages of ecosystem development than in later stages.It is
concluded that fire should be viewed as a normal ecological process in the
boreal forest.
Scotter,G.W.1964.Effects of forest fires on the winter range of barren
ground caribou in northern Saskatchewan.
Manage.Bull.,Series 1(18):1-111.
Can.Wild 1.Serv.,wi ld 1.
-
--!
This paper attempts to provide a quantitative and qualitative appraisal of
the effects of fire on the winter range of barren-ground caribou.Th.is
includes the extent and history of forest fires,the effect of fire on
terrestrial forage and arboreal lichen prOduction,plant succession
following forest fires,and the effect of fire on soil properties and
wildlife.One of the most obvious effects of fire on the winter range of
barren-ground caribou is reduction of forage in both quantity and quality,
with forage production determined in six age classes in black spruce and
white birch forests.There was a temporary reduction in range prOductivity,
with the exception of high value "re indeer lichens".Pellet-group counts
and aerial survey indicate that barren-ground caribou prefer climax forests
while moose preferred the early successional stages of forest growth,
particularly the post-fire stage 10 to 30 years after a fire.Neither moose
nor caribou limited itself to anyone age class.
4l955/A
840920
29
relations in northern Canada.
Barney and G.M.Hansen,eds.
-
-
-
Scotter,G".W.1971.Fire vege tation,soil,and barren-ground caribou
Pages 209-230 in C.W.Slaughter,R.J.
Fire in the northern environment - a
symposium.April 1971,Fairbanks,AlasKa.USDA For.Serv.,Pacific
-
N.W.For.and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon.
The purpose of this paper was to review results of the Canadian Wildlife
Services's caribou research program and to report on new research whicn
determined:the portion of burned winter range in upland lichen forests and
any increa.se in recent years;the effects of fire on the usable standing
crops of terrestrial forage and arboreal lichens;the effects of fire on
soil properties;and the effects of fire on range use by barren-ground
caribou and moose.The study found that 'moose preferred habitats in early
stages of succession,but barren-ground caribou favored habitats in later
stages of succession.Fire appears to reduce the winter range for barren-
ground caribou and increase it for moose on upland forests.Fires adversely
affect the standing crop of terrestrial and arboreal forage;lichens are
apparently affected more than other forage plants because their reestablish-
ment is delayed and their growth rates slow.Because forest fires affect
the standing crop of forage,plant succession,and animal use,they may have
been among the principal causes of caribou decline in N.Canada.
.r-Scotter,G.W.1972 •Fire as an ecological factor in boreal forest
,....
ecosystems of Canada.Pages lS-22 in C.W.Slaughter,R.J.Barney and
G.M.clansen,eds.Fire in the northern environment-a symposium.April
1971.Fairbanks,Alaska.USDA For.Serv.,Pacific N.~.For.and Range
Exp.Stn.Portland,Oregon.
This paper reviews the effects of fire on vegetation,soil,animals,and
hydrology.in boreal ecosystems.Faunal succession occurs just as does plant
succession.The optimum habitat for each animal is restricted to a particu-
lar stage in plant succession.Reports are cited which indicate that fire
improves some ranges for moose.It is also noted tha t in both Alaska and
Canada there are areas Which have been repeatedly burned-over,but support
few moose.In many areas,particularly on upland sites in the Precambrian
Shield region,favored moose browse is se Idom abundant following forest
fires.The pattern of burned and unburned patches may be critical in deter-
mining the suitability of the burned areas as habitat for many species.
4l95S/A
840920
30
,.-
Scotter,G.W.1980.Management of wild ungulate habitat in the western
-
United States and Canada;a review.J.Range Manage.33:16-27.
This review discusses rehabilitation of wild ungulate habitat,modification
of range and forest practices,better use of existing habitat,and manipula-
tion of numbers and distributions of wild ungulates.Rehabilitation prac-
tices discussed include seeding and planting,herbicides,mechanical treat-
ment,and prescribed burning.More range improvement and timber management
practices should be implemented under a multiple-use concept.Conservation,
use,and development of adequate habitat are probably the most important
factors in wild ungulate management.The amounts and kinds of habitat
needed to maintain wild ungulate populations require more long-term research
and better application of existing knowledge.The concept of "two deer in
every pot"as a universal objective of game management should be questioned.
