HomeMy WebLinkAboutAPA949IS
QL
737
.U512
048
1974
ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
JUNEAU, ALASKA
DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF NEW
TECHNIQUES FOR MOOSE MANAGEMENT
By Albert W. Franzmann, Paul D. Arneson, Robert E. LeResche
and James L. Davis
STATE OF ALASKA
William A. Egan, Governor
DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
James W. Brooks, Commissioner
DIVISION OF GAME
Frank Jones, Director
Donald McKnight, Research Chief
Final Report
Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration
Projects W-17-2, W-17-3, W-17-4, W-17-5 and W-17-6
Job 1 ..
Printed September 1974
State:
Cooperators:
Project Nos.:
Job No .:
Period Coverecf:
FINAL REPORT (RESEARCH)
Alaska
Albert W. Franzmann, Paul D. Arneson, Robert E. LeResche
and James L. Davis
W-17-2, W-17-3,
W-17-4, W-17-5 and
W-17-6
Project Ti tle: Big Game Investigations
Job Title: Development and
Testing of New
Techniques for Moose
Management
July 1, 1969 to June 30, 1974
SUMMARY
Succinylcholine chloride (Anectine) was administered to 1,098 moose
with 70.1 percent (770) of these becoming immobilized. Mortality rate
was 4.1 percent. Dosage varied with season and condition of moose.
Mean induction time was 8.5 minutes and mean time immobilized was 25.8
minutes. Hyaluronidase used with succinylcholine chloride decreased
induction time by 33 percent, but mortality rates were slightly higher
(4.2 vs 4.0%). This drug was the primary immobilizing agent used at the
Kenai Moose Research Center (MRC) because it met most of the require-
me nts for our use.
Etorphine (M-99) with diprenorphine were considered safer and more
effective in immobilizing moose, but their use was restricted by Bureau
of Narcotics and Dangerous Drug regulations. They were used only on
moose within the enclosures. Satisfactory dosage of etorphine was 6.8 ~
mg/adult (.86 mg/45 kg), 3.6 mg/yearling (.63 mg/45 kg), and 2.9 mg/cal f
(.86 mg/45 kg). Diprenorphine dosage is recommended at two times etorphine
immobilization dose. Etorphine was the only immobilizer used on calves
and it provided satisfactory results. Multiple doses to effect are not
recommended.
Other drugs tested had qualities not desirable for MRC use, but
under other conditions may be useful. Most of these drugs were discon-
tinued for routine use due to prolonged recovery time .
Trapping moose was an integral part of the MRC activity . Trap
design and implementation information was published (LeResche and Lynch
197 3). Trapping success at the MRC was influenced by density of moose ,
location of trap, season and moose movement and behavi or. The trap
success index inside the MRC enclosures was 0 .20 and outside 0.18.
i
ARLIS
Alaska Resources
Li br ary & Info r mation SerVices
Anchorage Alaska
Results of the aerial-count-census evaluation study were published
(LeResche and Rausch 1974). Aerial composition count evaluation was not
done due to lack of yearlings and calves within the MRC enclosures.
Helicopter surveys of the MRC enclosures in June provided useful produc-
tivity data, but for time and money expended were not considered applicable
elsewhere.
Pellet count census evaluation studies were conducted over a four-
year period in Pen 1 with known numbers of moose. Pellet groups were
randomly distributed in each of seven vegetation types. The hypothesis
of no difference among habitat types was rejected (a=O.Ol). On this
basis, the number of pellet groups per type was summed to obtain a
stratified estimate of the number of pellet groups in Pen 1. Pellet
groups/moose/day from 20.2 to 28.7 calculated from known moose days in
the pen were much higher than those reported for other ungulates.
Overestimation of moose numbers in the enclosure by factors of 1.8 to
2.7 was experienced using a reported daily moose defecation rate of
10.7. With this disparity of values and limited data on defecation
rates/moose/day we were unable to validate the technique. Determining
winter defecation rates, by observation, of moose at the MRC must be
accomplished. The distribution of pellet groups, in broadly classified
vegetation types, corresponded to reported and observed habitat use.
Telemetric tracking, utilizing radio transmitters in the 30 megahertz
(mhz) range, was used to locate individual moose within the enclosures
with good success, but much effort. The application of uni-directional
receivers from the ground was limited, and this equipment would be
inadequate for projects that require locating many animals over a short
period of time. Biotelemetric procedures and equipment were investigated
and their application to the MRC program was determined to be valid and •
proposals were prepared on this basis.
Having experienced undesirable side affects with various rumen
sampling procedures we recommend that attempts with the stomach tube
should utilize a portable suction pump in place of hand pump, incorporate
an effective tranquilizer with the immobilizing drug and only animals in
good condition be selected for sampling.
Various marking devices have been utilized on moose at the MRC and
in conjunction with the Kenai Moose Population Identity Study. When
iqdividual identification of the animal was desired, the collar presently
being used was considered best. It is a canvas-web collar 15.3 em wide
with a 12.7 em numeral in contrasting color placed on top and on each
side. A weight (bolts) helped retain the collar in the proper position.
Eartags with colored plastic material proved useful for additional
identification. Freeze-branding attempts of various types were unsuccessful
on moose.
A weighing device combining a winch and tripod proved effective for
moose at the MRC.
ii
S1,1mmary .•
Background
Objectives
Procedures .
Findings ••
CONTENTS
Immobilizing, Reversing and Adjunct Drugs •
Trapping. • . • . . • •
Aerial Census Evaluation. •
Pellet-Count Census Evaluation.
Telemetric Tracking •
Rumen Sampling. • •
Marking Techniques •..
Weighing. . .
Recommendations •.
Acknowledgements • • .
Literature Cited ••
BACKGROUND
i
1
. • • • 5
5
12
12
. 27
32
• 33
• 39
40
40
42
. 44
. 47
. 47
Moose (AZaes aloes) research and management require methods of
estimating numbers and of handling, marking and following animals.
These techniques necessarily vary with species and location of the
management/research problem. The Kenai Moose Research Center (MRC),
with known numbers of confined animals, provides a unique test-ground
for numbers-related techniques and for methods and equipment whose
effectiveness can only be evaluated by relocation of the animal.
Developments in many fields provided drugs, equipment and procedures
potentially applicable to moose management and determined the thrust of
activity under this job objective. Techniques tested and evaluated
under this project since 1969 include; immobilization with drugs, trapping,
aerial census, pellet count census, telemetric tracking, biotelemetry,
rumen sampling, marking and weighing. Project progress reports have
presented results in these areas (LeResche 1970, LeResche and Davis
1971, LeResche et al. 1973, and Franzmann and Arneson 1973). ,In addition
several publications have emanated from these investigations (LeResche
and Lynch 1973, LeResche and Rausch 1974, Franzmann and Arneson 1974,
and Arneson and Franzmann 1974). This final report provides an appraisal
of these studies.
An ideal immobilizing drug should possess the following qualities:
1) short induction time, 2) wide tolerance range, 3) rapid reversibility
and 4) no lasting or cumulative side effects and should leave meat
consumable by a subsequent hunter (LeResche and Davis 1971). Testing
new drugs against these criteria should be done as they become available.
Progress in large ungulate immobilization has been made as new drugs
have been developed, but most fail to meet all the ideal criteria.
Succinylcholine chloride (Anectine-Burroughs, Wellcome and Co.,
Research Triangle Park NC) has been utilized for Cervidae immobilization
for some time (Buechner et al. 1960, Talbot and Lamprey 1961, Pistley
and Wright 1961, Boyd 1962, Cowan et al. 1962, Flook et al. 1962, Bergerud
1
et a!. 1964, Harthoorn 1965, Harper 1965, White 1967, Miller 1968,
Houston 1969, LeResche 1970, LeResche and Davis 1971, VanBallenberge and
Peek 1971 and Franzmann and Arneson 1973). Succinylcholine chloride
continues to be used in free-ranging Cervidae in spite of its narrow
tolerance range, irreversibility and delayed hypersensitivity because it
is considered safe to use in consumable animals and is readily available.
Etorphine (M-99 American Cyanamid Co., Princeton, NJ) incorporates
most of the desired qualities of an immobilizing drug, and has the added
benefit of an available and effective antagonist -diprenorphine (M 50-
50, American Cyanamid Co., Princeton, NJ). However, both drugs come
under registration of the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs which
creates supply and administrative problems.
Etorphine and diprenorphine have been used on a variety of Cervidae
(Harthoorn 1965, Wallach et al. 1967, Houston 1970, LeResche 1970,
LeResche and Davis 1971, Franzmann and Arneson 1973, Woolf et al. 1973).
Peinaar (1968a,b) reported in detail on effects of various thebaine
derivativ~s when used alone and in combination with tranquilizers and
parasympatholytic agents. Alford et al. (1974) summarized 1,600 reports
on field use of etorphine and diprenorphine from 131 investigators,
including MRC reports on Alaskan moose.
Other iMfobilizing drugs used for Cervidae include; phencyclidine
hydrochloride2 (Kroll 1962 and LeResche and Davis 1971), propriopromazine
hydrochloride (LeResche ~nd Davis 1971), pentobarbital sodium (LeResche
and Davis 1971), xylazine (Hime and Jones 1970, Amand et al. 1971,
LeResche and Davis 1971, Mulling and Henning 1971, Thurmon et al.41972,
York and Huggins 1972, and Franzmann and Arneson 1973) and Cl-744 (Beck
1972 a~d 6 Franzmann and Arneson 1973). Phenothiazine derivative tranquil-
izers ' have been used in conjunction with immobilizing a~ents to
supplement their action, and enzymes, such as hyaluronidase , have been
added to speed absorption (LeResche and Davis 1971).
Need to capture and recapture moose for marking and serial blood
sampling necessitated the design of a suitable trap. Taber and Cowan
(1969) have reviewed designs of traps for various game animals. A fence
line trap for moose was designed and described (LeResche and Lynch
1973).
Aerial censusing is at present the only practical method of esti-
mating moose numbers in most of Alaska (cf: Rausch and Bratlie 1965,
Rausch and Bishop 1968, Bishop 1969, and Rausch 1971), but the extent to
which this method underestimates numbers has been a major problem when
absolute numbers are sought. Siniff and Skoog (1964) developed a random
stratified, quadrat sampling method for caribou (Rangifer tarandus),
but even in intensively counted quadrats some animals were missed.
Evans et al. (1966) used a similar technique on moose. Benson (1966)
and Bergerud (1968) have reviewed aerial censusing techniques. The
1. Sernylan -Bio-Ceutic Laboratories, Inc., St. Joseph, MO
2. Tranvent-Diamond Laboratories, Inc., DesMoines, IA
3. Rompun -Chemagro, Dansas City, MO
4. CI-&44 -Park, Davis and Co., Detroit, MI
5. Sparine -Wyeth Laboratories, Philadelphia, PA
6. Acepromazine -Ayerst Laboratories, New York, NY
7. Wydase _Wyeth Laboratories, Philadelphia, PA
2
presence of four one-square-mile enclosures with known numbers of moose
provided an opportunity to test this population estimation technique for
moose. Results of this experiment at the MRC have been formally published
(LeResche and Rausch 1974).
Known sex and age composition at the MRC provided an additional
opportunity to test observers' abilities at aerial composition counts.
Rausch and Bratlie (1965) outlined procedures to assess the dynamics of
moose populations, and sex and age composition counts were an integral
part of the procedure. Most agencies involved in moose management
depend upon sex and age composition counts to evaluate the status of
moose populations, and several published studies have incorporated
composition counts (Edwards and Ritcey 1958, Pimlott 1959, Peek 1962,
Simkin 1965, Houston 1968, Stevens 1970). Observer accuracy has not been
tested and an experiment was designed at the MRC to accomplish this.
Pellet count census techniques have been used for various species
of big game animals for some time (Bennet et al. 1940, Rasmussen and
Doman 1943, Bowden et al. 1969). Several studies have been done with
penned ungulates (Eberhardt and VanEtten 1956, Julander et al. 1963,
Downing et al. 1965 and LeResche 1970, LeResche and Davis 1971 and
Franzmann and Arneson 1973), and others have used the technique in
habitat use studies (DesMeules 1962). Data regarding distribution of
pellet grpups are quite variable; however, most observers have found
that they tend to be aggregated. Loveless (1967) found that mule deer
(OdocoiZeus hemionus) pellet groups on north facing slopes tended to be
randomly distributed while those occurring on south and west facing
slopes tended to be contagiously distributed. Bowden et al. (1969)
compared the distribution of mule deer pellet groups with four mathematical
distributions. The Poisson distribution, which would represent a random
placement of pellet groups, did not fit their data. All three contagious
distributional models (negative binomial, Thomas, and Neyman Type A) fit
the data.
The problems and promise of biotelemetry in behavior and physiology
related to ecological problems 'were outlined in the 1960's (Slater 1963,
and MacKay 1968). Advances and achievements in the field coincided with
technological advances. Will and Patrie (1972) compiled a bibliography
on wildlife telemetry which lists over 450 references. Gessaman (1973)
reviewed some applications of telemetry to homeotherm energetics in a
view compatible with ecological modeling.
Telemetric tracking of moose has been utilized at the MRC (LeResche
and Davis 1971, and Johnson et al. 1973) and in Minnesota (Van Ballenberghe
and Peek 1971, and Berg and Phillips 1972). Current studies in Interior
Alaska by John Coady, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, are utilizing
telemetric tracking.
