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Home My WebLink AboutAPA2170A Report of the · C0mmittee on Water Quality Criteria Environmental Studies Board National Ac~demy of Sciences· NationarAcademy of Engineering Washington, D.C., 1972 Anhe:·request of· . and '.funded by· The ETivirf)ntnental ·Frotectiorr Agency Washington; D.C., 19.72 ARLIS Alaska Resources Library &.Information Services library Builtling, Suite 111 3211 Providence Drive Anchortme. AK 99508.11614 '·. EPA Review Notice This report was prepared under a contract financed by the Environmental Protection Agency and is approved by the Agency for publication as an important contribution to the scientific literature, but not as the Agency's sole criteria for standards setting purposes. Neither is it necessarily a reflection of the Agency's views and policies. The mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for their use. NOTICE The study reported herein was undertaken under the aegis of the National Re- search Council with the express approval of the Governing Board of the NRC. Such approval indicated that the Board considered that the problem is of national signifi- cance, that elucidation or solution of the problem required scientific or technical competence, and that the resources of NRC were particularly suitable to the conduct of the project. The institutional responsibilities of the NRC were then discharged in the following manner: The members of the study committee were selected for their individual scholarly competence and judgment with due consideration for the balance and breadth of disciplines. Responsibility for all aspects of this report rests with the study committee, to whom we express our sincere appreciation. . Although the reports of our study committees are not submitted for approval to the Academy membership nor to the Council, each report is reviewed by a second group of appropriately qualified individuals according to procedures established and monitored by the Academy's Report Review Committee. Such reviews are in- tended to determine, among other things, whether the major questions and relevant points of view have been addressed and whether the reported findings, conclusions, and recommendations arose from the available data and information. Distribution of the report is approved, by the President, only after satisfactory completion of this review process. v THE HoNORABLE WILLIAM D. RucKELSHAus Administrator Environmental Protection Agen0J Washington, D.C. DEAR MR. RUCKELSH.AUS: July 22, 7972 It is our pleasure to transmit to you the report Water Quality Criteria, 7972 pre- pared by the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering Com- mittee on Water Quality Criteria. This book is the successor to the Water Quality Criteria Report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior in 1968. The 1972 Report drew significantly on its 1968 predecessor; nevertheless the current study represents a complete reexamination of the problems, and a critical review of all the data included here. The conclusions offered reflect the best judgment of the Academies' Committee. The Report develops scientific criteria arranged in categories of major beneficial use. We are certain that the information and conclusions contained in this Report will be of use and value to the large number of people throughout the country who are concerned with achieving a high level of water quality for the Nation. It is our pleasure to note the substantial personal contributions of the members of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels and advisers. They have contributed more than 2,000 man-days of effort for which they deserve our gratitude. In less than a year and a half, they have collected a vast amount of scientific and technical information and presented it in a way that we believe will be most helpful to Federal and State officials as well as to the scientific community and the public. Oversight responsibility for the document, of course, re~ts with the Committee on Water Quality Criteria ably chaired by Dr. Gerard A. Rohlich of the University of Texas at Austin. We wish also to express our appreciation to the Environmental Protection Agency which, without in any way attempting to influence the Committee's conclusions, provided technical expertise and information as well as the resources to undertake the study. In the course of their work the Committee and Panels identified several scientific and technical areas in which necessary data is insufficient or lacking. The Academies find that a separate report is urgently required that specifies research needs to enable an increasingly effective evaluation of water quality. We are currently preparing such a report. Sincerely yours, PHILIP HANDLER President National Academy of Sciences vi CLARENCE H. LINDER President National Academy of Engineering Enviromental Studies Board National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering Dr. DAVID M. GATES, Chairman Dr. WILLIAM C. ACKERMANN Dr. HENDRIK W. BODE Dr. REID A. BRYSON Dr. ARTHUR D. HASLER Dr. G. EVELYN HUTCHINSON Dr. THOMAS F. MALONE Dr. ROBERTS. MORISON Dr. ROGER REVELLE Dr. JOSEPH L. SAX Dr. CHAUNCEY STARR Dr. JOHN A. SWARTOUT Dr. ALEXANDER ZUCKER, Executive Director CoMMITTEE ON WATER QuALITY CRITERIA Dr. GERARD A. ROHLICH, University of Texas, Austin, Chairman Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Dr. BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey Dr. EMILIO A. SA VINELLI, Drew Chemical Corporation Dr. RAY L. SHIRLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville Dr. CHARLES R. MALONE, Principal Staff Officer Mr. CARLOS M. FETTEROLF, Scientific Coordinator Mr. ROBERT C. ROONEY, Editor vii -------------------------------------------------~ PANEL ON RECREATION AND AESTHETICS Panel Members Dr. CORNELIUS W. KRUSE, The Johns Hopkins University, Chairman Dr. MICHAEL CHUBB, Michigan State University Mr. MILO A. CHURCHILL, Tennessee Valley Authority Mr. NORMAN E. JACKSON, Department of Environmental Services, Washington, D.C. Mr. WILLIAM L. KLEIN, Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission Dr. P. H. McGAUHEY; University of California, Berkeley Dr. ERIC ·w. MOOD, Yale University Mr. RALPH PORGES, Delaware River Basin Commission Dr. LESLIE M. REID, Texas A & M University Dr' MICHAEL B. SONNEN, Water Resources Engineers, Inc. Mr. ROBERT 0. SYLVESTER, University of Washington Mr. C. W. THREINEN, Wisconsin Department ofNatural Resources Dr; RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientific Secretary Advisors and Contributors Dr. W. N. BARNES, Tennessee Valley Authority Mr. A. LEON BATES, Tennessee Valley Authority Dr. ERNEST BAY, University of Maryland Dr. HARWOOD S. BELDING, University of Pittsburg Dr. KENNETH K. CHEW, University of Washington Dr. T. F; HALL,.JR., Tennessee Valley Authority Dr: A. D. HESS, U.S. Department·ofHealth; Education, and Welfare Mr; ROBERT M. HOWES, Tennessee Valley Authority Dr. RAY B. KRONE, University ofCalifornia, Davis Mr. DAVID P. PQLLISON, Delaware River Basin Commission" Dr. K A; STANLEY;Tennessee Valley'Authority Dr; EUGENE-B. W-ELCH, University:ofWashington Dr. IRAL. WHITMAN,.Ohio:Department_ofHealdi EPA Liaisons- MI.: LOWELL E. KEUP Mr. LELAND'J. McCABE PANEL ON PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES Panel Members Dr. THURSTON E. LARSON, Illinois State Water Survey, Chairman Dr. RUSSELL F. CHRISTMAN, University of Washington Mr. PAUL D. HANEY, Black & Veatch, Consulting Engineers Mr. ROBERT C. McWHINNIE, Board of Water Commissioners, Denver, Colorado Mr. HENRY J. ONGERTH, State Department of Public Health, California Dr. RANARD J. PICKERING, U.S. Department of the Interior Dr. J. K. G. SILVEY, North Texas State University Dr. J. EDWARD SINGLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville Dr. RICHARD L. WOODWARD, Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc. Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON IV, Scientific Secretary Advisors and Contributors Dr. SAMUEL D. FAUST, Rutgers University EPA Liaisons Mr. EDWIN E. GELDREICH Dr. MILTON W. LAMMERING, JR. Dr. BENJAMIN H. PRINGLE Mr. GORDON G. ROBECK Dr. ROBERT G. TARDIFF ix -------------------------- PANEL ON FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE Panel Members Dr. ALFRED M. BEETON, University of Wisconsin, Chairman Dr. JOHN CAIRNS, JR., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Dr. CHARLES C. COUTANT, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Dr. ROLF HARTUNG, University of Michigan Dr. HOWARD E. JOHNSON, Michigan State University Dr. RUTH PATRICK, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Dr. LLOYD L. SMITH, JR., University of Minnesota, St. Paul Dr. JOHN B. SPRAGUE, University of Guelph Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN, Scientific Secretary Advisors and Contributors Dr. IRA R. ADELMAN, University of Minnesota, St. Paul Mr. YATES M. BARBER, U.S. Department of the Interior Dr. F. H. BORMANN, Yale University Dr. KENNETH L. DICKSON, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Dr. FRANK M. D'ITRI, Michigan State University Dr. TROY DORRIS, Oklahoma State University Dr. PETER DOUDOROFF, Oregon State University Dr. W. T. EDMONDSON, University of Washington Dr. R. F. FOSTER, Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Laboratory Dr. BLAKE GRANT, U.S. Department of the Interior Dr. JOHN HOOPES, University of Wisconsin Dr. PAUL H. KING, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Dr. ROBERT E. LENNON, U.S. Department of the Interior Dr. GENE E. LIKENS, Cornell University Dr. JOSEPH I. MIHURSKY, University of Maryland Mr. MICHAEL E. NEWTON, Michigan Department of Natural Resources Dr. JOHN C. PETERS, U.S. Department of the Interior Dr. ANTHONY POLICASTRO, Argonne National Laboratory Dr. DONALD PRITCHARD, The Johns Hopkins University Dr. LUIGI PROVAZOLI, Yale University Dr. CHARLES RENN, The Johns Hopkins University Dr. RICHARD A. SCHOETTGER, U.S. Department of the Interior Mr. DEAN L. SHUMWAY, Oregon State University Dr. DAVID L. STALLING, U.S. Department of the Interior Dr. RAY WEISS, Scripps Institute of Oceanography EPA Liaisons Mr. JOHN W. ARTHUR Mr. KENNETH BIESINGER Dr. GERALD R. BOUCK Dr. WILLIAM A. BRUNGS Mr. JOHN G. EATON Dr. DONALD I. MOUNT Dr. ALAN V. NEBEKER X PANEL ON MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE Panel Members Dr. BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Chairman Dr. RICHARDT. BARBER, Duke University Dr. JAMES CARPENTER, The Johns Hopkins University Dr. L. EUGENE CRONIN, University of Maryland Dr. HOLGER W. JANNASCH, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Dr. G. CARLETON RAY, The Johns Hopkins University Dr. THEODORE R. RICE, U.S. Department of Commerce Dr. ROBERT W. RISEBROUGH, University of California, Berkeley Dr. MICHAEL WALDICHUK, Fisheries Research Board of Canada Mr. WILLIAM ROBERTSON IV, Sci'entijic Secretary Advisors and Contributors Mr. CLARENCE CATOE, U.S. Coast Guard Dr. GEORGE R. HARVEY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Dr. THEODORE G. METCALF, University of New Hampshire Dr. VICTOR NOSHKIN, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Dr. DONALD J. O'CONNOR, Manhattan College Dr. JOHN H. RYTHER, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Dr. ALBERT J. SHERK, University of Maryland Dr. RICHARD A. WADE, The Sport Fishing Institute EPA Liaisons Dr. THOMAS W. DUKE Dr. C. S. HEGRE Dr. GILLES LAROCHE Dr. CLARENCE M. TARZWELL xi -----------~-·····---------------------------------------- PANEL ON AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER Panel' Members Dr. RAY L. SHIRLEY, University of Florida, Gainesville, Chairman Dr. HENRY V. ATHERTON, The University of Vermont Dr. R. D. BLACKBURN, U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. PETER A. FRANK, U.S. Department of Agriculture Mr. VICTOR L. HAUSER, U.S: Department of Agriculture Dr. CHARLES H. HILL, North Carolina State University Dr. PHILIP C. KEARNEY, U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. JESSE LUNIN, U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. LEWIS B. NELSON, Tennessee Valley Authority Dr. OSCAR E. OLSON, South Dakota State University Dr. PARKER F. PRATT, University of California, Riverside Dr. G. B: VAN NESS,, U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. RICHARD I. PIETZ, Scientijfc Secretary Advisors and Contributors Dr. L. BOERSMA, Oregon State University Dr. ROYCE J. EMERICK, South Dakota State University Dr. HENRY FISCHBACH, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Dr. THOMAS D. HINESLY, University of Illinois Dr. CLARENCE LANCE, U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. J. M. LAWRENCE, Auburn University Dr. R:. A. PACKER, Iowa State-University Dr. IVAN THOMASON, University of California, Riverside EPA Liaisons Dr. H.:PAIGENICHOLSON Mr. HURLON C. RAY xii PANEL ON INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES Panel Members Dr. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI;.Dtew Chemical Corporation, Chairman Mr. L KDICK, Consulting Chemical Engineer Mr. CHARLES C. DINKEL, Drew Chemical Corporation Dr. MAURICE FUERSTENAU, South Dakota School of Mining and Technology Mr. ARTHUR W. FYNSK,.E .. Ldu Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Mr. GEORGE J. HANKS, JR., Union Carbide Corporation.' Mr. WILLIAM A. KEILBAUGH, Cochrane Division, Crane Company- Dr. JAMES C. LAMB, III, University of North Carolina Mr. JAMES K. RICE, Cyrus Wm. Rice Division, NUS Corporation Mr. J. JAMES; ROOSEN, The Detroit Edison Company Mr. ROBERT H. STEWART, Hazen and Sawyer Dr. SIDNEY SUSSMAN, Olin Corporation Mr. CHARLES H. THORBORG, Gulf Degremont Inc. Mr. BERNARD WACHTER, WAPORA, Inc. Dr. WALTER ]:·WEBER, JR., The University of Michigan Mr. DONALD M. MARTIN; Scientijio.Secretary Advisors· and Contributors Mr. MAXEY"BR00KE, Phillips Petroleum Company Mr. ROY V. COMEAUx; SR.,.Esso Research and Engineering Company Mr. HARRY V. MYERS, JR., The Detroit Edison Company EPA Liaisons Mf.;jQHNM. FAIRALL Mr. THOMAS J. POWERS xiii PREFACE In 1971, at the request of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering undertook the revision of WATER QUALITY CRITERIA, the 1968 Report of the National Technical Advisory Committee (NTAC) to the Secretary of the Interior. The Acad- emies appointed a Committee on Water Quality Criteria and six Panels, and the responsibility for overseeing their activities was assigned to the Environmental Studies Board, a joint body of the Academies. The guidelines for the Academies' Committee were similar to those followed by the NTAC. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, as amended by the Water. Quality Act of 1965, authorized the states and the federal government to establish water quality standards for interstate and coastal waters. Paragraph. 3, Section 10 of the 1965 Act reads as follows: Standards of quality established pursuant to this subsection shall be such as to protect the public health or welfare, enhance the quality of water and serve the purposes of this Act. In establishing such standards the Secre- tary, the Hearing Board, or the appropriate state authority shall take into consideration their use and value for public water supplies, propagation of fish and wildlife, recreational purposes, and agricultural, industrial, and . other legitimate uses. Because of the vast amount of material that falls into the rubric of fish and wildlife, the Academies established separate Panels for freshwater and marine aquatic life and wildlife. Thus the Committee's six Panels were: (l) Recreation and Aesthetics, (2) Public Water Supplies, (3) Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, (4) Marine A:quatic Life and Wildlife, (5) Agricultural Uses of Water, and (6) Industrial Water Supplies. The members of the Committee and its Panels were scientists and engineers expert and experienced in the various disciplines associated with the subject of water quality. The Panels also drew upon special advisors for specific water quality con- cerns, and in addition were aided by Environmental Protection Agency experts as liaison at the Panel meetings. This arrangement with EPA facilitated the Panels' access to EPA data on water quality. Thirty-nine meetings were held by the Com- mittee and its Panels resulting in an interim report to the Academies and the Environ- mental Studies Board on December 1, 1971. This was widely circulated, and com- ments on it were solicited from many quarters. The commentaries were then considered for inclusion by the Committee and the appropriate Panels. This volume, submitted for publication in August 1972, within eighteen months of the inception of the task, is the final version of the Committee's report. The 1972 Report is vastly more than a revision of the NTAC Report. To begin with, it is nearly four times longer. Many new subjects are discussed in detail, among them: the recreational impact of boating, levels of use, disease vectors, nuisance organisms, and aquatic vascular plants; viruses in relation to public water supplies; effects of total dissolved gases on aquatic life; guidelines for toxicological research on pesticides and uses of toxicants in fisheries management; disposal of solid wastes in the ocean; use of waste water for irrigation; and industrial .;ater treatment processes XV and resultant wastes. Many toxic or potentially toxic substances not-considered. by the NTAG are.discussed including polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalate esters, nitrile- triacetate (NTA), numerous metals, and chlorine. The additional length also reflects the greater current awarenc;_sg; of how various characteristics of water affect its quality and use; and the expansion of the information base of the NTAC Report through new data from recent research activities and the greater capabilities of· information processing, storage, and retrieval-especially evident in the three appendixes_;have made their impact on.the increase in size. In spite of these additions, however, the 1972 Report differs from the NT AC Report in that its six ·Sections do not provide summaries. The Committee agreed that an understanding of how,the,recommend- . ations should be interpreted and used can· be gained only by a thorough reading of the rationale and the evaluation of criteria preceding the recommendations. Although each Section was prepared by its appropriate Panel, some discussions reflect the joint effort of two or more Panels. These combined-discussions attempt to focus . attention where desirable on such subjects as radioactivity, temperature, nutrient enrichment, and growths of nuisance organisms. However, the majoritycof topics were most effectively treated. by individual Panel discussions, and the reader is encouraged to make use of the Tables of Contents and the index in assessing the full range of the Report's coverage of the many complex aspects·ofwater quality. Water quality science and its application have expanded rapidly,· but much work remains to be done. In the course of this revision, the Committee and its Panels have identified many areas where further knowledge is needed, and these findings, now in preparation, will be published separately by the National Academy of Sci- ences-National Academy of Engineering as a report on research needs. Social perspectives and policies for managing, enhancing, and preserving water resources are undergoing .. rapid and pervasive change. ·Because-of .the.,stiptilations of the l96YW ater Quality Act, interstate water resources are currently categorized by use designation, and standards to protect those uses are developed from criteria. It is in this context that the Report of the NAS-NAE Committee, like that of the NT AC, was prepared. Concepts of managing .water resourees,are . .slll;>ject.to social, economic, and•politimil.deeisions arid will continue to evolve; but the Committee believes·that the ·criteria and recommendations in this Report will be of value in the context of future as well as current approaches· that might be taken to preserve and enhance the quality of the nation's water resources. GERARD A. ROHLIGH ·Chairman, Committee on Water Quality Citeria xvi k·~ ' . . . . ' ACKNOWLED.GEMENTS The NAS-NAE Committee on Water Quality Criteria and its Panels are grate- ful for the assistance of many institutions, groups, and individuals. The Environmental Studies Board provided guidance throughout all phases of the project, and the En- vironmental Protection Agency cooperated in making available their technical and informational resources. Many research organizations and individuals contributed unpublished data for the Panels' examination and use in the Committee's Report. ·Numerous .groups and individuals provided reviews and comments, among them several Federal agencies with staff expertise in water quality sciences, includ- ing NOAA of the Department of Commerce, the Department of the Interior, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Atomic Energy Commission, the Department of Agriculture, and the Department of the Army; scientists from the University of Wisconsin, especially Drs. Grant Cottam, G. Fred Lee, Richard B. Corey, David Armstrong, .Gordon Chesters, Mr. James Kerrigan; and many others from academic, government, and private research institutions, including the National Research Council. Much useful information including data and literature references was provided by the Water Resources Scientific Information Center of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the National Referral Center of the Library of Congress, the Defense Documentation .. Center ,p£ .the, U\S;o Department .of Defense, and .the Library of the ··National 'Academy of Sciences-'-N ational Academy ofEngineering. We _are-indebted to James L. Olsen, Jr. ~nd Marilyn J. Urion of the Academies' Library and to Robert R. Hume, National Academy of Sciences Publications Editor, for their assistance. Thanks are also due the many staff personnel of the Academies who assisted the project, particularly Linda D. Jones, Patricia A. Sheret, Eva H. Galambos, and 'Elizabeth A. 'Wilmoth. Mrs. Susan· B. Taha was a tireless editorial assistant. The comprehensive author and subject indexes were prepared by Mrs. Bev Anne Ross. Finally, each Committee and Panel member is indebted to his home institution and staff for their generous support of his efforts devoted to the Report of the Com- mittee on Water Quality Criteria. GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS NOTICE ..................... :.................................... v LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL..................................... vi MEMBERS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD........ vii MEMBERS OF THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA COMMITTEE, NAS STAFF, AND PANEL MEMBERS, ADVISORS, AND CON- TRIBUTORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIn PREFACE ........ ··········....................................... XV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii GENERAL INTRODUCTION...................................... 1 SECTION I RECREATION AND AESTHETICS................... 6 SECTION II PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES......................... 48 SECTION III FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE... 106 SECTION IV MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE......... 214 SECTION V AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER................ 298 SECTION VI INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.................. 368 APPENDIX I (RECREATION AND AESTHETICS)................ 398 APPENDIX II (FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE). 402 APPENDIX III (MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE)...... 448 GLOSSARY....................................................... 519 CONVERSION FACTORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA COMMITTEE AND THE PANEL MEMBERS.................. 528 AUTHOR INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 SUBJECT INDEX................................................. 562 xix GENERAL INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The past decade has been a period of unprecedented activity directed to man's concern for the quality of the environment, but a look at history shows that this concern, although currently intensified, is not new. The lessons of history and the findings of archaeologists provide concrete evidence that at least three thousand years before the birth of Christ man was cognizant of the need to dispose of his wastes and other refuse if he was to keep his environment livable.1 For thousands of years the guidelines to quality of the water resource apparently were based on the senses of smell, sight, and taste. Whether or not these organoleptic observations on the suitability of water for use would match today's criteria is questionable in light of Reynolds' reference to "the old woman in the Fens" who "spoke for many besides herself when she asked of the new and pure supply: Call ye that water? For she said, it has neither taste nor smell"2 ; or in light of the more recent decision of a state supreme court in 1904, which took the position that it is "not necessary to weigh with tenderness and care the testimony of experts ... an ordinary mortal knows whether water is fit to drink and use. "3 Although the concern for water quality is not new, progress has been made in moving from sensory associations as a means of control to the application of knowledge and criteria gained from scientific advances in detection and measurement, and in a greater understanding of the char- acteristics of water. Essentially it has been the develop- ments of the past century that have provided criteria for and knowledge of water quality characteristics upon which we base determinations of its suitability for particular uses. Until recently, relatively few scientists and engineers had been engaged' in this field. The past decade, however, has seen a tremendous increase in the number of workers de- voted to the subject of water quality asses>ment. Con- currently, an increasing awareness of the public has become apparent. As Leopold states, "The outstanding discovery of the twentieth century is not television, or radio, but rather the complexity of the land organism"; and he points out that "by land is meant all of the things on, over, or in the earth."4 The growing public awareness of environ- 1 mental quality has helped to accelerate activity directed to the solution of problems relating to water quality. Forty centuries before the germ theory of disease had the support of scientifically conducted experiments, some con- trol measures to provide safe water supplies were in use. Boiling, filtration through charcoal, and the practice of siphoning off water clarified by sedimentation were among the early methods used to improve water quality.5 The regard of the Romans for high quality water is well known, and their civil works in obtaining water by the construction of aqueducts and the carrying away of waste waters in the cloacae or sewers, and in particular the Cloaca Maxima, are matters of common knowledge. The decline of sani- tation through the Middle Ages and into the early part ot the past century brought on the ravages of pestilence and the scourges of cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery, which led to the resurgence of public concern over water quality. There were many experiments and suggestions regarding filtration for purification as early as the 17th century. They culminated in design of the first filters for municipal supplies by Gibbs in Scotland in 1804 and in England in 1829 by Simpson who is probably most renowned for his work in constructing filters for the Chelsea Water Company to supply water for London from the Thames River. The relationship of water quality to disease was firmly established by the report on the Broad Street Well in London by Sir John Snow in 1849, and in Edwin Chad- wick's report of 1842 "On an inquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Gt. Britain."6 The greatest part of Chadwick's report developed four major axioms that are still of relevance today. The first axiom established the cause and effect relationship between "insanitation, defective drainage, inadequate water supply, and overcrowded housing" on the one hand, and "disease, high mortality rates, and low expectation of life" on the other. The second axiom discussed the economic cost of ill health. The third dealt with the "social cost of squalor," and the fourth was concerned with the "inherent inefficiency of existing legal and administrative machinery." Chadwick argued that the "only hope of sanitary improvement lay in radical administrative departures" which would call for new institutional arrangements. 2/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 It is evident from these few glimpses into the early years of development of control that the basic arfProach, and justifiably so, was to provide water suitable for human use. A century ago the principal aim was to provide, by bac- teriological examination, a scientific basis on which to establish water quality practices for protection of the public health. Increasingly, however, we have come to recognize that a multitude of materials that may occur in water have adverse effects on beneficial uses other than that for public water supplies. WATER QUALITY CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES McKee and Wolf have provided an excellent historical background to the development of water quality standards and criteria and have ·summarized the water quality criteria promulgated by federal, state, and interstate agencies up to 1963.7 Since then, many federal and state acts have been passed and modifications made in state administrative codes designed to establish criteria and standards. Of particular significance in this respect was the impact of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 8 as amended by the Water Quality Act of 1965.9 The latter required that the states adopt: ' • water quality criteria applicable to interstate waters; and • a plan for the implementation and enforcement of the water quality criteria adopted. The Act further noted that the criteria and plans would, upon approval by the federal government, become the applicable water quality standards. At that time the Fed- eral Water Pollution Control Administration was in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. In May of 1966, the FWPCA was transferred to the Department of the Interior, and in April, 1970 it was renamed The Federal Water Quality Administration. In December, 1970, interstate water quality and pollution control activities became the concern of the Environmental Protection Agency. On April 1, 1968, the FWPCA published the report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secre- tary of the Interior entitled Water Quality Criteria.10 This report, often referred to as the "Green Book," contains recommendations on water quality criteria for various uses. The present volume is a revision of that work with the objective of compiling and interpreting the most recent scientific data in order to establish what is known about the materials present in water as related to specific uses. MAJOR WATER USES AS AN ORGANIZING APPROACH Although it is recognized that consideration must be given to the multiple use requirements placed on our water resources, this revision has followed the approach of the 1968 report in making recommendations in certain use categories. Such an approach provides a convenient way of handling an otherwise unwieldy body of data. Neither the approach itself nor the sequence in which the uses are arranged in the Report imply any comment on the relative importance of each use. Each water use plays its vital role in the water systems concept discussed above, and political, economic, and social considerations that vary with· his- torical periods and geographic locations have brought par- ticular water uses to positions of preeminen't importance. In contemporary terms, it is not difficult to argue the primary importance of each water use considered in this Report: the recreational and aesthetic use of the Nation's water resources involves 3. 7 billion man-days a year ;11 our public water supply systems prepare 15 billion gallons per day for the urban population alone ;12 commercial fishermen harvested 166,430,000 pounds of fish from the nation's public inland freshwater bodies in 1969 ;13 our marine waters yield five billion pounds of fish annually for human use ;14 agriculture consumes 123 billion gallons of water per day in meeting its domestic, livestock, and irrigation needs ;15 and our industries must have 84,000 billion gallons of water per year to maintain their operations.l6 Clearly, the designation of one water use as more vital than another is as impossible as it is unnecessary. Further- more, we must not even restrict our thinking to present concepts and designated uses. Those concerned with water quality must envisage future uses and values that may be assigned to our water resources and recognize that man's activities in altering the landscape and utilizing water may one day have to be more vigorously controlled. THE MEANING OF WATER QUALITY CRITERIA In current practice, where multiple uses are required, as they will be in most situations, our guidelines to action will be the more stringent criteria. Criteria represent attempts to quantify water quality in terms of its physical, chemical, biological, and aesthetic characteristics. Those who are confronted with the problem of establishing or evaluating criteria must do so within the limits of the objective and subjective measurements available to them. Obviously, the quality of water as expressed by these measurements is the product of many changes. From the moment of its conden- sation in the atmosphere, water accumulates substances, in solution and suspension, from the air, from contacts as it moves over and into the land resource, from biological processes, and from human activities. Man affects the watershed as he alters the landscape by urbanization, by agricultural development, and by discharging municipal and industrial residues into the water resource. Thus cli- matic conditions, topography, geological formations, and human use and abuse of this vital resource significantly affect the characteristics of water, so that its quality varies widely with location and the influencing factors. To look ahead again, it should be stressed that if coming generations expect to use future criteria established by CRITERIA Qualities and quantities, based on scientific determinations, which must be identified and may have to be controlled. I den tifica tion pathway IDENTIFICATION Analytical methods (chemist, biologist, engineer, recreational specialists & others). FEEDBACK MONITORING Deployment of measuring instru- ments to provide criteria and information for assessment and control. STANDARDS Definition of acceptable quality related to unique local situation involving political, economic and social factors and including plans for implementation and ques- tions of water use and manage- ment. for specific uses in General Introduction/3 Recreational and Aesthetic Waters Public Water Supplies Fresh Waters Marine Waters Agricultural Waters Industrial Water Supplies (The operation needed for de- tecting and measuring character- istics of water.) (The chronological and spatial sampling operations needed.) FIGURE 1-Conceptual Framework for Developing Standards from Criteria ---------------- 4/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 aquatic scientists, baseline areas must be preserved in which the scientists can work. Limnologists, oceanographers, and freshwater and marine biologists obtain baseline data from studies of undisturbed aquatic ecosystems. Because all the basic information has not yet been extracted from im- portant study sites, it is essential that the natural condition of these sites prevail. The fundamental point of departure in evaluating cri- teria for water quality in this Report is that the assignment of a level of quality is relative to the use man makes of that water. To evaluate the quality of water required for various uses, it is essential to know the limits of quality that ha~e a detrimental effect on a designated use. As a corollary, in deciding whether or not water will be of suitable quality, one must determine whether or not the introduction into, or presence of any material in the resource, interferes with, alters, or destroys its intended use. Such decisions are sub- ject to political, social, and economic considerations. CRITERIA AND STANDARDS The distinction between criteria and standards is important, and the words are not interchangeable nor are they syno- nyms for such commonly used terms as objectives or goals. As a clarification of the distinction that must be recognized and the procedural steps to be followed in developing standards from criteria, a conceptual framework based on the report "Waste Management and Control" by the Com- mittee on Pollution NAS-NRC17 is presented in Figure l. In this context, the definition of criteria as used in this Report is "the scientific data evaluated to derive recommen- dations for characteristics of water for specific uses." As a first step in the development of standards it is es- sential to establish scientifically based recommendations for each assignable water use. Establishment of recommen- dations implies access to practical methods for detecting and measuring the specified physical, chemical, biological, and aesthetic characteristics. In some cases, however, less than satisfactory methods are available, and in other cases, less than adequate methods or procedures are used. Moni- toring the essential characteristics can be an operation concurrent with the identification step. If adequate criteria for recommendations are available, and the identification and monitoring procedures are sound, the fundamentals are available for the establishment of effective standards. It is again at this step that political, social, and economic factors enter into the decision-making process to establish standards. Although the Committee and its Panels recognize that water quality, water quantity, water use, and waste water disposal form a complex system that is further complicated by the interchanges that occur among the land, air, and water resources, this Report cannot be so broad in scope: its explicit purpose is to recommend water quality char- acteristics for designated uses in light of the scientific information available at this time. We are aware that in some areas the scientific information is lacking, inadequate, or possibly conflicting thus precluding the recommendation of specific numerical values. The need to refine ·the recom- mendations and to establish new ones will become increas- ingly important as additional field information and research results become available. Realistic standards are dependent on criteria, designated uses, and implementation, as well as identification and monitoring procedures; changes in these factors may provide a basis for altering the standards. Recommendations are usually presented, either as nu- merical values or in narrative form as summaries. In some instances in place of recommendations, conclusions based on the preceding discussion are given. It is important that each discussion be studied because it attempts to make clear the basis and logic used in arriving at the particular recommendation. The Committee wishes to emphasize the caveat so clearly stated in the introduction to the "Green Book." The Committee "does not want to be dogmatic" in making its recommendations. "They are meant as guide- lines only, to be used in conjunction with a thorough knowl- edge of local conditions."~8 REFERENCES 1 Klein, Louis (1957) Aspects of water pollution. Academic Press, Inc. New York. 2 Reynolds, Reginald (1946) Cleanliness and godliness. Doubleday and Company, Inc. Garden City, New York. 3 Malone, F. E. (1960) Legal viewpoint. Journal America[ Water Works Association 52:1180. 4 Leopold, A. (1953) Round river. Luna Leopold, ed. Oxford Uni- versity Press. New York. 5 Baker, M. N. (1949) The quest for pure water. The American Water Works Association, New York. 6 Flinn, D. W., ed. (1965) Report on the sanitary condition of the laboring population of Great Britain, 1842, by Edwin Chadwick. Edinburgh at The University Press. 7 McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf (1963) Water quality criteria, second edition. State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, Cali- fornia. Publication No. 3-A. 8 U.S. Congress. 1948. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Public Law 845, 62S., June 30, 1948, p. 1155. 9 U.S. Congress. 1965. Water Quality Act, Public Law 89-234, 79S., October 2, 1965, p. 903. 10 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.). 11 See page 9 of this Report. 12 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Econ01nic Research. 13 U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmos- pheric Administration, Statistics and Market News Division. u U.S. Department of Commerce (1971) Fisheries of the United States. (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.) 15 U.S. Department of Agriculture, DiviSion of Economic Research. 16 See page 369 of this Report. 17 NAS-NRC Committee on Pollution (1966) Waste management and control. Publication No. 1400 NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C. 18 U.S. Department of the Interior. op. cit. p. vii. -? ' ------------------------~~~~~~~----~-~-- Section I-RECREATION AND AESTHETICS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 THE RoLE oF W ATER-0RmNTED REcREATION AND AESTHETICS......................... 8 ScoPE AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE. . . . . . . . . 8 MAINTAINING AND REsTORING WATER QuALITY FOR RECREATION AND AESTHETICS......... 10 APPLYING REcoMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AES- THETIC VALUES ........................ . MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS ............. . BAsis oF REcoMMENDATIONs FOR AEsTHETIC PuRPOSES ...........••.................. Recommendations .................. . FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RECRE- ATIONAL AND AESTHETIC VALUE OF WATER .................................. . REcREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY ........ . The Role of Regulation ............... . Factors Affecting Recreational Carrying Capacity .......................... . Conclusion ........................ . SEDIMENTS AND SusPENDED MATERIALS ...... . Effects on Water Quality .............. . Recommendation ................... . VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS ......... . Conclusion .................••...... EUTROPHICATION AND NuTRffiNTS ........... . Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients .. . Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients .. Determination of Trophic Conditions ..... Summary of Measurement of Nutrient Enrichment ........................ . Recommendations .................. . AQ.UATIC vASCULAR PLANTS ................ . Interrelationships With Water Quality .. . Interrelationships With Other Biota ..... . Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics .... . Control Considerations ................ . Recommendation ................... . 11 11 11 12 13 13 14 14 14 16 16 17 17 19 19 19 20 21 23 23 23 24 25 25 26 27 6 Page INTRODUCTION OF SPECffiS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Extent and Types of Introductions....... 27 Some Results of Introductions........... 27 Introductions by Official Agencies. . . . . . . 28 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 WATER QUALITY FOR GENERAL RECRE- ATION, BATHING, AND SWIMMING ..... GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL REcRE- ATIONAL WATERS ....................... . Aesthetic Considerations ............... . Recommendation ................... . Microbiological Considerations ......... . Conclusion ........................ . Chemical Considerations .............. . Recommendations .................. . SPECIAL REQ.UitffiMENTS FOR BATHING AND SWIM- MING WATERS .......................... . Microbiological Considerations ......... . Conclusion ........................ . Temperature Characteristics ........... . Recommendation ................... . pH Characteristics .................... . Conclusion ........................ . Clarity Considerations ................ . Conclusion ........................ . Chemical Considerations .............. . Recommendation ................... . WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIALIZED RECREATION ............. . BoATING ................................ . Conclusion ........................ . AQ.UATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE .............. . Maintenance of Habitat ............... . Variety of Aquatic Life ................ . Recommendations .................. . SHELLFISH ............................... . Bacteriological Quality ................ . Recommendation ...................• 29 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 31 32 32 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 34 34 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 37 ' . Pesticides ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Marine Biotoxins ..................... . Recommendation ................... . Trace Metals ........................ . Recommendation ................... . Radio nuclides ........................ . • Page 37 WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR 37 WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE ........... . 3 7 WILD AND ScENIC RivERs ................. . 38 WATER BODIES IN URBAN AREAS ........... . 38 OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE ........ . 38 Conclusions . . ..................... . 38 LITERATURE CITED ...................... . 7 Page 39 39 39 40 40 41 INTRODUCTION This section considers water quality in the context of recreation and aesthetics, on the basis of available scientific data tempered by experience and judgment. In view of today's burgeoning population in the United States, the importance of water quality criteria to preserve and enhance the recreational and aesthetic values of water resources is manifest. The problems involved are both great and urgent. Our urban centers bear the brunt of the growth of a popu- lation that needs and demands water-oriented recreational resources. But those resources, already overloaded, are de- graded or rendered unfit for recreation by the effects of man's activities. The quality of water can be assessed and to some extent controlled, but the principal cause of water pollution is what man does on the land. Water must be protected from harmful land-water relationships, and man must be protected from the consequences of degraded water quality. THE ROLE OF WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION AND AESTHETICS Recreation is an enigma: nearly everyone participates in some type of recreation, but few are likely to agree on an acceptable definition of it. Most persons who are not pro- fessionally involved with recreation tend to define it nar- rowly in terms of their own experiences. Many feel that the term implies some form of strenuous physical activity; to them, aesthetic appreciation and other leisure activities that primarily involve the mind are not "recreation." There is also a tendency for some to include only those physical activities that are commonly identified as "recre- ation" by public or quasi-public recreation agencies. Charles E. Doell, an internationally known authority on park and recreation planning and administration, defines recreation as "the refreshment of the mind or body or both through some means which is in itself pleasureful." He states "almost any activity or mental process may be recre- ation depending largely upon the attitude assumed in the approach to the process itself' (Doelll963)4.* This concept *Citations are listed at the end,ofthe Section. They can be located alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section. 8 is supported by many others (Brightbill 196!2, Butler 1959 3, Lehman 1965 6). If the attitude of the individual concerned is the key to whether or not an activity may be classed as "recreation," it follows that one man's work may be an- other man's recreation; and an unwelcome social duty to one person may be a valuable recreational experience to another. Certain activities may be either recreational or part of the daily routine depending on the attitude of the participant. Recreation is, therefore, an elusive concept that can bear some relationship to any of the major con- cerns of living-work and education, social duty, or bodily needs. Whether or not an individual's activity falls within the psychological realm of recreation depends upon his attitudes, goals, and life style at a point in time. For the purposes of this report a broad view of recreation is adopted, and aesthetic appreciation is considered part of recreation. Thus the term "recreation" includes all types of intensive and extensive pleasurable activities ranging from sedentary, purely aesthetic experiences to strenuous activities that may involve a relatively small aesthetic component. SCOPE AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE The scope and significance of water-related -recreational activities is not well documented quantitatively, but an impression of its importance in the lives of Americans can be obtained from such evidence as license registration and sales data, user surveys, economic impact studies, and new legislation programs and regulations. License Re~istration and Sales Data In 1960, 19 million persons bought 23 million state fishing licenses, tags, permits, and stamps. Ten years later more than 31 million licenses, tags, permits, and stamps were held by over 24.5 million purchasers, an increase of about 28 per cent over 1960 (U.S. Department of the Interior 1961,12 1971 14). In 1970 sportsmen spent an estimated $287.7 mil- lion on fishing tackle -and equipment on which they paid $14 million in federal .excise taxes (Dingle-Johnson Act). They also added $90.9 million to state treasuries (Slater 1972), 7 and in many cases these funds were matched with federal funds for use in fisheries improvement programs. The numbercofrecreational boats in use increased even more;substantially. It was estimated that there were almost 9 million boats of various types in ,use· during 1970, an increase of 9 per cent over 1966. ·Mere than $3 billion were spent at the retail level on boating equipment, services, insurance, fuel, mooring fees and memberships, a 22 per cent increase.:overl966 (The Boating Industry 1971)1 •. 1n 1970, an estimated million pairs of water skis were solO, .. a 5 per cent increase in domestic and export sales for that year (The Boating Industry 1971)1. · Economic Impact Studies In fiscal 1969-7.0, the Corps of.Engineers spent $27.6 million to develop or expand facilities for swimming, fishing, boating, and other water- oriented activities (Stout personal communication 1971 )18• The state parks of the nation, the majority of which are water- . oriented, spent $125.8 million in 1970 on capital improve- ments and $177 million on operations and maintenance (Stout personal communication 1971)18• Although public.:expenditures for water-oriented recre- ational developments are large, expenditures in the private and commercial sectors are of even greater ·magnitude. In regions of the country where water bodies are reasonably .numerous, most seasonal homes are' built on or adjacent to water. In 1970, it was estimated that 150,000 seasonal homes were built at·a cost of $1.2 billion (Ragatz 1-971)6• Some waterfront locations-have been extensively developed for a variety. of public, private, and commercial recreational purposes. The lakes and lake frontage properties of the Tennessee Valley Authority alone were:estimated to contain water-based recreational equipment and facilities worth $77 million and land-based facilities and improvements valued at $178 million in 1968 (Churchill personal communication 1972)16• Expenditures for other goods and services·a:ssociated with water-oriented recreation are also· a ·major factor in the economy. Boaters, fishermen, campers, picnickers, and others spend considerable sums· on transportation, accommo- dations, and supplies. For· example, preliminary data show that some 2.9.million waterfowl hunters spent an estimated .$245 million duting 25 million recreation days in 1970 (Slater personal communication 1971)17."The Tennessee Valley Authority estimated in 1967 that sports fishermen using its reservoirs spent some $42 ni.11Iion in order to harvest 7,000 . to 10,000 tons of fish (Stroud and Martin 1968)8• User Surveys :Since World War II, per capita par- ticipation in most types of recreational activities has in- creased even more rapidly than the preceding data indicate. Attendance at National Par;k Service areas rose from 133 · million visits in 1966 to 172 million in 1970, an increase of 29: l_jer cent. In the same period, visits to Corps of Engineers reservoirs increased 42 per cent to a total of 276 million. Comparable figures for the national forestswere 151 million in 1966, rising 14 per cent tq 173 million-in1970 (Bureau · of Outdoor· Recreation per'sonaUommunicatiQn 1971 )15 • Most : of the recreation opportunities at Corps of. Engineers areas Introduction; 9 and a good proportion of those available on Park Service lands and in -national forests are water-based or water- related. Similar growth rates and a predominance of water- related recreational experiences characterize the use of recreational lands managed by the'Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the Department of Defense. · The preeminent role of water resources in recreation was emphasized' by the President's Outdoor Recreation Re- sources Review Commission in 1960. Extensive surveys showed that most people seeking outdoor recreation (90 per cent· of all Americans) sought it in association with ··water, as indicated by the preliminary figures in Table 1-1, a study made as part of the 1970 U;S. Census (Slater 1972)17 • Although it is impossible to estimate what pro- portion of the use reported by the survey was actually associated with water for those activities that are not water- based but .are often water-related, the data nevertheless emphasize the magnitude of current participation in water- oriented recreation. If no more than half the time spent on the frequently water-related activities was in fact associated with water, the total man days for water-based and water-related ac- tivities in 1970 would be at least 3.7 billion man days. Participation in water-based· and water-oriented recre- ation is likely to increase in the forseeable future. The Bureau of Outdoor-Recreation (1967)13 predicts that by the year 2000 summertime participation in swimming will in- crease over the year 1965 by 207 per cent, in fishing 78 per .cent, in'· boating 215 per cent, in waterskiing 363 per cent, ·and in such water-related activities as camping, picnicking, and sightseeing 238, 127,-and 156 percent respectively. Legislation, .:Regulations, and Programs The importance of water-based ·and·water-related recreation to society is reflected in the increase in legislation and the number of regulations~ arid programs intended to increase TABLE 1-l....:.,;Participation in Water-Oriented Recreation Activities in 1970 Activity Water-based SWimming ..• , .••..................... Fishing ...........•...•............... Boating ....•..............•.•••.•..... •Percent of U.S. population participatmga 46 < 29 24 Bilnons of man days 1.72 .56 .42 ·Total man days .••......••........ , ................ ·. . . . . . . . • • . . . • . • 2. 10 Frequently water related Picmcking .•...........•.••..•..• .-..•• Birdwatching ...•............•......••. Campiilf ......•••..................... ~: Nature walks: .•.•..•.••............... Hunting ...•.•..........•..••..••.•..• Wildlife photography .....•.....••..•.•• 49 4 21 18 12 3 .54 .43 .40 .37 .22 .04 Total man days .....••..•....• ,.......... • . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . ~.00 • For many activities, double countinc will occur. (Slater 1972)' 10/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics or protect opportunities for these activities. One example is the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act U.S. Congress 1968)9 that authorized a national program to preserve free-flowing rivers of exceptional natural or recreational value. The Federal Power Commission has required the submission of recreation and fish and wildlife development plans as inte- gral parts of hydroelectric license applications. The Federal Water Project Recreation Act (U.S. Congress 1965)10 en- courages state and local participation in planning, financing, and administering recreational features of federal water development projects. The Estuary Protection Act (l:J .S. Congress 1968)11 authorizes cooperative federal-state-local cost sharing and management programs for estuaries, and requires that federal agencies consult with the Secretary of the Interior on all land and water development projects with impacts on estuaries before submitting proposals to Congress for authorization. The Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture assists in the development of ponds that often are used for recreational purposes and watering livestock. Federal assistance for waterfront restoration and the preser- vation of environmental values is available under the urban renewal, open space, and urban beautification programs of the 'Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Land and Water Conservation Fund program ofthe Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, and the historic preservation pro- gram of the National Park Service. MAINTAINING AND RESTORING WATER QUALITY FOR RECREATION AND AESTHETICS Although there have been instances of rapid water quality deterioration with drastic effects on recreation, typically the effect is a slow, insidious process; Changes have come about incrementally as forests are cut, land cultivated, urban areas expanded, and industries developed. But the cumulative effect and the losses in recreation oppor- tunities caused by degraded water quality in this country in the past 100 years have been great. In many urban areas, opportunities for virtually every type of water-based ac- tivity have been either severely curtailed or eliminated. The resource-based recreation frontier is being forced further into the hinterland. Aesthetic values of aquatic vistas are eliminated or depreciated by enchroachment of residential, commercial, industrial, military, or transpor- tation facilities. Drainage of swamps to control insect vectors of disease and channelization to control floods have a profound effect on water run-off characteristics. A loss in water quality and downstream aquatic environments and recreational opportunities is often the price paid for such improvements. The application of adequate local, state, and national water quality criteria is only a partial solution to our water quality problems. A comprehensive national land use policy program with effective methods of decision-making, imple- mentation, and enforcement is also needed. APPLYING ·RECOMMENDATIONS Throughout this report the recommendations given are to be applied in the context of local conditions. This caveat cannot be over emphasized, because variabilities are en- countered in different parts of the country. Specific local recommendations can be developed now in many instances and more will be developed as experience grows. Numerical criteria pertaining to other beneficial water uses together with the recommendations for recreational and aesthetic uses provide guidance for water quality management. WATER QUALITY FOR PRESERVING AESTHETIC VALUES Aesthetics is classically defined as the branch of philos- ophy that provides a theory of the beautiful. In this Section attention will be focused on the aesthetics of water in natural and man-made environments and the extent to which the beauty of that water can be preserved or en- hanced by the establishment of water quality recommen- dations. Although perceptions of many forms of beauty are pro- foundly subjective and experienced differently by each indi- vidual, there is an apparent sameness in the human re- sponse to the beauties of water. Aesthetically pleasing waters add to the quality of human experience. Water may be pleasant to look upon, to walk or rest beside, or simply to contemplate. It may enhance the visual scene wherever it appears, in cities or in the wilderness. It may enhance values of adjoining properties, public or private. It may provide a focal point of pride in the community. The perception of beauty and ugliness cannot be strictly defined. Either natural or man-made visual effects may add or detract, depending on many variables such as distance from the observer or the composition and texture of the surroundings. As one writer has said when comparing recreational values with aesthetics, "Of probably greater value is the relaxation and mental well-being achieved by viewing and absorbing the scenic grandeur of the great and restless Missouri. Many people crowd the 'high-line' drives along the bluffs to view this mighty river and achieve a certain restfulness from the proximity of nature" (Porges et al. 1952)19 • Similarly, aesthetic experience can be enhanced or de- stroyed by space relationships. Power boats on a two-acre lake are likely to be more hazardous than fun, and the water will be so choppy and turbid that people will hardly enjoy swimming near the shore. On the other hand, a sailboat on Lake Michigan can be viewed with pleasure. If a designated scenic area is surrounded by a wire fence, the naturalness is obviously tainted. If animals can only be viewed in restricted pens, the enjoyment is likely to be less than if they could be seen moving at will in their natural habitat. MANAGEMENT FOR AESTHETICS The management of water for aesthetic purposes must be planned and executed in the context of the uses of the land, w.._________ _______ ---- 11 the shoreline, and the water surfaces. People must be the ultimate consideration. Aesthetic values relate to accessi- bility, perspective, space, human expectations, and the opportunity to derive a pleasurable reaction from the senses. Congress has affirmed and reaffirmed its determination to enhance water quality in a series of actions strengthening the federal role in water pollution control and federal sup- port for water pollution control programs of state and local governments and industry; In a number of states, political leaders and voters have supported programs to protect or even restore water quality with aesthetics as one of the values. The recognition, identification, and protection of the aesthetic qualities of water should be an objective of all water quality management programs. The retention of suitable, aesthetic quality is more likely to be achieved through strict control of discharges at the source than by excessive dependence on )tssimilat~on by receiving waters. Paradoxically, the values that aesthetically pleasing water provide are most urgently needed where pollution problems are most serious as in the urban areas and particularly in the central portions of cities where population and industry are likely to be heavily concentrated. Unfortunately, one of the greatest unknowns is the value of aesthetics to people. No workable formula incorporating a valid benefit-to-cost ratio has yet been devised to reflect tangible and intangible benefits accruing to conflicting uses or misuses and the cost of providing or avoiding them. This dilemma could be circumvented by boldly stating that aesthetic values are worth the cost of achieving them. The present public reaction to water quality might well support this position, but efforts in this area have not yet proceeded far enough to produce values worthy of wide acceptance. (See Appendix 1.) BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AESTHETIC PURPOSES All surface waters should be aesthetically pleasing. But natural conditions vary widely, and because of this a series of descriptive rather than numerical recommendations is made. The descriptions are intended to provide, in general terms, for the protection of surface waters from substances or conditions arising from other than natural sources that 12/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics might degrade or tend to degrade the aesthetic quality of the water. Substances or conditions arising !rom natural sources may affect water quality independently of .human activities. Human activities that augment degradation from natural sources, such as accelerated erosion from surface disturbances, are not considered natural. The recommen- dations are also intended to cover degradation from "dis- charges or waste," a phrase embracing undesirable inputs from all sources attributable to human activities whether surface flows, point discharges, or subsurface drainages. The recommendations: that follow are essentially finite criteria. The absence of visible debris, oil, scum, and' other matter resulting from human activity is a strict requirement for aesthetic acceptability. Similarly, recommended values for objectionable color, odor, taste, and turbidity, although less precise, must be measured :as. no significant increase over background. Characteristics such as excessive nutrients and temperature elevations that encourage objectionable abundance of organisms, e.g., a bloom of blue-green algae resulting from discharge of a waste with a high nutrient content and an elevated temperature, must be considered.· These recommendations become finite when applied as intended in the context of natural background conditions. Specific numbers would add little to the usefulness of the descriptive recommendations because ofthe varying acute- ness of sensory perception and because of the variability of' substances and -conditions so ·largely dependent on local conditions. The phrase "virtually free" of an objectionable,constituent as used in the recommendations implies the concept of freedom fr0m the undesirable effects of the constituent but·: not necessarily· freedom from the constituent itself. This recognizes the practical impossibility of complete absence and the inevitability of the presence of potential pollutants to some degree. Recommendations Surface waters will be· :aesthetiCally pleasing if they are virtually free of substances attributable to discharg~s.or waste as follows: • materials that will settle to form objectionable deposits; • floating debris, oil, scum, and other matter; •<substances producing objectionable color, odor, taste, or turbidity; • substances and conditions'' or combinations thereof· in concentrations whiCh produce' un- desirable aq11atieJife. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RECREATIONAL AND AESTHETIC VALUE OF WATER The many factors that influence the recreational and aesthetic value of water may be broadly grouped in two imprecise and overlapping but useful categories: physical and biological. Physical factors include geography, manage- ment and land use practices, and carrying capacity. Bio- logical factors involve the effects of nuisance organisq~s and eutrophication, the role of aquatic plants, species diversity, and the introduction of exotic species. In making water quality recommendations that will maintain recreational and aesthetic values of surface waters, it is necessary to understand the interrelationships between these factors and water quality. The discussions in this Section emphasize those interrelationships, but additional useful detail can be found in other Sections of this Report, i.e., Public Water Supplies (II), Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (IV), and Agriculture (V). Cross references direct the reader to other sources at appropriate points in this Section. Physical Factors Recommendations applicable to water-related environmental goals may well define those constraints that must be imposed on man's land-based ac- tivities and upon his physical contact with water if the quality of water is to be maintained at a level suited to recreational use. This is especially true of aesthetic enjoy- ment of water, because pleasurable aesthetic experiences are related to water in its environmental setting and to its changing appearance caused by wind, light, and other natural phenomena. Man-made impoundments -have provided numerous· op- portunities for recreation that have not existed before, but their-operation in some-· instances presents a paradox for recreational users. Often such reservoirs ar:e located on the upper reaches· of rivers where the natural setting-is itself conducive to aesthetic recreational enjoyment; but because they are often multipurpose projects, their operation for water supPly; seasonal pr:ovision of. flood-storage, daily provision .ofh.ydroelecJ;ric_power, or even seasonal fluctu- ation for mosquito control wilf change tile water surface ·elevation; -leave banta 'bankS exposed; or cause noticeable or transient disruptions of Jhe otherwise natural'-appearing setting •. Where ~th~' im'pauadineht speeifically pmvidesc a public water supply, concerned water works' -p~rsonnel, -(earihg degradation efthe' quality of the-water stor~ for: this purpose, may impose limitations on the scope of recre- ational opportunities. Thus, the full potential for recre- ational and aesthetic uses of water may well be curtailed somewhat by the operational schedule of a water body needed for other purposes, even if the quality of the stored water meets the stipulated water quality criteria. Control of turbidity represents another environment- related problem, one that must often be dealt with in terms of somewhat subjective local considerations. Recommen- dations for turbidity limits are best expressed as percentage increases over natural background conditions. The waste- water treatment processes normally employed are intended to control suspended particles and associated problems. Steps can also be taken to minimize erosion of soil disturbed by agriculture, construction, logging, and other human activities. Turbidity from urban and rural areas can be reduced by ponding or other sedimentation facilities. Wherever possible, spoils from dredging of navigable waters should be disposed of on land or at water sites in such a way that environmental damage is minimized. If necessary dredging for new construction or channel maintenance is performed with caution, it will not have adverse effects on water quality. (Effects of physical manipulation of the en- vironment are discussed further in Section III on Fresh- water Aqua ic Life and Wildlife.) Biological Factors Two principal types of biological factors influence the recreational and aesthetic value of surface waters: those that endanger the health or physical comfort of people and animals, and those that render water aesthetically objectionable or unusable as a result of its overfertilization. The former include vector and nuisance organisms; the latter, aquatic growths of microscopic and macroscopic plants. The discussion turns· next to the physical factors of recre- ational carrying capacity and sediment' .and suspended materials, and then to-the biological factors. RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPAcJJY In both artificial· impoundments and natural bodies of water tire physical~ chemical:, and biological ehara:cteristics of the water itself are not the' onfy factors influ'eilcing water-· 14/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics oriented recreation. Depreciation of the recreational value of water caused by high levels of use is a growj.ng problem that can be solved only by management techniques that either create more extensive facilities or limit the types and amounts of use to predetermined desirable levels or carrying capacities. The recreational resource carrying capacity concept is not new. Recreation land managers have used carrying capacity standards for decades, but such standards have generally been developed intuitively rather than experi- mentally. Dana (1957)24 called for empirical research in this field to provide better guidelines for management of recreation resources. The National Recreation and Parks Association reported in 1969 that almost no research of this type had been completed and that standards for water- oriented recreational activities then in use exhibited a dis- turbingly wide range of values (Chubb 1969)21 • Among investigations of the carrying capacity of water for recre- ational boating currently being made are those at North Carolina State University and Michigan State University (Ashton and Chubb 1971).20 A comparative study of the canoeing and trout fishing capacity of four rivers is taking place in Michigan (Colburn, personal communication 1971)27• Lucas (1964)25 reported on an on-going recreational carry- ing. capacity study of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. Until a number of these investigations are completed, the true nature and complexity of the factors involved in recreational carrying capacity will not be known. However, in the case of many water-oriented activities it is apparent that social, psychological, and economic factors are in- volved, as well as the physical characteristics of the water body (Chubb and Ashton 1969)22 • For example, boaters on heavily used lakes in Southeast Michigan represent a broad spectrum of behavioral patterns and attitudes. Fishermen generally dislike high-density use and are particularly an- noyed by speeding boats that create waves. They believe such activities disturb the fish. Waterfront home and cottage owners abhor the noise and litter generated by owners of transient boats on trailers. On the other hand, many water skiers enjoy relatively crowded conditions because of the social aspects of the experience; and some cruiser and pon- toon boat owners enjoy viewing the skiers from their boats. Thus the boating carrying capacity of these waters involves the relative proportions of the various kinds of uses taking place and the life styles, recreational goals, and social aspirations of the boaters. Carrying capacity becomes a function of the levels of satisfaction achieved by the par- ticipants (Ashton and Chubb 1971).20 Screw propellers of powerboats operating in shallow waters create currents that often suspend sediments. Power- boats can also produce wake waves that cause shore erosion and result in water turbulence. Marl-bottomed lakes and silty, relatively narrow rivers are especially susceptible to prolonged turbidity generated by such disturbances. In many cases, bank erosion has been so severe that speed limitations and wake-wave restrictions have had to be imposed. The size and configuration of a water body influence its recreational use and carrying capacity. Large lakes with a low ratio of shoreline-to-surface area tend to be under-used in the middle; conversely, lakes with a high ratio of shore- line-to-surface area tend to sustain more recreational use per acre. The Role of Regulation Rapid increases in recreational use have necessitated regulations to protect the quality of the experiences ob- tained by limiting use so that carrying capacity is not exceeded. Examples are boat speed regulations, limitations on horsepower, number of boat launching sites, number of · parking places, and zoning and time limitations on water skiing and high-speed boating. Motorized crafts are often prohibited. Michigan is planning to use data from it~ current series of boating carrying capacity studies to es- tablish new criteria for its boating access site program (Ashton and Chubb 1971).20 The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1970)26 has proposed rationing recreation on stretches of the Au Sable, Manistee, Pine, and Pere Marquette Rivers by means of a canoe permit system to reduce conflicts between canoeists and trout fishermen. The proposed regulations would limit the release of canoes to a specified number per day for designated stretches of these rivers. Other regulations are intended to promote safety and reduce trespass, river bank damage, vandalism, and littering. The National Park Service has limited annual user days for river running on the Colorado through the Grand Canyon (Cowgilll971).23 Factors Affecting Recreational Carrying Capacity The carrying capacity of a body of water for recreation is not a readily identifiable finite number. It is a range of values from which society can select the most acceptable limits as the controlling variables change. The schematic diagram (Fig. 1-1) provides an impression of the number of relationships involved in a typical water body recreation system. Recreational carrying capacity of water is basically dependent upon water quality but also related to many other variables as shown in the model. At the threshold level a relatively small decline in water quality may have a considerable effect on the system and result in a substantial decline in the annual yield of water- oriented recreational opportunities at the sites affected. Conclusion No specific recommendation is made concernin~ recreational carryin~ capacity. A~encies establish- in~ carryin~ capacities should be aware of the complex relationships of the interactin~ variables and of the constant need to review local established values in li~ht of prevailin~ conditions. Carryin~ I I I L.-- Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water /15 (broken box line indicates high probability of change) WATERBODY RESOURCES quantity, type, accessibility Prevailing Water Quality r - --- - - ---..., Cultural Factors 1 recreation behavior, I : ownenhip, access, and I I regulations I .... ____ ---~-J REGIONAL SUPPLY OF ALTERNATIVE WATER RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES r---------------..., : Changing Patterns of Use: : 1 relationship to supply-demand, 1 I socio-economics, and I I water quality I L _J _______ 1 _______ Excessive Use: reduced water quality and recreational value l Reduced Carrying Capacity WATER QUALITY chemical, physical, and biological characteristics ,...---...., I Human 1 I Activities 1 1..--__ _, FIGURE I-1-Relationships Involved in a Water Resource Recreation System 16/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics capacity was discussed in this Section to call at- tention to its potential effects on water ~uality for recreational use. SEDIMENTS AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS Weathering of the land surface and the transport of particles such as sand, silt and clay by water, wind, and ice are natural processes of geologic erosion that largely de- termine the characteristics· of our land, rivers, estuaries, and lakes. Man, however, can drastically alter the amount of material suspended in surface waters by accelerating surface erosion through various land use and management practices. Sources of these sediments and suspended ma- terials such as erosion, mining, agriculture, and construction areas are discussed in Section IV on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife. In addition to causing siltation problems and affecting biological productivity, sediments and suspended materials affect the quality of surface waters used for recreational and aesthetic enjoyment. Effects on Water Quality The importance of suspended particle composition and concentrations to the recreational and aesthetic value of surface water relates to its effects on the clarity, light penetration, temperature, and dissolved constituents of surface water, the adsorption of toxic materials, and the composition, distribution, and rate of sedimentation of materials. These in turn not only affect recreational and aesthetic values directly, but they control or limit biological productivity and the aquatic life the waters will sustain-for enjoyment by people (Buck 1956,28 Cairns 1968) .29 Although the qualitative effects of suspended particles on surface waters are well recognized, quantitative knowledge and understanding are limited. (Biological effects are discussed in Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life.) Appearance The appearance of water is relative to the perspective of the viewer and his expectations. For example, the surfaces of lakes, streams, or oceans viewed from shore appear less turbid than they do viewed from above or during immersion. The responses of people viewing the spectacularly clear waters of Lake Tahoe or Crater Lake are almost surely aesthetic in nature, and allowing the Clarity of such waters to decrease would certainly lower their aesthetic appeal. On the other hand, the roaring reaches and the placid stretches of the muddy Colorado River and miles of the muddy Mississippi afford another kind of aesthetic pleasure and -recreation which many also -appreCiate. People seem 'to adapt to ·and accept a wide range of water turbidities as long as changes in turb:dity are cpart of natural processes. However, increases in tur- ·bidity of water due to m:an's disttirband: of the "land sutface, "<ilscharge of wastes, or modification of "the water-body bed are 'subjectively regarded by m;iny people as pollution, and so in (act or in fancy· they reduce aesthe'tic enjoyment. Light Penetration The presence of suspended solid materials in natural waters limits the penetration by sun- light. An example of the adverse effe-ets of reduced available light is the inability of some fish to see their natural food or even the sport fisherman's lure (note the discussion in Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, pp. 126-129). In turbid, nutrient-rich waters, such as an estu- ary or lake where lack of light penetration limits algal repro- duction, a water management project that reduced sedi- ment input to the water body could conceivably result in increases of algal production to the nuisance level. Temperature When suspended particles inhibit the penetration of water by sunlight, greater absorption of solar energy occurs near the surface and warms the water there. With its density thus decreased, the water column stabilizes, and vertical mixing is inhibited. Lower oxygen transfer from air to water also results from higher water surface temperature. Together with inhibited vertical mix- ing, this reduces the downward rate of oxygen transfer, especially in still or slowly moving water. In combination with the oxygen demand of benthic accumulations_, any reduction in downward transfer of oxygen hastens the de- velopment of anaerobic conditions at the bed of shallow eutrophic ponds, and the result may be a loss of aesthetic quality. Adsorption of Materials Clay minerals have irregu- lar, platy shapes and large surface areas with electrostatic charges. As a consequence, clay minerals sorb cations, anions, and organic compounds. Pesticides and heavy metals likewise sorb on suspended clay particles, and those that are strongly held are carried with the particles to their eventual resting place. Microorganisms are frequently sorbed on particulate material and incorporated into bottom sediments when the material settles. Rising storm waters may resuspend the deposited material, thereby restoring the microorganisms to the water column. Swimming or wading could stir bottom sediments containing bacteria, thereby effecting a rise in bacterial counts in the water (Van Donsel and Geldreich 1971)33. The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materials is different for each material and type of clay. The sorptive phenomenon effectively lends a large assimilative capacity to -muddy·waters. A reduction in suspended mineral solids in surface waters can, therefore, cause an increase in the concentrations of dissolved toxic materials contributed by existing waste discharges (see Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life) . . Beach Zone Effects When typical river waters con- taining dispersed clay minerals mix with "ocean water in estuaries to the·extent of one part or· more· of ocean water to 33 parts -i:iver water, the dispersed clay a:nd ·silt .partiCles become cohesive, and aggregates are formed under 'the . prevailing hydraulic conditions· (Krone 1962). 30 Such a:ggte- ,gates of material brought downstream 'by storms either Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water fl T settle in the estuary, particularly in large shallow bays, or are carried directly to sea where they often are distributed over large areas of the sea floor. Those that settle in shallow bays can be constantly resuspended by wind-generated waves and held in suspension by waves while tidal currents circulate the waters throughout the estuary and carry a portion of the suspended material out to sea. Suspended clay mineral particles are weakly cohesive in river waters having either unusually low dissolved salt concentrations or high proportions of multivalent cations in the dissolved salts. When Buch rivers enter lakes and impoundments, the fine particles aggregate and settle to the bed to forrn soft, fluffy deposits. On lakes, the natural wind waves maintain beaches and sandy littoral zones when there is sufficient fetch. Wind- driven movement of the water through wave action and subsequent oscillation provides the minimum velocity of 0.5 feet per second to sort out the fine particles of mineral soils and organic micelles and allow them to settle in the depths. Wave action extends to depths of approximately one-half of the wave length to sort bottom sediments. This depth is on the order of 5 feet (1.5 m) for a one-mile (1.6 km) fetch. When the waters are deep enough to allow settling, fine sed:ments which are suspended drop down over the wave terrace leaving sorted sand behind. In shallow water bodies where the orbital velocity of the water particles of wave action is great enough to lift fine sediments, waters may be kept in 4 state of turbidity (Shephard 1963). 31 Waters without adequate wind-wave action and circulation do not have appreciable sorting; and therefore:soft bottom materials, undesirable at facilities like· swimming beaches, may build up in the shallows. These conditions reduce clarity and not only affect the aesthetic value but also present a hazard in swimming. The natural phenomenon of beach maintenance, sup- plying sand to beaches and littoral zones, is dependent in part upon having ample sources of sand such as those pro- vided by river transport and shore erosion. Impoundment of rivers causes sand to settle behind dams and removes it as a future source for beach maintenance. Man's protection of shorelines from erosion also interrupts the supply of sand. In the erosion process, sand is commonly moved along the ~hore in response to the net positive direction of the wind- wave forces, or it is carried into deep water to be deposited on the edge of wave terraces. The location of man-made s~uctures can, therefore, influence the quality of beaches. Piers and jetties can intercept the lateral movement ofsand . and leave impoverished rocky or hardpan shores on the up:-current .side. Such conditions are common -along the shores of the large Great Lakes and many coastal waters (U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research Center 1966). 32 Sedim.ent-A'Juatic Plant Relatioo.ships When the .sediment lead exceeds the transport capacity of the river, deposition results. The accumulation 'of sediment.s in reservoirs and distribution systems has been a problem since ancient times. The deposited materials may so alter the original bed materials of surface waters that rooted aquatic vascular plants are able to grow in the newly available substrate, thus changing the aquatic environment. Fine sediments are often rich in the nutrients required for plant growths; and once the sediments are stabilized with a few plants, extensive colonization may follow .. (See the discussion of Aquatic Vascular Plants in this Section.) Recommendation Clear waters are normally preferred for recre- ation. Because sediment-laden water reduces water clarity, inhibits the growth of plants, displaces water volume as sediments settle, and contributes to the fouling of the bottom, prevention of un- natural quantities of suspended sediments or de- posit of sediments is desirable. Individual waters vary in the natural amounts of suspended sedi- ments they carry; therefore, no fixed recommen- dation can be made. Management decisions should be developed with reference to historical base line data concerning the individual body of water. VECTORS AND NUISANCE ORGANISMS The impact of both aquatic vectors of diseases and nuisance organisms on water-related recreational and aes- thetic pursuits varies from the creation of minor nuisances to the closing of large recreational areas (Mackenthun and Ingram 196 7). 58 Organisms of concern are discussed by Mackenthun (1969).57 Massive emergences of non-biting midges, phantom midges, caddisflies, and mayflies cause serious nuisances in shoreline communities, impeding road traffic, river navi- gation, commercial enterprises and recreational pursuits (Burks 1953,4° Fremling· 1960a, 46 1960b ;47 Hunt and Bis- choff 1960;54 Provost 1958 60 ). Human respiratory allergic reactions to aquatic insect bites have been recognized for many years. They were reviewed by Henson (1966),49 who reported the major causative groups to be the caddisflies, mayflies, and midges. Among 'common diseases transmitted by aquatic hwerte- brates are encephalitis, malaria, and schistosomiasis, inM eluding swimmers' itch. The principal water-related arthro- pod-borne viral disease of importance to public health in the United States is encephalitis, transmitted by mosquitoes (Hess and Holden 1958). 51 Many polluted urban streams are ideally suited to production of large numbers of Culex fatigans, a vector of St. Louis encephalitis in urban areas. Although running waters ordinarily are not .suitable for mosquito breeding, puddles in drying stream beds. and floodplains a:re ·excellent breeding sites for this and other species ·of Culex. I:f such pools contain polluted waters, organic materials. .present may serve as an increased food supply that will stimulate production (Hess 1956,50 U.S. 18/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics Department of the Interior, FWPCA 1967). 65 Aquatic plants also provide breeding sites for some moequitoes and other nuisance insects. This relationship is discussed else- where in this Section (p. 25). Other than mosquitoes, perhaps the most common nui- sance insects associated with standing freshwater are chir- onomid midges. These insects neither bite nor carry disease, but their dense swarms can interfere with man's comfort and activities. Nuisance populations have occurred in pro- ductive natural lakes where the larvae thrive in the largely organic bottom sediments (Provost 1958,60 Hunt and Bis- choff 1960,54 Hilsenhoff 1959). 52 In poorly designed sewage lagoons mosquitoes and midges may thrive (Beadle and Harmstrom 1958,38 Kimerle and Enns 1968).56 Reservoirs receiving inadequately treated municipal wastes are po- tential sources for abundant mosquito and midge production (U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA 1967).65 In- creased midge production may be associated with deterior- ation in water quality, but this is not always the case. For example, excessive production can occur in primary sewage oxidation ponds as well as in reservoirs ( Grodhaus 1963,48 Bay 196435) ; and in sequential oxidation pond treatment, maximum midge production may sometimes occur in those ponds furthest from the plant effluent where water quality is highest (Bay et al. 1965). 36 Abrupt changes in water quality such as dilution of sea- water by freshwater, especially if accompanied by organic loading, can precipitate extraordinarily high midge pro- duction (Jamnback 1954).55 Sudden decline in oxygen supply in organically overloaded ponds or drying lakes can disrupt or destroy established faunal communities, thus favoring midge larvae because they are tolerant to low dissolved oxygen and are primarily detrital feeders (Bay unpublished data). 67 The physical characteristics of certain water bodies, as much as their water quality characteristics, may sometimes determine midge productivity (Bay et al. 1966). 37 For example, freshly filled reservoirs are quickly sedimented with allocthanous detritus and airborne organic matter that provide food for invading midge larvae. The rate of sedimentation can depend on watershed characteristics and basin percolation rate or, in the case of airborne sediment, on the surrounding topography. Predators in these new environments are few, and initial midge larval survival is high. Thomas (1970)64 has also reported on the potential of newly or periodically flooded areas to produce large populations of midges and mosquitoes. Midge production in permanent bodies of water is ex- tremely variable. Attempts have been made (Hilsenhoff and N arf 1968,53 Florida State Board of Health unpublished data 69 ) to correlate factors of water quality with midge productivity in neighboring lakes and in lakes with certain identifiable characteristics, but the results have been incon- clusive. Organism response in organically polluted flowing water was discussed and illustrated by Bartsch and Ingram (1959).34 As water quality and bottom materials change in streams recovering from organic waste discharges, large numbers of midges and other nuisance organisms may be produced in select reaches. Though blackfly larvae are common in unpolluted streams, an increase in suspended organic food particles may stimulate increased populations, and abnormally large numbers of larvae have been found downstream from both municipal and industrial waste discharges (u:s. Depart- ment of the Interior, FWPCA 196 7). 65 The larvae feed on drifting organic material, and either municipal, agricultural, or certain industrial wastes can provide the base for an increased food supply. Bacteria from soils and sewage may be important in outbreaks of blackflies (Fredeen 1964).45 Toxic wastes can also affect situations where nuisance organisms are found in increased numbers. The most obvious mechanism is the destruction of more sensitive predators and competitors, leaving the food supply and space available for the more tolerant forms. Surber (1959)63 found increased numbers of a tolerant midge, Cricotopus bicinctus, in waters polluted with chromium. Rotenone treatment of waters has resulted in temporary massive increases in blackfly and midge populations (Cook and Moore 1969).41 Increased numbers of midge larvae were found in a stream reach six months after a gasoline spill (Bugbee and Walter 1972). 68 The reasons for this are not clear but may be linked to the more ready invasion of an area by these highly mobile insects as compared to less mobile competitors and predators. Persons involved in water-based activities in many areas of the world are subject to bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), a debilitating and sometimes deadly disease (World Health Organization 1959).66 This is not a problem in the conti- nental United States and Hawaii because of the absence of a vector snail, but schistosomiasis occurs in Puerto Rico due to the discharge of human feces containing Schistosoma eggs into waters harboring vector snails, the most important species being Biomphalaria glabrata. B. glabrata can survive in a wide range of water quality, including facultative sewage lagoons; and people are exposed through contact with shallow water near the infected snails. Cercariae shed by the snail penetrate the skin of humans and enter the bloodstream. Of local concern in water-contact recreation in the United States is schistosome dermatitis, or swimmers' itch (Cort 1928,42 Mackenthun and Ingram 1967,58 Fetterolf et al. 1970).44 A number of schistosome cercariae, non- specific for humans, are able to enter the outer layers of human skin. The reaction causes itching, and the severity is related to the person's sensitivity and prior exposure history (Oliver 1949).59 The most important of the derma- titis-producing cercariae are duck parasites (Trichobilhar;:,ia). Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water/19 Snails serving as intermediate hosts include Lymnaea, Physa, and Gyraulus (Cort 1950).43 Although swimmers' itch,has wide distribution, in the United States it is principally endemic to the north central lake region. Occasional inci- dence is reported in marine waters (Stunkard and Hinchliffe 1952).62 About 90 per cent of severe swimmers' itch outbreaks are associated with Cercaria stagnicolae shed from varieties of the snail Lymnaea emarginata. This relationship is promoted by (1) clean, sandy beaches ideal for swimming and preferred by the snail; (2) peak populations of the snail hosJ that develop in sandy-bottomed lakes of glacial origin; (3) the greatest development of adult snails that do not die off until toward the end of the bathing season; and (4) the cycle of cercaria! infection so timed that the greatest num- bers of cercariae emerge during the hot weather in the middle of the summer when the greatest amount of bathing is done (Brackett 1941). 39 Infected vector snails are also found throughout the United States in swamps, muddy ponds, and ditches; but dermatitis rarely results, because humans seldom use these areas without protective clothing. In some marine recreational waters jellyfish or sea nettles are ,serious problems. Some species possess stinging mecha- nisms whose cnidoblast filaments can penetrate human skin causing painful, inflammed weals. The effects of water quality on their abundance is not known, but Schultz and Cargo (1971)61 reported that the summer sea nettle, Chrysaora quinquecirrha, has been a problem in Chesapeake Bay since colonial days. When these nettles are abundant, swimming is practically eliminated and fishermen's nets and traps are clogged. Conclusion The role of water quality in either limiting or augmenting the production of vector and nuisance organisms involves.many interrelationships which are not clearly understood. Since organic wastes generally directly or indirectly increase biomass production, there may be an attendant increase in vector or nuisance organisms. Some wastes favor their production by creating water quality or habitat conditions that limit their predators and competitors. Increased production of vector and nuisance organisms may degrade a healthy and desirable human environment and be ac- companied by .a lessening of recreational and aes- thetic values (see the discussion of Aquatic Life and Wildlife in this Section, p. 35.) EUTROPHICATION AND NUTRIENTS Man's recent concern with eutrophy relates primarily to lakes, reservoirs, rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters that have been or are being over-fertilized through society's --:.._______ __ _ carelessness to a point ~here beneficial uses are impaired or threatened. With increasing urbanization, industriali- zation, artificial soil fertilization, and soil mantle disruption, eutrophication has become a serious problem affecting the aesthetic and recreational enjoyment of many of the nation's waters. Defining Eutrophication and Nutrients Lakes have been classified in accordance with their trophic level or bathymetry as eutrophic, oligotrophic, mesotrophic, or dystrophic (National Academy of Sciences 1969,97 Russell-Hunter 1970,1°5 Warren 1971,114 Stewart and Rohlich 1967).107 A typical eutrophic lake has a high surface-to-volume ratio, and an abundance of nutrients producing heavy growth of aquatic plants and other vege- tation; it contains highly organic sediments, and may have seasonal or continuous low dissolved-oxygen concentrations in its deeper waters. A typical oligotrophic lake has a low surface-to-volume ratio, a nutrient content that supports only a low level of aquatic productivity, a high dissolved- oxygen concentration extending to the deep waters, and sediments largely inorganic in composition. The character- istics of mesotrophic lakes lie between those of eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes. A dystrophic lake has waters brown- ish from humic materials, a relatively low pH, a reduced rate of bacterial decomposition, bottom sediments usually composed of partially decomposed vegetation, and low aquatic biomass productivity. Dystrophication is a lake- aging process different from that of eutrophication. Whereas the senescent stage in eutrophication may be a productive marsh or swamp, dystrophication leads to a peat bog rich in humic materials but low in productivity. Eutrophication refers to the addition of nutrients to bodies of water and to the effects of those nutrients. The theory that there is a natural, gradual, and steady increase in external nutrient supply throughout the existence of a lake is widely held, but there is no support for this idea of natural eutrophication (Beeton and Edmondson 1972).74 The paleolimnological literature supports instead a concept of trophic equilibrium such as that introduced by Hutchin- son (1969).91 According to this concept the progressive changes that occur as a lake ages constitute an ecological succession effected in part by the change in the shape of the basin brought about by its filling. As the basin fills and the volume decreases, the resulting shallowness increases the cycling of available nutrients and this usually increases plant production. There are many naturally eutrophic lakes of such recre- ational value that extensive efforts have been made to con- trol their overproduction of nuisance aquatic plants and algae. In the past, man has often accepted as a natural phenomenon the loss or decreased value of a resource through eutrophication. He has drained shallow, senescent lakes for agricultural purposes or filled them to form building 20/Sectz"on !-Recreation and Aesthetics sites. The increasing value of lakes for recreation, however, will reorder man's priorities, and instead of aocepting such alternative uses of lakes, he will divert his reclamation efforts to salvaging and renovating their recreational values. Artificial or cultural eutrophication results from increased nutrient supplies through human activity. Many aquatic systems have suffered cultural eutrophication in the past 50 years as a consequence of continually increasing nutrient loading from the wastes of society. Man-induced nutrients come largely from the discharge of municipal and industrial wastewaters and from the land runoff effects of agricultural practices and disruption of the soil mantle and its vege- tative cover in the course of land development and con- struction. If eutrophication is not to become the future major deterrent to the recreational and aesthetic enjoyment of water, it is essential that unnatural additions of nutrients be kept out of water bodies through improved wastewater treatment and land management. Effects of Eutrophication and Nutrients Green Lake, a lowland lake with high recreation use in Seattle, is an example of a natural eutrophic lake (Sylvester and Anderson 1960), 109 formed some 25,000 years ago after the retreat of the Vashon glacier. During the ensuing years, about two-thirds of the original lake volume was filled with inorganic and organic sediments. A core taken near the center of the lake to a sediment depth of 20.5 feet represented a sediment accumulation over a period of ap- proximately 6, 700 years. Organic, nutrient, and chlorophyll analyses on samples from the different sediment depths indicated a relatively constant rate of sedimentation, sug- gesting that Green Lake has been in a natural state of eutrophy for several thousands of years. The recreational and aesthetic potential of the lake was reduced for most users by littoral and emergent vegetation and by heavy blooms of blue-green algae in late summer. The aquatic weeds provided harborage for production of mosquitoes and interfered with boating, swimming, fishing, access to the beach, an:d ·model boat activities. The heavy, blue-green algal blooms adhered to swimmers. The wind blew the algal masses onto the shore where they decomposed with a disagreeable odor. They dried like a blue-green paint on objects along the shoreline, rendered boating and fishing unattractive, and accentuated water line marks on boats. Nevertheless, through the continuous addition of low- nutrient dilution water by the City of Seattle (Oglesby 1969), 98 Green lake has been reclaimed through a reversal of the trophic development to mesotrophic and is now recreationally and aesthetically acceptable. Lake Washington is an example of a large, deep, oligo- trophlc-mesotrophic lake that turned eutrophic in about 35 years, primarily through the discharge of treated and untreated domestic sewage. Even to laymen, the change was rapid, dramatic, and spectacular. In the period of a year, the-apparent color of the lake water turned from bluish-green to rust as a result of massive growths of the blue-green alga, Oscillatoria rubescens. This threat to aesthetic and recreational enjoyment was a key factor in voter ap- proval of Metro, a metropolitan sewer district. Metro has greatly reduced the nutrient content of the lake and conse- quent algal growth by diverting wastewater discharges out of the drainage basin (Edmondson 1969,82 1970). 83 Lake Sammamish at the northern inlet of Lake Wash- ington appeared to be responding to the enrichment it received from treated sewage and other nutrient waste, although it had not yet produced nuisance conditions to the extent found in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).83 However, subsequent diversion of that waste by Metro has resulted in little or no detectable recovery in three years, a period that proved adequate for substantial recovery in Lake Washington (Emery et al. 1972).85 Lake Sebasticook, Maine, affords another example of undesirable enrichment. Although previously in an acceptable condition, it became obnoxious during the 1960's in response to sewage and a wide variety of industrial wastes (HEW 1966).112 The nutrient income of Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire, has been studied to determine the cause of nuisance blooms of bb.1e-green algae (Edmondson 1969).82 The well-known lakes at Madison, Wisconsin, including Monona, Waubesa, and Mendota, have been the object of detailed studies of nutrient sources and their deteriorating effect on water quality (Sawyer 1947,106 Mackenthun et al. 1960,95 Ed- mondson 1961,80 1968).81 A desirable aspect of eutrophication is the ability of mesotrophic or slightly eutrophic lakes typically to produce greater crops of fish than their oligotrophic or nutrient-poor counterparts. As long as nuisance blooms of algae and extensive aquatic weed beds do not hinder the growth of desirable fish species or obstruct the mechanics and aes- thetics of fishing or other beneficial uses, some enrichment may be desirable. Fertilization is a tool in commercial and sport fishery management used to produce greater crops of fish. Many prairie lakes in the east slope foothills of the Rocky Mountains would be classed as eutrophic according to the characteristics discussed below, yet many of these lakes are exceptional trout producers because of the high natural fertility of the prairie (Sunde et al. 1970).108 As an example of an accepted eutrophic condition, their waters are dense with plankton, but few would consider reducing the enrichment of these lakes. Streams and estuaries, as well as lakes, show symptoms of over-enrichment, but there is less opportunity for buildup of nutrients because of the continual transport of water. Although aquatic growths can develop to nuisance pro- portions in streams and estuaries as a result of over-enrich- ment, manipulation of the nutrient input can modify the situation more -rapidly than in lakes. Man's fertilization of some rivers, estuaries, and marine embayments has produced undesirable aquatic growths of algae, water weeds, and slime organisms such as Cladophora, ~ I ' I Ulva, Potamogeton, and Sphaerotilus. In addition to interfering with other uses, as in clogging fishing nets with slime (Lincoln and Foster 1943),94 the accompanying water- quality changes in some instances upset the natural fauna and flora and cause undesirable shifts in the species compo- sition of the community. Determination of Trophic Conditions It should be emphasized that (a) eutrophication has a significant relationship to the use of water for recreational and aesthetic enjoyment as well as the other water uses discussed in this book; (b) this relationship may be d;sirable or undesirable, .depending upon the type of recreational and aesthetic enjoyment sought; and (c) the possible dis- advantages or advantages of eutrophication may be viewed subjectively as they relate to a particular water use. There are no generally accepted guidelines for judging whether a state of eutrophy exists or by what criteria it may be meas- ured, such as production of biomass, rate of productivity, appearance, or change in water quality. Ranges in primary productivity and oxygen deficit have been suggested as indicative of eutrophy, mesotrophy, and oligotrophy by Edmondson (1970)83 and Rodhe (1969),104 but these ranges have had no official recognition. The trophic state and natural rate of eutrophication that exists, or would exist, in the absence of man's activities is the basis of reference in judging man-induced eutrophi- cation. The determination of the natural state in many water bodies will require the careful examination of past data, referral to published historical accounts, recall by "old-timers," and perhaps the examination of sediment cores for indicator species and chemical composition. The following guidelines are suggested in determining the refer- ence trophjc states of lakes or detecting changes in trophic states. Determination of the reference trophic state ac- companied by studies of the nutrient budget may reveal "'that the lake is already in an advanced state of eutrophy. For temperate lakes, a significant change in indicator com- munities or a significant increase in any of the other four indices, detectable over a five-year period or less, is con- sidered sufficient evidence that accelerated eutrophication is occurring. An undetectable change over a shorter period would not necessarily indicate a lack of accelerated eutrophi- cation. A change detectable only after five years may still indicate unnaturally accelerated eutrophication, but five years is suggested as a realistic maximum for the average monitoring endeavor. Where cultural eutrophication is sus- pected and changes in indices are not observable, analysis of sediment cores may be necessary to establish the natural state. The dynamic characteristics and individuality of lakes may produce exceptions to these guidelines. They are not infallible indicators of interference with recreation, but for now they may serve as a beginning, subject to modifi- cation as more complete data on the range of trophic con- ditions and their associated effects become available. Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water /21 Primary Productivity Ranges in the photosynthetic rate, measured by radioactive carbon assimilation, have been suggested by Rodhe (1969)104 as indicative of trophic conditions (Table 1-2). Biomass Chlorophyll a is used as a versatile measure of algal biomass. The ranges presented for mean summer chlorophyll a concentration determined in epilirrinetic water supplies collected at least biweekly and analyzed according to Standard Methods (American Public Health Assoc., American Water Works Assoc., and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation 1971)7° are indices of the trophic stage of a lake: oligotrophic, 0-4 mg chlorophyll afm3 ; eutrophic, 10-100 mg chlorophyll a/m3• These ranges are suggested after reviewing data on chlorophyll concentrations and other indicators of trophic state in several lakes throughout the United States and Canada. Of greatest significance are data from Lake Wash- ington which show that during peak enrichment, mean summer chlorophyll a content rose to about 27 mg/m3 and that the lake was definitely eutrophic. The post nutrient diversion summer mean declined to about 7 mg/m3, and the lake is now more typically mesotrophic (Edmondson 1970;83 chlorophyll a values corrected to conform to recent analytical techniques). Unenriched and relatively low pro- ductive lakes at higher elevations in the Lake Washington drainage basin show mean summer chlorophyll a contents of 1 to 2 mg/m3• Moses Lake, which can be considered hypereutrophic, shows a summer mean of 90 mg/m3 chlorophyll a (Bush and Welch 1972). 76 Oxygen Deficit Criteria for rate of depletion of hy- polimnetic oxygen in relation to trophic state were reported by Mortimer (1941)96 as follows: oligotrophic eutrophic >550 mg 02/m2/day This is the rate of depletion of hypolimnetic oxygen de- termined by the change in mean concentration of hypolim- netic oxygen per unit time multiplied by the mean depth of the hypolimnion. The observed time interval should be at least a month, preferably longer, during summer stratifi- cation. TABLE 1-2-Ranges in Photosynthetic Rate for Primary Productivity Determinationsa Period Mean daily rates in a grOWing season, mgC/IIJil/day ... . Toial annual rates, gCjm2jyear ..................... . OHgotrophic 30-100 7-75 Eutrophic 300-3000 75-700 • Measured by total carbon uptake per 511uare meter of water surface per unit of time. ProductiviiJ estimates sbaold be determined from at least montllly measuramenls acconliaglo Standard Methods. Americaa PubDc Health Association, American Water Works Assoc., and Water Pollution Control Federation 1971"'; Rod~e 1969.' .. 22/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics Indicator Communities The representation of cer- tain species in a community grouping in fresb. water en- vironments is often a sensitive indicator of the trophic state. Nutrient enrichment in streams causes changes in the size of faunal and floral ·populations, kinds of species, and numbers of species (Richardson 1928,103 Ellis 1937,84 Patrick 1949,99 Tarzwell and Gaufin 1953110). For example, in a stream typical of .the temperate zone in the eastern United States degraded by organic pollution the following shifts in aquatic communities are often found: in the zone of rapid decomposition below a pollution source, bacterial counts are increased; sludgeworms (Tubificidae), rattail maggots (Eristalis tenax) and bloodworms (Chironomidae) dominate the benthic fauna; and blue-green algae and the sewage fungus (Sphaerotilus) become common (Patrick 1949,99 Tarzwell and Gaufin 1953,110 Patrick et al. 1967100). Various blue-green algae such as Schizothrix calcicola, Micro- coleus vaginatus, Microcystis aeruginosa, and Anabaena sp. are commonly found in nutrient-rich waters, and blooms of these and other algae frequently detract from the aesthetic and recreational value of lakes. Diatoms such as Nitzschia palea, Gomphonema parvulum, Navicula cryptocephala, Cyclotella meneghiniana, and Melosira varians are abo often abundant in nutrient-rich water (Patrick and Reimer 1966) .101 Midges, leeches, blackfly larvae, Physa snails, and fingernail clams are frequently abundant in the recovery zone. Nutrients Chemicals necessary to the growth and reproduction of rooted or floating flowering plants, ferns, algae, fungi, or bacteria are considered to be nutrient chemicals. All these chemicals are not yet known, but those that have been identified are classified as macronutrients, trace elements or micronutrients, and organic nutrients. The macronutrients are calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, sulfur, carbon and carbonates, nitrogen, and phos- phorus. The micronutrients are silica, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron, titanium, chromium, cobalt, and perhaps vanadium (Chu 1942,77 Arnon and Wessell 1953,72 Hansen et al. 1954).89 Examples of organic nutrients are biotin, B12 , thiamine, and glycylglycine (Droop 1962). 79 Some of the amino acids and simple sugars have also been shown to be nutrients for heterotrophs or partial hetero- trophs. Pl9-nts vary as to the amounts and kinds of nutrients they require, and as a result one species or group of species of algae or aquatic plants may gain dominance over another group because of the variation in concentration of nutrient chemicals. Even though all the nutrients necessary for plant growth are present, growth will not take place unless environmental factors such as light, temperature, and sub- strate are suitable. Man's use of the watershed also in- fluences the sediment load and nutrient levels in surface waters (Leopold et al. 1964,93 Bormann and Likens 1967).75 Thomas (1953)m found that the important factor in artificial eutrophication was the high phosphorus content of domestic wastes. Nitrogen became the limiting growth factor if the algal demand for phosphorus was met. Nu- merous studies have verified these conclusions (American Society of Limnology and Oceanography 1972).71 Sawyer (1947)106 determined critical levels of inorganic nitrogen (300 JLg/1 N) and inorganic phosphorus (10 JLg/1 P) at the time of spring overturn in Wisconsin lakes. If exceeded, these levels would probably produce nuisance blooms of algae during the summer. Nutrient concentrations should be maximum when measured at the spring overturn and at the start of the growing season. Nutrient concen- trations during active growth periods may only indicate the difference between amounts absorbed in biomass (sus- pended and settled) and the initial amount biologically available. The values, therefore, would not be indicative of potential algal production. Nutrient content should be determined at least monthly (including the time of spring overturn) from the surface, mid-depth, and bottom. These values can be related to water volume--in each stratum, and nutrient concentrations based on total lake volume can be ·derived. One of the most convincing relationships between maxi- mum phosphate content at the time of lake overturn and eutrophication as indicated by algal biomass has been shown in Lake Washington (Edmondson 1970).83 During the years when algal densities progressed to nuisance levels, mean winter POcP increased from 10-20 JLg/1 to 57 JLg/l. Following diversion of the sewage mean POcP decreased once again to the preenrichment level. Correlated with the POcP reduction was mean summer chlorophyll a content, which decreased from a mean of 27 JLg/1 at peak enrichment to less than 10 JLg/1, six years after diversion was initiated. Although difficult to assess, the rate of nutrient inflow more closely represents nutrient availability than does nutrient concentration because of the dynamic character of these nonconservative materials. Loading rates are usually determined annually on the basis of monthly monitoring of water flow, nutrient concentration in natural surface and groundwater, and wastewater inflows. Vollenweider (1968)113 related nutrient loading to mean depths for various well-known lakes and identified trophic states associated with induced eutrophication. These find- ings showed shallow lakes to be clearly more sensitive to nutrient income per unit area than deep lakes, because nutrient reuse to perpetuate nuisance growth of algae in- creased as depth decreased. From this standpoint nutrient loading was a more valid criterion than nutrient concen- tration in judging trophic state. Examples of nutrient load- ings which produced nuisance conditions were about 0.3 g/m2/yr P and 4 g/m2 /yr N for a lake with a mean depth of 20 meters, and about 0.8 g/m2 /yr P and 11 g/m2 /yr N for a lake with a mean depth of 100 meters. These suggested criteria apply orily if other requirements of algal growth are met, such as available light and water retention time. If these factors limit growth rate and the increase of biomass, large amounts of nutrients may move through the system unused, and nuisance conditions may not occur (Welch 1969).116 Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water /23 Carbon (C) is required by all photosynthetic plants. It may be in the form of C02 in solution, HCO;, or C0'3. Carbamine carboxylate, which may form by the complexing of calcium or other carbonates and amino compounds in alkaline water, is an efficient source of C02 (Hutchinson 1967).90 Usually carbon is not a limiting factor in water (Goldman et al. 1971).88 However, King (1970)92 estimated that concentrations of C02 less than 3 micromoles at equi- librium favored blue-green algae, and concentrations greater than this favored green algae. Cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and po- tassium are required by algae and higher aquatic plants for growth, but the optimum amounts and ratios vary. Furthermore, few situations exist in which these would be in such low supply as to be limiting to plants. Trace ele- ments either singly or in combination are important for the growth of algae (Goldman 1964).86 For example molyb- denum has been demonstrated to be a limiting nutrient in Castle Lake. beficiencies in trace elements are more likely to occur in oligotrophic than in eutrophic waters (Goldman 1972)_87 The vitamins important in promoting optimum growth in algae are biotin, thiamin, and B12. All major groups require one or more of these vitamins, but particular species may or may not require them. As Provasoli and D' Agostino (1969)102 pointed out, little is known about the requirement for these vitamins for growth of algae in polluted water. Under natural conditions it is difficult to determine the effect of change in concentrations of a single chemical on the growth of organisms. The principal reasons are that growth results from the interaction of many chemical, physical, and biological factors on the functioning of an organism; and that nutrients arise from a mixture of chemi- cals from farm, industrial, and sanitary wastes, and runoff from fielci~· However, the increase in amounts and types of nutrients can be traced by shifts in species forming aquatic communities. Such biotic shifts have occurred in western Lake Erie (Beeton 1969).73 Since 1900 the watershed of western Lake Erie has changed with the rapidly increasing human population and industrial development, as a result of which the lake has received large quantities of sanitary, industrial, and agricultural organic wastes. The lake has become modified by increased concentrations of dissolved solids, lower transparency, and low dissolved oxygen concen- tration. Blooms of blue-green algae and shifts in inverte- brate populations have markedly increased in the 1960's (Davis 1964,78 Beeton 1969).73 Summary of Measurement of Nutrient Enrichment Several conditions can be used to measure nutrient en- richment or its effects: • a steady decrease over several years in the dissolved oxygen content of the hypolimnion when measured prior to fall overturn, and an increase in anaerobic areas in the lower portion of the hypolimnion; • an increase in di~solved materials, especially nu- trients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and simple carbohydrates; • an increase in suspended solids, especially organic materials; • a shift in the structure of communities· of aquatic organisms involving a shift in kinds of species and relative abundances of species and biomass; • a steady though slow decrease in light penetration; • an increase in organic materials and nutrients, es- pecially phosphorus, in bottom deposits; • increases in total phosphorus in the spring of the year. Recommendations The principal recommendations for aesthetic and recreational uses of lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries, and near-shore coastal waters are that these uses continue to be pleasing and undiminished by ef- fects of cultural activities that increase plant nu- trients. The trophic level and natural rate of eutrophication that exists, or would exist, in these waters in the absence of man's activities is con- sidered the reference level and the commonly de- sirable level to be maintained. Such water should not have a demonstrable accelerated production of algae growth in excess of rates normally ex- pected for the same type of waterbody in nature without man-made influences. The concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen mentioned in the text as leading to accelerated eutrophication were developed from studies for certain aquatic systems: maintenance of lower concentrations may or may not prevent eutrophic conditions. All the factors causing nuisance plant growths and the level of each which should not be exceeded are not known. However, nuisance growths will be limited if the addition of all wastes such as sewage, food processing, cannery, and in- dustrial wastes containing nutrients, vitamins, trace elements, and growth stimulants are care- fully controlled and nothing is added that causes a slow overall decrease of average dissolved oxygen concentration in the hypolimnion and an increase in the extent and duration of anaerobic conditions. AQUATIC VASCULAR PLANTS Aquatic vascular plants affect water quality, other aquatic organisms, and the uses man makes of the water. Generally, the effects are inwersely proportional to the volume of the water body and directly proportional to the use man wishes to make of that water. Thus the impact is often most significant in marshes, ponds, canals, irrigation ditches, rivers, shallow lakes, estuaries and embayments, public water supply sources, and man-made impoundments. Dense 24/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics growths of aquatic vascular plants are not necessarily due to. human alteration of the environment. WD.ere an ap- propriate environment for plant growth occurs, it is ex- tremely difficult to prevent the growth without changing the environment. Addition of plant nutrients can cause aquatic vascular plants to increase to nuisance proportions in waters where natural fertility levels are insufficient to maintain dense populations (Lind and Cottam 1969).147 In other waters where artificial nutrient additions are not a problem, natural fertility alone may support nuisance growths (Frink 1967).135 Interrelationships With Water Quality Through their metabolic processes, manner of growth, and eventual decay, aquatic vascular plants can have sig- nificant effects on such environmental factors as dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity, pH, nutrient supplies, light penetration, evapo- ration, water circulation, current velocity, and sediment composition. The difficulty in understanding the inter- relationships among plant growth and water quality is described in part by Lathwell et al. (1969).144 Diurnal oxygen rhythm with maximum concentrations in the after- noon and minimums just before dawn is a universally- recognized limnological phenomenon, and metabolic ac- tivities of vascular plants can contribute to these rhythms. 'l'he effect of aquatic plants on dissolved oxygen within a reach of stream at a particular time of day is a function of the plant density and distribution, plant species, light in- tensity, water depth, turbidity, temperatl,lre, and ambient dissolved oxygen. Oxygen production i~ proportional to plant density only to a certain limit; when this limit is exceeded, net oxygen production begins to decrease and, with increasing density, the plants become net oxygen con- sumers (Owens et al. 1969).159 It is hypothesized that this phenomenon occurs because the plants become so dense that some are shaded by other overlying plants. Westlake (1966)1 73 developed a model for predicting the effects of aquatic vascular plant density and distribution on oxygen balance which demonstrates that if the weeds are concen- trated within a small area, the net effect of the weeds may be to consume more oxygen than that produced, even though the average density may be relatively low. After reviewing the literature on the direct effects of plants on the oxygen balance, Sculthorpe (1967)162 con- cluded that the extent of oxygen enrichment at all sites varies with changing light intensity, temperature, and plant population density and distribution. On a cloudy, cool day community respiration may exceed even the maximum photosynthetic rate. Although vigorous oxygen production occurs in the growing season, the plants eventually die and decay, and the resulting oxygen consumption is spread over the cooler seasons of the year. Light penetration is significantly reduced by dense stands of aquatic vascular plants, and this reduces photosynthetic rates at shallow depths. Buscemi (1958)129 found that under dense beds of Elodea die dissolved oxygen concentration fell sharply with depth and marked stratification was pro- duced. Severe oxygen depletion under floating mats of water hyacinth (Lynch et al. 1947),150 duckweed and water lettuce (Yount 1963)170 have occurred. Extensive covers of floating or emergent plants shelter the surface from the wind, reduce turbulence and reaeration, hinder mixing, and promote thermal stratification. Dense growths of phyto- plankton may also shade-out submerged macrophytes, and this phenomenon is used to advantage in fisheries pond culture. Fertilization of ponds to promote phytoplankton growth is recommended as a means of reducing the standing crop of submerged vascular plants (Swingle 194 7,167 Surber 196F66). Interrelationships of plants with water chemistry were reported by Straskraba (1965)165 when foliage of dense populations of Nuphar, Ceratophyllum, and Myriophyllum were aggregated on the surface. He found pronounced stratifi- cation of temperature and chemical factors and reported that the variations of oxygen, pH, and alkalinity were clearly dependent on the photosynthesis and respiration of the plants. Photosynthesis also involves carbon dioxide, and Sculthorpe (1967)162 found that for every rise of 2 mg/1 of dissolved oxygen the tota1 carbon dioxide should drop 2. 75 mg/1 and be accompanied by a rise in the pH. A rise in pH will allow greater concentrations of un-ionized am- monia (see Freshwater Aquatic Life, p. 140). Hannan and Anderson (1971)137 studied diurnal oxygen balance, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity and pH on a seasonal basis in two Texas ponds less than I m deep which supported dense growths of submerged rooted macrophytes. One pond received seepage water containing free carbon dioxide and supported a greater plant biomass. This pond exhibited a diurnal dissolved-oxygen range in summer from 0.8 to 16.4 mg/1, and a winter range from 0.3 to 18.0 mg/1. The other pond's summer diurnal dissolved-oxygen range was 3.8 to 14.9 mg/1 and the winter range was 8.3 to 12.3 mg/1. They concluded that (a) when macrophytes use bi- carbonate as a carbon source, they liberate carbonate and hydroxyl ions, resulting in an increase in pH and a lowered bicarbonate alkalinity; and (b) the pH of a macrophyte community is a function of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate- carbonate ionization phenomena as altered by photosynthe- sis and community respiration. Dense colonies of aquatic macrophytes may occupy up to 10 per cent of the total volume of a river and reduce the maximum velocity of the current to less than 75 per cent of that in uncolonized reaches (Hillebrand 1950,139 as re- ported by Sculthorpe 1967162). This can increase sediment deposition and lessen channel capacity by raising the sub- strate, thus increasing the chance of flooding. Newly de- posited silt may be quickly stabilized by aquatic plants, further affecting flow. Loss of water by transpiration varies between species and growth forms. Otis (1914)158 showed that the rate of tran- spiration of Nymphaea odorata was slightly less than the rate of evaporation from a free water surface of equivalent area, but that of several emergent species was up to three times greater. Sculthorpe (1967)162 postulated that transpiration from the leaves of free-floating rosettes could be at rates six times greater than evaporation from an equivalent water surface. Loss of water through water. hyacinth was reported by Das (1969)133 at 7.8 times that of open water. Interrelationships With Other Biota Aquatic macrophytes provide a direct or indirect source of food for aquatic invertebrates and fish and for wildlife. The plants provide increased substrate for colonization by epiphytic algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms which provide food for the larger invertebrates which, in turn, provide food for fish. Sculthorpe (1967)162 presented a well- documented summary of the importance of a wide variety of aquatic macrophytes to fish, birds, and mammals. Sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) illustrates the opposite extreme in man's attitude toward aquatic macrophytes: Timmons (1966)168 called it the most noxious plant in irrigation and drainage ditches of the American west, whereas Martin and Uhler (1939)155-considered it the most important duck food plant in the United States. Aquatic vegetation and flotage breaking the water surface enhance mosquito production by protecting larvae from wave · action ancf aquatic predators and interfering with mosquito control procedures. Two major vectors of malaria in the United States are Anopheles quadrimaculatus east of the Rocky Mountains, and A. freeborni to the west (Carpenter and La Casse 1955) .130 Anopheline mosquitoes are generally recognized as permanent pool breeders. The more important breeding sites of these two mosquitoes are freshwater lakes, swamps, marshes, impoundment margins, ponds, and seep- age areas (Carpenter and La Casse 1955).130 The role of various aquatic plant types in relation to the production and control of A. quadrimaculatus on artificial ponds and reservoirs indicates that the greatest problems are created by macrophytes that are (1) free-floating, (2) submersed and anchored but which break the water surface, (3) floating leaf anchored, and (4) emersed floating-mat anchored (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, and Tennessee Valley Authority 1947).169 In addition to vector mosquitoes, pestiferous mosquitoes develop in association with plant parts in shoreline areas. Jenkins (1964)142 provided an annotated list and bibli- ography of papers dealing with aquatic vegetation and ·mosquitoes. -Generally, submersed vascular plants have lower nutrient . requirements than filamentous algae or phytoplankton (Mulligan and Baranowski 1969).157 Plants with root systems in the substrate do not have to compete with phytoplankton, periphyton, or non-rooted macrophytes for the phosphorus in the sediments. Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water /25 Boyd (197lb),126 relat~ng his earlier work on emergent species (Boyd 1969,122 1970a,123 197la125) to that of Stake (1967,163 1968164) on submerged species, stated that in the southern United States most of the total net nutrient ac- cumulation by aquatic vascular plants occurs by midspring before peak dry matter standing crop is reached, and that nutrients stored during early spring growth are utilized for growth later. Thus nutrients are removed from the environ- ment early in the season, giving the vascular hydrophytes a competitive advantage over phytoplankton. Boyd (1967}121 also reported that the quantity of phosphorus in aquatic plants frequently exceeds that of the total water volume. These phenomena may account for the high productivity in terms of macrophytes which can occur in infertile waters. However, if the dissolved phosphorus level is not a limiting factor for the phytoplankton, the ability to utilize sediment phosphorus is not a competitive advantage for rooted plants. Further interaction between aquatic vascular plants and phytoplankton has been demonstrated recently in studies showing that concentrations of dissolved organic matter can control plant growth in lakes by regulating the availability of trace metals and other nutrients essential to plant photo- synthesis. An array of organic-inorganic interactions shown to suppress plant growth in hardwater lakes (Wetzell969,174 19711 75) appear to operate in other lake types and streams (Breger 1970,127 Malcolm et al. 1970,1 52 Allen 197PU). Wetzel and Allen in press (1971)176 and Wetzel and Manny (1972)17 7 showed that aquatic macrophytes near inlets of lakes can influence phytoplankton growth by removing" nutrients as they enter the lake while at the same time_ producing dissolved organic compounds that complex with other nutrients necessary to phytoplankton growth. Manny (1971,153 1972154) showed several mechanisms by which dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) compounds regulate plant growth and rates of bacterial nutrient regeneration. These control mechanisms can be disrupted by nutrients from municipal and agricultural wastes and dissolved or- ganic matter from inadequately treated wastes. Effects on Recreation and Aesthetics It is difficult to estimate the magnitude of the adverse effects of aquatic macrophytes in terms of loss of recreational opportunities or degree of interference with recreational pursuits. For example, extensive growths of aquatic macro- phytes interfere with boating of all kinds; but the extent of interference depends, among other things, on the growth form of the plants, the density of the colonization, the fraction of the waterbody covered, and the purposes, atti- tudes, and tolerance of the boaters. Extremes of opinion on the degree of impact create difficulty in estimating a mone- tary, physical, or psychological loss . Dense growths of aquatic macrophytes are generally ob- jectionable to the swimmer, diver, water skier, and scuba enthusiast. Plants or plant parts can be at least a nuisance to-swimmers and, in extreme cases, can be a factor in 26/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics :lrowning. Plants obstruct a diver's view of the bottom and 11nderwater hazards, and fronds can become egtangled in :t scuba diver's gear. Water skiers' preparations in shallow water are hampered by dense growths of plants, and fear )f falling into such growths while skiing detracts from en- ioyment of the sport. Rafts of free-floating plants or attached plants which have been dislodged from the substrate often drift onto beaches or into swimming areas, and time and labor are entailed in restoring their attractiveness. Drying and decay- ing aquatic plants often produce objectionable odors and provide breeding areas for a variety of insects. Sport fishermen have mixed feelings about aquatic macro- phytes. Fishing is often good around patches of lily pads, over deeply-submerged plants, and on the edges of beds of submerged weeds which rise near the surface. On the other hand, dense growths may restrict the movement and feeding of larger fish and limit the fishable area of a waterbody. Aquatic plants entangle lures and baits and can prevent fishermen from reaching desirable fishing areas. Marshes and aquatic macrophytes in sparse or moderate densities along watercourse and waterbody margins aug- ment nature study and shoreline exploration and add to the naturalistic value of camping and recreation sites. It is only when the density of the growths, or their growth forms, become a nuisance and interfere with man's ac- tivities that he finds them objectionable. An indication of how often that occurs is provided by McCarthy (1961),156 who reported that on the basis of a questionnaire sent to all states in 1960, there were over 2,000 aquatic vegetation control projects conducted annually, and that most states considered excessive growth of aquatic vegetation a serious and increasing problem. The aesthetic value of aquatic macrophytes is in the mind of the beholder. The age-old appeal of aquatic plants is reflected in their importance as motifs in ancient archi- tecture, art, and mythology. Aquatic gardens continue to be popular tourist attractions and landscaping features, and wild aquatic plant communities have strong appeal to the artist, the photographer, and the public. To many, these plants make a contribution of their own to the beauty of man's environment. Control Considerations Aquatic vascular plants can be controlled by several methods: chemical (Hall 1961,136 Little 1968148); biological (Avault et al. 1968,117 Maddox et al. 1971,151 Blackburn et al. 197!120); mechanical (Livermore and Wunderlich 1969149); and naturalistic environmental manipulation (Pen- found 1953).160 General reviews of control techniques have been made by Holm et al. (1969),141 Sculthorpe (1967),1 62 and Lawrence (1968).145 Harvesting aquatic vascular plants to reduce nutrients as a means of eutrophication control has been investigated ' by Boyd (1970b),l24 Yount and Crossman (1970),171 and Peterson (1971).161 Although many investigators have re- ported important nutrients in various aquatic plants, the high moisture content of the vegetation as it is. harvested has been an impediment to economic usefulness. Peterson (1971)161 reported the cost per pound of phosphorus, ni- trogen, and carbon removed from a large lake supporting dense growths of aquatic vascular plants as $61.19, $8.24 and $0.61 respectively. Nevertheless, improved methods of harvesting and proc- essing promise to reduce the costs of removing these bother- some plants and reclaiming their nutrients for animal and human rations or for soil enrichment. Investigation into the nutritive value of various aquatic plants has frequently been an adjunct of research on the efficiency and economy of harvesting and processing these plants in an effort to remove nuisance growth from lakes and streams. Extensive harvesting of aquatic vegetation from plant-clogged Caddo Lake (Texas-Louisiana) was followed by plant analysis and feeding trials. The dehydrated material was found to be rich in protein and xanthophyll (Creger et al. 1963,132 Couch et al. 1963131). Bailey (1965)118 reported an average of 380 milligrams of xanthophyll per pound of vacuum oven-dried aquatic plant material with about 19 per cent protein. Hentges (1970),138 in cooperation with Bagnall (1970),119 in preliminary tests with cattle fed press-dehydrated. aquatic forage, found that pelleted Hydrilla verticillata (Florida elodea) could be fed satisfactorily as 75 per cent of a bal- anced ration. Bruhn et al. ( 1971 )128 and Koegel et al. (1972)143 found 44 per cent mineral and 21 per cent protein composition in the dry matter of the heat coagulum of the expressed juice of Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum). The press residue, further reduced by cutting and pressing to 16 per cent of the original volume and 32 per cent of the original weight, could readily be spread for lawn or garden mulch. Control measures are undertaken when plant growth interferes with human activities beyond some ill-defined point, but too little effort has been expended to determine the causes of infestations and too little concern has been given the true nature of the biological problem (Boyd 197lb).126 Each aquatic macrophyte problem under con- sideration for control should be treated as unique, the biology of the plant should be well understood, and all the local factors thoroughly investigated before a technique is selected. Once aquatic macrophytes are killed, space for other plants becomes available. Nutrients contained in the original plants are released for use by other species. Long- term control normally requires continued efforts. Herbi- cides may be directly toxic to fish, fish eggs, or invertebrates important as fish food (Eipper 1959,134 Walker 1965,172 Hiltibran 1967).140 (See the discussion of Pesticides, pp. 182-186, in Section III.) On man-made lakes, reservoirs and ponds the potential for invasion by undesirable aquatic Factors Influencing the Recreational and Aesthetic Value of Water /27 plants may be lessened by employing naturalistic methods which limit the available habitat and requirements of par- ticular species. It is difficult to predict what biotic form will replace the species eliminated. Boyd (1971 b )126 states that in some Florida lakes, herbicide applications have upset the balance between rooted aquatics and phytoplankton, resulting in nuisance phytoplankton blooms that were sometimes more objectionable than the original situation. Control of aquatic vascular plants can be a positive factor in fisheries management (Leonard and Cain 1961) ;146 but when control projects are contemplated in multi-pur- pose waters, consideration should be given to existing inter- dependencies between man and the aquatic community. For example: what biomass of aquatic vascular plants is necessary to support waterfowl; what biomass will permit boating; what is a tolerable condition for swimming; must the shoreline be clear of plants for wading; will shore erosion increase if the shoreline vegetation is removed? The interference of aquatic vascular plant communities in human activities should be controlled with methods that stop short of attempted plant eradication. Recommendation The complex interrelationships among aquatic vascular plants, associated biota, water quality, and the activities of humans call for case-by-case evaluation in assessing the need for management programs. If management is undertaken, study of its potentialimpacts on the aquatic ecosystem and ori various water uses should precede its imple- mentation. INTRODUCTION OF SPECIES Extent and Types of Introductions Purposeful or accidental introductions of foreign aquatic organisms or transplantations of organisms from one drain- age system to another can profoundly influence the aesthetic appeal and the recreational or commercial potential of affected waterbodies. The introduction of a single species may alter an entire aquatic ecosystem (Lachner et al. 1970).188 An example of extreme alteration occurred with the invasion of the Great Lakes by the sea lamprey (Petro- nryzon marinus) (Moffett 1957,190 Smith 1964197). Introduced and transplanted species account for about half of the fish fauna of Connecticut (Whitworth et al. 1968),199 California (Shapovalov et al. 1959),195 Arizona, and Utah (Miller 1961).189 The nature of the original aquatic fauna is ob- scured in many cases, and some indigenous species have been adversely affected through predation,. competition, hybridization, or alteration of habitat by the introduced species. Exotics that have established reproducing popu- lations in the United States (exclusive of the Hawaiian Islands) include 25 specie.s of fish (Lachner et al. 1970), 18S more than 50 species of land and aquatic mollusks (Abbott 1950),178 and over 20 species of aquatic vascular plants (Hotchkiss 1967)1 85 in addition to aquatic rodents, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans. Growths of native aquatic vascular plants and a variety of exotic species commonly interfere with recreation and fishing activities (see p. 25) and a variety of other water uses including industrial and agricultural use (Holm et al. 1969,1 84 Sculthorpe 1967) .194 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) caused loss of almost $43 million through combined deleterious effects in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana in 1956 (Wunderlich 1962).200 Penfound and Earle (1948)192 estimated that the annual loss caused by water hyacinth in Louisiana before the growths were brought under control averaged $5 million and in some years reached $15 million. Water chestnut (Trapa natans) produced beds covering 10,000 acres within ten years of its introduction near Washington, D.C. (Rawls 1964).193 The beds blocked navigation and provided breeding sites for mosquitoes, and their hard spined seed cases on the shore- lines and .bottom were a serious nuisance to swimmers, waders, and people walking the shores. Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) infested 100,000 acres in Chesapeake Bay. The plants blocked navigation, prevented recreational boating and swimming, interfered with seafood harvest, increased siltation, and encouraged mosquitoes (Cronin 1967).182 Invertebrate introductions include the Asian clam (Cor- bicula manilensis), a serious pest in the clogging of industrial and municipal raw water intake systems and irrigation canals (Sinclair 1971),196 and an oriental oyster drill ( Tritonalia japonica) considered the most destructive drill in the Puget Sound area (Korringa 1952) .187 Some Results of Introductions Some introductions of exotics, e.g., brown trout (Salmo trutta), and some transplants, e.g., striped bass (Morone saxatilis) from the Atlantic to the Pacific and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) from the Pacific to the Great Lakes, have been spectacularly successful in providing sport and commercial fishing opportunities. Benefits of introductions and transplantations of many species in a variety of aquatic situations are discussed by several authors in A Century of Fisheries in North America (Benson 1970).179 The success of other introductions has been questionable or controversial. In the case of carp (Cyprinus carpis), the introduction actually decreased aesthetic values because of the incre<lJled turbidity caused by the habits of the carp. The increased turbidity in turn decreased the biological productivity of the waterbody. The presence of carp has lowered the sportfishing potential of many waterbodies because of a variety of ecological interactions. The grass carp or white amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella), a recent impor- 28/Section [-Recreation and Aesthetics tation, has been reported from several major river systems including the Mississippi as far north as Illwois (Lopinot personal communication 1972).201 Pelzman (1971),191 in recom- mending against introducing grass carp into California, concluded that their impact on established game fish would be detrimental and that they might become more trouble- some than the common carp. This view was expressed earlier by Lachner et al. (1970)188 in considering the impact of establishment of the species in major river systems. The walking catfish (Clarias batrachus), accidentally released from outdoor. holding ponds of aquarium fish dealers in southern Florida, quickiy established reproducing populations in a variety qf habitats (Idyll 1969).186 Natural ponds have pro- duced up to 3,000 pounds per acre of this species and there is no current American market for its flesh. This aggressive and omniverous species apparently reduces the entire fresh- water community to walking catfish (Lachner et al. 1970) .188 Introductions by Official Agencies The objectives of introductions of new species by agencies include pond culture; aquatic plant control; insect control; forage; predation; and improvement of sport and com- mercial fishing. Boating, swimming, and sport and com- mercial fin and shellfishing are influenced by water quality and the biotic community. Lachner et al. (1970),1 88 after reviewing the history of exotic fish releases, concluded that most official releases satisfy certain social wishes but have not served effective biological purposes, and that some may result in great biological damage. The guiqelines of Craig- head and Dasmann (1966)181 on introductibn of exotic big game species offer an excellent parallel to the considerations that should precede the introduction of aquatic organisms. Such guidelines call for (a) the establishment of the need and determination of the predicted ecological, recreational, and economic impact; (b) studies of the proposed release area to determine that it is suitable, that a niche is vacant, and that indigenous populations will not be reduced or displaced; (c) life history studies of the organism to de• termine possible disease interrelationships, hybridization potential, and the availability of control technology; and (d) experiments conducted under controlled conditions that indicate how to prevent escape .of the organism. The California Fish and Game Commission (Burns 1972)180 investigated introducing the pancora (Aegla laevis laevis), a small freshwater crab, into streams ·as a food for trout to increase natural trout production and sport fishing potential. The plan was ultimately rejected, but the on-site studies in Chile and the experimental work in California illustrate the breadth of <:onsideration necessary before any informed decision can be . reached. Problems associated with introductions of aquatic animals were the subject of two recent symposia (Stroud 1969 ;198 Department of Lands and Forests, Ottawa 1968183). Persons contem- plating introductions are referred for guidelines to the Committee on Exotic Fishes and Other Aquatic Organisms of The American Fisheries Society. This committee has representation from the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists and is currently expanding the scope of its membership to include other disciplines. Recommendations Introduction or transplantation of aquatic orga- nisms are factors that can affect aesthetics, boat- ing, swimming, sport and commercial fin and shellfishing, and a variety of other water uses. Thorough investigations of an organism's potential to alter water quality, affect biological relation- ships, or interfere with other water uses should precede any planned introductions or transplan- tations. The deliberate introduction of non-indigenous aquatic vascular plants, particularly in the warmer temperature or tropical regions, is cautioned against because of the high potential of such plants for impairing recreational and aesthetic values. Aquaculturists and others should use care to pre- vent the accidental release of foreign species for the same r-easons. WATER QUALITY FOR GENERAL RECREATION, BATHING, AND SWIMMING Historically, public health.officials have been concerned about the role of sewage-contaminated bathing water in the transmission of infectious disease. In 1921, the Com- mitte_e on Bathing Places, Sanitary Engineering Section, American Public Health Association, conducted a study "to determine the extent and prevalence of infections which may be conveyed by means of swimming pools and other bathing places" (Simons et al. 1922).226 The results of the study, though inconclusive, suggested that contaminated bathing water may transmit infectious agents to bathers. Th€ Committee attached special importance to the data they collected on epidemics of conjunctivitis and other skin diseases, middle ear infections, . tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and nasal sinus infections caused by contaminated bathing waters. However, the 1935 Report of the Committee (now designated as the Joint Committee on Bathing Places of the Public Health Engineering Section of the American Public Health Association and the Conference of 'State Sanitary Engineers) included the following stateme:q.t: "The summary of the replies in the 1921 report when considered in the light of known epidemiological evidence, leaves this committee unconvinced that bathing places are a major public health problem even though bathing place sanitation, because of the health considerations involved, should be under careful surveillance of the public health authorities, and proper sanitary control of bathing • places should be exercised" (Yearbook of APHA 1936).202 The suggested standards for design, equipment, and operation of bathing places that :were part of the ·1935 -report included a section entitled "Relative Classification of Bathing Areas Recommended" (Yearbook of APHA 1936).202 This section reads, in part, as follows: In passing on waters of outdoor bathing places, three ·aides are available: (1) the results of chemical analyses of the water; (2) the results of bacteriological analysis of the water; and (3) information obtained by a sani- tary survey of sources of pollution, flow currents, etc.- It is not considered practicable or desirable to recom- mend any absolute standards of safety for. the waters of outdoor bathing places on. any of the three above -bases. In 1939 (Yearbook of APHA 1940)208 .and again in 1955 (Yearbook-efAPHA 1957),204 fhe Joint Committee surveyed all state health departments for additional information on reported cases of illness attributable to bathing places, but these surveys uncovered little definite information. Con- taminated bathing waters were suspected ia cases of sleeping sickness, sinus infections, intestinal upsets, eye inflammation, "swimmers itch", -.ear infections, and leptospirosis. Several outbreaks ofhuman leptospirosis, which is pri- marily an infection of rats and dogs, have been associated with recreational waters contaminated by the urine of infected animals (Diesch and McCulloch 1966).210 One source of infection to man is wadi.qg or swimming in waters contaminated by cattle wastes (Williams -et al. 1956,281 Hovens et al. 194!216). Leptospirosis is prevalent among "wet crop" agricultural workers, employees of abattoirs, handlers of livestock, and those who swim in stock-watering ponds. The organism is not ingested but enters the body through breaks in the skin and through intact mucous membrane, particularly the conjunctiva." 29 The most recent reports on disease associated with swimming suggest that a free-living, benign, soil and water amoeba of the Naegleria group (Acanthamoeba) may be a primary pathogen of _animals and man. Central -nervous system ·amoebiasis is usually considered a complication of amoebic dysentery due to E. histolytical; however, recent evidence proves that Naegleria gruberi causes fulmenting meningoencephalitis (Callicot 1968,208 Butt 1966,207 Fowler and Carter 1965,212 Patras and Andujar 1966224). The amoeba may penetrate the mucous membrane. Free- living amoebae and their cysts are rather ubiquitous in their distribution on soil and in .natural waters; and identifiable disabilities from free-living amoebae, similar to the situation with leptospirosis, occur so rarely as a result of recreational swimming in the United· States that both may be considered epidemiological curiosities ( Cerva 1971).209 In 1953, the Committee on Bathing Beach Contamination of.the :Public Health Laboratory Service oLE11gland and Wales began a five-year study of the risk to health from 30/ Section 1-/!.ecreation and Aesthetics bathing in se~age-polluted sea water and considered "the practicability of laying down bacteriological stttndards for bathing beaches or grading them according to degree of pollution to which they are exposed" (Moore 1959).222 This committee concluded in 1959 that "bathing in sewage- polluted sea water carries only a negligible risk to health, even on beaches that are aesthetically very unsatisfactory." The consensus among persons who have studied the relationship between bathing water quality and bathers' illness appears to be that scientific proof of a direct relation~ ship is lacking, yet there is evidence to suggest that some relationship exists. Some experts contend that outbreaks of illness among bathers have not been studied thoroughly with modern epidemiologic techniques, and that if such occurrences were to be studied vigorously, specific knowl- edge about the relationship of bathing water quality to infectious disease would be established. In some studies where bathing water was apparently implicated in the transmission of disease agents, the water quality was rela- tively poor, yet no attempts were made to define the specific relationship. Water quality requirements for recreational purposes may be divided into two categories: (1) general require- ments that pertain to all recreational waters, and (2) special requirements, usually more restrictive, for selected recre- ational use of water. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL RECREATIONAL WATERS Aesthetic Considerations As has been stressed earlier in this Section (See Applying Recommendations, p. 10), all waters should be aesthetically pleasing, but the great variety of locales makes it impossible to apply recommendations without considering the par- ticular contexts. Color of swamp waters would hardly be acceptable for clear mountain streams. Specific recommen- dations should reflect adequate study of local background quality and should consider fully the inherent variability so that the designated values will be meaningful. Therefore, specific local recommendations might better encompass ranges, or a daily average further defined by a sampling period, and possibly an absolute maximum or minimum as appropriate. The best technical thought should be given to establishment of such values rather than dependence on administrative or judicial decision. Recommendation All recreational surface waters will be aestheti- cally pleasing if they meet the recommendations presented in the discussion of Water Quality for Preserving Aesthetic Values in this Section, p. 12. Microbiological Considerations The hazard posed by pathogenic microorganisms in recreational water not intended for bathing and swimming is obviously less than it would be if the waters were used for those purposes, but it is not possi!?le to state to what degree. Although there is a paucity . .Of epidemiological data on illnesses caused by bathing and swimming, there appear to be no data that analyze the relationship of the quality of recreational waters not intended for bathing and swimming to the health of persons enjoying such waters. Criteria concerning the presence of microorganisms in water for general recreation purposes are not known. Conclusion No specific recommendation concerning the microbiological qualities of general recreational waters is presented. In most cases of gross micro- biological pollution of surface waters, there will be concomitant foreign substance of such magnitude as to cause the water to be aesthetically unac- ceptable. Chemical Considerations The human body is capable of tolerating greater concen- trations of most chemicals upon occasional contact with or ingestion of small quantities of water than are most forms of aquatic life. Therefore, specific recommendations for the chemical characteristics of all recreational waters are not made since such recommendations probably would be superseded by recommendations for the support of various forms of desirable aquatic life. (See Sections III and IV: Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.) Recommendations No specific recommendation concerning the chemical characteristics of general recreational waters is presented. However, the following general recommendations are applicable: • recreational waters that contain chemicals in such concentrations as to be toxic to man if small quantities are ingested should not be used for recreation; • recreational waters that contain chemicals in such concentrations as to be irritating to the skin or mucous membranes of the human body upon brief immersion are undesirable. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BATHING AND SWIMMING WATERS Since bathing and swimming involve intimate human contact with water, special water quality requirements apply to designated bathing and swimming areas. These requirements are based on microbiological considerations, temperature and pH, and clarity and chemical character- istics. They are more precise than the requirements for general recreational waters. If a body of water cannot meet these specialized requirements, it should not be designated a bathing and swimming area but may be designated for a recreational use that does not involve planned immersion of the body. Microbiological Considerations All recreational waters should be sufficiently free· of pathogenic bacteria so as not to pose hazards to health through infections, but this is a particularly important requirement for planned bathing and swimming areas. Many bodies of water receive untreated or inadequately treated human and animal wastes that are a potential focus of human infection. There have been several attempts to determine the spe- c:fic hazard to health from swimming in sewage-contami- nated water. Three related studies have been conducted in this country, demonstrating that an appreciably higher overall illness incidence may be expected among swimmers than among nonswimmers, regardless of the quality of the bathing water (Smith et al. 1951,229 Smith and Woolsey 1952,227 1961 228). More than one half of the illnesses reported were of the eye, ear, nose, and throat type; gastrointestinal disturbances comprised up to one-fifth; skin irritations and other illnesses made up the balance. Specific correlation between incidence of illness and bathing in waters of a particular bacterial quality was ob- served in two of the studies. A statistically significant increase in the incidence of illness was observed among swimmers who used a Lake Michigan beach on three se- lected days of poorest water quality when the mean total coliform content was 2,300 per 100 ml. However, only the data concerning these three days could be used in the analysis and differences in illness were not noted in com- parison with a control beach over the total season (Smith et al. 1951).229 The second instance of positive correlation was observed in an Ohio River study where it was shown that, despite the relatively low incidence of gastrointestinal disturbances, swimming in river water having a median coliform density of 2, 700 per 100 ml appears to have caused a statistically significant increase in illnesses among swim- mers (Smith and Woolsey 1952).227 No relationship between illness and water quality was observed in the third study conducted at salt water beaches on Long Island Sound (Smith and Woolsey 1961).228 A study in England suggested that sea water carries only a negligible risk to health even on beaches that were aesthetically unsatisfactory (Moore 1959).222 The minimal risk attending such· bathing is probably associated with chance contact with fecal material that may have come from infected persons. Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/31 Neither the English nor the United Stai:es salt water beach studies indicated a causal or associated relationship between water quality and disease among swimmers and bathers. While the two United States fresh water studies suggested some presumptive relationship, the findings were not definitive enough to establish specific values for micro- biological water quality characteristics. Tests using fecal coliform bacteria are more indicative of the possible presence of enteric pathogenic microorga- nisms from man or other warm-blooded animals than the coliform group of organisms. The data for total coliform levels of the Ohio River Study were reevaluated to de- termine comparable levels of fecal coliform bacteria (Geld- reich 1966).213 This reevaluation suggested that a density of 400 fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml was the approxi- mate equivalent of 2, 700 total coliform organisms per 100 mi. Using these data as a basis, a geometric mean of 200 fecal coliform organisms per 100 ml has been recommended previously as a limiting value that under normal circum- stances should not be exceeded in water intended for bathing and swimming (U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA 1968).230 There may be some merit to the fecal coliform index as an adjunct in determining the acceptability of water intended for bathing and swimming, but caution should be exercised in using it. Current epidemiological data are not materially more refined or definitive than those that were available in 1935. The principal value of a fecal coliform index is as an indicator of possible fecal contamination from man or other warm-blooded animals. A study of the occurrence of Salmonella organisms in natural waters showed that when the fecal coliform level was less than 200 organisms per 100 ml, this group of pathogenic bacteria was isolated less frequently (Geldreich 1970).214 Salmonella organisms were isolated in 28 per cent of the samples with a fecal coliform density less than the 200 value, but they were isolated in more than 85 per cent of the samples that exceeded the index value of 200 fecal coliform per 100 ml, and in more than 98 per cent of the samples with a fecal coliform density greater than 2,000 organisms per 100 ml. In evaluating microbiological indicators of recreational water quality, it should be remembered that many of the diseases that seem to be causally related to swimming and bathing in polluted water are not enteric diseases or are not caused by enteric organisms. Hence, the presence of fecal coliform bacteria or of Salmonella sp. in recreational waters is less meaningful than in drinking water. Indi- cators other than coliform or fecal coliform have been sug- gested from time to time as being more appropriate for evaluating bathing water quality. This includes the staphylo- cocci (Favero et al. 1964),211 streptococci and other entero- cocci (Litsky et al. 1953).218 Recently Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a common organism implicated in ear infection, has been isolated from natural swimming waters (Hoadley 1968)215 ' iu 32/Section~-Recreation and Aesthetics and may prove to be an indicator of health hazards in swimming: water. Unfortunately, to date, n~ne of the al- ternative· microbiological indicators have been supported by epidemiological evidence. When used to supplement other evaluative measurements, the fecal coliform index may be of value in determining the sanitary quality of recreational water. intended for. bathing and swimming. The index is a· measure of the "sanitary cleanliness" of the water and may denote the possible presence of untreated or inadequately treated human wastes. But it is an index that should be used only in conjunction with other evaluative parameters of water quality such as sanitary surveys, other biological indices of pollution, and chemical analyses of water. To use the fecal coliform index as the sole measure of "sanitary cleanliness," it would be necessary to know the maximum "acceptable" concentra- tion of organisms; but there is no agreed-upon value that divides "acceptability" from "unacceptability."* Thus, as a measure of "sanitary cleanliness," an increasing. value in the fecal coliform index denotes simply a decrease in the level of cleanliBess of the water. Conclusion No specific recommendation is made concernin~ the presence or concentrations of microor~anisms in bathing water because of the paucity of valid epidemiolo~ical data. Temperature Characteristics The temperature of natural waters is an important factor governing the character and extent of the recreational ac-. tivities, primarily in the warm months of the year. Persons engaging in winter water recreation such as . ice skating, duck hunting, ~nd fishing do so with the knowledge that whole body immersion must be avoided. Accidental im- mersion in water at or near freezing temperatures is dan- gerous. because the: median lethal immersion time is less than 30 minutes for children and most adults (Molnar 1946).22° Faddists swim in water that is near the freezing temperature, but their immersion time is short, and they have been .conditioned· for the exposure. As a result of training, fat insulation, and increased body heat production, some exc<_!ptional athletic individuals (Korean pearl divers and swimmers of the English channel) can withstand. pro- longed immersion for as long as 17 hours in water at 16 C (61 F), whereas children and some adults might not survive beyond two hours (Kreider 1964).217 From one ixidividual to another, there is considerable variation in the rates of body cooling and the incidence of * If an arbitrary value for the fecal coliform index is desired, con- sii:leration may be given to a density value expressed as a geometric mean of a series. ohamp1es collected dining periods of normal seasonal flow. A maximum value of 1,000 fecal coliform per 100 ml could be considered. TABLE I-3-Lije Expectancy in Water (Expected duration in hours lor adults wearing Hie vests and immersed in waters of varying temperature) Temperature of the water Duration 32 41 50 59 68 78. 86. 95; 104.F" hours 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40CO 0.5 M M s s s M 1 •• L M s s s L 2.0 L L s s s L 3.0 L L s s s L 4.0 L L s s s L L= Lethal, 100 per cent expeetancy of death. M= Marginal, 50 per cent expeetancy of unconsclousnm, probably drowning. S= Sale, 100 per cent sui'YivaL Adapated from tables by Pan American Airways and others. survival in cold water. The variability is a function of body size, fat content, prior acclimatization, ability to exercise, and overall physical fitness. The ratio of body mass to snrface area is greater in large; heavy individuals, and their mass changes with temperature more slowly than that of a small child (Kreider 1964).217 With the exception of water temperatures affected by thermal springs~ ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream, and man-made heat, the temperature of natural water is the result of air temperature, solar radiation, evaporation, and wind movement. Many natural waters are undesirably c.old for complete body immersion even during the summer period. These include coastal waters subjected to cold· cur- rents such as the Labrador Current on the northeastern coastline or the California Current in the Pacific Ocean (Meyers et al. 1969}.219 In addition, some deep lakes and upwelling springs, .and streams and lakes fed from melting snow may have summer surface temperatures too cold for prolonged swimming for children. The most comfortable temperature range for instructional and general recreational swimming where the metabolic Fate of heat production is not high-i.e., about 250 kilo calories/hr (1000 BTUs/hr)-appears to be about 29-30 C (84-86 F). In sprint swimming when metabolic rates exceed 500 kilo calories/hr (2,000 BTUs/hr), swimmers can per- form comfortably in water temperatures in the range of 20-27 C (68-80 F) (Bullard and Rapp 1970).206 The safe upper limit of water temperature for recreation~ immersion varies from individual to individual and seems to depend on psychological rather than physiological con- siderations. Unlike cold water, the mass/surface area ratio in warm water favors the child. Physiologically, neither adult nor child would experience thermal stress under modest metabolic heat production as long a8 the water temperature was lower than the normal skin temperature of 33 C (91 F) (Newburgh 1949).223 The rate at which heat is conducted from the immerse€!. human body is-so rapid that thermal balance for a body at rest in water can only be attained if the water temperature is about 34 C (92 F) (Beckman 1963).20 5 The survival of an individual submerged in water at a temperature above 34-35 C (93-95 F), depends on his tolerance to the elevation of his internal temperature, and there is a real risk of injury with prolonged exposure (Table I-3). Water ranging in temperature from 26-30 C (78-86 F) is comfortable to most swimmers throughout prolonged periods of moderate physical exertion (Bullard and Rapp 1970).206 Although data are limited, natural surface waters do not often exceed skin temperature, but water at 32 C (90 F) is not unusual for rivers and estuaries (Public Works 1967).22 5 Recommendation In recreational waters used for bathing and swimming, the thermal characteristics should not cause an appreciable increase or decrease in the deep body temperature of bathers and swimmers. One hour of continuous immersion in waters colder than 15 C (59 F) may cause the death of some swimmers and will be extremely stressful to all swimmers who are not garbed in underwater pro- tective cold-clothing. Scientific evidence suggests that prolonged immersion in water warmer than 34-35 C (93-94 F) is hazardous. The degree of hazard varies with water temperature, immersion time, and metabolic rate of the swimmer. pH Characteristics Some chemicals affect the pH of water. Many saline, naturally alkaline, or acidic fresh waters may cause eye irritation because the pH of the water is unfavorable. Therefore, special requirements concerning the pH of recreational waters may be more restrictive than those established for public water supplies. The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a normal pH of approximately 7.4 and a high buffering capacity due pri- marily to the presence of complex organic buffering agents. As is true of many organic buffering agents, those of the lacrimal fluid are able to maintain the pH within a narrow range until their buffering capacity is exhausted. When the lacrimal fluid, through exhaustion of its buffering capacity, is unable to adjust the immediate contact layer of another fluid to a pH of 7.4, eye irritation results. A deviation of no more than 0.1 unit from the normal pH of the eye may result in discomfort, and appreciable deviation will ca~se severe pain (Mood 1968).221 Ideally, the pH of swimming water should be approxi- mately the same as that of the lacrimal fluid, i.e., 7.4. However, since the lacrimal fluid has a high buffering capacity, a range of pH values from 6.5 to 8.3 can be tolerated under average conditions. If the water is rela- tively free of dissolved solids and has a very low buffering capacity, pH values from 5.0 to 9.0 may be acceptable to most swimmers. Water Quality for General Recreation, Bathing, and Swimming/33 Conclusion For most bathing and swimming waters, eye irri- tation is minimized and recreational enjoyment enhanced by maintaining the pH within the range of 6.5 and 8.3 except for those waters with a low buffer capacity where a range of pH between 5.0 and 9.0 may be tolerated. Clarity Considerations It is important that water at bathing and swimming areas be clear enough for users to estimate depth, to see subsurface hazards easily and clearly, and to detect the submerged bodies of swimmers or divers who may be in difficulty. Aside from the safety factor, clear water fosters enjoyment of the aquatic environment. The clearer the water, the more desirable the swimming area. The natural turbidity of some bathing and swimming waters is often so high that visibility through the water is dangerously limited. If such areas are in conformance with all other requirements, they may be used for bathing and swimming, provided that subsurface hazards are removed and the depth of the water is clearly indicated by signs that are easily readable. Conclusion Safety and enhancement of aesthetic enjoyment is fostered when the clarity of the water in desig- nated bathing and swimming areas allows the de- tection of subsurface hazards or submerged bodies. Where such clarity is not attainable, clearly read- able depth indicators are desirable. Chemical Considerations It is impossible to enumerate in specific terms all the specialized requirements that pertain to the chemical quality of bathing and swimming waters. In general, these require- ments may be quantified by analyzing the conditions stipulated by two kinds of human exposure, i.e., ingestion and contact. A bather involuntarily swallows only a small amount of water while swimming, although precise data on this are lacking. Recommendation Prolonged whole body immersion in the water is the principal activity that influences the required chemical characteristics of recreational waters for bathing and swimming. The chemical characteristics of bathing and swimming waters should be such that water is nontoxic and nonirritating to the skin and the mucous membranes of the human body. (See also the Recommendations on p. 30.) WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIALIZED RECREATION The recreational enjoyment of water involves many ac- tivities other than water contact sports. Some of these, such as boating, may have an adverse effect on the quality of water and require berthing and launching facilities that in themselves may degrade the aesthetic enjoyment of the water environment. Others, such as fishing, waterfowl hunting, and shellfish harvesting, depend upon the quality of water being suitable for the species of wildlife involved. Because they are water-related and either require or are limited by specific water-quality constituents for their con- tinuance, these specialized types of recreation are given individual attention. BOATING Boating is a water-based recreational activity that re- quires aesthetically pleasing water for its full enjoyment. Boats also make a contribution to the aesthetic and recre- ational activity scene as the sailboat or canoe glides about the water surface or the water skier performs.· Boating activity of all types has an element of scale with larger and faster boats associated with larger waterbodies. Many of the problems associated with boating are essentially vio- lations of scale. Boating activities also have an impact on water quality. The magnitude of the impact is illustrated by recent esti- mates that there are more than 12 million pleasure boats in the United States (Outboard Boating Club 1971).235 More than 8 million of these are equipped with engines, and 300,000 have sanitary facilities without pollution control devices. Because of the large number of boats in use, many bodies of water are now experiencing problems that ad- versely affect other water uses, such as public water supply, support of aquatic life, and other types of water-based recreation. The detrimental effect of boating on water quality comes from three principal sources: waste disposal systems, engine exhaust, and refuse thrown overboard. Discharges from waste disposal systems on boats are individually a small contribution to contamination and may not be reflected in water-quality sampling, but they represent a potential health hazard and an aesthetic nuisance that must be con- trolled in or near designated swimming areas. Pathogens in human waste are probably the most important contami- nant in the discharges, because of their potential effect on human health (see discussions on Special Requirements for Bathing and Swimming Waters, p. 30, and Shellfish, p. 36). Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (SS) are also involved in the discharges, but the quantities are not likely to have any measurable effect on overall water quality. In view of this, it would appear that primary emphasis should be on the control of bacteria from sanitary systems. The exhaust of internal combustion engines and the un- burned fuel of the combustion cycle affect aesthetic enjoy- ment and may impart undesirable taste and odors to water supplies and off-flavors to aquatic life. Crankcase exhaust from the two-cycle engine can discharge as much as 40 per cent of the fuel to the water in an unburned state, while 10 to 20 per cent is common (Muratori 1968).233 One study showed that the use of 2.2-3.5 gal/acre-foot (using an oil:fuel mixture of 1: 17) will cause some indication of fish flesh tainting, and about 6 gal/acre-foot result in severe tainting (English et al. 1963). 232 (For further discussions of the effects of oil on environments, see Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.) The amount of lead emitted into the water from an out- board motor burning leaded gasoline (0. 7 grams of lead per liter) appears to be related to the size of the motor and the speed of operation. A 10-hp engine operated at one-half to three-fourths throttle was shown to emit into the water 0.229 grams of lead per liter of fuel consumed, whereas a 5.6-hp engine operated at full throttle emitted 0.121 grams per liter (English et al. 1963).2 32 34 With respect to interference with other beneficial uses, it has been reported that a large municipal water works is experiencing difficulties w:th oil on the clarification basins. The oil occurs subsequent to periods of extensive weekend boating activity during the recreational season (Orsanco Quality Monitor 1969).234 Moreover, bottles, cans, plastics, and miscellaneous solid wastes commonly deface waters where boaters are numerous, thereby degrading the en- vironment aesthetically. Waste discharge including sanitary, litter, sullage, or bilge from any water craft substantially reduces the water quality of harbors and other congested areas. The practice is aesthetically undesirable and may constitute a health hazard. When engine emissions from boats spread an oily film on water or interfere with beneficial uses, as in lowering the value of fish and other edible aquatic organisms by im- parting objectionable taste and odor to their flesh, restric- tions should be devised to limit engine use or reduce the emissions. Floating or submerged objects affect boating safety, and stray electrical currents increase corrosion as do corrosive substances or low pH values. Growth of hull~fouling orga- nisms is enhanced by the discharge of high-nutrient-bearing wastewaters. These conditions represent either a hazard to boating or an economic loss to the boat operator. Conclusion Water that meets the general recommendations for aesthetic purposes is acceptable for boating. (see Water Quality for Preserving Aesthetic Values, pp. 11-12.) Boats and the impact of boating on water quality are factors affecting the recreational and aesthetic aspects of water use and should be considered as such. AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE Fish, waterfowl, and other water-dependent wildlife are an integral part of water-based recreation activities and related aesthetic values. Wildlife enhances the aesthetic quality of aquatic situations by adding animation and a fascinating array of life forms to an otherwise largely static scene. Observation of these life forms, whether for photo- graphic, educational nature study, or purely recreational purposes, is an' aesthetically enriching experience. The economic importance and popularity of recreation involving the harvest offish, shellfish, waterfowl, and water-dependent furbearers have been discussed earlier. Water-quality char- acteristics recommended for the well-being of aquatic life and associated wildlife are discussed in detail in Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife. Maintenance of Habitat Pressures placed on the aquatic environment by the in- creasing human population are of major concern. They often lead at least to disruption and occasionally to de- struction of related life-support systems of desired species. Examples of this are the complete elimination of aquatic ecosystems by the filling of marshes or shallow waters for commercial, residential, or industrial developments, or the sometimes chronic, sometimes partial, and sometimes total destruction of aquatic communities by society's wastes. Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/35 Effects of cultural encroachment are often insidious rather than spectacular. Aesthetic values are gradually reduced, as is recruitment of water-associated wildlife populations. Maintenance of life-support systems for aquatic life and water-related wildlife requires adequately oxygenated water, virtual freedom from damaging materials and toxicants, and the preservation of a general habitat for routine ac- tivities, plus the critical habitat necessary for reproduction, nursery areas, food production, and protection from preda- tors. Each species has its specific life-support requirements that, if not adequately met, lead to depauperate populations or complete species elimination. The life-support systems essential to the survival of desired aquatic life and wildlife are required for man to enjoy the full scope of water-related recreational and aesthetic benefits. Man is often in direct competition for a given habitat with many species of aquatic life and wildlife. In some areas, the use of specific waters for recreation based on aquatic life and wildlife may be undesirable for a number of reasons, including potential conflicts with other recreational activities. Limitations on the use of surface water capable of providing recreational wildlife observation, hunting, and fishing under practical management should not be imposed by unsuitable water quality. Variety of Aquatic Life Natural surface waters support a variety of aquatic life, and each species is of interest or importance to man for various reasons. While water-based recreation often evokes thoughts of fishing, there are a number of other important recreational activities, such as skin diving, shell and insect collecting, and photography, that also benefit from the complex interrelationships that produce fish. A variety of aquatic life is intrinsic to our aesthetic enjoyment of the environment. Urban waterbodies may be the only local sites where residents can still conveniently observe and contemplate a complete web of life, from primary producers through predators. Reduction in the variety of aquatic life has long been widely used as an indication of water-quality degradation. The degree of reduction in species diversity often indicates the intensity of pollution because, as a general rule, as pollution increases, fewer species can tolerate the environ- ment. Determining the extent of reduction can be ac- complished by studYing the entire ecosystem; but the phe- nomenon is also reflected in the communitv structure of subcomponents, e.g., bottom animals, plankton, attached algae, or fish. Keup et al. (1967)236 compiled excerpts of early studies of this type. Mackenthun (1969)237 presented numerous case studies dealing with different types of pol- lutants, and Wilhm and Dorris (1968)238 have reviewed recent efforts to express diversity indices mathematically. While most water quality recommendations in Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife are designed for specific and known hazards, it is 36/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics impossible to make recommendations which will protect all organisms from all hazards, including m<!Jlipulation of the physical environment. In similar habitats and under similar environmental conditions, a reduction in variety of aquatic life (species diversity) can be symptomatic of an ecosystem's declining health and signal deterioration of recreational or other. beneficial uses. In addition to mainte- nance of aquatic community structures, special protective consideration should be given sport, commercial, and en- dangered species of aquatic life and wildlife. Recommendations To maintain and protect aesthetic values and recreational activities associated with aquatic life and wildlife, it is recommended that the water quality recommendations in the Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife reports (Sections III and IV) be applied. Since chan~es in species diversity are often as- sociated with chan~es in water quality and si~nal probable chan~es in recreational and aesthetic values, it is recommended that chan~es in species diversity be employed as indications that corrective action may be necessary. (See Section III on Fresh- water Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and Appendix 11-B on Community Structure and Diversity Indices.) SHELLFISH Shellfish* are a renewable, manageable natural resource of considerable economic importance, and the water quality essential to their protection in estuarine growing areas is discussed by the panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Section IV). However, the impact of shellfish as related to recreational and aesthetic enjoyment is also important, al- though difficult to estimate in terms of time and money. Furthermore, because contaminated shellfish may be har- vested by the public, it is necessary to protect these people and others who may eat the unsafe catch. Clams and oysters are obtained from intertidal areas, and these marine species have an unusual ability to act as disease vectors and to accumulate hazardous materials from the water. As more people are able to seek them in a sports fishery, the problems of public health related to these animals intensify. Because the intent here is to protect persons engaged in recreational shellfishing, consideration will be given to numerous factors which affect shellfish and their growing areas. These include bacteriological quality, pesticides, marine biotoxins, trace metals, and radionuclides. Recreational shellfishing should be limited to waters of quality that allow harvesting for direct marketing. Epi- * AP. used here, the term "shellfish" is limited to clams, oysters, and mussels. demiological evidence accumulated through 46 years of operation under the federal-state cooperative National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) demonstrated reason- able safety in taking shellfish from approved growing areas. The water quality criteria for determining an "approved growing area" are the basis of the standards given in the National Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Oper- ations, Part 1, Sanitation of Shelljish Growing Areas (PHS Pub No. 33, 1965).261 The growing area may be designated as "approved" when: (a) the sanitary survey indicates that pathogenic micro- organisms, radionuclides, or toxic wastes do not reach the area in dangerous concentrations; and (b) potentially dangerous concentrations are verified by laboratory findings whenever the sanitary survey indicates the need. Bacteriological Quality Clams and oysters, which are capable of concentrating bactcria and viruses, are among the few animals eaten alive and raw by man. For these reasons, the consumption of raw shellfish harvested from unclean or polluted waters is dangerous. Polluted water, especially that receiving domestic sewage, may contain high numbers of bacteria normally carried in the feces of man and other animals. Although these bacteria may not themselves be harmful, the danger exists that pathogenic bacteria and viruses may also be present (Lumsden et al. 1925,250 Old and Gill 1946,257 Mason and McLean 1962,251 Mosley 1964a,254 1964b;255 Koff et al. 1967).248 Shellfish are capable of pumping prodigious quantities of water in their feeding and concentrating the suspended bacteria and viruses. The rate of feeding in shellfish is temperature-dependent, with the highest concentrating and feeding rate occurring in warm water above 50 F and almost no feeding occurring when the water temperatures approach 32 F. Therefore, shellfish meat in the winter months will have a lower bacterial concentration than in the summer months (Gib- bard et al., 1942).246 The National Shellfish Sanitation Program determines the bacteriological quality of commer- cial shellfish harvesting areas in the following manner: • examinations are conducted in accordance with the recommended procedures of the American Public Health Association for the examination of seawater and shellfish: • there must be no direct discharges of inadequately treated sewage; • samples of water for bacteriological examination are collected under those conditions of time and tide which produce maximum concentrations of bacteria: • the coliform median most probable number (MPN) of the water does not exceed 70 per 100 ml, and not more than 10 per cent of the samples ordinarily exceed an MPN of 230 per 100 ml for a five-tube decimal dilution test (or 330 per 100 ml for a three- tube decimal dilution test) in those portions of the area most probably exposed to fecal contamination during the more unfavorable hydrographic and pol- lution conditions; and • the reliability of ·nearby waste treatment plants is considered before areas for direct harvesting are approved. Recommendation Recreational harvesting of shellfish should be limited to areas where water quality meets the National Shellfish Sanitation Program Standards for approved growing areas. Pesticides Pesticides reach estuarine waters from many sources in- cluding sewage and industrial waste discharge, runoff from land used for agriculture and forestry, and chemicals used to control aquatic vegetation and shellfish predators. Once pesticides are in the marine environment, they are rapidly accumulated by shellfish, sometimes to toxic concentrations. Organochlorine compounds are usually the most toxic and frequently have a deleterious effect at concentrations near 0.1 J.Lg/1 in the ambient water (Butler 1966b).240 Lowe (1965)249 observed that DDT at a concentration of 0.5 J.Lg/1 in water was fatal to juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) in a few days. The biological magnification of persistent pesticides by mollusks in the marine environment may be very pro- nounced. Butler (I 966a)239 observed that DDT may be concentrated to a level 25,000 times that found in sur- rounding sea water within I 0 days. In some instances, de- pending upon water temperature, duration of exposure, and concentration of DDT in the surrounding water, biological magnification may be 70,000 times (Butler 1966b).240 Some shellfish species, particularly blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), appear to have a higher concentration factor than other species (Modin 1969,253 Foehrenbach 1972).245 In 1966, a nationwide surveillance system was initiated by the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to monitor permanent mollusk populations and determine the extent of pesticide pollution in North American estuaries. Butler (1969)241 reported that sampling during the first three years did not indicate any consistent trends in estuarine pesticide pollution. Distinct seasonal and geographical differences in pollution levels were apparent. Pesticides most commonly detected in order of frequency were DDT (including its metabolites), endrin, toxaphene, and mirex. The amounts detected in North American estuaries varied. In Wash- ington, less than 3 per cent of the sampled shellfish were contaminated with DDT. Residues were always less than 0.05 mg/1. On the Atlantic Coast, DDT residues in oysters varied from less than 0.05 mg/1 in marine estuaries to less than 0.5 mg/1 in others. In a monitoring program for Water Quality Considerations for Specialized Recreation/37 TABLE 1-4-Recommended Guidelines for Pesticide Levels in Shellfish Pesticide Aldrin• .•.•••............••.•••••...•..•....•.•.•.•..•....•..• BHC .....•.•.•........•.•..•....••..•..•.•..........•.......• Chlordane •.............•.•.•••••.•••......................... DDT) DDE) ANY DNE DR ALL, NDT TD EXCEED ............... . DDD) Dieldrin• ..............•.................••.......•.••........ Endrin• .......••..•..•........................•.....•.•....... Heptachlor• ...•.....................•.•..••.•••.••.••...•..... Heptachlor Epoxide• ...............••..•..••......•.••..••..... Lmdane ......•..................•...••..•••.....•......••...• Methoxychlor ............................................... . 2,4-D ··•·•··•·•····•··•··•·•••••••··•··•··· ·•••••••·· ·•·•···· Concentration in shellfish (ppi!Hirained weight) 0.20 0.20 0.03 1.50 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.50 • II is recommended that if the combined values obtained for Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, and Heptachlor Epoxide exceed 0.20 ppm, such values be considered as"alert"levels which indicate the need for increased sampqng until results indicate the levels are receding. II is further recommended thai when the combined values for the above five pesticides reach the 0.25 ppm level, the areas be closed until it can be demonstrated that the levels are receding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Pubfic HeaHh Semce 1988."" chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in estuarine organisms in marine waters of Long Island, New York, Foehrenbach (1972)245 found that residues of DDT, DDD, DDE, and dieldrin in shellfish were well within the proposed limits of the 6th National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop (1968)262 (see Table I-4). For most cases, the levels detected were I 0-to 20-fold less than the recommendations for DDT and its metabolites, and in many instances concentrations in the shellfish were lower by a factor of 100. Although pesticide levels in many estuaries in the United States are low, the marked ability of shellfish to concentrate pesticides indicates that the levels approached in waters may be considered significant in certain isolated instances (Environmental Protection Agency 1971).244 Recommendation Concentrations of pesticides in fresh and marine waters that provide an adequate level of protection to shellfish are recommended in the Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Reports, Sections III and IV. Levels that protect the human consumer of shellfish should be based on pesticide concentrations in the edible portion of the shell- fish. Recommended human health guidelines for pesticide concentrations in shellfish have been sug- gested by the 6th National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop (1968)262 , Table I-4. They are recom- mended here as interim guidelines. Marine Biotoxins Paralytic poisoning due to the ingestion of toxic shellfish, while not a major public health problem, is a cause of concern to health officials because of its extreme toxicity, and because there is no known antidote. Up to 1962, more 38/Section 1-Recreatio~ and Aesthetics than 957 cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning are known toihave occurred, resulting in at least 222 dMths in the United States (Halstead 1965).24 Paralytic shellfish poison is a non-protein, acid-stable, alkali-labile biotoxin nearly 10,000 times as lethal as sodium cyanide. The original source of the poison is a species of unicellular marine dinoflagellates, genus Gonyaulax. Gony- aulax cantenella, perhaps the best known of the toxic dino- flagellates, is found on the Pacific Coast. Gonyaulax tamarensis is the causative organism of paralytic shellfish poison on the Atlantic Coast of Canada and the northern United States. Other dinoflagellate species have been identified in outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning outside the United States (Halstead 1965).2 47 Mollusks and other seashore animals may become poison- ous if they consume toxic planktonic algae. Mussels and clams are the principal species of edible mollusks that reach dangerous levels of toxicity. Although oysters can also become toxic, their apparent uptake of toxin is usually lower; and they are usually reared in areas free of toxin (Dupuy and Sparks 1968).243 The level of toxicity of shellfish is proportional to the number and poison content of Gonyaulax ingested. When large numbers of Gonyaulax are present in the water, shellfish toxicity may rise rapidly to dangerous levels (Prakash and Medcof 1962).258 The extent of algal growth depends on the combination of nutrients, salinity, sunlight, and temper- ature. Massive blooms of algae are most likely to occur in the warm summer months. In the absence of toxic algae, the poison that had been stored in the shellfish is eliminated by a purging action over a period of time (Sommer and Meyer 1937).260 Although Gonyaulax only blooms in the warmer months, shellfish are not necessarily free from toxin during the rest of the year, as there is great variation in the rates of uptake and elimination of the poison among the various species of mollusks. It is possible for certain species to remain toxic for a long period of time. Butter clams, for example, store the toxin for a considerable length of time, especially under cold climatic conditions (Chambers and Magnusson 1950).242 Cooking by boiling, steaming, or pan frying does not remove the danger of intoxication, although it does reduce the original poison content of the raw meat to some extent. Pan frying seems to be more effective than other cooking methods in reducing toxicity probably because higher temperatures are involved.· If the water in which shellfish have been boiled is discarded, most of the toxin will be removed (McFarren et al. 1965).252 A chemical method for the quantitative determination of the poison has been devised, but the most generally· used laboratory technique for determining the toxicity of shellfish is a bioassay using mice. The toxin extracted from shellfish is injected into test mice and the length of time elapsing from injection of the mice to the time of their death can be correlated with the amount of poison the shellfish con- tain. The quantity of paralytic shellfish poison producing death is measured in mouse units. Recommendation Since there is no analytical measurement for the biotoxin in water, shellfish should not be harvested from any areas even if "approved" where analysis indicates a Gonyaulax shellfish toxin poison con- tent of 80 micrograms or hi~her, or where a Ciguateria-like toxin reaches 20 mouse units per 100 ~rams of the edible portions of raw shellfish meat. Trace Metals The hazard to humans of consuming shellfish containing toxic trace metals has been dramatized by outbreaks of Minimata in Japan. Pringle et al. (1968)259 noted that the capacity of shellfish to concentrate in vivo some metals to levels many hundred times greater than those in the en- vironment means that mollusks exposed to pollution may contain quantities sufficient to produce toxicities in the human consumer. Recommendation Concentrations of metals in fresh and marine waters that provide an adequate level of protection to shellfish are recommended in the Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Sections, III and IV. Recommendations to protect the hu- man consumer of shellfish should be based on trace- metal content of the edible portions of the shell- fish, but necessary data to support such recom- mendations are not currently available. Radionuclides Radioactive wastes entering water present a potential hazard to humans who consume shellfish growing in such water. Even though radioactive material may be discharged into shellfish growing waters at levels not exceeding the applicable standards, it is possible that accumulation of radionuclides in the aquatic food chain may make the organisms used as food unsafe. The radionuclides Zn 65 and P 32 (National Academy of Sciences 1957)256 are known to be concentrated in shellfish by five orders of magnitude (10 5). Therefore, consideration must be given to radioactive fallout or discharges of wastes from nuclear reactors and industry into shellfish growing areas. For further discussion of this subject see Section IV, Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife, p. 270. WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS There are still numerous watersheds in the United States that are remote.from population centers. Almost inaccessible and apparently free from nian's developmental influences, these watersheds are conducive to mental as well as physical relaxation in the naturalness of their surroundings. To as- sure the preservation of such natural beauty, the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 established in part a national system of wild and scenic rivers (U.S. Congress 1968).269 Eight rivers designated in the Act in whole or in part constituted the original components of the system: 1. Clearwater, Middle Fork, Idaho 2. Eleven Point, Missouri 3. Feather, California 4. Rio Grande, New Mexico 5. Rogue, Oregon 6. Saint Croix, Minnesota and Wisconsin 7. Salmon, Middle Fork, Idaho 8. Wolf, Wisconsin All or portions of 27 other rivers were mentioned specifi- cally in the Act as being worthy of inclusion in the system if studies to be conducted by several federal agencies showed their inclusion to be feasible. Certainly there are many more rivers in the nation worthy of preservation by state and local agencies (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, 1970).270 In Kentucky alone, it was found that 500 streams and watersheds, near urban areas, would serve purposes of outdoor recreation in natural en- vironments (Dearinger 1968).264 Characteristically, such wild river areas are: (a) accessible to man in only limited degrees; (b) enjoyed by relatively few people who actually go to the site; (c) visited by scout troops or other small groups rather than by lone indi- viduals; and (d) productive of primarily intangible, aesthetic benefits of real value though difficult to quantify (U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission 1962.271 Sonnen et al. 1970267). The quality of natural streams is generally good, pri- marily because man's activities leading to waste discharges are minimal or nonexistent in the area.* However, fecal coliform concentrations in some natural waters have been found to be quite high following surface runoff (Betson and Buckingham unpublished report 1970 ;273 Kunkle and Meiman 1967266), indicating the possible presence of disease-causing organisms in these waters. The sources of fecal coliforms in natural waters are wild and domestic animals and birds, as well as human beings who occasionally visit the area. Barton (1969)263 has also reported that natural areas may contribute significant loads of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients to the streams that drain them. These chemicals can lead to algal blooms and other naturally occurring but aesthetically unpleasant problems. Barton (1969)263 also points out the paradox that a significant contributor to pollution of natural waters is the human being who comes to enjoy the uniquely unpolluted environ- ment. In addition to water-quality degradation, man also contributes over one pound per day of solid wastes or refuse in ~ampgrounds and wilderness areas, a problem with which the Forest Service and other agencies must now cope (Spooner 1971).268 39 This discussion has concentrated on Wild and Scenic rivers. However, similar consideration should be given to the recognition and preservation of other wild stretches of ocean shoreline, marshes, and unspoiled islands in fresh and salt waters. WATER BODIES IN URBAN AREAS Many large water bodies are located near or in urban and metropolitan areas. These waters include major coastal estUaries and bays, portions of the Great Lakes, and the largest inland rivers. Characteristically, these waters serve a multiplicity of uses and are an economic advantage to the * Some of the least mineralized natural waters are those in high mountain areas fed 15y rainfall or snowmelt running across stable rock formations. One such stream on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains has been found to have total dissolved solids concentra- tions often below 50 mg/1, coliform organism concentrations of 0 to 300/ml, and turbidities of less than 1 unit (Kunkle and Meiman 1967).266 l l I ----------------~------------___,;,1,11 40/Section [-'-Recreation and Aesthetics region and to the nation as a whole. In addition to pro- viding water supplies, they have pronounced effects on local weather and make possible valuable aesthettc and recre- ational pleasures, ranging from simple viewing to fishing and boating. Large urban waterways, because of their location in densely populated areas, are heavily used commercially and are also in great demand for recreational and aesthetic purposes. Consequently, although swimming and other con- tact activities cannot always be provided in all such waters, quality levels supportive of these activities should be en- couraged. Water flow in the urban stream tends to be variable and subject to higher and more frequent flood flows than under "natural conditions," because storm water runoff from buildings and hard-surfaced areas is so complete and rapid. The impaired quality of the water may be due to storm water runoff, upstream soil erosion, or sewage discharges and low base flow. Whitman (1968)272 surveyed the sources of pol- lution in the urban streams in Baltimore and Washington and reported that sewer malfunctions, many of which might be eliminated, were the largest causes of poor water quality. In large metropolitan areas with either separate or com- bined sewer systems, pollution of the urban waterway can be expected during heavy rainstorms when the streams may contain coliform concentrations in the millions per 100 ml. In addition, these flood waters flow with treacherous swift- ness and are filled with mud and debris. Small urban streams are even more numerous. Although these may have only intermittent flow, they have the ca- pacity to provide considerable opportunities for a variety of water-related recreation activities. Unfortunately, these in-city streams are more often eyesores than they are com- munity treasures. Trash, litter, and rubble are dumped along their banks, vegetation is removed, channels are straightened and concrete stream beds are constructed or even roofed over completely to form covered sewers. This abuse and destruction of a potential economic and social resource need not occur. The urban stream can be made the focal point of a recreation-related complex. The needs of the cities are many, and not the kast of them is the creation of a visually attractive urban environment in which the role of water is crucial. The reclamation of downtown sections of the San Antonio River in the commercial heart of San Antonio, Texas, is perhaps the best known and most encouraging example of the scenic and cultural potential of America's urban streams (Gunn et al. 1971).265 From a modest beginning with WPA labor in the mid-1930's, the restoration of about a one-mile portion of the river threading its way through the central business district has resulted in the creation of the Paseo Del Rio, or River Walk. Depressed below the level of adjacent streets, heavily landscaped with native and tropical vegetation, the river is bordered with pleasant promenades along which diners relax in outdoor cafes. Fountains and waterfalls add to the visual attractiveness, and open barges carry groups of tourists or water-borne diners to historic buildings, restaurants, clubs, and a River Theater. More popular with both local residents and tourists each year, the River Walk has proved to be a significant social and eco- nomic development, attracting commercial enterprises to a previously blighted and unattractive area. The River Walk is widely visited and studied as a prototype for urban rl.ver reclamation, ·and it demonstrates. that urban rivers can serve as the environmental skeleton on which an entire community amenity of major proportions can be built. OTHER WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE Between the remote and seldom used waters of America at one extreme and the urban waterways at the other are many unique water recreation spots that are visited and enjoyed by large numbers of tourists each year. Among· these are Old Faithful, Crater Lake, The Everglades, the Colorado River-Grand Canyon National Park, and Lake Tahoe. These ecologically or geologically unique waters are normally maintfl.ined in very nearly their natural con- ditions, but access to them is freer and their monetary value is greater than that of the wild rivers. To many, however, their aesthetic value will always be greater than their monetary value. It is obviously impossibl~ to establish nationally applicable quality recommendations for such waters. (It would be ludicrous, for example, to expect Old Faithful to be as cool as Crater Lake, or The Everglades as clear as Lake Tahoe.) Nonetheless, responsible agencies should establish recommendations for each of these waters that will protect and preserve their unique values. Municipal raw water supply reservoirs are often a po- tential source of recreation and aesthetic enjoyment. Peri- odic review of the recreational restrictions to protect water quality in such reservoirs could result in provision of ad- ditional recreational and aesthetic opportunities. (See also the general Introduction, p. 3-4 regarding preservation of aquatic sites of scientific value.) Conclusions To preserve or enhance recreational and aes- thetic values: • water quality supportive of general recreation is adequate to provide for the intended uses of wild and scenic rivers; • water quality supportive of general recreation is adequate to protect or enhance uses of urban streams, prO'Vided that economics, flow con- ditions, and safety considerations make these activities feasible; • special criteria are necessary to protect the nation's unique recreational waters with regard to their particular physical, chemical, or bio- logical properties. LITERATURE CITED INTRODUCTION 1 The Boating Industry (1971), The boating business, 1970. 34(1):39-62. 2 Brightbill, C. K. (1961), Man and leisure (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey), p. ·9. 3 Butler, G. D. {1959), Introduction to communiry recreation, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York), p. IO. 4 Doell, C. E. (1963), Elements of park and recreation administration (Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis), p. 3. 6 Lehman, H. C. (1965), Recreation, in Encyclopedia Britannica 19: 15-16. 6 Ragatz, R. L. (1971), Market potential for seasonal homes (Cornell University, Ithaca, New York). 7 Slater, D. W. (1972), Review of the 1970 national survey. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(1):163-167. 8 Stroud, R. H. and R. G. Martin (1968), Fish conservation highlights, 1963-1967 (Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, D.C.), pp. 25, 124. 9 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law 90-542, S. 119, 12 p. 10 U.S. Congress (1965), Federal Water Project Recreation Act, Public Law 89-72, 79S., July 9, 1965, 213 p. 11 U.S. Congress (1968), Estuary Protection Act, Public Law 90-454, 82S.625, August 3, 1968. 12 U.S. ·Department of the Interior, Press releases, October 30, 1961 and November IO, 1961. 13 U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1967), Outdoor recreation trends (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 24 p. 14 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1971), Communications from the division of nationwide plan- ning. References Cited 16 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, personal communication 1971. 16'Chtirchill, M. A. 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(1969), Factors influencing photosynthesis and ex- cretion of dissolved organic matter. by aquatic macrophytes irt hard-water lakes. Verh. Int: Verein. Limnol. 17:72-85. 176 Wetzel, R. G. (1971), The role ofcarbonin hard-water marl lakes, in Nutrients and eutrophication. Amer. Soc. Limnol Oceanogr., Special Symposium Series 1:34-36. 176 Wetzel, R. G. and H. L. Allen (1971), in press, Functions and interactions of dissolved organic matter and the littoral zone in lake metabolism and eutrophication. In Productivity problems of Fresh Waters. Kajak and A. Hillbricht-Illowska (eds). 177 Wetzel, R .. G. and B. A. Manny (1972), in press, Secretion of dis- solved organic carbon and nitrogen by aquatic macrophytes. Verh. Int. Verein Limnol; INTRODUCTION OF SPECIES 178 Abbott, R. T. (1950), Snail invaders. Natur; Hist. 59(2):80-85. 179 Benson, N. G., ed. (1970); A century of fisheries in North America [American Fisheries Society special publication no. 7) (The Society, Washington, D.C.), 330 p. 180 Burns, J. W: (1972), The distribution· andAife history of South American freshwater crabs (Aegla) and their role in trout strealllS and lakes. Trans. Atner. Fish. Soc., 101(4):595~07. 181 Craighead, F. C., Jr. and R. F. Dasmann (1966), Exotic big game on public lands. (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D.C.), 26 p. 182 Cronin, L. E. (1967), The role of man in estuarine processes, in Estuaries, G. H. Lauff, ed/ {American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, Washington, D.C.), pp. 667-689. 183 Department of Lands and.Forest, Ottawa (1968), A :symposium on the ·in1:.rodtiction of exotic species. Research Report 82:92_::_111. 1841-Iolm, L. G., L. w; Weldon and R, D.•Blackburn {1969), Aquatic· . weeds. Science 166:699-.709. 186 Hotchkiss, eN. (1967)~· .Underwater and -jloating0leav,id plarits .of the . United. ';States and· Canada [Bureau of Sport F1sheries and-Wildlife · · resource p1,Iblicatiofi.44l'{Government .Pclnting·O.ffice; Washing• ron:; D:b.), 124 p. ·.186 Idyll; c, 1'. (1969); New· Florida resident, the walking catfish. Nat.' Geogr; Mdg. 135(6):846-851. ·· Literature Cited/45 187 Korringa, P: (1952), Recent advances in ·oyster biology. Quart; Rev. Biol. 27:26&-303, 339-365. 188 Lachner, E. A., C. R. Robins, and W. R. Courtenay, Jr. (1970), Exotic fishes and other aquatic organisms introduced into North America [Smithsonian contributions to zoology no. 59](Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C::'), 29 p. 189 Miller, R. R. (1961), Man and the changing fish fauna ·of the· American southwest. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci: Arts. Lett. 46:365-404. 190 Moffett, J. W. (1957), Recent changes in the deep-Water fish populations of Lake Michigan. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 86:393-408. 191 Pelzman, K J. (1972), White amur (Grass carp). Sport Fishing Institute Bulletin·.23l :2. 192 Penfound, W. T. and T. T. Earle (1948), The biology of the water hyacinth. Ecol. Monogr. 18(4):447--472. 193 Rawls, C. K. (1964), Aquatic plant nuisances, in Problems of the Potomac Estuary (Interstate Committee on the Potomac River Basin, Washington, D.C.), 1964-1, pp. 51-56. 194 Sculthorpe, C. D. (1967), The biology of aquatic vascular plants. (St. Martin's Press; New York), 610 p. 196 Shapovalov, L., W. A. Dill, and A. J. Cordone (1959), A revised check list of the freshwater and anadromous fishes: of California. Calif. Fish Game 45(3): 159-180. 19 6 Sinclair, R. M. (1971), Corbicula variation and dreissena parallels. Biologist 53(3):153-159. 197 Smith, S. H. (1964), Status of the deepwater cisco population of Lake Michigan. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(2):155-163. 198 Stroud, R. H. (1969), Conference on exotic fishes and related problelllS. Bull. Sport Fishing Inst. no. 203: 1--4. 199 Whitworth, W. R., P. L. Berrien, and W. T. Keller (1968), Fresh- water Fishes of Connecticut, State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut. Bulletin 101:1-134. 200 Wunderlich, W. E. (1962), The history of water hyacinth control in Louisiana. Hyacinth Control Journal' 1: 14-16. References Cited 201 Lopinot, A. C. (1972), personal communication. Division of Fisheries, Illinois Department of Conservation, Springfield, Illinois. WATER QUALITY FOR GENERAL RECREATION BATHING, AND SWIMMING · 2o2 American Public Health Association Engineering Division and Conference of State Sanitary Engineers. Joint Committee on Bathing ('1936), Swimming pools and other bathing places, in rearbook of the American Public Health Association, .1935-36 (New York), pp. 209-220. 203 American Public Health Association Engineering Division and Conference of State Sanitary Engine;ers. Joint Committee on Bathing Places (1940),. Looking forward in the bathing place sanitation field, in rear book of the American Public Health Associa" tion, 1939-40. (New York), pp. 5o-=.5I. 204 American Public Health Association, (19'57), .Recommended practice for design, equipment and operation of'swiinming pools ' · and other ·public bathing plac~;>.Tenth edit1on·'·(Washington; D.C.), 60p. 206.Beckman, E. -L. {1963), Thermal protection during immersion in cold water, in Proceedings second symposium on underwater physiology, C. J. Laiilbertsen and 'L. J; .Greenbaum; eds. (National Academy. .of Sciences, Washington, D.C.), pp. 247-266; .206Bullard; R. w~ arid G. M; Rapp (1970}, Problems'of•body heat loss in w<tter'immersitJii. Aer.ospi Med.-.41:1269-127''7:' 207 Butt, C. G. (1966), ·primary amebic .meningoencephalitiS. N.Engl. J. Med. 274:1473-1476. ·= 46/Section !-Recreation and Aesthetics 208 Callicott, J. H., Jr. (1968), Amebic meningoencephalitis due to free-living amebas of the Hartmannella (Ac!anthamoeba)- Naegleria group. Amer. J. Clin. Path. 49(1):84-91. 209 Cerva, L. (1971), Studies of Limax amoebae in a swimming pool. Hydrobiologia 38(1): 141-161. 210 Diesch, S. L. and W. F. McCulloch (1966), Isolation of patho- genic leptospires from waters used for recreation. Pub. Health Rep. 81:299--304. 211 Favero, M. S., C. H. Drake and G. B. Randall (1964), Use of Staphylococci as indicators of swimlning pool pollution. Pub. Health Rep. 79:61-70. 212 Fowler, M. and R. F. Carter (1965), Acute pyogenic meningitis probably due to Acanthamoeba sp.: a prelilninary report. Brit. Med. J. 2(5464):74Q-742 .. 218 Geldreich, E. E. (1966), Sanitary significance of fecal coliforms in the environment [Water pollution control research series no. WP-20-3] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 122 p. 214 Geldreich, E. E. (1970), Applying bacteriological parameters to recreational water quality. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 62(2): 113-120. 216 Hoadley, A. W. (1968), On significance of Pseudomonas aerugi- nosa in surface waters. J. New Eng. Med. Assoc. 276:99--111. 216 Hovens, W. P., ·c. J. Bucher and H. A. Keimann (1941), Lepto- spirosis: public health hazard. American Journal of the Medical As- sociation 116:289. 211 Kreider, M. B. (1964), Pathogenic effects of extreme cold, in Medical climatology, S. Licht, ed. (E. Licht, New Haven, Con- necticut), pp. 428-468. 218 Litsky, W., W. L. Mailman and C. W. FiField (1953), A new medium for the detection of enterococci in water. Amer. J. Pub. Health 43:8 73-879. 219 Meyers, J. J., C. H. Holm and F. F. McAllister (eds) (1969), Handbook of ocean and undersea engineering. North American Rockwell Corporation McGraw Hill Book Co. New York, New York pp 1-13. 22° Molnar, G. W. (1946), Survival of hypotherlnia by men im- mersed in the ocean. J. Amer. Med. Ass. 131:1046-1050. 221 Mood, E. W. (1968), The role of some physico-chelnical properties of water as causative agents of eye irritation of swimmers, in Water quality criteria: report of the National Technical Advisory Com- mittee to the Secretary of the Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), pp. 15-16. 222 Moore, B. (1959), Sewage contalnination of coastal bathing waters in England and Wales, A bacteriological and epidelnilogical study. Journal of Hygiene 57:435--472. 223 Newburgh, L. H., ed. (1949), Physiology of heat regulation and the science of clothing (W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia), 457 p. 224 Patras, D. and J. J. Andujar (1966), Meningoencephalitis due to Hartmannella (Acanthamoeba). Amer. J. Clin. Path. 46:226-233. 226 Public Works (1967), Beach sanitation methods revised. vol. 98(3): 119--122. 22 6 Simons, G. W., Jr., R. Hilscher, H. F. Ferguson, and S. De M. Gage (1922), Report of the Comlnittee on Bathing Places. Amer. J. Pub. Health 12(1):121~123. 227 Slnith, R. S. and T. D. Woolsey (1952), Bathing water quality and health-II-inland river and pool. (U.S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio). 228 Slnith, R. S. and T. D. Woolsey (1961), Bathing water quality and health Ill-coastal water (U.S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio). 229 Slnith, R. S., T. D. Woolsey and A. H. Stevenson (1951), Bathing water quality and health-1-Great Lakes (U.S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio). 280 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control Adlninistration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior (Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), p. 12. 281 Williruns, H. R., W. J. Murphy, J. E. McCroan, L. E. Starr, and M. K. Ward (1956), An epidelnic of canicola feverin man. Amer. J. Hyg. 64(1):46-58. BOATING 282 English, J. N., E. W. Surber, and G. N. McDermott (1963), Pol- lutional effects of outboard motor exhaust: field studies. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 35(9):1121-1132. 2 33 Muratori, A., Jr. (1968), How outboards contribute to water pollution. Conservationist 22(6):6-8, 31. 234 Orsanco Quality Monitor (1969), (Published by Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Comlnission, 414 Walnut Street, Cincinnati, Ohio), May 1969, p. 9. 236 Outboard Boating Club of America (1971), Statement on marine sanitation device performance standards, Miami, Florida. AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE 236 Keup, L. E., W. M. Ingram, and K. M. Mackenthun, compilers (1967), Biology of water pollution [U.S. Department ofthe Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Adlninistration pub. no. CWA-3](Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 290p. 237 Mackenthun, K. M. (1969), The practice of water pollution biology (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 281 p. 288 Wilhm, J. L. and T. C. Dorris (1968), Biological parameters for water quality criteria. Bioscience 18(6):477--480. SHELLFISH 239 Buder, P. A. (1966a), Fixation of DDT in estuaries, in Trans. 31st N. Amer. Wildlife and Natural Resources Conf. (Wildlife Manage- ment Institute, Washington, D. C.), pp. 184-189. 240 Buder, P. A. (1966b), Pesticides in the marine environment. J. Appl. Ecol. 3:253-259. 241 Buder, P. A. (1969), Monitoring pesticide pollution. Bioscience 19:889--891. 242 Chambers, J. S. and H. W. Magnusson (1950), Seasonal variations in toxicity of butter clams from selected Alaska beaches [Special scien- tific report: fisheries no. 53](U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.), 10 p. 24BDupuy, J. L. and A. K. Sparks (1968), Gonyaulax washingtonesis, its relationship to Mytilus californianus and Crassostrea gigas as a source of paralytic shellfish toxin in Sequim Bay, Washington. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Ass. 58:2. 244 Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Water Hygiene, Water Quality Office (1971), Health guidelines for water re- sources and related land use management, appendix V. health aspects: North Adantic Regional Water Resource Study. 246 Foehrenbach, J. (1972), Chlorinated pesticides in esturine or- ganisms. Journal of .Water Pollution Control Federation 44(4):619-- 624. 246 Gibbard, J., A. G. Campbell, A. W. H. Needler, andJ. C. Medcoff (1942), Effect of hibernation on control of coliform bacteria in oysters. American Journal of Public Health 32:979-986. 247 Halstead, B. W. (1965), Invertebrates, vol. 1 of Poisonous and veno- mous marine animals of the world (Government Printing Office, Wa.~hington, D. C.), 994 p. 248 Koff, R. S., G. F. Grady, T. C. Chalmers, J. W. Mosely, B. L. Swartz and the Boston Inter-Hospital Liver Group (1967), Viral hepatitis in a group of Boston hospitals. III. Importance of exposure to shellfish in a non-epidelnic period. New England J. Med. 276:703--710. • 249 Lowe, J. I. (1965), Chronic exposure of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) to sublethal concentrations of DDT. Ecology, 46:899. 260 Lumsden, L. L., H. E. Hasseltine, J. P. Leak and M. V. Veldee (1925), A typhoid fever epidemic caused by oyster-borne in- fection. Pub. Health Reports, suppl. 50. 261 Mason, J. A. and W. R. McLean (1962), Infectious hepatitis traced to the consumption of raw oysters. Am. J. Hyg. 75:9Q--lll. 1162 McFarren, E. F., F. J. Silva, H. Tanabe, W. B. Wilson, J. E. Campbell, and K. H. Lewis (1965), The occurrence of a cigua- tera-like poison in oysters, clams, and Gymnodinium breve cultures. Toxicon 3:111-123. 1163 Modin, J. C. (1969), Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in California bays and estuaries. Pesticides Monitoring Jour. 3:1. 1164 Mosely, J. W. (1964a), A. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis- New Jersey and Pennsylvania followup report. Hepatitis sur- veillance. Report No. 19: 35-36. m Mosley, J. W. (1964b), B. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis- Connecticut. Follow-up report. Hepatitis surveillance, Report No. 79:3Q--34. 1!66 National Academy of Sciences. Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries (1957), The effects of atomic radiation on oceanography and fisheries, report (The Academy, Washington, D.C.), 137, p. 267 Old, H. N. and S. L. Gill (1946), A typhoid fever epidemic caused by carrier bootlegging oysters. Am. Jour. Publ. Health 30: 633-640. 266 Prakash, A. and J. C. Me,dcof (1962), Hydrographic and meteoro- logical factors affecting shellfish toxicity at Head Harbour, New Brunswick, J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 19(1):101-112. 269 Pringle, B. H., E. D. Hissong, E. L. Katz, and S. T. Mulawka (1968), Trace, metal accumulation by estuarine mollusks. J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 94(SA3):455--475. 260 Sommer, H. and K. F. Meyer (1937), Paralytic shellfish poisoning. Archives of Pathology 24(5): 56Q--598. 261 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public Health Service (1965), National shellfish sanitation program manual of operations [PHS Pub. 33](Government Printing Office, Washing- ton, D. C.), 3 parts, variously paged. 362 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public Health Service (I 968), Proceedings 6th national shellfish sanitation workshop, G. Morrison, ed. (Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D. C.), 115 p. Literature Cited/47 WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WATERS OF SPECIAL VALUE 263 Barton, M. A. (1969), Water pollution in remote recreational areas. J. Soil Water Conserv. 24(4):132-134. 264 Dearinger, John A. (1968), Esthetic and recreational potential of small naturalistic streams near urban areas, research report No. 13 (University of Kentucky Water Resources Institute, Lexington, Kentucky), 260p. 266 Gunn, C. A., D. J. Reed and R. E. Couch (1971), Environmental enhancement. Proceedings 16th Annual Water for Texas Conference, San Antonio. (Texas Water Resources Institute, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas). 266 Kunkle, S. H. and J. R. Meiman (1967), Water quality of mountain watersheds [Hydrology paper 21] (Colorado State University, Fort Collins), 53 p. 267 Sonnon, Michael B., Larry C. Davis, William R. Norton and Gerald T. Orlob (1970), Wild rivers: methods for evaluation. [Pre- pared for the Office of Water Resources Research, U.S. Depart- ment of the Interior] (Water Resources Engineers, Inc., Walnut Creek, California), 106 p. 266 Spooner, C. S. (1971), Solid waste management in recreational forest areas [PHS pub. 199l](Government Printing Office, Washing- ton, D. C.), 96 p. 269 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law 90-542, s. 119, 12 p. 270 U.S. Departmei).t of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1970), Proceedings: National symposium on wild, scenic, and recrea- tional waterways, St. Paul, Minnesota, 209 p. 271 U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (1962), Outdoor recreation for America (Government Printing Office, Wash- inton, D. C.), 246 p. 272 Whitman, I. L. (1968), Uses of small urban river valleys [Ph.D. dis- sertation] The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, 299p. References Cited 273 Betson, R. P. and R. A. Buckingham (1970), Fecal coliform con- centrations in stormwaters. Unpublished report presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the American Geophysical Union, Wash- ington, D. C. Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Tennessee. ··------·------------- .Sec"fion II PUBLI-c WATER SUPPLIES- TABLE ·OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .......................... . THE DEFINED TREATMENT "PROCESS ......... . WATER QuALITY REcoMMENDATIONs ........ . SAMPLING AND MONITORING ................ . ANALYTICAL METHODS .................... . GROUND WATER CHARACTERISTICS; ......... . WATER MANAGEMENT CoNSIDERATIONS ...... . ALKALINITY ................................. . Conclusion ........................ . AMMONIA ................................. . Recommendation ................... . ARS-ENIC ................................... . Recommendation ................... . BACTERIA ................................... . Recommendation ................... . BARIUM .................................... . Recommendation ................... . BORON .................................... . . CADMIUM .................................. . Recommendation ................... . CHLORIDE ........ _ ......•............... , .. . Recommendation ................... . CHROMIUM ................................. . Recommendation .................... . COLOR ................................... -.. . Recomll1endation .................... . COPPER ................................ · .... . · Recommendation .....• , , ............ . CYANIDE ...............••.......•............... · 'Recommendation, ................... . DISSOLVED-OXYGEN ....... ,, ......• , ..... . ·Conclusion ...... -..•......... , ......... . Page 50 50 . 50 51 52 52 52 54 54 55 55 .56 56 57 58 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 ·62 62 63 63 64 '64 65 65 '65 65: FLUORIDE ................. · ................ . ·Recommendation .................... . FOAMING AGENTS ................•........ Recommendation ................... . HARDNESS ................................. . Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · IRON ......................................... . Recommendation .................... . LEAD ........................................ . Recommendation ................... . MANGANESE .............................. . Recommendation ................... . MERCURY ..................................... . Recommendation ................... . NITRA TE~NITRITE ......................... . Recommendation .................... . NITRILOTRIACETATE .(NTA) .............. . Conclusion ........... , ............. . ODOR· ........... · ............................. . Recommendation ................... . OIL AND GREASE ......................... . Recommendation ................•..... ORGANICS~CARBON ADSORBABLE. ........ . Reco~mendation ................... . PESTICIDES .......................... , .... . CHLORINATED HYDIUJCARBON INSECTIGIDES ... . Recommendation .............. , .... . . ORGANOPHOSPHORUS· AND CARBAMATE. INSECTI- ·CIDES .............. · .. , .. · ............... . ··Recommendation •....... , .•........... . CHLPROPHENOXY fuRBiCIDES. ' ' •.... ' ..... . 'Recommep.dation .................•.. ·48. Page 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 69 70 70 71 71 72 72 73 73 74 74 74 74 74 74 75 75 76 76 78 78 78 '79 79 .. Page pH ......................................... . 80 SODIUM ................................... . Recommendation ................... . 80 Recommendation ................... . PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS ................... . 80 SULFATE .................................. . Recommendation ................... . 80 Recommendation ................... . PHOSPHATE ............................... . 81 TEMPERATURE ............................ . Recommendation ................... . 81 Recommendation ................... . PHTHALATE ESTERS ...................... . 82 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (Filterable Resi- due) ............................. · .... ····· PLANKTON................................. 82 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB) ... . Conclusion ........................ . RADIOACTIVITY ............... : .......... . Recommendation ................... . SELENIUM ... · ............................. . Recommendation ................... . SILVER .................................... . Conclusion ........................ . 83 83 84 85 86 86 87 87 49 TURBIDITY ................................ . Conclusion ........................ . URANYL ION .............................. . Recommendation ................... . VIRUSES ................................... . Conclusion ........................ . ZINC ........................................ . Recommendation ................... . LITERATURE CITED ............ ~ .......... . Page 88 88 89 89 89 89 90 90 90 91 91 91 92 93 93 94 INTRODUCTION Modern water management techniques and a wide va- riety of available water treatment processes make possible the use of raw water of almost any quality to produce an acceptable public water supply. For this reason it is both possible and desirable to consider water management al- ternatives and treatment procedures in making recommen- dations on the quality of raw water needed for public supplies. Furthermore, these recommendations must be consistent with the effort and money it is reasonable to expect an individual, company, or municipality to expend to produce a potable water supply. Defining a reasonable effort including treatment processes involves consideration of present water quality, the degree of improvement in raw water that is attainable within the bounds of natural con~ trois on water quality, and the help that can be expected from society in cleaning up its waters. In evaluating the basis for the recommendations in this Section, the Panel has left water management_ alternatives open wherever possible, but it has made certain arbitrary assumptions about the treatment process. The federal Drinking Water Standards for treated water for public supply (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962, hereafter referred to as PHS 1962 6)* are under review and revision, but the final standards were not available to the Panel on Public Water Supplies at the time of publication of this Report. The Panel did, however; have access to the data, references, and rationale being. considered in the revision of Drinking Water Standards, and these have had a major influence on recommendations in this report. THE DEFINED TREATMENT PROCESS Surface water supplies characteristically contain sus- pended sediment in varying amounts and are subject to bacterial and viral contamination. Therefore, it is assumed that the following defined treatment, and no more, will be given raw surface water in a properly operated plant prior to human consumption. 1. coagulation (less than about 50 milligrams per liter * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section. (mg/1) alum, ferric sulfate, or copperas with alkali or acid addition as necessary but without coagulant aids or acti- vated carbon); 2. sedimentation (6 hours or less); 3. rapid sand filtration (three gallons per square foot per minute or more); 4. disinfection with chlorine (without consideration to concentration or form of chlorine residual). The panel recognizes that on the one hand some raw surface waters will meet federal Drinking Water Standards with no treatment other than disinfection, and that on the other hand almost any water, including sea water and grossly polluted fresh water, can be made potable for a price by available treatment processes already developed. However, the defined treatment outlined above is con- sidered reasonable in view of both the existing and generally attainable quality of raw surface waters, and the protection made imperative by the current practice of using streams to transport and degrade wastes. Assumption of the defined treatment process throughout this Section is not meant to deny the availability, need, or practicality of other water treatment processes. Unlike surface waters, ground waters characteristically contain little or no suspended sediment and are largely free of and easily protected from bacterial and viral con- tamination. (See Ground Water Characteristics below for sig- nificant exceptions.) Therefore, no defined treatment is as- sumed for raw ground water designated for use as a public supply, although here again this does not deny the avail- ability, need, or practicality of treatment. Ground waters should meet current federal Drinking Water Standards in regard to bacteriological characteristics and content of toxic substances, thus permitting an acceptable public water supply to be produced with no treatment, providing natural water quality is adequate in other respects. The recommendations in this section based on considerations other than bacterial content and toxicity apply to ground waters as well as surface waters unless otherwise specified. WATER QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS The Panel has defined water quality recommendations as those limits of characteristics and concentrations of sub- 50 stances in raw waters that will allow the production of a safe, clear, potable, aesthetically pleasing and acceptable public water supply after treatment. In making these recommendations, the Panel recognized that most of the surface water treatment plants providing water for domestic use in the United States are relatively small, do not have sophisticated technical controls, and are operated by indi- viduals whose training in modern methods varies widely. The recommendations assume the use of the treatment process defined above but no more. Regional variations in natural water quality ma:ke it necessary to apply understanding and discretion when evalu- ating raw water quality ·in terms of the recommendations. Wherever water zoned for public supply fail to meet the recommendations in all respects, the recommendations can be considered the minimum goal toward which to work in upgrading water quality. In some instances the natural presence of certain constituents in raw water sources may make the attainment of recommended levels impractical or even impossible. When such constituents affect human health, the water cannot be used for public supply unless the constituent can be brought to Drinking Water Standards levels through a specially designed treatment process prior to distribution to consumers. Where health is not a factor, the natural level of the constituent prior to man-made ad- ditions can be considered a reasonable target toward which to work, although determination of "natural quality" may require considerable effort, expense, and time. The recommendations in this report should by no means be construed as latitude to add substances to waters where the existing quality is superior to that called for in the recommendations. Degradation of raw water sources of quality higher than that specified should be minimized in order to preserve operational safety factors and economics of treatment. The Panel considered factors of safety for each of the toxic substances discussed, but numerical factors of safety have been employed only where data are available on the known no-effect level or the minimum effect level of the substances on humans. These factors were selected on the basis of the degree of hazard and the fraction of daily intake of each substance that can reasonably be assigned to water. The recommendations should be regarded as guides in the control of health hazards and not as fine lines between safe and dangerous concentrations. The amount and length of time by which values in the recommendations may be exceeded without injury to health depends upon the nature of the contaminant, whether high concentrations even for short periods produce acute poisoning, whether the effects are cumulative, how frequently high concentrations occur, and how long they last. All these factors must be considered in deciding whether a hazardous situation exists .. Although some of the toxic substances considered are known to be associated with suspended solids in raw surface Introduction/51 waters and might thus be removed to some extent by the defined treatment process, the degree of removal of the various dissolved toxic substances is not generally known; and even if known, it could not be assured under present treatment practices. Therefore, in the interest of safety, it has usually been assumed here that there is no removal of toxic substances as a result of the defined treatment process. Substances not evaluated in this Section are not neces- sarily innocuous in public water supply sources. It would be impractical to prepare a compendium of all toxic, dele- terious, or otherwise unwelcome agents, both organic and inorganic, that may enter a surface water supply. In specific locations it may become necessary to consider substances not included in this section, particularly where local pol- lution suggests that a substance may have an effect on the beneficial use of water for public supplies. In summary: the recommendations in this Section for raw water quality for public supplies are intended to assure that the water will be potable-for surface water, with the defined treatment process; for ground water, with no treatment. For waters zoned for public supply but not meeting the recommeizdations in all respects, the recommendations can be considered a minimum target toward which efforts at upgrading the quality should be directed. In some instances the natural quality of raw water may make meeting certain recommendations impractical or even impossible. For con- stituentsfor which this is the case, and where health is not afactor, the natural quality of the water can be considered a reasonable target toward which to work, although determination of "natural quality" may require considerable effort, expense, and time. Wherever water quality is found superior to that described in the recommen- dations, efforts should be made to minimize its degradation. SAMPLING AND MONITORING The importance of establishing an effective sampling and monitoring program and the difficulties involved cannot be overemphasized. A representative sample of the water entering the raw water intake should be obtained. Multiple sampling, chronologically and spatially, may be necessary for an adequate characterization of the raw water body, particularly for constituents associated with suspended solids (Great Britain Department of the Environment 1971 ;3 Brown et al. 1970;2 Rainwater and Thatcher 1960 4). Moni- toring plans should take into account the results of sanitary surveys (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel- fare 1969;7 American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation 197P hereafter referred to as Standard Methods 197!5) and the possibility of two types of water quality hazards: ( 1) the chronic hazard where constituent concen- trations are near the limit of acceptability much of the time, and (2) the periodic hazard caused by upstream release of wastes or accidental spills of hazardous substances into the stream. Samples for the determination of dissolved con- stituents only should be passed through a noncontaminat- ing filter at time of collection. 52/Section Il-Public Water Supplies ANALYTICAL METHODS The recommendations are based on the use'tlf analytical methods for raw water analysis as described in Standard Methods (1971). 5 Other procedures of similar scientific acceptability are continuously evolving but whatever the analytical procedure used, the panel assumes that it will conform to the statistical concepts of precision, accuracy, and reporting style discussed in the introduction to Standard Methods (1971).5 Analytical results should indicate whether they apply to a filtered or unfiltered sample. GROUND WATER CHARACTERISTICS Development of water quality recommendations for ground water must provide for the significant differences between surface water and ground water. Ground water is generally not confined in a discrete channel. Its quality can be measured in detail only with difficulty and at great expense. A thorough knowledge of the hydrologic char- acteristics of the ground water body can be obtained only after extensive study. Movement of ground water can be extremely slow so that contamination occurring in one part of an aquifer ma1 not become evident at a point of with- drawal for several, tens, hundreds, or even thousands of years. Wastes mix differently with ground waters than they do with surface waters. Where allowance for a mixing zone in the immediate vicinity of a waste outfall can be provided for in surface water standards under the assumption that mixing is complete within a short distance downstream, dispersion of waste in a ground water body may not be complete for many years. At the same time, the long re- tention time will facilitate bacterial or chemical reactions with aquifer components that result in removal or decompo- sition of a pollutant to the point where it no longer degrades the aquifer. Because these reactions are imperfectly known and cannot be predicted at the present time, it is necessary to monitor" the movement of waste in a ground water body from the point of introduction outward. Bodies of ground water cannot be monitored adequately by sampling at the point of use. Inadvertent or careless contamination of fresh ground water bodies is occurring today from the leaching of ac- cumulated salts··frorn irrigation, animal feed lots, road salt, agriculturalfertilizers, dumps; and landfills, or from leakage of sewer lines in sandy soil, septic .tank effluents, petroleum product pipelines, and chemical waste lagoons. Another source of contamination is the upward movement of saline water in improperly plugged weUs and drill holes, or as the result' of excessive withdrawal of ground ·water. Deep-well mjection causesintentionalintroductioo of.wastes into saline ground water bodies. :Because of their common . use as private water supplies ·in rural areas, aU geologically unconfined (water-table) aq;uife:rs co.uld be placed in a classification comparable ·to that for raw surface waters used for public water supplies. Even though not all waters in these aquifers are suitable for use without treatment, such classification could be used to prohibit introduction of wastes into them. This in turn would restrict the use of landfills and other surface disposal practices. Limited use of the unsaturated zone for disposal of wastes would still be acceptable, provided that decompo- sition of organic wastes and sorption of pollutants in the zone of aeration were essentially complete before the drain water reached the water table. Bodies of artesian ground water in present use as public and private supplies could be similarly classified wherever their natural source of re- charge was sufficient to sustain the current yield and quality. Disposal of wastes in either of the above types of aquifers could be expressly forbidden on the basis of their classifi- cation as public water supplies. Furthermore, before dis- posal of wastes to the soil or bedrock adjacent to aquifers used or usable for public supply were permitted, it could be required that a geologic reconnaissance be made to de- termine possible effects on ground water quality. Water quality recommendations for raw ground waters to be used for public water supplies are more restrictive than water quality recommendations for raw surface water source because of the assumption that no treatment will be given to the ground waters. The distinction between surface and ground waters is therefore necessary for proper appli- cation of the recommendations. In certain cases this dis- tinction is not easily made. For example, collector wells in shallow river valley alluvium, wells tapping cavernous limestone, and certain . other types of shallow wells may intercept water only a short distance away, or after only a brief period of travel, from the point at which it was surface water. Springs used as raw water sources present a similar problem. Choice of the appropriate water quality recom- mendations to apply to such raw water sources should be based on <the individual situation. WATER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS The purpose of establishing water quality recommen- dations and, subsequently, establishing water quality stand- ards is to protect the nation's waters from degradation and to provide a basis for improvement of their quality. These actions should not preclude the use of good water manage- ment practices. For example, it may be possible to supple- ment streamflow with ground water pumped from wells, or to replace ground water removed from an aquifer with surface water th:rough artificial recharge. These .other sources of water may be of lower quality than the water originally present, but it should remain a management choice whether this lower quality is preferable to no water at aU. In arid parts· of the nation, water management practices of this sort have been applied for many years to partially offset the effects of "mining"· of ground water (iie., its withdrawal faster than it can be recharged naturally). Furthermore, it is possible, by merely removing ground water from the aquifer, to degrade the quality of that remaining-by inducing recharge from a surface or ground water body of lesser quality. It does not seem reasonable to forbid the use of the high-quality water that is there because of this potential degradation. Of what value is it if it cannot be used? It would appear, then, that "degradation by choice" might be an alternative under certain conditions and within certain limits. This type of degradation is not com- parable to that resulting from disposal of wastes in the water body. It is simply the price exacted for using the water. In the case of mining without artificial recharge, the philosophy involved is the same as that applied to the mining of other nonrenewable resources such as metal ores or fossil fuels. Because considerations of recreation and aesthetics and the maintenance of fish and wildlife are generally not involved in this kind of management situation, Introduction/ 53 it is reasonable that water quality standards should provide for the mining and artificial recharge of bodies of ground water zoned for public supply. As in any water manage- ment program, it would be necessary to understand the hydrologic system and to monitor changes induced in the system by management activities. Preservation of water management choices can be pro- tected by water use classification. Classification of surface waters has not been based solely on the fact that those waters are being used for public supply at the present time. Presumably it has been based on the decision that the body of water in question should be usable for public supply with no more than the routine forms of water treatment, whether or ncit it is presently in use for that purpose. Conversely, failure to zone a body of water for public supply would not necessarily preclude its use for that purpose. Selective zoning could thus be used to assure desirable water management practices. ALKALINITY Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of a water to neutralize acids. Anions of weak acids such as bicarbonate, carbonate, hydroxide, sulfide, bisulfide, silicate, and phos- phate may contribute to alkalinity. The species composition of alkalinity is a function of pH, mineral composition, temperature, and ionic strength. The predominant chemical system present in natural waters is the carbonate equilibria in which carbonate and bicarbonate ions and carbonic acid are in equilibrium (Standards Methods 1971). 8 The bicarbonate ion is usually more prevalent. A water may have a low alkalinity but a relatively high pH value or vice versa, so alkalinity alone may not be of major importance as a measure of water quality. The alkalinity of natural waters may have a wide range. An alkalinity below 30 to 50 mg/1, as CaC03, may be too low to react with hydrolyzable coagulants, such as iron or aluminum salts, and still provide adequate residual alka- linity to produce a water that is not excessively corrosive. Alkalinities below 25 mg/1, as CaC03, may also lead to corrosive waters when only chlorination is practiced, since there would be inadequate. buffer capacity to prevent the pH from dropping appreciably (Weber and Stumm 1963).9 Low alkalinity waters may be difficult to stabilize by calcium carbonate saturation which would otherwise pre- vent corrosion of the metallic parts of the system. 54 High alkalinity waters may have a distinctly unpleasant taste. Alkalinities of natural waters rarely exceed 400 to 500 mg/1 (as CaCOa). Conclusion No recommendation can be made, because the desirable alkalinity for any water is associated with other constituents such as pH and hardness. For treatment control, however, it is desirable that there be no sudden variations in the alkalinity. AMMONIA Ammonia may be a natural constituent of certain ground waters. In surface waters its concentration is normally 0.1 mg/1 or less as nitrogen. Higher levels are usually indicative of sewage or industrial contamination (McKee and Wolf 1963);30 Ammonia consumes dissolved oxygen as a result of its biochemical oxidation to nitrite and nitrate. Reliance on the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) test (Standard Methods 1971 33) for measuring the efficiency of sewage treatment and the quality of effluents has focused attention principally on the oxygen requirements -of carbonaceous matter. Ammonia is therefore a common constituent of treated sewage, and much of the burden of satisfying the nitrogenous oxygen demand has, in general, been shifted from the sewage treatment plant to the receiving water (Sawyer and Bradney 1946,32 Ludzack and Ettinger 1962,29 Johnson and Schroepfer 1964,24 Barth et al. 1966,12 Cour- chaine 1968,1 8 Barth and Dean 1970,11 :Holden 1970,22 Barth 1971,10 Great Britain Department of the Environment 1971,21 Mt. Pleasant and Schlickenrieder 1971 31). Ammonia is sometimes corrosive to copper and copper alloys (La Que and Copson 1963,26 Butler and Ison 196613) ; it is also a potential algal and microbial nutrient in water distribution systems (Larson 1939,27 Ingram and Macken- thun 196323). Ammonia has a significant effect on the disinfection of water with chlorine. The reactions of ammonia with chlorine result in the formation of chloramine compounds having markedly less disinfecting efficiency than free chlorine. Ammonia substantially increases the chlorine demand at water treatment plants that practice free-residual chlori- nation. Approximately 10 parts of chlorine per part of ammonia nitrogen are required to satisfy the ammonia chlorine demand (Butterfield et al. 1943,16 Butterfield and Wattie 1946,1 5 Butterfield 1948,14 Fair et al. 1948,19 Kelly and Sanderson 1958,25 Clarke and Chang 1959,17 Laubusch 197!28). It would therefore be desirable to have as low a level as possible in the raw water. However, since ammonia is present in ground water and in some surface water supply sources, particularly at cold temperatures, and since it can be removed by the defined treatment process with adequate chlorination, the cost of the treatment is the determining factor. In the previous edition of Water Quality Criteria (U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 1968, 34 hereafter referred to as FWPCA 196820 ) a permis- sible level of 0.5 mg/1 nitrogen was proposed. This is not a sacrosanct number, but it is considered to be tolerable. 55 Recommendation Because ammonia may be indicative of pollution and because of its significant effect on chlorination, it is recommended that ammonia nitrogen in public water supply sources not exceed 0.5 mgjl. ------------------ ARSENIC Arsenic, a metalloid that occurs ubiquitously in nature, can be both acutely and chronically toxic to man. Although no form of arsenic is known to be essential, arsenic has been added in small amounts to animal feed as a growth stimulant. For 1,577 surface water samples collected from l30-sampling points in the United States, 87 samples showed detectable arsenic concentrations of 5 to 336 micrograms per liter (~g/1) with a mean level of64 p,g/1 (Kopp 1969).50 The chemical forms of arsenic consist of trivalent and pentavalent inorganic and organic compounds. It is not known which forms of arsenic occur in drinking water. Although' comb~nations of all forms are possible, it can be reasonably assumed that the pentavalent inorganic form is the most prevalent. Conditions that favor cnemicai and biological oxidation promote the shift to the pentavalent species; and conversely, those that favor reduction will shift the equilibrium to the trivalent state. Arsenic content in drinking water in most United States supplies ranges from a trace to approximately 0.1 mg/1 (McCabe et al. 1970).52 No adverse health effects have been reported from the inges~ion of these waters. Arsenic has been suspected of being carcinogenic (Paris 1820,55 Sommers and McManus 1953,60 Buchanan 1962,38 Frost 196 7, 45 Trelles et al. 1970,61 Borgono and Greiber 19·72 36}, but substantial evidence from human experience and aniinal studies now supports the position that .arsenicals are not tumorigenic at levels encountered in the environ- ment (Snegireff and Lombard 1951,58 Baroni et al. 1963,35 Boutwell 1963,37 Hueper and Payne 1963,47 Pinto and Bennett 1963,56 Kanisawa and Schroeder 1967,49 Milner 1969).53 Several epidemiological studies ill Taiwan (Chen and Wu 1962)39 have reported a correlation between the in- <:reased incidence of hyperkertosis and skin cancer with consumption 0f water containing more than 0.3 mg/1 arsenic. A similar problem has been reported in Argentina. (Trelles et al. 1970).61 Dermatological manifestations of arsenicism were noted in children of Antofagasta, Chile, who used a water supply containing 0.8 mg/1 arsenic. A new water supply was provided, and preliminary data showed that arsenic levels in-hair decreased (Borgono and Greiber 1972).36 56 Inorganic arsenic is absorbed readily from the gastro- intestinal tract, the lungs, and to a lesser extent from the skin and becomes distributed throughout the body tissues and fluids (Sollmann 1957).59 It is excreted via urine, feces, sweat, and the epithelium of the skin (Dupont et al. 1942,44 Hunter et al. 1942,48 Lowry et al. 1942,51 Ducoff et al. 1948,43 Crema 1955,40 Musil and Dejmal 195 7). 54 During chronic exposure, arsenic accumulates mainly in bone, muscle, and skin, and to a smaller degree in liver and kidneys. This accumulation can be measured by analysis of hair samples. Mter cessation of continuous exposure, arsenic excretion may last up to 70 days (DuBois and Geiling 1959).42 In. man,_ subacute and chronic arsenic poisoning may be insidious and pernicious. In mild chronic poisoning, the only symptoms present are fatigue and loss of energy. The following symptoms may be observed in more severe intoxi- cation; gastrointestinal catarrh, kidney degeneration, ten- ency to edema, polyneuritis, liver cirrhosis, bone marrow injury, and exfoliate dermatitis (DiPalma 1965,41 Goodman and Gilman 1965).46 It has been claimed that individuals become tolerant to arsenic. However, this_apparent effect is probably due to the ingestion of the relatively insoluble, coarse powder, since no true tolerance has been demon- strated (DuBois and Geiling 1959). 42 The total intake of arsenic from food averages approxi- mately 900 ~g/day (Schroeder and Balassa 1966).57 At a concentration of 0.1 mg/1 and an average intake of 2 liters of water per day, the intake from water would not exceed 200 ~g/day, or approximately 18 per cent of the total ingested arsenic. Recommendation Because of adverse physiological etlects on hu- mans and because there is inadequate information on the effectiveness of the defined treatment proc- ess in removing arsenic, it is recommended that public water supply sources contain no more than 0~1:' mgfl total arsenic. BACTERIA Procedures for the detection of disease-causing bacteria, viruses, protozoa,. worms, and fungi are complex, time- consuming, .and-.in need of further refinement to increase the levels of sensitivity and selectiVity. Therefore; an indirect approach to microbial hazard measurement is required. Coliform bacteria have been used as indicators of sanitary quality in water since 1880 when Escherica coli (E. coli) and similar gram negative . bacteria were shown to. be normal inhabitants of fecal discharges. Although the total coliform group as presently recognized in the Drinking Water Standards includes organisms known to vary in charac- teristics, the total'coliform·concept merits consideration as an indicator of sanitary significance, because the organisms are normally present in large numbers in the intestinal' tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals. Numerous·stream•pollution surveys over the years have used the total coliform measurement'as anindex of fecal con- tamination. However, occasional poor correlations to: sani., tary significance result from the inclusion of some strains iii the total coliform group that have a wide distribution in the· environment and are not specific to fecal material. Therefore, interpretation oftotal coliform data from sewage, polluted water, and unpolluted'waters:is, sometimes difficult For example, Enterobacter (Aerobacter) aerogenes and. Entero- b'acter· cloacae can be found on various types of vegetation. (Thomas and~ McQl,!illin 1952,78 Fraser et al. 1956,66 Geldreich et al. 1964,73 Papavassiliou et al. 1967 75 ), in soil (Frank and Skinner 1941,65 Taylor 1951,77 Randall 1956,76 Geldreich.et a[ 1962b72), and in water polluted in· tlie,past. Also included are phmt pathogens (Elrod 1942)62 and other organisms of uncertain taxonomy whose sanitary significance is·' <J!lestionable; All of these coliform subgroups may be found .in sewage and iirpelluted water .. A more specific bacterial indicator of warm-blooded ani'- mal corttamination is fecal coliform, defined as those coli- form that can ferment lactose at 44.5 C to produce gas in a multiple· tube·,procedure. (U.S .. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Adfu.inistration 196679 hereafter referred to as (FWPCA 1966}64 or acidity in die .membrane filter procedure . (M-FC medium: Geldreich et al. 1965);71 Research showed that 96.14 per Gent of the 57 coliform in human feces was positive by this.test (Geldreich et al. 1962a).70 Examination of the excrement from other warm-blooded animals, including livestock, poultry, cats, dogs,. and· rodents indicates that fecaF coliform contribute 93.0 per cent of the total coliform population (FWPCJX 1966),64 Geldreich et al. 1968).68 At the present time, the only data available from numer- ous freshwater stream pollution studies on.. a correlation of pathogen occurrence with varying levels of fecal colif6rm· are for Salmonella ( Geldreich 1970,67 Geldreich and Bordner 1971 69 ). These data indicate a sharp increase in the fre- quency of Salmonella detection when fecal coliform densities are above 200 per 100 milliliters (ml). For densities.-of 1 to 200/100 ml, 41 examinations showed 31.7 per cent positive detection ofSalmonella. For densities of 201 to 1,000/100 ml, 30 examinations showed 83percent positive detection. For densities of 1,000 to 2,000, 88.5 per cent positive detection was found in 17 examinations, and for densities above- 2,000, 97:6. per cent positive detection was found in 123 examinations. The significance is further illustrated by· a, bacterial quality study at several water plant intakes albng the Missouri River. When fecal coliform exceeded 2,000 orga- nisms per 100 ml, Salmonella, Poliovirus types 2 and 3, and ECHO virus types 7 and 33 were detected· (Environmental Protection Agency 1971). 63 Any occurrence of fecal coli- form .in water is therefore prime evidence of contamination by wastes of some warm-blooded-. animals, and as the fecal coliform densities increase, potential health hazards-Become greater and the challenge to water treatment more de- manding. A study ofthe bacteriological quality of raw water near six public intakes along the Ohio River showed that of 18 monthly values with maximum total coliform densities in excess'of 10,000 organisms per 100 ml, 12 were not paralleled by fecal coliform densities above 2,000 organisms per 100 ml (ORSANCO Water Users Committee 1971).74 The fecal coliform portion of' these total coliform populations rang~d from 0.2 to 12 per cent. Data from the Missouri· River study·showed total coliform densities at water intakes to be frequentlt in excess of 20,000' ongani.Sms· per roo ml 58/Section 11-Public Water Supplies with concurrent fecal coliform densities above 2,000 (En- vironmental Protection Agency 1971).63 This i2-dicates less coliform aftergrowth, but proportionately more recent fecal pollution. The major limitation to the total coliform index is the uncertain correlation to the occurrence of pathogenic micro- organisms. However, fecal coliform occurrences in water reflect the presence of fecal contamination, which is the most likely source for pathogens. Total coliform measurements may be used as an al- ternative to fecal coliform measurements with the realization that such data are subject to a wide range of density fluctuations of doubtful sanitary significance. A well-operated plant using the defined treatment to process raw surface water meeting the recommendations below can be expected to me~t a value of 1 total coliform per 100 ml with proper chlorination practice. When coli- form counts in raw surface water approach the recommen- dations, both pre-and post-chlorination may be required to achieve proper disinfection. Recommendation In light of the capabilities of the defined treat- ment process for raw surface waters and the sta- tistical correlations mentioned, it is recommended that the geometric means of fecal coliform and total coliform densities in raw surface water sources not exceed 2,000/100 ml and 20,000/100 ml, re- spectively. ---------------· _ _U___ BARIUM Barium (Ba) ingestion can cause serious toxic effects on the heart, blood vessels, and nerves. Barium enters the body primarily through air and water, since essentially no food contains barium in appreciable amounts. The solubility product of barium sulfate indicates that 1.3 mg/1 sulfate ion limits the solubility of barium to 1.0 mg/1. There is some evidence that barium may be ad- sorbed by oxides or hydroxides of iron and manganese (Ljunggren 1955).83 For the public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States, the median barium concentration was 0.05 mg/1 with a range of 0.01 to 0.058 mg/1. For 1,577 samples of surface waters collected in 130 locations in the United States the barium concentration in 1,568 samples ranged from 2 to 340 JLg/1 with a mean of 43 JLg/1 (Kopp 1969).82 Barium is recognized as a general muscle stimulant, especially of the heart muscle (Sollmann 1957).85 The fatal dose for man is considered to be from 0.8 to 0.9 grams(g) as the chloride (550 to 600 mg Ba). Most fatalities have occurred from mistaken use of barium salts incorporated in rat poison. Barium is capable of causing nerve block (Lorente and Feng 1946)84 and in small or moderate doses produces transient increase in blood pressure by vaso- constriction ( Gotsev 1944). 81 There apparently has been no study made of the amounts of barium that can be tolerated in drinking water, nor any study of the effects of long-term feeding of barium salts from which a standard might be derived. The present barium standard has been developed from the barium-in-air standard, 0.5 mg/cubic meter (m3) (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 1958),80 based on the retention of inhaled barium dusts, and an estimate of the possible adsorption from the intestines (Stokinger and Woodward 1958).86 This value is 2 mg/1. The air standard provides no indication of the inclusion of a factor of safety. Therefore, it is reasonable to provide a factor of safety of 2. for protection of heterogeneous population. Recommendation Because of the adverse physiological effects of barium, and because there are no data on the effectiveness of the defined treatment process on its removal, it is recommended that a limit for barium of 1 mgfl not be exceeded in public water supply sources. BORON The previous Report of the Committee on \<Vater Quality Criteria (FWPCA 1968)87 recommended a permissible limit of I mg/1 for boron. When a new Drinking Water Standards Technical Review Committee was established in 1971, it determined that the evidence available did not indicate that the suggested limit of 1 mg/1 was neces~ary. More information is required before deciding whether a specific limit is needed for physiological reasons. Whenever public water supplies are used to irrigate plants, boron concentrations may be of concern because of the element's effect on many plants. For consideration of the possible effect of boron on certain irrigated plants, see Section Von Agricultural Uses of Water (p. 341). 59 I CADMIUM Cadmium is biologically a nonessential, nonbeneficial element. The :possibility of seepage of cadmium into ground water from electroplating plants was reported in 1954 when concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 3.2 mg/1 were recorded (Lieber and Welsch 1954).97 Another source of cadmium contamination in water may be zinc-galvanized iron in which cadmium is a contaminant. For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling points in the United States, 40 samples showed detectable concentrations of 1 to· 20 #'g/1 of cadmium with a mean level of 9;5 #'g/1. Six samples exceeded 10.J£g/l (Kop.p ,1969)~95 Cadniium-is an element of high toxic potential. Evidence for the serious toxic potential of cadmium is provided by: poisoning from cadmium-contaminated food (Frant and Kleeman 1941)92 and beverages (Cangelosi 1941),;88 .t;pi- demiolqgic ..evidence that .cadmium may be associated with :remil arterial · hypertension under certain conditions (Schroeder 1965) ;102 epidemiologic association of cadmium with Itai-itai disease in Japan (Murata et al. 1970);99 and long-term oral 'toxicity studies in animals (Fitzhugh.· ana Meiller 1941,91 Ginn and Volker·J944;93 Wilson and DeEds 1950).104 'Symptoms of violent nausea were reported for 29 school children who had consumed fruit ice sticks containing 13-15 mg/1 cadmium (Frant and Kleeman 1941).92 IT'his would be equivalent to 1.3 to 3.0,~g-df·-cadmium ingested. .ilt mas .been ·stated :that the concentration and not the absolute amount determines the acute toxicity of cadmium (Potts et al. 1950).101 Also, equivalent concentrations of cadmium in water are consideretl more toxic than .concen~ trations in food because of,the effect of:components in the food. The association of cardiovascular disease; particularly hypertension, with ingestion of cadmium remains unsettled. Although.€onflicting evidence has been reported for man (Schroeder 1965,1°2 Morgan-'196~)98 and for animals (Kani- sawa and Schroeder 1969,94 Lener and Bibr'.l9709fi), it is notable that hypertension has not been associated with Itai-itai disease (Nogawa and Kawano 1969).100 In view of the cumulative retention of :cadmium by hepatic (live:.:) and renal ·(kidney) tissue cDecker eLal. 1958,9° Cotzias et al. 1961,89 Schroeder and Ba1assa 196 P 03) and the association of a severe endemic Itai-itai disease syndrome with ingestion of as little as 600 #'g/day (Yama- ,gata 1970),1°5 Drinking Water Standards limit concentra- tions of cadmium to 10 ·pg/1 so-that '(the .maximum ~daily intake of cadmium. from water (assuming a 2 liter daily aonsumption) will. not exceed 20 #£g. This ·is one-third .the amount of cadmium derived "from 'food .(Schroeder .and 'BaJassa 196l)J03 A no-effect level for intake and accumula- tion of cadmium in man has not been established. Recommendation Because of the adverse ·physiological e:ffects of cadmium, and because there is inadequate infor- mation on the e:ffect of the defined .treatment _process on_removal of cadmium, it is.recommended that the .cadmium.concentration "in public water SJipply sources:-not,exceed 0.010 mgfl. 60 CHLORIDE Chloride ion in high concentrations, as part of the total dissolved solids in water, can be detected by taste and can :lead'to consurner-n;:jection of the water supply. In undefined high concentrations it may enhance corrosion _of water utility facilities and household appurtenances (American Water Works Association 1971).106 For the public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in -the ·United States,· the. median chloride concentration was 13 mg/1 with a range of 0 to-540 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker 1964).107 . ~he .median .. chloride~-concentrations ;'detected' by -taste by a panel of 10 to 20 persons were 182, 160, and 372 mg/1 from sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts respectively sodium chloride and calcium chloride respectively (Lock- hart et al. 1955).108 On the basis of taste and because of the wide range of taste perception of humans, .·and the absence of information on· objectionable concentrations,· a limit for public water supplies of250 mg/l chloride appears to be. reasonable where sources of better quality water are or can be made available. However, there may be .a great difference between a de- tectable concentration and an objectionable concentration, ,and acclimatization might be an important factor . Recommendation (Whipple· 1907).110 The median concentration identified On the basis of taste preferences,.not because of by a la,rger panel of 53 adults w.as _ 395 mg/l.chloride .• for '· toxic.;considerations, and because the defined treat- ,sodium .chloride '(Richter and MacLean· 1939).109 'When ;ment cprocess "~does~, .. not remove chlorides, it is compared ·with distilled water for a difference in taste, . recommended ·that chlorldeln public water supply' the median concentration was 61 mg/1. Coffee was affected sources not exceed 250 mg'/lcif sources of lower ,in:.taste·.when brewed with 210 and 222~mg/l chloride from levels are available. 61 I CHROMIUM Chromium is rarely found in natural waters. It may occur as a contaminant from plating wastes, blowdown from cooling towers, or from circulating water in refriger- ation equipment where it is used to control corrosion. It has been found in some foods and in air. Chromium can be detected in most biological systems. This does not prove it essential, although there is reasonable evidence that it does have a biological role (Mertz 1969).119 For 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling points in the United States, 386 samples showed concen- trations of I to 112 pg/1 with a mean concentration of 9.7 pg/1 for chromium (Kopp 1969).11& The hexavalent state of chromium is toxic to man, pro- duces lung tumors when inhaled (Machle and Gregorius 1948,117 U.S. Federal Security Agency, Public Health Serv- ice 1953 123), and readily induces skin sensitizations. Tri- valent chromium salts show none of the effects of the hexavalent form (Fairhall 1957).114 The trivalent form is not likely to be present in waters of pH 5 or above because of the very low solubility of the hydrated oxide. At present, the levels of chromate ion that can be tolerated by man for a lifetime without adverse effects on health are undetermined. It is not known whether cancer will result from ingestion of chromium in any of its valence forms. A family of four individuals is reported to have drunk water for a period of three years with as high as 0.45 mg/1 chromium in the hexavalent form without known effects on their health, as determined by a single medical exami- nation (Davids and Lieber 1951).113 Levels of 0.45 to 25 mg/1 of chromium administered to rats in chromate and chromic ion form in drinking water for one year produced no toxic responses (MacKenzie et al. 1958).118 However, significant accumulation in the tissues oc- curred abruptly at concentrations above 5 mg/1. Naumova (1965)120 demonstrated that 0.033 mg of chromium from potassium bichromate per kilogram (kg) of body weight in dogs enhanced the secretory and motor activity of the intestines. Although there does not appear to be a clearly defined no-effect level, other studies (Coun et al. 1932,112 Brard 1935,111 Gross and Heller 1946,115 Schroeder et al. 1963a, 121 Schroeder et al. 1963b122) suggested that a concen- tration of 0.05 mg/1 with an average intake of 2 liters of water per day would avoid hazard to human health. Recommendation Because of adverse physiological effects, and be- cause there are insufficient data on the effect of the defined treatment process on the removal of chromium in the chromate form, it is recom- mended that public water supply sources for drink- ing water contain no more than 0.05 mgfl total chromium. 62 COLOR Color in public water supplies is aesthetically undesirable to the consumer and is economically undesirable to some industries. Colored substances can chelate metal ions, thereby interfering with coagulation (Hall and Packham 1965130), and can reduce the capacity of ion exchange resins (Frisch and Kunin 1960).129 Another serious problem is the ability of colored substances to complex or stabilize iron and manganese and render them more difficult for water treatment processes to remove (Robinson 1963,135 Shapiro 1964136). Although the soluble colored substances in waters have been studied for over 150 years, there is still no general agreement on their structure. A number of recent studies have indicated that colored substances are a complex mix- ture of polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids (Black and Christman 1963a, 125 1963b, 126 Lamar and Goerlitz 1963,133 Christman and Ghassemi 1966,128 Lamar and Goerlitz 1966134) with the measurable color being a function of the total organics concentration and the pH (Black and Christ- man l963a,l25 Singley et al. 1966137). 63 The removal of color can be accomplished by the defined process when the dosage and the pH are adjusted as func- tions of the raw water color (Black et al. 1963,127 American Water Works Association Research Committee on Color Problems 1967).124 These relationships may not apply to colors resulting from dyes and some other industrial and processing sources that cannot be measured by comparison with the platinum-cobalt standards (Hazen 1892,131 1896,132 Standard Methods 197P38). Such colors should not be present in concentrations that cannot be removed by the defined process. Recommendation Because color in public water supply sources is aesthetically undesirable and because of the limi- tations of the defined treatment process, a maxi- mum of 75 platinum-cobalt color units is recom- mended. I COPPER Copper is frequently found in surface waters and in some ground waters in low concentrations (less than 1 mg/1). It is an essential and beneficial element in human metabolism, and :it is known that a deficiency in· copper results in nu- tritional anemia in infants (Sollmann 1957).141 Because the normal diet provides only little more than what is required, an additional supplement from water may ensure an ade- quate intake. Small amounts are ~generally regarded as nontoxic; but large doses may produce emesis; .and.'pro~ longed oral administration may result in liver damage. For"l,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling points in the United States, 1,173 showed concentrations of 1 to 280 ,ug/1 with a mean· concentration of 15 ,ug/1 (Kopp 1969).14° Copper imparts some taste to water, but the detectable range_ varies from 1 ' to 5 mg/ 1 (Cohen et al. 1960139), depending upon· the acuity of individuaLtaste ·perceptions. Copper in public water supplies enhances corrosion of aluminum.in partiCular and of zinc to a lesser degree. A limit of 0.1 mg/1 has been recommended to avoid corrosion of aluminum (Uhlig 1963).142 The limit of 1 mg/1 copper .is based on considerations of taste rather than hazards to health .. Recommendation To-prevent taste problems and because:.tliere: is:, little information on the effect of the defined treat- ment process on the removal of copper, it is recom- mended that copper in public water supply sources not exceed 1 mgfl. 64 j. CYANIDE Standards for cyanide in water have been published by the World Health Organization in "International Stand- ards for Drinking Water" (1963)148 and the "European Standards for Drinking Water" (1970).149 These standards appear to be based on the toxicity of cyanide to fish, not to man. Cyanide in reasonable doses (I 0 mg or less) is readily converted to thiocyanate in the human body and in this form is much less toxic to man. Usually, lethal toxic effects occur only when the detoxifying mechanism is over- whelmed. The oral toxicity of cyanide for man is shown in the following table. Proper chlorination with a free chlorine residual under neutral or alkaline conditions will reduce the cyanide level to below the recommended limit. The acute oral toxicity of cyanogen chloride, the chlorination product of hydrogen cyanide, is approximately one-twentieth that of hydrogen cyanide (Spector 1955) .14& On the basis of the toxic limit calculated from the threshold limit for air (Stokinger and Woodward 1958),147 TABLE Il-1-0ral Toxicity of Cyanide for Man Dosage Response uterature citations 2.H.7 mgfday .............•..•..•...••. Noninjurious Sm1th 19441" 10 mg, single dose .........•..•........... Nonmjunous Bodansky and Levy 1923'" 19 ml/1 in water ..•.••................... Calculaledlromthesafe thresh· Slokinger and Woodward 19511'" old limitfor air 5H mg, smgle dose ..................... Fatal The Merck Index 01 Chemicals and Drugs 19681« and assuming a 2-liter daily consumption of water contain- ing 0.2 mg/1 cyanide as a maximum, an appreciable factor of safety would be provided. Recommendation Because of the toxicity of cyanide, it is recom- mended that a limit of 0.2 mgjl cyanide not be exceeded in public water supply sources. DISSOLVED OXYGEN Dissolved oxygen in raw water sources aids in the elimi- nation of undesirable constituents, particularly iron and m.anganese, by precipitation of the oxidized form. It also induces the biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, and prevents the anaerobic reduction of dissolved sulfate to hydrogen sulfide. More importantly, dissolved oxygen in a raw surface water supply serves as an indicator that excessive quantities of oxygen-demanding wastes are prob- ably not present in the water, although there can be sig- nificant exceptions to this. Therefore, it is desirable that oxygen in the water be at or near saturation. On the other hand, oxygen enhances corrosion of treatment facilities, distributing systems, and household appurtenances in many waters. Oxygen depletion in unmixed bodies of water can result from the presence of natural oxygen-demanding substances as well as from organic pollution. Lakes and reservoirs 65 may contain little or no oxygen, yet may be essentially free of oxygen-demanding wastes. This is because contact with the air is limited to the upper surface, and because thermal stratification in some lakes and reservoirs prevents oxy- genation of lower levels directly from the air. Similar con- ditions also occur in ground waters. Conclusion No recommendation is made, because the pres- ence of dissolved oxygen in a raw water supply has both beneficial and detrimental aspects. However, when the waters contain ammonia or iron and manganese in their reduced form, the benefits of the sustained presence of oxygen at or near satu- ration for a period of time can be greater than the disadvantages. I FLUORIDE The fluoride ion has potential beneficial effects, but excessive fluoride in drinking water supplies produces ob- jectionable dental fluorosis that increases as a continuum with increasing fluoride concentration above the recom- mended control limits. In the United States, this is the only harmful effect resulting from fluoride found in drinking water (Dean 1936,1 50 Moulton 1942,158 Heyroth 1952,155 McClure 1953,157 Leone et al. 1954,1 56 Shaw 1954,169 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service 1959160). The fluoride concentrations exces- sive for a given community depend on climatic conditions because the amount of water (and consequently the amount of fluoride) ingested by children is primarily influenced by air temperature (Galagan 1953,151 Ga1agan and Lamson 1953,152 Galagan and Vermillion 195 7,153 Galagan et al. 1957154). Rapid fluctuations in raw water fluoride ion levels would create objectionable operating problems for treatment plants serving communities that supplemtnt raw water fluoride concentrations. From the point of view of a water pollution control program any value less than that recom- 66 mended would generally be acceptable at a point of do- mestic water withdrawal. Recommendation Because of adverse physiological effects and be- cause the defined treatment process does nothing to reduce excessive fluoride concentrations, it is recommended that the maximum levels shown in Table 11-2 not be exceeded in public water supply sources. TABLE 11-2-Fluoride Recommendation Annual averaae of maximum daily air temperatures• fahrenheit 80-91 72-79 65-11 59-64 ~58 50-M • Based on temperature data obtained for a minimum of ova years. AuOiide maximum ml/1 1.4 1.6 1 8 2.0 2.2 2.4 I FOAMING AGENTS Many chemical substances occurring either naturally or as components of industrial or domestic waste will cause water to foam when agitated or when air is entrained. The most common foaming agent in use today is the syn- thetic anionic surfactant, linear aikyl benzene sulfonate (LAS). Branched alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) was used prior to I 965 as a base for synthetic detergents. Because of its persistent foaming properties, however, ABS was re- placed by LAS. The most objectionable property of sur- factants is their foaming capacity which can produce unsightly masses of foam in a stream or at the home tap. The surfactants also tend to disperse normally insoluble or sorbed substances, thus interfering with their removal by coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration. Although conversion to the more readily biodegradable linear alkyl sulfonates by the detergent industry has ·de- creased the persistence of sulfonates in aerobic waters, measurable concentrations of these substances still can be found in both surface and ground waters. Concentrations of anionic surfactants in water can be determined by means of their reaction with methylene blue dye (Standard Meth- ods 1971).162 Concentrations of less than 0.5 mg/1, as methylene blue active substances (MBAS), do not cause foaming or present serious interference in the defined treat- ment process and are well below the inferred limit (700 mg/1) of toxicity to humans based on tests on rats fed diets of LAS (Buehler et al. 1971).161 It must be recognized that this procedure does not determine the total concentration of foaming agents, merely the concentration of materials that react with methylene blue, most of which are anionic surfactants. Although cationic and nonionic synthetic sur- factants do not respond, and not all substances that respond to the methylene blue process cause foaming, the methylene blue test is the best available measure of foaming properties. Recommendation To avoid undesirable aesthetic effects and be- cause the defined treatment process does little or nothing to reduce the level of foaming agents, it is recommended that foaming agents determined as methylene blue active substances not exceed 0.5 mgfl in public water supply sources. 67 ------------------------ I HARDNESS Hardness is defined as the sum of the polyvalent cations expressed as the equivalent quantity of calcium carbonate (CaC03). The most common such cations are calcium and magnesium. In general, these metal ions in public water supply sources are not cause for concern to health, although there are some indications that they may influence the effect of other metal ions on some organisms (Jones 1938,1 68 Cairns, Jr. and Scheier 1958,164 Mount 1966170). Possible beneficial and detrimental effects on health have been postulated but not conclusively demonstrated (Muss 1962,171 Crawford and Crawford 1967,1 66 Crawford et al. 1968,1 65 Masironi 1969,1 69 Voors 197F72). There is considerable variation in the range of hardness acceptable to a given community. Some consumers expect and demand supplies with a total hardness of less than 50 mg/1, expressed as equivalent CaC03, while others are satisfied with total hardness greater than 200 mg/l. Consumer sensitivity is often related to the hardness to which the public has be- come accustomed, and acceptance may be tempered by economic considerations. -------------------------------------- The requirement for soap and other detergents is directly related to the water hardness (DeBoer and Larson 1961).167 Of particular importance is the tendency for development of scale deposits when the water is heated. Variations in water hardness may be more objectionable than any given level. Waters with little or no hardness may be corrosive to water utility facilities, depending upon pH, alkalinity, and dissolved oxygen (American Water Works Association 1971).163 Industrial consumers of public supplies may be particularly sensitive to variations in hardness. A water hardness must relate to the level normal for the supply and exclude hardness additions resulting in significant variations or general increases. Conclusion Acceptable levels for hardness are based on con- sumer preference. No quantitative recommen- dation for hardness in water can be specified. 68 I 1 j IRON Iron (Fe) is objectionable in public water supplies because of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,178 Cohen et al. 1960175), staining of plumbing fixtures, spotting oflaundered clothes, and accumulation of deposits in distribution systems. Iron occurs in the reduced state (Fe++), frequently in ground waters and less frequently in surface waters, since exposure to oxygen in surface waters results in oxidation, forming hydrated ferric oxide which is much less soluble (American Water Works Association 1971).173 Statistical analysis of taste threshold tests with iron in distilled water free of oxygen at pH 5.0 showed that 5 per cent of the observers were able to distinguish between 0.04 mg/1 ferrous iron (added as ferrous sulfate) and distilled water containing no iron. At 0.3 mg/1, 20 per cent were able to make the distinction. When colloidal ferric oxide was added, 5 per cent of the observers were able to dis- tinguish between 0.7 mg/1 and distilled water. Thus the form of iron is important. The range of sensitivities of the 69 observers was surprising, in that 5 per cent were unable to detect ferrous iron at a concentration of 256 mg/1 in distilled water. The taste of iron was variously described as bitter, sweet, astringent, and "iron tasting." (Cohen et al. 1960).175 Concentrations of iron less than 0.3 mg/1 are generally acceptable in public water supplies as the characteristic red stains and deposits of hydrated ferric oxide do not manifest themselves (Hazen 1895,176 Mason 1910,177 Buswell 1928174). This is the principal reason for limiting the con- centration of soluble iron. Recommendation On the basis of user preference and because the defined treatment process can remove oxidized iron but may not remove soluble iron (Fe++), it is recom- mended that 0.3 mgfl soluble iron not be exceeded in public water supply sources. I LEAD Lead is well known for its toxicity in both acute and chronic exposures (National Academy of Sciences 1972).190 In technologically developed countries the widespread use of lead multiplies the risk of exposure of the population to excessive lead levels (Kehoe 1960a).184 For this reason, constant surveillance of the lead exposure of the general population via food, air, and water is necessary. Acute lead toxicity is characterized by burning in the mouth, severe thirst, inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract with vomiting and diarrhea. Chronic toxicity produces anorexia, nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, paraly- ~is, mental confusion, visual disturbances, anemia, and con- rulsions (The Merck lnde'x of Chemicals and Drugs 1960) .189 For 1,577 surface water samples collected from 130 sam- pling points in the United States, ll.3 per cent showed :letectable concentrations of 0.002 to 0.140 mg/1 with a mean of 0.023 mg/1 (Kopp 1969).187 For the 100 largest :ities in the United States, the finished waters were found to have a median concentration of 0.0037 mg/1 and a maximum of 0.062 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker 1964).182 Of the 969 water supplies in a community water supply study :onducted in 1969 (McCabe et al. 1970),1 88 the lead concen- trations in finished water ready for distribution ranged from ) to 0.64 mg/1. Fourteen of these supplies on the average !xceeded the 0.05 mg/1 limit for lead in drinking water ~PHS 1962).191 Of 2,595 samples from distribution systems, n exceeded the limit set by the Drinking Water Standards ~PHS 1962).191 When standing in lead pipe overnight, acidic ;oft water in particular can dissolve appreciable concen- trations of lead (Crawford and Morris 1967).181 The average daily intake of lead via the diet was 0.3 mg n 1940 and rarely exceeded 0.6 mg (Kehoe et al. 1940a).186 Data obtained subsequent to 1940 indicated that the intake )f lead appeared to have decreased slightly since that time (Kehoe 1960b,185 Schroeder and Balassa 1961).192 When, under experimental conditions, the daily intake of lead from all sources amounted to 0.5 to 0.6 mg over one year or more, a small amount was retained in normal healthy adults but produced no detectable deviation from normal health. Indirect evidence from industrial workers exposed to known amounts of lead for long periods was consistent with these findings (Kehoe 1947).183 Young children present a special case in lead intoxication, both in terms of the tolerated intake and the severity of the symptoms (Chisholm 1964).180 The most prevalent source of lead poisoning of children up to three years of age has been lead-containing paint still found in some older homes (Byers 1959,179 Kehoe 1960a184). Because of the narrow gap between the quantities of lead to which the general population is exposed through food and air in the course of everyday life, and the quantities that are potentially hazardous over long periods of time, lead in water for human consumption must be limited to low concentrations. A long-time intake of 0.6 mg lead per day is a level at which development of lead intoxication is unlikely and the normal intake of lead from food is approximately 0.3 mg/day. Assuming a 2 liter daily consumption of water with 0.05 mg/1 lead, the additional daily intake would be 0.1 mg/day or 25 per cent of the total intake. Recommendation Because of the toxicity of lead to humans and because there is little information on the effective- ness of the defined treatment process in decreasing lead concentrations, it is recommended that 0.05 mgfllead not be exceeded in public water supply sources. 70 MANGANESE Manganese (Mn) is objectionable in public water supplies because of its effect on taste (Riddick et al. 1958,196 Cohen et al. 1960194), staining of plumbing fixtures, spotting of laundered clothes, and accumulation of deposits in distri- bution systems. Manganese occurs in the reduced state (Mn++), frequently in ground waters and less frequently in surface waters, since exposure to oxygen in surface waters results in oxidation to much less soluble hydrated manganese oxides (American Water Works Association 1971).193 Concentrations of manganese less than 0.05 mg/1 are generally acceptable in public water supplies, because the characteristic black stains and deposits of hydrated man- ganese oxides do not manifest themselves. This is the principal reason for limiting the concentration of soluble manganese (Griffin 1960) .195 Recommendation On the basis of user preference and because the defined treatment process can remove oxidized manganese but does little to remove soluble man- ganese (Mn++), it is recommended that 0.05 mgfl soluble manganese not be exceeded in public water sources. 71 MERCURY Mercury (Hg) is distributed throughout the environment. As a result of industrial use and agricultural applications, significant local increases in concentrations above natural levels in water, soils, and air have been recorded (Wallace et al. 1971). 209 In addition to the more commonly known sources of man's mercury contributions, the burning of fossil fuels has been reported as a source of mercury pollution (Bertine and Goldberg 1971,199 Joensuu 1971 202 ). The presence of mercury in fresh and sea water was reported many years ago (Proust 1799,204 Garrigou 1877,201 Willm 1879,210 Bardet 1913 197). In Germany, early studies (Stock and Cucuel 1934,206 Stock 1938205) found mercury in tap water, springs, rain water, and beer. In all water the concentration of mercury was consistently less than one JLg/1, but the beer occasionally contained up to 15 JLg/1. A recent survey (U.S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey 1970)211 demonstrated that 93 per cent of U.S. ;treams and rivers sampled contained less thap 0.5 JLg/1 of :lissolved mercury. Aside from the exposure experienced in certain occu- pations, food, particularly fish, is the greatest contributor to the human body burden of mercury (Study Group on Mercury Hazards 1971).208 The Food and Drug Adminis- tration (FDA) has established a guideline of 0.5 mg/kg for the maximum allowable concentration of mercury in lish consumed by humans, but it has not been necessary for the FDA to establish guidelines for other foodstuffs. Mercury poisoning may be acute or chronic. Generally, mercurous salts are less soluble in the digestive tract than mercuric salts and are consequently less acutely toxic. For man the fatal oral dose of mercuric salts ranges from 20 mg to 30 mg (Stokinger 1963).207 Chronic poisoning from in- )rganic mercurials has been most often associated with industrial exposure, whereas that from the organic deriva- tives has been the result of accidents or environmental :ontamination. On the basis of their effects on man, several of the mercury :ompounds used in agriculture and industry (such as ukoxyalkyls and aryls) can be grouped with inorganic mercury to which the former compounds are usually me- tabolized. Alkyl compounds are the derivatives of mercury most toxic to man, producing illness from the ingestion of only a few milligrams. Chronic alkyl mercury poisoning is insidious in that it may be manifest after a few weeks or not until after a few years. It has been estimated (Bergrund and Berlin 1969)198 that of the total mercury ingested, more than 90 per cent is absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract when taken in the form of methyl mercury; but only 2 per cent is absorbed if it is in the form of mercuric ion (Clarkson 1971).200 Human excreta reveal a biological half-life of methyl mercury in man of approximately 70 days (Study Group on Mercury Hazards 1971).208 Acute mercury toxicity is characterized by severe nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, kidney damage, and death usually within ten days. Chronic exposure is characterized by inflammation of mouth and gums, swelling of salivary glands, excessive salivation, loosening of teeth, kidney damage, muscle tremors, spasms of extremities, personality changes, depression, irritability, and nervous- ness (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs 1960).203 Safe levels of ingested mercury can be estimated from data presented in "Hazards of Mercury" (Study Group on Mercury Hazards 1971). 208 From epidemiological evidence, the lowest whole blood concentration of methyl mercury associated with toxic symptoms is 0.2 JLg/g, which, in turn, corresponds to prolonged, continuous intake by man of approximately 0.3 mg Hg/70 kg/day. When a safety factor of 10 is used, the maximum dietary intake should be 0.03 mg Hg/person/day (30 JLg/70 kg/day). It is recognized that this provides a smaller factor of safety for children. If exposure to mercury were from fish alone, the 0.03 mg limit would allow for a maximum daily consumption of 60 grams (420 g/week) of fish containing 0.5 mg Hg/kg. Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters of water containing 0.002 mg/1 (2 JLg/1) mercury, the daily intake would be 4 JLg. If 420 g of fish per week containing 0.5 mg Hg/kg plus 2 liters of water daily containing 0.002 mg/1 mercury were ingested, the factor of safety for a 70 kg man would be 9. If all of the mercury is not in the alkyl form, or if fish consumption is limited, a greater factor of safety will exist. 72 Recommendation On the basis of adverse physiological effects and because the defined water treatment process has little or no effect on removing mercury at low levels, it is recommended that total mercury in public water supply sources not exceed 0.'002 .mgfl. (] 11 ,11 ,r 11 c s· 8 s si a y l 1 ·o sl p c tl s Sl e tl b fi u n b a tl d ·.n n v ( 11 11 t ·'t c NITRATE-NITRITE Serious and occasionally fatal poisonings in infants have ccurred following ingestion of well waters shown to contain itrate (N03_:_) at concentrations greater than 10 mg/1 itrate-nitrogen (N). This was first associated with a:tempo- uy blood disorder in infants called ·methemoglobinemia 1 1945 (Comly 1945).212 Since-then, approximately 2,000 ases of this disease have 'been reported.from private water 1pplies in North America and Europe, and about 7 to per cent of the infants affected died (Walton 1951,223 attelmacher 1962,218 Simon et al. 1964219 ). ·High nitrate concentrations are frequently found in 1allow wells on farms and in rural communities. These re often the result of inadequate. protection from barn ard drainage and from septic tanks (U.S. Department of [ealth, Education, and Welfare, Public. Health Service 961,221 Stewart et al. 1967220 ). Increasing concentrations f nitrate in streams from farm tile drainage have been 10wn ·.in regions of intense fertilization .and farm crop roduction (Harmeson et al. 1971).214 'Many infants have drunk water with nitrate-nitrogen )ncentrations greater than 10 mg/1 without··developing 1e disease. Many. public water supplies in the United tates have levels of nitrate that routinely exceed the andatd, but only one case of methemoglobinemia (Vigil t al. 1965)222 associated with a public water supply has ms far been ·reported. Rationale for degrees of suscepti- ility to methemoglobinemia have yet to be developed. The development of methemoglobinemia, largely con- ned to infants less than three months old, is dependent pon the bacterial conversion of the relatively innocuous itrate ion to nitrite (N02-). Nitrite· absorbed into the lood stream converts hemoglobin to methemoglobin. The lten~d pigment can then no longer transport oxygen;· and 1e clinical effect of methemoglobinemia is that of oxygen eprivation or suffocation. Older children and adults do ot seem to be affected, but Russian research reported 1ethemoglobin in five-to eight-year-old school children •here the water nitrate concentrations were 182 mg/1 as N Diskaleriko 1968). 213 Nitrite toxicity is wdl known, but a no-effect level has ot been established. When present in drinking water itrite would· have a more rapid and pronounced effect ian nitrate. Concentrations .ire raw water· sources are sually 'less than 1 mg/1 as N, and chlorinatiQn to a free hlorihe residual converts nitrite to ni.trate. 'Several reviews <and reports (Walton 1951;223 .Sattel- lacher 1962;2~8 <Simon et'al. 1964,219 ·'Winton f970,224 Winton et al. 19712~5 ) generally pointed to 10 mg/1 nitrate- nitrogen in drinkiqg water as the maximum tolerance levels :for ·infants. Sattelmacher (1962)218 showed 3 per cent of 473 cases of infantile methemoglobinemia to be associated with levels of less than 9 mg/1 as N. Simon and his associates (1964)219 found 4.4 per cent of 249 cases to be associated with levels less than 11 mg/l as N. Analyses of available ·data .• are'. hampered by the fact that samples for water analysis are sometimes collected weeks or months after the disease occurs, during which time the concentration of nitrate may change considerably. Hereditary defects, the feeding of nitrate-rich vegetables, or the use of common medfcines may increase susceptibility to methemoglobi- nemia. Winton and his associates (1971)225 concluded that "there is insufficient evidence to permit raising the recom- mended limit." 73 Extensive reviews on methemoglobinemia associated with nitrate and nitrite have been provided by Walton (1951),223 Miale (1967),216 and Lee (1970).215 They described the circumstances that contributed· to the susceptibility of in- fants under three months of age to methemoglobinemia from nitrate. These included (a) the stomach pH in infants, which is higher than that of adults and can permit growth ofbacteria that can reduce nitrate· to nitrite, and (b) infant gastrointestinal illness that may permit reduction of nitrate to nitrite to occur higher in the intestinal tract. Methemoglobin is normally present at levels of 1 per cent to 2 per cent of the total hemoglobin in the blood. Clinical symptoms are normally .detectable only at levels of about 10 per cent. Methemoglobin in the subclinical range has been generally regarded as unimportant. However, 10 children (ages 12 to 14) were observed to have shown con- ditioned reflexes to both auditory and visual stimuli, as the result of a drinking water source with 20.4 mg/1 nitrate- nitrogen. The average methemoglobin in the blood was 5.3 per cent (Petukhov and Ivanov 1970).217 Recommeridation 'On the basis of adverse·physiological effects on infants and because the defined treatment process has no effect on the removal of nitrate, it is recom- mended that the nitrate-nitrogen concentration in public water supply sources not exceed 10 mgfl. On the basis of its high toxicity and more pro- nounced effect than nitrate, it is recommended that the nitrite-nitrogen concentration in public water supply sources not exceed 1 mgfl. NITRILOTRIACETATE {NTA) Because of its possible large-scale use, nitrilotriacetate (NTA) should be evaluated in light of chronic low-level !xposure via drinking water and its potential for adversely 1ffecting the health of the general population. Although 11itrilotriacetic acid, a white crystalline powder, is insoluble in water, the tribasic salt is quite soluble. NT A has strong affinity for iron, calcium, magnesium, md zinc (Bailar I956).226 Its relative affinity for toxic netals such as cadmium and mercury is not presently mown, nor have its chelating properties in complex ionic ;oiutions been characterized. Copper and lead concen- trations in biologically treated waste water after flocculation with aluminum sulfate (125 mg/1) are a function of the NTA present (Nilsson I971).227 No information is available )n the toxicity of such chelates. No cases of acute human poisoning by NT A have been reported. In the natural environment, NT A is biodegraded to C02, N03, and H20, with glycine and ammonia as intermediates (Thompson and Duthie I968).228 This appears to occur within four to five days. Degradation is accelerated by biological waste treatment. Conversion of NT A to nitrate is on a I to I molar basis. Conclusion No recommendation concerning NTA is made at this time because of the absence of data on affinity for toxic metals, the absence of adequate toxicity data, and the absence of demonstrable effects on man, and because there is doubt about its potential use as a substitute for phosphates in detergents. Toxicity information should be developed and evaluated to establish a reasonable recommen- dation prior to its use as a substitute. ODOR Odor and taste, which are rarely separable, are the primary means by which the user determines the accepta- bility of water. The absence of odor is an indirect indication that contaminants such as phenolic compounds are also ibsent, or nearly so. (See Phenolic Compounds, in this sec- tion, p. 80) Although odor cannot be directly correlated with the safety of the water supply, its presence can cause :onsumers to seek other supplies that may in fact be less ;afe. Many oqor-producing substances in raw water supplies ue organic compounds produced by microorganisms and by human and industrial wastes (Silvey I953,232 Rosen I966,231 American Water Works Association, Committee on Tastes and Odors, I970230). The defined treatment process can aid in the removal of certain odorous sub- stances (American Water Works Association 197I),229 but, it may in other cases increase the odor (Silvey et al. 1950)233 as by the chlorination of phenolic compounds explained on p. 80. Recommendation For aesthetic reasons, public water supply sources should be essentially free from objection- able odor. OIL AND GREASE Oil and grease, as defined by Standard Methods (I971 ), 241 )Ccurring in public water supplies in any quantity cause taste, odor, and appearance problems (Braus et al. 1951,235 Middleton and Lichtenberg 1960,240 Middleton I96Ia,239 American Water Works Association 1966234), can be haz- ardous to human health (The Johns Hopkins University, Department of Sanitary Engineering and Water Resources 1956,237 McKee and Wolf I963238), and are detrimental to the defined treatment process (Middleton and Lichten- berg I960).240 Even small quantities of oil and grease can produce objectionable odors and appearance, causing re- jection of the water supply before health or treatment problems exist (Holluta 1961,236 McKee and Wolf I963).238 Recommendation On the basis of odor and other aesthetic con- siderations affecting user preference and because oil and grease are unnatural ingredients in water, it is recommended that public water supply sources be essentially free from oil and grease. 74 ch ale M th wi Rc co etl C1 SOl af1 (B ha Stl m; o.ffi at (B nc ad a; ag pc se1 pr dr in w: C; FI ORGANICS-CARBON ADSORBABLE Organics-carbon adsorbable are composed of carbon- loroform extract (CCE) (Middleton 1961 b)245 and carbon- :ohol extract (CAE) (Booth et al. 1965,243 Standard ethods 19712 48). CCE is a mixture of organic compounds it can be adsorbed on activated carbon and then desorbed th chloroform (Booth et al. 1965).243 Middleton and lsen (1956)246 showed the presence of substituted benzene npounds, kerosene, polycyclic hydrocarbons, phenyl- ler, acrylonitrile, and insecticides in CCE materials. \.E is a mixture of organic compounds that can be ad- ·bed on activated carbon, then desorbed with ethyl alcohol er the chloroform soluble organics have been desorbed ooth et al. 1965).243 Hueper and Payne (1963)244 showed that CCE materials d carcinogenic properties when ingested by rats. This tdy also suggested a life-shortening effect in rats fed CAE 1terials (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration ce memorandum 1963).249 The CAE material also contained least one synthetic organic, alkyl benzene sulfonate .osen et al. 1956).247 It is important to recognize that the carbon usually does t adsorb all organic material present, nor is all the sorbed material desorbed. :=>rganics-carbon adsorbable recommendations represent Jractical measure of water quality and act as a safeguard ainst the intrusion of excessive amounts of ill-defined tentially toxic organic material into water. They have ved in the past as a measure of protection against the esence of otherwise undetected toxic organic materials in inking water. However, they provide a rather incomplete fex of the health significance of such materials in potable Lters. In 1965 Booth and his associates (1965)243 developed a Lrbon Adsorption Method (CAM) similar to the High- ow CAM Sampler but with a longer contact time be- tween the sample and the activated carbon. This sampler, called the Low-Flow CAM Sampler, increased organic adsorption and therefore overall yield of the determination. Since that time a more reliable collection apparatus, called the Mini-Sampler, has been developed (Beulow and Carswell 1972).242 In addition, the Mini-Sampler also used a type of coal-based activated carbon that enhanced organic collection. Further, the extraction apparatus has been miniaturized to be less expensive and more convenient, and the procedure modified to be more vigorous, thereby increasing desorption and organic recovery (Beulow and Carswell 1972).242 However, the Mini-Sampler has not been evaluated using raw waters at this time. Therefore, the Low-Flow Sampler (Booth et al. 1965)243 was used for establishing the recommendation. Adjustment of the High-Flow Sampler data (1961 Inter- state Carrier Surveillance Program) to make them com- parable to the recent results from the Low-Flow Sampler show that waters with concentrations exceeding either 0.3 mg CCE/1 or 1.5 mg CAE/1 may contain undesirable and unwarranted components 'and represent a generally unacceptable level for unidentified organic substances. 75 Recommendation Because large values of CCE and CAE are aes- thetically undesirable and represent unacceptable levels of unidentified organic compounds that may have adverse physiological eftects, and because the defined treatment process has little or no eftect on the removal of these organics, it is recommended that organics-carbon adsorbable as measured by the Low-Flow Sampler (Standard Methods 1971 248) not exceed 0.3 mgfl CCE and 1.5 mgfl CAE in public water supply sources. I PESTICIDES Pesticides include a great many organic compounds that are used for specific or general purposes. Among them are chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphorus and carba- mate compounds, as well as the chlorophehoxy, and other herbicides. Although_ these compounds have been useful in improving agricultural yidds, controlling disease vectors, and reducing the mass growth of aquatic plants in streams and reservoirs, they also create both real and presumed hazards in the environment. Pesticides differ widely in chemical and toxicological characteristics. Some are accumulated-in the fatty tissues of the body while others are metabolized. The biochemistry of the pesticides has not yet been completely investigated. Because of the variability in their toxicity to man and-their wide range of biodegradability, the different groups -of pesticides are considered separately below. Determining the presence of pesticides in water requires expensive specialized equipment as well as specially trained personnel. In smaller communities, it is not routine to make actual quantitative determinations and identifications. These are relegated to the larger cities, federal and state agencies, and private laboratories that mpnitor raw waters at selected locations. CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON INSECTICIDES - but differ in severity. The severity is related to concentration of the chlorinated hydrocarbon ill; the nervous system, primarily the brain (Dale et al. 1963).256 Mild intoxication causes headaches, dizziness, gastrointestinal -disturbances, numbness and weakness of the extremities, apprehension, and hyperirritability. In severe cases, there are muscular fasciculations spreading from the head to the e~tremities, followed eventually by spasms involving entire muscle groups, leading in some cases to convulsions and death. Very few long term studies have been conducted with human volunteers. The highest level tested for dieldrin was 0.211 ing/tnan/day for 2 years with no observed illness (Hunter and Robinson 1967;268 Hunter et al. 1969).269 Since aldrin is metabolized-to dieldrin and has· essentially the same toxicity as dieldrin, these data can also be applied to aldrin. Methoxychlor levels of 140 mg/man/ day produced no illness in subjects over a period of 8 weeks (Stein et al. _ 1965).280 The maximum level of DDT seen to have no apparent ill effect was 35 mg/man/day for 2 years (Hayes et al. 1971).265 The dosage is one of the most important factors in ex- trapolating to safe human exposure levels. Using tumor'- susceptible hybrid strains of mice, significantly increased incidences of tumors were produced with the administration The chlorinated hydrocarbons are one of the most im-of large doses of DDT (46.4 mg/kg/day) (Innes et al-. portant groups of synthetic organic insecticides because of 1969).270 In a separate study in mice extending over five their number, wide use, great stability in the environment, generations, a dietary level of 3 ppm of DDT produced a and toxicity to certain forms of wildlife and other nontarget --greater incidence of malignancies and leukemia beginning organisms. If absorbed into the human·body, some of the in the second filial and third filial generations, respectively, chlorinated hydrocarbons are not metabolized rapidly but and continuing in the later generations (Tarjan and Kemeny are stored in fatty ti~sues. The consequences of such storage 1969).281 These results are preliminary in nature and require are presently under investigation (Report of the Secre-confirmation. The findings .of both of these studies conflict tary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relationship to with earlier studies·nf the carcinogenic effect of DDT-which-· Environmental Health. U.S. Department-of Health, Edu-yielded generally negative results. cation, and Welfare 1969).284 The major chlorinated hydro-A summary of the levels of several chlorinated hydro-· carbons have been in use for at least three decades, and yet carbons that produced minimal toxicity or-no effects when ' no definite conclusions have been reached regarding the fed -chronically to-_dogs and rats is shown ih -Table II~3- effect of these pesticides on man (HEW 1969):284 (Lehman 1965;272 Treon and _Cleveland 1955/~82 Cole ;un-' Regardless of how they enter. organisms, chlorinated published daia 19662 86). _Limits for chlorinated -hydrocarbons hydrocarbons cause symptoms of poisoning that are similar -in -drinking· water have ·been' <;al$ulated ,primarily :on:-.th.e · 76 TABLE II-3-Recommended Limits for Chlorinated Hydrocarbon In~ecticides Calculated maximum, sale levels Long-term levels with minimal or no effects from all sources of exposure Intake from diet Compound Species ppm in diet Reference mg/kgbody Reference Safety Factor mgfkg/day mg/man/day• mgfmanfday weight/day•. (X) (8) Aldrin •••••.•••..•..• Rat 0.5 (1) 0.083 .............. 1/100 0.00083 O.U581 Dog 1.0 . (1) 0.02 .............. 1/100 0.0002 0.014d 0.0007 Man ............................. 0.003 (2), (3) 1/10 0.0003 0.021 Chlordane .•.•.......•. Rat 2.5 (1) 0.42 .............. 1/500 0.00084 0.588d Dog· N;A.·· ............... N.A. .............. ............................................ .T Man N.A. ............... N.A. . ........................................... DDT ................. Rat 5.0 (1) 0.83 .............. 1/100 0.008 0.56<' Dog ' 400.0 (1) 8.0 .............. 1/100 0.08 5.6 0.021 Man ····························· 0.5 (4) 1/10 0.05 3.5 Dieldrin .............. Rat 0.5 (1) 0.083 .............. 1/100 0.00083 0.0581 Dog 1.0 (1) 0.02 .............. .1/100 0.0002 O.OJ4d 0.0049 Man ······························ 0.003 (2), (3) 1/10 0.0003 0.021 Endrin ............... Rat 5.0 (5) 0.83 .............. 1/500 0.00166 0.1162 Dog 3.0 (6) 0.06 .............. 1/500 0.00012 0.0084d 0.00035 Man N.A. ............... N.A. Heptachlor ........... Rat 0.5 (1) 0.083 .............. 1/500 0.000166 0.1162 Dog 4.0 (1) 0.08 .............. 1/500 0.00016 0.0112d 0.00007 Man N.A. ............... N.A. Heptachlor Epoxide •..• Rat· 0.5 (1). 0.083 .............. .1/500 0.000166 0.01162 . Dog 0.5 (1) 0.01 .............. 1/500 0.00002 O.OOJ4d 0.0021 Man NA. ............... N.A. Lindane ............. Ra: 50.0 (1) 8.3 .............. 1/500 0.0166 1.162 Dog 15.0 (1) 0.3 .............. 1/500 0.0006 0.042d 0.0035 Man . N.A. . .............. N.A. Methoxychlor ......... Rat 100.0 (1) 17.0 .............. 1/100 0.17 11.9d Dog 4000.0 (1) 80.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/100 0.8 56.0 T Man ............................. 2.0 (7) 1/10 0.2 14.0 Toxaphene ........... Rat 10.0 (1) 1.7 .............. 1/500 0.0034 0.238d Dog 400.0 (1) 8.0 .............. 1/500 0.016 1.12 T Man N.A. N.A. LEGEND: • Assume .weight of ral=0.3 kg• and of dog=10 kg; assume average daily food consumption of rat= 0.05 kg and of dog=0.2 kg. REFERENCES: (1) Lehman (1965)"' (2) Hunter & Robinson (1967)268 (3) Hunter et al. (1969)2" ~ Assume average weight of human adult= 10· kg. • Assume average daily intake of water for man=2 Diers d Chosen as basis on which to derive recommended lililil -• Adjusted fotorpnolepti~ effects. I Adjusted for inlerconversion to H. epoxide. N.A. No data available. · . T Infrequent occurrence in trace quantities (4) Hayes et al. (in press)""' (5) Treon et al. (1955)28> (6) Cole (1966)2" (7) Stein et a 1. (1965)280 (8) Duggan and'Corneliussen (1972)'" % of Safe level 5.0 T 3.4 35.0 4.1 0.6 150.0 8.3 T T Pesticides ;n Water % of Safe level Recommended limit(mgfl)c 20 0.001 0.003• 20 /~~ { 0.05 : ............_,- 20 0.001 20 0.0005 0.00011 0.0001 20 0.005) 20 1.0 o.oo:;. basis of the extrapolated human intake that would be Thus the human data for aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, and · equivalent to that causing minimal toxic effects in mammals methoxychlor are adjusted by 0.1, and the corresponding (rats and dogs). For comparison, the dietary levels are con-animal data for these agents are adjusted by 0:01. The verted to mg/kg body Weight/day. Aldrin, dieldrin; endrin, minimal effect levels of chlordane, endrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, and lindane had lower minimal· effect heptachlor' epoxide, lindane, and toxaphene -are adjusted and no-effect levels in ·dogs than·iri rats;·whereas for DDT, . by 1/500; 'since no adequate human data are available for methoxychlor, and toxaphene the ·converse was observed. comparison. These derived values are considered the maxi-" Heptachlor :was equally toxic to· both species: Only da:ta mum safe exposure levels from all sources. Because these from studies using rats were available for chlordane. values are expressed as mg/kg/day,-they are readjusted for .Such data from human and animal investigations have body weight to determine the total ql,lantity. to' which been used to. derive exposure standards,.· as for drinking persons may be safely exposed. water; by adjusting for factors that influence toxiCity such Analysis of the maximum safe levels (mg/man/day) in as inter..: and intra-species variability, length of exposure, Table Il:-3 reveals -that these levels are not exactly the aud extensiveness of the·studies~~:ro determine a safe··ex-same .. when one species is compared ·with another. The. posure' levet for .man; conventionally;-a :factor of 0.1 is · choice of level on which to base ·'a level for water. requires applie<l lo·human:data-where no effects have been observed; ·selection of the--lowest value from animal ex~rimentation, whereas. 0.01 is ··applied to ani.mal data when: adequate provided that:the human.;data. are within the same order. hm:Uaw data. are· ava:ihiole"··for corroboration: A factor .;of of magnitude and substantiate that manis ·no more sensitive. l/500 is generhllyused•on animal' aata when no. adequate . to a· particular agent than is-the rat or the dog. and compar'able hNman .dam-ar-e--available.' • To then calculate, a limiufot: water it is necessary to i / f, .... -------~~~----------- 78/Section Il-Public Water Supplies consider the exposure from other media. In the case of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, exposure is expected to occur mostly through the diet, although aerial sj5ray of these agents can occasionally result in an inhalation exposure. Dietary intake of pesticide chemicals from 1964 to 1970 have been determined by investigators of the Food and Drug Administration from "market basket" samples of food and water (Duggan and Corneliussen 1972).258 The average intakes (mg/man/day) are listed in Table II-3. If the intake from the diet is compared with what are considered acceptable safe levels for these pesticides, it is apparent that only traces of chlordane, methoxychlor, and toxaphene are present in the diet. Less than 10 per cent of the maximum safe level of aldrin, DDT, endrin, heptachlor, or lindane are ingested with the diet. For dieldrin, approxi- mately 35 per cent of the safe level comes from the diet. By contrast, exposure to heptachlor epoxide via the diet accounts for more than the defined safe level. In general, an apportionment to water of20 per cent of the total acceptable intake is reasonable. However, the limits for chlordane and toxaphene were lowered because of organoleptic effects at concentrations above 0.003 and. 0.005 mg/1, respectively (Cohen et al. 1961,253 Sigworth 1965278). The limit for heptachlor epoxide was lowered to five per cent of the safe level because of the relatively high concentrations in the diet; and, accordingly, the limit for heptachlor was lowered because it is metabolized to heptachlor epoxide. These limits reflect the amounts that can be ingested without harm to the health of the consumer and without adversely affecting the quality of the drinking water. They are meant to serve only in the event that these chemicals are inadvertently present in the water and do not imply that their deliberate addition is acceptable. Recommendation Because of adverse physiological effects on hu- mans or on the quality of the water and because there is inadequate information on the effect of the defined treatment on removal of chlorinated hydrocarbons, it is recommended that the limits for water shown in Table 11-3 not be exceeded. ORGANOPHOSPHORUS AND CARBAMATE INSECTICIDES The number of organophosphorus and carbamate in- secticides has steadily increased through special uses in agricultural production and the control of destructive· in- sects. At present, there are perhaps 30 commonly used organophosphates with parathion among those potentially most dangerous to human health. No evidence has de- veloped of any significant contamination of water supplies even in the geographical areas where the use of pesticides in this class has been extensive. However, because of their high mammalian toxicity, it is advisable to establish an upper limit for these pesticides in treated water supplies. The majority of organophosphorus insecticides in use at present are somewhat similar in chemical structure and in physical and biological properties. Although their specific chemical compositions differ from one another and from carbamates, they all act by the same physiological mecha- nism. Their presence in public water supplies as contami- nants would result in some deleterious biological effect over a period of time. Ingestion of small quantities of either of these pesticides over a prolonged period results in a dysfunction of the cholinesterase of the nervous system (Durham and Hayes 1962).259 This appears to be the only important manifes- tation of acute or chronic toxicity caused by these com- pounds (HEW 1969).284 Although safe levels of these agents have been determined for experimental animals on the basis of biochemical indi- cators of injury, more knowledge is needed to make specific recommendations for water quality (HEW 1969).284 Indications of the levels that would be harmful are available for some organophosphorus compounds as a result of studies conducted with human volunteers. Grob (I 950)263 estimated that 100 mg of parathion would be lethal and that 25 mg would be moderately toxic. On the other hand, Bidstrup (1950)251 estimated that a dose of 10 to 20 mg of parathion might be lethal. Edson (1957)260 found that parathion ingested by man at a rate of 3 mg/day had no effect on cholinesterase. Similar values were determined by Williams and his associates (1958).285 Moeller and Rider (I 962)273 suggested that the detectable toxicity threshold, as measured by cholinesterase depression, was 9 mg/day for parathion equivalency and 24 mg/day for malathion. These investigators also reported that a daily dose of 7 mg of methyl parathion was near the detectable toxicity thresh- old for this compound; but it was later found (Rider and Moeller 1964)276 that 10 mg/day of methyl parathion did not produce any significant inhibition of blood cholin- esterase. Therefore, 5 mg/day (0.07 mg/kg/day) of pa- rathion equivalency should be a safe intake acceptable to the body. Frawley and his associates (1963)262 found that a depres- sion of plasma cholinesterase occurred in human subjects at a dosage of 0.15 mg/kg/day of Delnav, which would amount to a total dose of about 7 to I 0 mg/ day of parathion depending on the body weight of the subjects. On the basis that carbamate and organophosphorus in- secticides have similar toxic effects and that parathion is one of the most toxic of these classes, the data appeared to show that 0.07 mg/kg/day should be a safe level for the human body. Assuming a daily consumption of 2 liters of water containing cholinergic organophosphates or carba- mates in concentrations of 0.1 mg/1, 0.2 mg/day would be ingested. This would provide a factor of safety of 25 for parathion for a man weighing 70 kg. Recommendation "It is recommended that the carbamate and organophosphorus pesticides in public water sup:- Pesticides /79 TABLE Il-4-Recommended Allowable Levels for Chlorophenoxy Herbicides Lowest long-term levels with minimal or no effRis Compound Species Dose mg,tkgfday• Reference 2,4-D •••.•.................... Rat 0.5 Lehman (1965)272 Dog 8.0 Lehman (1965)"2 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) ...••.•••...... Rat 2.6 Mullison (1966)"' Dog 0.9 Mumson (1966)"' 2,4,5-T ........................ Rat 4.6 Courtney et al. (1970)2" Courtney & Moore (1971)m Dog 10.0 Drill & Hiratzka (1953)"' calculated maximum safe levels from all sources of exposure Safety factor (X) 1{500 1{500 1/500 1/500 1{1000 1/1000 mg{kg{day 0.001 0.016 0.005 0.002 0.005 0.01 mgfman{day• 0.07• 1.12 0.35 0. f4d 0.35" 0.7 Water .-..% of Safe Level Rec. limit (mg/0' 50 0.02 50 0.03 0.002 • Assume weight of rat=0.3 kg and of dog=10 kg; assume average daily food consumption of rat=0.05 kg and of dog=0.2 kg. • Assume average weight.of human adult=70 kg. • Assume average daily intake of water for man=2 filers. d Chosen as basis on which to derive recommended leveL ply sources not exceed 0.1 mgfl, total, because there is inadequate information on the effect of the de- fined treatment process on their removal. CHLOROPHENOXY HERBICIDES During the past 20 years, numerous reservoirs have been constructed as public water supplies for cities and com- munities in the United States. In certain areas as much as five per cent per year of the total volume of a reservoir may be lost because of the marginal growth of weeds and trees. This is especially common in the Southwest where water levels fluctuate (Silvey 1968).279 In recent years the control of aquatic vegetation has been widely practiced for water supply sources in many com- munities in the U.S. Since herbicides may be used for this purpose, it is possible that some may find their way into finished water. Two of the most widely used herbicides are 2 ,4-D (2 ,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), and 2, 4, 5-TP (2, 4, 5-tri- chlorophenoxy-propionic acid) (see Table -II-4). Each of these compounds is available in a variety of salts and esters that may have marked differences in herbicidal properties but are rapidly hydrolyzed to the corresponding acid in the body. There are additional compounds that have been employed from time to time, such as diquat (I , I' -ethylene-2, 2'-dipyridylium dibromide) and endothal (disodium 3,6- endoxohexa-hydrophthalate). Studies of the acute oral toxicity of the chlorophenoxy herbicides indicated that there was approximately a three- fold variation between the species studied and that the acute toxicity was moderate (Hill and Carlisle 1947,267 Lehman 1951,271 Drill and Hiratzka 1953,257 Rowe and Hymas 1954).277 It appears that acute oral toxicity of the three compounds is of about the same magnitude within each species. In the rat, the oral LD50 for each agent was about 500 mg/kg. . . There are some data available on the toxicity of 2,4-D to man indicating that a daily dosage of 500 mg (about 7 mg/kg) produced no apparent ill effects in a volunteer over a 21-day period (Kraus unpublished 1946).288 Sixty-three million pounds of 2 ,4-D were produced in 1965. There were no confirmed cases of occupational poisoning and few instances of any illness due to ingestion (Hayes 1963,264 Nielson et al. 1965275). One case of 2,4~D poisoning in man has been reported recently (Berwick 1970).250 Lehman (1965)272 reported that the no-effect level ot 2,4-D is 0.5 mg/kg/day in the rat and 8.0 mg/kg/day in the dog. In 2-year feeding studies with the sodium and potassium salts of silvex, the no-effect levels were 2.6 mg/kg/day in rats and 0.9 mg/kg/day, respectively, in dogs (Mullison 1966).274 Terata and embryo toxicity effects from 2,4,5-T were evidenced by statistically increased proportions of abnormal fetuses within the litters of mice and rats (Courtney et al. 1970).254 The rat appeared to be more sensitive to this effect. A dosage of 21.5 mg/kg produced no harmful effects in mice, while a level of 4.6 mg/kg caused minimal but statistically.significant effects in the rat. More recent work has indicated that a contaminant (2, 3, 7 ,8-tetrachloro- dibenzo-p-dioxin) which was present at approximately 30 ppm in the 2 , 4, 5-T formulation originally tested was highly toxic to experimental animals and produced fetal and maternal toxicity at levels as low as 0.0005 mg/kg. However, highly purified 2, 4, 5-T has also produced teratogenic effects in both hamsters and rats at relatively high dosage rates (FDA and NIEHS unpublished data,287 Collins and Williams 197 12 52). Current production samples of 2, 4, 5-T that contain less than 1 ppm of dioxin did not produce embryo toxicity or terata in rats at levels as high as 24 mg/kg/day (Emerson et al. 1970).261 Recommendation Because of possible adverse physiological effects and because there are inadequate data on the effects of the defined treatment process on removal of chlorophenoxy herbicides, it is recommended that 2,4-D not exceed 0.02 mgfl, that Silvex not exceed 0.03 mgfl, and that 2,4,5-T not exceed 0.002 mgfl in public water supply sources. pH The pH of a raw water supply is significant because it :tffects water treatment processes and may-contribute to ~orrosion of waterworks structures, distribution lines, and :1ousehold plumbing fixtures. This corrosion can add such ~onstituents as iron, copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium to the-water. Most natural waters have pH values within the ~ange of 5.0 to 9.0. Adjustment of pH within this range is ~elative~y simple, and the variety of anticorrosion pro- cedures currently in use make it unnecessary to recommend a more·narrow range. Recommendation Because the defined treatment process can cope with natural waters within the pH range of 5.0 to 9.0 but becomes less economical as this range is extended, it is recommended that the pH~ofpublic water supply sources be within 5.0 to 9~0. PHENOliC COMPONDS Phenolic compounds are defined (Standard Methods l971) 301 as hydroxy derivatives of benzene and its condensed mcleL Sources of phenolic·compounds are industrial-waste .v:ater discharges (Faust and Anderson 1968),292 domestic :ewage (Hunter 1971),296 fungicides and pesticides (Frear l969),294 hydrolysis and chemical oxidation of organo- )hosphorus pesticides (Gomaa and· Faust 1971),295 hy- lrolysis· and photochemical oxidation ofcarbamate-pesti- :ides (Aly and El:.Dib 1971),289 microbial degradation• of )henoxyalkyl acid herbicides· (Menziel969)~298-and natur• illy occurring su bstances{Christman and Ghassemi 1966). 291 )orne--phenolic_ compounds-are -sufficiently resistant-to nicrobial degradation to be-transported long distances-by water. · Phenols affect water quality in many. ways. Perhaps the \Teatest effect is noticed ·in-municipal_ water systeins·where race concentrations of phenolic compounds· (usu'ally less han LO · mg/1) affect the organoleptic properties;;<}[ the- lrinking water. For example;; p~cresol has a· threshold otder :oncentration . of ·0.055 ,, mg/1, : m-cresol o:25 mg/1, ·' and >~cresol 0.26·mg/l (Rosen· etoal. T962).300 Phenol has a :hreshold · ocl:or ~concentration of 4.2 · mg/1 :~(Rosen et al. l962), BOO•whereas the values for the chlorinated phenols; are:· ~,:chlorophenol, ·2.0 : JLg/1; and 4~chlorophenol, . 2i)0 ;JLg/1 ~Batttsehell etr ru. t959-).290.General,ly,-phenolic compotirids. are not removed efficiently-by the defined treatment process. Furthermore, muniCipal waters are postchlorinatedto insure disinfection. If phenolic compounds are. present in waters that, are chlorinated for disinfection, chlorophenols may be formed. ';['he kinetics of this reaction are such that chloro- ·-phenols may not appear until· the water has been dis- tributed from the treatment plant (Lee and Morris 1962).297 2 ,4-dinitrophenol. has·· been shown to inhibit oxidative phosphorylation at concentrations of 184 and ·278' mg/1 (Pinchot 1"967).299 The ·development. of criteria for phenolic compounds· is hampered by the lack of sensitive standard·analytical·tech- niques -for the detection. of specific phenolic compounds, Some ofthe-more odorousrcom.pounds arethe para-substi- tuted-halogenated. phenols;. These escape detection· by the methodology suggested by Standard Methods (1971)301 un- less the analytical conditions .are-precisely.set (Falist et ;al. 1971).293 . .Recommenclati0 n. Be-cause;the· ctefi.hed·-treatm:eftt process· mayrse., verely: increase. the~t>dor; of' many phenolic cont-· pounds,-itls reoomineiltled; that pltbllc water sup- , ply's~urees .co11tain":tt'O'_mote..>thanl"•f!tJt~phenolic· •.cornpouttds. 80 1 1 1 PHOSPHATE Recommendations for phosphate concentrations have xen considered but no generally acceptable recommen- iation is possible at this time because of the complexity of ~he problem. The purpose of such a recommendation would )e twofold: I. to avoid problems associated with algae and other tquatic plants, and 2. -to avoid coagulation problems due particularly to :omplex phosphates. Phosphate is essential to all forms of life. In efforts to imit the developmentofobjectionable plant growths, phos-· >hate .is often considered the most readily controllable mtrient. Evidence indicates (a) that high phosphate con- :entrations are associated with eutrophication of waters nanifest in unpleasant algal or other aquatic plant-growths vhen other growth-promoting .factors are favorable; (b) hat aquatic plant problems develop in ·reservoirs or other tanding waters at phosphate values lower than those critical noflowing-streams; (c) that reservoirs and other standing vaters will collect phosphates from -influent streams and tore a portion of these within the consolidated sediments; md (d) that initial concentrations of phosphate that stimu- ate noxious plant growths vary with other water quality :haracteristics, producing such growths :in one geographical Lrea but not in another. Because the ratio· of total phosphorus (P) to· that form of 1hosphorus readily available for .plant growth is constantly :hanging and ranges from two to· 17 or more times greater, tis. desirable to establish limits for total phosphorus rather han to the portion that may be available for· immediate 1lant use; Mest relatively .uncontaminated Jake ·districts are :nown to have suiface waters that contain 10 to 30 1-1g/I otai phosphorus as P; in some waters that·are not obviously polluted, higher values may occur. Data collected by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Division . of Pollution Surveillance, indicate that total phosphorus concentrations exceeded 50 1-1g/l (P) at 48 cper cent of the stations sampled across the nation (Gunnerson 1966).302 Some potable surface water supplies now exceed 200 J.~g/1 (P) without experiencing notable problems due to aquatic growths. Fifty micrograms per liter of total phosphorus (as P) would :probably restrict noxious aquatic plant growths in ·flowing waters and in some standing waters. Some lakes, however, would experience algal nuisances at and below this level. Critical phosphorus concentrations will vary with other water quality characteristics. Turbidity and other factors in many of the nation's waters negate the :algal~producing effects of high phosphorus.concentrations. ,When waters are detained in a lake or reservoir, the resultant phosphorus concentration is reduced to some extent over that in influent streams by precipitati<m or uptake by organisms and subse- quent deposition in fecal pellets or the bodies of dead organisms. At concentrations of complex;phosphorus on the order of 100 J.~g/1, ·difficulties with -coagulation are experi- enced {U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 1968). 303 (See the dis- cussion of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Section I for a more complete description of phosphorus associations with the enrichment problem.) Re~ommendation No recommendation ~can .. be made :because of the complexity of relationships between, phosphate concentrations· in water, -biological ;productivity, ·andresulting problems such. as odor and·filtration 'difficulties. PHTHALATE ESTERS Large quantities of phthalate esters are used as plasticizers a plastics. Phthalates in water, fish, and other organisms, epresent a potential but largely unknown health problem. ~hey have been implicated in growth retardation, accumu- :ttion, and chronic toxicity, but little conclusive infor- aation is available (Phthalates are discussed in Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife.) Because there is insufficient information on their specific effects on man, no scientifically defensible recommendation can be made at this time concerning concentrations of phthalate esters in public water supply sources. PLANKTON The quality of public water supplies may be drastically ffected by the presence of planktonic organisms. Plankton 1ay be defined as a community of motile or nonmotile 1icroscopic plants and animals that are suspended in water. ~he species diversity and density of the plankton com- mnity a:r;e important water quality characteristics that !10uld be monitored in all public water supplies. Several 1ethods for counting plankton have been improvised. .fany reports count plankton as number of organisms per liquot of sample rather than biomass. Since various species f algae are much larger than other species, plankton ounts that simply enumerate cells, colonies, or filaments do ot indicate accurately the true plankton content of the rater (Standard Methods 1971). 305 Plankters are primarily important in public water supply lurces for their contribution to taste and odor problems, H alteration, or filter clogging. To aid operators in in- !rpreting plankton data, the algae counted should be .sted under applicable categories that show the predomi- ance or absence of certain groups of organisms at any iven time. The categories used should include green algae, 'lue-green algae, diatoms, flagellated forms, Protozoa, 1icrocrustaceans and Rotifera, as well as related Protista. Data from plankton counts can be very useful to water reatment operators (Silvey et al. 1972). 304 Counts of blue- :reen algae which exceed 50 per cent of the total plankton community usually indicate potential taste and odor prob- lems. So long as the green algae comprise 75 per cent of the total plankton count, it is not likely that serious taste and odor problems will arise. The diatom population of the plankton community is also important. During some diatom blooms, the pH of the water increases enough to require the addition of more alum or iron than would normally be used to achieve the desired pH in the distribution system. Some blooms of planktonic green algae cause the pH of the water to rise from 7.6 to as high as 10. There are ap- parently no plankters that tend to reduce pH or remove minerals in sufficient quantities to alter conditions. The role which plankton plays in the productivity of a lake or reservoir is important. The relationship between productivity and respiration may frequently be used as a pollution index. In many instances, plankton studies are more revealing than bacterial studies. A ratio of produc- tivity to respiration amounting to one or more indicates that the algae are producing more oxygen than is being consumed by the bacteria. If the ratio drops below one for significant periods, an undesirable condition exists that may cause problems with anaerobic organisms. For further dis- cussions of productivity and its relation to water quality, see Section I on Recreation and Aesthetics, Section III on Fresh Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and Section IV on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife. 82 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) consist of a mixture of :ompounds only slightly soluble in water; -highly soluble in fats, oils, and nonpolar liquids; and highly resistant to 3oth heat and biological degradation. PCB have a wide variety of industrial uses, primarily as insulating fluid in !lectrical and heat transfer equipment (Interdepartmental fask Force 1972).311 Exposure to PCB is known to cause skin lesions (Schwartz md Peck (1943)320 and to increase liver enzyme activity :hat may have a secondary effect on reproductive processes :Risebrough et al. 1968,317 Street et al. 1969,321 Wassermann !t al. 1970 325 ). It is not clear at this time whether the effects tre due to PCB or i~ contaminants, the chlorinated di- Jenzofurans that are highly toxic (Bauer et al. 1961,30 7 khulz 1968,319 Verrett 1970 324). It is also not known whether :he chlorinated dibenzofurans are produced by degradation >f PCB as well as during its manufacture. The occurrence of PCB in our waters has beep. docu- nented repeatedly (New Scientist 1966,315 Holmes et al. 967,310 Risebrough et al. 1968,317 Jensen et al. 1969,312 (oeman et al. 1969,313 Schmidt et al. 1971,318 Veith and ~ee 1971 323 ). They have been associated with sewage :ffiuents (Holden 1970,309 Schmidt et al. 197 !3 18) and rain- vater (Tarrant and Tatton 1968), 322 as well as releases and eakage. Failures of closed systems using PCB have caused orne of the more well known releases (Kuratsune et al. 969,314 Duke et al. 1970 308). It has been reported that the lefined treatment process does little or nothing to remove >CB (Ahling and Jensen 1970).306 An epidemiological study on severe poisoning by rice oil 83 contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls in 1968 indi- cated that about 0.5 grams ingested over a period of ap- proximately one month was sufficient to cause the Yusho- disease. Many of those affected showed no signs of relief after about three years (Kuratsune et al. 1969).314 Price and Welch (1971)316 have estimated on the basis of 194 samples that 41 to 45 per cent of the general population of the U.S. may have PCB levels of 1.0 mg/kg or higher (wet weight) in adipose tissue. Therefore, it appears that PCB may accumulate in the body. On this basis it can be calculated that a daily intake of 0.02 mg would require about 70 years to be toxic. Applying a factor of safety of 10 would permit a daily intake of 0.002 mg, and assuming a two liter per day intake, suggests a permissible concen- tration in water to be 0.001 mg/1. However, evaluation of the retention and accumulation of PCB from water instead of oil in humans is highly desir- able. A study on rats with a single oral dose of 170 mg/kg showed urinary excretion (of PCB) to be limited, while 70 per cent of the dose was found in the feces during an eight week period (Yoshimura et al. 1971).326 Information on PCB in the diet would also be helpful. Conclusion Because too little is known about the levels in waters, the retention and accumulation in hu- mans, and the effects of very low rates of ingestion, no defensible recommendation can be made at this time. ,, ------·-------------------~=--------------'l..ii;~'i' RADIOACTIVITY The effects of radiation on human beings are viewed as armful, and any unnecessary exposure to radiation should e avoided. The U.S. Federal Radiation Council* (196la)~29 rovided guidance for federal agencies to limit exposure of tdividuals to radiation from radioactive materials in the rrvironment. The following statement by the U.S. Federal .adiation Council (1960)828 is considered especialty perti- ent in applying the recommendations of this report: There can be no single permissible or acceptable level of exposure without regard to the reason for permitting the exposure . .It should be general practice to reduce exposure to radiation, and positive effort should be carried out to fulfill the sense of these recommen- dations. It is basic that exposure to radiation should result from a real determination of its necessity. The U.S. Federal Radiation Council criteria (1960,828 96la829) have been used in establishing the limits for radio- ctivity recommended here. It should be noted that these uidelines apply to normal peacetime operations. They are redicated. upon three ranges of daily intake of radio- ctiviry-as seen in Table 11-5. The recommended radionuclide intake derives from the 1m of radioactivity from air, food, and water. Daily 1takes were· prescribed with the provision that dose rates e averaged over a period of one year. The range for Jecific radionuclides recommended by the U.S.. Federal .adiation Council (196lb)880 are shown in the following tbles: ABLE n:..s.:....R{mges of Transient Rates of Intake (pCi/day) for use in·Grailed.Scale of Actiona Range 1· Range II Range Ill TABLE II-6--Graded Scale of Action Ranges of transient raleS'OI daily intake Graded scele of action Range I. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . Periodic connrmatory surveillance as necessary Range II. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. Quantitative surveillance and routine control Range Ill... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . Evaluation and appUcetion of additional control measures as neces· sary For each range, a measure ofcontrol was defined, which represented a graded scale of control procedures. The U.S. Federal Radiation Council (196lb)880 further defined the action to be taken by stating that "Routine .control of useful applications of radiation and atomic energy should be ·such that expected average exposures of suitable samples of an exposed population group will not exceed the upper value of Range II." Furthermore, they recommended, with respect to Range III, that "Control actions would be designed to reduce the levels to Range II or lower, and to provide stability at lower levels;" It has not been considered necessary to prescribe criteria for iodine-131 .or strontium-89 for surface waters. Iodine-131 has never been a problem in water supplies and does not appear likely to be, .and strontium-89 levels should not be significant if strontium-90 levels are kept satisfactorily low. Using the midpoint of Range I, Table 11-5, for transient rates of intake recommended by the U.S. Federal Radiation Council, and assuming a 2 liter per day consumption, the radium-226 'limit is 0.5 Pc/day and strontium-90 limit is 5 Pc/day. These levels are not currently being exceeded in any surface water supply in the United States, although a number of ground water supplies have more than 0.5 pCi/1 of radium-226. ~ium-226................. o-2 2-20 Because tritium (hydrogen-3) may. be discharged from ~ne-131b.. ...••..... .... G-10 a 1 d fi 1 . 1 d ontium:so......... •. . .. . . @ 2 nuc ear power reactors an ue reprocessing p ants, an ·ontium-89.... .. . . .•••.... 0-,200 o because it would not be detected. in normal analysis of 'SeeTabren-&. water samples, it has been eonsidered desirable to .. include '·1n'thecesaoliodine~13f;lhasuitlbluamplewouldinctudaonlysmalli:hildran.Foradlllts,thinadiationprotec• a limit on this low energy radionuclide. The Federal Radi- I guide lor lhe·1hyroid.would notbe e11:2ededby.ntes of intlke higher<by a factor of tO !han those appliceblt · ati0n Council has not provided guidance on tritium. intake. small cbildren.' 1 {., A tentative limit of3,000 pCi/1 of tritium has been proposed *'The·funcf~ons·of the U.S. Federal Radiation Council have been for, the revised edition ~f Drinking Water Standards. This ansferred .. to :EPA, .. Office of &adiation Pro~a:ms. \'1 r.::-;,:relatively conservative limit has been suggested because of (} .,: '-!::.';;j oP]j\lt 84 1. tJ{}() y 6?) 1mcertainty in the potential genetic effects of tritium in- :orporated into body tissues as tritiated water. It is a ~enerally attainable level based on data from the Environ- nental Protection Agency Tritium Surveillance . System. fhese data indicate that of 70 United States cities surveyed n 1970, none had an ·annual average tritium activity in ~p water exceeding 3,000 pCi/1, the highest annual average value being {,900 pCi/1. Levels in surface water collected :lownstream from nuclear facilities showed only two of 34 .ocations having tritium activity exceeding 3,000 pCi/1. Precipitation samples taken during 1970 at locations within the United States indicated less than 700 pCi/1. Although a large number of other radionuclides may·be present in water, it has not been considered necessary to include specific limits for other than the three mentioned above. If other nuclides are likely to be present, it is recom- mended that permissible limits be held to I/ 150 of the limit for continuous occupational exposure set by the Inter- Gational Commission on Radiological Protection (1960).327 Gross radioactivity limits provide screening techniques a.nd guides ~o an increased level of radiochemical analysis. If the gross alpha and gross beta concentrations in a sample are less than certain minimum concentrations, no additional radiochemical or radiophysical analyses are required. Gross Alpha Radioactivity Gross alpha limits or investigation levels are keyed to the concentratior!limit for radium-226 (the al~a emitter with the most restrictive intake limit). A typical scheme is the following: TABLE 11-7---,Typical Scheme of Gross Alpha Concentration Gross Alpha concentration (pCifl) . Required action (a) Notexceeding 0. 5 pCi/1....... . .. .. • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None (b) Greater than 0.5 but not exceeding 5 pCijl .......... Radiochemical analysis for radium-226 (c) Greater than 5 pCi/1 ..................... ·-..•.... Comprehensive radiochemical anaylsis Gross Beta Radioactivity Two beta emitting radio- nuclides with the most restrictive maximum permissible concentrations are lead-210 and radium-228. However, since it is extremely unlikely that either radionuclide will Radioactivity /85 TABLE Il....S-Gross Beta Radioactivity $o Strontium-90 and Isotopes of Radioiodine Gross Beta concentration excluding Potassium-40 Required action (a) Not greater than 5 pCi/1. ......................... None (with knowledge that lead-210 and radium-228 are essentially absent) (b) Greater than 5, but less than 50 pCi/1 .............. Analyses for slrontium-90,.iodine-129, and iodine-131 (c) Greaterthan 50 pCi/1.. .......................... Comprehensive radiochemical analysis ever be present in a significant concentration in a raw water source, the investigation levels for gross beta radio- activity are keyed to strontium-90 and isotopes of radio- iodine. The radionuclide concentration limits proposed in the above tables should not be· considered as absolute maxima that, if exceeded, constitute grounds for rejection of a drinking water supply source. Instead, the concentration limits should be considered guidelines that should not be exceeded unless there is good reason. The constraints that should be imposed are based on: (I) a determination by the appropriate regulatory agencies that the higher :lev.el of radioactivity is as low as can be practicably achieved, and (2) quantitative surveillance of all intake pathways to demonstrate that total dose to a suitable sample of the exposed population is within Radiation Protection Guide- lines leve'ls. To permit variances in radionuelide ·concen- trations in water depending on concentrations in other environmental media and dietary habits is consistent with the guidance and recommendations of the U.S. Federal Radiation 'Council, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement, and the International Com- mission on Radiological Protection. Recommendation Because the defined treatment process has un- certain effects on the removal of soluble radio- nuclides and because of the effects of radiation on humans, it is recommended that.the limits related to the guidelines presented above ·be accepted in the context of the discussion for application to sources of public water supply. SELENIUM The toxicity of selenium resembles that of arsenic and can, if exposure is sufficient, cause death. Acute selenium toxicity is characterized by nervousness, vomiting, cough, ::lyspnea, convulsions, abdominal pain, diarrhea, hypo- tension, and respiratory failure. Chronic exposure leads to marked pallor, red staining of fingers, teeth and hair, ::lebility, depression, epistaxis, gastrointestinal disturbances, ::lermatitis, and irritation of the nose and throat. Both :~.cute and chronic exposure can cause odor on the breath ;imilar to garlic (The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs 1968).336 The only documented case of selenium toxicity rom a water source, uncomplicated with selenium in the :liet, concerned a three-month exposure to well water con- :aining 9 mg/1 (Beath 1962). 331 Although previous evidence suggested that selenium was ~arcinogenic (Fitzhugh et al. 1944),332 these observations 1ave not been borne out by subsequent data (Volganev md Tschenkes 1967).346 In recent years, selenium has )ecome recognized as a dietary essential in a number of :pecies (Schwarz 1960,341 Nesheim and Scott 1961,338 Old- ield et al. 1963 339 ). Elemental selenium is highly insoluble and requires oxi- iation to selenite or selenate before appreciable quantities tppear in water (Lakin and Davidson 196 7). 335 There is ~vidence that this reaction is catalyzed by certain soil )acteria (Olson 1967).340 No systematic investigation of the forms of selenium in :xcessive concentrations in drinking water sources has been :arried out. However, from what is known of the solubilities >f the various compounds of selenium, the principal in- >rganic compounds of selenium would be selenite and :elenate. The ratio of their individual occurrences would iepend primarily on pH. Organic forms of selenium oc- :urred in seleniferous soils and had sufficient mobility in m aqueous environment to be preferentially absorbed over :elenate in certain plants (Hamilton and Beath 1964). 334 However, the extent to which these compounds might occur in source waters is essentially unknown. Toxicologic exami- nation of plant sources of selenium revealed that selenium present in seleniferous grains was more toxic than inorganic selenium added to the diet (Franke and Potter 1935).333 Intake of selenium from foods in seleniferous areas (Smith 1941),342 may range from 600 to 6,340 JLg/day, which ap- proach estimated levels related to symptoms of selenium toxicity in man based on urine samples (Smith et al. 1936,343 Smith and Westfall 1937 344). If data on selenium in foods (Morris and Levander 1970)337 are applied to the average consumption of foods (U.S. Department of Agri- culture, Agriculture Research Service, Consumer and Food Economics Research Division 1967), 345 the normal dietary intake of selenium is about 200 JLg/day. If it is assumed that two liters of water are ingested per day, a 0.01 mg/1 concentration of total selenium would increase the normal total dietary intake by 10 per cent (20 JLg/day). Considering the range of selenium in food associated with symptoms of toxicity in man, this would provide a safety factor of from 2. 7 to 29. A serious weakness in these calculations is that their validity depends on an assumption of equivalent toxicity of selenium in food and water, in spite of the fact that a considerable portion of selenium associated with plants is in an organic form. Adequate toxicological data that specifically examine the organic and the inorganic selenium compounds are not available. Recommendation Because the defined treatment process has little or no effect on removing selenium, and because there is a lack of data on its toxic effects on humans when ingested in water, it is recommended that public water supply sources contain no more than 0.01 mgfl selenium. 86 ------------------------------------------ SILVER Silver is a rather rare element with a low solubility of 0.1 to 10 mg/1 depending upon pH and chloride concen- tration (Hem 1970).348 Data from 1,577 samples collected from 130 sampling points in the United States showed detectable (0.1 ~g/1) concentrations in 104 samples ranging from 1.0 to 38 ~g/1 with a median of 2.6 ~g/1 (Kopp 1969). 352 The principal effect of silver in the body is cosmetic. It causes a permanent grey discoloration of skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. The amounts of colloidal silver re- quired to produce this condition (argyria, argyrosis), which would serve as a basis for determining the water standard, are not known; b~ the amount of silver from injected agarsphenamine that produces argyria is any amount greater than one gram of silver in the adult (Hill and Pillsbury 1939,349 1957 350). It is also reported that silver, once absorbed, is held indefinitely in the tiss~es (Aub and Fairhalll942).347 A study that provided analyses of samples of human 87 tissues from 30 normal adult males showed three to contain silver in minute amounts. Comparison of the mean daily concentrations of silver in successive daily samples of urine, feces, and food (0.088 mg/day) showed essentially no ab- sorption of the intake from food (Kehoe et al. 1940b).351 Studies of the metabolism of silver in the rat showed only about 2 per cent of the element entered the blood from the gastrointestinal tract and that the biological half life was about 3 days (Scott 1949).353 However, this work was done with carrier free silver and may not be representative of the behavior of larger amounts of element. It does suggest, however, that ingested silver is not likely to be completely stored in the body. Conclusion Because silver in waters is rarely detected at levels above 1 ~<?,/1, a limit is not recommended for public water supply sources. SODIUM Sodium salts are ubiquitous in the water environment. These minerals are highly soluble, and their concentrations [n natural waters show considerable variation, regionally md locally. In addition to natural sources of sodium salts, Jther sources are sewage, industrial effluents, and deicing ;alts. Sodium concentrations in ground waters may also rary with well depth, and often reach higher levels of ~oncentration than in surface waters. Removal of sodium s costly and is not common in public water supply treat- nent .. Ofthe IOQJargest public water supplies in the U.S., most >f which are surface supplies, the median sodium content ,vas 12 mg/1 with a range ofl.Img/ltn 177 mg/1 (Durfor md Becker 1964).355 For a healthy individual, the intake >fsodiumc is.discretionary and influenced by food selection md seasoning. The intake of sodium may average 6 g/day vithout adverse effects on health (Dahl 1960). 354 Various restricted sodium intakes are recommended by >hysiciims for a significant portion of' the population, in- :luding persons suffering from hypertension, edema associ- Lted with congestive cardiac failure, and women with oxemias of pregnancy (National Research Council, Food md Nutrition Board 1954).356 The sodium intake from ources other than water· recommended for very restricted liets is 500 mg/day. Diets for these individuals permit ~0 mg/1 sodium in drinking water and water used for :ooking .. If the public water ·supply has .a sodium content :xceeding this limit, persons. on a very restricted sodium liet must use distilled or deionized wateF. For a larger portion of the population who use.a moder;.. Ltely restricted diet, 1,000 mg/day is the recommended odium intake limit (National Research Council, Food and Nutrition Board 1954). 356 Under this limit, water containing a higher concentration of sodium could be used if the sodium intake from the sources other than water were not increased above that of the very restricted diet. Then, the daily intake of sodium from water (20 mg/1 for very re- stricted diets) could be increased by the additional 500 mg (250 mg/1) intake permitted in the moderately restricted diet, thus allowing a significant portion of the population to use public water supplies with higher sodium concen- trations. On this basis water containing more than 270 mg/1 sodium should not be used for drinking water by those using the moderately restricted sodium diet, and water containing more than 20 mg/1 sodium should not be used by those using the very restricted sodium diet. The response· ofpeople who should restrict their sodium intake for health reasons is a continuum varying with intake. The allocation of the difference in dietary intake allowed by the very restricted and the moderately restricted diets; to drinking water would be an arbitrary decision. Furthermore, waters containing high concentrations of sodium (greater than 270 mg/1) are likely to be too highly mineralized to be considered desirable from aesthetic stand- points aside from health considerations. Treatment of an entire public water supply to remove sodium is quite· c0stly. Home treatment for drinking water alone for those needing low sodium water can be done at relatively modest cost, or low sodium content bottled water can be used. Recommendation In view of the above discussion no limit is recom- mended for sodium. 88 ,. II; -;'ftc ;~w .. SULFATE The ·public .water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States were found to contain a median sulfate con- centration of26 mg/1, and. a maxiiimmof572 mg/1 (Durfor and Becker 1964). 357 Greater concentrations were present in·:many ground water supplies for smaller communities in the Midwest (Larson 1963). 358 Sulfate ions in drinking water can have a cathartic effect on occasional users, but acclimatization is rapid. If two liters of water are. ingested per day, the equivalent sulfate ·concentrations for laxative doses of Glauber salt and Epsom salt are 300 mg/1 and 390 mg/1, respectively (Peterson 1951,361 Moore 1952 360 ). Data collected by theNorth Dakota· State Department of Health on laxat~e effects of mineral quality in water indicated that more than 750 mg/1 sulfate had a laxative effect; and less·than -600 ,mg/1 did not (Peterson '1951). 361 If the water was high in magnesium, the effect took place at lower sulfate concentrations than if other cations' were dominant. A subsequent interpretation showed that laxative effects were experienced by sensitive persons not accustomed -to the water when magnesium was about 200 mg/1, and by the average person when magnesium was 500-1000 mg/1 (Moore .1952). 360 The median of sulfate concentrations detected by taste by a panel of 10 to 20 persons was 237, 370, and 419 mg/1 for sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts, respectively (Whipple 1907). 362 Coffee brewed with 400 mg/1 sulfate added as magnesium sulfate was affected in taste (Locknart et al. 1955). 359 Recommendation On the basis of ·taste and laxative effects and because the defined ·treatment process does not remove sulfates, it is recommended that sulfate in public water supply sources not'exceed 250 mg/L. where sources with lower sulfate concentrations. are or: can be. made available. TEMPERATURE Temperature affects the palatibility of water by intensi- fying taste and odor through· increased volatility of the source compound (Burnson 1938).366 Any increase in tem- perature may stimulate growth of taste and odor producing organisms (Kofoid 1923;372 Thompson 1944,378 Silvey et al. 1950 377) but tends to decrease the survival time of infectious organisms (Peretz and Medvinskaya 1946,375 Rudolfs et al. 1950376) •• The standard treatment process is also affected by temperature or· temperature changes in the steps of coagulation (V elz 1934,379 Maulding and' HarriS'". 1968, an American Water Works Association 1971 363}, sedimentation (Camp et al. 1940,368 Hannah et al. 1967 370), ·filtration (lf'annah<eLald967370),and chlorination (Ames and Smith 1944,364 Butterfield and ·Wattie-1946.367} •. 89 Temperature changes usually are caused by using water as a coolant, as, a carrier of wastes, or for irrigation (Brashears, Jr. 1946,.365 ·Moore 1958,374 Eldridge 1960,369 Hoak 1961 371 ). Surface water temperatures,vary with the seasons, geographical location, and climatiC conditions·,The same factors along with -geological conditions affect ground water temperatures; Recommendation No temperature change that detracts from the potability of'public water, supplies: and no temper• ature change that adversely affects the standard· treatment process are suggested guidelines for temperature in public water supply sources. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (Filterable Residue) High total dissolved solids (TDS) are objectionable be- cause of possible physiological effects, mineral taste, and economic consequences. Limited research (Bruvold 1967 380) indicated that consumer acceptance of mineralized waters decreased in direct proportion to increased mineralization. This study covered a range of TDS values of 100 to 1,200 mg/1; one at 2,300 mg/1 TDS. For high levels of minerali- zation, there may also be a laxative effect, particularly upon transients. High concentrations of mineral salts, par- ticularly sulfate and chloride, are also associated with costly corrosion damage in water systems (Patterson and Banker 1968381). Because of the wide range of mineralization of natural water, it is not possible to establish a single limiting value. The measurement of specific conductance provides an indi- cation of the amount of TDS present. The relationship of ~pecific conductance to TDS will vary depending upon the distribution of the major constituent elements present. For any given water a relatively uniform relationship will exist. Where sufficient data exist to establish a correlation between the two measurements, specific conductance may be used as a substitute for the TDS measurement. In very general terms, a specific conductance of 1,500 micro-mhos is ap- proximately equivalent to 1,000 mg/1 TDS (Standard Methods 1971). 383 Because drinking water containing a high concentration of TDS is likely to contain an excessive concentration of some specific substance that would be aesthetically objec- tionable to the consumer, the 1962 Drinking Water Stand- ards (PHS 1962)382 included a limit for TDS of 500 mg/1, if other less mineralized sources were available. Although waters of higher concentrations are not generally desirable, it is recognized that a considerable number of supplies with dissolved solids in excess of the 500 mg/llimit are used without any obvious ill effects. Therefore, instead of recom- mending a general dissolved solids limit, specific recommen- dations are made in this report for individual substances of importance in drinking water sources, such as chloride and sulfate. TURBIDITY The recommendation for acceptable levels of turbidity Ln water must relate to the capacity of the water treatment plant to remove turbidity adequately: and continuously at ~easonable cost. Water treatment plants are designed to ~emove the kind and quantity of turbidity to be expected ln each water supply source. Turbidity can reduce the ~ffectiveness of chlorination by physically protecting micro- Jrganisms from direct contact with the disinfectant (Sander- ;on and Kelly 1964,384 Tracy et al. 1966). 386 Customary methods (Standard Methods 1971) 385 for measuring and reporting turbidity do not adequately measure those characteristics harmful to public water supply and water treatment processing. A water with 30 turbidity units may coagulate more rapidly than one with 5 or 10 units. Conversely, water with 30 turbidity units sometimes may be more difficult to coagulate than water with 100 units. The type of plankton, clay, or earth particles, their size, and electrical charges, are more important determining factors than the turbidity units. Sometimes clay added to very low turbidity water will improve coagulation. Turbidity in water should be readily removable by coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration; it should not be present to an extent that will overload the water treatment plant facilities; and it should not cause unreasonable treat- ment costs. In addition, turbidity should not frequently change or vary in characteristics to the extent that such changes cause upsets in water treatment plant processes. Conclusion 90 No recommendation is made, because it is not possible to establish a turbidity recommendation in terms of turbidity units; nor can a turbidity recommendation be expressed in terms of mgjl "undissolved solids" or "nonfilterable solids." URANYL ION The 1968 edition of Water Quality Criteria (FWPCA 1968)387 included a limit for uranyl ion (U02++) of5 rrig/1, because a 1965 Public Health Service Drinking: Water Standards Review Committee had tentatively decided to include it in the next revision of the Drinking Water Stand- ards. This value was selected because it is below the ob- jectionable taste and appearance levels as well as the chemically toxic concentration. Further investigation of raw water quality data indicated that uranium does not occur naturally in most waters above a few micrograms per liter (U.S. Geological Survey · 1969,388 EPA office memorandum 1971 389). Recommendation The taste, color, and gross alpha recommen- dations will restrict the uranium concentration to levels below those objectionable on the basis of toxicity. For these reasons, no specific limit is pro- posed for uranyl ion. VIRUSES ..., Many types of viruses are excreted in the wastes of humans and animals (Berg 1971 392), and som~ have been implicated in diseases (Berg 1967 391). There are·viruses that alternate between animal hosts (Kalter 1967)403 and those- that can infect genetically distant hosts (Maramorosch 1967).407 Because almost any virus can be transmitted from host to host through water (Mosley 1967), 409 any amount of virus detectable by appropriate techniques in surface water supplies constitutes a hazard (Berg 1967). 391 While it is believed that all human enteric viruses have the potential to cause illness in man, not all have been etiologically associated with clinical illness. A number of waterborne local outbreaks attributed to virus affecting approximately 800 people have occurred in the United States, but no obvious large scale spread of a viral disease by the water route is known to have occurred (Mosely 1967).409 Although virus transmission by water has been suggested for poliomyelitis, gastroenteritis, and diarrhea, the most convincing documentation exists for infectious hepatitis (Mosley 1967).409 Twelve outbreaks of infectious hepatitis have been attributed to contaminated drinking water in the United States between 1895 and 1971, and most of these have been linked to private systems. Berg (1971)392 suggests that waterborne viral disease need not occur at the epidemic level in order· to be. of significance. Small numbers of virus units could produce infection with- out causing overt disease, and infected individwils could then serve as sources of larger amounts of virus. 91 The interpretation of virus data presents other problems in addition to those posed by epidemiological evaluation. There is evidence that one virulent virus unit can be suffi- cient to infect man if it contacts susceptible cells (Plotkin and Katz 1967),411 but in an intact host, this is complicated by various defenses (Beard 196 7). 390 The interpretation of data is further complicated by aberrations in survival curves for virus thought to be caused by clumping. The statistical treatment of virus data has been discussed by Berg et al. (1967),393 Chang (1967,395 1968 396), Clark and Niehaus (1967),399 Sharp (1967),412 and Berg (1971).392 The route of enteric viral contamination of surface waters is from human feces through the effluents of sewage treat- ment plants as well as contamination from raw sewage. Enteric virus densities in human feces have been estimated by calculation and sampling. Clarke and his associates (1962)400 suggested that human feces contained approxi- mately 200 virus units per gram per capita and 12X 10 6 coliform bacteria per gram per capita, or 15 enteric virus units per 10 6 coliforms. Combining these calculations with observed data, they estimated that sewage contained 500 virus units per 100 ml, and contaminated surface waters contained less than I virus unit per 100 ml. These numbers are subject to wide variation and change radically during an epidemic. The removal capabilities of various sewage treatment processes have been examined individually and in series both in the laboratory and in the field (Chin et al. 1967,398 92/Settion Il-Public Water Supplies TABLE 11-9-Average Time in Days for 99.9 Per Cent Reduction in Original Titer of Indicated Microorganisms at Three Temperatures · Microorganism Clean water Moderately polluted water Sewage 28C 20C 4C 28C 20C 4C 28C 20C 4C PofioYirus 1.. ............... 17 20 27 11 13 19 17 23 110 ECHO 7 .................•.• 12 16 26 5 7 15 28 41 130 ECHO 12 ................... 5 12 33 3 5 19 20 32 60 Coxsackie A9 ................ <8 <8 10 5 8 20 6 No data 12 A. aerilgenes ................. 6 . 8 .. 15 15 18 44 10 21 56 E. coli .........••..•....•... :6 ., 7 10 5 ·' 5 11 .,12 20 48 s. fecans ................... 6 8 17 9 ·18 57 14 26 48 · c•arke et al. 1962""' Clark and Niehaus 1967,399 England et al. 1967,402 Lund and Hedstrom 1967,404 Malherbe 1967,405 Malherbe and Strickland-Cholmley 1967,406 Berg 197!392). These studies indicated that while some sewage treatment processes showed virus removal potential in laboratory tests and field evaluation,. there was no indication that consistent adequate virus removal, that is no detectable virus, was acCOII,lplished by present sewage treatment practices (Berg 1971).392 How- ever, the apparent limited survival time for viruses in water can be affected by 'factors, such as temperature and adsorp- tion that protects viruses; arid th~ proximity of water_ users may make survival for only a short period of time sufficient to transmit virulent virus (Prier and Riley 1967).410 Table Il-9 gives virus and bacterial survival data for clean, moderately contaminated; and sewage water. ·· The removal capabilities of various water . treatment processes are presented' in Table Il-10. Conventional water treatment processes are variable in their virus removal efficacy and questionable in their per- formance under field conditions (Berg 1971,392 Sproul 1972413). Disinfection by. chlorination was reviewed recently for its virus inactivation efficacy (Morris 1971).408 Only undis- sociated hypochlorous acid (HOCl) was considered effective in virus inactivation. Approximately 25 mg/1 chloramine; 100 mg/1 hypochlorite or 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1 HOCl with 30-minute contact . .times were required to cause adequate viral inactivation in potable water. The amount of.chlorine required to achieve these conditions varied with ·the pH and the amount of nitrogen present. TABLE ll-10-Removal of'Viruses from Water and Wastewater by. Biological, Physical, and Chemical Treatment Procedure Treatment (1) . Menstruum .tested (2) Primary setting ........ , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary effluent Aclivale d'sludge ......................... ,. Activated sludge effluent Carbon adsorption (0.5 gal per min per 511 It). Trickling filter effluent Ca(OH)' coagulation (500 mg per 1) ......... Activated slu_dg~effluent Al'($04)' coagulation (25 mg per 1) ........... River water FeCI• coagulation (25 mg per•l) ............ :·River water ·, • Added to the test experimentally. ~ When volatile solids were at least 400 mg per I. • When good floc formation occurred. Berg 1971"' Retention time, in hours (3) Virus• (4)· 3 PofioYirus 1 6. 0-8. 4 Coxsackilivirus A9 6.11,7, 5 Poliovirus 1 ............................... :.Phage T·2 ....................... , ......... Poliovirus 1 ............................ :: ... CoxsackieYirus A2 •................................ Coxsackievirus A2 Conclusion Virus removed, as a percentage (5) 0-3 96-99 88-94~ 35 98.5-99.9 -95-99• 92-94• '.Reference.(&) Clarke et aL 1961401 Clarke et aL 1961401 Clarke et aL 19614•• Spioul·et al. 1967"' Berget aL 1968'94 Chang et al, 1958'" Chang at aL l958'" Considerable progress on virologicalmethod development has been made in the, past decade. However, virology tech- niques have;not yet been perfected to a point where they can be used routinely for monitoring water for viruses . .There is a need for virus data on relative numbeFs, ·better tech- niques, relative die-off rates, and·.correlation with existing indicators, as well as methods' for· direct determination. '··In view of the· uncertain correlation of virus oc- currence with existing indicators, the absence of adequate monitoring techniques, and the general lack of data, scientifically defensible.criteri~tcannot ·be recommended at this·. time. ZINC Zinc is an essential and beneficial element in".human water containing 50 mg/1 of zinc. was used for a protracted metabolism. The activity of insulin and several body en-period without harm (Hinman, Jr. 1938418). zymes is dependent on zinc. The daily adult human intake Statistical analysis of taste threshold tests with zinc in averages 10 to 15 mg; for preschool children it is 0.3 mg/kg. distilled water showed that 5 per cent of the observers were (Vallee 1957).420 able to distinguish between 4.3 mg/1 zinc (added as zinc Zinc is a widely used metal and may be'dissolved from sulfate) and ·water containing no zinc salts (Cohen et al. galvanized pipe, hot water tanks, or from yellow brass. 1960417 ). When added as zinc.nitrate and as zinc chloride, It may. also. be present in some corrosion prevention addi-the detection levelswere 5.2.and 6.3 mg/1 zinc, respectively. tives and in industrial· wastes. 'The solubility of·zinc ·is·~ When zinc sulfate or zinc chloride was added to spring variable, depending upon pH and alkalinity. water with 460 mg/1 dissolved solids, the detection levels In 1,577 samples from 130 locations on streams_between for 5 per cent of the observers were 6.8 and 8.6 mg/1 zinc, October 1962 and September 1967, zinc was detected respectively. . (2 JLg/1) .in l,207··samples with.a range of. 2. to 1,183 JLg/1 and a mean of 64 JLg/1 (Kopp 1969)~419 Individuals drinking water containing 23.8 to 40.8 mg/1 of zinc. experienced no knowri harmful effects. Communities ' have reported using water containing 11 to 27 mg/1 of zinc without harmful effects (B~rtow and Weigle 1932,416 Anderson et al. 1934416). Another report stated that spring '·Recommendation Because of consumer taste preference and be- cause the defined treatment process may not re- ··move,appreciable·amounts of zinc from the source of the supply, it is recommended that the zinc concentrations in public water supply sources not exceed 5 mg/1. 93 LITERATURE CITED INTRODUCTION 1 American Public Health Association, American Water Works As- sociation, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1971), Stan- dard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. 2 Brown, E., M. W. Skougstad, and M. J. Fishman (1970), Methods for collection and analysis of water samples for dissolved minerals and gases, book 5, chapter Al of Techniques of water-resources in- vestigations of the United States Geological Survey (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. 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Bibr (1970), Cadmium content in some foods with respect to its biological effects. Vitalst. Zivilisationskr. 15(78): 139-:-141. . 97 Lieber, M. and W. F. Welsch (1954), Contamination of ground water by cadmium. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 46:541-547. 98 Morgan, J. M. (1969), Tissue cadmium concentration in man. Arch. Intern. Med. 123:405-408. 99 Murata, I.;:T .. Hirono; Y-'Saeki;•andS:Nakagawa·(l970):;:Cadmitim- enteropathy, .renal'osteomalacia. (''ltai Itai'' disease in Japan). Bull. Soc. Irit. Chir. 29(1):34-42. 100 Nogawa, K. and S. Kawano (1969)', [A survey of blood pressure of women suspected of "ltai-itai" disease.]. J .. Juzen Med. Soc. 77(3):357-363. 101 Potts, A. M., F. p,· Simon, J. M. Tobias, S. Postel, M. N. Swift, J. M. Patt, and R. W. Gerlad (1950), Distribution and fate of cadmium in the animal body. Arch. Indust. Hyg. 2:175-188. 102 Schroeder, H. A. (1965), Cadmium as a·factor irr.hypertensi6n. J."Clirimic Dis. :18:647.:..,656,. 103 Schroeder, H. A. and J. J. Balassa (1961), Abnormal trace metals in man: cadmium. J. Chron. Dis. 14:236-258. 104 Wilson, R. H. and F. DeEds (1950), Importance of diet in studies of chronic toxicity. Arch. Indust. Hyg. 1:73-80 .. 105Yamagata, N: (1970), ·.Cadmium •pollution hi perspective. Koshu Eiseiin Kenkyi Hokoku [Institute of Public Health, Tokyo, Japan] 19(1):1-27. .CHLORIDE 106 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treat-- ment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co:, New York), 654 p. 107 Durfor, ·C. N .. and E. Becker (1964), Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 1962 [GeologiCal Survey water supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office; Washffigton;· D.·C.),.364p. 108 Lockhart, E. E.", C. L. Tucker, and M. C. Merritt (1955), The effect of water impurities on the flavor of brewed coffee. Food Res. 20(6):598-605. 109 Richter, C. P. and A. MacLean (1939), Salt taste threshoHcof• humans. Amer. J, Physiol. 126:L-,6._ . 110 Whipple, G. C. (1907), The value of pure water 0ohn Wiley & Sons, New York), 84 p. CHROMIUM 111 Brard, D. (1935), Toxicological study of certain chromium de- rivatives. II. J. Pharm. Chem. 21:5-23. 112 Conn, L. W., H. L. Webster, and A H. Johnson (1932), Chromium toxicology. Absorption of chromium by the rat when milk con- taining chromium was fed. Amer. J. Hyg. l5:76Q-765. 113 Davids, H. W. and M. Lieber (1951), Underground water con- tamination by chromium wastes. Water and Sewage Works 98: 528-534. 114 Fairhall, L. T. (1957), In: Industrial Toxicology (Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Md.), pp. 21-23. 116 Gross, W. G. and V. G. Heller (1946), Chromates in animal nu- trition. J. Indust. Hyg. Toxicol. 28:52-56. 1 116 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elementS in water, in Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Environmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University of Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73. 117 Machle, W. and F. 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Nutr. 80:48-54. 123 U.S. Federal Security Agency. Public Health Service (1953), Health of workers in the chromate producing industry [PHS Pub. 192) (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 131 o. COLOR 124 American Water Works Association. Research Committee on Color Problems (1967), Committee report for 1966. J. Amer Water Works Ass. 59(8):1023-1035. 126 Black, A. P. and R. F. Christman (1963a), Characteristics of colored surface waters. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 55(6):753-770. 126 Black, A. P. and R. F. Christman (1963b), Chemical charac- teristics of fulvic acids. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 55(7) :897-912. 127 Black, A. P., J. E. Singley, G. P. Whittle, and J. S. Maulding (1963), Stoichiometry of the coagulation of color-causing 1com- pounds with ferric sulfate. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 55(10): 1347-1366. 128 Christman, R. F. and M. Ghassemi (1966), Chemical nature of organic color in water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58(6):723-741. 129 FriSch, N. W. and R. Kunin (1960), Organic fouling of anion-ex- change resins. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52(7):875-887. 180 Hall, E. S. and R. F. Packham (1965), Coagulation of organic color with hydrolyzing coagulants. J. Amer. Water .Works Ass. 57(9):1149-1166. 131 Hazen, A. (1892), A new color-standard for natural waters. Amer. Chem. J. 14:30Q-310. Literature Cited/97 132 Hazen, A. (1896), The measurement of the colors of natural waters. Amer. Chem. Soc. J. 18:264-275. 133 Lamar, W. L. and D. F. Goerlitz (1963), Characterization of carboxylic acids in unpolluted streams by gas chromatography. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 55(6):797-802. 134 Lamar, W. L. and D. F. Goerlitz (1966), Organic acids in naturally colored surface waters .[Geological Survey water supply paper 1817A) (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 17 p. 136 Robinson, L. R. (1963), The presence of organic matter and its effect on iron removal in ground water. Progress report to U.S. Public Health Service. 136 Shapiro, J. (1964), Effect of yellow organic acids on iron and other metals in water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 56(8):1062-1082. 137 Singley, J. E., R. H. Harris, and J. S. Maulding (1966), Correc- tion of color measurements to standard conditions. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58(4):455-457. 138 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. COPPER 139 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Wood- ward (1960-), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drink- ing water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52:66Q-670. 140 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, in Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Environmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University of Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73. 141 Sollmann, T. H. (1957), A manual of pharmacology and its applications to therapeutics and toxicology, 8th ed. (W. B. Saunders Co., Phila- delphia), pp. 665-667. 142 Uhlig, H. H. (1963), Corrosion and corrosion control (John Wiley & Sons, New York), p. 296. CYANIDE 143 Bodansky, M. and M. D. Levy (1923), Studies on the detoxifica- tion of cyanids. I. Some factors influencing the detoxification of cyanids in health and disease. Arch. Int. Med. 31:373-389. 144 The Merck index of chemicals and drugs, 8th ed. (1968), (Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey). 146 Smith, 0. M. (1944), The detection of poisons in public water supplies. Water Works Eng. 97(22):1293, 1312. 146 Spector, W. S., ed. (1955), Handbook of toxicology, vol. I (W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia), 408 p. 147 Stokinger, H. E. and R. L. Woodward (1958), Toxicologic methods for establishing drinking water standards. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 50(4):515-529 148 World Health Organization (1963), International standards for -drink- ing-water, 2nd ed. (Geneva), 206 p. 149 World Health Organization (1970), European standards for drinking- water, 2nd ed. (Geneva), 58 p. FLUORIDE 15o Dean, H. 1'. (1936), Chronic endemic dental fluorosis (mottled enamel). J. Amer. Med. Ass. 107:1269-1273. 161 Galagan, D. J. (1953), Climate and controlled fluoridation. J. Amer. Dent. Ass. 47:159-170. 1 62 Galagan, D. J. and G. G. Lamson (1953), Climate and endemic dental fluorosis. Pub. Health Rep. 68(5):497-508. 163 Galagan, D. J. and J. R. Vermillion (1957), Determining opti- mum fluoride concentrations. Pub. Health Rep. 72(6):491-493. 98/Section Il-Public Water Supplies 164 Galagan, D. J., J. R. Vermillion, G. A. Nevitt, Z. M. Stadt, and R. E. Dart (1957), Climate and fluid intake. Pub. Health Rep. 72(6):484-490. .. m Heyroth, F. F. (1952), Toxicological evidence for the safety of fluoridation of public water supplies. Amer. J. Pub. Health 42(12): 1569-1575. 156 Leone, N. C., M. ~-Shimkin, F. A. Arnold, C. A. Stevenson, E. R. Zimmerman, P. B. Geiser, and J. E. Lieberman (1954), Medical aspects of excessive fluoride in a water supply. Pub. Health Rep. 69(10) :925-936. 157 McClure, F. J. (1953), Fluorine in food and drinking water; dental health benefits and physiologic effects. J. Amer. Dietet. Ass. 29:560-:-564. 158 Moulton, F. R., ed. (1942), Fluorine and dental healtft [American Association for the Advancement of Science, Pub. no. 19] (Washington, D. C.), pp. 6-11, 23-31. 159 Shaw, J. H., ed. (1954), Fluoridation as a public health measure [Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science Pub. no. 38] (Washington, D. C.), pp. 79-109. 16o U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service (1959), Natural fluoride content of communal water supplies in the United States [PHS Pub. 655] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 111 p. FOAMING AGENTS 161Buehler, E. V., E. A. Newmann, and W. R. King (1971), Two- year feeding and reproduction study in rats with linear alkyl- benzene sulfonate (LAS). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacal. 18:83-91. 162 Standard methqds (1971) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for ~he examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. HARDNESS 163 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treat- ment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p. 164 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1958), The effects of temperature and hardness of water upon the toxicity of zinc to the pond snail, Physa heterostropha (Say). Notulae Naturae 308:1-11. 165 Crawford, M. D., M. J. Gardner, J. N. Morris (1968), Mortality and hardness of local water-supplies. Lancet 1:827-831. 166 Crawford, T. and M.D. Crawford (1967), Prevalence and patho- logical changes of ischaemic heart-disease in a hard-water and in a soft-water area. Lancet 1 :229-232. 167 DeBoer, L. M. and T. E. Larson (1961), Water hardness and domestic use of detergents. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 53:809-822. 168 Jones, J. R. E. (1938), The relative toxicity of salts of lead, zinc and copper to the stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.) and the effect of calcium on the toxicity of lead and zinc salts. J. Exptl. Biol. 15:394-407. 169 Masironi, R. (1969), Trace elements and cardiovascular diseases. Bull. World Health Organ. 40:305-312. 170 Mount, D. I. (1966), The effect of total hardness and pH on acute toxicity of zinc to fish. Air Water Pollut. 10(1):49-56. 171 Muss, D. L. (1962), Relation between water quality and deaths from cardiovascular disease. J. Amer .. Water Works Ass. 54:1371- 1378. 172 Voors, A. W. (1971), Minerals in the municipal water and athero- sclerotic heart death. Amer. J. Epidemiol. 93:259-266. IRON 178 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treatment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p. 174 Buswell, A. M. ( 1928), The chemistry of water and sewage treatment [American Chemical Society monograph series no. 38] (Chemi- cal Catalog Company, Inc., New York), p. 104. 175 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Wood- ward (1960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drinking water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52:660-670. 176 Hazen, A. (1895), Filtration of public water-supplies (John Wiley & Sons, New York), p. 186. 177 Mason, W. P. (1910), Examination of water, 4th ed., rev. (John Wiley & Sons, New York), 167 p. 178 Riddick, T. M., N. L. Lindsay, and A. Tomassi (1958), Iron and manganese in water supplies. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 50(5): 688-696. LEAD 179 Byers, R. K. ( 1959), Lead poisoning; review of the literature and report on 45 cases. Pediatrics 23(3):585-603. 18° Chisholm, J. J., Jr. (1964), Disturbances in the biosynthesis of heme in lead intoxication. J. Pediat. 64:174-187. 181 Crawford; M.D. and J. N. Morris (1967), Lead in drinking water. Lancet 2:1087-1088. 182 Durfor, C. N. and E. Becker (1964), Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 1962 [Geological Survey water supply paper 1812] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 364 p. 183 Kehoe, R. A. (1947), Exposure to lead. Occup. Med. 3:156-171. 184 Kehoe, R. A. (1960a), The metabolism oflead in man in health and disease. II. The metabolism of lead under abnormal conditions. J. Roy. Inst. Public Health 24:129-143. 186 Kehoe, R. A. (1960b), The metabolism of lead in man in health and disease. I. The normal metabolism of lead. J. Royal Inst. Public Health 24:81-97. 186 Kehoe, R. A., J. Cholak, D. M. Hubbard, K. Bambach, R. R. McNary, and R. V. Story (1940a), Experimental studies on the ingestion of lead compounds. J. Indust. Hyg. Toxicol. 22(9):381- 400. 187 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, in Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in En- vironmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University of Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73. 188 McCabe, L. J., J. M. Symons, R. D. Lee and G. G. Robeck (1970), Survey of community water supply systems. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 62(1):67D-687. 189 The Merck index of chemicals and drugs, 7th ed. (1960), (Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey), 1641 p. 190 National Academy of Science-National Research Council (1972), Lead: airborne lead in perspective. ISBN-0-039-91941-9. 191 PHS (1962) U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Public Health Service (1967), Public Health Service drinking water standards, 1962 [PHS pub. 956] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 61 p. 192 Schroeder, H. A. and J. J. Balassa (1961), Abnormal trace metals in man: Lead. J. Chron. Dis. 14:408-425. MANGANESE 193 American Water Works Association (1971), Water quality and treatment, 3rd ed. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p. 194 Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris and R. L. Woodward (1960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drinking water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52:66D-670. 196 Griffin, A. E. (1960), Significance and removal of manganese in water supplies. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52(10):1326-1334. 196 Riddick, T. M., N. L. Lindsay and A. Tomassi (1958), Iron and manganese in water supplies. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 50(5): 688-696. MERCURY 197 Bardet, J. {1913), Etude spectrographique des eaux minerales Francaises. C. R. Hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris 157:224-226. 198 Bergrund, F. and M. Berlin {1969), Risk of methylmercury cumula- tion in man and mammals and the relation between body burden of methylmercury and toxic effects, in Chemical fallout, M. W. Miller and G. G. 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Cucuel {1934), [The occurrence of mercury]. Naturwissenschaften 22:39G-393. 207 Stokinger, H. E. {1963), Mercury, Hg387, in Industrial hygiene and toxicology, 2nd rev. ed., edited by F. A. Patty {Interscience Pub- lishers, New York), vol. 2, p. 1090. 208 Study Group on Mercury Hazards {1971), Hazards of mercury: special report to the Secretary's Pesticide Advisory Committee, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, November 1970. Environ. Res. 4{1):1-69. 209 Wallace, R. A., W. Fulkerson, W. D. Schults, and W. S. Lyon {1971), Mercury in the environment: the human element [ORNL NSF- EP-1] {Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennesse)', 61 p. 210 Willm, E. {1879), Sur la presence du mercure dans les eaux min- erales de Saint-Nectaire. C. R. Hebd. Seanc. Actid. Sci., Paris 88: 1032-1033. 211 U.S. Department of the Interior. Geological Survey {1970), Mercury in the environment [Professional paper 713] {Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 67 p. NITRATE-NITRITE 212 Comly, H. H. {1945), Cyanosis in infants caused by nitrites in well water. J. Amer. Med. Ass. 129:112-116. 213 Diskalenko, A. P. (1968), Methemoglobinemia of water-nitrate origin in the Moldavian SSR. Hyg. Sanit. 33{7-9):32-38. 214 Harmeson, R. H., F. W. Sollo, Jr., and T. E. Larson {1971), The nitrate situation in Illinois. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63{5):303- 310. 21 6 Lee, D. H. K. {1970), Nitrates, nitrites, and methemoglobinemia. Environ. Res. 3(5/6):484-511. 216 Miale, J. B. {1967), Laboratory medicine-hematology, 3rd ed. {C. V. Mosby, St. Louis, Missouri), p. 531. 217 Petukhov, N. I. and A. V. Ivanov {1970), Investigation of certain psycho-physiological reactions in children suffering from methem- oglobinemia due to nitrates in water. Hyg. Sanit. 35{1-3):29--31. 218 Sattelmacher, P. G. {1962), [Methemoglobinemia from nitrates in drinking water.] SchrReihe. Ver. Wass.-, Boden-u. Lufthyg. no. 21,35p. 219 Simon, C., H. Manzke, H. Kay, and G. Mrowitz {1964), Uber Literature Cited/99 vorkommen, pathogenese . und moglichkeiten zur prophylaxe der durch nitrit verursachten methamoglobinlimie. .(;. Kinder- heilk. 91:124-138. 220 Stewart, B. A., F. G. Viets, Jr., G. L. Hutchinson, and W. D. Kemper {1967), Nitrate and other water pollutants under fields and feedlots. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1(9):736-739. 221 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public Health Service. Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center {1961), Groundwater contamination: proceedings of 1961 symposium [Technical report W61-5] {The Center, Cincinnati, Ohio), pp. 65, 71. 222 Vigil, J., S. Warburton, W. S. Haynes, and L. R. Kaiser {1965), Nitrates in municipal water supply cause methemoglobinemia in infant. Pub. Health Rep. 80{12):1119--1121. 223 Walton, G. {1951), Survey of literature relating to infant methemo- globinemia due to nitrate-contaminated water. Amer. J. Pub Health 41 :986-996. 224 Winton, E. F. {1970), Proceedings 12th Sanitary Engineering Conference, nitrate and water supply; source and control, Urbana, Illinois, U. Snoeyink and U. Griffin, eds., pp. 55-60. 226 Winton, E. F., R. G. Tardiff, and L. J. McCabe {1971), Nitrate in drinking water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63{2):95-98. NTA 226 Bailar, J. C., Jr., ed. {1956), The chemistry of the coordination com- pounds {Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York), pp. 39, 777. 227 Nilsson, R. {1971), Removal of metals by chemical treatment of municipal waste water. Water Res. 5{1):51-60. 228 Thompson, J. E. and J. R. Duthie {1968), The biodegradability and treatability of NTA. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 40{2):306- 319. ODOR 229 American Water Works Association {1971), Water quality and treatment, 3rd ed. {McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York), 654 p. 230 American Water Works Association. Committee on. Tastes and Odors {1970), Committee report: research on tastes and odors. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 62{1):59--62. 231 Rosen, A. A. {1966), Taste and odors: Joint discussion. Recent developments in sensory testing. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58{6): 699--702. 232 Silvey, J. K. G. {1953), Newer concepts of tastes and odors in sur- face water supplies. Water and Sewage Works 100(11):426-429. 233 Silvey, J. K. G., J. C. Russel, D. R. Redden, and W. C. McCor- mick {1950), Actinomycetes and common tastes and odors. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 42{11):1018-1026. OIL AND GREASE 234 American Water Works Association. Task Group 2500R {1966), Oil pollution of water supplies: Task Group report. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58:813-821. 236 Braus, H., F. M. Middleton, and G. Walton {1951), Organic chemical compounds in raw and filtered surface waters. Anal. Chem. 23:116G-1164. 236 Holluta, J. (1961), Zur frage der belastung natiirlicher gewlisser mit mineraloprodukten. Gas Wasser Warme 15{8):151-159. 237 The Johns Hopkins University. Department of Sanitary Engineer- ing and Water Resources. Institute for Cooperative Research {1956), Final report to the Water Quality Subcommittee of the American Petroleum Institute. Project PG 49.41 (The University, Baltimore), 126p., mimeograph. 238 McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds. (1963), Water quality criteria, 2nd ed. {California! State Water Quality Control Board, Sacra- mento), 548p. 100/Section Il-Public Water Supplies !89 Middleton, F .. M. (196la), Detection and measurement of organic chemicals in water and waste, in Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineer- ing Center Technical Report W61-2 (The Center, Cincinnati, Ohio) pp.5G-54. uo Middleton, F. M. and J. J. Lichtenberg (1960), Measurements of organic contaminants in the nation's rivers. Ind. Eng. Chern. 52(6)~ 99A-102A. !41 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1971), Staneard methods for the examina- tion of water and waste water, 13th ed. 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Agricultural Research Service, Consumer and Food Economics Research Division (1967), Food consumption of households in the United States, spring 1965: preliminary report (Agricultural Research Service, Washington, D. C.), 28 p.· 346 Volganev, M. N. and Tschenkes, L.A. (1967), Further studies in tissue changes associated with sodium sellenate, in Symposium; selenium in biomedicine, D. H. Mush, ed. (A VI Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, Connecticut), pp. 179-184. SILVER 347 Aub, J. C. and L. T. Fairhall (1942), Excretion of silver in urine. J. Amer. Med. Ass. 118:319. 348 Hem, J.D. (1970), Study and interpretation of chemical characteristics of natural water, 2nd ed. [Geological Survey water supply paper 1473] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 363 p. 349 Hill, W. R. and D. M. Pillsbury (1939), Argyria: the pharmacology of silver (Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland), 172 p. 360 Hill, W. B. and D. M. Pillsbury (1957), Argyria investigation- toxicologic properties of silver. American Silver Producers Research Project Report Appendix II. 361 Kehoe, R. A., J. Cholak, and R. V. Story (1940b), Manganese, lead, tin, copper, and silver in normal biological material. J. Nutr. 20(1):85-98. 362 Kopp, J. F. (1969): The occurrence of trace elements in water, in Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in En- vironmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University of Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73. m Scott, K. G. (1949), Metabolism of silver in the rat, with radio- silver used as an indicator. University of California, Berkeley, Publications in Pharmacology Vol. 2, No. 19 (University of California Press, Berkeley 1950), pp. 241-262. SODIUM 364 Dahl, L. K. (1960), Der mogliche einslub der salzzufuhr auf die entwicklung der essentiellen hypertonie, in Essential hypertension; an international symposium, P. T. Cottier and K. D. Bock, eds. 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Engr. 82 (10:24. 379 Velz, C. J. (1934), Influence of temperature on coagulation. Civil Eng. 4(7):345-349. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS 380 Bruvold (1967), Journal of the American Water Works Association Vol. 61, No. 11. 381 Patterson, W. L. and R. F. Banker (1968), Effects of highly minera- lized water on household plumbing and appliances. ]. Amer. Water Works Ass. 60:1060-1069. 382 PHS (1962) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service (1962), Public Health Service drinking water standards, rev. 1962 [PHS pub. 956] (Government Printing Of- fice, Washington, D.C.), 61 p. 383 Standard methods ( 1971) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As- sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. TU~BIDITY 38 4 Sanderson, W. W. and S. Kelly (1964), Discussion of Human enteric visuses in water: source, survival and removability, by N. A. Clarke, G. Berg, P. W. Kabler, and S. L. Chang, in Ad- vances in water pollution research, W. W. Eckenfelder, ed. (The Macmillan Co., New York), vol. 2, pp. 536-541. 38 6 Standard methods ( 1971) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As- sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. 386 Tracy, H. W., V. M. Camarena, and F. Wing (1966), Coliform persistence in highly chlorinated waters ]. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58(9):1151-1159. URANYL ION 387 FWCPA (1968) U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the National Technical Advisory Com'wzittee to the Secretary of the Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 234p. 388 U.S. Geological Survey (1969), Water load of uranium, radium, and gross beta activity as selected grazing stations water, year 1960-61. Publication No. 1535-0. 389 Environmental Protection Agency office memorandum (1971) April 19, M. Lammering to G. Robeck, E. P. A., Cincinnati, Ohio. l04/Section ll-Public Water Supplies lfiRUSES 90Beard, J. W. (1967), Host-virus interaction in the injtiationofin- fection, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 167-192. 91 Berg, G., ed. (1967), Transmission of visuses by the water route (Inter- science Publishers, New York), 484 p. 92 Berg, G. (1971), Integrated approach to problem of viruses in water. J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 97 (SA6):867-882. :93 Berg, G., R. M. Clark, D. Berman, and S. L. Chang (1967), Aber- rations in survival curves, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 235- 240. :94 Berg, G., R. B. Dean, and D. R. Dahling (1968), Journal of the American Water Works Association 60:193. 195 Chang, S. L. (1967), Statistics of the infective units of animal viruses, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 219-234. 196 Chang, S. L. (1968), Water borne viral infections and their pre- vention. Bull. World Health Organ. 38:401-414. 197 Chang, S. L., R. E. Stevenson, A. R. Bryant, R. L. Woodward and P. W. Kabler (1958), Removal of Coxsackie and bacterial viruses in water by flocculation. American Journal of Public Health 48(2):159-169. 198 Chin, T. D. Y., W. H. Mosley, S. Robinson, and C. R. Gravelle (1967), Detection of enteric viruses in sewage and water. Rela- tive sensitivity of the method, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg. ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 389- 400. 399 Clark, R. M. and J. F. Niehaus (1967), A mathematical model for viral devitalization, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 241-245. 1oo Clarke, N. A., G. Berg, P. W. Kabler and S. L. Chang (1962), Human enteric viruses in water: source, survival and remova- bility. First International Conference of Water Pollution Research, London, England, pp. 523-542. lOt Clarke, N. A., R. E. Stevenson, S. L. Chang, and P. W. Kabler (1961), Removal of enteric viruses from sewage by activated sludge treatment. American Journal of Public Health 51(8):1118. 1o2 England, B., R. E. Leach, B. Adame, and R. Shiosaki (1967), Virologic assessment of sewage treatment, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 401-417. 103 Kalter, S. S. (1967), Picornaviruses in water, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 253-267. W4 Lund, E. and C.-E. Hedstrom (1967), Recovery of viruses from a sewage treatment plant, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 371- 377. 405 Malherbe, H. H. (1967), C. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York). 406 Malherbe, H. H. and M. Strickland-Cholmley (1967), Quantita- tive studies on viral survival in sewage purification processes, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 379-387. W7 Maramorosch, K. (1967), Transmission of plant pathogenic vi- ruses, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (In- terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 323-336. 408 Morris, J. C. (1971), Chlorination and disinfection--state of the art. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63(12):769-774. 409 Mosley, J. W. (1967), Transmission of.viral diseases by drinking water, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York), pp. 5-23. 410 Prier, J. E. and R. Riley (1967), Significance of water in natural animal virus transmission, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Interscience Publishers, New York), pp. 287- 300. 411 Plotkin, S. A. and M. Katz (1967), Minimal infective doses of viruses for man by the oral route, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (Inter-Science Publishers, New York), p. 151. 412 Sharp, D. G. (1967), Electron microscopy and viral particle func- tion, in Transmission of viruses by the water route, G. Berg, ed. (In- terscience Publishers, New York), pp. 193-217. 413 Sproul, 0. J. (1972), Virus inactivation by water treatment, Journal American Water Works Association 64:31-35. 4 14 Sproul, 0. J., L. R. Larochelle, D. F. Wentworth, and R. T. Thorup (1967), Virus removal in water reuse treating processes, in Water Reuse, L. K. Cecil, ed. American Institute of Chemical Engineers Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series, 63(78):130-136. ZINC 41 5 Anderson, E. A., C. E. Reinhard, and W. D. Hammel (1934), The corrosion of zinc in various waters. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 26( 1) :49-60. 41 6 Bartow, E. and 0. M. Weigle (1932), Zinc in water supplies. Ind. Eng. Chem. 24(4):463-465. 417 Cohen, J. M., L J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Wood- ward (1960), Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drinking water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 52:660-670. 418 Hinman, J. J., Jr. (1938), Desirable·characteristics of a municipal water supply~ J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 30(3):484-494. 419 Kopp, J. F. (1969), The occurrence of trace elements in water, in Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Trace Substances in. En- vironmental Health, edited by D. D. Hemphill (University of· Missouri, Columbia), pp. 59-73. 420 Vallee, B. L. (1957), Zinc and its biological significance. A.M. A. Arch. Indust.Health 16(2):147-154. Section Ill-FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION .......................... . 109 Dilution Water ....................... . CoMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND PROTECTION OF Acclimation ......................... . SIGNIFICANT SPECIES . . .................. . 109 Test Methods ........................ . Community Structure ................ . 110 Dissolved Oxygen .................... . Protection of Significant Aquatic Species .. 110 Concentrations ....................... . ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF FRESH-Evaluation of Results ................. . WATER RECEIVING SYSTEMS .......... . Ill APPLICATION FACTORS ..................... . MIXING ZONES ........................... . 112 MixTURES OF Two oR MoRE ToxiCANTS ... . DEFINITION oF A MixiNG ZoNE ............ . 112 SUBLETHAL EFFECTS ...................... . Recommendation ................... . 112 Recommenations for the Use of Appli- GENERAL PHYSICAL CoNSIDERATIONS ........ . 112 cation Factors to Estimate Safe Concen- Recommendation ................... . 112 trations of Toxic Wastes in Receiving GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CoNSIDERATIONS ...... . 113 Streams ........................... . Recommendation ................... . 113 PHYSICAL MANIPULATION OF THE EN- Recommendation ................... . 113 VIRONMENT ............................ . MEETING THE RECOMMENDATIONS ........... . 113 SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS .. . SHORT TIME EXPOSURE SAFETY FACTORS .... . 114 SoiL As A SouRcE oF MINERAL PARTICLES .. . Recommendation ................... . 114 EFFECTS oF SusPENDED PARTICLES IN WATER .. OvERLAPPING MixiNG ZoNES .............. . 114 ADsoRPTION OF Toxic MATERIALS .......... . Recommendation ................... . 114 EFFECTS ON FISH AND INVERTEBRATES ....... . INTERIM GuiDELINE ....................... . 114 Recommendations .................. . CoNFIGURATION AND LocATION oF MIXING COLOR .................................... . ZoNES ................................ . 114 Recommendation ................... . PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP oF MIXING ZoNES DISSOLVED GASES ........................ . TO RECEIVING SYSTEMS .................. . 114 DisSOLVED OxYGEN ....................... . Recommendation ................... . 115 Levels of Protection ................... . ZoNES OF pASSAGE ........................ . 115 Basis for Recommendations ............ . Recommendation ................... . 115 Warm-and Coldwater Fishes .......... . BIOLOGICAL MONITORING .............. . 116 Unusual Waters ...................... . PROGRAMS ............................... . 116 Organisms Other Than Fish ........... . FIELD SuRVEYS ........................... . 116 Salmonid Spawning .................. . BonY BuRDENS OF ToxiCANTS ........•...... 116 Interaction With Toxic Pollutants or Other IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL MoNITORING ......... . 116 Environmental Factors .............. . BIOASSAYS ............................... . 117 Application of Recommendations ....... . SIMULATION TECHNIQUES ................... . II 7 Examples ........................... . BIOASSAYS ................................ . 118 Recommendations .................. . MEASuREs oF ToxiciTY ................... . 118 ToTAL DISSOLVED GAsEs (SuPERSATURATION) .. METHODS FOR BIOASSA YS .................. . 119 Etiologic Factors ..................... . CHECKLIST OF PROCEDURES ................ . 119 Gas Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects. Species .............................. . 119 Analytical Considerations .............. . 106 Page 120 120 120 121 121 121 121 122 122 123 124 126 126 126 127 127 129 130 130 131 131 131 131 132 132 132 133 133 133 134 134 135 135 137 138 Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria ... . Recommendations .................. . CARBON DIOXIDE ......................... . Recommendation ................... . ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND pH .......... . NATURAL CoNDITIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE .... . ToxiciTY TO AQUATIC LIFE ................ . ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS OR SIDE EFFECTS .. Recommendations .................. . DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND HARDNESS ..... . Recommendation ................... . OILS ....................................... . OIL REFINERY EFFLUENTS ................. . FREE AND FLOATING OIL .................. . SEDIMENTED OIL ......................... . Recommendations .................. . TAINTING SUBSTANCES .................. . BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING ........... . TAINTING CAUSED BY CHEMICALS ........... . UPTAKE AND Loss oF FLAVOR-IMPAIRING MA- TERIALS ............................... . IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES OF OFF-FLAVORED ORGANISMS ............................ . EXPOSURE AND ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS ....... . Test Fish ............................ . Exposure Period ...................... . Exposure Conditions .................. . Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation .. STATISTICAL EvALUATION .................. . Recommendations .................. . HEAT AND TEMPERATURE ............... . DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA ................ . TERMINOLOGY DEFINED .................... . MAxlMUM AcCEPTABLE TEMPERATURES FOR PRo- LONGED EXPOSURES ..................... . SPRING, SuMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR PRo- LONGED ExPosuRE ...................... . Recommendation ................... . VVINTER MAXIMA ........................ :. Recommendation ................... . Page 138 139 139 139 140 140 140 140 141 142 143 144 144 144 145 146 147 147 147 148 149 149 149 149 149 149 150 150 151 152 152 153 154 160 160 161 SHORT-TERM ExPosuRE To ExTREME TEMPER- ATURE ............................. · · · · Recommendation ................... . REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT ......... . Recommendations .................. . CHANGES IN STRUCTURE oF AQUATIC CoM- MUNITIES .............................. . NmsANCE ORGANISMS ..................... . Recommendation ................... . CONCLUSIONS ............................. . UsE oF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA ........... . Analytical Steps ...................... . Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature Change ....................... : ... . Cooling VVater Entrainment. .......... . Entrainment in the Plume ............. . Bottom Organisms Impacted by the Plume Mixed VVater Body ................... . Discharge Canal ..................... . TOXIC SUBSTANCES ...................... . ORGANIC MERCURY ....................... . Biological Methylation ................ . Biological Magnification ............... . Mercury in Fresh VVaters .............. . Toxicity of Organic Mercury in VVater .. . Tissue Levels and Toxicity ............. . Discussion of Proposed Recommendations. Recommendations .................. . PHTHALATE ESTERS ....................... . Toxicity ............................. . Recommendation~ .................. . POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS .............. . Direct Lethal Toxicity ................ . Feeding Studies ...................... . Residues in Tissue .................... . Effects on Reproduction ............... . General Considerations and Further Needs ............................. . Basis for Recommendations ............ . Recommendations .................. . 107 Page 161 162 162 164 165 165 165 165 166 168 168 168 170 170 171 171 172 172 172 172 173 173 174 174 174 174 175 175 175 176 176 176 177 177 177 177 METALS ...........•.....................• General Data ........................ . Recommendations .................. . Aluminum .......................... . Recommendation ................... . Cadmium ........................... . Recommendation ................... . Chromium ........................... . Recommendation ................... . Copper ............................. . Recommendation ................... . Lead ............................... . Recommendation ................... . Mercury ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Nickel .............................. . Recommendation ................... . Zinc ................................ . Recommendation ................... . PESTICIDES ......................•.......•. Methods, Rate, and Frequency of Appli- cation ............................. . Sources and Distribution .............. . Persistence and Biological Accumulation .. Residues ............................ . Toxicity ............................. . Basis for Criteria. . . . . . . . . ........... . Recommendations .................. . OTHER ToxicANTs ............••.•..•.••... Ammonia ........................... . Recommendation ................... . Chlorine ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Cyanides ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Detergents ............................ . Detergent Builders .................... . Recommendation ................... . Page 1 77 Phenolics ............................ . 1 77 Recommendations .................. . 1 79 Sulfides ............................. . 179 Recommendation ................... . 179 WILDLIFE ................................. . 179 PROTECTION OF .FoOD AND SHELTER FOR WILD- 180 LIFE ...•......•.•.....•.•..... , ...•...• 180 pH ................... · .................. . 180 Recommendation ................... . 180 ALKALINITY ..........•..•.••.•...•....••.• 181 Recommendation ................... . 181 SALINITY ..•..••...•...•....•..•••..•..••. 181 Recommendation ................... .. 181 LIGHT PENETRATION ..•..••.....•.••..•.... 181 SETTLEABLE SuBSTANCES ................... . 181 Recommendation ................... . 181 PRoDUCTION OF WILDLIFE FooDs OTHER THAN 182 PLANTS ................••...•........... 182 TEMPERATURE ........•...•..•....•....•... 182. Recommendation ................... . SPECIFIC PoTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES •. 182 Direct Acting Substances .............. . 182 Oils ...............•...•..••....... 183 Recommendation ................. . 183 Lead .............................. . 184 Recommendation ................. . 185 Botulism Poisoning. . . . ............. . 185 Recommendation ................. . 186 Substances Acting Mter. Magnification in 186 Food Chains ......................... . 187 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides ... . 189 DDT and Derivatives ............. .. 189 Recommendation ............... . 189 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) ... . 190 . Recommendation ............... . 190 Mercury"~· .......................... . 191 Recommendation ................ · .. . 191 LITERATURE CITim-~ ..................... . Pagr 191 191 191 193 194 194 194 194 194 195 195 195 195 195 195 195 195 195 196 196 196 196 196 196 196 197 197 197 197 198 198. 198 ... 198 198 ·199 INTRODUCTION The biota of a natural aquatic ecosystem is the result of evolutionary processes in the course of which a delicate balance and complex interactions were established among various kinds of organisms and between those organisms and their environment. Some species can live in a wide range of environmental conditions and are found in many different systems throughout the world. Other species are restricted and their distribution is limited to certain habitats or in some cases to only one. Frequently, it is the latter group of species that have been most useful to man. Minor changes in their environments, especially if such changes are rapid, may upset the ecological balance and endanger the species. Man has the ability to alter-to impair or improve-his environment and that of other organisms. His use of water to dispose of wastes of a technological society and his other alterations of aquatic environments have degraded his water resources. Water pollutants may alter natural conditions by reducing the dissolved oxygen content, by changing the temperature, or by direct toxic action that can be lethal or, more subtly, can affect the behavior, reproduction, and physiology of the organisms. Although a . substance may not directly affect a species, it may endanger its continued existence by eliminating essential sources of food and metabolites. Furthermore, conditions permitting the sur- vival of a given organism at one stage of its life may be intolerable at another stage. This Section evaluates criteria and proposes recommen- dations that reflect scientific understanding of the relation- ships between freshwater aquatic organisms and their -en- vironment. Anything added to or removed from natural waters will. cause some change in the system. For each use of water there are certain Water quality characteristics that should be met to ensure the suitability of the. water' :for that use. The following general recommendations apply to a. wide variety of receiving systems-and pollutants: • More stririgeiit-Iliethods of control or·treatment, or · both,.· of waste inputs and land drainage 'Should be applied to irilprove water quality as the demand for use increases. • In recognition of the limitations of water quality management programs, consideration should be given to providing reserve capacity of receiving waters for future use. • Bioassays and other appropriate tests, including field studies, should be made to obtain scientific evidence on the effect of wastewater discharges on the en- vironment. Test procedures are recommended in this report. • A survey of the receiving system to assess the impact of waste discharges on the biological community should be made on a regular basis, particularly prior to new discharges. Such surveys especially should cover the seasons most critical to the biological com- munity. Background laboratory data should include bioassays using important local aquatic organisms and associated receiving waters. In addition to the more comprehensive surveys, some form of bio- monitoring in thereceiving system should be carried out routinely. A suggested list of ecological consider- ations is included in the section on Biological Monitoring. • One of the principal goals is to insure the mainte- nance of the biological . community typical of that particular locale or, if a perturbed community exists, to upgrade the receiving system to a quality which will permit reestablishment of that community. COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND PROTECTION ·OF SIGNIFICANT SPECIES The. natural aquatic environment includes many kinds of plants and animals that vary in their life history and ·in their chemical and physical requirements. These organisms are interrelated inmany'ways to form communities. Aq1,1atic environments are protected out of recreational and scientific interest, for aesthetic enjoyment, and to maintain certain organisms of special significance as a source of food. There are two .schools· of thought as to how this can, be accom- plir.hed. One .is· to protect the' significant species, the as- sumption .being that by_ so doing, .the. entire system is pro- tected.-The other approach-is to protect the aquatic com- 109 110/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife munity, the assumption being that the significant species are not protected unless the entire system is maintained. .. Community Structure Because chemical and physical environments are con- tinually changing-sometimes gradually and sometimes catastrophically-many species are necessary to keep the aquatic ecosystems functioning by filling habitats vacated because of the disappearance of other species. Likewise, when one kind of organism becomes extremely abundant because of the disappearance of one or more species, predator species must be available to feed on the over- abundant species and keep it from destroying the function- ing of the community. In a balanced ecosystem, large populations of a single species rarely maintain themselves over a long time because predators quickly reduce their number. Therefore, the diverse characteristics of a habitat are necessary to the maintenance of a functioning ecosystem in the process of evolution. In the fossil record are found many species that were more common at one time than they are today and others that have been replaced entirely. If it were not for diverse gene pools, such evolutionary replacement would not have been possible. Some aquatic environments present unusual extremes in their chemical and physical characteristics. They support highly specialized species that function as ecosystems in which energy flows and materials cycle. If these species are not present and functioning in this manner, such areas may become aesthetically distasteful, as has occurred for example in the alkaline flats of the West and the acid bogs of the Northeast, Midwest. and East. Rare habitats support rare organisms that become extinct or endangered species if their habitats are impaired or eliminated. In the aquatic world there are many species of algae, fish, and invertebrates that are maintained only in such rare, fragile habitats. Man must understand them if he is to appreciate the process of evolution and the trend of ecological change that brings about drastic alter- ations to fauna and flora. Protection of Significant Aquatic Species An essential objective of freshwater quality recommen- dations is the protection of fish and other aquatic organisms for sport or commercial harvesting. This does not imply that all other aquatic species will be subject to potential extinction, or that an unaltered environment is the goal to be attained in all cases. The average person is usually interested in only a small number of aquatic species, prin- cipally fish; but it remains necessary to preserve, in certain unique or rare areas, a diversified environment both for scientific study and for maintaining species variety. It is sometimes difficult to justify protection of isolated organisms not used by man unless it can be documented that they are ultimately essential to the production of desirable biota. In some instances it may be that a critical, sensitive species, irreplaceable in the food web of another more important species, is one known only to the biologist. In such instances, protection of the "less important" sensi- tive species could justifiably determine the water quality recommendation. Because no single recommendation can protect all im- portant sport and commercial species unless the most sensitive is protected, a number of species must be con- sidered. The most sensitive species provide a good estimate of the range of sensitivity of all species. ~ .· ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF FRESHWATER RECEIVING SYSTEMS Waste discharges do not just go into water but rather into aquatic ecosystems. The capacity of such a system to receive and assimilate waste is determined by the physical, chemical, and biological interactions within the system. Thus the response is a function of the characteristics of both the ecosystem and the nature and quantity of the waste. Understanding the unique characteristics of each ecosystem will enable wise users to develop means to obtain maximum beneficial use with minimal damage to the system. Each aquatic ecosystem is sufficiently unique to require professional ecological advice to define the problems as- sociated with waste discharge into a particular ecosystem. Such a procedure has not been customary in the past, and this has led to some unfortunate consequences, but the practice is becoming increasingly prevalent. Aquatic systems receive from natural and man-made sources a variety of organic and inorganic materials. These materials through physical, chemical, and biological inter- action are transported, rendered, converted, respired, in- corporated, excreted, deposited and thus assimilated by the system. However, not all systems can receive and assimilate the same quantity or kinds of waste materials. The capacity of each system to transform waste without damage to the system· is a function of the complexity of environmental factors. Physical factors such as flow velocity, volume of water, bottom contour, rate of water exchange, currents, depth, light penetration, and temperature, govern in part the ability of a system to receive and assimilate waste materials. This ability is a function of the reaeration capability of the system, the physical rendering of wastes, and other physical, chemical, and biological factors. Most flowing systems have a greater reaeration capacity than standing waters. Fur- thermore, flowing systems are open systems with continual renewal of water, whereas standing waters are closed sys- tems and act as traps for pollutants. Temperature plays a vital role in the rate of chemical reactions and the nature of biological activities in fresh- water and. in governing the receiving and assimilative ca- pacity of a system. Most temperate lakes are thermally stratified part of the year, except when there are small diffenfnces between surface and bottom temperatures in the spring and fall. As a consequence little exchange occurs between layers during the period of stratification. In organically enriched lakes and reservoirs, depletion of soluble oxygen typically occurs in the bottom layer because there is little ~r no photosynthesis and little mixing with the oxygen-rich surface layer. As a result, substances are re- leased from the sediments because certain compounds have a much greater solubility in a reduced state. The unique chemical characteristics of water govern in part the kinds and quantities of waste a system may receive. Some of the important chemical characteristics are hard- ness, alkalinity, pH (associated with the buffering capacity), and nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Because of synergistic or antagonistic interaction with re- ceiving water, the effects of a waste on a wide variety of receiving systems are hard to predict. 111 MIXING ZONES When a liquid discharge is made to a receiving system, . zone of mixing is created. Although recent public, ad- ainistrative, and scientific emphasis has focused on mixing ones for the dispersion of heated discharges, liquid wastes ,f all types are .included in the following considerations. For a further discussion of Mixing Zones see Appendix I-A.) )EfiNITION OF A MIXING ZONE A mixing zone is a region in which a discharge of quality haracteristics different from those of the receiving water ; in transit and progressively diluted from the source to the eceiving system. In this region water quality characteristics tecessary for the protection of aquatic life are based on ime-exposure relationships of organisms. The boundary of . mixing zone is where the organism response is no longer ime-dependent. At that boundary, receiving system water [Uality characteristics based on long-term exposure will 1rotect aquatic life. tecommendation Although water·quality characteristics in mixing :ones may differ from those in receiving systems, o protect uses ·in both regions it is recommended hat mixing zones be free of substances attributable :o discharges or wastes as follows: , materials which form objectionable deposits; , scum, oil and floating debris; • substances producing objectionable color, odor, taste, .or turbidity; • conditions which· produce objectionable growth of nuisance plants and animals. ~ENERAL PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS The mass emission·-rates of the most critical constituents md their relationship to the recommended values of the naterial in· the receiving water body are normally the >rimary factors determining the system-degradation po- tential of an effiuent. Prior to establishment of a mixing zone the factors described in Waste Capacity of Receiving Waters (Section IV, pp. 228-232) and Assimilative Capac- ity (This Section, p. 111) should be considered and a de- cision made on whether the system can assimilate the dis- charge without damage to beneficial uses. Necessary data bases may include: • Discharge considerations-flow-regime, volume, de- sign, location, rate of mixing and dilution, plume behavior and mass-emission rates of· constituents including knowledge of their persistence, toxicity, and chemical or physical behavior with time. • Receiving system considerations-water quality, lo- cal meteorology, flow regime (including low-flow records), magnitude of water exchange at point of discharge, stratification phenomena, waste capacity of the receiving system including retention time, turbulence and speed of flow as factors affecting rate of mixing and passage of entrained or migrating organisms, and morphology· of the receiving system as related to plume behavior, and biological phe- nomena. Mathematical models based in part on the above con- siderations are available for a variety of ecosystems and discharges. (See Appendix II-A.) All such mathematical models must be applied with care to each particular dis- charge and the local situation. Recommendation To avoid potential biological damage or inter- ference with other uses of the receiving system it is recommended that mixing zone characteristics be defined on a case-by-case basis after determi- nation· that the assimilative capacity. of the re- ceiving system can .safely accommodate the dis- charge taking into consideration the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the dis- charge and the ·receiving system, the life history. and behavior of organisms in the receiving system, and desired uses·of the waters. 112 GENERAL BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS Organisms in the water body may be divided into two groups from the standpoint of protection within mixing zones: (I) nonmobile benthic or sessile organisms; (2) weak and strong swimmers. I. Nonmobile benthic or sessile organisms in mixing zones may experience long or intermittent exposures ex- ceeding recommended values for receiving systems and therefore their populations may be damaged or eliminated in the local region. Minimum damage to these organisms is attained by minimizing exposure of the bottom area to concentrations exceeding levels resulting in harm to these organisms from long-term exposure. This may be accom- plished by discharge location and design. The mixing zone may represent a living space denied the subject organisms and this space may or may not be of significance to the biological community of the receiving system. When planning mixing zones, a decision should be made in each case whether the nonmobile benthic and sessile organisms are to be protected. Recommendation To protect populations of nonmobile benthic and sessile organisms in mixing zones it is recom- mended that the area of their habitat exposed to water quality poorer than recommended receiving system quality be minimized by discharge location and design or that intermittent time-exposure history relationships be defined for the organisms' well-being. 2. Biological considerations to protect planktonic and swimming organisms are related to the time exposure history to which critical organisms are subjected as they are carried or move through a mixing zone. The integrated time exposure history must not cause deleterious effects, including post-exposure effects. In populations of important species, effects of total time exposure must not be deleterious either during or after exposure. Weak swimmers and drifting organisms may be entrained into discharge plumes and carried through a mixing zone. In determining the time exposure history and responses of the organisms, the possibility of delayed effects, such as death, disease, and increased vulnerability to predation, should be investigated. Strong swimmers are capable of moving out of, staying out of, or remaining in a mixing zone. Water quality characteristics which protect drifting organisms should also protect migrating fish moving through mixing zones. How- ever, there are some discharges that attract animals into discharge channels and mixing zones where they are vul- nerable to death or shock due to short-term changes in water quality, such as rapid temperature fluctuations. This vulnerability should be recognized and occurrences that expose it should be guarded against (see Chlorine, page 189). Mixing ..(ones/113 Some free-swimming species may avoid mixing zones and as a consequence the reduced living space may limit the population. Free-swimming species may be attracted to a discharge. Chronic low-level exposure to toxicants may cause death or affect growth, reproduction or migratory instincts, or result in excessive body-burdens of toxicants hazardous for human consumption. Recommendation To protect drifting and both weak and strong swimming organisms in mixing zones it is recom- mended that scientifically valid data be developed to demonstrate that the organisms can survive without irreversible damage, the integrated time- exposure history to be based on maximum expected residence time so that deleterious effects on popu- lations of important species do not occur. MEETING THE RECOMMENDATIONS In mixing zones the exposure of organisms to stress is of greater intensity but usually of shorter duration than in the receiving waters, assuming no attraction by the dis- charge. The objective of mixing zone water quality recom- mendations is to provide time exposure histories which produce negligible or no effects on populations of critical species in the receiving system. This objective can be met by: (a) determination of the pattern of exposure in terms of time and concentration in the mixing zone due either to activities of the organisms, discharge schedule, or currents affecting dispersion; and (b) determination that delayed effects do not occur. Protection would be achieved if the time of exposure met the relationship T /ET(x) ~I where T is the time of the organism's exposure in the mixing zone to a specified · concentration, and ET(x) is the effective time of exposure to the specified concentration, C, which produces (x) per cent response in a sample of the organisms, including delayed effects after extended observation. The per cent response, (x), is selected on the basis of what is considered negligible effects on the total population and is then symbolized ET(25), ET(5), ET(O.I), etc. Because concentrations vary within mixing zones, a more suitable quantitative statement than the simple relationship T/ET(x)~l is: T1 + T2 + Ta ET(x) at C1 ET(x) at C 2 ET(x) at C 3 . Tn <I + ET(x) at Cn- where the time of exposure of an organism passing through the mixing. zone has been broken into increments, T1, T2, T 3, etc. The organism is considered to. be exposed to concen- 14/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife ·ation C 1 during the time interval T1, to concentration C 2 uring the time interval T2, etc. The sum of the individual 1tios must then not exceed unity. (See cav:at below, hort Time Exposure Safety Factors.) Techniques for securing the above information, appli- ltion to a hypothetical field situation, comments, caveats, r1d limitations are expressed in Appendix II-A, Mixing ones, Development of Integrated Time Exposure Data, . 403. Tabular data and formulae for summation of short- :rm effects of heated discharges on aquatic life are provided t the Heat"and Temperature discussion, page 151. ~ORT TIME EXPOSURE SAFETY FACTORS This concept of summation of short-term effects and 'trapolation is an approach which tests the applicability ' present bioassay methodology and precision and may Jt be universally applicable to all types of discharges. onservatism in application should be practiced. When ~veloping the summation of short-term thermal effects :tta, a safety factor of two degrees centigrade is incorpo- Lted. In development of summation of short-term toxicity fects data, a safety factor exists if a conservative physio- 'gical or behavioral response is used with effective time of 'posure. However, when mortality is the response plotted, r1 application factor must be incorporated to provide an :!equate margin of safety. This factor can most easily be pplied by lowering the sum of the additive effects to some action of I so that the sum of Tl/(ET(x) at C1) · · · + 'n/(ET(x) at Cn) then equals 0.9, or less. The value must e based on scientific knowledge of th~ organism's behavior r1d response to the contaminants involved. ecommendation When developing summation of short-term ex- osure effects it is recommended that safety tctors, application factors, or conservative physio-· >gical or behavioral responses be incorporated 1to the bioassay or extrapolation procedures to rovide an adequate margin of safety. IVERLAPPING MIXING ZONES If mixing zones are contiguous or overlap, the formula "pressing the integrated time exposure history for single lumes should be adjusted. Synergistic effects should be 1vestigated, and if not found, the assumption may be made 1at effects of multiple plumes are additive. ecommendation When two plumes are contiguous or overlap and ynergistic effects do not occur, protection for quatic life should be provided if the sum of the ractions of integrated time exposure effects for ach plume total ::::;0.5. Alternatively, protection hould be provided if the sum of the fractions for both plumes (or more than two contiguous or overlapping plumes) is ::::; 1. (See caveat above, Short Time Exposure Safety Factors.) INTERIM GUIDELINE In the event information on summation effects ·of the integrated time exposure history cannot be satisfactorily provided, a conservative single figure concentration can be used for all parts of the mixing zone until more detailed determinations of the time-exposure relationships are de- veloped. This single, time-dependent median lethal concen- tration should be subject to the caveats found througho~t this Section and Appendix II-A regarding delayed effects and behavioral modifications. Because of the variables in- volved, the single value must be applied in the light of local conditions. For one situation a 24-hour LCSO might be adequate to protect aquatic life. In another situation a 96-hour LCSO might provide inadequate protection. CONFIGURATION AND LOCATION OF MIXING ZONES The time-dependent three dimensional shape of a dis- charge plume varies with a multitude of receiving system physical factors and the discharge design. While time ex- posure water quality characteristics within mixing zones are designed to protect aquatic life, thoughtful placement. of the discharge and planned control of plume behavior may increase the level of ecosystem protection, e.g., floating the plume on the surface to protect the deep water of a channel ; discharging in midstream or offshore to protect biologically-important littoral areas; piping the effluent across a river to discharge on the far side because fish historically migrate on the near side; or piping the dis- charge away from a stream mouth which is used by mi- grating species. Such engineering modifications can some- times accomplish what is necessary to meet biological requirements. Onshore discharges generally have more potential for interference with other uses than offshore discharges. For example the plume is more liable to impinge on the bottom in shallow areas of biological productivity and be closer to swimming and recreation areas. PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MIXING ZONES TO RECEIVING SYSTEMS Recommendations for mixing zones do not protect against the long-term biological effects of sublethal conditions. Thus water quality requirements necessary to protect all life stages and necessary functions of aquatic organisms such as spawning and larval development, are not provided in mixing zones, and it is essential to insure that adequate portions of every water body are free of mixing zones. The decision as to what portion and areas must be retained at receiving water quality values is both a social and scientific decision. In reaching this decision, data input should in- clude current and projected information on types and locations of intakes and discharges; percentage of shoreline necessary to provide adequate spawning, nursery, and feeding areas; and other desired uses of the water. Recommendation It is recommended that the total area or volume of a receiving system assigned to mixing zones be limited to that which will: (1) not interfere with biological communities or populations of i!Jlpor- tant species to a degree which is damaging to the ecosystem; (2) not diminish other beneficial uses disproportionately. ZONES OF PASSAGE In river systems, reservoirs, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters, zones of passage are continuous water routes o.f such volume, area, and quality as to allow passage of free- swimming and drifting organisms so that no significant effects are produced on their populations. Transport of a variety of organisms in river water and by tidal movements in estuaries is biologically important in a number of ways; e.g., food is carried to the sessile filter feeders and other nonmobile organisms; spatial distri- bution of organisms and reinforcem'ent of depauperate populations is enhanced; embryos and larvae of some fish species develop while drifting. Anadromous and cata- dromous species must be able to reach suitable spawning areas. Their young (and in some cases the adults) must be assured a return route to their growing and living areas. Many species make migrations for spawning and other purposes. Barriers or blocks which prevent or interfere with these types of essential transport and movement can be created by water of inadequate chemical or physical quality. Mixing ..(ones/115 Water quality in the :z:one of passage should be such that biological responses to the water quality characteristics of the mixing zone are no longer time-dependent (see Defini- tion of Mixing Zone on page 112). However, where a zone of passage is to be provided, bioassays determining time- exposure responses in the mixing zone should include addi- tional requirements to assess organism behavior. In the mixing zone discussion above it is assumed that entrainment in the plume will be involuntary. However, if there is at- traction due to plume composition, exposure in the plume ~ould be very much longer than would be predicted by physical modeling. If avoidance reactions occur, migration may be thwarted. Thus, concentrations in both the mixing zone and the zone of passage should be reduced before dis- charge to levels below those at which such behavioral modifications affect the populations of the subject organisms. Modern techniques of waste water injection such as diffusers and high velocity jets may form barriers to free passage due to responses of organisms to currents. Turbu- lence of flows opposing stream direction may create traps for those organisms which migrate upstream by orientation to opposing currents. These organisms may remain in the mixing zone in response to currents created by the discharge. Recommendation Because of varying local physical and chemical conditions and biological phenomena, no single- value recommendation can be made on the per- centage of river width necessary to allow passage of critical free-swimming and drifting organisms so that negligible or no effects are produced on their populations. As a guideline no more than % the width of a water-body should be devoted to mixing zones thus leaving at least H free as a zone of passage. BIOLOGICAL MONITORING Monitoring of aquatic environments has traditionally in- tded obtaining physical and chemical data that are used evaluate the effects of pollutants on living organisms. Jlogical monitoring has received less emphasis than emical or physical monitoring, because biological assess- :nts were once not as readily amenable to numerical pression and tended to be more time consuming and >re expensive. This is no longer true. Aquatic organisms J. serve as natural monitors of environmental quality and mld be included in programs designed to provide con- uous records of water quality, because they integrate of the stresses placed on an aquatic system and reflect : combined effect. Chemical-physical assessments identify lividual components, so the two types of assessments are ttually supporting rather than mutually exclusive. I\ biological monitoring program is essential in de- mining the synergistic or antagonistic interactions of nponents of waste discharges and the resulting effects on [ng organisms. However, biological monitoring does not >lace chemical and physical monitoring; each program >vides information supplemental to the others. OGRAMS 1-\n. ideal biological monitoring program has four com- o.ents: ( l) field surveys, (2) in-plant biological monitoring, bioassays, and (4) simulation techniques. Obviously no 1logical monitoring program is routine, nor does it neces- ily-have to include all ofthe:above components. However, :h of the components provides valuable and useful ormation. iLD SURVEYS ti'ield surveys are. needed to obtain adequate data on 1logical, chemical; and physical water quality to de- mine the nature~ of the system and the possible adverse ~cts of waste discharges on benefiCial-uses of the·system. ro methods for continuously monitoring the effects of llution on a receiving water have been described. Patrick :tl, (1954)6* described the use of diatoms as natural morri- s of various types of pollution. Various species of shellfish, especially oysters suspended in trays, have been described as an effective method of monitoring pollution (Galtsoff et al. 194 7). 4 Field surveys should be carried out at suitable intervals depending on local conditions. For example, in determining the impact of a new or relocated municipal or industrial discharge, it is desirable to perform the following functions : • survey the stream as a part of the site selection pro- cedure; • continue the field survey prior to construction to determine existing water quality: at this time it is also useful to make bioassays using simulated pla:g_t wastes and representative organisms from the re- ceiving systems, and to establish biomonitoring stations; • monitor the effects of construction; • carry out bioassays using actual plant wastes and effluents after the plant is in operation, and make field surveys to determine any changes from pre- construction results. BODY BURDENS OF TOXICANTS Body burdens of toxicants that can be concentrated by biota should be measured regularly. These data can1provide early warning before concentrations in water become-readily available and can provide warnings of incipient effects in the biota being monitored. IN-PLANT BIOLOGICAL MONITORING Present information systems do not provide data rapidly enough to be of use in environmental management, because the constituents of a waste stream are likely to vary from hour to hour and from day to day. Potentially harmful materials should be detected before they enter the receiving water and before substantial damage has been done to the ecosystem. * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section. 116 Several potentially useful methods for rapid in-plant monitoring are being explored (Sparks et al. 1969,7 Waller and Cairns 19698), and one rapid in-stream method is now operational (Cairns et al. 1968,2 Cairns and Dickson 1971 3). These in-plant methods use changes in heart rate, respi- ration, and movements of fish within a container to detect sublethal concentrations of toxicants in a waste discharge. Continual information on toxicity of a waste should enable sanitary engineers to identify those periods likely to produce the most toxic wastes and to identify those components of the production process that contribute significagtly to toxicity. This could be accomplished with bioassays as they are currently used, but rarely are enough samples taken over a period of time sufficient to give the range of information that would be available with continually oper- ating bioassay techniques. BIOASSAYS Of equal importance to the river surveys and the in-plant and in-stream monitoring systems is the availability of toxicity information based on a predictive bioassay. The bioassay provides valuable information pertaining to the effects of potential or contemplated discharges on aquatic life. Acute bioassays are useful as a shortcut or predictive method of estimating safe concentrations by use of suitable application factors for many pollutants, as recommended throughout this Report. However, determining only the acute lethal toxicity of Biological Monitoring/ 11 7 wastes is no longer adequate. Good health and an ability to function vigorously are as important for aquatic eco- systems as they are for humans. The former end point of bioassays, viz., death, has been supplanted by more subtle end points such as the protection of respiration, growth, reproductive success, and a variety of other functional changes (Cairns 1967).1 Acute toxicity determinations are ~being supplemented by long-term tests often involving an entire life cycle. The latter require more time and expense than short-term tests, but they provide better predictive information about biologically safe concentrations of various toxicants. Bioassays of organisms other than fish are be- coming increasingly common because ·of the realization that elimination of the lower organisms can also have serious consequences. SIMULATION TECHNIQUES The fourth component now available to provide ecological information is the use of scale models. Models are used to study major ecological or environmental problems by simu- lating prospective new uses. Engineering scale models are common, but ecological scale models or environmental simulation systems are not yet as commonly used. Experi- mental streams and reservoirs have been constructed to predict toxicity of waste discharges, determine factors re- sponsible for productivity of aquatic communities, and answer questions about plant site location (Haydu 1968,5 Warren and Davis 1971 9). BIOASSAYS Bioassays are used to evaluate a given pollutant in terms f existing water quality. Most pollution problems involve ischarges of unknown and variable composition where 1ore than one toxicant or stress is present. In evaluating riteria for specific toxicants, consideration must be given D other environmental influences such as dissolved oxygen, emperature, and pH. Harmful effects of pollutants can be described by one or t1ore of the following terms: acute--involves a stimulus severe enough to bring about a response speedily, usually within four days for fish. subacute-involves a stimulus less severe than an acute stimulus, producing a response in a longer time; may become chronic. chronic-involves a lingering or continuous stimu~ lus; often signifying periods of about one-tenth of the life span or more. lethal-causes death by direct action. sublethal-'-insufficient to cause death. cumulative--brought about, or increased in strength, by successive additions. Two broad categories of effect (Alderdice 1967)10 may be distinguished: acute toxicity which is usually lethal, and chronic toxicity which may be lethal or sublethal. MEASURES OF TOXICITY Most of the available toxicity data are reported as the median tolerance limit (TLm or TL50) or median lethal concentration (LC50). Either symbol signifies the concen- tration that kills 50 per cent of the test organisms within a specified time span, usually in 96 hours. The customary 96-hour (four-day) time period is recommended as adequate for most routine tests of acute toxicity with fish. A threshold of acute toxicity will have been attained within this time in the majority of cases (Sprague 1969). 43 This lethal threshold concentration is usually noticeable in the data. Sometimes mortality continues, and tests of a week or longer would be necessary to determine the threshold. The lethal_ threshold concentration should be reported if it is demonstrated, because it is better for comparative purposes than the arbitrary 96-hour LC50. Absence of any apparent threshold is equally noteworthy. The median lethal concentration is a convenient reference point for expressing the acute lethal toxicity of a given toxicant to the average or typical test animal. Obviously it is in no way a safe concentration, although occasionally the two have been confused. Safe levels, which permit reproduction, growth, and all other normal life-processes in the fish's natural habitat, usually are much lower than the LC50. In this book, the recommended criteria are intended to be safe levels. Substantial data on long-term effects and safe levels are available for only a few toxicants. Information is now ac- cumulating on the effect of toxicants on reproduction, an important aspect of all long-term toxicity tests. Other infor- mation is being gathered on sublethal effects on growth, performance, avoidance reactions, and social behavior of fish. Also important is the sensitivity of organisms at various life stages. Many organisms are most sensitive in the larval, nymphal, molting, or fry stage; some are most sensitive in the egg and sperm stage. It would be desirable if a single, universal, rapid, bio- logical test could be used to measure directly sublethal effects of a pollutant. Data on sublethal responses of fish have been used, such as respiratory rates and "coughing," swimming speed, avoidance behavior, and specific physio- logical and biochemical changes in various organisms; and histological studies have been made. A review of these (Sprague 1971)45 shows that no single test is meaningful for all kinds of pollutants. Therefore, it is recommended that routine assessment and prediction of safe levels be made by carrying out bioassays for acute lethal toxicity and multiply- ing the lethal concentration by a suitable application factor. The application factors used and recommended here have been derived principally from chronic or sublethal labora- tory experiments or from well documented field studies of polluted situations. Acceptable concentrations of toxicants to which organisms are exposed continually must be lower than the higher 118 concentrations that may be reached occasionally but briefly without causing damage. Both maximum short-time con- centrations and the more restrictive range of safe concen- trations for continuous exposure are useful. The recommen- dations in this Report are those considered safe for con- tinuous exposure, although in some cases there has also been an indication of permissible higher levels for short periods. In field situations and industrial operations, average 24-hour concentrations can be determined by obtaining composite or continuous samples. Mter 24 hours, the sample may be mixed and analyzed. The concentration found will represent the average concentration. Samples obtained this way are more reproducible and easier to secure than the instantaneous sample of maximum concen- trations. However, average concentrations are of little sig- nificance if fish are killed by a sharp peak of concentration, and for that reason maximum concentrations must also be considered. METHODS FOR BIOASSA YS Although there are many types of assays, two are in general use : l. the static bioassay in which the organisms are held in a tank containing the test solution, and 2. the continuous flow or flow-through bioassay in which the test solution is renewed continually. The difference between the two types is not always great, but one can have clear advantages over the other. An outline of methods for routine bioassays has been given in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater" (American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Pollution Con- trol Federation, 1971,11 hereafter referred to as Standard Methods 1971 48). Cope (1961)21 described bioassay re- porting, and Cairns (1969)20 presented a rating system for evaluating the quality of the tests. Sprague (1969, 43 1970,44 1971 46) reviewed research to develop more incisive testing methods. Their findings are utilized in this Report. Procedure for acute bioassay with fish is now relatively standardized and usually incorporates: • a series of replicate test containers, each with a different but constant concentration of the toxicant; • a group of similar fish, usually 10, in each container; • observations of fish mortality during exposures that last between one day and one week, usually four days; and • final results expressed as LC50. Other factors that are required for good bioassay pr(lctice are briefly summarized in the references mentioned above. Bioassays/119 CHECKLIST FOR PROC~DURES Species A selected strain of fish or other aquatic organisms of local importance should be used in bioassays conducted for the purpose of pollution monitoring. Preferably it should be a game or pan fish, which are usually among the more sensitive. Ability to duplicate experiments is enhanced by the use of a selected strain of test organisms (Lennon 1967).31 A selected strain can also help to determine the difference between toxicants more reliably, and to detect discrepancies in results due to apparatus. A National Re- search Council subcommittee chaired by Dr. S. F. Snieszko is currently preparing a report, Standards and guidelines-for the breeding, care, and management of laboratory animals-Fish, which will be useful in this area. Susceptibility to toxicants among different species of fish is generally less than might be expected-sometimes no greater than when a single species is tested in different types of water. For example, trout and certain coarse fishes were equally resistant to ammonia when tests continued for several days to give the less sensitive species time to react (Ball 1967a) ;13 and even for zinc, the coarse fishes were no more than 3.8 times as resistant as trout (Ball 1967b).1 4 Recommendations for the selected test fish will often provide protection to other aquatic animals and plants. There are exceptions to this generalization: for example, copper is quite damaging to algae and mollusks, and insecticides are especially dangerous to aquatic arthropods. Sufficient data exist to predict these situations. When they are expected, bioassays should be run with two kinds of invertebrates and two kinds of algae (Patrick et al. 1968). 41 In the case of important bodies of water, there is good reason to test several kinds of aquatic organisms in addition to fish. Patrick et al. (1968)41 made a comparative study of the effects of 20 pollutants on fish, snails, and diatoms and found that no single kind of organism was most sensitive in all situations. The short-term bioassay method for fish may also be used for many of the larger invertebrate ani- mals. A greater volume of test water and rate of flow, or both, may be required in relation to weight of the animals since their metabolic rate is higher on a weight basis. Larvae of mollusks or crustaceans can be good test ani- mals. The crustacean Daphnia is a good test animal and was widely used in comparative studies of toxicants by Ander- son (1950).12 Rec~tly Biesinger and Christensen (unpub- lished data, 1971)62 have carried out tests on the chronic effects of toxicants on growth, survival, and reproduction of Daphnia magna. Because of the rapid life cycle of Daphnia, experiments on chronic toxicity can be completed in about the same time as an acute toxicity test with fish. Patrick et al. (1968)41 have shown that diatoms, snails and fish exposed for roughly comparable periods of time and in similar environmental conditions very often have similar LC50's, but at other times these may differ greatly. ~---~ -------------- )/Section III-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife ,wever, for some toxicants diatoms were most sensitive; others, fish; and for others, snails. When one is cq_mparing :a of this type, one questions whether a LC50 for a diatom Julation in which a number of divisions have occurred ring the test period is comparable to that obtained for t and snails in which no reproduction has occurred during test period. In the sense that there are 50 per cent fewer ls in the LC50 concentration than there are in the diatom 1trol culture, the test is somewhat equivalent to a test acute toxicity that results in 50 per cent fewer surviving tin the LC50 than in the control container. Also loss of lity to grow and divide might be just as fatal to a micro- ! population as death of a substantial number of its mbers would be to a fish population. When the absolute time for the test is considered, there : also reasons for believing that exposure of diatoms to a :icant through several generations might not constitute hronic test, because it is quite possible that for toxicants accumulate in a cell may require a period of exposure tch more lengthy than that encompassed in the average t which only spans a few generations. This would be rticularly true when the organisms were dividing rapidly :1. the additional protoplasm diluted the material being :umulated. ution Water Toxicants should be tested in the water that will receive : pollutant in question. In this way all modifying factors :1. combined toxicities will be present. It is not advisable use tap water for dilution, because it may contain chlorine d other harmful materials such as copper, zinc, or lead m plumbing systems. Routine dechlorination does not :ure complete removal of chlorine. Variations in physical and chemical characteristics of Lter affect toxicity of pollutants. Effects of five environ- :ntal entities on the lethal threshold of ammonia were 1strated a decade ago (Lloyd 1961 b). 34 Hardness of water particularly important in toxicity of metals. Hydrogen 1 concentration is an important modifying factor for 1monia and cyanide. Higher temperatures sometimes :rease toxicity of a pollutant, but recent work shows that Lenol, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and zinc may be Jre toxic at low temperatures (United Kingdom Ministry Technology 1969).0° Dissolved oxygen levels that are Iow saturation will increase toxicity, and this is predictable .loyd 196la;33 Brown 1968).16 The supply of dilution water must be adequate to main- in constant test conditions. In both static and continuous 1w tests, a sufficiently large volume of test water must be ed, and it must be replaced or replenished frequently. :1is is to provide oxygen for the organism and dilution of etabolic wastes, to limit changes in temperature and pH, td to compensate for degradation, volatilization, intake, td sorption of the toxicant. In static tests, there should be ro or three liters of water per gram of fish, changed daily, or increased proportionally in volume for the number of days of the test. In continuous flow tests, the flow must provide at least two or three liters of water per gram of fish per day, and it must equal test-volume in five hours or less, giving 90 per cent replacement in half a day or less. Acclimation Acclimatizing the test organism to the specific water before the bioassay begins may have marked effect upon the outcome. Abrupt changes in quality of the water should be avoided. Time for acclimation of the organisms to the conditions of the diluent water should be as generous as possible, dependent on life span. At least two weeks is recommended for fish. Test Methods Test methods must be adequately described when the results are given. Several bioassay procedures are listed in Table III-1. Adequate and appropriate control tests must always be run (Sprague 1969).43 Survival of the control organisms is a minimum indication of the quality of the test organisms. In addition, levels of survival and health in holding tanks should be indicated and the conclusions recorded. TABLE III-1-Recommended Literature Sources for Bioassay and Biomonitoring Procedures with Various Aquatic Organisms Kind of organism Type of response Appropriate situations lor use Reference Fish and Macroinverte· 96-hour lethal concen-To measure lethal toxicity of a Standard Methods 1971•• brates !ration waste of known or unknown composition. To serve as a foundation lor extrapolating to presumably sale concentra- lions. To momtor industrial effluents. Fish and macroinverte-Lethal threshold con-For research applications to Sprague 1969, .. 19711" brates centralion document lethal thresholds. Fish and inverle· Incipient lethal tern-For research to determine Fry 1947," Brett 1952" brates peratures & ultimate lethal temperature ranges of incipient lethal tern-a given species. peratures Fish .................. Respiratory movements Quick (1 ·daY) indication of Schaumburg et al. 196742 as acute sublethal possible sublethal effects. response For research and monitoring. Fish (i.e., fathead min· Reproduction, growth, Chronic tests lor research on Mount 1968,., Mount & nows, brook trou~ and SUrYIYal sale concentrations. Stephan 1967," bluegill) Brungs 1969,•• McKim & Benoit 1971,•• Eaton 1970" Daphnia.. .. ·' ......... Survival, growth, and Rapid completion of chronic Anderson _1950," Bie- reproduction tests lor testing special sus-singer & Christensen ceptibifity of crustaceans (UnpubHshed data)" Diatoms ............... Survival, growth, and A sensitive, rapid, chronic test Patrick 1968•• reproduction lor research, prediction, or monitoring• Marine crustacean, Survival, growth, and A sensitiYe, rapid, chronic test Woelke 1967" larvae mollusks development through lor research. prediction, or immature stages monitoring• • requites an operator with some speciafized biological training. ; Dissolved • Oxygen The problem of maintaining dissolved oxygen concen- trations suitable for aquatic life in the test water can be difficult. The suggestions on test volume and replacement times (see Dilution Water above) should provide for ade- quate oxygen in most cases. However, with some pollutants, insufficient oxygen maybe present in the test water because a biochemic~! and a chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD) may consume much of the available dissolved oxygen. Aeration or oxygenation may degrade or remove the test material. Devices for maintaining satisfactory dis11olved oxygen in static tests have been proposed and used with some degree of effectiv~ness, and· are described in Doudoroff et al. (1951).22 Con cenf!afion s Periodic measurements of concentration of the toxicant should be made at least at the· beginning and end of the bioassay. If this is not possible, introduced concentrations may be stated alone, but it should be realized that actual concentrations in the water may become reduced. In the flow-through type of bioassay, a large quantity of test water can be made up and used gradually. More often a device is used to add toxicant to a flow of water, and the mixture is discharged into the test container, using apparatus such as "dipping bird" dosers described by B~ungs and Mount (1967).19 Other devices have been developed by Stark (1967),47 and Mount and Warner (1965),39 using the doser technique. Evaluation of. Results Mortality rates at the longest exposure time should be .plotted on a vertical probit scale against concentrations of toxicants on a horizontal logarithmic scale. The concen- tration which causes 50 per cent mortality can be read and used as LC50. Errors in LC50 can be estimated using the simple nomograph procedures described by Litchfield and Wilcoxon (1949). 32 ·A more refined estimate of error may be made using the methods of Finney (1952),25 which can be programmed for a computer. The value of the results would be improved if the LC50's were estimated (by the above procedures) at. frequent exposure times such as 1, 2, 4, R±l, 14±2, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. A toxicity curve of time versus LC50 could then be constructed on logarithmic axes. The lethal thresh- old concentration could then be estimated in many_ cases (Sprague 1969)43 to provide: a more valid single number for description of acute toxicity. than the arbitrary 96-hour LC50. For some purposes, such· as basic research or situations where short· exposures are of particular concern, it would be desirable to follow and plot separately the mortality of the group of fish in each tank. In this way, the median lethal time can be estimated for a given concentration. Methods for doing this are given in Appendix II-A. Bioassays /121 APPLICATION FACTORS Short-term or acute toxicity tests do not indicate concen- trations of a potential toxicant that are harmless under conditions of long-term exposure. Nevertheless, for each toxicant there is obviously .a numerical value for the ratio of the safe concentration to the acutely lethal concentration. Such values are called application factors. In some cases this safe-to-lethal ratio is known with reasonable accuracy from experimental work, as in the'examples given in Table III-2. However, for most toxicants, the safe level has not been determined, and must be predicted by some approxi- mate method. In these cases, the assumption has been made in this Report, that the numerical value of the safe- to-lethal ratio, the application factor, is constant for related groups of chemicals. Values for the ratio will be recom- mended. The safe level of a particular toxicant can then be estimated approximately by carrying out an acute bio- assay to determine the lethal concentration, then multi- plying this by the suggested application factor. An appli- cation factor does not make allowance for unknown factors. It is merely a fractional or decimal factor applied to a lethal concentration to estimate the safe concentration. Ideally, an application factor should be determined for each waste material in question. To do this, it is necessary first to determine the lethal concentration of the waste according to the bioassay procedures outlined above. To obtain the application factor, the safe concentration of the same waste-must be determined for the same species by thorough research on physiological, biochemical, and be- havioral effects, and by studying growth, reproduction, and production in the laboratory and field. The safe-to- lethal ratio obtained could then be used as an application factor in a given situation, by working from the measured LC50 of a particular kind of waste to predict the safe concentration. TABLE III-2-Ratios between the safe concentration and the lethal concentration which have been determined experi- mentally for potential aquatic pollutants. Sources of data are given in the sections on the individual pollutants. Material Species of animal LAS................. Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) Chlorine... . . . . . . . . . . . Fathead minnow Gammarus sumdes. .. . . . . . . . . . . • Fathead minnow and white sucker (Catostomus.commersoni)· Walleye pike (Stizosledion Yitreum v.) Copper. .. .. . .. . .. .. . . Several species of fish Trivalent chromium. . . . Fathead minnow Hexavalent chromium.. Fathead minnow Brook trout (Salveiinus fontinalis) Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) Malathion. . . . . . . . . . . . Fathead minnow and bluegill (lepomis machrochirus) Carbaryl.... .. .. .. .. .. Fish species Nickel............... Fathead minnow -lead................. Rainbow and Brook trout Zinc...... .. .. . . . . . . .. Fathead minnow Safe-tcrlethal ratio . Between 0.14 and 0.28 (=about 0.21) 0.16 0.16 0.1± 0.22± dose to 0.1 0.037 0.03 0.012 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 <0.02 0.005 22/Section III-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife In this approach, a 96-hour LC50 is determined for the ollutant using water from the receiving stream for dilution. 'he test organisms selected should be among• the most :nsitive species, or an important local species at a sensitive fe stage, or a species whose relative sensitivity is known. 'his procedure takes into consideration the effects of local ater quality and the stress or adverse effects of wastes .ready present in the stream. The LC50 thus found is ten multiplied by the application factor for that waste to etermine its safe concentration in the specific stream or :ction of stream. Such bioassays should be repeated at ast monthly or when changes in process or rate of waste ischarge arc observed. For example, if the 96-hour LC50 is 0.5 milligrams per ter (mg/1) and the concentration of the waste found to be tfe is 0.01 mg/1, the ratio would be: Safe Concentration 0.01 96-hour LC50 0.50 50 o. this instance, the safe-to-lethal ratio is 0.02. It can be sed as an application factor in other situations. Then, in given situation involving this waste, the safe concentration 1 the receiving stream would be found by multiplying the mr-day LC50 by 0.02. This predictive procedure based on lethal concentrations : useful, because the precise safe level of many pollutants : not known because of the uncertainty about toxicity of 1ixed effluents and the difference in sensitivity among fish nd fish food organisms. Henderson (1957)27 and Tarzwell 1962)49 have discussed various factors involved in de- eloping application factors. Studies by Mount and Stephan 1967),38 Brungs (1969),18 Mount (1968),37 McKim and ienoit (1971),36 and Eaton (1970)24 in which continuous xposure was used, reveal that the safe-to-lethal ratio that 1ermits spawning ranges over nearly two orders of magni- ude. Exposure will not be constant in most cases, and tigher concentrations usually can be tolerated for short teriods. Lethal threshold concentrations, which may require more han 96-hour exposures, may be beneficially used (Sprague 969)43 to replace 96-hour LC50 in the above procedures, tnd there is a trend today to use such threshold concen- rations (Eaton 1970).24 At present, safe levels have been determined for only a ew wastes, and as a result only a few application factors are ~nown. Because the determination of safe levels of pollutants s an involved process, interim procedures for estimating olerable concentrations of various wastes in receiving waters nust be used. To meet this situation, three universal appli- :ation factors selected on the basis of present knowledge, :xperience, and judgment are recommended at the end of :his section. Where toxicants have a nonpersistent nature :a half life of less than 4 days) or noncumulative effects, m application factor of 0.1 of the 96-hour LC50 should 10t be exceeded at any time or place after mixing with the receiving waters. The 24-hour average of the concentration of these toxicants should not exceed 0.05 of the LC50 if aquatic life is to be protected. For toxic materials which are persistent or cumulative the concentrations should not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place, and the 24-hour average concentration should not exceed 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50 in order to protect aquatic life. It is proposed that these general application factors be applied to LC50 values determined in the manner described above to set tolerable concentrations of wastes in the receiving stream. MIXTURES OF TWO OR MORE TOXICANTS The toxicity of a mixture of pollutants may be estimated by expressing the actual concentration of each toxicant as a proportion of its lethal threshold concentration (usually equal to the 96-hour LC50) and adding the resulting numbers for all the toxicants. If the total is 1.0 or greater, the mixture will be lethal. The system of adding different toxicants in this way is based on the premise that their lethal actions are additive. Unlikely as it seems, this simple rule has been found to govern the combined lethal action of many pairs and mix- tures of quite dissimilar toxicants, such as copper and ammonia, and zinc and phenol in the laboratory (Herbert and Vandyke 1964,29 Jordan and Lloyd 1964,30 Brown et al. 1969).17 The rule holds true in field studies (Herbert 1965,28 Sprague et al. 1965). 46 The method of addition is useful and reasonably accurate for predicting thresholds of lethal effects in mixtures. There is also evidence of a lower limit for additive lethal effects. For ammonia and certain other pollutants, levels below 0.1 of the lethal concentration do not seem to con- tribute to the lethal action of a mixture (Brown et al. 1969,17 Lloyd and Orr 1969).35 This lower cutoff point of 0.1 of the LC50 should be used when it is necessary to assess the lethal effects of a mixture of toxicants. SUBLETHAL EFFECTS Sublethal or chronic effects of mixtures are of great im- portance. Sublethal concentrations of different toxicants should be additive in effect. Here again, it would be ex- pected that for any given toxicant there would be some low concentration that would have no deleterious effect on an organism and would not contribute any sublethal toxicity to a mixture, but there is little research on this subject. Biesinger and Christensen .. (unpublished data 1971),52 con- cluded that subchronic concentrations of 21 toxicants were close to being additive in causing chronic effects on repro- duction in Daphnia. Copper and zinc concentrations of about 0.01 of the LC50 are additive in causing avoidance reactions (Sprague et al. 1965).46 On the other hand, some- what lower metal concentrations of about 0.003 of the LC50 do not seem to be additive in affecting reproduction of fish (Eaton unpublished data 1971).53 Perhaps there is a lower cutoff point than 0.01 of the LC50 for single pollutants contributing to sublethal toxicity of a mixture. As an interim solution, it is recommended that the con- tribution of a single pollutant to the sublethal toxicity of a mixture should not be counted if it is less than 0.2 of the recommended level for that pollutant. Applying this to a basic recommended level of 0.05 (see the Recommendation that follows) of the LC50 would yield a value of 0.01 of the LC50, corresponding to the possible cutoff point suggested above. ltois expected that certain cases of joint toxicity will not be covered by simple addition. The most obvious exception would ·be when two toxicants combine chemically. For example, mixed solutions of cyanides and metals could cause addition of toxicity or very different effects if the metal and cyanide combined (Doudoroff et al. 1966).23 A thorough understanding of chemical reactions is necessary in these cases. For further discussions of bioassays and the difficulties posed in assessing sublethal effects of toxicants on organisms, see Section IV, pp. 233-237. Recommendations for the Use of Application Factors to Estimate Safe Concentrations of Toxic Wastes in Receiving Streams Where specific application factors have been determined for a given material, they should be used instead of the safe concentration levels of wastes given below: (a) Concentration of materials that are nonpersistent or have noncumulative effects should not exceed 0.1 of the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place after mixing with the receiving waters. The 24-hour average of the concen- tration of these materials should not exceed 0.05 of the LC50 after mixing. (b) For toxicants which are persistent or cumulative, the concentrations should not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 at any time or place, nor should the 24-hour average concentration exceed 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50. (c) When two or more toxic materials are present at the same time in the receiving water, it should be assumed unless proven otherwise that their individual toxicities are additive and that some reduction in the permissible concen- trations is necessary. The amount of reduction required is a function of both the number of toxic materials present and their concentrations in respect to the permissible con- centrations. The following relationship will assure that the Bioassays /123 combined amounts of th~ several substances do not exceed a permissible concentration: C,. Cb Cn -+-+ ••• +-< 1.0 L,. Lb Ln- This formula may be applied where C,., Cb, ... Cn are the measured or expected concentrations of the several toxic materials in the water, and L,., Lb, ... Ln are the respective concentrations recommended or those derived by using recommended application factors on bioassays done under local conditions. Should the sum of the several fractions exceed 1.0, a local restriction on the concentration of one or more of the substances is necessary. C and L can be measured in any convenient chemical unit as proportions of the LC50 or in any other desired way, as long as the numerator and denominator of any single fraction are in the same units. To remove natural trace concentrations and low nonadditive concentrations from the above formula, any single fraction which has a value less thq.n 0.2 should be removed from the calculation. Example: Small quantities of five toxicants are measured in a stream as follows: 3 micrograms/liter (JLg/1) of zinc; 3 JLg/1 of phenol; 3 JLg/1 of un-ionized ammonia as calculated from Figure 111-10 (see Ammonia, p. 186); I JLg/1 of cyanide; and I JLg/1 of chlorine. A bioassay with zinc sulphate indicates that the 96- hour LC50 is 1.2 mg/1. The application· factor for zinc is 0.005; therefore, the allowable limit is 0.005 X 1.2 =0.006 mg/1. Initial bioassays with phenol, am- monia, and cyanide indicate that the recommended values are the safe concentrations stated in other sec- tions of the Report, not the fractions of LC50; so the limits are 0.1 mg/1, 0.02 mg/1, and 0.005 mg/1. The permissible limit for chlorine (page 189) is 0.003 mg/1. Therefore, the total toxicity is estimated as follows for zinc, phenol, ammonia, cyanide, and chlorine, re- spectively: 0.003 + 0.003 + 0.003 + 0.001 + 0.001 0.006 0.1 0.02 0.005 0.003 =0.5+0.03+0.15+0.2+0.33 The second and third terms, i.e., phenol and ammonia, should be deleted since they are below the minimum of 0.2 for additive effects. This leaves 0.5+0.2+0.33 = 1.03, indicating that the total sublethal effect of these three toxicants is slightly above the permissible level and that no higher concentration of any of the three is safe. Thus none can be added as a pollutant. PHYSICAL MANIPULATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT Numerous activities initiated to maximize certain uses of water resources often adversely affect water quality and minimize other uses. These activities have caused both benefit and harm in terms of environmental quality. The ::ommon forms of ·physical alteration of watersheds are ::hannelization, dredging, filling, shoreline modifications (of lakes and streams), clearing of vegetation, rip-rapping, diking, leveling, sand and gravel removal, and impounding of streams: Channelization is widespread throughout the United States, and many studies have been conducted documenting its effects. Channelization usually increases stream gradient ana flow rates. The quiet areas or backwaters are either eliminated or cut off from·the main flow of the stream, the stream bed is made smooth, thus reducing the habitats available to benthic organisms, and surrounding marshes and swamps.are.more rapidly drained. The steeper gradient increases velocity allowing the stream to carry a greater suspended load and causing increased turbidity. The rate of organic waste transformation per mile is usually reduced, and destruction of spawning. and nursery areas often occurs. Trautman (1939), 67 Smith and Larimore (1963), 65 Peters and Alvord (1964), 64 Welker (1·967), 69 Martin (1969), 63 and Gebhards (1970)58 have discussed the harmful effects of channelization on some fish populations and . the effect on stimulation of less desirable species. Dredging undertaken to increase water depth often destroys highly productive habitats such as marshes (Mar- shall 1968,62 Copeland and Dickens 1969). 56 The spoils from dredging activities are frequently disposed of in other shallow sites causing further loss of productive areas. For example, Taylor and Saloman (1968)66 reported that since 1950 there has been a 20 per cent decrease in surface area of productive Boca Ciega Bay, Florida, due to fill areas. It has become common practice to fill in marshy sites near large metrqpolitan areas (e.g., San Francisco Bay, Jamaica Bay) to provide for airport construction and industrial development. In addition to the material that is .actually removed by the dredging process, a considerable amount of waste ·is suspended in thewater·resultingin high turbidities (Mackin 1961).61 If the dredged sediments are relatively nontoxic, gross effects on motile aquatic life may not be noticeable, but benthic communities may be drastically affected by the increased redeposition of silt (Ingle 1952). 59 In many instances either high nutrient or toxic sediments are suspended or deposited during the dredging process. This action may kill aquatic organisms by exposure to the toxicants present or by the depletion of dissolved oxygen concentrations, or both. Brown and Clark (1968)54 noted a dissolved oxygen reduction of 16 to 83 per cent when oxidizable sediments were resuspended. In many cases dis- turbed sediments containing high nutrient concentrations may stimulate undesirable forms of phytoplankton or Cladophora. Gannon and Beeton (1969) 57 categorized harbor sediments in five groups. Those most severely polluted were toxic to various animals and did not stimulate growth of phytoplankton. Other sediments were toxic but stimu- lated plant growth. The least polluted sediments were not toxic and stimulated . growth of phytoplankton but not Cladophora. Three basic aspects must be considered in evaluating the impact of dredging and disposal on the aquatic environ- ment: (I) the amount and nature of the dredgings, (2) the nature and quality of the environments of removal and disposal, and (3) the ecological responses. All vary widely in different environments, and it is not possible to identify an optimal dredging and disposal system. Consequently, the most suitable program must be developed for each situation. ·Even in situations where . soil is deposited in diked enclosures or used for fill, care must be . taken to monitor overflow, seepage, and runoff waters for toxic· and stimulatory materials. Artificial impoundments may have serious environmental impact on natural aquatic ecosystems. Dams and other artificial barriers frequently block migration cand may destroy large areas of specialized habitat. Aquatic organisms are frequently subjected to physical damage if they are allowed to pass through or over hydroelectric power units and other ·man-made objects when properly ·designed barriers are not provided. At large dams, espedally those designed for hydroelectric power, water drawn from the_ 124 pool behind the dam is frequently taken from great depths, resulting in the release to the receiving stream of waters low.in dissolved oxygen and excessively cold. This can be a problem, particularly in areas where nonnative fish are stocked. Cutting down forests, planting the land in crops, and partially covering the surface of a watershed by building roads, houses, and industries can have detrimental effects on water ways. Wark and Keller (1963)68 showed that in the Potomac River Basin (Washington, D.C.) reducing the forest cover from 80 per cent to 20 per cent increas~d the annual sediment yield from 50 to 400 tons per square mile per year. The planting of land in crops increased the sedi- ment yield from 70 to 300 tons per square mile per year, or a fourfold increase as the land crops increased from 10 per cent to 50 per cent. Likens et al. (1970)60 showed that cutting down the forest in the Hubbard Brook area (Ver- Physical Manipulation of the Environment/125 mont) caused substantial.changes in the streams. The sedi- ment load increased fourfold over a period from May 1966 to May 1968. Furthermore, the particulate matter drained from the deforested watershed became increasingly in- organic in content, thus reducing the value of the sediment as a food source. The nutrient content of the water was also affected by cutting down the forests. The nitrate concen- tration increased from 0.9 mg/1 prior to the cutting of vegetation to 53 mg/1 two years later. Temperatures of streams in deforested areas were higher, particularly during the summer months, than those of streams bordered bv forests (Brown and Krygier 1970).55 Prior to any physical alterations of a watershed, a thorough investigation should be conducted to determine the expected balance between benefits and adverse environ- mental effects. ------------------------~------------;..__---------~-- SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS Suspended and settleable solids include both inorganic and organic materials. Inorganic components include sand, silt, and clay originating from erosion, mining, agriculture, and areas of construction. Organic matter may be com- posed of a variety of materials added to the ecosystem from natural and man-made sources. These inorganic and organic sources are discussed in the Panel Report on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Section IV), and the effects of land-water relationships are described in the report on Recreation and Aesthetics (Section I). SOIL AS A SOURCE OF MINERAL PARTICLES Soil structure and drainage patterns, together with the intensity and temporal distribution of rainfall that directly affect the kind and amount of protective vegetative cover, determine the susceptibility of a soil to erosion. Where rain occurs more or less uniformly throughout the year, protective grasses, shrubs, or trees develop (Leopold, et al. 1964). 78 Where rainfall occurs intermittently, as in arid areas, growth of protective plants is limited thus allowing unchecked erosion of soils. Wetting and drying cause swelling and shrinking of clay soils and leave the surface susceptible to entrainment in surface water flows. Suspended soil particle concentrations in rivers, therefore, are at their peak at the beginning of flood flows. Data on the concentration of suspended matter in most of the significant streams of the United States are presented in the U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Papers. Streams transport boulders, rocks, pebbles, and sand by intermittent rolling motions, or by intermittent suspension and deposition as particles are entrained and later settled on the bed. Fine particles are held in suspension for long periods, depending on the intensity of the turbulence. Fine silt particles, when dispersed in fresh waters, remain almost continuously suspended, and suspension of dispersed clay mineral particles may be maintained even by the thermally induced motions in water. These fine mineral particles are the soil materials of greatest significance to the turbidity values of a particular water. The suspended and settleable solids and the bed of a water body must be considered as interrelated, interacting parts. For example, Langlois (1941)77 reported that in Lake Erie the average of 40 parts per million (ppm) of suspended matter in the water was found to change quickly to more than 200 ppm with a strong wind. He further explained . that this increase is attributed to sediments resuspended by wave action. These sediments enter from streams or from shoreline erosion. Suspended clay mineral particles are weakly cohesive in fresh river waters having either unusually low dissolved salt concentrations or high concentrations of multivalent cations. Aggregations of fine particles form and settle on the bed to form soft fluffy deposits when such waters enter a lake or impoundment. However, clay mineral particles are dis- persed or only weakly cohesive in most rivers. EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN WATER The composition and concentrations of suspended parti- cles in surface waters are important because of their effects on light penetration, temperature, solubility products, and aquatic life (Cairns 1968).72 The mechanical or abrasive action of particulate material is of importance to the higher aquatic organisms, such as mussels and fish. Gills may be clogged and their proper functions of respiration and excretion impaired. Blanketing of plants and sessile animals with sediment as well as the blanketing of important habitats, such as spawning sites, can cause drastic changes in aquatic ecosystems. If sedimentation, even of inert particles, covers substantial amounts of organic material, anaerobic conditions can occur and produce noxious gases and other objectionable characteristics, such as low dis- solved oxygen and decreases in pH. Absorption of sunlight by natural waters is strongly affected by the presence of suspended solids. The intensity of light (/) at any distance along a light ray (L) is, for a uniform suspension, expressed by the formula: l=lo -kcL, where /0 is the intensity just below the water surface (L ==: 0), 126 : extinction coefficient for the suspended solids, and concentration of suspended solids. L can be related water depth by the zenith angle, i, the angle of .on, r, and the index of refraction of water, 1.33, by rule: . sin i Sin r=-- 1.33 :pth, D, is L cos r. Refraction makes the light path J.early vertical under water than the sun's rays, when the sun's rays are themselves normal to the :urface. growth of fixed and suspended aquatic plants can .ted by the intensity of sunlight. An example of the ;e in the photic zone was calculated for San Francisco ~rone 1963),76 where k was 1.18Xl03 square ceil.ti- per gram. For a typical suspended solids concen- of 50XI0-6 grams per cubic centimeter, for an :equiring 20 foot candles or more for its multipli- ~nd under incident sunlight of 13,000 foot candles otic zone did not exceed 1.1 meters. A reduction in :led solids concentration to 20X I0-6 g/cm3 increased .ximum depth of the photic zone to 2.8 meters. .use suspended particles inhibit the penetration of tt, water temperatures are affected, and increasing ty results in increasing absorption near the water : so that turbid waters warm more rapidly at the : than do clearer waters. Warming and the accom- ,g decrease in density stabilize water and may inhibit I mixing. Lower oxygen transfer value from air to results when surface waters are heated. This action J.ed with inhibited vertical mixing reduces the rate of t transfer downward. Still or slowly moving water is . ffected. rate of warming, dT / dt, at any distance from the : along a light path, L, in water having uniform ded material is dT = _[Ike] -kcL dt pC p is the water density and C is the specific heat of ter. This equation shows that an increase in suspended :nt concentration increases the rate of warming near rface and decreases exponentially with depth. The ical significance of this relationship is in the effect on ,f formation, vertical distribution of thermal stratifi- ' and stability of the upper strata. Increasing tur- could change the stratification patterns of a lake and hange the temperature distribution, oxygen regime, >mposition of the biological communities. ,RPTION OF TOXIC MATERIALS Jended mineral particles have irregular, large surface with electrostatic charges. As a consequence, clay Suspended and Settleable Solids/127 minerals may sorb cations, anions, t,tnd organic compounds. Pesticides and heavy metals may be absorbed on suspended clay particles and strongly held with them. The sorption of chemicals by suspended matter is particularly important if it leads to a buildup of toxic and radioactive materials in a limited area with the possibility of sudden release of these toxicants. One such example has been reported by Benoit et al. (1967).70 Gannon and Beeton (1969)7 5 reported that sediments with the following characteristics dredged from various harbors on the Great Lakes were usually toxic to various organisms: COD 42,000 mg/1, volatile solids 4,000 mg/1, ammonia 0.075 mg/g, phosphate-P 0.65 mg/g. The capacity of minerals to hold dissolved toxic materials is different for each material and type of clay mineral. An example illustrates the magnitudes of sorptive capacities: the cation exchange capacity (determined by the number of negatively charged sites on clay mineral surfaces) ranges from a few milliequivalents per hundred grams (me/100 g) of mineral for kaolinite clay to more than 100 me/100 g for montmorillonite clay. Typical estuarial sediments, which are mixtures of clay, silt, and sand minerals, have exchange capacities ranging from 15 to 60 me/100 g (Krone 1963).76 The large amounts of such material that enter many estuaries and lakes from tributary streams provide continu- ally renewed sorptive capacity that removes materials such as heavy metals, phosphorus, and radioactive ions. The average new sediment load flowing through the San Fran- cisco Bay-Delta system, for example, has a total cation exchange capacity of a billion equivalents per year. The sorptive capacity effectively creates the large assimi- lative capacity of muddy waters. A reduction in suspended mineral solids in surface waters can cause an increase in the concentrations of dissolved toxic materials contributed by existing waste discharges . EFFECTS ON FISH AND INVERTEBRATES The surface of particulate matter may act as a substratum for microbial species, although the particle itself may or may not contribute to their nutrition. When the presence of particulate matter enables the environment to support substantial increased populations of aquatic microorganisms, the dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and other char- acteristics of the water are frequently altered. There are several ways in which an excessive concen- tration of finely divided solid matter might be harmful to a fishery in a river or a lake (European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, ElF AC 1965). 73 These include: • acting directly on fish swimming in water in which solids are suspended, either killing them or reducing their growth rate and resistance to disease; • preventing the successful development of fish eggs and larvae; 128/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife • modifying natural movements and migrations of fish; • reducing the food av.ailable to fish; • affecting efficiency in catching _the-fish;• With respect to chemically inert suspended solids and to waters that are otherwise satisfactory for the maintenance of freshwater fisheries, EIFAC (1965)7 3 reported: • there is no evidence thatconcentrations of suspended solids less than 25 mg/1 have any harmful effects on fisheries; • it should usually be possible to maintain good or moderate fisheries in waters that normally contain 25 to 80 mg/1 suspended solids; other factors being equal, however, the yield of fish from such waters might be somewha:t lower than from those in the preceding category; • waters normally containing from 80 to 400 mg/1 suspended solids are unlikely to support good fresh- water fisheries, although fisheries may sometimes be found at the lower -concentrations within this range; • only poor fisheries are likely to be found in waters that normally contain more than 400 mg/1 suspended solids. In addition, although several thousand parts per million suspended solids may not kill fish during several hours or days exposure, temporary high concentrations should ·be prevented in rivers where good.fisheries .are to be main- tained. The spawning grounds of ri:mst fish should be kept as free as possible from finely divided solids. While the low turbidities reported above reflected values - that should protect the ecosystem, Wallen (1951)80 reported that fish can tolerate higher concentrations. Behavioral reactions were not observed until concentrations of tur- bidity neared 20,000 mg/1, and in one species reactions did not appear until turbidities reached 100,000 mg/1. Most species tested endured exposures of more than 100,000 mg/1 turbidity for a week or longer, but these same fishes finally died at turbidities of 175,000 to 225,000 mg/1. Lethal turbidities caused the death of fishes within 15 minutes to two hours exposure. Fishes that succumbed had opercular cavities and gill filaments clogged with silty clay particles from the water. In a study of fish and macroinvertebrate populations over a four-year period in a stream receiving sediment from a crushed limestone quarry, Gammon (1970)74 found that inputs that increased the suspended solids load less than 40 mg/1 (normal suspended solids was 38 to 41 mg/1 and volatile suspended solids 16 to 30 mg/1) resulted in a 25 per cent reduction in macroinvertebrate density in the stream below the quarry. A heavy silt input caused increases of more than 120 mg/1 including some decomposition of sediment, and resulted in a 60 per cent reduction in density of macroinvertebrates. Population diversity indices were unaffected because most species responded to the same degree. The standing crop of fish ·decreased dramatically when heavy sediment occurred in the spring; but fish re- mained in pools during the summer when the input was heavy and vacated the pools only after deposits of sediment accumulated. After winter floods removed sediment de- posits, fish returned to the pools and achieved levels of 50 per cent of the normal standing crop by early June. Not all particulate matter affects organisms in the same way. For example; Smith, .et aL (1965)7 9 found that the lethal action of pulp-mill fiber on walleye fingerlings (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum) and fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) was influenced by the type of fiber. In 96-hour bioassays, mortality of the minnows in 2,000 ppm suspen- sions was 78 per cent in conifer groundwood, 34 per cent in conifer kraft, andA per cent in aspen groundwood. High temperatures and reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations increased the lethal action of fiber. Buck ( 1956) 71 studied the growth of fish in 39 farm ponds having a wide range of turbidities. The ponds were cleared of fish and then restocked with largemouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), and redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus). After two growing seasons the yields of fish were : •· clear ponds (less than 25 mg/1 161.5 lb/acre suspended solids) • intermediate (25-100 ~g/1 94.0 lb/acre suspended solids) • muddy (more than roo mg/1 29.3 lb/acre suspended solids) The rate of reproduction was also reduced by turbidity, and the critical concentration for all three species appeared to be about 75-100 mg/1. In the same paper, Buck reported that largemouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides), crappies (Pomoxis), and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) grew more slowly in a reservoir where the water had an average turbidity of 130 mg/1 than in another reservoir where the water was always clear. Floating materials, including large objects as well as very fine substances, can adversely affect the activities of aquatic life. Floating logs shut out sunlight and interfere particularly with surface feeding fish. Logs may also leach various types of organic acids due to the action of water. If they have been sprayed with pesticides or treated chemically, these_ substances may also leach into the water. As the logs float downstream their bark often disengages and falls to the bed of the stream, disturbing benthic habitats. Aquatic life is also affected by fine substances, such as sawdust, peelings, hair from tanneries, wood fibers, containers, scum, oil, garbage, and materials from untreated municipal and in- dustrial wastes, tars and greases, and precipitated chemicals. ------------------~-~----~ ~--· Recommendations • The combined effect of color and turbidity should not change the compensation point more than 10 per cent from its seasonally established norm, nor should such a change place more than 10 per cent of the biomass of photosynthetic orga- nisms below the compensation point. Suspended and Settleable Solids/129 • Aquatic communities should be protected if the following, maximum concentrations of suspended solids exist: High level of protection 25 mg/1 Moderate protection 80 mg,fl Low level of protection 400 mg,/1 Very low level of protection over 400 mg,/1 COLOR The true color of a specific water sample is the result of substances in solution; thus it can be measured only after suspended material has been removed. Color may be of organic or mineral origin and may be the result of natural processes as well as manufacturing operations. Organic sources include humic materials, peat, plankton, aquatic plants, and tannins. Inorganic substances are largely me- tallic, although iron and manganese, the most important substances, are usually not in solution. They affect color as particles. Heavy-metal complexes are frequent contributors to the color problem. Many industries (such as pulp and paper, textile, refining, chemicals, dyes ·and explosives, and tanning) discharge materials that contribute to the color of water. Conventional biological waste treatment procedures are frequently in- effective in removing color. On the other hand, such treat- ment processes have caused an accentuation of the level of color during passage through the treatment plant. Physicochemical treatment processes are frequently pre- ferable to biological treatment if color removal is critical (Eye and Aldous 1968,81 King and Randall 197083). The tendency for an accentuation of color to occur as a result of complexing of a heavy metal with an organic sub- stance may also lead to problems in surface waters. A rela- tively color-free discharge from a_manufacturing operation, may, upon contact with iron in a stream, produce a highly colored water that would significantly affect aquatic life (Hem 1960,82 Stumm and Morgan 196286). The standard platinum-cobalt method of measuring color is applicable to a wide variety of water samples (Standard Methods 1971). 85 However, industrial wastes frequently produce colors dissimilar to the standard platinum-cobalt color, making the comparison technique of limited value. The standard unit of color in water is that level produced by I mg/1 of platinum as chloroplatinate ion (Standard Methods 1971).85 Natural color in surface waters ranges from less than one color unit to more than 200 in highly colored bodies of water (Nordell 1961). 84 That light intensity at which oxygen production in photo- synthesis and oxygen consumption by respiration of the plants concerned are equal is known as the compensation point, and the depth at which the compensation point oc- curs is called the compensation depth. For a given body of water this depth varies with several conditions, including season, time of day, the extent of cloud cover, condition of the water, and the taxonomic composition of the flora in- volved. As commonly used, the compensation point refers to that intensity of light which is such that the plant's oxygen production during the day will be sufficient to balance the oxygen consumption during the whole 24-hour period (Welch 1952). 87 Recommendation The combined effect of color and turbidity should not change the compensation point more than 10 per cent from its seasonally established norm, nor should such a change place more than 10 per cent of the biomass of photosynthetic organisms below the compensation point. 130 I I~ ~- DISSOLVED GASES DISSOLVED OXYGEN Oxygen requirements of aquatic life have been extensively studied. Comprehensive papers have been presented by Doudoroff and Shumway (1967),89 Doudoroff and Warren (1965),91 Ellis (1937),93 and Fry (1960).94 (Much of the research on temperature requirements also considers oxygen, and references cited in the discussion of Heat and Temper- ature, p . .151, are relevant here.) The most comprehensive review yet to appear has been written by Doudoroff and Shumway for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (1970).90 This FAO report provides the most advanced summary of scientific research on oxygen needs of fish, and it has served as a basis for most of the recommendations presented in this discussion. In particular, it provided the criteria for citing different levels of protection for fish, for change from natural levels of oxygen concentration, and for the actual numerical values recommended. Much of the text below has been quoted V"erbatim or condensed from the FAO report. Its recommen- dations have been modified in only two ways: the insertion of a floor of 4 mg/1 as a minimum, and the suggestion that natural minima be assumed to be equal to saturation levels if the occurrence oflower minima cannot be definitely established. Doudoroff and Shumway covered oxygen con- [;entrations below the floor of 4 mg/1; however, the 4 mg/1 floor has been adopted in this report for reasons explained below. Levels of Protection Most species of adult fish can survive at very low concen- trations of dissolved oxygen. Even brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) have been acclimated in the laboratory to less than 2 mg/1 of 02. In natural waters, the minimum concen- tration that allows continued existence of a varied fish fauna, including valuable food and game species, is not high. This minimum is not above 4 mg/1 and may be much lower. However, in evaluating criteria, it is not important to know how long an animal can resist death by asphyxiation at low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Instead, data on the oxygen requirements for egg development, for newly hatched larvae, for normal growth and activity, and for completing all stages of the reproductive cycle are pertinent. Upon review of the available research, one fact becomes clear: any reduction of dissolved oxygen can reduce the efficiency of oxygen uptake by aquatic animals and hence reduce their ability to meet demands of their environment. There is evidently no concentration level or percentage of saturation to which the 0 2 content of natural waters can be reduced without causing or risking some adverse effects on the reproduction, growth, and consequently, the pro- duction of fishes inhabiting those waters. Accordingly, no single, arbitrary recommendation can be set for dissolved oxygen concentrations that will be favorable for all kinds of fish in all kinds of waters, or even one kind of fish in a single kind of water. Any reduction in oxygen may be harmful by affecting fish production and the potential yield of a fishery. The selection of a level of protection (Table III-3) is a socioeconomic decision, not a biological one. Once the level of protection is selected, appropriate scientific recom- mendations may be derived from the criteria presented in this discussion. Basis for Recommendations The decision to base the recommendations on 02 con- centration minima, and not on average concentrations, arises from various considerations. Deleterious effects on fish seem to depend more on extremes than on averages. For example, the growth of young fish is slowed markedly if the oxygen concentration falls to 3 mg/1 for part of the day, even if it rises as high as 18 mg/1 at other times. It could be an inaccurate and possibly controversial task to carry out the sets of measurements required to decide whether a criterion based on averages was being met. A daily fluctuation of 0 2 is to be expected where there is appreciable photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants. In such cases, the minimum 0 2 concentration will usually be found just before daybreak, and sampling should be done at that time. Sampling should also take into account the possible differences in depth or width of the water body. The guiding principle should be to sample the places where 131 -~-~--------------- 132/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife aquatic organisms actually live or the parts of the habitat where they should be able to live. Before recommendations are proposed, it is necessary to evaluate criteria for the natural, seasonal 02 minimum from which the recommendations can be derived. Natural levels are assumed to be the saturation levels, unless scien- tific data show that the natural levels were already low in the absence of man-made effects. Certain waters in regions of low human populations can still be adequately studied in their natural or pristine con- dition. In these cases the minimum 02 concentration at different seasons, temperatures, and stream discharge vol- umes can be determined by direct observation. Such ob- served conditions can also be useful in estimating seasonal minima in similar waters in similar geographical regions where natural levels can no longer be observed because of waste discharges or other man-made changes. In many populated regions, some or all of the streams and lakes have been altered. Direct determination of natural minima may no longer be possible. In these cases the assumption of year-round saturation with 02 is made in the absence of other evidence. Supersaturation of water with dissolved oxygen may occur as the result of photosynthesis by aquatic vegetation. There is some evidence that this may be deleterious to aquatic animals because of gas bubble disease (see Total Dissolved Gases, p. 135). Despite the statements in previous paragraphs that there is no single 0 2 concentration which isfavorable to all species· and ecosystems, it is obvious that there are, nevertheless, very low 0 2 concentrations that are unfavorable to almost all aquatic organisms. Therefore, a floor of 4 mg/1 is recommended except in situations where the natural level of dissolved oxygen is less than 4 mg/1 in which case no further depression is desirable. The value of 4 mg/1 has been selected because there is evidence of subacute or chronic damage to several fish below this concentration. Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)90 review the work of several authors as given below, illustrating such damage. Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) held at 4 mg/1 spawned satisfactorily; only 25 per cent of the resultant fry survived for 30 days, compared to 66 per cent survival at 5 mg/l. At an oxygen level of 3 mg/1, survival of fry was even further reduced to 5 per cent (Brungs 1972101 personal communication). Shumway et al. (1964)98 found that the dry weight of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) alevins (with yolk sac removed) was reduced by 59 per cent when they had been held at 3.8 mg/1 of oxygen, compared to weights of the control~>. The embryos of sturgeon (Acipenser) suffered complete mortality at oxygen concentrations of 3.0 to 3.5 mg/1, compared to only 18 per cent mortality at 5.0 to 5.5 mg/1 (Yurovitskii 1964).100 Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) embryos reared at 25 C showed sur- vival equal to controls only at oxygen levels above 3.5 mg/1 (Dudley 1969).92 Efficiency of food conversion by juvenile bass was nearly independent of 02 at 5 mg/1 and higher, but growth rate was reduced by 16.5 per cent at 4 mg/1, and 30 per cent at 3 mg/1 (Stewart et al. 1967).99 Similar reductions in growth of underyearling coho salmon oc- curred at the same 02 concentrations (Herrmann et al. 1962).95 Although many other experiments have shown little or no damage to performance of fish at 4 mg/1, or lower, the evidence given above shows appreciable effects on embryonic and juvenile survival and growth for several species of fish sufficient to justify this value. Warm-and Coldwater Fishes There are many associations and types of fish fauna throughout the country. Dissolved oxygen criteria for cold- water fishes and warmwater game fishes are considered together in this report. There is no evidence to suggest that the more sensitive warmwater species have lower 02 requirements than the more sensitive coldwater fishes. The difference in 0 2 requirements is probably not greater than the difference of the solubility of 02 in water at the maxi- mum temperatures to which these two kinds of fish are normally exposed in summer (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970).90 In warmwater regions, however, the variety of fishes and fish habitats is relatively great, and there are many warmwater species that are exceedingly tolerant of 02 deficiency. Unusual Waters There are certain types of waters that naturally have low oxygen content, such as the "black waters" draining swamps of the Southeastern United States. (Other examples include certain deep ocean waters and eutrophic waters that support heavy biomass, the respiration of which reduces 02 content much of the time.) A special situation prevails in the deep layers (hypolimnion) of some lakes. Such layers do not mix with the surface layers for extended periods and may have reduced 0 2, or almost none. Fish cannot live in the deep layers of many such lakes during a large part of the year, although each lake of this kind must be considered as a special case. However, the recommendation that no oxygen- consuming wastes should be released into the deep layers still applies, since there may be no opportunity for reaeration for an entire season. Organisms Other Than Fish Most research concerning oxygen requirements for fresh- water organisms deals, with fish; but since fish depend upon other aquatic species for food, it is necessary to consider the 0 2 requirements of these organisms. This Section makes the assumption that the 0 2 requirements of other compon- ents of the aquatic community are compatible with fish (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970).90 There are certain excep- tions where exceedingly important invertebrate organisms may be very sensitive to low 0 2, more sensitive than the fish species in that habitat (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970).90 ( s I ,, I I ~he situation is somewhat more complicated for inverte- 'rates and aquatic plants, inasmuch as organic pollution that auses reduction of 02 also directly increases food material. Iowever, it appears equally true for sensitive invertebrates .s for fish that any reduction of dissolved 0 2 may have de- ~terious effects on their production. For example, Nebeker 1972)97 has found that although a certain mayfly (Ephemera imulans) can survive at 4.0 mg/1 of oxygen for four days, ny reduction of oxygen below saturation causes a decrease 11 successful transformation of the immature to the adult tage. ;almonid Spawning For spawning of salmonid fishes during the season when ggs are in the gravel, there are even greater requirements :>r 0 2 than those given by the high level of protection. See Table III-3 for description of levels.) This is because he water associated with the gravel may contain less oxygen han the water in the stream above the gravel. There is 1bundant evidence that salmonid eggs are adversely affected n direct proportion to reduction in 02. The oxygen criteria or eggs should be about half way between the nearly naximum and high levels of protection. TABLE III-3-Guidelines for Selecting Desired Type and Level of Protection of Fish Against Deleterious Effects of Reduced Oxygen Concentrations Level of protection Intended type of protection Possible application early Maximum• For virtually unimpaired productivity and Appropriate for conservabon areas, parks, and ligh: ............. . loderate .......... . ow .............. .. unchanged quality of a fishery. water bodies of high or unique value. Re- quires, practically speaking; that little or no deoxygenating wastes be added to natural waters. Nor must there be any activities such as unfavorable land use which would Not likely to cause appreciable change in the ecosystem, nor material reduction of fish production. Some impairment is risked, but appreciable damage is not to be expected at these levels of oxygen. Fisheries should persist, usually with no serious impairment, but with some de· crease in production. Should permit the persistence of sizeable populations of tolerant species and suc- cessful passage of most migrants•. Much reduced production or elimination of sen· sitive fish is likely. reduce 02 levels. Could be appropriate for fisheries or aquatic ecosystems of some importance, which should not be impaired by other uses of water. Could be used for fisheries which are valued, but must co·exist with major industries or dense human population. Appropriate for fisheries that have some com- mercial or recreational value, but are so unimportant compared with other water uses, lhallheir maintenance cannot be a major objective of pollution control. This type of protection should however, pro- vide for survival of sensitive species in aduH or subadull life stages for.short periods during the year, if oxygen levels at other times are satisfactory for growth, reproduc- tion, etc. · Note that there could be a higher level of protection I hal would require oxygen to be near natural level at all times, lhlll'eas nearly maximum requires only thai oxygen should not fall below the lowest level characteristic of the season. • But will not protect migrating salmonids, which would require at least a Moderate level of protection, for zones or assage. Dissolved Gases/ 133 Interaction with Toxic Pollutants or Other Environmental Factors It is known that reduced oxygen levels increase the toxicity of pollutants. A method for predicting this inter- action has been given by Brown (1968),88 and a theoretical background by Lloyd (1961).96 The disposal of toxic pol- lutants must be controlled so that their concentrations will not be unduly harmful at prescribed acceptable levels of 02, temperature, and pH. The levels of oxygen recom- mended in this Section are independent of the presence of toxic wastes, no matter what the nature of the interaction between these toxicants and 02 deficiencies. Carbon dioxide is an exception, because its concentration influences the safe level of oxygen. The recommendations for 0 2 are valid when the C02 concentration is within the limits recommended in the section on C92· Application of Recommendations As previously stated, the recommendations herein differ in two important respects from those widely used. First, they are not fixed values independent of natural conditions. Second, they offer a choice of different levels of protection of fishes, the selection of any one of which is primarily a socioeconomic decision, not a biological one. Table III-4 presents guidelines for the protection of fishes at each of four levels. Each column shows the level to which the dissolved 0 2 can be reduced and still provide the stated level of protection for local fisheries. The values can be derived from the equations given in the recommen- dations. These equations have been calculated to fit the curves shown in the figure on page 264 of Doudoroff and Shumway (1970),90 which serve as the basis of the recom- mendations. To use Table III-4, the estimated natural seasonal minimum should first be determined on the basis of available data or from expert judgment. This may be taken to be the minimum saturation value for the season, unless there is scientific evidence that losses of 02 levels prevailed naturally. The word "season" here means a period based on local climatic and hydrologic conditions, during which the natural thermal and dissolved 02 regime of a stream or lake can be expected to be fairly uniform. Division of the year into equal three-month periods, such as December-February, March-May, is satisfactory. How- ever, under special conditions, the designated seasons could be periods longer or shorter than three months, and could in fact be taken as individual months. The selected periods need not be equal in length. When the lowest natural value for the season has been estimated, the desired kind and level of protection should then be selected according to the guidelines in Table III-3. The recommended minimum level of dissolved oxygen may then be found in the selected column of Table III-4, or as given by the formula in the recommendation. 134/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 111-4-Example of Recommended Minimum Concentrations of Dissolved Oxygen Estimated natural Recommended minimum concentrations of o. for seasonal minimum Corresponding temperature of selected levels of protection ·concentration of oxygen-saturated fresh water oxygen in water Nearly High Moderate Low maximal 5 (a) (a) 5 4.7 4.2 4.0 6 46C(a) (115F)(a) 6 5.6 4.8 4.0 7 36C (96.8F) 7 6.4 5.3 4.0 8 27. 5C (81. 5F) 8 7.1 5.8 4.3 9 21C (69.8F) 9 7.7 6.2 4.5 10 16C (60.8F) 10 8.2 6.5 4.6 12 7.7C (45.9F) 12 8.9 6.8 4.8 14 1.5C (34. 7F) 14 9.3 6.8 4.9 •Included to cover waters that are naturally somewhat deficient in o .. A saturation value of 5 mg/1 might be found in warm springs or very saline waters. A saturation value of 6 mg/1 would apply to warm sea water (32 C= 90 F). Note: The desired kind and level of protection of a given body of water should first be selected (across head of table). The estimated seasonal minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen under natural conditions should then be determined on the basis of available data, and located in the left hand column of the table. The recommended mini· mum concentration of oxygen for the season is then taken from the table. All values are in milligrams of o, per ter. Values for natural seasonal minima other than those listed are given by the formu Ia and qualifications in the section on recommendations. Examples • It is desired to give moderate protection to trout (Salvelinus fontinali"s) in a small stream during the summer. The maximum summer temperature is 20 C (68 F); the salt content of tne water is low and has negligible effect on the oxygen saturation value. The atmospheric pressure is 760 millimeters (mm) Hg. Oxygen saturation is therefore 9.2 mg/1. This is as- sumed to be the natural seasonal minimum in the absence of evidence of lower natural concentrations. Interpolating from Table III-4 or using the recom- mended formula, reveals a minimum permissible con- centration of oxygen during the summer of 6.2 mg/1. If a high level of protection had been selected, the recommendation would have been 7.8 mg/1. A low level of protection, providing little or no protection for trout but some for more tolerant fish, would require a recommendation of 4.5 mg/1. Other recommen- dations would be calculated in a similar way for other seasons. • It is decided to give moderate protection to large- mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) during the summer. Stream temperature reaches a maximum of 35 C (95 F) during summer, and lowest seasonal saturation value is accordingly 7.1 mg/1. The recommendation for minimum oxygen concentration is 5.4 mg/1. • For low protection of fish in summer in the same stream described above (for largemouth bass), the recommendation would be 4.0 mg/1, which is also the floor value recommended. • It is desired to protect marine fish in full-strength sea water (35 parts per thousand salinity) with a maxi- mum seasonal temperature of 16 C (61 F). The satu- ration value of 8 mg/1 is assumed to be the natural dis- solved oxygen minimum for the season. For a high level of protection, the recommendation is 7.1 mg/1, for a moderate level of protection it is 5.8 mg/1, and for a low level of protection it is 4.3 mg/1. . It should be stressed that the recommendations are the minimum values for any time during the same season. Recommendations (a) For nearly maximal protection of fish and other aquatic life, the minimum dissolved oxygen in any season (defined previously) should not be less than the estimated natural seasonal minimum concentration (defined previously) characteristic of that body of water for the same season. In esti- mating natural minima, it is assumed that waters are saturated, unless there is evidence that they were lower in the absence of man-made influences. (b) For a high level of protection of fish, the minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in any season should not be less than that given by the following formula in which M =the estimated natural seasonal minimum concentration char- acteristic of that body of water for the same season, as qualified in (a): Criterion*= 1.41M -0.0476M2 -1.11 (c) For a moderate level of protection of fish, the minimum dissolved oxygen concentration in any season should not be less than is given by the following formula with qualifications as in (b): Criterion*= l.OSM-0.0415M 2 -0.202 (d) For a low level of protection of fish, the minimum 02 in any season should not be less than given by the following formula with qualifications as in (b): Criterion*=0.674M-0.0264M2 +0.577 (e) A floor value of 4 mgfl is recommended except in those situations where the natural level of dis- solved oxygen is less than 4 mgfl, in which case no further depression is desirable. (f) For spawning grounds of salmonid fishes, higher 02 levels are required as given in the follow- ing formula with qualifications as in (b): Criterion*= 1.19M-0.0242M 2 -0.418 (g) In stratified eutrophic and dystrophic lakes, the dissolved oxygen requirements may not apply to the hypolimnion and such lakes should be con- sidered on a case by case basis. In other stratified lakes, recommendations (a), (b), (c), and (d) apply; and if the oxygen is below 4 mgfl, recommendation (e) applies. In unstratified lakes recommendations apply to the entire circulating water mass. (i) All the foregoing recommendations apply to all waters except waters designated as mixing zones * All values are instantaneous, and final value should be expressed to two significant figures. ~-- (see section on Mixing Zones p. 112). In locations where supersaturation occurs, the increased levels of oxygen should conform to the recommendations in the discussion of Total Dissolved Gases, p. 139. TOTAL DISSOLVED GASES (SUPERSATURATION) Excessive total dissolved gas pressure (supersaturation) is a relatively new aspect of water quality. Previously, super- saturation was believed to be a problem that was limited to the water supplies of fish culture facilities (Shelford and Allee 1913).135 Lindroth (1957)126 reported that spillways at hydroelectric dams in Sweden caused supersaturation, and recently Ebel (1969)112 and Beiningen and Ebel (1968)103 established that spillways at dams caused gas bubble disease to be a limiting factor for aquatic life in the Columbia and Snake Rivers. Renfro (1963)133 and others reported that excessive algal blooms have caused gas bubble disease in lentic water. DeMont and Miller (in press)110 and Malous et al. (1972)127 reported gas bubble disease among fish and mollusks living in the heated effluents of steam generating stations. Therefore, modified dissolved gas pressures as a result of dams, eutrophication, and thermal discharges present a widespread potential for adversely affecting fish and aquatic invertebrates. Gas bubble disease has been studied frequently since Gorham (1898,119 1899120) pub- lished his initial papers, with the result that general knowl- edge of the causes, consequences, and adverse levels are adequate to evaluate criteria for this water quality char- acteristic. Gas bubble disease is caused by excessive total dissolved gas pressure but it is not caused by the dissolved nitrogen gas alone (Marsh and Gorham 1904,128 Shelford and Allee 1913,136 Englehorn 1943,116 Harvey et al. 1944a, 121 Doudoroff 1957,111 Harvey and Cooper 1962).123 Englehorn (1943)116 analyzed the gases contained in the bubbles that were formed in fish suffering from gas bubble disease and found that their gas composition was essentially identical to air. This was confirmed by Shirahata (1966).136 Etiologic Factors Gas bubble disease (GBD) results when the uncompen- sated total gas pressure is greater in the water than in the air, but several important factors influence the etiology of GBD. These factors include: exposure time and physical factors such as hydrostatic pressure; other compensating forces and biological factors such as species or life stage tolerance or levels of activity; and any other factors that influence gas solubility. Of these factors perhaps none are more commonly misunderstood than the physical roles of total dissolved gas pressure* and hydrostatic pressure. The following discussion is intended to clarify these roles. * In this Section gas tension will be called gas pressure and tGtal gas tension will be called total dissolved gas pressure (TDGP). This is being done as a descriptive aid to readers who are not familiar with the terminology and yet need to convey these principles to laymen. Dissolved Gases/ 135 Each component gas in a~r exerts a measurable pressure, and the sum of these pressures constitutes atmospheric or barometric pressure, which is equivalent per unit of surface area at standard conditions to a pressure exerted by a column of mercury 760mm high or a column of water about 10 meters high (at sea level, excluding water vapor pressure). The pressure of an individual gas in air is called a partial pressure, and in water it is called a tension; both terms are an acknowledgement that the pressure of an indi- vidual gas is only part of. the total atmospheric pressure. Likewise, each component gas will dissolve in water inde- pendently of all other gases, and when at equilibrium with the air, the pressure (tension) of a specific dissolved gas is equivalent to its partial pressure in the air. This relationship is evident in Table III-5 which lists the main constituents of dry air and their approximate partial pressures at sea level. When supersaturation occurs, the diffusion pressure im- balance between the dissolved gas phase and the atmos- pheric phase favors a net transfer of gases from the water to the air. Generally this transfer cannot be accomplished fast enough by diffusion alone to prevent the formation of gas bubbles. However, a gas bubble cannot form in the water unless gas nuclei are present (Evans and Walder 1969,116 Harvey et al. 1944b122) and unless the total dissolved gas pressure exceeds the sum of the compensating pressures such as hydrostatic pressure. Additional compensating pressures include blood pressure and viscosity, and their benefits may be significant. Gas nuclei are probably unavoidable in surface water or in animals, because such nuclei are generated by any factor which decreases gas solubility, and because extreme measures are required to dissolve gas nuclei (Evans and Walder 1969;116 Harvey et al. 1944b).122 Therefore, hydro- static pressure is a major preventive factor in gas bubble disease. The effect of hydrostatic pressure is to oppose gas bubble formation. For example, one cannot blow a bubble out of a tube immersed in water until the gas pressure in the tube slightly exceeds the hydrostatic pressure at the end of the tube. Likewise a bubble cannot form in water, blood, or TABLE Ill-S-Composition of Dry Air and Partial Pressures of Selected Gases at Sea Level Gas N2 ......... .. o, .......... . Ar ••.•..•.... co, ......... . Ne .....•..•.. He ......... .. Molecular• percentage in dry air 78.084 20.946 0.934 0.033 0.00181 0.00052 • Glueckaul (1951118), Times atmospheric pressure X760 mm Hg " b At standard conditions excluding corrections lor water vapor preuure. Individual gasb pressure in air or water at sea level =593.438 mm Hg 159.189 " 7.098 " 0.250 " 0.0138 " 0.0039 " 759.9927 mm Hg 136/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife tissue until the total gas pressure therein exceeds the sum of atmospheric pressure (760mm Hg) plus hydrostatic pressure plus any other restraining forces. This n!lationship is illustrated in Figure III-1 which shows, for example, that gas bubbles could form in fresh water to a depth of about one meter when the total dissolved gas pressure is equal to 1.10 atmospheres; but they could not form below that point. Excessive total dissolved gas pressure relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, therefore, represents a greater threat to aquatic organisms in the shallow but importantly pro- ductive littoral zone than in the deeper sublittoral zone. For example, if fish or their food organisms remain within a meter of the surface in water having a total dissolved gas pressure of 1.10 atmospheres, they are theoretically capable of developing gas bubble disease, especially if their body processes further decrease gas solubility by such means as physical activity, metabolic heat, increased osmolarity, or decreased blood pressure. Hydrostatic pressure only opposes bubble formation; it does :o.ot decrease the kinetic energy of dissolved gas mole- cules except at extreme pressures. If this were not the case, aerobic animal life would be eliminated at or below a water depth equivalent to the pressure of oxygen, because there would be no oxygen pressure to drive 02 across the gill membrane and thence into the blood. For a more detailed discussion of this subject, the reader is referred to Van Liere and Stickney's (1963)138 and Randall's (1970a)131 excellent reviews. 5 4 2 1.00 Gas Bubbles Cannot Form 1.10 1.20 Hydrostatic Pressure Compensation Point Gas Bubbles May Form 1.30 1.40 Total Dissolved Gas Pressure in Atmospheres !.50 FIGURE 111-1-Relationshippj Total Dissolved Gas Pressure to Hydrostatic Pressure in Preventing Gas Bubble Formation A final example will clarify the importance of total dis- solved gas pressure. Eutrophic lakes often become super- saturated with photosynthetic dissolved oxygen, and such lakes commonly approach (or exceed) 120 per cent of saturation values for oxygen. But this only represents an additional dissolved gas pressure of about 32mm Hg (02= 159.19 mm HgX0.2=31.83 mm Hg) which equals: 760 mm Hg+ 31.83 mm Hg -----=------.-..:::= 1.041 atmospheres of total 760 mm Hg dissolved gas pressure This imbalance apparently can be compensated in part by metabolic oxygen consumption, blood pressure, or both. On the other hand, a 1,000-fold increase in the neon saturation level would only increase the total dissolved gas pressure by about 1.8 mm Hg or: 1.8 mm Hg+ 760 mm Hg 760 mm Hg 1.002 atmospheres This would not cause gas bubble disease. The opposite situation can occur in spring water, where dissolved oxygen pressure is low and dissolved nitrogen and other gas pressures are high. In an actual case (Schneider personal communication),l 44 dissolved nitrogen was reported to be 124 per cent of its air saturation value, whereas oxygen was 46 per cent of its air saturation value; total gas pressure was 1.046 of dry atmospheric pressure. Fish were living in this water, and although they probably suffered from hypoxia, they showed no symptoms of gas bubble disease. How dissolved gases come out of solution and form bubbles (cavitate) is a basic physical and physiological topic which is only summarized here. Harvey et al. ( 1944b )122 determined that bubble formation is promoted by boundary zone or surface interfaces which reduce surface tension and thereby decrease the dissolved gas pressure required for cavitation. For this reason, one usually sees gas bubbles forming first and growing fastest on submersed interfaces, such as tank walls, sticks, or the external surfaces of aquatic life. Gas nuclei are apparently required for bubble formation, and these are considered to be ultra micro bubbles (Evans and Walder l969).U 6 These nuclei apparently represent an equilibrium between the extremely high compressive energy of surface tension and the pressure of contained gases. Lack of gas nuclei probably accounts for instances when extremely high but uncompensated dissolved gas pressures failed to cause bubble formation (Pease and Blinks 1947,130 Hem- mingsen 1970).124 Gas nuclei are produced by anything that decreases gas solubility or surface tension (Harvey et al. 1944b,l22 Hills 1967,125 Evans and Walder 1969)116 and they can be eliminated at least temporarily by extremely high pressure which drives them back into solution (Evans and Walder 1969).U6 Possible causes of gas nuclei formation in organisms in- clude negative pressures in skeletal or cardiac muscle during r ' ' ,, 1 i pronounced aCtivity (Whitaker et al. 1945),1 41 eddy currents in the blood vascular system, synthetic or biologically pro- duced surface-active compounds, and possible salting-out effects during hemoconcentration (as -in saltwater adap- tation). Once a bubble has formed, it grows via the diffusion of all gases into it. Many factors influence the incidence and severity of gas bubble. disease. For example, the fat content of an animal may influence its susceptibility. This has not been studied in fish, but Boycott and Damant (1908),106 Behnke (1942),1°2 and Gersh et al. (1944) 117 report that · fat mammals -are more susceptible than lean mammals to the "bends" in high-altitude decompression. This may be particularly sig- nificant to non-feeding adult Pacific salmon which begin their spawning run with considerable stored fat. This may also account in part for differences in the tolerances of different ,age groups or fish species. Susceptibility to gas bubble disease is unpredictable among wild fish, particularly when they are free to change their water depth and level of activity. Gas Bubble Disease Syndrome and Effects Although the literature documents many occurrences of gas bubble disease, data are usually missing for several important physical factors, such as hydrostatic pressure, barometric pressure, relative humidity, salinity, temper- ature, or other factors leading to calculation of total dis- solved gas pressure. The most frequently reported parameter has been the calculated dissolved nitrogen (N2) concen- tration or its percentage saturation from which one can estimate the pressure of inert gases. Thus the reported N2 values provide only a general indication of the total dis- solved gas pressure, which unfortunately tends to convey the erroneous concept that N2 is the instigative or only sig- nificant factor in gas bubble disease. Gas bubbles probably form first on the external surfaces of aquatic life, where total hydrostatic pressure is least and where an interface exists. Bubbles within the body of ani- mals probably form later at low dissolved gas pressures, because blood pressure and other factors may provide ad- ditional resistance to bubble formation. However, at high dissolved gas pressure (> 1.25 atm) bubbles in the blood may be the first recognizable symptom (Schneider personal communication).144 In the case of larval fishes, zooplankton, or other small forms of aquatic life, the effect of external bubbles may be a blockage of the flow of water across the gills and asphyxiation or a change in buoyancy (Shirahata 1966).136 The latter probably causes additional energy expenditure or floatation, causing potentially lethal exposure to -ultraviolet radiation or potential predation. The direct internal effects of gas bubble disease include a variety ·Of symptoms that appear to be related primarily to the level of total dissolved gas pressure, the exposure time, ·and the zn vivo location of lowest compensatory pressure. Dissolved Gases/137 The following is a resume of Shirahata's (1966)136 results. As the uncompensated total dissolved gas pressure increases, bubbles begin to appear on the fish, then within the skin, the roof of the mouth, within the fins, or within the ab- dominal cavity. Gas pockets may also form behind the eye- ball and cause an exophthalmic "pop-eyed" condition. Probably gas emboli in the blood are the last primary symptoms to develop, because blood pressure and plasma viscosity oppose bubble formation. At some as yet undefined point, gas emboli become sufficiently large and frequent to cause ·hemostasis in blood vessels, which in turn may cause extensive tissue damage or complete hemostasis by filling the heart chamber with gas. The latter is the usual direct cause of death. Exophthalmus or "pop-eye" and eye damage can be caused by several factors other than gas bubble disease and one should be duly cautious when tempted to diagnose gas bubble disease based solely on these criteria. While the above symptoms can be caused ·by excessive dissolved gas pressure (Westgard 1964),140 they can also be caused by malnutrition, abrasion, and possibly by infection. Unfortu- nately there is no known definitive way to distinguish be- tween latent eye damage caused by previous exposure to excessive dissolved gas pressure and other causes. Secondary, latent, or sublethal effects of gas bubble disease in fish include promoting other diseases, necrosis, or other tissue changes, hemorrhages, blindness, and repro- ductive failure (Harvey and Cooper 1962,123 Westgard 1964,140 Pauley and Nakatani 1967,129 and Bouck et al. 1971).1°5 There is no known evidence that supersaturation causes a nitrogen narcosis in fish (such as can be experienced by scuba divers), as thisrequires high dissolved gas pressures probably above lO.atm. However, one can expect that fish afflicted with gas bubble disease or the above secondary effects might have their normal behavior altered. There is no definitive evidence that fishes can detect supersaturation (Shelford and Allee 1913),135 or that they actively avo.id it by seeking hydrostatic pressure compen- sation (Ebel 1969).112 However, the potential capacity to avoid supersaturation or to compensate by sounding is limited among anadromous species by the necessity of ascending their home river and by dams with relatively shallow fish ladders. This may also apply to other species that reproduce in or otherwise live in shallow-water niches. Physiological adaptation to supersaturation seems unlikely, and this contention is supported by the preliminary studies of Coutant and Genoway (1968).109 Interaction between gas bubble disease and other stresses is highly likely but not clearly established. Fish were more susceptible to a given level of total dissolved gas pressure when wounded (Egusa 1955) .114 The thermal tolerance of Pacific salmon was reduced when N 2 levels were 125 to 180 per cent in the case of juveniles (Ebe1 et al. 1971), 113 and when N 2levels were > 118 per cent in the case of adults (Coutant and Genoway 1968).109 Chemicals or other factors 138/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife that influence body activity or cardiovascular activity may also influence blood pressure (Randall 1970b),!,32 and this would be expected to influence the degree to which the dis- solved gas pressure is in excess, and hence the tolerance to gas bubble disease. Variation in biological response is a prominent aspect of gas bubble disease, which should not be surprising in view of the numerous influential factors. Some of this variation might be explained by physiological differences between life stages or species, degree of fatness, blood pressure, blood viscosity, metabolic heat, body size, muscular ac- tivity, and blood osmolarity. For example, susceptibility to gas bubble disease may be inversely related to blood (or hemolymph) pressure. There is wide variation in blood pressure between life stages, between fish species, and be- tween invertebrate species. Based on aortic blood pressures aione, one can hypothesize that largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) might be more susceptible to gas bubble disease than chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) if other fac- tors are equal. This contention is also supported by the observations that gas bubbles form in the blood of bullfrogs more easily than in rats (Berg et al. 1945),104 possibly because of differences in blood pressure (Brand et al. 1951 ).107 Tolerance to supersaturation also varies between body sizes or life stages; Shirahata (1966)136 relates this, in part, to an increase in cardiac and skeletal muscle activity. Larger fish were generally more sensitive to supersaturation than were smaller fish in most studies (Wiebe and McGavock 1932,1 42 Egusa 1955,114 Shirahata 1966,136 Harvey and Cooper 1962).123 Wood (1968)143 has the opposite view, but he provides no supporting evidence. Possibly larger fish are more susceptible to gas bubble disease in part because they can develop greater metabolic heat than smaller fish. In this regard, Carey and Teal (1969)108 reported that large tuna may have a muscle temperature as much as 10 C above the water temperature. Data are quite limited on the tolerance of zooplankters and other aquatic invertebrates to excessive dissolved gas pressure. Evans and Walder (1969)116 demonstrated that invertebrates can develop gas bubble disease. Unpublished observations by Nebeker* demonstrate that Daphnia sp. and Gammarus sp. are susceptible to gas bubble disease. On the other hand, it is widely known that some aquatic inverte- brates are capable of diel migrations that may expose them to a considerable change in dissolved gas pressure; but apparently these organisms can tolerate or otherwise handle such changes. In view of the paucity of data, nothing firm can be said regarding the general tolerance of invertebrates to supersaturation. *A. V. Nebeker, Western Fish Toxicology Station, U.S. Environ- mental Protection Agency, 200 S. W. 35th Street, Corvallis, Oregon, 97330. Analytical Considerations The apparatus and method of Van Slyke et al. (1934)139 are still the standard analytical tools for most gas analyses. Scholander et al. (1955)134 and others have developed similar methods with modifications to accomodate their special needs. More recently, Swinnerton et al. (1962)137 published a gas analysis method that utilizes gas-liquid chromatog- raphy. However, both of these basic methods have draw- backs, because they either require special expertise or do not otherwise meet the field needs of limnologists and fisheries or pollution biologists. A new device by Weiss* measures the differential gas pressure between the air and the water within fifteen minutes. This portable device is simple to operate, easy and inexpensive to build, and gives direct readings in rom Hg. Unpublished data by Weiss show that this instrument has an accuracy comparable to the Van Slyke and the chro- matographic procedures. The instrument consists of a gas sensor (ISO ft. coil of small diameter, thin-walled, silicone rubber tube) connected to a mercury manometer. The sensor is placed underwater where the air in the tubing equilibrates with the dissolved gases in the water. The resulting gas pressure is read directly via the mercury manometer which gives a positive value for supersaturated water and a negative value for water that is not fully saturated. Total Dissolved Gas Pressure Criteria Safe upper limits for dissolved gases must be based on the total dissolved gas pressures (sum of all gas tensions) and not solely on the saturation value of dissolved nitrogen gas alone. Furthermore, such limits must provide for the safety of aquatic organisms that inhabit or frequent the shallow littoral zone, where an existing supersaturation could be worsened by heating, photosynthetic oxygen production, or other factors. There is little information on the chronic sublethal effects of gas bubble disease and almost all the research has been limited to species of the family Salmonidae. Likewise, gas tolerance data are unavailable for zooplankters and most other aquatic invertebrates. Therefore, it is neces- sary to judge safe limits from data on mortality of selected salmonid fishes that were held under conditions approxi- mating the shallow water of a hypothetical littoral zone. These data are: I. Shirahata (1966)136 reported that advanced fry of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) experienced 10 per cent mortality when N 2 was about 111 per cent of its saturation value. He concludes that, " ... the nitrogen contents which did not cause any gas disease were ... less than 110 per cent to the more advanced fry." *Dr. Ray Weiss, University of California, Scripps, Institute of Oceanography, Geological Research Division, P. 0. Box 109, LaJolla, California 9203 7. ! \ r .I I I L_ 2. Harvey and Cooper (1962)123 reported that fry of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) suffered latent effects (necrosis and hemorrhages) for some time after normal gas levels were said to have been restored. 3. Coutant and Genoway (1968)109 reported that sexu- ally precocious spring chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawyt- scha) weighing 2 to 4 kg, experienced extensive mortality in six days when exposed at or above 118 per cent of N2 sawration; these salmon experienced no mortality when N 2 was below 110 per cent of saturation. Whether or not other species or life stages of aquatic life may be more or less sensitive than the above salmonids remains to be proven. In the meantime, the above refer- ences provide the main basis for establishing the following total dissolved gas recommendations. Recommendations Available data for salmonid fish suggest that aquatic life will be protected only when total dis- solved gas pressure in water is no greater than 110 per cent of the existing atmospheric pressure. Any prolonged artificial increase in total dissolved gas pressure should be avoided in view of the incom- plete body of information. CARBON DIOXIDE Carbon dioxide exists in two major forms in water. It may enter into the bicarbonate buffering system at various concentrations depending on the pH of the water. In ad- dition, "free" carbon dioxide may also exist, and this com- ponent affects the respiration of fish (Fry 1957).151 Because of respiratory effects, free carbon dioxide is the form con- sidered most significant to aquatic life. The concentration of free carbon dioxide, where oxygen- demanding wastes are not excessive, is a function of pH, temperature, alkalinity, and the atmospheric pressure of carbon dioxide. Doudoroff (1957)147 reported that concen- trations of free carbon dioxide above 20 mg/1 occur rarely, even in polluted waters; and Ellis (1937)150 found that the free carbon dioxide content of Atlantic Coast streams ranged between zero and 12 mg/1. Ellis (1937)150 and Hart (1944)152 both reported that in 90 to 95 per cent of the fresh waters in the United States that support a good and diverse fish population the free carbon dioxide concentrations fall below 5 mg/1. An excess of free carbon dioxide may have adverse effects on aquatic life. Powers and Clark (1943)156 and Warren Dissolved Gases/139 (1971)157 reported that fish are-able to detect and to respond to slight gradients in carbon dioxide tension. Brinley (1943)146 and Hoglund (1961)154 observed that fish may avoid free carbon dioxide levels as low as 1.0 to 6.0 mg/1. Elevated carbon dioxide concentrations may interfere with the ability of fish to respire properly and may thus affect dissolved oxygen uptake. Doudoroff and Katz (1950)148 and Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 reported that where dissolved oxygen uptake interference does occur, the free carbon dioxide concentrations which appreciably affect this are higher than those found in polluted waters. In bioassay tests using ten species of warmwater fish, Hart (1944)152 found that the gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) was the most sensitive and was unable to remove oxygen from water 50 per cent saturated with dissolved oxygen in the presence of 88 mg/1 of free carbon dioxide. The less sensitive, largemou~h bass (Micropterus salmoides) was unable to extract oxygen when the carbon dioxide level reached 175 mg/1. Below 60 mg/1 of free carbon dioxide, most species of fish had little trouble in extracting dissolved oxygen from the water. High concentrations of free carbon dioxide cause pro- nounced increases in the minimum dissolved oxygen require- ment of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), but these fish acclimatized rapidly , to carbon dioxide concentrations as high as 175 mg/1 at 20 C when the dissolved oxygen level was near saturation (McNeil 1956).155 Basu (1959)1 45 found that for most fish species, carbon dioxide affected the fishes' ability to consume oxygen in a predictable manner. He further indicated that temperature affected carbon dioxide sensitivity, being less at higher water temperatures. The ability of fish to acclimatize to increases in carbon dioxide concentrations as high as 60 mg/1 with little effect has been indicated by Haskell and Davies (1958).153 Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)149 indicate that the ability of fish to detect low free carbon dioxide concentrations, the presence of low carbon dioxide levels in most waters, and the ability of fish to acclimatize to carbon dioxide in the water probably prevent this constituent from becoming a major hazard. Recommendation Concentrations of free carbon dioxide above 20 mgjl occur rarely. Fish acclimatize to increases in carbon dioxide levels as high as 60 mgfl with little effect. However, fish are able to detect and respond to slight gradients ~nd many avoid free carbon dioxide levels as low as 1.0 to 6.0 mgjl. ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND pH NATURAL CONDITIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE Acidity in natural waters is caused by carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and the salts of strong acids and weak bases. The alkalinity of a water is actually a measure of the capacity of the carbonate- bicarbonate system to buffer the water against change in pH. Technical information on alkalinity has recently been reviewed by Kemp (1971))62 An index of the hydrogen ion activity is pH. Even though pH determinations are used as an indication of acidity or alkalinity or both, pH is not a measure of either. There is a relationship between pH, acidity, and alkalinity (Standard Methods 1971) :164 water with a pH of 4.5 or lower has no measurable alkalinity, and water with a pH of 8.3 or higher has no measurable acidity. In natural water, where the pH may often be in the vicinity of 8.3, acidity is not a factor of concern. In most productive fresh waters, the pH falls in a range between 6.5 and 8.5 (except when increased by photosynthetic activity). Some regions have soft waters with poor buffering capacity and naturally low pH. They tend to be less productive. Such conditions are found especially in dark colored waters draining from coniferous forests or muskegs, and in swampy sections of the Southeast. For a variety of reasons, some waters may exhibit quite extreme pH values. Before these are considered natural conditions, it should be ascertained that. they have not actually resulted from man-made changes, such as.· stripping of ground cover or old mining activities. This is important because the recommendations .refer to estimated natural levels. TOXICITY TO AQUATIC LIFE Some aquatic organisms, especially algae, have been found to live at pH 2 and lower, and others at pH 10 and higher; however, such organisms are relatively few. Some natural waters with a pH of 4 support healthy populations of fish and other organisms. In· these cases the acidity is due primarily to carbon dioxide and natural organic acids, and the water has little buffering capacity. Other natural waters with a pH of 9.5 also support fish but are not usually highly productive. The effects of pH on aquatic life have been reviewed in detail in excellent reports by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (1969)160 and Katz (1969).161 In- . terpretations and summaries of these reviews are given in Tableiii-6. ADVERSE INDIRECT EFFECTS OR SIDE EFFECTS Addition of either acids or alkalies to water may be harmful not only by producing acid or alkaline conditions, but also by increasing the toxicity of various components in the waters. For example, acidification of water may release free carbon dioxide. This exerts a toxic action ad- ditional to that of the lower pH. Recommendations for pH are valid if carbon dioxide is less than 25 mg/1 (see the discussion ofCarbon Dioxide, p. 139). A reduction of-about 1.5 pH units can cause a thousand- fold increase in the acute toxicity of a metallocyanide . complex (Doudoroff et al. 1966).1 59 The addition of strong alkalies may cause the formation of undissociated NH40H or un-ionized NH3 in quantities that may be toxic (Lloyd 1961,1 63 Burrows 1964).158 Many other pollutants may change their toxicity to a lesser extent. It is difficult to predict whether toxicity will increase or decrease for a .. given direction of change in pH. Weakly dissociated acids and bases must be considered in terms of their toxicities, as well as· their effects on pH and alkalinity. The availability of many nutrient substances varies with the hydrogen ion concentration. Some trace metals become more soluble at low pH. ·At higher pH values, iron tends to become unavailable to some plants, and hence the pro- duction of the whole aquatic community may be affected. The major buffering system. in natural· waters is the carbonate system that not only neutralizes acids and bases to reduce the fluctuations in. pH, but also forms a reservoir of carbon for photosynthesis. This process is indispensable, because there is a limit on the rate at which carbon dioxide can be obtained from the atmosphere to replace that in the water. Tnus the productivity of waters is closely correlated · · to .the carbonate buffering system. The addition of.mineral' acids preempts·the'·c~rbonate buffering capacity, and thee· 140 TABLE 111-6-A Summary of Some Effects of pH on Freshwater Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms pH Known effects 11.5-12.0.... Some caddis flies (Trichoptera) survive but emergence reduced. 11.D-11.5. .. . Rapidly lethallo all species of fish. 10.5-11.0.... Rapidly lethal to salmonlds. The upper limit is lethal to carp (Cyprinus carpio), goldfish (Carassius auratus), and pike. Lethal to some stoneflies (Piecoptera) and dragonflies (Odonala). Caddis fly emergence reduced. 10.Q-10.5 .... Withstood by salmonids for short periods but eventually lethal. Exceeds tolerance of bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) and probably goldfish. Some typical stoneflies and mayflies (Ephemera) survive with reduced emergence. 9.5-10.0.... Lethal to salmonids over a prolonged period of time and no viable fishery for coldwater species. Reduces populations of warmwater fish and may be harmful to development slages. Causes reduced emergence of some stoneflies. 9.D-9.5. .... Likely to be harmful to salmonids and perch (Perea) if presentfor a considerable length of time and no viable fishery for coldwater species. Reduced populations of warmwater fish. Carp avoid these levels. 8.5-9.0..... Approaches tolerance limit of some salmon ids, whitefish (Coregonus), catfish (lclaluridae), and perch. Avoided by goldfish. No apparent effecls on invertebrates. 8. o-s. 5. . . . . Motility of carp sperm reduced. Partial mortality of burbot (Lola lola) eggs. 7.D-8.0.... Full fish production. No known harmful effects on adult or immature fish, but 7.0 is near low limit for Gammarus reproduction and perhaps for some other cruslaceans. 6. 5-7.0..... Not lethal to fish unless h~avy melats or cyanides that are more toxic at low pH are present. Generally full fish production, but for fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), frequency of spawning and number of eggs are somewhat reduced. Invertebrates except crustaceans relatively normal, including common occurrence of mollusks. Microorganisms, algae, and higher plants essentially normal. &.o-6.5. . . . . Unlikely to be toxic to fish unless free carbon dioxide is present in excess of 100 ppm. Good aquatic populations with varied species can exist with some exceptions. Reproduction of Gammarus and Daphnia prevented, perhaps other crustaceans. Aquatic plants and microorganisms relatively normal except fungi frequent. 5.5-6.0..... Eastern brook trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) survive at over pH 5.5. Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) do not occur. In natural situations, small populations of relatively few species of fish can be found. Growth rate of carp reduced. Spawning offathead minnow significantly reduced. Mollusks rare. 5.Q-5.5..... Very restricted fish populations but not lethal to any fish species unless co, is high (over 25 ppm), or water conlains iron salts. May be lethal to eggs and larvae of sensitive fish species. Prevents spawning of fathead minnow. Benthic invertebrates moderately diverse, with certain black flies (Simuliidae), mayflies(Ephemerella), stoneflies,and midges (Chironomidae) present in numbers. Lethal to other invertebrates such as the mayfly. Bacterial species diversity decreased; yeasts and sulfur and iron bacteria (Thiobacillus-Ferrobacillus) common. Algae reasonably diverse and higher plants will grow. 4.5-5.0..... No viable fishery can be maintained. Likely to be lethal to eggs and fry of salmonids. A salmonid population could not reproduce. Harmful, but not necessarily lethal to carp. Adult brown trout (Salmo trutla) can survive in peat waters. Benthic fauna restricted, mayflies reduced. Lethal to several typical stoneflies. lnhibils emergence of certain caddis fly, stonefly, and midge larvae. Diatoms are dominant algae. 4.D-4.5. ... . Fish populations limited; only a few species survive. Perch, some coarse fish, and pike can accli- mate to this pH, but only pike reproduce. Lethaltofathead minnow. Some caddis fliesand dragon- flies found in such habilats; cerlain midges dominant. Flora restricted. 3.5-4.0. .... Lethal to salmonids and bluegills. Limit of tolerance of pumkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), perch, pike, and some coarse fish. All flora and fauna severely restricted in number of species. Catlail (Typha) is only common higher plant. 3.D-3.5..... Unlikely that any fish can survive for more than a few hours. A few kinds of invertebrates such as certain midges and alderflies, and a few species of algae may be found alibis pH range and lower original biological productivity is reduced in proportion to the degree that such capacity is exhausted. Therefore, the minimum essential buffering capacity and tolerable pH limits are important water quality considerations. Because of this importance, there should be no serious depletion of the carbonate buffering capacity, and it is recommended that reduction of alkalinity of natural waters should not exceed 25 per cent. Acidity, Alkalinity, and pH/141 Recommendations Suggested maximum and mmtmum levels of protection for aquatic life are given in the following recommendations. A single range of values could not apply to all kinds of fish, nor could it cover the different degrees of graded effects. The selection of the level of protection is a socioeconomic decision, not a biological one. The levels are defined in Table 111-3 (see the discussion of Dissolved Oxygen). Nearly Maximum Level of Protection • pH not less than 6.5 nor more than 8.5. No change greater than 0.5 units above the esti- mated natural seasonal maximum, nor be- low the estimated natural seasonal mini- mum. High Level of Protection • pH not less than 6.0 nor more than 9.0. No change greater than 0.5 units outside the estimated natural seasonal maximum and minimum. Moderate Level of Protection • pH not less than 6.0 nor more than 9.0. No change greater than 1.0 units outside the estimated natural seasonal maximum and minimum. Low Level of Protection • pH not less than 5.5 nor more than 9.5. No change greater than 1.5 units outside the estimated natural seasonal maximum and minimum. Additional Requirements for All Levels of Protection • If a natural pH is outside the stated range of pH for a given level of protection, no further change is desirable. • The extreme range of pH fluctuation in any location should not be greater than 2.0 units. If natural fluctuation exceeds this, pH should not be altered. • The natural daily and seasonal patterns of pH variation should be maintained, although the absolute values may be altered within the limits specified. • The total alkalinity of water is not to be de- creased more than 25 per cent below the natural level. DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND HARDNESS Surface water at some time and place may contain a trace or more of any water-soluble substance. The signifi- cance and the effects of small concentrations of these sub- stances are discussed separately throughout this Report. The presence and relative abundance of these constituents in water is influenced by several factors, including surface runoff, geochemistry of the watershed, atmospheric fallout including snow and rainfall, man-created effluents, and biological and chemical processes in the water itself. Many of these dissolved materials are essential to th~ life processes of aquatic organisms. For a general discussion of the chem- istry of fresh water the reader is referred to Hutchinson (1957)167 and Ruttner (1963).172 A general term describing the concentration of dissolved materials in water is total dissolved solids. The more con- spicuous constituents of total dissolved solids in natural surface waters include carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, phos- phates, and nitrates. These anions occur in combination with such metallic cations as calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and iron to form ionizable salts (Reid 1961).170 Concentrations and relative proportions of dissolved ma- terials vary widely with locality and time. Hart et al. (1945)166 reported that in the inland waters of the United States which support a mixed biota, 5 per cent have a dis- solved solids concentration under 72 mg/1; about 50 per cent under 169 mg/1; and 95 per cent under 400 mg/1. Table III-7 provides information on ranges and median concentrations of the major ions in United States streams. The quantity and quality of dissolved solids are major factors in determining the variety and abundance of plants and animals in an aquatic system. They serve as nutrients in productivity, osmotic stress, and direct toxicity. A major change in quantity or composition of total dissolved solids changes the structure and function of aquatic ecosystems. Such changes are difficult to predict. Concentrations of dissolved solids affecting freshwater fish by osmotic stress are not well known. Mace (1953)169 and Rounsefell and Everhart (1953)171 reported that the upper limit may range between 5,000 and 10,000 mg/1 total dissolved solids, depending on species and prior acclimati- zation. The literature indicates that concentrations of tota1 dissolved solids that cause osmotic stress in adult fish are higher than the concentrations existing in most fresh waters of the United States. Many dissolved materials are toxic at concentrations lower than those where osmotic effect can be expected. (See Toxic Substances, p. 172, and Acidity, Alkalinity, and pH, p. 140.) Hardness of surface waters is a component of total dis- solved solids and is chiefly attributable to calcium and magnesium ions. Other ions such as strontium, barium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, and lead add to hardness, but since they are normally present in minor concentrations their effect is usually minimal. Generally, the biological productivity of a water is directly correlated with its hard- ness. However, while calcium and magnesium contribute to hardness and productivity, many other elements (when present in concentrations which contribute a substantial measure of hardness) reduce biological productivity and are toxic. Hardness. per se has no biological significance because biological effects are a function of the specific concentrations and combinations of the elements present. The term "hardness" serves a useful purpose as a general index of water type, buffering capacity, and productivity. Waters high in calcium and magnesium ions (hard water) lower the toxicity of many metals to aquatic life (Brown 1968;165 Lloyd and Herbert 1962).168 (See Figure III-9 in the discussion of Metals, p. 178.) However, the term "hardness" should be avoided in delineating water quality TABLE lll-7-Major Dissolved Constituents of River Waters Representing About 90 Percent of Total Stream Flow in the United States Constituent Total dissolved solids ..................... . Bicarbonate (HCOa) ....................... . Sulfate (SO,) .....................•....... Chloride (CI) ............................. . Calcium (Ca) ............................. . Magnesium (Mg) ......................... . Sodium and polassium (Na and K) .......... . Source: After Hart et al. (1945)'" 142 Median mgjl 169 90 32 9 28 7 10 Range mgJI 72-400 40-180 11-90 3-170 15-52 3.5'-14 6-85 requirements for aquatic life. More emphasis should be placed on specific ions. Recommendation Total dissolved materials should not be changed to the extent that the biological communities Dissolved Solids and Hardness/143 characteristic of particular habitats are signifi- cantly changed. When dissolved materials areal- tered, bioassays and field studies can determine the limits that may be tolerated without en- dangering the structure and function of the aquatic ecosystem. OILS Losses of oil that can have an adverse effect on water quality and aquatic life can occur in many of the phases of oil production, refining, transportation, and use. Pollution may be in the form of floating oils, emulsified oils, or solution of the water soluble fraction of these oils. - The toxicity of crude oil has been difficult to interpret since crude oil may contain many different organic com- pounds and inorganic elements. The composition of such oils may· vary from region to region, and petroleum products produced can be drastically different in character in line with their different intended uses (Purdy 1958).198 The major components of crude oil can be categorized as ali- phatic normal hydrocarbons, cyclic paraffin hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, naphtheno-aromatic hydrocarbons, resins, asphaltenes, heteroatomic compounds, and metallic compounds (Bestougeff 1967).175 The aromatic hydro- carbons in crude oil appear to be the major group of acutely toxic compounds (Blumer 1971,176 Shelton 1971) .199 Because the biological effects of oils and the relative merits of control measures are discussed in detail in Section IV (p. 25 7) of this Report, only effects of special interest or pertinence to fresh water are discussed here. The effects of floating oil on wildlife are discussed on p. 196. OIL REFINERY EFFLUENTS Copeland and Dorris ( 1964) 180 studied primary pro- ductivity and community respiration in a series of oil refinery effluent oxidation ponds. These ponds received waste waters which had been in contact with the crude oil and various products produced within the refinery. Surface oils were skimmed. In the series of oxidation ponds, pri- mary productivity and community respiration measure- ments clearly indicated that primary producers were limited in the first ponds, probably by toxins in the water. Oxidation ponds further along in the series typically supported algal blooms. Apparently degradation of the toxic organic com- pounds reduced their concentration below the threshold lethal to the algae. Primary productivity was not greater than community respiration in the first ponds in the series. Minter (1964)195 found that species diversity of phyto- plankton was lowest in the first four ponds of the series of ten. A "slug" of unknown toxic substance drastically re- duced the species diversity in all ponds. Zooplankton volumes increased in the latter half of the pond series, presumably as a result of decreasing toxicity. Benthic fauna species diversity in streams receiving oil refinery effluents was low near the outfall and progressively increased down- stream as biological assimilation reduced the concentration of toxins (Wilhm and Dorris 1966,206 Harrel et al. 1967,184 Mathis and Dorris 1968191). Long-term, continuous-flow bioassays of biologically treated oil refinery effluents indicated that complex re- fineries produce effluents which contain cumulative toxins of substances that cause accumulative deleterious effects (Graham and Dorris 1968).182 Subsequent long-term con- tinuous-flow bioassays of biologically treated oil refinery effluents indicated that passage of the effluent through acti- vated carbon columns does not remove the fish toxicants. Of the fathead minnows (Pimphales promelas) tested, half were killed in 14 days, and only 10 per cent survived 30 days (Burks 197220 7 personal communication). Trace organic compounds identified in extracts from the effluent were a homologous series of aliphatic hydrocarbons (CnH22 through C 18H 38) and isomers of cresol and xylenol. Since the soluble fractions derived from oil refineries are quantitatively, and to some extent qualitatively, different from those derived from oil spills, care must be taken to differentiate between these two sources. FREE AND FLOATING OIL Free oil or emulsions may adhere to the gills of fish, interfering with respiration and causing asphyxia. Within limits, fish are able to combat this by defensive mucous secretions (Cole 1941).179 Free oil and emulsions may like- wise coat aquatic plants and destroy them (McKee and Wolf 1963).193 Fish and benthic organisms may be affected by soluble substances extracted from the oils or by coating from emulsified oils. Water soluble compounds from crude or 144 manufactured oils may also contain tainting substances which affect the taste of fish and waterfowl (Krishnawami and Kupchanko 1969).189 Toxicity tests for oily substances provide a broad range of results which do not permit rigorous safety evaluations. The variabilities are due to differences in petroleum prod- ucts tested, non-uniform testing procedures, and species differences. Most of the research on the effects of oils on aquatic life has used pure compounds which exist only in low percentages in many petroleum products or crude oils. Oils/145 Table III-8 illustrates tht; range of reported toxicities. For halo-, nitro-, or thio-derivatives, the expected toxicity would be greater. Because of the basic difficulties in evaluating the toxicity, especially of the emulsified oils, and because there is some evidence that oils may persist and have subtle chronic effects (Blumer 1971),176 the maximum allowable concen- tration of emulsified oils should be determined on an indi- vidual basis and kept below 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 for sensitive species. TABLE III-8-Toxicity Ranges Chemical Aniline ...•..•..••..•••••••.••.•.•.••..•.• Benzene .•.•••..•..•...•••••.•....•.•...• Cresol. •••..•.....••.•...•.••.........•.. Cyclohexane ....•.........•.••..•......••. Ethylbenzene .•...•.•••..•..•..•.......... Hep!Jne .••..•.••..••.••..•••...•......... Isoprene .•..•.••••••.•..••......•...•.••.. Nephemc acid ....•..•............•..•..... Naphthalene ...•...••.••••.••...•.....•... Toluene .•.....•...••.••.•......•..•...•... Gasoline .••....•..•.....••.....•.....••.• Cutting oil #2 .••.••..•...•.....•......... Diesel fuel ......•.....•..•.....••..•..•... Bunker oil.. .•...•......................•• Bunker coil .•.•...•.....••.......•...•... SEDIMENTED OIL ppm. cone. 379 31 22 32 10 30 31 33 48 40 29 73 78 4924 75 39 180 140 5.6 6.6-7.5 165 1260 44 24 62 66 91 40 14,500 167 2417 1700 none 96 hr LC50 96 hr LC50 96 hr LC50 96 ht LC50 96 hr LC50 96 hr LC50 " Effect .................................... " .................................... " ..... ································ '". ... " ............................... . " .... ································ 48 hr LC50 96 hr LC50 " .... ............................... . " .................................... " .... ............................... . " .................................... " .... ............................... . 48 hr LC50 " .... ································ 96 hr LC50 " .... ............................... . " .................................... " .................................... 48 hr LC50 96 hr LC50 96 hr LC50 48 hr LC50 " .................................... 168 hr LC50 Species Daphnia magna Pimephales promelas Lepomis macrochirus Carassius auratus Lepom1s macrochirus Pimephales prome1as Lepomis macrochirus Carassius auratus Lebiste• rebculatus Pi mephales promelas Lepomis macrochirus Carassius auratus Lebistes rebculatus Gambusia affinis Pimephales promelas Lepom1s macrochirus Carassius auratus Lebistes reticulatus Lepomis macrochirus Physa heterostropha Gambusia affinis Pimephales promelas Lepomis macrochirus Carassius auratus Lebistes reticulatus Alosa sapidissima Salmo gairdneri Salmo ga1rdneri Alosa sapidiss1mia Alosa sapidissima Salmo salar Investigator Anderson 194417> Pickering & Henderson 19661" ,, " ................................................... , , ............... ···································· Cairns & Scheier 195917• Pickering & Henderson 1966"' II II ............... ···································· II " ............ ···································· II '' ................ ···································· II II ................ ···································· II II .................................................... , ., ................ ···································· .. ., .................................................... Wallen et al. 1957"' Pickering & Henderson 1966"' , " .................................................... ,, " ................ ···································· II II .................................................... Cairns & Scheier 1958177 II II .................................................... Wallen et al. 1957'" , ,, .................................................... Pickering & Henderson 1966"' II II .................................................... II II .. ................................................. . II II . .................................................. . Tagatz 1961 2" Memck et al. 1956'" Turnbull et al. 1954' .. Tagatz 1961"' " , . .................................................. . Sprague and Carson manumipt 19702•• existence of sedimented oils in association with oil pollution is widespread. Ludzack et al. (1957)190 found that the sediment in the Ottawa River in Ohio downstream from a refinery consisted ofup to 17.8 per cent oil. Hunt (1957)187 and Hartung and Klingler ( 1968) 185 reported on the occurrence of sedimen ted oil in the Detroit River. North et al. (1965)196 found sedi- mented oils after an oil pollution incident in marine coves in Baja California. Forbes and Richardson (1913)181 re- ported 2.5 per cent oils in the bottom deposits of the Illinois River. McCauley ( 1964 )192 reported finding oily bottom deposits after oil pollution near Boston. Thus, 'while the reports may be scattered, the evidence is clear that the There is an increasing body of evidence indicating that aliphatic hydrocarbons are synthesized by aquatic organisms and find their way into sediments in areas which have little or no history of oil pollution (Han et al. 1968,183 Avigan and Blumer 1968174). Hydrocarbons have been reported in the recent sediments of lakes in Minnesota (Swain 1956)202 and the Gulf of Mexico (Stevens et al. 1956).201 Areas which contain oily sediments usually have an im- poverished benthic fauna; it is not clear to what extent oil contributes to this, because of the presence of other pol- lutants (Hunt 1962).188 However, there are recurring reports II ; -·-~~~-------------~---------~--~-~- 146/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife of a probable relationship between sedimented oils and altered benthic communities. Sedimented oils may act as concentrators for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Har- tung and Klingler 1970),186 but the biological implications indicate that additional study is required. Because of the differences in toxicities of sedimented oils and because of limited knowledge on quantities which are harmful to aquatic life, it is suggested that the concentration of hexane extractable substances (exclusive of elemental sulfur) in air-dried sediments not be permitted to increase above 1,000 mg/kg on a dry weight basis. Recommendations Aquatic life and wildlife should be protected where: • there is no visible oil on the surface; • emulsified oils do not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50; • concentration of hexane extractable substances (exclusive of elemental sulfur) in air-dried sedi- ments does not increase above 1,000 mgfk~ on a dry wei~ht basis. TAINTING SUBSTANCES Discharges from municipal wastewater treatment plants, a variety of industrial wastes and organic compounds, as well as biological organisms, can impart objectionable taste, odor, or color to the flesh of fish and other edible aquatic organisms. Such tainting can occur in waters with concen- trations of the offending material lower than those recog- nized as being harmful to an animal (Tables III-9 and III-10). BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF TAINTING Thaysen (I 935)231 and Thaysen and Pentelow (I 936)232 demonstrated that a muddy or earthy taste can be imparted to the flesh of trout by material produced by an odiferous species of Actinomyces. Lopinot (1962)224 report~d a serious fish and municipal water supply tainting problem on the Mississippi River in Illinois during a period when actino- mycetes, Oscillatoria, Scenedesmus, and Actinastrum were abun- dant. Oscillatoria princeps and 0. agardhi in plankton of a German lake were reported by Cornelius and Bandt (1933)213 as causing off-flavor in lake fish. Aschner et al. (1967)210 concluded that the benthic alga, 0. tenuis, in rearing ponds in Israel was responsible for imparting such a bad flavor to carp (Cyprinus carpio) that the fish were unacceptable on the market. Henley's (1970)221 investigation of odorous metabolites of Cyanophyta showed that Anabaena circinalis releases geosmin and indicated that this material was responsible for the musty or earthy odor often char- acteristic of water from reservoirs with heavy algal growths in summer and fall. Oysters occasionally exhibit green coloration of the gills due to absorption of the blue-green pigment of the diatom, Navicula, (Ranson 192 7). 225 TAINTING CAUSED BY CHEMICALS Phenolic compounds are often associated with both water and fish tainting problems (Table III~9). However, Albers- meyer ( 195 7)208 and Albersmeyer and Erichsen (I 959)209 found that, after being dephenolated, both a carbolated oil and a light oil still imparted a taste to fish more pronounced than that produced by similar exposures to naphthalene and methylnaphthalene (phenolated compounds). They concluded that other hydrocarbons in the oils were more responsible for imparting off-flavor than the phenolic ma- terials in the two naphthalenes tested. Refineries (Fetterolf 1962) ,215 oily wastes (Zillich 1969), 236 and crude oil (Galtsoff et al. 1935)219 have been associated with off-flavor problems of fish and shellfish in both fresh- water and marine situations (Westman and Hoff 1963).234 Krishnawami and Kupchanko (1969)223 demonstrated that rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) adsorbed enough compounds from a stream polluted with oil slicks and oil refinery effluents to exhibit a definite oily taste and flavor. In waters receiving black liquor from kraft pulp mills, the gills and mantles of oysters developed a gray color (Galtsoff et al. 1947).218 The authors also found this condition in oysters grown in waters receiving domestic sewage. Newton (I 967)237 confined trout in live-cages and correlated in ten- TABLE III-9-Wastewaters Found to have Lowered the Palatability of Fish Flesh Wastewater source 2.4·0 mfg. plant. ............ Coal--coking ................. Coal-tar ...................• Krall process (untreated) ...... Krall process (treated) ........ Krall and neutral sulfite process Municipal dump runoff ........ Municipal untreated sewage (2 locations) Municipal wastewater treatment plants (4 locations) Municipal wastewater treatment plant (Primary) Municipal wastewater treatment plant (Secondary) Dilywastes .................. Refinery ..................... Sewage containing phenols ..... Slaughterhouses (2 locations) •• Concentration in water affecting palatabifity of fish 50-100 mgfl 0. 02-o. 1 mg/1 0.1 mg/1 1-2%by VOL 9-12% by vol. ................ ················ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ 11-13% by vol. 20-26% by vol. ................ ................ 0.1 mg/1 ................ Species Reference Trout Shumway 1966"2• Freshwater fish Bandt19552U Freshwater fish Bandt19552ll Salmon Shumway and Chadwick 1971"'' Salmon Shumway and Palensky, un· published data"' Trout Newton 1967"' Channel catfish Thomas and Hicks 1971"' (lclalurus punclatus) Channel catfish Thomas and Hicks 1911"' Channel callish Thomas and Hicks 1971"' Freshwater fish Shumway and Palensky, un- published data"' Freshwater fish Shumway and Palensky, un- published data"' Trout Zillich 1969'" Trout FeHeroH 1962'" Freshwater fish Bandt 1955211 Channel callish Thomas and Hicks 1971"' 147 148/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE lll-10-Concentrations of Chemical Compounds in Water That Can Cause Tainting of the Flesh of Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms Chemical acetophenone .................................. . acrylonitrile .................................... . cresol ......................................... . m-cresol ....................................... . o-cresol ....................................... . p-cresol. ...................................... . cresylic acid (meta para) ......................... . N-butyl mercaptan .............................. . o-sec. butytphenol. ............................. . p-tert. butyl phenol .............................. . o-chlorophenol .................................. . p-chlorophenol. ................................ . 2, 3-dichlorophenol .............................. . 2, 4-dichlorophenol. ............................. . 2, 5-dichlorophenol .............................. . 2, 6-dichlorophenol .............................. . 2-m ethyl, 4-chlorophenol ........................ . 2-m ethyl, 6-chlorophenol ........................ . o-phenylphenol. ................................ . 2, 4, 6-trichlorophenol. ......................... .. phenol. ............. ; ......................... . phenols in polluted river ......................... . diphenyl oxide ................................. . ~.~·dichlorodiethyl ether ..................... .. o·dichlorobenzene .............................. . ethylbenzene ................................... . ethanethiol.. ................................... . ethylacrytate ................................... . formaldehyde .................................. . kerosene ...................................... . kerosene plus kaolin ............................ . isopropylbenzene ............................... . naphtha ....................................... . naphthalene ................................... . naphthol. ...................................... . 2-naphthol.. ................................... . dimethylamine ................................. . o:-methylstyrene ............................... . oil, emulsifiable ................................ . pyridine ....................................... . pyrocatechol ................................... . pyrogallol ...................................... . quinoline ...................................... . p-quinone ...................................... . styrene ........................................ . toluene ........................................ . outboard motor fuel, as exhaust. ................. . guaiacol ....................................... . • Reference key: a Bandt 1955211 b Boetius 1954212 c English etal. 1963214 Estimated threshold level in water (mg/1) 0.5 18 0.07 0.2 0.4 0.12 0.2 0.06 0.3 0.03 0.0001 to 0.015 0.01 to 0.05 0.084 0.001 to 0.014 0.023 0.035 0.075 0.003 I 0.003 to 0.05 I to 10 0.02 to 0.15 0.05 0.09 to 1.0 0.25 <0.25 0.24 0.6 95 0.1 I <0.25 0.1 I 0.5 0.3 0.25 >15 5 to 28 0.8 to 5 20 to 30 0.5to I 0.5 0.25 0.25 2. 6 gal/acre-foot 0.082 Reference• b, d, e d, g, e g d, I, g g d, e a d d, g d d g d a, g a, g C, h g d Fetterolf 195421• published the results of A. W. Winston, Jr. of the Dow Chemical Company. The data are also available in an undated mimeographed release of the company e Schulze 1961227 I Shumway 1966"' g Shumway, D. L. and J. R. Palensky,"' unpublished data (1971). h Surber, et at. 1965"0 i Westman and Hoft 19632" sity of off-flavor with proximity to the discharge of a paper mill using both the neutral sulfite and kraft processes. Shellfish have the ability to concentrate and store metals at levels greater than the concentrations in the water (see Section I, pp. 36-37, and Section IV, p. 240). Oyster flesh can become green-colored from copper accumulation. The copper content of normal-colored oyster flesh from uncon- taminated areas varied from 0.170 to 0.214 mg copper per oyster, or from 8.21 to 13.77 mg per 100 grams dry weight (Galtsoff and Whipple 1931,220 Galtsoff 1964217). Oysters growing in adjacent areas slightly contaminated with copper salts had green-colored flesh and contained from 1.27 to 2.46 mg copper per oyster, or from 121 to 271 mg per 100 grams dry weight. If an effluent containing a variety of components is as- sociated with a tainting problem, identification of the taint- producing component or components is necessary for effi- cient isolation and removal in waste treatment. For ex- ample, Shumway (1966)228 exposed salmon to various con- centrations of wastes and waste components discharged from a plant producing pesticides. Although concentrations of the combined wastes at about 50 to 100 mg/1 were found to impart objectionable flavor to test fish, one of the major components of the plant waste, 2, 4-dichlorophenol, was found capable of impairing flavor at exposure levels of about I to 3 J.tg/1. A preliminary laboratory study (English et al. 1963)214 showed that outboard motor exhaust damages the quality of water in several ways, the most noticeable of which are unpleasant taste and odor in the. water and off-flavoring of fish flesh. A later field study (Surber et al. 1965)230 determined the threshold level of tainting of fish in pond and lake waters to be about 2.6 gal/acre-foot of fuel as exhaust, accumulating over a 2-month period. The gasoline used was regular grade, and the lubricating oil (Y2 pint/gal) was a popular brand of packaged outboard motor oil. UPTAKE AND LOSS OF FLAVOR-IMPAIRING MATERIALS Experiments involving method and rates of uptake and loss of flavor-impairing materials by aquatic organisms have been reported by few investigators. From data avail- able it is obvious that rates are highly variable. Thaysen and Pentelow (1936)232 exposed trout to extract from odoriferous Actinomyces. They showed that fish exposed to 10 ppm of extract acquired an off-flavor in one hour. The exposed fish were also removed and held in uncontami- nated water for periods up to five days. The level of tainting, which showed no diminution after 27 hours, became less marked after 2 to 3 days, and no tainting could be detected after 5 days in fresh water. Shumway and Palensky (unpublished data)289 exposed trout to three separate concentrations of each of the following chemicals, a-cresol, 2 , 4-dichlorophenol, pyridine, and n-butylmercaptan, for periods up to 168 hours. With all four chemicals, maximum off-flavor generally occurred in 33.5 hours or less. In· a few exceptions, a gradual increase in off-flavor appeared to occur with increasing time up to 168 hours, although the magnitude of increase in off-flavor with time was minor in nature. In tests with a-chlorophenol, Boetius (1954)212 reported that eels required up to II days exposure before flavor impairment was detected. The time required to impair flavor was found to be related to the exposure concentration, with low concentrations requiring longer exposure periods. Shumway (1966)228 found that the flesh of salmon exposed experimentally to industrial wastes containing mainly phe- nols acquired maximum off-flavor in 35 hours or less, with much of the tainting occurring within the first 6 hours. Mter the salmon were transferred to uncontaminated water, most of the acquired off-flavor was lost within 20.hours, although some off-flavor remained up to 72 hours. In other tests, Shumway and Palensky (unpublished data)239 observed flavor impairment in trout after 24-hour exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenol. Mter only 33.5 hours in uncontami- nated water, the flavor of the trout had returned to the preexposure ·level, with most of the reduction in off-flavor occurring within 6.5 hours. 'Korschgen et al. (1970)222 transferred carp (Cyprinus carpio) to uncontaminated ponds from two sites, one of which received effluents from a major municipality and one ofwhich received little or no effluent. Retention up to 18 days in: the holding ponds failed to improve the flavor of the carp from the contaminated site. These authors also re- ported that channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) transferred from the Ohio River to control water lost about half of their off-flavor in 7 days and nearly all of it in 21 days. IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSES OF OFF-FLAVORED ORGANISMS Determination that a tainting problem exists, or identifi- cation of a taint-causing material, involves field or labora- tory exposure periods and organoleptic tests. When properly conducted, these tests are reliable but time-consuming. Wright ( 1966)235 reported on the use of gas chromatography in conjunction with organoleptic tests. The chromatographic scans were compared with scans of industrial process waste streams to identify the taint-producing wastes. Gas chro- matographic techniques are employed routinely in food technology laboratories investigating flavor and odor prop- erties (Rhoades and Millar 1965).226 EXPOSURE AND ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS Field exposure tests (bioassays) are used to determine the existence or the magnitude of a tainting problem in a water body. Fish or other edible aquatic life are held for a period of time in cages at selected locations in and around a suspected problem area or waste discharge and eventually evaluated for flavor. Laboratory bioassays are normally utilized to determine the tainting potential of wastes, waste components, or specific chemicals. Although either static or continuous-flow bioassays can be used in laboratory tests, continuous-flow systems are considered far superior to static Tainting Substances/149 tests. Exposure bioassay~ are followed by the organoleptic evaluation of the flesh of the test organisms. In their studies of tainted organisms, investigators have used a number of different bioassay and flavor-evaluation procedures, some of which have produced poorly defined results. The following guidelines are based primarily on the successful procedures of Shumway and Newton (personal communications). 238 Test Fish The flesh of the fish to. be exposed should be mild and consistent in flavor. For convenience in holding and taste testing, fish weighing between 200 and 400 grams are de- sirable, although smaller or larger fish are acceptable. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), yellow perch (Perea jlavescens), channel catfish, bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), trout, salmon flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes), and others have proven to be acceptable test fish. Exposure Period In general, test fish should be exposed for a period not less than 48 hours. Shorter or longer exposures will be advisable in some situations, although possible stress, disease, and mortality resulting from longer retention of test fish and maintenance of holding facilities may negate advantages of long exposure. Exposure Conditions The following conditions are desirable m laboratory bioassays: Dissolved oxygen 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 near saturation Temperature 0 0 ... 0 0 0 0 0 .10-15 C for salmonids, and 20-25 C for warmwater fish pH .. 0 0 .. 0 0 0 0 .. 0 0 .... 0 06.0-8.0, or pH of receiving water Light 0 . 0 0 0 ... 0 .. 0 ..... 0 intensity held at a low level Water .. 0 .... 0 0 .... 0 ... uncontaminated, or quality of the receiving water; never distilled water Preparation of Test Fish and Evaluation Exposed fish and control fish, either fresh or fresh-frozen and subsequently thawed, are individually double-wrapped in aluminum foil, placed in an oven and cooked at about 375 F for 15 to 30 minutes, as size requires. Large fish may be portioned for cooking. No seasoning of any kind is added. Portions of .the cooked fish may be placed in small coded cups and served warm to the judges for flavor evalu- ation. A known "reference" may be provided to aid judges in making comparisons. A minimum of ten experienced judges, each seated in an isolation booth or similar area, smell, taste, and score each sample. This method offers tighter control of variables and conforms more to off-flavor evaluations conducted in food laboratories than the more informal procedure below. 150/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife An alternative method is to place the cooked fish, still partially wrapped in foil to preserve the heat and flavor, on a large table. The judges start concurr~tly and work their way around the table, recording aroma and flavor. If a judge tastes more than six samples during a test, a lessening of organoleptic acuity may occur. When investigating the potential of a substance to pro- duce taint, a word-evaluation scale for intensity of off-flavor ranging from no off-flavor to extreme off-flavor, has proven successful with trained, experienced judges. Numerical values from 0 to 6 are applied to the word scale for deri- vation of off-flavor indices and statistical evaluation. When using the above method; less experienced judges tend to over-react to slight off-flavor. For this reason, in less formal tests evaluating the effect of a substance on the palatability of the organism, an hedonic scale accompanied by word-judgments describing palatability is appropriate, i.e., 0--excellent, 1-very good, 2-good, 3-fair, 4--just acceptable, 5-not quite acceptable, 6-very poor, inedible, and 7--extremely poor, repulsive. Scores of the judges on each sample are averaged to determine final numerical or word-judgment values. To determine whether there are acceptability differences between controls and test organisms, a triangle test may be used in which two samples are alike and one is different. Judges are asked to select the like samples, to indicate the degree of difference, and to rate both the like and the odd samples on a preference scale. STATISTICAL EVALUATION The triangle test is particularly well adapted to statistical analysis, but the organoleptic testing necessary is more extensive than when hedonic scales are used. Application of the 'two-way analyses of variance to hedonic-scale data is an acceptable test, but professional assistance with statistical procedures is desirable. Reliance on the word-judgment system is sufficient for general infor- mation purposes. Recommendations • To prevent tainting of fish and other edible aquatic organisms, it is recommended that sub- stances which cause tainting should not be pres- ent in water in concentrations that lower the acceptability of such organisms as determined by exposure bioassay and organoleptic tests. • Values in Tables 111-9 and 111-10 are recom- mended as guidelines in determining what con- centrations of wastes and substances in water may cause tainting of the flesh of fish or other aquatic organisms. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE Living organisms do not respond to the quantity of heat but to degrees of temperature or to temperature changes caused by transfer of heat. The importance of temperature to acquatic organisms is well known, and the composition of aquatic communities depends largely on the temperature characteristics of their environment. Organisms have upper and lower thermal tolerance limits, optimum temperatures for growth, preferred temperatures in thermal gradients, and temperature limitations for migration, spawning, and egg incubation. Temperature also affects the physical environment of the aquatic medium, (e.g., viscosity, degree of ice cover, and oxygen capacity. Therefore, the com- position of aquatic communities depends largely on tem- perature characteristics of the environment. In recent years there has been an accelerated demand for cooling waters for power stations that release large quantities of heat, causing, or threatening to cause, either a warming of rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, or a rapid cooling when the artificial sources of heat are abruptly terminated. For these reasons, the environmental consequences of temperature changes must be considered in assessments of water quality requirements of aquatic organisms. The "natural" temperatures of surface waters of the United States vary from 0 C to over 40 C as a function of latitude, altitude, season, time of day, duration of flow, depth, and many other variables. The agents that affect the natural temperature are so numerous that it is unlikely that two bodies of water, even in the same latitude, would have exactly the same thermal characteristics. Moreover, a single aquatic habitat typically does not have uniform or consistent thermal characteristics. Since all aquatic or- ganisms (with the exception of aquatic mammals and a few large, fast-swimming fish) have body temperatures that conform to the water temperature, these natural variations create conditions that are optimum at times, but are generally above or below optima for particular physio- logical, behavioral, and competitive functions of the species present. Because significant temperature changes may affect the composition of an aquatic or wildlife co~munity, an induced change in the thermal characteristics of an eco- system may be detrimental. On the other hand, altered thermal characteristics may be beneficial, as evidenced in most fish hatchery practices and at other aquacultural facilities. (See the discussion of Aquaculture in Section IV.) The general difficulty in developing suitable criteria for temperature (which would limit the addition of heat) lies in determining the deviation from "natural" temperature a particular body of water can experien«e without suffering adverse effects on its biota. Whatever requirements are suggested, a "natural" seasonal cycle must be retained, annual spring and fall changes in temperature must be gradual, and large unnatural day-to-day fluctuations should be avoided. In view of the many variables, it seems obvious that no single ·temperature requirement can be applied uniformly to continental or large regional areas; the requirements must be closely related to each body of water and to its particular community of organisms, especially the important species found in it. These should include invertebrates, plankton, or other plant and animal life that may be of importance to food chains or otherwise interact with species of direct interest to man. Since thermal requirements of various species differ, the social choice of the species to be protected allows for different "levels of protection" among water bodies as suggested by Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)272 for dissolved oxygen criteria. (See Dissolved Oxygen, p. 131.) Although such decisions clearly transcend the scientific judgments needed in establishing thermal criteria for protecting selected species, biologists can aid in making them. Some measures useful in assigning levels of importance to species are: (I) high yield to com- mercial or sport fisheries, (2) large biomass in the existing ecosystem (if desirable), (3) important links in food chains of other species judged important for other reasons, and (4) "endangered" or unique status. If it is desirable to attempt strict preservation of an existing ecosystem, the most sensitive species or life stage may dictate the criteria selected. Criteria for making recommendations for water tem- perature to protect desirable aquatic life cannot be simply a maximum allowed change from "natural temperatures." This is principally because a change of even one degree from 151 152/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife an ambient temperature has varying significance for an organism, depending upon where the ambie~t level lies within the tolerance range. In addition, historic tempera- ture records or, alternatively, the existing ambient tempera- ture prior to any thermal alterations by man are not always reliable indicators of desirable conditions for aquatic populations. Multiple developments of water resources also ~hange water temperatures both upward (e.g., upstream aower plants or shallow reservoirs) and downward (e.g., :leepwater releases from large reservoirs), so that "ambient" md "natural" are exceedingly difficult to define at a given Joint over periods of several years. Criteria for temperature should consider both the multiple hermal requirements of aquatic species and requirements or balanced communities. The number of distance requin·- nents and the necessary values for each require periodic eexamination as knowledge of thermal effects on aquatic pecies and communities increases. Currently definable equirements include: • maximum sustained temperatures that are con- sistent with maintaining desirable levels of pro- ductivity; • maximum levels of metabolic acclimation to warm temperatures that will permit return to ambient winter temperatures should artificial sources of heat cease; • temperature limitations for survival of brief exposures to temperature extremes, both upper and lower; • restricted temperature ranges for various stages of reproduction, including (for fish) gonad growth and gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of gametes, development of the embryo, commence- ment of independent feeding (and other activities) by juveniles; and temperatures required for meta- morphosis, emergence, and other activities of lower forms; • thermal limits for diverse compositions of species of aquatic communities, particularly where reduction in diversity creates nuisance growths of certain organisms, or where important food sources or chains are altered ; • thermal requirements of downstream aquatic life where upstream warming of a cold-water source will adversely affect downstream temperature require- ments. Thermal criteria must also be formulated with knowledge ·how man alters temperatures, the hydrodynamics of the Langes, and how the biota can reasonably be expected to teract with the thermal regimes produced. It is not fficient, for example, to define only the thermal criteria r sustained production of a species in open waters, because rge numbers of organisms may also be exposed to thermal langes by being pumped through the condensers and ixing zone of a power plant. Design engineers need particularly to know the biological limitations to their design options in such instances. Such considerations may reveal nonthermal impacts of cooling processes that may outweigh temperature effects, such as impingement of fish upon intake screens, mechanical or chemical damage to zooplankton in condensers, or effects of altered current patterns on bottom fauna in a discharge area. The environ- mental situations of aquatic organisms (e.g., where they are, when they are there, in what numbers) must also be understood. Thermal criteria for migratory species should be applied to a .certain area only when the species is actually there. Although thermal effects of power stations are currently of great interest, other less dramatic causes of temperature change including deforestation, stream chan- nelization, and impoundment of flowing water must be recognized. DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA Thermal criteria necessary for the protection of species or communities are discussed separately below. The order of presentation of the different criteria does not imply priority for any one body of water. The descriptions define preferred methods and procedures for judging thermal requirements, and generally do not give numerical values (except in Appendix II-C). Specific values for all limitations would require a biological handbook that is far beyond the scope of this Section. The criteria may seem complex, but they represent an extensively developed framework of knowledge about biological responses. (A sample application of these criteria begins on page 166, Use of Temperature Criteria.) TERMINOLOGY DEFINED Some basic thermal responses of aquatic organisms will be referred to repeatedly and are defined and reviewed briefly here. Effects of heat on organisms and aquatic communities have been reviewed periodically (e.g., Bullock 1955,259 Brett 1956;253 Fry 1947,276 1964,278 1967;279 Kinne 1970296). Some effects have been analyzed in the context of thermal modification by power plants (Parker and Krenke! 1969;308 Krenkel and Parker 1969;298 Cairns 1968;261 Clark 1969;263 and Coutant 1970c269). Bibliographic information is available from Kennedy and Mihursky (1967),294 Raney and Menzel (1969),313 and from annual reviews published by the Water Pollution Control Federation (Coutant 1968,265 1969,266 l970a,267 19712 70). Each species (and often each distinct life-stage of a species) has a characteristic tolerance range of temperature as a consequence of acclimations (internal biochemical adjust- ments) made while at previous holding temperature (Figure III-2; Brett 1956253). Ordinarily, the ends of this range, or the lethal thresholds, are defined by survival of 50 per cent of a sample of individuals. Lethal thresholds typically are referred to as "incipient lethal temperatures," and tem- perature beyond these ranges would be considered "ex- treme." The tolerance range is adjusted upward by ac- climation to warmer water and downward to cooler water, although there is a limit to such accommodation. The lower end of the range usually is at zero degrees centigrade (32 F) for species in temperate latitudes (somewhat less for saline waters), while the upper end terminates in an "ultimate incipient lethal temperature" (Fry et al. 1946281). This ultimate threshold temperature represents the "break- ing point" between the highest temperatures to which an animal can be acclimated and the lowest of the extreme temperatures that will kill the warm-acclimated organism. Any rate of temperature change over a period of minutes Ultimate incipient lethal temperature 25 _ _/._ ---- lethal threshold 50% .------- {---1 ------lethal threshold 5% 20 ---1: ....... ---I " --( "0 I .i --loading level ....... I c 15 I' (activity growth) " I I u I I I "0 -~ I ....... I ... I ---f I ~ I B I Unhibiting level !:! I I 3 10 I I (spawning) . C! I I I ) " I ""' I I --a ..J__, -" I __.. "" I -.,. ----I I ----....... -I ----5 - 28 22 10 Heat and Temperature/153 Acclimation temperature 24° ........... 0 10"' -()-9 ~~ ~ ---.JJ_ o '-.... I B C 5 ~ "':c-y-------- "'-.~ 1/ "" I ·~-------- 100 1,000 10,000 Time to 50% mortality-Minutes After Brett 1952 252 FIGURE III-3-Median resistance times to high tempera- tun!s among young chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) acclimated to temperatures indicated. Line A-B denotes rising lethal threshold (incipient lethal temperatures) with increasing acclimation temperature. This rise eventually ceases at the ultimate lethal threshold (ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature), line B-C. to a few hours will not greatly affect the thermal tolerance limits, since acclimation to changing temperatures requires several days (Brett 1941). 251 At the temperatures above and below the incipient lethal temperatures, survival depends not only on the temperature but also on the duration of exposure, with mortality oc- curring more rapidly the farther the temperature is from the threshold (Figure III-3). (See Coutant 1970a26 7 and 0 t:---""":::.......l._ ___ .J._ ___ ....._ ___ ....._ ___ __. 1970b268 for further discussion based on both field and 20 25 laboratory studies.) Thus, organisms respond to extreme 5 10 15 Acclimation temperature-Centigrade After Brett 1960 254 FIGURE Ill-2-Upper and lower lethal temperatures for young sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) plotted to show the zone of tolerance. Within this zone two other zones are represented to illustrate (1) an area beyond which growth would be poor to none-at-all under the influence of the loading effect of metabolic demand~ and (2) an area beyond which temperature is likely to inhibit normal reproduction. high and low temperatures in a manner similar to the dosage-response pattern which is common to toxicants, pharmaceuticals, and radiation (Bliss 1937).249 Such tests seldom extend beyond one week in duration. MAXIMUM ACCEPT ABLE TEMPERATURES FOR PROLONGED EXPOSURES Specific criteria for prolonged exposure (1 week or longer) must be defined for warm and for cold seasons. Additional criteria for gradual temperature (and life cycle) changes during reproduction and development periods are dis- cussed on pp. 162-165. 154/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR PROLONGED EXPOSURE Occupancy of habitats by most aquatic organisms is often limited within the thermal tolerance range to tem- peratures somewhat below the ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature. This is the result of poor physiological performance at near lethal levels (e.g., growth, metabolic scope for activities, appetite, food conversion efficiency), interspecies competition, disease, predation, and other subtle ecological factors (Fry 1951 ;277 Brett 197!2 56 ). This complex limitation is evidenced by restricted southern and altitudinal distributions of many species. On the other hand, optimum temperatures (such as those producing fastest growth rates) are not generally necessary at all times to maintain thriving populations and are often exceeded in nature during summer months (Fry 1951 ;277 Cooper 1953 ;264 Beyerle and Cooper 1960;246 Kramer and Smith 1960297 ). Moderate temperature fluctuations can generally be tolerated as long as a maximum upper limit is not exceeded for long periods. A true temperature limit for exposures long enough to reflect metabolic acclimation and optimum ecological per- formance must lie somewhere between the physiological optimum and the ultimate upper incipient lethal tempera- tures. Brett (1960)254 suggested that a provisional long- term exposure limit be the temperature greater than opti- mum that allowed 75 per cent of optimum performance. His suggestion has not been tested by definitive studies. Examination of literature on performance, metabolic rate, temperature preference, growth, natural distribution, and tolerance of several species has yielded an apparently sound theoretical basis for estimating an upper temperature limit for long term exposure and a method for doing this with a minimum of additional research. New data will provide refinement, but this method forms a useful guide for the present time. The method is based on the general observations summarized here and in Figure III-4(a, b, c). l. Performances of organisms over a range of tempera- tures are available in the scientific literature for a variety of functions. Figures III-4a and b show three characteristic types of responses numbered l through 3, of which types 1 and 2 have coinciding optimum peaks. These optimum temperatures are characteristic for a species (or life stage). 2. Degrees of impairment from optimum levels of various performance functions are not uniform with in- creasing temperature above the optimum for a single species. The most sensitive function appears to be growth rate, for which a temperature of zero growth (with abundant food) can be determined for important species and life stages. Growth rate of organisms appears to be an integrator of all factors acting on an organism. Growth rate should probably be expressed as net biomass gain or net growth (McCormick et al. 1971) 302 of the population, to account for deaths. 3. The maximum temperature at which several species are consistently found in nature (Fry 1951 ;277 Narver 1970)306 lies near the average of the optimum temperature and the temperature of zero net growth. 4. Comparison of patterns in Figures III-4a and b among different species indicates that while the trends are similar, the optimum is closer to the lethal level in some species than it is in sockeye salmon. Invertebrates exhibit a pattern of temperature effects on growth rate that is very similar to that of fish (Figure III-4c). The optimum temperature may be influenced by rate of feeding. Brett et al. (1969)257 demonstrated a shift in opti- mum toward cooler temperatures for sockeye salmon when ration was restricted. In a similar experiment with channel catfish, Andrews and Stickney (1972)242 could see no such shift. Lack of a general shift in optimum may be due to compensating changes in activity of the fish (Fry personal observation). 326 These observations suggest that an average of the opti- mum temperature and the temperature of zero net growth [(opt. temp.+ z.n.g. temp)/2] would be a useful estimate of a limiting weekly mean temperature for resident organisms, providing the peak temperatures do not exceed values recommended for short-term exposures. Optimum growth rate would generally be reduced to no lower than 80 per cent of the maximum if the limiting temperature is as averaged above (Table III-11). This range of reduction from opti- mum appears acceptable, although there are no quantita- tive studies available that would allow the criterion to be based upon a specific level of impairment. The criteria for maximum upper temperature must allow for seasonal changes, because different life stages of many species will have different thermal requirements for the average of their optimum and zero net growths. Thus a juvenile fish in May will be likely to have a lower maximum acceptable temperature than will the same fish in July, and this must be reflected in the thermal criteria for a waterbody. TABLE Ill-11-Summary of Some Upper Limiting Temperatures in C, (for periods longer than one week) Based Upon Optimum Temperatures and Temperatures ofZero Net Growth. Species Calostomus commersoni (while sucker) ..... Coregonus artedii (cisco or lake herring) .... lctalurus punctatus (channel catfish) ........ " .... . ..••.•................•........... Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) (year II) ..... Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) .... Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner) ...... Salvefinus fontinalis (brook trout) ..........• Optimum Zero net growth 27 29.6 16 21.2 30 35.7 30 35.7 22 28.5 27.5 34 27 33 15.4 18.8 Reference McCormick et aL 1971302 Strawn 1970320 Andrews and Stickney 1972"2 McCamish 1971•ot Strawn 1961"" *National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn., unpubfished data."• opt+ Ln.g. % of ---optimum 2 28.3 86 18.6 82 32.8 94 32.8 88 25.3 82 30.8 83 30.5 83 17.1 80 / Heat and Temperature/155 100 90 Qross Conversion Efficiency Lethal 80 70 I I e 60 J ..... 50 0 ... c:: a .... ~ 40 I Digestion Rate I I I I I 1 I Occurrence Threshold I I 1 I 30 Optimum I I 20 I I 10 I I 0~----------~------------~----------~------------~----~L-~~----~ 0 5 10 15 20 25 Acclimation Temperature C After Brett 19 71 256 FIGURE III-4a-Perjormance of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Relation to Acclimation Temperature 156/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife While this approach to developing the maximum sus- tained temperature appears justified on the basis ofavailable knowledge, few limits can be derived from existing data in the literature on zero growth. On the other hand, there is a 100 Swimming Performance 80 60 40 20 0 5 10 sizeable body of data on the ultimate incipient lethal tempe;rature that could serve as a substitute for the data on temperature of zero net growth. A practical consideration in recommending criteria is the time required to conduct I Optimum I I I I I I I 15 Lethal Occurrence Threshold 20 25 Acclimation Temperature C Mter Brett 1971 256 FIGURE Ill-4b-Perjormance of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Relation to Acclimation Temperature I research necessary to provide missing data. Techniques for determining incipient lethal temperatures are standardized (Brett 1952)252 whereas those for zero growth are not. A temperature that is one-third of the range between the optimum temperature and the ultimate incipient lethal temperature that can be calculated by the formula . ultimate incipient lethal temp.-optimum temp. optrmum temp.+ ------'--------'----'~-----'- 3 (Equation I) yields values that are very close to (optimum temp. + z.n.g. temp.)/2. For example, the values are, respectively, 32.7 and 32.8 C for channel catfish and 30.6 and 30.8 for largemouth bass (data from Table III-8 and Appendix II). This formula offers a practical method for obtaining allow- 150 -;: <= " e tl .s .?;-100 ... 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature in C Anse111968 243 FIGURE III-4c-M. mercenaria: The general relationship between temperature and the rate of shell growth, based on field measurements of growth and temperature. . e: sites in Poole Harbor, England; 0: North American sites. Heat and Temperature/157 able limits, while retaining as its scientific basis the require- ments of preserving adequate rates of growth. Some limits obtained from data in the literature are given in Table III -12. A hypothetical example of the effect of this limit on growth of largemouth bass is illustrated in Figure III-5. Figure 111-5 shows a hypothetical example of the effects of the limit on maximum weekly average temperature on growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a function of temperature are from Strawn 1961319 ; the ambi- ent temperature is an averaged curve for Lake Norman, N. C., adapted from data supplied by Duke Power Com- pany. A general temperature elevation of 10 F is used to provide an extreme example. Incremental growth rates (mm/wk) are plotted on the main figure, while annual ac- cumulated growth is plotted in the inset. Simplifying as- sumptions were that growth rates and the relationship of growth rate to temperature were constant throughout the year, and that there would be sufficient food to sustain maximum· attainable growth rates at all times. The criterion for a specific location would be determined by the most sensitive life stage of an important species likely to be present in that location at that time. Since many fishes have restricted habitats (e.g., specific depth zones) at many life stages, the thermal criterion must be applied to the proper zone. There is field evidence that fish avoid localized areas of unfavorably warm water. This has been demonstrated both in lakes where coldwater fish normally evacuate warm shallows in summer (Smith 1964)318 and at power station mixing zones (Gammon 1970;282 Merriman et al. 1965).304 In most large bodies of water there are both vertical and horizontal thermal gradients that mobile organisms can follow to avoid un- favorable high (or low) temperatures. The summer maxima need not, therefore, apply to mixing zones that occupy a small percentage of the suitable habitat or necessarily to all zones where organisms have free egress to cooler water. The maxima must apply, how- ever, to restricted local habitats, such as lake hypolimnia or thermoclines, that provide important summer sanctuary areas for cold-water species. Any avoidance of a warm area not part of the normal seasonal habitat of the species will mean that less area of the water body is available to support the population and that production may be reduced. Such reduction should not interfere with biological communities or populations of important species to a degree that is damaging to the ecosystem or other beneficial uses. Non- mobile organisms that must remain in the warm zone will probably be the limiting organisms for that location. Any recommendation for upper limiting temperatures must be applied carefully with understanding of the population dynamics of the species in question in order to establish both local and regional requirements . 158/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife 250 e _§_ 200 ..c: ~ 0 6;, 150 "tl ~ "' "3 s ::s 60 u u -< 50 10 9 8 7 :;;; ~ s 6 5 ..c: ..... ~ 0 5 ... C) 4 3 2 Annual Accumulated Growth Elevated (with limit) / / / / / / ., / ~ Elevated (without limit) -/ 2 4 6 8 10 12 Weeks Ambient + 10 F Average Ambient (Lake Norman, N.C.) Weekly Growth Rate (Ambient+ 10 F) 0 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 4 11 18 25 JAN. FEB. MAR. Weekly Growth Rate (Ambient) \ \ \ \ \ \ 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 1 APR. MAY JUNE Heat and Temperature/159 FIGURE III-S-A hypothetical example of the effects of the limit on maximum weekly average temperature on growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a junction of temperature are from Strawn 1961; the ambient temperature is an averaged Cf!rvejor Lake Norman, N.C., adapted from data supplied by Duke Power Company. A general temperature elevation of 10 F is used to provide an extreme example. Incremental growth rates (mmfwk) are plotted on the main figure, while annual accumulated growth is plotted in the inset. Simplifying assumptions were that growth rates and the relationship of growth rate to tem- perature were constant throughout the year, and that there would be sufficient food to sus- tain maximum attainable growth rates at all times. ..... ----........ ', ' '· ' ' --------------~-Max. Weekly Avg., largemouth bass \ with limit Incremental Growth Rates (mm/wk) \ without limit 11 \ I \ I I I I I I I I I I 15 22 29 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 JULY AUG. SEPT. 30 7 i4 21 28 4 OCT. II 18 25 NOV. 2 9 16 23 30 DEC. 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 q " 22 .... B l:! " 0.. E " 20 E-< 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 .[ jil J I il i II' I'll, -------________________ __._.,, ... 160/Section III-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE III-12-Summary of Some Upper Limiting Temperatures for Prolonged Exposures of Fishes Based on Optimum Tem- peratures and Ultimate.Upper Incipient Lethal Temperatures (Equation 1). Optimum Ultimate upper incipient Maximum weekly average Species Function Reference lethal temperature Reference temperature (Eq. 1) c c F c F Catostomus commersoni (while sucker) ...... 27 80.6 growth unpubl., NWQL"' 29.3 84.7 Hart 1947"' 27.8 82 Coregonus artedii (Cisco or lake herring) ..... 16 60.8 growth McCormick et al. 1971'" 25.7 78.3 Edsall and Colby 19702" 19.2 66.6 lctalurus punctatus (channel catfish) ......... 30 86 growth Strawn 1970;'" Andrews and Stickney 38.0 100.4 Allen and Strawn 19682'• 32.7 90.9 19712" Lepomis macrochirus (bluegiiO (yr II) ........ 22 71.6 growth McCamish 1971'"' 33.8 92.8 Harl1952"' 25.9 78.6 Anderson 19592" Microplerus dolomieu (smallmouth bass) .... 26.3 83 growth Horning and Pearson 19722" 35.0 95.0 Horning and Pearson 19722" 29.9 85.8 28.3 83 growth Peek 1965'"' ave 27.3 81.1 Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)(fry). 27.5 81.5 growth Strawn 1961"' 36.4 97.5 Hart1952"' 30.5 86.7 Notrop1s atherinoides (emerald shiner) ....... 27 80.6 growth unpubl., NWQL'" 30.7 87.3 Hart 1952"' 28.2 82.8 Oncorhynchus nerka (sockeye salmon) ....... 15.0 59.0 growth Brett et al. 19692" 25.0 77.0 Brett 19522" 18.3 64.9 15.0 59.0 other functions Brett 1971"' Quveniles) .............................. 15.0 max. swimming Pseudopleuronectes Americanus (winter flounder) ............................... 18.0 64.4 growth Brett 19702" 29.1 84.4 Hoff and Westman 19662•• 21.8 71.2 Sa1mo trutta (brown trout) .................. 81o 17 54.5 growth Brell1970"' 23.5 74.3 Bishai 1960"' 16.2 61.2 ave 12.5 Salvelinus fonlinalis (brook trout) ..........• 15.4 59.7 growth unpubl, NWQL"• 25.5 77.9 Fry, Hart and Walker, 19462•• 18.2 64.8 13.0 55.4 growth Baldwin 19572" 15 59 metabolic Graham 1949284 ave 14.5 58.1 scope Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout) ........... 16 60.8 scope for acli vity Gibson and Fry 1954"'' 23.5 Gibson and Fry 1954"'' 18.8 65.8 (2 metabol1sm) 17 62.6 swimming speed ave 16.5 61.7 Heat added to upper reaches of some cold rivers can be retained throughout the river's remaining length (J aske and Synoground 1970).292 This factor adds to the natural trend of warming at distances from headwaters. Thermal additions in headwaters, therefore, may contribute sub- stantially to reduction of cold-water species in downstream areas (Mount 1970).305 Upstream thermal additions should be evaluated for their effects on summer maxima at down- stream locations, as well as in the immediate vicinity of the heat source. Recommendation Growth of aquatic organisms would be main- tained at levels necessary for sustaining actively growing and reproducing populations if the maxi- mum weekly average temperature in the zone in- habited by the species at that time does not exceed one-third of the range between the optimum tem- perature and the ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature of the species (Equation 1, page 157), and the temperatures above the weekly average do not exceed the criterion for short-term exposures. This maximum need not apply to acceptable mix- ing zones (see proportional relationships of mixing zones to receiving systems, p. 114), and must be applied with adequate understanding of the normal seasonal distribution of the important species. WINTER MAXIMA Although artificially produced temperature elevations during winter months may actually bring the temperature closer to optimum or preferred temperature for important species and attract fish (Trembley 1965), 321 metabolic acclimation to these higher levels can preclude safe return of the organism to ambient temperatures should the artificial heating suddenly cease (Pennsylvania Fish Com- mission 1971 ;310 Robinson 1970)316 or the organism be driven from the heat area. For example, sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) acclimated to 20 C suffered 50 percent mortality in the laboratory when their temperature was dropped suddenly to 5 C (Brett 1971 :256 see Figure 111-3). The same population of fish withstood a drop to zero when acclimated to 5 C. The lower limit of the range of thermal tolerance of important species must, therefore, be main- tained at the normal seasonal ambient temperatures throughout cold seasons, unless special provisions are made to assure that rapid temperature drop will not occur or that organisms cannot become acclimated to elevated tempera- tures. This can be accomplished by limitations on tempera- ture elevations in such areas as discharge canals and mixing zones where organisms may reside, or by insuring that maximum temperatures occur only in areas not accessible to important aquatic life for lengths of time sufficient to allow metabolic acclimation. Such inaccessible areas would include the high-velocity zones of diffusers or screened dis-: cha WOl int( 1 tim are eli II sho hig sev< tim not lo"" ten be dat stn hm SUS< 6( 1 sho Wli c1e1 tet do (m let thl se~ is pe' tr~ raJ W3 mi SH wa ca1 ex< na· bri wi1 (F1 SUI charge channels. This reduction of maximum temperatures would not preclude use of slightly warmed areas as sites for intense winter fisheries. This consideration may be .important in some regions at times other than in winter. The Great Lakes, for example, are susceptible to rapid changes in elevation of the thermo- cline in summer which may induce rapid decreases in shoreline temperatures. Fish acclimated to exceptionally high temperatures in discharge canals may be killed or severely stressed without changes in power plant opera- tions (Robinson 1968). 314 Such regions should take special riote of this possibility. Some numerical values for acclimation temperatures and lower limits of tolerance ranges (lower incipient lethal temperatures) are given in Appendix II -C. Other data must be provided by further research. There are no adequate d~ta available with which to estimate a safety factor for no stress from cold shocks. Experiments currently in progress, however, suggest that channel catfish fingerlings are more susceptible to predation after being cooled more than 5 to 6 C (Coutant, unpublished data).324 The effects of limiting ice formation in lakes and rivers should be carefully observed. This aspect of maximum W'inter temperatures is apparent, although there is insuffi- ~ient evidence to estimate its importance. Important species should be protected if the maximum weekly average temperature during win- . ter months in any area to which they have access . ~oes ·not exceed the acclimation temperature ~minus a 2 C safety factor) that raises the lower lethal threshold temperature of such species above .the normal ambient water temperatures for that ~eason, and the criterion for short-term exposures is not exceeded. This recommendation applies es- );)ecially to locations where organisms may be at- tracted from the receiving water and subjected to ~apid thermal drop, as in the low velocity areas of ~ater diversions (intake or discharge), canals, and !nixing zones. ~HORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME TEMPERATURE . , To protect aquatic life and yet allow other uses of the ~ater, it is essential to know the lengths of time organisms .$an survive extreme temperatures (i.e., temperatures that 'S?'ceed the 7-day incipient lethal temperature). Both ~:itural environments and power plant cooling systems can priefly reach temperature extremes (both upper and lower) ~ithout apparent detrimental effect to the aquatic life ,(Fry 1951 ;277 Becker et al. 1971).245 ,. The length of time that 50 per cent of a population will ~rvive temperature above the incipient lethal temperature Heat and Temperature/161 can be calculated from a regression equation of experi- mental data (such as those in Figure III-3) as follows: log (time) =a+b (temp.) (Equation 2) where time is expressed in minutes, temperature in degrees centigrade and where a and b are intercept and slope, respectively, which are characteristics of each acclimation temperature for each species. In some cases the time- temperature relationship is more complex than the semi- logarithmic model given above. Equation 2, however, is the most applicable, and is generally accepted by the scientific community (Fry 1967).279 Caution is recom- mended in extrapolating beyond the data limits of the original research (Appendix II-C). The rate of temperature change does not appear to alter this equation, as long as the change occurs more rapidly than over several days (Brett 1941 ;251 Lemke 1970). 300 Thermal resistance may be diminished by the simultaneous presence of toxicants or other debilitating factors (Ebel et al. 1970,273 and summary by Coutant 1970c).269 The most accurate predictability can be derived from data collected using water from the site under evaluation. Because the equations based on research on thermal tolerance predict 50 per cent mortality, a safety factor is needed to assure no mortality. Several studies have indi- cated that a 2 C reduction of an upper stress temperature results in no mortalities within an equivalent exposure duration (Fry et al. 1942;280 Black 1953).248 The validity of a two degree safety factor was strengthened by the results of Coutant (1970a).267 He showed that about 15 to 20 per cent of the exposure time, for median mortality at a given high temperature, induced selective predation on thermally shocked salmon and trout. (This also amounted to reduction of the effective stress temperature by about 2 C.) Un- published data from subsequent predation experiments showed that this reduction of about 2 C also applied to the incipient lethal temperature. The level at which there is no increased vulnerability to predation is the best estimate of a no-stress exposure that is currently available. No similar safety factor has been explored for tolerance of low tem- peratures. Further research may determine that safety factors, as well as tolerance limits, have to be decided independently for each species, life stage, and water quality ~ituation. Information needed for predicting survival of a number of species of fisJ;l and invertebrates under short-term condi- tions of heat extremes is presented in Appendix II-C. This information includes (for each acclimation temperature) upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures: coefficients a and b for the thermal resistance equation; and information on size, life stage, and geographic source of the species. It is clear that adequate data are available for only a small percentage of aquatic species, and additional research is necessary. Thermal resistance information should be obtained locally· for· critical areas to account for simul- 162/Section III-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife taneous presence of toxicants or other debilitating factors, a consideration not reflected in Appendix II-C data. More data are available ior upper lethal temperab.1res than for lower. The resistance time equation, Equation 2, can be rearranged to incorporate the 2 C margin of safety and also to define conditions for survival (right side of the equation less than or equal to 1) as follows: time 12::----- 1Q!a+b(temp.+2)] (Equation 3) Low levels of mortality of some aquatic organisms are not necessarily detrimental to ecosystems, because permissible mortality levels can be established. This is how fishing or shellfishing activities are managed. Many states and inter- national agencies have established elaborate systems for setting an allowable rate of mortality (for sport and com- mercial fish) in order to assure needed reproduction and survival. (This should not imply, however, that a form of pollution should be allowed to take the entire harvestable yield.) Warm discharge water from a power plant may sufficiently stimulate reproduction of some organisms (e.g., zooplankton), such that those killed during passage through the maximally heated areas are replaced within a few hours, and no impact of the mortalities can be found in the open water (Churchill and Wojtalik 1969;262 Heinle 1969).288 On the other hand, Jensen (1971)293 calculated that even five percent additional mortality of 0-age brook trout (Salvelinus jontinalis) decreased the yield of the trout fishery, and 50 per cent additional mortality would, theoretically. cause extinction of the population. Obviously, there can be no adequate generalization concerning the impact of short- term effects on entire ecosystems, for each case will be somewhat different. Future research must be directed toward determining the effects of local temperature stresses on population dynamics. A complete discussion will not be attempted here. Criteria for complete sho"rt-term protection may not always be necessary and should be applied with an adequate understanding of local conditions. Recommendation Unless there is justifiable reason to believe it unnecessary for maintenance of populations of a species, the right side of Equation 3 for that species should not be allowed to increase above unity when the temperature exceeds the incipient lethal temperature minus 2 C: time 1>----- -10!a+b(temp.+2)] Values for a and bat the appropriate acclimation temperature for some species can be obtained from Appendix 11-C or through additional research if necessary data are not available. This recommen- dation applies to all locations where organisms to be protected are exposed, including areas within mixing zones and water diversions such as power station cooling water. REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT The sequence of events relating to gonad growth and gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of gametes, development of the egg and embryo, and commencement of independent feeding represents one of the most complex phenomena in nature, both for fish (Brett 1970)255 and invertebrates (Kinne 1970).296 These events are generally the most thermally sensitive of all life stages. Other environ- mental factors, such as light and salinity, often seasonal in nature, can also profoundly affect the response to tempera- ture (Wiebe 1968). 323 The general physiological state of the organisms (e.g., energy reserves), which is an integration of previous history, has a strong effect on reproductive poten- tial (Kinne 1970).296 The erratic sequence of failures and successes of different year classes of lake fish attests to the unreliability of natural conditions for providing optimum reproduction. Abnormal, short-term temperature fluctuations appear to be of greatest significance in reduced production of juvenile fish and invertebrates (Kinne, 1963).295 Such thermal fluctuations can be a prominent consequence of water use as in hydroelectric power (rapid changes in river flow rates), thermal electric power (thermal discharges at fluctuating power levels), navigation (irregular lock releases), and irrigation (irregular water diversions and wasteway re- leases). Jaske and Synoground (1970)292 have documented such temperature changes due to interacting thermal and hydroelectric discharges on the Columbia River. Tolerable limits or variations of temperature change throughout development, and particularly at the most sensitive life stages, differ among species. There is no adequate summary of data on such thermal requirements for successful reproduction. The data are scattered through many years of natural history observations (however, see Breder and Rosen 1966250 for a recent compilation of some data; also see Table III-13). High priority must be assigned to summarizing existing information and obtaining that which is lacking. Uniform elevations of temperature by a few degrees during the spawning period, while maintaining short-term temperature cycles and seasonal thermal patterns, appear to have little overall effect on the reproductive cycle of resident aquatic species, other than to advance the timing for spring spawners or delay it for fall spawners. Such shifts are often seen in nature, although no quantitative measure- ments of reproductive success have been made in this connection. For example, thriving populations of many fishes occur in diverse streams of the Tennessee Valley in which the date of the spawning temperature m'!y vary in a I ' I ! I I I ~ F F F B ,, L ~ c fi G fi G L1 ~ p, B 1'1 G D S1 M s, M Jl El D 1.1 S1 lc Bl I. Ci CJ Bl Lt R1 L. Cl lc w I. PI Ll Bl P1 B1 Li Bl lc Tl D 'II L R N ~---------- Heat and Temperature/163 TABLE Ill-13-Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures (Adapted from Wojtalik. T. A •• unpublished manuscript)* Fishes Temp. (C) Spawning site Range in spawning depth Daily spawning lime Ensile Incubation period days (Temp. C) Sauger Slizostedion canadense ...•.................•....... 5.0 Shallow 11avel bars 2-4foot Night Bottom 25 (5.0) Walleye S. vitreum vitreum •...............................• 7.0 Gravel, rubble, boulders on bar 3-10foot Day, night Boitom ···················· Longnose gar Lepisosteus osseus .....................•........... 10.8 Flooded shallows Flooded shallows Day Weeds 6 (20.0) White bass Marone chrysops .......•.............•.........•..• 11.7 Sand & rock shores 2-12foot Day,long but esp. nilbl Surface 2 (15.6) Least darter Elheostoma microperca ..•.•.•....•..•........•..••. 12.0 Spotted sucker Minytrema melanops .••..•.•......••.........••.... 12.8 White sucker Caloslomus commersoni... .. . . . ... . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . • 12.G-13.0 Streams or bars . .. . . . . . . . . . .•. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . Day, night Bottom ···················· Silvery minnow Hybognathus nucha lis ...............••............• 13.0 Coves .............................. Day Bottom ···················· Banded pygmo sunfish Elassoma zonatum.... .. . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.9-16.7 White crappie Pomoxis annuiaris.................................. 14.G-16.0 Submerged materials in shallows ······························ Day Bottom 1 (21.1-23.2) Fathead minnow 14.4 Pimephales promelas •.........•.........•.......... 25.0 Shallows Nr. surface Day Underside noatlnt objects ···················· Bigmouth bulllllo lcliobus cyprinellus................................. 15.6-18.3 Shallows ····························•· Day Bottom 9-10 (18.1) Larpmouth bass Micropterus salmoides .....•.•..•••........•.•.....• 15.6 Shallows near bank 30 inches Day Bottom 5 (18.9) Common shiner Notropis cornutus. .. .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . • . . . . .. . . . •. . . 15.6-18.3 Smalllflvel streams I ·······•······················ Day Bottom Golden shiner Nolemigonus crysoleucas ...•...•......•............. 15.6 Bays & shoals, woods ······························ Day Weeds 4 (15.&+) Green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus ............•..............••..•.. 15.6 Bank, shaQows Inches to 1 ~foot Day Bottom ···················· Peddlefish Polyodon spathula .•......•........•.....•..•...•... 16.0 Over lfiYel bars Nr. surface Nigh!, day Bottom ···················· Blackside darter Percina maculata ............•.....••.....•.•...•..• 16.5 Gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum ..•..•.••..•....•.•.•....••.•. 16.7 Smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieui .•......•.•••.•.•.......•.•.•. 18.7 Gravel rock shore 3-20foot Day Bottom 1 (15.0) Spotted bass Micropterus punctulatus ..••.......••••.•.•..•...•.. 11.8 Small streams, bar ······························ Day Bottom 4-5 (20.0) Johnny darter Etheostoma nilfUm .......•...•.•.•...•..•..•.....•• 18.0 Orange spotted sunfish Lepomis humilis ............•.••.•...•....••.•.•..• 18.3 Smallmouth bulllllo lcliobus bubalus ..•............•..•..••..•....•.... 18.9 Black bulllllo I. niger ••.......•.•.•.•...........•••.•••....••..• 18.9 Carp Cyprinus carpio ..........•..................••...•. 19.0 Flooded shallows Nr. surface Day nilbl Bottom 4-8 (16.7) Bluegi(l Lepomis macrochirus ..•........••.•...•........•... 19.4 Weeds, shallows 2-&feet Day Bottom 1~ (22.2) Redbreast sunfish Lauritis ................•.............•.•••....... 20.0 Channel catfish 20.0 lctalurus punctatus .....••.•.....•........•......... 26.7 Bank cavity <10feet Day, nilbl Bottom 9-10 (15.0) While catfish I. catus ..•...........•..•....•..•...••.......••..• 20.0 Sand lfiVel bar <10feet Day Bottom &-1 (23.9-29.4) Pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus .••••.•...•.•.•.•...........•....• 20.0 Bank shallows <Sleet Day Bottom 3 (21.1) Black crappie Pomoxis ni11omaculatus •..........•...••.......•••• 20.0 Brook silverside Labidesthes sicculus .......••.•••••..•..•..•••...... 20.0 Over lfiVII Surface Day Weeds, boHoll ···················· Brown bullhead ......•......•...................... lctalurus nebulosus ...•••...•.•..•.................• 21.1 Shallows, woods Inches to &feet . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . Weeds, bottoll 5 (25.0) Threadfin shad Dorosoma petenense .••.••.••....................... 21.1 Shallow and open wallr Surface Day Bottom 3 (26.1) War mouth Lepomis gulosus ..••••••.•.....•.•.•.•.•••.•....... 21.0 Bank shallows <Sleet Day Bottom 1~ (25.G-26)1) River redhorse Moxostoma carinatum. • . . . . . . • . • • • . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1-24.4 Rimes, streams ....•••............••......... Day Botto• .................... 164/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE III-13-Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures-Continued Fishes Temp. (C) Spawning slie Range in spawning depth Daily spawning time Egg site Incubation period days (Temp. C) Blue calflsh lctalurus furcatus. . .. .. .. .. . . .. • .. . . . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. 22.2 Flathead calflsh Pylodictis olivaris.................................. 22.2 Redear sunfish lepomis microlophus. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. 23.0 Quiet, various Inches to 10 feet longear sunfish l. megalotis.... ... ........ ..... ... ........... ... . . 23.3 Freshwater drum Apiodinotus grunniens. ... ........... ...... .. ....... 23.0 River carpsucker carpoides carpio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.9 Spoiled bullhead lctalurus serracanlhus. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 26.7 Yellow bullhead I. natalis ........................................ .. Quiet, shallows 1V.-4 feet * T. A. Wojlalik, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama."' given year by 22 to 65 days. Examination of the literature shows that shifts in spawning dates by nearly one month are common in natural waters throughout the U.S. Popula- tions of some species at the southern limits of their dis- tribution are exceptions, e.g., the lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) in Lake Erie that require a prolonged, cold incubation period (Lawler 1965)299 and species such as yellow perch (Percajlavescens) that require a long chill period for egg maturation prior to spawning (Jones, unpublished data). 327 This biological plasticity suggests that the annual spring rise, or fall drop, in temperature might safely be advanced (or delayed) by nearly one month in many regions, as long r as the thermal requirements that are necessary for migra- tion, spawning, and other activities are not eliminated and the necessary chill periods, maturation times, or incubation periods are preserved for important species. Production of food organisms may advance in a similar way, with little disruption of food chains, although there is little evidence to support this assumption (but see Coutant 1968;265 Coutant and Steele 1968;271 and Nebeker 1971).307 The process is similar to the latitudinal differences within the range of a given species. Highly mobile species that depend upon temperature synchrony among widely different regions or environments for various phases of the reproductive or rearing cycle (e.g., anadromous salmonids or aquatic insects) could be faced with dangers of dis-synchrony if one area is warmed, but another is not. Poor long-term success of one year class of Fraser River (British Columbia) sockeye salmon ( Oncorhyn- chus nerka) was attributed to early (and highly successful) fry production and emigration during an abnormally warm summer followed by unsuccessful, premature feeding activity in the cold and still unproductive estuary (Vernon 1958).322 Anadromous species are able, in some cases, (see studies of eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) by Smith and Bottom 5-10 (18.9) . Saalfeld 1955)317 to modify their migrations and spawning to coincide with the proper temperatures whenever and wherever they occur. · Rates of embryonic development that could lead to pre- mature hatching are determined by temperatures of the microhabitat of the embryo. Temperatures of the micro- habitat may be quite· different from those of the remainder of the waterbody. For example, a thermal effiuent at the temperature of maximum water density (approximately 4 C) can sink in a lake whose surface water temperature is colder (Hoglund and Spigarelli, 1972).290 Incubating eggs of such species as lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and various coregonids on the lake bottom may be intermittently exposed to temperatures warmer than normal. Hatching may be advanced to dates that are too early for survival of the fry in their nursery areas. Hoglund and . Spigarelli 1972,290 using temperature data from a sinking plume in Lake Michigan, theorized that if lake herring (Coregonus artedii) eggs had been incubated at the location of one of their temperature sensors, the fry would have hatched seven days early. Thermal limitations must, therefore, apply at the proper location for the particular species or life stage to be protected. Recommendations After their specific limitin~ temperatures and exposure times have been determined by studies tailored to local conditions, the reproductive ac- tivity of selected species will be protected in areas where: • periods required for ~onad ~rowth and ~amete maturation are preserved; • no temperature difierentials are created that block spawnin~ mi~rations, althou~h some delay or advancement of timin~ based upon local con- ditions may be tolerated; • temperatures are not raised to a level at which necessary spawning or incubation temperatures of winter-spawning species cannot occur; • sharp temperature changes are not induced in spawning areas, either in mixing zones or in mixed water bodies (the thermal and geographic limits to such changes will be dependent upon local requirements of species, including the spawning microhabitat, e.g., bottom gravels, littoral zone, and surface strata); • timing of reproductive events is not altered to the extent that synchrony is broken where repro- duction or rearing of certain life stages is shown to be dependent upon cyclic food sources or other factors at remote locations. • normal patterns of gradual temperature changes throughout the year are maintained. These requirements should supersede all others during times when they apply. CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF AQUA TIC COMMUNITIES Significant change in temperature or in thermal patterns over a period of time may cause some change in the com- position of aquatic communities (i.e., the species represented and the numbers of individuals in each species). This has been documented by field studies at power plants (Trembley 1956-1960)321 and by laboratory investigations (Mcintyre 1968). 303 Allowing temperature changes to alter significant! y the community structure in natural waters may be detri- mental, even though species of direct importance to man are not eliminated. The limits of allowable change in species diversity due to temperature changes should not differ from those applicable to any other pollutant. This general topic is treated in detail in reviews by others (Brookhaven National Lab. 1969)258 and is discussed in Appendix II-B, Community Structure and Diversity Indices, p. 408. NUISANCE ORGANISMS Alteration of aquatic communities by the addition of heat may occasionally result in growths of nuisance organisms provided that other environmental conditions essential to such growths (e.g., nutrients) exist. Poltoracka (1968)311 documented the growth stimulation of plankton in an artificially heated small lake; Trembley (1965321 ) re- ported dense growths of attached algae in the discharge canal and shallow discharge plume of a power station (where the algae broke loose periodically releasing decomposing organic matter to the receiving water). Other instances of algal growths in effluent channels of power stations were reviewed by Coutant (1970c).269 Changed thermal patterns (e.g., in stratified lakes) may greatly alter the seasonal appearances of nuisance algal Heat and Temperature/165 growths even though the temperature changes are induced by altered circulation patterns (e.g., artificial destratifica- tion). Dense growths of plankton have been retarded in some instances and stimulated in others (Fast 1968;275 and unpublished data 1971). 325 Data on temperature limits or thermal distributions in · which nuisance growths will be produced are not presently available due in part to the complex interactions with other growth stimulants. There is not sufficient evl.dence to say that any temperature increase will necessarily result in increased nuisance organisms. Careful evaluation of local conditions is required for any reasonable prediction of effect. Recommendation Nuisance growths of organisms may develop where there are increases in temperature or alter- ations of the temporal or spatial distribution of heat in water. There should be careful evaluation of all factors contributing to nuisance growths at any site before establishment of thermal limits based upon this response, and temperature limits should be set in conjunction with restrictions on other factors (see the discussion of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Section 1). CONCLUSIONS Recommendations for temperature limits to protect aquatic life consist of the following two upper limits for any time of the year (Figure III-6). 1. One limit consists of a maximum weekly average temperature that: (a) in the warmer months (e.g., April through October in the North, and March through November in the South) is one third of the range between the optimum temperature and the ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature for the most sensitive important species (or appropriate life stage) that is normally found at that location at that time; or (b) in the cooler months (e.g., mid-October to mid- April in the North, and December to February in the South) is that elevated temperature from which important species die when that elevated tem- perature is suddenly dropped to the normal ambient temperature, with the limit being the acclimation temperature (minus a 2 C safety factor), when the lower incipient lethal tempera- ture equals. the normal ambient water temperature (in some regions this limit may also be applicable in summer) ; or (c) during reproduction seasons (generally April-June and September-October in the North, and March- May and October-November in the South) is that 166/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife temperature that meets specific site requirements for successful migration, spawning, egg incubation, fry rearing, .and other reproductive functions of important species; or (d) at ·a specific site is found necessary to preserve normal species diversity or prevent undesirable growths of nuisance organisms. 2. The second limit is the time-dependent maximum temperature for short exposures as given by the .species- specific equation: time 1 ~----- IO!a+b(temp.+2)) Local requirements for reproduction should supersede all other requirements when they are applicable. Detailed ecological analysis of both natural and man-modified aquatic environments is necessary to ascertain when these requirements should apply. USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA A hypothetical electric power station using lake water for cooling is illustrated as a typical example in Figure III-7. This discussion concerns the application of thermal criteria to this typical situation. The size of the power station is 1,000 megawatts electric (MW.) if nuclear, or 1,700 MW. if fossil-fueled (oil, coal, gas); and it releases 6.8 billion British Thermal Units (BTU) per hour to the aquatic environment. This size is representative of power stations currently being installed. Temperature rise at the condensers would be 20 F with cooling water flowing at the rate of 1,520 cubic feet/second (ft3/sec) or 682,000 gallons/minute. Flow could be in- creased to reduce temperature rise. The schematic Figure III-7 is drawn with two alternative .disch<!-rge arrangements to illustrate the extent to which design features affect thermal impacts upon aquatic life c F Time-Temperature History A for Short Exposures 30 86 68 10 50~ 0 32 Maximum Weekly Average, Winter J F Time-Temperature Limits for Short\E•po'"'" X/') / -I / I / I A/ I 1/\ I I -A / / ~Seasons of \ / Reproduction '-. _,./ Requirements M A M J J Annual Calendar .A Maximum Weekly Average, Summer ~--, \ (Based on species or community) I ' \ \ \ \ \ \ \ A' \ f\\ \ \ \ \ _/, } '-~ A s 0 N D Maximum Weekly Average, Winter FIGURE lll-6-Schematic Summary of Thermal Criteria ------------------------- ... ~ D ~ 0. a ~ 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Power Plant Modified l>T 20F Historic Average Temp. at D JFMAMJJ ASOND Months Heat and Temperature/167 .----a D Plume Scale 0 I Feet 5000 I FIGURE III-'7-Hypothetical Power Plant Site For Application of Water Temperature Criteria 168/Section III-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Warm condenser water can be carried from the station to the lake by (a) a pipe carrying water at a high flow velocity or (b) a canal in which the warm water flowsslowly. There is little cooling in a canal, as measurements at several existing power stations have shown. Water can be released to the lake by using any of several combinations of water velocity and volume (i.e., number of outlets) or outlet dimensions and locations. These design features largely determine the configuration of the thermal plumes illus- trated in Figure III-7 resulting from either rapid dilution with lake water or from slow release as a surface layer. The isotherms were placed according to computer simulation of thermal discharges (Pritchard 1971)312 and represent a condition without lake currents to aid mixing. Exact configuration of an actual plume depends upon many factors (some of which change seasonally or even hourly) such as local patterns of currents, wind, and bottom and shore topography. Analytical Steps Perspective of the organisms in the water body and of the pertinent non-biological considerations (chemical, hy- drological, hydraulic) is an essential beginning. This perspective requires a certain amount of literature survey or on site study if the information is not well known. Two steps are particularly important: l. identification of the important species and com- munity (primary production, species diversity, etc.) that are relevant to this site; and 2. determination oflife patterns of the important species (seasonal distribution, migrations, spawning areas, nursery and rearing areas, sites of commercial or sport fisheries). This information should include as much specific informa- tion on thermal requirements as it is possible to obtain from the literature. Other steps relate the life patterns and environmental requirements of the biota to the sources of potential thermal damage from the power plant. These steps can be identified with specific areas in Figure III-7. Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature Change Five principal areas offer potential for biological damage from thermal changes, labeled A-Eon Figure III-7. (There are other areas associated with mechanical or chemical effects that cannot be treated here; see the index.) Area A The cooling water as it passes through the intake, intake piping (A1), condensers, discharge piping (A2) or canal (A'2), and thermal plume (A3 or A'3), carrying with it SJ;Ilall organisms (such as phytoplankton, zooplankton, invertebrate larvae, and fish eggs or larvae). Organisms receive a thermal shock to the full 20 F above ambient temperature with a duration that depends upon the rate of water flow and the temperature drop in the plume. Area B Water of the plume alone that entrains both small and larger organisms (including small fish) as it is diluted (B or B'). Organisms receive thermal shocks from temperatures ranging from the discharge to the ambient temperature, de- pending upon where they are entrained.' Area C Benthic environment where bottom organisms (including fish eggs) can be heated chronically or periodically by the thermal plume (C or C'). Area D The slightly warmed mixed water body (or large segment of it) where all organisms experience a slightly warmer average temperature (D). Area E The discharge canal in which resident or seasonal populations reside at abnormally high tempera- tures (E). Cooling Water Entrainment It is not adequate to consider only thermal criteria for water bodies alone when large numbers of aquatic organisms may be pumped through a power plant. The probability of an organism being pumped through will depend upon the ratio of the volume of cooling water in the plant to the volume in the lake (or to the volume passing the plant in a river or tidal fresh water). Tidal environments (both freshwater and saline) offer greater potential for entrain- ment than is apparent, since the same water mass will move back and forth past the plant many times during the lifetime of pelagic residence time of most organisms. Thermal shocks that could be experienced by organisms entrained at the hypothetical power station are shown in Figure III -8. Detrimental effects of thermal exposures received during entrainment can be judged by using the following equation for short-term exposures to extreme temperatures: . . time General cntenon: l > ------ -lQ[a+b(temp.+2)) Values for a and b in the equation for the species of aquatic organisms that are likely to be pumped with cooling water may be obtained from Appendix II, or the data may be obtained using the methods of Brett ( 1952). 252 The prevailing intake temperature would determine the acclimation temperature to be selected from the table. For example, juvenile largemouth bass may frequent the near-shore waters of this lake and be drawn into the intake. To determine whether the hypothetical thermal discharges (Figure III-7). would be detrimental for juvenile bass, the following analysis can be made (assuming, for example, that the lake is in Wisconsin where these basic data for bass are available): Criterion for juvenile bass (Wisconsin) when intake 20 0 ~ 16 .!.l "' .s " ~ ~ 12 8 4 Condenser Piping Intake Piping 0 Canal 4 Heat and Temperature/169 12 10 8 4 0 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Time After Initial Heating {hrs.) Modified after Coutant 1970c269 FIGURE Ill-8-Time Course of Temperature Change in Cooling Water Passing Through the Example Power Station with Two Alternate Discharges. The Canal Is Assumed to Flow at a Rate of 3Ft. Per Sec. temperature (acclimation) is 70 F (21.11 C). (Data from Appendix II-C). Canal time 1~---------------1 0134.3649-0.97 89(temp .+2)] Criterion applied to entrainment to end of discharge canal (discharge temperature is 70 F plus the 20 degree rise in the condensers or 90 F (32.22 C). The thermal plume would provide additional exposure above the lethal threshold, minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F) of more than four hours. 1> 60 -10134.3649-0.9789(32.22+2)] 1~8.15 Conclusion: Juvenile bass would not survive to the end of the discharge canal. Dilution Criterion applied to entrainment in the system em- playing rapid dilution. 1.2 1 > ----------------10134.3649-0. 9789(32.22+2.0)] 1>~ -7.36 Travel time in piping to discharge is assumed to be 1 min., and temperature drop to below the lethal threshold minus 2 C (29.5 C or 85.1 F) is about 10 sec. (Pritchard, 1971). 312 Conclusion Juvenile bass would survive this thermal exposure: 1 ~0.1630 By using the equation in the following form, log (time) =a+b (temp.+2) the length of time that bass could barely survive the expected temperature rise could be calculated, thus allowing selection of an appropriate discharge system. For example: log (time) =34.3649-0.9789 (34.22) log (time) =0.8669 time =7.36 --~-------------- 170/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife This would be about 1,325 feet of canal flowing at 3ft/sec. It is apparent that a long discharge canal, a nonrecircu- lating cooling pond, a very long offshore oioe, or delayed dilution in a mixing zone (such as the one promoting surface cooling) could prolong the duration of exposure of pumped organisms and thereby increase the likelihood of damage to them. Precise information on the travel times of the cooling water in the discharge system is needed to conduct this analysis. The calculations have ignored changing temperatures in the thermal plume, because the canal alone was lethal, and cooling in the plume with rapid dilution was so rapid that the additional exposure was only for 10 seconds (assumed to be at the discharge temperature the whole time). There may be other circumstances under which the effect of decreasing exposure temperature in the plume may be of interest. Effects of changing temperatures in the plume can be estimated by summing the effects of incremental exposures for short time periods (Fry et al. 1946281). For example, the surface cooling plume of Figures III-7 and III-8 could be considered to be composed of several short time spans, each with an average temperature, until the temperature had dropped to the upper lethal threshold minus 2 C for the juvenile bass. Each time period would be calculated as if it were a single exposure, and the calculated values for all time periods would be summed and compared with unity, as follows: time1 time2 timen 10[a+b(temp.t+2)) + 10[a+b(temp.2+2)] + • • • 10[a+b(temp.n+2)] The surface cooling plume of Figure III-6 (exclusive of the canal) could be considered to consist of 15 min at 89.7 F (32.06 C), 15 min at 89.2 F (31.78 C), 15 min at 88.7 F (31.4 C), 15 min at 88.2 F (31.22 C), 15 min at 87.8 F (31.00 C), until the lethal threshold for 70 F acclima- tion minus 2 C (85.1 F) was reached. The calculation would proceed as follows: 15 1~-------- 1 0[34.3649-0. 97 89(32. 06+2)] 15 + 10[34.3649-0.9789(31. 78+2)] + In this case, the bass would not survive through the first 15-minute period. In other such calculations, several steps would have to be summed before unity was reached (if not reached, the plume would not be detrimental). Entrainment in the Plume Organisms mixed with the thermal plume during dilution will also receive thermal shocks, although the maximum temperatures will generally be less than the discharge temperature. The number of organisms affected to some degree may be significantly greater than the numbers actually pumped through the plant. The route of maximum thermal exposure for each plume is indicated in Figure III-7 by a dashed line. This route should be analyzed to determine the maximum reproducible effect. Detrimental effects of these exposures can also be judged by using the criterion for short-term exposures to extreme temperatures. The analytical steps were outlined above for estimating the effects on organisms that pass through the thermal plume portions of the entrainment thermal pattern. There would have been no mortalities of the largemouth bass from entrainment in the plume with rapid dilution, due to the short duration of exposure (about 10 seconds). Any bass that were entrained in the near-shore portions of the larger plume, and remained in it, would have died in less than 15 minutes. BoHom Organisms Impacted by the Plume Bottom communities of invertebrates, algae, rooted aquatic plants, and many incubating fish eggs can be exposed to warm plume water, particularly in shallow environments. In some circumstances the warming can be continuous, in others it can be intermittent due to changes in plume configuration with changes in currents, winds, or other factors. Clearly a thermal plume that stratifies and occupies only the upper part of the water column will have least effect on bottom biota. Several approaches are useful in evaluating effects on the community. Some have predictive capability, while others are suitable largely for identifying effects after they have occurred. The criterion for short-term exposures identified relatively brief periods of detrimental high temperatures. Instead of the organism passing through zones of elevated temperatures, as in the previous examples, the organism is sedentary, and the thermal pulse passes over it. Developing fish eggs may be very sensitive to such changes. A brief pulse of high temperature that kills large numbers of orga- nisms may affect a bottom area for time periods far longer than the immediate exposure time. Repeated sublethal ex- posures may also be detrimental, although the process is more complex than straight-forward summation. Analysis of single exposures proceeds exactly as described for plume entrainment. The criterion for prolonged exposures is more generally applicable. The maximum tolerable weekly average tem- perature may be determined by the organisms present and the phase of their life cycle. In May, for example, the maximum heat tolerance temperature for the community may be determined by incubating fish eggs or fish fry on the bottom. In July it may be determined by the important resident invertebrate species. A well-designed thermal dis- charge should not require an extensive mixing zone where these criteria are exempted. Special criteria for reproductive processes may have to be applied, although thermal dis- charges should be located so that zones important for reproduction-migration, spawning, incubation-are not used. Criteria for species diversity provide a useful tool for identifying effects of thermal changes after they have occurred, particularly the effects of subtle changes that are a result of community interactions rather than physiological responses by one or more major species. Further research may identify critical temperatures or sequences of tem- perature changes that cannot be exceeded and may thereby provide a predictive capability as well. (See Appendix 11-B.) Mixed Water Body (or major region thereof) This is the region most commonly considered in es- tablishing water quality standards, for it generally includes the major area of the water body. Here the results of thermal additions are observed as small temperature increases over a large area (instead of high temperatures locally at the dis- charge point), and all heat sources become integrated into the normal annual temperature cycle (Figure III-6 and Figtl.re Ill-7 insert). Detrimental high temperatures in this area (or parts of it) are defined by the criteria for maximum temperatures for prolonged exposure (warm and cool months) for the most sensitive species or life stage occurring there, at each time of year, and by the criteria for reproduction. For example, in the lake with the hypothetical power station, there may be 40 principal fish species, of which half are considered important. These species have spawning temperatures ranging from 5 to 6 C for the sauger (Sti;::,o- stedion canadense) to 26.7 C for the spotted bullhead (Ictalurus serracanthus). They also have a similar range of temperatures required for egg incubation, and a range of maximum temperatures for prolonged exposures of juveniles and adults. The requirements, however, may be met any time within normal time spans, such as January I to 24 for sauger spawning, and March 25 to April 29 for smallmouth bass spawning. Maximum temperatures for prolonged exposures Heat and Temperature/171 may increase steadily throughout a spring period. To predict effects of thermal discharges the pertinent tempera- tures for reproductive activities and maximum temperatures for each life stage can be plotted over a 12-month period such as shown in Fig. Ill-6. A maximum annual tempera- ture curve can become apparent when sufficient biological data are available. Mount (1970)305 gives an example of this type of analysis. Discharge Canal Canals or embayments that carry nearly undiluted condenser cooling water can develop biological communities that are atypical of normal seasonal communities. Interest in these areas does not generally derive from concern for a balanced ecosystem, but rather from effects that the altered communities can have on the entire aquatic ecosystem. The general criteria for nuisance organisms may be applicable. In the discharge canals of some existing power stations, extensive mats of temperature-tolerant blue-green algae grow and periodically break away, adding a decom- posing organic matter to the nearby shorelines. The winter criterion for maximum temperatures for prolonged exposures identifies the potential for fish kills due to rapid decreases in temperature. During cold seasons particularly, fish are attracted to warmer water of an enclosed area, such as a discharge canal. Large numbers may reside there for sufficiently long periods to become metabolically acclimated to the warm water. For any acclimation temperature there is a minimum temperature to which the species can be cooled rapidly and still survive (lower incipient lethal temperature). These numerical combinations, where data are available, are found in Appendix 11-C. There would be 50 per cent mortality, for example, if largemouth bass acclimated in a discharge canal to 20 C, were cooled to 5.5 C or below. If normal winter ambient temperature is less than 5.5 C, then the winter maximum should be below 20 C, perhaps nearer 15 C. If it is difficult to maintain the lower temperatures, fish should be excluded from the area. TOXIC SUBSTANCES ORGANIC MERCURY Until recently, mercury most commonly entered the aquatic environment by leaching from geological formations and by water transport to streams and lakes. Since the industrial revolution, however, increasing amounts of mer- cury have been added to the aquatic environment with waste products from manufacturing processes or through improper disposal of industrial and consumer products. In addition, large quantities of mercury enter the environment when ores are smelted to recover such metals as copper, lead, and zinc (Klein 1971 ), 343 and when fossil fuels are burned. Whereas the maximum amount of mercury released by weathering processes is approximately 230 metric tons per year worldwide, the amount released by the burning of coal is on the order of 3000 tons per year; and a further quantity, probably comparable to 3000 tons, is emitted from industrial processes (] oensuu 1971). 341 In urban and industrial areas consumer products con- taining mercury are often disposed of in sewer systems. These mercury discharges, though individually small, can- not be considered insignificant, because cumulatively they add large quantities of mercury to the water ·courses that receive these effluents. On the average, the mercury concen- tration in sewage effluent is one order of magnitude greater than its concentration in the water course that receives it (D'Itri unpublished data 1971).359 Based on Klein and Gold- berg's 1970 344 report of mercury concentrations in samples of ocean sediments near municipal sewer out-falls, it can be calculated that in an urban area from 400 to 500 pounds of mercury per million population are discharged to re- ceiving waters every year. The uses of mercury are varied, and its consumption is fairly large. The National Academy of Sciences (1969)347 reported the consumption of mercury by user category. World attention focused on the environmental mercury problem when human beings were poisoned by eating contaminated fish and shell fish during the middle and late 1950's in Minamata, Japan. Since the first occurrence of "Minamata disease" in 1953, 121 cases resulting in 46 deaths have been confirmed in the Minamata area with an additional 47 confirmed cases and 6 deaths in nearby Niigata (Takeuchi 1970). 352 In Sweden in the 1950's, conservationists charged that the abundance of methylmercury in the environment was causing severe poisoning in seed-eating birds and their predators (J ohnels et al. 196 7). 842 These poisonings could be related to the use of methylmercury in seed dressings. When these seed dressings were prohibited, levels of mercury declined substantially in seed-eating animals. At about the same time, investigators found high levels of mercury in fish in waters off Sweden, practically all of it in the form of methylmercury. Biological Methylation Some microbes are capable of biologically synthesizing methylmercury from mercury ions (Jensen and Jernelov 1969;339 Wood et al. 1969;358 Dunlap 1971 ;333 Fagerstrom and Jernel6v 1971). 334 At low concentrations, the formation of dimethylmercury is favored in the methyl transfer reaction · but at higher concentrations of mercury, the major product appears to be monomethy1mercury. In any particular eco- system, the amounts of mono-and dimethylmercury com- pounds are determined by the presence of microbial species, the amount of organic pollution loading, the mercury con- centration, temperature, and pH (Wood et al. 1969). 358 Biological Magnification Aquatic organisms concentrate methylmercury in their bodies either directly from the water or through the food chain (Johnels et al. 1967;342 Hannerz 1968;336 Hasselrot 1968,388 Miettinen et al. 1970 346). Northern pike (Esox lucius) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) are able to as- similate and concentrate methylmercury directly into their muscle tissues from ingested food (Miettinen et al. 1970). 346 In general, mercury in organisms eaten by fish increases at each trophic level of the food chain (Hamilton 1971). 335 The magnitude of the bioaccumulation of mercury is de- termined by the species, its exposure, feeding habits, metabolic rate, age and size, quality of the water, and the degree of mercury pollution in the water. Rucker and 172 Amend (1969)349 established that rainbow trout contained mercury levels of 4.0 and 17.3 J.Lg/g in their muscle and kidney tissue after being exposed to 60 J.Lg/1 of ethylmercury for one hour a day over 10 days. Fresh water phytoplankton, macrophytes, and fish are capable of biologically magnifying mercury concentrations from water 1000 times (Chapman et al. 1968).330 Johnels et al. (1967)342 reported a mercury concentration factor from water to pike of 5000 or more. Johnels et al. (1967)342 had previously shown that when mercury levels in pike muscle were below 0.2 J.Lg/g, the level was relatively constant irrespective of weigl;l.t, but above 0.2 J.Lg/g, the concentration of mercury tended to increase with increasing age and weight. Experiments in progress at the National Water Quality Laboratory in Duluth, Minnesota, (Mount unpublished data 1971)361 indicate that when brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) are held in water containing 0.05 J.Lg/1 of methyl- mercury for 2 months they can accumulate more than 0.5 J.Lg/g of mercury. This is a magnification of 10,000 times. In the same experiments, exposure to 0.03 J.Lg/1 for 5 months resulted in continuing accumulation in fish tissue with no indication of a plateau. In a group of fish held at one J.Lg/1, some organs contained 30 J.Lg/g. Some fresh water invertebrates have also been reported to have a 10,000 magnification (Hannerz 1968). 336 Although the mechanisms by which mercury accumulates and concentrates have not been fully explained, at least three factors are involved: the metabolic rate of individual fish; differences in the selection of food as fish mature; and the epithelial surface of the fish (Wobeser et al. 1970;357 Hannerz 1968).336 The rate at which fish lose methyl- mercury also has considerable effect on magnification of mercury in the tissues. Miettinen et al. have shown in a series ot papers (I 970) 346 that the loss of methylmercury is both fast and slow in fishes. The fast loss occurs early, while mercury is being redistributed through the body, and lasts only a few weeks. The subsequent loss from established binding sites follows slowly; a half-life is estimated to be on the order of 2 years. These rates mean that fishes, and perhaps other lower vertebrates, reduce their content of methylmercury many times more slowly than do the higher terrestrial vertebrates. Man, for example, is usually con- sidered to excrete half of any given mercury residue in about 80 days. Extremely low rates of loss have also heen shown in different species of aquatic mollusks and crayfish (Cambarus) (Nelson 1971).348 Excessive mercury residues in the sediments are dissipated only slowly. Li:ifroth (1970)345 estimated that aquatic habi- tats polluted with.mercury continue to contaminate fish for as long as 10 to 100 years a,fter pollution has stopped. .Mercyry in Fre.sh Waters Mercury measured in the water of selected rivers of the United States ranged from less than 0.1 J.Lg/1 .-to 17 J.Lg/1. Two-thirds·of the rivers contained·O.l·J.Lg/l.or less (Wallace Toxic Substancesjl73 et al. 1971).355 The value ofO.l J.Lg/1 is also reported as the earliest reliable estimate of mercury levels in uncontami- nated fresh water (Swedish National Institute of Public Health 1971). 351 Some rivers tested by the Swedish Institute were as low as 0.05 J.Lg/1, which was also the average mercury level in some salt waters. Toxicity of Organic Mercury in Water The chemical form of methylmercury administered to fish makes little difference in its toxic effect (Miettinen et al. 1970). 346 The methylmercury bound to sulfhydryl groups of proteins, as it would be in nature, is just as toxic as the free unbound ionic form. Fish are able to survive relatively high concentrations of organomercurials for a short time with few ill effects. For example, fry of steel head trout (Salmo gairdneri) and fingerlings of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) are able to survive in 10 mg/1 of pyridyl mercuric acetate for one hour with no toxic effects (Rucker and Whipple 1951).350 The LC50 of pyridyl mercuric acetate for some freshwater fish ranges from 390 J.Lg/1 to 26,000 J.Lg/1 for exposures be- tween 24 and 72 hours (Willford 1966;356 Clemmens and Sneed 1958,331 1959). 332 As the exposure times lengthen, lower concentrations of mercury are lethal. On the basis of 120-hour bioassay tests of three species of minnows, Van Horn and Balch ( 1955) 354 determined that the minimum lethal concentrations of pyridyl mercuric acetate, pyridyl mercuric chloride, phenyl mercuric acetate, and ethyl mercuric phosphate averaged 250 f..lg/1. Recent experiments at the National Water Quality Lab- oratory (Mount, personal communication 1971) 360 indicated that 0.2 J.~g/1 of methylmercury killed fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) within 6 to 8 weeks. Toxicity data from this same laboratory on several other species including Gammarus, Daphnia, top minnow (Fundulus sp.) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) indicated that none was more sensitive than the fathead minnow. Northern pike seem to be more sensitive. When they were reared in water containing 0.1 f..lg/1 of methylmercury for a season and then placed in clean water, they underwent continuing mortality. Scattered mortality from this source could ordinarily not be detected in nature, because the affected fish became uncoordinated and probably would have been eaten by predators (Hannerz 1968,336 quoted by Nelson 1971 348). Some species of plankton are particularly sensitive. Studies of the effect of mercury on phytoplankton ~pecies confirmed that concentrations as low as 0.1 J.~g/1 of selected organomercurial fungicides decreased both the photosynthe- sis and the growth of laboratory cultures of the marine alga Nitzschia delicatissum, as well as of some fresh water phytoplankton species (Harriss et al. 1970).337 Ethyl- mercury phosphate is lethal to marine phytoplankton at ·60 J.Lg/1, ·and levels as low as 0.5 J.Lg/1 drasticallylimit their 174/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife growth (Ukeles 1962). 353 There is insufficient information about the thresholds for chronic toxicity. Tissue Levels and Toxicity There is almost no information on the concentrations of mercury in the tissues of aquatic organisms that are likely to cause mortality of the organisms themselves. Fish and shellfish found dead in Minamata contained 9 to 24 J.lg/g of mercury on the usual wet-weight basis; presumably some of these levels were lethal (Nelson 1971).348 Miettinen et al. (1970)346 showed that pike which had been experimentally killed by methylmercury contained from 5 to 9.1 J.lg/g and averaged 6.4 and 7.4 micrograms of methylmercury per gram of muscle tissue. Discussion of Proposed Recommendations At the present time there are not sufficient data available to determine the levels of mercury in water that are safe for aquatic organisms under chronic exposure. There have not been, for example, any experiments on the effects of chronic exposure to mercury on reproduction and growth of fish in the laboratory. Since experiments on sublethal effects are lacking, the next most useful information is on lethal effects following moderately long exposures of weeks or months. The lowest concentration shown to be lethal to fish is 0.2 J.!g/1 of methylmercury which is lethal to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) in six weeks. Because 0.2 J.lg/1 of methylmercury has been shown to be lethal, it is suggested that this concentration of mercury not be exceeded at any time or place in natural waters. Since phytoplankton are more sensitive, the average concentration of methylmercury in water probably should not exceed 0.05 J.lg/1 for their protection. This recommended average is approximately equal to the supposed natural concentrations of mercury in water; hence little mercury can be added to the aquatic environment. The National Water Quality Laboratory (Mount, unpublished data 1971)3 61 found that exposure of trout to 0.05 J.lg/1 of methylmercury for 3 months resulted in concentrations of0.5 J.lg/g, the Food and Drug Adminis- tration guideline for the maximum level for edible portions of fish flesh. These concentrations of mercury or methylmercury in water are very low and difficult to measure or differentiate without special equipment and preparation. These low concentrations can also only be measured as total mercury. Since sediments may contain 10,000 times the amount of mercury in water, suspended solids in water can seriously affect the values found in analyses of water for mercury (Jernelov 1972). 340 Because of these difficulties and because the real danger of mercury pollution results from a biological magnification, recommendations for mercury residues in tissues of aquatic organisms should be developed. This would make monitoring and control not only more effective and certain but ·also more feasible technically. Unfortu- nately, data are not yet available on the residue levels that are safe for the aquatic organisms themselves and for organisms higher in the food chain, such as predatory fish or fish-eating birds. It is known that concentrations of 5 to 10 J.lg/g are found in some fish that died of methylmercury poisoning, and that 0.01 to 0.2 J.!g/g is apparently a usual background level in freshwater fish. Because data are lacking for safe residue levels in aquatic food chains, it is suggested that the Food & Drug Administration guideline level of 0.5 J.lg/g of total mercury in edible portions of freshwater fish used as human food be the guideline to protect predators in aquatic food chains. Hence, mercury residues should not exceed 0.5 J.lg/g in any aquatic organisms. If levels approaching this are found, there should be total elimination of all possible sources of mercury pollution. No distinction has been drawn between organic and in- organic forms of.mercury in these discussions because of the possibility of biological transformation to the organic phase in aquatic habitats. Since the form of mercury in water cannot be readily determined, the recommendations are primarily based upon methylmercury but expressed as total mercury. Recommendations ( Selected species of fish and predatory aquatic organisms should be protected when the following conditions are fulfilled: (1) the concentration of total mercury does not exceed a total body burden of 0.5 J.lgfg wet weight in any aquatic organism; (2) the total mercury concentrations in unfiltered water do not exceed 0.2 f..lg/1 at any time or place; and (3) the average total mercury concentration in unfiltered water does not exceed 0.05 J.lg/1. PHTHALATE ESTERS The occurrence of dialkyl phthalate residues has been established in various segments of the aquatic environment of North America. Phthalate ester residues occur principally in samples of water, sediment, and aquatic organisms in industrial and heavily populated areas (Stalling 1972). 366 In fish di-n-butyl phthalate residues ranged from 0 to 500 J.!g/kg, and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate residues were as high as 3,200 J.!g/kg. No well-documented information exists on the fate of ph!halate compounds in aquatic environments. Phthalate esters are widely used as plasticizers, particu- larly in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics. The most common phthalate ester plasticizer is di-2-ethylhexyl phthal- ate. Di-n-butyl phthalate has been used as an insect repellent (Frear 1969)362 and in pesticide formulations to retard volatilization (Schoof et al. 1963). 365 Production of dioctyl phthalate ester placticizers was estimated to be 4.10 X 10 8 lbs in 1970 (Neelyl 970).363 Total phthalate ester production was reported to be 8.40X 10 8 lbs in 1968, of which 4.40X 10 8 lbs were dioctyl phthalate esters (Nematollahi et al. 1967). 364 Production of phthalic anhydride was estimated to be 7.60Xl0 8 lbs in 1970 (Neely 1970).363 PVC plastic formula- tions may contain 30 to 60 parts per hundred of phthalate ester plasticizer (N ematollahi et al. 196 7). 364 Toxicity Studies to determine the acute or chronic toxicity effects of phthalate esters or other plasticizers on aquatic organisms have only recently been undertaken (Stalling 1972). 366 For example, the acute toxicity of di-n-butyl phthalate to fish is extremely low compared to pesticides (Table III-14). Daphnia magna were exposed to 0.1 JLg/1 of 14 C di-n-butyl phthalate and the organisms accumulated chemical residues of 600 JLg/kg within 10 days, or a 6,000-fold magnification (Saunders, unpublished data 1971).367 However, after transfer of the Daphnia to uncontaminated water, approximately 50 per cent of the di-n-butyl phthalate was excreted in three days. It was recently found that a concentration of 3 JLg/1 of di-2-ethylht;xyl phthalate significantly reduced the growth and reproduction of Daphnia magna (Sanders unpublished data 1971).367 The acute toxicity of phthalate esters appears to be rela- tively i'nsignificant, but these compounds may be detri- mental to aquatic organisms at low chronic concentrations. Recommendation Until a more detailed evaluation is made of toxi- cological effects of phthalate esters on aquatic eco- systems, a safety factor of 0.1 has been applied to data for Daphnia magna toxicity, and a level not to exceed 0.3 ~tgfl should protect fish and their food supply. POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) have been found in fish and wildlife in many parts of the world and at levels that may adversely affect aquatic organisms (Jensen et al. 1969;376 Holmes et al. 1967;375 Koeman et al. 1969;378 Toxic Substances/175 TABLE Ill-14-Acute Toxicity of Di-n-butyl Phthalate to Four Species of Fish and Daphnia Magna. Species Temperature 24 hr Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) ... . Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) ........... . Channel catfish (lclalurus punclatus) ...... . Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) .......... . Daphnia magna ......................... . 1230 3720 LC50 in l'g/1 48 hr 1490 731 2910 96 hr 1300 (Sialling)'" 731 (Stalling)'" 2910 (Sialling)'" 6470 (Sanders)'" >5000 (Sanders)'" Risebrough et al. 1968). 386 The environmental occurrence, uses, and present toxicological aspects of PCB were recently reviewed by Peakall and Lincer (1970), 384 Gustafson (1970),372 Risebrough (1970),387 and Reynolds (1971).385 Biphenyls may have 1 to 10 attached chlorine atoms, making possible over 200 compounds (Gustafson 1970).372 PCB occur as residues in fish, and presumably also in water, as mixtures of chlorinated biphenyl isomers as shown in Table III -15 (Stalling and Johnson, unpublished data 1970,396 Stalling in press 392 ). Analysis of PCB has been accomplished by gas chromatog- raphy after separation of PCB from pesticides. A separation method has been described by Armour and Burke (1970)369 and modified by S tailing and Huckins ( 19 71). 391 A method using separation on a charcoal column has shown good reproducibility (Frank and Rees, personal communication). 395 No standardized gas-liquid chromatography method has been proposed for the analysis of mixtures of PCB in en- vironmental samples. The solubility of these formulations in water has not been precisely determined, but it is in the range of 100 to 1,000 JLg/1 (Papageorge 1970).383 Since PCB have gas chromatographic characteristics similar to many organochlorine pesticides, they can cause serious interference in the gas chromatographic determination of chlorinated insecticides (Risebrough et al. 1968). 386 The Monsanto Company, the sole manufacturer of PCB TABLE lll-15-Composition of PCB Residues in Selected Fish Samples from the 1970 National Pesticide Residue Monitoring Program PCB Residue as Aroclor ® lype(pgjg whole body) River Location Species 1232 1248 1254 1260 Tolal Ohio ..................................... Cincinnati, D. Carp Cyprinus carpio 10 75 42 6.0 133 Ohio .......•............................. Cincinnati, D. While crappie Poximus annularus 16 17 27 5.6 66 Ohio ..................................... Marietta, D. Channel catfish lclalurus punclalus 38 23 11 4.9 77 Ohio .........•........................... Marietta, 0. Channel catfish 16 5.2 13 4.6 38 Yazoo ···································· Redwood, Miss. Smallmoulh buftalo lctiobus bubalus 72 ················· 1.4 ················· 73 Hudson .................................. Poughkeepsie, N.Y. Goldfish Carassius auratus 9 173 32 ················· 213 Allegheny ................................. Natrona, Pa. Walleye Stezosledion vitreum v. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 25 4.6 35 Delaware ................................. Camden, NJ. While perch Roccus americanus ················ 8.0 6.8 3.9 19 Cape fear ................................ Elizabeth Town, N.C. Gizzard shad Porosoma cepedianum 19 ················· 2.6 1.1 23 Lake Onlario .••......•................... Port Onlario, N.Y. While perch 13 ················· 4.6 1.2 19 Mississippi ••..............•............. Memphis, Tenn. Drum Aplodinolus grunniens 11 ················· 4.5 3.4 19 Merrimac •............................... Lowell, Mass. Drum 14 75 6.1 3.2 98 176/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife in the United States (Gustafson 1970),372 markets eight formulations of chlorinated biphenyls under ~e trademarks Aroclor® 1221, 1232, 1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262, and 1268. The last two digits of each formulation designate the percent chlorine. Aroclor ® 1248 and 1254 are produced in greatest quantities. They are used as dielectric fluids in capacitors and in closed-system heat exchangers (Papa- george 1970). 383 Aroclor ® 1242 is used as a hydraulic fluid, and Aroclor ® 1260 as a plasticizer. Chlorinated terphenyls are marketed under the trademark Aroclor ® 5442 and 5460, and a mixture of bi-and terphenyls is designated Aroclor ® 4465. The isomer composition and chromatographic char- acteristics of each formulation have been described by Stalling and Huckins (1971)391 and Bagley et al. (1970).37° A contaminant of some PCB, especially those manufactured in Europe, are chlorinated dibenzofurans (Brungs personal · communication 1972). 393 Although these byproducts would appear to be extremely toxic, no data are available on their toxicity to aquatic life. Direct Lethal Toxicity Studies of toxicity of PCB to aqua tic organisms are limited. They show considerable variation of toxicity to different species, as well as variation with the chlorine cor tent of the PCB. Nevertheless, some trends in the toxic characteristics have become apparent, principally from the work of Mayer as described below: • The higher the per cent chlorine, the lower the ap- parent toxicity of PCB to fish (Mayer, in press).379 This was found in 15-day intermittent-flow bioassays using bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) and channel cat- fish (Ictalurus punctatus) with Aroclor® 1242, 1248, 1254. All LC50 values were in the range 10 to 300 ,ug/1. • The bluegill/channel catfish experiments also illus- trated that all LC50 values decreased significantly when exposures continued from 15 to 20 days. The 96-hour LC50 of a PCB to fish cannot adequately measure its lethal toxicity. • The same tests showed that the toxicity of Aroclor ® 1248 doubled when the temperature was raised from 20 C to 27 C. To invertebrates, Aroclor ® 1242 has about the same acute toxicity that it has to fish. In 4-and 7-day tests (Saunders, in press), 389 it killed Gammarus at 42 ,ug/1 and crayfish (Cambarus) at 30 ,ug/1, with values that were similar to the 15-day LC50 reported for bluegills. However, there is an extreme range in the reported short-term lethal levels of Aroclor ® 1254 for invertebrates. Saunders (in press)389 reported a 96-hour LC50 as 80 ,ug/1 for crayfish and only 3 ,ug/1 for glass shrimp (Paleomonetes) in 7-day tests; and :puke et al. (1970)371 reported that as little as 0.94 ,ug/1 killed immature pink shrimp (Panaeus duorarum). Part of this variation is related to exposure periods in the tests; part is no doubt the variation in species response. Again this emphasizes the point that short-term tests of acute toxicities of PCB have serious limitations. Marine animals may be more easily killed by PCB than freshwater ones (see Section IV). When two estuarine fishes (Lagodon rhomboides and Leiostomus xanthurus) were exposed for 14 to 45 days to Aroclor ® 1254, mortalities were ob- served at 5 ,ug/1 (Hansen, et al. 1971). 373 This indicated a toxicity about five times greater than summarized above for freshwater fish but about the same as the toxicity for the marine crustaceans mentioned above. Feeding Studies Dietary exposure to PCB seems to be less of a direct hazard to fish than exposure in water. Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) fed Aroclor ® 1254 in varying amounts up to 14,500 ,ug/kg body weight per day accumulated whole body residues which were only 0.9 to 0.5 of the level in the food after 240 days of dietary exposure. Growth rates were not affected. However, all fish exposed to the highest treatment died after 240 days exposure; and thyroid activity was stimulated in all except the group treated at the lowest concentration (Mehrle and Grant unpublished data 1971).394 At present, evaluation of data from laboratory experi- ments indicates that exposures to PCB in water represents a greater hazard to fish than dietary exposures. However, in the environment, residue accumulation from dietary sources could be more important, because PCB have a high affinity for sediments, and therefore, they readily enter food chains (Duke et al. 1970;371 Nimmo, et al. 1971).382 Residues in Tissue It is clear that widespread pollution of major waterways has occurred, and that appreciable PCB residues exist in fish. When analyses of 40 fish from the 1970 National Pesticide Monitoring Program were made, only one of the fish was found to contain less than 1 ,ug/g PCB (Stalling and Mayer 1972).390 The 10 highest residue levels in the 40 selected fish ranged from 19 ,ug/g to 213 ,ug/g whole body weight. By contrast, residues measured in ocean fish have been generally below 1 ,ug/g (Risebrough 1970;387 Jensen, et al. 1969).376 Between the ranges in freshwater fish and those in marine fish are the levels of PCB found in seals (Jensen et al. 1969 ;376 Holden 1970), 374 and in the eggs of fish- eating birds in North America (Anderson et al. 1969;368 Mulhern et al. 1971 ;380 Reynolds 1971).385 In laboratory experiments, crustacea exposed to varying levels of Aroclor ® 1254 in the water concentrated the PCB within their bodies more than 20,000 times. The tissue residues may sometimes reach an equilibrium, and in Gammarusfasciatus PCB did not concentrate beyond 27,000 times despite an additional 3-week exposure to 1.6 ,ug/1 Aroclor ® (Saunders 1972).388 In contrast, PCB residues in crayfish did not reach equilibrium after a 28-day exposure. '· PCB concentration factors by two estuarine fishes, Lagondon rhomboides and Leiostomus xanthurus, were similar to that described above for crustaceans, i.e., about 10,000 to 50,000 times the exposure levels in water (Hansen et al. 1971). 873 It is important to note that these accumulations occurred at water concentrations of PCB that killed the fish in 15 to 45 days. Also similar were the accumulation ratios of 26,000 to 56,000 for bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) chronically exposed to 2 to 15 J.tg/1 of Aroclor ® 1248 and 1254. Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) chronically exposed to Aroclor ® f242 and 1254 for 8 weeks concentrated PCB 100,000 and 200,000 times the exposure levels, respectively. Residues of 50 J.tg/1 (whole body) resulted from exposure for 8 weeks to 0.3 J.tg/1 Aroclor ® 1254 (Nebeker et al. 1972). 381 These experiments with bluegills also indicated that the maximum levels of PCB were generally related to the concentration of PCB in the water (50,000-200,000 times higher) to which they were exposed (Stalling and Huckins unpublished data 1971). 397 Effects on Reproduction PCB residues in salmon eggs are apparently related to mortality of eggs. In preliminary investigations in Sweden, Jensen and his associates (1970)377 reported that when residues in groups of eggs ranged from 0.4 to 1.9 J.tg/g on a whole-weight basis (7.7 to 34 J.tg/g on a fat basis), related mortalities ranged from 16 per cent up to 100 per cent. PCB concentrations in the range of 0.5 to 10 J.tg/1 in water interfered with reproduction of several aquatic ani- mals according to recent work of Nebeker et al. (1971).381 About 5 J.tg/1 of Aroclor ® 1248 was the highest concen- tration that did not affect reproduction of Daphnia magna and Gammarus pseudolimnaeus. In tests of reproduction by fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) all died when exposed chronically to greater than 8.3 J.tg/1 of either Aroclor ® 1242 or Aroclor ® 1254. Reproduction occurred at and below 5.4 J.tg/1 Aroclor ® 1242, and at and below 1.8 J.tg/1 of Aroclor ® 1254. The association between residue levels and biological effects in aquatic animals is scarcely known, but the work of Jensen et al. (1970)377 suggested that about 0.5 J.tg/g of PCB in whole salmon eggs might be the threshold for egg mortality. Such a level in eggs would be associated with levels in general body tissue (e.g., muscle) of 2.5 to 5.0 J.tg/g. The residue in muscle corresponded to the present Food and Drug Administration level for allowable levels of PCB in fish used as human food. Residues measured in the survey by the 1970 National Pesticide Monitoring Program were generally above 5 J.tg/g. Applying a minimal safety factor of 10 for protection of the affected population, and for protection of other species higher in the food chain, would yield a maximum permis- sible tissue concentration of0.5 J.tg/g in any aquatic organism in any habitat affected by PCB. Toxic Substances/177 General Considerations and Further Needs Another means of control would be justified in view of the toxicity of PCB, the lack of knowledge about how it first enters natural ecosystems as a pollutant, and its ap- parent distribution in high concentrations in freshwater fish in the United States. This method would be to regulate the manufacture of PCB and maintain close control of its uses to avoid situations where PCB is lost to the environ- ment. The Monsanto Company recently restricted the sale of PCB for uses in which disposal of the end products could not be controlled, as with plasticizers (Gustafson 1970). 372 Basis for Recommendations For PCB levels in water, the most sensitive reaction shown by aquatic organisms is to the lethal effects of low concen- trations continually present in water for long periods (weeks or months). Concentrations in the range of I to 8 J.tg/1 have been shown to be lethal to several animals. The work of Hansen, et al. ( 1971 )3 73 and Stallings and Huckins (unpublished data 1971) 391 indicates that concen- trations of 0.01 J.tg/1 of PCB in water over periods of up to 36 weeks could lead to dangerous levels of PCB in the tissues of aquatic organisms. Accumulation by factors of 75,000 to 200,000 times is indicated by their work. If the higher ratio is taken, 0.01 J.tg/1 in water might result in 2.0 J.tg/g in flesh on whole fish basis. This is comparable to the residue level in salmon eggs associated with complete mortality of embryos. Therefore, a concentration is recom- mended that is reduced by a factor of 5, or 0.002 J.tg/1. In addition, a control based on residue levels is required, as well as one based on PCB in the water. Recommendations Aquatic life should be protected where the maxi- mum concentration of total PCB in unfiltered water does not exceed 0.002 J.tgfl at any time or place, and the residues in the general body tissues of any aquatic organism do not exceed 0.5 J.tg/g. METALS General Data Several reviews of the toxicity of metals are available (e.g., Skidmore 1964;428 McKee and Wolf 1963;415 Doudoroff and Katz 1953). 406 Some of the most relevant research is currently in progress or only recently completed. Some deals with chronic effects of metals on survival, growth, and reproduction of fish and other organisms. The completed studies have esti~ated safe concentrations, and from these application factors have been derived as defined in the discussion of bioassays (pp. 118-123). The important relation between water hardness and lethal toxicity is well documented for some metals (see Figure III-9). For copper, the difference in toxicity may II> ~' II· II' lt. It 118/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife ..... -3 " ::; .... 0 "" s 0 ><l u ....1 ,.; ..c: 00 ..;< . 5 2 LEAD ~ ---/ / 0.5 ./ , 0.2 0.1 .L / / 0.05 / , 0.02 0.01 10 20 __... L v / , / / / v 50 Brown 1968;401 Lloyd and Herbert 1960 414 / v / v ~ VZINC .,. ,. ~ / /" / / v / v COPPER / ,/ 100 200 Total Hardness, mg/1 as CaCo3 5000 / 1000 / 500 200 100 50 20 500 .... 0 !f FIGURE III-9-The 48-Hour Lethal Concentrations of Three Heavy Metals for Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri). (Similar Relationships Exist for Other Species of Fish.) not be related to the difference in hardness per se; but to the difference in alkalinity of the water that accompanies change in hardness (Stiff 1971).434 Nevertheless, the re- lation to hardness is a convenient and accepted one. The hardness classification developed by the U.S. Geological Survey is the following: Soft Moderately hard Hard 0-60 mg/1 (hardness as CaC03) 61-120 mg/1 in excess of 120 mg/1 There are many chemical species of metals in ~ater; some are toxic to aquatic life, others are not. Hydrogen ion concentration in water is extremely important in governing the species and solubility of metals and therefore the lethal toxicity. At high pH, many heavy metals form hydroxides or basic carbonates that are relatively insoluble and tend to precipitate. They may, however, remain suspended in the water as fine particles (O'Connor et al. 1964;421 Stiff 1971). 434 The toxicity of suspended hydroxides of metal depends on the particular situation. For example, suspended zinc has been found to be nontoxic (Sprague 1964a& b), 429 ·430 equally as toxic as dissolved zinc (Lloyd 1960)412 and more toxic than dissolved zinc (Mount 1966). 417 This indicates that suspended zinc is at least potentially poisonous, and there- fore the total metal measured in the water should be con- sidered toxic. It is difficult to predict the effect of pH on toxicity. For example, low pH (about 5) as well as high pH (about 9) reduced toxicity of copper and zinc compared to that at neutral pH (Fisheries Research Board of Canada unpublished data 1971). 444 Therefore pH should be regulated in bioassays with metals in order to simulate local conditions and to explore any effect of local variation of pH. In addition to hardness, numerous other factors influence the lethal toxicity of copper to fish. McKee and Wolf 0963)415 and Doudoroff and Katz (1953)406 included dis- solved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, carbon dioxide, Ifiagnesium salts, and phosphates as factors affecting copper toxicity. Artificial chelating compounds such as nitrilo- triacetic acid can reduce or eliminate toxic effects of zinc and other metals (Sprague 1968b)432 and there may be natural chelating agents that would do the same thing. Certain organic ligands (Bender et al. 1970)399 and amino acids from sewage treatment plant effluent (United King- dom Ministry of Technology 1969)435 also reduce the toxicity of copper by forming copper-organic complexes that do not contribute to lethal toxicity. It is safe to assume that some of these factors will influence the toxicity of other rp.etals. In addition, the amount of metals found (at least ~emporarily) in living biological matter is included in most rqutine water analyses. At the present time, however, it is not possible to predict accurately the amount of total metal in any environment that may be lethal, biologically active, .or contributory to toxicity. Consequently, the. following recommendations are made. Toxic Substances/179 Recommendations Since forms or species of metals in water may change with shifts in the water quality, and since the toxicity to aquatic life may concurrently change in as yet unpredictable ways, it is recom- mended that water quality criteria for a given metal be based on the total amount of it in the water, regardless of the chemical state or form of the metal, except that settleable solids should be excluded from the analysis (Standard Methods 1971).433 Additionally, hardness affects the toxicity of many metals (see Figure 111-9). Metals which have collected in the sediments can redissolve into the water, and such redissolved metals should meet the criteria for heavy metals. To protect aquatic life, amounts likely to be harm- ful should not occur in the sediments. It is recommended that any metal species not specifically mentioned in this report but suspected of causing detrimental effects on aquatic life be examined as outlined in the section on Bioassays. Aluminum Current research by Freeman and Everhart (1971)407 indicated that aluminum salts were slightly soluble at neutral pH; 0.05 mg/1 dissolved and had no sublethal effects on fish. At pH 9, at least 5 mg/1 of aluminum dis- solved and this killed fingerling rainbow trout within 48 hours. However, the suspended precipitate of ionized alumi- num is toxic. In most natural waters, the ionized or po- tentially ionizable aluminum would be in the form of anionic or neutral precipitates, and anything greater than 0.1 mg/1 of this would be deleterious to growth and survival of fish. Recommendation Careful examination of toxicity problems should be made to protect aquatic life in situations where the presence of ionic aluminum is suspected. Aluminum may have considerably greater toxicity than has been assumed. Cadmium This metal is an extremely dangerous cumulative poison. In mammals (Nilsson 1970), 420 fish (Eaton unpublished data 1971 ), 442 and probably other animals, there is insidious, progressive, chronic poisoning because there is almost no excretion of the ~etal. In its acute lethal action on rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), Ball (1967)398 found cadmium un- usually slow. A lethal threshold of 0.01 mg/1 was not dis- cernible until seven days' exposure. Other investigators .(Pickering and Gast, in press, 427 Eaton unpublished data 1971)442 have determined lethal threshold concentrations in fathead minnows in 2 to 6 days and in bluegill in 96 hours. The chronically safe levels for both fathead minnows 180/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Pimephales promelas) (Pickering and Gast, in press)427 and bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) (Eaton unpublished data 1971)442 in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaC'03) are between 0.06 and 0.03 mg/1. In these exposures, death of eggs or early larvae was one of the effects observed at the lowest unsafe concentrations tested. Recent exposures of eggs and larvae at the National Water Quality Laboratory (Duluth) in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaC03) demonstrated that 0.01 mg/1 was unsafe; 0.004 mg/1 was safe for several warm-and coldwater fishes, including some salmonids; and the safe level for coho salmon fry (Oncorhynchus kisutch) was lower, i.e., between 0.004 mg/1 and 0.001 mg/1 (McKim and Eaton unpublished data 1971). 445 Daphnia magna appeared to be very sensitive to cadmium. Concentrations of 0.0005 mg/1 were found to reduce repro- duction in one-generation exposures lasting three weeks (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data 1971). 440 This sensitivity is probably representative of other crustaceans as well. Recommendation Aquatic life should be protected where levels of cadmium do not exceed 0.03 mgfl in water having total hardness above 100 mgfl as CaC03, or 0.004 mgfl in waters with a hardness of 100 mgfl or below at any time or place. Habitats should be safe for crustaceans or the eggs and larvae of salmon if the levels of cadmium do not exceed 0.003 • mgfl in hard water or 0.0004 mgfl in soft water at any time or place. Chromium The chronic toxicity of hexavalent chromium to fish has been studied by Olson (1958),422 and Olson and Foster (I 956,423 195 7). 424 Their data demonstrated a pronounced cumulative toxicity of chromium to rainbow trout and chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Duodoroff and Katz (1953)406 found that bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) tolerated a 45 mg/11evel for 20 days in hard water. Cairns (I 956), 403 using chromic oxide (Cr03), found that a concen- tration of 104 mg/1 was toxic to bluegills in 6 to 84 hours. Bioassays conducted with four species of fish gave 96-hour LC50's of hexavalent chromium that ranged from 17 to 118 mg/1, indicating little effect of hardness on toxicity (Pickering and Henderson 1966). 426 Recently some tests of chronic effects on reproduction of fish have been carried . out. The 96-hour LC50 and safe concentrations for hexavalent chromium were 33 and 1.0 mg/1 for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) in hard water (Pickering unpublished data 1971),446 50 and 0.6 mg/1 for brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in soft water, and 69 and 0.3 mg/1 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in soft water (Benoit unpublished data 1971).438 Equivalent values for trivalent chromium were little different: 27 mg/1 for the 96-hour LC50, and l.O mg/1 for a safe -concentration for fathead minnows in hard water (Pickering unpublished data 1971). 446 For Daphnia the LC50 of hexavalent chromium was re- ported as 0.05 mg/1, and the chronic no-effect level of trivalent chromium on reproduction was 0,33 mg/1 (Bie- singer and Christensen unpublished data 1971).440 Some data are available concerning the toxicity of chromium to algae. The concentrations of chromium that inhibited growth for the test organisms are as follows (Hervey 1949) :41° Chlor- ococcales, 3.2 to 6.4 mg/1; Euglenoids, 0.32 to 1.6 mg/1; and diatoms, 0.032 to 0.32 mg/1. Patrick (unpublished data 1971)447 found that 50 per cent growth reduction for two diatoms in hard and soft water occurred at 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1 chromium. Thus it is apparent that there is a great range of sensi- tivity to chromium among different species of organisms and in different waters. Those lethal levels reported above are 17 to 118 mg/1 for fish, 0.05 mg/1 for invertebrates, and 0.032 to 6.4 mg/1 for algae, the highest value being 3, 700 times the lowest one. The apparent "safe" concentration for fish is moderately high, but the recommended maximum concentration of 0.05 mg/1 has been selected in order to protect other organisms, in particular Daphnia and certain diatoms which are affected at slightly below this concen- tration. Recommendation Mixed aquatic populations should be protected where the concentration of total chromium in water does not exceed 0.05 mgfl at any time or place. Copper Copper is known to be particularly toxic to algae and mollusks, and the implications of this should be considered for any given body of water. Based on studies of effects on these organisms, it is known that the criteria for fish protect these other forms as well. Recent work (Biesinger et al. unpublished data 1971)439 indicated that the safe level of copper for reproduction and growth of Daphnia magna in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaC03) is 0.006 mg/1, which is similar to the concentrations described below as safe for fish. The relationship of LC50 to water hardness was shown in Figure III-7 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). The safe concentration of copper for reproduction by fat- head minnows (Pimephales promelas) in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaC03) was between 0.015 and 0.033 mg/1 (Mount 1968), 418 and in soft water (30 mg/1 as CaC03) was between 0.011 and 0.018 mg/1 (Mount and Stephan 1969).419 More recent work with fathead minnows in hard water indicated that a concentration of 0.033 mg/1 would probably be -safe (Brungs unpublished data 1971). 441 Ac- ceptable reproduction by brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaCOa) occurred between 0.010 and O.Ql8 mg/1 (McKim and Benoit 1971).416 The safe-to- lethal ratios determined in these studies varied somewhat; but that for hard water is close to 0.1 and that for soft water is approximately 0.1 to 0.2. In very soft water, typical of some northern and mountainous regions, 0.1 of the 96-hour LC50 for sensitive species would be close to what is con- sidered a natural concentration in these waters. Recent wqrk indicated that avoidance reactions by fish m:ay be as restrictive as reproductive requirements or even more so (Sprague 1964b).430 It has been demonstrated that Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) avoid a concentration of0.004 mg/1 in the laboratory. . Recommendation Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using the receiving water in question and the most sensi- tive important species in the locality as the test organism, a concentration of copper safe to aquatic life in that water can be estimated by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.1. Lead Lead has a low solubility of 0.5 mg/1 in soft water and only 0.003 mg/1 in hard water, although higher concen- trations of suspended and colloidal lead may remain in the :Water. The extreme effects of water hardness on lead toxicity ~re demonstrated by the LC50 values in hard and soft waters. The 96-hour LC50 values in soft water (20 to 45 mg/1 as CaC03) were 5 to 7 mg/1 and 4 to 5 mg/1 for the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and the brook trout (Salve linus fontinalis) respectively (Pickering and Henderson 1966,426 Benoit unpublished data 1971). 438 Brown (1968) 401 reported a 96-hour LC50 of l mg/1 for rainbow trout :csalmo gairdneri) in soft water (50 mg/1 as CaC03). (See F'igure III-9 for other values for this species.) The 96-hour LC50 values of lead in hard water were 482 mg/1 and 442 mg/1 for fathead minnow and brook trout (Pickering and Henderson 1966).426 . There is not sufficient information on chronic toxicity of lead to fish to justify recommending values as application 'factors. However, preliminary information on long ex- p'osures (2 to 3 months) on rainbow trout and brook trout (Everhart unpublished data 1971,443 Benoit unpublished data 1971)438 indicated detrimental effects at 0.10 mg/1 of lead in soft water (20 to 45 mg/1 as CaC03), a safe-to-lethal ratio of less than 0.02. Growth of guppies (Lebistes) was affected by 1.24 mg/1 of lead (Crandall and Goodnight 196~).405 Jones (1939)411 'and Hawksley (1967)408 found chronic or sublethal effects 'on sticklebacks from lead concentrations of 0.1 and 0.3 mg/1. The conditioned behavior of goldfish (Carassius auratus) in a light-dark shuttlebox was adversely affected by 0.07 mg/1 oflead in soft water (Weir and Hine 1970).437 ' Chronic lead toxicity was recently investigated with .Daphnia magna (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data Toxic Substances/181 1971)440 and the effect on reproduction was observed at a level of 0.03 mg/1 of lead. This concentration of 0.03 mg/1, the safe level for Daphnia, is recommended as the criterion for protection of aquatic life. It is probably also close to the safe level for fish, because the tests described above, although somewhat preliminary, indicated that. concen- trations about 2 or 3 times higher had detrimental effects. Recommendation The concentration of lead in water should not be higher than 0.03 mgfl at any time or place in order to protect aquatic life. Mercury Most data about mercury involve the organic compounds (see the discussion of Organic Mercury, p. 172.) Infor- mation is available, however, for inorganic mercury in the form of mercuric ions. Short-term 96-hour bioassay studies indicated that concentrations of 1 mg/1 are fatal to fish (Boetius 1960,400 Jones 1939,411 Weir and Hine 1970).437 For long-term exposures of 10 days or more, mercury levels as low as 10 to 20 mg/1 have been shown to be fatal to fish (U spenskaya 1946). 436 Recommendation In protecting aquatic life, the recommendations for organic mercury (p. 174) also pertain here. Nickel The 96-hour LC50 of nickel for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) ranges from 5 mg/1 in soft water (20 mg/1 as CaC03) to 43 mg/1 in hard water (360 mg/1 as CaC03) under static test conditions (Pickering and Hender- son 1966).426 In water of 200 mg/1 hardness (as CaC03), the 96-hour LC50 for fathead minnows was 26 to 31 mg/1 with a chronically safe concentration between 0.8 and 0.4 mg/1 (Pickering unpublished data 1971).446 On the basis of this work, an application factor of 0.02 appeared to be appropriate for the protection of fish. If this factor is used, the estimated safe concentration of nickel for fathead minnows in soft water would be about 0.1 mg/1. Using static test conditions and Daphnia magna, Biesinger and Christensen (unpublished data 1971)440 determined that a nickel concentration of 0.095 mg/1 reduced reproduction during a 3-week exposure in soft water (45 mg/1 as CaC03), and a nickel concentration of 0.030 mg/1 had no effect. This result indicated that the sensitivity of Daphnia magna is comparable to that of fish. Recommendation Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using the receiving water in question and the most sensi- tive important species in the locality as the test organism, a concentration of nickel safe to aquatic 182/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife life in that water can be estimated by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application fa~tor of 0.02. Zinc The acute lethal toxicity of zinc is greatly affected by water hardness (see Figure III-7). Pickering and Henderson (1966)426 determined the 96-hour LC50 of zinc for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) and bluegills (Lepomis macro- chirus) using static test conditions. For fathead minnows in soft water (20 mg/1 as CaC03) the LC50 was 0.87 mg/1, and in hard water (360 mg/1 as CaC03) it was 33 mg/1. Bluegills were more resistant in both waters. Similarly the lethal threshold concentration was 3 or 4 times as high for coarse fish as for trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) (Balll967).398 The 24-hour LC50 of zinc for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was reduced only 20 per cent when the fish were forced to swim at 85 per cent of their maximum sustained swimming speed (Herbert and Shurben 1964).409 The maxi- mum effect of a reduction in dissolved oxygen from 6 to 7 mg/1 to 2 mg/1 on the acute toxicity of zinc was a 50 per cent increase (Lloyd 1961,413 Cairns and Scheier 1958,404 Picker- ing 1968).425 The effects are small in comparison to the difference between acutely toxic and safe concentrations. The recommended application factor recognizes these ·effects. A chronic test in hard water (200 mg/1 as CaC03), involving fathead minnow reproduction, determined the safe concentration of zinc to be between 0.03 mg/1, which had no effect, and 0.18 mg/1, which caused 83 per cent reduction in fecundity (Brungs 1969).402 Using the 96-hour LC50 of 9.2 mg/1, the ratio of the above no-effect concen- tration to the LC50 is 0.0034. Interpolation suggests that about 0.005 of the LC50 would cause 20 per cent reduction of fecundity, making the best estimate of a valid application factor close to 0.005. There was a reduction in reproduction of Daphnia magna at a zinc concentration of 0.10 mg/1 using soft water ( 45 mg/1 as CaC03) (Biesinger and Christensen unpublished data 1971).440 No effect was observed at 0.07 mg/1, which indi- cated that Daphnia magna was more resistant to zinc than the fathead minnow. Avoidance reactions by rainbow trout in the laboratory have been caused by 0.01 of the LC50 of zinc (Sprague 1968a). 431 Recommendation Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using the receiving water in question and the most sensi- tive important species in the locality as the test organism, a concentration of zinc safe to aquatic life in that water can be estimated by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.005. PESTICIDES Pesticides are chemicals, natural and synthetic, used to control or destroy plant and animal life considered adverse to human society. Since the 1940's a large number of synthetic organic compounds have been developed for pesticide purposes. Presently there are thousands of regis- tered formulations incorporating nearly 900 different chemi- cals. Trends in production and use of pesticides indicate an annual increase of about 15 per cent, and there are pre- dictions ofincreased·demand during the next decade (Mrak 1969).477 The subject of pesticides and their environmental significance has been carefully evaluated in the Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Re- lationship to Environmental Health (Mrak 1969).477 Methods, Rate, and Frequency of Application Pesticides are used for a wide variety of purposes in a multitude of environmental situations. Often they are categorized according to their use or intended target (e.g., insecticide, herbicide, fungicide), but their release in the environment presents an inherent hazard to many non- target organisms. Some degree of contamination and risk is assumed with nearly all pesticide use. The risk to aquatic ecosystems depends upon the chemical and physical prop- erties of the pesticide, type of formulation, frequency, rate and methods of application, and the nature of the receiving system. The pesticides of greatest concern are those that are persistent for long periods and accumulate in the environ- ment; those that are highly toxic to man, fish, and wildlife; and those that are used in large volumes over broad areas. A list of such chemicals recommended for monitoring in the environment appears in Appendix II-F. The majority of these compounds are either insecticides or herbicides used extensively in agriculture, public health, and for household or garden purposes. In the absence of definitive data on their individual behavior and their individual effect on the environment, some generalization about pesticides is re- quired to serve as a guideline for establishing water quality criteria to protect aquatic life. In specific instances, how- ever, each compound must be considered individually on the basis of information about its reaction in the environ- merit and its effect on aquatic organisms. Sources and Distribution The major sources of pesticides in water are runoff from treated lands, industrial discharges, and domestic sewage. Significant contributions may also occur in fallout from atmospheric drift and in precipitation (Tarrant and Tatton 1968).485 Applications -to water surfaces, intentional or otherwise, will result in rapid and extensive contamination. The persistent organochlorine pesticides have received the greatest attention in monitoring programs (Lichtenberg et al. 1970,471 Henderson et al. 1969).461 Their extensive distribution in aquatic systems is indicative of environ- mental loading from both point and nonpoint sources. Many pesticides have a low water solubility that favors their rapid sorption on suspended or sedimented materials and their affinity to plant and animal lipids. Soluble or dispersed fractions of pesticides in the water rapidly decline after initial contamination, resulting in increased concen- trations in the sediments (Yule and Tomlin 1971).489 In streams, much of the residue is in continuous transport on suspended particulate material or in sediments (Zabik 1969).490 The distribution within the stream flow is. non- uniform because of unequal velocity and unequal distri- bution of suspended materials within the stream bed (Feltz et al. 1971). 454 Seasonal fluctuations in runoff and use pattern cause major changes in concentration during the year, but the continuous downstream transport tends to reduce levels in the upper reaches of streams while increas- ing them in the downstream areas and eventually in major receiving basins (i.e., lakes, reservoirs, or estuaries). If applications in a watershed cease entirely, residues in the stream will gradually and continuously decline (Sprague et al. 1971).484 A similar decline would be expected in the receiving basins but at a slower rate. In lakes the sediments apparently act as a reservoir from which the pesticide is partitioned into the water phase according to the solubility of the compound, the concen- tration in the sediment, and the type of sediment (Hamelink et al. 1971). 458 Dissolved natural organic materials in the water may greatly enhance the water solubility of some pesticides (Wershaw et al. 1969). 487 Some investigations indicated pesticides may be less available to the water in eutrophic systems where the higher organic content in the sediments has a greater capacity to hold pesticide residues (Lotse et al. 1968,472 Hartung 1970460). This in part ex- plained the difference in time required for some waters to "detoxify," as observed in lakes treated with toxaphene to eradicate undesirable fish species (Terriere et al. 1966). 486 Herbicides applied to aquatic systems to control plant growths are removed from the water by absorption in the plants or sorption to the hydrosoil. The rate of disappearance from the water may be dependent upon the availability of suitable sorption sites. Frank and Comes (1967)455 found residues of dichlobenil in soil and water up to 160 days after application. They also found that diquat and paraquat residues were persistent in hydrosoils for approximately 3 to 6 months after· application. Granular herbicide treat- ments made on a volume basis deposit greater quantities on the hydrosoil in deep water areas than in water of less depth. The granules may supply herbicide to the water over a period of time depending upon solubility of the herbicide, concentrations in the granule, and other conditions. Because the distribution of pesticides is nonuniform, sampling methods and frequency, as well as selection of sampling sites, must be scientifically determined (Feltz et al. 1971).454 Pesticides found in the water in suspended Toxic Substances/183 particulate material and. in sediments may be toxic to aquatic organisms or contribute to residue accumulation in them. Persistence and Biological Accumulation All organic pesticides are subject to metabolic and non- metabolic degradation in the environment. Specific com- pounds vary widely in their rate of degradation, and some form degradation products that may be both persistent and toxic. Most pesticides are readily degraded to nontoxic or elementary materials within a few days to a few months; these compounds may be absorbed by aquatic organisms, but the residues do not necessarily accumulate or persist for long periods. Concentrations in the organism may be higher than ambient water levels, but they rapidly decline as water concentrations are diminished. Examples of such dynamic exchange have been demonstrated with malathion (Bender 1969), 448 methoxychlor (Burdick et al. 1968), 449 and various herbicides (Mullison 1970).478 If degradation in water is completed within sufficient time to prevent toxic or adverse physiological effects, these nonpersistent com- pounds do not pose a long-term hazard to aquatic life. However, degradation rates of specific pesticides are often dependent upon environmental conditions. Considerable variation in persistence may be observed in waters of differ- ent types. Gakstatter and Weiss (1965),456 for example, have shown that wide variations in the stability of organic phosphorous insecticides in water solutions is dependent upon the pH of the water. The half-life of malathion was reduced from about six months at pH 6 to only one to two weeks at pH 8. Repeated applications and slow degradation rates may maintain elevated environmental concentrations, but there is no indication that these compounds can be accumulated through the food chain. Some pesticides, primarily the organochlorine com- pounds, are extremely stable, degrading only slowly or forming persistent degradation products. Aquatic organisms may accumulate these compounds directly by absorption from water and by eating contaminated food organisms. In waters containing very low concentrations of pesticides, fish probably obtain the greatest amount of residue from contaminated foods; but the amount retained in the tissue appears to be a function of the pesticide concentration in the water and its rate of elimination from the organism (Hamelink et al. 1971).458 The transfer of residues from prey to predator in the food chain ultimately results in residues in the higher trophic levels many thousand times higher than ambient water levels. Examples of trophic accumulation have been described in several locations in- cluding Clear Lake, California (Hunt and Bischoff 1960), 463 and Lake Poinsett, South Dakota (Hannon et al. 1970). 459 Residues Samples of wild fish have often contained pesticide resi- dues in greater concentrations than are tolerated in any 184/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife commercially produced agricultural products. The highest concentrations are often found in the most highly prized fish. Coho salmon (Oncorhyncus kisutch) from Lake Michigan are not considered acceptable for sale in interstate commerce on the basis of an interim guideline for DDT and its metabolites set for fish by the U.S. Food and Drug Adminis- tration (Mount 1968).476 Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and some catches of chubs (Coregonus kiyi and Coregonus hoyi) and lake herring ( Coregonus artedi) from Lake Michigan also exceed the guideline limits and are thus not considered acceptable for interstate commerce (Reinert 1970;481 Michi- gan Department of Agriculture personal communication).492 Pesticide residues in fish or fish products may enter the human food chain indirectly in other ways, as in fish oil and meal used in domestic animal feeds. Fish may survive relatively high· residue concentrations in their body fats, but residues concentrated in the eggs of mature fish may be lethal to the developing fry. Up to 100 per cent loss of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) fry occurred when residues of DDT -DDD in the eggs exceeded 4.75 mg/kg (Burdick et al. 1964).450 A similar mortality was reported in coho salmon fry from Lake Michigan where eggs contained significant quantities of DDT, di- eldrin, and polychlorinated biphenyls (Johnson and Pecor 1969;468 Johnson 1968).466 Johnson (1967)467 reported that adult fish not harmed by low concentrations of endrin in water accumulated levels in the eggs that were lethal to the developing fry. Residues in fish may be directly harmful under stress conditions or at different temperature regimes. Brook trout (Salvelinus Jontinalis) fed DDT at 3.0 mg/kg body weight per week for 26 weeks suffered 96.2 per cent .mortality during a period of reduced feeding and declining water temperature. Mortality of untreated control fish during the same period was 1.2 per cent (Macek 1968).473 Declining water temperature during the fall was believed to cause delayed mortality of salmon parr in streams con- taminated with DDT (Elson 1967).453 In addition to the problem of pesticide residues in aquatic systems, other problems suggest themselves and remain to be investigated, including the potential of resistant fish species to accumulate levels hazardous to other species (Rosato and Ferguson 1968) ;482 the potential for enhanced residue storage when fish are exposed to more than one compound (Mayer et al. 1970) ;474 and the potential effect of metabolites not presently identified. The adverse effects of DDT on the reproductive performance of fish-eating birds has been well documented. (See the discussion of Wildlife, pp. 194-198.) Levels of persistent pesticides in water that will not result in undesirable effects cannot be determined on the basis of present knowledge. Water concentrations below the practical limits of detection have resulted in unacceptable residues in fish for human consumption and have affected reproduction and survival of aquatic life. Criteria based upon residue concentrations· in the tissues of selected species may offer some guidance. Tolerance levels for pesticides in wild fish have not been established, but action levels have been sug- gested by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Mount I 968). 47 6 However, acceptable concentrations of persistent pesticides that offer protection to aquatic life and human health are unknown. It should also be recognized that residue criteria are probably unacceptable except on a total ecosystem basis. Residues in stream fish may meet some guidelines, but pesticides from that stream may eventually create excessive residues in fish in the downstream receiving basins. Until more is known of the effects of persistent pesticide residues, any accumulation must be considered undesirable. Toxicity Concentrations of pesticides that are lethal to aquatic life have often occurred in local areas where applications overlap streams or lakes, in streams receiving runoff from recently treated areas, and where misuse or spillage has occurred. Applications of pesticides to water to control noxious plants, fish, or insects have also killed desirable species. Fish populations, however, usually recovered within a few months to a year (Elson 1967).453 The recovery of aquatic invertebrates in areas that have been heavily contaminated may require a longer period, with some species requiring several years to regain precontamination numbers (Cope 1961,451 Ide 1967).465 Undesirable species of insects may be the first to repopulate the area (Hynes 1961), 464 and in some instances the species composition has been completely changed (Hopkins et al. 1966).462 Areas that are contami- nated by pesticide application are subject to loss of fish populations and reduced food for fish growth (Schoenthal 1964,483 Kerswill and Edwards 1967). 469 Where residues are persistent in bottom sediments for long periods, benthic organisms may be damaged even though water concen- trations remain low (Wilson and Bond 1969).488 Pesticides are toxic to aquatic life over wide ranges. Great differences in susceptibility to different compounds exist between species and within species. For example, 96-hour LC50 values of 5 to 610,000 J.t.g/1 were reported for various fish species exposed to organophosphate pesti- cides (Pickering et al. 1962). 479 In addition to species' differences, the toxicity may be modified by differences in formulation, environmental conditions, animal size and age, and physiological condition. The effect of combinations of pesticides on aquatic organisms has not received sufficient attention. Macek (unpublished data 1971)491 reported that combinations of various common pesticides were synergistic in their action on bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), while others had additive effects. Several of the combinations that were found to be syner- gistic are recommended for insect pest control (Table III-16). TABLE III-1r-Acute Toxic Interaction of Pesticide Combinations to Rainbow Trout and Bluegills. Pesticide combination Compound A Compound B DDT ...•............•..•......•.• Yapona •.•. " ••.......................•.• Endrin .... " ........................... . " ................................ " ................................ " .... ···························· " . . . . . .......................... . Dieldrin Azinphosmelhyl Toxaphene Zeclran BHC Parathion......................... Copper sulfate .... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diazinon ····"· ··················•········ DDT " .... ···························· " .... ···························· Malathion .............•.......... " .... ···························· " .... ···························· " .... ···························· " .... ···························· " .... ···························· " .... ···························· .... " ........................... . carbaryl ..•..•................•... .. " ........................... . Endosulfan Methoxychlor Baytex Copper sulfate DDT EPN Parathion Perthane Carbaryl Toxaphene Copper suHate DDT .... ". •••.................•...•.• Azinphosmethyl .... ". • . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • Methoxychlor •... " • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . Parathion Methyl parathion.................. DDT .... ". ...•...................•..• Endosulfan ... !' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carbaryl Bidrin............................ Sumilhion Toxic interaction Additive Additive Additive Additive Additive• Additive Synergistic• Synergistic Synergistic Additive• Additive Synergistic• Synergistic Antagonistic Additive Synergistic Synergistic Synergistic• Synergistic• Additive• Synergistic Additive Additive• Additive Additive• Additive Additive• Additive• Additive • This combination recommended for control of insect pests by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Note: mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement Most data on pesticide effects on aquatic life are limited to a few species and concentrations that are lethal in short-term tests. The few chronic tests conducted with aquatic species indicated that toxic effects occurred at much lower concentrations. Mount and Stephan (1967)475 found the 96·-hour LC50 for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) in malathion was 9,000 JLg/1, but spinal deformities in adult fish occurred during a 10-month exposure to 580 JLg/1. Eaton (1970)452 found that bluegill suffered the same crippling effects after chronic exposure to 7.4 JLg/1 malathion and the 96-hour LC50 was 108 JLg/1. Where chronic toxicity data are available, they may be used to develop application factors to estimate safe levels. Mount and Stephan (1967)475 have suggested using an application factor consisting of the laboratory-determined maximum concentration that has no effect on chronic exposure divided by the 96-hour LC50. Using this method, Eaton (1970)452 showed that application factors for bluegill and fathead minnow exposed to malathion were similar despite a greater than 50-fold difference in species sensi- tivity. Application factors derived for one compound may be appropriate for closely related compounds thaLhave a similar mode of action, but additional research is necessary to verify this concept. In the absence of chronic toxicity Toxic Substances/185 data, the application factors for many compounds must be arbitrary values set with the intention of providing some margin of safety for sensitive species, prolonged exposure, and potential effects of interaction with other compounds. Basis for Criteria The reported acute toxicity values and subacute effects of pesticides for aquatic life are listed in Appendix 11-D. The acute toxicity values multiplied by the appropriate application factor provided the recommended criteria. The 96-hour LC50 should be multiplied by an application factor of 0.01 in most cases. The value derived from multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by a factor of 0.01 can be used as the 24-hour average concentration. Recommended concentrations of pesticides may be below those presently detectable without additional extraction and concentration techniques. However, concentrations below those detectable by routine techniques are known to cause detrimental effects to aquatic organisms and to man. Therefore, recommendations are based on bioassay pro- cedures and the use of an appropriate application factor. The recommendations are based upon the most sensitive species. Permissible concentrations in water have been sug- gested only where several animal species have been tested. Where toxicity data are not available, acute toxicity bio- assays should be conducted with locally important sensitive aquatic species, and safe levels should be estimated by using an application factor of 0.01. Some organochlorine pesticides (i.e., DDT including DDD and DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, hepta- chlor, toxaphene, lindane, endosulfan, and benzene hexa- chloride) are considered especially hazardous because of their persistence and accumulation in aquatic organisms. These compounds, including some of their metabolites, are directly toxic to various aquatic species at concentrations of less than one JLg/1. Their accumulation in aquatic systems presents a hazard, both real and potential, to animals in the higher trophic levels, including man (Pimentel 1971,480 Mrak 1969,477 Kraybill 1969,470 Gillett 1969). 457 Present knowledge is not yet sufficient to predict or estimate safe concentrations of these compounds in aquatic systems. How- ever, residue concentrations in aquatic organisms provide a measure of environmental contamination. Therefore, spe- cific maximum tissue concentrations have been recom- mended as ~ guidtline for water quality control. Recommendations Organochlorine Insecticides The recommenda- tions for selected organochlorine insecticides are based upon levels in water and residue concentra- tions in whole fish on a wet weight basis. Aquatic life should be protected where the maximum con- 186/Section lll-'-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife centration of the organochlorine pesticide in the water does not exceed the values li,sted in Table III-17. For the protection of predators, the following vaiues !ire suggested for residues in whole fish (wet weight): DDT (including DDD and DDE)-1.0 mgfkg; aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor (in- cluding heptachlor epoxide), chlordane, lindane, benzene hexachloride, toxaphene, and endo- sulfan-0.1 mgfkg, either singly or in combination. For further discussion, see the section on Wildlife (p. 197). If fish and wildlife are to be protected, and where residues exceed the recommended concentrations, pesticide use should be restricted until the recom- mended concentrations are reached (except where a substitute pesticide will not protect human health). Other pesticides The recommended maximum concentrations of pesticides in freshwater are listed in Table 111-18 except that where pesticides are applied to water to kill undesirable aquatic life, the values will be higher. In the latter instances, care should be taken to avoid indis~riminate use and to insure that application of the pesticide follows the prescribed methods. OTHER TOXICANTS Ammonia Ammonia is discharged from a wide variety of industrial processes and cleaning operations that use ammonia or ammonia salts. Ammonia also results from the decompo- sition of organic matter. Ammonia gas is soluble in water in the form of am- monium hydroxide to the extent of 100,000 mg/1 at 20 C. Ammonium hydroxide dissociates readily into ammonium TABLE Ill-17-Recommended Maximum Concentrations of Organochlorine Pesticides in Whole (Unfiltered) Water, Sampled at Any Time and Any Place. a Organochlorine pesticides Recommended maximum concentration (pgjl) Aldrin............................................... 0.01 DDT................................................ 0.002 TOE................................................ 0.006 Dieldrin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 005 Chlordane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 04 Endosullan... ... . ... .. . . . .. . . .. .. . ... .. . . .. .. ... . .. . 0.003 Endrin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 002 Heptachlor........................................... 0.01 Lindane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 02 Methoxychlor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o. 005 Toxaphene........................................... 0.01 a Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species(Appendix 11·0) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated. TABLE III-18-Recommended Maximum Concentrations of Other Pesticides in Whole (Unfiltered) Water, Sampled at Any Time and Any Place. a Organophosphate insecticides Recommended maximum concentration (pg/1) Abate............................................... (b) Azinphosmethyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 001 Azinphosethyl......... .•. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) Carbophenothion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) Chlorothion.......................................... (b) Ciodrin.............................................. 0.1 Coumaphos.......................................... 0.001 Oemeton............................................ (b) Oiazinon............................................ 0.009 Oichlorvos........................................... 0.001 Oioxathion.... ... . ... . .... .. ..... ... ... ... ... ... . .. . . 0.09 Oisulfonton.......................................... 0.05 Ours ban............................................. 0.001 Ethion.. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 EPN................................................ 0.06 Fenthion............................................ 0.006 Malathion........................................... 0.008 Methyl Parathion..................................... (b) Mevinphos.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.002 Naled.... .. . . . ... . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. ..... .. . .. . ... . .. . 0.004 Oxydemeton methyl.................................. 0.4 Parathion............................................ 0.0004 Phorate............................................. (b) Phosphamidon....................................... 0.03 Ronnel.............................................. (b) TEPP..... .. .... ... . ... . .. . ... ... .... .. .... .. . ... ... 0.4 Trichlorophon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 002 Carbamate insecticides Recommended maximum concentrations (pgjl) Aminocarb........................................... (b) ~-·············································· 00 Baygon.............................................. (b) Carbaryl............................................. 0.02 Zectran.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 Herbicides, fungicides and defoliants Recommended maximum concentrations (pg/1) Acrolein............................................. (b) Aminotriazole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300.0 Balan............................................... (b) Bensulide............................................ (b) Choroxuron.......................................... (b) CIPC................................................ (b) Oaclhal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) Oalapon............................................. 110.0 *················································ 00 Oexon............................................... (b) Dicamba............................................. 200 Oichlobenil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37. 0 Dichlone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 2 Diquat.............................................. 0.5 Diuron..... .. .. ........ ... ... .... ... ....... ... .... .. 1.6 Difolitan............................................. (b) Dinilrobutyl phenol................................... (b) Diphenamid.......................................... (b) 2, 4·0 (PGBE)....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) 2,4·0 (BEE)......................................... 4.0 2,4·0 (IDE)......................................... (b) 2, 4·0 (Diethylamine salts)............................ (b) Endothal (Disodium saH).............................. (b) Endothal (Dipotassium salt)........................... (b) Eptam ......................................... · · · · · · (b) Fenac (Sodium salt).................................. 45.0 Hyamine-1622 ................................... :... (b) Hyamine-2389....................................... (b) Hydrothal-47. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . (b) Hydrothal-191........................................ (b) Hydrothal plus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) JPC................................................. (b) MCPA. ...... .... ........ ... . .. . . ...... ....... ... ... (b) Molinate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) ~~............................................ 00 Paraquat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) ,. TABLE III-18-Continued Herbicides, fungicide and defoilants Reccommended maximum concentration (J./1) Pebulate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) Picloram. . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) Propanil............................................. (b) Silvex(BEE) ...................................... :.. 2.5 Silvex (PGBE). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 0 Silvex (IDE)......................................... (b) Silvex (Potassium salt)................................ (b) Simazine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.0 Triftuarann.......................................... (b) Vernolate. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . (b) Botanicals Recommended maximum concentrations (l'gjl) Allethrin............................................. 0.002 Pyrethrum........................................... 0.01 Rotenone............................................ 10.0 • ~oncentrations wer~ d?termined by multiplying the acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species (Ap· pend IX 11-D) by an application factor of 0.01 except where an experimentally derived application factor is indicated. b Insufficient data to determine safe concentrations. and hydroxyl ions as follows: NHa+ H20~HN4++0H- The equilibrium of the reaction is dependent upon pH, and within the pH range of most natural waters ammonium ions predominate (Figure III-10). Since the toxic com- ponent of ammonia solutions is the un-ionized ammonia, toxicity of ammonia solutions increases with increased pH (Ellis 1937,497 Wuhrmann et al. 194(,508 Wuhrmann and Woker 1948,509 Downing and Merkens 1955496). Wuhrmann (1952), 507 Downing and Mer kens (I 955), 496 and Merkens and Downing (1957)505 found that a decrease in dissolved oxygen concentration increased the toxicity of un-ionized ammonia to several species of freshwater fishes. Lloyd (1961)502 showed that the increase in toxicity of un-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) with decreased oxygen was .considerably more severe than for zinc, copper, lead, or phenol. Much of the data on ammonia toxicity is not useable, because reporting of chemical conditions or experimental control was unsatisfactory. Ellis ( 193 7) 497 reported that total ammonia nitrogen concentrations of 2.5 mg/1 in the pH range of 7.4 to 8.5 were harmful to several fish species, but concentrations of 1.5 mg/1 were not. Most streams without a source of pollution contained considerably less than 1 mg/1 total ammonia. The sublethal and acutely toxic concentrations of un-ionized ammonia for various fish species are given in Table III-19. Brockway (1950)494 found impairment of oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood of trout at a total ammonia nitrogen concentration of 0.3 mg/1. Fromm (1970)499 found that at total ammonia nitrogen concentrations of 5 mg/1, ammonia excretion by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was inhipited; at 3 mg/1 the trout became hyperexcitable; and at 8 mg/1 (approximately 1 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia) 50 per cent Toxic Substances/187 TABLE lll-19-Sublethol and Acutely Toxic Concentrations of Un-Ionized Ammonia for Various Fish Speciesa Acute No sublethal Species mortality effect (mg/1) Author LC50 (mg/1) Stickleback........................... 1.8-2.1 striped bass (Marone saxatalis). . . . . . . . . 1. 9-2.8 Rainbow trout......................... 0.39 Perch (Perea).. .. .. .. . .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . 0. 29 Roach (Hesperoleucus).... . .. . . . .. .. . .. 0. 35 Rudd (Scardinius)..................... 0.36 Bream (Lepomis)...................... 0.41 Rainbow trout..... .. .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. 0. 41 Rainbow trout... .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. 0. 42-11. 89 Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)........... 0.38 Rainbow trout... . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . o. 88 Trout .......................................... . Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) Hazel et at. (1971)500 " .... ································ 0.046 Lloyd and Orr (1969)'" Ball (1967)<" " .... ································ " .... ································ " .... ································ " .... ································ Lloyd and Herbert (1960)"' Herbert and Shurben (1965)'01 " .... ································ <0. 27 Reichenbach-Klinke (1967)506 <0. 006 Burrows (1964)"' • To insure a high level of protectiolf, the mean of the 96·hour LC50's was used as a base, and an appHcation lac tor of 0. 05 applied to arrive at an acceptable level for most species in fresh water. Two apparently resistant species were omitted because they were far out of line with the others. After application of the factor, the resultant level is approximately baH that projected from the data of Lloyd and Orr (1969).•" were dead in 24 hours (Fromm 1970). 499 Goldfish ( Carassius auratus) were more tolerant; at 40 mg/1 of total ammonia nitrogen, 10 per cent were dead in 24 hours. Burrows (1964) 495 found progressive gill hyperplasia in fingerling chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during a six-week exposure to the lowest concentration applied, 0.006 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia. Reichenbach-Klinke (1967)506 also noted gill hyperplasia, as well as pathology of the liver and blood, of various species at un-ionized am- monia concentrations of 0.27 mg/1. Exposure of carp ( Cyprinus carpio) to sublethal un-ionized ammonia concen- trations in the range of 0.11 to 0.34 mg/1 resulted in ex- tensive necrotic changes and tissue disintegration in various organs (Flis 1968). 498 Lloyd and Orr (1969) 503 found that volume of urine pro- duction increased with exposure to increasing ammonia concentrations, but that an ammonia concentration of 12 per cent of the lethal threshold concentration resulted in no increased production of urine. This concentration of un-ionized ammonia was 0.046 mg/1 for the rainbow trout used in the experiments. Recommendation· Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using the receiving water in question and the most sensi- tive important species in the locality as the test organism, a concentration of un-ionized ammonia (NHa) safe to aquatic life in that water can be esti- mated by multiplying the 96-hr LC50 by an appli- cation factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater than 0.02 mgfl is recommended at any time or place. 188/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife 50.0 30.0 10.0 "' '2 0 E E < "0 ... N '2 0 5.0 ·;;; ;::l "" 0 " bO "' .,; ... u ,_ ... p.. 1.0 0.5 7.0 7.4 7.8 8.2 pH 8.6 9.0 9.4 FIGURE 111-10-Percentage of Un-ionized Ammonia in Ammonium Hydroxide Solutions at 20 C and Various Levels of pH Chlorine Chlorine and chloramines are widely used in treatment of potable water supplies and sewage-treatment-plant effluents, and in power plants, textile and paper mills, and certain other industries. Field tests conducted on caged fish in streams below a sewage outfall where chlorinated and non- chlorinated effluents were discharged showed that toxic conditions occurred for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 0.8 miles below the plant discharge point when chlorinated effluents were discharged (Basch et al. 1971).611 It has ~lso been shown that total numbers of fish and numbers of species were drastically reduced below industrial plants discharging chlorinated sewage effluents (Tsai 1968,517 1970).518 The toxicity to aquatic life of chlorine in water will depend upon the concentration of residual chlorine re- maining and the relative amounts offree chlorine and chlor- amines. Since addition of chlorine or hypochlorites to water containing nitrogenous materials rapidly forms chloramines, problems of toxicity in most receiving waters are related to chloramine concentrations. Merkens (1958)515 stated that ;toxicities of free chlorine and chloramines were best esti- mated from total chlorine residuals. In monitoring pro- grams, evaluation of chlorine content of water is usually stated in terms of total chlorine residuals. Because the ,chlorine concentrations of concern are below the level of detection by the orthotolidine method, a more sensitive analytical technique is recommended. The literature summarized by McKee and Wolf (1963)514 showed a wide range of acute chlorine toxicity to various aquatic organisms, but the conditions of the tests varied so widely that estimation of generally applicable acute or -safe levels cannot be derived from the combined data. It has also been demonstrated that small amounts of chlorine .can greatly increase the toxicity of various industrial effluents. Merkens (1958)515 found that at pH 7.0, 0.008 mg/1 residual chlorine killed half the test fish in seven days. The test results were obtained using the amperometric titration ~ and the diethyl-p-phenylene diamine methods of chlorine analysis. Zillich (1972),519 working with chlorinated sewage effluent, determined that threshold toxicity for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) was 0.04-0.05 mg/1 residual chlorine. In two series of 96-hour LC50 tests an average of . 0..05-0.19 mg/1 residual chlorine was noted. Basch et al. (1971)511 found 96-hour LC50 for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to be 0.23 mg/1. Arthur and Eaton (1971),510 working with fathead minnows and Gammarus pseudol£mnaeus, found that the 96-hour LC50 total residual chlorine (as chloramine) for Gammarus was 0.22 mg/1, and that all minnows were dead after 72 hours at 0.15 mg/1. Mter seven days exposure to 0.09 mg/1, the first fish died. The LC50 for minnows was therefore between these levels. In chronic tests extending for 15 weeks, survival of Gammarus Toxic Substances/189 was reduced at 0.04 mg/1, a:rid reproduction was reduced at 0.0034 mg/1. Growth and survival of fathead minnows after 21 weeks was not affected by continuous exposure to 0.043 mg/1 total chloramines, but fecundity of females was re- duced. The highest level showing no significant effect was 0.016 mg/1. Merkens (1958)515 postulated by extrapolation that a concentration of 0.004 mg/1 residual chlorine would permit one half the test fish to survive one year. Sprague and Drury (1969)516 have shown an avoidance response of rainbow trout to free chlorine at 0.001 mg/1. Aquatic organisms will tolerate longer short-term ex- posures to much higher levels of chlorine than the concen- trations which have adverse chronic effects. Brungs (1972)512 in a review has noted that 1-hour LC50's of fish vary from 0. 74 to 0.88 mg/1, and that longer short-term exposures have LC50's lower but still substantially higher than ac- ceptable for long-term exposure. Available information, however, does not show what effect repeated exposure to these, or lower levels, will have on aquatic life. Because Gammarus, an essential food for fish, is affected at 0.0034 mg/1, and a safe level is judged to be one that will not permit adverse effect on any element of the biota, the following recommendation has beeri made. Recommendation Aquatic life should be protected where the con- centration of residual chlorine in the receiving system does not exceed 0.003 mgfl at any time or place. Aquatic organisms will tolerate short-term exposure to high levels of chlorine. Until more is known about the short-term effects, it is recom- mended that total residual chlorine should not exceed 0.05 mgfl for a period up to 30-minutes in any 24-hour period. Cyanides The cyanide radical is a constituent of many compounds or complex ions that may be present in industrial wastes. Cyanide-bearing wastes may derive from gas works, coke ovens, scrubbing of gases in steel plants, metal plating operations, and chemical industries. The toxicity of cyanides varies widely with pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen concentration. The pH is especially important, since the toxicity of some cyanide complexes changes manyfold over the range commonly found in receiving waters . "Free cyanide" (CN-ion and HCN) occurs mostly as molecular hydrogen cyanide, the more toxic form, at pH lev- els of natural waters as well as in unusually acid waters. Fifty per cent ionization of the acid occurs at pH near 9.3. Free cyanide concentrations froq1 0.05 to 0.01 mg/1 as CN have proved fatal to many sensitive fishes (Jones 1964), 527 and levels much above 0.2 mg/1 are rapidly fatal for most species of fish. A level as low as 0.01 mg/1 is known to have a pronounced, rapid, and lasting effect on the swimming ability of salmonid fishes. ----.. --~--------------- 190/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife The work of Doudoroff et al. (1966)524 has demonstrated that the effective toxicant to fish in nearly all solutions of complex metallocyanides tested was molecular HCN, the complex ions being relatively harmless. The total cyanide content of such solutions is not a reliable index of their toxicity. The HCN derives from dissociation of the complex ions, which can be greatly influenced by pH changes. Doudoroff (1956)523 demonstrated a more than thousand- fold increase of the toxicity of the nickelocyanide complex associated with a decrease of pH from 8.0 to 6.5. A change in pH from 7.8 to 7.5 increased the toxicity more than tenfold. Burdick and Lipschuetz (1948)521 have shown that so- lutions containing the ferro and ferricyanide complexes become highly toxic to fish through photodecomposition upon exposure to sunlight. Numerous investigations have shown that toxicity of free cyanide increased at reduced oxygen concentrations (Downing 1954,525 Wuhrmann and W oker 1955,528 Burdick et al. 1958,52° Cairns and Scheier 1963). 522 The toxic action is known to be accelerated markedly by increased temperature (Wuhrmann and Woker 1955,528 Cairns and Scheier 1963),522 but the influence of temperature during long exposure has not -been demon- strated. The toxicity of the nitriles (organic cyanides) to fish varied greatly. Henderson et al. (1960)526 found marked cumulative toxicity of acrylonitrile. Lactonitrile decom- posed rapidly in water yielding free cyanide, and its high toxicity evidently was due to the HCN formed. The toxicity of cyanide to diatoms varied little with change of temperature and was a little greater in soft water than in hard water (Patrick unpublished data 1971).529 For Nitzchia linearis, concentrations found to cause a 50 per cent reduction in growth of the population in soft water ( 44 mg/1 Ca-Mg as CaC03) were 0.92 mg/1 (CN) a:t 72 F, 0.30 mg/1 at 82 F, and 0.28 mg/1 at 86 F. For Navicula seminulum var. Hustedtil, the concentrations reducing growth of the population by 50 per cent in hard water (170 mg/1 Ca-Mg as CaC03) were found to be 0.36 mg/1 at 72 F, 0.49 mg/1 at 82 F, and 0.42 mg/1 at 86 F. Cyanide appeared to be more toxic to animals than to algae. Recommended maximum concentrations of cyanide-bear- ing wastes of unknown composition and properties should be determined by static and flow-through bioassays. The bioassays should be performed with dissolved oxygen, tem- perature, and pH held at the local ~ater quality conditions under which cyanides are most toxic. Because the partial dissociation of some complex metallocyanide ions may be slow, static bioassays may reveal much greater toxicity than that demonstrable by the flow-through methods. dn the other hand, standing test solutions of simple and some complex cyanides exposed to the atmosphere gradually lose their toxicity, because the volatile HCN escapes. Chemical determination of the concentration of undis- sociated, molecular HCN alone may be the best way to evaluate the danger of free cyanide to fish in waters receiving cyanide bearing wastes. Such tests may reveal the occur- rence of harmful concentrations of HCN not predictable through bioassay of the wastes. Because an acceptable concentration of HCN or fraction of a LC50 of cyanides and cyanide-bearing effluents has not yet been positively determined, a conservative estimate must be made; and because levels as low as 0.01 mg/1 have proved harmful under some conditions, a factor of 0.05 should be applied to LC50 levels. Recommendation Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using the receiving water in question and the most sensi- tive important species in the locality as the test organism, a concentration of free cyanide (CN-) safe to aquatic life in that water can be estimated by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater than 0.005 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place. Detergents Detergents are a common component of sewage and in- dustrial effluents derived in largest amounts from household cleaning agents. In 1965 a shift from tetra propylene-derived alkylbenzene sulfonates (ABS) to the more biodegradable linear alkylate sulfonates (LAS) was made by the detergent industry. In current detergent formulas, LAS is the primary toxic active compound, two to four times more toxic than ABS (Pickering 1966).534 However, toxicity of LAS dis- appears along with the methylene blue active substances (MBAS) response upon biodegradation (Swisher 1967). 537 Retrieval of MBAS data from the National Surveillance Stations throughout the U.S. from 1966 to the present showed that the mean of 3,608 samples was less than 0.1 mg/1. There has been a downward trend in MBAS concen- trations. Only four stations reported mean concentrations greater than 0.2 mg/1. The MBAS determination has been the routine analytical method for measurement of surfactant concentrations. Posi- tive errors are more common than negative ones in the determination of anionic surfactants in water (Standard Methods 1971).536 An infrared determination or a carbon absorption cleanup procedure is recommended when high MBAS concentrations are found. Marchetti (1965)533 critically reviewed the effects of de- tergents on aquatic life. Most available information on LAS toxicity relates to fish. Short term studies by a number of investigators have shown that lethal concentrations to selected fish species vary from 0.2 to 10.0 mg/1 (Hokanson and Smith 1971).532 Bardach et al. (1965)531 reported that 10 mg/1 is lethal to bullheads (Ictalurus sp.), and that 0.5 mg/1 eroded 50 per cent of their taste buds within 24 days. Thatcher and Santner (1966)538 found 96-hour LC50 values from 3.3 to 6.4 mg/1 for five species of fish. Pickering and Thatcher (1970)535 found in their stu9y of ~ I chronic toxicity that a concentration of 0.63 mg/1 had no measurable effect. on the life cycle of the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), while a concentration of 1.2 mg/1 was lethal to the newly hatched fry. A safe level should be between 14 and 28 per cent of the 96-ho~r LC50. Hokanson and Smith (1971) 532 reported that a concentration of l mg/1 was an approximate safe concentration for bluegills in Mississippi River water of good quality. Arthur (1970)5 30 found that the no-effect level of LAS on Gammarus pseudo- limnaeus was 0.2 to 0.4 mg/l. This investigator also subjected opculate and pulmonate snails to 60-week exposures of LAS and showed the toxicity levels to be 0.4 to l.O mg/1 and greater than 4.4 mg/1, respectively. Detergent Builders Phosphates have been included in household detergents to increase their effectiveness, although this use has been seriously questioned recently. Nitrilotriacetate (NT A) and other builders have been tried, but most are either less effective or have been barred for reasons of potential health hazard. Available builders do not have serious direct effects on fish or aquatic organisms at concentrations likely to be encountered in receiving waters. In view of the uncertain legal status of present commercial detergents and the extensive search for adequate substitutes now in progress, recommendations for builders are not practical at this time. However, it can be stated that a satisfactory builder should be biologically degradable and nontoxic to aquatic organisms and humans, and that it should not cause aes- thetic problems in the receiving water. Recommendation Once a 96-hour LC50 has been determined using the receiving water in question and the most sensi- tive important species in the locality as the test organism, a concentration of LAS safe to aquatic life in that water can be estimated by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater than 0.2 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place. Phenolics Phenols and phenolic wastes are derived from petroleum, coke, and chemical indus tries ; wood distillation; and do- mestic and animal wastes. Many phenolic compounds are more toxic than pure phenol: their toxicity varies with the combinations and general nature of total wastes. Acute toxicity of pure phenol varies between 0.079 mg/1 in 30 minutes to minnows, and 56.0 mg/1 in 96 hours to mosquito fish (Gambusia a/finis). Mitrovic et al. (1968)5 41 found a 48-hour LC50 of 7.5 mg/1 to trout; they noted that exposure to 6.5 mg/1 caused damage to epithelial cells in 2 hours, and extensive damage to reproductive systems in 7 days. Ellis (1937)539 reported l.O mg/1 safe to trout; and 0.10 Toxic Substances/191 mg/1 was found nonlethal to bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) in 48 hours (Turnbull et al. 1954). 542 These studies illustrated the wide range of phenol toxicity. There is not yet adequate documentation about chronic effects and toxicity of mixed wastes on which to base recommendations of safe levels for fish. Phenolics affect the taste of fish at levels that do not appear to affect fish physiology adversely. Mixed wastes often have more objectionable effects than pure materials. For example, 2,4-dicholorphenol affects taste at 0.001 to 0.005 mg/1; p-chlorophenol at 0.01 to 0.06 mg/1; and 2-methyl, 6-chlorophenol at 0.003 mg/l. (See the discussion of Tainting Substances, p. 147.) Pure phenol did not affect taste until levels of 1 to lO mg/1 were reached (Fetterolf 1964).540 The taste of fish in most polluted situations is adversely affected by phenolics before acute toxic effects are observed. Recommendations In view of the wide range of concentrations of phenolics which produce toxic effects in fish and the generally lower levels which taint fish flesh, it is recommended that taste and odor criteria be used to determine suitability of waste receiving waters to support usable fish populations. Where problems of fish kills occur or fish are subjected to occasional short-term exposure to phenolic com- pounds, a 96-hour LC50 should be determined using the receiving water in question and the most sensitive important fish in the locality as the test animal. Concentrations of phenolic compounds safe to fish in that water can then be estimated by multiplying the 96-hour LC50 by an application factor of 0.05; but no concentration greater than 0.1 mg/1 is recommended at any time or place. Tests of other species will be necessary to protect other trophic levels. Sulfides Sulfides are constituents of many industrial wastes, such as those from tanneries, paper mills, chemical plants, and gas works. Hydrogen sulfide may be generated by the anaerobic decomposition of sewage and other organic matter in the water, and in sludge beds. Natural production of H2S may also result from deposits of organic material. When soluble sulfides are added to water, they react with hydrogen ions to form HS-or H2S, the proportion of each depending on the pH values. The toxicity of sulfides derives primarily from H 2S rather than the sulfide ion. The rapid combination of H 2S with other materials, including oxygen, has frequently caused investigators to overlook the importance of H 2S as it affects aquatic life, especially when it originates from sludge beds. Because water samples usually are not taken at the mud/water interface, the im- portance of H 2S in this habitat for fish eggs, fish fry, and 192/Section III-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife .., 00 <0 c .., u .... v ~ 100. 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 6.0 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.6 8.0 8.4 ~IGURE III-11-Percentage of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Form of Undissociated H2S at Various pH Levels (Temperature 20 C; ionic strength p, = 0.01) fisl 19( the of ace s- the HE as ( pH ate pn wh lev or be l rna em an' Va 191 COl sui (I! we an fin vit1 Ac no at ab va ox hy fq pn an (I (1 0.1 fish food organisms is often overlooked (Colby and Smith 1967). 545 Hydrogen sulfide is a poisonous gas, soluble in water to the extent of about 4,000 mg/l at 20 C and one atmosphere of pressure (Figure III-ll). Upon solution, it dissociates according to the reaction H2S-tHS-+H+ and HS--t s--+H+. At pH 9, about 99 per cent of the sulfide is in the form ofHS-; at pH 7 it is about equally divided between HS-and H 2S; and at pH 5 about 99 per cent is present as H2S. Consequently, the toxicity of sulfides increases at lower pH because a greater proportion is in the form of undissoci- ated H2S. Only at pH 10 and above is the sulfide ion present in appreciable amounts. In polluted situations, where the pH may be neutral or below 7.0, or where oxygen levels are low but not lethal, problems arising from sulfides or from hydrogen sulfide generated in sludge deposits will be increased. Much available data on the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide to fish and aquatic life have been based on extremely short exposure periods and have failed to give adequate infor- mation on water quality,· oxygen, and pH. Consequently, early data have suggested that concentrations between 0.3 and 4.0 mg/l permit fish to survive (Schaut 1939,546 VanHorn 1958,550 Bonn and Follis 1967,544 Theede et al. 1969).~49 Recent data both in field situations and under controlled laboratory conditions demonstrated hydrogen sulfide toxicity at lower concentrations. Colby and Smith (1967) 545 found that concentrations as high as 0. 7 mg/l were found within 20 mm of the bottom on sludge beds, and that levels of 0.1 to 0.02 mg/l were common within the first 20 mm of water above this layer. Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum v.) eggs held in trays in this zone did not hatch. Adelman and Smith (1970)543 reported that hatching of northern pike (Esox lucius) eggs was substantially reduced at 0.025 mg/l of H2S, and at 0.047 mg/l mortality was almost complete. Northern pike fry had 96-hour LC50 values that varied from 0.017 to 0.032 mg/l at normal oxygen levels (6.0 mg/1). The highest concentration of hydrogen sulfide at which no short-term effects on eggs or fry were observed was 0.814 mg/l. Smith and Oseid (in press 1971), 548 working on eggs, fry, and juveniles of walleyes and white suckers (Catostomus commersonni), and Smith (1971),547 working on walleyes and fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), found that safe levels varied from 0.0029 to 0.012 mg/l with eggs being the least sensitive and Toxic Substances/193 TABLE III-20-96-Hour LCSO and Safe Levels Based on No Adverse Effect on Critical Life History Stages Species 96·Hr. LC (mg/0 Safe levels• (mg/0 Northern Pike............................ eggs 0.037 0.014 fry 0. 026 0. 004 Walleye ................................. eggs 0.071 0.012 fry 0.007 0.007 juvenile 0. 017 0.0037 While Sucker............................ eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.015 fry 0.0018 0.002 juvenile 0.0185 0.002 Fathead minnows......................... juvenile 0.032 (at20 C) 0.003 adult 0.032 0.003 Bluegill.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . juvenile 0. 032 0. 002 adult 0.032 0.002 Gammarus pseudolimnaeus................ 0.042 (10·day) 0.0033 Hexagenia limbata........................ 0. 350 • Safe levels are construed to mean no demonstrable deleterious effect on survival or growth after long-term chronic exposure. juveniles being the most sensitive in short-term tests (Table III-20). In 96-hour bioassays fathead minnows and goldfish (Carassius auratus) varied greatly in tolerance to hydrogen sulfide with changes in temperature. They were more tolerant at low temperatures (6 to lO C). On the basis of chronic tests evaluating growth and survival, the safe level for bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) juveniles and adults was 0.002 mg/l. White sucker eggs all hatched at 0.015 mg/1, but juveniles showed a negligible growth reduction at 0.002 mg/l. Safe levels for fathead minnows were between 0.002 and 0.003 mg/l. Studies on various arthropods ( Gammarus pseudolimnaeus and Hexagenia limbata), useful as fish food, indicated that safe levels were between 0.002 and 0.003 mg/l (Smith 1971 ). 547 Some species typical of normally stressed habitats were much more re- sistant (Asellus sp.). Recommendation On the basis of available data, a level of undis- sociated hydrogen sulfide assumed to be safe for all aquatic organisms including fish is 0.002 mgfl. At a pH of 6.0 and a temperature of 13.0 C, approxi- mately 99 per cent of the total sulfide is present as undissociated hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, to pro- tect aquatic organisms within the acceptable limits of pH and temperature, it is recommended that the concentration of total sulfides not exceed 0.002 mgfl at any time or place. WILDLIFE In this report, wildlife is defined as all species of verte- brates other than fish and man. To assure the short-term and long-term survival of wildlife, the water of the aquatic ecosystem must be of the quality and quantity to furnish the necessary life support throughout the life-cycle of the species involved. In addition to the quantity, the quality of food substances produced by the aquatic environment must be adequate to support the long-term survival of the wild- life species. Many species of wildlife require the existence of specific, complex, and relatively undisturbed ecosystems for their continued existence. Aquatic ecosystems, such as bogs, muskegs, seepages, swamps, and marshes, can exhibit marked fragility under the influence of changing water levels, various pollutants, fire, or human activity. Changes in the abundance of animal populations living in such aquatic communities can result in reactions and altered abundance of plant life, which in turn will have repercus- sions of other species of animal life. In general, these transi- tional ecosystems between land and water are characterized by very high productivity and importance for wildlife, and they should thus be maintained in that state to the greatest possible extent. In many instances, criteria to protect fish and inverte- brates or to provide water suitable for consumption by man or domestic animals will also provide the minimal requisites for some species of wildlife. This would be true for species that use water only for direct consumption or that feed on aquatic organisms to only a minor extent. For many species of wildlife, however, the setting of water quality criteria is complicated by their ecological position at the apex of com- plex food webs, and also by the extreme mobility of some wildlife, especially birds. Those substances which are concentrated via food chains, such as many chlorinated hydrocarbons, present special problems for those species that occupy the apex of long food chains. In those instances, environmental levels which are safe for fish, do not necessarily convey safety to predators or even to scavengers that consume fish. PROTECTION OF FOOD AND SHELTER FOR WILDLIFE A number of factors can be identified that can affect specific components of the ecosystem and cause reduced food and shelter for wildlife. These factors also affect fish and other squatic life and therefore are discussed in greater detail in appropriate related subtopics. pH In bioassays with aquatic plants, Sincock (1968)593 found that when the pH of the water in test vessels dropped to 4.5, reedhead-grass (Potamogeton perjoliatus), a valuable water- fowl food plant, died within a few days. Similarly, in Back Bay, Virginia, between August and November, 1963, the aquatic plant production declined from 164 to 13 pounds per acre. This atypical decline was immediately preceded by a decline in pH to 6.5 compared to previous midsummer readings of 7.7 to 9.2. (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife). 601 Recommendation Aquatic plants of greatest value as food for water- fowl thrive best in waters with a summer pH range of 7.0 to 9.2. ALKALINITY Generally, waters with reasonably high bicarbonate alka- linity are more productive of valuable waterfowl food plants than are waters with low bicarbonate alkalinity. Few waters with less than 25 mg/1 bicarbonate alkalinity can be classed among the better waterfowl habitats. Many waterfowl habi- tats productive of valuable foods, such as sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), widgeongrass (Rappia maritima and R. occidentalis), banana waterlily (Castalia jlava), wild celery, (Vallisneria americana), and others have a bicarbonate alka- linity range of 35 to 200 mg/1. Definitive submerged aquatic plant communities develop in waters with different concentrations of bicarbonate 194 alkalinity. It is logical to assume that excessive and pro- longed fluctuation in alkalinity would not be conducive to stabilization of any one plant community type. Sufficient experimental evidence is not available to define the effects of various degrees and rates of change in alkalinity on aquatic plant communities. Fluctuations of 50 mg/1 prob- ably would contribute to unstable plant communities. Fluctuations of this magnitude may be due to canals con- necting watersheds, diversion of irrigation water, or flood diversion canals (Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis- tration 1968, hereafter referred to as FWPCA 1968): 562 Recommendation Waterfowl habitats should have a bicarbonate alkalinity between 30 and 130 mg/1 to be pro- ductive. Fluctuations should be less than 50 mg/1 from natural conditions. SALINITY Salinity can also affect plant commumtles. All saline water communities, from slightly brackish to marine, pro- duce valuable waterfowl foods, and the most important consideration is the degree of fluctuation of salinity. The germination of seeds and the growth of seedlings are critical stages in the plant-salinity relationship; plants become more tolerant to salinity with age. . Salinities from 0.35 to 0.9 per cent NaCl in drinking water have been shown to be toxic to many members of the order Galliformes (chickens, pheasant, quail) (Krista et al. .1961,585 Scrivner 1946,592 Field and Evans 1946561). , . Young ducklings were killed or retarded in growth as a ~esult of salt poisoning by solutions equal to those found on the Suisun Marsh, California, during the summer months. Salinity maxima varied from 0;55 to 1. 74 per cent, and the means varied from 0.07 to 1.26 per cent during July from 1956 to 1960 (Griffith 1962-63).565 Recommendation ..... ·Salinity should be kept as close to natural con- ditions _as possible. Rapid fluctuations should be m:inimized. ,LIGHT PENETRATION Criteria for light penetration established in the discus- sions of Color (p. 130) and Settleable Solids (p. 129) should -also be adequate to provide for the production of aquatic ·plants for freshwater wildlife. 'SETTLEABLE SUBSTANCES · •' Accumulation of silt deposits are destructive to aquatic plants due eSpecially to the creation of a soft, semi-liquid 'Sl!-bstratum inadequate for the anchoring of roots. Back rBay,Virginia, and Currituck Sound, North Carolina, serve Wildlije/195 as examples of the destructive nature of silt deposition. Approximately 40 square miles of bottom are covered with soft, semi-liquid silts up to 5 inches deep; these areas, con- stituting one-fifth of the total area, produce only 1 per cent of the total aquatic plant production (FWPCA 1968).062 Recommendation Setteable substances can destroy the usefulness of aquatic bottoms to waterfowl, and for that reason, settleable substances should be minimized in areas expected to support waterfowl. PRODUCTION OF WILDLIFE FOODS OTHER THAN PLANTS The production of protozoans, crustaceans, aquatic in- sects, other invertebrates, and fish is dependent on water quality. The water quality requirements for the production of fish are dealt with "elsewhere in this Section, and a normal level of productivity of invertebrates is also required for the normal production of fish that feed upon them. While it is well known that many species of invertebrates are easily affected by low concentrations of pollutants, such as insecticides, in water ( Gaufin et al. 1965,563 Burdick et al. 1968,555 Kennedy et al. 1970 584), most of the field studies do not supply reliable exposure data, and most laboratory studies are of too short' a duration or are performed under static conditions, allowing no reliable extrapolations to natural conditions. The general impression to be gained from these studies is that insects and crustaceans tend to be as sensitive as or more sensitive than fish to various insecti- cides, and that many molluscs and oligochetes tend to be less sensitive. TEMPERATURE The increasing discharge of warmed industrial and do- mestic effluents into northern streams and lakes has changed the duration and extent of normal ice cover in these north- ern regions. This has prompted changes in the normal overwintering pattern of some species of waterfowl. Thus, Hunt (1957)576 details the increasing use since 1930 of the Detroit River as a wintering area for black duck (Anas rubripes), canvasback (Aythya valisneria), lesser scaup (Aythya affines), and redhead (Athya americana). In this process, waterfowl may become crowded into areas near industrial complexes with a shrinking supply of winter food. The proximity of sources of pollutants, food shortages, and low air temperatures often interact to produce unusually high waterfowl mortalities. Recommendation Changes in natural freezing patterns and dates should be avoided as far as possible in order to minimize abnormal concentrations of wintering waterfowl. 196/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife SPECIFIC POTENTIALLY HARMFUL SUBSTANCES Direct Acting Substances Oils Waterbirds and aquatic mammals, such as musk- rat and otter, require water that is free from surface oil. Catastrophic losses of waterbirds have resulted from the contamination of plumages by oils. Diving birds appear to be more susceptible to oiling than other species (Hawkes 1961).571 Heavy contamination of the plumage results in loss of buoyancy and drowning. Lower levels of contamina- tion cause excessive heat loss resulting in an energy deficit which expresses itself in an accelerated starvation (Hartung 1967a).567 Less than 5 mg of oil per bird can produce sig- nificant increases in heat loss. The ingestion of oils may contribute to mortalities, and this is especially true for some manufactured oils (Hartung and Hunt 1966).569 When small quantities of oil are coated onto eggs by incubating mallaq:ls (Anas platyrhynchos), the likelihood of those eggs to hatch is greatly reduced (Hartung 1965). 566 Rittinghaus ( 1956) 591 reported an incident in which numerous Cabot's Terns (Thalasseus sandvicensis) and other shorebirds became contaminated with oil that had been washed on shore. Eggs which were subsequently oiled by the plumage of oiled fe- male terns did not hatch even after 50 days of incubation. The absence of visible surface oils should protect wildlife from direct effect. Oils can be sedimented by coating particulates on the surface and then sinking to the bottom. Sedimented oils have been associated with changes in benthic communities (Hunt 1957)57 6 and have been shown to act as concentrators for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Hartung and Klingler 1970570). Recommendation To protect waterfowl, there should be no visible floating oil (see p.146 of this Section and pp. 263-264 of Section IV). Lead Waterfowl often mistake spent lead shot for seed or grit and ingest it. See Section IV, pp. 227-228, for a discussion of this problem. Recommendation The recommendation of the Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Panel, Section IV, (p. 228) to protect waterfowl also applies to the freshwater environ- ment. Botulism Poisoning Botulism is a food poisoning caused by the ingestion of the toxin of Clostridium botulinum of any six immunologically distinct types, designated A through F. The disease, as it occurs in epizootic proportions in wild birds, is most commonly of the C type, although outbreaks of type E botulism have been observed on the Great Lakes (Kaufman and Fay 1964582 , Fay 1966560). Ct. botulinum, a widely distributed anaerobic bacterium, is capable of existing for many years in its dormant spore form, even under chemically and physically adverse en- vironmental conditions. Its toxins are produced in the course of its metabolic activity as the vegetative form grows and reproduces in suitable media. Outbreaks occur when aquatic birds consume this preformed toxin. The highest morbidity and mortality rates from botulism in aquatic birds have been recorded in shallow, alkaline lakes or marshes in the western United States, and outbreaks have most commonly occurred from July through Septem- ber and, in some years, October. The optimum tempera- tures for growth of the bacterium or the toxin production, or both, have been reported as low as 25 C (Hunter et al. 1970)577 and as high as 37 C (Quortrup and Sudheimer 1942588). The discrepancies are probably the result of differ- ences in the experimental conditions under which the meas- urements were made and the strains of Ct. botulinum type C used. The popular belief that avian botulism epizootics are as- sociated with low water levels and consequent stagnation is not necessarily supported by facts. In three of the years of heaviest bird losses in the history of the Bear River Migra- tory Bird Refuge (1965, 1967, and 1971), the water supply was considerably more abundant than normal (Hunter, California Department of Fish and Game, persorzal communi- cation; unpublished Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife reports60o). The high water levels caused flooding of mud flats not normally under water in the summer months. Simi- lar inundations of soil that had been dry for several years have been associated previously with outbreaks on the Bear River Refuge and in other epizootic areas. A: partial ex- planation for these associations may be that flooding of dry ground is commonly followed by a proliferation of many species of aquatic invertebrates (McKnight 1970587 ), the carcasses of which may be utilized by Ct. botulinum. Bell et al. (1955)552 provided experimental support for an idea expressed earlier by Kalmbach (1934).581 According to their "microenvironment concept," the bodies of inverte- brate animals provide the nutrients and the anaerobic en- vironment required by C. botulinum type C for growth and toxin production. These bodies would presumably also offer some protection to the bacterium and its toxin from a chemi- cally unfavorable ambient medium. Jensen and Allen (1960)578 presented evidence of a possible relationship be- tween die-offs of certain invertebrate species and subsequent botulism outbreaks. The relationship between alkalinity or salinity of the marsh and the occurrence of botulism outbreaks is not clear. Invertebrate carcasses suspended in distilled water support high levels of toxin (Bell et al. 1955).552 Laboratory media are commonly composed of ingredients such as peptones, yeast extract, and glucose, without added salts. The medium used routinely at the Bear River Research Station for the culture of Ct. botulinum type C has a pH of 6.8 to 7.0 after heat sterilization. McKee et al. (1958)586 showed that when pH was automatically maintai~ed at a particular,level in laboratory cultures.of Ct. botulinum type C throughout the growth period, the largest amount of toxin was produced at pH 5. 7, the lowest level tested. -Decomposing carcasses of birds dead of botulism commonly contain very high concen- trations of type C toxin, and in these cases production is ordinarily independent of the chemical composition of the marsh. Kalmbach (1934)581 tabulated the salt concentrations of water. samples collected from I 0 known botulism epizootic areas. The values ranged from 261 to 102,658 ppm (omit- ting the highest, which was taken from a lake where the bird losses were possibly from a cause other than botulism). Christiansen and Low (1970)556 recorded conductance measurements on water in the management units of the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge and the Farmington Bay Waterfowl Management Area, both sites of botulism out- breaks varying in severity from year to year. The average conductance of water flowing into the five units of the Bear River Refuge in five summers (1959-1963) ranged from 3.7 to 4.9 millimhos per centimeter at 25 C. The readings on outflowing water from the five units ranged from 4.4 to 8.3 mmhos. Comparable figures for the three Farmington Bay units were 1.8 to 3.2 (inflow) and 3.2 to 4.8 mmho~ (out- flow). Thus the salinity range of the inflowing water at Bear River was comparable to that of the outflowing water at Farmington. These data suggest that salt concentration of the water in an epizootic area is not one of the critical factors influencing the occurrence of outbreaks. If high salinity does favor their occurrence, it is probably not because of its effect on Cl. botulinum itself. Other possible explanations for the higher incidence of botulism in shallow, alkaline marshes are: • Saline waters may support higher invertebrate popu- lation levels than do relatively fresh waters. (Com- parisons, as they relate to avian botulism, have not been made.) • High salinity may inhibit some of the microorganisms that compete with Cl. botulinum for nutrients or those that cause deterioration of the toxin. • Salinity may have no significant effect on the in- vertebrates or the bacteria, but it increases the sus- ceptibility of the birds. Gooch ( 1964) 557 has shown that type C botulinum toxin decreases the activity of the salt gland in ducks, reducing its capacity to eliminate salt. Birds so affected succumb to smaller doses of toxin than do those provided with fresh water. • Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be associ- ated with or affected by insect die-offs, water tem- peratures above 70 F, fluctuations in water levels and elevated concentrations of dissolved solids. Recommendation Outbreaks of botulism poisoning tend to be as- sociated with, or affected by insect die-ofis, water Wildlife/197 temperature above 70 F, fluctuating water levels, and elevated concentrations of dissolved solids. Management of these factors may reduce outbreaks of botulism poisoning. Substances Acting After Magnification in· Food Chains Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides DDT and Derivatives DDT and its abundant de- rivatives DDE and TDE have high lipid solubility and low water solubility, and thus tend to concentrate in the lipid, i.e., living fraction of the aquatic environment (Hartung 1967b).568 DDE is the most stable of the DDT compounds and has been especially implicated in producing thinning of egg shells, increased breakage of eggs, reproductive failure in species occupying the apex of aquatic food chains in areas with long histories of DDT usage. Reproductive failures and local extirpation associated with egg shell thinning have been reported for several North American bird species. The phenomenon was first described and is most wide-spread for the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) (Hickey and Anderson 1968). 574 Since then simi- lar phenomena have been described in Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) (Anderson and Hickey 1970)551 and species of several other families of predatory birds. Further increases ofDDE in large receiving basins, such as the Great Lakes, would be expected to increase the extent of repro- ductive failure among predatory aquatic bird populations. Concentrations as low as 2.8 ppm p ,p'DDE on a wet- weight basis produced experimental thinning of egg shells in the American Kestrel (Falco sparvarius) (Wiemeyer and Porter 1970). 599 Heath et al. (1969)572 induced significant levels of eggshell thinning in mallards after feeding them similarly low levels of DDE. Concentrations of DDT com- pounds in the water of Lake Michigan have been estimated to be l to 3 parts per trillion (Reinert 1970)589 (Table III-21). Concentrations that would permit the assured sur- vival of sensitive predatory bird species are evidently much lower than that. Because such low concentrations cannot be reliably measured by present technologies and because the concentrating factor for the food chains appears to be vari- able or is not known, or both, a biological monitoring sys- tem should be chosen. If it is desired to protect a number of fish-eating and raptorial birds, it is essential to reduce the levels of DDE contamination, especially in large receiving basins (see Section IV). The available data indicate that there should not be con- centrations greater than 1 mg/kg of total DDT in any aquatic plants or animals in order to protect most species of aquatic wildlife. Present unpublished data indicate effects for even lower levels of DDE to some species of predatory birds (Stickel unpublished data). 601 Present environmental levels vastly exceed the recom- mended levels in many locations, and continued direct or 198/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 111-21-Relotionship of DDT and Metabolites to Eggshell Thinning Species Dosage* wet- weight basis Pesticide level Thinning in eggs Percent Mallard............... 1000 mgjkg N.D.t 25 Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Japanese quail (Coturnix) Herring gull (larus argentalus) American kestrel (Falco sparvarius) Mallard single dose N.D.t 0-10 ppm DOE ca. 5 10-20 ppm DOE ca. 13 20-30 ppm ODE ca. 18 30 ppm DOE ca. 25 100 ppm o,pDDT 23.6 ppm o,pDDT 4 0.52 ppm ODE 100 ppm p,p'DDT 48.0 ppm p,p'DDE 6 ca. 3.3 ppm 227 ppm total DDT N.D.t total DDT 2.8 ppm p,p'DDE 32.4 ppm ODE 10 **2.8 ppm ODE N.D.t **11.2 ppm DOE N.D.t 11 14 • All tests except the first one are chronic, spanning at least several months. •• Converted from dry-basis. t Not determined. Reference Tucker & Haegele, 1970"' Enderson & Berger, 1970"' Silman el al., 1969563 Keith, 1966"' Wiemeyer & Porter, 1970"' Heath el al., 1969572 indirect inputs of DDT would make these recommendations unattainable. Recommendation In order to protect most species of aquatic wild- life, the total DDT concentration on a wet-weight basis should be less than 1 mgjkg in any aquatic plants or animals. (Also see Recommendations for Pesticides, p. 185-186.) Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) Polychlorinated biphenyls are chlorinated hydrocarbons which are highly resistant to chemical or biological degradation. They have been widespread environmental contaminants (Jensen et al. 1969,580 Risebrough et al. 1968 590). Their biological effects at present environmental concentrations are not known. PCB's can elevate microsomal enzyme activity (Risebrough et al. 1968,590 Street et al. 1968594), but the environmental significance of that finding is not clear. The toxicity of PCB is influenced by the presence of small amounts of con- taminated chlorinated dibenzofurans (Vos and Koeman 1970,596 Vos et al. 1970597 ) which are highly toxic to de- veloping embryos. Recommendation Because of the persistence of PCB and their susceptibility to biological magnification, it is recommended that the body burdens of PCB in birds and mammals not be permitted to increase and that monitoring programs be instituted (see Section IV). Mercury Westoo (1966)598 reported that almost all of the mercury found in fish is methyl mercury. Jensen and Jernelov (1969)579 showed that natural sediments can methylate ionic mercury. Mercury levels in fish in Lake St. Clair ranged between 0.4 and 3 ppm, averaging near 1.5 ppm (Greig and Seagram 1970). 564 Residues in fish-eating birds from Lake St. Clair ranged up to 7.5 ppm in a tern, and up to 23 ppm in a great blue heron (Dustman et al. 1970). 558 These residues are comparable to those found in Swedish birds that died after experimental dosing with methyl- mercury, and in birds that died with signs of mercury poi- soning under field conditions in Scandinavian countres (Henriksson et al. 1966,573 Borg et al. 1969,554 Holt 196957 5). To date, no bird mortalities due to mercury contamination have been demonstrated in the Lake St. Clair area, but body burdens of fish-eating birds are obviously close to demonstrated toxic levels. It is therefore concluded that the mercury levels in fish flesh should be kept below 0.5 ppm to assure the long-term survival of fish-eating birds. Since this level incorporates little or no safety margin for fish-eating wildlife, it is suggested that the safety of a 0.5 ppm level be reevaluated as soon as possible. Recommendation Fish-eating birds should be protected if mercury levels in fish do not exceed 0.5 p.gjg. Since the recommendation of 0.5 p.gfg mercury in fish provides little or no safety margin for fish- eating wildlife, it is recommended that the safety of the 0.5 p.gfg level be reevaluated as soon as possible. LITERATURE CITED BIOLOGICAL MONITORING 1 Cairns, J., Jr. (1967), Suspended solids standards for the protection of aquatic organisms. Proc. Ind. Waste Conj. Purdue Univ. 129(1): 16-27. 2 Cairns, J., Jr., D. W. Albaugh, F. Busey, and M. D. Chanay (1968), The sequential comparison index: a simplified method for non-biologists to estimate relative differences in biological diversity in stream pollution studies. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 40(9): 1607-1613. 3 Cairns, J., Jr. and K. L. Dickson (1971), A simple method for the biological assessment of the effects of waste discharges on aquatic bottom-dwelling organisms. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 43(5): 755-772. 4 Galtsoff, P. S., W. A. Chipman, Jr., J. B. Engle, and H. N. Calder- wood (1947), Ecological and physiological studies of the effect of sulfite pulpmill wastes on oysters in the York River, Virginia. Fish and Wildlife Service Fisheries Bulletin 43(51):59-186. 6 Haydu, E. P. (1968), Biological concepts in pollution control. In- dust. Water Eng. 5(7):18-21. 6 Patrick, R., H. H. Holm, and J. H. Wallace (1954), A new method for determining the pattern of the diatom flora. Notulae Natur. (Philadelphia) no. 259:1-12. 7 Sparks, R. E., A. G. Heath, and J. Cairns, Jr. (1969), Changes in bluegill EKG and respiratory signal caused by exposure to con- centrations of zinc. Ass. Southeast. Bioi. Bull. 16(2) :69. 8 Waller, W. T. and J. Cairns, Jr. (1969), Changes in movement pat- terns of fish exposed to sublethal concentrations of zinc. Ass. Southeast. Bioi. Bull. 16(2): 70. 9 Warren, C. E. and G. E. Davis (1971), Laboratory stream research: objectives, possibilities, and constraints. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Systema- tics 2: lll-144. BIOASSAYS 10 Alderdice, D. F. (1967), The detection and measurement of water pollution: biological assays. Can. Fish. Rep. no. 9:33-39. 11 American Public Health Association, American Water Works As- sociation, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1971), Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater, 13th ed. (American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874p. 12 Anderson, B. G. (1950), The apparent thresholds of toxicity to Daphnia magna for chlorides of various metals when added to Lake Erie water. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 78:96-113. 13 Ball, I. R. (1967a), The relative susceptibilities of some species of fresh-water fish to poisons. I. Ammonia. 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University of Toronto Studies, Biological Service No. 55, Pub. Ontario Fisheries Research Laboratory, No. 68, 62 pp. 27 Henderson, C. (1957), Application factors to be applied to bio- assays for the safe disposal of toxic wastes, in Biological problems in water pollution, C. M. Tarzwell, ed. (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Robert A. Taft Sanitary En- gineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio), pp. 31-37. 28 Herbert, D. W. M. (1965), Pollution and fisheries, in Ecologv and the industrial society, G. T. Goodman, R. W. Edwards, and J. M. Lambert, eds. (Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford), pp. 173-195. 29 Herbert, D. W. M. and J. M. Vandyke {1964), The toxicity to fish of mixtures of poisons. II. Copper-ammonia and zinc-phenol mixtures. Ann. Appl. Bioi. 53(3):415-421. 30 Jordan, D. H. M. and R. Loyd (1964), The resistance of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson) and roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) to alkaline solutions. Air Water Pollut. 8(6/7):405-409. 199 200/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife 31 Lennon, R. E. (1967), Selected strains of fish as bioassay animals. Progr. Fish-Cult. 29(3):129-132. 32 Litchfield, J. T. and F. Wilcoxon (1949), A sin'rplified method of evaluating dose-effect experiments. J. Pharmacal. Exp. Ther. 96: 99-113. 33 Lloyd, R. (196la), Effect of dissolved oxygen concentrations on the toxicity of several poisons to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson). J. Exp. Biol. 38(2):447--455. 34 Lioyd, R. (196lb), The toxicity of ammonia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson). Water Waste Treat. 8:278-279. 36 Lloyd, R. and L. D. Orr (1969), The diuretic response by rainbow trout to sub-lethal concentrations of ammonia. Water Res. 3(5): 335-344. 36 McKim, J. M. and D. A. Benoit (1971), Effects of long-term ex- posures to copper on survival growth, and reproduction of brook trout (Salvelinusfontinalis). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28(5):655-662. 37 Mount, D. I. (1968), Chronic toxicity of copper to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas, Rafinesque). Water Res. 2(3):215-223. 38 Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephan (1967), A method of establishing acceptable toxicant limits for fish: malathion and the butoxy- ethanol ester of 2,4-D. Trans. Amer, Fish. Soc. 96(2):185-193. 39 Mount, D. I. and R. E. Warner {1965), Serial-dilution apparatus for continuous delivery of various concentrations of materials in water [PHS Pub. 999-WP-23) (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 16 p. 40 Patrick, R. (1968), Standard method of test for evaluating inhibi- tory toxicity of industrial waste waters, in .American Society for Testing and Materials book of standards, part 23: Industrial water· atmospheric analysis (American Society for Testing and Ma~ terials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), pp. 657-665. 41 Patrick, R., J. Cairns, Jr., and A. Scheier (1968), The relative sensitivity of diatoms, snails, and fish to 20 common constituents of industrial wastes. 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G., unpublished data 1971. National Water Quality Labora- tory, Duluth, Minn. PHYSICAL MANIPULATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 64 Brown, C. L. and R. Clark (1968), Observations on dredging and dissolved oxygen in a tidal waterway. Water Resour. Res. 4:1381- 1384. ·56 Brown, G. W. and J. T. Krygier (1970), Effects of dear-cutting on stream temperatures. Water Resour. Res. 6(4):1133-1139. 66 Copeland, B. J. and F. Dickens (1969), Systems resulting from dredging spoil, in Coastal ecological systems of the United States, H. T. Odum, B. J. Copeland, and E. A. McMahan, eds. (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C.), pp. 1084-1100 mimeograph. 67 Gannon, J. E. and A. M. Beeton {1969), Studies on the effects of . dredged materials from selected Great Lakes harbors on plankton and benthos [Special report no. 8) (Center for Great Lakes Studies University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee), 82 p. ' 68 Gebhards, S. (1970), The vanishing stream. Idaho Wild!. Rev. 22(5): 3-8. 69 Ingle, R. M. (1952), Studies on. the effect of dredging operations upon fish and shellfish (Florida State. Board of Conservation, Tallahassee), 26p. 60 Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, N. M. Johnson, D. W. Fisher, and R. S. Pierce (1970), Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treat- ment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook Watershed ecosystem. Ecol. Monogr. 40(1):23--47. 61 Mackin, J. G. (1961), Canal dredging and silting in Louisiana bays. Pub!. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 7:262-319. 62 Marshall, R. R. (1968), Dredging and filling, in Marsh estua~ management symposium proceedings, J. D. Newsom, ed. (T. J. Moran's Sons, Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana) pp. 107-113. 63 Martin, E. C. (1969), Stream alteration and its effects on fish and wild- life. Proc. 23rd Annual conference S. E. Association Game and Fish Commissioners, Mobile, Alabama, 19 p. mimeo. 64 Peters, J. C. and W. Alvord (1964), Man-made channel altera- tions in thirteen Montana streams and rivers. Trans. N. Amer. Wildlife Natur. Resour. 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Cairns, Jr., and C. W. Reimer (1967), A limnologi- cal reconnaissance of an impoundment receiving heavy metals, with emphasis on diatoms and fish, in Reservoir fishery resources, symposium (American Fisheries Society, Washington, D. C.), pp. 69-99. 71 Buck, D. H. (1956), Effects of turbidity on fish and fishing. Trans. N. Amer. Wild!. Conf. 21:249-261. 72 Cairns, J., Jr. (1968), We're in hot water. Scientist and Citizen 10(8): 187-198. 73 European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission. Working Party on Water Quality Criteria for European Freshwater Fish (1965), Report on finely divided solids and inland fisheries. Air Water Pollut. 9(3): 151-168. 74 Gammon, J. R. (1970), The effect of inorganic sediment on stream biota [Environmental Protection Agency water pollution control re- search series no. 18050DWC] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 141 p. 75 Gannon, J. E. and A. M. 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Morgan (1962), Chemical aspects of coagu- lation. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 54:971-994. 87 Welch, P. S. (1952), Limnology (McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York), 538 pp. DISSOLVED OXYGEN 88 Brown, V. M. (1968), The calculation of the acute toxicity of mix- tures of poisons to rainbow trout. Water Research 2:723-733. 89 Doudoroff, P. and D. L. Shumway (1967), Dissolved oxygen cri- teria for the protection of fish. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. no. 4:13- 19. go Doudoroff, P. and D. L. Shumway (1970), Dissolved oxygen require- ments of freshwater fishes [Food and Agricultural Organization fisheries technical paper 86] (FAO, Rome), 291 p. g1 Doudoroff, P. and C. E. Warren (1965), Dissolved oxygen require- Literature Cited/201 ments of fishes, in Biological problems in water pollution, C. M. Tarzwell, ed. [PHS Pub. 999-WP-25] 92 Dudley, R. G. (1969), Survival of largemouth bass embryos at low dissolved oxygen concentrations. M.S. Thesis, Cornell Uni- versity, Ithaca, New York, 61 p. 93 Ellis, M. M. 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(1964b), Avoidance of copper-zinc solutions by young salmon in the laboratory. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 36(8): 990-1104. 431 Sprague, J. B. (1968a), Avoidance reactions of rainbow trout to zinc sulphate solutions. Water Res. 2(5):367-372. 432 Sprague, J. B. (1968b), Promising anti-pollutant: chelating agent NTA protects fish from copper and zinc. Nature 220:1345-1346. 433 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health As- sociation, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. 434 Stiff, M. J. (1971), Copper/bicarbonate equilibria in solutions of bicarbonate ion at .concentrations similar to those found in natural water. Water Res. 5(5):171-176. 435 U. K. Ministry of Technology (1969), Water pollution research: report of the director, Water Pollution Research Laboratory, Stevenage, Great Britain, pp. 58-60. 436 Uspenskaya, V. I. (1946), Influence of mercury compounds on aquatic organisms. Gig. Sanit. 11(11):1-8) 210/Section Ill-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife 437 Weir, P. A. and C. H. Hine (1970), Effects of various metals on behavior of conditioned goldfish. Arch. Environ. Health 20(1):45-51. References Cited 438 Benoit, D. A., unpublished data, 1971. Long term effects of hexava- lent chromium on the growth, survival and reproduction of the brook trout and rainbow trout. National Water Quality Labora- tory, Duluth, Minn. 439 Biesinger, K. E., G. Glass and R. W. Andrew, unpublished data, 1971. Toxicity of copper to Daphnia magna; National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn. 440 Biesinger, K. E. and G. M. Christensen, unpublished data, 1971. 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PESTICIDES 448 Bender, M. E. (1969), Uptake and retention of malathion by the carp. Progr. Fish-Cult. 31(3):155-159. 449 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean, E. J. Harris, J. Skea, C. Frisa, and C. Sweeney (1968), Methoxychlor as a blackfly larvicide: persis- tence of its residues in fish and its effect on stream arthropods. N. r. Fish. Game J. 15(2):121-142. 450 Burdick, G. E., E. J. Harris, H. J. Dean, T. M. Walker, J. Skea, and D. Colby (1964), The accumulation of DDT in lake trout and the effect on reproduction. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(2): 127-136. 451 Cope, 0. B. (1961), Effects of DDT spraying for spruce budworm on fish in the Yellowstone River system. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90(3) :239-251. 452 Eaton, J. G. (1970), Chronic malathion toxicity to the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque): Water Res. 4(10):673-684. 453 Elson, P. F. (1967), Effects on wild young salmon of spraying DDT over New Brunswick forests. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 24(4):731- 767. 4 54 Feltz, H. R., W. T. Sayers, and H. P. Nicholson (1971), National monitoring program for the assessment of pesticide residues in water. Pestic. Monit. J. 5(1):54-62. 455 Frank, P. A. and R. D. Comes (1967), Herbicidal residues in pond water and hydrosoil. Weeds 15(3):210-213. 456 Gakstatter, J. L. and C. M. Weiss (1965), The decay of anti- cholinesterase activity of organic phosphorus insecticides on storage in waters of different pH. Proceedings Second International Water Pollution Conference, Tokyo, 1964, pp. 83-95. 457 Gillett, J. W., ed. (1969), The biological impact of pesticides in the environment [Environmental health science series no. I) (En- vironmental Health Studies Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis), 210 p. 458 Hamelink, J. L., R. C. Waybrant, and R. C. Ball (1971), A pro- posal: exchange equilibria control the degree chlorinated hydro- carbons are biologically magnified in lentic environments. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(2):207-214. 459 Hannon, M. R., Y. A. Greichus, R. L. Applegate, and A. C. Fox (1970), Ecological distribution of pesticides in Lake Poinsett, South Dakota. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3):496-500. 460 Hartung, R. (1970) Seasonal dynamics of pesticides in western Lake Erie. Sea Grant progress Report. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 461 Henderson, C., W. L. Johnson, and A. Inglis (1969), Organo- chlorine insecticide residues in fish. (National pesticide moni- toring program). Pestic. Monit. J. 3(3):145-171. 462 Hopkins, C. L., H. V. Brewerton, and H. J. W. McGrath (1966), The effect on a stream fauna of an aerial application of DDT prills to pastureland. N. z. J. Sci. 9(1):236-248. 463 Hunt, E. G. and A. I. Bischoff (1960), Inimical effects on wildlife of periodic DDD applications to Clear Lake. Calif. Fish Game 46:91-106. 464 Hynes, H. B. N. (1961), The effect of sheep-dip containing the insecticide BHC on the fauna of a small stream, including Simulium and its predators. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 55(2):192- 196. 465 Ide, F. P. (1967), Effects of forest spraying with DDT on aquatic insects of salmon streams in New Brunswick. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 24(4):769-805. 466 Johnson, D. W. (1968), Pesticides and fishes: a review of selected literature. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4):398--424. 467 Johnson, H. E. (1967), The effects of endrin on the reproduction of a fresh water fish (Oryzias latipes) [Ph.D. dissertation) University of Washington, Seattle, 149 p. 4 68 Johnson, H. E. and C. Pecor (1969), Coho salmon mortality and DDT in Lake Michigan. Trans. N. Amer. Wild!. Natur. Resour. Conj. 34:159-166. 469 Kerswill, C. J. and H. E. Edwards (1967), Fish losses after forest sprayings with insecticides in New Brunswick, 1952-62, as shown by caged specimens and other observations. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 24(4):709-729. 470 Kraybill, H. F., ed. (1969), Biological effects of pesticides in mammalian systems. Ann. N. r. Acad. Sci. 160:1--422. 471 Lichtenberg, J. J., J. W. Eichelberger, R. C. Dressman, and J. E. Longbottom (1970), Pesticides in surface waters of the United States: a five-year summary, 1964-68. Pestic. Monit. J. 4(2): 71-86. 472 Lotse, E. G., D. A. Graetz, G. Chesters, G. B. Lee, and L. W. Newland (1968), Lindane adsorption by lake sediments. Environ. Sci. Techno!. 2(5):353-357. 47 3 Macek, K. J. (1968), Growth and resistance to stress in brook trout fed sublethal levels of DDT. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 25(11): 2443-2451. 474 Mayer, F. L., Jr., J. C. Street, and J. M. Neuhold (1970), Organo- chlorine insecticide interactions affecting residue storage in rainbow trout. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(4):300-310. 475 Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephan (1967), A method for detecting cadmium poisoning in fish. J. Wildlife Manage. 31(1):168-172. 476 Mount, D. I. (1968), Chronic toxicity of copper to fathead min- nows (Pimephales promelas, Rafinesque). Water Res. 2(3):215-223. 477 Mrak, E. M. chairman, (1969), Report of the Secretary's Commission on pesticides and their relationship to environmental health (Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 677 p. 478 Mullison, W. R. (1970), Effects of herbicides on water and its inhabitants. Weed Sci. 18(6):738-750. 479 Pickering, Q. H., C. Henderson, and A. E. Lemke (1962), The toxocity of organic phosphorus insecticides to different species of warmwater fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 91(2):175-184. 480 Pimentel, D. ( 1971), Ecological effects of pesticides on non-target species (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 220 p. 481 Reinert, R. E. (1970), Pesticide concentrations in Great Lakes fish. Pestic. Monit. J. 3(4):233-240. 482 Rosato, P. and D. E. Ferguson (1968), The toxicity of endrin- resistant mosquitofish to eleven species of vertebrates. Bioscience 18:783-784. 483 Schoenthal, N. D. (1964), Some effects of DDT on cold-water fish and fish-food organisms. Proc. Mont. Acad. Sci. 23(1):63-95. 484 Sprague, J. B., P. F. Elson, and J. R. Duffy (1971), Decrease in DDT residues in young salmon after forest spraying in New Brunswick. Environ. Pollut. 1:191-203. 485 Tarrant, K. R. and J. O'G. Tatton (1968), Organochlorine pesti- cides in rainwater in the British Isles. Nature 219:725-727. 486 Terriere, L. C., U. Kiigemai, A. R. Gerlach, and R. L. Borovicka (1966), The persistence of toxaphene in lake water and its up- take by aquatic plants and animals. J. Agr. Food Chem. 14(1): 66-69. 487 Wershaw, R. L., P. J. Burcar, and M. C. Goldberg (1969), Inter- action of pesticides with natural organic material. Environ. Sci. Techno[. 3(3) :271-273. 488 Wilson, D. C. and C. E. Bond (1969), Effects of the herbicides diquat and dichlobenil (Casoron) on pond invertebrates. I. Acute toxocity. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98(3):438-443. 489 Yule, W. N. and A. D. Tomlin (1971), DDT in forest streams. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(6):479-488. 490 Zabik, M. J. (1969), The contribution of urban and agricultural pesticide use to the contamination of the Red Cedar River. Of- fice of Water Resources Research Project No. A-012-Michigan, Of- fice Water Resources 19 pp. References Cited 491 Macek, K. J., unpublished data (1971). Investigations in fish pesti- cide research, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 492 Michigan Department of Agriculture personal communication (1970) (Reinert, R.) Lansing, Michigan. AMMONIA 493 Ball, I. R. (1967), Toxicity of cadmium to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson). Water Res. l(ll/12):805-806. 494 Brockway, D. R. (1950), Metabolic products and their effects. Progr. Fish-Cult. 12:127-129. 496 Burrows, R. E. (1964), Effects of accumulated excretory products on hatchery-reared salmonids [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife research report 66] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 12 p. 496 Downing, K. M. and J. C. Merkens (1955), The influence of dis- solved oxygen concentration on the toxicity of unionized am- monia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson). Ann. Appl. Biol. 43:243-246. 497 Ellis, M. M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pol- lution. U.S. Bur. Fish. Bull. no. 22:365-437. 498 Flis, J. (1968), Histopathological changes induced in carp (Cy- Prinus carpio L.) by ammonia water. Acta Hydrobiol. lO(l/2):205- 238. 499 Fromm, P. 0. (1970), Toxic action of water soluble pollutants on fresh- water fish [Environmental Protection Agency water pollution control research series no. l8050DST] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 56 p. 600 Hazel, C. R., W. Thomsen, and S. J. Meith (1971), Sensitivity of striped bass and stickleback to ammonia in relation to tempera- ture and salinity. Calif. Fish Game 57(3):138-153. 601 Herbert, D. W. M., D. S. Shurben (1965), The· susceptibility of salmonid fish to poisons under estuarine conditions: II. Am- monium chloride. Air Water Pollut. 9(1/2):89-91. Literature Cited/211 602 Lloyd, R. (1961), The _toxicity of ammonia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson). Water Waste Treat. 8:278-279. 60 3 Lloyd, R. and L. D. Orr (1969), The diuretic response by rainbow trout to sub-lethal concentrations of ammonia. Water Res. 3(5): 335-344. 604 Lloyd, R. and D. W. M. Herbert (1960), The influence of carbon dioxide on the toxicity of un-ionized ammonia to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson). Ann. Appl. Biol. 48:399-404. 6°6 Merkens, J. C. and K. M. Downing (1957), The effect of tension of dissolved oxygen on the toxicity of un-ionized ammonia to several species of fish. Ann. Appl. Biol. 45(3):521-527. 60 6 Reichenbach-Klinke, H. H. (1967), Untersuchungen uber die einwirkung des ammoniakgehalts auf den fischorganismus. Arch. Fischereiwiss. 17(2):122-132. 607 Wuhrmann, K. (1952), [Toxicology of fish]. Bull. Cent. Beige Etude Document. Eaux no. 15, pp. 49-60. 608 Wuhrmann, K., F. Zehender, and H. Woker (1947), [Biological significance of the ammonium and ammonia contents of flowing water in fisheries]. Vierteljahresschr. Naturforsch. Ges. Zurich 92: 198-204. 609 Wuhrmann, K. and H. Woker (1948), Beitriige zur toxikologie der fische. II. Experimentelle untersuchungen iiber die ammoniak- und blausiiure-vergiftung. Schweiz. z. Hydro!. ll :210-244. CHLORINE 610 Arthur, J. W. and J. G. Eaton (1971), Chlorine toxicity to the Amphipod, Gammarus pseudolimnaeus and the fathead minnow Pimephales promelas Rafinesque. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, (in press). 611 Basch, R. E., M. E. Newton, J. G. Truchan, and C. M. Fetterolf (1971), Chlorinated municipal waste toxicities to rainbow trout and fathead minnows [Environmental Protection Agency water pollu- tion control research series no. l8050G22] (Government Print- ing Office, Washington, D. C.), 50 p. 612 Brungs, W. A. in preparation (1972), Literature review of the effects of residual chlorine on aquatic life. National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn. 613 Laubusch, E. J. (1962), Water chlorination, in Chlorine: its manu- facture, properties and uses, J. S. Sconce, ed. [American Chemical Society monograph series no. 154] (Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York), pp. 457-484. . 514 McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds. (1963), Water quality criteria, 2nd ed. (California. State Water Quality Control Board, Sacra- mento), 548 p. 515 Merkens, J. C. (1958), Studies on the toxicity of chlorine and chloramines to rainbow trout. Water Waste Treat. J. 7:l5Q-15l. 516 Sprague, J. B. and D. E. Drury (1969), Avoidance reactions of salmonid fish to representative pollutants, in Advances in water pollution research, proceedings of the 4th international conference, S. H. Jenkins, ed. (Pergamon Press, New York), pp. 169-179. 517 Tsai, C. F. (1968), Effects of chlorinated sewage effiuents on fish in upper Patuxent River, Maryland. Chesapeake Sci. 9(2) :83-93. 518 Tsai, C. F. (1970), Changes in fish populations and migration in relation to increased sewage pollution in Little Patuxent River, Maryland. Chesapeake Sci. ll ( 1) :34-41. 519 Zillich, J. A. (1972), Toxicity of combined chlorine residuals to fresh water fish. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 44: 212-220. CYANIDES 520 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean, and E. J. Harris (1958), Toxicity of cyanide to brown trout and smallmouth bass. N. r. Fish Game J. 5(2):133-163. 621 Burdick, G. E. and M. Lipschuetz (1948), Toxicity of ferro-and 212/Section III-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife ferricyanide solutions to fish, and determination of the cause of mortality. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 78:192-202. 622 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1963), Erwironmental effects upon cyanide toxicity to fish. Notulae Natur. (Philadelphia) no. 361: 1-11. 523 Doudoroff, P. (1956), Some experiments on the toxicity of complex cyanides to fish. Sewage lndust. Wastes 28(8):1020-1040. 62 4 Doudoroff, P., G. Leduc and C. R. Schneider (1966), Acute toxicity to fish of solutions containing complex metal cyanides, in relation to concentrations of molecular hydrocyanic acid. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(1):6-22. 626 Downing, K. M. (1954), Influence of dissolved oxygen concentra- tion on the toxicity of potassium cyanide to rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol. 31(2):161-164. 526 Henderson, C., Q. H. Pickering, and A. E. Lemke (1960), The effect of some organic cyanides (nitriles) on fish. Purdue Univ. Eng. Bull. Ext. Ser. no. 106:120-130. 527 Jones, J. R. E. (1964), Fish and river pollution (Butterworth & Co., London), 200 p. 628 Wuhrman, K. and H. Woker (1955), Influence of temperature of oxygen tension on the toxicity of poisons to fish. Proc. Inter- national Assoc. Theoret. Appl. Leinnol., 12:795-801. Reference Cited 629 Patrick, R., unpublished data, 1971. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. DETERGENTS 530 Arthur, J. W. (1970), Chronic effects of linear alkylate sulfonate detergent on Cammarus pseudolimnaeus, Campeloma dicisum, and Physa integra. Water Res. 4(3):251-257. 531 Bardach, J. E., M. Fujiya, and A. Holl (1965), Detergents: ef- fects on the chemical senses of the fish Ictalurus natal is (le Sueur). Science 148:1605-1607. 532 Hokanson, K. E. F. and L. L. Smith (1971), Some factors in- fluencing toxicity of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) to the blue- gill. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(1):1-12. 633 Marchetti, R. (1965), Critical review of the effects o/ synthetic detergents on aquatic life [Studies and reviews no. 26) (General Fish Council for the Mediterranean, Rome), 32 p. · 634 Pickering, Q. H. (1966), Acute toxicity of alkyl benzene sulfonate and linear alkylate sulfonate to the eggs of the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas. Air Water Pollut. 10(5):385-391. 636 Pickering, Q. H. and T. 0. Thatcher (1970), The chronic toxicity of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) to Pimephales promelas. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42(2 part 1):243-254. 636 Standard methods (1971) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. 637 Swisher, R. D. (1967), Biodegradation of LAS benzene rings in activated sludge. J. Amer. Oil Chern. Soc. 44(12) :717-724. 638 Thatcher, T. 0. and J. F. Santner (1966), Acute toxicity of LAS to various fish species. Purdue Univ. Eng. Bull. Ext. Ser. no. 121: 996-1002. PHENOLICS 639 Ellis, M. M. (1937), Detection and measurement of stream pollu- tion. U.S. Bur Fish. Bull. no. 22:365-437. 640 Fetterolf, C. M. (1964), Taste and odor problems in fish from Michigan waters. Proc. Ind. Waste Conf. Purdue Univ.. 115:174-182. 641 Mitrovic, U. U., V. M. Brown, D. G. Shurben, and M. H. Berry- man (1968), Some pathological effects of sub-acute and acute poisoning of rainbow trout by phenol in hard water. Water Res. 2(4):249-254. 642 Turnbull, H., J. G. DeMann;and R. F. Weston (1954), Toxicity of various refinery materials to fresh water fish. Ind. Eng. Chern. 46:324-333. SULFIDES 543 Adelman, I. R. and L. L. Smith, Jr. (1970), Effect of hydrogen sulfide on northern pike eggs and sac fry. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3):501-509. 644 Bonn, E. W. and B. J. Follis (1967), Effects of hydrogen sulfide on channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 96(1): 31-36. 545 Colby, P. J. and L. L. Smith (1967), Survival of walleye eggs and fry on paper fiber sludge deposits in Rainey River, Minnesota. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 96(3):278-296. 546 Schaut, G. G. (1939), Fish catastrophies during droughts. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 31 (1):771-822. 547 Smith, L. L. (1971), Influence of hydrogen sulfide on fish and arthropods. Preliminary completion report EPA Project 18050 PCG,30pp. 548 Smith, L. L. and D. Oseid inprc··· (1971), Toxic effects of hydrogen sulfide to juvenile fish and f ··h eggs. Proc. 25th Purdue Indus- trial Waste Conf. 549 Theede, H., A. Ponat, K. Hiro~ ~' and C. Schlieper (1969), Studies on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen-de- ficiency and hydrogen sulfide. Mar. Biol. 2(4):325-337. 550 Van Horn, W. M. (1958), The effect of pulp and paper mill wastes on aquatic life. Proc. Ontario lndust. Waste Conf. 5:60-66. WILDLIFE 551 Anderson, D. W. and J. J. Hickey (1970) Oological data on egg and breeding characteristics of brown pelicans. Wilson Bull. 82 (1):14-28. 5 52 Bell, J. F., G. W. Seiple, and A. A. Hubert (1955), A microen- vironment concept of the epizoology of avian botulism. J. Wild- life Manage. 19(3):352-357. 553 Bitman, J., H. C. Cecil, S. J. Harris, and G. F. Fries (1969), DDT induces a decrease in eggshell calcium. Nature 224:44-46. 554 Borg, K., H. Wanntorp, K. Erne, and E. Hanko (1969), Alkyl mercury poisoning in terrestrial Swedish wildlife. Viltrevy 6(4): 301-379. 555 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean, E. J. Harris, J. Skea, C. Frisa, and C. Sweeney (1968), Methoxychlor as a black fly larvicide, persistence of its residues in fish and its effects on stream arthro- pods. N. r. Fish & Game 15(2):121-142. 556 Christiansen, J. E. and J. B. Low (1970), Water requirements of waterfowl marshlands in northern Utah. Publication No. 69-72, Utah Division of Fish and Game. 557 Cooch, F. G. 1964. Preliminary study of the survival value of a salt gland in prairie Anatidae. Auk. 81 (I) :380-393. 558 Dustman, E. H., L. F. Stickel and J. B. Elder (I 970), Mercury in wild animals, Lake St. Clair. Paper presented at the Environmental Mercury Contamination Coriference, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 5 59 Enderson, J. H. and D. D. Berger (1970), Pesticides: eggshell thinning and lowered reproduction of young in prairie falcons. Bioscience 20:355-356. 560 Fay, L. D. 1966. Type E botulism in Great Lake water birds. Trans. 31st N. Amer. Wildlife Conf.: 139-149. 561 Field, H. I. and E. T. R. Evans (1946), Acute salt poisoning in poultry. Vet Rec. 58(23):2.5::!-254. 562 FWPCA (1968) U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollutio!!_ Con- trol Administration (1968), Water quality criteria: report of the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 234 p. 663 Gaufin, A. R., L. D. Jensen, A. V. Nebeker, T. Nelson, and R. W. Teel (1965), The toxicity of ten organic insecticides to various aquatic imrertebrates. Water and Sewage Works 112(7) :276-279. 664 Greig, R. A. and H. L. Seagram (1970), Survey of mercury con- centrations in fishes of lakes St. Clair, Erie and Huron. Paper presented at the Environmental Mercury Contamination Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 666 Griffith, W. H., Jr. (1962-63), Salt as a possible limiting factor to the Suisan Marsh pheasant population. Annual report, Delta Fish & Wildlife Protection Study, Cooperative Study of Cali- fornia. 666Hartung, R. (1965), Some effects of oiling on reproduction of ducks. J. Wildlife Manage. 29(4):872-874. 667 Hartung, R. (!967a), Energy metabolism in oil-covered ducks. J. Wildlife Manage. 31(4):798-804. 668 Hartung, R. (1967b), An outline for biological and physical con- centrating mechanisms for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 52:77-83. 669 Hartung, R. and G. S. Hunt (1966), Toxicity of some oils to water- fowL J. Wildlife Manage. 30(3):564-570. 670 Hartung, R. and G. W. Klingler (1970), Concentration of DDT sedimented polluting oils. Environ. Sci. Techno!. 4(5) :407-410. 671 Hawkes, A. L. 1961. A review of the nature and extent of damage caused by oil pollution at sea. Trans. N. Am. Wildlife and Na- tional Resources Conf. 26:343-355. 672 Heath, R. G., J. W. Spann, and J. F. Kreitzer (1969), Marked DDE impairment of mallard reproduction in controlled studies. Nature 224:47-48. 673 Henriksson, K., E. Karppanen, and M. Helminen (1966), High residue of mercury in Finnish white-tailed eagles. Ornis Fenn. 43(2) :38-45. 67 4 Hickey, J. J. and D. W. Anderson (1968), Chlorinated hydro- carbons and eggshell changes in raptorial and fish-eating birds. Science 162:271-273. 676 Holt, G. (1969), Mercury residues in wild birds in Norway: 1965- 1967, Nord. Vet. Med. 21(2):!05-ll4. 676 Hunt, G. S. (1957), Causes of mortality among ducks wintering on the lower Detroit River [Ph.D. dissertation] University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 677 Hunter, B. F., W. E. Clark, P. J. Perkins and P. R. Coleman (1970), Applied botulism research including management recom- mendations-a progress report. California Department of Fish Game, Sacramento, 87 p. 678 Jensen, W. I. and J. P. Allen (1960), A possible relationship be- tween aquatic invertebrates and avian botulism. Trans. N. Amer. Wildt. Natur. Resour. Conf. 25:171-179. 679 Jensen, S. and A. Jernelov (1969), Biological methylation of mercury in aquatic organisms. Nature 223:753-754. 680 Jensen, S., A. G. Johnels, M. Olsson and G. Otterlind (1969), DDT and PCB in marine animals from Swedish waters. Nature 224:247-250. 681 Kalmbach, E. R. (1934), Western duck ~ickness: a form of botu- lism. U.S. Dep. Agr. Tech. Bull. No. 411, pp. 181. 682 Kaufman, 0. W., and L. D. Fay (1964), Clostridium botulinum type E toxin in tissues of dead loons and gulls. Michigan State Uni- versity Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin 4 7:236-242. 68B Keith, J. A. (1966), Reproduction in a population of herring gulls Literature Cited/213 (Larus argentatus) contaminated by DDT. J. Appl. Ecol. 3 (supp): 57-70. Supplement 3 published as Pesticides in the environment and their effects on wildlife, N. W. Moore, ed. (Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford). 684 Kennedy, H. D., L. L. Eller, and D. F. Walsh (1970), Chronic ef- fects of methoxychlor on bluegills and aquatic invertebrates [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife technical paper 53] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 18 p. 686 Krista, L. M., C. W. Carlson, and 0. E. Olson (1961), Some ef- fects of saline waters on chicks, laying hens, poults and ducklings. Poultry Sci. 40( 4) :938-944. 686 McKee, M. T., J. F. Bell and W. H. Hoyer (1958), Culture of Clostridium botulinum type C with controlled pH. Journal of Bac- teriology 75(2):135-142. 687 McKnight, D. E. (1970), Waterfowl production on a spring-fed salt marsh in Utah. Ph.D. dissertation. Utah State University. 688 Quortrup, E. R. and R. L. Sudheimer (1942), Research notes on botulism in western marsh areas with recommendations for control. North American Wildlife Conference, Transactions 7:284-293. 689 Reinert, R. E. (1970), Pesticide concentrations in Great Lakes fish. Pestic. Manit. J. 3(4):233-240. 690 Risebrough, R. W., P. Rieche, D. B. Peakall, S. G. Herman, and M. N. Kirven (1968), Polychlorinated biphenyls in the global ecosystem. Nature 220:1098-1102. 691 Rittinghaus, H. (1956), Etwas uber die indirete verbreitung der olpest in einem seevogelschutzgebiete. Ornithol Mitt. 8(3):43-46. 692 Scrivner, L. H. (1946), Experimental edema and ascites in poults. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass. 108:27-32. 693 Sincock, John L. (1968), Common faults of management. Pro- ceedings Marsh Estuary Management Symposium, Louisiana State University, July, 1967, pp. 222-226. 694 Street, J. C., F. M. Urry, D. J. Wagstaff, and A. D. Blau (1968), Comparative effects of polychlorinated biphenyls and organo- chlorine pesticides in induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes. American Chemical Society, !58th National meeting, Sept. 8-12, 1968. 696 Tucker, R. K. and H. A. Haegele (1970), Eggshell thinning as influenced by method of DDT exposure. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5(3):191-194. 696Vos, J. G. and J. H. Koeman (1970), Comparative toxicologic study with polychlorinated biphenyls in chickens with special reference to porphyria, edema formation, liver necrosis and tissue residues. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacal. 17(3):656-668. 697 Vos, J. G., J. H. Koeman, H. L. van der Maas, M. C. ten Noever de Brauw, and R. H. de Vos (1970), Identification and toxico- logical evaluation of chlorinated dibenzofuran and chlorinated napthalene in two commercial polychlorinated biphenyls. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 8:625-633. 698 Westoo, G. (1966), Determination of methylmercury compounds in foodstuffs: I. Methylmercury compounds in fish, identifica- tion and determination. Acta. Chern. Scand. 20(8):2131-2137. 699 Wiemeyer, S. N. and R. D. Porter (1970), DDE thins eggshells of captive American kestrels. Nature 227:737-738. References Cited 600 Hunter, Brian, personal communication, California Department of Fish and Game; unpublished Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife administrative reports. 601 Stickel, unpublished data 1972, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Patuxent, Maryland. Section IV-MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .......................... . Development of Recommendations ..... . USES OF THE MARINE SYSTEM TO BE PRO- TECTED ................................. . THE NATURE oF THE EcosYSTEM ........... . Effects of Water Quality Change on Eco. systems ........................... . FISHERIES ................................ . MARINE AQUACULTURE .................... . ·Application of Water Quality to Aqua- culture ............................ . MARINE WILDLIFE ..................•...... Bases for Recommendations ............ . Radionuclides ........................ . Recommendation ................... . Heavy Metals ........................ . Recommendation ................... . Polych"orinated Biphenyls (PCB) ....... . Recommendation ................... . DDT Compounds .................... . Recommendation ................... . Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, and Heptachlor .. Recommendation ................... . Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesti- cides ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Lead ............................... . Recommendation ................... . WASTE CAPACITY OF RECEIVING WATERS .... . Mixing Zones ........................ . METHODS OF ASSESSMENT .............. . AcuTE ToxiciTIES-BIOASSA Ys .............. . BIOAN AL YSIS . . . . .................•........ BIORESPONSE ............................. . DESIGN OF BIOASSA YS ...................•.. SuBLETHAL EFFECTS ..........•............ Migrations .......................... . Behavior ............................ . Incidence of Disease . . ................ . Life Cycle ........................... . Physiological Processes ................ . Genetic Effects ....................... . Page Page 216 Nutrition and Food Chains............. 237 21 7 Effects on the Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 7 Food Value for Human Use............ 237 219 CATEGORIES OF POLLUTANTS............ 238 219 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT.................. 238 INORGANICS, INCLUDING HEAVY METALS AND 219 pH.................................... 238 221 Forms of Chemical and Environmental 222 Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Biological Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 224 Metals............................... 240 224 Alkalinity or Buffer Capacity, Carbon Di- 225 oxide, and pH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 226 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 226 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 226 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 226 Ammonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 226 Recommendation.................... 242 226 Antimony. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 226 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 227 Arsenic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 227 Recommendation.................... 243 227 Barium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 227 Beryllium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 227 Recommendation.................... 244 227 Bismuth.............................. 244 228 Boron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 228 Recommendation.................... 245 231 Bromine ........... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 233 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 233 Cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 233 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 234 Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 235 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 7 236 Chromium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 7 236 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 7 236 Copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 7 236 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 236 Cyanides ...... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 237 Recommendation.................... 248 237 Fluorides............................. 248 214 Recommendation ................... . Iron ................................ . Recommendation ................... . Lead ............................... . Recommendation ................... . Manganese .......................... . Recommendation ................... . Mercury ............................ . Recommendation ................... . , Molybdenum ........................ . Recommendation ................... . Nickel .............................. . Recommendation ................... . Phosphorus .......................... . Recommendation ................... . Selenium ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Silver ............................... . Recommendation ................... . Sulfides ............................. . Recommendation ................... . Thallium ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Uranium ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Vanadium ........................... . Recommendation ................... . Zinc ................................ . Recommendation ................... . OIL IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT ......... . Sources of Oil Pollution ............... . Biological Effects of Petroleum Hydrocar- bons .............................. . Corrective Measures .................. . Recommendations .................. . Page 249 Toxic ORGANICS ......................... . 249 Bases for Recommendations ............ . 249 Recommendations .................. . 249 OxYGEN ................................. . 250 Recommendation ................... . 250 RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE AQUATIC EN- 251 VIRONMENT ............................ . 251 Characteristics and Sources of Radio- 252 activity ........................... . 252 Exposure Pathways ................... . 253 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation .. 253 Restrictions on Radioactive Materials ... . 253 Conclusions .......................... . 253 Recommendat:on ................... . 254 SEWAGE AND NuTRIENT3 .................. . 254 Magnitude of the Problem ............. . 255 Oxygen Depletion .................... . 255 Excessive Nutrient Enrichment ......... . 255 Pathogenic Microorganisms ............ . 255 Sludge Disposal into Marine Waters .... . 256 Deep Sea Dumping ................... . 256 Potential Beneficial Uses of Sewage ..... . 256 Rationale for Establishing Recommenda- 256 tions ............................ . 256 Recommendations .................. . ·257 SoLID WASTEs, PARTICULATE MATTER, AND 257 OcEAN DuMPING ....................... . 25 7 Dredge Spoils ........................ . 25 7 Sewage Sludges ...................... . 25 7 Solid Wastes ......................... . 25 7 Industrial Wastes ..................... . Other Solid Wastes ................... . 258 Suspended Particulate Materials ........ . 262 Recommendations .................. . 263 LITERATURE CITED ...................... . 215 Paeg 264 269 269 269 270 270 271 272 272 273 273 274 274 274 274 275 276 277 277 277 277 277 278 278 279 280 280 280 281 282 284 INTRODUCTION The Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife took as its prime responsibility the development of recommenda- tions that would reasonably assure protection of the marine ecosystem. The recommendations have been discussed at various meetings of the members of the Panel and represent a consensus on the best statement that can be made in the light of present knowledge. The recommendations are not inflexible and may be modified as our understanding of the marine ecosystem improves. Many parts of the marine ecosystem do not meet the quality requirements recommended here. As a result of man's activities, the marine ecosystem has been greatly modified; many species are excluded from areas where they were once abundant, and many areas have been closed for the harvesting of marine products as human food because of pollution. The decision as to what part, and how much, of the marine ecosystem should be protected for normal aquatic life and wildlife has political, social, and economic aspects, and such decisions cannot be based upon scientific evidence alone. Although some marine pollution problems are local in character, many are global and only the broad- est possible approach can solve these problems. Food from the sea is already an important source of animal protein for human nutrition, and this continuing supply must not be diminished by pollution. At the same time, the Panel recognizes that additions of pollutants to the oceans as by-products of our present mode of living will continue. But if pollution is kept within the boundaries and constraints which are defined in the recom- mendations, the Panel believes that the marine ecosystem can be protected. In many ways the marine ecosystem is similar to the freshwater, but there are significant differences which should be briefly described. For more details which sum- marize the extensive literature on this .subject, the reader is referred to The Oceans by Sverdrup, et al. (1942)6, * The Sea, particularly volume 2 edited by M. N. Hill (1964),3 and Estuaries, edited by G. H. Lauff (1967).4 * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located alphabetically within subtopics or by their superior numbers which run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section. The marine environment is a significant source of animal protein with an annual production of about 60 million tons fresh weight of fisheries produCts (Food and Agriculture ·~organization 1967).2 Various estimates of the potential ex- pansion of this harvest have been made and are summarized by Ryther (1969)5 who concludes that the potential harvest might double this figure. Some of the existing stocks are already fished to capacity or overfished, but aquaculture (pp. 222-224) may increase world marine production. The importance of this supply of animal protein to the world population has been emphasized by Borgstrom (1961).1 He estimates that more than two billion people of the world's population receive 50 per cent or more of their animal protein from marine products. In the United States fish contributes only about 5 per cent of our animal protein consumption, but even so it has been estimated by Pruter (unpublished 1972)8 that over ten billion pounds of commercial fish and shellfish were harvested from the estuaries and con- tinental shelf of the United States in 1970. Furthermore, in the United States a great deal of fishmeal is used to fortify animal feeds, particularly for chickens. It is obvious that this valuable food resource of the marine environment must be sustained. The estuaries are regions where the impact of man's ac- tivity is greatest, and they are also areas of great value for marine fish production. They serve not only as nursery areas and breeding grounds for many species of fish, but also as the regular home for the entire life cycle of some valuable species, such as oysters and crabs. Sykes (1968)7 has estimated that 90 per cent or more of the commercial catch of finfish in some geographical regions of the United States consists of estuarine-dependent species. The estuaries are the most variable regions of the marine ecosystem (see pp. 219-221) and organisms which inhabit them are exposed to extreme variations. Since these organisms survive, they are obviously adapted to the stress imposed by these variations. During the tidal cycle, a sessile organism will be exposed to variations in temperature and salinity as the tide ebbs and flows. On a seasonal basis, because of variations in river flow, organisms at a fixed location may be exposed to fresh water during flood periods or to nearly undiluted sea water during droughts. The oscillatory nature of the tidal cur- 216 ------··------------ rents can also lead to an accumulation of pollutants within an estuary, as is discussed in the section on waste capacity of receiving waters (pp. 228-232). Migratory fishes must also pass through estuaries in order to reach their breeding grounds. Anadromous fishes, such as the alewife, salmon, shad, and striped bass, move up- stream to breed in the highly diluted seawater or in fresh water. In contrast the catadromous species such as the eel spend their adult stages in fresh water and migrate down- stream in order to breed in the open sea. Conditions within the estuaries should be maintained so that these seasonal breeding migrations are not interfered with. The conditions in the coastal waters are less variable than those in the estuaries, but in temperate regions, the seasonal range of conditions can be considerable. The coastal waters, particularly in areas of upwelling, are the most highly pro- ductive parts of the marine environment and have been estimated by Ryther (1969)5 to produce half of the potential marine fish production, even though they constitute only 0.1 per cent of the total area of the oceans. The coastal zones, including near shore areas of high production such as fishing banks, constitute 9.9 per cent of the area of the ocean and contribute nearly half of the world fish production. In tropical waters, the seasonal variation in conditions is less extreme than in temperate waters. However, as will be discussed in the section on temperature (p. 238) many tropical species are living near their upper extreme tempera- ture during the summer, and this fact presents considerable problems in the disposal of waste heat in tropical areas. The open ocean constitutes 90 per cent of the area of the world ocean and is the least variable of the marine environ- ments. The deep sea produces only a minor fraction of the world's fish production, and this consists mainly of the large pelagic carnivores such as the tuna (Ryther 1969). 5 During the 19th century, the whale harvest was substantially greater than it is at present, but the whales captured were not as effectively utilized as they are in modern whaling methods. Many species of whales were grossly over-fished, and there is considerable question today whether some of these species can recover their original population sizes even in those cases where a complete moratorium on their cap- ture is in effect. The waters of the deep sea below the permanent thermo- cline (the depths below which seasonal temperature changes do not occur) constitute the largest and most constant en- vironment on earth. During the history of modern ocean- ography, which covers the last century, no significant changes in either salinity or temperature of the deep sea have been observed, the organisms living in this abyssal en- vironment having evolved under conditions which were presumably constant for millenia. To protect the coastal environment many proposals have been made to dump ma- terials, such as solid waste, sewage sludge, and contaminated drege spoils in the deep sea. Since the organisms inhabiting the depths of the ocean have been exposed to a constant Introduction/217 environment, they are nqt accustomed to unusual stresses which might be created by such dumping operations (see pp. 278-283). Consequently, dumping of organic wastes in the deep sea is not recommended (pp. 277, 282-283). Development of Recommendations In most cases, recommendations are not applicable to every local situation. The marine environment varies widely, and only an understanding of local conditions will make it possible to determine what can or cannot be added in each situation. Many materials are accumulated by marine organisms, and the concentration is often increased at higher levels of the food web. With substances that are toxic and persistent, it is the concentration in the highest predators, fish or birds, that is critical. One example is DDT and its derivatives which have accumulated in birds to levels that interfere with their breeding. Materials that de- compose or are otherwise removed from the marine en- vironment present lesser hazards. The application of any recommendation to a local situa- tion is unique because it requires (a) an understanding of the circulation of the water and the resultant mixing and dilution of the pollutant, (b) a knowledge of the local bio- logical species in the environment and the identification of those that are most sensitive to the pollutant being con- sidered, and (c) an evaluation of the transport of the ma- terial through the food web because of the possibility that the pollutant may reach concentrations hazardous either to the normal aquatic species present, or to man through his use of aquatic species as food. The normal cycle of variation in the environment of many substances or conditions that occur naturally, such as oxy- gen, temperature, and nutrients, must be determined before decisions can be made as to possible permissible changes. In many estuaries and coastal waters "normal" conditions have been modified by man's activities and may already have changed to the extent that some species that might have been found at earlier times have been eliminated. In some circumstances, a recommendation may not be applic- able because it may be necessary to specify no additional change beyond that which has already occurred. There is no generally applicable formula for recommendations to protect marine aquatic life and wildlife; a study of local environmental conditions is essential prior to application of the recommendations. The Panel recognizes that what can or should be done in a given situation cannot wait for the completion of time- consuming studies. The degree of protection desired for a given location involves social and political decisions. The ecological nature and quality of each water mass proposed for modification must be assessed prior to any decision to modify. This requires appropriate information on the physi- cal and chemical characteristics, on the distribution and abundance of species, and on the normal variations in these 218/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife attributes over the annual cycle. In addition, there must be sufficient knowledge to permit useful predicjion of the sig- nificant effects of the proposed pollutant on the stages in the life cycle of important species, on populations, and on the biological communities present. The possible impact of that pollutant upon the ecosystem can then be assessed. These subjects are covered in greater detail in other parts of this Section, but they are mentioned here to emphasize their primary importance in determining how the recommenda- tions should be used in local situations. • USES OF THE MARINE SYSTEM TO BE PROTECTED Coastal marine waters serve a wide variety of excep- tionally important human uses. Many of these uses produce high local benefits such as the yield of shellfish and recrea- tional activities. Others involve regional benefits or . the global unity of the marine system, since local events influ- ence, and are influenced by, water quality at distant points. Many of the human uses of marine waters are directly de- pendent upon the nature and quality of the biological, chemical, and physical systems present. Efforts to protect and enhance these uses will be limited principally by our ability to understand and protect the environmental condi- tions which are essential for the biota. Water quality criteria for marine aquatic life and wild- life define the environmental requirements for specified uses. Five of these are discussed in this Section, namely, maintenance of the ecosystem; fisheries; aquaculture; wild- life protection; and waste disposal. These are not sharply separable, but the water quality requirements for each use are briefly summarized. The effects of transportation, harbor development, dredging and dumping of spoils have also been considered in developing the recommendations. NATURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM Many of the principal human uses of marine waters de- pend upon successful maintenance and enhancement of the existing ecosystems or, in a few circumstances, upon creating and continuing new and artificial ecosystems for specific purposes. The ecosystem includes all of the biological and non-biological (geological, physical, and chemical) com- ponents of the environment and their highly complex inter- actions. Studies of ecosystems must include all that is within the body of water as well as the imports to and exports from it. Research in such situations has shown that the biotic ele- ments include producers of organic material, several levels of consumers, and decomposers. In the least complex situa- tion, these act at rates controlled by the abiotic factors to transfer energy and recycle materials. In those aquatic en- vironments which continuously or intermittently exchange large quantities of energy or materials with other parts of the total global system, understanding and ·management become more difficult. In the marine environment imports and exports continually occur from coastal runoff, tidal action, oceanic currents, meterological actions, and ex- changes with adjacent water bodies or with the benthos and atmosphere. These exchanges are only partially under- stood, but it is clear that each marine site is connected inti- mately to the rest of the oceans and to total global mechanisms. The estuaries are in many ways the most complicated and variable of aquatic ecosystems. Materials carried from the land by rivers vary in quantity and quality, sometimes with strong seasonal patterns of high biological significance. Tidal oscillations cause vigorous reversals of flow. Inherent hydrographic patterns can lead to accumulation of materials and to upstream transport from the point of addition. Dense urban populations on the shores of estuaries produce large amounts of waste, and engineering projects have changed the boundaries and flows of water courses. The biologically rich estuaries are the most variable and the most endangered part of the marine environment. In each environment the existing characteristics of the system have been produced by dynamic interaction among the components, forces, and processes present. Some of these are small or transitory, but others are massive and enduring. If any one of these forces or processes is changed, a new balance is produced in the system. Relative stability, there- fore, results from the balancing of forces, not the absence. The biota are the product of evolution, and each ecosystem contains those species and communities which have adapted to the specific environment over a long period of time and which are successful in that environment. Drastic and rapid modification of the environment, as by pollution, may eliminate some species and encourage others in ways which can reduce the value of the ecosystem for man's use or enjoyment. Effects of Water Quality Change on Ecosystems The introduction of a chemical compound or a change in the physical environment may affect a natural marine eco- system in many ways. In coastal waters undisturbed for long periods of time, the ecosystem has adjusted to the existing 219 220/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife conditions. The system is productive, species are diverse, the biomass is high, and the flow of energy is comparatively efficient. The addition of pollutants to such a sym:em might: • reduce the input of solar energy into the ecosystem; • increase the input of organic matter and nutrients which might stimulate the growth of undesirable species; • reduce the availability of nutrients by increased sorption and sedimentation; • create intolerable physical extremes for some orga- nisms, as by the addition of heat; • kill or reduce the success of individual organisms, as by lethal toxicity or crippling with oil; • eliminate species by adding a toxic material or mak- ing an essential element unavailable; • interfere with the flow of energy from species to species,.as by a chemical that interferes with feeding behavior; • reduce species diversity in the system; • interfere with regenerative cycling by decomposers; • decrease biomass by reduction of abundant species or disruption of the processes of ecosystems; • increase biomass by removing important consumers allowing runaway production of other species. All of these may involve changes in production and owered human usefulness of the system. These are ex- tmples; additional effects can occur. The specific impacts >f pollution at a site can be determined only through long- erm study of that portion of the ocean and the changes that >ccur. It is clear that man, through his numbers and his actions, s having increasingly pronounced effects on organisms, >opulations, and entire ecosystems. Many people willingly tccept the consequences of advanced technology that are narkedly deleterious, but most people become alarmed vhen an entire large ecosystem undergoes transformation. Nhen society recognizes that catastrophe threatens due to ts carelessness, it seeks to rearrange its demands on such :cosystems in ways that can be accommodated within the nherent capacities of the system. To provide adequate an- wers we need understanding of ecosystems, since knowledge Lt the species and population levels, however defined, will le too limited in scope to answer the questions that arise at he more highly organized level of the ecosystem. The study of the effects of pollution on ecosystems may le undertaken by considering pollution as an additional tress on the mechanisms that keep ecosystems organized. Jnless the living parts of an ecosystem are already under tress, the early effects of the introduction of toxic pollu- ants may contribute to the extinction of particularly sus- eptible species leaving the more resistant forms in a less liverse community. In communities already under stress, elatively low levels of pollution may cause the disruption of the communities. Estuaries and intertidal regions are naturally exposed to stressful conditions. In the estuaries the ebb and flow of the tide and the fluctuating freshwater flow create changes in salinity on various time scales ranging from hourly to seasonally. In the intertidal zone the normal inhabitants are exposed to air during part of each tidal cycle. They are also subjected to vigorous wave actions on exposed beaches and headlands. Unique assemblages of organisms have evolved which manage to survive these rigorous conditions if waters remain unpolluted. Pollutants are commonly released into such aquatic eco- systems of high natural variation in their nonliving compo- nents, and the rate of pollutant discharge usually varies from time to time. The immediate effect of these conditions is that at any fixed point in the habitat the concentration of a pollutant varies markedly with time, but not in such a way that a community can adapt itself to these variations. The result is that short-lived opportunistic species are likely to be favored in areas subject to variable aquatic pollution. Any single toxicant may be equally virulent towards long- lived or short-lived species in the normal aquatic commun- ity. Except at outfalls where toxicants reach lethal concen- trations, as in continuous discharges in stable environments, toxicants act discontinuously through time. Where water mass instabilities are such that poisonous concentrations occur on the average of once a week, for instance, it is pos- sible for organisms with much shorter life spans to flourish briefly with large population fluctuations. Where they occur once a month, a community may evolve rapidly through a successional sequence involving a few longer-lived organisms before the next toxic concentration occurs. Where lethal dosages are as infrequent as once a year, the succession may go to the stage of some fish of medium life span, particularly if access to the area is relatively free. Because of the fluctua- tions with time, the community nearest an outfall is most primitive from a successional viewpoint, and as distance from the outfall increases, there is a successional gradient toward the usual climax community of an unpolluted environment. Evaluation of the effects of pollution or of other environ- mental changes on the ecosystem involves studies of bio- logical production, species diversity, energy flow, and cycling of materials. The process may be complicated by massive imports and exports at any one site. Although pathways of energy flow and efficiencies are not yet com- pletely understood, they offer a unifying approach to these problems such as proposed by Odum (1967,12 19711 3). Species diversity is a useful attribute of biological systems. Diversity is affected by a number of factors as evidenced by the papers presented at a symposium on Diversity and Stability in Ecological Systems (Brookhaven National Laboratory 1969),10 as well as other symposia (American Society of Civil Engineering and Stanford University 1967,9 Olson and Burgess 1967,1 4 NAS-NRC Committee on Ocean- ography 1970,11 Royal Society of London 1971 15). Some sue- -------------~-- cess has been achieved in the use of diversity measurements, however, and their potential for future use is high. (See the discussion of Community Structure in Section III on Fresh- water Aquatic Life and Wildlife and in Appendix II-B.) There are potentials for managing additions to coastal ecosystems in ways that benefit human uses. These are as yet poorly understood, and efforts to utilize waste heat, nutrients and other possible resources are primitive. Such possibilities merit vigorous exploration and, eventually, careful application. FISHERIES Major marine and coastal fisheries are based upon the capture of wild crops produced in estuaries, coastal waters, and oceans. The quantity and quality of the available sup- ply of useful species are controlled by the nature and effi- ciency of the several ecosystems upon which each species depends for its life cycle. Shad, for instance, depend upon freshwater areas at the head of estuaries for spawning and for survival as eggs and larvae, open estuaries for the nutri- tion of juveniles, and large open coastal regions for growth and maturation. As do many other species, shad migrate over large distances. Serious pollution at any point in the lower river, the estuary, or the inshore ocean might, there- fore, break the necessary patterns and reduce the fishery. Estuaries have exceptional usefulness in support of fish- eries. At least three quarters of the species in the commercial and recreational fisheries of the nation are dependent upon the estuarine ecosystem at one or more stages of their life history. Estuaries are used as obligatory spawning grounds, nursery areas, havens from parasites and predators, and as rich sources of food because of high productivity. American fisheries exploit several levels of the coastal ecosystem. We do not utilize the plants, the producers, directly as food or in commerce except for a comparatively small harvest of kelp and other seaweeds. The primary consumers, however, are extensively utilized. These include oysters, clams, mussels, and vast quantities of filter-feeding fish such as sardines, anchovies, menhaden, and herring. Second and third level consumers, which are less abundant but frequently more desired than plankton feeders, include most of our sports fish and major commercial species such as tuna, striped bass, cod, halibut, and sea trout, as well as squid, sharks, and other species which hold potential for increased future use. Pollutants can be detrimental to fisheries by reducing desired species through direct mortality from toxicity, smothering, intolerable heat, or other killing changes. Re- duction may also occur when a pollutant has a sublethal stressing effect that significantly interferes with feeding, movement, reproduction, or some other essential function. Pollution has an indirect deleterious effect when it. increases predators or parasites, reduces food organisms or essential Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/221 consorts, or damages the efficiency of the ecosystem func- tions pertinent to the species in question. Consideration of all these occurrences must enter into efforts to protect and enhance fisheries. Pollutants also damage marine organisms by imparting characteristics that make them unacceptable for commercial or recreational use. Economic loss has resulted from flesh tainting of fish and shellfish by oil, phenolics, and other ma- terials affecting taste, flavor, or appearance. DDT and other persistent organics, applied on land, have accumulated in fish to levels that exceed established standards for accept- able human food. Heavy metals, e.g., mercury, can reach levels in fish several thousand times the concentration in the ambient water, destroying the economic value of the orga- nisms involved. More than 90 per cent of the American commercial catch and virtually all of the sport fish are taken from the estuaries and continental shelf. The total yield is difficult to estimate, involving as it does migratory species, catches by both foreign and domestic vessels, and recreational fisheries which are only partially measured. Stroud (1971)26 esti- mated that the estuarine-dependent fishery of the Atlantic coast yields 535 pounds per acre of estuary for a total annual yield of 6.6 X 109 lbs. He concludes that shrinking of estu- aries by filling or other destruction would reduce the yield by a directly proportional quantity. Further, he predicts that reduction of the productivity of estuaries by pollution would also produce a proportional decrease in fish produc- tion. The U.S. commercial fisheries of largest volume, in order of decreasing harvest, include menhaden, salmon, shrimp, crabs, herring, and oysters (Riley 1971).24 The most valuable commercial harvests include shrimp, salmon, lob- sters, crabs, menhaden, oysters, clams, flounders, and scal- lops (Riley 1971). 24 The estuaries, as recipients of wastes both from rivers entering them and cities and industries along their shores, are obviously more immediately susceptible to pollution damage than any other part of the marine system (Clark 1967,18 American Society of Civil Engineering and Stanford University 1967,16 U.S. Dept. of Interior 1969,27 and U.S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 197028). Al- though the vulnerability of such inshore bodies of water to physical and chemical damage is exceptional, the open waters along the coast are also subject to damage from the use of these waters for waste disposal. Approximately 250 waste disposal sites are in use along the coast of the United States, and 48 million tons of wastes are estimated to have been dumped in 1968 (Council on Environmental Quality 1970) .19 These dumped wastes included dredge spoils, in- dustrial wastes, sewage sludge, construction and demolition debris, solid wastes, and explosives (see pp. 278-283 of this Section for a more extended discussion of dumped wastes). Increased populations and technological concentration along the coasts, with simultaneous resistance to the use of land, rivers, and estuaries for disposal has stimulated pro- i£ 222/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife posals to increase the use of oceanic areas as receivers of wastes. The effects of such coastal disposal on fisheries are not yet clearly established. Bechtel Corp. (1969)17 has suggested that continued expansion of waste disposal along the At- lantic coast at the present rate of increase may, in about 30 years, significantly reduce the quality of water over the continental shelf by increased suspended solids, phosphate or nitrate enrichment, oxygen demand, heavy metals, or simultaneous effects from all of these. Preliminary studies of the effects of dumping of sewage sludge and dredging spoils from the metropolitan New York area indicate that an area of about 20 square miles has been impoverished by reduc- tion of normal benthic populations; and indirect effects may be far more extensive (Pearce 1970).23 More general approaches to disposal of wastes in ocean waters have been presented by Foyn (1965)20 Olson and Burgess (1967)22 , NAS-NRC Committee on Oceanography (1970)21 and the Royal Society of London (1971).25 Some discernible and disturbing changes in coastal waters are documented that prove the urgent need for better under- standing of pollution effects at the edge of the oceal)s. The limitation that must be placed upon any such releases must be learned and put to use quickly, and we should proceed carefully while we are learning. Fisheries provide useful indications of the biological health and productivity of marine waters. Continuous high yield of a harvestable crop of indigenous fish or shellfish free of toxicants or pathogens is an indication that water quality is satisfactory, that the environmental conditions are favorable for the total biological community, and that no contaminant is present in sufficient quantity to destroy major components of the ecosystem. Fisheries production statistics can thus serve as a sensitive indicator of environ- mental quanity. Specific criteria for categories of pollutants will be given in subsequent parts of this Section. The general require- ments for water quality in relation to successful fisheries include: • favorable, not merely tolerable, environmental con- ditions at every location which is required in the life history of each species: this places special value on water quality of estuaries which are obligate en- vironments for many species during at least some portion of their life cycles; • freedom from tainting substances or conditions where useful species exist, including elements and com- pounds which can be accumulated by organisms to unacceptable levels; • absence of toxic conditions or substances wherever useful species occur at any time in their life history; • absence of sublethal deleterious conditions which reduce survival and reproductive success; • water sufficient to maintain the health of the bio- logical systems which support useful species; • absence of environmental conditions which are ex- ceptionally favorable to parasites, predators, and competitors of useful species. MARINE AQUACULTURE Although often considered a new approach to the world food problem, aquaculture is an ancient practice in many parts of the world. In the Orient, aquatic organisms have been successfully cultivated for centuries, usually with rather primitive and empirical techniques, but nevertheless with impressive success. The annual world production of food through aquacul- ture has recently been estimated at over four million metric tons, about 6.5 per cent of the total world fish landings. Al- though this is derived largely from fresh water, and open- ocean maraculture is in its infancy, an unknown but signifi- cant fraction of the production is brackish-water organisms taken .from estuarine systems. The distinction between freshwater and marine aquaculture is quite artificial. Be- cause the principles, techniques, potentials, and environ- mental requirements for growing organisms in either fresh or salt water are much the same, the distinction is also un- necessary for the purposes of the present discussion, except as noted below. It is difficult to assess the potential yield from marine aquaculture, dependent as it is on a primitive art under- going rapid technological development. The introduction of present methods into new, undeveloped parts of the world could at least double the present harvest within the next decade. Judging from the experience in agriculture and terrestrial animal husbandry, much greater increase in yields should presumably be possible with advances in such fields as genetic selection and control, nutrition, habitat management and elimination or control of disease, preda- tion, and competition: It~ts not inconceivable that the yield from aquaculture m1gh:l!;t one day surpass that from the harvest of wild, untended stocks of aquatic organisms. Fur- ther, since only the most desirable species are selected for aquaculture, both the economic and nutritional value per pound of cultivated organisms greatly exceeds that of the average fishery product. In the United States, expanded recent interest in coastal aquaculture will hopefully pro- duce new techniques, products, and quantities, although economic feasibility has been difficult to achieve thus far. Although no firm distinction can be drawn, it is conveni- ent to think of most forms of marine aquaculture in one of two categories that will be referred to here as extensive and intensive culture. In extensive culture, animals are reared at relatively low densities in large impoundments, embay- ments, or sections of estuaries, either natural or man-made. The impoundments may be closed off or open to the sea, depending upon the desired degree of control, but even those that are enclosed must be located near a source of seawater so that the water may be exchanged frequently to prevent stagnation and to regulate such factors as tem- perature and salinity. Such exchanges are accomplished by tidal action or by pumping. The cultivated animals may be stocked or may consist of natural populations that enter the system as larvae or juveniles. They are usually not fed but subsist on natural foods that grow in the area or are carried in with the outside seawater. Extensive aquaculture systems are most common in the undeveloped parts of the world (e.g., Southeast Asia) where large areas of coastal mangrove swamps, marshes, and estu- aries are available and are not presently in use or demand for other purposes. For example, it has been estimated that there are over six million acres of mangrove swamps in Indonesia alone that would be suitable for some form of fish farming. In such coastal impoundments, milkfish, mullet, shrimp, and other free-swimming species are grown. In the more open situations such as embayments and arms of estuaries, non-fugitive organisms are cultivated. The oldest and most highly-developed form of marine aquaculture practiced in the United States and Europe, that of oyster culture, falls into this category. Seaweed culture in Japan and China is another interesting example of this general approach to aquaculture. Yields from extensive aquaculture range from a few hun- dred pounds to, at best, about one ton per acre per year. Little, in some cases almost no, capital investment is re- quired, and it is not a labor-intensive form of enterprise. One or two unskilled laborers can manage 100 acres or more of shrimp or milkfish ponds in Malayasia or the Philippines except during stocking and harvesting opera- tions. This is normally a highly profitable form of business to the culturist and, despite the modest yields, extensive aquaculture is capable of making a significant contribution to the protein nutrition of many of the undeveloped parts of the world. Intensive aquaculture makes use of flowing-water sys- tems using flumes or raceways and is best typified by trout and salmon hatcheries that have been operated successfully in the United States and Europe for many years and have now reached a relatively high level of technical sophistica- tion. Although originally designed to produce fish to be stocked in natural waters to enhance commercial or sports fishing, such systems are now being increasingly used for the production of fish to be marketed directly as food. Such systems were originally developed and used exclusively for rearing freshwater species, but they are now also finding application in saltwater areas for the production of marine or anadromous species. A variation of the raceway system of intensive aquacul- ture is that of floating cage culture in which the animals are held in nets suspended by a floating wooden framework. Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/223 These may be mooreg in estuaries or other protected arms of the sea, where they are exposed to strong tidal currents. A common feature of the various kinds of intensive aqua- culture is that the animals are grown closely packed at ex- tremely high densities and depend upon the flow of large volumes of water over and around them to provide oxygen and carry away wastes. When feasible, the animals are fed artifically on prepared, pelletized food. The entire system must be carefully controlled and monitored. Intensive aquaculture systems for the commercial pro- duction of food are in an early stage of development and have yet to prove themselves as profitable and reliable for marine species. Rapid progress is being made in this area, however, particularly in highly developed parts of the world where technological skill is available, where coastal marine areas are scarce and in high demand, and where the price of luxury seafoods is escalating. Various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and finfish are now being grown in this way, and many more are likely candidates as soom as funda- mental aspects of their life history and nutrition are mastered. The yield from intensive aquaculture per unit of area in which the organisms are grown is ecologically meaningless (as is that from a cattle feed-lot, for example) but amounts to as much as hundreds of tons per acre. More realistically, the yield from such systems may be expressed per cubic foot per minute of water flowing through it, which is usually the limiting factor. In contrast to extensive aquaculture, intensive systems usually require high capital outlay and have a relatively high labor demand. Profits or losses are determined by small differences in the costs of food, labor, marketing, and the demand for the product. Both extensive and intensive forms of aquaculture are heavily dependent on high quality water to sustain them. Neither is independent of the adjacent coastal marine en- vironment. Extensive pond culture may be semi-autono- mous, but as explained above, the water must be occasion- ally and sometimes frequently exchanged. Intensive aqua- culture systems are vitally dependent on a continuous large supply of new seawater. Because of the large investment and, at best, small margin of profit, and because of the dense populations of animals maintained at any one time, inten- sive aquaculture represents a far greater risk. Freshwater aquaculture systems, if strategically located near an adequate source of underground water, may be largely independent of man's activities and relatively free from the threat of pollution. This, unfortunately, is never quite true of marine aquaculture. The contiguous oceans of the world circulate freely, as do the substances man adds to them. While water movements may be predicted on large geographical and time scales, they are quite unpredictable on a local and short-term basis. An embayment or estuary whose shores are uninhabited and which may suffer no ill effects from the surrounding land may suddenly become in- 224/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife fused with materials added to the water hundreds of miles distant and carried-to the scene by winds, tides, and coastal currents. In this sense, marine aquaculture is not only more vulnerabie to change than freshwater culture, but the dan- gers are also far less predictable. Application of Water Quality to Aquaculture The various toxic or otherwise harmful wastes that man adds to the coastal marine environment affect cultivated organisms much the same as they do the natural popula- tions of the same species. These are discussed in detail else- where and need not be repeated here. In general the deleterious effects of wastes on organisms that are used as food by man are: (1) to kill, injure, or interfere with the growth or other vital functions of the organisms, or (2) to become concentrated in the organisms to such an extent as to render them unfit for human consumption by exceeding public health standards or by making them unpalatable. In the latter case, this may occur with no apparent accompany- ing impairment of the organism. Certain aspects of aquaculture, particulady the intensive forms of culture described above, are particularly sensitive and vulnerable to vari.ous kinds of pollution-more so than their freeliving counterparts in nature. These are enumer- ated and discussed briefly below. • The carrying capacity of intensive aquaculture sys- tems is based on the flow of water and its supply ot oxygen. If the concentration of oxygen in the water suddenly decreases due to an organic overload, a . temperature increase, or other external causes, it may be inadequate to support the cultivated animals. • Captive organisms cannot avoid localized unfavor- able conditions (e.g., oxygen, temperature, turbid- ity) as can free-swimming natural populations. • Many organisms can tolerate alterations in their environment if they are allowed to adapt and be- come acclimated to such changes slowly. Cultivated organisms may be, and often are subjected to sudden changes in water quality and cannot endure the ini- tial shock, while the free-swimming natural popula- tions can enter an affected area slowly and cautiously and allow themselves to adapt to the altered conditions. • Cultivated organisms, particularly in the densely- crowded conditions of intensive aquaculture, may be and perhaps always are under rather severe physio- logical stress. Artificial diets are often incomplete or otherwise unbalanced. Unnaturally crowded living conditions may cause hormonal or other biochemical imbalance. The animals may already suffer the ef- fects of poor water quality from their own pollutants. They are therefore particularly susceptable and vul- nerable to any additional deterioration in water quality that may increase their stress condition. • Disease is a spectre that perpetually haunts the aqua- culturist. Virtually impossible to avoid or eliminate in any open system, it is usually, at best, held in check. Again, the additional stress caused by a de- terioration in water quality, while not fatal in itself, may lower the resistance of the cultivated animals to epidemic disease. • Artificially-fed cultivated organisms may be no less susceptible to accumulation of wastes, although in- tensively cultivated organisms that are fed entirely on an artificial diet would appear to have one ad- vantage over natural populations of the same animals living in polluted waters. Many toxic substances such as chlorinated hydrocarbons may reach toxic or un- acceptable levels in larger organisms because of concentration and amplification at each successive step in the food chain that ultimately supports the animal in question. However, there is increasing evidence that these substances also enter fishes and other organisms directly from solution in the water, across respiratory or digestive membranes. Such direct absorption of toxic material may in some cases exceed the quantities ingested and assimilated with food. Therefore, the general recommendations for the quality of water for use in culture include: (1) continuously ade- quate control of those materials and conditions which are required for good health and efficient production of the cultured species; (2) absence of deleterious chemical and physical conditions, even for short or intermittent periods; (3) environmental stability; and (4) prevention of introduc- tion of diseases that attack the organisms under culture. The specific requirements for each culture effort must be with reference to the species involved, the densities desired, and the operational design of the culture system. MARINE WILDLIFE Marine wildlife for the purposes of this Section is defined as those species of mammals, birds, and reptiles which in- habit estuaries or coastal and marine waters for at least a portion of their life span. The fish, invertebrates, and plank- ton that constitute the food webs upon which these species depend are not, therefore, considered to be wildlife in this context. The recommendations for marine wildlife, how- ever, necessarily include all recommendations formulated to protect the fish, invertebrate, and plant communities, because wildlife can be adequately protected only if the diversity and integrity of food webs are maintained. More- over, the recommendations must protect wildlife from pol- lutants that are relatively persistent in the environment, transported by wind or water currents, and concentrated or recycled in the food webs. Because of trophic accumulation, birds and mammals that occupy the higher trophic levels in the food web may acquire body burdens of toxicants that are lethal or that have significant sublethal effects on repro- ductive capacity, even though the concentrations. of these substances in the water remain extremely low. Pollutants of concern or of potential concern are the radionuclides, heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and other synthetic chemicals that are relatively resistant to biological and chemical degradation. Recommendations to protect wildlife dependent upon freshwater ecosystems may in general also apply to estu- aries. This is particularly true for. protection of food and shelter for wildlife, pH, alkalinity, light penetration, settle- able substances, and temperature. These are discussed in Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife. Marine and coastal waters constitute major sinks for per- sistent pollutants. Accumulation rates and steady-state levels are complex functions of input, rates of degradation, and rates of deposition in the sediments. As yet no research programs have measured accumulation rates of pollutants in coastal waters or determined whether steady-state con- centrations have already been attained. Current knowledge of the partition coefficients among concentrations in water, in sediments, and in tissues of representative species. in food webs is at best fragmentary. It is assumed, however, in the evaluation of water quality that the distribution and concentration of gradients of a ·pollutant in an aqueous ecosystem satisfy thermodynamic equilibria requirements. The pollutants considered here are not essential to physiological functions, and do not require energy to . maintain the concentration gradients. Thus the chlorinated hydrocarbons are concentrated in the lipid pools of organisms from ambient water but will not accumu- late indefinitely. Rather, under equilibrium conditions, these pollutants will also be lost to ambient water, particu- late matter, and sediments in satisfying thermodynamic requirements. Because the internal environments of birds and mammals are more isolated from the ambient environ- ment than those of invertebrates and most fish, equilibrium concentrations of pollutants, particularly the chlorinated hydrocarbons, may be substantially higher. Theoretically, therefore, measurements of pollutant con- centrations in one component of an ecosystem are sufficient to indicate the level in the system as a whole when the parti- tion coefficients among water, suspended particulate and organic material, sediments, lipid pools, surface films, and the atmosphere are known. The methodologies for measur- ing pollutant concentrations in sea water are as yet imper- fect, and very few good measurements have so far been made. Consequently it is not practical at present to make recommendations for the relatively persistent organic pollu- tants based upon water concentrations, especially when partition coefficients are not known. Residue concentrations in fish are more easily determined and can more readily be associated with harm to bird and mammal populations that Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/225 consume them. Recommendations for. the toxic organic compounds that are trophically accumulated by marine wildlife are therefore based upon concentrations in fish. It cannot be assumed that there is a level or concentration in the ecosystem as a whole of pollutants which are muta- gens or teratogens that causes no effect on any of the wild- life species. The chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins are highly toxic to developing embryos (Verret 1970)71 and are con- taminants in compounds prepared from chlorinated phe- nols, including the herbicide 2 ,4, 5-T (Verrett 1970)71 and the widely used fungicide pentachlorophenol (Jensen and and Renberg 1972). 53 The closely related chlorinated di- benzofurans are contaminants in some PCB preparations (Vos and Koeman 1970,74 Vos et al., 1970,75 Vos in press 1972). 72 Embryonic mortality in birds is induced by these or other derivatives of PCB (Peakall et al., in press 1972,59 Vos in press 1972). 72 For the present time the chlorinated dibenzofurans are included with PCB in the recommenda- tions. When environmental mutagens and teratogens affect only relatively few individuals of a population, it is as- sumed that these will be eliminated by natural selection without harm to the species as a whole. For other pollutants which affect specific enzyme systems or other physiological processes but not the genetic material or embryqlogical development, it is assumed that there are levels in the environment of each below which all organisms are able to function without disrupting their life cycles. Manifestations of physiological effects, such as a certain amount of eggshell thinning or higher level of hormone metabolism, might be detectable in the most sensitive species. If environmental levels increase, the reproductive capacity of the most sensitive species would be affected first. The object of the recommendations presented is to maintain the steady-state concentrations of each pollutant below those levels which interfere with the life cycles of the most sensitive wildlife species. Input should not therefore be measured only in terms of concentrations of each pollutant in individual effluents, but in relation to the net contribu- tion to the ecosystem. At the steady-state level, the net contribution would be zero, with the total input equal to the sum of degradation and permanent deposition in the sediments. Bases For Recommendations Recommendations based upon pollutant concentrations in fish must take into account the individual variation in residue concentration. The distribution is usually not Gaus- sian (Holden 1970;51 Anderson and Fenderson 1970;30 Risebrough et al. in press 1972), 65 with several individual fish in a sample frequently containing much higher residue concentrations than the majority. Fish samples should there- fore consist of pooled collections. Samples as large as 100 fish may not be sufficient to determine mean concentrations of a pollutant with a precision of 10 per cent (Risebrough et al. in press 1972). 65 Practicality, however, frequently 226/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife dictates against sample sizes of this magnitude, and samples consisting of 25 or more fish are suggested 'fl.S a reasonable compromise. Radionuclides Recommendation In the absence of data that would indicate that any of the radionuclides released by human ac- tivities are accumulated by wildlife species, it is recommended that the recommendations estab- lished for marine fish and invertebrates apply also to wildlife. Heavy Metals The results obtained during the baseline study of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) in 1971-72 have failed to indicate any evidence of pollution by heavy metals, including mercury and cadmium, above background levels in marine species (Goldberg 1972).45 The results, suggested, however, local patterns of coastal contamination. The heavy metal analyses carried out to date of tissues of several species of petrels, strictly pelagic in their distribution (Anderlini et al. 1972) ;32 and of coastal fish-eating species such as the Brown Pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis, (Connors et al. in press 1972a) ;40 and the Com- mon Tern, Sterna hirundo (Connors et al. in press 1972b)41 have confirmed this conclusion. Recommendation In the absence of data indicating that heavy metals are present in marine wildlife in concen- trations above natural levels, it is recommended that recommendations formulated to protect other marine organisms also apply to wildlife in order to provide protection in local areas. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) Evidence is accumulating that PCB does not contribute to the shell thinning that has been a n .ajor symptom of the reproductive failures and population declines of raptorial and fish-eating birds. Dietary PCB produced no shell thin- ning of eggs of Mallard Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (Heath et al. in press 1972), 49 nor did PCB have any effects on eggs of Ring Doves (Streptopelia risoria) (Peakall 1971).58 A PCB effect could not be associated with the thinning of Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) eggshells (Risebrough in press 1972). 62 PCB may increase susceptibility to infectious agents such as virus diseases (Friend and Trainer 1970).44 Like other chlorinated hydrocarbons, PCB increases the activity of liver enzymes that degrade steroids, including the sex hormones (Risebrough et al. 1968;64 Street et al. 1968)_67 The ecological significance of this phenomenon is not clear. Because laboratory studies have indicated that PCB, with its derivatives or metabolites, causes embryonic death of birds (Vos et al. 1970;75 Vos and Koeman 1970;74 Vos in press 1972; 72 Peakall et al. in press 1972 59) and because ex- ceptionally high concentrations are occasionally found in fish-eating and raptorial species (Risebrough et al. 1968 ;64 Jensen et al. 1969 52 ), it is highly probable that PCB has had an adverse effect on the reproductive capacity of some species of birds that have shown population declines. Median PCB concentrations in whole fish of eight species from Long Island Sound, obtained in 1970, were in the order of one milligram per kilogram (mg/kg) (Hays and Risebrough 1972), 47 and comparable concentrations have been reported from southern California (Risebrough 1969).61 On the basis of the high probability that PCB in the environment has contributed to the reproductive failures of fish-eating birds, it is desirable to decrease these levels by at least a factor of two (see Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife pp. 175-177). Recommendation It is recommended that PCB concentrations in any sample consisting of a homogenate of 25 or more whole fish of any species that is consumed by fish-eating birds and mammals, within the same size range as the fish consumed by any bird or mammal, be no greater than 0.5 mgjkg of the wet weight. In the absence of a standardized methodology for the determination of PCB in environmental samples, it is recommended that estimates of PCB concentrations be based on the commercial Aroclor® preparation which it most closely re- sembles in chlorine composition. If the PCB composition should resemble a mixture of more than one Aroclor®, it should be considered a mix- ture for the basis of quantitation, and the PCB concentration reported should be the sum of the component Aroclor® equivalents. DDT Compounds DDT compounds have become widespread and locally abundant pollutants in coastal and marine environments of North America. The most abundant of these is DDE [2 ,2- bis(p-chlorophenyl) dicholoroethylene], a derivative of the insecticidal DDT compound, p ,p'-DDT. DDE is more stable than other DDT derivatives, and very little informa- tion exists on its degradation in ecosystems. All available data suggest that it is degraded slowly. No degradation path- way has so far been shown to exist in the sea, except deposi- tion in sediments. Experimental studies have shown that DDE induces shell thinning of eggs of birds of several families, including Mallard Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (Heath et al. 1969), 48 American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) (Wiemeyer and Porter 1970), 77 Japanese Quail (Coturnix) (Stickel and Rhodes 1970) 66 and Ring Doves (Streptopelia risorial) (Peakalll97Q). 57 Studies of eggshell thinning in wild populations have re- ported an inverse relationship between shell thickness and concentrations of DDE in the eggs of Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) (Hickey and Anderson 1968).50 Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) (Anderson et al. 1969),31 Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodias) (Vermeer and Reynolds 1970), 70 White Pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) (Anderson et al. 1969), 31 Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) (B1us et al. 1972 ;36 Risebrough in press 1972), 62 and Peregrines (Falco peregrinus) (Cade et al. 1970)_37 Because of its position in the food webs, the Per~grine accumulates higher residues than fish-eating birds in the same ecosystem (Risebrough et al. 1968).64 It was the first North American species to show shell thinning (Hickey and Anderson 1968). 50 It is therefore considered to be the species most sensitive to environmental residues of DDE. The most severe cases of shell thinning documented to date have occurred in the marine ecosystem of southern California (Risebrough et al. 1970)63 where DDT residues in fish have been in the order of 1-10 mg/kg of the whole fish (Risebrough in press 1972).62 In Connecticut and Long Island, shell thinning of eggs of the Osprey (Pandion haliae- tus) is sufficiently severe to adversely affect reproductive success; over North America, shell thinning of Osprey eggs also shows a significant negative relationship with DDE (Spitzer and Risebrough, unpublished results). 78 DDT residues "in collections of eight species of fish from this area in 1970 ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg of the wet weight (Hays and Risebrough 1972). 47 Evidently this level of contamination is higher than one which would permit the successful repro- duction of several of the fish-eating and raptorial birds. Recommendation It is recommended that DDT concentrations in any sample consisting of a homogenate of 25 or more fish of any species that is consumed by fish- eating birds and mammals, within the same size range as the fish consumed by any bird or mammal, be no greater than 50 f.Lgfkg of the wet weight. DDT residues are defined as the sum of the concen- trations of p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDE and their ortho-para isomers. Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, and Heptachlor Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and heptachlor constitute a class of closely related, highly toxic, organochlorine insecti- cides. Aldrin is readily converted to dieldrin in the environ- ment, and heptachlor to a highly toxic derivative, hepta- chlor epoxide. Like the DDT compounds, dieldrin may be dispersed through the atmosphere (Tarrant and Tatton 1968,68 Risebrough et al. 1968). 64 The greatest hazard of dieldrin is to fish-eating birds such as the Bald Eagle (Hali- aeetus leucocephalus) (Mulhern et al. 1970) ;56 the Common Egret (Casmerodius albus) (Faber et al. 1972)43 and the Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) (Ratcliffe 1970), 60 which may Uses qf the Marine System to be Protected/227 accumulate lethal amounts from fish or birds that have not themselves been harmed. These compounds are somewhat more soluble in water than are other chlorinated hydrocarbons such as the DDT group (Gunther et al. 1968) ;46 partition coefficients between water and fish tissues can be assumed to be lower than those of the DDT compounds. Equivalent concentrations in fish would therefore indicate higher environmental levels ot dieldrin, endrin, or heptachlor epoxide than of DDE or any of the other DDT compounds. Moreover, these compounds are substantially more toxic to wildlife than are other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Tucker and Crabtree 1970). 69 More conservative recommendations are therefore necessary. Recommendation It is recommended that the sum of the concen- trations of aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and heptachlor epoxide in any sample consisting of a homogenate of 25 or more whole fish of any species that is con- sumed by fish-eating birds and mammals, within the size range consumed by any bird or mammal, be no greater than 5 f.Lgfkg of the wet weight. Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides Other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides include lin- dane, chlordane, endosulfan, methoxychlor, mirex, and toxaphene. Hexachlorobenzene is likely to have increased use as a fungicide as mercury compounds are phased out. This compound is toxic to birds and is persistent (Vas et al. 1968).73 With the possible exception of hexachlorobenzene, recommendations that protect the invertebrate and fish life of estuaries from injudicious use of these pesticides will also protect the wildlife species. In light of the experience with DDT and dieldrin, the large scale use of a compound such as mirex can be expected to have adverse effects on wildlife populations. Recommendation It is recommended that the concentration of any of these chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, in- cluding lindane, chlordane, endosulfan, methoxy- chlor, mirex, and toxaphene, and of hexachloro- benzene, in any sample consisting of a homogenate of 25 or more whole fish of any species that is con- sumed by fish-eating birds and mammals, with the size range that is consumed by any bird or mammal, be no greater than 50 f.Lgfkg of the wet weight. Lead No data was found to indicate that lead released into the atmosphere through the combustion of leaded gasolines has posed a hazard to wildlife populations or has result~d in an 228/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife increase in body burdens of lead over background levels. Critical studies, however, have not yet be~ carried out. Ingestion of lead shot by waterfowl, which often mistake spent lead shot for seed or grit, kills many birds, and ~he pollution of marshes by lead shot is a serious problem. Jordan (1952)54 found that female waterfowl are about twice as sensitive to poisoning as males, and that toxicity varied greatly, depending on species, sex, and quantity and quality of food intake. A corn diet greatly increased the toxicity of lead. A study carried out by Bellrose (1951)34 indicated that the incidence of lead shot in gizzards of waterfowl averaged 6.6 per cent in 18,454 ducks. Among infected ducks, 68 per cent contained only one shot in their gizzards, and only 17.7 per cent contained more than two (Jordan and Bellrose 1951). 55 The incidence of ingested shot appears to increase throughout the hunting season with a subsequent decline afterwards. Most losses of waterfowl due to ingested lead shot are in fall, winter, and early spring (Jordan 1952)_54 Different species show different propensities to ingest shot. Redhead (Aythya americana), Canvasback (Aythya valisneria) and Ringnecked Ducks (Aythya collaris) are prone to ingest shot, while Gadwall (Anas strepera), Teal (Anus sp.) and Shoveler (Spatula clypeata) show a low incidence. Ingestion of one shot does not appear to produce measurable changes in longevity, but six No. 6 shot are a lethal dose to Mallards, Pintail (Anus acuta) and Redheads (Wetmore 1919).76 Cook and Trainer (1966)42 found that four to five pellets of No. 4 lead shot were a lethal dose for Canada Geese (Branta canadensis). On a body weight basis, 6 to 8 mg/kg/ day is detrimental to Mallards (Coburn et al. 1951).39 Lead concentrations in livers of poisoned birds are of a comparable order of magnitude, ranging from 9 to 27 mg/kg in Canada Geese (Adler 1944),29 18 to 37 mg/kg in Whistling Swans (Olor columbianus) (Chupp and Dalke 1964)38 and an average of 43 mg/kg in Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) (Coburn et al. 1951).39 These levels are 10 to 40 times higher than background, which is in the order of one mg/kg of the wet weight liver (Bagley and Locke 1967). 33 Lead poisoning in waterfowl tends to occur especially in areas where a few inches of soft mud overlay a hard sub- strate. In marshes where waterfowl are hunted, the number of lead pellets per acre of marsh bottom is on the order of 25,000 to 30,000 per acre and is frequently higher (Bellrose 1959).35 30,000 pellets per acre are equivalent to 0.7 pellets per square foot. The data examined indicate that the annual loss is be- tween 0. 7 per cent and 8.1 per cent of a population esti- mated to be 100 million birds. Although there is apparently no evidence that a loss of this magnitude has long-term detrimental effects on any species, it is considered unac- ceptable. Levels of lead shot in the more polluted. marshes should therefore be reduced. The ultimate solution to this problem is the production of non-toxic shot. Recommendation In order to reduce the incidence of lead poisoning in freshwater and marine waterfowl, it is recom- mended that: non-toxic shot be used, or that no further lead shot be introduced into zones of shot deposition if lead shot concentrations exceed 1.0 shot per 4 square feet in the top two inches of sediment. WASTE CAPACITY OF RECEIVING WATERS When waste disposal to any natural body of water is con- sidered, the receiving capacity of the environment must be taken into account. Waste disposal has been one of the many uses man has required of estuaries and coastal waters. These waters are capable of assimilation of definable quanti- ties and kinds. of wastes that are not toxic and that do not accumulate to unacceptable levels. In many locations wastes are being added to these waters at rates that exceed their capacity to recover; and when the rate of addition ex- ceeds the recovery capacity, the water quality deteriorates rapidly. It is essential to understand the local conditions and the processes that determine the fate, concentration, and distribution of the pollutant in order to determine the amount of the p9llutant and the rate of disposal that will not exceed the recommended levels. A simplified diagram of the various processes that may determine the fate and distribution of a pollutant added to the marine environment is presented in Figure IV -1 (Ketchum 1967). 82 The waste material may be diluted, dis- persed, and transported by various physical processes, such as turbulent mixing, ocean currents, or exchanges with the atmosphere. It may be concentrated by various biological processes, such as the direct uptake by organisms of a dis- solved material in the water, and it may be transferred from organism to organism in various trophic levels of the food web. Additional concentration of the material may occur at the higher trophic levels, particularly if some organ or tissue of the body accumulates the substance, such as DDT or petroleum products that accumulate in the fatty tissues, various metals that may accumulate in the bone or liver, and iodine which accumulated in the thyroid. Substances can als~ be concentrated from the environ- ment by chem~cal, physical, and geological processes such as sorption. Natural waters contain a certain amount of sus- pended material, and some material added to the water may be sorbed on these particles. In sea water, which already contains in solution most of the known elements, added materials may be precipitated from the water by various chemical reactions. As fresh waters carry pollutants to the sea, the change in salinity causes flocculation of some of the materials suspended in the fresh water and results in their precipitation from the medium. Ion exchange reactions with the various organic compounds dissolved in sea water can also occur. Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/229 The average concentration of a given pollutant continu- ously added to a body of water, will tend to approach a steady state in the system. This concentration is determined by the rate of addition of the pollutant, the rate of its re- moval or dilution by the circulation, and the rate of its decomposition or removal by biological, chemical, or geo- Diluted and Dispersed By Turbulent Mixing Ocean Currents Uptake By Fish Exchange With Atmosphere Biological Processes ----Uptake By Phy- toplankton Uptake By Seaweeds / Inverte- brate Benthos Ketchum 196782 Fish and Mammals Zoo- plankton Pollutant Marine Environment Concentrated By Transported By Ocean Currents Migrating Organisms Sorption Gravity {Sinking) Chemical and Physical Processes Precipitation Accumulation on the Bottom Ion Exchange FIGURE IV-1-Processes That Determine the Fate and Distribution of a Pollutant Added to the Marine Environment. 230/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife logical processes. The average concentration is not always the critical concentratiqn to be evaluated. For example, if bioaccumulation occurs, the amount accumulated in the critical organism should be evaluated, rather than the aver- age concentration in the system as a whole. The processes of circulation and mixing may leave relatively high concen- trations in one part of the system and low concentrations in another. The average conditions thus set an upper limit on what can be added to the system but do not determine the safe limit. It is clear, however, that a pollutant might be added to a body of water with vigorous circulation at a rate that could result in acceptable water quality conditions, while the same rate of addition of the pollutant to a sluggish stream might produce unacceptable levels of contamination. Thus, the characteristics of the receiving body of water must be taken into account when evaluating the effects of the pollutant upon the environment. In a stream, the diluting capacity of a system is relatively easy to determine from the rate of addition of the pollutant and the rate of stream flow. The pollutant is carried down- stream by the river flow, and "new" water is always avail- able for the dilution of the pollutant. This is not necessarily true of lakes where the pollution added over a l~ng period of time may accumulate, because only a small fraction of the added pollutant may be removed as a result of flushing by the outflow. In estuaries, the situation is further compli- cated by the mixture of salt and fresh water, because a pollutant added at a mid-point in the estuary can be carried upstream by tidal mixing just as the salt is carried up- stream. The upstream distribution of a conservative pollu- tant is porportional to the. upstream distribution of salt, whereas the downstream distribution of the pollutant is proportional to the downstream distribution of fresh water. In either lakes or estuaries, the average retention time or the half-life of the material in the system can be used to estimate the average concentration that the pollutant will achieve in the system. In lakes, an estimate of the average retention time can be derived from the ratio of the volume of the lake divided by the rate of inflow (or outflow). When the lake is stratified, only part of the volume of the lake enters into the active circulation, and an appropriate cor- rection must be made. In estuaries and coastal waters, a similar calculation can be made by comparing the volume of fresh water in the estuary with the rate of river inflow. The amount offresh water in any given ·sample can be com- puted from the determination of salinity. In stratified estu- aries such as a fjord, only the part of the system that is actively circulated should be taken into account. This may be adequately done by the choice of the appropriate base salinity in computing the fresh water content. Examples of the mean retention time of a few bodies of water calculated as described above are presented in Table IV-l. Lakes with large volumes superficially appear to have a great capacity to accept waste materials. If the retention time is long, however, this merely means that it takes a long TABLE IV-1-Average Retention Times and Half Lives for River Water in the Great Lakes and in Various Estuaries and Coastal Regions Surface Mean retention Half life Reference area mi2 time lake Superior .................. 31,820 183 yrs. 128 yrs. Beeton (1969)79 lake Michigan ................. 22,420 100 yrs. 69 yrs. Beeton (1969)79 Lake Huron .................... 23,010 30 yrs. 21 yrs. Beeton (1969)79 lake Erie ...................... 9,930 2.8yrs. 1.9 yrs. Beeton (1969)79 Lake Ontario ................... 7,520 8 yrs. 5.6 yrs. Beeton (1969)79 Continental Shelf Capes Cod to Hatteras to 29,000 1. 6-2.0 yrs. 1.1-1.4yrs. Ketchum and Keen (1955)" 1, 000 ft. contour New York Bight. ............... 483 to 662 6.D-7.4 days 4. 1-5. 05 days Ketchum et al. (1951)" Bay of Fundy .................. 3,300 76 days 52 days Ketchum and Keen (1953)" Delaware Bay high river How ............... 48-126 days 33-87 days low river How ................ Ketchum (unpublished) (1952)87 Raritan Bay high river How ............... 45 15-30 days 1D-21 days Ketchum (1951a,so b") low river How Long Island Sound .............. 930 36 days 25 days Riley (1952)" time to build up to steady-state concentration, and it will take a comparably long time to recover from a steady-state concentration once it is achieved. For Lake Superior, for example, it would take 128 years to remove half of the steady-state concentration of a pollutant that had been achieved over 185 years at the average rate of input. Aquatic environments in which the circulation is more rapid will achieve a steady-state concentration of a pollutant more quickly and will also recover more quickly. Nonconservative pollutants are those that change with time by processes which are additional to circulation and dilution. The half-life of these substances in the environ- ment is the product of these processes and the processes of circulation and dilution. For radioactivity, for example, the half-life is the time needed for the normal radioactive decay to dissipate half of the radiation of the material. This is different for each radioisotope and may vary from fractions of a second to centuries. The half-life for the de- composition of the organic matter in sewage in marine systems is probably on the order of days and will be de- pendent on temperature. The decomposition of sewage, however, releases the fertilizing elements in the organic molecule, and these will persist in the environment. In con- trast to these rapid changes, the half-life of the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides is probably of the order of 10 years in the marine environment, though this is an estimate and not a direct determination. Heavy toxic metals, which may also pollute the environment, do not decay but persist in- definitely, though their location and forms in the system may change with time. The greatest pollution danger arises from the addition of persistent materials to those ecosystems with slow circula- tions. Under these conditions, the waste concentration will increase slowly until a steady-state level is reached. If circu- lation is more rapid, the system will reach steady-state more quickly, but the concentration for a given rate of addition will be less. If the material is not persistent, the ~ate of decomposition may be inore important than circulation in determining the steady-state concentration. If the products of decomposition are persistent, however, these will accumu- late to levels greater. than those in the original discharge. Local concentrations, such as can be found in the deeper waters of stratified systems or in trapping embayments, may be more significant than the average concentration for the whole system. In short, the recommendations cannot be used to determine the permissible amount of a pollut"ant to be added or a rate of addition without detailed knowledge of the specific system which is to receive the waste. Mixing Zones When a liquid discharge is made to a receiving system, a zone of mixing is created. In the past, these zones have frequently been approved as sites of accepted loss, exempted from the water quality standard for the receiving water. Physical description, biological assessment, and manage- ment of such zones have posed many difficult problems. The following discussion deals with criteria for assuring that no significant damage to marine aquatic life occurs in such mixing zones. Although recent public, administrative, and scientific emphasis has focused on mixing zones for the dis- persion of waste heat, other uses of the mixing zone concept are also included in these considerations. Definition of a Mixin~ Zone A mixing zone is a region in which an effluent is in transit from the outfall source of the receiving waters. The effluent is progressively diluted, but its concentration is higher than in the receiving waters. Approach to the Recommendation Mixing zones must be considered on a case-by-case basis because each proposed site involves a unique set of pertinent considera- tions. These include the nature, quantity, and concentra- tion of the effluent material; the physical, chemical and bio- logical characteristics of the mixing area and receiving waters; and the desired uses of the waters. However, the following general recommendation can be established for the purpose of protecting aquatic life in areas where effluents are mixing with receiving waters: The total time-toxicity exposure history must not cause dele- terious 4fects in affected populations of important species, including the post-exposure effects. Meetin~ the Recommendation Special ~ircum stances distinguish the mixing zone from the receiving waters. In the zone, the duration of exposure to an effluent may be quite brief, and it is usually substantially shorter than in the receiving waters, so that assays involving long periods of exposure are not as helpful in predicting damage. In addition, the concentration of effluent is higher than in receiving waters. Therefore, the development of specific Uses of the Marine System to be Protected/231 requirements for a specific mixing zone must be based upon the probable duration of the esposure of organisms to the effluent as well as on the toxicity of the pollutant. The recommendation can be met in two ways: use of a probably-safe concentration requirement for all parts of the mixing zone; or accurate determination of the real concen- trations and duration of exposures for important species and good evidence that this time-toxicity exposure is not de- leterious. The latter, more precise approach to meeting the recommentation will require: • determination of the pattern of exposure of impor- tant species to the effluent in terms of time and con- centration in the mixing zone; • establishment of the summed effects on important species; • determination that deleterious effects do not occur. Complexities in the Marine Environment Some of the problems involved in protecting marine aquatic life are similar to those in lacustrine and fluvial fresh waters and, in general, the recommendations in Section III, pp. ll2- ll5 are applicable to marine situations. There are, however, special complexities in evaluating mixing zones in coastal and oceani<;: waters. These include: • the exceptional importance of sessile species, espe- cially in estuaries and near shore, where effluents originate; • the presence of almost all species in the plankton at some stage in the life history of each, so that they may be entrained in the diluting waters; • obligate seasonal migrations by many fish and some invertebrates; • oscillation in tidal currents, mixing mechanisms and in resulting concentrations, dilution rates, and dis- persion patterns. None of these affect the general recommendation, but they do contribute to the difficulty of applying it. Theoretical Approach to Meetin~ the Recom- mendation Any measure of detrimental effects of a given concentration of a waste component on aquatic or marine organisms is dependent upon the time of exposure to that waste concentration, at least over some restricted but definable period of time. For a given species and sub- stance, under a given set of environmental conditions, there will be some critical concentration below which a particular measure of detrimental effects will not be observed, regard- less of the duration of exposure. Above the critical concen- tration, the detrimental effects will be observed if the ex- posure time is sufficiently long. The greater the concentra- tion of the substance, the shorter the time of exposure to cause a specified degree of damage. The water quality characteristics for mixing zones are defined so that the or- ganisms to be protected will be carried or move through the 232/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife zone without being subjected to a time-exposure history that would produce unacceptable effects on the population of these species in the water body. In order to quantify this statement, the following quanti- ties are defined: T50, C,E =time of exposure of a critical aquatic or marine species to a concentration, C, of a given pollutant, under a constant set of en- vironmental conditions, E, which produces 50 per cent mortality of the critical species. TO,C1,E=time of exposure of a critical aquatic or marine species to a concentration, C 1 , of a given pollutant, under a constant set of en- vironmental conditions, E, which produces no unacceptable effects on the critical species. For some pollutants, C and C 1 for a given time of expo- sure may be related by: C 1 =C-.LlCo where AC0 is the amount by which the concentration which produces a 50 per cent mortality must be decreased in order that no unacceptable effects of the pollutant on a given critical species will occur. For example, in the case of temperature, it has been shown that at temperatures 2 C below those which produce a 50 per cent mortality, no observable detrimental effects occur. For temperature, then, 2 C is a conservative value of AC 0• For other pollutants, notably chemical toxicants, C 1 is related to C by the relationship: C 1 =k·C where k is the ratio of the concentration at which no un- acceptable effects occur to the concentration which produces a 50 per cent mortality with both concentrations deter- mined over the same exposure time. It is difficult to establish with statistical confidence a re- lationship between TO, C 1 , E and C 1, for a large number of species, by direct laboratory experiments. However, labora- tory experiments can be used to determine, for the critical species of the receiving waterbody, the relationship between pollutant concentration and the time period of exposure necessary to produce a 50 per cent mortality. Thus, it is necessary to obtain, by experiment, the form and constants of a function of the pollutant concentration, f1 (C), such that T50, C, E=f1(C). Conservative estimates of AC 0 or of k can be obtained de- pendent upon decisions as to acceptable effects from addi- tional laboratory studies. Once AC 0 or k have been estab- lished, the relationship C1 = C-AC 0, or the relationships C 1 = k · C, depending on the properties of the particular waste materials, can be combined with the above equation relating T50, C, E and C, to produce an equation relating TO, C 1 , E and C 1 • That is: TO, C 1, E=f2(C1 ). This equation gives the maximum time that a particular species could be exposed to a concentration C 1 without re- sulting in unacceptable effects on the population of this species. The water quality recommendations for the mixing zone are satisfied if, for any organisms carried through the mixing zone with the flow or purposefully moving through the zone, the time of exposure satisfies the relationship 1 >. time of exposure / f2(C 1) where C 1 is the concentration of a specified pollutant in the mixing zone. Because, in fact, the concentration in the mixing zone decreases with distance from the point of discharge, and hence organisms carried through the plume will be sub- jected to concentrations which are continually decreasing with time, a more suitable quantitative statement of water quality characteristics necessary for the mixing zone is: >. ATl AT2 AT3 ATn l /-( 1 )+-( 1 )+-( I)" • .-( I) f2 C 1 f2 C 2 f2 C 3 f2 C n where the time of exposure of an organism passing through the mixing zone has been broken into n increments, ATl, AT2, AT3, etc. long. The organism is considered to be ex- posed to concentration C 1 1 during the time interval Ll Tl, to concentration C 1 2 during the time interval AT2, etc. The sum of the individual ratios must then not exceed unity. The above theory is applied in the recommendations and examples in Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, pp. 112-115, and in the Freshwater Appendix II-A, pp. 403-407. 3.- METHODS OF ASSESSMENT It is the purpose of this discussion to explain the ap- proaches considered in deriving the recommendations given in this Section. Because the biological effects of a pollutant are manifest in a variety of ways, the specific technique to be used in estimating biological impact must be tailored to each specific problem. For example, acute or lethal toxicity of a given pollutant to a marine species can be evaluated by short-term bioassay in the laboratory designed to deter- mine the concentration of the material which is lethal to half of the selected population in a fixed period of time, commonly four days (LCS0-96 hours). The "safe" limit will be much lower than the concentration derived in such a bioassay, and appropriate safety factors must be applied. The safe limit should permit reproduction, growth, and all normal life processes in the natural habitat. When a pollutant is discharged to the environment at a safe concentration determined in this way, the living or- ganisms are exposed to a chronic, sublethal concentration. Some stages of the life cycle of the species to be protected, such as the eggs or larvae, may be more sensitive than the adult stages. It is sometimes possible to identify the critical life stage which can then be used in a bioassay. Long-term bioassays covering a substantial part of the life cycle of the organism can be conducted in the laboratory to determine chronic sublethal effects of pollutants. Various processes of the organism, such as respiration, photosynthesis, or activity may be used to evaluate sublethal effects. Some longterm chronic effects may be more subtle and more diffi- cult to evaluate under laboratory conditions. Examples of this type include changes in breeding or migratory behavior or the development of a general debility making the orga- nisms more suceptible to disease, predation, or to environ- mental stresses. A pollutant in the marine environment may also have an effect on the ecosystem not directly associated with its effect on an individual species. Ecosystem interactions are diffi- cult to assess in the laboratory, and techniques for evaluat- ing them in the field are not completely satisfactory. Such interactions must be considered, however, in applying recommendations to any specific situation. ACUTE TOXICITIES-BJOASSA YS Detailed methods for laboratory bioassays are described in Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and can serve as guidlines for application to the marine system. The ability to extrapolate from results of bioassay tests is limited, and the need for safety factors in their application to the environment must be emphasized. The methodologies discussed are illustrative and should be considered as guide- lines for meaningful bioassays. The most important uses of bioassays for evaluating water quality are: • analysis of the concentration of a specific material in natural waters by means of a biological response; • detection of toxic substances in organisms used as food for man; • analysis of the suitability of natural waters for the support of a given species or ecosystem; • determination of critical toxic levels of substances to selected species; • evaluation of bio-stimulation effects by materials such as nutrients. These purposes fall into two general categories: bio- analysis and bioresponse. BIOANAL YSIS Bioanalysis has been used for many years to measure effects of substances on organisms. These assays may give quantitative measurements, such as weight per volume, or be expressed in arbitrary units defined by the degree of response. They are most valuable when the organism re- sponds to a lower concentration than can be detected by available chemical or physical techniques. Such bioassays require carefully controlled procedures, and organisms and experimental conditions must be standardized. Responses are used that have been shown to have a correlation with the amount of test substance present. Preparation of test materials is rigidly controlled to avoid problems arising from synergists or antagonists administered with the test 233 234/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife material. This is difficult and often impossible in the bio- assay of materials obtained from the environment. Bioanalysis has potential in measuring pollutants in ma- terials to be discharged to the environment. For toxic ma- terials, the amount of material relative to the biomass of the test organism must usually be controlled, because most toxicants exhibit a threshold effect. It is usual to determine the concentration of material at which some fraction of the maximal effect (commonly 50 per cent) occurs in a popula- tion of known and constant biomass. The fact that far lower concentrations present for a longer time might ulti- mately produce the same effect does not invalidate this type of assay, because quantitation is obtained by com- parison with standard curves. It should, however, be real- ized that in the presence of detoxification mechanisms, the assay should be conducted for a period of time at which the desired effect (such as 50 per cent inhibition) occurs at the lowest possible concentration. In assays of materials for which an organism has a natural or induced requirement, it must first be established that of all substances which could be present in the sample, only one can produce the response measured. Second, no sub- stances present should reduce the availability of the ma- terial. If the first of these conditions is satisfied, the second can often be approached using a "system of adds" in which a graded series of concentrations of standard material are added to the unknown amount of material in the sample. The intercept of the response curve with the concentration axis is a measure of the amount present in the sample. If zero response is at a finite concentration, a biologically effective threshold concentration (zero) must be used which has been derived from a separate experimental series in the same medium devoid of unknown amounts of test material. BIORESPONSE Bioassays which measure the biological effect of a sub- stance or mixture on a single organism or artificial ecosystem can be used to establish water quality criteria, to monitor compliance with standards stated in terms of biological effect, or to/ measure the relative effects of various materials. Natural processes of equilibration, chemical degradation, and physical adsorption are specifically desired, because it is the biological effect rather than the a,mount of test material that is of concern. The observed eff~ct will be determined by the availability of the material, the rate of formation or degradation, and the effect of chemical by-products; and by alterations of the environment caused by addition of the material. Whether conducted in the laboratory or in the field, this type of bioassay is performed on time scales vary- ing from determinations of acute toxicity (commonly 96 hours or less) through determinations of incipient LC50 levels (Sprague 1969,94 1971 96), and on time scales which include multiple generation chronic exposures. Each of these has its own utility and limitations. Short-term determinations of TLm or TL50 values are primarily of value in comparing toxicities of a number ot formulations which have similar modes of action. They are also useful in determining the dilution to be employed in long-term, flow-through exposure and in comparing sensitivities of various life stages of the same organism. In practical terms, each life stage must be considered a physio- logically distinct organism with its own particular environ- mental requirements: immature stages commonly have quite a different habitat and may have different sensitivity. It has been common practice to use information from acute toxicity studies to establish concentrations tolerable for natural waters. This is done by multiplying the level found in the bioassay by some more or less arbitrary "appli- cation factor" (Henderson 1957,91 Tarzwell 1962 97 ). Re- cently, there have been attempts to establish the application factor experimentally (Mount 1968,92 Brungs 196990). Ap- plication factors are discussed in Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, and that discussion is applicable to the marine system. If, in the process of conducting these assays, organisms are periodically removed to an uncon- taminated medium, the time of exposure which the orga- nism can withstand and still survive, should it escape the pollutant or should the pollutant degrade rapidly after a single addition, can also be estimated. Determination of incipient LC50 is a valid measurement of acute toxicity, because the assay is continued until maxi- mum effect is observed at any given concentration (Sprague 1969,94 1970,95 197!96). These bioassays must be conducted under conditions of continuous flow, because the degree of response cannot be limited by the absolute amount of toxi- cant available in the system or by the relationship between biomass and absolute amount. In practice, the technique is most applicable to compounds which reach equilibrium rapidly. Otherwise, it takes a long time to achieve maximum effect at low toxicant levels. Here, too, application factors are needed to use data from bioassayed concentrations in estimating levels for environmental protection. Theoreti- cally, application factors account for variations in sensitivity between the life stage tested and that life stage or develop- mental period during which the organism is most sensitive to the compound or conditions. Application factors should also safely permit a range of naturally-occurring environ- mental variations that would increase sensitivity. Long-term bioassay, in which the organism is kept through at least one complete life cycle under conditions of continuous-flow exposure, is perhaps the closest but most conservative laboratory approach to estimating environ- mental hazards. Where a chemical or physical attraction occurs or where the population is sessile or restricted by hydrographic features, continuous exposure to freshly added material will be a realistic model. However, where the organism might escape in nature, such a captive ex- posure will be unrealistic. The experimental conditions chosen may either be held constant or varied to approxi- mate local natuqtl changes or intermittent discharges to be expected. Adequate modelling of a particular environmental circumstance often requires varying degrees of delay be- tween the time of test material addition and exposure of the organisms. Duration of chronic toxicity studies is determined by the life span and reproductive cycle of the organism chosen. Micro-organisms have relatively short life cycles but may require several generations to deplete metabolite reserves and show maximum response. A greater variety of measure- ments can be used in long-term than in short-terJil testing. This variety, together with the longer period available for response and the certainty of testing the most sensitive life stage, serves to increase both the sensitivity and relevance of such tests. Differences in sensitivity between species, that may be evident in short-term tests, tend to narrow as the tests approach a full life cycle. The maintenance of a resident population of sensitive organisms in an effluent stream or portion of a natural stream receiv.ing effluent, can create a long-term flow- through bioassay. This technique is prim.arily useful as a verification of safety based on other estimates, but because the response time may be long, the results are of little use where rapid feedback of information is essential. DESIGN OF BIOASSA YS The bioassay system may be compartmentalized for pur- poses of design into (l) the substance to be tested, (2) the environment into which it will be introduced, (3) the orga- nism(s) which will be exposed to the resultant system, and (4) the observations to be made. Each affects and is affected by the others. The chemical and physical nature of the material to be tested has a bearing on the way it will distribute in nature and in the test system-and thus on which organisms will encounter it and in what form it will be. For example, a pure substance, highly soluble in water, may be tested for its effect directly on organisms inhabiting the water column. A material which precipitates rapidly may be readily available to organisms which ingest the precipitate and resolubilize it under conditions prevailing in the digestive tract. Materials which are only slightly soluble are often readily available to micro-orgatiisms which have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio and are capable of taking up some substances at exceedingly low (lo-s to I0-10 M) concentrations. A highly hydrophobic material which is readily adsorbed to sediments or detritus may appear in free solution to only a limited extent or for a short time and exert a prolonged direct effect mainly on those organisms which inhabit sediments or which process sediments or detritus for food. Valid interpretation of bioassay results requires sensitive and highly specific analytical chemistry as part of the procedure. Results obtained for any bioassay organism are subject to question if anomalous behavior of Methods of Assessment/235 the substance tested or the organisms used are subsequently established. The organism for bioassay should be chosen on the basis of the relationship of its life stages to the various toxicant compartments and information desired. Organisms will be useful if they are readily available and can be reared and propagated in the laboratory. The size of the organisms in relation to available facilities will in part dictate a choice. All too often, these have been the primary if not the only considerations. There is a temptation to give priority to or- ganisms that are available from standard sources with a known genetic line or from a single clone. This approach is essential when using bioassay as an analytical tool. How- ever, it is a distinct liability when performing measurements of biological effect in natural environmental situations. Such organisms have necessarily undergone selection for traits that favor survival in artificial environments with no selec- tive advantage given to the capacity to adapt to alterations in those environments. Furthermore, physiologically dis- tinct races often develop in nature in response to character- istics of different localities. Maintenance of laboratory stocks may be necessary, but these stocks should be fre- quently renewed from fresh isolates representing the gene pool and enzymatic adaptations of the inhabitants of the particular water mass to which recommendations are to be applied. The organisms used should be drawn from those that are most sensitive or respond most quickly to the substance or condition being tested. Bioassays of various life stages of these sensitive organisms are desirable. It is especially im- portant that life stages to be tested include those that will most probably encounter the test material as it is expected to be found in the environment, and that the test organisms be acclimated to the test system until the characteristics to be measured become constant. Some of the foregoing recommendations for selection as- sume that the developmental biology of the test organism is known. This is not often so in marine biology. Organisms should not be excluded from consideration if their absence would leave no representatives oflocal species which tolerate the extremes in ranges of natural environmental stress or which fill an important ecological niche. Once an understanding of both the test material and the bioassay organism is established, a test system usually can be designed that will permit the organism to encounter the test material under circumstances approximating those in nature. In some cases it will be necessary to go to the natural water system or to impoundments, live cars, or plastic bags in' order to obtain a workable approximation of environ- mental exposure. Care should be taken that the physical system does not interfere with the distribution of the test material or the behavior of the organism. The system se- lected should reflect in all important aspects the habitat to which the test organism has become adapted. Factors of im- portance include feeding behavior, opportunity for diurnal 236/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife behavior alterations, emergence, salinity variations, turb- idity, water movement, and other factors, depending on the organisms being studied. • The response or responses to be observed during long- term testing must be carefully chosen. A prime requirement is that the response being measured bear a demonstrable and preferably quantitative relationship to the survival and productivity of the test organism or of an organism which is directly or indirectly dependent on its activities. For ex- ample, a correlation may exist between the level of a test material and the amount of an enzyme present in some tis- sue. This is clear evidence that the organism's pattern of energy utilization has changed, but it should be demon- strated that the change in enzyme level is correlated with or predictive of changes in growth, behavior, reproduction, quality of flesh, or some other manifestation to provide an immediately meaningful interpretation. The degree to which a response can be reported in quan- titative terms affects its usefulness. Behavior, because of a high degree of variability, is much more difficult to express numerically than growth; and growth measurements are usually disruptive of the system or destructive of the orga- nism. A balance must be sought for each system so that enough organisms and replicate treatments can be used to assure an acceptable level of statistical confidence in the results. Considerations of equipment required, rapidity, and simplicity of measurements, the inherent (control) variability of the characteristic being measured, and possible interference with the measurement by the substance being tested must enter into the choice of measurements and their frequency. Biological characteristics that can be measured are in- numerable, but some may be singled out as being more basic than others. When a given characteristic reflects many diverse processes, it is most useful in interpreting results in terms of environmental protection. Thus, measurements ot reproductive success, growth, life span, adaptation to en- vironmental stress, feeding behavior, morphology, respira- tion, histology, genetic alterations, and biochemical anom- alies occupy a descending scale in order of the confidence that can be placed in their interpretation. This is not to say that profound changes in the structure and function of an ecosystem cannot result from subtle, prolonged, low in- tensity effects on Some cellular process. The elimination ot important species by low intensity selective factors is no less serious than instantaneous death of those species. In a sense, it is more serious, because it is less likely to be rioticed and traced to its source in time to permit recovery of the ecosystem. SUBLETHAL EFFECTS Many biological effects of pollution may not show up in the bioassay test for acute toxicity. This would be true if the effect were slow to develop, or if the effect were to produce a general debility that might interfere with some of the normal life functions of the organism rather than killing it directly. Long-term exposure to sublethal concentrations may be necessary to produce the effect, and evaluation ot this type of action is difficult in a laboratory analysis. There are a number of ways in which pollutants might affect a given population without being lethal to the adult organism used in the test such as : Migrations Sublethal concentrations may interfere with the normal migration patterns of organisms. The mechanisms used for orientation and navigation by migrating organisms are not well known, but in some cases chemotaxis clearly plays an important role. For example, salmon and many other anadromous fishes have been excluded from their home streams by pollution, though it is not known whether the reason is that a chemical cue has been masked or because the general chemical environment of pollution is offensive to the fish. Behavior Much of the day-to-day behavior of species may also be mediated by means of chemotaxic responses. The finding and capture of food or the finding of a mate during the breeding season would be included in this category of ac- tivity. Again, any pollutant that interfered with the chemo- receptors of the organism would interfere with behavioral patterns essential to the survival of the population. Incidence of Disease Long-term exposure to sublethal concentrations of pollu- tants may make an organism more susceptible to a disease. It is also possible that some pollutants which are organic in nature may provide an environment suitable for the de- velopment of disease-producing bacteria or viruses. In such cases, even though the pollutant is not directly toxic to the adult organism, it could have a profound effect on the popu- lation of the species over a longer period of time. Life Cycle The larval forms of many species of organisms are much more sensitive to pollution than are the adults, which are commonly used in the bioassay. In many aquatic species millions of eggs are produced and fertilized, but only two of the larvae produced need to grow to maturity and breed in order to maintain the standing stock of the species. For these species the pre-adult mortality is enormous even under the best of natural conditions. Because of an additional stress on the developing organisms, enough individuals might fail to survive to maintain the population of the species. Interrupting any stage of the life cycle can be as disastrous for the population as would death of the adults because of acute toxicity. Physiological Processes Interference with various physiological processes, with- out necessarily causing death in a bioassay test, may also interfere with the survival of the species. If photosynthesis of the phytoplankton is inhibited, algal growth will be de- creased, and the population may be grazed to extinction without being directly killed by the toxin. Respiration or various other enzymatic processes might also be adversely affected by sublethal concentrations of pollutants. The effect of DDT and its decomposition pro- ducts on the shells of bird eggs is probably the result of interference with enzyme systems (Ackefors et al. 1970). 88 Mercury is a general protoplasmic poison, but it has its most damaging effect on the nervous system of mammals. Genetic Effects Many pollutants produce genetic effects that can have long range significance for the survival of a species. Oil and other organic pollutants may include both mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds. Radioactive contamination can cause mutations directly by the action of the radiation on the genetic material. From genetic studies in general, it is known that a large majority of mutations are detrimental to the survival of the young, and many are lethal. Little is known about the intensity or frequency of genetic effects of pollutants, except for radioactive materials where the muta- tion rates have been measured in some cases. Induction of mutation by contaminants should be reviewed in the con- text of the increase of total mutation from all causes. Nutrition and Food Chains Pollutants may interfere with the nutrition of organisms by affecting the ability of an organism to find its prey, by interfering with digestion or assimilation of food, or by con- taminating the prey species so that it is not accepted by the predator. On the other hand, if predator species are elimi- nated by pollution, the prey species may have an improved chance of survival. An example of the latter effect was shown for the kelp resurgence after the oil spill in Tampico Bay, California (North 1967).93 The oil killed the sea urchins Methods of Assessment/237 which used young, n~wly developing kelp as food. When the urchins were killed, the kelp beds developed luxurious growth within a few months (seep. 258). Effects on the Ecosystem The effects of pollution on the aquatic ecosystem are the most difficult to evaluate and establish. Each environment is somewhat different, but the species inhabiting any given environment have evolved over long periods of time, and each individual species in a community plays its own role. Any additional stress, whether natural or man-made, ap- plied to any environment will tend to eliminate some species leaving only the more tolerant forms to survive. The effect may be either direct on the species involved or indirect through the elimination of some species valuable as a food supply. For some of the species in the system the result may be beneficial by the removal of their predators or by stimu- lated and accelerated growth of their prey. Food Value for Human Use Sublethal concentrations of pollutants can so taint sea- food that it becomes useless as a source of food. Oil can be ingested by marine organisms, pass through the wall of the gut, and accumulate in the lipid pool. Blumer (1971)89 stated that oil in the tissues of shellfish has been shown to persist for months after an oil spill; the oil-polluted area was closed for shellfishing for a period of 18 months. Sea- food may be rendered unfit for human consumption be- cause of the accumulation of pollutants. California mackeral and coho salmon from Lake Michigan were condemned because they contained more DDT than the permissible amount in human food (5 mg/kg). Likewise tuna fish and swordfish were removed from the market, because the mercury content of the flesh exceeded the allowable con- centration (0.5 mg/kg). There was no evidence that these concentrations had any adverse effect on the fish, or in the case of mercury that the concentrations in tuna and sword- fish resulted from pollution; nevertheless their removal from the market ha·s adversely affected the economics of the fisheries. CATEGORIES OF POLLUTANTS TEMPERATURE AND HEAT An extensive discussion of heat and temperature is pre- sented in Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife (pp. 151-171). Although we accept those recom- mendations concerning temperature, there are certain char- acteristics of the marine environment that are unique and require enumeration. Some of the characteristics of the marine environment have been discussed in the introduction to this Section showing that the range of variability is greatest in the estuary, considerably less in the coastal waters and even less in the surface waters of the open ' ocean; and that conditions in the deep ocean are virtually constant. Among the most important variables shown in the changes is temperature, although salinity variations are equally important under certain conditions. The seasonal range of temperature variations is greatest in the temperate regions and becomes less as one approaches either the tropics or the poles. In the United States, the maximum seasonal temperature variation is found in the coastal waters on the southern side of Cape Cod, Massa- chusetts, where in winter the water may be freezing at -2.8 C and in summer the inshore coastal waters reach temperatures of 23 C, or even 25 C over wide shoal areas. At the same latitude on the Pacific coast, the water is neither so cold in the winter nor so warm in the summer. North of Cape Cod, the water is as cold in the winter time, but it does not reach as high a summer temperature; and south of Cape Cod the waters rarely reach a freezing point in winter. Hutchins (194 7)100 discusses these ranges of variations and illustrates how they affect geographical distribution of marine species on the Atlantic European coasts and on the east and west coasts of the United States. As is obvious from the above comments, Cape Cod is a geographical boundary in the summertime but not in winter. Because temperature can control both the breeding cycle and survival of orga- nisms, a variety of different geographical distributions can be dominated by the temperature variations at various locations along the coast (Hutchins 1947).100 There· is increasing pressure to site power plants in the coastal zone because of the large available supply of water for cooling purposes. In 1969 there were over 86 fossil fuel power plants in the eastern coastal zones (Sorge 1969)101 and 32 on the west coast (Adams 1969).98 In addition, nuclear power plants are in operation, and many more are planned for siting on the coast in the future. Provided that the temperatur-es are kept within the limit prescribed in the recommendations and that the recommendations for mixing zones (pp. 228-232) are complied with, these heated effluents may have no serious impact on the marine en- vironment. However, organisms passing through the cooling system of the power plants may be killed either by the direct effect of temperature, by pressure changes in the system, or by chlorination if it is used to keep the cooling system free of attached growth. In the tropics, disposal of waste heat in the marine en- vironment may be impossible in the summertime. Bader and Roessler (1972)99 discussed the temperature problems created by the power plants at Turkey Point, near Miami, Florida. Thorhaug et al. (1972)102 showed that tropical marine organisms live precariously close to their upper thermal limit and are thus susceptible to the stress of ad- ditional thermal effluents. To abide by the temperature recommendations in tropical waters, it is generally neces- sary to prohibit discharge of heated effluents during the summertime. It is clear from this and from the discussion in Section III that additional studies will be needed on the temperature tolerances of the species directly involved. Organisms from estuaries and marine waters have not been studied as extensively as have freshwater fishes, but some data are included in the tabular material in the freshwater report. On the basis of information available at this time, the marine panel" finds that the recommendations in Section III, Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, appear to be valid for the estuarine and marine waters as well (see PP· 160, 161, 164, 165, and 166-171 of Section III). INORGANIC CHEMICALS, INCLUDING HEAVY METALS AND pH The hazardous and biologically active inorganic chemi- cals are a source of both local and world-wide threats to 238 -··-----·~-------------------~ ······---~ the marine environment. Certain of these chemicals may pose no immediate danger but may lead to undesirable long-term changes. Others, such as boron, may pose serious health hazards and yet have poorly understood biological effects in the marine environment. Nevertheless, they can be a significant constituent in certain waste waters and should be discussed here. The inorganic chemicals that have been considered in this study are listed alphabetically in Table IV-2; those most significant to the protection of the marine environment are discussed below. TABLE IV-2-Inorganic Chemicals to be Considered in Water Quality Criteria for Aquatic Life in the Marine Environment Elements Equilibrium spec1es (reaction) Natural concentration Pollution in sea water•JLg/1 categories• Aluminum ............ AI(OH)a, solubility of AhOa approx. 300J£gfl 10 lYe Ammonia ............. NHa, NH,+ ..................... lYe Antimony ............. Sb(OH);-0.45 IV c? Arsenic ............... As,o, is oxidized to HAso,,-2.6 lie Barium ............... Bazt-20 lYe Beryllium ............. Be(OH),, solubility of BeD approx. 10JLg/l 0.0006 IV c? Bismuth .............. Bi(OH)a, solubility of Bi,Oa is unknown (low) 0.02 IV c? Boron ................ B(OH)a, B(OH)r 4.5X103 IV c Bromine .............. Br 0, HBrO, Br 6.7X104 lYe Cadmium ............. CdCI+, CdCI,, CdCI,-(the last two are probably 0.02 lie the main forms) Calcium .............. Cazt-4.1Xf05 lYe Chlorine .............. Cl', HCIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lYe Chromium ............ Cr(OH)a, solubility of cr,Oa unknown (low) 0.04 lYe? Cobalt... ............. Cozt-0.4 lYe Copper ............... Cuzt-, CuOH+, CuHCOa+, CuCOa(probably main 1 lYe form) CuCi+, complexed also by dissolved ammo acids Cyanide .............. HCN (90%), CN-(10%) . .................... lllc Fluoride .............. F-(50%). MgF+ (50%) 1340 lYe Gold ................. Aucb-.01-2 lYe Hydrogen Ion (Acids) .. HCI+HCO,-~H,O+CI-+CO, pH=8 (alk=0.0024 M) lllc H,S0,+2HC0,-~2H,O+SOr+2CQ, Iron .................. Fe(OH)a, solubility of FeOOH approx. 5 JLg/1 10 lYe Lead ................. Pbzt-, PbOH+, PbHCOa+,PbCOa, PbSQ,, PbCi+ 0.02 I a (probably main form) Magnesium ........... Mg'+ 1.3X10' IV c Manganese ........... Mnzt-2 IV c Mercury .............. HgCI,, HgCI,-, HgCI,,_ (main form) 0.1 lb Molybdenum .......... MoO,>-10 IV c Nickel. ............... Nizt-7 lllc Nitrate ............... No,-6.7X1112 lllc Phosphorus ........... Red phosphorus reacts slowly to phosphate H ,po.-and H Por Selenium ............. seo,,_ 0.45 Ill c? Silicon ............... SI(OH),, SIO(OH)a-3Xf03 IV c Silver ................ AgCI,-0.3 lllc Sulfide ............... S'-····················· lie Thallium ............. Tl+ 0.1 lllc Titanium ............. Ti(OH)., solubility of TiQ, unknown (low) IYb? Uranium .............. UO,(COa)a•-lllc Vanadium ............ YOaOH-IVa? Zinc ................. Znzt-, ZnOH+, ZnCOa, ZnCI+ (probably main lllc form) • These values are approximate but they are representative for low levels in unpolluted sea water. • I-IV order of decreasing menace; a-worldwide, b-regional, c-local (coastal, bays estuaries, single dumpings). ? indicates some question of the ranking as a menace and/or whether the pollutional effect is local, regional, or world· wide. Adapted and modified from the Report of the Seminar on Methods of Detection, Measurement and Monitoring of Pollutants in the Marine Environment. Food and Agriculture Organization 1971'"· Categories of Pollutants/239 Forms of Chemical and Environmental Interactions The form in which a chemical appears in the environment depends on the chemical and physical characteristics of the element, its stability, and the characteristics of the environ- ment in which it is found. An element that is easily reduced or oxidized will undergo rapid changes, especially in sedi- ments that alternate between oxidized and reduced states; while an element that is highly stable, such as gold, will retain its elemental identity in virtually all environmental conditions. Most elements are found in combined states, such as ore which can be a sulfide or a complex mineral containing oxygen, silica, and sulfur. Certain elements are released into the environment by the processing of ores. Cadmium, for example, is not found uncombined in nature to any large extent but is a com- mercial by-product of zinc smelting. Other metallic ele- ments can be brought into solution by the action of bacteria. Contamination from base metals may arise in abandoned mines, where tailings or slag heaps are attacked by physical and chemical weathering processes and bacteria to allow leaching of metallic ions into receiving waters. In strip mining, sulfides are oxidized to produce sulfuric acid, which may be a pollutant in itself or help to bring certain elements into solution. The action of bacteria also transforms metals in another way. In anaerobic sediments, bacteria can convert in- organic metallic mercury into methyl mercury compounds. Such organo-metallic complexes are highly toxic to mam- mals, including man. Biological Effects Acute toxicity data for inorganic chemical compounds under controlled laboratory conditions, ·as represented for example by 96-hour LC50, are presented in Appendix III, Table 1, (pp. 449-460). Because of the lack of marine data, most of the information is based on freshwater bioassay data, which provide some measure of acute toxicity for the marine environment as well. The concentrations of elements at which sublethal, chronic effects become manifest are also important. Sub- lethal concentrations ·of pollutants can have serious conse- quences in estuaries where migrating anadromous fishes linger to become acclimatized to changing salinities. Al- though the fish may not be killed outright, the stress of the sublethal concentrations may cause biochemical and physiological deficiencies that could impair life processes of the fish, preventing migrating adults from reaching their spawning grounds or reproducing. Pippy and Hare (1969)247 suggested that heavy metals put fish under stress and may lead to infestation by diseases. Appendix III, Table 2 (pp. 461-468), summarizes data on the sublethal chronic effects of inorganic chemicals on fish and other aquatic organisms. As in Appendix III, Table 1, information on freshwater organisms has been included because of the 240/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife paucity of tests in sea water. There is a clear need for toxicological work on the sublethal effects of pollutants on marine organisms. At low concentrations, many elements are necessary to life processes, while at higher concentrations the same elements may be toxic. The effects of long-term exposure to low levels of most chemicals, singly or in combination, are generally unknown. Laboratory bioassays are conducted under controlled conditions usually with single chemicals. Such tests provide toxicological information that must precede studies with mixtures closer to actual conditions. These mixtures must reflect the conditions and the composition of water in specific areas of discharge, because substances are rarely isolated when found in the environment. The probabilities of syner- gism and antagonism are enhanced by increased complexity of effluents. Synergism and antagonism in the environment are poorly understood. Copper is more toxic in soft water than in hard water where the calcium and the magnesium salts contributing to water hardness tend to limit or an- tagonize copper toxicity. Arsenic renders selenium less toxic and has been added to feeds for cattle and poultry in areas high in selenium. As examples of synergism, copper is considerably more toxic in the presence of mercury, zinc, or cadmium salts (LaRoche 1972),211 and cadmium makes zinc and cyanide more toxic. Synergism or antagonism is expected to occur more frequently in water containing numerous chemical compounds than in one with few such compounds. Therefore, a complex chemical medium such as sea water can increase the probability of synergism or antagonism when a pollutant is introduced. The effects of pollutants can be considered in terms of their biological end points. Such irreversible effects as carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and teratogenesis provide identifiable end points in terms of biological consequences of pollutants. The effects of substances may vary with species or with stages of the life cycle (See Methods of Assessment, p. 233). A distinction must be made between the effects of pol- lutants harmful to the quality of an organism as a product for human consumption and those harmful to the organism itself. While the levels of mercury that render fish unac- ceptable for marketing do not, on the basis of the limited information available at this time, appear to have any adverse effect on the fish themselves, they cause condem- nation of the product for human consumption. This may also be true for other elements that lend themselves to bio- accumulation. Elemental phosphorus leads to illness and eventual mortality of fish themselves (Jangaard 1970).191 At the concentrations of phosphorus found in the liver and other vital organs, the fish may have been toxic to human beings as well. The recommendations for the elements sub- ject to biological accumulation in the marine environment must be set at a low level to protect the organisms. There is also need to establish recommendations based on human health, and a need to protect the economic value of fisheries affected by accumulations of some of these elements. Data on the accumulation of .inorganic chemicals by aquatic organisms are given in Appendix III, Table 3 (pp. 469-480). The maximum permissible concentrations of inorganic chemicals in food and water, as prescribed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and by drinking water standards of various agencies, are given in Appendix III. Table 4 (pp. 481-482). The elements essential to plant and animal nutrition in the marine environments have been included in Table IV-2. They constitute some of the ordinary nutrients, e.g., silicon and nitrate, as well as the micro-constituents, such as iron, molybdenum, and cobalt. Although it is recognized that these elements are required for algal nutrition, one must not be caught in the misconception that "if a little is good, a lot is better." Metals Metals reach the marine environment through a variety of routes, including natural weathering as well as municipal and industrial discharges. Metals are particularly susceptible to concentration by invertebrates. Vinogradov's (I 953)294 classic work on the accumulation of metals by organisms in the marine environment has been expanded in more recent treatises (Fukai ·and Meinke 1962,166 Polikarpov 1966,249 Bowen et al. 1971,129 Lowman et al. 1971).221 Metals present in the marine environment in an as- similable form usually undergo bioaccumulation through the food chain. Thus, elements present in low concentrations in the water may be accumulated many thousandfold in certain organisms. Established maximum permissible levels of some of these metallic ions render fish unacceptable for the commercial market (U.S. Department of Health, Edu- cation, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration 1971,286 Kolbye 1970206 ). Food and drug control agencies must impose stringent requirements on the content of certain hazardous elements, such as mercury, which, during 1970, led to condemnation of much of the fish caught in waters of the Canadian Prairies and the southern Great Lakes. Much of the swordfish and about 25 per cent of the tuna caught by the Japanese have exceeded the maximum per- missible limit (Wallace et al. 197 I). 295 Studies conducted on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in St. Andrew's, New Brunswick, show that low concentrations of zinc and copper mixtures will set up avoidance reactions (Sprague 1965,268 Sprague and Saunders 1963271). Adult salmon migrating to spawn can be diverted by low concen- trations of these base metals such as those leached from mine tailings. There are indications that as much as 25 per cent of spawning salmon (Salmo salar) may return to sea without going through the spawning act if concentrations of zinc and copper are high enough to induce avoidance reactions (Sprague 1965).268 There may be other similar important behavioral reactions stimulated by low concen- trations of some of the metals. In the following review of different inorganic constituents, the total amount of each element is considered in the dis- cussion and recommendation, unless otherwise stated. Whereas some of the methods of analysis for constituents recommended for fresh water and waste water can also be used in marine environments, the interference from salt demands other specialized techniques for many elements (Strickland and Parsons 1968,273 Food and Agriculture Organization 197 P 64 ). Not only has the recent literature been revi"ewed in this examination of the properties and effects of inorganic con- stituents, but various bibliographic and other standard references have been liberally consulted (The Merck Index 1960,228 McKee and Wolf 1963,226 Wilber 1969,299 NRC Committee on Oceanography 1971,237 U.S. Department of the Interior Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis- tration 1968,287 Canada Interdepartmental Committee on Water 197P36 ). Alkalinity or Buffer Capacity, Carbon Dioxide, and pH The chemistry of sea water differs from that of fresh water largely because of the presence of salts, the major constituents of which are present in sea water in constant proportion. The weak-acid salts, such as the carbonates, bicarbonates, and borates, contribute to the high buffering capacity or alkalinity of sea water. This buffering power renders many wastes of a highly acidic or alkaline nature, which are often highly toxic in fresh water, comparatively innocuous after mixing with sea water. The complex carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate sys- tem in the sea is described in standard textbooks (Sverdrup et al. 1946,276 Skirrow 1965264 ). Alkalinity and the hydrogen- ion concentration, as expressed by pH (Strickland and Parsons 1968), 273 are the best measure of the effects of highly acidic or highly alkaline wastes. European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (1969)158 and Kemp (1971)202 reviewed the pH require- ments of freshwater fishes. Because of the large difference in buffer capacities, techniques for measurement and defi- nitions of alkalinity are quite different for marine and fresh waters. The normal range of pH encountered in fresh water is considerably wider than that found in sea water, and for this reason, freshwater communities are adapted to greater pH extremes than ar:e marine communities. Sea water normally varies in pH from surface to bottom because of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate equi- libria. Photosynthetic and respiratory processes also con- tribute to variations in pH. At the sea surface, the pH normally varies from 8.0 to 8.3, depending on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the salinity and temperature of the water. A large uptake of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis in the euphotic zone leads to high pH values exceeding 8.5 in exceptional cases. Categories of Pollutants /241 Release of carbon dioxide during decomposition in inter- mediate and bottom waters results in a lowering of pH. In shallow, biologically-active waters, particularly in warm tropical and subtropical areas, there is a large diurnal variation in pH with values ranging from a high of 9.5 in the daytime to a low of 7.3 at night or in the early morning. The toxicity of most pollutants increases as the pH in- creases or decreases from neutral (pH 7). This is true for complex mixtures, such as pulp mill effluents (Howard and Walden 1965),1 83 for constituents which dissociate at different pH (e.g., H2S and HCN), and for heavy metals. The toxicity of certain complexes can change drastically with pH. Nickel cyanide exhibits a thousandfold increase in toxicity with a 1.5 unit decrease in pH from 8.0 to 6.5 (Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center 1953,255 Doudoroff et al. 1966152). pH may also determine the degree of dissociation of salts, some of which are more toxic in the molecular form than in the ionic form. Sodium sulfide is increasingly toxic with decreasing pH as s~ and HS-ions are converted to H 2S (Jones 1948).200 The toler- ance of fish to low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, high temperatures, cations, and anions varies with pH. There- fore, non-injurious pH deviations and ranges depend on local conditions. There are large fluctuations in natural pH in the marine environment. Changes in pH indicate that the buffering capacity of the sea water has been altered and the carbon dioxide equilibria have shifted. The time required for mixing of an effluent with a large volume of sea water is exceedingly important. When the pH of the receiving sea water under- goes an increase or decrease, its duration can be important to the survival of organisms. At present, there are not sufficient data with which to assign time limits to large departures of pH. Fish tolerate moderately large pH changes in the middle of their normal pH ranges. Small pH changes at the limits of their ranges and also in the presence of some pollutants can have significant deleterious effects. Plankton and benthic invertebrates are probably more sensitive than fish to changes in pH. Oysters appear to perform best in brackish waters when the pH is about 7.0. At a pH of 6.5 and lower, the rate of pumping decreases notably, and the time the shells remain open is reduced by 90 per cent (Loosanoff and Tommers 1948,219 Korringa 1952 207). Oyster larvae are impaired at a pH of 9.0 and killed at 9.1 in a few hours (Gaarder 1932).1 67 The upper pH limit for crabs is 10.2 (Meinck et al. 1956).22 7 Recommendation Changes in sea water pH should be avoided. The effects of pH alteration depend on the specific con- ditions. In any case, the normal range of pH in either direction should not be extended by more than 0.2 units. Within the normal range, the pH should not vary by more than 0.5 pH units. Ad- 242/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife dition of foreign material should not drop the pH below 6.5 or raise it above 8.5. Aluminum Aluminum, one of the most abundant elements in the earth's crust, does not occur in its elemental form in nature. It is found as a constituent in all soils, plants, and animal tissues. Aluminum is an amphoteric metal; it may be in solution as a weak acid, or it may assume the form of a flocculent hydroxide, depending on the pH. In the alumi- num sulfate form (alum), it is used in water treatment as a coagulant for suspended solids, including colloidal materials and microorganisms. Aluminum may be adsorbed on plant organisms, but very little ingested by animals is absorbed through the alimentary canal. Goldberg et al. (1971)172 reported an aluminum concentration factor for phytoplankton (Sar- gassum) ash of 65 and for zooplankton ash of 300. However, Lowman et al. (1971),221 in their compilation of concen- tration factors for various elements, noted that aluminum was reported to be concentrated 15,000 times in benthic algae, 10,000 times in plankton (phyto-and zoo-), 9,000 times in the soft parts. of molluscs, 12,000 times in crustacean muscle, and 10,000 times in fish muscle. In fresh water, the toxicity of aluminum salts varies with hardness, turbidity, and pH. Jones (1939)198 found the lethal threshold of aluminum nitrate for stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) in very soft water to be 0.07 mg/1. Using tap water with the same compound tested on the same species, Anderson (1948)112 reported a toxic threshold of less than 5X I0-5 molar aluminum chloride (1.35 mg/1 AI). Average survival times of stickleback in different con- centrations of aluminum in the nitrate form have been reported as one day at 0.3 mg/1 and one week at 0.1 mg/1 (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).150 It was noted by the same authors that 0.27 mg/1 aluminum in the nitrate form did not apparently harm young eels in 50 hours' exposure. Because of the slightly basic nature of sea water, alumi- num salts tend to precipitate in the marine environment. These salts have exhibited comparatively low toxicities with 96-hour LC50's of 17.8 mg/1 for redfish tested in sea water with aluminum chloride (Pulley 1950).252 Concentrations of 8.9 mg/1 of aluminum (from AlCl3) did not have a lethal effect on marine fish and oysters tested ( Cynoscion nebulosus, Sciaenops oscellatus, Fundulus grandis, Fundulus similis, Cyprindon variegatus, Ostrea virginica) (Pulley 19,50).252 The floes of precipitated aluminum hydroxide may affect rooted aquatics and invertebrate benthos. Wilder (1952)300 noted no significant effect on lobsters (Homarus americanus) of a tank lined with an aluminum alloy (Mn, l to 1.5 per cent; Fe, 0. 7 per cent; Si, 0.6' per cent; Cu, 0.2 per cent, and Zn, 0.1 per cent). Aluminum hydroxide can have an adverse effect on bottom communities. Special precautions should be taken to avoid disposal of aluminum-containing wastes in water supporting commercial populations of clams, scallops, oysters, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, or bottom fishes. Recommendation Because aluminum tends to be concentrated by marine organisms, it is recommended that an application factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to aluminum. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concen- trations of aluminum exceeding 1.5 mgfl consti- tute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.2 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Ammonia Most of the available information on toxicity of ammonia is for freshwater organisms. For this reason, the reader is referred to the discussion of ammonia in Section III on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife (p. 186). Because of the slightly higher alkalinity of sea water and the larger proportion of un-ionized ammonium hydroxide, ammonia may be more toxic in sea water than in fresh water (Doudoroff and Katz 1961).151 Holland et al. (1960)182 noted a reduction in growth and a loss of equilibrium in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) at concentrations 3.5 to lO mg/1 of ammonia. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide decrease the toxicity of ammonia (U.K. Depart- ment .of Science and Research 1961).284 Lloyd and Orr (1969),217 in their studies on the effect of un-ionized am- monia at a pH of 8 to 10, found 100 per cent mortality with 0.44 mg/1 NH3 in 3 hours for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). This confirmed earlier results of 100 per cent mortality in 24 hours at 0.4 mg/1. The toxicity increased with pH between 7.0 and 8.2. Recommendation It is recommended that an application factor of 0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to ammonia. On the basis of freshwater data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of un- ionized ammonia equal to or exceeding 0.4 mgfl constitute a hazard to the marine biota, and levels less than 0.01 mgfl present minimal risk of dele- terious effects. Antimony Antimony occurs chiefly as sulfide (stibnite) or as the oxides cervantite (Sb20 4) and valentinite (Sb20a) and is used for alloys and other metallurgical purposes. It has also been used in a variety of medicinal preparations and in numerous industrial applications. Antimony salts are used in the fireworks, rubber, textile, ceramic, glass and paint industries. 'I ' Few of the salts of antimony have been tested on fish in bioassays, particularly in sea water. However, antimony potaflsium tartrate ("tartar emetic") gave a 96-hour LC50 as antimony of 20 mg/1 in soft water and 12 mg/1 in hard water (Tarzwell and Henderson 1956,277 1960278). Cellular division of green algae was hindered at 3.5 mg/1, and movement of Daphnia was retarded at 9 mg/1 (Bringmann and Kuhn 1959a).l31 Antimony trichloride, used in acid solution as a mordant for patent leather and in dyeing, was examined in exploratory tests on fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) and gave a 96-hour LC50 as antimony of 9 mg/1 in soft water and 17 mg/1 in hard water (Tarzwell and Henderson 1960).278 Applegate et al. (1957)114 reported that rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus), and sea lamprey (Pertomyzon marinus) were un- affected by 5 mg/1 of SbCla or SbC1 5 in Lake Huron water at 13 C, saturated with dissolved oxygen, and pH 7.5 to 8.2. Jernejcic (I 969)193 noted that as little as 1.0 mg/1 of anti~ mony in the form of tartar emetic caused projectile vomiting in large mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Antimony can be concentrated by various marine forms to over 300 times the amount present in sea water (Goldberg 1957,171 Noddack and Noddack 1939240). Recommendation Because of the hazard of antimony poisoning to humans and the possible concentration of anti- mony by edible marine organisms, it is recom- mended that an application factor of 0.02 be ap- plied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the ap- propriate organisms most sensitive to antimony. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of antimony equal to or exceeding 0.2 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the marine environment. There are insufficient data available at this time to recommend a level that would present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Arsenic Arsenic occurs in nature mostly as arsenides or pyrites. It is also found occasionally in the elemental form. Its consumption in the U.S. in 1968 amounted to 25,000 tons as AS20 3 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).289 Arsenic is used in the manufacture of glass, pigments, textiles, paper, metal adhesives, ceramics, li- noleum, and mirrors (Sullivan 1969),274 and its compounds are used in pesticides, wood preservatives, paints, and electrical semiconductors. Because of its poisonous action on microorganisms and lower forms of destructive aquatic organisms, it has been used in wood preservatives, paints, insecticides, and herbicides. Sodium arsentite has been used for weed control in lakes and in electrical semiconductors. In small concentrations, arsenic is found naturally in some bodies of water. In its different forms, including its valence states, arsenic varies in toxicity. Trivalent arsenic Categories of Pollutants /243 is considerably more toxic than the pentavalent species in the inorganic form. It is acutely toxic to invertebrates and for this reason has found application in the control of Teredo and other woodborers in the AS+3 form. Arsenious trioxide (As 20 3) has been used for control of the shipworm Bankia setacia. In the arsenate form (AsH), it is of relatively low toxicity, Daphnia being just immobilized at 18 to 31 mg/1 sodium arsenate, or 4.3 to 7.5 mg/1 as arsenic, in Lake Erie water (Anderson 1944,110 1946111). The lethal threshold of sodium arsenate for minnows has been reported as 234 mg/1 as arsenic at 16 to 20 C (Wilber 1969).29 9 Arsenic is normally present in sea water at concentrations of 2 to 3 JLg/1 and tends to be accumulated by oysters and other molluscan shellfish (Sautet et al. 1964,258 Lowman et al. 1971221 ). Wilber (I 969)299 reported concentrations of 100 mg/kg in shellfish. Arsenic is a cumulative poison and has long-term chronic effects on both aquatic organisms and on mammalian species. A succession of small doses may add up to a final lethal dose (Buchanan 1962).1 35 The acute effects of arsenic and its compounds on aquatic organisms have been investigated, but little has been done on the sub- lethal chronic effects. Surber and Meehan (1931 )275 found that fish-food orga- nisms generally can withstand concentrations of approxi- mately I. 73 mg/1 of arsenious trioxide in sodium arsenite solution. Meinck et al. (1956)227 reported that arsenic con- centrations were toxic at 1.1 to 2.2 mg/1 to pike perch (Sti;:;ostedion vitreum) in 2 days, 2.2 mg/1 to bleak in 3 days, 3.1 mg/1 to carp (Cyrinus carpio) in 4 to 6 days and to eels in 3 days, and 4.3 mg/1 to crabs in II days. Recommendation Because of the tendency of arsenic to be concen- trated by aquatic organisms, it is recommended that an application factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to arsenic. On the basis of freshwater and marine toxicity data available, it is suggested that concentrations of arsenic equal to or exceeding 0.05 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.01 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Barium Barium comes largely from ores (BaS04, BaCOs). It is bein~ used increasingly in industry. The U.S. consumption in 1968 was 1.6 million tons, a growth of 78 per cent in 20 years (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969) .289 Barium is used in a variety of industrial applications, including paper manufacturing, fabric printing and dyeing, and synthetic rubber production. All water-or acid-soluble barium compounds are poi- sonous. However, in sea water the sulfate and carbonate present tend to precipitate barium. The concentration of barium in sea water is generally accepted at about 20 JLg/1 244/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Goldberg et al. 1971),172 although it has been reported as low as 6.2 J.Lg/1 (Bowen 1956).128 Wolgemuth and Broecker (1970)303 reported a range of 8 to 14 J.Lg71 in the Atlantic and 8 to 31 J.Lg/1 in the Pacific, with the lower values in surface waters. Barium ions are thought to be rapidly precipitated or removed from solution by adsorption and sedimentation. Bijan and Deschiens (1956)123 reported that 10 to 15 mg/1 of barium chloride were lethal to an aquatic plant and two species of snails. Bioassays with barium chloride showed that a 72-hour exposure to 50 mg/1 harmed the nervous system of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and 158 mg/1 killed 90 per cent of the test species (ORSANCO 1960).245 Barium can be concentrated in goldfish (Carassius auratus) by a factor of 150 (Templeton 1958).279 Soviet marine radioactivity studies showed accumulation of radio- active barium in organs, bones, scales, and gills of fish from the Northeast Pacific (Moiseev and Kardashev 196423?). Lowman et al. (I 971 )221 listed a concentration factor for barium of 17,000 in phytoplankton, 900 in zoo- plankton, and 8 in fish muscle. In view of the widespread use of barium, the effects of low doses of this element and its compounds on marine organisms under different environmental conditions should be determined. Disposal of barium-containing wastes into waters when precipitates could affect rooted aquatics and benthic invertebrates should be avoided. Recommendation Because of the apparent concentration of barium by aquatic organisms and the resultant human health hazard, it is recommended that an appli- cation factor of 0.05 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to barium. On the basis of data available at this· time, it is suggested that concentrations of barium equal to or exceeding 1.0 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.5 mgfl present minimal risk of dele- terious effects. Beryllium Beryllium is found mainly in the mineral beryl and is almost nonexistent in natural waters. Its concentration in sea water is 6 X I0-4 J.Lg/1. Beryllium is used in a number of manufacturing processes, in electroplating, and as a catalyst in organic chemical manufacture. It has also been used experimentally in rocket fuels and in nuclear reactors (Council on Environmental Quality 1971).144 In 1968, the U.S. consumption of beryllium was 8,719 tons, a 500 per cent increase over 1948 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).289 Beryllium has been shown to inhibit photosynthesis in terrestrial plants (Bollard and Butler 1966).127 It would be of interest to know if there is any inhibition of photo- synthesis by beryllium compounds in the marine environ- ment. Beryllium chloride and nitrate are highly soluble in water, and the sulfate is moderately so. The carbonate and hydroxide are almost insoluble in cold water. Toxicity tests gave a 96-hour LC50 for beryllium chloride of 0.15 mg/1 as beryllium for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) in soft water; 15 mg/1 for the same species in hard water (Tarzwell and Henderson 1960) ;278 and 31.0 mg/1 for Fundulus heteroclitus (Jackim et al. 1970).190 Beryllium has been reported to be concentrated l 000 times in marine plants and animals (Gold berg et al. 1971) .172 Recommendation In the absence of data specifically related to effects of beryllium on marine organisms, and be- cause of its accumulation by marine organisms and its apparent toxicity to humans, it is recom- mended that an application factor of 0.01 be ap- plied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropri- ate organisms most sensitive to beryllium. On the basis of data available for hard fresh water, it is suggested that concentrations of beryllium equal to or exceeding 1.5 mg/1 constitute a hazard to marine organisms, and levels less than 0.1 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Bismuth Bismuth is used in the manufacture of bismuth salts, fusible alloys, electrical fuses, low-melting solders, and fusible boiler plugs, and in tempering baths for steel, in "silvering" mirrors, and in dental work. Bismuth salts are used in analytical chemical laboratories and commonly formulated in pharmaceuticals. The concentration of bismuth in sea water is low, about 0.02 J.Lg/1, probably because of the insolubility of its salts. It is unknown how much bismuth actually gets into the sea from man-made sources, but the quantity is probably small. The total U.S. production in 1969 as subcarbonate (Bi20 2C03)2·H20 was 57 short tons (U.S. Department of Commerce 1971).285 There are no bioassay data on which to base recommen- dations for bismuth in the marine environment. Boron Boron is not found in its elemental form in nature; it normally occurs in mineral deposits as sodium borate (borax) or calcium borate (colemanite). The concentration of boron in sea water is 4.5 mg/1 as one of the 8 major constituents in the form of borate. Boron has long been used in metallurgy to harden other metals. It is now being used in the elemental form as a neutron absorber in nuclear installations. Available data on toxicity of boron to aquatic organisms are from fresh water (Wurtz 1945,306 Turnbull et al. 1954,281 LeClerc and Devlaminck 1955,214 Wallen et al. 1957,296 LeClerc 1960213). Boric acid at a concentration of 2000 mg/1 show~d no effect on one trout and one rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus); at 5000 mg/1 it caused a discoloration of the skin of the trout, and at 80,000 mg/1 the trout became immobile and lost its balance in a few minutes (Wurtz 1945). 306 The minimum lethal dose for minnows exposed to boric acid at 20 C for 6 hours was reported to be 18,000 to 19,000 mg/1 in distilled water and 19,000 to 19,500 mg/1 in hard water (LeClerc and Devlaminck 1955,214 LeClerc 1960213). Testing mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) at 20 to 26 C and a pH range of 5.4 to 9.1, Wallen et al. (1957)296 established 96-hour LC50's of 5,600 mg/1 for boric acid and 3,600 mg/1 for sodium borate. Since the toxicity is slightly lower in hard water than in distilled water, it is anticipated that boric acid and borates would be less toxic to marine aquatic life than to freshwater organisms. In the absence of sea water bioassay data, an estimate of 500 mg/1 of boron as boric acid and 250 mg/1 as sodium borate is considered hazardous to marine ani- mals, based on freshwater data (Wallen et al. 1957).296 Concentrations of 50 mg/1 and 25 mg/1, respectively, are expected to have minimal effects on rparine fauna. An uncertainty exists concerning the effect of boron on marine vegetation. In view of harm that can be caused to terrestrial plants by boron in excess of 1 mg/1 (Wilber 1969),299 special precautions should be taken to maintain boron at normal levels near eel grass (,Zostera), kelp (Macro- cystis), and other seaweed beds to minimize damage to these plants. Recommendatio-n On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of boron equal to or exceeding 5.0 mgjl constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 5.0 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. An application factor of 0.1 is recommended for boron compounds applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to boron. Bromine In concentrated form, bromine is a strong oxidizing agent and will attack all metals and organic materials. It is one of the major constituents in sea water, present at about 67 mg/1 in bromate, and is commercially extracted from the sea. Bromine is used medicinally and for sterilization of swimming pools. It is also used in the preparation of dye- stuffs and anti-knock compounds for gasolines. Molecular bromine may be discharged in effluents fro:m salt works and certain chemical industries. Bromination of certain organic substances, such as phenols and amines, may impart Categories of Pollutants /245 offensive taste and .make waters more toxic to aquatic organisms. Kott et al. (1966)208 found that Chlorella pyrenoidosa, when exposed to 0.42 mg/1 bromine for 4 days, were reduced in concentration from 2,383 cells/mm2 to 270 cells, but re- mained virtually unchanged at 0.18 mg/1 bromine (2,383 cells/mm2 in controls compared to 2,100 cells/mm2 in the exposed sample). At concentrations of 10 mg/1 in soft water, bromine killed Daphnia magna (Ellis 1937),156 and at 20 mg/1 in water of 18 to 23 C, goldfish ( Carassius auratus) were killed (Jones 1957).201 A violent irritant response in marine fish was observed at 10 mg/1 bromine, but no such activity was perceived at 1 mg/1 (Hiatt et al. 1953) .181 The salts of bromine are relatively innocuous. The threshold of immobilization for Daphnia magna was 210 mg/1 of sodium bromate (NaBr03) and 8200 mg/1 of sodium bromide (NaBr) (Anderson 1946).m Recommendation It is recommended that free (molecular) bromine in the marine environment not exceed 0.1 mgfl and that ionic bromine in the form of bromate be maintained below 100 mgjl. Cadmium U.S. consumption of cadmium was 6,662 short tons in 1968 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).2 89 These quantities indicate that cadmium might be a significant pollutant. Pure cadmium is not found in commercial quantities in nature. It is obtained as a by-product of smelting zinc. Cadmium salts in high concentrations have been found in a Missouri spring originating from a mine (up to 1,000 mg/ml cadmium) (ORSANCO 1955),244 and up to 50 to 170 mg/kg of cadmium are found in superphosphate fertilizers (Athanassiadis l969).U 6 Cadmium is also present in some pesticides. It is being used in increasing amounts by in- dustry (Council on Environmental Quality 1971).1 44 Water- carrying pipes are also a source of cadmium (Schroeder 1970)259 as is food (Nilsson 1969).239 Cadmium is present in most drainage waters (Kroner and Kopp 1965)209 and may be contributing substantially to the cadmium present in inshore coastal waters. It is not known, however, whether man's input· has resulted in higher levels of cadmium in estuarine or coastal waters. In sea water, cadmium is generally present at about 0.1 ,ug/1 (Goldberg et al. l97l)P2 Cadmium pollution resulting in the "Itai-itai" disease in the human population has been documented (Yamagata and Shigematsu 1970). 307 Schroeder et al. (1967)260 have found that oysters may concentrate cadmium from very low levels in ambient water. Cadmium concentrations in some marine plants and animals have been given by Mullin and Riley (1956).233 Concern exists that cadmium may enter the diet. like 246/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife mercury, through seafood. Cadmium, like mercury, could conceivably form organic compounds which might be highly toxic or lead to mutagenic or teratogenic effects. Cadmium has marked acute and chronic effects on aquatic organisms. It also acts synergistically with other metals. A 15-week LC50 of 0.1 mg/l and inhibition of shell growth for Crassostrea virginica (Pringle et al. 1968),250 and a 96-hour LC50 of 0.03 mg/1 cadmium in combination with 0.15 mg/1 zinc for fry of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) (Hublou et al. 1954)184 have been reported. Fundulus heteroclitus exposed to 50 mg/1 cadmium showed pathological changes in the intestinal tract after 1-hour exposure, in the kidney after 12 hours, and in the gill filaments and respiratory lamellae after 20 hours (Gardner and Yevich 1970)_17° Copper and zinc, when present at 1 mg/1 or more, substantially increase the toxicity of cadmium (LaRoche 1972).211 Cadmium is concentrated by marine organisms, particu- larly the molluscs (e.g., Pecten nova;;:etlandicae), which ac- cumulated cadmium in the calcareous tissues and in the viscera (Brooks and Rumbsby 1965)_13 3 Lowman et al. (1971)221 reported a concentration factor of 1000 for cad- mium in fish muscle. Cadmium levels in tissues of Ashy Petrel ( Oceanodroama homochroa) from coastal waters of California were approxi- mately twice as high as in tissues of Wilson's Petrel ( Oceanites oceanicus) obtained in Antarctica, which had summered in the North Atlantic and Australian regions, respectively. Cadmium levels in tissues of the Snow Petrel (Pelagodroma nivea), a species which does not leave the Antarctic ice pack region, obtained at Hallett Station, Antarctica, were of the same order of magnitude as those in the Wilson's Petrel. Cadmium levels in eggs of the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) from Long Island Sound were in the order of 0.2 mg/kg dry weight, not appreciably higher than those in the Antarctic Tern (Sterna vittata) from the Antarctic with levels in the order of 0.1 mg/kg (Anderlini et al. in press).l 09 Cadmium pollution may therefore be significant locally in estuaries, but on the basis of these limited data, it does not appear to be a problem in more remote marine ecosystems. However, in view of the comparatively unknown effects of cadmium on the marine ecosystem, its apparent concen- tration by marine organisms, and the human health risk involved in consumption of cadmium-contaminated sea- food, it is suggested that there be no artificial additions of cadmium to the marine environment. Recommendation The panel recommends that an application fac- tor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for appropriate organisms most sensitive to cad- mium. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of cadmium equal to or exceeding 0.01 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environment as well as to human ~------~------------- populations, and levels less than 0.2 p.gfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. In the presence of copper and/or zinc at 1 mgfl or more, there is evidence that the application factor for cadmium should be lower by at least one order of magnitude. In the absence of sufficient data on the effects of cadmium upon wildlife, it is recommended that cadmium criteria for aquatic life apply also to wildlife. Chlorine Chlorine is generally present in the stable chloride form which constitutes about 1.9 per cent of sea water. Ele- mental chlorine, which is a poisonous gas at normal tem- perature and pressure, is produced by electrolysis of a brine solution. Among its many uses are the bleaching of pulp, paper and textiles, and the manufacture of chemicals. Chlorine is used to kill so-called nuisance organisms that might interfere with the proper functioning of hydraulic systems. Chlorine disinfection is also used in public water supplies and in sewage effluents to insure that an acceptable degree of coliform reduction is achieved before the effluents enter various bodies of water. In all instances the intent is to eliminate undesirable levels of organisms that would degrade water uses. This goal is only partially reached, because the effect of chlorine on desirable species is a serious hazard. When dissolved in water, chlorine completely hydrolizes to form hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or its dissociated ions; at concentrations below 1000 mg/1, no chlorine exists in solution as Cb. The dissociation of HOCl to H+ and OCl- depends on the pH: 4 per cent is dissociated at pH 6, 25 per cent at pH 7, and 97 per cent at pH 9. The undissociated form is the most toxic (Moore 1951).231 Although free chlorine is toxic in itself to aquatic organisms, combi- nations of chlorine with ammonia, cyanide, and organic compounds, such as phenols and amines, may be even more toxic and can impart undesirable flavors to seafood. Chlorine at 0.05 mg/1 was the critical level for young Pacific salmon exposed for 23 days (Holland et al. 1960).1 82 The lethal threshold for chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and coho salmon (0. kisutch) for 72-hour ex- posure was noted by these investigators to be less than 0.1 mg/1 chlorine. In aerated freshwater, monochloramines were more toxic than chlorine and dichloramine more toxic than monochloramine. Studies of irritant responses of marine fishes to different chemicals (Hiatt et al. 1953)181 showed a slight irritant activity at 1 mg/1 and violent irritant activity at 10 mg/1. Oysters· are sensitive to chlorine concentrations of 0.01 to 0.05 mg/1 and react by reducing pumping ac- tivity. At Cb concentrations of 1.0 mg/1 effective pumping could not be maintained (Galtsoff 1946).169 Preliminary results show that at 15 C, salinity 30 parts per thousand (%o), mature copepods (Acartia tonsa and r TABLE IV-3-Copepod Mortality from Chlorine Exposure Acartia Tonsa Chlorine mg/1 1.0 2.5 5.0 10.0 Chlorine mg/1 2.5 5.0 10.0 Gentile (unpublished data) 1972.'" Exposure time in minutes to give Exposure time in minutes to give 50 percent mortality 100 percent mortality 220 >500 L5 UO 1.2 10.0 0.6 1.0 Eurytemona Ajfinis Exposure time in minutes to give Exposure time in minutes to give 50 percent mortality 100 percent mortality 33 125 3. 6 30.0 LO ~0 Eurytemona affinis) have great difficulty in surviving exposures to chlorine (Table IV-3). Clendenning and N:orth (1960)141 noted that at 5 to 10 mg/1 chlorine, the photosynthetic capacity of bottom fronds of the giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) was reduced by 10 to 15 per cent after 2 days and 50 to 70 per cent after 5 to 7 days. Chlorination in seawater conduits to a residual of 2.5 mg/1 killed all fouling organisms tested (anemones, mussels, barnacles, Mogula, Bugula) in 5 to 8 days; but with 1.0 mg/1 a few barnacles and all anemones survived 15 days' exposure (Turner et al. 1948).282 It should be further stressed that chlorine applications may often be accompanied by entrainments where the organisms are exposed to strong biocidal chlorine doses, intense turbulence, and heat (Gonzales et al. unpublished 1971).313 Consideration should also be given to the for- mation of chlorinated products, such as chloramines or other pollutants, which may have far greater and more persistent toxicity than the original chlorine applications. Recommendation It is recommended that an application factor of 0.1 be used with 96-hour LC50 data from seawater bioassays for the most sensitive species to be pro- tected. However, it is suggested that free residual chlo- rine in sea water in excess of 0.01 mgfl can be hazardous to marine life. In the absence of data on the in situ production of toxic chlorinated products, it appears to be premature to advance recommendations. Chromium Most of the available information on toxici.ty of chromium is for freshwater organisms, and it is discussed in Section III, p. 180. Categories of Pollutants /24 7 Chromium concentrations in seawater average about 0.04 JLg/1 (Food and Agriculture Organization 1971),164 and concentration factors of 1,600 in benthic algae, 2,300 in phytoplankton, 1,900 in zooplankton, 440 in soft parts of molluscs, 100 in crustacean muscle, and 70 in fish muscle have been reported (Lowman et al. 1971).221 The toxicity of chromium to aquatic life will vary with valence state, form, pH, synergistic or antagonistic effects from other constituents, and the species of organism in- volved. In long-term studies on the effects of heavy metals on oysters, Haydu (unpublished data)314 showed that mortalities occur at concentrations of 10 to 12 JLg/1 chromium, with highest mortality during May, June, and July. Raymont and Shields (1964)253 reported threshold toxicity levels of 5 mg/1 chromium for small prawns (Leander squilla), 20 mg/1 chromium in the form Na2Cr04 for the shore crab (Carcinas 'f(laenus), and l mg/1 for the polychaete Nereis virens. Pringle et al. (1968)250 showed that chromium con- centrations of 0.1 and 0.2 mg/1, in the form of K 2Cr20 7, produced the same mortality with molluscs as the controls. Doudoroff and Katz (1953)150 investigated the effect of K2Cr201 on mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus) and found that they tolerated a concentration of 200 mg/1 in sea water for over a week. Holland e.t al. (1960)182 reported that 31.8 mg/1 of chromium as potassium chromate in sea water gave 100 per cent mortality to coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Gooding (1954)173 found that 17.8 mg/1 of hexavalent chro- mium was toxic to the same species in sea water. Clendenning and North (1960)141 showed that hexavalent chromium at 5.0 mg/1 chromium reduced photosynthesis in the giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) by 50 per cent during 4 days exposure. Recommendation Because of the sensitivity of lower forms of aquatic life to chromium and lts accumulation at all trophic levels, it is recommended that an appli- cation factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to chromium. On the basis of data avail- able at this time, it is suggested that concentra- tions of chromium equal to or exceeding 0.1 mgfl constitute a hazard to the marine environment, and levels less than 0.05 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects. In oyster areas, concentra- tions should be maintained at less than 0.01 mgfl. Copper Copper has been used as a pesticide for eliminating algae in water, and its salts have bactericidal properties. Copper is toxic to invertebrates and is used extensively in marine antifouling paints which release it to the water. It is also toxic to juvenile stages of salmon and other sensitive species 248/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Sprague 1964,267 , 1965,2 68 Sigler et al. 1966,263 Cope 1966142). Copper was the fifth metal in U.S. consumption during 1968, following iron, manganese, zinc, and barium (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines 1969).289 Copper is used for such products as high transmission wires, containers, utensils, and currency because of its noncor- roding properties. Copper is widely distributed in nature and is present in sea water in concentrations ranging from I to 25 p.gjl. In small amounts, copper is nonlethal to aquatic organisms; in fact, it is essential to some of the respiratory pigments in animals (Wilber 1969).299 Copper chelated by lignin or citrate has been reported to be as effective as copper ion in controlling algae, but apparently it is not as toxic to fish (Ingols 1955) .186 Copper affected the polychaete Nereis virens at levels of approximately 0.1 mg/l (Raymont and Shields 1964 )253 and the shore crab ( Carcinus maenus) at 1 to 2 mg/l .(Wilber 1969).299 Copper at concentrations of 0.06 mg/l inhibited photosynthesis of the giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) by 30 per cent in 2 days and 70 per cent in 4 days (Clendenning and North 1960).141 Copper is toxic to some oysters at concentrations above 0.1 mg/1 (Galtsoff 1932)168 and lethal to oysters at 3 mg/l (Wilber 1969).299 The American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) is apparently more sensitive to copper than the Japanese species (Crassostreagigas) (Reish 1964).254 The 96-hour LC50 for Japanese oysters exposed to copper has been reported as 1.9 mg/l (Fujiya 1960).165 However, oysters exposed to concentrations as low as 0.13 mg/1 turn green in about 21 days (Galtsoff 1932).168 Although such concentrations of copper are neither lethal to the oysters nor, apparently, harmful to man, green oysters are unmarketable because of appearance. Therefore, in the vicinity of oyster grounds, the recommendation for maximum permissible concen- trations of copper in the water is based on marketability, and it is recommended that copper not be introduced into areas where shellfish may be contaminated or where seaweed is harvested. Copper acts synergistically when present with zinc (Wilber 1969),299 zinc and cadmium (LaRoche 1972),211 mercury (Corner and Sparrow 1956),143 and with penta- chlorophenate (Cervenka 1959) .1 37 Studies on sublethal effects of copper show that Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) will avoid concentrations of 0.0024 mg/1 in laboratory experiments (Sprague et al. 1965,270 Saunders and Sprague 1967,257 Sprague 197!2 69 ). Copper is accumulated by marine organisms, with con- centration factors of 30,000 in phytoplankton, 5,000 in the soft tissues of molluscs, and 1000 in fish muscle (Lowman et al. 1971).221 Bryan and Hummerstone (1971)134 reported that the poly- chaete Nereis diversicolor shows a high takeup of copper from copper-rich sediments and develops a tolerance. Mobile predators feeding on this species could receive doses toxic to themselves or accumulate concentrations that would be toxic to higher trophic levels. Recommendation It is recommended that an application factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to copper. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of copper equal to or exceeding 0.05 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.01 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Cyanides Most of the available information on toxicity of cyanides is for freshwater organisms, and is discussed in the Fresh- water Aquatic Life and Wildlife section, p. 189. Recommendation As a guideline in the absence of data for marine organisms the panel recommends that an appli- cation factor of 0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to cyanide. On the basis of data available at this time it is suggested that concentrations of cyanide equal to or exceeding 0.01 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.005 mgfl present minimal risk of dele- terious effects. Fluorides Fluorides have been brought to public attention in recent years because of their effects at low concentrations in human dental development and in prevention of decay. However, it must be remembered that fluorides at higher concen- trations are poisons afflicting human and other mammalian skeletal structures with fluorosis (see Section II, p. 66). Fluorine is the most reactive non-metal and does not occur free in nature. It is found in sedimentary rocks as fluorspar, calcium fluoride, and in igneous rocks as cryolite, sodium aluminum fluoride. Seldom found in high concen- trations in natural surface waters because of their origin only in certain rocks in certain regions, fluorides may be found in detrimental concentrations in ground waters. Fluorides are emitted to the atmosphere and into effluents from electrolytic reduction plants producing phosphorus and aluminum. They are also used for disinfection, as insecticides, as a flux for steel manufacture, for manu- facture of glass and enamels, for preserving wood, and for assorted chemical purposes. A review of fluoride in the environment (Marier and Rose 1971)225 indicates that the concentration of unbound ionic fluoride (F-) in sea water ranges between 0.4 and 0. 7 mg/1. Approximately 50 per cent of the total seawater fluoride (0. 77 to 1.40 mg/1) is bound as the double ion MgF+. Concentrations as low as 1.5 mg/1 of fluoride have affected hatching of fish eggs (Ellis et al. 1946),157 and 2.3 mg/1, introduced as sodium fluoride, was lethal to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) at 18 C (Angelovic et al. 1961).113 Virtually no information exists on long-term chronic effects of low concentrations of fluorides in sea water. Recommendation In the absence of data on the sublethal effects of fluorides in the marine environment, it is recom- mended that an application factor of 0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to fluoride. On the basis of data available at this time it is suggested that concentrations of fluoride equal to or exceeding 1.5 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environ- ment, and levels less than 0.5 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Iron Because of the widespread use of iron by man for his many industrial activities, iron is a common contaminant in the aquatic environment. Iron may enter water naturally from iron ore deposits; but iron is more often introduced from acid mine drainage, mineral processing, steel pickling, and corrosion. Iron usually occurs in the ferrous form, when it is released from processing plants or in mine drain- age, but becomes rapidly oxidized to the ferric form in natural surface waters. The ferric salts form gelatinous hydroxides, agglomerate and flocculate, settling out on the bottom or becoming adsorbed on various surfaces. Depend- ing on the pH and Eh, groundwater may contain a con- siderable amount of iron in solution, but well aerated waters seldom contain high, dissolved iron. In the marine environ- ment, iron is frequently present in organic complexes and in adsorbed form on particulate matter. Most of the investigations on biological effects of iron have been done in fresh water (Knight 1901,204 Bandt 1948,117 Minkina 1946,229 Southgate 1948,265 Lewis 1960,215 ORSANCO 1960245). Deposition of iron hydroxides on spawning grounds may smother fish eggs, and the hy- droxides may irritate the gills and block the respiratory channels of fishes (Southgate 1948,265 Lewis 1960215). Direct toxicity of iron depends on its valence state and whether it is in solution or suspension. Warnick and Bell (1969)297 examined the effects of iron on mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies and obtained a 96-hour LC50 of 0.32 mg/1 for the three insects. Dowden and Bennett (1965)153 examined the effect offerric chloride to Daphnia magna in static acute bioassays. They noted LC50's of 36, 21, and 15 mg/1 for 1, 2, and 4 days, re- spectively. Ferric hydroxide floes removed the diatoms in the process Categories of Pollutants/249 of flocculation and settling, coating the bottom; and the iron precipitate coated the gills of white perch (Marone americana), minnows, and silversides in upper Chesapeake Bay (Olson et al. 1941).242 Tests on three types of fish gave a lethality threshold for iron at 0.2 mg/1 (Minkina 1946)229 and on carp at 0.9 mg/1 if the pH was 5.5 or lower. Ebeling (1928)155 found that 10 mg/1 of iron caused serious injury or death to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in 5 minutes. La Roze (1955)212 reported that dogfish were killed in 3 hours at 5 mg/1 iron, whereas other research (National Council for Stream Im- provement 1953)236 indicated no deaths during one week at 1 to 2 mg/1. Because of the slightly alkaline condition of sea water, much of the iron introduced to the sea precipitates. This adds a further problem of iron hydroxide floes contami- nating bottom sediments where rooted aquatics and in- vertebrates could be affected. Special consideration should be given to avoiding dis- charge of iron-containing effluents into waters where com- mercially important bottom species or important food organisms dwell (e.g., oysters, clams, scallops, lobsters, crabs, shrimp, halibut, flounder, and demersal fish eggs and larvae). Recommendation On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of iron equal to or exceeding 0.3 mg/1 constitute a hazard to the marine environment, and levels less than 0.05 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Lead The present rate of input of lead into the oceans is approximately ten times the rate of introduction by natural weathering, and concentrations of lead in surface sea water are greater than in deeper waters (Chow and Patterson 1966).139 The isotope composition of the lead in surface waters and in recent precipitation is more similar to that of mined ore than to that in marine sediments (Chow 1968).138 There are almost no data, however, that would suggest that the higher concentrations of lead in surface sea water de- rived from lead transported through the atmosphere have resulted in higher lead concentrations in marine wildlife. Lead concentrations in Greenland snow have been shown to be 16 times higher in 1964 than in 1904 (Murozumi et al. 1969) .235 In 1968 an estimated 1.8 X 10 5 tons of lead were introduced to the atmosphere as a result of the combustion of leaded gasoline (Council on Environmental Quality 1971).144 This represents 14 per cent of the total lead con- sumption of the United States for that year. Lead poisoning of zoo animals in New York City was attributed to their breathing lead-contaminated air (Bazell 197l).U 9 Blood serum aldolase activity in higher animals exposed to small amounts of lead increased, although there were no 250/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife overt signs or symptoms of poisoning (Yaverbaum 1963,308 Wilber 1969299 ). Chronic lead poisoning in man is sympto- matically similar to. multiple sclerosis (F';lkowska et al. 1964).169 Muscular dystrophy has been reported as occurring in fishes and amphibians (Stolk 1962,272 Wilber 1969299 ) and in view of these findings could, in fact, be unnatural. Data are needed on the sublethal, long-term effects of lead on aquatic organisms, particularly those in sea water. Evidence of deleterious effect to freshwater fish has been reported for concentrations of lead as low as 0.1 mg/1 (Jones 1938).197 Wilder (1952)300 reported lobster dying in 6 to 20 days when held in lead-lined tanks. Pringle (unpublished data)316 observed a 12-week LC50 of 0.5 mg/llead and an 18-week LC50 of0.3 mg/llead with the oyster (Crassostrea virginica). There was noticeable change in gonadal and mantle tissue following 12 weeks exposure at concentrations of 0.1 to 0.2 mg/1 of lead. Calabrese et al. (unpublished data)310 found a 48-hour LC25 of 1. 73 mg/1 and an LC50 of 2.45 mg/1 for oyster eggs of the same species. North and Clendenning (1958)241 reported that lead nitrate at 4.1 mg/1 of lead showed no deleterious effect on the photosynthesis rate in kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) exposed for four days. They concluded that lead is: less toxic to kelp than mercury, copper, hexavalent chromium, zinc, and nickel. Recommendation In the absence of more definitive information on the long-term chronic effect of lead on marine organisms, it is recommended that concentrations of lead in sea water should not exceed 0.02 of the 96-hr LC50 for the most sensitive species, and that the 24-hour average concentration should not ex- ceed 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50. On the basis of data available at this time it is suggested that concen- trations of lead equal to or exceeding Oj)~{:mg/1 constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.01 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Special effort should be made to reduce lead levels even further in oyster- growing areas. Lead recommendations for the protection of wildlife are included in the discussion of Marine Wildlife p. 227. Manganese Manganese is one of the most commonly used metals in industry. It occurs widely in ores on land and in nodules in the deep sea. U.S. consumption in 1958 exceeded 2.2 million tons, a 45 per cent increase in 20 years (U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).289 The metal is alloyed with iron to produce steel and in smaller quantities with copper for manganese bronze. Its salts are used in inks and dyes, in glass and ceramics, in matches and fireworks, for dry-cell batteries, and in the manufacture of paints and varnishes. Manganese is often found with iron in ground waters, and it can be leached from soil and occur in drainage in high concentrations. The carbonates, oxides, and hy- droxides are slightly soluble, so that manganous and manganic ions are rarely present in surface water in excess of 1 mg/1. Manganese is present in sea water at about 2 p,g/1 in the Mn+2 form, and is concentrated through biochemical processes to form manganese nodules, found mainly in the deep sea. Manganese may have different effects on the lower trophic levels in fresh water and sea water. Concentrations of manganese above 0.005 mg/1 had a toxic effect on certain algae in reservoirs (Guseva 1937,174 1939176), while 0.0005 mg/1 in sea water stimulated growth and multiplication of _certain phytoplankton (Harvey 194 7) _17 8 Anderson (1944 )110 reported the threshold of immobilization of Daphnia magna as 0.63 mg/1 of KMn04 and the threshold concen- tration for immobilization of Daphnia magna in Lake Erie water as 50 mg/1 of MnC12 (Anderson 1948).112 Bringmann and Kuhn (1959a)131 reported the threshold effect for the same species as 50 mg/1 of MnCla as manganese in River Havel water at 23 C. For the flatworm Polycelis nigra, the threshold concen- tration of manganese was reported as 700 mg/1 as man- ganese chloride and 660 mg/1 as manganese nitrate (Jones 1940).199 Tests on organisms on which fish feed, i.e., crustacea, worms, and insect larvae, showed no apparent harm at 15 mg/1 of manganese during a 7-day exposure (Schweiger 1957).261 River crayfish were found to tolerate 1 mg/1 (Meinck et al. 1956).227 The toxicity of manganese to fish depends on a number of factors which may vary from one situation to another. There is an apparent antagonistic action of manganese toward nickel toxicity for fish (Blabaum and Nichols 1956).126 This may be true also for cobalt and manganese in combination, as noted for terrestrial plant life (Ahmed and Twyman 1953).10 8 Stickleback survived 50 mg/1 manganese as manganese sulphate for 3 days, whereas eels withstood 2700 mg/1 for 50 hours (Doudoroff and Katz 195:3).160 The lethal concen- tration of manganese for stickleback was given as 40 mg/1 by Jones (1939),198 and he noted that the toxic action was slow. The minimum lethal concentration of manganese nitrate for sticklebacks in tap water has been reported to be 40 mg/1 as manganese (Anderson 1948,112 Murdock 1953).234 The average survival times of stickelback in manganous nitrate solution were one week at 50 mg/1, four days at 100 mg/1, two days at 150 mg/1, and one day at 300 mg/1, all measured as manganese (Murdock 1953).234 Young eels tolerated 1500 mg/1 manganous sulphate for more than 25 hours (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).160 Oshima (1931)246 and Iwao (1936)189 reported the lethal thresholds of manganous chloride and manganous sulphate for fish in Japan to be about 2400 and 1240 mg/1 of manganese, respectively. They found that permanganates (Mn+7) killed fish at 2.2 to 4.1 mg/1 manganese in 8 to 18 hours, but this high oxidation form is quite unstable in water. Tench, carp, and trout tolerated 15 mg/1 of manganese during 7 days exposure (Schweiger 1957).261 Manganous chloride was found to be lethal to minnows (Fundulus) in fresh water in six days at 12 mg/1 MnCb; for the small freshwater fish Orizias, the 24 hour lethal concen- tration was about 7850 mg/1 (Doudoroff and Katz 1953) ;150 and for other fish 5500 mg/1 (Oshima 1931,246 Iwao, 1936189). The highest concentration tolerated by eels for 50 hours was 6300 mg/1 (Doudoroff and Katz 1953).1 50 Meinck et al. ( 1956)227 noted the first toxic effects for fish of MnCb at 330 mg/1, with the lethal concentration at 800 mg/1. Only a few studies of sublethal effects of manganese on fish have been reported. Ludemann (I 953)222 noted some of the symptoms of toxicity of manganese to fish, crabs, and fish food organisms. Abou-Donia and Menzel (1967)103 noted an effect of l.25X l0-4 M manganese (6.9 mg/1) on the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in shiner perch. In studies on the uptake of radionuclides on the Pacific testing grounds of Bikini and Eniwetok, it was found that the neutron-induced isotope of manganese 54Mn was con- centrated by as much as 4000 in phytoplankton and 12,000 in the muscle or soft tissue of mollusks (Lowman 1960,220 Lowman et al. 197!221 ). Goldberg et al. (1971)172 list the concentration factor of manganese in marine plants and animals as approximately 3000. Recommendation In view of the evidence for concentration of manganese by marine organisms, an application factor of 0.02 of the 96 hr LC50 for the most sensitive species to be protected is recommended. Until more complete information on acute and sublethal effects of manganese on marine orga- nisms is available, it is suggested that concen- trations of 0.1 mg/1 or more of total manganese in the marine environment may constitute a haz- ard, and concentrations of less than 0.02 mg/1 present minimal risk. Mercury Mercury naturally leaches from cinnabar (HgS) deposits. Man-made sources of mercury have been in plastics manu- facture, where mercury oxide is used as a catalyst, chlor- alkali plants where mercury cells are used, mercurial slimacides used in the pulp and paper industry and in other forest product anti-fungal applications, seed dressings used in combatting smuts and other fungal diseases afflicting seeds, and in anti-fouling paints. An estimated 5000 tons of mercury per year are transferred from the continents to Categories of Pollutants /251 the oceans as a result· of continental weathering (Klein and Goldberg 1970).203 Global production of mercury is currently about twice as high, in the order of 9000 metric tons per year (Hammond 1971) .17 6 The burning of pe- troleum releases in the order of 1600 tons of mercury into the atmosphere per year (Bertine and Goldberg 1971).122 A conservative estimate of the amount of mercury released per year into the global environment from the burning of coal is in the order of 3000 tons (J oensuu 1971) .1 95 The total amount of mercury estimated to be in the oceans is in the order of 10 8 metric tons, approximately three orders of magnitude higher than the total amount of mercury consumed in the United States since 1900. Mercury in marine organisms is, therefore, most probably of natural origin except in localized areas. One hundred and eleven persons were reported poisoned, 41 died, and others suffered serious neurological damage as a result of eating fish and shellfish which had been con- taminated with mercrtry discharged into Minamata Bay by a plastics manufacturing plant between 1950 and 1960 (Irukayama 1967).187 In 1965, another poisoning incident was reported in Niigata, Japan, where 5 people died and 26 suffered irreversible neurological damage (Ui 1967).292 In Minamata it was also found that cats eating the con- taminated fish and shellfish took suicidal plunges into the sea, an uncommon occurrence with these mammals (Ui and Kitamura 1970).29 3 Metallic mercury can be converted by bacteria into methyl mercury (Jensen and Jernelov 1969,192 Jernel6v 1969,194 Lofroth 1969218). Organometallic mercury is much more toxic than the metallic mercury and enters the food cycle through uptake by aquatic plants, lower forms of animal life, and fish (Jernelov 1969).194 The concentration factor of mercury in fish was reported as 3,000 and higher (Hannerz 1968,177 Johnels and Westermark 1969196). A voluntary form of control was imposed in Sweden where anglers were requested not to eat more than one fish per week from a given lake to minimize human intake. High mercury concentrations in birds and fish were reported on the Canadian prairies in 1969 (Fimreite 1970,160 Wobeser et al. 1970,301 Bligh l97P26). The source of the mercury in the birds was apparently mercurial seed dressing consumed with grain by the birds; whereas in fish, mercury came largely from emissions of a chlor-alkali plant using a mercury cell. The Food and Drug Directorate of Canada set a level of 0.5 parts per million as the maximum permissible concen- tration in fish products. The 0.5 parts per million level was set as an interim guideline, not a regulation based on any known safe level for mercury (Canada Food and Drug Directorate, personal communication). 311 A similar guideline was adopted in the U.S. (Kolbye 1970).206 These limits were based on the lethal concentrations found in Minamata Bay, Japan, and on the levels set by the World Health Organi- zation (WHO) in cooperation with the Food and Agri- 252/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife cultural Organization (FAO). The level set by WHO/FAO was 0.05 ppm, ba~ed on total food (WHO 1967).305 The concentrations which were found lethaf to the Japanese consuming fish and shellfish contaminated by mercury were 10 to 50 mg/kg total mercury (Birke et al. 1968).124 The Swedish limit was 1.0 ppm of mercury in fish (Berglund and Wretling 1967)121 based on dry weight, which is equivalent to 0.2 ppm wet weight (Wallace et al. 1971).295 Although the emphasis has been on the effects of mercury on man, aquatic organisms can be affected by various mercury compounds. Mercury markedly alters the epi- thelium of skin and gills in fishes (Schweiger 1957).261 Mercuric chloride in water containing developing eggs of Paracentrotus lividis brought about a severe disturbance of de- velopment at 10 ,ug/1 (Soyer 1963).266 A concentration of 5 ,ug/1 retarded development markedly. These studies sug- gested that the threshold for harmful effects of mercuric chloride on developing eggs of Paracentrotus was around 2 to 3 ,ug/1 (Soyer 1963).266 Studies conducted on developing salmon eggs (Oncorhynchus nerka and 0. gorbuscha) at the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission Lab- oratory in Cultus Lake, B.C., showed that concentrations of mercury at levels exceeding 3 ,ug/1 mercu;y derived from mercuric sulfate led to severe deformities (Servizi, unpub- lished data). 316 Studies are needed to examine the effects of those concentrations which are accumulated by fish over a longer period of time. Ukeles (1962)283 reported that 60 ,ug/1 of ethyl mercury phosphate was lethal to all species of marine phytoplankton tested, and that as little as 0.1 to 0.6 ,ug/1 ofalkyl mercury introduced into sea water will inhibit photosynthesis and growth. Clendenning and North (1960)141 reported that mercury added as mercuric chloride caused 50 per cent inactivation of photosynthesis of giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) at 50 ,ug/1 during 4 days exposure, a 15 per cent decrease in photosynthesis at 100 ,ug/1 in 1 day, and com- plete inactivation in 4 days. Woelke (1961)302 reported that 27 ,ug/1 of mercury as mercuric chloride was lethal to bivalve larvae. The learning behavior of goldfish (Carassius auratus) was affected after two days by 3 ,ug/1 mercuric chloride (Weir and Hine 1970).298 Trace amounts of copper increase the toxicity of mercury (Corner and Sparrow 1956).143 Mercury concentrations in tissues of the Ashy Petrel (Oceanodroma homochroa) from the ·coastal waters of Cali- fornia, the site of most of the mercury mines in the United States, are in the same order of magnitude as mercury concentrations in tissues of the Snow Petrel (Pelagodroma nivea), which inhabits the Antarctic pack ice. Mercury concentrations in nine eggs of the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) from Long Island Sound were only slightly higher than in nine eggs of the Antarctic Tern (Sterna vittata) from the Antarctic (Anderlini et al. in press).109 Environmental residues of mercury in Sweden, as meas- ured by concentrations of mercury in feathers of several species of birds, rose dramatically in the years following 1940 and were attributed to alkyl-mercury compounds used as seed dressings (Berg et al. 1966) .1 20 This use of mercury caused the death of numbers of seed-eating birds (Borg et al. 1969)/30 but it does not necessarily contaminate aquatic ecosystems (Johnels and Westermark 1969).196 Feathers of two species of fish-eating birds, the Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and the Great-crested Grebe (Pocideps cristatus), have shown a gradual increase in mercury concen- tration since approximately 1900, paralleling the increase in industrial use of mercury in Sweden (Johnels and Westermark 1969).196 Experimental work in Sweden has shown that when pheasants were fed wheat treated with methyl-mercury dicyandiamide, decreased hatchability of eggs was associated with mercury concentrations in the eggs from 1.3 to 2.0 mg/kg of the wet weight contents (Borg et al. 1969).130 It has been suggested that environ- mental mercury may impair the reproductive capacity of bird species at the tops of food chains, such as falcons (Fimreite et al. 1970),161 and in Finland mercury may have contributed to the decline of the Whitetailed Sea Eagle (Haliaetus albicilla) in regions where the species feeds upon marine fish and marine birds (Henriksson et al. 1966).1 80 Conclusive evidence that mercury has impaired the repro- ductive capacity of any species of wildlife, however, has not yet been obtained and further research is necessary. Fish-eating birds and mammals are the species most likely to be affected because of their position at the top of the food chain. The high natural levels of mercury in the marine en- vironment and the significant additions due to natural weathering, as well as the documented hazard to marine aquatic life and to humans through marine foods, make it desirable to eliminate inputs of mercury to the marine environment beyond those occurring through continental weathering. Recommendation On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of mercury equal to or exceeding 0.10 ,ug/1 constitute a hazatd in the marine environment. In the absence of sufficient data on the effects of-mercury in water upon wildlife, the recommen- dations established to protect aquatic life and public water supplies should also apply to protect wildlife. Molybdenum Molybdenum has been found to be a needed micro- constituent in fresh waters for normal growth of phyto- plankton (Arnon and Wessel 1953).1 15 In mammals, ex- posure to molybdenum may interfere with vital chemical reactions (Dick and Ball 1945) .146 Molybdenum metal is quite stable and is used in ferro- ~~.-,I molybdenum for the manufacture of special tool steels. It is available in a number of oxide forms as well as the disulphide. Molybdic acid is used in a number of chemical applications and in make-up of glazes for ceramics. Molybdenum has not been considered as a serious pol- lutant, but it is a biologically active metal. It may be an important element insofar as protection of the ecosystem is concerned because of its role in algal physiology. Certain species of algae can concentrate molybdenum by a factor up to 15 (Lackey 1959).210 Bioassay tests in fresh water on the fathead minnow gave a 96-hour LC50 for. molybdic anhydride (Mo03) of 70 mg/1 in soft water and 370 mg/1 in hard water. Although molybdenum is e.ssential for the growth of the alga Scenedesmus, the threshold concentration for a deleterious effect is 54 mg/1. Molybdenum concen- tration factors for marine species have been reported as: 8 in benthic algae; 26 in zooplankton; 60 in soft parts of molluscs; 10 in crustacean muscles; and 10 in fish muscle (Lowman et al. 1971).221 Recommendation The panel recommends that the concentration of molybdenum in sea water not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hour LC50 at any time for the most sensitive species in sea water, and that the 24-hour average not exceed 0.02 of the 96-hour LC50. Nickel Nickel does not occur naturally in elemental form. It is present as a constituent in many ores, minerals and soils, particularly in serpentine-rock-derived soils. Nickel is comparatively inert and is used in corrosion- resistant materials, long-lived batteries, electrical contacts, cspark plugs, and electrodes. Nickel is used as a catalyst in hydrogenation of oils and other organic substances. Its salts are used for dyes in ceramic, fabric, and ink manu- facturing. Nickel may enter waters from mine wastes, electroplating plants, and from atmospheric emissions. Nickel ions are toxic, particularly to plant life, and may exhibit synergism when present with other metallic ions. Nickel salts in combination with a cyanide salt form moderately toxic cyanide complexes which, as nickel sulfate combined with sodium cyanide, gave a 48-hour LC50 of 2.5 mg/1 and a 96-hour LC50 of 0.95 mg/1 as CN-, using fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) at 20 C (Doudoroff 1956).148 Alkaline conditions reduced toxicity of a nickel cyanide complex considerably, with concentrations below 100 mg/1 showing no apparent toxic effect on fish. Nickel salts can substantially inhibit the biochemical oxidation of sewage (Malaney et al. 1959).223 In fresh waters, nickel has been reported to be less toxic to fish and .river crabs than zinc, copper, and iron (Podubsky and Stedronsky 1948).248 However, other investigators found nickel to be more toxic to fish than iron and manganese (Doudoroff and Katz 1953)_150 Categories of Pollutants/253 ('\ Ellis (1937)156 reported that nickelous chloride from electroplating wastes did not kill goldfish (Carassius auratus) at 10 mg/1 during a 200-hour exposure in very soft water. Wood (1964)304 reported that 12 mg/1 of nickel ion kill fish in I day and 0.8 mg/1 kill fish in 10 days. Doudoroff and Katz (1953)150 reported survival of stickleback ( Gastero- steus aculeatus) for 1 week in I mg/1 of nickel as Ni(N03)2. The lethal limit of nickel to sticklebacks has been re- ported as 0.8 mg/1 (Murdock 1953)234 and 1.0 mg/1 (Jones 1939).198 The median lethal concentration of nickel chloride (NiCl2,6H20) was reported as 4.8 mg/1 for guppies (Becilia reticulata) (Shaw and Lowrance 1956).262 Goldfish (Carassius auratus) were killed by nickel chloride at 4.5 mg/1 as nickel in 200 hours (Rudolfs et al. 1953).256 T~rzwell and Hender- son (1960)278 reported 96-hour LCSO's for fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) as 4.0 mg/1 in soft water and 24 mg/1 in hard water, expressed as NiCb,6H20. Anderson (1948)112 reported a threshold concentration of nickel chloride for immobilization of Daphnia in Lake Erie water at 25 C to be less than 0. 7 mg/1 in 64 hours of exposure. Bringmann and Kuhn (1959a, 131 1959b132) reported nickel chloride threshold-concentrations as nickel of 1.5 mg/1 for Scenedesmus, 0.1 mg/1 for Escherichia coli, and 0.05 mg/1 for Microregma. Nickel is present in sea water at 5 to 7 .ug/1, in marine plants at up to 3 mg/1, and in marine animals at about 0.4 mg/1. Marine toxicity data for nickel are limited. The top minnow Fundulus was found to survive in concentrations of 100 mg/1 Nickel from the chloride in salt water, although the same species was killed by 8.1 mg/1 of the salt (3.7 mg/1 Ni) in tap water (Thomas cited by Doudoroff and Katz 1953).150 Long-term studies on oysters (Haydu un- published data)314 showed substantial mortality at a nickel concentration of 0.12 mg/1. Calabrese et al. (unpublished data)310 found 1.54 mg/1 of nickel to be the LC50 for eggs of the oyster (Crassostrea virginica). Recommendation It is recommended that an application factor of 0.02 be applied to 96-hour LC50 data on the most sensitive marine species to be protected. Although limited data are available on the marine environ- ment, it is suggested that concentrations of nickel in excess of 0.1 mg/1 would pose a hazard to marine organisms, and 0.002 mg/1 should pose minimal risk. . Phosphorus Phosphorus as .Phosphate is one of the major nutrients required for algal nutrition. In this form it is not normally toxic to aquatic organisms or to man. Phosphate in large quantities in natural waters, particularly in fresh waters, can lead to nuisance algal growths and to eutrophication. This is particularly true if there is a sufficient amount of nitrate or other nitrogen compounds to supplement the 254/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife phosphate. Thus, there is a need for control of phosphate input into marine waters. See Sewage and Nutrients, p. 275, for a discussion of the effects of phosp~te as a nutrient. Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic and subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as mercury (Ackman et al. 1970,104 Fletcher 1971 162). Isom (1960) 188 reported an LC50 of 0.105 mg/1 at 48 hours and 0.025 mg/1 at 163 hours for bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macro- chirus) exposed to yellow phosphorus in distilled water at 26 C and pH 7. Phosphorus poisoning of fish occurred on the coast of Newfoundland in 1969 and demonstrated what can happen when the form of an element entering the sea is unknown or at least not properly recognized (Idler 1969,185 J angaard 1970,191 Mann and Sprague 1970224 ). The elemental phos- phorus was released in colloidal form and remained in suspension (Addison and Ackman 1970).105 After the release of phosphorus was initiated, red herrings began to appear. The red discoloration was caused by haemolysis, typical of phosphorus poisoning in herring ( Clupea harengus), and ele- mental phosphorus was found in herring, among other fishes, collected 15 miles away (Idler 1969,185 Jangaard 1970191). Fish will concentrate phosphorus from water containing as little as one ,ug/1 (Idler 1969) .185 In one set of experiments, a cod swimming in water containing one ,ug/1 elemental phosphorus for 18 hours was sacrificed and the tissues analyzed. The white muscle contained about 50 ,ug/kg, the brown, fat tissue about 150 ,ug/kg, and the liver 25,000 ,ug/1 (Idler 1969,185 Jangaard 1970191 ). The experimental findings showed that phosphorus is quite stable in the fish tissues. Fish with concentrated phosphorus in their tissues could swim for considerable distances before succumbing. In ad- dition to the red surface discoloration in herring, other diagnostic features of phosphorus poisoning included green discoloration of the liver and a breakdown of the epithelial lining of the lamellae of the gill (Idler 1969) .185 A school of herring came into the harbor one and one- half months after the phosphorus plant had been closed down. These herring spawned on the wharf and rocks near the effluent pipe, and many of them turned red and died. A few days later, "red" herring were caught at the mouth of the harbor on their way out. The herring picked up phosphorus from the bottom sediments which contained high concentrations near the effluent pipeline (Ackman et al. 1970).104 Subsequently, this area was dredged by suction pipeline, and the mud was pumped to settling and treatment ponds. No further instances of red herring were reported after the dredging operation, and the water was comparatively free of elemental phosphorus (Addison et ·al. 1971).106 Reports of red cod caught in the Placentia Bay area were investigated, and it was found that no phosphorus was present in the cod tissues. Surveys of various fishing areas in Newfoundland established that red cod are no more prevalent in Placentia Bay than in other areas. In labora- tory studies, cod exposed to elemental phosphorus have not shown the red discoloration observed in herring and >almonids. However, cod do concentrate phosphorus in the muscle tissue as well as in the liver and can eventually succumb to phosphorus poisoning (Dyer et al. 1970).1 54 It was demonstrated by field investigations and labora- tory experiments (Ackman et al. 1970,104 Fletcher et al. 1970,163 Li et al. 1970,216 Zitko et al. 1970,309 Fletcher l97P62 ) that elemental phosphorus accounted for the fish mortalities in Placentia Bay. This is not to say that other pollutants, such as fluorides, cyanides, and ammonia, were not present (Idler 1969) .185 The conclusion was reached by the scientists working on the problem that elemental phosphorus in concentrations so low that they would be barely within the limits of de- tection are capable of being concentrated by fish. Further work is needed on the effects of very low concentrations of phosphorus on fish over extended periods. Discharge of elemental phosphorus into the sea is not recommended. Recommendation It is recommended that an application factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LCSO data for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to ele- mental phosphorus. On the basis of data available at this time it is suggested that concentrations of elemental phosphorus equal to or exceeding 1 ,ugjl constitute a hazard to the marine environment. Selenium Selenium has been regarded as one of the dangerous chemicals reaching the aquatic environment. Selenium occurs naturally in certain pasture areas. Toxicity of se- lenium is sometimes counteracted by the addition of arsenic which acts as an antagonist. Selenium occurs in nature chiefly in combination with heavy metals. It exists in several forms including amorphous, colloidal, crystalline, and grey. Each physical state has different characteris- tics, soluble in one form, but insoluble in another. The crystalline and grey forms conduct electricity, and the conductivity is increased by light. This property makes the element suitable for photoelectric cells and other pho- tometry uses. Selenium is also used in the manufacture of ruby glass, in wireless telegraphy and photography, in vulcanizing rubber, in insecticidal preparations, and in flameproofing electric cables. The amorphous form is used as a catalyst in determination of nitrogen and for dehydroge- nation of organic compounds. Ellis (1937)156 showed that goldfish (Carassius auratus) could survive for 98 to 144 hours in soft water of pH ranging from 6.4 to 7.3 at 10 mg/1 sodium· selenite. Other data (ORSANCO 1950)243 showed that 2.0 mg/1 of selenium administered as sodium selenite was toxic in 8 days, affecting appetite and equilibrium, and lethal in 18 to 46 days. More work is required to test for effects of selenium com- pounds under different conditions. Daphnia exhibited a threshold effect at 2.5 mg/1 of selenium in a 48-hour ex- posure at 23 C (Bringmann and Kuhn 1959a).131 Barnhart (I 958)118 reported that mortalities of fish stocked in a Colorado reservoir were caused by selenium leached from bottom deposits, passed through the food chain, and ac- cumulated to lethal concentrations by the fish in their liver. Recommendation In view of the possibility that selenium may be passed through the food chain and accumulated in fish, it is recommended that an application factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the appropr~ate organisms most sensitive to se- lenium. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of selenium equal to or exceeding 0.01 mg/1 constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.005 mg/1 present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Silver Silver is one of the more commercially important metals; 4,938 tons were consumed in the U.S. during 1968, exclud- ing that used for monetary purposes (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 1969).289 It is the best known conductor of heat and electricity. Although not oxidized by air, silver is readily affected by hydrogen sulfide to form the black silver sulfide. Silver has many uses. In addition to making currency, it is used for photographic purposes, for various chemical purposes, and also in jewelry making and in silverplating of cutlery. Silver is toxic to aquatic animals. Concentrations of 400 Jtg/1 killed 90 per cent of test barnacles (Balanus balanoides) in 48 hours (Clarke 1947).14° Concentrations of silver nitrate from I 0 to I 00 Jtg/1 caused abnormal or inhibited develop- ment of eggs of Paracentrotus and concentrations of 2 Jtg/1 of silver nitrate delayed development and caused deformation of the resulting plutei (Sayer 1963).266 Adverse effects oc- curred at concentrations below 0.25 Jtg/1 of silver nitrate, and several days were required to eliminate adverse effects by placing organisms in clean water (Sayer 1963).266 Silver nitrate effects on development of Arbacia have been reported at approximately 0.5 Jtg/1 (Sayer 1963,266 Wilber 1969299 ). In combination with silver, copper acts additively on the development of Paracentrotus eggs (Sayer 1963).266 On a comparative basis on studies on Echinoderm eggs (Sayer 1963),266 silver has been found to be about 80 times as toxic as zinc, 20 times as toxic as copper, and 10 times as toxic as mercury. Calabrese et al. (unpublished manuscript)310 noted an LC50 of 0.006 mg/1 silver for eggs of the American oyster (Cras- sostrea virginica). Jones (1948)200 reported that the lethal Categories of Pollutants/255 concentration limit of .silver, applied as silver nitrate, for sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) at 15 to 18 C was 0.003 mg/1, which was confirmed approximately by Anderson (1948),112 who found 0.0048 mg/1 to be the toxic threshold for sticklebacks. Jackim et al. (1970)190 reported adverse effects on the liver enzymes of the killifish Fundulus heteroclitus at 0.04 mg/1 of silver. The sublethal responses to silver compounds may be great, in view of the effects on developing eggs; and further research should be conducted on effects of sublethal concen- trations of silver compounds by themselves and in combi- nation with other chemicals. The disruption of normal embryology or of nutrition could be of much greater im- portance than direct mortality in the perpetuation of the species. Concentrations of silver cannot exceed that permitted by the low solubility product of silver chloride. However, silver complexes may be present, and their effects are un- known. Recommendation It is recommended that the concentrations of silver in marine waters not exceed 0.05 of the 96- hour LC50 for the appropriate species most sensi- tive to silver. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of silver equal to or exceeding 5 Jtgfl constitute a hazard to the marine environment, and levels less than 1 Jtgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Sulfides Sulfides in the form of hydrogen sulfide have the odor of rotten eggs and are quite toxic. Hydrogen sulfide is soluble in water to the extent of 4000 mg/1 at 20 C and l atmos- phere. Sulfides are produced as a by-product in tanneries, chemical plants, and petroleum refineries, and are used in pulp mills, chemical precipitation, and in chemical pro- duction. Hydrogen sulfide is produced in natural decompo- sition processes and in anaerobic digestion of sewage and industrial wastes. Sulfate in sea water is reduced to sulfide in the absence· of oxygen. In the presence of certain sulfur- utilizing bacteria, sulfides can be oxidized to colloidal sulfur. At the normal pH and oxidation-reduction potential of aerated sea water, sulfides quickly oxidize to sulfates. Hydrogen sulfide dissociates into its constituent ions in two equilibrium stages, which are dependent on pH (McKee and Wolf 1963).226 The toxicity of sulfides to fish increases as the pH is lowered because of the HS-or H2S molecule (Southgate 1948).265 Inorganic sulfides are fatal to sensitive species such as trout at concentrations of 0.05 to 1.0 mg/1, even in neutral and somewhat alkaline solutions (Doudoroff 1957).149 Hydrogen sulfide generated from bottom deposits was reported to be lethal to oysters (de Oliveira 1924).1 45 Bioassays with species of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus 256/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife tshawytscha, 0. kisutch) and sea-run trout (Salmo clarkii clarkii) showed toxicity of hydrogen sulfide at 1.0 mg/1 and survival without injury at 0.3 mg/1 (Van Hornet af. 1949,291 Dimick 1952,147 Haydu et al. 1952,179 Murdock 1953,284 Van Horn 1959290). Holland et al. (1960)182 reported that 1 mg/1 of sulfide caused loss of equilibrium in 2 hours, first kills in 3 hours, and 100 per cent mortality in 72 hours with Pacific salmon. Hydrogen sulfide in bottom sediments can affect the maintenance of benthic invertebrate populations (Thiede et al. 1969).280 The eggs and juvenile stages of most aquatic organisms appear to be more sensitive to sulfides than do the adults. Adelman and Smith (1 970)107 noted that hy- drogen sulfide concentrations of 0.063 and 0.020 mg/1 killed northern pike (Esox lucius) eggs and fry, respectively; and at 0.018 and 0.006 mg/1, respectively, reduced survival, increased anatomical malformations, or decreased length were reported. Recommendation It is recommended that an application factor of 0.1 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 for the appropriate organisms most sensitive to sulfide. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of sulfide equal to or exceeding 0.01 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.005 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects, with the pH maintained within a range of 6.5 to 8.5. Thallium Thallium salts are used as poison for rats and other rodents and are cumulative poisons. They are also used for dyes, pigments in fireworks, optical glass, and as a de- -pilatory. Thallium forms alloys with other metals and readily amalgamates with mercury. It is used in a wide variety of compounds. Nehring (1963)288 reported that thallium ions were toxic to fishes and aquatic invertebrates. The response of fishes to thallium poisoning is similar to that of man, an elevation in blood pressure. In both the fish and inverte- brates, thallium appears to act as a neuro-poison (Wilber 1969).299 Adverse effects of thallium nitrate have been reported for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) at levels of 10 to 15 mg/1; for perch (Perea .fiuviatilis) at levels of 60 mg/1; for roach (Rutilus rutilis) at levels of 40 to 60 mg/1; for water flea (Daphnia sp.) at levels of 2 to 4 mg/1; and for Gammarus sp. at levels of 4 mg/1. The damage was shown within three days for the various aquatic organisms tested. Damage also resulted if the fish were exposed to much lower conc~n trations for longer periods of time (Wilber 1969).299 Recommendation Because of a chronic effect of long-term exposure of fish to thallium, tests should be conducted for at least 20 days on sensitive species. Techniques should measure circulatory disturbances (blood pressure) and other sublethal effects in order to determine harmful concentrations. The concen- tration in sea water should not exceed 0.05 of this concentration. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of thallium equal to or exceeding 0.1 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.05 mgfl present minimal risk of dele- terious effects. Uranium Uranium is present in wastes from uranium mines and nuclear fuel processing plants, and the uranyl ion may naturally occur in drainage waters from uranium-bearing ore deposits. Small amounts may also arise from its use in tracer work, _chemical processes, photography, painting and glazing porcelain, coloring glass, and in the hard steel of high tensile strength used for gun barrels. Many of the salts of uranium are soluble in water, and it is present at about 3 JLg/1 in sea water. A significant proportion of the uranium in sea water is in the form of stable complexes with anionic constituents. It has been estimated that uranium has a residence time of 3 X I 0 6 years in the oc~ans (Goldberg et al. 1971),1 72 a span that makes it one of the elements with the slowest turnover time. Uranium is stabilized by hydrolysis which tends to protect it against chemical and physical interaction and thus pre- vents its removal from sea water. The salts are considered to be 4 times as germicidal as phenol to aquatic organisms. Natural uranium (U-238) is concentrated from water by the algae Ochromonas by a factor of 330 in 48 hours (Morgan 1961).282 Using River Havel water, Bringmann and Kuhn ( 1959a, 181 l959b182) determined the threshold effect of uranyl nitrate, expressed as uranium, at 28 mg/1 on a protozoan (Microregma), 1. 7 to 2.2 mg/1 on Escherichia Coli, 22 mg/1 on the alga Scenedesmus, and 13 mg/1 on Daphnia. Tarzwell and Henderson (1956)277 found the sulfate, nitrate, and acetate salts of uranium considerably more toxic to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) on 96-hour exposure in soft water than in hard water, the 96-hr LC50 for uranyl sulfate being 2.8 mg/1 in soft water and 135 mg/1 in hard water. The sparse data-for uranium toxicity in sea water suggest that uranyl salts are less toxic to marine organisms than to freshwater "organisms. Yeasts in the Black Sea were found to be more active than the bacteria in taking up uranium (Pshenin 1960).251 Studies by Koenuma (1956)205 showed that the formation of the fertilization membrane of Urechis eggs was inhibited by 250 mg/1 of uranyl nitrate in sea water, and that this concentration led to polyspermy. Recommendation It is recommended that an application factor of 0.01 be applied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for --------------------~-------- the appropriate organisms most sensitive to uranium. On the basis of data available at this time it is suggested that concentrations of uranium equal to or exceeding 0.5 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine environment, and levels less than 0.1 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. Vanadium Vanadium occurs in various minerals, such as chileite and vanadinite. It is used in the manufacture of vanadium steel. Vanadates were used at one time to a smatl extent for medicinal purposes. Vanadium has been concentrated by certain marine organisms during the formation of oil- bearing strata in geological time. Consequently, vanadium enters the atmosphere through the combustion of fossil fuels, particularly oil. In addition, eighteen compounds ot vanadium are used widely in commercial processes (Council on Environmental Quality 1971).1 44 Recommendation It is recommended that the concentration of vanadium in sea water not exceed 0.05 of the 96- hour LC50 for the most sensitive species. Zinc Most of the available information on zinc toxicity is for freshwater organisms, and for this reason the reader is referred to the discussion of zinc in Section III, p. 182. Recommendation Because of the bioaccumulation of zinc through the food web, with high concentrations occurring particularly in the invertebrates, it is recom- mended that an application factor of 0.01 be ap- plied to marine 96-hour LC50 data for the ap- propriate organisms most sensitive to zinc. On the basis of data available at this time, it is suggested that concentrations of zinc equal to or exceeding 0.1 mgfl constitute a hazard in the marine en- vironment, and levels less than 0.02 mgfl present minimal risk of deleterious effects. It should be noted that there is a synergistic effect when zinc is present with other heavy metals, e.g., Cu and Cd, in which case the application factor may have to be lowered by an order of magnitude (LaRoche 1972).211 OIL IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Oil is becoming one of the most widespread contaminants of the ocean. Blumer (1969)319 has estimated that between l and 10 million metric tons of oil may be entering the oceans from all sources. Most of this influx takes place in coastal regions, but oil slicks and tar balls have also been observed on the high seas (Horn et al. 1970,334 Morris Categories cif Pollutants/257 1971 343). Collections of tar balls were made by towing a neuston net which skims the surface, and the investigators found that the tar balls were more abundant than the normal sargassum weed in the open Atlantic, and that their nets quickly became so coated with tar and oil that they were unusable. Thus, oil pollution of the sea has become a global problem of great, even though as yet inadequately assessed, significance to the fisheries of the world. Sources of Oil Pollution Although accidental oil spills are spectacular events and attract the most public attention, they constitute only about 10 per cent of the total amount of oil entering the marine environment. The other 90 per cent originates from the normal operation of oil-carrying tankers, other ships, off- shore production, refinery operations, and the disposal of oil-waste materials (Table IV-4). Two sources of oil contamination of the sea not listed in Table IV-4 are the seepage of oil from underwater oil reservoirs through natural causes and the transport of oil in the atmosphere from which it precipitates to the surface of the sea. Natural seepage is probably small compared to the direct input to the ocean (Blumer 1972) ;320 but the atmospheric transport, which includes hydrocarbons that have evaporated or been emitted by engines after incomplete combustion, may be greater than the direct input. Some of these sources of oil pollution can be controlled more rigorously than others, but without application of adequate controls wherever possible the amount of pe- troleum hydrocarbons entering the sea will increase. Our technology is based upon an expanding use of petroleum; and the production of oil from submarine reservoirs and the use of the sea to transport oil will both increase. It is estimated that the world production of crude oil in 1969 was nearly 2 billion tons; on this basis total losses to the sea are somewhat over 0.1 per cent of world production. TABLE IV-4-Estimated Direct Petroleum Hydrocarbon Losses to the Marine Environment (Airborne Hydrocarbons Deposited on the Sea Surface are Not Included) (Millions of tons) 1969 1975 (estimate)• 1980 (estimate) Min Max Min Max 1. Tankers .......................... .530 .056 .805 .075 1.062 2. Other ships ....................... .500 .705 .705 .940 .940 3. Offshore production ................ .100 .160 .320 .230 .460 4. Refinery operations ................. .300 .200 .450 .440 .650 5. Oil wastes ........................ .550 .825 .825 1.200 1.200 6. Accidental spills ................... .200 .300 .300 .440 .400 TOTAL ....................... 2.180 2.246 3.405 3.325 4.752 Total Crude Oil Production ............ 1820 2700 4000 • The minimum estimates assume full use of known technology; the maximums assume continuation of presen practices. Revelle et al. 1972'"· 258/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Some losses in the exploitation, transportation, and use of a natural resource are inevitable; but if this-loss ratio cannot be radically improved, the oil pollution of the ocean will increase as our utilization increases. Biological Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons Description of Oil Pollution Oil is a mixture of many compounds, and there are conflicting views con- cerning its toxicity to marine organisms. Crude oils may contain thousands of compounds, and will differ markedly in their composition and in such physical properties as specific gravity, viscosity, and boiling-point distribution. The hydrocarbons in oil cover a wide range of molecular weights from 16 (methane) to over 20,000. Structurally, they include aliphatic compounds with straight and branched chains, olefins, and the aromatic ring compounds. Crude oils differ mainly in the relative concentrations of the individual members of these series of compounds. The various refinery processes to which oil is subjected are de- signed to isolate specific parts of the broad spectrum of crude oil compounds, but the refined products themselves remain complex mixtures of many types of hydrocarbons. In spite of the many differences amoJ:lg them, crude oils and their refined products all contain c6mpounds that are toxic to species of marine organisms. When released to the marine environment, these compounds react differently. Some are soluble in the water; others evaporate from the sea surface, form extensive oil slicks, or settle to the bottom if sand becomes incorporated in the oil globule. More complete understanding of toxicity and the ecological effects of oil spills will require studies of the effects of indi- vidual components, or at least of classes of components, of the complex mixture that made up the original oil. The recent development of gas chromatography has made it possible to isolate and identify various fractions of oil and to follow their entry into the marine system and their transfer from organism to organism. An oil slick on the sea surface can be visually detected by iridescence or color, the first trace of which is formed when 100 gallons of oil spread over 1 square mile (146 liters/km2) (American Petroleum Institute 1949). 317 The average thickness of such a film is 0.145 microns. Under ideal laboratory conditions, a film 0.038 microns thick can be detected visually (American Petroleum Institute 1963). 318 For remote sensing purposes, oil films with a thickness of 100 microns can be detected ·using dual polarized radi- ometers, 1 micron using radar imagery, and 0.1 microns using multispectral imagery in the UV region (Catoe and Orthlieb 1971). 323 A summary of remote sensing capabilities is presented in Table IV-5. Because remote sensing is less effective than the eye in detecting surface oil, any concen- tration of oil detectable by remote means currently available will exceed the recommendations given below. The death of marine birds from oiling is one of the earliest and most obvious effects of oil slicks on the sea surface. Thousands of seabirds of all varieties are often involved in a large spill. Even when the birds are cleaned, they fre- quently die because the toxic oil is ingested in preening their feathers. Dead oiled birds are often found along the coast when no known major oil spill has occurred, and the cause of death remains unknown. When an oil spill occurs near shore or an oil slick is brought to the intertidal zone and beaches, extensive mor- tality of marine organisms occurs. When the Tampico Maru ran aground off Baja California in 1957, about 60,000 barrels of spilled diesel fuel caused widespread death among lobsters, abalones, sea urchins, starfish, mussels, clams, and hosts of smaller forms (North 1967).344 A bene- ficial side effect of this accident was also noted by North. When the sea urchins that grazed on the economically im- portant kelp beds of the area were killed in massive numbers by the oil spill, huge canopies of kelp returned within a few months (see p. 237). The oil spills from the wreck of the tanker Torrey Canyon and the Santa Barbara oil well blowout both involved crude oil, and in both cases oil reached the beaches in variable amounts some time after release. The oil may thus have been diluted and modified by evaporation or sinking before it reached the beach. In the Santa Barbara spill many birds died, and entire plant and animal communities in the intertidal zone were killed by a layer of encrusting oil often 1 or 2 centimeters thick (Holmes 1967).333 At locations where the oil film was not so obvious, intertidal organisms were not severely damaged (Foster et al. 1970). 327 In the case of the Torrey Canyon, the deleterious effects have been attributed more to the detergents and dispersants used to control the oil than to the oil itself (Smith 1968). 347 A relatively small oil spill in West Falmouth, Massa- chusetts, occurred within a few miles of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in September 1969. An oil barge, the Florida, was driven onto the Buzzards Bay Shore where it released between 650 and 700 tons of No. 2 fuel oil into the coastal waters. Studies of the biological and chemical effects of this spill are continuing, more than two years after the event (Blumer 1969,319 Hampson and Sanders 1969,331 Blumer et al. 1970,322 Blumer and Sass 1972 321 ). Massive destruction of a wide range of fish, shell- fish, worms, crabs, other crustaceans, and invertebrates oc- curred in the region immediately after the accident. Bottom- living fish and lobsters were killed and washed ashore. Dredge samples taken in 10 feet of water soon after the spill showed that 95 per cent of the animals recovered were dead and the others moribund. Much of the evidence ot this immediate toxicity disappeared within a few days, either because of the breaking up of the soft parts of the organism, burial in the sediments, or dispersal by water currents. Careful chemical and biological analyses reveal, however, that not only has the damaged area been slow to recover but the extent of the damage has been expanding with time. A year and a half after the spill, identifiable Categories of Pollutants/259 TABLE IV-5-Summary of Remote Sensor Characteristics For Oil Detection Possible sensor configuration Wave length Detection mechanism Performance summary Type Resolution Weight Volume Swath widlh Comments Ultraviolet( ::;D.4 11m). Reflectance differential (Dilf Reflective signature UV Vidicon 500 lines/frame 331bs. 2 cu. It 40° FOV (727 II Developed equipment avail· Water contrast) a. Repeatabie positive response from thin (high scene il· @ 10 K) able for UV vidicon and/ slicks (~. 1 micron). rumination) or scanner. Integrates Fluorescence b. Variable response from thicker slicks 100-200 lines/frame well with CRT display. dependent upon oil type, water quality (low scene illumina- and illuminati on conditions. tion) c. Atmospheric haze limitations major. Line scanner may require d. Signal limitations prevent nighl·timjl data buffer for high reso· detection. lotion, real time display, Fluorescence signature UV Scanner 2mr 90 lbs. 3.5 cu. It 2.7 mi@ 10 K or mm processor 1. Artificial Excitation (narrow-band) Pulsed Laser 1 mr 150 lbs. 4 cu. It 10ft.@10K Effective against thin and a. Spectral character strongly correlated thick slicks under solar, or to oil thickness. artificial illumination. b. Intensity strongly correlated to oil type (API) and oil thickness, weakly corre-Active laser system sensi· fated to temperature. tivity limitations hinder c. Decay characteristics moderately to use in detection or map· strongly correlated to oil type, uncor-ping mode. ldentifica· related to oil thickness. tion capability very d. All characteristics independent of am· good, with moderate to bien! illumination conditions. good thickness deter· 2. Solar excitation (broad-band) mlnation. a. Spectral character moderately to weakly correlated to oil type and lh ick- ness. b. Intensity strongly correlated to oil type, oil thickness and ambient illumi • nation conditions. c. Decay characteristics not detectable. d. Signal limitations prevent operation except under strong solar illumination. Visible (0.4to .7 11m) .. Reflectance Differential (0.1/ Reflective Signature Aerial Cameras water Contrast) a. Variable response from all slicks de· RC-8 2ft@ 10 K 190 lbs. UKd 1 74o FOV Aerial cameras realtime pendent upon thickness, oil type, water 3.5 mi.@ 10 K display not possible. quality and illumination conditions b. Signal limitations prevent moonless 500-EL 3.5ft@ 10 K 161bs. .4 cu. It Sensitivity limitations nighttime detection. prevent night-time oper· ations. c. False alarm problem significant KA-62 61.51bs. 5.24 cu. It Compensation for atmos· d. Atmospheric haze limitation major. pheric haze difficult e. Maximum contrast between oil and water occursal(.381o. 4511m)and(.6 Vidicon 500 lines/frame 331bs. 2 cu. It 400 FOV with UV photography great po· to .68 11m). zoom lens 7270 tential for detecting oil. f. Minimum contrast between oil and It altO K Color is good; hOwever, water om~rs at (.45to .58 11m) sunlight gives false re- g. Best contrast achieved with overcast sponse. Panchromatic, sky. IR and color photog· raphy and TV give good results only when oil is thick and ropy. Vidicon useful tor real· time detection and map- ping at various wave lengths, givmg option tor good detection with negligible false alarms for day operation and fair -to-good detection with low false alarms for night operation. Dis- play characteristics op· timum for surveillance. Infrared Reflective Signature Near Infrared (D.& to Reflectance Differential (0.1/ a. Repeatable politive response from all Line Scanner 2mr 90 lbs. 4.0 cu. It 2.7mi@ 10 K Line scanner oil-slick re· 0.1 11m) Water Contrast) slicks under all conditions. sponse variable but es· Far Infrared (Bio 14 Thermal Emission Differential b. Moonless night-time detection capa· Framing Scanner 4mr 220 lbs 3.5 cu. It 25° FOV sentially predictable, but ~) biHty. may have some false c. False alarm problems negfigible. alarm problems. d. Atmospheric haze limitation moderate. ~-------------~-~---~~ ··-------~~ ~-~ 260/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE IV-5-Summary of Remote Sensor Characteristics For Oil Detection-Continued Possible sensor configurabon Wave length Detection mechanism Performance summary Type Resolution Weight Volume SWath width Comments Thermal Signature Day/night detection under a. Variable response dependent grossly VFR conditions. upon oil type and dependent signifi· cantly upon thickness and solar heat-Real time display capa· ing. Variability predictable to sig. bilities good but nificant degree (slicks> 10 I'm) limited to "single-look" b. Day/night detection independent of il· display generation. rumination conditions. c. False alarm problem slight Developed equipment d. Atmospheric haze limitations moder-available. ate to slight. Microwave ........... Emissive Differential (Oil/ Emissive Signature Line Scanning 1.4° 681bs. 3 cu. fl 2.7 mi@ 10 K Clouds that are raining Water Contrast) a. Emissivity of petroleum products is Imager between sensor and Wave Structure Modification significantly higher than that of a calm slick as well as very sea surface. high sea states hamper b. Crude oil pollutants have decreasing performance. dielectric constants (increasing emis- sivity) with increasing API gravity. Technology for equipment c. Microwave signature of oil film in· development available. versely proportional to sensor wave length. Real time display consists d. The horizontal polarized microwave of facsimile and/or signature of oil is twice the vertically CRT. polarized signature of an oil slick on a flat water surface. e. Detection improves with decreasing sensor wave lengths and becomes poorer as the sea state increases. f. Atmospheric cloud limitations moder- ate to slight. g. Can effectively detect slicks less than 0.1 mm at viewing. h. Dual frequency microwave techniques show great promise in measuring oil slick thickness. Radar ............... Wave Structure Modification Reflective Signature Forward Scanning 100X100 fl' ~soo lbs. 10 cu. ft 38mi@ 12 K Technology exists for Scattering Cross-section a. Oil film on surface of water suppresses (35 GHz) equipment development Differential capillary which results in a significant of forward scanning and difference in energy back scattered synthetic aperature from contaminated surface and that radar. scattered from surrounding clean wa- ter (from oil slicks very little energy Synthetic Apera-100X100 ll• ~1500 lbs 17 cu. ft 150 mi@36 K Real time display possible back scattered by three orders of mag-lure (3.3 GHz) for forward scanning nitude). b. Vertical polarization capable of detect- ing and mapping oil slick less than 1 micron. c. Atmospheric cloud limitations slight fractions of the source oil were found in organisms that still survived on the perimeter of the area. Hydrocarbons in- gested by marine organisms may pass through the wall ot the gut and become part of the lipid pool (Blumer et al. 1970). 322 When dissolved within the fatty tissues of the organisms, even relatively unstable hydrocarbons are pre- served. They are protected from bacterial attack and can be transferred from food organism to predators and possibly to man. The catastrophic ecological effects of the oil spills of the Tampico Maru, and the Florida appear to be more severe than those reported from other oil spills such as the Torrey Canyon and the Santa Barbara blowout. The Tampico Maru and the Florida accidents both released refined oils radar via facsimile and/ or CRT; synthetic aperature radar re- quires optical processing. (in one case diesel oil and in the other, No. 2 fuel oil) and both occurred closer to shore than either the Torrey Canyon or the Santa Barbara accidents which released crude oil. The differences in the character of the oil and the proximity to shore may account for the more dramatic effects of the first two accidents, but it is clear that any release of oil in the marine environment carries a threat of destruction and constitutes a danger to world fisheries. ·• Persistence of Oil in the Ocean As mentioned above, oil can be ingested by marine organisms and in- corporated in their lipid pool. Hydrocarbons in the sea are also degraded by marine microorganisms. Very little is known as yet about the rate of this degradation, but it is known that no single microbial species will degrade any whole crude oil. Bacteria are highly specific, and several species will probably be necessary to decompose the numer- ous types of hydrocarbons in a crude oil. In the process of decomposition, intermediate products will be formed and different species of bacteria and other microorganisms may be required to attack these decomposition products (ZoBell 1969). 348 The oxygen requirement of microbial oil decomposition is severe. The complete oxidation of one gallon of crude oil requires all the dissolved oxygen in 320,000 gallons of air- saturated sea water (ZoBell 1969).348 It is clear th~t oxi- dation might be slow in an area where previous pollution has depleted the oxygen content. Even when decomposition of oil proceeds rapidly, the depletion of the oxygen content of the water by the microorganis~s degrading the oil may have secondary deleterious ecological effects. Unfortunately, the most readily attacked fraction of crude oil is the least toxic, i.e., the normal paraffins. The more toxic aromatic hydrocarbons, especially, the carcinogenic polynuclear aro- matics, are not rapidly degraded. That our coastal waters are not devoid of marine life, after decades of contamination with oil, indicates that the sea is capable of recovery from this pollution. However, increasing stress is being placed on the estuarine and coastal environment because of more frequent oil pollution inci- dents near shore; and once the recovery capacity of an environment is exceeded, deterioration may be rapid and catastrophic. It is not known how much oil pollution the ocean can accept and recover from, or whether the present rate of addition approaches the limit of the natural system. It appears that the oceans have recovered from the oil spilled during the six years of the second World War, though some unexplained recent oil slicks have been at- tributed to the slow corrosion of ships sunk during that conflict. It has been estimated (SCEP)34 :; that during the war, the United States lost 98 vessels with a total oil ca- pacity of about I million tons, and that another 3 million tons of oil were lost through the sinking of ships of other combatants during the same period. These losses were large in the context of the 1940's, but the total for that period was only about twice the annual direct influx to the ocean at the present time. Although no extensive dele- terious effects of these sinkings and oil releases on the fisheries catch of the world have been found, it must be emphasized again that when a pollutant is increasing yearly in magnitude past history is not a reliable source of pre- diction of future effects. The Toxicity of Oil There is a dearth of dependable observations on the toxicity of oil to marine organisms. It is difficult to evaluate the toxicity of this complex mixture of compounds which is not miscible with sea water. A variety of techniques have been used which are not intercom- parable. In some experiments, oil is floated on the water in the test container, and the concentration given is derived from the total quantity of oil and the total quantity of Categories of Pollutants/261 water. This is clearly not the concentration to which the organism has been exposed. In other experiments, extracts of oil with hot water or with various solvents have been added to the test jar without identification of the oil fraction being tested. In still other cases, care has been taken to produce a fine emulsion of oil in sea water more representa- tive of the actual concentration to which the test organism is exposed. Considering the differences in the meaning ot "concentration" in these tests and the variation in sensi- tivity of the test organisms, it is not surprising that the ranges of toxicity that can be found in the literature vary by several orders of magnitude. Studies of the biological effects of oil have been reviewed by Clark (l97l).m Mironov (1971)342 carried out toxicity studies by comparable techniques using a variety of marine organisms. In testing eleven species of phytoplankton, he found that cell division was delayed or inhibited by concen- trations of crude oil (unspecified type) ranging from 0.01 to 1000 ppm. He also showed that some copepods were sensitive to a I ppm suspension of fresh or weathered crude oil and of diesel oil. Freegarde et al. (1970) 328 found that the larvae of Ballanus ballanoides and adult Calanus copepods maintained in a suspension of crude oil ingest, without apparent harm, droplets of oil that later appear in the feces. Mironov (1967)3 41 found 100 per cent mortality of developing flounder spawn at concentrations of three types of oil ranging from I to I 00 ppm and an increased abnor- mality of development at longer periods of time in concen- trations as low as 0.01 ppm. In contrast other experimenters have found that concentrations of several per cent are necessary to kill adult fish in a period of a few days (Chip- man and Galtsoff 1949,324 Griffith 1970 329 ). The evidence is clearer that a combination of oil and detergents is more toxic than oil alone. This was first definitely established in studies of the Torrey Canyon spill (Smith 1968), 347 and the toxicity of the various detergents used in this operation is discussed by Corner et al. (1968). 326 The four detergents tested were all more toxic than Kuwait crude oil, and all showed signs of toxicity between 2 and 10 ppm. The solvents used with these detergents were also highly toxic but tended to lose their toxicity over time through evaporation. A bioassay test carried out by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (1969)338 re- vealed that the least toxic detergent mixed with oil could be a hundred times as concentrated (1800 ppm) as the most toxic (14 ppm) and cause the same toxic effect. La Roche et al. (1970)337 defined bioassay procedures for oil and oil dispersant toxicity evaluation using fish, Fundulus heteroclitus, and the sandworm; Nereis virens (Table IV-6). The mortality of seabirds as a result of oil pollution is direct and immediate, and in a major oil spill, is measured in the thousands. The diving birds which spend most of their life at sea are most prone to death from oil pollution, but any bird that feeds from the sea or settles on it is vul- nerable. In oil-matted plumage air is replaced by water 262/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE IV-6-Determinations (Summarized) of Acute Toxicities of 10 Chemical Dispersants Alone and in Combination with Crude Oil to Sandwrwm (Nereis vir-ens) and Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) in Laboratory Bioassay Tests Substance 96 hour LC50 (mlfl) Nereis Fundulus Crude oil A............................................................... 16.5 Crude oil B................................. 6.1 8.2 Oil and dispersants•......................... .055-. 781 .187-1 Dispersants................................. .007-7.10 .008-2 • Ranges of values for 10 dispersants mixed 1 part dispersant to 10 parts of oil by volume. LaRoche et al 1970'37. causing loss of both insulation and buoyancy, and oil in- gested during preening can have toxic effects. Hartung and Hunt (1966)332 fed oils directly to birds by stomach tube and later analyzed the pathological and physiological effects through autopsies. The lethal dose for three types of oil ranged from l ml to 4 ml per kilogram (ml/kg) when the birds were kept outdoors under environ- mental stress. The experimenters conchided that a duck could typically acquire a coating of 7 grams of oil and would be expected to preen approximately 50 per cent of the polluting oil from its feathers within the first few days. Enough of this could easily be ingested to meet the lethal dosage of l to 4 mljkg. Thus, birds that do not die promptly from exposure to cold or by drowning as a result of oil pollution may succumb later from the effects of ingestion. Corrective Measures The only effective measure for control of oil pollution in the marine environment is prevention of all spills and releases. The time-lag involved in corrective methods means that some damage will inevitably occur before the cor- rective measures take effect. Furthermore, the soluble parts of the oil already in the water will not be removed by any of the present methods of post-spill cleanup. Control measures have been introduced that appreciably reduce excessive oil pollution from normal tanker operations (see Table IV-4). The load on top (LOT) process concen- trates waste oil that is ultimately discharged with the new cargo (IMCO l965a, 335 l965b 336). This procedure recovers somewhat more than 98 per cent of oil that would otherwise be released to the sea. It has been estimated (Revelle et al. 1972)345 that 80 per cent of the world fleet uses these control measures today, and if they continue to do so faithfully these ships will contribute only 3.0 X l 0 4 tons of the total tonnage of oil loss. In contrast, the 20 p~r cent of the fleet not using these control measures contributes SX 10 6 tons. If these control measures were not in use by a major fraction of the tanker fleet, the contamination of the sea from this source would be about five times greater than it is today. Among the earliest methods for the cleanup of spilled oil was to pick up or bury the material that came ashore while disregarding the oil that remained at sea. It was found that the use of straw to absorb the oil made this cleanup procedure easier, and in the cleanup of the Arrow oil spill (Ministry of Transport, Canada 1970), 340 peat moss was found to be an effective absorbent for Bunker C oil. Recent studies promise mechanical means for handling and cleaning sand contaminated with oil by use of earth moving equip- ment, fluid-bed, and froth flotation techniques (Gumtz and Meloy 1971,330 Mikolaj and Curran 1971,339 Sartor and Foget 1971).346 The use of detergents to treat oil slicks is essentially cosmetic. It removes the obvious evidence of oil and for that reason appeals to the polluter. However, after treat- ment with detergent, the oil is dispersed in the form of fine droplets and becomes even more available to the biota of the sea than it would be if it were left in the form of a surface film. Because of the finer degree of dispersion, the soluble toxic fractions dissolve more rapidly and reach higher concentrations in sea water than would result from natural dispersal. The droplets themselves may be ingested by filter-feeding organisms and thus become an integral part of the marine food chain. Some of the oil may pass through the gut in the feces of these organisms, but Blumer et al. (1970)322 have shown that it can pass through the gut wall and be incorporated in the organism's lipid pool. It can thus be transferred from organism to organism and, potentially, into the food that man takes from the ocean for his use. Sinking of oil has been achieved by scattering talc or chalk on the oil causing it to agglutinate into globules of greater density than sea water. Such sunken oil tends to kill bottom fauna before even the motile bottom dwellers have time to move away. The sessile forms of commercial im- portance, such as clams, oysters and scallops, cannot escape, and other motile organisms such as lobsters (Homarus americanus) may actually be attracted in the direction of the spill where exposure will contaminate or kill them. Little is known about the rate of degradation of· oil in bottom sediments, but it is known that some fractions will persist for over two years (Blumer 1969,319 Blumer and Sass 1972 321 ). Chipman and Galtsoff (1949)324 showed that the toxicity of oil is not diminished by adsorption on carbonized sand which can be used as a sinking agent. Efforts were made to burn the oil in both the Torrey Canyon and the W afra, which was wrecked off the coast of South Africa in 1971. When oxidation is complete, oil is converted to carbon dioxide and water and rerrioved as a pollutant. Burning oil within a tanker, however, is difficult; and it has not been successful even when oxidants are added. Volatile fractions may burn off quickly, but most of the oil resists combustion. Incomplete combustion is therefore not only more common, but the smoke and volatile oils them- selves become atmospheric pollutants many of which ulti- mately return to the sea through precipitation and accumu- lation on the water surface. Oil can be burned on the surface of the sea by using wicks or small glass beads to which the oil clings thus removing itself from the quenching effects of the water. The use of "seabeads" was successful in burning Bunker C oil on the beach and moderately successful in burning a slick in two i:o three foot seas in the cleanup following the wreck of the Arrow (Ministry of Transport, Canada 1970). 340 However, during burning, the elevated temperature of the oil increases the solubility in water of the most toxic components, and this can cause greater biological damage than if the oil is left unburned. Mechanical containment and removal of oil appear to be ideal from the point of view of avoiding long-term bio- logical damage, but however promptly such measures are taken, some of the soluble components of the oil will enter the water and it will not be possible to remove them. A variety of mechanisms for containing oil have been pro- posed, such as booms with skirts extending into the water. Various surface skimmers to collect oil and pump it into a standby tanker have been conceived. Unfortunately, most wrecks occur during less than ideal weather conditions which makes delivery and deployment of mechanical de- vices difficult. Floating booms are ineffective in a rough sea, because even if they remain properly deployed, oil can be carried over the top of them by wind and splashing waves or under them by currents. In protected waters, however, recovery can be quite effective, and among the methods of oil removal used today, booms are one of the most effective if conditions for their use are favorable. Microbiological degradation is the ultimate fate of all oil left in the sea, but as was mentioned previously, the oxygen requirement for this is severe. There is also the problem of providing other nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, for the degrading bacteria. Nevertheless, this process is a "natural" one, and research into increasing the rate of bacteriological degradation without undesirable side effects is to be encouraged. Although an ultimate solution to the cleanup of oil spills is desperately needed, prevention of spills remains the most effective measure. When wrecks occur, every effort should be made to offload the oil before it enters the marine en- vironment. Oil spills that occur in harbors during transfer of oil to a refinery or of refined oil to a tanker should be rr:ore easily controlled. Portable booms could confine any ml released and make possible recovery of most harbor spillage. Available technology is adequate to prevent most accidental spills from offshore well drilling or operations. It is necessary to require that such technology be faithfully employed. Recommendations No oil or petroleum products should be dis- charged into estuarine or coastal waters that: • can be detected as a visible film· sheen or d . 1 ' ' tsco oration of the surface, or by odor; Cat~gories of Pollutants /263 • can cause tainting of fish or edible inverte- brates or damage to the biota; • can form an oil deposit on the shores or bottom of the receiving body of water. In this context, discharge of oil is meant to include accidental releases that could have been prevented by technically feasible controls. Accidental releases of oil to the marine environ- ment should be reclaimed or treated as expe- ditiously as possible using procedures at least equivalent to those provided in The National Con- tingency Plan of 1970. The following recommen- dations should be followed to minimize damage to the marine biota. • Oil on the sea surface should be contained by booms and recovered by the use of surface skimmers or similar techniques. • In the event of a tanker wreck, the oil re- maining in the hulk should be off-loaded. • Oil on beaches should be mechanically re- moved using straw, peat moss, other highly absorbent material, or other appropriate techniques that will produce minimal dele- terious effects on the biota. • Failing recovery of oil from the sea surface or from a wrecked tanker, efforts should be made to burn it in place, provided the con- tamination is at a safe distance from shore facilities. If successful, this will minimize damage to the marine biota. • Dispersants should be used only when neces- sary and should be of minimal potential toxicity to avoid even greater hazard to the environment. • Sinki~g of oil is not recommended. \ All vessels using U.S. port facilities for the pur- pose of transporting oil or petroleum products should be required to demonstrate that effective procedures or devices, at least equivalent to the "Load on Top" procedure, are used to minimize oil releases associated with tank cleaning. In order to protect marine wildlife: • recommendations listed above should be fol- lowed; • a monitoring program should follow long- term trends in petroleum tar accumulation in selected areas of the oceans; • no oil exploration or drilling should be per- mitted within existing or proposed sanctu- aries, parks, reserves or other protected areas, or in their contiguous waters, in a manner which may deleteriously affect their biota; -~~--~--------- 264/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife • oil exploration or drilling should not be con- ducted in a manner which may deleteriously affect species subject to interstate or inter- national agreements. TOXIC ORGANICS The toxic organics constitute a considerable variety of chemical compounds, almost all of which are synthetic. The total production of synthetic organic chemicals in the U.S. in 1968 was 120,000 million pounds, a 15 per cent increase over 1967; 135,000 million pounds were produced in 1969, a 12 per cent increase over 1968 (United States Tariff Commission 1970).377 This figure, in the order of 5 X 1013 grams, may be compared with the total productivity of the sea, which is in the order of 2 X 10 16 grams of carbon incorporated into phytoplankton per year (Ryther 1969).373 When considered in a global and future context, the pro- duction of synthetic chemicals by man cannot be considered an insignificant fraction of nature's productivity. The majority of the synthetic organic chemicals, in- cluding those considered toxic, are readily degradable to elementary materials which reenter the chemical cycles in the biosphere. These pose no long-term hazard if applied or released into the environment in quantities sufficiently small to meet the recommendations for mixing zones (see p. 231). The chemicals of most concern are the more stable com- pounds that enter the environment, whether they are intro- duced incidentally as waste materials or deliberately through their use~ The toxicity, chemical stability, and resistance to biological degradation of such chemicals are factors that must be considered in assessing their potential effects on ecosystems. Moreover, because of the partitioning of non- polar compounds among the components of marine eco- systems, relatively high concentrations of these, including halogenated hydrocarbons, are frequently found in orga- nisms. Only recently it was discovered that polychlorinated bi- phenyls (PCB), a class of chlorinated hydrocarbons used in a variety of industrial applications, were widespread con- taminants in marine ecosystems (Duke et al.). 364a Concen- trations up to or higher than 1000 ppm in the body fat of estuarine birds have been recorded in both Europe and North America (Risebrough et al. 1968,371 Jensen et al. 1969 360). Moreover, both DDT and PCB have been found in organisms from depths of 3200 meters in the open North Atlantic Ocean (Harvey et al. 1972). 3"9 The discovery of a man-made contaminant such as PCB, unknown in the environment a few years ago, in such unexpectedly high concentrations in marine organisms raises several questions. Are the concentrations of these compounds still increasing in the marine environment and at what rate, and what are the long-term effects upon the marine communities? Is it possible that other pollutants, undetected by the methodologies that measure the chlori- nated hydrocarbons, are present in comparable amounts? Criteria employed in the past to protect freshwater eco- systems were based on data now seen to be inadequate and on an approach that looked at pollutant concentrations in waste water effluents rather than in the receiving system. Evidently it is necessary to attempt to relate the amounts of input into the ecosystem to the levels in the various com- ponents of the ecosystem, including indicator organisms. The concentrations of a persistent pollutant in an indicator organism are considered the best way of following accumu- lation trends in an aqueous ecosystem that serves as a sink for the pollutant, once the capacity of the ecosystem to absorb the pollutant has been determined. If the concen- trations in the indicator organisms exceed those considered safe for the ecosystem, input should then be reduced, re- stricted, or eliminated until environmental levels are ac- ceptable on the basis of established criteria. Inputs of per- sistent pollutants into the marine environment, however, are in many cases indirect and not immediately controllable, e.g. river runoffs, atmospheric fallout, and dumping by foreign and domestic ships. The sources of the chemicals in atmospheric fallout may be located anywhere in the world. Different recommendations must therefore be developed to protect the marine environment from increasing amounts and varieties of organic pollutants that might be anticipated over the next century. The same recommendations may be applied to estuaries, but these must also be protected from a variety of chemicals that are less persistent and pose no long-term hazard, but that may, because of toxic effects upon organisms, cause unacceptable amounts of damage. These include many of the pesticides, components of sewage, biological wastes from slaughter houses, and other organic wastes from industry. Acute toxicity values and subacute effects of pesticides on marine life are listed in Appendix III-Table 6, and in Table IV-7, p. 265. Table IV-7 is a summary of the "most sensitive" organisms taken from Appendix III-Table 6 and includes a list of chemicals that are considered to have potential environmental importance in estuarine or marine ecosystems. The list includes many of the pesticides that are readily degradable in the environment but because of their-high toxicity are potentially dangerous to estuarine ecosystems. The list, which should be revised as new data become available, proposes a minimum number of such chemicals. Appendix III-Table 6 includes the following in- formation relative to the potential importance of each ma- terial as coastal and marine contaminants. (a) Production figures, which are taken from the 1969 Tariff Commission reports, are listed in the second column. The production figures provide a useful clue to the compounds that are of potential importance as marine pollutants. The order of the chemicals generally follows that of the Tariff Commission reports and is not intended to be a ranking in order of im- portance. (b) The third column of the table indicates Categories of Pollutants/265 TABLE IV-7-Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the M~rine System U.S. production Presence in sea Trophic Most sensitive Cone. (ppb active Method of Chemical pounds, gal./yr water or marine accumulation organisms tested Formulation ingredient in water) assessment Test procedure Reference (1) (2) organisms (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (3) PESTICIDES, Total ........... 1.1X10'1b Fungicides Fungicides, total. .......... .1.4X1D• Pentachlorophenol. ......... 4. 6X1D' Expected Unknown Insufficient data lor marine organisms 2, 4, 5· Tri chlorophenol. ...... Not available Unknown Unknown Crassostrea virginica .............. 600 TLM 48 hr static lab Davis and Hidu (1969) 2.8X10' American oyster bioassay 1969'" (1968) Nabam (Ethylene bis[dithio-1.9X10' Unlikely Unlikely Dunaliella terliolecta ·············· 100 • 270. 0. D. expljO.D. 10 day growth test Ukeles 1962'" carbamic acid I, disodium control salt) Hexachlorobenzene .......... Not available Expected Detected in birds lnsuHicient data lor (Vos et al., marine organisms 1968)378 Koeman and Herbicides .................... Genderen, 1970)'" Herbicides, total. ........... 3.9X1D• Amitrole (3-amino-1,2,4· Not available Unlikely Unlikely lnsuHicient data triazole) Chloramben (3-amino-2,5· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Chlorococcum sp Methyl ester 2.5Xlll' 50% decrease in Growth measured as Walsh 1972'" dichlorobenzoic acid, Phaeodactylum tricornu-growth ABS. (525 mu) sodium salt) tum alter 10 days Picloram (4-amino-3,5,6· Not available Unlikely Unlikely lsochrysis galbana ·············· 1X1D• 50% decrease. in o, ·················· Walsh 1972'" trichloropicolinic acid) evolution• (TordonR) .............. 5X111' 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972"' growth (525 mu) alter 10 dys Simazine [2-chloro-4, 6·bis· Not available Unlikely Unlikely lsochrysis galbana Technical acid 500 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972"' (ethylamino)-s-triazine[ growth (525 mu) alter 10 days Phaeodactylum tricornu-Technical aid 500 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972"' tum growth (525 mu) alter 10 days Atrazine [2-chloro-4-ethyl-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Chlorococcum sp., Technical acid 100 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972'" amino-6-isopropyl-amino-Chlamydomonas sp., growth (525 mu) alter s-triazine[ Monochrysi s lutheri 10 days lsochrysis galbana Technical acid 100 50% decrease in o, ·················· Walsh 1972'" evolution• Phaeodactylum tricornu-Technical acid 100 50% decrease in o, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh 1972"' tum evolution• Monuron [3-(p-chloro-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Protococcus sp. . ............. 20 .00 OPT. DEN. 10 day growth test Ukeles 1962'" phenyl)-1, 1-dimethylurea] expl/opt DEN control Dunaliella tertiolecta ·············· 20 .00 OPT. DEN. 10 day growth test Wa Ish 1972'" expljopt DEN control Phaeodactylum tri· ·············· 20 .00 OPT. DEN. 10 day growth test Ukeles 1962'" cornutum explfopt DEN control Diuron [3·(3, 4, -dichloro-Nol availab I e Unlikely Unlikely Protococcus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 • 52 OPT. DEN. 10 day growth test Ukeles 1962"' phenyl)· I, 1-dimethylurea] expl/opt DEN control Monochrysis lutheri ·············· 0.02 .00 OPT. DEN. 10 day growth test Ukeles 1962"' expljopt DEN control Maleic hydrazide [1, 2-di· 2.8X105 1b. Unlikely Unlikely lnsuHicient data hydropyridazine-3, 6-dione] Fenuron [1,1-dimethyl-3· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Chlorococcum sp. Technical acid 750 50% decrease in 10 day growth test Walsh 1972"' phenyl urea[ growth lsochrysis galbana Technical acid 750 50% decrease in 10 day growth test Walsh 1972"' growth Monochrysis lutheri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 • 67 OPT. DEN. 10 day growth test Ukeles 1962"' expl/opt DEN control Ametryne [2-ethylamino·4· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Chlorococcum sp. Technical acid 10 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972"' isopropylamino-6-methyl-growth (525 mu) alter mercapto-s-triazine] 10 days lsochrysis galbana Technical acid 10 50% decrease in o, ·················· Walsh 1972"' evolution• Monochrysis lutheri . Phaeodactylum tri· Technical acid 10 50% decrease in 02 .................. Walsh1972"' cornutum evolution• • /0• evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length oltest90 minutes. 266/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE IV-7-Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System-Continued U.S. production Presence in sea Trophic Most sensitive Cone. (ppb active Method of Chemical pounds, gal./yr water or marine accumulation organisms tested Formulation ingredient in water) assessment Test procedure Reference (I) (2) organisms (4) (5) (6) (1) (8) (9) (10) (3) Herbicides. cont Endolhal [7-oxabicyclo· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Mercenaria mercenaria .............. 1.25Xlil' TLM 12 day sialic lab Davis and Hidu (2.2.1) heplane-2,3-di· Hard clam bioassay 19693" carboxylic acid, disodium salt) MCPA [4-chloro-2-methyl· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Crassostrea virginica ·············· 1.56Xlll' TLM 48 hr sialic lab Davis and Hidu phenoxyacetic acid) American oyster bioassay 1969354 2, 4-D & derivatives ......... I. OX lOS lb Unknown Unknown Crassostrea virginica Ester 740 TLM 14 day static lab Davis and Hidu American oyster bioassay 1969'" Dunaliella tertiolecta 2, 4, H & derivatives 2.8XID'Ib Unknown Unknown lsochrysis galbana Technical acid 5XID4 50% decrease in o, .................. Walsh 1972"' [2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy-evolutioe* acetic acid) Phaeodaclylum tri-TechniCal acid 5Xi04 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972'" cornutum growth (525 mu) after 10 ~ays Silvex [2·(2, 4, 5-lrichloro-1.6XID• Unlikely Unlikely Crassostrea virginica phenoxy)propionic acid) American oyster .............. 710 TLM 14 day static lab Davis and Hidu Dunaliella terliolecta bioassay 1969"' Diquat [6, 7-Dihydrodipyrido ·Not avail able Unlikely Unlikely Chlorococcum sp. Dibromide 5XID 6 50% decrease !n o, ·················· Walsh 1972"' (1,2-a:2',1'-c)pyrazidi· evolution• inium dibromide Dunaliella terliolecta Dibromlde 5X10' 50% decrease in o, ·················· Walsh 1972"' evolution• lsochrysis galbana Dibromide 1.5XIO• 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972"' growth (525 mu) after to days Phaeodactylum lri· Dibromide s~ ·o• 50% decrease in o, .................. Walsh 1972"' cornutum evolution• Paraquat [l,l'·dimelhyl-4,4'· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Dunaliella terliolecta Dichloride :1f16 50% decrease in o, .................. Walsh 1972'" dipyridilium dichloride) evolution• lsochrysis galbana Dichloride 5XID' 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 19723" growth (525 mu) after 10 days Trifluralin[a,a,a· Trifluoro-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Chlorococcum sp. Technical acid 2.5X10' 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972"' 2, 6·dirlino-N, N·di propyl· growth (525 mu) after p-toluidine) 10 days lsochrysis galbana Technical acid 2.5X10' 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972379 growth (525 mu) after 10 days Phaeodaclylum tri-Technical acid 2.5XID• 50% decrease in Measured as ABS. Walsh 1972'" cornutum growth (525 mu) after 10 days Cacodylic acid [Hydroxydi-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Insufficient data methyl arsine oxide) Insecticides Insecticides, total (includes 5.7XID•Ib rodenticides) Heptachlor [Heptachloro-Not available Oysters (Bugg Bald Eagles Thalassoma bifasciatum 100% 0.8 LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1970b'" letrahydro-endo-methano-et al. 1967)"' (Krantz el al. Bluehead bioassay indene) (includes hepta-1970)365 chlor epoxide) Endrin [Hexachloro-epoxy-Not available Oysters (Bugg el Brown Pelican Mugil cephalus 100% 0.3 LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 197011'" octahydro-endo-endo·di· al. 1967,"' (Schreiber and Striped mullet bioassay melhanoraphthalene) Casper, 1967,'" Risebrough Menidia menidia 100% 0.05 LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1970b"' Rowe etal 1972,"' Rise-Atlantic silverside bioassay 1971)372 brough et aL 1968)371 Dieldrin [Hexachloro-epoxy-Not available Oysters (Bugg et Bald eagles (Krantz Anguilla rostrata 100% 0.9 LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1970b'" octahydro·endo-exo-aL 1967,"' et al 1970)"' American eel bioassay dimethanonaphthalene) Casper, 1967, '" Grey Whale, Rowe elaL Sperm Whale 1971)'" (Wolman and Wilson 1970)'" Brown Pelican (Schreiber and Ri~ebrough 1972)'74 Aldrin [Hexachloro-hexa-Not available Oysters (Bugg et Unlikely, converts Palaemon macrodactylus Technical D. 7 4 (0. 51-1. 08) TL-50 96 hr static lab Earnest (unpub· hydro-endo·exo·dimelh-al. 1967)'" to dieldrin Korean shrimp bioassay II shed)'" anonaphlhalene) (Korschgen 1970)'64 Chlordane [Octochloro-Not available Oysters (Bugg et Expected Palaemon macrodactylus 100% 18 (ID-38) TL-50 96 hr static lab Earnest (unpub- hexahydro-melhanoin-at. 1967)'" Korean shrimp bioassay lished)'" dene] • /02 evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test90 minutes. Categories of Pollutants/267 TABLE IV-7-Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine ~ystem-Continued u.s. production Presence in sea Trophic Most sensitive Cone. (ppb active Method of Chemical pounds, gal./yr water or marine accumulation organisms tested Formulation ingredient in water) assessment Test procedure Reference (1) (2) organisms (4) (5) (6) (I) (8) (9) (10) (3) Insecticides. cont strobaneR [polychlorinated Not available Expected Expected Insufficient data lor terpenes] marine species Toxaphene [Chlorinated Not available Bay mussel Expected Gasterosteus aculeatus 100% 7.8 TLM 96 hr static lab Katz 1961'" camphene) (Modin, 1969);'" threespme stickle-back bioassay Oysters (Bugg el al. 196l)"o DDT compounds .......... 1.2X10•Ib. Jensen el al. 1969,"o Rise· brough et al. 1968371 p,p'-DDT [1, 1, 1-Tri-(References cited above) Penaeus duorarum Technical 0.12 TL-50 28 day bioassay Nimmo etal. 1970"' chloro-2. 2-bis(p-chloro-Pink shrimp 77% 0.17 (O.Os-11.32) TL-50 96 hr intermittent Earnest (unpub- phenyl) ethane flow lab bioassay lished)'•• p, p'-DDD(p, p'· TOE) Palaemon macrodactylus 99% 2.5 (1.6-4.0) TL-50 96 hr intermittent Earnest (unpub- [1, 1-Dichloro-2,2-bis flow lab bioassay lished)'•• (p-chtorophenyl)elhane p,p··DDE [1, 1-Dichloro-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (References cited above) Falco peregrinus ·············· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eggshell thinning DOE in eggs Cade et al. 1970"' 2, 2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) Peregrine Falcon h•ghty correlated ethylene with shell thinning Mirex [Dodecachloro·octa-Not available Expected Expected Penaeus duorarum Technical 1.0 100% paralysis/ Flowing water bio-Lowe et al. 1!t71'" hydro-1, 3, 4-metheno-2H-Pink shrimp death in 11 days assay cyclobuta[cd]pentalene] Benzene hexachloride Not available Southern hemisphere sea birds Penaeus setilerus 8.1% 2.8 TLM 24 hr static lab Chin and Allen [Hexachlorocyclohexane] (Talton and Ruzicka 1967)"' While shrimp bioassay 19583" Undane [gamma-hexa-Not available Oysters (Bugg et Expected Crangon septemspinosa 100% LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1969'" chlorocyclohexane) at. 1967,"o Sand shrimp Sand shrimp bioassay Casper 1967)'" · Pagurus longicarpus 100% LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1969'" Hermit crab b10assay Endosullan (Hexachloro-Not available Bay mussel (Koe-Sandwich Tern, Palaemon macrodactylus 96% 3.4 (1.H.5) TL-50 96 hr intermittent Earnest (unpub- hexahydro-melhano-man and Common Eider Korean shrimp flow tab bioassay tished)••• benzo-dioxathiepin-3-Genderen (Koeman and oxide] (ThiodanR) 1970)'" Genderen 1970)'" Methoxychlor [1, 1, 1-Tri-Not available Oysters (Bugg et Unlikely Palaemon macrodactytus 89.5% 0.44 (0.21-0.93) TL-50 96 hr static tab Earnest (unpub- ·chtoro-2, 2, bis(p· at. 1967)'60 b10assay lished)'•• methoxy-phenyl)ethane] Carbaryl (Sevin) [1-Not available Unikely Unlikely Palaemon macrodactylus 100% 7.0 (1.5-28) TL-50 96 hr intermillent Earnest (unpub- naphthyi-N·methylcarba-bioassay tished)••• male] Cancer magister 80% Prevention of hatch-24 hr static tab Buchanan el al. Dungeness crab ing and molli ng bioassay 19703" Coumaphos (Co-ral) [0, 0-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Crassostrea virginica .............. 110 TLM 48 hr static lab Davis and Hidu Diethyl-0-(3-chloro-4-American oyster bioassay 1969'" melhyl-2-oxo-2H-1-benzo- pyran-7 -yl)-phosphoro- lhioale] Diazinon [0, 0-Diethyi-D-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Insufficient data (2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6- pyrimidinyl)phosphoro- thioate] Parathion [0, 0-Dielhyl-0-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Cyprinodon variegatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Acetylcholinesterase 72 hr static exposure Coppage (unpub- p-nitrophenyl-phosphoro Sheepshead minnow activity in control lished)381 lhioate] vs. expt groups. Control= 1.36; Expt=0.120 oursban [0, D Diethyl-0-Not ava Hable Unlikely Unlikely Palaemon macrodactylus ·············· 0.01 (0.002-0.046) TL-50 96 hr intermittent Earnest (unpub- 3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridyl-Korean shrimp flow bioassay lis he d)'•• phosphorothioate] Fenlhion [0, 0-Dimethyl-0-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Pataemon macrodactylus .............. 3.0 (1.5-60) TL-50 96 hr intermittent Earnest (unpub- (4-melhyllhio-m-tolyl) flow bioassay lished)'•• phosphorothioate) (Baytex) Methyl parathion [0, 0,-5.1X1071b Unlikely Unlikely Crangon septemspinosa 100% LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1969'" Dimethyl-0-p-nitrophenyl-Sand shrimp bioassay phosphorolhioate] Guthion [0, 0-Dimelhyi-S-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Gasterosteus aculeatus 93% 4.8 TLM 96 hr static lab Katz 1961'62 (4-oxo-1, 2, 3-benzolri-threespine stickle-back bioassay azino-3-methyl)phosphoro- dilhioate] Dioxathion (Delnav) [2,3-p-Not available Unlikely Unlikely Crangon septemspinosa 100% 38 LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 19693" Dioxane-S,S-bis(O, 0-Sand shrimp bioassay diethylphosphorodilhioate] Fundulus heteroclitus 100% LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1970a"' Mummichog bioassay Menidia menidia 100% LC-50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1970b"' AUantic silverside bioassay 268/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE IV-7-Presence and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in the Marine System-Continued U.S. production Presence in sea Trophic Most sensitive Cone. (ppb active Method of Chemical pounds, gal./yr water or marine accumulation organisms tested Formulation ingredient in water) assessment Test procedure Reference (1) (2) organisms (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (3) Insecticides, conl Phosdrin (1·methoxycar. Not available Unlikely Unlikely Crangon sepemspinosa 100% 11 LC·50 96 hr static lab Eisler 1969'" bonyl·1·propen·2·YI·di· Sand shrimp bioassay methylphosphate] Malathion (S·(1,2·dicar· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Thalasomma bilasciatum 100% 27 LC·50 96 hr static Jab Eisler 1970b'" bethoxyethyi)·O, O·di· Bluehead bioassay methyldithiophosphate] Phosphamidon (2·Chloro· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Insufficient data N, N·di ethyl-3-hydroxy- crotonamide dimethyl phosphate] Phorate (0, 0 Diethyi·S· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Cyprinodon variegatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acetylcholinesterase 72 hr static exposure Coppage (unpub· ((Ethylthio]methyl)-phos-Sheepshead minnow activity** in control lished)'" phorodithioate] vs expl. groups. Control= 1. 36; Expl=0.086 DDVP (0, 0-Dimethyi·O· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Crangon septemspinosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LC·50 96 hr static lab Eisler 19693" (2, 2 ·dichlorovinyl)phos· Sand shrimp bioassay phate] Trichlorfon (0, O·DimethyJ. Not available Unlikely Unlikely Crassostrea virginica .............. 1,000 TLM 48 hr static lab Davis and Hidu 1·hydroxy-2, 2, 2·1richloro· American oyster bioassay 1969354 ethylphosphonate] (Dipterex) TEPP (Tetraethyl pyro· Not available Unlikely Unlikely Crassostrea virginica ·············· >1X10< TLM 14 day static lab Davis and Hidu phosphate] bioassay 1969'" Related products DBCP (1, 2·Dibromo·3· 8.6X10•Jb Unknown Unknown Mercenaria mercenaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 TLM 12 day static Jab Davis and Hidu chloropropane] (NemagonR) Hard clam bioassay 1969'" Methyl bromide 2.0X10'lb Unknown Unknown Insufficient data TAR AND TAR CRUDES Benzene 1.2X10' gal. Unknown Unknown Insufficient data Toluene 7.6X1D' gal. Unknown Unknown Insufficient data Xylene 3. 8X10• gal. Unknown Unknown Insufficient data Naphthalene 8.5X10• gal. Unknown Unknown Insufficient data PLASTICIZERS Phlhali c anhydride esters, 8.8X10•Jb. Expected Unknown Insufficient data total Adipid acid esters, total 6.6X10' Unknown Unknown Insufficient data SURFACE·ACTIVE AGENTS Dodecylbenzenesuifonates, 5.7X10' lb. Unknown Unlikely Insufficient data total (1968) Ugninsuifonates,lotal 4.4X10'1b. Unknown Unknown Insufficient data Nitrilotriacelic acid Not available Unknown Unlikely Cyclotella nana Monohydrated 5X11f3 38% growth as com· 72 hr static Jab Erickson el al. 1950368 sodium salt pared to controls bioassay Homarus americanus Monohydrated 1X10• 100% mortality 7 day static lab NMWQL 1970368 American lobster sodium salt bioassay HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS Carbon tetrachloride ....... 7.6Xtos lb (1968) Unknown Unlikely Insufficient data Dichlorodifluoromelhane .•. 3.3X11J8 (1968) Unknown Unlikely Insufficient data Ethylene dichloride ........ 4.8X10 9 (1968) Expected Unlikely Insufficient data Aliphatic chlorinated hydro· 3X10' Jb (esti· Surface waters Unknown Gadus morrhua 67%1,1,2·tri· 10,000 LC·50 10 hr lab bioassay Jensen el al. 19711'61 carbon wastes of vinyl mated as 1% of and marine orga. Cod chloroethane, chloride production vinyl chloride nisms of North 20% 1,2·di· production) Atlantic and ethane North Sea (Jen· sen et al. 1970)'" Polychlorinated biphenyl ... Not available Jensen el al. ················ Penaeus duorarum Aroclor 1254 0.94 51% morlaOty 15 day chronic ex· Nimmo et al. 1971"' 1969"0, Rise· Pink shrimp posure in flowing brough el al. seawater 1968371 Polychlorinated ter· Not available Expected Expected Insufficient data phenyl Brominaled biphenyls ...... Not available Unknown Expected Insufficient data CYCLIC INTERMEDIATES Monochlorobenzene •...... 6.0X10'ib Expected Unlikely Insufficient data Phenol ...............•... 1.7X10°lb Expected Unlikely Mercenaria mercenaria .............. 5.3X10• TLM 48 hr static Jab Davis and Hidu Hard Clam bioassay 1969"' MISCELLANEOUS CHEMICALS Tetraethyllead............ 4.9X1D' Unlikely Unlikely Insufficient data •• ACh hydrolysed/hr/mg brain. whether or not the compound has been detected in sea water or in marine organisms. Compounds which have been detected are of greater immediate concern than those which have not. Frequently, because of their low solubility in water, some of the non-polar compounds which are bio- logically accumulated can be detected in an organism but not in the water itself. (c) The fourth column, trophic ac- cumulation, indicates whether the compound has been shown to pass through the food web from prey species to predator. Compounds that are so accumulated are of greater concern than compounds of comparable toxicity which are not. Finally, the species thought to be most sensitive to the compound are indicated in the final columns with reference to original studies in the scientific literature. These data are useful as a guide only and are not sufficient in themselves for definitive evaluation of the environmental significance of each compound. The report, "The Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Life, vol. 3, Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, 1971," has been useful as a guide to the available toxicity data of industrial chemicals on marine organisms. Appendix III-Table 6 is a compendium of data on toxicity of pesticides to marine organisms. These sources are incom- plete and should be continually revised. Bases for Recommendations 1. In order to provide an adequate level of protection for commercially important marine species and for species considered important in the maintenance of stability of the ecosystem, an application factor of one one-hundredth (0.01) is used when pesticides or organic wastes that are not trophically accumulated in food webs are applied or re- leased in estuarine or marine environments. This factor is arbitrary and was derived from data available on marine and freshwater organisms. (See Section III, p. 121.) It assumes that a concentration of one one-hundredth (0.01) of that causing harm to the most sensitive species to be protected will not damage this species or the ecosystem. Future studies may show that the application factor must be decreased or increased in magnitude. 2. The application factor may also be used for the compounds that are trophically accumulated in food webs in order to protect fish and invertebrates to which these compounds are toxic. It cannot be used, however, to protect fish-eating birds and mammals which may trophically ac- cumulate these compounds from their prey species, in part because sublethal effects such as eggshell thinning and hormone imbalance may adversely affect reproductive ca- pacity and therefore the long term survival of populations. Levels that would protect fish-eating birds and mammals against the effects of compounds that are trophically ac- cumulated from prey species are given in the discussion of Marine Wildlife (see pp. 224-228). The recommendations below apply to all organics of both proved and potential toxicity. Categories of Pollutants/269 Recommendations In general, marine life with the exception of fish- eating birds and mammals should be protected where the maximum concentration of the chemical in the water does not exceed one one-hundredth (0.01) of the LC50 values listed in Column 7, Table IV-7, pp. 265-268. If new data indicate that an eco- system can adequately degrade a particular pollu- tant, a higher application factor for this pollutant may be used. In order to maintain the integrity of the eco- system to the fullest possible extent, it is essential to consider effects on all non-target organisms when applying pesticides to estuarine habitats in order to control one or more of the noxious species. For those occasions when chemicals must be used, the following guidelines are offered: • a compound which is the most specific for the intended purpose should be preferred over a compound that has broad spectrum effects; • a compound of low persistence should be used in preference to a compound of greater persistence; • a compound of lower toxicity to non-target organisms should be used in preference to one of higher toxicity; • water samples to be analyzed should include all suspended particulate and solid material: residues associated with these should there- fore be considered as present in the water; • when a derivative such as p,p'-DDE or 1-napthol is measured with or instead of the parent compound, the toxicity of the de- rivative should be considered separately: if the toxicity of a derivative such as an ionic species of a pesticide is considered equivalent to that of the original parent compound, concentrations should be expressed as equiv- alents of the parent compound. It is recommended that the chemicals listed in Table IV-7 and all chemicals subsequently added to this list be considered as toxic organic com- pounds potentially harmful to the marine environ- ment. It is emphasized that the data in Table IV-7 are not sufficient in themselves for final evalu- ation of the environmental significance of each compound. OXYGEN An extensive review and discussion of the present in- formation on biological responses to variations in dissolved oxygen has been published recently by Doudoroff and 270/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Shumway (1970).38~ This review has been used in develop- ing oxygen recommendations by both the Freshwater and Marine Panels in their reports. On the 'basis of this large body of information, recommendations for "levels of pro- tection" for freshwater fish populations have been devel- oped. Estuarine and marine organisms have not been studied as extensively, and the present information is inade- quate for satisfactory analysis of the response of communi- ties to temporal and spatial variations in dissolved oxygen concentrations. The generalizations presented by the Freshwater Panel appear to be valid, with qualifications, for estuarine and marine situations. 1 A reduction in dissolved oxygen concentration reduces the rate of oxygen uptake by aquatic plants and animals. However, as noted by Doudoroff and Shumway, the ob- served response of many organisms under laboratory condi- tions measured in such terms as growth rate, swimming speed, or hatching weight, shows fractional or percentage reductions that approximately correlate with the logarithm of the deviation of the dissolved oxygen concentration from equilibrium with the atmosphere, under conditions of con- stant dissolved oxygen concentrations. Thus, reduction in the dissolved oxygen concentration by l mg/l from the saturation value has much less effect than reduction by 1 mg/l from the 50 per cent of saturation value. 2 The non-threshold character of these responses means that some risk of effect on the aquatic populations is associ- ated with any reduction in the dissolved oxygen concentra- tions. As noted above, the risk of damage increases as dis- solved oxygen concentrations decrease from saturation values. Selection of risk acceptance is a social and economic evaluation involving other uses of any particular environ- ment that must precede recommendations derived using the risk acceptance and the pertinent scientific information. 3 Consideration of the effects of dissolved oxygen con- centrations on aquatic life must include the responses of developing eggs and larvae, as well as the maturing and adult individuals. Species that have limited spawning areas should be identified and the biological risk of decreased oxygen concentrations evaluated accordingly. For estuaries and coastal waters, consideration must be given to the distribution of dissolved oxygen with depth, since even under natural conditions low oxygen concentra- tions may be found in the deeper waters. Special considera- tion should be given to estuary type, topography, currents, and seasonal development of pycnoclines. Many estuaries and coastal regions are highly productive, and the characteristic pattern with photosynthesis in the upper-water layer or adjacent marshes leads to large popu- lation densities in the upper layers and loss of oxygen to the atmosphere from the supersaturated surface waters or the marsh plants. Subsequent decomposition of these organisms and their wastes in the deeper waters leads to oxygen deple- tion. Several deeper coastal plain estuaries and fjords show oxygen depletion from this sequence. Addition of mineral and organic plant nutrients to such regions may intensify the production and subsequent decomposition processes. The effects of particular additions will depend on the water depths and rate of vertical mixing, and it is necessary to construct an oxygen balance model for each case. Sewage treatment that consists of partial or nearly complete miner- alization of the organic materials may still produce a dis- charge that will damage the aquatic system, i.e., an amount of organic matter nearly equal in oxygen demand to the original sewage is produced in the environment. The princi- pal effect of many "secondary" treatment systems is the trading of an intense local effect near the outfall for a more widespread effect at greater distances. One of the major considerations in defining water quality recommendations for 'nutrients in any estuarine or coastal region should be the risk associated with oxygen depletions from increased production. Deliberate moderate additions of nutrients to increase the yield of some fishery should also give due regard to this secondary effect. Recommendation Each proposed change in the dissolved oxygen concentration in estuaries and coastal waters should be reviewed for risk of damage to aquatic life. The limited laboratory data and field obser- vations on marine organisms suggest that easily observed effects, which are in many cases deleteri- ous, occur with dissolved oxygen concentrations of 4 to 5 mgfl as daily minimum values for periods of several days. As a guideline, therefore, reduction of the dissolved oxygen concentration to values below 4 mg/1 can be expected to change the kinds and abundances of the aquatic organisms in the affected volume of water and area of bottom. Par- ticular attention should be directed toward identi- fying species with restricted spawning and nursery areas and conservatism should be used in applying guidelines to these areas. (See the expanded dis- cussion in Section III, pp. 131-135.) RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE AQUia!C ENVIRONMENT This section considers radioactivity in all surface waters inhabited by plants and animals including fresh, estuarine, and marine waters of the U.S. The subject matter pertains primarily to the impact of environmental radioactivity on aquatic organisms, although it also contains some discussion of human radiation exposure from aquatic food chains. A recent report by the National Academy of Sciences ( 1971) 397 presented a review of radioactivity in the marine environ- ment, and that review has been used extensively in the preparation of this report. !; - Characteristics and Sources of Radioactivity Radiation is the energy emitted spontaneously in the process of decay of unstable atoms of radioisotopes. This energy can exist either in the form of electromagnetic rays or subatomic particles and cannot be detected by man's senses. Radiation can be detected, however, by means of electronic· instruments, and quantities present at very low levels in the environment can be measured with remarkable accuracy. Radioactivity which occurs naturally in the en- vironment originates from primordial radioiso):opes and their decay products (daughters) and from reactions be- tween cosmic rays from outer space and elements in the atmosphere or in the earth. Some of the more abundant primordial radioisotopes in terms of their radioactivity are potassiun? (4°K), palladium (2 34Pd), rubidium (87Rb), uranium (238U) and thorium (2 37T), the first accounting for 90 per cent of the natural radiation in the oceans. While beryllium (7Be) is the most abundant radioisotope produced by cosmic rays, carbon (14C) and hydrogen (3H) (tritium) are biologically the most interesting. The presence of natural radioactivity was unknown until 1896 when Becquerel dis- covered uranium. Until the development of the atomic bomb during World War II, virtually· all of the radio- activity on earth came from natural sour~es. The first man-made radioisotopes were not released into the environment in any significant amounts until the atomic bomb was tested and used in war even though the uranium 235 atom was first split (fissioned) by neutron bombard- ment in 1938. While the release of radioisotopes was dras- tically reduced with the halting of nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere .by signatories of the test ban treaty, radioactive wastes continue to be released from nuclear powered ships and submarines, nuclear power plants, nu- clear fuel reprocessing plants, and to a lesser extent from laboratories and hospitals. Two methods have been used in handling radioactive wastes. High levels have been concen- trated and held in special storage tanks, while low levels of radioactive wastes in small volumes have been diluted and dispersed in the aquatic environment-particularly in the oceans. Some manmade radioisotopes, such as strontium 90 and cesium 137, are the debris of split atoms and are called fission products. Other radioisotopes, such as zinc 65 and cobalt 60, are activation products, produced when stray neutrons from the fission process strike the atoms of stable elements. Cycling of Radioactive Materials The physical, chemical, and physiological behavior of radioisotopes is es- sentially identical with that of the stable isotopes of the same element-at least until disintegration occurs. It should be pointed out, however, that in some instances the physical and chemical states of a radioisotope introduced into the aquatic environment inay vary from that of the stable ele- ment in water. At the time of disintegration, the decaying atoms change into different types of atoms of the same ele- Categories of Pollutants/271 ment or into atoms 9f a different element. If the behavior of a particular element in an ecosystem is known, the be- havior of the radioisotopes of that element can be predicted. The reverse also is true, and radioisotopes can serve as ex- cellent tracers in following the movement of elements through complex environmental systems. Radioactive wastes in the aquatic environment may be cycled through water, sediment, and the biota. Each radioisotope tends to take a characteristic route and has its own rate of movement through various temporary reservoirs. The route taken by tritium is different from that of other radioisotopes. Tritium becomes incorporated in the water molecule and cannot be removed by present waste treatment practices. It is not con- centrated appreciably by either biota or sediments. When radioactive materials enter surface waters they are diluted and dispersed by the same forces that mix and dis- tribute other soluble or suspended materials (National ·Academy of Sciences 195 7). 393 The dominant forces are mechanical dilution that mixes radioisotopes in the waste stream as it leaves an outfall structure; advection and turbu- lent diffusion that mix materials in the receiving waters; and major transport currents that move masses of water over relatively long distances. On the other hand, precipita- tion and sedimentation tend to restrict the area of dis- persion. When first introduced into fresh or marine water, a substantial part of the materials present in radioactive wastes becomes associated with solids that settle to the bot- tom, and many of the radioisotopes are bound chemically to the sediments. The sediments may also be moved geo- graphically by currents. Even though in some instances sediments remove large quantities of radioisotopes from the water, and thus prevent their immediate uptake by the biota, this sediment-associated radioactivity may later leach back to the water and again become available for up- take by the biota. Plants and animals, to be of any significance in the pas- sage of radioisotopes through a food web in the aquatic environment, must accumulate the radioisotope, retain it, be eaten by another organism, and be digested. Radioiso- topes may be passed through several trophic levels of a food web, and concentrations can either increase or decrease from one trophic level to the next, depending upon the radioisotope and the particular prey-predator organisms. This variation among trophic levels occurs because different organisms within the same trophic level have different levels of concentration and different retention times, which depend upon their metabolism or capacity to concentrate a given radioisotope. The concentration of a radioisotope by an organism is usually discussed in terms of a concentration factor: the ratio of the concentration of the radioisotope in the organism to that in its source, that is, the amount in water or food. Radioisotopes with short half-lives are less likely to be highly concentrated in the higher trophic levels of the food chain because of the time required to move from the water to plants, to herbivores, and eventually to carni- 272/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife vores. Organisms that concentrate radioisotopes to a high level and retain them for long periods gf time have been referred to as "biological indicators for radioactivity." These organisms are of value in showing the presence of radio- active materials even though the concentrations in the water may be less than detectable limits. Exposure Pathways The radiation emitted by radioisotopes that are present in aquatic ecosystems can irradiate the organisms in many different ways. In order to evaluate the total radiation dose received by the aquatic organisms, and thus the risk of their being injured, all sources of exposure must be considered. These sources include both natural and man-made radia- tion, both external and internal. Major Sources of External Radiation I Radioiso- topes in the surrounding water that tend to remain in solution, or at least suspended in the water, become associ- ated more readily with aquatic organisms than the radio- isotopes that settle out. 2 Radioisotopes present on or fixed to sediments are significant to aquatic life, particularly to benthic organisms in the vicinity of existing major atomic energy plants. 3 Radioisotopes attached· to the outer surfaces of orga- nisms are of greater significance to micro-organisms, which have a larger surface-to-volume ratios, than shellfish or fish. 4 Cosmic-rays are of relatively minor importance to aquatic life that lives a few feet or more below the water surface, because of the shielding afforded by the water. Major Sources of Internal Radiation l Radioiso- topes in the gastrointestinal tract frequently are not assimi- lated, but during their residence in the tract expose nearby internal organs to radiation. 2 Assimilated radioisotopes are absorbed from water through the integument or from food and water through the walls of the gastrointestinal tract, metabolized, and are in- corporated into tissues where they remain for varying periods of time. Aquatic plants, including algae absorb radioactive materials from the ambient water and from the interstitial water within the sediments. It is difficult to meas:ure the amount of radiation ab- sorbed by aquatic organisms in the environment because they are simultaneously irradiated by radioisotopes within their body, on the surface of their body, in other organisms, in the water, and in sediments. Exposure thus depends on an organism's position in relation to the sediments and to other organisms, and to movement of some species in and out of the contaminated area. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Ionizing radiation absorbed by plant and animal tissue may cause damage at the cellular and molecular levels. The degree of radiation damage to an organism depends upon the source (external or internal), the type (electromagnetic or particulate), the dose rate (intensity per unit of time), and the total dose. Possible effects to the individual orga- nism may include death, inhibition or stimulation of growth physiological damage, changes in behavioral patterns, de~ velopmental abnormalities, and shortening of life span. In addition, the extent of biological damage from radiation can be modified by environmental stresses such as changes in temperature and salinity. Under certain conditions, irradia- tion can cause gross pathological changes which are easily observed, or more subtle changes which are difficult or im- possible to detect. In addition to somatic changes which affect the individual, genetic changes also may occur which may affect the offspring for many generations. At one time, it was widely believed that there was a threshold radiation dose below which damage did not occur, but now the con- sensus of most radio biologists is that any increase over back- ground radiation will have some biological effect. While the non-existence of a threshold dose is difficult to prove, most radiation biologists agree that even background levels of radiation from primordial radioisotopes and cosmic rays have resulted in some genetic changes over the ages. These radiation-induced changes usually constitute less than l per cent of all spontaneously occurring mutations (Asimov and Dobzhansky 1966).384 The amount of radiation absorbed by an organism can be expressed in various ways. The rad (radiation absorbed dose) is the unit used to measure the absorbed dose of radia- tion and refers to the absorption of l 00 ergs of energy per gram of irradiated material. Because a rad of alpha or neu- tron radiation produces greater biological damage than a rad of gamma radiation, another unit called the rem (roent- gen equivalent man) also is used. To obtain the rem, or dose equivalent, the number of rads absorbed by the tissue is multiplied by the quality factor and other necessary modify- ing factors to compensate for the effects of different types of radiation. The acute doses of radiation required to produce somatic damage to many species of aquatic organisms have been established within broad limits (National Academy of Sciences 1971).397 Some bacteria and algae can tolerate doses of many thousands of rads, but the mean lethal dose (LD50-30 days) for fish is in the range of several hundred to a few thousand rads. Eggs and early developmental stages are more sensitive than are adults. By comparison, the mean lethal dose for humans is about 300 rads. The acute mean lethal dose has little value in placing re- strictions on the amounts of radioactive material present in aquatic environments. Much more meaningful is the highest level of chronic exposure that results in no demonstrable damage to aquatic populations. A vast amount of research on dose-effect relationships for warm-blooded animals has led to the recommendations on human radiation exposure. People who work with radiation may receive no more than 5 rem in any one year. The recommended limit for the general public is 0.5 rem in one year for individuals but is restricted to only 0.17 rem per year as an average for popu- lations. The lower level permitted for populations is to re- duce the possibility of genetic changes becoming established. Compared with the experimental data available for warm-blooded animals, only a meager amount of informa- tion is available on chronic dose-effect relationships for aquatic forms. The preponderance of available data indi- cates, however, that no effects are discernible on either indi- vidual aquatic organisms or on populations of organisms at dose rates as high as several rads per week. In populations of wild species, genetic damage may be removed by natural selection and somatically weakened individuals aie prob- ably eaten by predators. Consequently, aquatic organisms adversely affected by radiation are not readily recognized in the field. The natural populations of fish that have probably sus- tained the greatest exposure to man-made radioactive ma- terials are those near major atomic energy installations, for example, in the Columbia River near Hanford; in White Oak Creek and White Oak Lake, near Oak Ridge; and in the Irish Sea near Windscale, England. Small fish which received chronic irradiation of about 10.9 rads per day from radioisotopes in the sediments of White Oak Creek produced larger broods but with a higher incidence of abnormal em- bryos (Blaylock and Mitchell 1969). 385 Chironomid larvae living in the bottom sediments and receiving about five rads per week had an increased frequency of chromosomal aberrations but the abundance of the worms was not af- fected. The stocks of plaice in the vicinity of the Windscale outfall have been unaffected by annual dose rates of about 10 rads per year-primarily from the bottom sediments (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1967). 392 Columbia River salmon spawning in the vicinity of the Hanford outfalls have been unaffected by doses in the range of 100 to 200 millirads per week (Watson and Templeton in press):402 These observations on chronic exposure of aquatic organisms provide a subjective assessment of radia- tion sensitivities in natural populations but are not. suffi- ciently definitive to form the basis for the development of water quality recommendations. Restrictions on Radioactive Materials The amounts of radioactive materials present in water must be restricted in order to assure that populations of or- ganisms are not damaged by ionizing radiation and also to limit the amount of radioactive material reaching man via aquatic food chains. Permissible rates of intake of the vari- ous radioisotopes by man have been calculated so that the resulting annual dose is no greater than the recommended limit. Therefore, when the rate of consumption of aquatic organisms is determined, e.g., pounds of fish or shellfish per year, maximum. concentrations of radionuclides permissible in the edible" parts of the organisms can be computed. These maximum concentrations are well below the concentrations which have produced detectable effects on natural aquatic populations. It is probable that the aquatic environment Categories of Pollutants/273 will be protected by the restrictions currently imposed on the basis of human health. The regulations which serve to protect man from radia- tion exposure are the result of years of intensive studies on the biological effects of radiation. Vast amounts of informa- tion have been considered by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (1960,i89 1964,390 1965 391), the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) (1959, 398 197!399 ), and the U.S. Federal Radiation Council (FRC) (1960, 387 19613 88 ), in developing recommendations on the maximum doses of radiation that people may be allowed to receive under various circumstances or that may occur in water. The Drinking Water Standards (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962 400) and the Code of Federal Regulations (1967)386 are responsive to the recommendations of the FRC, ICRP, and NCRP, and provide appropriate protection against unacceptable radia- tion dose .levels to people where drinking water is the only significant source of exposure above natural background. Where fish or other fresh or marine products that have accumulated radioactive materials are used as food by hu- mans, the concentrations of the radiosiotopes in the water must be further restricted to ensure that the total intake of radioisotopes from all sources will not exceed the recom- mended levels. Conclusions Previous attempts to restrict radioactive discharges to marine environments have resulted in recommended maxi- mum permissible concentrations in sea water (National Academy of Sciences 1959a, 394 1959b, 395 1962,396 1971397). These recommendations are most useful as a first approxi- mation in predicting safe rates of discharge of radioactive wastes, but their applicability as water quality recommenda- tions is limited and they are not intended for general use in fresh or estuarine waters where the concentrations of a great variety of chemical elements vary widely. Three approaches to the control of levels of radioactivity in the aquatic environment have been used: (1) controlling the release of radioactivity based upon the specific activity approach-the ratio of the amount of radioactive isotope present to the total amount of the element (microcuries per milligram). (National Academy of Sciences 1962), 396 (2) relating_ the ·effects of radiation upon aquatic organisms caused by a given concentration of a radioisotope or com- binations of radioisotopes in the water, and (3) restricting concentrations of radioisotopes to those permitted in water and food for human consumption. Since concentrations of stable elements vary from one body of water to another, and with 'time, and since adequate data are not available to relate ~ffects of radiation upon aquatic organisms to specific levels cif radioactivity in the water, restrictions contai~ed in the Code of Federal Regu- 274/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife lations (1967)386 on liquid effluents are considered adequate to safeguard aquatic organisms. Because it is not practical to generatize on the extent to which many of the important radioisotopes will be concen- trated by aquatic organisms, nor on the extent to which they will be used for food by people, no attempt is made here to specify maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) for water in reference to uptake by the organisms. Rather, each case requires a separate evaluation that takes into ac- count the peculiar features of the region. Such an evaluation should be approved by an agency of the State or Federal Government in each instance of radioactivity contamina- tion in the environment. In each particular instance of pro- posed contamination, there must be a determination of the organisms present, the extent to which these organisms concentrate the ratioisotopes, and the extent to which man uses the organisms as food. The rates of release of radio- isotopes must be based on this information. Recommendation Aquatic organisms concentrate radioisotopes to various degrees in their tissues. The concentration in sea water should be low enough so that the con- centration in any aquatic species will not exceed Radiation Protection Guides of the U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1961)401 for organisms harvested for use as human food. This recommendation is based upon the assumption that radiation levels which are acceptable as human food will not injure the aquatic organisms including wildlife. SEWAGE AND NUTRIENTS Magnitude of the Problem The discharge of municipal sewage is a major factor affecting· the water quality of receiving systems. Because the amount of municipal waste produced is directly related to the human population, the unit emission rates together with information on the number of people using a system provide an accurate estimate of the load that is imposed on a particular estuary or section of coastal water. The effect of sewage discharges on water quality varies widely and depends on (I) its composition and content of toxic materials, (2) the type and degree of treatment prior to discharge, (3) the amount released, (4) the hydrody- namics of the receiving waters, and (5) the response of the ecosystem. Increasing human population and affluence have resulted in increasing amounts of domestic and in- dustrial wastes. However, because the kind and degree of treatment often can be improved, it should be possible to cope with this pollution problem and to maintain or im- prove the quality of the marine environment. In most cases the discharge of sewage effluent is inten- tional and the source of sewage and sewage treatment products entering marine ecosystems can be described more ~-. --------- TABLE IV-8-Average Sewage Emissions for a Densely Populated Area Constituent Mass emission rate (Ions/day)• Unit emission rate Ob/capila/day) Dissolved solids ........................ . Suspended solids ....................... . 800 .................................. . Total nitrogen (N) ...................... . Phosphate (Po,) ........................ . • For 700 mgd of sewage; population of 7 million. NAS-NRC Committee on Oceanography 1970417, 3,600 565 560 165 100 1.03 0.162 0.160 0.047 0.029 accurately than the sources of other pollutants entering the ecosystem. The volume of discharges and certain aspects of their composition, specifically, the amount of organic mat- ter and the inorganic nutrients, can be monitored continu- ously by existing automated methods. Average values for some important constituents and their emission rates in a densely populated coastal area are given in Table IV -8. Runoff from agriculture areas is an important factor in the nutrient enrichment of freshwater systems, but it is less important to marine systems because relatively fewer farms are concentrated on estuaries and coasts. Nevertheless, agri- cultural practices should be considered. Pesticides, fertil- izers and animal wastes may be carried by rivers into estuaries. Runoff from duck farms was involved in a study on excessive nutrient enrichment by Ryther (1954).422 Commoner (1970)404 has emphasized that in the United States during the last twenty-five years the amount of ni- trogen used in agriculture has increased fourteenfold while the amount of nitrogen released via sewage has increased only seventy per cent. In addition to degradable organic materials derived from fecal and food wastes, municipal sewage .also contains a wide variety of "exotic" or synthetic materials that are non- degradable or degrade slowly and only under special condi- tions (e.g., petroleum residues, dissolved metals, detergents, dyes, solvents, and plasticizers). Some of these adversely affect the biota of receiving waters, and many interfere with the bio~ogical degradation of organic matter either in the treatment plant or in the environment. Because waste treatment technology currently in use is designed to treat the fecal and food materials derived from organic wastes, ap operational definition of municipal sewage "exotics" is all those materials not derived from fecal or food sources. If the exotic materials accumulate in the receiving ecosys- tem, the capacity for recycling of the degradable organic materials may be reduced. Oxygen Depletion Efficient biological degradation of organic materials re- quires dissolved oxygen, and overload of sewage in receiving waters can result in oxygen depletion and secondary effects such as objectionable odors, plant and animal die-off, and generally decreased rates of biological degradation. Such effects can also be created by excessive algal growth and subsequent die-off. The most widely used method for estimating the organic pollution load of a waste is the 5 day Biochemical Oxygen Demand Test (BODs). Discussions of the test (Fair et al. 1968,407 Standard Methods 1971 403) and its limitations (Wilhm and Dorris 1968 426) are available. Among the im- portant limitations of the BODs are: it does not indicate the presence of organics which are not degraded under the pre- scribed conditions; it assumes that no toxic or_inhibitory materials will affect microbial activity; and it does not measure the nitrogeneous oxygen demand of the organic waste. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an alternate procedure for determining the amount of oxidizable ma- terial in a water sample. However, it does not indicate the nature of biological oxygen consumption in a given time, and it does not distinguish between inorganically and or- ganically oxidizable materials. Both BODs and COD measurements must be recognized as being only partial descriptions of the sewage load of a receiving water. While BODs and COD measurements are useful for evaluating treatment systems, these two measurements do not ade- quately assess the environmental impact of a given sewage load (Wilhm and Dorris 1968).426 Excessive Nutrient Enrichment Marine plants, like those on land and in fresh water, re- quire fertilizing elements essential .for their growth and re- production. These essential elements are natural constitu- ents of municipal sewage and the amount that can be added to the marine environment without deleterious effect is de- termined by the stimulated growth of aquatic plants. Even if the major share of the organic material is removed from the sewage in treatment plants, the growth of normal marine plants can increase if the fertilizing elements present in sewage are added to the environment. Sewage treatment plants are designed to remove the organic material and the suspended solids and to decrease the bacterial population by disinfection. In most cases, this is done by processes that release or "mineralize" the plant nutrients which then stim- ulate the growth of algae in the receiving waters. In only a few cases have efforts been made to remove these fertilizers from the effluent to prevent or reduce the excessive growth of plants in the aquatic environment. In the marine environment, growth of phytoplankton is commonly limited by the availability of essential nutrients, the most important of which are phosphorus and nitrogen in available forms. In some cases, shortages of silicate can inhibit the growth of the diatoms and encourage growth of other species. In certain limited areas, other elements such as iron and manganese have been reported as limiting growth of algae, and the presence or absence of other growth stimulating substances, such as vitamin B12, can in- fluence both the amount and the character of plant species Categories of Pollutants/275 capable of growing. It should be noted that in the marine environment, severai elements essential for plant growth such as potassium, magnesium, and sulfur, are present in great excess. Organic material produced by natural phytoplankton populations produces an oxygen demand when the material is consumed or decomposed. Oxygen is produced by the process of photosynthesis, but this production occurs only near the surface during daylight when the amount of light penetrating the water is adequate. Due to the sedimentation of dead organic particulate material, decomposition usually takes place in the deep waters where photosynthetically pro- duced oxygen is not available. The amount of organic material which can be produced by marine phytoplankton as a result of the addition of fertilizing elements is dependent upon the composition of the organic material. Redfield et al. (1963)420 give the fol- lowing ratios as characteristic of living populations in the sea and of the changes which occur in amounts of various elements left in water as a result of algal growth ~0: 276: 138: ~C: 106: 40: ~N 16 77:4:: ~P= l by atoms or l by weight In addition to the readily available forms of phosphorus and nitrogen (dissolved orthophosphate, ammqnia, nitrite, and nitrate), organic forms of phosphorus and nitrogen may be made available by bacterial decomposition. Some dis- solved organic nitrogen compounds are also available for direct assimilation. It should be emphasized that these ratios are not con- stant in the rigorous sense of the stoichiometric ratios in chemistry. The plant cells can both enjoy a "luxury" con- sumption of each element (Lund 1950)414 or survive nutri- tional deficiencies (Ketchum 1939,41° Ketchum et al. 1949 411). In terms of the total production of organic ma- terial these variations are important only when concentra- tions of the elements are unusually low. It has been shown, for example, in New England coastal waters that nitrogen is almost completely removed from the sea water when there is still a considerable amount of phosphorus available in the system. Under these circumstances the plants will continue to assimilate phosphorus, even though total production of organic matter is limited by the nitrogen deficiency (Ketchum et al. 1958,412 Ryther and Dunstan 1971 423). The amount of oxygen dissolved in sea water at equi- librium with the atmosphere is determined by salinity and temperature. Nutrient elements added to the marine en- vironment should be limited so that oxygen content of the water is not decreased below the criteria given in the dis- cussion of Dissolved Oxygen in this Section. In many pol- luted estuaries, the amount of fertilizing elements added in municipal sewage is sufficient to produce enough organic material to completely exhaust the oxygen supply during decomposition. The oxygen content of sea water and of 276/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife fresh water at equilibrium with the atmosphere is presented for different temperatures in Table IV-9. For the purposes of this table, a sea water of 30 parliB per thousand (%o) salinity has been used, which is characteristic of the near- shore coastal waters. The salinity effect on concentration of oxygen at saturation is minor compared to effects _of tem- perature in the normal ranges found in coastal waters. From the ratios of elements given above and the satura- tion values for oxygen, one can derive the effect of nutrient enrichment of marine waters. For example, from an addi- tion of phosphorus and available nitrogen to final concen- trations of 50 and 362.5 micrograms per liter respectively in the receiving water, enough organic material could be produced to remove 6.9 milligrams per liter of oxygen from the water. Data in Table IV-9 indicate that sea water with a salinity of 30 %o and a temperature of 25 C will contain, at saturation, 6.8 milligrams of oxygen per liter. This con- centration of nutrients would thus permit the system to be- come anoxic and would violate the requirement that oxygen not be changed beyond levels expressed in the section on Dissolved Oxygen. Fresh water would contain 8.1 mg/1 of oxygen at saturation at 25 C, so that the same amount of nutrient addition would remove 84 per cent of the available oxygen. The example used might be considered to set an upper limit on the amount of these nutrients added to water. The actual situation is, of course, much more complicated. It is clear from the data in Table IV-9 that summer conditions place the most stringent restrictions on nutrient additions to the aquatic environment. Furthermore, the normal content of nutrients in the natural environment has to be considered. If these were already high, the amount of nutrients that could be added would have to be reduced. As mentioned above, the ratio of elements present in the natural environ- ment would also be important. Nitrogen is frequently the element in minimum supply relative to the requirement of the phytoplankton, and addition of excess phosphorus under these circumstances has less influence than addition of nitro- gen. Differences in the ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus may also modify the type of species present. Ryther (1954),422 for example, found that unusually low nitrogen to phos- phorus ratios in Moriches Bay and Great South Bay on Long Island, New York, encourage the growth of micro- TABLE IV-9-Effects of Salinity and Temperature on the Oxygen Content of Water in Equilibrium with Air at Atmospheric Pressure Temperature C 25 20 to 0 Salinity 0 /DO 30 30 30 30 Richards and Corwin 1956•21. Oxygen mgfl 6.8 7.4 9.1 11.65 Salinity o;oo Oxygen mg/1 8.1 8.9 10.9 14.15 scopic forms of Nannochloris atomus at the expense of the diatoms normally inhabiting this estuary. Many forms of blue-green algae are capable of fixing nitrogen from the gaseous nitrogen dissolved in sea water. Nitrogen deficiencies could be replenished by this mecha- nism so that decrease in phosphorus content without con- comitant decrease in nitrogen content might still lead to overenrichment, as well as shift the dominant phytoplank- ton population. Oxygen content of upper water layers can be increased by exchanges with the atmosphere. This process is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen in the two systems so that the more oxygen deficient the water becomes, the more rapid is the rate of replacement of oxygen in the water by atmospheric oxygen. Finally, mixing and dilution of the contaminated water with adjacent bodies of water could make additional oxygen available. All of these variables must be considered in order to determine acceptable levels at which nutrients present in sewage can be added to an aquatic environment. In fact, many polluted estuaries al- ready contain excessive amounts of these fertilizing elements as a result of pollution by municipal sewage. The effects of ratios of elements discussed above have a very important bearing upon some of the methods of con- trol. For example, the removal of phosphates alone from the sewage will have an effect upon the processes of over- enrichment only if phosphorus is indeed the element limit- ing production of organic matter. When nitrogen is limit- ing, as it is in New England coastal waters according to Ryther and Dunstan (1971),423 the replacement of phos- phorus by nitrogen compounds, such as nitrilotriacetate (NT A) could be more damaging to the ecosystem than con- tinued use of phosphate-based detergents. Pathogenic Microorganisms The fecal coliform index is the most widely used micro- biological index of sanitary quality of an estuary. Fecal coliform indices represent a compromise between the ideal of direct determination of bacterial and viral pathogens in time-consuming laboratory procedures, and the indirect, less indicative but practical exigencies. Laboratory methods for quantitative enumeration of virus currently are being developed and their present status is one of promise, but more time is needed for their evaluation. Bacterial pathogen detection frequently requires special laboratory attention. Virus, in general, may exhibit considerably longer sur- vival times in water and shellfish as compared to fecal coliform bacteria. Under these circumstances a negative E. coli test can give a false impression of the absence of viral pathogens (Slanetz et al. 1965,424 Metcalf and Stiles 1968 415). Fecal coliform multiplication may possibly occur in pol- luted waters leading to further difficulties in interpreting sanitary quality. Disinfection of waste water by chlorine is effective in re- moving most pathogenic bacteria but unpredictable in re- clueing the number of viruses. Differences in resistance of bacteria and virus to chlorination may result in the appear- ance of infectious virus in treated effluents devoid of bac- teria. Failure to demonstrate the presence of viruses would be the best way to insure their absence, but such capability awaits development of methods adequate for quantitative enumeration of virus in water. The pollution of estuaries with waste products has led to the contamination of shellfish with human pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Outbreaks of infectious hep~titis and acute gastroenteritis derived from polluted shellfish have reinforced concern over the dangers to public health associ- ated with the pollution of shellfish waters. The seriousness of viral hepatitis as a world problem has been documented by Mosley and Kendrick (1969). 416 Transmission of infectious hepatitis as a consequence of sewage-polluted estuaries has occurred through consumption of virus-containing shellfish, either raw or improperly cooked. Nine outbreaks of infec- tious hepatitis have been attributed to shellfish (Liu 1970). 413 Contamination of water by sewage leads to the closing of oyster beds to commercial harvesting, denying public use of a natural resource and causing economic repercussions in the shellfish industry. (See the discussion of Shellfish in Section I on Recreation and Aesthetics.) Sludge Disposal into Marine Waters Dumping of sewage sludge in the ocean continues and this practice, although at present indispensable, constitutes a loss of one resource and potential danger for another. A study on the New York Bight sludge and spoil dumping area has shown that an accumulation of toxic metals and petroleum materials appear to have reduced the abundance of the benthic invertebrates that normally rework the sedi- ments in a healthy bottom community (Pearce 1969). 419 Deep Sea Dumping Biological degradation of organic waste materials is gen- erally affected by micro-biota and chemophysical environ- mental factors. The deep sea is increasingly considered for the disposal of organic waste materials. A recent study (Jannasch et al. 1971)409 has shown that rates of bacterial activity in degrading organic materials was slowed by about two orders of magnitude at depths of 5,000 to 15,000 feet as compared to samples kept at equal temperatures (38 F) in the laboratory. Since (a) the disposal of organic wastes should be designed on the basis of rapid decomposi- tion and recycling, and (b) there is no control of the pro- cesses following deep-sea disposal, this environment cannot be considered a suitable or safe dumping site. Potential Beneficial Uses of Sewage Light loads of either organic-rich raw sewage or nutrient- rich biological treatment (secondary) effluent increase bio- logical productivity. Except for short-term data on increased fish and shellfish production, beneficial effects have rarely Categories of Pollutants/277 been sufficiently documented, but at the present time several active research programs are underway. Some degree of nutrient enrichment exists today in most estuaries close to centers of populations. These estuaries remain relatively productive and useful for fishing and recreation. Certain levels of ecosystem modification via organic and nutrient enrichment appear to be compatible with current water uses; however, subtle changes in ecosystems may be accom- panied by later, more extensive change. The possibility of intensive use of essential plant nutrients in waste material to increase the harvestable productivity of estuarine coastal systems has been suggested as a logical way to treat sewage and simultaneously derive an economic benefit. Aquaculture systems would essentially be an ex- tension of the waste treatment process. Conceptually, aqua- culture is a form of advanced treatment. The limiting factor involves problems presented by toxic synthetic chemicals, petroleum, metals, and pathogenic microorganisms in effluents of conventional biological treatment plants. Rationale for Establishing Recommendations It is conceptually difficult to propose a level of nutrient enrichment that will not alter the natural flora because seasonal phytoplankton blooms with complex patterns of species succession are an integral part of the ecology of estuarine and coastal waters. The timing and intensity of blooms vary from year to year and patterns of species suc- cession are frequently different in successive years. The highly productive and variable ecology of estuaries makes it difficult to differentiate between the early symptoms of arti- ficial nutrient enrichment and natural cyclic phenomena. In addition, there have already been major quantitative and qualitative changes in the flora of marine waters close to centers of population. These changes are superimposed on the normal patterns of growth and may not in themselves impair the recreational and commercial use of waters. Simulation modeling has been used to predict the total phytoplankton response to given nutrient inputs with success by O'Connor (1965)418 and DiToro et al. (1971)40" in the San Joaquin Estuary and by Dugdale and Whitledge (1970) 406 for an ocean outfall. Their models predict the phytoplankton response from the interaction of the kind and rate of nutrient loading and the hydrodynamic dis- persal rates. This technique, although not perfect, facilitates evaluation of the ecological impact of given nutrient loads, but does not help in deciding what degree of artificial en- richment is safe or acceptable. Recommendations • Untreated or treated municipal sewage dis- charges should be recognized as a major source of toxic substances. Recommendations for these con- stituents will limit the amount of sewage efH.uent that can be dispersed into estuaries. Reduced degradation rates of highly dispersed materials 278/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife should be considered if the effiuent contains re- fractory organic material. Undegradable synthetic organic compounds do not cause oxygen depletion but can stil_1 adversely affect the ecosystem. Main- tenance of dissolved oxygen standards will not pre- vent the potentially harmful buildup of these materials. Specific quantitative analyses should be done to identify and assess the abundance of these compounds. • The addition of any organic waste to the ma- rine environment should be carefully controlled to avoid decomposition which would reduce the oxy- gen content of the water below the levels specified in the recommendations for oxygen. • Neither organic matter nor fertilizers should be added that will induce the production of organic matter by normal biota to an extent causing an increase in the size of any natural anoxic zone in the deeper waters of an estuary. • The natural ratios of available nitrogen to total phosphorus should be evaluated under each condition, and the element actually limiting plant production should be determined. Control of the amount of the limiting element added to the water will generally control enrichment. • If the maximum amounts of available nitrogen and phosphorus in domestic waste increase the concentration in receiving waters to levels of 50 micrograms per liter of phosphorus and 360 micro- grams per liter of nitrogen, enough organic matter would be produced to exhaust the oxygen content of the water, at the warmest time of the year under conditions of poor circulation, to levels below those. recommended (seep. 275). These concentrations of nutrients are clearly excessive. • The potential presence of pathogenic bacteria and viruses must be considered in waters receiving untreated or treated municipal sewage effiuents. The present quality standards for fecal coliform counts (see pp. 31-32) should be observed. The procedures for the examination of seawater and shellfish as recommended by Hosty et al. (1970)4os should be used. • Disposal of sludge into coastal waters may ad- versely affect aquatic organisms, especially the bottom fauna. Periodic examination samples should determine the spread of such an operation to aid in the control of local waste material loads. The probable transport by currents should be care- fully considered. The dumping of sludge into marine waters should be recognized as a temporary practice. • Disposal of organic wastes into the deep-sea is not recommended until further studies on their fate, their effect on the deep-sea fauna, and the controllability of such a procedure have been com- pleted. SOLID WASTES, PARTICULATE MATTER, AND OCEAN DUMPING Disposal of solid wastes has become one of the most ur- gent and difficult problems in crowded urban centers. Ocean disposal of these waste materials is receiving in- creased attention as land suitable for disposal becomes in- creasingly difficult to find. Solid wastes are of many types and each may have a different impact on the marine environment. Household and commercial rubbish as well as automobiles and sewage sludge are disposed of at sea. Industrial wastes may be either solid or dissolved material, of varying toxicity. Har- bor channels need continuous dredging, temporarily in- creasing the suspended sediment load, and the spoils often are dumped in coastal waters. Building rubble and stone also often are placed in the sea. The impact of disposal of these different materials into the ocean will range from innocuous to seriously damaging. Particulate material is also discharged to the ocean by surface runoff, sewage outfalls, and storm sewers (Muni- cipality of Metropolitan Seattle 1965).464 Much of this material settles to the bottom at or near the discharge site (Gross 1970). 443 An increasingly important method of dis- posal is that of barging solids offshore to be dumped in coastal areas. Table IV-10 shows compilation of the amounts of wastes barged to sea in 1968 on the Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf Coasts (Smith and Brown 1969).476 Dredge Spoils Dredge spoils make up a major share of sea disposal operations. Their composition depends upon the source from which they were obtained. Saila et al. (1968)472 were able to differentiate between dredged spoil from Providence Harbor dumped offshore and sediments of the natural bottom in the dumping area (Rhode Island Sound). Gross (1970)443 suggests that dredge spoil generally consists of a mixture of sands, silts, and wastes which form the surface deposits in harbors. He compared minor element concen- TABLE IV-10-0cean Dumping: Types and Amounts, 1968 (In tons) Wasie type Atlantic Gulf Pacific Total Dredge spoils .......................... 15,808,000 15,300,000 7,320,000 38,428,000 Industrial wastes ....................... 3,013,200 696,000 981,300 4,690,500 Sewage sludge ......................... 4,477,000 0 0 4,477,000 Construction and demolition debris ....... 574,000 0 0 574,000 Solid waste ...........................• 0 26,000 26,000 Explosives ............................. 15,200 0 15,200 Total. ..........................• 23,887,400 15,966,000 8,327,300 48,210,700 Council on Environmental Quality 1970'"· trations in harbor sediments, dredged wastes, and conti- nental shelf sediments. The median values of observed con- centrations were clearly different, although the ranges of concentratioits overlapped. The proportion of dredging spoils from polluted areas is illustrated in Table IV -11. A variety of coastal engineering projects involve changes in suspended loads and sedimentation (I ppen 1966,447 Wicker 1965 480). Because important biotic communities may inhabit the sites selected for these projects, conflicts arise concerning navigational, recreational, fisherie~, con- servation, and municipal uses of the areas (Cronin et al. 1969). 436 Although our know ledge about the effects is limited and the literature is widely scattered, Copeland and Dickens (1969)433 have attempted to construct a picture of how dredging affects estuarine ecosystems from informa- tion gathered in the upper Chesapeake Bay, Maryland,_ Redfish Bay, Texas, and an intracoastal canal in South Carolina. The biological effects of suspended loads, sedimentation, dredging methods and spoil disposal may range from gross damage, .such as habitat destruction and smothering, to more subtle effects under low but chronic conditions of sedimentation over long periods of exposure. The channeli- zation, dumping of spoils, dredging, and filling in the Gulf Coast estuaries had destroyed roughly 200,000 acres of swamp, marsh, and bay bottom areas by 1968 (Chapman 1968,432 Marshall 1968459). Mixtures of clays, silts, fine sands, and organic matter, sometimes referred to as "faunally rich muddy sand," tend to support larger benthic populations than coarse clean un- stable sands, gravels, or soft muds (Carriker 196 7) 430 over or through which locomotion may be difficult (Yonge 1953).482 Close relationships exist between the presence of organic matter, the mechanical nature of sediments, and infaunal feeding habits (Sanders 1956,473 1958,474 McNulty et al. 1962,461 Brett cited by Carriker 1967 430). Ten years after dredging Boca Ciega Bay invertebrate recolonization of canal sediments (92 per cent silt and clay; 3.4 per cent carbon) was negligible. None of 49 fish species caught in these canals (as compared to 80 species in un- dredged areas) was demersal, apparently because of the lack of benthic fish food organisms on or in the canal de- TABLE IV-11-Estimated Polluted Dredge Spoils Total spoils (in tons) Estimated percent of Total polluted spoils Atlantic Coast ................ . Gulf Coast. .................. . Pacific Coast ................ . Total .................. . 15,808,000 15,300,000 7,320,000 38,428,000 total polluted spoils• On tons) 45 31 19 34 7,120,000 4, 740,000 1,390,000 13,250,000 • Estimates of polluted dredge spoils consider chlorine demand; BOD; COD; volatile solids; oil and grease; ooncentrations of phosphorous, nitrogen, and iron; silica content; and color and odor of the spoils. Council on Environmental Quality 1970'" Categories of Pollutants/279 posits (Taylor and Saloman 1968).477 Breuer (1962)42 9 noted that layers of dead oyster shell in South Bay corre- sponded to layers of deposited spoil from dredging and re- dredging of the Brownsville Ship Channel. He thought that this suggested destruction of South Bay oyster populations with each dredging operation. Pfitzenmeyer (1970)470 and Flemer et al. (1967)441 noted a 71 per cent reduction in average number of individuals and a marked reduction in diversity and biomass in a spoil area in upper Chesapeake Bay after dredging ceased. One and one half years after dredging, the number of individuals and species diversity of the spoil disposal area, but not in the channel, were the same as those of the surrounding area. In lower Chesapeake Bay, Harrison et al. (1964)444 ob- served a transitory effect of a dredging and spoil disposal operation on infauna. Resettlement of the dredged and dis- posal areas was very rapid by active migration and hydro- dynamic distribution of juveniles. Mock (1967)463 noted that an unaltered shore in Clear Lake, Texas, produced 2.5 times more post larval and ju- venile brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) and 14 times more post larval and juvenile white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) than a similar bulkheaded shore. In a laboratory study using simi- lar substrates, Williams' (1958)481 data suggested that the type of substrate may exert its influence through its effect on available cover, although a contributing factor may be the different food content of the substrate. Bayless (1968)427 observed higher average hatches of striped bass eggs (Morone saxatillis) on coarse sand (58.9 per cent) and a plain plastic pan (60.3 per cent) than on silt- sand (21 per cent), silt-clay-sand (4 per cent) or muck detritus (none). These results tend to support Mansueti's (1962)458 and Huet's (1965)446 contention that deposition of suspended matter may interfere with or prevent fish reproduction by destruction of demersal eggs in upper estuarine areas. Sewage Sludges Sewage sludges contain about 5 per cent solids which consist of about 55 per cent organic matter, 45 per cent aluminosilicates, and tend to contain concentrations of some heavy metals at least ten times those of natural sedi- ments (Gross 1970).443 Sewage sludge has been dumped off New York Harbor since 1924 in the same area. Studies by Pearce (l970a, 465 b)466 show that the normal bottom populations in an area of about 10 square miles have been eliminated and that the benthic community has been altered over an area of approxi- mately 20 square miles. Even the nematodes, unusually tolerant to pollution, are relatively scarce in the smaller area. In areas adjacent to the sewage sludge disposal area the sea clams have been found to be contaminated by enteric bacteria and the harvest of these clams in this area has been prohibited. The oxygen content of the water near 280/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife the bottom is very low, less than 10 per cent of saturation in August, the warmest time of year. Chemical analysis of the sludge deposits have shown not enly high organic con- tent but also high concentrations of heavy metals and petrochemicals. In this area of the New York Bight, fin-rot disease of fish has been observed and is being investigated (Pearce 1970b). 466 In laboratory tests it has been shown that sludge deposits can cause necrosis of lobster (Homarus americanus) and crab shells and tend to clog their gills so that survival of these species in contact with the sludge de- posits is very brief. In other laboratory experiments, orga- nisms given a choice of substrate tend to avoid the sludge material in favor of the walls of the container or other sur- faces that were made available (Pearce 1970b). 466 These studies have indicated that the disposal of sewage sludge has had disastrous ecological effects on the populations living on or near the bottom. Many aspects associated with sludge dumping in the New York Bight require further investigation. It is not known, for example, how much of the material being dumped there is accumulating and how much is being de- composed. The effects of heavy metals, of oxygen-demand- ing materials, and of other components are imperfectly understood. When the rate of delivery of organic waste materials to an aquatic environment exceeds its capacity to recover, the rate of deterioration can be rapid. If, or when, sewage sludge disposal in this particular area of the New York Bight is terminated studies could determine whether the bottom populations can repopulate the area. Solid Wastes The amount of household and commercial rubbish to be disposed of in the United States is about 5 lbs per capita per day and is expected to increase to 7-72 lbs per capita per day (for a larger population), by the end of the present decade. Proposals have been made to collect and bale waste for transportation to the sea where it would be dumped in waters 1000 meters deep or more. It would be necessary that the bales be compacted to a density greater than sea water so that they would sink, and that no loose floating objects would be released from the bale. Among the suggestions made is that the bales be wrapped in plastic to avoid any leaching from the contents. Pearce (1971)468 reports that bales of compacted garbage wrapped in plastic and reinforced paper disintegrated in a few weeks when placed in water 10 to 20 meters deep off the coast of New Jersey. Compacted bales of refuse were also anchored at a depth of 200 meters off the Virgin Islands Pearce (1970c). 467 These were retrieved and inspected after approximately three months of exposure. Little growth had occurred on the surface of the bales, but some polychaete worms had penetrated the bales to a depth of 2-3 em., and the material within the bale had decomposed to a limited extent. Relatively high counts of total coliform bacteria (96,000 Most Probable Number, MPN) and of fecal coli- forms (1 ,300 MPN) were found in materials retrieved from the interior of the bales, indicating prolonged survival or growth of these nonmarine forms and suggesting a possible hazard of introduction of pathogens to the sea. The eco- logical effects of disposing of these materials are inade- quately known. Disposal ~f solid wastes, including dredging spoils and sewage sludge into the deep waters off the edge of the Conti- nental Shelf (more than 200 meters) has been frequently suggested as a way to protect the inshore biota. However, the rate of decomposition of organic material at the high pressure and low temperature of the deep sea is very much slower than it would be at the same low temperature at atmospheric pressure (Jannasch et al. 1971).449 The orga- nisms in the deep sea have evolved in an extremely constant environment. They are, therefore, unaccustomed to the un- usual stresses which confront organisms in more variable situations typical of coastal waters. Biologists interested in studying the bottom populations of the deep sea are ex- tremely concerned about altering these populations before there is an opportunity to study them thoroughly. Industrial Wastes A wide variety of industrial waste is being dumped at sea. If this is discharged as a solution or slurry from a mov- ing ship or barge it will be diluted in the turbulent wake and by the normal turbulence of the sea (Ford and Ketchum 1952).442 The recommendations for mixing zones (p. 231) and for the constituents of specific waste material included should be applied to each such operation. One such operation which has been extensively studied is the disposal of acid-iron wastes in the New York Bight (Redfield and Walford 1951,471 Ketchum et al. 1951,451 Vacarro et al. 1972,478 Wiebe et al. in press 1972 479). Even though this disposal has proceeded for over twenty years, no adverse effects on the marine biota have been demon- strated. The acid is rapidly neutralized by sea water and the iron is precipitated as nontoxic ferric hydroxide. This is a flocculant precipitate and the only accumulation above normal background levels in the sediments appears to be in the upper end of the Hudson Canyon, close to the specified dumping area. The so-called "acid grounds" have become a favored area among local blue fishermen. More toxic materials would clearly present an entirely different set of problems. This illustrates the need for a rational approach to problems of ocean dumping. Other Solid Wastes Automobiles are sometimes dumped at sea, and some work has been done on an experimental basis in an effort to determine whether artificial reefs can be created from them to improve sport fishing. There is evidence that the number of fish caught over these artificial reefs is greater than over a flat level bottom, but it is not yet certain whether this represents an aggregation of fishes already in the area or an actual increase in productivity. Disposal of building rubble (brick, stone, and mortar) at sea is not widely practiced. Presumably, this material could form artificial reefs and attract population~ of fish, both as a feeding ground and by providing some species with cover. Obviously, the bottom organisms present would be crushed or buried, but Pearce (1970a,465 b)466 found no permanent detrimental effects in the building rubble dis- posal site off New York City. Suspended Particulate Materials In addition to specific waste disposal operations, sus- pended particulate material, seston, may be derived from other sources, and have a variety of biological effects. Par- ticulate material can originate from detritus carried by rivers, atmospheric fallout, biological activity, chemical re- actions, and resuspension from the bottom as a result of currents, storms, or dredging operations. The particles intro- duced by rivers can be rock, mineral fragments, and clay serving as a substrate for microorganisms or affecting light transmission in the water column. In addition, organic matter fragments, which make up 20 to 40 per cent of particles in coastal waters (Biggs 1970,428 Manheim et al. 1970457 ) may comprise 50 per cent to 80 per cent of sus- pended material further offshore. Particle concentrations generally range from 1 to 30 mg/1 in coastal waters to about 0.1 to 1 mg/1 at the surface in the open ocean. Higher con- centrations occur near the bottom. The estimated yearly sediment load from rivers to the world oceans is estimated at 20 to 36 X 10 8 tons with 80 per cent originating in Asia (Holeman 1968). 445 Much of this load is trapped in estuaries and held inshore by the general landward direction of subsurface coastal currents (Meade 1969).462 Gross (1970)443 suggests that 90 per cent or more of particles originating from rivers or discharged to the oceans settles out at the discharge site or never leaves the coastal zone. Average seston values may more than double from natural causes during a tidal cycle. Biggs (1970)428 observed con- centrations in the upper Chesapeake Bay ranging from less than 20 mg/l to greater than 100 mg/l during a single day. Resuspension of bottom sediments by storm waves and cur- rents induced by wind were responsible for this range of concentrations. Masch and Espey (1967)460 found that the total suspended material concentrations in Galveston Bay, Texas, ranged from 72 mg/l in the surface water of the ship channel to over 150 g/l six inches above the bay bot- tom near dredging operations. Normal background. concen- trations in Galveston Bay during times of strong wind action were 200 to 400 mg/l. Background values observed by ·Mackin ( 1961) 456 in Louisiana marshes ~anged from 20 to 200 mg/l. Depending on the amount of overburden, opera- tion times, and rate of discharges, Masch and Espey Categories of Pollutants /281 (1967)460 recorded suspended fixed solids concentrations in dredge discharges "ranging from 3,000 to 29,100 mg/l. The basic relationships between physical and chemical aspects of suspended and deposited sediments and the re- sponses of estuarine and marine organisms are poorly under- stood (Sherk 1971).475 However, there is general agree- ment that particulate material in suspension or settling on the bottom can affect aquatic organisms both directly and indirectly, by mortality or decreased yield. Particles suspended in the water column can decrease light penetration by absorption and scattering and thus limit primary productivity. Resuspended sediments exert an oxygen demand on the order of eight times that of the same material in bottom deposits (Isaac 1965).448 Jitts (1959) 450 found that 80 to 90 per cent of phosphate in solu- tion was absorbed by silt suspensions which might also modify the rate of primary production. However, exchange rates and capacity of sediment can maintain a favorable level of phosphate (l micromole/l) for plant production (Pomeroy et al. 1965). 469 Garritt and Goodgal (1954) 431 postulated a mechanism for phosphate removal, transport, and regeneration by the sediment-phosphate sorption com- plex at different temperatures, pH values, and salinities. Evidence tends to support the contention that nutrient fertilization and possible release of toxic materials can occur with resuspension of bottom material in the water column (Gross 1970).443 This may occur during dredging, disposal and dumping operations, reagitation during storms or floods and from beach erosion. In upper Chesapeake Bay total phosphate and nitrogen were observed to increase over ambient levels by factors of 50 to 1,000 near an over- board spoil disposal project, but no gross effects were ob- served in samples incubated with water from the spoil effluent (Flemer et al. 1967,441 Flemer 1970440). Oyster and clam eggs and larvae demonstrate a remark- able ability to tolerate the variable turbidities of the estu- arine environment at concentrations up to 4.0 g/l (Carriker 1967,430 Davis and Hidu 1969438). Survival and growth of these egg and larval stages reported by Davis (1960)437 and Loosanoff (1962),452 however, indicated a significant effect on survival at suspended particle concentrations of as little as 125 mg/ l. Earlier life stages of the oyster tend to be more sensitive to lower concentrations of suspenqed ma- terial than adults. However, the effects on survival and growth cannot wholly be attributed to particle sizes and concentrations since different particle types may have markedly different effects at similar concentrations. The adult American oyster ( Crassostrea virginica) appears to be a remarkably silt-tolerant organism when not directly smoth- ered by deposited sediments (Lunz 1938,454 ·1942455). Sig- nificantly, mortality of adult oysters was not evident with suspended sediment concentrations as high as 700 mg/1 (Mackin 1961),456 but there was a drastic reduction in pumping rates (57 per cent at 100 mg/1 of silt) observed by Loosanoff and Tommers (1948)453 and Loosanoff 282/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (1962 452). Apparently adult oysters may pump at reduced rates throughout most of their lives when the background suspended particulate matter persists at ~alues observed by Biggs (1970)428 and Masch and Espey (1967 460). Organisms that colonize hard surfaces must contend with a sediment mat of varying thickness. While motile fauna may be able to adjust to short range vertical bottom altera- tions from scour or deposition, " ... the capacity and be- havior of less motile estuarine benthos in adjustment to relatively rapid fluctuations in the bottom level are little known. Fixed epifauna, like oysters and barnacles, perish when covered by sediment, adjustment occurring only in- directly through later repopulation of the area from else- where" (Carriker 1967).430 The highly variable nature of suspended loads (Biggs 1970), 428 the resuspension of bottom accumulations by cur- rents, tidal action and wind, and the feeding and filtering activities of benthic organisms complicate the determination of threshold values or limiting conditions for aquatic or- ganisms. Data are difficult to compare because of differences in methods and approaches. This may indicate a lack of understanding of sedimentation and the difficulty in dis- tinguishing between the effect of light attenuation by sus- pended particles and the effects of these particles on growth and physiology of estuarine and marine organisms (Muni- cipality of Metropolitan Seattle 1965). 464 The observed responses of organisms may not be due to turbidity or total suspended sediment concentration, but to the number of particles, their densities, sizes, shapes, types, presence and types of organic matter and the sorptive properties of the particles. Physical alterations in estuaries and offshore dumping have had obvious effects on estuarine and marine biological resources. These effects have been given little consideration in project planning, however, and little information exists concerning the magnitude of biological change because few adequate studies have been attempted (Sherk 1971).475 Areas of high biological value, such as nursery grounds or habitats for commercially important species, must be pro- tected from sediment damage (Municipality of Metropoli- tan Seattle 1965).464 For example, the exceptionally high value of the Upper Chesapeake as a low salinity fish nursery area has been demonstrated (Dovel 1970).439 Larvae and eggs are particularly sensitive to environmental conditions, and sediment-producing activities in this type of area should be restricted to seasons or periods ofleast probable effects. Results reported from the study of this area, concerning seasonal patterns of biota, the nature of the sediments, and physical hydrography of the area, can be applied to the other areas being considered for dredging, disposal, and dumping. These data, in addition to careful pre-decision surveys or research conducted at the site under considera- tion should provide a guide to efforts to minimize damage and enhance desirable features of the system (Cronin 1970).435 Adequate knowledge of local conditions at sites selected for any sediment-producing activity is essential, however. This will generally require preproject surveys for each site selected because knowledge of ecological impacts of these activities is limited. Data should be obtained on the " ... biological values of the areas involved, seasonal pat- terns of the biota, the nature of the sediments, physical hydrography of the area, and the precise location of pro- ductive or potential shellfish beds, fish nursery areas and other areas of exceptional importance to human uses ... " which are close to or in the site selected (Cronin 1970).435 Appropriate laboratory experiments are also required. These should have value in predicting effects of sedimenta- tion in advance of dredging operations. Eventually, the results of these experiments and field observations should yield sets of environmental conditions and criteria, for ade- quate coastal zone management and competent guidance to preproject decision making (Sherk 1971). 475 The presence of major benthic resources (e.g., oyster beds, clam beds) in or near the selected area should be cause for establishment of a safety zone or distance limit between them and the sediment-producing activity. This would control mortality caused by excessive deposition of suspended particulate material on the beds and prevent spread of spoil onto the beds from the disposal or dumping sites. Biggs (1970)428 found that the maximum slope of deposited spoil was l : l 00 and the average slope was 1 :500 in the Upper Chesapeake. These slopes may prove useful in estimating safety zone limits on relatively flat bottoms. At times, the safety zone would have to be quite large. For example, the areas in New York Bight which are devoid of naturally occurring benthos in the sewage sludge and dredging spoil disposal areas were attributed to toxins, low dissolved oxygen, and the spreading of the deposits (Pearce l970a).4 65 The presence or absence of bottom currents or density flows should be determined (Masch and Espey 1967). 460 If these are present, measures must be taken to prevent transport of deposits ashore or to areas of major benthic .resources. Tolerable suspended sediment levels or ranges should ac- commodate the most sensitive life stages of biologically im- portant species. The present state of knowledge dictates that the critical organism must be selected for each site where environmental modification is proposed. Recommendations The disposal of waste materials at sea, or the transport of materials for the purpose of disposal at sea should be controlled. Such disposal should be permitted only when reasonable evidence is pre- sented that the proposed disposal will not seriously damage the marine biota, interfere with fisheries operations or with other uses of the marine en- vironment such as navigation and recreation, or I I , I I . J. .. ~'i;j cause hazards to human health and welfare. The following, guidelines are suggested: • Disposal at sea of potentially hazardous ma- terials such as highly radioactive material or agents of chemical or biological warfare should be avoided. • Toxic wastes should not be discharged at sea in a way which would adversely affect the marine biota. The toxicity of such materials should be established by bioassay tests and the concentrations produced should conform to the conditions specified in the discussion of mixing, zones (pp. 231-232). • Disposal of materials containing, settleable solids or substances that may precipitate out in quantities adversely affecting, the biota should be avoided in estuarine or coastal waters. • Solid waste disposal at sea should be avoided if floating, material might accumulate in harbors or on the beaches or if such ma- terials might accumulate on the bottom or in the water column in a manner that will deleteriously affect deep sea biota. In connection with dredging, operations or other physical modifications of harbors and estuaries Categories of Pollutants/283 which would increase the suspended sediment load, the following, types of investigations should be undertaken: • Evaluation of the range and types of parti- cles to be resuspended and transported, where they will settle, and what substratum changes or modifications may be created by the proposed activities in both the dredged and the disposal areas. • Determination of the biological activity of the water column, the sediment-water inter- face, and the substrate material to depths which contain burrowing, organisms. • Estimation of the potential release into the water column of sediments, those substances originally dissolved or complexed in the interstitial water of the sediments, and the beneficial or detrimental chemicals sorbed or otherwise associated with particles which may be released wholly or partially after resuspension. • Establish the expected relationship between properties of the suspended load and the permanent resident species of the area and their ability to repopulate the area, and the transitory species which use the area only at certain seasons of the year. 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(1970), Waste removal and recycling by sedimentary processes. F AO Technical Conference on Marine Pollution and its Effects on Living Resources, 12 pp. 444 Harrison, W., M. P. Lynch, and A. G. AltschaefH (1964), Sedi- ments of lower Chesapeake Bay, with emphasis on mass proper- ties. J. Sediment. Petrol. 34(4):727-755. 445 Holeman, J. N. (1968), The sediment yield of major rivers of the world. Water Resour. Res. 4:737-747. 446 Huet, M. (1965), Water quality criteria for fish life, in Biological problems in water pollution. Third seminar, C. M. Tarzwell, ed. (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control. Cincinnati, Ohio), pp. 160-167. 447 Ippen, A. T. ed. (1966), Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics (McGraw- Hill Book Co., Inc., New York). 448 Isaac, P. C. G. (1965), The contribution of bottom muds to the depletion of oxygen in rivers and suggested standards for sus- pended solids, in Biological problems in water pollution. Third semi- nar, C. M. Tarzwell, ed. (U.S. Department of Health, Educa- tion and. Welfare, Public Health Service, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio), pp. 346-354. 449 Jannasch, H. W., K. Eimhjellen, C. 0. Wirsen, and A. Farman- farmaian (1971), Microbial degradation of organic matter in the deep sea. Science 171:672-675. 450 Jitts, H. R. (1959), The adsorption of phosphate by estuarine bottom deposits. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 10:7-21. 451 Ketchum, B. H., A. C. Redfield and J. P. Ayers (1951), The oceanography of the New York Bight, papers in physical ocean- ography and meteorology (M.I.T. and W.H.O.I., Woods Hole, Mass.), 12(1):46. 452 Loosanoff, V. L. (1962), Effects of turbidity on some larval and adult bivalves. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Proc. 14:80-95. 453 Loosanoff, V. L. and F. D. Tommers (1948), Effect of suspended silt and other substances on rate of feeding of oysters. Science 107: 69-70. 454 Lunz, R. G. (1938), Part I. Oyster culture with reference to dredging operations in South Carolina. Part II. The effects of flooding of the Santee River in April 1936 on oysters in the Cape Romain area of South Carolina. Rept. to the U.S. Engineer Office, Charleston, S. C. 455 Lunz, R. G. (1942), Investigation of the effects of dredging on oyster leases in Duval County, Florida, in Handbook of oyster survey, intracoastal waterway Cumberland Sound. to St. Johns River. Special rept. U.S. Army Corps of Engineer, Jacksonville, Florida. Literature Cited/295 456Mackin, J. G. (1961), Qanal dredging and silting in Louisiana bays. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 7:262-319. 457 Manheim, F. T., R. H. Meade, and G. C. Bond (1970), Sus- pended matter in surface waters of the Atlantic continental margin from Cape Cod to the Florida Keys. Science 167:371-376. 458 Mansueti, R. J. (1962), Effects of civilization on striped bass and other estuarine biota in Chesapeake Bay and tributaries. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Proc. 14:110-136. 459 Marshall, A. R .. (1968), Dredging and filling, in Marsh and estuary management symposium proceedings, J. D. Newsom, ed. (T. J. Moran's Sons, Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana), pp. 107-113. 460 Masch, F. D. and W. H. Espey (1967), Shell dredging-afactor in sedimentation in Galveston Bay [Technical report CRWR-7] (Center for Research in Water Resources, Hydraulic Engineering Labora- tory, University of Texas, Austin), 168 p. 461 McNulty, J. K., R. C. Work, and H. B. Moore (1962), Some rela- tionships between the infauna of the level bottom and the sedi- ment in South Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean. 12(3): 322-332. 462 Meade, R. H. (1969), Landward transport of bottom sediment in estuaries of the Atlantic coastal plain. J. Sediment. Petrol. 39:222- 234. 463 Mock, C. R. (1967), Natural and altered estuarine habitats of penaeid shrimp. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Proc. 19: 86-98. 464 Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (1965), Disposal of digested sludge to Puget Sound, the engineering and water quality as- pects. July 1965. Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle, Seattle, Washington. 465 Pearce, J. B. (1970a), The effects of solid waste disposal on benthic communities in the New York Bight. FAO Technical Conference on Marine Pollution and its Effects on Living Resources and Fishing. Rome. 12 pp. 466 Pearce, J. B. (1970b), The effects of waste disposal in the New York Bight. Interim report. Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, U.S. Bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 467 Pearce, J. B. (1970c), Biological survey of compacted refuse sub- merged for three months in 200 meters of water off Virgin Gorda, British Virgin Islands, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, High- lands, N.J. 468 Pearce, J. B. (1971), The effects of solid waste disposal on benthic communities in the New York Bight, paper E-99 in Marine pollu- tion and its effects on living resources and fishing (Food and Agri- cultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome), p. 175. 469 Pomeroy, L. R., E. E. Smith, and C. M. Grant (1965), The ex- change of phosphate between estuarine water and sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10(2): 167-172. 470 Pfitzenmeyer, H. T. (1970), Benthos, in Gross physical biological ef- fects of overboard spoil disposal in upper Chesapeake Bay. Final report to the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife [Special report no. 3; Contribution 397] (University of Maryland, Natural Re- sources Institute, College Park), pp. 26-38. 471Redfield, A. C. and L.A. Walford (1951), A study of the disposal of chemical waste at sea. Report of the Committee for Investiga- tion of \'Vaste Disposal. National Research Council-National Academy of Sciences, Publication NRC 201, 49 p. 472 Saila, S. B., T. T. Polgar, and B. A. Rogers (1968), Results of studies related to dredged sediment dumping in Rhode Island Sound. Annual Northeastern Regional Antipollution conference, proc. July 22-24, 1968, pp. 71-80. 473 Sanders, H. L. (1956), Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-1954. X. The biology of marine bottom communities. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 15:345-414. 474 Sanders, H. L. (1958), Benthic studies in Buzzards Bay. I. Animal- sediment relationships. Limnol. Oceanogr. 3:245-258. 475 Sherk, J. A., Jr. (1971), The effects of suspended and deposited sedi- 296/Section IV-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife ments on estuarine organisms-literature summary and research needs [Contribution 443] (University of Maryland, N~tural Resources Institute, College Park), 73 p. 4 76 Smith, D. D. and R. P. Brown (1969), Marine disposal of solid wastes: an interim summary. Dillingham Corporation, La Jolla, California. · 477 Taylor, J. L. and C. H. Saloman (1968), Some effects of hydraulic dreding and coastal development in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida. U.S. Fish Wildlife Serv. Fish. Bull. 67(2):213-241. 4 78 Vacarro, R. S., G. D. Gruce, G. T. Rowe, and P. H. Wiebe (1972), Acid iron wastes disposal and the summer distribution of standing crops in the New York Bight. Water Research, 6:231-256, Perga- mon Press. m Weihe, P. H., A. D. Grice and E. Hoagland (1972), in press, Acid iron waste as a factor effecting the distribution and abundance of Zooplankton in the New York Bight Part II. Spatial varia- tions in the field and implications for monitoring studies. 480 Wicker, C. F., ed. ( 1965), Evaluation of present state of knowledge of factors affecting tidal hydraulics and related phenomena [Report no. 3] (Committee on Tidal Hydraulics, U.S. Army Corps of Engi- neers, Vicksburg, Mississippi), n.p. 481 Williams, A. B. (1958), Substrates as a factor in shrimp distribu- tion. Limnol. Oceanogr. 3:283-390. 482 Yonge, C. M. (1953), Aspects of life on muddy shores, in, Essays in Marine Biology, S. M. Marshall and A. P. Orr, eds. (Oliver and Boyd, London), pp. 29-49. -~~--_____________________ ......... __ Section V-AGRICULTURAL USES OF WATER TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .......................... . GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES OF WATER .. . WATER FOR HousEHOLD UsEs AND DRINKING .. WATER FOR WASHING AND CooLING RAw FARM PRODUCTS ............................. . WATER FOR WASHING MILK-HANDLING EQUIP- MENT AND CooLING DAIRY PRoDucTs .... . Recommendations .................. . WATER FOR LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISES ... . WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR LIVESTOCK ....••.. Water Consumption of Animals ........ . RELATION OF NuTRIENT ELEMENTS IN WATER To ToTAL DIET ........................ . EFFECT OF SALINITY ON LIVESTOCK ..........• Recommendation ................... . Toxic SuBSTANCES IN LIVESTOCK WATERS .. . Toxic Elements and Ions .............. . Aluminum .......................... . Recommendation .................. . Arsenic ............................. . Recommendation ................... . Beryllium ........................... . Boron ............................... . Recommendation ................... . Cadmium ........................... . Recommendation ................... . Chromium .......................... . Recommendation ................... . Cobalt .............................. . Recommendation ................... . Copper ............................. . Recommendation ................... . Fluorine,, ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Iron ................................ . Lead ............................... . Recommendation ................... . Manganese .......................... . Mercury ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Molybdenum ........................ . Conclusion ......................... . Page 300 301 302 302 302 303 304 304 305 Nitrates and Nitrites .................. . Recommendation ................... . Selenium ............................ . Recommendation ................... . Vanadium ........................... . Recommendation ................... . Zinc ................................ . Recommendation ................... . Toxic Algae ......................... . Recommendation ................... . Radionuclides ........................ . Recommendation ................... . PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR LIVESTOCK) ....... . Entry of Pesticides into Water ......... . Pesticides Occurrence in Water ......... . Toxicological Effects of Pesticides on Livestock .......................... . Pesticides in Drinking Water for Livestock. Fish as Indicators of Water Safety ...... . Recommendation ................... . PATHOGENS AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS ....... . Microbial Pathogens .................. . Parasitic Organisms ................... . 305 307 308 309 309 309 309 309 310 310 310 310 310 311 311 311 311 311 311 312 312 312 312 312 313 313 313 314 314 314 WATER FOR IRRIGATION ................ . WATER QuALITY CoNSIDERATIONS FOR IRRIGA- TION .................................. . Effects on Plant Growth ............... . Crop Tolerance to Salinity ............. . Nutritional Effects .................... . Recommendation ................... . Temperature .... ,_ ................... . Conclusion ........................ . Chlorides ............................ . Conclusion ........................ . Bicarbonates ......................... . Conclusion ............... _. ........ . Sodium ............................. . Nitrate .............................. . Conclusion ........................ . Effects on Soils ....................... . Recommendation ................... . 298 Page 314 315 316 316 316 316 316 317 317 317 317 318 318 318 318 319 319 320 321 321 321 322 323 324 324 324 326 327 328 328 328 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 330 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Soil Aeration ...................... . Acidity and Alkalinity ................ . Recommendation ................... . Suspended Solids ..................... . Effect on Animals or Humans .......... . Radionuclides ........................ . Recommendation ................... . SPECIFIC IRRIGATION WATER CoNSIDERATIONS .. Irrigation Water Quality for Arid and Semiarid Regions ........... .' ....... . Recommendation ................... . Irrigation Water Quality for Humid Re- gions ............................. . Recommendation ................... . PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS .............. . Aluminum .......................... . Recommendations .................. . Arsenic ............................. . Recommendations .................. . Beryllium ........................... . Recommendations .................. . Boron ............................... . Recommendations .................. . Cadmium ........................... . Recommendations .................. . Chromium .......................... . Recommendations .................. . Cobalt .............................. . Recommendations .................. . Copper ............................. . Recommendations .. · ................ . Fluoride ............................ . Recommendations .................. . Page 330 330 332 332 332 332 332 333 333 335 336 338 338 339 340 340 341 341 341 341 341 342 342 342 342 342 342 342 343 343 343 Page Iron................................. 343 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Lead................................ 343 Recommendations................... 343 Lithium.............................. 343 Recommendations................... 344 Manganese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Recommendations................... 344 Molybdenum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Recommendations................... 344 Nickel............................... 344 Recommendations................... 344 Selenium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Tin, Tungsten, and Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Vanadium............................ 345 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Zinc................................. 345 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR IRRIGATION). . . . . . . 345 Insecticides in Irrigation Water. . . . . . . . . . 34 6 Herbicides in Irrigation Water. . . . . . . . . . 346 Residues in Crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 7 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 PATHOGENS............................... 348 Plant Pathogens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Human and Animal Pathogens.......... 350 Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 THE UsE oF WAsTEWATER FOR IRRIGATION.... 351 Wastewater From Municipal Treatment Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Wastewater From Food Processing Plants and Animal Waste Disposal Systems. . . . 353 Recommendations................... 353 LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 299 INTRODUCTION Modern agriculture increasingly depends upon the quality of its water to achieve the fullest production of domestic plants and animals and satisfy general farmstead needs. The quality of its water is important to modern agriculture not only in determining the productivity of plants and animals, but also as it affects the health and wel- fare of the human farm population. Irrigation is one of the largest consumers of water for agricultural use. Differences in crop sensitivity to salinity and toxic substances necessitate the need for evaluating water quality criteria for irrigational purposes. Polluted water can be detrimental to animal health and to the safety and value of agricultural products. Good water quality is an important factor in the health and comfort of rural families needing water for drinking, food preparation, bathing, and laundering. Discussions of water quality requirements relate in turn to problems of pollution posed by urban, industrial, and agricultural wastes. Some naturally occuring constituents, present in surface and groundwaters, can also adversely af- fect agricultural uses of water. Among these substances are suspended solids, dissolved organic and inorganic substances, and living organisms such as toxic algae and organisms as- sociated with food spoilage. Where undesirable natural or foreign substances interfere with optimum water use, man- agement and treatment practices must be implemented. Often there are simple but effective things that a farmer or rancher can do to manage and improve the quality of his water supply. Although considerations of water supply management are important, such matters are beyond the scope of this section on Agricultural Uses of Water, which is restricted to the quality requirements of water for domestic and other farmstead uses, for livestock, and for ir- rigation of crops. Farmsteads typically require water at point of use, of quality equivalent to that demanded by urban populations, particularly for household uses, washing and cooling pro- duce, and production of milk. Water of such high quality is frequently not readily available to the farmstead and often can be obtained only through water treatment. In the near future, water treatment facilities may be a routine installa- tion in any well-designed farmstead operation. It is not the purpose of this section to elaborate upon treatment alterna- tives, but satisfactory treatment possibilities do exist for producing from most raw water a supply that will satisfy the quality needed for most agricultural uses. The task of evaluating criteria and developing recom- mendations is complicated by the need to consider numer- ous complex interactions. For example, it is not practical to discuss water quality criteria for irrigation without con- sidering crop responses to climatic and soil factors and their interrelationships with water. Evaluation of water quality requirements for livestock drinking water is also compli- cated by interactions of such variables as the quantity of water consumed and an animal's sex, size, age, and diet. It should, therefore, be emphasized that evaluating criteria is a complex task, and that using the recommendations in this report made on the basis of those criteria must be guided by expert judgment. 300 GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES OF WATER This section considers quality requirements of water for use by the human farm population and for other uses as- sociated with agricultural operations exclusive of livestock production and crop irrigation. Included are water for household uses, drinking water, and water for preparing produce and milk for marketing. For these purposes finished water of quality at least comparable to that intended for urban users is required at point of use. Farmers and ranchers usually do not have access to the large, well-controlled water supplies of most municipalities and typically must make the best use of available surface or groundwater supplies. But there are problems associated with the use of these waters, which often contain objection- able natural constituents. These may be classified as sus- pended solids, dissolved inorganic salts and minerals, dis- solved organic constituents, and living organisms, all of which occur naturally and are not introduced by man or as a result of his activities. Suspended solids are organic and inorganic particles found in water supplies. They include sand, which is com- monly associated with well supplies, and silt and clay fre- quantly found in untreated surface waters. Dissolved in- organic salts and minerals are found in both surface and groundwaters. Most of these are soluble salts consisting of calcium, magnesium, and sodium with associated anions (i.e., carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride). Great- est concentrations are found in the waters of arid and semi- arid regions and in brackish waters along the sea coasts. In some western rivers total dissolved solids exceed 5,000 milli- grams per liter (mg/1), although many contain less than 2,000 mg/1 (Livingstone 1963).24* Surface waters draining from areas high in organic materials such as swamps and bogs often contain dissolved organic constituents composed mainly of hydroxy-carboxylic acids (Lamar and Goerlitz 1966,21 Lamar 196820) that impart a yellow or brown color to the water. Coloration often ranges from 100 to 800 platinum cobalt units compared to the 15 recommended by * Citations are listed at the end of the Section. They can be located alphabetically within subtopics or by their superscript numbers which run consecutively across subtopics for the entire Section. the federal Drinking Water Standards (Environmental Protection Agency 1972 11). t Living organisms in standing bodies of water that impart objectionable odors and tastes for human consumption include algae, diatoms, and proto- zoa. Because these constituents even in a properly protected supply of raw water used on farmsteads cause water quality that does not satisfactorily approximate the quality of potable water, it may be necessary to resort to water treat- ment. The wide range of quality characteristics associated with raw agricultural water supplies is matched by a broad range of water treatment methods. Microbial contaminants such as pathogenic or food spoilage bacteria, often present in surface waters; indicate that treatment is required to pro- duce suitable water supplies. Treatments available include the use of halogens or sodium hypochlorite (Bauman and Ludwig 1962,5 Black et al. 1965,7 Kjellander and Lund 1965,17 Water Systems Council 1965-1966,41 Oliver 1966,30 Laubusch 197122), ozone (O'Donovan 1965),29 silver (Shaw 1966,32 Behrman 1968 6), ultraviolet sterilization (Kristoffersen 1958,19 Huff et al. 196514), and heat (Shaw 1966)32 • Reviews of some of the problems associated with farmstead water supplies and possible methods of treatment are given by Wright (1956), 42 Davis (1960), 8 Malaney et al. (1962),26 James (1965),1 5 Water Systems Council (1965- 1966),41 Elms (1966),1° Kabler and Kreissl (1966),16 Stover (1966),33 and Atherton (1970).2 Farmers, however, should seek expert advice in selecting from various treatment alter- natives in order to achieve the desired quality of finished water. A troublesome aspect of water quality for general farm- stead uses, particularly regarding the handling of produce and milk, involves nonpathogenic bacterial contaminants. Many such microorganisms including algae are found even in properly protected agricultural water supplies (Thomas 1949,34 Walters 1964),40 and various kinds contribute to problems of color, odor, taste, and to rapid spoilage of con- t Throughout this report, all references to the federal Drinking Water Standards are to those published by the Environmental Pro- tection Agency, 1972.11 301 302/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water taminated products (American Water Works Assoc. Com- mittee on Tastes and Odors 1970,1 Mackenthun and Keup 1970).25 For example, offensive odors areoften attributable to sulfate-reducing bacteria (Lewis 1965).23 Victoreen (1969)39 discussed water coloration probloms caused by Arthrobacter, a species of soil bacteria. Growths of "iron bacteria" in pipes may result in slimy masses that clog pipes and produce undesirable flavors (Kabler and Kreiss! 1966).16 Ropy milk, i.e., milk that forms threads or viscous masses when poured or dipped, is a typical problem often attributable to contaminated water (Thomas 1949,34 Davis 1960 8). Psychrophilic bacteria can affect the storage quality of milk and other food products (Davis 1960,8 Malaney et al. 1962,26 Ayres 1963,4 Thomas et al. 1966).36 Similarly, thermoduric microorganisms are a problem in some farm- stead water supplies, since they can withstand milk pas- teurization t~mperatures and lead to spoilage (Thomas 1949,34 Davis 1960,8 Malaney et al. 1962). 26 Numerical recommendations for permissible levels of these and other nonpathogenic organisms have little current usefulness, because approximately 1 70 species of bacteria are known to occur in raw water supplies, and only half of them are ob- served during routine bacteriological examinations (Thomas 1949,34 Malaney et al. 196226). Similarly minimal contami- nation of perishable raw food materials with small residues of rinse water or splash can result in rapid growth under suitable temperature conditions to cause early spoilage of a high quality product. Malaney et al. (1962)26 stated that simple, commonly used water treatment processes render raw water supplies suitable for farmstead uses including handling of produce and milk. WATER FOR HOUSEHOLD USES AND DRINKING Every farm should have a dependable water supply that is palatable and safe for domestic use. This requirement dictates that the finished water be of quality comparable to that designated by the federal Drinking Water Standards for water supply systems used by interstate carriers and others subject to federal quarantine regulations. These standards have been found to be reasonable in terms of both the possibility of compliance and the acceptability of such water for domestic farmstead uses. Groundwater sources are generally regarded as providing a more dependable supply and as being less variaole in composition than surface water sources. However, many groundwater supplies contain excessive concentrations of soluble salts composed of calcium, magnesium, and associ- ated anions (carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride), or hydrogen sulfide. They can cause taste, odor, acidity, and staining problems (Wright 1956,42 Dougan 1966,9 Kabler and Kreissl 1966,1 6 Klumb 1966,18 Behrman ~ 9686). In the ground waters of western states high concentrations of nitrates may occur. Levels may exceed the concentration of 10 mg/1 of nitrate-nitrogen recommended by Section II on Public Water Supplies. Because all supplies are subject to contamination, care must be exercised in both the installation and maintenance of water systems. Raw water should be free of impurities that are offensive to sight, smell, and taste (Wright 1956)42 and free of significant concentrations of substances and organisms detrimental to public health (see Section II). WATER FOR WASHING AND COOLING RAW FARM PRODUCTS Many root crops, fruits, and vegetables are washed before leaving the farm for the market. Changes in fruit production associated with mechanical harvesting and bulk handling and an ever-increasing emphasis on quality have made the washing and hydrocooling of raw produce a common farm practice. Water for such uses should be of the same quality as that for drinking and household pur- poses, and as such should conform to Drinking Water Standards. It is important that water for processing raw produce be of good quality bacteriologically (Geldreich and Bordner 1971)1 3 and free of substances imparting color, off-flavor, and off-odor (Mercer 1971).27 WATER FOR WASHING MILK-HANDLING EQUIPMENT AND COOLING DAIRY PRODUCTS Water used to clean milk utensils may greatly affect the quality of milk (Atherton et al. 1962),3 and since modern methods of milk production require large volumes of water, its quality must not be detrimental to milk. Stead- ily increasing demands for water due to intensified agri- cultural production have required many farm operators to develop 'Secondary sources of water often of inferior quality (Esmay et al. 1955,12 Pavelis and Gertel 1963). 31 Such supplies should be treated before use in milk-handling equipment (Thomas 1949,34 Thomas et al. 1953 37). The Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance of the United States Public Health Service (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service 1965)3 8 is accepted as the basic sanitation standard for raw milk supplies. Farm water supplies may meet these potable standards yet have a detrimental effect on the quality of modern milk supply. Rinse waters which are potable but contain psychrophylic microorganisms, excessive hard- ness, or iron or copper can have a very deleterious effect on dairy sanitation and milk quality unless properly treated to remove such contaminants (Davis 1960,8 Atherton et al. 1962,3 Atherton 1970,2 Moore 197!28). The traditional con- cepts of potability and softness no longer suffice in this era of mechanized milk-handling systems. Lengthy storage of raw milk prior to pasturization and the possible breakdown ot normal milk constituents by organisms able to grow at refrigeration temperatures may produce unacceptable changes in the quality of fluid milk or other manufactured dairy products (Thomas 1958,35 Davis 1960,8 Thomas et al. 1966 36). Water of quality comparable to that described in Drink- ing Water Standards typically suffices for the production of milk. However, it is important that the water at point of use be clear, colorless, palatable, free of harmful micro- organisms, noncorrosive, and nonscale-forming (Moore 1971).28 Recommendations For general farmstead uses of water, including drinking, other household uses, and handling of General Farmstead Uses of Water /303 produce and milk~ it is recommended that water of the quality designated by the federal Drinking Water Standards be used. Raw water supplies not meeting these requirements should be treated to yield a finished product of quality comparable to drinking water. In general, raw waters should be free of impurities that are offensive to sight, smell, and taste. At point of use, they should be free of significant concentrations of substances and orga- nisms harmful to public health (see Section II: Public Water Supplies) and detrimental to the market value of agricultural products. WATER FOR LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISES Domestic animals represent an important segment of agriculture and are a vital source of food. Like man and many other life forms, they are affected by pollutants in their environment. This section is concerned primarily with considerations of livestock water quality and factors affecting it. These include the presence of ions causing ex- cessive salinity, elements and ions which are toxic, bio- logically produced toxins, radionuclides, pesticide residues, and pathogenic and parasitic organisms. Of importance in determining recommendations for these substances in livestock water supplies are the quantity of water an animal consumes per day and the concentration of the mineral elements in the water supply from which he consumes it. Water is universally needed and consumed by farm animals, but it does not account for their entire daily intake of a particular substance. Consequently, tolerance levels established for many substances in livestock feed do not accurately take into consideration the tolerance levels for those substances in water. Concentrations of nutrients and toxic substances in water affect an animal on the basis of the total amount consumed. Because of this, some assess- ment of the amounts of water consumed by live-stock on a daily basis and a knowledge of the probable quantity of ele- ments in water and how they satisfy daily nutritional re- quirements are needed for determining possible toxicity levels. WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR LIVESTOCK The water content of animal bodies is relatively constant: 68 per cent to 72 per cent of the total weight on a fat-free basis. The level of water in the body usually cannot change appreciably without dire consequences to the animal; therefore, the minimal requirement for water is a reflection of water excreted from the body plus a component for growth in young animals (Robinson and McCance 1952,53 Mitchell 1962 46). Water is excreted from the body in urine and feces, in evaporation from the lungs and skin, in sweat, and in pro- ductive secretions such as milk and eggs. Anything that influences any of these modes of water loss affects the mini- mal water requirement of the animal. The urine contains the soluble products of metabolism that must be eliminated. The amount of urine excreted daily varies with the feed, work, external temperature, water consumption, and other factors. The hormone vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) controls the amount of urine by affecting the reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules and ducts. Under conditions of water scarcity, an animal may concentrate its urine to some extent by reabsorbing a greater amount of water than usual, thereby lowering the animal's requirement for water. This capacity for concen- tration, however, is usually limited. If an animal consumes excess salt or a high protein diet, the excretion of urine is increased to eliminate the salt or the end products of pro- tein metabolism, and the water requirement is thereby increased. The amount of water lost in the feces varies depending upon diet and species. Cattle, for instance, excrete feces with a high moisture content while sheep, horses, and chickens excrete relatively dry feces. Substances in the diet that have a diuretic effect will increase water loss by this route. Water lost by evaporation from the skin and lungs (in- sensible water loss) may account for a large part of the body's"water loss approaching, and in some cases exceeding, that lost in the urine. If the environmental temperature is increased, the water lost by this route is also increased. Water lost through sweating may be considerable, especially in the case of horses, depending on the environmental tem- perature and the activity of the animal. All these factors and their interrelation make a minimal water requirement difficult to assess. There is also the ad- ditional complication that a minimal water requirement does not have to be supplied entirely by drinking water. The animal has available to it the water contained in feeds, the metabolic water formed from the oxidation of nutrients, water liberated by polymerization, dehydration, or synthesis within the body, and preformed water associ- ated with nutrients undergoing oxidation when the energy balance is negative. All of these may vary. The water available from the feed will vary with the kind of feed and with the amount consumed. The metabolic water formed 304 from the oxidation of nutrients may be calculated by the use ~f factors obtained from equations of oxidation of typical proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. There are 41, 107, and 60 grams (g) of water formed per 100 g of protein, fat, and carbohydrate oxidized, respectively. In fasting animals, or those subsisting on a protein deficient diet, water may be formed from the destruction of tissue protein. In general, it is assumed that tissue protein is associated with three times its weight of water, so that per gram of tissue protein metabolized, three grams of water are released. It has been found by careful water balance trials that the w~ter requirement of various species is a function of body surface area rather than weight. This implies that the re- quirements are a function of energy metabolism, and .Adolph (1933)43 found that a convenient liberal standard o± i:otal water intake is l milliliter (ml) per calorie (cal) of heat produced. This method automatically included the in- creased requirement associated with activity. Cattle require somewhat higher amounts of water (1.29 to 2.05 g/cal) than other animals. However, when cattle's large excretion of w~ter in the feces is taken into account, the values are ap- proximately a gram per calorie. !~,For practical purposes, water requirements can be meas- il.red as the amount of water consumed voluntarily under specified conditions. This implies that thirst is a result of heed. Water Consumption of Animals In dry roughage and concentrate feeding programs the water present in the feed is so small relative to the animal's needs that it may be ignored (Winchester and Morris 1956).55 "'··Beef Cattle. Data calculated by Winchester and Mor- fis· (1956)55 indicated that values for water intake vary -t.iidely depending primarily on ambient temperature and dry matter intake. European breeds consumed approxi- lliately 3.5, 5.3, 7.0, and 17 liters of water daily per kilo- gram (kg) dry matter ingested at 40, 70, 90, 100 F, respec- 'iiJeiy. Thus at an atmospheric temperature of 21 C (70 F), ~:450 kg steer on a 9.4 kg daily dry matter ration would , ~onsume approximately 50 liters of water per day, while at ?2'C (90 F) the expected daily water intake would be 66 liters. &·;Dairy Cattle. The calculations of Winchester and , (1956)55 showed how water requirements varied !ith weight of cow, fat content of milk, ambient tempera- tpre; and amount needed per kilogram of milk daily. These f•-:.. .. c~4-·. '. • _ • ~vest1gat10ns indicated that at 21 C (70 F) a cow weighing ·-~·~·-,' . f;])Pr'oximately 450 kg would consume about 4.5 liters of ~ater per kilogram dry feed plus 2. 7 l/kg of milk produced. heifers fed alfalfa and silage obtained about 20 per of their water requirements in the feed. Dairy cattle · more quickly from a lack of water than from a snc1rt>•o-p of any other nutrient and will drink 3.0 to 4.0 kg of per kilogram of dry matter consumed (National Re- Water for Livestock Enterprises/305 search Council, Committ~e on Animal Nutrition, hereafter referred to as NRC 197la).52 Cows producing 40 kg of milk per day may drink up to 110 kg of water when fed dry feeds. Sheep. Generally water consumption by sheep amounts to two times the weight of dry matter feed intake (NRC 1968b). 51 But many factors may alter this value, e.g., ambient temperature, activity, age, stage of production, plane of nutrition, composition of feed, and type of pasture. Ewes on dry feed in winter require four liters per head daily before lambing and six or more liters per day when nursing lambs (Morrison 1959). 48 Swine. Pigs require 2 to 2.5 kg of water per kilogram of dry feed, but voluntary consumption may be as much as 4 to 4.5 kg in high ambient temperature (NRC l968a).50 Mount et al. (1971)49 reported the mean water:feed ratios were between 2.1 and 2. 7 at temperatures between 7 and 22 C, and between 2.8 and 5.0 at 30 and 33 C. The range of mean water consumption extended from 0.092 to 0.184 l/kg body weight per day. Leitch and Thomson (1944)45 cited studies that demonstrated that a water-to-mash ratio of 3: 1 gave the best results. Horses. Leitch and Thomson (1944)45 cited data that horses needed two to three liters of water per kg dry ration. Morrison (1936)47 obtained data of a horse going at a trot that gave off 9.4 kg of water vapor. This amount was nearly twice that given off when walking with the same load, and more than three times as much as when resting during the same period. Poultry. James and Wheeler (1949)44 observed that more water was consumed by poultry when protein was increased in the diet; and more water was consumed with meat scrap, fish meal, and dded whey diets than with an all-plant diet. Poultry generally consumed 2 to 3 kg of water per kilogram of dry feed. Sunde (1967)54 observed that when laying hens, at 67 percent production, were de- prived of water for approximately 36 hours, production dropped to eight per cent within five days and did not re- turn to the production of the controlled hens until 25-30 days later .. Sunde (personal communication 1971)56 prepared a table that showed that broilers increased on daily water consumption from 6.4 to 211 liters per 1,000 birds between two and 35 days of age, respectively. Corresponding water intake values for replacement pullets were 5. 7 to 88.5 liters. RELATION OF NUTRIENT ELEMENTS IN WATER TO TOTAL DIET All the mineral elements essential as dietary nutrients occur to some extent in water (Shirley 1970). 66 Generally the elements are in solution, but some may be present in suspended materials. Lawrence (1968)59 sampled the Chat- tahoochee River system at six different reservoirs and river and creek inlets and found about 1, 3, 22, 39, 61, and 68 per cent of the total calcium, magnesium, zinc, manganese, 306/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water copper, and iron present in suspended materials, respec- tively. Any given water supply requires analysis if dietary decisions are to be most effective. .. In the Systems for Technical Data (STORET) .of the Water Programs Office of the Environmental Protection Agency, data (1971)69 were accumulated from surface water analyses obtained in the United States during the period 1957-1969. These data included values for the mean, maximum, and minimum concentrations of the nutrient elements (see Table V-1). These values obviously include many samples from calcium-magnesium, sulfate- chloride and sodium-potassium, sulfate-chloride type of water as well as the more common calcium-magnesium, carbonate-bicarbonate type. For this reason the mean values for sodium, chloride, and sulfate may appear some- what high. Table V-2 gives the estimated average intake of drinking water of selected categories of various species of farm ani- mals expressed as liters per day. Three values for each of calcium and salt are given for illustrative purposes~ One column expresses the National Academy of Sciences value for daily requirement of the nutrient per day; the second gives the amount of the element contributed by the average concentration of the element (calculated from data in Table V-I) in the average quantity of water consumed daily; the third column gives the approximate percentage of the daily requirements contributed by the water drunk each day for each species of animal. Magnesium, calculated as in Table V-2, was found to be present in quantities that would provide 4 to 11 per cent of the requirements for beef and dairy cattle, sheep, swine, horses, chickens, and turkeys. Cobalt (Co) concentrations obtained by Durum et al. (1971)58 were calculated, as they were more typical of water available to livestock than current values reported in STORET (1971).69 A sufficient amount of Co was present at the median level to supply approximately three to 13 TABLE V-1-Water Composition, United States, 1957-69 (STORET) (Collected at 140 stations) Substance Mean Maximum Minimum No Delos. Phosphorus, mgjl ................... 0.087 5.0 0.001 1,729 Calcium, mg/1. ..................... 57.1 173.0 11.0 510 Magnesium, mg/1 ................... 14.3 137.0 8.5 1,143 Sodium, mg/1 ...................... 55.1 7,500.0 0.2 1,801 Potassium, mgjl .................... 4.3 370.0 0.06 1,804 Chloride, mg/1. .................... 478.0 19,000.0 0.000 37,355 Sulfa1e, mg/1. ...................... 135.9 3,383.0 0.000 30,229 Copper,11gjl. ...................... 13.8 280.0 0.8 1,871 lron,pg/1 ....•..................... 43.9 4,600.0 0.10 1,836 Manganese, 11g/l. .................. 29.4 3,230.0 0.20 1,818 Zinc,pg/1 .......................... 51.8 1,183.0 1.0 1,883 Selenium, pg/1. .................... 0.016 1.0 0.01 234 Iodine•, pg/1 ....................... 46.1 336.0 4.0 15 Cobalt•,11g/l ....................... 1.0 5.0 o·.ooo 720 • Dantzman and Breland (1970)". • Durum et aL (1971)". TABLE V-2-Daily Requirements of Average Concentrations of Calcium and Salt in Water for Various Animals Calcium Sa ltd Daily• ---------------- Animal Beef cattle 450 kg body wt. Nursing cow ............... Finishing steer ............. Da1ry caHie 450 kg body wt. Lactating cow .............. Growing heifer ............. Maintenance, cow .......... Sheep Lactating ewe, 64 kg ........ FaHening lamb, 45 kg ....... Swine Growing, 30 kg ............. Fattening, 60 to 100 kg ...... Lactating sows, 20D-250 kg .. Horses 450 kg body wt Medium work .............. Lactating .................. Poultry Chickens, 8 weeks old ....... Laying hen ................ Turkey .................... .water intake, I Required• daily gm 60 28 60 21 90 76 60 15 60 12 6.8 3.1 6 10.2 8 16.5 14 33.0 40 14 50 30 0.2 1.0 0.2 3.4 0.2 1.2 Average< amLin drinking water, gm 3.4 3.4 5.1 3.4 3.4 0.3 0.2 0.34 0.46 0.80 2.3 2.9 0.011 0.011 0.011 Approx percentage of Req. in water 12 16 22 28 16 10 <1 1 • See discussion on Water Consumption in text for sources of these values. Ami. in< Percentage Required• drinking of Req. in daily gm water, gm water 25 24 66 21 21 13 10 4.3 4.3 28.0 90 90 0.38 0.44 0.38 8.5 8.5 12.7 8.5 8.5 0.9 0.6 0.84 1.12 1.96 5.6 7.1 0.03 0.03 0.03 34 35 19 40 40 20 26 7 • Sources of values are the National Academy of Sciences, NRC Bulletins on Nutrient requirements. < Calculated from Table 1. d Based on sodium in water. per cent of the dietary requirements of beef and dairy cattle, sheep, and horses. The NRC (l97la, 65 1968b61 ) does not state what the cobalt requirements were for poultry and swine. Sulfur values demonstrated that approximately 29 per cent of beef cattle requirements were met at average con- centrations; dairy cattle 21 to 45 per cent; sheep 10 to 11 per cent; and horses 18 to 23 per cent of their requirements. The NRC (197la,65 1968b61 ) do not give sulfur requirements for poultry and swine. Iodine was not among the elements in the STORET accumulation, but values obtained by Dantzman and Breland (1970)57 for 15 rivers and lakes in Florida can be used as illustrative values. Iodine was present in sufficient amounts to exceed the requirements of beef cattle and nonlactating horses and to meet 8 to I 0 per cent of the requirem"ents of sheep and 24 to 26 per cent of those of hens. Phosphorus, potassium, copper, iron, zinc, manganese, and selenium, when present at mean concentrations (Table V-1), would supply daily only one to four per cent or less of that recommended by the NRC ( 1966,60 1968a, 61 1968b, 62 1970,63 197la,64 197lb65) for beef and dairy cattle, sheep, swine, horses, and poultry at normal water consumption levels. If the maximum values shown in Table V-1 are present, some water would contain the dietary requirements of some species in the case of sodium chloride, sulfur, and iodine. Appreciable amounts of calcium, copper, cobalt, iron, I manganese, zinc, and selenium would be present, if water were supplied with the maximum levels present. On the otper hand, if the water has only the minimum concentra- tion of any of the elements present, it would supply very little of the daily requirements. It is generally believed that elements in water solution are available to the animal that consumes the water, at least as much as when present in solid-feeds or dry salt mixes. This was indicated when Shirley et al. ( 1951,67 1957 68) found that P 32 and Ca45, dissolved in aqueous solu- tion as salts and administered as a drench, were.absorbed at equivalent levels to the isotopes, when they were incor- porated in forage as fertilizer and fed to steers, respectively. Many isotope studies have demonstrated that minerals in water consumed by animals are readily absorbed, deposited in their tissues, and excreted. EFFECT OF SALINITY ON LIVESTOCK It is well known that excessively saline waters can cause physiolugical upset or death of livestock. The ions most communly involved in causing excess~ve salinity are calcium, magnesium, sodium, sulfate, bicarbonate, and chloride. Others may contribute significantly in unusual situations, and these may also exert specific toxicities separate from the osmotic effects of excessive salinity. (See Toxic Elements and Ions below.) Early in this century, Larsen and Bailey (1913)80 re- ported that a natural water varying from 4,546 to 7,369 mg/1 of total salts, with sodium and sulfate ions predomi- nating, caused mild diarrhea but no symptoms of toxicity in dairy cattle over a two-year period. Later, Ramsay (1924)91 reported from his observations that cattle could thrive on water containing 11,400 mg/1 of total salts, that they could live under certain conditions on water containing 17,120 mg/1, and that horses thrived on water with 5, 720 mg/1 and were sustained when not worked too hard on water with 9,140 mg/1. The first extensive studies of saline water effects on rats and on livestock were made in Oklahoma (Heller and Lar- wood 1930,16 Heller 1932,74 1933). 75 Rats were fed waters of various sodium chloride concentrations, and it was found among other things that (a) water consumption increased with salt concentration bu_t only to a point after which the animals finally refused to drink until thirst drove them to it, at which time they drank a large amount at one time and then died; (b) older animals were more resistant to the ef- fects of the salt than were the young; (c) the effects of salin- ity were osmotic rather than related to any specific ion; (d) reproduction and lactation were affected before growth effects were noted; (e) there appeared, in time, to be a physiological adjustment to saline waters; and (f) 15,000- 17,000 mg/1 of total salts seemed the maximum that could be tolerated, some adverse effects being ·noted at concen- trations lower than this. With laying hens, 10,000 mg/1 of Water for Livestock Enterprises/307 sodium chloride in the drinking water greatly delayed the onset of egg production, but 15,000 mg/1 or more were re- quired to affect growth over a 10-week period. In swine, 15,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride in the drinking water caused death in the smaller animals, some leg stiffness in the larger, but 10,000 mg/1 did not appear particularly in- jurious once they became accustomed to it. Sheep existed on water containing 25,000 mg/1 of sodium or calcium chloride or 30,000 mg/1 of magnesium sulfate but not with- out some deleterious effects. Cattle were somewhat less re- sistant, and it was concluded that 10,000 mg/1 of total salts should be considered the upper limit under which their maintenance could be expected. A lower limit was suggested for lactating animals. It was further observed that the ani- mals would not drink highly saline solutions if water of low salt content was available, and that animals showing ef- fects of saline waters returned quickly to normal when al- lowed a water of low salt content. Frens (1946)72 reported that 10,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride in the drinking water of dairy cattle produced no symptoms of toxicity, while 15,000 mg/1 caused a loss of appetite, decreased milk production, and increased water consumption with symptoms of salt poisoning in 12 days. In studies with beef heifers, Embry et al. (1959) 71 re- ported that the addition of 10,000 mg/1 of sodium sulfate to the drinking water caused severe reduction in its con- sumption, loss of weight, and symptoms of dehydration. Either 4,000 or 7,000 mg/1 of added sodium sulfate increased water intake but had no effect on rate of gain or general health. Similar observations were made using waters with added sodium chloride or a mixture of salts, except that symptoms of dehydration were noted, and the mixed salts caused no increase in water consumption. Levels of up to 6,300 mg/1 of added mixed salts increased water consump- tion in weanling pigs, but no harmful effects were observed over a three"month period. In Australia, Peirce ( 195 7, 83 1959,84 1960,85 1962,86 1963,87 1966,88 1968a, 89 1968b90) conducted a number of experiments on the salt tolerance of Merino wethers. Only minor harmful effects were observed in these sheep when they were confined to waters containing 13,000 mg/1 or less of various salt mixtures. Nevada workers have reported several studies on the ef- fects of saline waters on beef heifers. They found that 20,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride caused severe anorexia, weight loss, anhydremia, collapse, and certain other symp- toms, while 10,000 mg/1 had no effects over a 30-day period other than to increase water consumption and decrease blood urea (Weeth et al. 1960).97 Additional experiments (Weeth and Haverland 1961)98 again showed 10,000 mg/1 to cause no symptoms of toxicity; while at 12,000 mg/1 adverse effects were noted, and these intensified with in- creasing salt concentration in the drinking water. At a con- centration of 15,000 mg/1, sodium chloride increased the ratio of urine excretion to water intake (Weeth and 308/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water Lesperance 1965), 100 and a prompt and distinct diuresis occurred when the heifers consumed water containing 5,000 or 6,000 mg/1 following water deprivation (Weeth et al. 1968).1°1 While with waters containing about 5,000 mg/1 (Weeth and Hunter 1971)99 or even less (Weeth and Capps 1971)95 of sodium sulfate no specific ion effects were noted, heifers drank less, lost weight, and had increased methemo- globin and sulfhemoglobin levels. A later study (W eeth and Capps 1972) 96 gave similar results, but in addition suggested that the sulfate ion itself, at concentrations as low as 2150 mg/1 had adverse effects. In addition to the Oklahoma work, several studies on the effects of saline water on poultry have been reported. Selye (1943)93 found that chicks 19 days old when placed on experiment had diarrhea, edema, weakness, and respira- tory problems during the first 10 days on water containing 9,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride. Later, the edema disap- peared, but nephrosclerotic changes were noted. Water containing 3,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride was not toxic to four-week-old chicks. Others (Kare and Biely 1948)77 observed that with two- day-old chicks on water containing 9,000 mg/1 of added sodium chloride there were a few deaths, some edema, and certain other symptoms of toxicity. A solution with 18,000 mg/1 of the salt was not toxic; h0wever, when replaced on alternate days by fresh water, neither was it readily con- sumed. Scrivner ( 1946)92 found that sodium chloride in the drink- ing water of day-old poults at a concentration of 5,000 mg/1 caused death and varying degrees of edema and ascites in over half of the birds in about two weeks. Sodium bicarbo- nate at a concentration of 1,000 mg/1 was not toxic, at 3,000 mg/1 caused some deaths and edema; and as the con- centration increased above this, the effects were more pro- nounced. A solution containing 1,000 mg/1 of sodium hy- droxide caused death in two of 31 poults by 13 days, but the remainder survived without effects, and 7,500 mg/1 of sodium citrate, iodide, carbonate, or sulfate each caused edema and many deaths. South Dakota workers (Krista et al. 1961)78 studied the effects of sodium chloride in water on laying hens, turkey poults, and ducklings. At 4,000 mg/1, the salt caused some increased water consumption, watery droppings, decreased feed consumption and growth, and increased mortality. These effects were more pronounced at a higher concentra- tion, 10,000 mg/1, causing death in all of the turkey poults at two weeks, some symptons of dehydration in the chicks, and decreased egg production in the hens. Experiments with laying hens restricted to water containing 10,000 mg/1 of sodium or magnesium sulfate gave results similar to those for sodium chloride. In addition to the experimental work, there have been reports in the literature of field observations relating to the effects of excessively saline water (Ballantyne 1957,7° Gastler and Olson 1957,73 Spafford 1941 94), and a number TABLE V-3-Guide to the Use of Saline Waters for Livestock and Poultry Total soluble salts content of waters Comment (mgjl) Less than 1,000 Relatively low level of salinity. Excellent for all classes of livestock and poultry. 1,000-2,999. . . . . . . . Very satisfactory lor all classes of livestock and poultry. May cause temporary and mild diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to them or watery droppings in poultry. 3,000-4,999. .. .. . . . Satisfactory for livestock, but may cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by ani· mals not accustomed to them. Poor waters for poultry, often causing water feces, increased mortality, and decreased growth, especially in turkeys. 5,000-6,999........ Can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle, for sheep, swine, and horses. Avoid use for pregnant or lactating animals. Not acceptable for poultry. 7,000-10,000. . . . . . . Unfilfor poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk in using lor pregnant or lactating cows, horses, or sheep, or for the young of these species. In general, use should be avoided although older ruminants, horses, poultry, and swine may subsist on them under certain conditions. Over 10,000. . . . . . . . Risks with these highly saline waters are so great that they cannot be recommended for use under any conditions. of guides to the use of these waters for livestock have been published (Ballantyne 1957,70 Embry et al. 1959,71 Krista et al. 1962,79 McKee and Wolf, 1963,81 Officers of the Department of Agriculture and the Government Chemical Laboratories 1950,82 Spafford, 194!94 ). Table V-3 is based on the available published information. Among other things, the following items are suggested for consideration in using this table: • Animals drink little, if any, highly saline water if water of low salt content is available to them. • Unless they have been previously deprived of water, animals can consume moderate amounts of highly saline water for a few days without being harmed. • Abrupt changes from water of low salinity to highly saline water cause more problems than a gradual change. • Depressed water intake is very likely to be accom- panied by depressed feed intake. Table V -3 was developed because in arid or semiarid regions the use of highly saline waters may often be neces- sary. It has built into it a very small margin of safety, and its use probably does not eliminate all risk of economic loss. Criteria for desirability of a livestock water are a some- what different.matter. These should probably be such that the risk of economic loss from using the water for any species or age of animals, lactating or not, on any normal feeding program, and regardless of climatic conditions, is almost nonexistent. On the other hand, they should be made no more severe than necessary to insure this small risk. Recommendation From the standpoint of salinity and its osmotic effects, waters containing 3,000 mg of soluble salts per liter or less should be satisfactory for livestock under almost any circumstance. While some minor physiological upset resulting from waters with salinities near this limit may be observed, eco- nomic losses or serious physiological disturbances should rarely, if ever, result from their use. TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN LIVESTOCK WATERS There are many substances dissolved or suspended in waters that may be toxic. These include inorganic elements and their. salts, certain organic wastes from man's activities, pathogens and parasitic organisms, herbicide and pesticide . residues, some biologically produced toxins, a,.nd radio- nuclides. For any of the above, the concentrations at which they render a water undesirable for use for livestock is subject to a number of variables. These include age, sex, species, and physiological state of the animals; water intake, diet and its composition, the chemical form of any toxic element present, and the temperature of the environment. Naturally, if feeds and waters both contain a toxic substance, this must be taken into account. Both short and long term effects and interactions with other ions or compounds must also be con- sidered. The development of recommendations for safe concentra- tions of toxic substances in water for livestock is extremely difficult. Careful attention must be given to the discussion that follows as well as the recommendations and to any ad- ditional experimental findings that may develop. Based on available research, an appropriate margin of safety, under almost all conditions, of specific toxic substances harmful to livestock that drink the waters a~d to man who consumes the livestock or their products, is reviewed below. Although the margin of safety recommended is usually large, the cri- teria suggested cannot be used as a guide in diagnosing livestock losses, since they are well below toxic levels for domestic animals. Toxic Elements and Ions Those ions largely responsible for salinity in water (sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride,_ sulfate, and bi- carbonate) are in themselves not very toxic. There are, however, a number of others that occur naturally or as the result of man's activities at troublesome concentrations. If feeds and water both contain a toxic ion, both must be con- sidered. Interactions with other ions, if known, must be taken into account. Elements or ions become objectionable in water when they are at levels toxic to animals, where they seriously reduce the palatability of the water, or when they accumulate excessively in tissues or body fluids, rendering the meat, milk, eggs, or other edible product unsafe or unfit for human use. Aluminum Soluble aluminum has been found in surface waters of the United States in amounts to 3 mg/1, but its occurrence at such concentrations is rare because it readily precipitates as the hydroxide (Kopp and Kroner 1970).182 Water for Livestock Enterprises/309 Most edible grasses contain about 15-20 mg/kg of the element. However, there is no evidence that it is essential for animal growth, and very little is found deposited in ani- mal tissues (Underwood 1971).254 It is not highly toxic (McKee and Wolf 1963,1 93 Underwood 1971),254 but Deo- bald and Elvehjem (1935)138 found that a level of 4,000 mg aluminum per kilogram of diet caused phosphorus de- ficiency in chicks. Its occurrence in water should not cause problems for livestock, except under unusual conditions and with acid waters . Recommendation Livestock should be protected where natural drinking waters contain no more than 5 mgfl aluminum. Arsenic Arsenic has long been notorious as a poison. Nevertheless. it is present in all living tissues in the inorganic and in certain organic forms. It has also been used medicinallv. It is accepted as a safe feed additive for certain domestic: animals. It has not been shown to be a required nutrient for animals, possibly because its ubiquity has precluderl th" compounding of deficient diets (Frost 1967).1 49 The toxicity of arsenic can depend on its chemical form. its inorganic oxides being considerably more toxic than organic forms occurring in living tissues or used as feed additives. Differences in toxicities of the various forms are clearly related to the rate of their excretion, the least toxic: being the most rapidly eliminated (Frost 1967,1 49 Under- wood 1971).254 Except in unusual cases, this element should occur in waters largely as inorganic oxides. In waters carry- ing or in contact with natural colloidal material, the soluble arsenic content may be decreased to a very low level by ad- sorption. Wadsworth (1952)260 gave the acute toxicity of inorganic arsenic for farm animals as follows: poultry, 0.05-0.10 g per animal; swine, 0.5-1.0 g per animal; sheep, goats, and horses, 10.0-15.0 g per animal; and cattle, 15-30 g per animal. Franke and Moxon (1936)148 concluded that the minimum dose required to kill 75 per cent of rats given intraperitoneal injections of arsenate was 14-18 mg arsenic per kilogram, while for arsenite it was 4.25-4.75 mg/kg of body weight. When mice were given drinking water containing 5 mg/1 of arsenic as arsenite from weaning to natural death, there was some accumulation of the element in the tissues of several organs, a somewhat shortened life span, but no carcinogenic effect (Schroeder and Balassa 1967).233 In a similar study with rats (Schroeder et al. 1968b),236 neither toxicity nor carcinogenic effects were observed, but large amounts accumulated in the tissues. Peoples (1964)220 fed arsenic acid at levels up to 1.25 mg/ kg of body weight per day for eight weeks to lactating cows. This is equivalent to an intake of 60 liters of water 310/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water containing 5.5 mg/1 of arsenic (10.4 mg of arsenic acid) daily by a 500 kg animal. His results,.indicated that this form of arsenic is absorbed and rapidly excreted in the urine. Thus there was little tissue storage of the element; at no level of the added arsenic was there an increased arsenic content of the milk, and no toxicity was observed. According to Frost (I 967), 149 there is no evidence that I 0 parts per million (ppm) of arsenic in the diet is toxic to any animal. Arsenicals have been accused of b<ring carcinogenic. This matter has been thoroughly reviewed by Frost (1967),1 49 who concluded that they appear remarkably free of this property. Most human foods contain less than 0.5 ppm of arsenic, but certain marine animals used as human food may con- centrate it and may contain over 100 ppm (Frost 1967,1 49 Underwood 19712 54). Permissible levels of the element in muscle meats is 0.5 ppm; in edible meat by-products, 1.0 ppm; and in eggs, 0.5 ppm (U.S. Dept. of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration 1963,255 1964256). Federal Drinking Water Standards list 0.05 mg/1 as the upper allowable limit to humans for arsenic, but McKee and Wolf (1963)193 suggested 1.0 mg/1 as the upper limit for livestock drinking water. The possible role of biological methylation in increasing the toxicity (Chemical Engineer- ing News 1971)126 suggested added caution, however, and natural waters seldom contain more than 0.2 mg/1 (Durum et al. 1971).141 Recommendation To provide the necessary caution, and in view of available data, an upper limit of 0.2 mg/1 of arsenic in water is recommended. Beryllium Beryllium was found to occur in natural surface waters only at very low levels, usually below 1 J.tg/1 (Kopp and Kroner 1970).182 Conceivably, however, it could enter waters in effluents from certain metallurgical plants. Its salts are not highly toxic, laboratory rats having survived for two years on a diet that supplied the element at a level of about 18 mg/kg of body weight daily. Pomelee (1953)223 calculated that a cow could drink almost I ,000 liters of water containing 6,000 mg/1 without harm, if these data for rats are transposable to cattle. This type of extrapolation must, however, be used with caution, and the paucity of additional data on the toxicity of beryllium to livestock precludes recommending at this time a limit for its concen- tration in livestock waters. Boron The toxicity of boron, its occurrence in foods and feeds, and its role in animal nutrition have been reviewed by McClure (1949),190 McKee and Wolf (1963),193 and Underwood (1971).254 Although essential for plants, there is no evidence that boron is required by animals. It has a relatively low order of toxicity. In the dairy cow, 16-20 g of boric acid per day for 40 days produced no ill effects (McKee and Wolf 1963).193 There is no evidence that boron accumulates to any great extent in body tissues. Apparently, most natural waters could be expected to contain concentrations well below the level of 5.0 mg/1. This was the maximum amount found in 1,546 samples of river and lake waters from various parts of the United States, the mean value being 0.1 mg/1 (Kopp and Kroner 1970) .1 82 Ground waters could contain substantially more than this at certain places. Recommendation Experimental evidence concerning the toxicity of this element is meager. Therefore, to offer a large margin of safety, an upper limit of 5.0 mgjl of boron in livestock waters is recommended. Cadmium Cadmium (Cd) is normally found in natural waters at very low levels. A nationwide reconnaissance of surface waters of the United States {Durum et al. 1971)141 revealed that of over 720 samples, about four per cent contained over 10 J.tg/1 of this element, and the highest level was 110 J.tg/1. Ground water on Long Island, New York, contained 3.2 mg/1 as the result of contamination by waste from the elec- troplating industry, and mine waters in Missouri contained 1,000 mg/1 (McKee and Wolf 1963).193 Research to date suggests that cadmium is pot an essential element. It is, on the other hand, quite toxic. Man has been sickened by about 15 ppm in popsicles, 67 ppm in punch, 300 ppm in a cold drink, 530 ppm in gelatin, and 14.5 mg taken orally; although a family of four whose drinking water was reported to contain 47 ppm had no history of ill effects (McKee and Wolf 1963).193 Extensive tests have been made on the effects of various levels of cadmium in the drinking water on rats and dogs (McKee and Wolf 1963).193 Because of the accumlation and retention of the element in the liver and kidney, it was recommended that a limit of 100 J.tg/1, or preferably less, be used for drinking waters. Parizek ( 1960)219 found that a single dose of 4.5 mg Cd/kg of body weight produced permanent sterility in male rats. At a level of 5 mg/1 in the drinking water of rats (Schroeder et al. 1963a)238 or mice (Schroeder et al. 1963b),239 reduced longevity was observed. Intravenous injection of cadmium sulfate into pregnant hamsters at a level of 2 mg Cd/kg of body weight on day eight of gestation caused malforma- tions in the fetuses (Mulvihill et al. 1970).200 Miller (1971)196 studied cadmium absorption and distri- bution in ruminants. He found that only a small part of ingested cadmium was absorbed, and that most of what was went to the kidneys and liver. Once absorbed, its turnover rate was very slow. The cow is very efficient in keeping I " ,,;;,I cadmium out of its milk, and Miller concluded that most major animal products, including meat and milk, seemed quite well protected against cadmium accumulation. Interactions of cadmium with several other trace ele- ments (Hillet al. 1963,172 Gunn and Gould 1967,1 69 Mason and Young 1967)189 somewhat confuse the matter of estab- lishing criteria. Recommendation From the available data on the occurrence of cadmium in natural waters, its toxicity, and its accumulation in body tissues, an upper limit of 50 p.gfl allows an adequate margin of safety for livestock and is recommended. Chromium In a five-year survey of lake and river waters of the United States (Kopp and Kroner 1970),1 82 the highest level found in over 1,500 samples was about 0.1 mg/1, the average being about 0.001 mg/1. In another similar survey (Durum et al. 1971)141 of 700 samples, none contained over 0.05 mg/1 of chromium VI and only 11 contained more than 0.005 mg/1. A number of industrial processes however use the element, which then may be discharged as waste into sur- face waters, possibly at rather high levels. Even in its most soluble forms, the element is not readily absorbed by animals, being largely excreted in the feces; and it does not appear to concentrate in any particular mammalian tissue or to increase in these tissues with age (Mertz 1967,1 94 Underwood 19712 54). Hexavalent chromium is generally considered more toxic than the trivalent form (Mertz 1967).194 However, in their review of this element, McKee and Wolf ( 1963) 193 suggested that it has a rather low order of toxicity. Further, Gross and Heller (1946)168 found that for rats the maximum nontoxic level, based on growth, for chromium VI in the drinking water was 500 mg/1. They also found that this concentration of the element in the water did not affect feed utilization by rabbits. Romoser et al. (1961)226 found that 100 ppm of chromium VI in chick diets had no effect on the perform- ance of the birds over a 21-day period. In a series of experiments, Schroeder et al. ( 1963a, 238 1963b, 239 1964,234 1965235) administered water containing 5 mg/1 of chromium III to rats and mice on low-chromium diets over a life span. At this level, the element was not toxic, but instead it had some beneficial effects. Tissue levels did not increase significantly with age. As a result of their review of chromium toxicity, McKee and Wolf ( 1963) 193 suggested that up to 5 mg /1 of chromium III or VI in livestock drinking water should not be harm- ful. While this may be reasonable, it may be unnecessarily high when the usual concentrations of the element in nat- ural waters is considered. Water for Livestock Enterprises /311 Recommendation An upper allowable limit of 1.0 mg/1 for livestock drinking waters is recommended. This provides a suitable margin of safety. Cobalt In a recent survey of surface waters in the United States (Durum et al. 1971)141 63 per cent of over 720 samples were found to contain less than 0.001 mg/1 of cobalt. One sample contained 4.5 mg/1, one contained 0.11 mg/1, and three contained 0.05-0.10 mg/1. Underwood (1971)264 reviewed the role of cobalt in animal nutrition. This element is part of the vitamin B12 molecule, and as such it is an essential nutrient. Ruminants synthesized their own vitamin B12 if they were given oral cobalt. For cattle and sheep a diet containing about 0.1 ppm of the element seemed nutritionally adequate. A wide margin of safety existed between the required and toxic levels for sheep and cattle, which were levels of 100 times those usually found in adequate diets being well tolerated. Nonruminants required preformed vitamin B12. When administered to these animals in amounts well beyond those present in foods and feeds, cobalt induced polycythemia (Underwood 1971).264 This was also true in calves prior to rumen development; about 1.1 mg of the element per kg of body weight administered daily caused depression of ap- petite and loss of weight. Cobalt toxicity was also summarized by McKee and ·Wolf (1963).1 93 Recommendation In view of the data available on the occurrence and toxicity of cobalt, an upper limit for cobalt in livestock waters of 1.0 mgfl offers a satisfactory margin of safety, and should be met by most natural waters. Copper The examination of over 1,500 river and lake waters in the United States (Kopp and Kroner 1970)182 yielded, at the highest, 0.28 mg/1 of copper and an average value of 0.015 mg/1. These rather low values were probably due in part to the relative insolubility of the copper ion in alkaline medium and to its ready adsorbability on colloids (McKee and Wolf 1963).1 93 Where higher values than those reported above are found, pollution from industrial sources or mines can be suspected. Copper is an essential trace element. The requirement for chicks and turkey poults from zero to eight weeks of age is 4 ppm in the diet (NRC 197lb).206 For beef cattle on rations low in molybdenum and sulfur, 4 ppm in the diet is adequate; but when these elements are high, the copper requirement is doubled or tripled (NRC 1970).204 A dietary level of 5 ppm in the forage is suggested for pregnant and 312/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water lactating ewes and their lambs (NRC l968b203). A level of 6 ppm in the diet is considered adequale for swine (NRC l968a).202 Swine are apparently very tolerant of high levels of copper, and 250 ppm or more in the diet have been used to improve liveweight gains and feed efficiency (Nutrition Reviews 1966a210 ; NRC 1968a).202 On the other hand, sheep were very susceptible to copper poisoning (Underwood 1971),254 and for these animals a diet containing 25 ppm was considered toxic. About 9 mg per animal per day was considered the safe tolerance level (NRC 1968b).203 Several reviews of copper requirements and toxicity have been presented (McKee and Wolf 1963,1 93 Nutrition Re- views 1966a, 210 Underwood 1971). 254 There is very little ex- perimental data on the effects of copper in the water supply on animals, and its toxicity must be judged largely from the results of trials where copper was fed. The element does not appear to accumulate at excessive levels in muscle tissues, and it is very readily eliminated once its administration is stopped. While most livestock tolerate rather high levels, sheep do not (NRC 1968b).2 03 Recommendation It is recommended that the upper limit for cop- per in livestock waters be 0.5 mgjl. Very few natural waters should fail to meet this. Fluorine The role of fluorine as a nutrient and as a toxin has been thoroughly reviewed by Underwood (1971).254 (Unless otherwise indicated, the following discussion, exclusive of the recommendation, is based upon this review.) While there is no doubt that dietary fluoride in appropriate amounts improved the caries resistance of teeth, the element has not yet been found essential to animals. If it is a dietary essential, its requirement must be very low. Its ubiquity probably insures a continuously adequate intake by ani- mals. Chronic fluoride poisoning of livestock has, on the other hand, been observed in several areas of the world, resulting in some cases from the consumption of waters of high fluoride content. These waters come from wells in rock from which the element has been leached, and they often contain 10-15 mg/1. Surface waters, on the other hand, usually con- tain considerably less than 1 mg/1. Concentrations of 30-50 ppm of fluoride in the total ration of dairy cows is considered the upper safe limit, higher values being suggested for other animals (NRC 1971 a) .205 Maximum levels of the element in waters that are tolerated by livestock are difficult to define from available experimental work. The species, volume, and continuity of water consumption, other dietary fluoride, and age of the animals, all have an effect. It appears, however, that as little as 2 mg/1 may cause tooth mottling under some circum- stances. At least a several-fold increase in its concentration seems, however, required to produce other injurious effects. Fluoride from waters apparently does not accumulate in soft tissues to a significant degree. It is transferred to a very small extent into the milk and to a somewhat greater degree into eggs. McKee and Wplf (1963)193 have also reviewed the matter of livestock poisoning by fluoride, concluding that 1.0 mg/1 of the element in their drinking water did not harm these animals. Other more recent reports presented data suggest- ing that even considerably higher concentrations of fluoride in the water may, with the exception of tooth mottling, caused no animal health problems (Harris et al. 1963,166 Shupe et al. 1964,246 Nutrition Reviews 1966b,211 Saville 1967,231 Schroeder et al. l968a237). Recommendation An upper limit for fluorides in livestock drinking waters of 2.0 mgjl is recommended. Although this level may result in some tooth mottling it should not be excessive from the standpoint of animal health or the deposition of the element in meat, milk, or eggs. Iron It is well known that iron (Fe) is essential to animal life. Further, it has a low order of toxicity. Deobald and Elveh- jem (1935)1 38 found that iron salts added at a level of 9,000 mg Fe/kg of diet caused a phosphorus deficiency in chicks. This could be overcome by adding phosphate to the diet. Campbell (1961)124 found that soluble iron salt ad- ministered to baby pigs by stomach tube at a level of 600 mg Fe/kg of body weight caused death within six hours. O'Don- ovan et al. (1963)212 found very high levels of iron in the diet ( 4,000 and 5,000 mg/kg) to cause phosphorus deficiency and to be toxic to weanling pigs. Lower levels (3,000 mg/kg) apparently were not toxic. The intake of water by livestock may be inhibited by high levels of this element (Taylor 1935).250 However, this should not be a common or a serious problem. While iron occurs in natural waters as ferrous salts which are very soluble, on contact with air it is oxi- dized and it precipitates as ferric oxide, rendering it essen- tially harmless to animal health. It is not considered necessary to set an upper limit of ac- ceptability for iron in. water. It should be noted, however, that even a few parts per million of iron can cause clogging of lines to stock watering equipment or an undesirable stain- ing and deposit on the equipment itself. Lead Lake and river waters of the United States usually contain less than '0.05 mg/1 of lead (Pb ), although concentrations in excess of this have been reported (Durum et al. 1971,141 Kopp and Kroner 1970).182 Some natural waters in areas where galena is found have had as much as 0.8 mg/1 ~f the element. It may also be introduced into waters in the ef- fluents from various industries, as the result of action of the water on lead pipes (McKee and Wolf 1963),193 or by deposition from polluted air (NRC 1972).207 A nutritional need for lead by animals has not been demonstrated, but its toxicity is well known. A rather com- plete review of the matter of lead poisoning by McKee and Wolf (1963)193 suggested that for livestock the toxicity of the element had not been clearly established from a quanti- tative standpoint. Even with more recent data (Donawick 1966,139 Link and Pensinger 1966,186 Harbourne et al. 1968,1 65 Damron et al. 1969,131 Hatch and Funnell 1969,1 68 Egan and O'Cuilll970,143 Aronson 1971),108 it is difficult to establish clearly at what level of intake lead becomes toxic, although a daily intake of 6-7 mg Pb/kg of body weight has been suggested as the minimum that eventually gave rise to signs of poisoning in cattle (Hammond and Aronson 1964).164 Apparently, cattle and sheep are considerably more resistant to lead toxicosis than are horses, being remarkably tolerant to the continuous intake of relatively large amounts of the element (Hammond and Aronson 1964,164 Garner 1967,152 Aronson 19711°8 ; NRC 1972 207). However, there is some tendency for it to accumulate in tissues and to be transferred to the milk at levels that could be toxic to man (Hammond and Aronson 1964).1 64 There is some agreement that 0.5 mg/1 of lead in the drinking water of livestock is a safe level (McKee and Wolf 1963) ;193 and the findings of Schroeder and his associates with laboratory animals are in agreement with this (1963a, 238 1963b,2 39 1964,234 1965235). Using I 0 times this level, or 5 mg/1, of lead in the drinking water of rats and mice over their life spans, these authors observed no obvious direct toxic effects but did find an increase in death rates in the older animals, especially in the males. Schroeder et al. (1965)235, observed that the increased mortality was not caused by overt lead poisoning, but rather by an increased susceptibility to spontaneous infections. Hemphill et al. (1971)171 later reported that mice treated with subclinical doses of lead nitrate were more susceptible to challenge with Salmonella typhimurium. Recommendation In view of the lack of information concerning the chronic toxicity of lead, its apparent role in reducing disease resistance, and the very low inci- dence in natural waters of lead contents exceeding the 0.05 mgjllevel, an upper limit of 0.1 mgjl for lead in livestock waters is recommended. Manganese Like iron, manganese is a required trace element, occurs in natural waters at only low levels as manganous salts, and is precipitated in the presence of air as manganic oxide. While it can be toxic when administered in the feed at high Water for Livestock Enterprises /313 levels (Underwood 1911),254 it is improbable that it would be found at toxic levels in waters. It is doubtful that setting an upper limit of acceptability is necessary for manganese, but as with iron, a few milli- grams per liter in water can cause objectionable deposits on stock watering equipment. Mercury Natural waters may contain mercury originating from the activities of man or from naturally occurring geological stores (Wershaw 1970,262 White et al. 1970).263 The element tends to sorb readily on a variety of materials, including the bottom sediments of streams, greatly reducing the levels that might otherwise remain in solution (Hem 1970).170 Thus, surface waters in the United States have usually been found to contain much less than 5 J.tg/1 of mercury (Durum et al. 1971).141 In areas harboring mercury de- posits, their biological methylation occurs in bottom sedi- ments (Jensen and Jerneli:iv 1969)176 resulting in a con- tinuous presence of the element in solution (Greeson 1970) .156 In comparison to the relative instability of organic com- pounds such as salts of phenyl mercury and methoxyethyl mercury (Gage and Swan 1961,1 51 Miller et al. 1961,195 Daniel and Gage 1969,132 Daniel et al. 1971 133) alkyl mercury compounds including methyl mercury (CH3Hg+) have a high degree of stability in the body (Gage 1964,1 50 Miller et al. 1961)195 resulting in an accumulative effect. This relative stability, together with efficient absorption from the gut, contributes to the somewhat greater toxicity of orally administered methyl mercury as compared to poorly absorbed inorganic mercury salts (Swensson et al. 1959).249 The biological half-life of methyl mercury varies from about 20 to 70 days in most species (Bergrund and Berlin 1969)_11 3 Brain, liver, and kidney were the organs that ac- cumulated the highest levels of the element, with the distri- bution of methyl and other alkyl mercury compounds favor- ing nerve tissue and inorganic mercury favoring the kidney (Malishevskaya et al. 1966,1 88 Platonow 1968,222 Aberg et al. 1969).102 Transfer of methyl mercury (Curley et al. 1971),1 30 but not mercuric mercury (Berlin and Ullberg 1963),114 to the fetus has been observed. The element also appeared in the eggs of poultry (Kiwimae et al. 1969)1 80 and wild birds (Borg et al. 1969,118 Dustman et al. 1970)142 but did not seem to concentrate there much above levels found in the tissues of the adult. Data concerning levels of mercury that may be detrimental to hatchability of eggs are too meager to sup- port conclusions at this time. Also, data concerning transfer of mercury to milk is lacking. The animal organs representing the principal tissues for mercury concentration are brain, liver, and kidney. It is desirable that the maximum allowable limit for mercury in livestock waters should result in less than 0.5 ppm of ac- cumulated mercury in these tissues. This is the level now in ~~-~-~~~--~---------- 314/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water use as the maximum allowable in fish used for human con- sumption. Few data are available quantitativ;ly relating dietary mercury levels with accumulation in animal tissues. The ratios between blood and brain levels of methyl mercury appeared to range from 10 for rats to 0.2 for monkeys and dogs (International Committee on Maximum Allowable Concentrations of Mercury Compounds 1969).174 In addi- tion, blood levels of mercury appeared to increase approxi- mately in proportion to increases in dietary intake (Birke et al. 1967115 ; Tejning 1967251 ). Assuming a 0.2 or more blood-to-tissue (brain or other tis- sue) ratio for mercury in livestock, the maintenance of less than 0.5 ppm mercury in all tissues necessitates maintaining blood mercury levels below 0.1 ppm. This would indicate a maximum daily intake of 2.3 JLg of mercury per kilogram body weight. Based upon daily water consumption by meat animals in the range of up to about eight per cent of body weight, it is estimated that water may contain almost 30 JLg/1 of mercury as methyl mercury without the limits of these criteria being exceeded. Support for this approxima- tion was provided in part by the calculations of Aberg et al. (1969)102 showing that after "infinite" time the body burden of mercury in man will approximate 15.2 times the weekly intake of methyl mercury. Applying these data to meat ani- mals consuming water equivalent to eight per cent of body weight and containing 30 JLg/1 of mercury would result in an average of 0.25 ppm mercury in the whole animal body. Recommendation Until specific data become available for the vari- ous species, adherence to an upper limit of 10 JLg/1 of mercury in water for livestock is recommended, and this limit provides an adequate margin of safety to humans who will subsequently not be exposed to as much as 0.5 ppm of mercury through the consumption of animal tissue. Molybdenum Underwood (1971)2 54 reviewed the matter of molyb- denum's role in animal nutrition. While the evidence that it is an essential element is good, the amount of molybdenum required has not been established. For cattle, for instance, no minimum requirement has been set, but it is believed to be low, possibly less than 0.01 ppm of the dry diet (NRC 1970).204 McKee and Wolf (1963)193 reviewed the matter of toxicity of molybdenum to animals, but Underwood (1971)254 pointed out that many of the studies on its toxicity are ot limited value because a number of factors known to influence its metabolism were not taken into account in making these studies. These factors included the chemical form ot molybdenum, the copper status and intake of the animal, the form and amount of sulfur in the diet, and other less well defined matters. In spite of these, there are data to support real species differences in terms of tolerance to the element. Cattle seem the least tolerant, sheep a little more so, and horses and swine considerably more tolerant. While Shirley et al. (1950)2 45 found that drenching steers daily with sodium molybdate in an amount equialent to about 200 ppm of molybdenum in the diet for a period ot seven months resulted in no marked symptoms of toxicity, cattle on pastures where the herbage contained 20-100 ppm of molybdenum on a dry basis developed a toxicosis known as teart. Copper additions to the diet have been used to control this (Underwood 1971).254 Cox et al. (1960)127 reported that rats fed diets containing 500 and 800 ppm of added molybdenum showed toxicity symptoms and had increased levels of the element in their livers. Some effects of the molybdenum in the diets on liver enzymes in the rats were not observed in calves that had been maintained on diets containing up to 400 ppm of the element. Apparently, natural surface waters very rarely contained levels of this element of over 1 mg/1 (Kopp and Kroner 1970),1 82 which seemed to offer no problem. Conclusion Because there are many factors influencing tox- icity of molybdenum, setting an upper allowable limit for its concentration in livestock waters is not possible at this time. Nitrates and Nitrites Livestock poisoning by nitrates or nitrites is dependent upon the intake of these ions from all sources. Thus, water or forage may independently or together contain levels that are toxic. Of the two, nitrite is considerably more toxic. Usually it is formed through the biological reduction of nitrate in the rumen of cattle or sheep, in freshly chopped forage, in moistened feeds, or in waters contaminated with organic matter to the extent that they are capable of sup- porting microbial growth. While natural waters often con- tain high levels of nitrate, their nitrite content is usually very low. While some nitrate was transferred to the milk, Davison and his associates (1964)1 35 found that for dairy cattle fed 150 mg N03N/kg of body weight the milk contained about 3 ppm of N03N. They concluded that nitrates in cattle feeds did not appear to constitute a hazard to human health, and that animals fed nitrate continuously developed some degree of adaptation to it. The LD50 of nitrate nitrogen for ruminants was found to be about 75 mg N03N/kg of body weight when ad- ministered as a drench (Bradley et al. 1940)119 and about 255 mg/kg of body weight when sprayed on forage and feed (Crawford and Kennedy 1960).128 Levels of 60 mg N03N /kg of body weight as a drench (Sapiro et al. 1949)230 and 150 mg N03N/kg of body weight in the diet (Prewitt and Merilan 1958;224 Davison et al. 1964135) had no de- leterious effects. Lewis (l95J)184 found that 60 per cent con- version of hemoglobin to methemoglobin occurred in mature sheep from 4.0 g of N03N or 2.0 g of N02N placed in the rumen, or 0.4 g N02N injected intravenously. As an oral drench, 90 mg N03N/kg of body weight gave peak methemoglobin levels of 5-6 g/100 ml of blood in sheep, while intravenous injection of6 mg N02N/kg of body weight gave similar results (Emerick et al. 1965).144 Nitrate-induced abortions in cattle and sheep have generally required amounts approaching lethal levels (Simon et al. 1959,247 Davison et al. 1962,136 Winter and Hokanson 1964,266 Davison et al. 1965137). Some experiments have demonstrated reductions in plasma or liver vitamin A values resulting from the feeding of nitrate to ruminants (Jordan et al. 1961,178 Goodrich et al. 1964,153 Newland and Deans 1964,209 Hoar et al. 1968173). The destructive effect of nitrites on carotene (Olson et al. 1963213 ) and vitamin A (Pugh and Garner 1963225 ) under acid conditions that existed in silage or in the gastric stomach have also been noted. On the other hand, nitrate levels of about 0.15 per cent in the feed (equivalent to about l per cent of potassium nitrate) have not been shown to influence liver vitamin A levels (Hale et al. 1962,161 W eichenthal et al. 1963,261 Mitchell et al. 1967 197) nor to have other deleterious effects in controlled experiments, except for a possible slight decrease in produc- tion. Assuming a maximum water consumption in dairy cat- tle of 3 to 4 times the dry matter intake (NRC l97la205 ), the concentration of nitrate to be tolerated in the water should be about one-fourth of that tolerated in the feed. This would be about 300 mg/1 of N03N. Gwatkin and Plummer (1946)160 drenched pigs with potassium nitrate solutions, finding that it required in ex- cess of 300 mg N03N/kg of body weight to cause erosion and hemorrhage of the gastric mucosa and subsequent death. Lower levels of this salt had no effect when ad- ministered daily for 30 days. Losses in swine due to metho- globinemia have occurred only with the consumption of preformed nitrite and not with nitrate (Mcintosh et al. 1943,192 Gwatkin and Plummer 1946,160 Winks et al. 1950265 ). Nitrate administered orally as a single dose was found to be acutely toxic at 13 mg N 0 2N /kg of body weight, 8. 7 mg/kg of body weight producing moderate methemo- globinemia (Winks et al. 1950).265 Emerick et al. (1965)144 produced moderate methemoglobinemia in pigs with intra- venous injections of 6.0 mg N02N/kg of body weight and found that the animals under one week of age were no more susceptible to poisoning than older ones. Drinking water containing 330 mg/l N03N fed continu- ously to growing pigs and to gilts from weaning through two farrowing seasons had no adverse effects (Seerley et al. 1965).242 Further, 100 mg/1 of N02N in drinking water had no effect on performance or liver vitamin A values of pigs over a 1 05-day experimental period, and methemo- Water for Livestock Enterprises/315 globin values rema~ned low. This level of nitrite greatly exceeded the maximum of 13 mg/l N02N found to form in waters in galvanized watering equipment and in the presence of considerable organic matter containing up to 300 mg/1 N03N. In special situations involving the presence of high levels of nitrates in aqueous slurries of plant or animal tissues, nitrite accumulation reached a peak of about one-fourth to one-half the initial nitrate concentration (Mcintosh et al. 1943,192 Winks et al. 1950,265 Barnett 1952) .109 This situation was unusual, but since wet mixtures are sometimes used for swine, it must be considered in establishing criteria for water. Levels of nitrate up to 300 mg/1 N03N or of nitrite up to 200 mg/1 of N02N were added to drinking waters without adverse effects on the growth of chicks or production of laying hens (Adams et al. 1966).104 At 200 mg/l N02N, nitrite decreased growth in turkey poults and reduced the liver storage of vitamin A in chicks, laying hens, and turkeys. At 50 mg/1 N02N, no effects were observed on any of the birds. Kienholz et al. (1966)179 found that 150 mg/1 of N03N in the drinking water or in the feed of chicks or poults had no detrimental effect on growth, feed efficiency, methemoglobin level, or thyroid weight, while Sell and Roberts (1963)243 found that 0.12 per cent (1,200 ppm) of N02N in chick diets lowered vitamin A stores in the liver and caused hypertrophy of the thyroid. Other studies have shown poultry to tolerate levels of nitrate or nitrite similar to or greater than those mentioned above (Adams et al. 1967,1°5 Crawford et al. 1969129). Up to 450 mg/1 of N03N in the drinking water of turkeys did not significantly affect meat color (Mugler et al. 1970).199 Some have suggested that nitrate or nitrite can cause a chronic or subclinical toxicity (Simon et al. 1959,247 Mcilwain and Schipper 1963,191 Pfander 1961,221 Beeson l964,m Case 1957 125). Some degree of thyroid hypertrophy may occur in some species with the consumption of subtoxic levels of nitrate or nitrite (Bloomfield et al. 1961,117 Sell and Roberts 1963),243 but possibly not in all (Jainudeen et al. 1965).175 In the human newborn, a chronic type of methe- globinemia may result from feeding waters of low N03N content (Armstrong et al. 1958).107 It appears, however, that all classes oflivestock and poultry that have been studied under controlled experimental conditions can tolerate the continued ingestion of waters containing up to 300 mg/1 of N03N or 100 mg/l of N02N. Recommendation In order to provide a reasonable margin of safety to allow for unusual situations such as extremely high water intake or nitrite formation in slurries, the NOaN plus N02N content in drinking waters for livestock and poultry should be limited to 100 ppm or less, and the N02N content alone be limited to 10 ppm or less. 316/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water Selenium Rosenfeld and Beath (1964)227 hav~ reviewed the prob- lems of selenium poisoning in livestock. Of the three types of this poisoning described, the "alkali disease" syndrome required the lowest level of the element in the feed for its causation. Moxon (1937)198 placed this level at about 5 ppm, and subsequent research confirmed this figure. Later work established that the toxicity of selenium was very similar when the element was fed as it occurs in plants, as selena- methionine or selenocystine, or as inorganic selenite or selenate (Halverson et al. 1962,162 Rosenfeld and Beath 1964,227 Halverson et al. 1966163). Ruminant animals may tolerate more as inorganic salts than do monogastric ani- mals because of the salts' reduction to insoluble elemental form by rumen microorganisms (Butler and Peterson 1961).121 A study with rats (Schroeder 1967)232 revealed that sele- nite, but not selenate, in the drinking water caused deaths at a level of 2 mg/1 and was somewhat more toxic than selenite administered in the diet. However, the results of drenching studies with cattle and sheep (Maag and Glenn 1967)187 indicated that selenium concentration in the water should be slight, if it is any more toxic in the same chemical form administered in the feed. If there are differences with respect to the effect of mode of ingestion on toxicity, they are probably small. To date, no substantiated cases of selenium poisoning in livestock by waters have been reported, although some spring and irrigation waters have been found to contain over I mg/1 of the element (Byers 1935,122 Williams and Byers 1935,264 Beath 1943 110). As a rule, well, surface, and ocean waters appeared to contain less than 0.05 mg/1, usually considerably less. Byers et al. (1938)123 explained the low selenium content as a result of precipitation of the selenite ion with ferric hydroxide. Microbial activity, how- ever, removed either selenite or selenate from water (Abu-Erreish 1967) ;103 this may be another explanation. In addition to its toxicity, the essential role of selenium in animal nutrition (Thompson and Scott 1970)252 must be considered. Between 0.1 and 0.2 ppm in the diet have been recommended as necessary to insure against a deficiency in poultry (Scott and Thompson 1969),241 against white muscle disease in ruminants (Muth 1963),201 and other diseases in other animals (Hartley and Grant 1961) .167 Selenium therapy suggests it as a requirement for livestock in general. Inorganic selenium was not incorporated into tissues to the same extent as it occurred in plant tissue (Halverson et al. 1962,162 1966,163 Rosenfeld and Beath 1964227). It is doubtful that 0.2 ppm or less of added inor- ganic selenium appreciably increased the amount found in the tissue of animals ingesting it. The data of Kubota et al. (1967)183 regarding the occurrence of selenium poisoning suggested that over a good part of the United States live- stock were receiving as much as 0.5 ppm or even more of naturally occurring selenium in their diets continuously, without harm to them and without accumulating levels of the element in their tissues that make meats or livestock products unfit for human use. Recommendation It is recommended that the upper limit for selenium in livestock waters be 0.05 mgjl. Vanadium Vanadium has been present in surface waters in the United States in concentrations up to 0.3 mg/1, although most of the analyses showed less than 0.05 mg/1 (Kopp and Kroner 1970) .182 Recently, vanadium was determined essential for the growing rat, physiologically required levels appearing to be at or below 0.1 ppm of the diet (Schwarz and Milne 1971).240 It became toxic to chicks when incorporated into the diet as ammonium metavanadate at concentrations over about 10 ppm of the element (Romoser et al. 1961,226 Nelson et al. 1962,208 Berg 1963,112 Hathcock et al. 1964169). Schroeder and Balassa (1967)233 found that when mice were allowed drinking water containing 5 mg/1 of vanadium as vanadyl sulfate over a life span, no toxic effects were ob- served, but the element did accumulate to some extent in certain organs. Recommendation It is recommended that the upper -limit for vanadium in drinking water for livestock be 0.1 mgfl. Zinc There are many opportunities for the contamination of waters by zinc. In some areas where it is mined, this metal has been found in natural waters in concentrations as high as 50 mg/1. It occurs in significant amounts in effluents from certain industries. Galvanized pipes and tanks may also contribute zinc to acidic waters. In a recent survey of surface waters, most contained less than 0.05 mg/1 but some exceeded 5.0 mg/1, the highest value being 42 nig/1 (Durum et al. 1971).141 Zinc is relatively nontoxic for animals. Swine have tolerated 1,000 ppm of dietary zinc (Grimmet et al. 1937,157 Sampson et al. 1942,229 Lewis et al. 1957,1 85 Brink et al. 1959120), while 2,000 ppm or more have been found to be toxic (Brink et al. 1959).120 Similar findings have been re- ported for poultry (Klussendorf and Pensack 1958,181 John- son et al. 1962,177 Vohra and Kratzer 1968259) where zinc was added to the feed. Adding 2,320 mg/1 of the element to water for chickens reduced water consumption, egg pro- duction, and body weight. After zinc withdrawal there were no symptoms of toxicity in chickens (Sturkie 1956).248 In a number of studies with ruminants, Ott et al. (1966a,215 b,216 c,217 d 218) found zinc added to diets as the oxide to be toxic, but at levels over 500 mg/kg of diet. While an increased zinc intake reflected an increase in level of the element in the body tissues, the tendency for its accumulation was not great (Drinker et al. 1927,140 Thomp- son et al. 1927,253 Sadasivan 1951,228 Lewis et al. 1957),185 and tissue levels fell rapidly after zinc dosing was stopped (Drinker et al. 1927,140 Johnson et aL 1962177). Zinc is a dietary requirement of all poultry and livestock. National Research Council recommendation for poults up to eight weeks was ~0 mg/kg of diet; for chicks up-to eight weeks, it was 50 mg/kg of diet (NRC 1971 b) ;206 for swine, 50 mg/kg·of diet (NRC l968a).202 There is no established requirement for ruminants, but zinc deficiencies were re- ported in cattle grazing forage with zinc contents ranging between 18 and 83 ppm (Underwood 1971).264 There is also no established requirement for sheep, budambs fed a purified diet containing 3 ppm of the element developed symptoms of a deficiency that were prevented by adding 15 ppm of zinc to the diet; 30 ppm was required to give max- imum growth (Ott et al. 1965).214 Cereal grains contained on the average 30-40 ppm and protein concentrates from 20 to over l 00 ppm (Davis 1966) .134 In view of this, and in view of the low order of toxicity of zinc and its requirement by animals, a limit in livestoc~ waters of 25 mg zinc/1 would have a very large margin of safety. A higher limit does not seem necessary, since there would be few instances where natural waters would carry in excess of this. Recommendation It is recommended that the upper limit for zinc in livestock waters be 25 mg/1. Toxic Algae The term "water bloom" refers to heavy scums of blue- green algae that form on waters under certain conditions. Perhaps the first report of livestock poisoning by toxic algae was that of Francis (1878)147 who described the problem in southern Australia. Fitch et al. (1934)146 reviewed a number of cases of algal poisoning in farm animals in Minnesota between 1882 and 1933. All were associated with certain blue-green algae often concentrated by the wind at one end of the lake. Losses in cattle, sheep, and poultry were re- ported. The algae were found toxic to laboratory animals on ingestion or intraperitoneal injection. According to Gorham (1964)155 six species of blue-green algae have been incriminated, as follows: Nodularia spumigena M icrosystis aeruginosa Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum Gloeotrichia echinulata Anabaena jlos-aquae· Aphani~omenon jlos-aquae Water for Livestock Enterprises/317 Of the above, Gorham states that Microcystis and Ana- baena have most often been blamed for serious poisonings and algal blooms consisting of one or more of these species vary considerably in their tbxicity (Gorham 1964)_155 According to Gorham (1960),1 54 this variability seems to depend upon a number of factors, e.g., species and strains of algae that are predominant, types and numbers of bac- terial associates, the conditions of growth, collection and decomposition, the degree of animal starvation and sus- ceptibility, and the amount consumed. To date, only one toxin from blue-green algae has been isolated and identified, only from a few species and streams. This was a cyclic poly- peptide containing lO amino acid residues, one of which was the unnatural amino acid D-serine (Bishop et al. 1959).116 This is also referred to as FDF (fast-death factor), since it causes death more quickly than SDF (slow-death factor) toxins produced in water blooms. Shilo ( 1967)244 pointed out that the sudden decomposition of algal blooms often preceded mass mortality of fish, and similar observations were made with livestock poisonings. This suggests that the lysis of the algae may be important in the release of the toxins, but it also suggests that in some circumstances botulism may be involved. The lack of oxy- gen may have caused the fish kill and must also be con- sidered. Predeath symptoms in livestock have not been carefully observed and described. Post-mortem examination is ap- parently of no help in diagnosis (Fitch et al. 1934).146 Feeding or injecting algal suspensions or water from suspect waters have been used to some extent, but the occasional fleeting toxicity of these materials makes this procedure of limited value. Identification of any of the toxic blue-green algae species in suspect waters does no more than suggest the possibility that they caused livestock deaths. In view of the many unknowns and unresolved problems relating blooms of toxic algae, it is impossible to suggest any recommendations insuring against the occurrence of toxic algae in livestock waters. Recommendation The use for livestock of waters bearing heavy growths of blue green algae should be avoided. Radionuclides Surface and groundwaters acquire radioactivity from natural sources, from fallout resulting from atmospheric nuclear detonations, from mining or processing uranium, or as the result of the use of isotopes in medicine, scientific research, or industry. All radiation is regarded as harmful, and any unnecessary exposure to it should be avoided. Experimental work on the biological half-lives of radionuclides and their somatic and genetic effects on animals have been briefly reviewed by McKee and Wolf (1963).193 Because the rate of decay of a radionuclide is a physical constant that cannot be changed, 318/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water radioactive isotopes must be disposed of by dilution or by storage and natural decay. In view of J;he variability in half- lives of the many radioisotopes, the nature of their radioac- tive emissions, and the differences in metabolism of various elements by different animals, the results of animal experi- mentation do not lend themselves easily to the development of recommendations. Based on the recommendations of the U. S. Federal Radiation Council (1960,257 196!258), the Environmental Protection Agency will set drinking water standards for radionuclides (1972), 145 to establish the intake of radioac- tivity from waters that when added to the amount from all other sources will not likely be harmful to man. Recommendation In view of the limited knowledge of the effect of radionuclides in water on domestic animals, it is recommended that the Federal Drinking Water Standards be used for farm animals as well as for man. PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR LIVESTOCK) Pesticides include a large number of organic and inorganic compounds. The United States production of synthetic organic pesticides in 1970 was l ,060 million pounds con- sisting almost entirely of insecticides (501 million pounds), herbicides (391 million pounds), and fungicides (168 million pounds). Production data for inorganic pesticides was limited. Based on production, acreage treated, and use patterns, insecticides and herbicides comprise the major agricultural pesticides (Fowler 1972).279 Of these, some can be detrimental to livestock. Some have low solubility in water, but all cause problems if accidental spillage pro- duces high concentrations in water, or if they become ad- sorbed on colloidal particles subsequently dispersed m water. