HomeMy WebLinkAboutThe Fortymile Interim Fire Manaement Plan 1979----l> =r -l>
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Prepared by the FIRE SUBCOMMITTEE
of the
Alaska Land Man age r s Cooperative Task Force
-August 1979
THE FORTYMILE INTERIM FIRE MANAGEMENT PLAN
Prepared by the Fire Subcommittee of the
Alaska Land Managers Cooperative Task Force
APPROVED by the following major land and resource managers:
~~~
Bureau of Land Management
U.S. Department of the Interior
~0 k_
AR.o.J., ka Alte.a Vhr..ec.:tolt
National Park Service
U.S. Department o the Interior
Comnu..6.6.Wne!t
Department of Fish
State of Alaska
V.vc.ec;to!t on Fo!t~a.te!t Management
Department of Natural Resources
State of Alaska
ALi61Ui Fede!La..tlon on Na.:tlve-6
Doyon, Ltd.
ARLIS
. :1ska Kcwurces ubta'}' & lnform.tion Set'VIl'\:'
Ubrary Buildmg. Suite lt 1
3211 Providence Drive
Anchorage, AK 99508-4614
c?J-Y/12 . Ciate
10-\-19
date
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'Cfife
1-~Fo
,-date
/() l,l.l ') 2
date
THE FORTYMILE INTERIM FIRE MANAGEMENT PLAN is
by the
Fire Subcommittee of the Alaska Land Managers
~
Bureau of Land Management
MEMBERS:
Fish and Wildlife Service
~ Pa"il1Hdd
Nation~ Park Service
~ Region 10, Forest Service
~ Division of Forest, Land, and Water Management
State of Alaska
Bureau of Indian Affairs
recommended for approval
Cooperative Task Force:
7-date
-e/ao/79.
date
' ~ate
date
date
R~f2~
Institute o~rthern Forestry, Forest Service
Va.v-<. G. K e.y oU-6 e.
Department of Fish a a Game
State of Alaska
~tt~ oma.-6 V. W-tll-<..a.m-6
Doyon, Ltd.
&~/7f
date
The following Alaska Native Village Corporations concur with the
Fortymile Interim Fire Management Plan:
Corporation {Eagle)
President
Dot Lake Native Corporation
Native Corporation (Healy Lake)
SLL ,d:= '-• :J(, A • e"'ME
President
Tanacross, Inc.
~-~~/ es1.-den
Northway Natives, Inc.
~?h,
date
The Fairbanks District of the Bureau of Land Management concurs with the
Fortymile Interi Fire Management Plan:
()cULJ
District Ma g r
Fairbanks D rict
Bureau of Land Management
I.
II.
THE FORTYMILE INTERIM FIRE MANAGEMENT PLAN
page
Contents
INTRODUCTION ••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••• 1
GENERAL DESCRIPTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Issues and Concerns. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • 4
Wildfire suppression costs ••
Land ownership •••••••••••••
Recreation and wilderness •••••
Wildlife .................... .
.. .... ..
Fireline construction
Land use plans ••••••
State •••
and·natural firebreaks •• . . . . . . .
Federal. . . . . ...
Private •.
Air quality. ...
Physical Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Location ..•••.. .. Land ownership ••
Physiography ••• . . . . ..
Climate •••••••• . . . . . .
Watershed and soils ••
Historic aspects of fire.
Fire effects •••
Ecosystems ••• . ..
Sensitive, threatened, and
Air quality ••
endangered plants.
Wildlife •.
Moose ••
Caribou ••
Dall sheep ••
. . .
Large carnivores.
Furbearers and other
. ..
small mammals •
Terrestrial birds ................. .
Waterfowl and aquatic mammals •••.••
Threatened and endangered animals.
. . .
Cultural resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
8
8
8
9
10
10
12
20
21
25
25
26
26
26
27
28
29
30
30
31
32
Social and Economic.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Population ••••••
Transportation.
33
34
III.
IV.
v.
VI.
VII.
Economy ••••
Lifestyles.
Utilities.
Minerals ••••
CONTENTS--continued
AREA SELECTION CRITERIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Criteria for Selecting Fortymile Area.
page
35
35
36
36
37
37
Criteria for Establishing Fire Protection zones. 39
ALTERNATIVES .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Alternative 1 •• . . . . . . .. 40
Alternative 2 •• 40
Alternative 3 •• ..... . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Alternative 4 •• . . . . . 42
Alternative 5 •• . . . . . 42
Alternative 6. . . . . . . . 43
SELECTED ALTERNATIVE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . 44
PROTECTION STANDARDS. 45
General Policies. 45
Response Levels •• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Specific Agency Concerns ••••••••••••••••••••••..•. 48
Alaska Native lands •.•••••••••••••
Bureau of Land Management lands.
Fish and Wildlife Service lands.
National Park Service lands •••
State of Alaska lands ••••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Procedures ••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
49
49
50
51
53
53
Operational Decision Charts. • ••••••••••••••.•• 54
Special Operational Procedures ••••••.•••••••••••.• 56
Endangered species........................... 56
Use of aerial-delivered chemical retardants.. 56
ii
CONTENTS--continued
page
Special Operational Procedures--continued
Reporting procedures .••••.••..••..•..••••..•.•• 57
Escaped fires ••••••••••••••.••.•••.•.•...•.•••• 57
Late-season procedures •••••••••••••.••••••••••• 58
VIII. EVALUATION AND REVISION PROCEDURES •••..•••..•.•.•• 59
APPENDIXES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • . • • • • • • • . • • 61
Appendix A. Agency Contact List •••••••.•••••••• 62
Appendix B. Existing BLM Fire Attack Policy •••• 64
Appendix c. Late-Season Criteria ...............
Appendix D. Suppression Cost Summary •••..••••••
Appendix E. Protection Standards Map
Appendix F. Land Status Map
Appendix G. Soils Map
Cover photo is of Mount Fairplay, which rises to an
elevation of 5,541 feet and is located 34 miles north-
east of Tok, Alaska, in the Yukon-Tanana Uplands. It
is a familiar landmark to residents and workers in the
Fortymile Fire Management Plan Area.
iii
85
97
,_..
<:
SCALE OF lliiiLE:s
so o so 1oo 1so sa=--=; 7?"?i:s3
-... --Present roads
.......... Railroad
-PlanniiJg Boundary
Atop Showing IOQtlon ot Fortyllllle Fire ~nt P~ orea.
Eagle
I. INTRODUCTION
On October 26, 1978, a group of Alaskan Federal, State,
and Native fire and land managers met to identify and seek
solutions to common fire management problems on an inter-
agency basis. The Fortymile Interim Fire Management Plan is
a direct result of this and subsequent meetings.
The above-mentioned group was designated the Fire Sub-
committee of the Alaskan Land Managers Cooperative Task
Force (ALMCTF) •
The Alaskan Land Managers Cooperative Task Force was
formed in June 1978 by cooperative agreement between the
Governor of Alaska, the Secretaries of the Interior and
Agriculture, and the President of the Alaska Federation of
Natives. Its purpose is to promote coordinated land plan-
ning and cooperative resource management in Alaska. The
Task Force chairman is Jerry Gilliland, special assistant to
the Secretary of the Interior.
The ALMCTF designated various subcommittees to explore
specific areas of possible interagency cooperation. One of
these subcommittees is the Fire Subcommittee, chaired by
Clair Whitlock, associate state director of the Bureau of
Land Management, Alaska.
Membership in the Fire Subcommittee is composed of
representatives of the following agencies: Department of
the Interior--National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Indian Affairs;
Department of Agriculture--Forest Service Region 10, Insti-
tute of Northern Forestry; State of Alaska--Department of
Natural Resources, Division of Forest, Lands, and Water and
Department of Fish and Game; and the Alaska Federation of
Natives, represented by Doyon, Limited.
The first project undertaken by the Fire Subcommittee
was to develop an interagency fire management plan for a
specific area with the following specific objectives:
1. Establish procedures for development of interagency
fire management plans. The procedures and interim plan will
serve as guidance for future fire management plan develop-
ment.
1
2. Initiate reduction of fire suppression costs to
the degree they are commensurate with potential resource
loss and within an acceptable risk level.
3. Design operationally feasible protection standards
that are environmentally and ecologically sound and that are
responsive to each agency's land management objectives.
As a starting point and to give overall direction to
the plan development, the following assumptions and general
guidelines were made or established:
1. The boreal forest is a fire-dependent system that
has evolved in association with fire, and will lose its
character, vigor, and faunal and floral diversity if fire is
excluded.
2. The plan will be considered and developed as an
interim fire management plan, pending final resolution of
the land ownership and the subsequent development of speci-
fic land management objectives derived from land use plan-
ning.
3. When approved, this plan will be operational for
the 1980 fire season. It then will be reviewed, updated, and
modified as appropriated before the 1981 fire season.
(See Section VIII, Evaluation and Revision Procedures.)
4. A conservative approach will be applied to estab-
lishing protection standards and prescription criteria.
5. The plan will initiate the movement away from a
policy of total suppression to a comprehensive fire manage-
ment program for Alaska.
6. The use of prescribed fire for the purpose of
obtaining specific resource objectives will not be addressed
in this plan because of the lack of land use plans establish-
ing resource objectives by area. This option is to be left
open and incorporated into the plan as resource objectives
are identified by agency.
The plan also will not address the fire management
functions of allocation of forces, detection, and preven-
tion. These functions are currently operationally effective
and no immediate changes are anticipated.
2
7. Current costs of fire suppression have reached a
point where increased expenditures will not significantly
increase effectiveness and suppression costs are escalating
at an alarming rate.
8. Cost-effective fire suppression strategies have
not been utilized to an optimum extent.
9. The fire management program in Alaska must be
pursued on an interagency basis to prevent costly and
inefficient duplication of programs and to assure respon-
siveness to all land managers' objectives.
NOTE: The boundary of the Fortymile Inter-
agency Planning Area as shown on the maps
in Appendixes E, F, and G has been amended
to include all of Healy Lake Village
selection lands (13d). These lands will be
protected at Response Level 1 Protection
Standards. The acreages shown on page 9
will be changed to reflect the additional
acreage included within the boundary of the
planning area when the plan is revised.
--The F~e Sub~ommittee, ALMCTF
December 1979
3
II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Jssues and Concerns
Wildfire suppression costs
In the Fortymile Fire Management Planning Area, the
distribution and vigor of natural vegetation and wildlife
populations are a result of periodic burning by fires start-
ed by man and nature. During the past 10 to 20 years, the
technology for rapid detection and suppression of wildfire
has increased; the result is that fewer acres burn each year
than burned under natural conditions. This reduction of
burned acres has been achieved at the price of increased
costs for fire protection for both the State and Federal
governments. (See Appendix D for cost summary.) This also
may lead to long-term shifts in habitats, thereby increasing
the possibility of larger fires with increasing difficulty
for control.
Although land use plans are not completed for the
planning area, there is an opportunity to maintain and
improve the overall picture by reducing the level of fire
suppression on those areas where life, private property, and
high-value resources would not be threatened by fire. This
will set the stage to restore a near-natural role of fire in
the many remote portions of the planning area. Fires threat-
ening human life, private property, and certain high-value
resources will continue to be vigouously suppressed.
Land ownership
In the recent past, BLM was the major landholder in th~
planning area. State and private land ownerships were minor
and generally were concentrated along transportation routes
and in and around the few communities in the area.
Major shifts in the land ownership are occurring rapid-
ly and will continue. Portions of two new National Park
Service Monuments are included in the area and a new Nation-
al Wildlife Refuge has been proposed for management by the
Fish and Wildlife Service. The State and Native Corpora-
tions have selected large blocks of land under the provi-
sions of the Alaska Statehood Act and the Alaska Native
Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), respectively.
4
Because of the diversity of new land ownerships in the
area, a major shift in land and resource management objec-
tives will take place. This plan is the first step in
identifying and preparing individualized fire management
programs within the Fortymile Planning Area for each owner-
ship. BLM is the only agency with existing fire suppression
capabilities. It is likely that BLM will continue to be the
prime fire suppression agency. Under these conditions, the
land owners, whether Federal, State, or Native, are respon-
sible for identifying land use objectives. The BLM role
will be one of technical fire support for all land managers.
In addition, BLM will manage a large block of public lands
within this area. Coordinated fire management planning is
needed to insure efficient operations, both in terms of
costs to taxpayers and in implementing land use plans.
Recreation and wilderness
The entire area is moderately high in outdoor recrea-
tion potential. Primary uses now concentrate near communi-
ties, along the Yukon and Fortymile Rivers, and along the
highway network. Outdoor recreation activities often take
place where and when fire danger is high. Accordingly,
recreation uses could become significant in fire incidences
in the planning unit. Fire, itself, poses only short-term
adverse impacts on recreation values. The scenic vegetation
mosaics now viewed are largely the result of past fires.
Early successional plant communities, such as fireweed, that
follow a fire add significantly to the overall visual value,
while under certain conditions, berry-producing plants are
more abundant where fires have removed larger shade-produc-
ing plants.
Except for the settled and mined areas, all of the
planning area has value for wilderness recreation use.
Several proposals for legislative wilderness designation for
portions of the Yukon-Charley and Wrangell-St. Elias areas
have been made, although none is yet final.
Wildlife
Most wildlife biologists and others concerned with the
natural role of fire in northern ecosystems question the
continuation of the present Alaska Fire Attack Policy. (See
Appendix B.) The extent of some natural fires has been
reduced, resulting in a possible loss of habitat diversity
and productivity. More will be lost if the present policy
is continued. A detailed discussion follows in the Wildlife
section of this plan. (See page 26.)
5
Fireline construction and natural fire breaks
The planning area is underlain with discontinuous
permafrost. Although the ecosystems are fire adapted
throughout the planning area, localized soil slumpage and
stream siltation do occur as a result of fire. Construction
of firelines with mechanized equipment, such as that used in
the 1966 project fires near Chicken, produced significant
and long-term localized impacts on soil stability and water
quality.
Since the early 1970's mechanized fireline construction
has been stringently controlled and the amount of erosion
damage reduced substantially. As private property ownership
increases within the planning area, it is possible that
increased mechanical fireline construction will be necessary
to protect life and private property.
Indirect suppression tactics, such as backfiring from
rivers, streams, and other natural barriers, have been more
frequently utilized in current years. The use of these
practices will be increased under this plan.
Land Use Plans
State
A comprehensive land use plan exists for the lands
abutting the Fortymile Fire Management Plan area along the
northern portion of the western boundary. State lands
within the study area are not yet covered by a land use
plan; a plan is needed to assist in determination of State
lands that are to be transferred to private ownership and
those that are to be retained in State ownership for resource
management. Some area residents have expressed particular
interest in a land use planning effort to allow for better
long-range community development. The Tok area is likely to
be involved in a comprehensive land use planning effort
within the next five years.
Federal
For the past eight years, a wide variety of studies and
recommendations have been made by the National Park Service,
the Bureau of Land Management, the Forest Service, and the
Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, at the direc-
tion of Congress. The products of these efforts are the
President's recommendations to Congress for new units to the
6
National Parks, Refuges, and Wild and Scenic Rivers within
the planning area. Yukon-Charley and Wrangell-St. Elias
National Monuments were established on the basis of the
studies, and the Fortymile Wild and Scenic River and Tetlin
Refuge are additional areas recommended for designation by
Congress. An area lying between the Tetlin Refuge proposal
and the Wrangell-St. Elias National Monument was withdrawn
under authority of Section 204e of the Federal Land Policy
and Management Act (FLPMA) and has variously been proposed
for addition to the National Park System, Fish and Wildlife
Service, or administration by the Bureau of Land Management.
The most significant formal documents are the original
environmental impact statements accompanying the recomm~n
dations. These together with preliminary planning by the
Bureau of Land Management have had substantial public review
and comment over·the past several years.
Management plans will follow the s·taffing of each area.
These plans have several components, including detailed
resource management considerations, of which fire management
is an important part. This interim fire management plan and
future plans for the Fortymile Fire Management Unit will be
incorporated in these efforts.
Private
The 5 million acres of private Native/Selection
Ownerships in the planning unit do not yet have completed
land use plans. Selections in the planning unit appear to
have been made on the basis of a full range of potential
land uses, including subsistence, residential, development,
timber harvest, and mining.
A major private land use planning effort is under way
to permit construction of a large-diameter gas pipeline from
Prudhoe Bay to the contiguous States.
Air quality
Smoke from wildland fires is natural to Alaska, and all
wildlands in Alaska have been influenced to some extent by
fire. Fire recycles nutrients more rapidly than do bacterial
and fungal systems. The continued existence of many Alaskan
ecosystems is dependent on fire.
Emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrous oxides, carbon
monoxide, and hydrocarbons are usually not significant when
measured short distances from the fire, except when they are
concentrated by weather inversions. Particulates and re-
7
duced visibility from wildland fires are the major causes for
concern when population centers, airports, and arterial
ground transportation routes are affected. These impacts
must be prevented when possible.
The State Air Quality Implementation Plan has not been
approved by the Environmental Protection Agency. When that
plan is approved, the Fortymile Interim Fire Management Plan
will be reviewed carefully and revised if necessary to
ensure that air quality requirements are met.