Habitat enhancement techniques for moose are not specifically discussed.
Sigman,M.1979.Response of wintering moose to mechanical habitat
--
rehabilitation in Alaska.Can.Field-Nat.93:191-193
In order to rehabilitate a portion of an area burned in 1947,vegetation was
mechnically crushed in a 460-ha area located in the Willow Lakes Rehabilita-
tion Area (WLRA)within the Kenai National Moose Range in 1975.Moose use
of a 230-ha.area which included the rehabilitated area was then compared
with a similarly sized control area to document differential moose use.
Aerial observations (Dec.'74 -May '75)documented 1374 days of moose use
in the WLRA compared to 466 days in the control area.Observed densities
ranged from 2.5 to 9.8 moose/lan 2 in the WLRA compared to 1.3 to 3.1
moose/lan 2 in the control area.Cow-calf ratios were fairly consistent in
the WLRA and declined steadily in the control area from December 1974
through April 1975.The rapid build up of moose following crushing and
prolonged use of this area by moose in the WLRA is attributable to a highly
nutritious,concentrated,and available food supply.Large aggregations of
moose were observed in crushed mature hardwood stands.The animals consumed
branches and twigs of birch and aspen trees as well as aspen bark.In
addition,movement of the large crushers compacted the snow into trails,and
the removal of vegetation led to wind compaction of new fallen snow which
resulted in less severe snow conditions.This in combination with a plenti-
ful food supply seemed to have benefited calves in particular.
419551 A
840920
31
---------------~---------,------~----------------
1953.Progress in the management of the
-
Spencer,D.L.,and E.F.Chatelain.
moose of southcentral Alaska.
552 •.
Trans.N.Amer.wildl.Conf.18:539-
-
.....
This paper reviews the state of moose management in Alaska,and emphasizes
that although considerable research has been done on moose,insufficient
data are available to define management measures for an indefinately
sustained hunting season.The results of various moose studies indicate
that the Kenai Peninsula and the Susitna Valley are two of the most impor-
tant moose population centers in southcentral Alaska.About 850 square
miles (7%)can be classified as good moose winter range of the 11,500 square
miles in the Susitna Valley.Because of inherent adaptations,moose are
more resistant to winter kill than some other ungulates.Stomach analysis
of 96 moose in winter showed that willows constituted 53%,birCh 32%,
cottonwood 8%,aspen 4%,and seven other species 3%of the stomaCh contents.
The under-use of a browse stand is more serious than over-use.Some Susitna
Valley moose winter ranges are growing out of reach and others are being
overutilized.Although moose are increasing here,they will decline;
controlled burning cannot completely remedy it.
r--'
,--..r
Spencer D.L.and J.B.Hakala.1964.Moose and fire on the Kenai.
Annu.Tall Timbers Fire Ecol.Conf.3:11-33.
Proc.
fhe purpose of this paper was to examine the data obtained following the
1947 Burn on the Kenai Natioal Moose Range,and to present various moose and
fire relati.onships.Browse growth through as pen root sucker growth immed i-
ately followed the fire.Browse growth providing winter forage progressive-
ly developed,and appeared significant in attracting moose for 5 years after
the burn.Heavy browse growth was reached in about 7 years,with maximum
growth obtalined about 15 years after the burn.Moose forage condi tions are
favorable for about 5 to 20 years after burning in the boreal forest;occa-
s ionally 60-70 years.As winter forage in the Burn increased,the moose
wintering population increased both through accelerated production in the
herd and through animals drawn from other less favored wintering areas.
Frequent severe winters appear to distribute moose utilization and may act-
ually be favorable in the long-term by retaining browse species at an
available heignt.The duration of browse growth and volume of growth are
highly variable in location throughout the forest;some areas do not
produce growth following fire.There is evidence that a single reburn at a
proper interval will extend the browse production period by reducing the
development of spruce growth.However,repeated burns may favor grasses and
forbs witn elimination of browse and spruce growth.
41955/A
840920
32
Workshop 10:135-144.
regeneration in a white spruce forest.-
Stelfox,J .G.1974.Browse production and utilization during 17 years of
Proc.~.Amer.Moose Con f.
.-
-
r
i
!
This study compares habitat utilization and browse production in logged
areas 0 f ~l whi te spruce fores t wi th unlogged areas along the Athabasc a
Valley,Alberta.Big game range data was examined from six sample areas;
two in the mature wnite spruce forest,two in a logged-over strip and two in
an adjacent scarified logged strip.Initially,logging led to a decrease in
the numbers of woody plants;six years later logged areas contained 30 %
more woody plants than unlogged areas;17 years after logging woody plants
were three times greater in the logged areas.Six years after logg~ng,there
were 147 and 422 spruce seedings per acre in the scarified and unscarified
strips res pectively,compared to 113 seedings per acre in the mature fores t .•
Seventeen years after logging,there were three times more white spruce
plants per acre in the scarified versus unscarified strips,and the
unscarified area produced almost four times more browse than the un logged
areas.Big game (moose,elk,deer)use was 18.6 and 64.8 times greater in
the l7-year old scarified and unscarified strips res pectively than in the
mature forest,with only moose observed in the mature forest.After
logging,there were initial population declines in big game species due to
decreased browse availability,but as regeneration occurs excellent range
conditions will exist for 15-20 years.
Telfer,E.S.1972.The effect of logging on wildlife in the boreal forest.
Can.Society of wildl.and Fish Ecol.Annu.Meeting.9pp.
This paper discusses the effects of logging (in the area of boreal forest
from Newfoundland to Alaska)on large game animals;moose,white-tailed deer
and caribou,and to a lesser extent on snow-shoe hare and beaver.The
effects of logging on wildlife is similar to that of fire,Le.it creates
subclimax successional habitat that is favored by moose and deer,wnile it
decreases dense conifer stands that caribou require.Logging operations may
increase the number of small game and spur increases in fur-bearing
carnivores.Large clear cuts will be harmful to deer,while both deer and
moose require diversity of forest cover within their home ranges at all
times of the year.It is suggested that logging will become the principal
ecological influence on the boreal forest.
4l955/A
840920
33
-Telfer,E.S.,and T.C.Dauphine.1981.
management on Canadian forest lands.
358-368.
Problems facing wildlife habitat
Tran.N.Amer.Wildl.Conf.46:
.-
This paper reviews the problems of forest land management in Canada,with an
emphasis on provincial rather than federal or private forests.There is no
specific data presented relevant to moose nabitat enhancement techniques •
Trigg,W.M.1971.Fire season climatic zones of mainland Alaska.USDA For.
Serv."Pacific N.W.For.and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon.Res.
Pap.PNW-126.l3pp.
The purpos,e of this paper was to outline the fire-season climatic zones of
the Alaska mainland.The Alaska mainland was defined as that part of the
State lying between the Canadian border on the east and the Bering Sea on
the west,and between the Brooks Range on the north and the Gulf of Alaska
on the south.Data consisted of observations of temperature and precipita-
tion from 48 weather stations.Calculated values of precipitation effec-
tiveness index (PEl)and temperature efficiency index (TEI)were used to
delineate areas that have different climatic subclassifications during the
wildfire season of April through September.The climatic zones delineated
show the maximum and minimum fire danger areas on a 6 month fire season
basis.These zones have value as a wildfire management planning tool.No
ecological or wildlife data are presented.
U.S.Department of Agriculture,Forest Service.1977 •Environmental
-
statement for the Chugach moose-fire management program,USDA For.
Serv.,Chugach Natl.For.Rep.USDA-FS-RI0-FES (ADM)77-07.146pp.
This Environmental Statement describes the purpose,the beneficial and ad-
verse environmental impacts,and the alternatives considered,of establish-
ing a controlled burning program on the Kenai Peninsula.For 10 years
beginning in 1977,about 22,000 ac of land at 139 sites will be treated by
prescribed burning.The purpose of this action is to improve vegetation for
use as mo,ose forage.The basis for carrying out this action rather than
vegetation crushing or herbicide treatment,was the recognition that actions
other than burning were not feas ible in the Kenai Mts.The EA util izes data
derived h'om numerous scientific studies·(e.g.Spencer and Hakala,1964)
that show the relationship between fire and moose ecology.These data show
that the impacts of fire are extremely favorable for moose.
4l9SS/A
840920
34
Viereck,L.A..1970.Forest succession and soil development adjacent to the
Chena river in interior Alaska.Arctic and Alp.Res.2:1-26.
This study attempts to show changes in soil and vegetation with time on the
floodplain of the Chena River near Fairbanks.Four stands on different aged
river deposi.ts (a l5-yr old willow stand on a newly formed gravel bar,a 50-
yr old balsam popular stand,a 120-yr old white spruce stand,and a 220-yr
old white spruce/black spruce stand),were studied and compared with a fifth
stand on a higher and older terrace (a climax black spruce/sphagnum stand).
In early successional stands of willow and balsam popular,soil froze
quicker and deeper and reached lower temperatures than in later successional
stages.In the willow stand thawing was complete by the end of May.In the
white spruc1e/black spruce stand thawing didn l t begin until the end of May
and was never completed;a frozen layer was continually present at a 40-80
cm depth.The thick moss layer accounts for delayed thawing and colder soil
temperatures.Soil moisture changes varied from xeric on gravel bar,to
mesic in popular and white spruce stands;to hydric in the climax stand.
Viereck,L.A.1973 •Wildfire in the taiga of Alaska.Quarternary Res.
3:465-495.
Fire continually alters and initiates renewal of successional ecosystems in
the taiga of Alaska,burning an average of 400,000 ha annually.This paper
reviews the ecological effects of fire in the Alaskan taiga on vegetation
(dry and wet sites and autecological relationships),soil,hydrology and
siltation,wildlife,insects and recreation;and in less detail discusses
climate,the fire season,and history of past fires.One of the most impor-
tant effects of fire and the resultant burning of the organic layer in the
taiga is the increase in the depth of the annual thaw (active layer)of
permafrost soils and the following changes in the soil nutrient cycle.
Construction of firelines in permafrost areas may be more damaging to soil
erosion and siltation than the actual fire.Moose depend upon fire to
create preferred habitat while fire might have negative effects on carribou
winter range.Recently,the number of fires has increased,although effec-
tive fire control has caused a downward trend in acreage burned.Fire
suppression alternatives include the safe burning of lightening-caused fires
or surpressing these fires and duplicating the natural fire regime with
prescribed -controlled fires.
4l955/A
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35
Circumplolar Conf.on Northern Ecology,September 1975,Ottawa.u.s.
Dept.Agriculture.22pp.-
Vierick,L.A.1975.Forest ecology of the Alaska taiga.Proc.
This paper presents a classification system for the common Alaska taiga
vegetation types,and discusses the successional relationships of many of
the vegetati.on types.A discussion is presented of the various attempts
made to classify the taiga forests into subzones.Because of a current lack
of information,the author believes it is best not to set any definite sub-
zonal boundaries at the present time.The taiga zone in Alaska is usually
delineated by the distribution of white spruce.The main disturbance
factors of vegetation in the taiga are fire,and river erosion and
deposition.Between 1940 and 1969 the average annual burned-over area in
the Alaska taiga was approximately 400,000 acres;78 percent was burned by
lighting caused fires.The vast majority of the Alaska taiga has burned at
least once in the last 200-250 years.Succession patterns on newly deposited
river alluvium in the taiga follows the example of "classical textbook"
primary succession.
Viereck,L.A.1982.Effects of fire and firelines on active layer
thickness and soil temperatures in interior Alaska.Proc.Can.
Permafrost Conf.4:123-135.
-
Changes in thaw depths and soil temperatures were monitored in a burned
black spruce stand and an adjacent fire line to gather information on the
process of permafrost thawing which follows fire and fireline construction.
The study was conducted at the Washington Creek Fire Ecology Research Area,
50 km NW o:E Fairbanks.Erosion,siltation,subsidence,and gulleying may
continue for ten years or more following fireline construction as a result
of the use of heavy construction equipment.This study found that in a
burned stand,the depth of thaw increased each year for 10 yr following the
fire,and reached a maximum thaw depth of 187 em.Thaw depth was greatest
in the fireline and reached a maximum depth of 227 em in 1979,but was 200
em deep in 1980.This decrease was related to the reestablishment of a
nearly continuous mat of moss vegetation.At all depths,the yearly average
temperatures are warmest in the fireline,intermediate in the burned stand,
and coldest in the unburned stand.The moss layer and its build-up of a
deep organic layer is the most important control of active layer depth by
vegetation.-
41955/A
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36
viereck,L.A.and C.T.Dryness.1979.Ecological effects of the Wickersham
Dome Fire near Fairbanks,Alaska.USDA For.Servo Pacific N.W.For.
and Range Exp.Stn.,Portland,Oregon.
pp.
Gen.Tech.Rep.PNW-90.71
,......
I
-
-
The Wickersham Dome Fire,located approximately 50 km northwest of
Fairbanks,Alaska.burned over approximately 6,300 ha of predominantly black
spruce forest land in June 1971.Shortly after the fire was controlled,
eight plots were established in black spruce·areas for intensive study of
the ecological effects of the fire.Although certain portions of this study
are continuing,results reported here are mainly for the first three years
following the fire (1972-1974).Abiotic factors studied include soil,
climatic factors and stream water quality;biotic factors such as vegetation
analysis.biomass,litter fall,seedling establishment and autecology of
first year post fire tree regeneration were looked at in detail.The moist.
lower forest floor layers bad minimized the impact of the fire on the soil.
The reduction of forest floor thickness and blackening of the surface
resulted in.higher soil temperatures,which caused a retreat of the
permafrost layer in burned areas.Development of vegetation was closely
tied to fire severity.Limited biomass studies lead the authors to conclude
that the high production of available browse illustrates the possible value
of fire in the production of wildlife habitat.Studies of animals focused
on arthropods.microtine rodents and snowshoe hares.
Viereck,L.A.,J.Foote.C.T.Dyrness.K.Van Cleve,D.Kane.and R.
Seifert.1979.Preliminary results of experimental fires in the black
spruce type of interior Alaska.USDA For.Serv.,Pacific NW For.and
Range Exp.Stn.Portland,Oregon.Research Note,PNW-132.28pp.
This study was conducted in the Washington Creek experimental fire site 40
km N of Fai:rbanks.Alaska.to gather information useful to land manager$for
understanding the effects of fires of varying intensities on the major taiga
ecosystems.Four units were burned and a fifth was the control.Measure-
ments were taken during the fires and showed a difference of fire intensity
among the four plots.The effects of fires on the vegetation,thickness of
the organic layer,soil temperatures,phosphorus content of the forest
floor,and the amounts of fuel were determined.Soil temperatures indicated
that the heat generated by the fires had little long-lasting effect on soil
temperatures.However.fire had a dramatic effect on-the chemistry of the
forest floor.showing an increase of up to 50 times the amount of available
phosphorus in the burned areas as in the unburned control.
41955/A
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37
-
,-
.....
-
Viereck , L ..A.,and L.A.SChandelmeier.1980.Effects of fire in Alaska and
adjacent Canada - a literature reVLew.tiSDI Bureau of Land Management
Alaska Tech.Rep.6.124pp.
This review co'vers all available literature of fire effects in both the
northern\forest (taiga)and tundra.Infor~ation sources,fire history,fire
regimes,effects of fire on soils,watersheds,vegetation,and animal life
are discusseed and interpreted.Moose population changes in relation to
fire are reviewed.(Most of the papers cited in this review have been
covered in this series of annotations).Four subjects were noted as
information gaps in the knowledge of problems related to fire and moose:
1)the quantity and quality of browse following fire,including
identification of the original vegetation type,interval between fires,and
differences in fire severity;2)the whole problem (sic)of "traditional
use of areas,II the dynamics of burn invasion by moose,the optimum size of
burns,and the optimum number of unburned islands left within burns;3)the
effects of moose on the developing vegetation;and 4)the possible
competition between moose and snowshoe hares,and how hare cycles interact
with fire frequencies and moose populations.
Walker,R.1980.1979 progress report on the Chugach moose-fire program.
Pages 66-122 in M.Hoefs and D.Russell,eds.Wildlife and wild fire;
proc.of a workshop.Nov.27-28,1980.
Whitehorse,Yukon,Canada.
Yukon wildlife Branch,
Tnis paper consists of'a review of moose-fire relationships and habitat
improvement data,descriptions of the prescribed burning program,and the
overall moose management project conducted on the Chugach National Forest.
This program began in 1977 in response to deteriorating moose winter forage
conditions.Deciduous browse is becoming less available to wintering moose
as a result of chronic overbrowsing,and natural forest succession.In 1966
mecnanical crusning and herbicide sprays were used to achieve site conver-
sion from the existing spruce-hardwood canopy,but each method proved
not feasible.Prescribed burns proved successful and reasonably duplicated
natural wildfires.A plan was developed to treat 22,000 acres of historical
moose winter range at 139 sites over a 10 year period.Guidelines are pre-
sented on various aspects of how the prescribed burning program is impli-
mented:decisions to be made,description and preparation of the site,
determination of fuel moisture,etc.
4l955/A
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38
-
p-
I
Wolff,J .0.1976.Utilization of hardwood browse by moose on the Tanana
flood plain of interior Alaska.USDA For.Servo Pacific N.W.For.and
Range Exp.Stn.,Portland Oregon.Research Note PNW-267.7pp.
The purpose of this study was to estimate the amount of available browse in
two areas of ear ly seral plant conununities along the Tanana River flood
plain SW of Fairbanks,and to determine the importance of these two areas as
winter foraging habitat for moose.The total amounts of available hardwood
browse produced were 38 kg/ha in the 8 year old stand,and 113 kg/ha in the
15 year old stand.Approximately 55%of available browse was consumed by
moose in 1 year.It appears that when the available browse is reduced below
a critical density,moose move on to a different area.It was noted that
some Salic':lceae are preferred over others.The ear ly success ional stage
plant communities on the Tanana flood plain provide an important winter
habitat for moose.
Wolff,J.O.1978.Burning and browsing effects on willow growth in
,.,..
-I
interior Alaska.J.Wildl.Manage."42(1):135-140
Productivity and utilization of browsed and unbrowsed Scouler willow was
measured in a 1971 burn and in an adjacent 70 year old mature black-spruce
forest during 1973 and 1974.The study area was located in the Wickersham
study site of the U.S.Forest Service,50 Km northwest of Fairbanks,Alaska.
Production of available browse in the burn increased from 8 kg/ha in 1973 to
22.6 kg/ha in 1974,as compared to 9.9 kg/ha in the control in 1974.The
greatest browse production came from branches which had been browsed the
previous winter.In the burn in 1974,an average browsed branch produed 4.0
g of new growth,while an unbrowsed branch produced 2.4 g.In the control a
browsed branch produced 2.8 g and an unbrowsed branch produced 0.8 g.
Browse utilization in the burn was 44 and 45 percent in 1973 and 1974,
whereas in the control utilization was 34 and 8 percent respectively.
Browse consumption in the burn increased from 3.5 kg/ha during the 1973-74
winter to 10.2 kg/ha during the 1974-75 winter,while consumption in the
control area was 0.8 kg/ha in 1974.Although browsed brancnes produced more
than unbrowsed branches from 1973 to 1975,continuous browsing over several
years mignt lead to an eventual decline in productivity.It has been
suggested tnat 50 percent orowse utilization may give maximum sustained
production of hardwood browse.
41955/A
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39
r
Wolff,J.O.and J.C.Zasada.1979.Moose habitat and forest succession
on the Tanana river floodplain and Yukon-Tanana upland.Proc.N.Amer.
Moose Conf.Workshop 15:213-244.
Tnis study compared browse production in different aged seral communities
after disturbance to determine moose winter range capacity.Using data in
this study and unpublished observations,the browse species preferences of
moose were given.Sandbar willow is the most preferred,followed by other
willow species,birch,aspen,cottonwood,poplar,highbush cranberry,and
alder.The dominant trees and shrubs in seral communities important to
moose winter range production are several species of willow,birch,aspen,
balsam poplar,and alder.All of these,but particularly aspen,are capable
of producing some browse within one growing season after disturbance through
vegetative regeneration.For seed regeneration,a minimum of 3-5 years is
required to produce useable browse.The carrying capacity of a stand may
only be 75%of total browse available;the remaining 25%is less nutritious,
less palatable,more scattered,and more energetically costly for moose to
consume.
Yoakum,~.,W.P.Dasmann,H.R.Sanderson,C.M.Nixon,and H.S.
Crawford.1980.Habitat Improvement Techniques,Ch.20.Pages 329-403
in S.D.Scnemnitz,ed.Wildlife Management Techniques Manual,4tn
Edition.Wildl.Society Inc.Wash.,D.C.
This paper is included as Chapter 20 from Wildlife Management Tecnniques
Manual,4th Edition (1980).It discusses methods and teChniques of habitat
manipulation specifically designed to increase food,water,or cover for
wildlife,such as propagation regeneration,rejuvenation,or release;creat-
ing cover by use of hedge rows,and brush piles;creating water deve-
lopments,etc.Information specific to moose habitat enhancement is not
presented.
II'L-.__
41955/A
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40
Zasada,J.C.1981.Natural regeneration of interior Alaska forests -seed,
seedbed,and vegetative reproduction considerations.Pages 231-246 in
C.W.Slaughter,R.J.Barney and G.N.Hansen,eds.Fire in the northern
environment -Proceedings of a symposium.Apri l 1971.Fai rbanks,
Alasl<a.USDA For.Serv.,Pacific N.W.For.and Range Exp.Stn.,
Portland,Oregon.
various aspects of seed regeneration are evaluated relative to burn refores-
tation.The data provide a quantitative bases for evaluating reforestation
potential of burned areas.The information presented is only indirectly
relevant to the issue of moose habitat ennancement.
Zasada,J.C.,R.A.Norum,R.M Veldhuizen and C.E.Teutsch.1983.
......
-
Artificial regeneration of trees and tall shrubs in experimentally
burned upland black spruce/feathermoss stands in Alaska.Can.J.For.
Res.13:903-913.
The purpose of this study was to exam~ne the possibility of artificially
establisning hardwood trees and shrubs on burned sites dominated by black
spruce.As land ownerShip changes,and the intensity of use and management
in the Alaska taiga increases,measures to revegetate burned sites may be
needed;e.g.it may be desirable to improve moose habitat.Artificial
seeding and planting are two means of altering species composition.This
study showed that germination of fall seed-dispersing species (birch,alder,
and black spruce)occurred on moderately and severely burned seedbeds but
not on scorcned or lightly burned surfaces;seedling survival of these
species occurred almost exclusively on severely burned surfaces.After 3
years,82%of plots with some severely burned surfaces sown with fall seed-
dispersing species were stocked,whereas 32%of similar plots sown with
summer-seeding species (aspen,balsam poplar,feltleaf willow,Scouler
willow,and Bebb willow)were stocked.
4l955/A
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41
Appendix 'B.Common and Scientific Names of Plants and Animals Cited in the
Moose Habitat Enhancement Report and Annotated Bibliography.
1.PLANTS
Common Name Scientific Name
!=..papy:rifera
Picea mariana
Alnus spp.
Populus tremuloides
Vaccinium spp.
t
Calamagrostis canadensis
Shepherdia canadensis
Rubus chamaemorus
Corydalis spp.
Populus spp.
Salix plani£olia
Hylocomnium spp.
~spp.
Epilobium spp •
Comus florida
Geranium spp.
Salix hastata
Viburnum pauciflorum /~
Equisetum spp.
Pinus divaricota /banksiana
Ledum groenlandicum
Peltigera spp.
,.,.,
-
-
alder
aspen
trembling/quaking aspen
Barclay wi lJ.ow
birch
dwarf birch
paper birch
black spruce
blueberry
bluejoint
buffaloberr:r
cloudberry
corydalis
cottonwoods
diamondlea£willow
feather moss
fir
fireweed
.flowering dogwood
geranium
halberd willow
highbush cranberry
horsetail
jack pine
labrador-tea
lichens
II
S.barclayi
Betula spp.
B.nana
"
41955/B
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1
~~
~~-~------",...,---------_._------_._---------------------
-
.....
-
I
Common Name
low bush cranberry
mountain ash
mountain maple
mushrooms
oldman's bea,rd
pin cherry
poplars
balsam poplar
black poplar
raspberry
red maple
red pine
redstem ceal10thus
rose
roundleaf greenbriers
sandbar willow
serviceberry
stink currant
twin-flower
white oak
white pine
white spruce
willow
bebb willow
feltleaf willow
scouler willow
4l955/B
840920
Scientific Name
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
Sorbus americana
!£!!glabrum /spicatum
Boletus spp.
~spp.
Prunus pennsylvanica
Populus spp.
P.balsamifera
P.trichocarpa
~spp.
Acer rubrum
Pinus resinosa
Ceanothus sanguineus
Rosa spp.
Smilax rotundifolia
Salix interior
Amelanchier alnifolia
Ribes bracteosum
Linnaea borealis
Quercus alba
pinus strobus
Picea glauca
!!.!..!:!.s pp.
S.bebbiana
S.alaxensis
S.scouleriana
2
F""
I
-
r-
I
2.MAMMALS
Common Name
beaver
bighorn sheep
black bear
caribou
elk
flying squir'rel
hare
least weasel
lynx
meadow vole
moose
mule deer
muskrat
red-back vole
red fox
red squirrel
short-tail weasel
snowshoe hare
stone sheep
white-tail deer
wolf
·3.BIRDS
Common Name
alder flycatcher
black-capped chickadee
bohemina waxwing
boreal chickadee
4l955/B
840920
Scientific Name
Castor canadensis
Ovis canadensis
Ursus americanus-
Rangifer tarandus
Cervus canadensis
Glaucomys sabrinus
Lepus spp.
Mustela rixosa
Lynx canadensis
Microtus pennsylvanicus
Alces alces----
Odocoileus hemonius
Ondatra zibethica
Clethrionomys rutilus
Vulpes ~
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
Mustela ermine a
Lepus americanus
Ovis dalE
Odocoileus virginianus
~lupus
Scientific Name
Empidonax alnorum
Parus atricapillus
Bombycilla garrulus
Parus hudsonicus
3
_•..__.._--------------------------------------_._--~
I"
I.
n
n
,....
I
-..
Common Name
brown creeper
dark-eyed ju.nco
flicker
golden-crown.ed kinglet
gray jay
olive-sided flycatcher
orange-crowned warbler
pine siskin
ptarmigan
ruby-crowned kinglet
ruffed grouse
savannah sparrow
sharp-shinned hawk
sharp-tailed grouse
spruce grouse
Swainson's thrush
swans
Townsend's warbler
tree swallollis
varied thru:sh
western wood peewee
white-winged crossbill
woodpecker
yellow-rumped warbler
4l955/B
840920
Scientific Name
Certhia familiaris
Junco hyemalis
Colaptes auratus
Regulus satrapa
Perisoreus canadensis
Nuttallornis borealis
Vermivora celata
Carduelis pinus
Lagopus spp.
Regulus calendula
Bonasa umbel Ius
Passerculus sandwichensis
Accipiter straitus
Pedioecetes phasianellus
Canachites canadensis
Catharus ustulatus
Olor spp.
Dendroica townsendi
Iridoprocne bicolor
Ixoreus naevius
Contopus sordidulus
Loxia leucoptera
Picoides spp.
Dendroica coronata
4
Appendix C.Update of Status of Planned Prescribed Burns
Chugach Moose Fire Management Program
The program is proceeding on schedule in spite of a well-publicized incident
in which a 1984 spring burn escaped the planned boundaries and required fire
suppression efforts.
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge,-
The area crushed in the 1983-1984 winter was successfully burned.The
forest floor was heavily burned,creating suitable microsites for browse
plant seedling establishment.Due to the success of this burn,more
prescribed burns are scheduled.
Alphabet Hills
Weather and fuel moisture conditions were not suitable for burning in 1984.
Tok
Weather and fuel moisture conditions were not suitable for burning Ln 1984.
r
".-
Matanuska Valley
Weather and fuel moisture conditions were not suitable for burning the
chained areas.
41955/C
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1
'~e~,"'~__;'"..,..,_-~-_-----------------~~----------------