HomeMy WebLinkAboutAPA1956-,~
STREAM FAUNAL RECOVERY AFTER
MANGANESE STRIP MINE RECLAMATION
by
Donley M. Hill
Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
in partial fulfillment for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
Wildlife Biology
APPROVED:
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~~1f27 ~--Ken-net-~-. -----
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August, 1971
Blacksburg, Virginia
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author owes a debt of gratitude to Dr. Kenneth B. Cumming for.
suggesting this study, and for his efforts in directing the research
and reviewing the manuscript.
The advice and guidance of the other members of the writer's
committee, Dr. Henry S. Mosby, Dr. Burd S. McGinnes, Dr. John F. Hosner,
Dr. Kenneth L. Dickson, and Dr. Alan G. Heath is appreciated.
The writer extends special thanks to the following members of
the Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries: Mr. Dixie
Shumate, Sr., Superintendent of Hatcheries; Mr. Stuart Currin, Buller
Fish Cultural Station Manager; and other state personnel who lent
assistance.
The cooperation and assistance of Mr. Dudley Korth, Wytheville
National Fish Hatchery manager aided materially in the completion of
this study.
Assistance in the field from fellow graduate students and
Mr. Greg Allen and Mr. Craig Cooper is gratefully acknowledged.
Partial financial assistance for this research was provided
through a grant from the Federal Water Pollution Control Administra-
tion, now the Environmental Protection Agency.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION •.••
LITERATURE REVIEW
Turbidity and Siltation.
Faunal Recovery .•
Manganese Toxicity •
METHODS AND MATERIALS • .
The Study Streams .•
Slemp Creek • .
Bishop Branch
Georges Branch.
Slabtown Branch •
Hurricane Branch.
Selection of a Control Stream.
Station Selections ••
Monitoring Activities ••
Streambed Composition
Temperature .•
Turbidity .
Fish Collections.
Bottom Fauna Collections.
Acute Toxicity Studies
The Test Fish . .
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5
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8
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11
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12
12
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14
14
16
16
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17
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•
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The Bioassay Apparatus, •
Water Quality
Toxicants • • .
Chronic Effects of Silt in Suspension ••
Data Analysis ...
Bottom Fauna Collections.
Substrate Analysis ••.
Chronic Effects of Silt in Suspension • • .
RESlJLTS .
Water Chemistry ..
Page
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
22
23
23
Streambed Percentage Composition Analysis. • • • • • • . • 23
Macroinvertebrate Densities, Diversities, and Community
Structure Relative to Degree of Reclamation. . • • . . • . 26
Fish Species Composition and Relative Abundance. . • • • • 31
The Toxicity of Silt in Suspension and Manganese Ions to
Blacknose Dace, Rainbow Trout, and White Suckers . • . . . 31
Blacknose Dace. 31
Rainbow Trout • ----. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 35
White Suckers • -. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • 42
Effects of Chronic Exposure of Rainbow Trout and White
Sucker Fingerlings to High Levels of Turbidity • • • • • • 42
DISCUSSION. 48
Effects of Manganese Strip Mine Reclamation on Some Physical
and Chemical Parameters of Streams • -. . . . . . . . . . 48
Water Chemistry . • --. --. . . . . . . . . . • 48
Substrate Analysis. ----. . . . . . . . . . 50
•
v
The Role of Silt in Suspension and Manganese Ions in
Solution as Factors Limiting to Rainbow Trout, Blacknose
Page
Dace and White Suckers . . . . • • • • • . • • • • • . • . 52
Fish and Macrobenthos Densities, Diversities, and Com-
munity Structure Relative to Degree of Reclamation • . • • 55
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS • . . . . . . . • • . . . • • • . • • • 58
REFERENCES CITED ...... , . • . . . • • . . . • • . . . . • 59
APPENDIX TABLE I. 62
APPENDIX TABLE II • 63
VITA. . • • • • • 64
....
LIST OF TABLES ---
Table
1. Means and standard deviations of some water quality para-
meters measured during ten sampling periods between July,
Page
1968 and July, 1970. , • • • . . . • • • . • • • • • • • • 24
2. Multiple range comparison of the percentage of the sub-
stratum composed of particles less than 0.841 mrn diameter
and 0.105 rnm diameter in the study streams • . • • . • • • 25
3. Multiple range comparison of the mean densities of bottom
organisms at each of the sampling stations . . • • . • • • 27
4. Multiple range comparison of the mean number of genera of
bottom organisms at each of the sampling stations. • . • • 29
5. Multiple range comparison of the mean diversity for bottom
organisms at each of the sampling stations • • • • • • . • 30
6. Numbers and species of fish collected on five sampling
dates ............. 0............. 32
7. Survival of blacknose dace juveniles exposed to five con-
centrations of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs ••••.••.. 33
8. Survival of blacknose dace adults exposed to five concen-
trations of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
9. Survival of rainbow trout sac fry to varying concentrations
of Mn+2 ions after 96 hrs. exposure. • . • • . • • . • • • 36
10. Survival of rainbow trout fingerlings exposed to four con-
centrations of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs. • . • . . . • . . • • 37
11. Survival of rainbow trout sac fry after 96 hrs. exposure
to varying amounts of silt in suspension . • • • . • • . • 38
12. Survival of rainbow trout fingerlings exposed to five levels
of silt in suspension for 48 hrs. • . • . . . . • • . • . 39
13. Percent survival of rainbow trout fingerlings 96 hrs. after
exposure to four concentrations of Mn+2 ions in combination
with two levels of silt. . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 40
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vii
Table
14. Percent survival of rainbow trout sac fry 96 hrs. after
exposure to four concentrations of Mn+2 ions in combination
Page
with two levels of silt ... • . . • . . . • • • • . . • . 41
15. Survival of white sucker fry exposed to five concentrations
of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs. • . . . • . • . . . . • • . • • . 43
16. Percent survival and the median tolerance limit at the end
of 96 hrs. for white sucker fingerlings subjected to four
concentrations of Mn(N0 3 )2 . . • • • . . • . • • . . • . • 44
17. Water quality in the clear and turbid ponds. • . • • • . . 45
18. Mean length and weight increments for rainbow trout reared
in clear versus turbid water . . . . . • . . . • . . • • . 46
19. Analysis of variance of mean length and weight increments
for rainbow trout reared in clear versus turbid water. • • 47
z · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ' ' · · ea.:re ,<pn:)s aqJ, '1
-------------s IDifl:JI a: .ifO .LSI '1
INTRODUCTION
In recent years an upsurge of activity in the mining, road build-
ing, and other industries has greatly increased the quantities of silt
and heavy metals entering aquatic environments. The U. S. Department of
the Interior report "Surface mining and our environment" (1968) states
that in eight Appalachian states 832,605 acres of land have been dis-
turbed by surface mining. This disturbance affects more than 5,000
miles of streams, and over 13,800 acres of impoundments. Current fossil
fuel demands coupled with increases in the efficiency of strip mining
operations serve to magnify the problem. Stricter legislation and in-
creasing awareness of the problem is resulting in better mining prac-
tices and increased reclamation efforts, but little is known of the
effectiveness of various reclamation efforts or the rates at which
aquatic biological communities recover once effective reclamation has
been accomplished.
Manganese strip mining operations in southeastern Smyth County,
Virginia, during the mid 1950's have left several spoil areas that
continue to contribute silt and manganese ions to the South Fork
Holston River. In that area (Fig. 1), 295 acres have been disturbed.
The U. S. Forest Service has purchased portions of this and adjoin-
ing lands and in 1959 began reclamation efforts on Brushy Mountain,
the watershed in which Slemp Creek originates. This work was completed
in 1960 and in 1966 reclamation was completed on spoils areas of
Bishop Branch owned by the For~st Service. Because of a policy of the
1
South Fork Holston River
Upper Drainage
....... -,.
, -
...
Figure 1. Map of Study Area.
/ -
bne Mile 1
co. ,
"(..'(\. / s~<1 ,. co· ,.. :(\.
,. ...:~<:>0
-c;~'().J
/
A Sugar Grove
,
/
;'
• Buller Hatchery
~ Tributary Stations
t.;.Z Mined Areas
P: Pt. Reclaimed
R: Reclaimed
U: Unreclaimed
N
-
Tribs Sampled
ST: Slabtown Br.
B: Bishop Br.
G: Georges Br .
S: Slemp Cr.
H: Hurricane Br.
N
3
Forest Service, their reclamation efforts are limited to land which
they own. Consequently, in 1966 \vhen the Forest Service completed
reclamation efforts on the Slemp Creek and Bishop Branch watersheds,
40 acres of spoil areas had been reclaimed. This included all of the
spoil areas on Slemp Creek, and part of the disturbed area on the
Bishop Branch watershed. Because of private ownership of the spoil
areas on Georges Branch and Slabtown Branch at that time, no reclama-
tion was attempted on those areas, resulting in a series of reclaimed,
partially reclaimed, and unreclaimed tributaries of the South Fork
Holston. Following a recent purchase of Slabtown Branch, reclamation
is planned for the Spring of 1971.
Prior to the reclamation efforts of the Forest Service, extensive
damage to the property of local landowners as a result of flooding,
deposition of silt and rock debris, and the fouling of water supplies
along the tributaries was documented. Because of the extreme tur-
bidity of the South Fork Holston, Buller Fish Hatchery was rendered
"90% unusable." Previously clear waters of these tributaries and the
South Fork Holston River were described by personnel of the Forest
Service as "extremely turbid and heavily silted." These conditions
persist in the partially reclaimed and unreclaimed tributaries of the
South Fork. Turbidity values in the unreclaimed streams commonly are
between 40 and 200 Jackson Turbidity Units and readings of 32,000
Jackson Turbidity Units (unpublished Forest Service stream survey
report) have been recorded. Manganese ions have been measured in
concentrations as high as 2.4 ppm.