Physical Environment
Location
The 14-million-acre Fortymile Interagency Fire Planning
Area is located in the eastern part of the fire-prone interior
region of Alaska. The area is bounded on the east by the
border between Alaska and the Yukon Territory, on the south
by the Wrangell Mountains, and on the north by the Yukon
River. The western boundary is comprised of the drainage
divides of small tributaries of the Tanana River. The area
is 240 miles from north to south and ranges from 75 to
125 miles wide. Its center is about 160 air miles southeast
of Fairbanks, Alaska, and 100 air miles southwest of
Dawson, Yukon Territory, Canada.
Land ownership
At present most of the planning area is under interim
administration of the Bureau of Land Management. This,
however, is changing rapidly and the following tabulation
shows existing and prospective ownerships:
a. National Park Service
Wrangell-St. Elias
Monument
Yukon-Charley Monument
Wrangell-St. Elias Preserve
b. Fish and Wildlife Service
Tetlin Refuge
Millions Existing Prospec-
of acres tive
1.0
1.4
1.1
0.7
X
X
X
X
(Continued on next page.)
8
c.
d.
e.
Millions
of
acres
Bureau of Land Management
Fortymile Wild and Scenic
River 0.3
Public Lands 3.1
Native (Village
Cor12orations)
and Regional
Selected 4.6
State of Alaska
Patented 0.2
Tentatively approved or
patented 0.2
Selected 2.0
Total indicated ownership 14.6
Total acres in Planning Unit 14.0
Existing
X
X
X
Prospec-
tive
X
X
X
(Totals do not agree because of dual selections.)
PhysiograEhY
The Fortymile Fire Management Planning Area is comprised
of a series of stairstep-type land forms that trend south-
easterly-northwesterly across its width. The glaciated
Wrangell Mountains along the southern boundary extend to an
elevation of more than 13,000 feet. The northern flanks
gradually descend into the marshy lowlands in the upper
Tanana Valley at an elevation of 1,600 to 2,000 feet. To
the north the topography rises in ridges to form the un-
glaciated Tanana Uplands, which terminate with mountains
4,000 to 6,000 feet high before dropping abruptly to the
Yukon River (800 feet elevation).
The area north of the Alaska Highway is sharply dissected
by the tributaries of the Fortymile River. These numerous
tributary streams prevent cross-country surface movement of
fire suppression forces and equipment. Local relief is
sharp throughout the planning area but is most pronounced
9
along the northern flanks of the Wrangells and in the Tanana
Uplands.
Climate
The planning area is interior, subpolar continental
with severe arctic winters. Durinq the winters, extended
periods of -50°F to -75°F are common. Summers are short
and warm, with·temperatures reaching 90° to 100°F~-Daily
fluctuations can be extreme, with freezing temperatures
possible throughout the summer. During any month, snow can
occur where elevations exceed 4,000 feet. The frost-free
period is about 90 days in the central oortion of the area.
~unlight ap9roaches 2~ hours on June 21:
Annual precipitation is approximately 11 inches for the
central and northern portions of the planning area, with
considerably larger amounts along the Wrangell Mountains.
Thunderstorms are most frequent during June and July.
Prevailing winds are westerly and tend to be closely asso-
ciated with the Tanana and Yukon River Valleys.
Watershed and soils
The entire planning area is underlain with discon-
tinuous permafrost. The term "permafrost" describes a
condition in which ground temperature remains below freezing
for two or more years. Above the permanently frozen soil is
an "active layer," which thaws and freezes each year. The
active layers found in the Fortymile area may be from two to
ten feet deep.
The two characteristics of soils in permafrost areas
which cause problems when those soils are disturbed are
moisture content and soil particle size. Permafrost con-
taining a large amount of water is referred to as "ice
rich," and in extreme cases, the ice may be present in
lenses several feet thick. When ice-rich soils thaw, a-
bundant free water is available and can cause runoff, erosion,
and sedimentation, even in the absence of rainfall.
Whether or not erosion and sedimentation will occur
following disturbance by fire or the construction of fire-
lines depends upon the soil particle size and slope of the
surface. Fine-grained soils that are also ice rich are
termed "thaw-unstable soils" and are extremely unstable and
easily erodable when the protective cover of vegetation is
removed. On the other hand, coarse-grained gravelly soils
10
are much more stable even if they are ice rich. Soils of
any grain size that contain little moisture are generally
thaw stable.
Many of the soils and substrates in this area are
composed of fine-grained materials. North-facing slopes,
south-facing toe slopes, valley bottoms, and areas shaded by
heavy tree cover are commonly underlain by ice-rich perma-
frost. If the shading or insulating vegetation mat is
removed, the ice-rich, fine-grained soils and substrates
melt rapidly. Rain may greatly accelerate melting. If the
vegetation mat is removed to the edge of a water body, silt
and organic material may wash into the water.
Wildfire usually does not completely consume the
vegetation mat, damage soils, or cause significant erosion
or water quality degradation. In the past, fire suppression
activities, such as fireline construction, both by hand and
with equipment, and use of all-terrain vehicles have damaged
soils and resulted in erosion and water siltation.
The area can be divided into three soil units. Soil
unit one contains a high percentage of poorly drained silt
loams with shallow permafrost. The mountain rocklands are
included in this unit because the valley bottoms, toe slopes,
and rounded ridges contain most of the burnable vegetation.
Soils are composed of gravelly silt or sandy loams with
shallow permafrost. Even if well-drained, these soils erode
easily because of their steep grades.
Soil unit two contains more gravelly, well-drained
soils and/or poorly drained silty soils on flatter terrain.
Erosion hazard is high. The 1966 Chicken Fire (Fire Number
Y-34) where substantial erosion subsequently occurred from
firelines, was in this unit.
Both units have areas of relatively low erosion hazard,
which are best sites for fireline construction.
In soil unit three, the terrain is mostly low relief,
with well-drained, very gravelly silt and sandy loam soils.
There is moderate erosion hazard. The communities of Tok
and Dot Lake are in this unit.
Unit boundaries are from the Alaska Exploratory Soil
Survey. USDA Soil Conservation Service Interpretations are
based on personal knowledge, communications with research-
ers, and a wide variety of printed information.
11
Historic aspects of fire
Fire is a normal process in the functioning of ecosys-
tems within the planning unit. Vegetation mosaics present a
living record of past fires that predates written history.
The early stages of vegetation succession following
fire are similar to those in more temperate regions. In
later stages, complexities of permafrost/vegetation rela-
tionships are introduced, creating conditions somewhat
different from those found in more southerly climates (see
Fig. 1).
Dry -Worm -----------------Wet -Cold
Fig. 1. Patterns of forest succession following fire in Alaska.
(Viereck 1973 as modified from Lutz 1956)
Long hours of summer daylight
relate directly to fire behavior. Historically, fires have
burned uninterrupted for days with high intensities, cover-
ing vast acreages. The largest recent fire started in July
1969 and burned through mid-September, covering a total of
12
525,000 acres. The second largest fire occurred in July
1966 and burned 203,600 acres.
Records for the 22 years studied (1957 through 1978)
show that fires exceeding 1,000 acres in size have not
occurred in April, May, or September. Occurrence rates for
fires larger than 1,000 acres were .86 per year for June and
.14 for July. June has the largest
number of fire occurrences and acreages burned. Total
burned acreage was less than 1,000 acres for 13 of the 22
years studied. Fires exceeding 100,000 acres occurred twice
in the 22 years, 1966 and 1969. (See Tables 1, 2.and 3.)
Yearly average fire occurrence in the Fortymile Fire
Planning Area is 25.0 fires per year. Lowest occurrence is
six fires per year. Only three years had this fire occur-
rence rate; two years had only eight fires per year. The
highest yearly number of fires occurred in 1976 when 61
fires were reported.
Most of the fires (62.5 percent) were caused by man,
while lightning accounted for the remainder, 37.5 percent.
Lightning fires accounted for the greatest acreage burned,
however, mainly because they usually start in remote parts
of the country. Suppression costs are also largest for
lightning-caused fires, amounting to about $5 million com-
pared with $2 million for man-caused fires for the 22 years.
Because lighting fires start in remote areas, suppression
action must depend on expensive air transportation. An
increase in man-caused fires in remote areas is anticipated
as recreational use of these areas increases. Associated
suppression costs will also increase.
The seasonal fire cycle consists of four "micro" sea-
sons or phases. These vary with changing weather patterns
and the stages of vegetation development for the growing
season. The first begins in late April or early May with
the loss of snow cover, and ends in late May or early June
when greenup begins. During the transition from 100 percent
winter-cured fuels to greenup, man-caused fires occur fre-
quently. Fires occurring during this period generally are
not difficult to suppress due to high relative humidity
recovery at night and cool day and night temperatures. If
spring fires are not suppressed, they are likely to break
out later in the year when fuels are dry. Fire spread is
slow during this period, because of moisture in the air and
in the fuels, location of fires near population centers or
roadways, and the rapidity with which the fires are detect-
ed, reported, and attacked. This period of fire activity is
13
Table 1. Fire occurrence by month over 22 years (1957-78) in the Fortymile Fire Management Plan Area.
Month Man-Caused Fires Lightning-Caused Fires Fires from All Causes* False Alarms
total average total average total average total average
number number number number number number number number
January 1 ot tt 1 0
February
March 1 0 1 0
April 14 0.6 14 0.6 3 0.1
May 82 3.8 3 0.1 85 3.9 11 0.5
..... June 85 3.9 87 4.0 172 7.8 12 0.6 ~
July 66 3.0 86 3.9 152 6.9 16 0.7
August 48 2.2 28 1.3 76 3.5 10 0.5
September 41 1.9 2 0.1 43 2.0 5 0.2
October 6 0.3 6 0.3
Totals 344 15.6 206 9.4 550 25.0 57 2.6
*Does not include false alarms.
to indicates figure is too small to be meaningful.
tt __ indicates no activity.
-c..n
Table 2. Acres burned by month over 22 years (1957-78) in the Fortymile Fire Management Plan Area.
Month Man-Caused Fires Lightning-Caused Fires
total acres average acres total acres
burned burned burned
January 0* 0 _t
February
March 0 0
April 53 2
May 719 33 20
June 626,961 28,498 141,119
July 2,178 99 231,893
August 581 26 488
September 47 2 300
October 0 0
Totals 630,539 28,660 373,820
*0 indicates figure is too small to be meaningful.
t indicates no activity.
average acres
burned
1
6,414
10,541
22
14
16,992
Fires from All Causes
total acres average acres
burned burned
0 0
0 0
53 2
739 34
768,080 34,912
234,071 10,639
1,069 49
347 16
0 0
1,004,359 45,652
Table 3. Fire occurrences by size, class, and month over 22 years (1957-78) in the
Fortymile Fire Management Plan Area.*
"" ., <II
<II .,
"' "' =' >-<II ..... .-1 "' >-"' ~ "' .... .-1 u
"' "' ... <II "' I
"' ::l ..c .... ., <II ..c .-1 ., c .,
=' "' u ..... <II >. ::l ... 0 .. .... <II
=
<II c ..c "' "' >. c .-1 110 Q. ... ... 0"' "' ~ <II ~ .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ <II g _g ..... .....
t:.. en N.,_ N""'
Size class
A (0-.25 acres) 1 1 6 31 56 74 40 30 6 245 44.5 81.6
B (.26-9.9 acres) 5 42 59 40 22 11 179 32.5 57.5
c (10-99 acres) 3 11 27 26 10 1 78 14.2 25.6
D (100-299 acres) 3 6 3 12 2.2 33.3
E (300-999 acres) 1 9 3 1 1 15 2.7 26.7
F (1,000-4,999 9 1 10 1.8 30.0
acres)
G (5,000-9,999 3 3 0.6
acres)
H (10, OOD-49, 000
acres) 4 1 5 0.9
I (50,000-99,999
acres) 1 1 0.2 100.0
J (100,000-199,999
acres)
K (200,000+ acres) 1 1 0.2
L (300,000+ acres)
M (400,000+ acres)
N (500,000+ acres) 1 1 0.2 100.0
Totals 1 1 14 85 172 152 76 43 6 550
%of all fires 0.2 0.2 2.5 15.5 31.3 27.6 13.8 7.8 1.1 100
% man-caused fires 100 100 100 96.5 49.4 43.4 63.2 ~5.3 100
., lightning-caused lo
fires 3.5 50.6 56.6 36.8 4.7
* False alarms not included.
16
I .,
110 <II c "' .......... c .... ...
..c"" 110 <II ..... ., .... ::l ... ..
18.4
42.5
74.4
66.7
73.3
70.0
p.oo.o
00.0
00.0
followed by a period when vegetation starts growing and
fires are usually small.
The second and third fire-cycle phases are primarily
lightning related. These fires are difficult to suppress
because they occur in remote areas where they are hard to
detect and reach. They are usually larger when they are
detected than are man-caused fires, and the time between
detection and initial attack generally is longer. Fires
that occur in June usually do not develop the intensity of
later summer fires, but if the weather is hot, dry, and
windy, June fires can cause severe control problems.
The third period of fire activity begins in mid-July
and runs through the first part of August. This is the
period of maximum fire activity. The usual problems of
accessibility and detection are compounded by increased
rates of spread and high fire intensities because fuels are
dry. Even with prompt initial attack, fires are often
beyond immediate control when forces arrive. Indirect
attack is often the only option available for suppressing
these fires.
The final "micro" season occurs in late August and
early September, when fires are usually caused by hunters
and fishermen. Control of these fires generally is not a
problem unless they occur during a particularly dry fall and
fire control manpower has been reduced by termination of the
seasonal work force.
Fire occurrence patterns are quite distinct for man-
caused fires. Records show that where people have access,
whether it is by vehicle, aircraft, boat, or walking, the
incidence of man-caused fires is high. The number of fires
is limited by difficulty of access. Most fires occur along
the major highway route from the Canadian Border toward.
Delta Junction. Lightning fires have occurred from just
south of the Alaska Highway north to the Yukon River. The
major area of lightning-caused fires is around Mount Fair-
play. For the 22-year study period, 209 fires were record-
ed, an average of 9.9 fires a year. Statistics show one
lightning fire was started in 1961 and 26, the highest
number, were started in 1972.
Fuels in the planning area are diverse. They range
from riparian forest, around the 500-foot elevation level,
to alpine tundra at 2,500-foot levels. Fires have occurred
in all zones, and single fires have burned through all zones
(see Fig. 2). Large fires have occurred in the past in the
17
.......
co
ALPINE 1\INDRA
FORUT
RIPARIAN
FOREST
-N----
Fig. 2. Diagram of typical vegetation along a topographic gradient.
IUVATIOIII
J.ooo·
......
......
....
large continuous forests that are representative of this
area and large fires can be expected in the future. Fires
have smoldered under the snow through the winter months and
broken out the following summer.
Available fuels can be divided into two broad categor-
ies, living and dead. The intensity at which living fuels
burn varies according to the time of year. During late
spring and early summer, moisture content in most living
plants is high, but as summer advances the moisture content
drops and plants burn much more intensely. The intensity at
which the dead fuels burn is affected mostly by weather
conditions.
Fuels are characterized by a heavy ground vegetation
and organic mantle. Vertical ladders of fuels often allow
fires to burn from the surface to the treetops, creating
crown fires. Continuous fuels exist over vast areas. All
of these factors contribute to large, complex fires, given
the right conditions.
There are localized outcrops of coal and oil shale near
the Yukon River. Wildfire in the past has not been a major
threat to these deposits. An oil shale deposit near the
mouth of Tatonduk River has been burning since 1969, how-
ever, and an outcrop of coal near Chicken has been burning
since August 1978.
The earliest recorded fire suppression activity was
local protection of improvements during gold rush days in
the early 1900's. The first major efforts to suppress large
fires in remote areas were made in 1957, and intensified in
the late 1960's. Results of these early suppression efforts
were often more devastating to the environment than was the
fire. Evidence of these early efforts--catlines and supply
trails--can still be seen near Chicken and Mount Fairplay.
Much was learned from early attempts to control large
fires in remote areas, and use of environment-damaging
machines was restricted. Begun in the early 1970's, the
use of Helitack, smokejumpers, and aerial retardant has
increased and resulted in significant reduction of fire
sizes.
Suppressing large fires in remote areas requires unique
personnel arrangements. Firefighters must be trained and
their proficiency maintained. Skilled use of aircraft is
also needed to maintain suppression forces in a remote,
roadless environment. Fire behavior prediction and ground
19
and aerial firing techniques are needed to manage burnouts
and backfires successfully. Indirect fire suppression
tactics also are employed, using relatively small numbers of
men to control fires that may cover vast acreages.
Another problem that fire suppression forces must deal
with is heavy smoke that creates hazardous flying conditions.
At times suppression efforts have had to be abandoned because
forces could not be maintained in the field. Airports in
cities such as Fairbanks have had to close because of heavy
smoke, and recreationists in the back country have been
stranded because bush pilots were unable to reach them.
Forces for wildfire suppression are stationed at
Chicken, Eagle, and Tanacross. Tanacross is the major area
for mobilization of wildfire suppression within the Fortymile
Fire Planning Area. Backup support is available from
Fairbanks and Anchorage. Cooperative agreements are in
effect with most Federal and State agencies in Alaska and
internationally with Canada.
Fires have started in Canada, burned sometimes for
months, and then crossed into Alaska. Alaskan fire units,
by cooperative agreement with Canada, attack and suppress
fires 10 miles inside Canada as part of their normal oper-
ating procedure. The Canadians likewise are authorized to
take suppression action 10 miles inside Alaska.