Biotelemetry studies are lacking in moose, but have been utilized
in other mammals to obtain heart rates from Artie fox (AZopex Zagopus),
Artie wolf (Canis lupus), wolverine (GuZo guZo) (Folk 1964), European
hedgehog (EPinaceus euvopaeus), Rhesus maca (Maaaca muZatta), stump-
3
tailed macaque (Macaoa sylvana), snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus),
Artie ground squirrel (Citellus undulatus) (Folk and Hedge 1964), big
brown ba~ (E,ptesious fusous) (Studier and Howell 1969), Uinta ground
squirrel (CitelZus aPmatus) (Ruff 1971), Beldings ground squirrel,(CitelZus
beZdingi), California ground squirrel (SpePmophiZus beecheyi), golden-
mantled ground squirrel (CiteZZus ZateraZis) (Morhardt and Morhardt
1969) and white-tailed deer (OdocoiZeus virginianus) (Skutt et al.
1973). Mammalian body temperature recordings via biotelemetry have been
utilized in pronghorn antelope (AntiZocapra americana) (Lonsdale et al.
1971), yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota fiaviventris) (Downhower and
Pauley 1970), northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) (McQinnis
and Southworth 1967), grizzly bear, (Drsus arotos) elk (Cervus canadensis)
(Craighead and Craighead 1971), African elephant (Loxodonta africana),
zebra (Equus burchelZi), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), polar bear
(ThaZarctos maritimus) (Baldwin 1973), Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baiZeyi)
(Williams et al. 1968), kongoni (AZceLaphus caama), eland (Taurotragus
oryx) (McGinnis et al. 1970), and white-tailed deer (Skutt et al. 1973).
Johnson and Geesaman (1973), in their review on heart rate as an
indirect monitor of free-living energy metabolism, concluded that monitoring
heart rates of mammals throughout the day may provide a fair to good
index of their average daily free-living metabolic rates.
Van Dyne (1968) reviewed techniques for measuring dietary preferences
and digestibilities of foods selected by large herbivores. Previous
studies at the MRC have utilized techniques involving observation of
free-ranging animals (LeResche and Davis 1973), estimating food intake
by observing browsed plants (LeResche and Davis 1971 and Oldemeyer
1974), rumen contents analyses of hunter-harvested animals (LeResche and
Davis 1971), fecal analysis (LeResche et al. 1973) and in vitro digestibility
trials (Oldemeyer 1974). In vivo digestibility trials required rumen-
fistulated animals. Rumen fistulation was performed on two moose (LeResche
et al. 1973). In vitro digestibility trials required obtaining moose
rumen liquor. Rumen sampling from elk and deer utilizing a rumen trocar
technique was reported by Follis and Spillett (1972). Rumen sampling
with a stomach tube and pump is a procedure regularly utilized in the
practice of veterinary medicine. A method to obtain rumen liquor for
in vitro digestion trials in an efficient manner without sacrifice of
the individual was required.
Various methods for marking wild animals were reviewed by Taber and
Cowan (1969). Methods for marking moose for subsequent identification
have stressed assorted collars, pendants and earflags. Color-coded
collars, as described by LeResche and Davis (1971), were replaced by a
combination color-coded and numbered collar for Kenai Peninsula population
identity studies (Franzmann and Arneson 1973). In work with domestic
animals, freeze-branding (Farrell et al. 1969 and Kambitsch et al. 1969)
has been generally accepted as a marking technique. The method involves
killing pigment-producing cells in hair follicles by freezing, thereby
producing white hair in the pattern of the brand applied. Dye-marking
moose by aerial bombardment or with Cap-Chur dye projectiles may supplement
other marking techniques.
4
The MRC provided an opportunity to serially handle many moose and
road access was available to nearly all 21 traps most of the year. The
desirability of obtaining weights necessitated developing equipment and
methods for weighing large cervids.
OBJECTIVES
To test and evaluate techniques that are potentially useful for
determining population status, movements and other factors necessary for
management of moose.
PROCEDURES
Immobilizing Drugs
Immobilizing drugs, both commercially available and experimental,
were tested on moose at the MRC for their induction time, tolerance
range, reversibility, side effects and general effectiveness. Drugs
tested included; succinylcholine chloride, etorphine with diprenorphine,
phencyclidine hydrochloride, propriopromazine hydrochloride, pentobarbital
sodium, xylazine, and CI-744. In most instances the drugs were administered
with Cap-Chur equipment (Palmer Chemical, Douglasville GA). Drugs to
supplement the effectiveness of immobilizing agents, such as tranquilizers
and enzymes, were also tested.
Trapping
The design and development of traps for moose at the MRC have been
reported by LeResche and Lynch (1973). Trap effectiveness was monitored
by recording trap nights, moose processed, moose released, moose escaped
and malfunctions. A trap success index was computed from this for both
inside and outside traps on an individual trap and monthly basis.
Aerial Census Evaluation
From January 26 -February 4, 1970, three helicopter counts and 19
counts by PAlS-150 "Supercubs" were made of moose in the four Kenai
Moose Research Center pens. Thirty-three additional "Supercub" counts
were made on March 6-9, 1971. Observers were instructed to direct
pilots how to fly the survey and were allowed 15 minutes to count each
square mile. Pilots did not participate in locating moose and observers
recorded each moose seen. Observers could direct pilots to circle over
one small area, to fly transects and in general follow their requests
within the time constraints.
Conditions were good to excellent, with snow cover at least adequate,
for 15 counts in 1970 and poor for 4 counts that year. Conditions were
excellent, with complete snow cover, during all 1971 counts.
Time of day, pilot and previous moose counting experience of each
observer were noted and the total number of moose seen in each pen was
recorded.
5
Helicopter surveys to assess the MRC populations were done periodically.
Time spent per pen and proportion of moose observed to moose known
present were recorded.
Pellet Count Census Evaluation
2 .
One hundred and sixty (159 in winter 197Q-71) 17.9 m permanent
browse utilization plots in Pen 1 were used for pellet group count
plots. Plots were randomly located in each of seven vegetative types
representing 204.3 ha of the 241.1 ha in Pen 1. The sample plots
constituted 0.14 percent (0.139 in 1970-71) of the area utilized. The
non-sampled area of 36.8 ha consisted of spruce-Ledum, grass, sedge and
water areas which were not considered winter use areas based upon winter
feeding preferences of three tame moose on natural forage (LeResche and
Davis 1973).
Plots were cleared of pellets in May 1970 and were first counted
and cleared again on June 2-4, 1971. Fecal deposits in each plot were
classified as winter (pelletized) or summer (not-pelletized). Based on
observations of the MRC trapped moose, the period of pelletized fecal
groups was established as beginning November 1 and continuing until June
1. No plots were counted or cleared in spring 1972. On May 10, 11, 14
and 18, 1973 the 160 plots in Pen 1 were again counted and cleared.
Separation of past year from present year groups was attempted on the
basis of leaf and duff cover over pellet groups, deterioration of pellet
groups and color and texture of these groups. The leaf cover use was
enhanced by the fact that leaves fall during early October in this area
prior to pelletization of moose fecal droppings (November 1). On May 6,
7, and 8, 1974 the plots were counted and cleared with only winter-
summer separation made as plots had been cleared the previous May.
Moose days were calculated for the four winter periods in Pen 1
based upon the 21Q-day (November 1 to June 1) pellet forming period and
known numbers of moose present either for the entire period or parts
thereof. We considered this an accurate appraisal of moose numbers in
Pen 1 as moose were trapped and observed throughout this period. The
winters of 1972-73 and 1973-74 had 196 and 191 potential moose days
respectively since the plots for each period were counted prior to June
1 when pellet formation generally ceased.
Telemetric Tracking
Radio transmitters in the 30 mhz range were placed on eight cow
moose in the spring of 1970. Similar equipment was placed on six calves
and six cows for a behavior and survival study of orphaned and non-
orphaned moose calves in fall 1972 (Johnson et al. 1973). A hand-held
directional receiver (Dll/m) was used in both studies to locate radio-
collared moose from the ground. Transmitters and receiver components
were obtained from Boyd's Hobby Shop, Tumwater, WA. The transmitters
were incorporated into cow and calf collars at the MRC.
6
Biotelemetry
Investigations into equipment, procedure and application of biotele-
metry equipment were completed and a biotelemetry and radio tracking
study plan was outlined. The objectives of this plan were: 1) to
delineate diurnal and seasonal movements and associated behavior patterns
via radio telemetry of moose, 2) to assess the physiologic response and
evaluate the stress associated with basic, nonbasic and abnormal activity
patterns of moose, both naturally occurring and induced, via biotelemetry,
3) to indirectly monitor free-living energy metabolism of moose via
biotelemetry and 4) to assist ongoing studies of reproduction, productivity,
natality and mortality of moose. Hugh Martin from Oceans Applied Research
Corp., San Diego, CA, visited the MRC in March, 1974 to determine the
equipment that would be required.
Rumen Sampling
Rumen liquor was obtained for in vitro digestion trials by rumen
trocar and a stomach tube using hand and mechanical pump methods (Franzmann
and Arneson 1973). To obtain rumen samples for food habits and in vivo
digestion trials rumen fistulae were implanted in two moose (LeResche et
al. 1973). Rumen sample~ were also obtained from salvaged moose and
from those animals collected for volatile fatty acid (VFA) studies.
Marking Techniques
Collars:
Collaring began within the enclosures at the MRC in January 1968.
The first collars used consisted of braided polyethlene rope with colored
Saflag material (Safety Flag Co. of America, Pawtucket, RI) woven into
the collar in six locations. At the bottom of these collars was a
numbered flex nylon cattle marker (Nasco, Fort Atkinson, WI).
Moose captured and tagged in Mystery Creek drainage in October 1968
were fitted with solid color canvas-web collars (Denver Tent and Awning
Co., Denver, CO) that were 10 em wide. Colors denoted whether the moose
was male or female. Male collars were 132 em. long and open with three
grommets in each end to fasten with bolts, clips or rings at the time of
tagging. Female collars were 107 em long, sewn closed with one grommet
for attaching a weight. During 1968 and 1969 these same type collars
were used on moose within the enclosures at the MRC. Beginning in
August 1969 moose trapped outside the enclosures at the MRC had white
collars placed on females and blue collars on males.
In early 1970 numbers 9 em high were written on the solid collars
with a "magic marker" for further identification. Red pendants 13 by 18
em with white 8 em high by 8 mm wide letters and numerals were suspended
from collars in June 1970 to identify moose as individuals when seen
from a "Supercub". Numbers were routed on both sides of the laminated
plastic pendants and hung either perpendicular or parallel to the moose's
longitudinal axis. Similar pendants, white with black numerals, were
placed on collars of moose trapped at the MRC.
7
In May 1971 canvas-web collars, each with a unique stripe combination
(Fig. 1), were placed on free-ranging moose. These collars also carried
numbered pendants as mentioned above. After January 1972 at the MRC and
in October 1972 in Big Indian Creek and Skilak -Tustumena Benchland,
moose were marked with quadracolor collars to be distinguishable as
individuals (Fig. 2). Since July 1973 collars 15.3 em wide with numerals
12.7 em high (Fig. 3) have been used on free-ranging and inside MRC
moose.
Eartags:
The first eartags utilized were metal, ear-piercing, Rasco tags
(National Band and Tag Co. Newport, KY) with Saflag streamer material
(Saflag Co. of America, Pawtucket, RI) 7.6 em wide x 22.9 em long in
various colors. In 1970 and 1971 large-sized, black Ritchey eartags
(Nasco, Fort Atkinson, WI) with white letters and numerals and various
colored jumbo Rototags (Dalton Supplies Ltd. Henley-on-Thames, Nettlebed,
England) were tested for permanence, legibility and ease of installation.
Goliath Rototags (Dalton Supplies Ltd., Henley-on-Thames, Nettlebed,
England) were used on free-ranging moose marked in October 1972 and
1973. At the MRC silver Saflag material in the right ear of females and
left ear of males fastened with metal Rasco tags has been used from May
1970 to date.
Freeze-Branding:
On November lQ-11, 1970 two tame 17-month-o1d male moose (Walter
and Richard) were freeze-branded. Hair was shaved with electric animal
clippers and cold copper branding "irons" were applied to the skin.
Numbers were 15.3 em high and approximately 2.5 em wide (L&H Mfg. Co.,
Mandan, SD). Irons were cooled with a mixture of acetone and dry ice
and applied for varying lengths of time.
Freeze-branding with a spray-on refrigerant (Cryokwik, International
Equipment Co., Needham Heights, MA) was attempted on March 27, 1973.
One area on the left flank of Wally, Jr., our semi-tame moose, was
clipped and sprayed for 20 seconds. The right flank was sprayed for 20
seconds without clipping the hair, and an area on the rump was sprayed
for 20 seconds after parting the hair.
A modified freeze-branding technique, as outlined by R.K. Farrel,
Endoparasite Vector Pioneering Research Laboratory, Pullman, WA (personal
communication), was also attempted on Wally, Jr. The procedure utilized
Freon 12 and Freon 22 gas in pressurized cans and stainless steel "cookie
cut-ter" devices, one rectangular and one "L" shaped. The area to be
branded was clipped and the "cookie cutters" were held against the skin
on a horizontal area to produce a pool when sprayed with the Freon.
Areas were sprayed for varying periods of time and some were quickly
thawed, others were not.
Weighing
A note as submitted for publication appears in Findings section.
8
Fig. 1. Canvas-web collars placed on moose, with colored
plastic tape for individual identification.
A A A A
E D c
B B B B
A Females: Pink, Red; Males: Yellow, Orange
B Females: Red, Pink; Males: Orange, Yellow
c Tape: Green, Brown, Black, Silver, Yellow, Blue, White
D Tape: Green, Brown, Black, Silver, Yellow, Blue, White
E Tape: Green, Brown, Black, Silver, Yellow, Blue, White
9
Fig. 2. Design of quadracolor canvas-web collars to identify
tagged moose as individuals.
Panel 1 I Panel 2
Panel 3 Panel 4 .I
Panels consist of arty combination of the following colors: red, yellow, blue,
white, pink.
10
Fig. 3. Design of 15.3 em canvas-web neck collars used to identify
tagged moose as individuals.
Background and number color varies with tagging site. Numbered 1-99.
11
FINDINGS
Immobilizing, Reversing and Adjunct Drugs
Evaluation of moose immobilizing, reversing and adjunct drugs was
accomplished and new drugs were tested and evaluated as they became
available.
Succinylcholine chloride: This drug was the primary immobilizing
agent used at the MRC since 1968 because it met most of our requirements
for an ideal ungulate immobilizer. It had a relative short induction
time with no lasting or cumulative side effects and the meat from immobilized
animals was considered consumable in a relatively short time following
recovery. Limitations were its low tolerance range and irreversability.
Tables 1, 2 and 3 list the dosages of succinylcholine chloride used
in concentrations of 10 mg/cc with and without the enzyme hyaluronidase
(9 N.F. units hyaluronidase/mg succinylcholine chloride) for moose
trapped within the MRC enclosures, trapped outside the MRC enclosures
and free-ranging. Table 4 contains condensed data from Tables 1,2 and
3. The total number of moose immobilized was 722 and the mean induction
time was 8.5 minutes (Table 4). Mean immobilizing time (n = 463) was
25.8 minutes (Table 4).
Induction time was shortened with the use of hyaluronidase by a
mean time of 2.3 minutes for all observations (Table 4). This figure
may be biased in that the recorded induction times for some of the free-
ranging moose (Table 3) were longer than actually experienced due to the
inability of observers to see the animal go down in every case. Often
the down time was recorded when the animal was found or observed down,
which was often several minutes after the animal went down. Eliminating
the free-ranging induction times and utilizing only the inside and
outside MRC induction times (Tables 1 and 2), where the observer could
accurately record induction time, adult moose experienced a mean induction
time decrease of 3.4 minutes with hyaluronidase. The mean induction
time for male moose without hyaluronidase was 9.5 minutes and with
hyaluronidase 6.2 minutes, and for female moose the respective mean
induction times were 10.2 and 6.8 minutes (total sample-402). Male
moose mean induction time was less than females by 0.7 minutes without
hyaluronidase and 0.6 minutes with hyaluronidase (Tables 1 and 2).
The addition of hyaluronidase to succinylcholine chloride provided
a definite induction time advantage (33% shorter), and this can be
critical, particularly when working with free-ranging animals. However,
mortality risk may be slightly greater. Percent of moose killed of
moose darted was 4.0 for 479 moose given succinylcholine chloride with
hyaluronidase (Table 5). When we remove the Moose River Flats (May
1971) group from the data the percentage with succinylcholine chloride
alone drops to 1.5 for 400 moose. This group was removed for discussion
in that extremely high mortality was experienced for this group and it
was speculated at the time that the physiologic state of the animals at
parturition may have been responsible. To further substantiate the
possible increase in mortality risk by using hyaluronidase, we compared
12
Table 1. Effects of succinylcholine chloride (Anectine)a. and hyaluronidase (Wydase)b.
administered to trapped adult Alaskan moose within the Kenai Moose Research Center (MRC)
enclosures July 1, 1969 to May 1, 1974. (Sample size in parenthesis).
Mean Induction Time (min.) Mean Time Immobilized (min.)
Dosage Anectine Anectine w W~dase Anectine Anectine w W~dase
(mg of Anectine) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
13 0 8.0(1) 0 6.0(1) 0 10.0(1) 0 14.0(1)
13.5 7.5(3) 10.6(23) 2.5(1) 8.3(13) 41.5 (3) 20.4(23) 22.0(1) 34.4(12)
14 9.1 (7) 8.9(9) 4.5(1) 50 2 (5) 9.1(7) 18.6(9) 14.1(1) 20.0(5)
15 9.7(3) 9.0(1) 0 6.0(1) 15.7(3) 25.0(1) 0 17.0(1)
15.5 0 10.5(2) 8 0 0 (1) 0 0 16.5(2) 27.0(1) 0
16 9.0(2) 0 6.0(1) 6.0(1) 26.0(2) 0 21.0(1) 31. 0(1)
17 6.3(3) 0 21.0 (1) 0 19.3(3) 0 7.5(1) 0
17.5 0 0 0 9.0(1) 0 0 0 21. 0(1)
18 10.5(2) 8.4(4) 6.3(18) 7.6(17) 15.0(1) 19.8(4) 25.1(15) 26.1(14)
18.5 0 0 18.0(1) 0 0 0 39.0(1) 0
19 6.5(2) 7.2(6) 5.2(6) 6.6(28) 38.5(2) 30.3(6) 26.0(5) 30.8(23)
20 15.0(2) 12.6(5) 3.8(3) 6.4(14) 17.8(2) 22.9(4) 32.3(2) 32.8(13)
l-' 21 8.0(1) 10.7(6) 7 0 0 (3) 6.6(15) 31.0(1) 30.0(6) 28.0(2) 28.9(14) w
21.5 0 0 4.0(1) 0 0 0 44.0(1) 0
22 0 10.8(9) 11.0 (1) 4. 9(13) 0 27.9(9) 18.0(1) 32.7(13)
23 0 11.1(13) 0 0 0 30.6 (13) 0 0
24 19 0 0 (1) 0 0 0 34.0(1) 0 0 0
Mean 9.4(26) 10.2(79) 6.4(38) 6.6(110) 21.5(25) 24.2(78) 25.6(32) 29.9(98)
Sex Combined Mean 10.0(105) 6.5(148) 23.5(103) 28.8(130)
Sex and Drug Combined Mean 8.0(253) 26.5(233)
a. Anectine-Burroughs Wellcome and Co., Research Triangle Park, NC.
b. Wydase-Wyeth Laboratories Inc., Philadelphia PA-9 NF units Wydase per mg Anectine.
Table 2 Effects of succinylcholine chloride (Anectine)a. and hyaluronidase (Wydase)b·
administered to trapped adult Alaskan moose outside the Kenai Moose Research Center (MRC)
enclosures. July 1, 1969 to May 1, 1974 (Sample size in parenthesis).
Mean Induction Time (min.) Mean Time Immobilized (min.)
Dosage Anectine Anectine w Wydase Anectine Anectine w Wydase
{mg of Anectine) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
12.5 0 12.0(1) 0 0 0 34.0(1) 0 0
13 0 12.8(5) 0 0 0 22.4(5) 0 0
13.5 10.0(1) 13.3(3) 0 15.0(1) 37.0(1) 12.3(3) 0 23.0(1)
14 19.0(1) 11.5(2) 0 3.0(1) 25.0(1) 27.0(2) 0 12.0(1)
15.5 10.0(1) 0 0 9. 0(2) 20.0(1) 0 0 14.5(2)
16 0 11.0(1) 0 0 0 14.0(1) 0 0
18 5.0(1) 6.0(4) 5.5(2) 6.5(15) 32.0(1) 21.8(3) 25.5(2) 25.8(15)
19 6.0(1) 0 5.3(3) 5.6(21) 35.0(1) 0 33.3(3) 30.1(20)
20 0 7. 9 (10) 6.5(2) 6. 5 (20) 0 34.5(9) 22.5(2) 25.6(20)
21 0 10.0(6) 5.0(2) 9.6(8) 0 29.2(6) 26.0(2) 29.0(6)
22 0 9.8(14) 6.0(1) 10.1(10) 0 24.8(13) 2.0(1) 0.9(10)
1-' 23 0 15.5(4) 0 5.1(5) 0 30.5(4) 0 35.4(5) ~
24 0 0 0 7.5(1) 0 0 0 17.0(1)
Mean 10.0(5) 10.2 (50) 5.6(10) 7.0(84) 29.8(5) 26.6(47) 30.0(10) 26.4(81)
Sex Combined Mean 10.2(55) 6.9(94) 26.9(52) 26.8(91)
Sex and Drug Combined Mean 8.1 (149) 26.8(143)
a. Anectine-Burroughs Wellcome and Co., Research Triangle Park NC.
b. Wydase-Wyeth Laboratories Inc., Philadelphia PA-9 NF units Wydase per mg. Anectine.
Table 3. Effects of succinylcholine chloride (Anectine)a· and hyaluronidase (Wydase)b.
administered to free-ranging adult Alaskan moose. October 1968 through March 1974.
(Sample size in parenthesis).
Mean Induction Time (min.) Mean Time Immobilized (min.)
Dosage Anectine Anectine w W~dase Anectine Anectine w W~dase
(mg of Anectine) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
20 10.6(6) 11. 3(10) 9.1 (28) 8.9(18) 9.0(1) 30.3 (4) 19.9(10) 26.5(2)
21 7.2(14) 9.1(28) 9.9(25) 9.3(26) 14.3(3) 36.0(2) 21.5 (13) 18.6(5)
22 0 9.8(9) 8.1(12) 7. 5 (51) 0 17.2(4) 0 25.8(8)
22.5 13.5 (2) 5. 7 (3) 0 0 0 0 23.0{2) 0
23 10.8(8) 9.7(17) 6.4(7) 8.4(27) 40.0(1) 10.7(3) 0 23.3(13)
23.5 0 14.4(5) 0 0 0 20.5(4) 0 0
24 0 0 0 9.2(14) 0 0 0 23.8(4)
24.5 12.0(1) 15.0(1) 0 0 30.0(1) 25.0(1) 0 0
25 8.0(1) 8.2(5) 0 0 0 30.8(5) 0 0
25.5 13.0(1) 4.0(1) 0 0 0 16. 0(1) 0 0
1-'
Vt
Mean 9.4(33) 917(79) 8. 9 (72) 8.5(136) 20.3(6) 23.8(24) 20.2(25) 23.5(32)
Sex Combined Mean 9.6(112) 8.6(208) 23.1(30) 22.1(57)
Sex and Drug Combined Mean 9. 0(320) 22.4(87)
a. Anectine -Burroughs Wellcome and Co, Research Triangle Park, NC.
b. Wydase-Wyeth Laboratories Inc., Philadelphia PA-9 NF units Wydase per mg of Anectine.
Table 4. Effects of succinylcholine chloride (Anectine)a. and hyaluronidase (Wydase)b.
administered to Kenai Moose Research Center (MRC) inside and outside trapped and free-ranging
Alaskan moose. October 1968 to May 1974. (Sample size in parenthesis).
Mean Induction Time (min.) Mean Time Immobilized (min.)
Moose
Group
Anectine Anectine w Wydase Anectine Anectine w Wydase
Male Female Male Female
Inside MRC
Outside MRC
Free-ranging
Mean
Sex Combined Mean
9.4(26)
10.0(5)
9.4 (33)
9.4(64)
10.2 (79)
10.2(50)
9.7(79)
10.0(208)
9.9(272)
Sex and Drug Combined Mean 8.5(722)
6.4(38)
5.6(10)
8.9(72)
7.8(120)
6.6(110)
7.0(84)
8.5(136)
7.5(330)
7.6(450)
a. Anectine-Burroughs Wellcome and Co., Research Triangle Park, NC.
Male Female
21.5(25)
29.8(5)
20.3(6)
22.4(36)
24.2(78)
26. 6(47)
23.8(24)
24.9(149)
24.4(185)
b. Wydase-Wyeth Laboratories Inc., Philadelphia, PA-9 NF units Wydase per mg. of Anectine.
Male Female
25.6(32)
30.0(10)
20.2(25)
24.2(67)
29.9(98)
26.4(81)
23.5 (32)
27.6(211)
26.8(278)
25.8(463)
Table 5.
Trapped Inside MRC 1
(1968-1974)
Trapped Outside MRC
(1968-1974)
Mystery-Dike Creek
(October 1968)
..... .....
Skilak-Bot Lake
(March 1970)
Moose River Flats
(June 1970)
Moose River Flats
(May 1971)
Funny River Strip
(October 1972)
Caribou Hills
(October 197 3)
Copper River Delta
(March 1974)
Effects of succinylcholine chloride (Anectine)a and hyaluronidase (Wydase)b on 1098 adult Alaskan moose (1968-1974)
Percentage Immobilized of Moose Darted
Anectine Anectine w Wydase
Male Female Male Female
60,5 73.8 71.7 79.6
(26 of 43) (79 of 107) (38 of 53) (109 of 137)
45.5 69.4 83.3 79.2
(5 of 11) (50 of 72) (10 of 12) (84 of 106)
76.9 60.0
(10 of 13) (18 of 30)
67.0* 64.3*
(8 of 12*) (36 of 56*)
90.9 82.4
(20 of 22*) (28 of 34*)
61.9* 69.0*
(13 of 21*) (40 of 58*)
64.8 54.8
(35 of 54) (45 of 82)
65.0* 65.0*
(32 of 49*) (34 of 52*)
60.0* 70.0*
(12 of 20*) (38 of 54*)
Percentage Killed of Moos.e Darted
Anectine Anectine w Wydase
Male Female Male Female
0 0
(0 of 43) (0 of 107)
0 1.4
(0 of 11) (1 of 72)
0 0
(0 of 13) (0 of 30)
8.3 3.6
(1 of 12) (2 of 56)
4.5 2.9
(1 of 22) (1 of 34)
14.3 17.2
(3 of 21) (10 of 58)
3.8
(2 of 53)
0
(0 of 12)
3.7
(2 of 54)
2.0
(1 of 49)
0
(0 of 20)
4.4
(6 of 137)
2.8
(3 of 106)
7.3
(6 of 82)
9 .. 6
(5 of 52)
1.8
(1 of 54)
1-'
00
Table 5. Effects of succinylcholine chloride (Anectine)a and hyaluronidase (Wydase)b on 1098 adult Alaskan moose (1968-1974)
Mean**
Sex Combined Mean**
Sex and Drug Combined Mean**
1 Kenai Moose Research Center
Percentage Immobilized of Moose Darted
Anectine Anectine w Wydase
Male Female Male Female
67.2 70.3
(82 of 122) (251 of 357)
67.5
(127 of 188)
71.9
(310 of 431)
69.5
(333 of 4 79}
70.1
(770 of 1098}
70.6
(437 of 619}
a Anectine-Burroughs Wellcome and Co., Research Triangle Park NC
b Wydase-Wyeth Laboratories Inc., Philadelphia PA-9 NF units Wydase per mg Anectine
* Estimated
** Estimated values not included
*** Percentage killed of moose immobilized 5.8 (45 of 770)
Percentage Killed of Moose Darted
Anectine Anectine w Wydase
Male Female Male Female
4.1 3.9 2.7 4.9
(5 of 122} (14 of 35 7) (5 of 188} (21 of 431)
4.0
(19 of 479)
4.1***
(45 of 1098)
4.2
(26 of 619)
our data from the MRC (Table 5). Moose trapped and immobilized within
the MRC enclosures experienced no mortality with succinylcholine chloride
alone (150 moose) and with hyaluronidase 8 of 190 (4.2%) died. One
moose of 83 (1.2%) trapped and immobilized outside the MRC enclosures
died from use of succinylcholine chloride alone and 3 of 118 (2.5%) died
when hyaluronidase was added to succinylcholine chloride. Combining
inside and outside trapped MRC immobilized moose, 0.4 percent (1 of 233)
died from succinylcholine chloride use and 3.6 percent (11 of 308) died
from use of succinylcholine chloride and hyaluronidase in combination.
These data suggest that mortality risk is increased with the addition
of hyaluronidase to succinylcholine chloride ~nd an a priori judgement
should be made whether to forego the advantage of shortened induction
time when adding hyaluronidase.
Artificial respiration was administered to at least 20 moose appearing
to suffer respiratory distress at the MRC. Twelve of these moose survived.
Seasonal influence on succinylcholine chloride dosage of moose
immobilized at the MRC corresponded generally to the high and low
periods of.moose condition. Moose condition was assessed based upon
body fleshing and cover (Franzmann and Arneson 1973). In late winter
and spring, when moose were in poorest condition, the dosage and induction
time were lower than during the fall when moose were in peak condition
(Table 6). Moose weight also fluctuates with season and it may be this
factor alone was responsible for observed differences, but other physiological
parameters of the animal during lowered condition certainly must not be
eliminated from consideration.
The dosage of succinylcholine chloride necessary to produce immobili-
zation is susceptible to many sources of variation, but when due consider-
ation was given to these variables, it proved to be a useful immobilizing
drug for moose at the MRC.
Etorphine (M-99) and Diprenorphine (M 5Q-50): Etorphine incorporates
most of the desirable characteristics of an immobilizing drug. It has a
relatively short induction time, a wide tolerance range and rapid revers-
ibility with the reversing agent -diprenorphine. However, both drugs
are subject to Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drug regulations and
have not been cleared for use in consumable animals at this time.
Since October 1969, 69 adults, 17 yearlings and 22 calves have been
immobilized with etorphine and reversed with diprenorphine. Date,
dosage, induction time, time immobilized and reversal time were recorded
for each moose immobilized (Tables 7,8,9 and 10). An evaluation of
satisfactory (s) or unsatisfactory (u) response was made for each moose
immobilized with etorphine based upon induction time. An induction time
of 15 minutes or longer was considered unsatisfactory. There were no
"u" classifications for calves (Table 8), two for yearlings (Table 9)
and 26 for adults (Table 8).
The mean total "s" adult dose (43 moose) was 6.8 mg (0.86 mg/45 kg)
with a mean induction time of 7.8 minutes and a mean reversal time of
19
Table 6. Mean monthly succinylcholine chloride (Anectine)l
N
X
N
X
Jan
36
21.0
34
7.2
Feb
28
19.5
27
6.7
dosage and induction time of moose at the Kenai
Moose Research Center, Alaska, 1968-1974.2
Mar
20
18.6
13
7.3
Apr
26
18.8
22
6.2
Dosage (mg)
May June July
21 32
17.7 19.9
Induction Time (min.)
17
' 6. 7
32
8.6
Aug
31
20.1
31
7.2
Sept
44
20.3
41
8.1
Oct
40
20.4
40
8.2
Nov
20
20.1
20
7.3
1 Anectine-Burroughs, Wellcome and Co. Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC
Dec
25
20.5
25
8.6
2 Excluding data from March to October, 1972, and combining dosages with and with-
out hyaluronidase.
20
Table 7. Satisfactory immobilization results of adult moose at the Kenai
Moose Research Center, Alaska, with etorphine (M-99) and diprenorphine
(M 50-50).
Animal Month Total Weight Dose Induction Time Reversal
No. Sex Year Dose mg Kg mg/45 kg Time (min) Immobilized • Time (min)
(min
26 F Oct. 1969 10 4 7 4
23 F Oct. 1969 10 8 20 1
25 F Oct. 1969 8 9 24 2
Raquel F Oct. 1973 8 385* .94 5 20 1.5
Raque1 F Nov. 1972 5 373 .61 14 36 0.5
Raquel F Nov. 1972 5 373 .61 6 32 1.0
25 F Dec. 1969 8 9 24 2
34 F Dec. 1969 10 4.5 15 35***
Raquel F Dec. 1972 7 384 • 83 7 32 2
45 M Dec. 1972 7 393 .81 5 31 1
Raque1 F Dec. 1973 8 430 . 85 4 24 6
36 M Jan. 1970 8 7 26 1
Raque1 F Jan. 1973 7 385* • 82 5 31 1
87 F Feb. 1973 6 365* .75 5 40 1"
Raquel F Feb. 1973 7 385* .82 12 49 1
Raque1 F Feb. 1974 8 426 .85 3.5 42 6
53 M Mar. 1973 7 318 1.00 8 33 2
91 F Mar. 1973 7 341* .93 9 29 1.5
84 F Mar. 1973 7 330* .97 5 20 1
177 F Mar. 1973 7 341* .93 9 50 2
Raque1 F Mar. 1973 7 445 .71 8 28 2
Raque1 F Apr. 1973 7 445* .71 8 28 2
60 F May 1970 3 7.5 21 1.5
62 F May 1970 4 13 10 2
60 M May 1970 6 5 26 1.5
31 F May 1970 4 5 10 1.5
9 F May 1970 9** 9 23 1.0
65 F June 1970 4.5 9 30
66 F June 1970 4 13 10 1.5
R70-4 F June 1970 5 5 12.5 1
72 F June 1973 7 340* .93 9 33 1
37 F June 1973 7 365* .88 10 19 1
10 F June 1973 7 340* . 93 6 25 6
36 M June 1973 8 375* .97 13 22 2
27 F June 1973 7 340* .93 8 37 1
67 F July 1970 6 11 11
27 F July 1973 7 386* .82 9 20 1
Raquel F July 1973 9 409* 1.00 4 30 4
Wally M July 1973 8 364* 1.00 4 16 1
56 M Aug. 1971 5 248 .92 6 20 1
Raque1 F Aug. 1971 5 10 34 2
7 M Sept. 1971 7.5 14 4 1
59 M Sept. 1971 7.5 12 15 12***
Mean 6.8 372 • 86 7.8 25.1 2.1
SD 1.7 43 .11 3.0 10.7 1.9
* Estimated weight
** Multiple doses
*** Not calculated in mean (M SQ-50 underdosed)
21
Table 8. Unsatisfactory immobilization results of adult moose at the Kenai Moose Research Center~ Alaska, with
etorphine (M-99) and diprenorphine (M 50-SO).
Animal Month Total Weight Dose Induction Time Reversal
No. Sex Year Dose mg kg mg/45 kg Time (min) Immobilized Time (min) Comment
(min)
6 F Oct. 1969 11** 29 10 1
32 F Oct. 1969 10** 22 Died
29 F Oct. 1969 8.5** 28 Forced down 55 3
31 F Oct. 1969 9** 51 28 23
56 M Oct. 1969 10** 55 Forced down 52 8
53 M Nov. 1972 5 341* .67 19 44 1
106 F Dec. 1973 10** 409* 1.11 15 22 2.5
59 F Jan. 1970 11.5** Did not go down
53 M Feb. 1973 9. 5** 330* 1.31 34 63 1
91 F Feb. 1973 6.5 364* .88 18 94 4
86 F Apr. 1971 2.5** 10 Forced down 10 1
52 F Apr. 1973 7 386* .82 13 14 Up without M 50-50
R70-2 F May 1970 2 289 .31 15 17 3.5
N 26 F May 1970 6 5 Died
N 87 F May 1970 6** SO Forced down 7 6
35 M May 1970 4.2** 25 Forced down 10 1
63 F June 1970 3.5 15 Forced down 19 3
1 F June 1970 8.5** 34 Forced down 5 2
9 F July 1970 6 20 13 1.5
R70-8 F July 1970 6 21 14 1.5
27 F July 1970 6** Did not go down
38 F July 1970 7** 21 Forced down 11 1
55 M Aug. 1971 13** 46 Died
60 M Aug. 1971 8** Did not go down
Raquel F Sept. 1971 8.5** Did not go down
Mean 7.4 355 .84 26 29 3.6
SD 2.7 40 .32 14 25 5.2
* Estimated weight
** Multiple doses
N w
Table 9. Results of immobilization of
and diprenorphine (M 50-50).
Animal
No. Sex
44 M
Walter M
Walter M
Richard M
Raquel F
Wally M
Wally M
Wally M
Wally M
Richard M
Wally M
Richard M
Wally M
7 M
Walter M
Mean
SD
37 F
Richard M
* Estimated weight
** Multiple doses
Month
Year
Oct. 1969
Nov. 1970
Nov. 1970
Nov. 1970
Nov. 1970
Nov. 1972
Nov. 1972
Dec. 1972
Feb. 1973
Mar. 1971
Mar. 1973
Apr. 1971
Apr. 1973
Jun. 1970
Jul. 1971
Jun. 1970
Nov. 1970
yearling moose at the Kenai Moose Research Center, Alaska with etorphine (M-99)
Time
Total Weight Dose Induction Immobilized Reversal
Dose mg Kg mg/45 kg Time min. min. Time min.
SATISFACTORY RESPONSE
5 8 20 1
1.5 300 .23 7
1.5 300 .23 6 1 1
3 314 .43 8 2 2
1.5 6 1 2
5 273 .83 14 36 0.5
5 273 .83 6 24 1
5 298 .76 5 47 1.5
6 320 .85 6 44 2.0
1.3 3 2 1
6 340* .80 6 34 0.5
1.5 3
6 340* .80 6 20 0.5
3 7.5 6.5 1
3.7** 291 .58 6 21 1
3.6 305 .63 6.5 19.9 1.2
0.5 24 .25 2.5 16.6 0.6
UNSATISFACTORY RESPONSE
3 Did not go down
2** 690 32 Forced 18 6
Down
Table 10. Results of immobilization of moose calves at the Kenai Moose Research Center, Alaska, with etorphine (M-99)
and diprenorphine (M 50-50) antagonist.
Time
Animal Month Total Weight Dose Induction Immobilized Reversal
No. Sex Year Dose mg Kg mg/45 kg Time min. min. Time min.
205 F Oct. 1973 3 160* .86 9 53 1.5
92 F Nov. 1972 3 166 .82 8 34 1.5
206 M Nov. 1973 3 148 .92 9 36 1
96 M Dec. 1972 3 145 .94 10 31 1
Rastus M Dec. 1973 3 184 .74 6 28 2
216 F Dec. 1973 3 170* .80 4.5 19 2
214 M Dec. 1973 3 159 .86 9 3.5
211 F Dec. 1973 3 145 .94 6 1
97 M Jan. 1973 3 148* .92 7 18 1
218 M Jan. 1974 3 170* .80 8 2
221 F Jan. 1974 3 160* .86 15 54 1
223 M Jan. 1974 3 170* .80 1.5 10 4
N 41 F Feb. 1971 3
~ Rastus M Feb. 1974 3 209 .65 6.5 48 1
236 F Feb. 1974 3 160* .86 6.5
238 F Feb. 1974 3 160* .86 8 21 6
6970 M Sep. 1970 2 9 21 1
7070 F Sep. 1970 2
7470 F Sep. 1970 3 2 25 1
107 M Sep. 1973 3 135* 1.00 4 23 1
108 M Sep. 1973 3 135* 1.00 8 28 1
99 M Sep. 1973 3 160* .86 6 24 1.5
Mean 2.9 160 0.86 7.2 29.9 1.8
SD 0.3 17 0.09 2.9 12.9 1.3
* Estimated weight
2.1 minutes (Table 7), The mean total "s" yearling dose was 3.6 mg
(0.63 mg/45 kg) with a mean induction time of 6.5 minutes and a mean
reversal time of 1.2 minutes. The mean total "s'' calf dose was 2.9 mg
(0.86 mg/45 kg) with a mean induction time of 7.2 minutes and a reversal
time of 1.8 minutes.
The dosage reported by Houston (1970) for Shiras moose fA. a. shi'raeii)
was 3 to 5 mg total (0.4 to 0.7 mg/45 kg) for yearlings and 1 to 2 mg
total (0.4 to 0.7 mg/45 kg} for calves. The total dosage is significantly
less for Shiras moose which may be expected as they are in general
smaller than Alaskan moose. The dosages at the MRC for adult and calf
moose were equivalent on a unit weight basis (0.86 mg/45 kg) and they
were higher than reported for Shiras moose adults and calves (0.4 to
0.7 mg/45 kg). The yearling dosages for both Shiras and Alaskan moose
were similar on unit weight basis (0.6 to 0.8 mg/45 kg for Shiras and
0.63 mg/45 kg for Alaskan). Alford et al. (1974) reported optimal
dosage for moose as 0.98 mg/45 kg of body weight. Dosages from the MRC
and from those reported by Houston (1970) were lower than optimum recommended
on a unit weight basis. This may in part explain some of the difficulties
experienced with some individuals at the MRC (Table 8).
The dosage of 0.84 mg/45 kg body weight for "u" adult moose at the
MRC (Table 8) compares favorably to the 0.86 mg/45 kg dosage for "s"
adult moose (Table 7). The primary difference in these two groups of
moose was that 17 of 26 (65.4%) of "u" classified moose were given
multiple doses over a period of time. Only 1 of 43 (2%) "s" classified
moose received a multiple dose of etorphine. Twelve of the 17 multiple
dosed moose had to be forced down or did not go down (Table 8). The
conclusion was that etorphine should be administered in a single adequate
dose and that multiple dosing was primarily responsible for creating the
unsatisfactory results experienced at the MRC.
The reversal time using diprenorphine for all "s" classified moose
was 1.85 minutes. This provided a quick and effective reversal and was
one of the primary advantages of this drug combination. There were no
consistent differences between sex and age classes on reversal time.
Differences were primarily individual and often situational in that
disturbance associated with the use of diprenorphine usually resulted in
faster reversal response.
Etorphine and diprenorphine use for an immobilizer would be the
first choice at present at the MRC if the tissue residue studies were
completed and a safe recommended withdrawal period could be recommended.
These drugs are licensed by the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs
which entails some administrative and supply problems. The other disad-
vantage is cost. The mean cost to immobilize and reverse an adult moose
was $14.00, compared to a few cents with succinylcholine chloride.
CI-744: This unnamed, experimental, multispecies, parenteral,
anesthetic agent was used to immobilize 14 Alaskan moose with variable
results (Table 11). CI-744 is a 1:1 combination of two ingredients:
25
Table 11. Results of Immobilization of Alaskan Moose at MRC with CI-744.
Total Dose Number Induction Time Return
Animal Dose Weight per of Time lnunobilized to Nortnal
No. Month Mg Kg Kg Injections Min. Min. Min.
134 March 500 164 3.1 1 1 49 99
63 March 1300 443* 2.9 3 35 18 68
64 April 1000 282 3.5 1 0.5 91 219
65 April 1100 296* 3.7 4 42 87 342
66 April 800 327 2.4 1 4 Animal died from injury
67 April 1450 300* 4.8 2 20 103 328
43 April 2400 409* 2.9 2 Did not go down
Wally April 1130 214 5.3 3 26 15 89
78 June 1200 387* 3.1 2 2 22 104
75 July 1000 296* 3.4 1 Did not go down
670 July 1000 273* 3.6 1 Did not go down
R70-8 July 1100 319* 3.4 1 Did not go down
35 July 2200 443* 4.9 3 35 Had to hold down
Raque1 August 1600 395 4.0 1 7 46 99
* Estimated weight
26
tiletamine hydrochloride (CI-634), a central nervous system depressant
which produces profound analgesia and cataleptoid anesthesia, and
diazepionone (CI-716), a non-phenothiazine derivative tranquilizer.
The uncertainty associated with establishing dosages for Alaskan
moose may be responsible for much of the variability. Initially dosages
on the conservative side of those recommended for the bovine were used.
Problems encountered with this low dosage were confounded by the extremely
poor condition of the animals. As the animals' condition improved,
dosages were increased and.somewhat better response was noted in the
animals that went down. A high proportion of animals did not go down;
however, some of these may not have received the full dose from the 10
cc "Cap-Chur" syringe. The three animals which did not respond in July
were not given supplemental doses since they were "heating up" due to
high ambient temperature and stress from trapping.
There were several problems which necessitated terminating use of
this drug. The first was the long period of ataxia experienced by
animals during recovery. This required spending much time with the
animal through the recovery phase. We also had problems in concentrating
the drugs sufficiently to incorporate an immobilizing dose in a 10 cc
"Cap-Chur" syringe. A renewed attempt to evaluate this drug will be
made when the moose are in prime condition and when the volume of drug
required can be reduced.
Xylazine: This analgesic, central nervous system depressant and
muscle relaxant produced sedation and analgesia in moose with dosages of
2.2 mg/kg body weight. The usefulness of this drug is limited for most
moose processing applications at the MRC due to the prolonged period of
ataxia experienced during recovery {up to 2 hours). This necessitated
assigning individuals to remain with the moose at the trap through this
period of time. When multiple trappings of moose were made it was
excessively 'time consuming. This was the only objection we had to using
the drug and will use it at the MRC for procedures not limited by time.
Other Immobilizing Drugs: Phencyclidine hydrochloride, propriopro-
mazine hydrochloride and pentobarbital sodium were utilized on moose on
a limited basis (LeResche and Davis 1971), but were discontinued due to
poor results obtained. With the present selection of available drugs,
they will not likely be retested at the MRC.
Trapping
The layout of traps at the MRC was diagrammed by LeResche and Davis
I (1971). An additional trap was built in the northwest corner of Pen 4
and put into operation in January, 1973. Design for the traps was
described by LeResche and Lynch (1973)., Nine outside and 11 inside
traps are now being used. Their relative success is shown in Tables 12
and 13.
A processed moose was one that was immobilized in the trap. Moose
were immediately released if they had been processed within the previous
27
';. -.=
Table 12. Trap effectiveness by individual trap and"pen within the enclosures
at the Kenai Moose Research Center, 1969-1974.
Trap No. Trap No. Moose No. Moose No. Moose No. Malfunctions No. Moose
Number Nights Processed Released Escaped (moose) (other) Driven
into tra
lE 209 44 27 4 5 4 3
lW 196 18 6 5 4 2 1
lN 218 21 5 2 3
2S 283 42 20' 5 12 6
2E 272 29 9 11 6
CP-2 126 16 7 4 3 1
3N 182 15 7 6 11 1 1
3S 222 29 9 2 3 1
4SE 227 40 9 4 4 7 1
4S 243 19 8 3 1 3 2
4NW 112 25 14 6 1 3
Pen 1 623 83 38 9 11 9 4
Pen 2 681 87 36 9 23 15 1
Pen 3 404 44 16 8 14 2 1
Pen 4 582 84 31 7 11 11 6
All Pens 2290 298 121 33 59 37 12
Table 13. Trap effectiveness by individual trap outside the enclosures
at the Kenai Moose Research Center, 1969-1974.
Trap No. Trap No. Moose No. Moose No. Moose No. Malfunctions No. Moose
Number Nights Processed Released Escaped (moose) (other) Driven
into tra
lOE 289 37 6 5 7 3
lOS .246 39 9 7 3 7
lOW 213 12 2 1 4
10N 195 30 7 8 4 3
20H 169 17 4 1
30N 181 15 9 8 1 4
408 253 38 6 20 5 4 1
40E 224 30 10 19 1 2 1
40W 262 22 8 2 2 7
All Traps 2032 240 61 71 23 34 2
28
Trap
Success
. 36
.15
.12
.24
.14
.21
.15
.18
.23
.12
.35
.21
.20
.17
. 21
.20
Trap
Success
.17
.22
.07
.23
.13
.18
.25
.26
.12
.18
three to four weeks. Others were released when they did not respond to
the drug, became overheated or were calves and processing was not desired.
If more than one moose was caught per trap, often one was released.
Moose that escaped generally went over the top of the fence after smashing
it down or exited between the gate and fence. Escape was most common
during the winter from the outside traps when moose, not accustomed to
entrapment, stood on approximately one-half meter of hard-packed snow.
The fence barrier apparently was not much of a deterrent at this time.
A common source of trap malfunction was the trigger string. Monofilament
line was tried because of its transparency, but proved too elastic and
normally only triggered one gate before breaking. Malfunctions, other
than those occurring when moose were present, were largely caused by
wind knocking the trigger loose on one gate. On separate occasions a
brown (Ursus arctos) and a black bear (Ursus americanus) triggered
traps. Malfunctions occurring during the day that went unnoticed, took
.away the subsequent trap night, since moose were normally trapped near
dawn during their period of greatest activity (LeResche and Lynch,
1973). We were able to drive some moose standing along the fence into a
nearby trap by snow machine, truck or afoot. Trap success was calculated
by dividing the total number of moose caught by the number of trap
nights.
Little difference in overall trapping success was noted for outside
and inside traps, although there was much variability between individual
traps (Tables 12 and 13). Trap effectiveness in Pen 3 was lower than in
the other pens (Table 12). This was likely a function of moose density
since Pen 3 had the least moose throughout this report period.
When seasonal influences were considered (Tables 14 and 15), trapping
success differences between outside and inside traps were more noticeable.
Other than for May, when trapping effort was reduced due to break-up,
success was highest during October, November, December and January for
outside traps (Table 15). A possible cause was that moose were rutting
and migrating to winter areas during this time and were more susceptible
to being trapped. Trapping success inside the enclosures was highest
during July, August and September possibly due to the enclosed moose
attempting to expand their summer range. Trapping success, both inside
and outside the pens, was low during February, March and April possibly
reflecting the decreased movement associated with moose winter home
range. Moose aggregations, as reported by Peek et al. (1974), may
additionally influence trap success, particularly of traps outside the
MRC enclosures. They reported that summer aggregations were the smallest
(low trap success outside) and post-rut the largest (high trap success
outside). Undoubtedly many other factors were involved in trap success,
but it was observed that some of the movement, aggregation and behavior
patterns of moose did correspond to trap success.
An attempt was made to increase trap success during the spring and
summer of 1972 by using salt blocks. Salt was placed under the trigger
string in most traps and was quite successful in attracting bulls in
early summer. One particular bull (#36, Pen 2) defended a salt block
and displayed aggressively toward us and our vehicle when approached.
29
Table 14.
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
Trap effectiveness by month for traps inside the enclosures
at the Kenai Moose Research Center, 1969-1974.
No. Trap No. Moose No. Moose No. Moose No. Malfunctions
Nights Processed Released Escaped (moose) (other)
176 17 11 2 2
224 13 11 1 1 3
184 6 1 3 1
240 7 1 4 1
74 8 3 3 1
217 38 12 3 8 5
208 58 25 6 10 6
215 50 26 7 5 5
185 45 16 7 8 5
190 26 9 6 13 4
150 17 1 1 2
231 11 7 1 2 2
2294 296 123 35 59 34
30
No. Moose Trap
Driven Success
into tra
3 .16
.11
1 .04
.03
.19
.24
.43
.39
. 37
2 .22
.13
3 .08
9 .20
Table 15.
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
Trap effectiveness by month for traps outside the enclosures
at the Kenai Moose Research Center, 1969-1974.
No. Trap No. Moose No. Moose No. Moose No. Malfunctions
Nights Processed Released Escaped (moose) (other)
141 21 5 10 4 5
227 26 3 6 2 3
107 15 1 2 2
129 11 1
35 5 3 3 1 2
132 18 3 4 3
88 13 4 1 2
143 11 3 3
273 33 10 6 4 4
410 47 21 17 3 4
147 19 3 7
186 23 8 8 3 6
2018 242 58 68 23 31
31
No. Moose Trap
Driven Succes
into tra
.26
1 .15
.15
.09
.31
.19
.19
.10
.18
.21
.20
1 .21
2 .18
Two cows and ot'fEh',calf also came to the s3,lt frequently. As the summer
progressed, les~'~se was made of the salt blocks: The blocks were
removed to reduce influences on physiologic Rtudies, but enough had
leached into the soil that some moose still licked the ground in the
spring of 1973. No natural salt licks have been located in the vicinity
outside the enclosures; however, outside moose were not attracted to
salt blocks placed in outside traps.
Aerial Census Evaluation
Aerial-count-census-evaluation study results of 1970 and 1971 were
published (LeResche and Rausch 1974). No subsequent attempts to test
observer success in aerial composition counts were undertaken due to
lack of calf and yearling moose within the enclosures. There was total
calf and yearling loss during the winter of 1971-72 and total calf loss
in the winter of 1972-73 at the MRC.
Helicopter surveys of known populations of moose made within the
MRC enclosures on June 20, 1972, June 18, 1973 and June 17, 1974 are
summarized in Table 16. The variability in observational success from
year to year probably relates more to leaf emergence than other factors.
June is a poor time to survey moose, but the purpose of these surveys
was primarily to record calf births and the observational success was
recorded secondarily. It was expected, and found, that the more time
spent in helicopter surveying at the MRC enclosures the better the
percent moose observed. The percent success for time expended does not
justify helicopter surveying after leaves have emerged.
Pellet-Count Census Evaluation
A Poisson distribution was tested with the pellet group data from
each vegetation type and against the pooled count each year. In all
cases, except for the pooled count in 1971, the Poisson distribution fit
the observed distribution (Table 17), indicating a random placement of
pellet groups within each vegetation type. The mean number of pellet
groups per type was then compared by analysis of variance using a x +
1/2 transformation of the data. In all four years the hypothesis of no
difference among the habitat types was rejected (a= 0.01). On this
basis, we summed the number of pellet groups per type to obtain a stratified
estimate of the total number of groups deposited in the enclosure. In
each of the four years this estimate was uniformly higher than the value
obtained by pooling the data.
From stratified total winter pellet groups (Table 17) and total
moose days (Table 18) pellet groups/moose/day were calculated (Table
19). In winter 1970-71, 3,575 moose days resulted in 72,370 pellet
groups for a calculated 20.2 pellet groups/moose/day. In winter 1971-
72, 3,082 moose days produced 80,945 pellet groups or 26.3 pellet groups/moose/day.
During winter 1972-73, 2,303 moose days produced 64,123 pellet groups or
27.8 pellet groups/moose/day and in winter 1973-74 1,475 moose days
produced 42,401 pellet groups or 28.7 pellet groups/moose/day.
32
Table 16.
Pen No.
1
2
3
4
Total
*
Pen No.
1
2
3
4
Total
Pen No.
1
2
3
4
Total
Helicopter surveys of known populations of moose
at the Kenai Moose Research Center, Alaska. 1972-74.
June 20, 1972
Helicopter Moose Moose
Time(min)* Present Observed
49 12 9
49 14 11
49 8 7
49 13 11
196 47 38
Total time only available -divided equally for each pen.
June 18, 1973
Helicopter Moose Moose
Time(min) Present Observed
43 10 10
51 7 7
30 7 6
114 13 12
238 37 35
June 17, 1974
Helicopter Moose Moose
Time(min) Present Observed
26 7 5
33 12 8
26 7 5
76 16 14
161 42 32
33
Percent
Observed
75
79
88
85
81
Percent
Observed
100
100
86
92
95
Percent
Observed
71
67
71
88
76
Table 17. Pellet-groups deposited by vegetative type per 17.9m2 plot, hectare and type with chi-square values for Poisson
distribtuion during winters Kenai Moose Research Center, Alaska 1970-74.
Probability 2 of larger X Pellet Groups Per
Vegetative Type for Poisson Plot
s2
% of
1970-71 Hectares Distribution X N Hectare Type Total
Dense Mature Hardwoods 21.1 0.25 0.45 0.576 20 251.6 5309 7.3
Thin Mature Hardwoods 18.7 0.25 0.68 0.673 19 379.5 7096 9.8
Spruce Birch Regrowth 36.2 0.25 0.33 0.319 24 82.7 2995 4.1
Spruce Regrowth 16.1 0.25 0.20 0.168 20 250.8 4038 5.6
Dense Birch Spruce Regrowth 45.7 0.22 1.28 1.877 25 718.1 32815 45.3
Medium Birch Spruce Regrowth 38.4 0.25 0.73 0.845 26 409.7 15734 21.8
Thin Birch Spruce Regrowth 28.1 0.25 0.28 0.293 25 156.0 4383 6.1
Pooled Total 204.3 0.01 0.58 0.802 159 324.7 66326
Stratified Total 72370 100.00
w
~
1971-72
Dense Mature Hardwoods 21.1 0.25 0.30 0.221 20 167.8 3541 4.4
Thin Mature Hardwoods 18.7 0.25 0.75 0.145 20 418.6 7827 9.7
Spruce Birch Regrowth 36.2 0.25 0.50 0.435 24 125.3 4537 5.6
Spruce Regrowth 16.1 0.25 0.20 0.274 20 250.8 4038 5.0
Dense Birch Spruce Regrowth 45.7 0.25 1.20 1.000 25 673.2 30764 38.0
Medium Birch Spruce Regrowth 38.4 0.25 0.88 0.586 26 493.9 18967 23.4
Thin Birch Spruce REgrowth 28.1 0.25 0.72 0.543 25 401.1 11271 13.9
Pooled Total 204.3 o.25 0.68 0.686 160 380.7 77767
Stratified Total 80945 100.0
Table 17. Pellet-groups deposited by vegetative type per 17.9m2 plot, hectare and type with chi-square values for Poisson
distribtuion during winters Kenai Moose Research Center, Alaska 197D-74.
Probability2 of larger X Pellet Groups Per
Vegetative Type for Poisson Plot
s2
% of
1972-73 Hectares Distribution X N Hectare Type Total
Dense Mature Hardwoods 21.1 0.25 0.30 0.221 20 167.8 3541 5.5
Thin Mature Hardwoods 18.7 0.25 0.70 1.063 20 390.6 7305 11.4
Spruce Birch Regrowth 36.2 0.25 0.17 0.145 24 42.6 1543 2.4
Spruce Regrowth 16.1 0.25 0.20 0.274 20 250.8 4038 6.3
Dense Birch-Spruce Regrowth 45.7 Q.l4 0.92 0.910 25 516.1 23586 36.8
Medium Birch-Spruce Regrowth 38.4 0.25 o. 77 0.825 26 432.2 16596 25.9
Thin Birch Spruce Regrowth 28.1 0.25 0.48 0.343 25 267.4 7514 11.7
Pooled Total 204.3 0.25 0.52 0.603 160 291.1 59472
w Stratified Total 64123 100.0 VI
1973-74
Dense Mature Hardwoods 21.1 0.25 0.35 0.555 20 196.2 4139 9.8
Thin Mature Hardwoods 18.7 0.25 0.20 0.168 20 111.6 2087 4.9
Spruce Birch Regrowth 36.2 0.25 0.13 0.114 24 32.6 1180 2.8
Spruce Regrowth 16.1 0 0 20 0 0 o.o
Dense Birch-Spruce Regrowth 45.7 0.25 0.68 0. 727 25 381.5 17433 41.1
Medium Birch-Spruce Regrowth 38.4 0.25 o. 35 0.395 26 196.4 7543 17.8
Thin Birch-Spruce Regrowth 28.1 0.25 0.64 0.407 25 356.5 10019 23.6
Pooled Total 204.3 0.35 0.392 160 195.9 40018
Stratified Total 42401 100.0
Table 18
Moose
Number
3
Calf of 3
6
Calf of 6
670
10
Calf of 10
35
40
Calf of 40
41
4170
43
53
55
58
61
6171A
6171B
64
65
69
R70-8
Calf of R70-8
76
Calf of 76
93
96
TOTAL
Moose days at Kenai Moose Research Center, Alaska in Pen 1
for Winters 1970 to 1974*
Winter Winter Winter
1970-71 1971-72 1972-73
210 210 196
135** 61**
210 135
61**
210 210 196
210 210 196
135** 61** 61**
210 210 196
210 210 166
135** 61**
115
115
210 210 97
210 210
210
210 210 196
210 210
61**
61**
210 210 196
67
210 210 196
210 210 196
61**
196
112**
14
22
3575 3082 2303
* Based on 210 day pellet-forming period (November 1 to June 1)
** Estimated -Date of death unknown.
36
-~· --~----~------
Winter
1973-74
191
191
191
191
191
191
191
138**
1475
UJ
~
Table 19. Pooled and stratified total pellet-groups in Pen 1~ Kenai MOose Research Center, Alaska with
calculated pellet-groups/moose/day and calculated and actual moose numbers during winters 197Q-74.
%Pen Total Pellet-grou~s Moose Pellet-groups Pellet Moose Numbers
in Plots Pooled Stratified Days per moose/day group CalculatedZ Actual
Winter Da s
1970-71· 0.139 66326 72370 3575 20.2 210 32.2 18.0
1971-72 0.140 77767 80945 3082 26.3 210 36.0 14.7
1972-73 0.140 59472 64123 2303 27.8 196 30.6 11.8
1973-74 0.140 40018 42401 1475 28.7 191 20.7 7.7
1 Based on 210-day pellet-forming winter period (November 1 to June 1)
2 Based on 10.7 pellet-groups/moose/day (DesMue1es 1968).
Several investigators have reported pellet groups/day for deer;
Smith (1964) reported 13.2 groups/day, Rogers et al. (1958) reported
15.2 groups/day, Rasmussen and Doman (1943) found 12.7 groups/day and
Eberhardt and Van Etten (1956) reported 12.7 groups/day. Neff et al.
(1965) reported 12.5 pellet groups/day for elk (Cervua aanadensis).
Because our calculated moose daily winter defecation rates of 20.2,
26.3, 27.8 and 28.7 were considerably higher than those reported for
other ungulates, we were concerned that the use of pellet group sampling
to estimate moose daily defecation rate and thereby moose numbers under
the conditions herein described was questionable. As an additional
check on the procedure we utilized DesMeules' (1968) observed 10.7
pellet groups/moose/day and the stratified total pellet groups (Table
17) with pellet group days (Table 19) to calculate the number of moose
in Pen 1. For the winter of 1970-71, with 210 pellet group days, the
number of moose was calculated to be 32.2 when the actual mean number of
moose was 18.0. For the winter of 1971-72 the calculated moose number
was 36.0 and the actual mean moose number for this 210 pellet group day
period was 14.7. During the 1972-73 pellet group day period the calculated
moose number was 30.6 and the actual mean moose number was 11.8. During
the 1973-74 pellet group day period the calculated moose number was 20.7
and the actual mean moose number was 7.7. The calculated figures overestimated
moose numbers each year by factors of 1.8 to 2.7.
If we accept the 10.7 daily defecation rate for moose, or rates
from other ungulates, we would conclude that winter pellet group counts
were not valid estimators of moose numbers at the MRC and uti.lization of
this census technique for moose in general may be questionable. If we
accept that the sampling was valid and that pellet group sampling can be
utilized to estimate moose numbers, our calculated defecation rates were
valid. We will attempt to establish winter daily defecation rates for
MRC moose by direct observation to help resolve this problem.
The separation of winter 1971-72 and 1972-73 pellet groups was
apparently successful, as indicated by the calculated pellet groups/moose/day
of 26.3 and 27.8, respectively. Any great difference in these figures
would have indicated that our criteria for separation were not valid.
Aging summer fecal deposits resulted in a total of 11 deposits in 1971
and 22 in 1972 which we believed invalidated our summer aging technique
since there were more moose in Pen 1 the summer of l971 than 1972.
Apparently, the older summer fecal deposits had deteriorated.
Winter habitat selection by moose, as indicated by pellet groups
per vegetative type (Table 17), demonstrated an affinity for birch
regrowth (combined dense, medium and thin birch-spruce regrowth) areas.
During all four winters 73.2 to 82.5 percent of pellet groups were in
these areas. Spruce regrowth areas (combined spruce-birch regrowth and
spruce regrowth) for the four winters contained 2.8 to 10.6 percent of
the pellet groups. Mature hardwood areas (combined dense and thin
mature hardwoods) had from 14.1 to 17.1 percent of the pellet groups
each year.
38
. .
Summer habitat selection by moose, as indicated by fecal deposits
per vegetative type, was perhaps not useful since aging of summer deposits
was not valid and spruce-Ledum, grass, sedge and water areas, which were
observed to receive substantial summer use, were not sampled. Nevertheless,
it should be noted that in all four years no summer fecal deposits were
counted in thin mature hardwoods and only five were counted in dense
mature hardwoods.
Neff (1968:612) stated: "A major problem requiring future research
attention concerns the use of pellet group distribution pattern as index
to habitat preferences." Anderson et al. (1972) could find no significant
correlations between indices of mule deer numbers and mean yield or
utilization of selected deer browse types. We believe the winter habitat
selection by moose at the MRC, as reflected by pellet group distribution,
corresponds to observed and expected use. LeResche and Davis (1973)
reported that tame moose on normal range at the MRC consumed 72 percent
birch stems on normal range in February -May and 21 percent of the
remaining material was lowbush cranberry (Vaaainium vitis-idaea).
Birch-spruce regrowth (73.2 to 82.5 percent of pellet groups) provided
the dominant winter browsing area. Thin mature hardwood areas contain
the greatest proportion of ground cover lowbush cranberry (Oldemeyer and
Seemel 1974). The corresponding substantial moose use of these areas,
reflected by pellet group distribution, was likely related to their use
and importance to moose. However, an undetermined proportion of hardwood
use by moose in winter may relate to protection, resting and relief from
snow and may partially account for pellet group distribution. The
relative lack of use of hardwoods by moose in summer, based on pellet
group distribution, was reasonable because LeResche and Davis (1973)
reported that lowbush cranberry at the MRC was taken in trace amounts
during the summer. With foliage present in birch areas, protection and
resting areas are more numerous in regrowth and mature timber was not
necessarily required. Spruce regrowth areas received the least moose
use, based on pellet group distribution, and this was expected since
moose do not browse spruce and these areas contain low densities of
birch. The percent of use found {2.8 to 10.6) may relate to use of
these areas for protection in addition to the presence of some browse.
Telemetric Tracking
The 30 mhz radio transmitters utilized at the MRC for behavioral
studies (LeResche and Davis 1971, and Johnson et al. 1973) functioned
with no major failures; however some transmitters worked better than
others. Two multi-frequency receivers were utilized with the major
problem being related to antenna wire connections.
Although no major problems were associated with the transmitters
and receivers, many hours were required to locate radio-collared moose
with un~-directional receivers. Considering the moose were within a
2.59 km area, the application of uni-directional receivers from the
ground was limited.
Biotelemetry
No biotelemetry equipment was utilized during this report period;
39
however, the application and use of temperature and heart rate equipment
were investigated and a proposal for studies utilizing this equipment at
the MRC was prepared.
Rumen Sampling
The one-step rumen fistulation procedure was unsuccessful, in one
completed attempt, due to the flanges from the fistula plug assembly
causing tissue necrosis and rejection of the apparatus in approximately
10 days. The fistula itself healed satisfactorily, but the aperture
closed completely about 18 months after surgery (LeResche et al. 1973).
A procedure to obtain rumen contents from elk and deer using a
trocar (Follis and Spillett 1972) was used on a four-year-old male moose
at the MRC on June 30, 1972. The technique is easily accomplished and,
with the moist rumen contents in June, it was easy to obtain a sample
without the mechanical fingers. This particular animal experienced
difficulties while immobilized and rolled on his side after being trocared
and some leakage of rumen contents into the abdominal cavity was noted.
The animal recovered from immobilization and was released back into Pen
2. The moose was seen alive on July 18, but was found dead on August
3. The condition of the carcass did not permit an autopsy to determine
cause of death, but it is possible that the moose developed peritonitis
from rumen contents spilled into the abdominal cavity. Therefore, it is
important, in summer, when rumen contents are more fluid, to retain the
animal in sternal recumbency or preferably in a standing position for
the trocar procedure. Further testing of this procedure was discouraged
by this experience, and the stomach tube and pump method was adopted.
A three meter by 1.3 em (inside diameter) plastic stomach tube and
a standard two-way veterinary stomach pump were used to obtain rumen
liquor for in vitPo digestion trials. During winter, it was difficult
to pump the dry rumen contents with this equipment. Much time was
required in the attempts and with prolonged immobilization (etorphine)
two moose died. Both moose were in extremely poor condition. Rumen
liquor was pumped from one of the moose prior to death after water was
pumped into the rumen to moisten the contents. A moose was immobilized
during late summer in another attempt to obtain rumen liquor via stomach
tube, but the moose died due to overheating resulting from difficulties
with the procedure.
The undesirable side effects associated with this procedure have
discouraged using it. In reviewing our failures we recommend that
attempts with this procedure should; utilize a portable suction pump in
place of hand pump, incorporate an effective tranquilizer with the
immobilizing drug (especially during summer) and be attempted only on
animals in good condition.
Marking Techniques
Collars:
The major problem with the collars initially used was that they did
not allow long range identification of the moose as an individual.
40
. .
Numbers on the rope collars were too small to read except under ideal
conditions on the ground. The collar itself did not identify the moose
as a particular individual. Solid color canvas-web collars identified
the moose only to tagging site. The "magic marker" numbers then placed
on solid color collars were too small to read easily and faded out
rapidly.
Pendants, when hung parallel to the longitudinal axis of a moose, were
readable from aircraft more than 90 percent of the time, upon repeated
passes. Pendants hung perpendicular to the axis could be read less than
30 percent of the time. Much time, and therefore money, was consumed
making repeated passes to observe the entire letter/number sequence. In
some cases the pendants broke partially or completely off, and were no
longer legible.
The stripe combination collars were individually identifiable
readily from aircraft and remained so for considerable lengths of time,
but observers were not always able to correctly discern all color combina-
tions.
The use of quadracolor collars was also hampered by the observers'
ability to discern colors, especially with the yellow and/or pink color
combinations. Repeated passes by aircraft were sometimes necessary.to
record all the colors.
The latest type of collar being tried (15.3 em wide with 12.7 em
numerals) appeared to be the most readable. Normally only one pass of
the aircraft was necessary to read the number. Collars with light
backgrounds were visible on moose for several kilometers. They have not
been used long enough to discern possible problems. Perhaps light
numbers on a dark background may not be legible as they darken with age.
No attempt has been made to determine the retention rate of collars.
This would be difficult to calculate for free-ranging moose and those
within the MRC enclosures were collared at varying ages (i.e. sizes) and
collar loss may be more frequent within the enclosures.
Eartags:
The metal Rasco eartag with colored Saflag material has proved to
be the mose effective and useful way to ear-mark moose. Some necrosis
of tissue surrounding the ear piercing bas resulted, but the occurrence
is minor. The metal tag normally was retained until removed or torn out
on brush. The Saflag material deteriorates with age and must be replaced
on enclosed moose about every two years. Free-ranging moose gradually
lose this identification.
Large, black Ritchey eartags were ideal for legibility and retention
with no tissue necrosis, but observability was restricted to ground
viewing at close range.
Both the Jumbo and Goliath Rototags proved ineffective. Retention
rate was good and tissue necrosis negligible, but both were difficult to
read except under ideal conditions. Some breaking or cracking was
experienced at installation.
41
Freeze-branding:
Freeze-branding efforts proved unsuccessful on moose at the MRC.
In November 1970 the 60-second brands (acetone/dry-ice) created scar
tissue and a standard burn-brand was covered by hair in summer. Twenty-
and 40-second brands were not evident after hair regrowth. No unpigmented
hair emerged. The March 1973, 20-second spray-on "brand" did not
produce adverse effects but no brand resulted.
The June 1973 freeze-branding attempt produced excessive scarring
initially on brand areas 1, 2 and 3. After 1 year no usable brand
resulted (Table 20), but a few white hairs were noted in areas 1 and 2.
Other areas had no unpigmented hair emerge or had tissue scaring.
Weighing
The following paragraphs in this section were taken from the manu-
script entitled "A winch-tripod device for weighing moose" which was
submitted for publication.
Many devices have been used with varying degrees of success for
weighing large mammals in the field. Doutt (1940) employed a tripod
with 3.8-liter (1-gallon) water containers as counter-weights on a lever
arm and an 11.6-kg (25-pound) capacity spring scale for weighing various
big game animals. A field expedient method used by Bergerud et al.
(1964) for weighing caribou (Rangifer tarandus) and moose (Alces atces)
consisted of a tripod and balancing beam of spruce or fir poles with a
man counter-balancing the animal and a distance-man's weight formula to
derive the animal's weight. Various other combinations of tripods and
support beams with block and tackle, chain hoist or hand winches used to
raise the animal have been tried (Talbot and Talbot 1962, Smith and
Ledger 1965, Blood et al. 1967 and Timmerman 1972). Greer and Howe
(1964) used a boom on a hoisting truck for weighing elk (Cervus canadensis).
A convenient, reliable weighing device was needed at the Kenai
Moose Research Center (MRC) where year-round trapping and handling of
moose were conducted, using the trap and procedure described by LeResche
and Lynch (1973). Whole weights of moose are used in the MRC research
program to measure seasonal weight fluctuations of individual moose,
determine age at which body growth ceases and appraise population
vigor, through age-weight correlations. Methods used initially at the
MRC, including two types of booms on a hoisting truck and a tripod with
a chain hoist, proved undependable and time consuming.
The presently used system consists of an electric winch/hoist (Warn
Industries Inc., Seattle, WA) mounted on the front of a pickup truck
~ith bracket, designed to hold two legs of a tripod (Fig. 4). The
tripod is made of 5.1 em aluminum pipe 3.7 mm long and a snatch block
(McKissich Products Corp., Tulsa, OK) is fastened to a clevis at the
apex of the tripod. Wide shoes that slip over the bottoms of the tripod
legs prevent sinking into soft ground.
42
Table 20. Freeze-branding trial utilizing bottled Freon gas on June 4, 1973.
Brand
Area Type of Gas Time (Sec.) Type of Thaw Results 1
1 Freon 12 30 Delayed Few White Hairs
2 Freon 12 45 Quick Few White Hairs
3 Freon 22 15 Quick None
4 Freon 22 30 Quick Scar Tissue
5 Freon 22 5 None None
6 Freon 22 10 None None
1 -Observed on 16 June 1974
43
Fig. 4. Winch bracket holding two legs of tripod.
The weighing procedure consists of slinging the immobilized moose
with 1.6 em rope as described by Frank (1964), driving into the trap to
the animal, setting up the tripod, cable and 907 kg capacity scale (.John
Chatillon and Sons, Kew Gardens, NY) and hoisting the animal (Fig. 5).
This entire process can be completed in four minutes or less.
We were able to weigh more moose in the later stages of recumbancy
due to the short time period required for weighing. Using earlier,
slower methods fewer moose were weighed due to the undesirable aspects
of administering additional drugs.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Efforts should continue in testing and evaluating new immobilizing
drugs for moose as they become available.
2. Succinycholine chloride should be the immobilizing drug used on
free-ranging moose and etorphine with diprenorphine are recommended
for short procedure immobilization of captive moose or moose which won't
be consumed. For long procedure immobilization of moose xylazine
is recommended.
3. Testing of observer accuracy and precision in aerial composition
counts should be done at the MRC when the moose composition within the
enclosures warrants it.
4. Pellet group counts as a censusing technique may not be relied upon
for Alaska moose in habitat similar to that at the MRC at present.
Studies to determine the daily winter defecation rate at the MRC by
observation are needed.
5. Pellet group counts may provide useful information on habitat
selection by moose and should be utilized where this information is
needed.
6. Telemetric tracking of moose with uni-directional receivers on
ground requires much time and should not be incorporated into study
plans where time is a factor or many moose must be tracked.
7. Biotelemetry investigations should be pursued based upon work in
other fields and the availability of equipment and expertise.
8. Investigations should continue to develop a suitable rumen sampling
procedure for moose.
9. Investigations should continue in testing new materials potentially
useful for marking moose.
10. The development and testing of new techniques developed in other
areas of research should be continually evaluated for their potential
application to moose management.
45
Fig. 5. Weighing moose with winch-tripod device .
-
46
' .....
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many individuals from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and
the United States Fish.and Wildlife Service were involved in projects at
the Kenai Moose Research Center, and with this particular job. We
extend our sincere thanks to: D. Bader, D. Calkins, J. Coady, D. Cornelius,
J. Didrickson, S. Eide, C. Erskine, W. Gasaway, L. Glenn, J, Hakala, D.
Harkness, P. Havens, J. Hemming, C. Jackson, A. Johnson, L. Johnson, R.
Kramer, J. Kurtz, P. LeRoux, C. Lucier, c. Mcilroy, D. McKnight, L.
Miller, R. Modaferri, J. Mannie, K. Neiland, C. Nielsen, R. Pegau, R.
Perkins, K. Pitcher, J. Reynolds, R. Richey, R. Seemel, J. Sexton, R.
Somerville, T. Spraker, N. Steen, and J. Vania.
R.A. Rausch implemented the work reported and suggested directions
it might take. K. Schneider coordinated the work since 1973 and offered
much assistance.
J. Oldemeyer and D. Johnson spent much time and effort with MRC
projects. J. Oldemeyer also assisted in preparing the pellet-group
technique analysis.
LITERATURE CITED
Alford, B.T., R.L. Burkhart, and W.P. Johnson. 1974. Etorphine and
diprenorphine as immobilizing and reversing agents in captive and
free-ranging mammals. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 164(7):702-705.
Amand, W.B., H.W. Calderwood, C.E. Harvey, G.W. McConnell and A.M. Klide.
1971. Chemical restraint of a black gnu (Connachaetes gnou) with
Bay-VA 1470. J. Zoo Anim. Med. 2(3):22-25.
Anderson, A.E., D.E. Medin, and D.C. Bowden. 1972. Mule deer numbers and
shrub yield -utilization on winter range. J. Wildl. Manage.
36(2):571-578.
Arneson, P.D., and A.W. Franzmann. 1974. A winch-tripod device for
weighing moose. (Submitted for publication).
Baldwin, G.A. 1973. Instrumentation for remote observation of physiology
and behavior. Pages 55-56 in J. A. Geesaman, ed. Ecological
energetics of homeotherms: A view compatible with ecological modeling.
Mono. Series 20, Utah State Univ. Press, Logan. lSSpp.
Beck, C.C. 1972. Chemical restraint of exotic species. J. Zoo Anim.
Med. 3(3):3-66
Bennett, L.J., P.F English and R. McCain. 1940. A study of deer populations
by use of pellet group counts. J. Wild!. Manage. 4(4):398-403.
Benson, D.A.
Service.
1966. Use of aerial surveys by the Canadian Wildlife
Canadian Wildl. Ser. Occ. Paper 3. 35pp.
47
Berg, W.E., and R.L. Phillips. 1972. Winter spacing of moose in
northwestern Minnesota. Trans. 8th N. Am. Moose Conf. and
Workshop, Thunder Bay, Ont. 8:166-176.
Bergerud, A.T. 1968. Numbers and densities. Pages 21-42, in F.B.
Galley and H.K. Buechner, eds., A practical guide to the study
of the productivity of large herbivores. IBP Handbook No. 7.
Blackwell, Edinburgh.
--------------' A. Butt, H.L. Russel, and H. Whalen. 1964. Immobi-
lization of Newfoundland caribou and moose with succinylcholine
chloride and Cap-Chur equipment. J. Wildl. Manage. 28(1):49-53.
Bishop, R.H. 1969. Moose report.
Proj. Rep. W-15-R-3. 152pp.
Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, P-R
Multilith.
Blood, D.A., J.R. McGillis, and A.L. Lovaas. 1967. Weights and
measurements of moose in Elk Island National Park, Alberta.
Can. Field. Natur. 81(4):263-269.
Bowden, D.C., A.E. Anderson, and D.E. Medin. 1969. Frequency dis-
tributions of mule deer fecal group counts. J. Wildl. Manage.
33(4):895-905.
Boyd, R.J. 1962. Succinylcholine chloride for immobilization of
Colorado mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 26(3):332-333.
Buechner, H.K., A.M. Harthoorn, and J.A. Lock. 1960. Recent advances
in field immobilization of large mammals with drugs. Trans. N.
Am. Wildl. Con£., 25:415-422.
Cowan, I. MeT., A.J. Wood, and H.C. Nordan. 1962. Studies in the
tranquilization and immobilization of deer (Odoooiteus). Canadian
J. Comp. Med. and Vet. Sci. 26(3):57-61.
Craighead, F.C. Jr., and J.J. Craighead. 1971. Biotelemetry research
with grizzly bears and elk in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.
Res. Rep., Nat. Geogr. Soc., 1965:49-62.
Des Meules, P. 1962. Intensive study of an early spring habitat of
moose (Aloes aloes americana) in Laurentides Park, Quebec.
Proc. N.E. Wildl. Conf., Monticello, N.Y. 12pp. mimeo.
1968. Determination of the number of pellet groups
voided and the number of beds established by moose in winter.'
Naturaliste Canadian 95:1153-1157.
Doutt, J.K. 1940. Weighing large mammals in the field. J. Mammal.
21(1):63-65.
48
• "1.' -.•
••. t
Downhower, J.F., and J.D. Pauley. 1970. Automated recordings of
body temperature from free ranging yello~bellied marmots.
J. Wild!. Manage. 34(3):639-641.
Downing, R.L., W.H. Moore, and J. Kight. 1965. Comparison of deer
census techniques applied to a known population in a Georgia enclosure.
Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game and Fish Comm. 19:26-30.
Eberhardt, L., and R.C. VanEtten. 1956.
group count as a deer census method.
Evaluation of the pellet
J. Wild!. Manage. 20(1):7Q-74.
Edwards, R.Y., and R.W. Ritcey. 1958. Reproduction in a moose population.
J. Wild!. Manage. 22(3):261-268.
Evans, C.D., W.A. Troyer, and C.J. Lensink. 1966.
by quadrat sampling units. J. Wildl. Manage.
Aerial census of moose
30(4):767-776.
Farrel, R.K., G.A. Laisner, and T.S. Russell.
freeze-mark animal identification system.
Assn. 154(12):1561-62.
1969. An international
J. Am. Vet. Med.
Flook, D.R., J.R. Robertson, O.R. Hermanrude, and H.K. Buechner. 1962.
Succinylcholine chloride for immobilization of North American elk.
J. Wildl. Manage. 26(3):334-336.
Folk, G.E., Jr. 1964. Daily physiological rhythms of carnivores exposed
·to extreme changes in artie daylight. Fed. Proc. 23:1221-1228.
--------------·• and R.S. Hedge.
rate of unrestrained mammals.
1964. Comparative physiology of heart
Am. Zoo!. 4(3):297 (Abst. III).
Follis, T.B., and J.J. Spillett. 1972. A new method for rumen sampling.
J. Wild!. Manage. 36(4):1336-1340.
Frank, E.R. 1964.
Minneapolis.
Veterinary Surgery.
356pp.
7th ed. Burgess Pub. Co.,
Franzmann, A.W., and P.D. Arneson. 1973. Moose Research Center
studies. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, P-R Proj. Rep., W-17-5.
117pp. Multilith.
------------~·· and P.D. Arneson. 1974. Immobilization of Alaskan
moose. J. Zoo Animal Med. 5(2):26-32.
Geesaman, J.A. (ed). 1973. Ecological energetics of homeotherms:
A view compatible with ecological modeling. Mono. Series 20,
Utah State Univ. Press., Logan. 155pp.
Greer K.R., and R.E. Howe. 1964. Winter weights of northern Yellowstone
elk, 1961-1962. Trans. N. Am. Wild!. Con£. 29:237-248.
~rper, J.A. 1965. Immobilization of Roosevelt elk by succinylcholine
chloride. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(2):339-345.
49
Harthoorn, A.M. 1965. Application of pharmacological and physiological
principles in restraint of wild animals. Wildl. Monograph 14.
78pp.
Hime, J.J., and D.M. Jones. 1970. The use of xylazine in captive
wild animals. Sonderstruck aus Vehandlungsberg des XI. Inter-
nationalen Symposiums uberdie Erkrankungen der Zootiere, Budapest,
1970.
Houston, D.B. 1968. The Shiras moose in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.
Grand Teton Natur. History Assn. Tech. Bull. 1. 110 pp.
1969. Immobilization of Shiras moose. J, Wildl.
Manage. 33(3):534-537.
1970. Immobilization of moose with M-99. J.
Mammal. 51(2):396-399.
Johnson, D.C., P.D. Arneson, and A.W. Franzmann. 1973. Behavior and
survival in orphaned moose calves. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, P-R
Proj. Final Rep., W-17-4. 32pp. Multilith.
Johnson, S.F., and J.A. Geesaman. 1973. An evaluation of heart rate
as an indirect monitor of free-living energy metabolism. Pages
44-45, in J.A. Gessaman, ed. Ecological energetics of homeo-
therms: A view compatible with ecological modeling. Mono.
Series 20, Utah State Univ. Press, Logan. 155pp.
Julander, 0., R.B. Ferguson, and J.E. Dealy. 1963. Measure of
animal range use by signs. Pages 102-108. in U.S. Forest
Serv., Range research methods. U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Publ.
940. 122pp.
Kambitsch, L.M., M. Willman, and M. Hemstrom. 1969. Freeze-branding
equipment and methods. V. Idaho Agr. Ext. Ser. Current Information
Ser. 100. 4pp.
Kroll, W.R. 1962. Experience with Sernylan in 200 animals. In
International Zoo Yearbook 4:131.
LeResche, R.E. 1970. Moose Report.
P-R Proj. Rep., W-17-2. 64pp.
Alaska Dept. Fish and Game,
Multilith.
---:---~--:-
, and J.L. Davis. 1971. Moose research report. Alaska
Dept. Fish and Game, P-R Proj. Rep., W-17-3. 87pp. Multilith.
-------~~--· and G.M. Lynch. 1973. A trap for free ranging moose.
J. Wildl. Manage. 37(1):87-89.
-------------• and J.L. Davis. 1973. Importance of nonbrowse foods
to moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. J.Wildl. Manage.
37(3):279-287.
50
; -.. '
--------------• A.W. Franzmann, and P.D. Arneson. 1973. Moose
research center report. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, P-R Proj. Rep.,
W-17-4. 173pp. Multilith •
--------• and R.A. Rausch. 1974. Accuracy and precision of aerial
moose censusing. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(2):175-182.
Lonsdale, E.M., B. Bradach, and E.T. Thorne. 1971. A telemetry system
to determine body temperature in pronghorn antelope. J. Wildl.
Manage. 35(4):747-751.
Loveless, C.M. 1967. Ecological characteristics of a mule deer winter
range. Colo. Game, Fish, and Parks Dept., Tech. Pub. 20. 124pp.
MacKay, R.S. 1968. Biomedical telemetry: sensing and transmitting
biological information from animals to man. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., N.Y. 388pp.
McGinnis, S.M., and T.P. Southworth. 1967.
tuations in the northern elephant seal.
Body temperature fluc-
J. Mammal. 48(3):484-485.
------~------• V.A. Finch, and A.M. Harthoorn. 1970. A radiotelemetry
technique for monitoring temperatures from unrestrained ungulates.
J. Wild!. Manage. 34(4):921-925.
Miller, F.L. 1968. Immobilization of free-ranging black-tailed deer with
succinylcholine chloride. J. Wildl. Manage. 32(1):195-197.
Morhardt, J., E. and S.S. Morhardt. 1969. Field measurements of mammalian
metabolic rates using radiotelemetry of heart rates. Am. Zool.
9:1093.
Mulling, M., and H.J. Henning. 1971.
for the capture of wild animals.
The use of Bay VA 1470 (Rompun)
Vet. Med. Rev. 1:73-83.
Neff, D.J., o.c. Wallmo, and D.C. Morrison. 1965. A determination of
defecation rate for elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(2):406-407.
1968. The pellet group count techniques for big game
trend, census and distribution: A review. J. Wildl. Manage.
32(3):597-614.
Oldemeyer, J.A. 1974. Quality of forage plants moose eat. Le Natur.
Canadiene (in press).
---------~----·• and R.K. Seemel. 1974. Quantity and quality of mountain
cranberry as moose forage. (in press).
Peek, J.M. 1962. Studies of moose in the Gravelly and Snowcrest
Mountains, Montana. J. Wild!. Manage. 34(1):37-46.
--------------·• R.E. LeResche, and D.R. Stevens. 1974.
moose aggregations in Alaska, Minnesota, and Montana.
55(1):126-137.
51
Dynamics of
J. Mammal
Peinaar, V. DeV. 1968a. Capture and immobilizing techniques currently
employed in South African national parks and reserves. Pages 132-144
~ F.B. Galley and H.K. Buechner, eds. A practical guide to the
study of the productivity of large herbivores. IBP Handbook
No. 7. Blackwell, Edinburgh.
1968b. Recent advances in the field immobilization and
restraint of wild ungulates in South African National Parks. Acta
Zoologies et Pathalogica antverpiensia. 46:17-38.
' Pimlott, D.H. 1959. Reproduction and productivity of Newfoundland moose.
Wi1dl. Manage. 23(4):381-401.
Pistley, W.R., and J.F. Wright. 1961. The immobilization of captive wild
animals with succinylcholine. II. Canadian J. Comp. Med. and Vet.
Sci. 25(3):59-68.
J.
Rasmussen, D.I., and E.R. Doman. 1943. Census methods and their application
in the management of mule deer. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 8:369-379.
Rausch, R.A., and A.E. Bratlie. 1965. Assessment of moose calf production
and mortality in Southcentral Alaska. Ann. Conf. w. Assoc. State
Game and Fish Commissioners. 45:14Q-146.
______________ ., and R.H. Bishop. 1968. Report on 1966-67 moose studies.
Alaska Dept. Fish and Game. P-R Proj. Rep. W-15-R. 263pp. Multilith.
1971.
Proj. Rep. W-17-1.
Moose Report. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game.
155pp. Multilith.
P-R
Rogers, G., 0. Ju1ander, and W.L. Robinette. 1958. Pellet group counts
for deer census and range-use-index. J. Wildl. Manage. 22(2):
193-199.
Ruff, R.L. 1971. Telemetered heart rates of free-living Uinta ground
squirrels in response to social interaction. Ph.D. thesis, Utah
State Univ., Logan. 135pp.
Simkin, D.W. 1965. Reproduction and productivity of moose in north-
western Ontario. J. Wild!. Manage. 29(4):740-750.
Siniff, D.B., and R.O. Skoog. 1964. Aerial censusing of caribou using
random stratified sampling. J. Wild!. Manage. 28(2):391-401.
Skutt, H.R., F.M. Beck, P. Haugstad, J.B. Holter, H.H. Hayes and
H. Silver. 1973. Low-power implantable transmit~ers for tele-
metry of heart rate and temperature from white-tailed deer.
J. Wild!. Manage. 37(3):413-417.
Slater, L.E. (ed). 1963. Bio-telemetry. The use of telemetry in
behavior and physiology in relation to ecological problems. Proc.
Inter. conf., N.Y. Pergamon Press, N.Y. 373pp.
Smith, A.D. 1964. Defecation rates of mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage.
28(3):435-444.
52
~··
Smith, N.S., and H.P. Ledger. 1965. A portable tripod and weighing assembly
for large animals. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(1):208-210.
Stevens, D.R.
Montana.
1970. Winter ecology of the moose in the Gallatin Mountains,
J. Wildl. Manage. 34(1):37-46.
Studier, E.G., and D.J. Howell. 1969. Heart rates of big brown bats
in flight. J. Mammal. 50:842-845.
Taber, R.D., and I. MeT. Cowan. 1969. Capturing and marking wild animals.
Pages 277-317, in R.H. Giles, ed. Wildlife management techniques.
The Wildl. Soc., Washington, D.C. 623pp.
Talbot, L.M., and H.F. Lamprey. 1961. Immobilization of free-ranging East
African ungulates with succinylcholine chloride. J. Wildl. Manage
25(3):303-310.
---------------·• and M.H. Talbot. 1962. A hoisting apparatus for
weighing and loading large animals in the field. J. Wildl.
Manage. 26(2):217-218.
Thurmon, J.C., D.R. Nelson, and J.O. Mozier. 1972. A preliminary
report on the sedative effect of Bay VA 1470 in elk. J. Zoo
Anim. Med. 3(4):9-14.
Timmerman, H.R. 1972. Some observations of the moose hunt in the
Black Sturgeon area of northwestern Ontario. Proceedings of 8th
N. Am Moose Conf. and Workshop. pp 223-239.
Van Ballenberghe, V., and J.M. Peek.
moose in northeastern Minnesota.
1971. Radiotelemetry studies of
J. Wildl. Manage. 35(1):63-71.
Van Dyne, G.M. 1968. Measuring quantity and quality of the diet of
large herbivores. Pages 54-94 in F.B. Galley and H.K. Buechner,
eds. A practical guide to the study of the productivity of large
herbivores. IBP Handbook No. 7. Blackwell, Edinburgh.
Wallach, J.D., R. Fureh, and M. Lentz. 1967. The use of M-99 as an
immobilizing and analgesic agent in captive wild animals. J.
Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 151(7):87Q-871.
White, C.M.
Manage.
1967. A device for immobilizing trapped deer.
31(4):844-845.
J. Wildl.
Will, G.B., and E.F. Patrie. 1972. A contribution toward a biblio-
graphy on wildlife telemetry and radio-tracking. A joint
contribution on New York Fed. Aid and Wild1. Restoration, Proj.
W-123-R and Rhode Island Exper. Station Contribution 1439.
Williams, M.W., H.A. Baldwin, and C.S. Williams. 1968. Body temperature
observations on a caged Mexican wolf. (Canis lupus baileyi) by
remote telemetry. J. Mammal. 49:329-331.
53
Woolf, A.H., R.Hays, W.B. Allen, Jr., and J. Swart. 1973. Immobilization
of wild ungulates with etorphine HCI. J. Zoo Anim. Med. 4(4):16-19.
York, W., and K. Huggins. 1972. Rompun (Bay VA 1470). J. Zoo Anim.
Med. 3(4):15-17.
PREPARED BY:
Albert W. Franzmann, Paul D. Arneson,
Robert E. LeResche and James L. Davis
Game Biologists
SUBMITTED BY:
Karl B. Schneider
Regional Research Coordinator
54
APPROVED BY:
~~~V)1(~
Research Chief, Division of Game