/+
The purpose of this research ~.;as to evaluate the effect of
manganese strip mine reclamation on stream faunal recovery. This
evaluation proceeded along the lines of chemical, physical, and
biological monitoring activities designed to assess stream faunal
population differences through time and under varying environmental
conditions. Acute and chronic toxicity studies designed to deter-
mine whether the silt and manganese levels in the affected streams
were high enough to limit survival of two local fish species were a
corollary aspect of the research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Although the effects of surface mining on the environment are
many and varied, any surface mining activity will probably result in
increased siltation and turbidity in streams draining affected areas.
Other effects vary according to the mineral being mined and often in-
volve changes in the acidity of receiving waters and increases in the
concentration of certain heavy metals. Comprehensive accounts of the
extent of surface mining throughout the United States, and some of the
associated problems are given in three publications of the United
States Department of the Interior: "Surface Mining and Our Environ-
ment" (1967), "Effects of Surface Mining on Fish and Wildlife in
Appalachia" (1968), and "Restoring Surface-Mined Land" (1968).
Turbidity and Siltation
The effects of turbidity and siltation on aquatic life can be
either direct or indirect, depending upon the organisms affected and
the severity of their exposure. Cairns (1968) lists six ecological
effects of suspended solids. In an excellent review of the literature
on the influences of inorganic sediment on the aquatic life of streams,
Cordone and Kelly (1961) cite evidence that the effects of inorganic
sediments on fish are usually indirect, through reductions in their
reproductive potential, available food supply and shelter, and changes
in water quality.
5
6
Trautman (1957) presented well documented accounts of changes in
the degree of siltation and turbidity of some Ohio streams over a long
period of time and the consequent changes in fish populations. Gammon
(1968) reported a reduction of about 50 percent in the biomass of fish
in pools affected by quarry sediment as opposed to pools above the
influence of the quarry discharge. Tebo (1955) in a study of the effects
of siltation on the bottom organisms of a small North Carolina trout
stream related limited production of rainbow trout in affected portions
of the stream to a low standing crop of macrobenthic organisms. Smith
(1940) concluded that erosion silt from hydraulic mines as well as
from other sources limits the food supply of trout and may limit or
entirely prevent successful reproduction, the am;unt of harm depending
upon the quantity of silt in a stream and its persistence. Saunders
and Smith (1965) correlated low standing crops of brook trout in a
small stream with heavy siltation which destroyed hiding places and
prevented spawning.
Mackay and Kalff (1969) in a study of the standing crop and
species diversity of insect communities in a small Quebec stream found
that the species diversity of bottom insect communities varies
seasonally and is proportional to the number of potential microhabi-
tats in the environment and to the stability of the substrate.
The relationship of substrate composition to the production of
macrobenthic organisms is well documented. Most studies have shown
that insect production is higher in rubble and decreases as the sub-
strate becomes composed of finer materials. An exception is organic
7
silt, \vhich often contains large numbers of organisms, although usually
not of types readily available as fish foods. Tarzwell (1937) rated
substrates according to their production of bottom organisms. Giving
sand a rating of 1, the relative productivity of fine gravel was 9,
rubble was 29, and rubble and gravel was 53. Ellis (1936) showed that
a layer of silt one-fourth of an inch to one inch deep on the surface
of othen .. i.se satisfactory bottom habitats was lethal to most common
fresh-water mussels.
Wallen ( 1951) conducted contra lled aquarium investigations on
the direct effect of turbidity on 16 species of warmwater fishes and
found that most individuals of all species used endured exposures to
more than 100,000 ppm of turbidity for a week or longer. He further
states that the same fishes finally died at turbidities of 175,000 to
225,000 ppm and that the fishes that succumbed had opercular cavi-
ties and gill filaments clogged with silty clay particles from the
water. Ellis (1937) gave a similar description of the gills of fishes
killed by exposure to high levels of turbidity.
Although nothing comparable to Wallen's work with warmwater fishes
has been done \vith coldwater species, some work has been published.
Griffin (1938) reported tests of 3 to 4 weeks duration in which salmon
and trout fingerlings withstood silt concentrations of 300-750 ppm
which were increased each day for a \vhile when the tanks were stirred
by hand to concentrations of 2300-6500 ppm. In chronic (approximately
7 months) studies of rainbow trout Herbert and Merkens (1961) observed
mortalities 11 usually in excess of 50 percent" at turbidities of 270
8
ppm and higher as compared with negligible mortalities in the control
groups. In these same experiments they reported that there was no
statistically significant difference between either the lengths or the
weights of fish exposed to different turbidity levels.
Faunal Recovery
Concomitant with the current emphasis on pollution abatement is
interest in the recovery of the fauna of affected streams following
abatement. Cairns et al. (in press) state that among other factors,
recovery rates depend upon: "(1) severity and duration of the stress;
(2) number and kinds of associated stresses; (3) recolonization of the
area by useful aquatic organisms; and (4) residual effects upon non-
biological units (e.g., substrate, etc.)."
In cases where the stress is of short duration follO\ving abate-
ment, recovery is often remarkably fast. Tebo (1955) in his study
of the effects of siltation on a small trout stream found that the
number of bottom organisms in a heavily silted area of the stream
was comparable to unaffected portions of the stream less than three
months after a flood which flushed the sediments out and exposed the
original rubble and gravel bottom. Larimore et al. (1959) found that
two weeks after flow resumed in a small warmwater stream following a
long drought 21 of the 29 regularly occurring species had moved into
most of the stream course. They attributed rapid recolonization by
bottom insects to the "colonization cycle" in which adult insects
migrate upstream to deposit eggs and the resulting benthic forms drift
9
downstream recolonizing previously barren areas.
Bishop and Hynes (1969) determined that upstream movements of
benthic invertebrates in the Speed River, Ontario, counteracted 6.5
percent of downstream drift by numbers and 4 percent by weight and
that upstream movement was of sufficient quantity and species diversity
to account for recolonization of dried-out or erosion-denuded areas.
Manganese Toxicity
Compared with various others of the heavy metals, information on
the toxicity of different forms of manganese is relatively scarce,
and in many cases, seemingly contradictory. Much of the variation in
results can be attributed to the variety of proc~dures used in deter-
mining tolerance limits. "Standard Methods" (1965) presents detailed
procedures for determining acute toxicity of a given toxicant to fish.
Some of the more theoretical aspects of bioassays and the analysis of
results are considered by Bliss (1957).
Doudoroff and Katz (1953) made a critical review of literature
on the toxicity of metals as salts to fish and pointed out the dis-
crepancy of some of the experimental results concerning manganese
toxicity and the need for further investigation. They cited the work
of Thomas (1924) who reported that manganese chloride can be fatal to
fish at concencrations as low as 6 ppm and the results of Japanese
researchers \vho found the toxicity of Mn c1 2 and Mn So 4 to fish to be
relatively slight.
McKee and Wolf (1963) summarized the findings of different
10
investigators of manganese toxicity and proposed permissible concen-
trations for various domestic, industrial, and agricultural uses and
for fish and aquatic life.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
The Study Streams
Slemp Creek
Slemp Creek originates on Brushy Mountain in the Jefferson Na-
tional Forest. The upper reaches of Slemp Creek drain National Forest
land, part of which is a reclaimed strip mine area, while the lower
portion drains private farm land. Slemp Creek is seldom turbid, and
although heavy deposits of sand and gravel occur in areas of low
velocity, siltation is negligible. Slemp Creek and two others form
the headwaters of the South Fork Holston River.
Bishop Branch
Bishop Branch originates on Brushy Mountain and joins the South
Fork about 2 miles downstream from the mouth of Slemp Creek. The
upper portion of Bishop Branch flows through a partially reclaimed
manganese strip mine area, while the lower portion flows through
private farm land. Bishop Branch is a narrow (seldom exceeding 4 feet
in width), fast flmving stream ~vith few pools. In the slower portions,
the bottom is largely sanrl and silt' while in the faster portions'
sr.:'lll boulders and sand predominate. During low flow, about a 150-
meter stretch of the stream flmvs underground 0.25 mile above its
mouth. Above the underground section, the entire substratum is
.covered with a fine layer of silt.
ll
12
9eorges Brdnch
Georges Branch a lsu originates on Brushy Mountain, with a ridge
of land forming a divide between the spoils of Bishop Branch and
Georges Branch. No reclamation has been undertaken on the spoils of
Georges Branch. The stream is always turbid and the entire substratum
is covered with a fine layer of silt.
Slabtown Branch
Slabtown Branch flows into the South Fork about two miles down-
stream from Georges Branch and on the opposite side of the valley. One
fork of the upper portion drains on unreclaimed strip mine area; and
although that fork is intermittent, during perio~s when it flows it
deposits enough silt in the other portions of the stream to maintain
a constantly high turbidity.
Hurricane Branch
Hurricane Branch which originates in the Iron Mountains about
8 miles northeast of Sugar Grove serves as one of the control streams
in the study. It is predominantly long series of rapids with small
pools. The water is not turbid even at high flow, and the substrate
is composed largely of gravel, rubble, and_ small boulders. Bedrock
is encountered more frequently in this stream than in the others of
this study.
Selection of a Control Stream
Control areas could not be established on the other streams
13
described here because as tributary streams they originate on or near
the strip mined areas, thus ruling out the possibility of using a
portion of the stream above the pollution source as a control area.
The two remaining alternatives were to compare the reclaimed stream
with the unreclaimed and partially reclaimed ones, or to compare the
reclaimed, unreclaimed, and partially reclaimed streams with a stream
unaffected by strip mining activity. Hurricane Branch is unaffected
by strip mining, .but its waters are very soft (5-10 ppm) and have a
low biological productivity. It was, therefore, not directly compar-
able to the other streams. With these facts in mind, it was decided
that Slemp Creek should serve as the "control" stream and that Hurri-
cane Branch should serve to represent the physical properties of a
stream unaffected by strip mining.
Station Selections
With the exception of Slabtown Branch, two stations were selected
on each of the study streams for sampling all parameters except sub-
strate composition. Only one station was established on Slabtown
Branch. The stations were established on the upper and lower sections
of the streams and were chosen on the basis of how well they represented
other sections of the streams. Each sampling area contained a riffle
and a pool area. For the substrate analysis, an additional station
was established in the mid-section of the stream.
14
Monitoring Ac_tivities
In order to document the continuing damage to the ecology of the
study streams resulting from the influence of the unreclaimed strip
mine areas and to evaluate the degree of recovery of streams draining
reclaimed strip mine areas, the following parameters were sampled at
approximately the intervals indicated: Water chemistry (dissolved
oxygen, pH, alkalinity, total hardness, iron, and manganese) at 2-month
intervals; temperature and volume of flow at 2-month intervals and
coinciding with the measurements of water chemistry; fish and bottom
fauna density and diversity quarterly; and substrate composition yearl~
Alkalinity, total hardness, pH, and dissolved oxygen were measured
using the Hach Chemical Company's model AL-59 kit. The low-range tests
of the kit were used for alkalinity and total hardness. Samples were
taken at midstream and were analyzed on the site. The Hach Chemical
Company's 1, 10 phenanthroline method for iron and the cold periodate
method for manganese were employed, using that Company 1 s AL-59 kit.
After July, 1969, the same reagents for iron and manganese were used,
but the determinations were .-nade with a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic
20 colorimeter.
Streambed Composition
With the aim of quantifying differences in the physical charac-
teristics of the various stream classes being studied, an analysis of
the particle sizes of the streambeds was undertaken. Of particular
interest was the percentage of the total substrate composed of finer
15
particles such as sand and si J t which \vould be indicative of continuing
erosional activities. All the-techniques proposed elsewhere for ex-
tracting samples of the streambed were inappropriate for the streams
in this study because of the preponderance of large rocks and boulders,
so a different sampling device, consisting of a saw-toothed, metal
cylinder 1vith handles, was designed and constructed. Operation of the
sampler required two men who rotated it clockwise and counterclockwise
abou'~ 30° in each direction, thus drilling the saw-toothed edge of the
apparatus down Lnto the strc3mbed, After drilling the metal cylinder
into the substrate, approximately 4 liters of the bottom material were
scooped out and placed in a plastic bucket prior to separation into
different particle size classes. Hater containing silt particles in
suspension was then dipped out and set aside in plastic buckets.
Water was dipped from the scooped-out area until "dry," or in cases
where penetration of the sampling device was inadequate to prevent
seepage of \vater, until the Hater began to clear inside the sampling
area.
After collection of the sample, the bottom materials and the
scooped-out water were washed through a series of nine sieves (19,
12.7, 6.35, 3.36, 1.68, 0.841, 0.420, 0.210, and 0.105 rnm openings)
and their volume was measured by a method of displacement (McNeil and
Ahnell, 1964). Water containing silt particles which passed through
the finest sieve was placed in a large settling funne 1 and allowed to
stand for 30 minutes, after which vmter containing most of the settle-
able solids was drawn off the bottom into a bucket, and was then stored
16
in a plastic one gallon jug at least 24 hours prior to final measure-
ment. At that time, the upper one half of the plastic jug was care-
fully removed, the water was poured off and the volume of settled
solids was measured. About 28 to 32 hours are required for the analysis
of a series of 30 samples which is the number required for single
samples taken from pool and riffle areas on the upper, middle, and
lower portions of the study streams.
Temperature
Air and water temperatures were taken after the method of Lagler
(1956) with a centigrade thermometer at all stations whenever chemical
data and fish and bottom fauna were collected.
Turbidity
For all samples after July, 1969, the procedure of the Hach
Chemical Company was used to determine turbidity in standard Jackson
Units. Using the Spectronic 20 colorimeter, percent transmittance
was converted to turbidity in standard Jackson Units by referring to
a table made from standard formazin solutions using a Jackson Candle
Tirbidimeter. Prior to July, 1969, turbidity measurements utilized
the Hach Chemical Company's model AL-59 kit.
Fish Collections
Fish collections were made utilizing the model BP-IC backpack
shocker obtained from Coffelt Electronics Company, Denver, Colorado.
A six foot whip electrode mounted on a single wooden pole was used.
17
A switch on the pole controlled the current. About 1.5 amps were
produced on AC current at an output of 325 volts.
At the time of each collection, a 150-foot section of stream at
each station was shocked and the fish were collected with a long
handled nylon dip net. The operation required a minimum of two men.
In the case of soft water, such as in Hurricane Branch, it was neces-
sary to throw crushed salt into the water upstream prior to shocking.
The fish were released after identification to avoid overexploitation
of existing stocks in the small streams.
Bottom Fauna Collections
Bottom fauna collections were made at approximately 3-month
intervals throughout the study. An unmodified Surber square foot
sampler was the sampling device. Three samples were taken at every
station each sampling period. The samples were transferred from the
Surber sampler to a white enamel pan and separated from the accompany-
ing debris at the sampling site. The sorted organisms were then pre-
served in vials of 70 percent ethanol. Identification was to genus.
Acute Toxicity Studies
The Test Fish
The rainbow trout sac-fry were obtained from the new Wytheville
National Fish Hatchery (Wytheville #2) as eyed eggs and were hatched
in aluminum hatching troughs at the old Wytheville National Fish
Hatchery (Wytheville #1) \vhere the toxicity studies were held.
18
Rainbow trout fingerlings also v.Tere obtained from Wytheville 1/:2.
The white sucker fry were obtained from Wisconsin's Department
of Natural Reo;ources fish hatchery at Woodruff, Wisconsin, via air
freight. The fish were shipped in a sealed and oxygenated plastic
bag containing about 20 liters of ~vater. Transit time was about 13
hours. After transporting thP-fry to the fisheries laboratory on
campus, the fry were transferred to plastic swimming pools filled with
dechlorinated tap water. Total hardness and pH (total hardness 45
ppm, pH 7.2) was nearly identical to that of the Wisconsin hatchery.
The white sucker fingerlings were reared by transporting some of
Wisconsin fry to a cement pond at Virginia's Buller Fish Hatchery in
late June, 1969. They were held there until the white sucker finger-
ling experiment, August, 1970, at which time they weighed an average
of 1.6 grams.
When an attempt to hatch blacknose dace fry and a subsequent at-
tempt to capture them in local streams failed, it was decided that
juveniles and adults would be the life history stages of this species
used in the toxicity experiments. The juveniles were captured in the
headwaters of Big Stony Creek in Giles County and were held in a
plastic swimming pool filled with dechlorinated tap water until they
were used in the manganese toxicity study of July, 1970. The black-
nose dace adults were seined from Meadowbrook Branch near Buller
Hatchery in Smyth County.
The Bioassay Apparatus
The test containers for all the experiments \vere of a series of
19
one gallon glass jars filled with either two or three liters of water,
depending upon the weight of the fish and other experimental conditions.
Fourteen-foot aluminum hatching troughs filled with running water
served to maintain a relatively constant temperature. In all tests
except the one with blacknose dace juveniles, each jar was supplied
with one of a series of air stones connected to a small air compressor.
Water Quality
Three water qualities have been used in the toxicity experiments
reported here. They are Slemp Creek (total hardness 35-45 ppm, pH
7.2), Wytheville #2 spring water (total hardness 120 ppm, pH 7.5),
and V.P.I. tap water (total hardness 45 ppm, pH 7.6). Slemp Creek
water was used in the rainbow trout sac-fry experiments and the rain-
bow trout fingerling study in which suspended silt was the toxicant.
Wytheville #2 spring water was used to determine the tolerance of
rainbow trout fingerlings to Mn+2 ions. V.P.I. tap water was used
for all the white sucker and blacknose dace e>..periments.
Toxicants
The three toxicants which have been used in these experiments
are Mn(N0 3 )2 , Mno 2 , and suspended silt. The Mn(N03 )2 was obtained as
a 10,000 ppm atomic absorption standard solution from the Fisher
Scientific Company, and as a 51.2 percent reagent grade solution from
the same company. The atomic absorption standard solution was used
for the rainbow trout sac-fry experiment and the 51.2 percent solution
was used for the other experiments.
20
A 10,000 ppm solution of Mn(N0 3 )2 was always the strength of
the solution pipetted into the diluent water. After pipetting, the
solutions were stirred vigorously with a glass rod to insure thorough
mixing before introducing the fish into the test containers.
The silt used in this series of experiments was obtained from
the bed of a conical shaped depression located on the unreclaimed
portion of the Bishop Branch strip mine. It was air dried and ground
in a mortar and pestle prior to putting it into suspension. The silt
was kept in suspension by moderately violent aeration.
The Mn0 2 was in a pO\vder form and was obtained from the Fisher
Scientific Company.
Measurements to determine actual quantities of the various toxi-
cants in solution or suspension were usually taken 48 hours after be-
ginning the experiment. Materials in suspension were measured in terms
of turbidity units, and manganese was measured colorimetrically using
Hach Chemical Company's cold periodate oxidation method and a Spectronic
20 colorimeter.
Chronic Effects of Silt in Suspension
Facilities of the Buller Fish Hatchery near Marion, Virginia, were
used to compare the growth of rainbow trout and white sucker fingerlings
in clear versus turbid water. Two cement ponds 100 feet long, 8 feet
wide, and 3 feet deep were each divided into six compartments by 1/4-
inch mesh screens. In the study conducted durir~ the fall of 1969,
water was delivered to the two ponds from an adjacent earthen pond in
21
an attempt to avoid the occasional high turbidities of water coming
directly from the South Fork Holston. Turbidity was induced in one
pond by having the incoming water flo\v across a basket of semi-dried
clay silt. Each of the ponds was stocked with three groups of fifty
white sucker and rainbow trout fingerlings. Individual lengths and
mean weights were taken at: the beginning and end of the experiment.
Because of difficulties in maintaining a high turbidity in the
turbid pond and in an attempt to attain a better statistical design,
a second experiment was initiated in the fall of 1970. This time a
circulating pump maintained a stirring action inside a 55-gallon drum
to which clay silt was added daily. The amount of turbid water leaving
the drum and entering the test pond was controlled by the amount of
influent water. Since the suspected significant differences in length
and weight changes could not be validated statistically in the first
experiment, fish were tagged internally with a nwnbered, plastic tag
in the secow. experiment in an attempt -to improve the experimental
analysis through measurement of individual lengths and weights. In
this experiment three groups of twenty-five rainbow trout and white
suckers were stocked in each of the ponds and fed daily for thirty
days. To allow for mortality and tag loss, twenty fish from each
compartment were selected at random for the statistical analysis.
Data Analysis
Bottom Fauna Collections
Initially, the macrobcnthic organisms Here identified to genus,
22
and numbers in each genus were tabula Led accordin1.:. to date, samp-
ling site, and sample number. This data was then used to calculate
an index of community structure, the number of organisms per square
foot, and the number of genera per square foot. The index of com-
munity structure was calculated according to the information theory
s
model d = ~
i=l
ni n_i log 2 ~ n
as proposed by Wilhm and Dorris (1968).
Statistical comparisons among stations for each of these parameters
vJere made utilizing Duncan's multiple range test following the methods
of Steel and Tor~ie (1960).
Substrate Analysis
Data on the percentage composition by particle size of substrate
in the study streams was first transformed from percentages using an
arcsine transformation. Comparisons were made among the mean percent-
age compositions for all stations of particles less than 0.841 mm
diameter and those less than 0.105 mm diameter using Duncan's multiple
range comparison.
Chronic Effects of Silt in Suspension
Comparisons of mean length and vJeight increments for rainbow
trout in clear versus turbid water were made using a one-way analysis
of variance.
----------------------------------
RESULTS
Water Chemistry
A su~nary of some of the water chemistry parameters sampled on
ten occasions from July, 1968 to July, 1970, is presented in Table 1.
Other parameters which were measured but not considered limiting to
the biota on the basis of criteria developed by other investigators
(McKee and Wolf, 1963) include di~solved oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Values for pH and iron showed the best variation between sampling
dates. Changes in total hardness, turbidity, and manganese were as-
sociated with increased stream flow and probably resulted from high
flow dilutions in the case of total hardness and increased erosional
activities in the instance of turbidity and manganese. Manganese con-
centrations in all categories of streams studied are higher than usu-
ally occur in natural waters (Hem, 1959) and can probably be attributed
to the geology of the region.
Streambed Percentage Composition Analysis
A statistical comparison of the percentage of the substratum of
the study streams composed of two size classes of fine particles is
presented in Table 2. The comparisons among stations is based upon
the procedures of Duncan's multiple range test (Steel and Torrie, 1960),
The mean values being compared \ver~ obtained by averaging the results
23
1
I
...J
24
Table 1. Heans and standard deviations of some water quality para-
meters measured during ten sampling periods between July,
1968 and July, 1970. Results for all parameters are ex-
pressed in parts per million with the exception of turbidity
which is expressed in Jackson Turbidity Units, and pH.
Total
Station Hardne!:~s Iron Manganese pH Turbidity
S-1 30 + 8 0.14 + 0.09 0.74 + 0.42 7.5 + 0.40 12 + 10
S-2 41 + 13 0.10 + 0.02 0.76 + 0.49 7.7 + 0.40 18 + 15
B-1 10 + 6 0.20 + 0.18 0.96 + 0.63 6.9 + 0.60 49 + 28
B-2 93 + 20 0.20 + 0.17 0.30 + 0.24 7.7 + 0.36 15 + 8
H-1 15 + 16 0.10 + 0.03 0.40 + 0.22 6.8 + 0.23 5 + 2
H-2 18 + 7 0.10 + 0.06 0.30 + 0.34 6.8 + 0.19 5 + 2
G-1 10 + 7 0.10 + 0.03 0.50 + 0.20 7.1 + 0.40 43 + 25
G-2 12 + 7 0.17 + 0.13 0.30 + 0.15 7.2 + 0.23 41 + 21
ST-2 90 + 25 0.10 + 0.04 0.90 + 0.79 7.7 + 0.39 104 + 69
I
I
J
25
Table 2. Multiple range comparison of the percentage of the substratum
composed of particles less than 0.841 mm diameter and 0.105 mm
diameter in the study streams. Abbreviations identify the
respective streams, whether a riffle or pcDl was sampled, and
the section of the stream sampled. For example, STPL repre-
sents a pool on the lower section of Slabtown Branch.
% of particles less than % of particles less than
l 0.841 mm diameter 0.105 mm diameter
p Station Least p Station Least
sampled Mean % significant sampled Mean % significant
range range
HPL 18.41 BRL 8.84
2 BRL 19.99 22.31 2 HRL 9.27 10.06
3 HRL 20.55 23.51 3 HPL 10.58 10.60
4 SPL 25.25 24.31 4 SPL 11.02 10.96
5 HRU 26.51 24.86 5 SRM 11.82 11.21
6 HRM 26.81 25.34 6 HPM 12.37 11.43
7 STRL 26.98 25.66 7 GRU 12.57 11.57
8 HPM 27.30 25.98 8 SRL 14.51 11.72
9 STRU 27.60 26.22 9 STRU 14.99 11.82
10 GRU 29.15 26.46 10 HRU 15.17 11.93
11 SRM 29.26 26.58 11 SPM 15.21 11.98
12 SRL 30.21 26.78 12 HRM 16.29 12.08
13 HPU 31.54 26.89 13 HPU 16.78 12.15
14 SPM 34.20 27.09 14 SRU 17.77 12.22
15 BRU 34.29 27.11 15 BPM 18.28 12.26
16 GRH 34.97 27.25 16 STRL 18.51 12.29
17 STRM 36.56 27.39 17 SPU 19.36 12.34
18 SRU 37.81 27.49 18 BRU 19.80 12.40
19 BPM 38.12 27.57 19 BRM 20.92 12.43
20 BRM 38.72 27.65 20 GRM 21.26 12.47
21 GRL 41.27 27.65 21 GRL 21.52 12.47
22 STPU 46.87 27.65 22 BPL 22.51 12.47
23 GPH 47.18 27.65 23 STRM 24.25 12.47
24 GPU 50.40 27.65 24 GPH 24.25 12.47
25 BPL 52.16 27.65 25 GPU 29.62 12.47
26 BPU 56.48 27.65 26 BPU 31.87 12.47
27 SPU 58.95 27.65 27 STPU 31.95 12.47
28 STPL 62.05 27.65 28 GPL 33.77 12.47
29 GPL 67.89 27.65 29 STPM 42.58 12.4 7
30 STPM 78.58 27.65 30 STPL 43.76 12.47
1p = The number of means in a comparison.
26
obtnined from single samples <Jt each of the stations during three yearly
sampling periods. The range of particles less thnn 0.841 mm diameter
represents the categories of coarse sand, fine sand, and silt. Particles
less than 0.105 mm are composed entirely of silt. Appendix Table 1
and 2 summarizes the results of each of the three yearly substrate
analyses based upon separation of the substrate samples into 10 size
classes.
If one compares ranges of means for stations that are statistically
different, at least two pertinent observations can be made. First, for
the "less than 0.841" size class, of the thirteen lowest means declared
significantly different than the three highest values, nin~ of the
stations are on Hurricane Branch and Slemp Creek (unaffected and fully
reclaimed, respectively) whereas the three highest means represent
stations on Georges Branch and Slabtmvn Branch. Comparisons based
percentages of silt only suggest even more definitive results of recla-
mation efforts. Stations on Slemp Creek and Hurricane Branch represent
ten of the thirteen lowest values, ,,,1 ile the five high range values
are comprised of stations unreclaimed or only partially reclaimed. The
occurrence of reclaimed and partially reclaimed stations in the high
range values is discussed else\vhere.
Macroinvertebrate Densities, Diversities, and
Community Structure Relative _!:.£. Degree of Reclamation
A comparison of the mean density of macroinvertebrates at dif-
ferent sampling stations on the study streams is presented in Table 3.
J
27
Table 3. Multiple range comparison of the mean densities of bottom
organisms at each of the sampling stations.
Mean No. Least
p Station per Significant
Square Foot Range
H-2 12.00
2 G-1 12.29 12.56
3 G-2 12.29 13.22
4 ST-2 12.29 13.67
5 H-1 12.50 13.93
6 B-1 12.67 14.20
7 S-1 22.00 14.38
8 B-2 34.71 14.55
9 S-2 48.86 14.69
28
The values compan::d arc based upon the average of seven collections of
three square foot samples per station. The two stations on Slemp Creek
and the lower station on Bishop Branch produced significantly higher
numbers of bottom organisms than did stations on the affected unre-
claimed streams, stations on the unaffected stream, or the upper station
on Bishop Branch. As mentioned elsewhere, the unexpected productivity
of the lower station on Bishop Branch is related to the underground
passage of the upper portion of the stream. The extremely low produc-
tivity of Hurricane Branch can be attributed to the low concentration
of dissolved minerals.
The mean number of genera (Table 4) collected at both stations on
the fully reclaimed stream and on the lower portion of Bishop •;ranch
was significantly higher than for the other stations sampled. As in
the density comparisons, the affected unreclaimed streams gave evi-
dence of supporting the poorest population of bottom organisms.
Statistical comparison of the mean diversity values for the
different stations (Table 5) indicates no significant difference among
stations on the unaffected stream, the affected reclaimed stream, or
the lower station on Bishop Branch. All of these stations had mean
diversities near or above 3.0, indicating "clean water" areas (Wilhm
and Dorris, 1968). Diversities for the other stations characterize
them as being "moderately polluted." The lower d values for the
affected unreclaimed and partially reclaimed stations are associated
with the low diversities (number of genera) of bottom organism
I
j
J
29
Table 4. Multiple range comparison of the mean 1 number of genera of
bottom organisms at each of the sampling stations.
Mean No. Least
p Station per Significant
Square Foot Range
ST-2 8. 71
2 G-2 9.29 3.31
3 G-1 9.43 3.51
4 H-1 10.00 3.63
5 B-1 10.50 3.70
6 H-2 12.00 3. 77
7 B-2 15.86 3.82
8 S-1 16.14 3.87
9 S-2 16.14 3.90
lMean number of genera for each station is based upon an average
of seven collections.
.J
30
Table 5. Multiple range comparison of the mean diversity for bottom
organisms at each of the sampling stations.
p
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Least .
Station L -Significant ·Mean d
Range
G-·2 2.51
ST-2 2.54 0.51
G-1 2.58 0.53
B-1 2.67 0.55
H-1 2.92 0.56
B-2 3.06 0.57
S-2 3.09 0.58
H-2 3.12 0.59
S-1 3.33 0.59
1 -Mean d = The average of d values for seven collections as calculated
s
by the formula d =:E.
i=l
ni ni log2 n
n
where s represents the number
of genera in an area, n is the total number of individuals, and
ni is the number of individuals per genus .
31
populations" That Slemp Creek stations have relatively high d values
and low numbers of genera is indicative of less redundancy.
Fish Species Composition and Relative Abundance
The summarization of fish collections (Table 6) gives strong
evidence of the recovery of fish populations in Slemp Creek and of the
continuing stress being exerted on populations in affected unreclaimed
and partially reclaimed streams, with the exception of the lower station
'Hl Bishop Branch.
In the stations having fish populations, blacknose dace (Rhinichthys
atratulus) and sculpins (Cottus ~.) are the two most commonly occur-
ring species, with rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and stone rollers
(Compostoma anomalum) following in that order. No fish were collected
at the upper station on Bishop Branch, and only a single specimen
(blacknose dace) was collected on Slabtown Branch. When a specimen was
collected at one of the affected, unreclaimed stations it was usually
a blacknose dace. Sculpins were conspicuous in their absence.
The Toxicity of Silt in Suspension and Manganese Ions to
Blacknose Dace, Rainbmv Trout, and White Suckers
Blacknose Dace
Tables 7 and 8 summarize the results of two experiments designed
to determine the acute toxicity of Mn+2 ions to early juvenile and
adult blacknose dace. The 96 hr. TLm values were 50 ppm for the
juveniles, and 88 ppm for the adults. Of the three species tested,
j
..
32
Table 6. Numbers and species of fish collected on five sampling
dntes. The sample is based upon a 150 feet section of
stream.
Station Species 9/18 7/69 11/69 3/70
H-1 Salvelinus fontinalis 3 2 l 2
Cottus £E.• 0 0 3 0
Rhinichthys atratulus 0 0 1 1
H-2 Cottus ~· 7 0 2 6
Rhinichthys atratu1us 5 6 3 4
Sa1mo gairdneri 0 0 0 0
B-1 0 0 0 0
B-2 Sa1mo gairdneri 5 1 2 3
Rhinichthys atratulus 2 0 3 6
Compostoma anoma1um 1 0 0 0
Cottus £E.· 30 6 47 34
,,
S-1 Rhinichthys atratu1us 14 42 11 5
Cottus E.P.· 14 9 15 11
Compostoma anomalum 0 0 1 0
Sa1mo gairdneri 1 0 0 0
S-2 Compostoma anoma1um 18 9 0 6
Lampetra £E.• 5 0 1 1
Rhinichthys atratu1us 125 34 17 9
Cottus E...P.· 18 1 6 4
Catostomus commersonii 0 0 0 1
Sa lmo gai rdneri 0 0 0 0
Chrosomus oreas 0 0 0 0
Labidesthes sicculus 0 0 0 0
G-1 Rhinichthys atratu1us 2 2 1 1
Sa1mo gairdneri 0 0 0 1
G-2 Rhinichthys atratu1us 0 14 0 4
Cottus E.P.· 0 0 0 1
Chrosomus oreas 0 0 0 1
ST-2 Rhinichthys atratu1us 0 0 0 1
7/7/70
3
2
2
4
6
1
0
10
2
0
30
31
37
0
0
12
0
36
0
0
1
8
1
0
0
8
0
0
0
..
33
Table 7. Survival of blacknose dace juveniles exposed to five concen-
trations of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs.
Calculated Ccmc. MeasureJ Cone. Percent Survival Mean %
(mg/1) (mg /1) Rep I Rep II Rep III Survival
Control .1 100 100 100 100
13.5 14.0 100 100 100 100
18.0 16.8 100 100 90 97
24.0 24.3 80 100 90 90
32.0 31.2 70 90 90 83
56.0 54.0 40 30 50 40
TLm = 50 mg/1
..
34
Table 8. Survival of blacknose dace adults exposed to five concentra-
tions of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs.
Calculated Cone. Measured Cone. Percent Survival
(mg/1) (mg /1) Rep I Rep II Rep III
Control 0.1 100 100 100
24.0 23.8 100 100 100
32.0 32.5 100 100 100
56.0 55.4 100 90 90
75.0 73.2 80 80 60
100.0 98.7 30 40 40
TLm == 88 mg/1
35
This species had the highest tolerance to Mn+2 ions. No tests with
silt or silt and manganese in combination were run on this species.
Rainbow Trout
The results of a series of six experiments in which rainbow trout
fry and fingerlings were exposed to varying concentrations of Mn+2
ions, silt in suspension, and combinations of silt and Mn+2 ions are
summarized in Tables 9 through 14. The median tolerance limit of
rainbow trout fry to Mn+2 ions was more than four times that of finger-
lings. The higher tolerance of the fry may be partly due to having
been reared in very hard water (350 ppm).
Data from two experiments conducted in an attempt to measure the
tolerance of rainbow trout fry and fingerlings to silt in suspension
are presented in Tables 11 and 12. Results for the fry are probably
biased by the fact that all of the silt could not be kept in suspen-
sion, making resting fry susceptible to smothering. The same inade-
quacy of the test apparatus prevented more definitive measurements of
the tolerance of fingerlings to silt.
An interesting result of t:he experiments designed to test the
effects of combinations of silt and manganese upon rainbow trout fry
and fingerlings (Tables 13 and 14) is the fact that fingerling trout
can tolerate higher levels of manganese combined with suspended silt
than of manganese alone. As is the case with trout fry and silt,
results of the combination tests are probably biased by the sediments
which accumulate in the bottoms of the test containers.
....
36
Table 9. Survival of rainbow trout sac fry to varying concentrations
of Mn+2 ions after 96 hrs. exposure.
Calculated Mn+2
Cone. (mg/1)
Control
3.2
5.6
10.0
18.0
32.0
56.0
Measured Mn+2
Cone. (mg /1)
0.1
2.9
·~.6
8.0
16.5
29.2
52.7
TLm = 30 mg/1
Percent Survival
Rep I , Rep II Rep III
100 100 100
100 100 100
90 100 95
100 100 100
100 95 No Test
55 30 40
35 0 5
IMIIIIIIII
37
Table 10. Survival of rainbow trout fingerlings exposed to four
concentrations of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs.
Calculated Mn+2
Cone. (mg/1)
Control
2.9
5.1
6.9
9.2
Measured Mn+2
Cone. (mg/1)
• 1
2.5
4.8
6.5
8.7
TLm = 7.0 mg/1
Percent Survival
Rep I Rep II
100 95
100 100
90 90
50 55
20 15
.....
38
Table 11. Survival of rainbow trout sac fry after 96 hrs. exposure to
varying amounts of silt in suspension.
Dry Silt Initial Turbidity 48 hr. Turbidity Mean %
Added (g/1) (JTU) (JTU) Survival
0 4 4 98
4 1,400 1,200 98
8 5,012 4, 720 92
16 7,902 6,000 37
32 10,965 6,500 3
64 29,200 17,000 0
128 60,800 26,500 0
........
39
Tabh t2. Survival of rainbcm trout fingerlings exposed to five levels
of silt in suspension for 48 hrs.
Dry Silt Initial Turbidity 48 hr. Turbidity Mean %
Added (g/1) (JTU) (JTU) Survival
Control 4 4 87
4 5,550 37950 100
8 9,875 8,000 100
16 18,000 9,850 100
32 22,800 17,500 8'3
64 30,000 18,000 43
..
40
Table 13. Percent survival of rainboH trout fingerlings 96 hrs. after
exposure to four concentrations of Mn+2 ions in combination
with two levels of silt. Concentrations listed are quan-
tities measured 48 hrs. after beginning the experiment.
Mn+2 + 1 g/1 Silt Mn+2 + 10 g/1 Silt
Mean %
Mn+2
Mean %
Mn+2 JTU Survival JTU Survival
Control 4 100 Control 4 97
7.4 70 90 4.5 1550 93
25.0 10 77 18.2 1240 60
33.0 0 40 25.0 1080 16.7
59.0 0 0 53.0 875 0
TLm = 29 mg/1 Mn+2 TLm = 20.6 mg/1 Mn+2
IIIII
Table 14.
41
Percent survival of rainbow trout sac fry 96 hrs. after
exposure to four concentrations of Mn1-2 ions in combination
with two levels of silt. Concentrations listed are quan-
tities measured 48 hrs. after beginning the experiment.
Mn+2 + 1 g/1 Silt Mn+2 + 10 g/1 Silt
Mean % Mean %
Mn+2 JTU Survival Mn+2 JTU Survival
Control 4 98 Control 4 98
7.2 80 97 3.8 1640 21.6
22.0 4 35 16.6 1470 3.3
37.0 0 6.6 32.0 880 0
66.7 0 0 51.0 970 0
TLm = 19.5 mg/1 of Mn+2 TLm = 2.4 mg/1 of Mn+2
_j
...
42
White Suckers
Contrary to the fry and fingerling studies involving rainbow
trout, white sucker fry (Tables 15 and 16) had a considerably lower
tolerance to manganese ions (TLm = 14 ppm) than did fingerling white
suckers (TLm = 80 ppm). These results lend further weight to the
possibility that the high tolerance of the rainbow trout fry was due
to having been reared in the hard water of Wytheville #1.
Effects of Chronic Exposure of Rainbow Trout and
White Sucker Fin~erlings to High Levels of Turbidity
Although this experiment was originally designed to test the
effect of chronically high turbidities on the growth of both rainbow
trout and white suckers, an 80 percent tag loss among the white
suckers combined with high and seemingly random mortalities made a
meaningful analysis of the rcsul ts impossible. Both the tag losses
and the high mortalities can probably be attributed to the small size
of these yearling fish (average length = llO mm).
Water quality data for the experimental ponds are presented in
Table 17. As compared \vith the \vhite suckers, tag loss and mortality
among the rainbow trout studied <.Yas very low, the two factors combined
never exceeding 20 percent of a test group. Increments in both length
and weight (Table 18) for rainbow trout reared in clear water are
consistently higher than gains for trout reared in turbid water.
Analysis of variance (Table 19) further confirms that the parameters
measured were different in the two groups of fish •
43
Table 1.5. Survival of white sucker fry exposed to five concentrations
of Mn+2 ions for 96 hrs.
Calculated Cone. Measured Cone. Percent Survival Mean %
(mg/1) (mg /1) Rep I Rep II Rep III Survival
Control • 1 73 72 73 73
2.8 2.5 61 76 81 73
6.8 6.4 83 60 51 65
9.2 7.25 94 75 68 79
12.2 10.1 74 94 74 81
16.3 14.65 29 0 4 11
TLm = 14 mg/1
Ill IIIII
L+Lf
Table 16. Percent survival and the median tolerance limit at the end
of 96 hrs. for '.vhite sucker fingerlings subjected to four
concentrations of Mn(N0 3 )2 .
Concentration Percent Survival Mean %
(mg/1 Mn(N0 3 )2 ) Rep I Rep II Rep III Survival
Control 100 100 100 100
32 100 80 100 93
56 90 70 80 80
100 20 50 30 33
180 10 0 20 10
TLm = 80 mg/1
45
Table 17. Water quality in the clear and turbid ponds.
CLEAR
Date Temperature D.O. pH Mn Turbidity
(Co) (ppm) (ppm) (JTU)
9-14-70 20.0 9.0 8.0 0.1 20
9-18-70 22.0 8.5 7.5 tr. 15
9-26-70 15.5 9.5 8.0 tr. 15
10-10-70 13.0 9.5 8.5 0.2 10
TURBID
Date Temperature D.O. pH Mn Turbidity
(CO) (ppm) (ppm) (JTU)
9-14-70 21.0 9.0 8.0 tr. 875
9-18-70 22.0 9.0 7.5 0.2 680
9-26-70 16.0 9.5 8.5 0.1 1030
10-10-70 13.0 9.5 8.5 0.1 560
i .. j
46
Table 18. Mean length and weight increments for rainbow trout reared
in clear versus turbid water. Length of the experiment was
30 days, beginning Sept. 14, 1970 and ending Oct. 14, 1970.
Mean values are based on 20 fish per compartment.
Mean length Mean weight
increment {mm2 increment ~mm2
Clear Turbid Clear Turbid
Rep. I 26.0 18.0 Rep. I 52.6 30.7
Rep. II 26.3 19.2 Rep. II 47.6 28.9
Rep. III 25.0 19.7 Rep. III 53.3 32.1
Exp. Mean 25.7 19.0 Exp. Mean 51.1 30.6
If}
Table 19, Analysis of variance of mean length and weight increments
for rainbow trout reared in clear versus turbid water.
Length !ncrements
Source of Variation df ss MS F
Between treatments 1 1,314.68 1,314.68 111.41
Among locations 4 47.20 11.80
Within locations 120 3,671.05 30.59
Total 125 5,032.93
Weight Increments
Source of Variation df ss MS F
Between treatments 1 12,104.00 12,104.00 105.45
Among locations 4 459.17 114.79
Within locations 120 12,368,00 103.07
Total 125 24,932.00
d I ~
DISCUSSION
Effects of M<H1gane::>e Strip Mine Recl.:1m.1tion on
Some Physicnl .:1nd Chemicnl Parameters of Streams
Wnter Chemi::>try
The results of chemical analy::>es in thi::> ::>tudy show that the con-
centrations of the parameters sampled varied little be tween sampling
dates, with the exception of values for turbidity and manganese
(Table 1). Changes in these turbidity levels can be attributed to in-
creased erosional activity during periods of heavy rainfall. The fact
that the highest turbidity ranges for Hurricane Branch and Slemp Creek
(unaffected and reclaimed respectively) are not much higher than low
range values for the other streams attests to the effectiveness of
reclamation efforts on the Slemp Creek drainage area.
Manganese is a common component of soils of the earth's crust,
existing mainly as insoluble oxides and hydroxy-oxides. Fluctuations
in manganese concentrations appear to be strongly correlated with the
changes in turbidity, suggesti1~ a higher loading of the insoluble forms
of manganese as part of the suspended materials. Hem (1959) states
that minerals containing the largest amounts of ma1~anese occur in
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, and that in the former types,
manganese oxides and hydroxides are concentrated through the removal
of more soluble minerals, and are found in the oxidates (often a::>::>oci-
ated with iron) and hydrolyzates (clay minerals). The consi::>tently
48
, d
49
lower values obtained for the concentrations of iron in this study
is probably due to the presence of clay minerals in the area.
Shawarbi (1952) has reported that soils in the United States
commonly contain from 0.001 to somewhat over one percent manganese.
Hem (1959) stated that water passing through soil will dissolve some
manganese. The relatively high manganese concentrations in Hurricane
Branch can probably be ascribed to the geology of the region. The
somewhat higher concentrations in affected streams (including Slemp
Creek) are probably related to increased loading of manganese in
suspensoids, and to the fact that mined areas probably expose more
ores to the solution action of water and microbes. Poon and Deluise
(1967) related a lowering of pH and other factors to the increased
solubility of manganese. It can be surmised from the higher manganese
concentrations in reclaimed and unreclaimed streams as opposed to
unaffected streams that the reclamation accomplished here would be much
more ineffective in a more acid environment.
Of the other chemical properties measured, total hardness is
probably the most pertinent because of its apparent influence on
aquatic productivity. Commonly a function of the concentration of
calcium and magnesium ions, total hardness values for a stream may be
influenced by the presence of other cations (Hem, 1959), the nature of
the stream substratum, and length of contact with the substratum. It
is apparent from Table 1 that Slemp Creek, Slabtown Branch, and the
lower portion of Bishop Branch have ''harder" water than the other
study areas, probably because of substrate differences, since all five
-'
•
50
streams were of about the same length. The higher total hardness of
the lower portion of Bishop Branch can be attributed to the fact that
somewhere in the middle section of its descent a portion of the stream
during high flovl and all of it during low flow goes underground, making
possible the solution of more calcium and magnesium ions.' Values for
turbidity and temperature are also affected by this diversion. Effects
of these changes on the biota are discussed below.
Substrate Analysis
The importance of substrate type to stream biota has been empha-
sized by a number of investigators of stream ecology (McNeil and Ahnell,
1964; TarzvJell, 1937; Cordone and Kelly, 1961; T~bo, 1955; Mackay and
Kalff, 1968). The concensus is that the production of fish and macro-
benthic organisms is inversely related to the percentage of sand and
silt particles in the substratum. Adverse effects of heavy siltation
can usually be attributed to reductions in substrate permeability and
diversity of microhabitats, blanketing and scouring action against
attached algae and other aquatic plants, and impairment of holdfast
mechanisms necessary for the survival of many microbenthos.
Although the statistical analysis of differences in percentage
composition of particles less than 0.841 mm diameter and less than
0.105 mm diameter respectively among the different areas sampled
(Table 2) does not permit allocation of a given percentage range
according to degree of reclamation ivithout exception, some patterns
can be discerned. Of these trends, one of the most interesting is
the fact thAt of the thirteen lower mean percentages of particles
..
51
Less than 0. 841 mm diameter dec] 1red significantly different than the
thnc highest mean percentages, nine of the values represented stations
on Hurri cnne Branch and Slemp Creek. When comparisons among stations
\vith respect to particles less than 0.105 mm diameter were made, of
thirteen low range mean percentages for this particle size class, ten
ut the values represented stations on Hurricane Branch and Slemp Creek,
suggesting the effectiveness of reclamation in reducing the percentage
of finer sediments in the substrate.
The general trend of lower percentages of fine sediments in streams
draining reclaimed or unaffected areas and higher percentages in streams
draining partially reclaimed and unreclaimed areas is somewhat confused
by two instances. One apparent contradiction is the designation of a
pool in th<: upper section of Slemp Creek as an area having one of the
highest percentages of particles less than 0.841 mm diameter. This
is probably due to the fact that even after reclamation, considerably
more erosion may occur in affected areas than in non-affected areas.
Inspection of the percentages of particles less than 0.105 mm diameter,
however, does not place Slemp Creek in the "high percentage" category
since most of the particles in the range less than 0.841 mm diameter
were sand rather than silt, suggesting that rather than a continuous
deposition of silt such as seems to occur in the unreclaimed and
partially reclaimed streams, deposition in Slemp Creek occurs mainly
during high flow, consequently consists primarily of larger particles
(sand and gravel).
A second apparent contradiction is the occurrence of a lower
11111111111
52
station of Bishop Branch among those stations having the lowest per-
centages of both of the above size classes. This can probably be at-
tributed to the stream dropping a substantial part of its load during
the underground passage of the stream discussed previously.
In summary, based on a comparison with affected unreclaimed streams
it can be said that reclamation efforts have had a measurable influence
in reducing the percentage of sand and silt in the substratum of Slemp
Creek. Partial reclamation on the drainage area of Bishop Branch has
been ineffective in bringing about such results.
The Role of Silt in Suspension and Manganese Ions in
Solution~ Factors Limiting to Rainbmv Trout,
Blacknosc Dace, and White Suckers
Preliminary surveys of the streams in this study gave indications
that affected streams on occasion had higher levels of manganese and
suspended silt than unaffected streams, prompting hypotheses that one,
both, or a combination of these two factors might be limiting to
native fish species.
As reported by Doudoroff and Katy (1953), there are broad dis-
crepancies in reports by different investigators of manganese toxicity.
Most investigators however are in agreement that the toxicity of
manganese and other heavy metals results from the precipitation of
gill secretions and damage to the gill filaments, producing asphyxi-
ation. Jones (1939) correlated the toxicity of heavy metals with
their solution pressures and indicated that the relatively low toxicity
of manganese \vas due to its high solution pressure and slow reaction
j
-
53
rate with the gill secretions.
Of the three species investigated in this study, rainbow trout
were mcst vulncrnble to the toxic action of manganese ions, blacknose
dace were next, and white suckers were least vulnerable. Although
certainly other factors might be responsible, it is interesting to note
Lhat the degree of vulnerabiJ ity to manganese toxicity closely parallels
the relative susceptibility of these different species to hypoxic stress.
The comparatively low resistance of \vhite sucker fry to manganese may
have resulted from stress due to transportation and handling as the
other fry were more directly available.
Even though the toxicity of a compound varies among individuals
of a species, among different species, and under <different environmental
and test conditions, it is significant that the results of all tests
in this study (Tables 7-10 and 13-16) tend to substantiate the data
of Jones (1939) and Thomas (1924) who reported toxic limits to fish
of less than 100 ppm. When considered in relationship to ambient
stream levels, ho~.;rever, one can only conclude that the concentrations
of manganese in the study streams are not high enough to exert acutely
toxic effects on the three species studied.
Since the response of fish to silt in suspension is not a graded
one with respect to time, the data (Tables 11 and 12) should be inter-
preted simply Ln terms of tolerance rather than median tolerance limits
as reported for manganese toxicity. Percentage of mortality could not
be assessed except at the end of the experirr-·nts, but the condition of
the dead fish indicated that mortality probably occurred early in the
_.Jill
I :tt;l <
54
runs, suggesting an 11 all or none 11 response to the suspended silt.
Although the limits established for rainbow trout and white sucker fry
are much lower than for fingerling rainbow trout, the mortalities
measured are probably in large part a response of the smothering action
of silt which settled onto the bottoms of test containers, rather than
to silt which remained in suspension.
From the experiments concerning the effects of combinations of
suspended silt and manganese ions on rainbow trout fry and fingerlings
(Tables 13 and 14) two conclusions may be drawn. First, the much lower
TLm value for rainbow trout fry as opposed to fingerlings is probably
not due to any additive or synergistic effect of the two substances,
but to the fact that the precipitating action of the manganese ions
on the silt particles creates a sludge on test container bottoms in
which resting fry are more prone to suffocation. This supposition is
borne out by the fact that the fingerling rainbow trout actually toler-
ated higher levels of manganese ions in the presence of silt than in
its absence, leading to the second conclusion that of the measurable
concentration of manganese, much of it is bound to silt particles and
is not as available for contact with the test fish. This adds support
to the hypothesis that ambient levels of manganese in the study streams
affected by strip mining are not acutely toxic since of the manganese
ions available to fish, many are probably bound with silt.
While these experiments have demonstrated that neither silt nor
manganese singly or in combination is acutely limiting to the species
studied, chronic effects are largely unknown. Contrary to the results
11111111111111
55
of Herbert and Merkens (1961) the chronic exposure of trout to moderately
high suspended silt loads (about 700 ppm) in this study (Tables 17 and
18) resulted in significantly lower increments in length and weight
than occurred in non-turbid water. Mortalities in both groups of fish
were negligible, whereas Herbert and Merkens always had some mortality
in the turbid waters of their small tank experiments, and only measured
the survivors. This suggests that the difference in results may be
due to fewer mortalities of adversely affected fish in the larger, more
natural raceways of this study.
In summary, it would appear that fish populations in unreclaimed
affected streams of this study are probably limited both directly and
indirectly by high levels of turbidity and siltation. One direct effect
demonstrated was a reduction in growth rate resulting from chronic ex-
posure to high turbidity levels. An effect to be supposed, based upon
percentages of silt in the substrate, is a reduction in spawning sue-
cess. Indirect effects center around reductions in populations of
macrobenthos.
Fish and Macrobenthos Densities, Diversities, and Community
Structure Relative to Degree of Reclamation
As was mentioned previously, reclamation work was completed on
Brushy Mountain (Slemp Creek drainage area) in 1960 and on a portion
of the Bishop Branch drainage area in 1966. The only recorded fish
and bottom insect collections on these streams prior to the initiation
of this study in 1968 were a series of collections made in 1966 with
.-
56
reference to food habits of the banded sculpin (Novak, 1968). Thus,
recovery on Bishop Branch can be analyzed from the time of completion
of reclamation, but recovery of the fauna in Slemp Creek must be
analyzed on the basis of comparisons with unreclaimed affected streams
in the same immediate geographic area.
The results of collections of macrobenthic organisms over a two-
year period beginning July, 1968 suggest a striking parallel between
numbers of organisms per square foot, number of genera, and diversity
or complexity of community structure and degree of reclamation. Ob-
vious exceptions to this generalization are the collections on Hurri-
cane Branch and on the lower station of Slemp Creek. The paucity of
organisms collected on Hurricane Branch can be related to the extremely
soft water (5 ppm total hardness) and to the preponderance of bed-
rock and shale rubble in the substrate. The apparently tremendous
recovery Bishop Branch makes between the upper and lower stations is
a result of the stream passing underground for some distance about one-
half mile above its mouth. During this underground passage, the stream
drops a sizable portion of its silt load.
Although in keeping with the dynamic nature of streams there were
significant variations in number of organisms per square foot, number
of genera sampled, and diversity from one sampling date to another, a
comparison among stations of the mean values for all collections
(Tables 3-5) indicate statistically higher values of these parameters
for Slemp Creek and the lower station of Bishop Branch. That these
results are in close agreement with those of Novak (1968) attests to
..-
57
the static condition of the affected unreclaimed streams, and the
advanced state of recovery of Slemp Creek. Close analysis of the
parameters discussed above support the conclusions of Gammon (1968)
that suspended inorganic sediments bring about an overall reduction
in numbers per species. Changes in community structure are probably
related to the destruction of populations of "rare" taxonomic groups.
Fish collections made during the course of this study (Table 6)
further emphasize the degree of faunal recovery in Slemp Creek and the
complete absence of recovery in the unreclaimed streams. It is impor-
tant to note, however, that in the last two collections of this study
four species not listed by Novak for Slemp Creek were collected. These
species \vere the white sucker, rainbrnv trout, mount a in red belly dace,
and the brook silverside. Sheldon (1968) reported that for headwater
species succession takes the form of additions to the assemblage.
While it is obvious that Slemp Creek is in an advanced state of faunal
recovery, the collection of these new species suggests that recovery
may not yet be complete, ten years after reclamation.
II
...
..
SUM}li\RY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. Comparisons c•i chcmicnl, physiccll., and biological parameters of
streams draining reclaimf:d as opposed to unrcclaimed manganese
strip mine areas indicate that the primary factors limiting to
the fauna of unreclaimcd streams is siltation and turbidity.
2. Reclamation of the spoil areas is effective in reducing turbidity
and siltation in the receiving streams. Partial reclamation of
spoil areas produced nt; measurable reduction in these parameters.
3. Fish populations in unreclaimed streams are practically non-
existent. After reclamation, the initial re-invaders are probably
blacknose dace.
4. Turbidity and siltation in unreclaimed and partially reclaimed
streams caused an over-all reduction in the numbers of bottom
organisms, resulting in changes in density, diversity and com-
munity structure.
5. Faunal recovery in Slemp Creek appears to have been complete 6
years after completion of reclamation efforts.
6. Acute toxicity studies indicate that ambient levels of suspended
silt and manganese ions in the study streams are not high enough
to be acutely limiting to resident fish species.
7. Chronic exposure of rainbo\v trout to about 700 Jackson Turbidity
Units of suspended inorganic silt resulted in significantly lower
growth rates than for fish reared under the same conditions in
non-tuJ:bid \·later.
58
..
--,~-~····-'""
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examination of water and wastewater, 12th ed. Amer. Pub. Health
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Bishop, J. E. and H. B. N. Hynes. 1969. Upstream movements of the
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Bliss, C. I. 1957. Some principles of Bioassay. American Scientist
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Cairns, J. Jr. 1967. Suspended solids standard for the protection
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Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz. 1953. Critical review of literature on
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Ellis, M. M. 1936. Erosion silt as a factor in aquatic environments.
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Gammon, J. R. 1968. The effect of inorganic sediment on stream
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Hem, J. D. 1959. Study and interpretation of the chemical character-
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Water Pollution 5(1):46-55.
59
The effect of suspended
Int. Journal of Air and
-··--_j
.....
60
Jones, J. R. E. 1939. The relation between the electrolytic solution
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Lagler, K. F. 1956. Freshwater fishery biology, 2nd ed. Wm. c.
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Larimore, R. W., W. F. Childers, and C. Heckrotte. 1959. Destruction
and re-establishment of stream fish and invertebrates affected by
drought. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(4):261-285.
Mackay, R. J. and J. Kalff. 1969. Seasonal variation in standing crop
and species diversity of insect communities in a small Quebec
stream. Ecology 50(1):101-109.
McKee, J. E. and W. H. Wolf. 1963. Water quality criteria, 2nd ed.
State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, Cal. Pub. No. 3-A
548 p.
McNeil, W. J. and W. H. Ahnell. 1964. Success of pink salmon spawning
relative to size of spawning bed materials. U. S. Fish and Wild-
life Service. Spec. Sci. Rept., Fisheries No. 469. 15 p.
Novak, J. K. 1968. Food of Cottus Baileyi in South Fork Holston River,
Virginia during the summer of 1966. Masters Thesis. Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University. 57 p.
Poon, C. P. C. and F. J. DeLuise. 1967. Manganese cycle in impound-
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Saunders, J. W. and M. W. Smith. 1965. Changes in a stream population
of trout associated with increased silt. J. Fish. Res. Bd. of
Canada 22(2):395-404.
Shawarbi, M. Y. 1952. Soil chemistry. Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London,
England. 235 p.
Sheldon, A. L. 1968. Species diversity and longitudinal succession
in stream fishes. Ecology 49(2):193-198.
Smith, 0. R. 1940. Placer mining silt and its relation to salmon and
trout on the Pacific Coast. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 69:225-230.
Tarzwell, C. M. 1937. Factors influencing fish food and fish produc-
tion in southwestern streams. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 67:246-255.
Tebo, L. B. Jr. 1955. Effects of siltation, resulting from improper
logging, on the bottom fauna of a small trout stream in the South-
ern Appalachians. Prog. Fish Cult. 17:64-70 •
.......
61
Thorn:1s, A. 1915. Effects of certain metallic salts upon fishes.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 44:120-124.
Trautnwn, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio with illustrated keys.
Ohio St. Univ. Press, Ohio Division of Wildlife. 683 p.
United States Department of the Interior. 1967. Surface mining and
our environment. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
12Lt p.
1968. Effects of surface mining on fish and wildlife in
Appalachia. U. S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20 p.
1968. Restoring surface-mined land. U. S. Gov. Printing
Office, Washington, D. C. 18 p.
Wallen, E. I. 1951. The direct effect of turbidity on fishes.
Okla. Agric. and Hech. Col., Arts and Sci. Studies, Biol. Series
No. 2, 27 p.
Wilhm, J. L. and T. C. Dorris, 1968. Biological parameters for
water quality criteria. BioScience 18(6):477-481 .
Appendix Table I. Streambed composition in designated riffle and pool areas of the affected streams
for three sampling dates. Values are based on a single sample at each station.
Symbols RU, RM, and RL represent riffles in the upper, middle, and lower section
of the designated streams. The symbols PU, PM, and PL represent pools in the
upper, middle, and lower sections of the designated streams.
Bou'ders and Rubble Gravel Coarse Sand Fine Sand Silt
Loca-6.35 mm diameter 1. 68-3.36 mm .841-.420 mm .105-.210 mm .105 mm
tion 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970
Slemp RU 61.0 42.2 47.7 13.9 15.0 17.4 20.3 29.3 22.1 4.9 3.2 5.3 10.7 8.5 8.8
Cr. RM 72 01 55.4 63.9 13.0 16.2 12.2 12.7 21.6 18.9 2.1 2.0 1.9 5.3 4.2 3.2
RL 70.4 64.1 64.6 11.3 11.2 9.2 13.5 17.6 15.5 L+. 3 2.6 3.6 5.6 5.9 7.4
PU 19.8 8.4 31.3 10.8 10.0 8.5 57.8 65.9 44.3 9,8 4.2 6.7 12.4 11.6 9. l
PM 66.2 33.0 54.2 16.5 21.8 17.4 14.2 31.1 18.2 3.0 3.6 4.3 3.9 11.9 5.9
PL 75.1 66.3 64.2 12.8 11.3 18.5 9.2 16.7 11.1 2.7 2.3 1.8 3.8 3.0 4.2
Bishop RU 75.6 43.3 50.4 8.9 14.3 9.3 11.4 15.9 14.4 1.7 7.1 8.3 2.4 18.9 17.5
Br. RM 63.3 35.9 54.8 9.0 10.2 8.7 19.8 27.7 15.8 3.3 5.8 4.7 4.5 20.2 16.3 0'\
N
RL 81.1 74.7 79.7 6.8 8.9 7.3 5.8 11.0 8.8 1.1 1.9 1.5 1.2 3.6 2.6
PU 15.3 28.6 28.6 5.6 7.9 8.3 32.4 24.2 23.9 11.1 15.3 16.7 35.7 25.8 22.6
PM 35.6 51.3 53.8 13.0 13.6 17.4 34.7 19.9 17.5 6.2 3.7 3.3 10.1 11.0 8.5
PL 31.2 30.9 37.2 3.9 4.5 5.3 37.9 40.6 29.9 ll.S 10.7 12.4 15.8 13.8 14.4
Slab-RU 59.7 83.3 76.4 9.6 3.2 4.7 J..6.8 7.8 5.8 5.6 1.8 6.3 8.1 5.4 6.7
town RJ1 53.7 59.6 54.8 10.3 8.4 6.5 16.5 l0.7 14.2 3.0 5.9 5.5 16.4 15.1 19.2
Br. RL 58.5 77.3 72.5 13.2 8.4 8.3 13.8 4.8 6.3 0.6 3.4 2.7 15.2 5.9 10.1
PU 19.7 39.5 36.3 15.2 11.6 12.9 14.8 21.5 19.7 5.7 6.8 6.2 39.7 20.5 24.8
PM 2.0 0.0 2.8 9.1 0.0 4.3 25.9 32.1 24.2 3.7 31.9 27.4 60.0 36.0 41.5
PL 0.5 30.0 20.1 4.3 9.7 8.2 24.1 15.3 16.3 1.5 14.6 12.1 69.6 30.5 43.4
Georges RU 65.6 71.7 65.0 8.6 7.4 10.4 16.9 12.4 15.2 4.1 4.5 3.9 5.0 3.8 5.5
Br. ?-..'1 0.0 57.7 58.7 0.0 10.0 8.3 0.0 u;8 12.1 0.0 6.2 7.3 0.0 12.4 13.9
RL 42.9 52.6 47.8 9.3 8.8 5.9 27.5 17.5 21.9 10.3 6.5 8.2 9.9 14.8 16.0
PU 39.6 35.5 32.9 3.5 4.5 6.7 19.9 24.7 18.6 15.7 11.1 14.7 21.3 24.9 27.2
PM o.o 40.7 43.2 0.0 4.9 3.4 o.o 22.3 23.5 o.o 14.6 ll.S 0.0 17.4 18.3
PL 15.6 8.8 5.8 6.4 2.6 4.4 22.5 29.2 27.3 19.4 29.2 31.5 36.9 25.0 31.1
I
l
Appendix Table II. Streambed composition in designated riffle and pool areas of the control streams
for three sampling dates. Values are based on a single sample at: each station.
Symbols RU, &.'1, and RL represent riffles in the upper, middle, and lower section
of the designated streams. The symbols PU, PM, and PL represent pools in the
upper, middle and lower sections of the designated streams.
Boulders and Rubble Gravel Coarse Sand Fine Sand Silt
Loca-6.35 mm diameter 1.68-3.36 mm . 841-.420 rnm .105-.210 mm .105 min
tion 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 U70 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970
Hurri-RU 82.0 69.0 71.3 10.1 6.1 5.3 6.6 13.7 14.2 1.2 2.4 1.8 4.9 8.6 7.3
cane
Br. RN 71.6 57.8 59.3 12.5 13.0 22.5 7.4 15.7 6.4 1.4 3.0 4.2 7.0 10.2 6.6
RL 78.4 74.9 67.1 7.4 13.3 18.7 10.9 7.8 6.5 0.5 1.5 2.0 2.7 3.4 1.8
PU 66.9 59.0 67.5 7.3 7.4 9.6 13.5 15.6 14.2 4.8 4.8 3.7 7.5 13.0 5.3
PM 71.4 53.8 59.7 13.8 19.5 21.7 12.3 14.5 12.4 2.5 4.1 2.4 4.8 5.1 3.9
PL 85.9 66.7 72.1 7.4 18.2 19.3 3.6 6.6 5.4 0.6 3.1 0.9 2.6 5.5 2.4
C'
i .. ~..::
...........
==============--
VITA
The author of this paper was born in Letcher County, Kentucky,
on September 30, 1940. He lived in Jenkins, Kentucky, and attended
Jenkins High School until he graduated in 1958. He entered Morehead
State University, Morehead, Kentucky, that same year and graduated
with a B. S. degree in Chemistry and Biology, June, 1962.
He was employed as a high school science teacher by the Maysville, -Kentucky, City School system for one year and by the Qarter County
school system for two years. In August, 1965, he received his M. A.
degree in secondary education and was employed by Morehead State Uni-
versity as an instructor of biology. He maintained that position
until July, 1968, when he took a leave of absence to return to gradu-
ate school at Virginia Polytechnic Institute.
He is a member of the American Fishery Society and the Midwest
Benthological Society.
He married the former Hiss Eunice Ison in Jenkins, Kentucky,
July 1, 1962. Their daughter, Daphne Lea, is three years old.
/l~~ ~fi-27'
64
_..
STREAM FAUJ\ ·~ RECOVERY AFTER
MANGANESE STH ' MINE RECLAMATION
Donley , rre ll IIi ll
ABSTHACT
In order to measure the cffectivcncs::; of manganese strip mine
reclamation relative to stream faunal recovery, periodic stream moni-
toring activities and acute and chronic toxicity studies were con-
ducted from July, 1968 through September, 1970. The streams studied
drained areas representing four degrees of reclamation; reclaimed,
partially reclaimed, unreclaimed, and unaffected.
Analysis of the physical, chemical, and biological parameters
monitored indicates that the pollutant limiting to populations of fish
and bottom organisms in the reclaimed and partially reclaimed streams
is inorganic silt. "Complete" reclamation of spoil areas measurably
reduces levels of siltation and turbidity, thus permitting recovery
of the previously stressed faunal communities.
The acute toxicity studies indicated that ambient levels of sus-
pended silt and manganese ions in the study streams are not high enough
to be acutely limiting to resident fish species. However, chronic
exposure of rainbow trout to about 700 Jackson Turbidity Units of sus-
pended inorganic silt resulted in significantly lower growth rates
than for fish reared under the same conditions in non-turbid water,
suggesting adverse physiological effects of sublethal levels of silt
in suspension.
--1111111