Fire Effects
The effects that fires of different intensities have on
various sites are many, complex, and varied. Each site has
unique characteristics, values, and possibilities. Although
a thorough discussion is not practical here, some generali-
zations are appropriate.
The ecosystems of the entire Fortymile Fire Planning
Area are fire adapted. Periodic fires for thousands of
years have served to select plants and animals that are
adapted to fire-caused changes. Fire will not destroy these
ecosystems; it will only alter them, and then only tempor-
. arily. Fire is a normal occurrence and should not be viewed
with alarm where life, property, or other special values are
not threatened.
When fire occurs, certain technological aids can be
used in the specific location to predict the response of the
area to the particular fire. The Natural Resource Officer
position may be activated on fires where unique or signifi-
20
cant resource values are involved.
On "no-attack" fires, a resource specialist or Natural
Resource Officer may be needed to accompany the Fire Manage-
ment Officer on early surveillance flights in order to
assess fire effects immediately discernible. Guidelines for
this work are found in the Natural Resource Officer's Handbook.
Ecosystems
It is a widely shared opinion that unless human life or
private property are threatened, no long-term damage results
from fire in Alaskan ecosystems. In fact, most ecologists
believe fire is essential to the maintenance of the boreal
forest. Fire is an important force in the development of
many Alaskan ecosystems and has a direct beneficial effect
on the diversity and local abundance of many plant and
animal populations in the Fortymile Fire Management Planning
Area.
Detailed ecosystem and resource information is contain-
ed in numerous reports concerning all or portions of the
planning area. Primary sources used in this plan are as
follows:
Classification and multiple use proposals for Fortymile
Resource Area (BLM, Fairbanks District Office, 1967).
Fortymile Resource Area, Unit Resource Analysis (BLM,
Fairbanks District Office, 1976).
Environmental Impact Statements for the following
proposed systems:
Wrangell-St. Elias National Park (USDI, 1974)
Wrangell National Forest (USDA, 1974)
Fortymile Wild and Scenic River (USDI, 1974)
Yukon-Charley National Rivers (USDI, 1974)
Environmental Impact Statement for the Alaska Highway
Gas Pipeline (Federal Power Commission, 1976)
Alaska Regional Profile, Yukon Region (1977)
The Delta Land Management Planning Study (Alaska
Division of Lands, 1977)
Report for Alaska Land Withdrawals under Section 204(e)
of P.L. 94-579 (USDI, 1978)
Fire Statistics (BLM, 1957-1978)
21
The Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission
for Alaska (1973) divided the State into nine major ecosys-
tems, eight of which occur in the Fortyrnile area. These can
be further divided into three vegetation groups: coniferous
forest systems, deciduous brush systems, and tundra systems.
Coniferous forest systems
Bottomland Spruce-Poplar--This tall, relatively dense
interior forest cover type is primar~ly white spruce, locally
mixed with cottonwood or balsam poplar. In general, the
commercial stands of white spruce are on level to nearly
level flood plains and low river terraces. On more favor-
able sites 100-to 200-year-old spruce are found, with
diameters to 24 inches and heights to 110 feet.
Cottonwood and balsam poplar constitute a seral plant
community in the lowland white spruce forest. They are
replaced at maturity by white spruce. Both cottonwood and
poplar invade flood plains and deglaciated valleys and grow
rapidly to heights of 80 to 100 feet and diameters to 24
inches.
Undergrowth is generally dense and consists of high and
low shrubs including American green alder, thinleaf alder,
willow, rose, dogwood, Labrador tea, and berry bushes. The
forest floor is usually carpeted with bluejoint, fireweed,
horsetails, lichens, herbs, and moss.
Portions of flood plains are barren during periods of
low water, and some periodically flooded backwater areas
contain meadows of tall grass with clumps of willow.
Upland Spruce Hardwood--This cover type is a fairly
dense interior forest composed of white spruce, birch,
aspen, and poplar. Black spruce typically grows on north
slopes and poorly drained flat areas. Root depths are
shallow.
White spruce ranging from 20 to 40 feet in height and
about 12 inches in diameter occurs in mixed stands on
south-facing slopes and well-drained soils; it forms pure
stands near streams. Aspen and birch average 30 feet in
height. Poplar averaging 40 feet in height and 18 inches in
diameter occurs in scattered stands along streams.
Undergrowth consists of mosses and grasses on drier
sites and shrubs on moist slopes. Typical plants are willow,
alder, rose, high-and low-bush cranberry, raspberry, cur-
rant, and horsetail.
22
Lowland Spruce-Hardwood--This cover type is a dense to
open interior lowland forest of evergreen and deciduous
trees, including extensive pure stands of black spruce.
Black spruce are slow growing and seldom exceed 8 inches in
diameter or 50 feet in height.
Cones of this tree open after fire and spread abundant
seed, enabling black spruce to invade burned areas quickly.
The slow-growing stunted tamarack is associated with black
spruce in the wet lowlands. Like black spruce, it is of
little commercial value, seldom reaching a diameter of more
than 6 inches.
Rolling basins and knolls in the lowlands have a varied
mixture of white spruce, black spruce, paper birch, aspen,
and poplar. Small bogs and muskegs are found in the depres
sions.
Undergrowth species include willow, dwarf birch, lowbush
cranberry, blueberry, Labrador tea, crowberry, bearberry,
cottongrass, horsetail, lichens, and thick covers of sphag-
num and other mosses. Large areas burned since 1900 are
covered by willow shrub and very dense black spruce sapling
stands.
Deciduous shrub systems
High Shrub--This cover type is found near timberline in
Interior Alaska. It consists of resin birch, American green
alder, thinleaf alder, and several willow species. Thickets
may be extremely dense, or open and interspersed with rein-
deer lichens, low heath type shrubs, or patches of alpine
tundra. Other associated species are Sitka alder, bearberry,
crowberry, Labrador tea, spirea, blueberry, and mountain
cranberry.
Low Shrub-Muskeg--Extensive bogs are found where condi-
tions are too wet for tree growth. Bog vegetation consists
of various amounts of sedges, sphagnum and other mosses, bog
rosemary, resin birch, dwarf arctic birch, Labrador tea,
willow, cranberry, and blueberry. Localized saturated flats
have large patches of cottongrass tussocks. Areas of tall
willow, alder, and widely spaced dwarf spruce and tamarack
are found within and around the marginal higher portions.
Bog surfaces often have uneven, stringlike ridges. These
surfaces are too wet for shrubs.
23
Tundra systems
Moist Tundra--Moist tundra usually forms a complete
ground cover and is extremely productive during the growing
season. These communities vary from almost continuous and
uniformly developed cottongrass tussocks with sparse growth
of other sedges and dwarf shrubs to stands where tussocks
are scarce or absent and dwarf shrubs are dominant. Asso-
ciated species are Arctagrostis, bluejoint, tufted hair-
grass, mosses, alpine azalea, wood rush, mountain-avens,
bistort, low-growing willows, dwarf birch, Labrador tea,
green alder, Lapland rosebay, blueberry, and mountain cran~
berry.
Wet Tundra--This cover type is. usually found in areas
with little topographic relief. Standing water is almost
always present in summer and numerous shallow lakes are
common. In northern areas, permafrost is close to the
surface, and microrelief features in the forms of polygons
and peat ridges are formed by its action. Dominant vege-
tation is sedge and cottongrass, usually forming a mat
rather than tussocks. A few woody and herbaceous plants
occur on the drier sites above the water table. Rooted
aquatic plants occur along shorelines and in shallower lake
waters.
Associated plants are lichens, mosses, low-growing
willows, dwarf birch, Labrador tea, cinquefoil, lowbush
cranberry, and occasionally bog cranberry. Characteristic
rooted aquatic plants are bur reed, pond weed, pendant
grass, and marestail.
Alpine Tundra and Barren Ground--Alpine tundra commun-
ities are found on all mountain ranges of Alaska and on
exposed ridges in the Arctic and southwestern coastal areas.
This cover type consists of barren rocks and rubble inter-
spersed with mats of low plants, both herbaceous and shrubby.
White mountain-avens may cover entire ridges and slopes
along with many low-growing herbs, such as moss-campion,
black oxytrope, arctic sandwort, and several lichens, grass-
es, and sedges.
Associated species are resin birch, dwarf arctic birch,
cassiope, crowberry, alpine-azalea, Labrador tea, mountain
heath, rhododendron, arctic willow, dwarf blueberry, bog
blueberry, and cranberry.
.24
Sensitive, threatened, and endangered plants
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 requires Federal
agencies to prevent deterioration of the habitat of plants
listed as threatened or endangered.
Although no Alaskan plants are listed as endangered
yet, 19 Alaskan plant species are proposed to be listed as
threatened or endangered. Federal policy requires that
plants proposed for threatened or endangered status be
protected as if they were listed.
Within the fire management area, two sites are ident-
ified as known or suspected habitat of plants on the pro-
posed list. These locations are delineated on the Protec-
tion Standards Map.
Most of the Fortymile area has not been searched for
sensitive, threatened, and endangered (ST&E) plant taxa.
Known locations for nine taxa are on Mission Ridge (Eagle
Bluff) at Eagle, Calico Bluffs, and Cirque Lakes on the
Upper Charley River. Taxa also occur on Kathul Mountain
just outside the north boundary of the area. The majority
of these plants occur on steep, dry, treeless, south-facing
slopes below timberline. One of the plants, Podistera
yukonensis, may also be found on alpine areas up to an
elevation of 1,500 meters (5,000 feet). Alpine talus and
outcrops may support populations of Draba porsildii. Be-
cause the vegetation in the known areas has developed under
the influence of natural fire, it is reasonable to assume
fire will not do irreparable harm to the ST&E plants. Fire
suppression activities pose a hazard to ST&E plants and
their cru.cial habitats.
Air Quality
Weather data from 1948 to 1971 for Big Delta, Fort
Yukon, Gulkana, and Northway indicate that smoke is not a
major problem for developed areas in this part of Alaska.
For example, Big Delta reports 71 days of smoke, haze or
smoke, and haze in 41 years of records, and Northway reports
29 smoke-days in a 21-year period.
There are, however, incidents of persisting smoke or
haze, probably caused by fire either within or outside the
planning unit. Big Delta's range of reported smoke days per
month extends from 0 to 11 in June; Fort Yukon 0 to 18 days
in July; Gulkana 0 to 3 days in July and~Northway 0 to 5
days in July. Data do not indicate that smoke, haze, or
smoke and haze persisted continuously at any one station for
periods greater than 48 hours.
25
There are presently no Class I, II, or III units
designated within or adjacent to the Fire Management Unit.
Wildlife
Moose--Moose are distributed throughout the area, but
are abundant only in the Tok, Little Tok, and upper Tetlin
River drainages. Approximately 3,000-5,000 moose inhabit
the area, with the majority in the major drainages of the
Tanana River. An estimated 1,500 moose occur in the major
drainages of the Yukon River to the north. Population
estimates are not accurate because most of this large area
has not been inventoried for moose. Populations are cur-
rently stable in the south, but there are signs of impending
decline due to deteriorated winter range conditions. Pop-
ulations in the north have been declining continuously in
recent years due to predation, and perhaps, deteriorated
habitat conditions as early seral vegetation has matured.
Consequently, annual harvests have declined from a high of
approximately 210 moose in the 1960's to the current level
of about 90. As a direct result of population declines,
moose hunting seasons have been discontinued in ADF&G Game
Management Unit 20(E) since fall 1977. Intensive wildlife
management, including habitat manipulation and perhaps
predator management, will be required to rehabilitate moose
populations throughout the area to satisfy human needs.
Habitat conditions for moose and other successional
species of wildlife could be improved within large portions
of this area as a result of lowered fire suppression stand-
ards. Most improvement would likely occur in the Tanana
Uplands where moose are not presently abundant. Moose
winter range along the Tanana and lower Tok Rivers received
high suppression priority because of timber values, human
development, or planned State land disposals. Until fire or
other disturbance occurs in these key winter ranges, overall
carrying capacity for moose using these ranges will not be
increased significantly. As land use plans are developed,
the use of prescribed fires may allow safe manipulation of
key winter ranges for the benefit of moose populations.
Caribou--Portions of at least five and perhaps six
caribou herds inhabit this area at various times of the
year. The major herd encompassed by this plan is the once-
numerous Fortymile herd. While historic reasons for the
initial decline of this herd are not well known, loss of
winter range due to fire has been largely discounted as a
prime causitive factor after investigation by the Alaska
Department of Fish and Game. The present population of
26
3,500-5,000 caribou is well below the estimated carrying
capacity of 50,000. Human harvest averages fewer than 50
animals annually. There is some viewing use of the herd
when it crosses the Taylor Highway in October. The main
herd winters east of the highway between Eagle and the Ladue
River.
Based upon recent studies, it appears that caribou may
not be adversely affected by fire to the degree once be-
lieved. Because under the Interim Fire Management Plan the
prescription for late-season fires is conservative, the
probability of large conflagrations is greatly reduced.
While a large percentage of the winter range of the Forty-
mile caribou herd lies within this area and received the
lowest suppression priority, caribou numbers are presently
well below carrying capacity.
Dall sheep--Sheep populations are concentrated in the
southern portion of the area in the Wrangell, Nutzotin, and
Mentasta Mountains and the eastern Alaska Range. Sheep also
occur in marginal habitat throughout the Tanana Uplands
and Cirque Lakes area at low population densities.
Studies of reproductive performance and rates of horn
growth show that sheep populations are of high quality and
moderate density in the southern areas. An estimated 4,000
to 6,000 sheep inhabit this portion of the Fortymile Fire
Management Planning area. Hunting success approached 35
percent in the Wrangell-St. Elias area prior to its desig-
nation as a National Monument and closure to sport hunting.
A substantial portion of this accessible sheep range is now
reserved for nonconsumptive users, who currently use the
area lightly. The area encompasses the Tok Management Area
established by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game to
maintain opportunities to take large-horned Dall rams.
Sheep range in the Tanana Uplands is typified by mod-
erately steep, low hills. The range is marginal because of
the relatively low proportion of alpine habitat. To move
from one area of suitable habitat to another, sheep must
move through extensive lowland areas where visibility is
limited and escape routes are lacking; consequently preda-
tion mortality is high.
The Tanana Uplands population numbers fewer than 500
sheep. Because the area is rather inaccessible and sheep
bands are widely scattered, human use of this resource is
low. Annual harvest rarely exceeds six rams annually, with
no sheep harvest in some years. For the same reasons,
27
viewing use is low. A special walk-in-only sheep management
area was created on Glacier Mountain by the Alaska Depart-
ment of Fish and Game to prevent overharvest of sheep and
to provide high-quality hunting experiences.
Under the Fortymile Interim Fire Management Plan, fire
suppression standards will be reduced over a majority of the
sheep range within the area, both in the eastern Alaska
Range and in the Tanana Uplands. Because of the low fire
occurrence in the Alaska Range, effects from a change in
present policy will most likely be negligible. The situa-
tion in the Tanana Uplands, however, is quite different.
With an increase in the extent of grass and forb habitat in
close association with escape cover as a result of reduced
fire suppression priorities, sheep habitat could be enhanc-
ed. Lower elevation marginal sheep range may be dependent
upon fire to allow continued habitation by sheep.
Large carnivores--Wolves, black bears, and grizzly
bears are well distributed throughout the Fortymile Fire
Management Area. Wolves have declined somewhat since 1973,
following declines in moose and caribou populations. Trap-
ping pressure on wolves is biologically insignificant but
does provide some income for experienced trappers. Even
when abundant, wolves are not often observed by nonconsump-
tive users.
Black bears are relatively abundant throughout the
forested portions of the unit, but population numbers are
virtually unknown. Harvests range from 20 to 30 bears
annually. Most black bears taken are used both as food and
for their skins. Because black bears depend heavily upon
berries common on old burned areas, they may be considered
fire related.
Grizzly populations in the planning area are moderately
dense. Bears are commonly observed above timberline in the
fall. Grizzlies have been increasing in number on the area
during the past few years, but their relationship with fire-
induced habitat changes is not well known. Harvests average
about 15 bears annually within the Fire Management Area.
Both grizzly and black bears have caused problems for
firefighters here in the past. Apparently bears are at-
tracted to fires because of displaced prey, carrion, and
garbage.
In general, large carnivores respond to fires in much
the same way as do their prey species. Both black bears and
28
grizzly bears are omnivorous. Fire tends to increase
availability of both plant and animal foods. Berries such
as blueberry, cranberry, and soapberry increase following
fire. Moose calves are important in the diets of both bear
species in springtime. Early stages of plant succession
tend to increase moose production. Consequently, more
calves are available as prey. Small mammals are more read-
ily available and play an important part in bear diets
throughout the snow-free months.
Wolves are found throughout the planning area. They
feed almost exclusively on caribou and moose. Fires that
burn a mosaic pattern and benefit these prey species will
benefit wolves. Fires of very large size may alter caribou
migrations, thus altering the home range of the predator
wolves.
Furbearers and other small mammals--There is a paucity
of data on small mammals such as voles, red squirrels, and
hares in the planning area. These small mammals are present
throughout the area, are locally abundant, and provide
sustenance for most predators in the area.
Generally, openings in spruce forests favor microtine
rodents and hares if cover is nearby. Red squirrels are
adversely affected by fire.
Upland furbearers, such as red fox, wolverine, coyote,
lynx, and especially marten, support numerous trappers from
Nabesna to Eagle. If fur prices continue to increase, the
relative importance of commercial trapping to the local
economy will also increase. Fur prices are currently at
historic highs.
Implementing this fire plan should increase the abun-
dance of upland furbearers throughout the area. As rodents
and hares are benefited by slightly larger fires in many
portions of the area as a result of lower suppression stand-
ards, predators should also benefit. The greater the hab-
itat diversity and interspersion, the greater will be the
benefit to most upland furbearers.
Small animals are the mammals most directly affected by
habitat changes resulting from fire. Fires either benefit
small mammals or cause only temporary declines in their
populations. Because vegetation recovery enormously in-
creases available biomass on burned areas, immediate pop-
ulation declines are more than compensated for in a short
time. Red-backed voles tend to inhabit mature spruce
29
forests but use burn areas that are adjacent to their normal
habitat. Meadow voles begin using burned areas about the
third year following fire and become very abundant up to 16
years following fire.
Small fires or large fires with numerous unburned
inclusions of black spruce or other heavy cover provide
optimum habitat for small mammals. Their primary food is
small herbaceous plants that are produced in abundance
following disturbance. Large, completely burned areas,
although having adequate food, are not used because they
lack cover.
The implication of the small mammal/fire relationship
is that fires which cause an abundance of prey species will
greatly increase predator species.
Terrestrial birds--This Interim Fire Management Plan
could enhance habitat for many species of birds that require
early successional stages of vegetation. One specific
example is the sharp-tailed grouse, although many nongame
species have similar habitat requirements. While sharp-
tails occur within this area, they are largely restricted to
sites burned within the last 20 years. The extent of such
habitat should increase as a result of this plan.
Birds requiring mid-to late-successional and climax
plant communities should not be significantly affected by
habitat changes resulting from this plan. Presently, a
majority of the area is typified by late successional and
climax forests of paper birch, and white and black spruce
and those bird species associated with these forests, such
as goshawks, spruce grouse, and gray jays. Increases in
habitat diversity and interspersion should enrich the total
avifauna of the area.
Waterfowl and aquatic mammals--Concentrations of water-
fowl and aquatic mammals are located in the Tetlin Flats,
Gardiner Creek Flats, and Mosquito Flats. Fire is required
for the maintenance of marshes in northern regions. As a
result of current suppression policy, the productivity of
these areas has decreased, although the significance of the
decrease is not known.
Wetland sites within the area support a rich diversity
of wildlife species. A notable exception is beaver, except
in a few locations. A predominance of mature spruce forest
bordering wetland areas is likely the limiting factor for
beavers.
30
Waterfowl hunting draws considerable numbers of hunters
to the Northway area.
While beaver trapping is not significant in the area,
the Tetlin Flats yielded approximately 20,000 muskrats to
trappers in 1977. This harvest was worth approximately
$60,000. Muskrat trapping provides considerable income to
some residents of the area. Muskrats are trapped in early
spring and shot after breakup.
High quality waterfowl and aquatic furbearer habitat in
the proposed Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge has received
low fire-suppression priority. A yearly burned acreage
quota will be set eventually for the proposed Tetlin Refuge,
ensuring an adequate annual rate of fire occurrence. As a
result of such management, fire/wildlife relationships
should be improved in this important wetland area.
Periodic fires maintain marshes by disrupting the
establishment of woody vegetation and burning away the dry
thatched grass. During dry years, water depth is maintained
through the removal of the organic accumulation on the
bottoms of ponds. Deep water is critically necessary for
the overwintering of muskrats and fish and their predator,
the river otter.
Although early season fires could adversely affect
brooding waterfowl, such disturbance is necessary for long-
term maintenance of suitable shoreline nesting cover, which
is also necessary as foraging areas for muskrats.
On warm, well-drained riparian sites, the conversion of
white spruce stands to balsam poplar may increase the
carrying capacity for beaver.
Threatened and endangered animals--The peregrine falcon
is the only endangered species that is known to reside
within this area. Several nesting sites are identified and
delineated on the Protection Standards Map.
Nesting sites are usually located on bluffs or cliffs
overlooking rivers or streams. These sites generally con-
tain sparse vegetation and consequently are not endangered
by fire.
The peregrine is easily disturbed by man's presence and
activities. When disturbed frequently during the nesting
31
season, the birds may leave their nests and not return,
resulting in the death of the young.
The greatest impact of fire ·suppression is from aircraft
flying too close to nesting sites. This impact can be
eliminated by restricting all aircraft from operating within
one mile horizontally and 1,500 feet in elevation from the
nesting site.
Cultural resources
In assessing the impacts of fire and fire suppression
activities on cultural resources, it is advisable to draw a
distinction between surface and subsurface resources.
Surface resources are primarily historic in nature and tend
to be constructed of flammable materials. They further tend
to be-significantly more visible than subsurface resources,
because natural processes of deterioration have not operated
long enough to level structures. Subsurface resources are
primarily prehistoric and archeological, and tend to consist
largely of nonflammable material because natural processes
of deterioration have eliminated most organic matter.
Furthermore, subsurface resources tend to be much less
visible than surface resources, because structures have been
leveled and the material covered by vegetation.
Information concerning the effects of fire-and fire
suppression activities on cultural resources is scanty.
Some information has been gathered concerning fire effects
in the Lower 48 States, but any attempt to generalize from
these data to radically different conditions in Alaska would
not be justifiable. Nevertheless, logic and reason would
seem to indicate the following:
Surface historic structures are subject to severe
effects from fire itself. Organic materials used in con-
struction are likely to be completely destroyed or sub-
stantially damaged as a result of burning.
Subsurface resources are much less likely to be sig-
nificantly affected by fire. In a particularly intense
fire, which may burn down to mineral soil, organic material
such as bone, ivory, and wood, that is present in the soil
matrix will be destroyed. Intense heat from such a fire
also is likely to fracture and otherwise damage nonorganic
material such as ceramics and chipped stone. Such intense
heat from fire is not usual in the Fortymile area. Because
of well-developed vegetation mats and generally moist soils,
fire in this region does not usually :burn. extensive areas to
32
mineral soil. In fact, fire in interior Alaska often burns
through an area without severely affecting the vegetation
communities. In this more normal situation, it is difficult
to imagine severe impacts to subsurface cultural resources.
Much of interior Alaska is known to have burned in the past.
Evidence of such burning has been observed on several arche-
ological sites that have been excavated, apparently with no
evidence of severe impacts from the fires. Furthermore,
because fires in the Fortyrnile area do not usually cause
severe impacts to vegetation communities, there is rela-
tively little danger of erosion, a fire-caused phenomenon
that has great potential for damaging subsurface resources
in other areas.
The possibility of damage to surface cultural resources
from fire suppression activities is relatively slight. This
is particularly true of standing historic structures, which
can be easily observed, even by untrained individuals.
Consequently, it is likely that most suppression activities
such as fireline and camp construction can be located so as
to prevent impacts to surface cultural resources. Surface
sites such as lithic scatters will be disturbed by fireline
construction and similar ground-disturbing activities.
Subsurface cultural resources are likely to be damaged
by suppression activities. Such resources are difficult to
observe, particularly in regions such as the Fortyrnile,
where well-developed vegetation mats obscure them, making it
likely that such sites will not even be discovered until
after they have been disturbed.
Social and Economic
Population
Approximately 2,500 people reside in the Fortyrnile Fire
Management Planning Area. About 300 live along the Taylor
Highway and in the villages of Eagle and Chicken. The
remainder live principally along the Alaska Highway. The
largest community is Tok, with an estimated 1978 population
of 850. The combined populations of Tanacross, Tok, North-
way, Dot Lake, Healy Lake, Mentasta, and Tetlin comprise
about 1,500 people. During the summertime the overall
population increases by several hundred as tourist-related
businesses open and miners and BLM fire crews move into the
area. About 550 Alaskan Natives (principally Athasbascan
people) live in the planning area.
33
As a general rule, population growth has been slow
compared to that in other areas of the State. G~owth may
temporarily increase sharply when construction of the gas
pipeline starts. Staffing of the new Refuge and new Na-
tional Monuments will increase the permanent population as
will habitation of lands for homesites planned for disposal
by the State.
Transportation
The planning area is crossed by four highways. The
Alaska Highway divides the area into northern and southern
unit, with about two-thirds of the total area to the north.
The northern unit is divided by the Taylor Highway into
east-west portions, with about 75 percent of the area to
the west. The southern unit is subdivided into two approx-
imately equal parts by the Glenn Highway. The Nabesna Road
provides access from the Glenn Highway into the northern
flanks of the Wrangell Mountains.
The Alaska Highway provides the only direct highway
link between Alaska and the Lower 48 States. It also is the
only highway link to and from the end of the Alaska Marine
Highway at Haines, Alaska. Consequently, this highway ·
contributes significantly to the surface movement of goods.
During the summer, it is an important tourist route.
The Taylor Highway provides the dominant surface link
to Chicken and Eagle and is a major tourist route to and
from Eagle, the mouth of the Fortymile River, and Yukon
Territory, Canada.
Major airstrips for fire suppression are located within
the planning area at Tanacross, Northway, Tetlin, Chicken,
and Eagle. Smaller strips are at Coal and Woodchopper
Creeks and at Joseph. There are numerous but scattered bush
strips used by hunters, miners, and trappers, which can
serve as focuses for firefighting bases. Major fire sup-
pression forces available for use in the planning area are
located at Fairbanks.
The Tanana River Valley and the Alaska Highway are
important travel routes for small private and chartered
aircraft movement between Alaska and the Lower 48 States.
To a lesser extent, the other highways and the Yukon River
serve as guides for small aircraft using "visual flight
rules." Northway is a customs entry point for aircraft
flights entering Alaska from Canada.
34
Economy
The planning area has a relatively small economy which
is geared to some tourism, government, employment by Native
Corporations, and natural resource use.
The BLM maintains an office at Tanacross. During the
summer, emergency fire-suppression crews are obtained from
the villages of Tanacross, Northway, Tetlin, Eagle, and Dot
Lake. These and other Native crews are trained and used as
firefighters throughout the State. A significant share of
the cash income to Native villages locally and statewide is
attributed to wages earned by firefighters.
The increased price of gold has stimulated what was
becoming a dying mining industry along the Fortymile River
and feeder drainages. This trend is expected to continue
and could increase the incidence of man-caused fire and the
number of structural improvements requiring fire protection.
Doyon Native Corporation has been investigating the possi~
bilities of mining asbestos on its lands in the planning
area.
Trapping is a major source of income of many families
residing in the planning area. This activity depends on
both areas to trap in and the numerous cabins scattered
throughout the remote portions of the planning area.
Timber production is an important economic factor in
the planning area as it relates to the subsistence life-
style of much of the population. White spruce, birch,
aspen, and balsam poplar are used in home construction and
heating. Commercial use of the timber resource is limited
to four small sawmills located at Tok, Dry Creek, Mentasta,
and south of the Gerstle River along the Alaska Highway.
Lifestyles
The residents of the Fortymile Fire Management Planning
Area have outdoor oriented lifestyles. People vary in their
lifestyles from those who depend heavily upon natural
resources to those who are employed by government and in-
dustry and supplement their incomes by hunting, trapping and
fishing.
Activities of great importance to local lifestyles
include gathering firewood, cabin logs, and berries, hunting
moose, sheep, small game, waterfowl, and in the recent past,
caribou. Fishing for pike, grayling, lake trout, burbot,
35
rainbow trout, and sheefish is important in the numerous
lakes, rivers, and streams in the area. While fishing is
extremely important from late May through September, some
ice fishing occurs from October through early April. Many
residents of all economic levels train and mush dog teams,
although the emphasis has changed from working bush teams to
racing. A high percentage of residents trap, both for
recreation and supplemental income. Other winter activities
include snowshoeing, cross-country skiing, and snow machin-
ing.
Utilities
A small-diameter aboveground military petroleum pro-
ducts pipeline extends from a pump station-storage tank area
at Tanacross to Eielson Air Force Base at Fairbanks. Above-
ground utilities are telephone and local electric power
transmissions paralleling the Alaska and Glenn Highways. At
Tok, a LORAN station provides navigation data for oil tank-
ers using the trans-Alaska oil pipeline terminal at Valdez.
Satellite receivers are located at Eagle and Mount Neuberger.
An RCA transmission tower is at Cathedral Rapids. Primary
communication throughout the remote portions of the planning
area is by radio.
Utilities will receive high fire-suppression priority.
Minerals
Fire in the planning area has no major effect on min-
eral values unless there are aboveground structures such as
buildings or dredges. These are treated as private property
and will continue to be given aggressive fire suppression.
There are localized outcrops of coal and oil shale near
the Yukon River.
36
Ill. AREA SELECTION CRITERIA
Criteria for Selecting F o rtym i le Area
Many factors were considered in selecting the Fortymile
area as the first area in Alaska to be administered in
accordance with a fire management plan. Consensus was that
this area would be best, considering fire incidence, fire
management, and diverse land ownerships, while meeting the
objectives of reducing fire suppression costs and fulfilling
the various landowners' objectives. More detailed criteria
included the following:
• Mixed ownership pattern, with intermingled
and varied Federal, State, Native, and pri-
vate holdings.
• Relatively certain land ownership status and
short-term resource uses.
• Diverse land uses and resource values.
• Fire-prone area with good mix of small and
large fires that will test the plan.
• Relatively homogeneous fuels.
• Existing and potential high mineral values
and associated development.
• Mixture of good road access and remote areas
without road access.
• Diverse recreation use, ranging from inten-
sive use along roads to wilderness.
• Fish and wildlife considerations:
-Previous caribou calving ground within the
area.
-Good moose habitat potential.
-Good waterfowl habitat.
37
-Important fur trapping area.
-High level of fishing and hunting activity.
• Relatively sparse population overall, with
scattered population centers along road
network.
e Proposed gas pipeline route within the area.
e Availability of existing resource data
adequate to the planning effort without need
for additional inventory. Existing data
include:
-Yukon-Charley Environmental Impact State-
ment.
-Wrangell-St. Elias Environmental Impact
Statement
-Wrangell National Forest Environmental
Impact Statement
-Fortymile River Environmental Impact
Statement
-BLM Classification and Multiple Use and
Unit Resource Area Studies
-New National Forests for Alaska (Fortymile)
-Alaska Regional Profile--Yukon Region
-Low level color and high level U-2 remote
sensing data
• Topography ranging from flood plains to
rolling mountains, typical of much of In-
terior Alaska.
38
Criteria for Establishing
Fire Protection Zones
After selecting the area that would be covered by the
fire management plan, fire and resource information criteria
were established. Map overlays on 1:250,000 scale were
prepared showing land ownership, fire occurrence, and ad-
verse fire impacts to resources and uses.
Resources and uses considered were historic sites and
structures, wildlife, fisheries, soils and watersheds,
minerals, plant cover, recreation, and visual and cultural
resources.
The Fire Subcommittee established protection zones for
the plan area, considering the potential fire effects on the
various resources and uses; land manager statutory require-
ments, policies, objectives, and management goals; and with
the major goal to reduce suppression costs.
Human population areas and standing structures were
assigned the highest fire protection standard. Resources
and uses which were isolated or too small in area to be
operationally practical for separate zones were combined
into larger, more operationally feasible zones. A more
conservative fire protection standard was applied where
conflicting resources and uses were identified.
39
IV. Al TEA NATIVES
In developing this plan, the following six alternatives
were identified and evaluated. In all alternatives discuss-
ed, fires that threaten human life and/or improvements would
receive first priority for initial and continuing attack.
Alternative 1 EXISTING POLICY
Description
Current policy dictates initial attack on all fires, as
well as full effort on all fires to minimize acreage loss,
unless a massive commitment of resources is necessary and
the potential damage is low. In this case, there is an
option to modify attack on a fire-by-fire basis. (See
Appendix B. for more detailed description of existing policy.)
Analysis
a. Cost--Continuation of current pol.icy would not
reduce short-term costs and may involve increased long-range
costs. Buildup of fuel resulting from the current vigorous
attack policy, increased incidence of man-caused fires as a
result of population growth in the area, and the effects of
inflation may combine to create significant increases in
future costs of continuing the present policy.
b. Responsiveness to management objectives--Current
policy allows for no discretion on initial attack and only
limited discretion in continual suppression efforts. No
Interior agency has the option to not attack fires, unless
such action is approved in a fire manaqement plan. Further-
more, current policy dictates that decisions to not continue
suppression efforts can be made only if massive commitment
of resources is involved. This existing policy is not
responsive to change or to management objectives when de-
veloped.
Alternative 2 EXISTING POLICY WITH JULY 1 CUTOFF DATE
Description
Continuation of the current policy, but with the add-
ition of a July 1 cutoff date, after which, given appro-
40
priate weather and fuel moisture conditions, the options to
modify attack or to not attack at all would exist.
Analysis
a. Cost--Under Alternative 2, suppression costs
should be reduced somewhat, as some fires that occur after
the cutoff date would not be attacked or would be attacked
at less than full effort. In general, the earlier the
cutoff date, the greater would be the reduction in suppres-
sion costs.
Conversely, the earlier the cutoff date, the greater is
the risk that a small fire may grow to massive proportions
because of an initial decision not to attack. This would
increase suppression costs.
b. Responsiveness to management objectives--This
alternative would increase responsiveness to various man-
agement objectives by providing a period of the year during
which the option to not attack or to modify attack on cer-
tain fires would exist. In general, the earlier the cutoff
date, the more the alternative would be responsive to in-
dividual agency objectives, due to the fact that options for
modified attack would exist for a longer period of time.
Alternative
Description
3 PROPOSED ACTION--ZONES WITH AUGUST 1
CUTOFF DATE
This alternative involves the development of zones
within the planning area, based on resource values developed
by the various agencies and on the different management
objectives of the various land owners and managers. Attack
and suppression policy would be specified for the various
zones within the area. Fire in certain zones would be
vigorously attacked, and every effort would be made to
reduce burned acreage, while in other zones the option to
modify attack or to not attack certain fires would exist.
In addition, a cutoff date of August 1, after which, given
appropriate weather and fuel moisture conditions, the option
to not attack fires in the majority of the area would exist.
Analysis
a. Cost--Suppression costs in the long run should be
reduced more under Alternative 3 than under Alternative 2
41
because the option to modify.attack will exist for certain
zones throughout the fire season. In addition, the option·
for no-attack will.be in effect for the majority of the area
after the cutoff date.
b. Responsiveness to management objectives--Alterna-
tive 3 should be more responsive to individual agencies'
objectives than Alternatives 1 or 2, because options to
modify attack or to not attack fires exist for a larger
portion of the fire season. This increases the chances for
any individual land owner or manager to choose, on the basis
of management objectives, to let certain fires burn or to
modify attack on certain fires.
Alternative 4 ZONES WITH JULY 1 CUTOFF DATE
Description
This alternative is identical to Alternative 3, except
that the cutoff date after which modified attack or no
attack options exist would be July 1 rather than August 1.
Analysis
a. Cost--In the long run, Alternative 4 should reduce
suppression costs even more than Alternatives 1 through 3,
by extending the period during which no-attack options exist
within the planning area. Conversely, the risk w,ill be· · ·
increased that costs in any one year will be significantly
increased if a small fire grows to large size because of no
or reduced initial attack.
b. Responsiveness to management objectives--Alter-
native 4 should be more responsive to individual agencies'
and land owners' objectives than Alternatives 1 through 3,
because the period during which options for no attack exist
is longer than in other alternatives. This increases the
ability of each owner or manager to make decisions regarding
attack and suppression for specific fires.
Alternative 5 INDIVIDUAL AGENCY TOTAL FIRE PROGRAM CAPABILITY
Description
Alternative 5 consists of the development of individual
fire programs by each entity that owns or manages land
within the planning area. Each agency would be responsible
for developing and maintaining its own attack and suppres-
sion capability. -
42
Analysis
a. Cost--Over the long run, this alternative should
be by far the most expensive, due to the duplication in-
volved in each agency maintaining staff and equipment for
fire suppression. In addition, short-run costs would be
greatly increased because of initial heavy expenditures fo~
equipment by agencies that have had little or no fire sup-
pression capability. This alternative would increase costs
over the current policy, and therefore, fails to meet the
objective of reducing fire-suppression costs in the planning
area.
b. Responsiveness to management objectives--Alter-
native 5 is probably the most responsive to the management
objectives of the various land owners and managers, since it
allows each entity to develop its own protection standards
and fire suppression capability.
Alternative 6 FIGHT MAN-CAUSED, ALLOW NATURAL BURNS
Description
Alternative 6 consists of an areawide policy which
dictates that all man-caused fires will be vigorously at-
tacked and all effort will be made to minimize burned acres
from this type of fire. Natural fires will not be attacked
except to protect life and property, and no effort will be
expended to reduce the number of acres burned by natural
fires.
Analysis
a. Cost--Alternative 6, in the long run, is likely to
be the least expensive of all alternatives, because it
entails a large number of fires that would not be attacked
at all. Based on statistics for 22 years of fire occurrence
in the area, approximately 37 percent of all fires would not
be attacked.
Alternative 6 also max1m1zes the risk, however, that
suppression costs in any one year will increase signifi-
cantly, because of increased risk that natural fires will
grow to massive proportions and will have to be fought in
order to protect life and/or property.
43
b. Responsiveness to management objectives--Alter-
native 6 is not responsive to most land owners' or managers'
objectives, since it does not allow for suppression efforts
on natural fires, and also does not provide for the option
of modified or no attack on man-caused fires. Such a sit-
uation is unlikely to be responsive to the .entire range of
resource-based objectives of managing agencies. It runs
counter to the stated goals of certain land owning or man-
aging entities in the area. Alternative 6, therefore, fails
to meet one of the stated goals, that of responsiveness to
management objectives.
For a more detailed analysis of the alternatives con-
sidered, consult the Environmental Assessment for this plan
(AK-020-EA9-153).
V. SELECTED ALTERNATIVE
In the final analysis of the six alternatives, Alter-
native 3 and 4 best met the stated objectives of this plan-
ning effort. Alternative 3 was selected because the risk
factor involved is lower than that in Alternative 4, in
keeping with the general guideline that the interim plan
should be conservative.. As fire managers and fire
organizations gain experience and confidence in using this
interim plan, standards may be liberalized and an earlier
no-attack option date designated.
44
VI.
General
PROTECTION
Policies
STANDARDS
Under the provisions of this plan and the cooperative
agreements in effect with the concerned agencies statewide,
the highest protection standard that is available to any
agency or landowner is that defined by the existing BLM
Alaska Attack Policy. (See Appendix B.)
The attack priorities established in this plan apply
only to fires within the Fortymil~ Fire Management Area.
All fires within this area will compete equally with other
fires throughout the State when suppression forces are
limited.
Initial attack will be made on all fires within the
fire management area, with the exception of fires meeting
the late-season criteria and fires within the National Park
Service Monuments that have specific NPS direction for
no attack.
Where suppression tactics are constrained (e.g. no
tractor line construction in response levels 2 and 3) , these
constraints may be lifted only by the agency line officer in
charge of management for the area involved or his designated
representative. This should be documented,· indicating scope
and extent of authorization. It is expected that such
authority would be given only in situations where a fire
poses a direct threat to human safety, private property,
improvements, or where fire threatens to burn into an area
of higher protection standards. Use of equipment in these
situations will be restricted to the absolute minimum re-
quired to protect the area of immediate concern.
Response levels (See Protection standards Map}
The protection standards described below apply to all
lands so designated administered by BLM, NPS, F&WS, BIA,
and the State of Alaska within the fire management area.
Specific deviations or exceptions are discussed by agency.
Response Level 1 (Red)-Lands delineated in this cate-
gory will receive first priority for suppression action.
Burned acres are to be held at the absolute minimum attainable,
with no limitations or constraints on suppression tactics,
forces, or equipment that may be used as needed. Initial
45
and continued attack levels are to be maximized.
Response Level 2 (Orange}-Lands delineated in this
category are second in priority for suppression action.
The Protection Standards Map has delineated on it
narrow strips (approximately 2 miles wide) of land class-
ified Response Level 2. The intent of this classification
is to provide a buffer between Response Level 3 and Response
Level 1 lands and/or unzoned Native lands in areas where
possible fire spread would not be confined by natural barriers.
The portrayed width is not a hard and fast determin-
ation. The Area Fire Management Officer is to apply judg-
ment in the area and to expand or contract the dimensions of
these buffers in accordance with actual and predicted fire
behavior and burning conditions. ·
The suppression objective is to hold the burned acreage
to the minimum attainable within Stated suppression con-
straints.
Suppression Constraints: Tractors will not be used to
construct firelines.
Response Level 3 (Yellow}-Lands delineated in this
category are third in priority for initial and continued
attack. The exception will be in situations where struc-
tures, improvements, or private property are threatened:
in such cases, response will be at Level 1.
The suppression objective is to attain a reduction in
suppression costs by utilizing relatively low levels of
manning and indirect suppression tactics.
Initial attack will be made on all fires on lands
designated for Response Level 3, but suppression tactics
will be governed by the objective of holding suppression
costs to a minimum. Such tactics as indirect attack and
aerial backfiring using natural barriers will be utilizedl
especially in escaped fire situations.
Fire in these areas has been determined to have little
adverse impact on the natural resources and in fact, may
help maintain wildlife habitat, a mosaic of vegetation
patterns, and the naturalness of the area. Increased burned
acreage is, therefore, an acceptable exchange for reduced
suppression costs.
46
Tractor fireline construction is prohibited.
Response Level 4 (Late Season)--All lands designated as
Response Level 3 (yellow) may convert to Response Level 4 or
"no-attack" status when the prescription criteria listed
below are fully met:
1. Fire location within Response Level 3 (yellow)
area.
2. Fire started on Auqust 1 or later.
3. Three-day spot weather forecast for fire area
shows that the following critical limits are not exceeded:
a. Maximum temperature does not exceed 70°F.
b. Predicted weather at fire area does not
exceed any combination of wind and relative humidity range
listed below:
Winds peed
22 mph
15 mph
10 mph
8 mph
Relative humidity
85-90%
75-85%
40-55%
30-35%
Fine Fuel moisture
(1 hr. time lag)
17%
16%
12%
10%
(See Appendix C for example and more detailed explanation.)
Monitoring procedures outlined in the Operational
Procedures, Section VII, of this plan must be followed on
all "no-attack" fires.
The authority to make a "no-attack" decision is dele-
gated to the BLM Fortymile Fire Management Officer. "No-
attack" decisions are encouraged when fires are within the
appropriate locations and prescription criteria.
The Area Fire Management Officer will make the decision
to not attack a fire considering the following:
a. Actual and predicted fire behavior.
b. Weather forecasts.
c. Location of fire in relation to structures and
lands having higher protection standards.
47
d. Other fire activity in area, district, and State.
e. ~vailability of adequate contingency suppression
forces.
f. Analysis of fuels and/or natural barriers in the
vicinity of the fire, especially in direction of project~d
spread.
g. Ability to meet monitoring requir~ments.
b. No significant smoke problems e~pected to affect
communities, airfields, airways, or highways.
Specific Agency Concerns
1. Alaska Nattv~ lands
a. Re9ional and Village Corpo~ation lands are protected
under the provi~ions of toe Alaska Native Claims Settlement
Act (ANCSA1. :the Bureau of Indian Affair~ !las t+us-J; +e-
sponsibilities !or ~a£ive allotments acquired by earlier
acts.
Native lands have been zoned only to the extent of
identifying Response Level 1 areas. This classification was
applied to lanQ. a+ound villages, improvements, major highways,
and areas qf high v,alue resources warranting this classifi-
cation. All other Native lands are shown as unzoned and
will be handled on a fire-by-fire basis. Decisions on
priorities and manning levels will be made under existing
BLM fire attack policy and operating procedures.
b. Agressiv,e initial attack and full continuing
attack will be made on all fires to the level of existing
capabilities.
c. Fires requiring massive commitment to effect
control will be dealt with on a fire-by-fire basis, with
Native representatives participating fully in the decision
making.
d. The concerned Native entities will be notified as
soon as possible of all fires on their lands or that threat-
en those lands, rega+dless of ownership status. Wqen Native
allotments are involved the Anchorage Agency, Bureau of
Indian Affairs, will be notified.
48
e. Final authority for fire suppression decisions on
Native conveyed lands lies with the concerned Native Cor-
poration when corporation lands are involved and with the
Bureau of Indian Affairs on Native allotments. All deci-
sions concerning priorities and levels of attack will be
limited by existing capabilities.
f. Final authority for fire suppression decisions on
Native-selected land lies with BLM Fire Management.
2. Bureau of Land Management lands
Authority to permit fireline construction with tractors
in areas where this plan prohibits it lies with the BLM
Fairbanks District Manager.
Tractor use in areas designated for Response Level 1
will be cleared through the BLM Fairbanks District Chief of
Fire Management.
3. Fish and Wildlife Service lands
The proposed Tetlin Wildlife Refuge was withdrawn by
the Secretary of the Interior under the provisions of Sec-
tion 204(e) of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of
1976 (FLPMA). Until the status of this refuge is made
permanent by legislative or executive action, final author-
ity for fire suppression decisions remains with BLM Fire
Management.
As with other land tracts identified for transfer of
ownership or management responsibilities, the intent of this
plan is to provide fire protection standards and operational
procedures that are desired by the potential land managing
agency or owner and that are responsive to that agency's or
owner's management objectives and concerns.
For fires receiving continued attack, the Area Fire
Management Officer will contact the Area Refuge Supervisor
or line officer in charge and request that an agency em-
ployee serve as agency liaison or Natural Resource Officer.
The Area Refuge Supervisor or line officer in charge will
likewise be consulted before tractors are used for fireline
construction. (See Appendix A for name and telephone number
for designated agency contact.)
Except for the above, protection standards designated
by the respective Response Levels apply fully. Full author-
ity to execute the plan is delegated to the BLM Fortymile
49
Fire Management Officer.
4. National Park Service lands
Within the Fortymile Fire Management area are portions
of two National Monuments (Yukon-Charley and Wrangell-St.
Elias) and the proposed addition to the Wrangell Monument
withdrawn under FLPMA Section 204(e). The two Monuments are
now under National Park Service administration. On National
Monument lands, full administrative authority lies with the
National Park Service. Authority for fire suppression
decisions on these lands lies with the National Park Service
Alaska Area Director or his designated Fire Management
Officer. The intent of this plan is to provide fire pro-
tection standards and operational procedures that are desired
by the National Park Service and that are responsive to its
management objectives and concerns on both National Monument
and withdrawn lands. The National Park Service's prime
responsibility is to maintain a natural ecosystem within
areas under its jurisdiction. Because fire is the major
force of change and renewal within these ecosystems, the
continuation of this process is desired to the extent practical.
The protection standards designated by the respective
Response Levels will apply fully with the following excep-
tions:
a. "No-attack" decisions may be made by authorized
NPS personnel regardless of the time of year. This deci-
sion will depend on the availability of authorized NPS
personnel to conduct on-site analyses prior to initial
attack. Initial attack will not be delayed pending this
decision. -------
b. Equipment capable of causing long-lasting adverse
impacts on resources will not be used. Specifically, this
means off-road vehicles such as tractors and other tracked
vehicles.
c. On fires that escape initial attack, indirect
attack applying burnout/backfire techniques from natural
barriers will be utilized to the extent practicable.
d. On fires requiring continued attack, the Fortymile
BLM Area Fire Management Officer will contact the NPS Fire
Management Officer for consultation on the level of sustain-
ed attack. He should also request a NPS liaison or Natural
Resource Officer to furnish advice on such matters as fire
camp location, retardant use, and cultural concerns.
50
e. Final authority to permit actions not authorized
by this plan or specifically prohibited herein lies with the
NPS Alaska Area Director or his designated representative
for National Monument lands and with BLM Chief of Fire
Management, Fairbanks District, on withdrawn lands.
f. If bears threaten firefighters' safety, the Na-
tional Park Service or Alaska Department of Fish and Game
will be notified and will authorize appropriate action. If
bears are killed, the hides and skulls will be surrendered
to the National Park Service with a written incident report.
g. BLM firearm certification procedures will meet
regulations for the carrying of firearms within NPS-ad-
ministered lands.
Full authority to execute the provisions of this plan
is delegated to the BLM Fortymile Fire Management Officer.
5. State of Alaska lands
The State of Alaska Division of Lands has fire man-
agement and protection responsibilities for State patented
and tentatively approved lands as well as for other pri-
vately owned lands not otherwise protected by city or
borough fire protection organizations.
The State's responsibilities for fire management and
protection of lands within the area of this plan have been
contracted to the BLM through a cooperative agreement.
Protection responsibilities for State-selected lands
remains with BLM Fire Management.
Full authority to execute the protection standards
designated by the respective Response Levels on all State
responsibility lands is delegated to the BLM Fortymile Fire
Management Officer. All provisions of the designated Re-
sponse Levels are applicable.
Authority for permitting any action not allowed by the
prov~s~ons in this plan or any action specifically pro-
hibited on State-patented, tentatively approved, or private
lands lies with the State Fire Management Officer.
On all matters concerning policy, statewide priorities,
or strategies, the State Fire Management Officer is the
State of Alaska's focal point.
51
On continued attack fires on State responsibility
lands, the BLM Fire Management Officer will contact the
State Fire Management Officer at Northcentral District for
assignment of a liaison officer or a Natural Resource
Officer.
52
VII. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
General Procedures
Unless specifically changed by provisions of this plan,
existing BLM fire management operational procedures, as
specified in the Alaska State Fire Plan and Bureau direc-
tives, will be followed.
Statewide command of all suppression forces will remain
with BLM Fire Management. Normal established fire command
channels will be used on all fires regardless of land status.
Fire positions may be filled with any individuals who fully
meet National Interagency Fire Qualification System (NIFQS)
qualifications, regardless of agency affiliation. Selection
of overhead for specific fire assignments will be made by
BLM Fire Management.
When fires are on lands other than BLM, the concerns
from the involved agency or agencies will be handled in the
following manner:
1. On fire--An agency line officer's representative
and/or an agency Natural Resource Officer may be assigned to
the fire overhead team and will work through the on-fire
organization.
2. In absence of an on-fire line officer's represent-
ative, agency requests on matters concerning tactics, prior-
ities, and other specific concerns will be made through the
Fortymile Area Fire Managment Officer. Their requests will
be relayed to field operational forces through him.
3. On all matters concerning policy, statewide prior-
ities, or strategies, the concerned agencies will work with
the BLM State Office, Division of Fire Management.
0 p e rat i on a I
RESPONSE LEVEL
1
SUPPRESS
Decision Charts
FIRE START
&
DETECTION
DETERMINE
FIRE LOCATION
DETERMINE RESPONSE
LEVEL
RESPONSE LEVEL
2
INITIATE INITIAL ATTACK
& CONTINUING ATTACK AS DEFINED
BY APPROPRIATE RESPONSE LEVEL
NOTIFY LANDOWNER/MANAGER
OF ACTION TAKEN
CONSULT WITH LANDOWNER/MANAGER
AS FIRE SITUATION WARRANTS
54
RESPONSE LEVEL
3
AFTER
AUGUST 1
I
RESPONSE LEVEL
4
(SEE NEXT CHART)
I YES r-
RESPONSE LEVEL
4
OBTAIN SPOT WEATHER
FORECAST (3 DAY)
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
PREDICTED TO BE BELOW
70° F
I YES I
USING F .MO. NOMOGRAMS,
FIRELINE INTENSITY IS
CALCULATED TO BE 100
B.T.U./SEC/FT. OR LESS
AREA F.M.O. HAS OPTION
TO NOT ATTACK FIRE" IF
BELOW LISTED CRITERIA
ARE FAVORABLE.
1----11 NO lF--~ I I
H NO lr----.1
I. FIRE WEATHER & FIRE BEHAVIOR
FORECASTS ARE FAVORABLE.
2. STRUCTURES, IMPROVEMENTS,OR
HIGHER PROTECTION STANDARD
LAND NOT THREATENED.
3. CONTINGENCY FORCES
AVAILABLE.
4. MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
CAN BE MET.
5. SMOKE PRESENTS NO
SIGNIFICANT PROBLEMS.
I YES ] "NO-ATTACK" DECISION r-MADE
t---...... 1 NO L...,__~· I I
NOTIFY L. ~NDOWNER/MANAGER
OF ACTION TAKEN
CONSULT WITH LANDOWNER/MANAGER
AS FIRE SITUATION WARRANTS
MAINTAIN DAILY MONITORING
INCLUDING FIRE WEATHER
AND BEHAVIOR PREDICTIONS
UNTIL FIRE IS DECLARED OUT
55
ATTACK FIRE AT
RESPONSE LEVEL 3
STANDARDS
ATTACK FIRE AT
RESPONSE LEVEL 3
STANDARDS
ATTACK FIRE AT
RESPONSE LEVEL 3
STANDARDS
Special Operational Procedures
1. Endangered species (plants and animals)
The areas delineated as peregrine falcon nesting sites
and threatened and endangered plant species locations should
be familiar to fire suppression forces, including air attack
bosses.
All fire personnel should observe the following pre-
cautions to the extent practicable when operating in the
vicinity of these areas:
a. Peregrine nesting sites
1.) Extreme care should be taken not to disturb nests
during the critical time period from April 1 to August 15.
2.) All personnel must keep away from nesting sites.
Fire camps should not be located within one-half mile of
eyries.
3.) To the extent practical, all aircraft, both fixed
wing and rotor, will be restricted from operating within one
mile horizontal distance and below 1,500 feet over known
nesting sites.
b. Known or suspected habitats of plants on the
proeosed endangered or threatened list
1.) Avoid f ireline construction, especially. tractor
lines in these habitats.
2.) Avoid locating fire base camps or spike camps.
3.) Avoid construction of heliports or helispots.
4.) Avoid the use of long-term retardants.
2. Use of aerial-delivered chemical retardants
The use of long-term retardants is not prohibited
anywhere in the Fortymile Fire Management Area, but they
should be used with appropriate caution in the areas listed
below:
a. Lakes, ponds, sloughs, and other wetlands where
water is stagnant or slow moving.
56
b. Known peregrine falcon nesting sites.
c. Delineated sites of plants proposed for the threat-
ened and endangered list.
3. Reporting procedures for fires on lands other than BLM
a. On fires where initial attack is successful, or
the fire is otherwise contained within the first burning
period, special agency notification is not required. The
BLM Fire Management will notify the agency of these fires
through normal briefing sessions or by forwarding a copy of
the individual fire report to the designated agency repre-
sentative*. BLM State Office Fire Management will forward
fire reports as they come in and send a follow-up summary to
the agency at the end of the year.
b. For fires that escape initial attack and require
continuing suppression efforts, the BLM Fairbanks District
Fire Management Office will contact the designated agency
representative. Time of this notification will vary, de-
pending on the individual agency wishes.
4. Escaped fires
For all fires that e~cape initial attack and require
commitment of high levels of resources, the Fortyrnile Area
Fire Management Officer will make an "Escaped Fire Analy-
sis." This will consist of the "Fire Situation Analysis"
and the "Alternative Action Plan" utilized in the BLM Action
Modification Procedure. The "Fire Impact Analysis" is not
required, because this analysis has been made during the
plan development and is reflected by the Response Level the
area was assigned. On Native lands not zoned for Response
Levels, the BLM complete action "modification procedures,"
including "Fire Impact Analyses" will be required as speci-
fied in current policy.
The basic guidance for attack strategies is spelled out
in the Protection Standards section of this plan. The
Escaped Fire Analysis will be used primarily to relate the
general strategic decisions to site-specific tactics for a
given fire and to aid in discussing the alternatives and
general situation with the involved agency's representative.
* Designated agency representatives for contact are listed in Appendix
A.
57
5. Late-season procedures
After August 1, general fire weather forecasts for
those areas designated Response Level 3 (yellow) will re-
ceive special attention. They will be used to estimate and
calculate burning conditions. Fire behavior variables,
including fire intensity, rate of forward spread, and rate
of area growth, will be computed daily, using the fire
behavior nomograms. If the ca.lculations show a fire in-
tensity of 100 Btu/sec./ft.or less, the Response Level 3
(yellow) may be designated Response Level 4 and cooperating
agencies will be notified that late-season criteria have
been met.
When late-season criteria are met and a fire occurs in
a Response Level 4 area, "no-attack" decisions are author-
ized and encouraged. (See Operational Decision charts.)
Site-specific spot weather forecast~ will be obtained daily
for each fire, fuels will be mapped in front of the fire,
daily observations of fire area and behavior will be made,
and specific fire behavior predictions of rate of spread,
direction of spread, rate and location of area growth, and
fire intensity will be made daily.
Before August 1, and if late-season criteria are not
met, suppression action is required at Response Level 3
standards.
\ When an ignition occurs and the fire is detected, the
first step is to pinpoint its location on a map and then
determine who owns the land and what response level it falls
in.
Follow the Decision Chart to determine the appropriate
operational procedures and courses of action. Take sup-
pression action accordingly.
In the absence of fires, the general fire weather
forecasts for the area will be used to estimate and calcu-
late burning conditions in fire (one-hour time lag) fuels at
selected key locations. The commonly called "Fire Behavior
Officer's" charts (nomographs for calculating fire behavior
in wildland fuels) will be used to calculate probable fire
behavior in black spruce-feather moss fuels.
After a fire starts, site-specific spot weather fore-
casts, surface weather observations, and the other normal
fire-behavior related calculations will be carried out as is
done under existing policy.
58
V Ill. EVALUATION and REVISION
PROCEDURES
This plan will receive a full and comprehensive review
by the Alaska Land Managers Cooperative Task Force Fire
Subcommittee in the fall of 1980. Specific attention will
be given to the Protection Standards and Operational Procedures
sections. Recommended changes or modifications will be
evaluated and incorporated as appropriate and agreed upon.
The revised plan
agencies for approval
operative agreements.
proval of the revised
will be submitted to the participating
and coordination with specific co-
Target date for completion and ap-
plan is March 1, 1981.
It is anticipated that this plan, as well as other
similar fire management plans, will undergo annual review
and updating. The ALMCTF Fire Subcommittee will serve as
the interagency review board for these plans.
59
60
APPENDIXES
61
Appendix A. FORTYMILE FIRE MANAGEMENT AREA
AGENCY CONTACT LIST
Bureau of Land Management
Fortymile Fire Management Officer
Dick Malchow
Office--883-4181
Home--883-25i4
Fairbanks District Chief of Fire Management
Jerry Timmons
Office--356-1925
Home--479-4490
Alaska State Office, Chief of Fire Management
Joe Kastelic
Office--271-5406
Home--344-8365
National Park Service
Fire Management Officer
Bill Paleck
Office--271-4216
Home--337-4052
Alternate
Paul Haertel
Office--271-4196
Home--694-2837
Fish and Wildlife Service
Al Johnson
Office--283-4877
Home--262-5456
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Steve Price
Office--271-4126
Home--349-1119
Alternate
Elgin Filkins
Office--271-4126
Home--344-5615
62
Alaska State Division of -Lands
State Fire Management Officer
Ray Settles
Office--279-5577
Northcentral District
Les Fortune
Office--479-2243
Alaska Fish and Game Department
Tok
Dave Kelleyhouse
Office--883-2972
Doyon, Ltd.
Dave Williams
Office--452-4755
Alternate
Sam Bacino
Office--452-4755
Native Village Corporations
Hungwitchin Corporation (Eagle)
James 0. Stevens, President
Dot Lake Native Corporation
Ted Charles, President
Mendas Cha-ag Native Corporation (Healy Lake)
Fred Kirsteatler, President
Tanacross, Inc.
Bob Brean, President
Tetlin Village Corporation
Don Joe, President
Northway Natives, Inc.
Rosemarie Maher, President
63
Appendix B. ExisTING BLM FIRE ATTAcK POLicv
CHAPTER 10
POLICY AND PROTECTION STANDARD
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 OBJECTIVES
10.2 DEPARTMENTAL POLICY
10.3 BUREAU POLICY
10.31 Bureau Manual -1602 -Basic Guidance
10.32 Bureau Manual -1603 -Supplemental Guidance
10.33 Bureau Manual -9210 -Fire Management Policy
10.4 ALASKA FIRE MANAGEMENT POLICY
10.41 Prevention
10.42 Detection
10.43 Law Enforcement and Fire Trespass
10.44 Use of Firearms
10.45 Dangerous Animals
10.46 Structures and Improvements
10.47 Heavy Equipment
10.48 Chemicals -Fire Retardant
10.49 Suppression Technique Limitations
10.5 ALASKA PROTECTION STANDARD
10.51 Definitions
10.52 Fire Attack Guidance
10.53 Action Modification Procedure
64
10.1 OBJECTIVES·
The objective of the fire management program is to: 1)
Protect public land resources under the Bureau's juris-
diction from wildfire damage in order to preserve their
capabilities to contribute toward meeting the Nation's
resource ·need1 2) manage the fire suppression program
to achieve protection of public land resource at least
cost1 3) use fire by prescription to realize resource
management goals1 and 4) pursue interagency solutions
where compatible with Bureau objectives to achieve
coordinated land management. ·
10.2 DEPARTMENTAL POLICY (see Departmental Manual, Part
910 -old Manual designation Part 590)
10.3 BUREAU POLICY
10.31 Bureau Manual -1602 -Basic Guidance
12. Bureau Objectives. To plan for and manage or
dispose of public lands, in a manner provid-
ing the maximum benefit to the general public.
To do this, the Bureau will:
Protect the lands, resources, environment and
public values therein from avoidable destruc-
tion, :abuse and .deterioration, and correct
past abuses to the extent feasible.
10.32 Bureau Manual -1603-Supplemental Guidance
3.
4.
Long-term Objectives. · These include:
a. Minimizing losses of public lands and
their resources from wildfire damage to
preserve their capabilities to contri-
bute to the resource needs of the Nation.
b. Protecting all rare or unique natural
and historical resources and critical
environmental values from wildfire to
preserve them for the use and enjoyment
of present and future generations.
c. Rehabilitating burned areas in accord-
ance with lapd use and management plans.
Major Principles and Standards. (See 1602.4
65
-Standards for Programwide Application.)
The standards of protection are contained in
the Normal Fire Year Plans. Major principles
include:
a. Except to protect or save human life,
high priority will be given to control-
ling fires on or threatening lands,
resources, or installations under juris-
diction of the Bureau.
b. Within the framework of management
plans, wildfires will be held to the
minimum damage possible using the
methods of suppression least damaging to
resources and the .environment.
c. Prescribed fire may be used to achieve
land or resource management plans in
accordance with management objectives.
d. Where firelines constructed for the
control and suppression of wildfires on
public lands could lead to erosion,
stream damage, flooding, etc., final
fireline mop-up operations may include,
but are not limited to, any or all of
the following actions:
i. Complete recovering of the fireline
with the vegetative cover and other
material that was removed (back-
filling).
ii. Partial replacement of previously
removed vegetative cover and other
material to the fireline in the
form of water bars at intervals
needed to control.erosion.
iii. The building of water-diversion
channels through the burn if the
fireline gradient is steep enough
to be subject to damaging erosion.
This may be accomplished by con-
tinuing the use of the necessary
equipment and manpower after control
of fires.
66
e. The program will be operated to minimize
personal injuries and enforce safety
practices.
10.33 Bureau Manual -9210 -Fire Management Policy
A. The suppression of wildfire, whether caused by
lightning or by human-related ignition sources, is
given priority over normal Bureau activities,
except those involved in safeguarding human life.
B. The highest priority is given to preventing dis-
aster fires by aggressive prevention and sup-
pression actions.
c. Aggressive action is taken on all new fires on or
threatening National resource lands with suffi-
cient forces to contain the fire during the first
burn1ng per1od. Suppression action for fires that
escape containment during the first burning period
is planned to minimize the total resources losses,
suppression costs, rehabilitation costs, and
environmental damage. When multiple fires are
experienced, suppression priority is given to
fires threatening areas of highest value.
D. In areas where controlling fires is extremely
difficult or where the values threatened do not
warrant the expense associated with the usual
suppression procedures, managers may prepare
advance plans for limited suppression actions for
the approval of the State Director. These advance
plans must include: Justification for not initi-
ating usual suppression procedures; a map of the
boundaries of areas where limited suppression
plans apply; fire behavioral and meteorological
conditions under which limited suppression plans
are used; an environmental analysis record; and an
emergency suppression contingency plan including
standby equipment and forces during the burning
period.
E.. For programs that plan to use fire as a management
tool, managers prepare a prescribed fire plan in
advance of natural or intentional ignition for the
approval of the State Director. The burning of
timber sale residues may be approved by the
District Manager. Actions to be followed in these
prescribed fire plans include: Objectives for
67
burning, which may include the natural role of
fire in a fire dependent ecosystem~ fire behavior-
al and meteorological conditions under which the
plan will be implemented~ a pre-ignition action
plan identifying fuels, preliminary preparations,
the burning sequence, fire breaks, and control
force requirements~ an emergency fire suppression
contingency plan including standby equipment and
control forces during the burning period; anti-
pollution criteria for air and water~ an environ-
mental analysis record~ a public information plan~
and a rehabilitation plan. Prescribed fires and
their subsequent rehabilitation are funded by the
benefiting subactivity.
F. Burned areas are evaluated and analyzed to deter-
mine rehabilitation needs.
Corrective measures are taken when
feasible and possible to rehabilitate areas dam-
aged by fire and the suppression action. The cost
of rehabilitating damages associated with suppress-
ion actions is borne by the suppression subactiv-
ity (4620) if done in a timely manner; the cost of
rehabilitating resource losses is borne by the
rehabilitation subactivity (4630).
G. The protection of Bureau structures is normally
done by a structural firefighting organization
because BLM fire suppression forces are manned,
equipped, and trained to fight wildland fires.
Assistance in suppressing non-Bureau structure
fires using existing Bureau forces and equipment
is done only on an emergency basis, to save lives,
or to retard the spread of the fire to adjacent
wildland.
H. Only trained and qualified personnel are assigned
to fire management duties (this relates to the
Bureau and Interagency Fire Qualification Systems
as applied to fire suppression assignments) •
10.4 ALASKA FIRE MANAGEMENT POLICY
10.41 Prevention
Alaska's fire prevention programs, in respect to
man-caused fire, will reflect the following guid-
ance:
68
A. Prevent fires in areas where life, property,
and/or irreplaceable resources may be threat-
ened.
B. Reduce fire resource damage to a level where
it does not negatively impact realization of
an approved land use plan.
c. Increase prevention program to a point where
1ts cost does not exceed resource values lost
plus suppression costs.
10.42 Detection
Maintain a detection system which will achieve 90
percent lightning fire detection and 95 percent
man-caused fire detection at 10 acres or less.
System will insure all fire detection prior to 50
acre size.
10.43 Law Enforcement and Fire Trespass
A. Law Enforcement. Each BLM employee has a
duty and responsibility to safeguard National
security, agency property, and personnel, and
to protect the integrity of BLM's name and
operation. By Statute and Departmental
directives, each official and employee of the
agency is responsible for promptly reporting
any actual or suspected offenses, wrong
doings, violations, or irregularities in
connection with any BLM or Department of the
Interior program, operation or activity, or
any suspected violation of criminal law or
regulation.
All described violations should be reported
to the Division of Technical Services, Office
of Law Enforcement, as appropriate, for
evaluation and referral to other agencies, or
for investigation as the facts warrant.
Employees should report such information
through supervisory channels. Supervisors
shall in no case delay or withhold transmit-
tal of an employee's report or of any anon-
ymous complaints received. Employees are not
precluded from reporting the matter directly
to the Office of Law Enforcement, should they
consider such action necessary.
69
B. Fire Trespass. The initial attack fire boss
will investigate the fire for cause. If man-
caused is suspected or known, he will gather
and preserve information/evidence pertaining
to source and cause. The Area Fire Manage-
ment Officer (AFMO) will be contacted as to
findings. The AFMO and the District Chief,
Fire Management will determine if the find-
ings will support further investigation. If
further investigation is indicated, a Dis-
trict Trespass Officer will be notified to
take further action. He/she will consult
with t.he State Office, Office of Law Enforce-
ment, for advice and assistance as necessary.
In either case, the investigation and action
decision will be documented. One copy shall
become part of the fire report and a second
copy sent to the Office of Law Enforcement.
10.44 Use of Firearms
The procedures to be used for authorizing person-
nel to carry and use firearms for protection
against dangerous, wild animals are as follows:
The use of firearms is prohibited in camp
areas or duing working hours except when a
supervisor determines it is necessary for
protection from dangerous animals. If re-
quested by the employee, firearms may be
allowed on the job or in camps with the
expressed written approval of District Mana-
gers and State Office Division Chiefs who are
responsible for issuing authorizations on
Form AS0-1112-4 only to those employees
working in areas where a hazard from wild
animals exists. Before authorizations are
issued, officials should satisfy themselves
that the employee is proficient in the use of
firearms. Employees must clearly understand
that firearms are to be used as a last resort
and only when absolutely necessary to protect
life or property.
The minimum recommended cal'iber for pistols
will be 357 magnums, rifles 30-06, and shot-
guns 12 gauge slugs.
Authorizations to carry firearms will be
70
issued on a calendar year basis. Authoriza-
tions will be reviewed each January to deter-
mine if work assignments and conditions still
warrant the carrying of firearms.
Authorizations will terminate each January,
upon transfer of the employee, or \"Vhen the
need to carry firearms for protection ceases
to exist. Authorization forms will be pre-
pared in triplicate and distributed as fol-
lows:
1. Original to employee.
2. Copy to originating office file.
3. Copy to State Director, Attention:
(950).
10.45 Dangerous Animals
When a BLM District encounters a problem with a
bear or other dangerous animal which must be
removed from a fire area or camp, or be destroyed,
the Fire Boss through organizational channels will
notify the District Office through their logistics
center of the problem and request assistance. In
all instances, BLM will request the State of
Alaska, Department of Fish & Game, to remove any
animal of potential danger or nuisance in order to
protect the safety of crews. The Alaska Fish &
Game has the option of sending their personnel or
giving BLM permission to solve the problem, which
may include BLM sending in a hunter or sending the
fire camp a firearm with permission to destroy the
animal, if necessary, by an authorized BLM employ-
ee.
In the case of National Park Service (NPS) lands,
the animal may be removed, but the head/hide will
be surrendered to NPS for disposal.
10.46 Structures and Improvements
The protection of Bureau structures is normally
done by a structural firefighting organization
because BLM fire suppression forces are manned,
equipped, and trained to fight wildland fires.
Assistance in suppressing non-Bureau structure
fires using existing Bureau forces and equipment
is done only on an emergency basis, to save lives,
71
or to retard the spread of the fire to adjacent
wildland. In.remote areas, the Bureau will give
high priority to protecting structures from wild-
fire threat.
10.47 Heavy Equipment
The State Policy shall be that no bulldozers,
skidders, or other heavy equipment that may have a
significant impact on the ground cover shall be
used for fireline work in Alaska without prior
approval of the District Managers. Approval is
predicated on life, property, irreplaceable
values, or high resou~ce values.
ATV's having an average ground pressure of 3.5 psi
or less are approved for fire suppression. Avoid
continuous travel over the same tra.ck; keep speed
to a minimum; avoid sharp turns; avoid exposed
mineral soils and permafrost when possible.
10.48 Chemical -Fire Retardant
Studies have shown that some retardants can be
toxic to cold and warm water fish, and to common
fresh water crustacean if they appear in high
enough concentrations.
Fire suppression personnel should take precautions
to avoid retardant drops in lakes and sloughs
which have little circulation. Streams which are
valuable as habitat for fisheries should likewise
be avoided.
Resource specialists must identify areas which
they believe to be particularly sensitive to
retardant and identify these on maps.
10.49 Suppression Technique Limitations
Man-caused surface disturbances often result in
long-term damage to the environment. Some fire
suppression methods can cause longer lasting
damage to the Alaskan taiga and tundra than the
wildfire itself. The optimal suppression tech-
niques are those which least disturb the surface
while providing the most cost effective control
and extinguishment of the wildfire. Fire inten-
sity, fuels, time of year and day, topography,
72
weather, or management prescriptions may limit or
dictate the suppression method used to control a
fire. Mismanagement of suppression equipment in
the past has resulted in the most noticeable
damage to the environment. Guidelines for fire-
lines follow:
1. Avoid building firelines in ice-rich
permafrost areas such as north slopes or
drainage bottoms where the organic mat
is more than 12 inches deep. Dry ridge
tops and south slopes are preferred over
other areas for fireline construction.
2. Avoid building firelines on gradients
sufficient for inducing erosion. Gen-
erally build firelines on contours and
add lateral drainage to side slopes into
undisturbed areas.
3. Use natural barriers as lines where
possible. If it is necessary to build
lines along rivers, locate lines along
uphill side of some better drained
soils, e.g. where white spruce stands
occur.
4. Avoid creating an erosion "chute" into
natural drainageways, e.g. the firelines
should have a dogleg or be stopped 300
feet from drainages, rivers, or lake
shores.
5. Fireline width must be controlled. An
adequate fireline is a walked-down
portion as wide as the height of the
tallest tree and a minimum width cut to
mineral soil.
6. Tracked equipment should be operated
only on established lines, preferably
in the "walked-down" portion.
7. Construct cross-drainage as required to
direct water into undisturbed areas.
Construction of cross-drainage should be
an integral part of the fireline con-
struction.
73
8. Many fireline scars in Alaska occurred
because of poor strategy in determining
line location. The fire boss should use
the best qualified expertise available
in fire behavior, fire spread, and fire
weather forecasting in determining
fireline location.
9. To minimize the opportunity for erosion
from line construction, soil and water-
shed personnel should be consulted when
making tactical decisions on line loca-
tions.
10.5 ALASKA PROTECTION STANDARD
BLM's standard reflects Departmental and Bureau policy/
directive. It prescribes levels of fire attack under
varying conditions. Further it is designed to optimize
attack and give priority guidance when suppression
and/or support capabilities are limited. An approved
Modified Superession ~ or ~ Management Plan
conta~n~ng s~te specif~c protect~on standards takes
precedence over the general BLM Alaska Protection
Standard.
Under cooperative agreements and contract, BLM protects
lands of the National Park Service (NPS}, Fish and
Wildlife Service (FWS}, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA),
Native Corporations (Native), Military, and State of
Alaska (State}. It is necessary to review these docu-
ments to identify if and how other landowner's Stan-
dards vary from BLM's. BLM is obligated to protect
other owner's lands by their Standard.
On Secretarial Withdrawal Areas (204E), BLM retains
management responsibility, including fire, until they
are formally conveyed to another agency.
Upon conveyance of lands from BLM to another Governmen-
tal entity, they become responsible with authority over
management actions. Conveyance may be in the forms of
patent, tentative approval, executive order, or law.
If BLM continues to protect these lands, it is guided
by the conveyance document or a cooperative agreement/
contract. Examples of this guidance include agency
contact points, authority to terminate suppression
action, and final authority on action modification
fires. Where BLM protects lands of another Government
74
entity, command of BLM suppression forces will remain
with BLM. As previously stated, the cooperative agree-
ment or contract defines how the landowner inputs
suppression strategy and tactics.
10.51
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
10.52
A.
Definitions
Fire damage potential -relative measure
expressing possible resource damage from
fire~ the measurement unit is a combination
of fire impact on in-place resources and
fire rate-of-spread.
Initial attack -actions constituting the
f~rst suppression work on a fire.
Sustained attack -continuing suppression
act~on on a f~re until control is achieved.
Continuina fire - a fire which has not been
controlle by initial attack.
Delayed attack -suppression forces are not
immediately dispatched.
No attack -suppression forces are not dis-
patched as in the case of a prescribed natu-
ral fire.
Prescribed natural fire - a lightning-caused
fire allowed to burn within preapproved
prescription criteria. Fully meets the
requirements of a prescribed fire.
Prescribed fire -an administratively approved
fire (natural or man-ignited) burning under
approved and coordinated plans in wildland
fuels, confined to a specific area with the
intent of achieving certain planned and
desirable land or resource management objec-
tives.
Fire Attack Guidance
Maximum available attack level -that level
ident~f~ed as the BLM standard. Applicable
to cooperators and contracts. This is a
function of organization and funding.
75
B. Attack priority -first priority attack will
be on those fires whi.ch threaten life, prop-
erty, and/or unique value. This classifica-
tion is available from the action modifi-
cation overlay which is an output of National
Fire Planning. Second priority attack will
be made on fires having highest fire damage
potential. Subsequent priorities will be
given to fires having progressively less fire
damage potential. This damage classification
is available from an overlay which is an
output of National Fire Planning. The classi-
fication expresses six damage potential
levels.
C. Initial attack -All fires will receive
aggress1ve and sustained initial attack. The
initial attack organization will be maintained
at a readiness level commensurate with the
manning action guide and the fire incidence
level.
D. Full attack -continuing fire -all fires
which require modest suppr,ession commitment
will receive increased and sustained attack.
All fires threatening life, property, and/or
unique value will receive increased and
sustained attack irrespective of "required
suppression commitment level."
E. Modified attack -continuing fire -fires
which do not threaten life, property, and/or
unique value: have low fire damage potential:
and can be controlled only with "massive
suppression commitment;" full attack can be
modified. To modify the full attack level,
the "AttackModificatiOn procedure 11 is
mandatory. Appl1cat1on of this policy re-
sults in more measured control responses,
reduced suppression costs, and action consis-
tent with values-at-risk.
F. Delayed attack or no attack -this attack
decision may be made in the following situa-
tions:
1. Abnormal fire behavior which places
safety of line personnel in jeopardy.
76
2. Limited attack capability due to con-
tinuous multiple fire occurrence.
3. Fire control commitment reaching a level
where management cannot effectively
control and/or logistically support.
4. Fire is within an area where an approved
Fire Management Plan or Modified Sup-
pression Plan is in effect. These plans
provide for this ~~cision and fire fully
meets designated prescription criteria.
These plans require State Director
approval (BM 9210.06D&E).
With the exception of situation number 4,
these attack decisions can be made on an
individual fire basis without State Office
approval for a 24-hour period. Continuing
this decision beyond 24-hours requires State
Director approval through the State Office,
Chief, Division of Fire Management.
10.53 Action Modification Procedure (See 10.52 E)
A. When this type fire is on land administered/
owned by another agency, their designated
representative will be contacted immediately.
Their active participation in all decision-
making processes will be encouraged.
B. District Fire Management develops a "Fire
Situation Analysis" (Attachment #1), and a
"map" for the fire area. The map will show
the area's fire damage potential classifica-
tions, significant land features, population
concentrations, improved property, fire
perimeter noted by ground truth time, fire
name, fire number, and scale.
The District Chief, Division/Branch of Fire
Management, must approve a modified action
decision to proceed with further analysis and
subsequent implementation.
In the case of other agency lands, their
damage potential evaluation is essential.
77
c. The Area Fire Management Officer, with tech-
nical fire control and resource management
specialists, as necessary, will develop
"Alternative Action Plans" (Attachment #2) .
The alternatives will be developed from a
technical fire management assessment of
capability to achieve final control using
varying suppression levels and associated
costs. A maximum of three alternatives
should be developed where technically feasi-
ble.
D. The Area Manager with technical resource and
management specialists, as necessary, will
develop the "Fire Impact Analysis" (Attach-
ment #3). In the case of other agency lands,
their specialists will be used when available.
E. The District Manager or his designated repre-
sentative will review the total analysis and
recommended Action Plan. He will select and
approve a plan for implementation by Fire
Management. In the case of other agency
lands, their representative will select and
approve the implementation plan.
F. Procedure Considerations
1. Normally, development of the "Alterna-
tive Action Plans" and the "Fire Impact
Analysis" are simultaneous actions.
2. A reassessment of action plans must be
made if there is a change in projected
fire course as in the case of weather
change.
3. The complete Action Modification file
becomes part of the official fire report.
4. Once the decision is made to use the
Action Modification procedure, the
District has 36-hours to develop and
approve an action plan for implementation.
5. The responsible land management agency
is encouraged to have a public affairs
representative present during this
78
process since any decision less than
full attack will have public interest.
G. Final authority for suppression strategy
decisions will vary dependent on land status.
National Monument (dependent on
designation}
National Parks
National Wildlife Refuges
Secretarial Withdrawal (204E}
State of Alaska Patented or T.A.
State Selected
Native Allotments (Conveyed}
Native Village Corporation
(Conveyed}
Native Regional Corporation
(Conveyed}
Native Lands Unconveyed
Military Reservation
Natural Resource Lands
NPS & FWS
NPS
FWS
BLM
State
BLM
BIA
Village
Region
BLM
Military
BLM
There are four other types of Native lands
not previously discussed. If they have not
been conveyed, BLM has final authority for
suppression strategy decisions:
1. Native Primary Place of Residence -Up
to 160 acres per residence; only 20-25
people qualify; generally, applicants
were not in time for allotment program;
upon conveyance, individual has author-
ity.
2. Village Group-Up to 7,560 acres per
group; less than 25 people per group
could qualify; upon conveyance, Native
Group Corporation has authority.
3. Four Cities -23,000 acres per City
Corporation; located in areas of Sitka,
Juneau, Kenai, and Kodiak; 26,000 acres
have been conveyed to the Natives at
Kenai and Kodiak; upon conveyance, the
specific City Native Corporation will
have authority.
79
4. Native Reserves -Venetie, St. Lawrence,
Elim, and Tetlin1 not part of Regional
Corporation1 only St. Lawrence has been
conveyed; upon conveyance, the Reserve
Corporation has authority.
80
FIRE SITUATION ANALYSIS
Fire Number
Fire Name
Date
Fire Size
Weather (past including present day)
Buildup Index Today
Coordinates
Landmarks
5 Day Cumulative Precip. ____ __
Fine Fuel Moisture Today ---------General-Past 10 Days
Weather {predicted 5 uay outlook)
Fuels in Fire Area
Fire Behavior (past 5 days)
Fire Behavior {present ~ay)
Topography
Natural Barriers
Control Ac~ion to Date
81
Approved by:~~--~----~~--~--~
(Signature District FMO)
Attachment :.
ALTERNATIVE ACTION rLAN
:!:"" i .:-H ;::uznbe r
Jate
Alternative 1 (Act1on ~escriptionJ
Suppression capability needed
Size at Size at +72 hrs. Size ~+: •5 days
Est.Control :Jate Est.Control Size Est.Ccntrol Cost ___ _
Al:ernative 2 (Ac~icn description
Suppression capability needed
Size at +24 hrs. S.1ze d::. .,..5 days
E:sL Control Date Est .. Con-:::ol .5ize Est.Control Cost
Alternative 3 ;Action ~escription
Suppression capability needed ----------------·-------
--------------------------------·····--··-·--------
h.r.s. Sl·.:e: :.:·~t "!'": jays
Est.Control :Ja~e _____ __ Lst. Contr.t)l Size E:st .Control. Ccst ____ _
Approved by:
82
Fire :Sumber
Date
Fire Impact on Resources
Soil
Water
Grazing
Forestry
Wildlife
Recreation
Air
FIRE IMPACT ANALYSIS
Fire Name
Fire Impact on Non-resource Related Items
Life
(Continued on next page.)
83
Property
Off Site (such as smoke)
Aesthetics
Political
Social
Other --------------------------------------------~-------------------
Suppression Method Impact on Resources
Action Plan Recommended 1 Z 3 (circle one)
Summary Statement (Be specific in descri~ing why the particular action plan was
recommended)
App:r;OVI;!d by:
(S~gnature-Responsible
Official)
Attachment .:.-;;
84
Appendix C. LATE SEASON CRITERIA
Instructions for Fire Behavior Calculations
The following guides are for the use of those trained
in calculating and estimating fire behavior with fire
spread model nomographs. All fuels models refer to those
presented in Estimating Wildfire Behavior (Albini 1976)*,
and are the ones used by fire behavior officers. ·
The only models that have been field proven on Alaskan
fuels are:
Model #1. Short grass (1 foot)
Model #5. Brush (short; 2 feet)
Model #9. Hardwood litter ·
Model #1 works well without adjustment in _tussock
tundra. Model #9 works well without adjustment for pure
hardwoods and mixed hardwood/white spruce stands.
Black spruce/feather moss stands require a special pro-
cedure. The rate of spread given by model #9, multiplied by
1.2 gives a good estimate of the rate of spread of surface
fires in black spruce. Using model #5 (and the same mois-
ture contents, slopes, and winds) gives a good estimate of
the flame length and intensity. So, in black spruce/feather
moss fuels, use the following models:
Model #9 -to get rate of spread, multiply by 1.2.
Model #5 -to get flame length and intensity.
In all cases, rates of area and perimeter growth, fire
shape, and fire area projections follow the standard pro-
cedure.
Selecting the limits of burning conditions when fires
may be considered safe enough to warrant limited or no
attack is no 'small task. Basing selection on opinions will
not do, because opinions vary too much. Experience often
*Albini, Frank A. 1976. Estimating wildfire behavior and effects.·
USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-3~. Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station. 92 pp.
85
suffers from a poor memory. Objective, measurable limits
must be found and set.
A reasonable approach to take is to decide what kind
of fire is safely manageable. Surely a fire that doesn't
spread is safe, but such a fire would not receive much
attention anyway. The question becomes one of asking how
intense and rapidly moving a fire may be and yet be con-
sidered manageable. For the purposes of this plan, "man-
ageable" means that it can be stopped if necessary to
protect valued resources and structures. The internation-
ally accepted levels of Byrum's intensity seem to be the
best measure of limits of control by specified means. A
commonly used value is 100 Btu/sec./ft. Crews working with
hand tools can directly attack and suppress a fire of that
intensity. This has proved true in Alaskan fuels.
Using fire behavior models, we can calculate measurable
conditions that will lead to a fire of 100 Btu/sec./ft. or
less. The problem is not simple, nor is the solution, but
it is possible to do for our needs.
For the purposes of this plan during the first season,
a conservative, worst-case approach has been taken to pre-
vent mistakes. Stated simply, a fire in the most dangerous
fuel type must be controllable by direct attack before a
no-attack decision is allowed. Other criteria must also be
met, such as dates and weather outlook. In the area encom-
passed by the plan, the black spruce-feather moss forests
are the most dangerous fuels. Experience in fires in
similar fuels has shown that combinations of fuel models 9
and 5 (Albini 1976) work extremely well for estimating
flame length and rate of spread. From these we can calcu-
late the fire intensity and the conditions necessary for
limited suppression action.
What information is needed? We need to know how dry
the important fuels are. We need to know wind velocity and
direction. In steep terrain, we need to know percent slope.
Some conditions in Alaska simplify the matter. The
terrain is generally gentle as far as fire behavior is
concerned. On much of the Forty,mile country, terrain can
probably be ignored during the late season. Two important
variables remain. They are-ruel moisture and wind velocity.
Remember that we are dealing only with the black spruce
forests because they offer the most potentially dangerous
fire behavior. In this fuel type, the fuels that carry the
86
fire are mosses and lichens, which may be piled deeply upon
the forest floor. Because these carrier fuels are finely
divided, they become wet and dry extremely rapidly. As the
relative humidity goes up, these fuels take up water very
quickly. As the relative humidity drops, they dry out
quickly and become very flammable. Consequently, relative
humidity is a good predictor of the fuel moisture of these
fuels. The tables needed to accomplish the prediction
follow. From items that a weather forecast gives, you can
calculate the critical fuel moistures needed.
Some combinations of fuel moisture (or relative humi-
dity) and windspeed favor fires of an intensity just barely
suppressible by crews with hand tools. A black spruce fuel
type with closed canopy on the middle third of a north slope
was used for the calculations. Using the cited models, the
results are as follows:
Wind speed
22 mph
15 mph
10 mph
8 mph
1-hr fuel moisture
(percent)
17
16
12
10
Relative humidity
(percent)
85-90
75-85
40-55
30-35
For example, where fuel moisture content value is 16
percent, winds must be no greater than 15 mph if the fire is
to be considered manageable. A relative humidity range of
75 to 80 percent would produce a 16 percent fuel moisture.
The limiting moisture content chosen is 10 percent.
Below that value, fires burn readily and can easily get out
of hand if the wind rises above 4 mph. The 10 percent fuel
moisture corresponds to a relative humidity of 30 percent.
Late season criteria are not applied when humidity levels
are below 30 percent.
Additionally, the three-day weather outlook must meet
the conditions listed in the table above, and the highest
temperatures must not exceed 70 degrees.
87
When dead fuel moisture is not measurable directly,
use the following procedures:
1. Obtain the following information for the fire
behavior projection time period in question.
*dry bulb temperature
*relative humidity
*slope percent
*aspect
*site exposed to sunlight or shaded
Next Step
*month 2
2. Daytime ( 0800-1959) 3
2. Nighttime (2000-0759) 8
3. Go to Table 1; determine Reference Fuel
Moisture using dry bulb temperature and
relative humidity. 4
4. May, June, July 5
4. February, March, April/August, September,
October 6
4. November, December, January 7
5. Go to Table 4; determine Dead Fuel Moisture
Content Correction for Aspect and Position
on Slope, DAYTIME. Use appropriate portion
of table to consider whether fuels ahead of
the projection point are shaded or exposed
to solar radiation. ADD to Reference Fuel
Moisture DAYTIME. END
6. Go to Table 5; determine Dead Fuel Moisture
Content Correction for Aspect and Position
on Slope, DAYTIME. Use appropriate portion
of table to consider whether fuels ahead of
the projection point are shaded or exposed
to solar radiation. ADD number to References
Fuel Moisture DAYTIME. END
7. Go to Table 6; determine Dead Fuel Moisture
Content Correction for Aspect and Pos~t~on
on Slope, DAYTIME. Use appropriate portion
of table to consider whether fuels ahead of
the projection point are shaded or exposed
to solar radiation. ADD to Reference Fuel
Moisture DAYTIME. END
88
8. Go to Table 2; determine Reference Fuel
Moisture using dry bulb temperature and
Next Step
relative humidity. 9
9. Temperature and RH predicted for specific
location of projection point. No correction
necessary. Use Reference Fuel Moisture
NIGHTTIME from Table 2. END
9. Temperature and RH not predicted for specific
location of projection point. 10
10. Go to Table 3; determine Dead Fuel Moisture
Content Correction for Aspect and Port1on
on Slope, NIGHTTIME at the (1) temperature
and RH prediction location and (2) projec-
tion point location. Calculate the
difference of the two numbers. ADD to the
Reference Fuel Moisture NIGHTTIME if the
projection po1nt location is a "wetter"
site (larger correction number). SUBTRACT
the difference if the projection point
represents a drier site (smaller correction
number). END
10. NOTE: Position on slope (L., M., U.) is
valid in Table 3 only when a temperature
inversion forms at night. When there is
no cold air drainage at night, prediction
differences are used for aspect alone for
the upper (U) position. END
89
Table 1. REFERENCE FUEL MOISTURE.
DAYTIME
0800 -1959
.---------------=-~":"'::":=~~~~~~~=~-----------------· RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PERCENT)
Dry Bulb 0 5
Temperature
4 9
10 -29 1 2
30 -49 1 2
so -69 1 2
70 -89 1 1
90 -109 1 1
109+ 1 1
10 I 15 20 25 ·' 30 35 40 1 45 so 55 I 60 65
I
70 I 75
I
80 85 I 90 95 . t I
I
.. I .. . . :. . . :.
I I I
. '• ! • .. I.
l
I
100 I
'
141 19 24 291 34 39 44 !49 54 59 • 64 69 I 74 : 79 84 89 I 94 99
i I
1
' 21
I
-r-
!
2'
I
I
2,
2•
3 4
3 4
3 4
2 3
2 3
2 3
I I ! j I
I I . I
5 : 5 6 7 ; 8 8 8 I 9 9 10 I 11 12 12 ~ 13 13 14
I J t I !
5 1 5 6 7 l 7 7 8 I 9 9 10 I 10 11 12 I 13 13 13 1 I I
! I I 5 1 5 6 6 t 7 7 8 8 9 9 I 10 11 12 1 12 12 13
I I ~ I I
·-- - - ----. ----·-----__ , ·-- - - -. ---·--------· _t • - ---... --I I , I
41 5
I
4 1 4
I
4 1 4
I
j
5
5
5
6 I 7
I
6 ' 7 I
6 I 7
I
'
7
7
7
8 I 8
I
8 ' 8
I
8 I 8
I
J
8
8
8
I
9 ' 10 I
9 I 10
I
I
9 1 10
l
I
10 11 ~ 12 12 13
I
10 11 i 12 12 13
I
10 11 1 12 12 13
I
I
GO TO TABLES 4, 5, OR 6 FOR ASPECT AND POSITION ON SLOPE CORRECTION
Dry Bulb
Temperature
10 -29
30 -49
so -69
70 -89
90 -109
109+
I
0 5 10 I 15
I
~ • • : i
I
4 9 14 ! 19
I
TABLE 2. REFERENCE FUEL MOISTURE.
NIGHTTIME I
2000 -0759 l
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PERCENT)
'
20 25 : 30 35 40 145 I 50 55 I 60 65
l
~ "' 1-t • I I
I"
I
I
I
.; I ..
I
I ....
24 29 i 34 39 44 ! 49 . 54 59 I 64 69
I '
I I ' .
I
70 175
.. 1.;
I
74 1 79
I
1 2 4 I 5 5 6 ! 7 8 9 : 10 11 12 : 12 14 15
I I I I
1 2 3 1 4 5 6 I 7 8 9 ( 9 11 11 1 12 13 14
I
I I I I
1 2 3 1 4 5 6 I 6 8 8 ~ 9 10 11 1 11 12 14
I 80 85 190 95
I ... I ., I
I I' I
'
84 89 1 94 99
I
I
19 22 125 25+
I
100
25+
18 21 124 25+ 25+
17
I
20 t23 25+ 25+
I I ·
1-- ----L -----·-- --- - - ---- -.1. -- - - -'T - --·-
1 1 1 I
--·-~-------~.·
I I I I
I I I I 1 2 3 I 4 4 5 I 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 15 17
I 1 I
1 2
1 2
t
3 ! 3
2 i 3
I
4
4
5 1 6
5 I 6
I
7
6
8 ~ 9
8 i 8
I
I
9 10 1 10 11
' 9 9 I 10 11
I
13 ;14
I
12 114
I
16
16
I
I
20 ;23 25+ 25+
19 122 25
I
19 I 21 24
I
25+
25+
TABLE 3. FUEL MOISTURE CORRECTION FOR ASPECT AND POSITION ON SLOPE.
NIGHTTIME
2000 -0759
2000---. 220<>----oooo---. 0200-o4oo--. o6oo-
L M u L M u L M u L M u L K u L K u
N 9 1 1 13 1 2 16 2 2 17 1 1 18 1 1 16 2 1
s 9 0 1 14 0 1 16 0 2 17 0 1 18 0 0 9 0 1
92
1.0 w
N
E
s
w
N' I
E
s
w
TABLE 4. DEAD FUEL MOISTURE CONTENT CORRECTIONS FOR ASPECT AND POSITION ON SLOPE.
I MAY JUNE JULY!
Clear and/or No Canopy
0800 ._,. 1000-~ 1200~ 1400----. 1600.___. 1800~
'
L M u L M u L M u L M u L M u L M u
0-30% 2 3 4 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 3 4
31%+ 3 4 4 ' 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 4 4
0-30% 2 2 3 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 2 3 4 4
31%+ 1 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
0-30% 2 3 3 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 3 3
-
31%+ 2 3 3 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
0-30% 2 3 4 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 3 3
31%+ 4 5 6 2 3 4 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 2
' I ; !
I I I
' ' I I I I
I I I I I I
I I Cl'oudy and/or Oanopy I I
I I I !
I
I I !
0%+ 4 5 5 3 4 5 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 5
O%+ 4 4 5 3 4 5 3 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 5 4 5 6
0%+ 4 4 5 3 4 5 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 5
0%+ 4 5 6 3 4 5 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 5 4 4 5
TABLE 5. DEAD FUEL MOISTURE CONTENT CORRECTIONS FOR ASPECT AND POSITION ON SLOPE.
I FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL/AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER I
Clear and/or No Canopy
0800_.. 1000 ___.... 1200~ 1400~ 1600-----1800~
'
L M u L M u L M u L M u L M u L M u
N 0 -30% 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 4 5
31%+ 3 4 5 3 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 5
E 0 -30% 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 4 5
31%+ 3 3 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 4 5 6
s 0 -30% 3 4 5 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 5
31%+ 3 4 5 1 2 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5
w 0 -30% 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 5
31%+ 4 5 6 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 4
j ' i I I ' '
l 1 I : I \
I I I I t
j { Clqudy and/or Canopy f I
l i
' ' N 0%+ 4 5 6 4 5 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 6
E 0%+ 4 5 6 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 4 5 6 4 5 6
s 0%+ 4 5 6 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 4 5 6
w O'X,+ 4 5 6 4 5 6 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 4 5 6
~
N
E
s
w
N
E
s
w
TABLE 6. DEAD FUEL MOISTURE CONTENT CORRECTIONS FOR ASPECT AND POSITION ON SLOPE.
jNOVEMBER DECEMBER JANUARYj
Clear and/or No Canopy
0800 ______. 1000........._.. 1200~ 1400 _____... 1600~ 1800--i!>
'
L M u L M u L M u L M u L M u L M u
0 -30% 4 5 6 3 4 5 2 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6
31%+ 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
0 -30% 4 5 6 3 4 4 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 4 5 4 5 6
31%+ 4 5 6 2 3 4 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 6 4 5 6
0 -30% 4 5 6 3 4 5 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 I 6
31%+ 4 5 6 2 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6
0 -30% 4 5 6 3 4 5 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 6
31%+ 4 5 6 4 5 6 3 4 4 2 2 3 2 3 4 4 5 I 6
I I I ' : • ' J I I I ! I I I
I I. I ' . ' ' Clou~y and/or Can;>py I
l
I I I
0%+ 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
0%+ 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
0%+ 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
O%+ 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
GUIDELINES TO COMPENSATE FOR
LIVE FUEL (FOLIAGE) MOISTURE CONTENT (PERCENT)
Live fuel moisture (foliage moisture) is required
for fire behavior models 2, 4, 5, 7, and 10. If
.data are unavailable for estimating live fuel
moisture, the following rough estimates can be
used.
LIVE FUEL (FOLIAGE) MOISTURE CONTENT (PERCENT)
TABLE 7
MOISTURE
CONTENT STAGE OF VEGETATION DEVELOPMENT
(PERCENT)
300 FRESH FOLIAGE, ANNUALS DEVELOPING,
EARLY IN GROWING CYCLE
200 MATURING FOLIAGE, STILL DEVELOPING
WITH FULL TURGOR
100 MATURE FOLIAGE, NEW GROWTH COMPLETE
AND COMPARABLE TO OLDER PERENNIAL
FOLIAGE
so ENTERING DORMANCY, COLORATION STARTING,
SOME LEAVES MAY HAVE DROPPED FROM STEM
96
):>
""C
""C
CD
COST SUMMARY DATA SHEET :::::J
c..
Year No. of Cost Adjusted Cost Adjusted Cost Acres Burned ><
Fires Factor* Total+
1957 38 96,056 84.3 113 '945 20,500 0
58 27 57,398 86.6 66,279 4,601
59 25 35,221 87.3 40,345 3,186 V)
60 19 19,661 88.7 22,166 24 c
"'C 61 6 11 '123 89.6 12,414 49 "'C
62 8 26,041 90.6 28,742 79 :;:c
f'T1
63 19 108,607 91.7 118,437 465 V)
V)
64 19 8,427 92.9 9,071 67 .......
65 8 2,662 94.5 2,817 22 0
1.0 :z
-...J 66 30 2,001,490 97.2 2,059,146 229,810 n 67 32 1,693,945 100.0 1,693,945 43,402 0
68 8 327,950 104.2 314,731 2,124 V)
-f
69 19 1,189,950 109.8 1,083,743 701,976 V)
70 28 125,240 116.3 107,687 59 c
71 28 315,100 121.3 259,769 10,460 3:
3:
72 41 292,631 125.3 233,544 2,364 )::o
.:;:c
73 17 70,997 133.1 53,341 25 -<
74 23 109,717 147.7 74,284 67
75 25 327,641 161.2 203,251 184
76 61 378,480 170.5 221,982 141
77 38 349,463 181.5 192,542 577
78 36 ----------------------212
*Consumer Price Index for United States
+1967 Dollars
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Appendix E. PRoncnoN srANDARos MAP
BOWJDARV ~Or?TYMIL[ INTrRAGC~CV ~/R[ PLMJNI~G ARCA-JAN.IQ79
PROTECTION SlANDARDS
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Appendix F.
·~-·-=-. ~l • ,, . . :~
LAND STATUS W
BOO~~RV ~O~TVMIL( IN7rRActOCY
f:/Rr PLAAJNI~G AR[A ~ JA~.If~
LAND STATUS
FEPEML
53 Nattonq/ Pen Sqttm
1 wr-...1-St.lllea~llte-m
2 wr-.eii-St Ilea~ 2041 Wltll*•wl
3 Yu•on ClltrleJ-Mtnllllltllt
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IIIDIJ Bwtqu of Land Manaatmtnt
5 Net18MI lt••e~~rt• L•lllfe
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STATE of ALASK~
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Appendix G. SOILS HAP
----90UkillU?v ~OJ<TYMIL~ IN'frRActOCY
f:/Rt Pl.AWI~G AR(A · JA~. IQ~
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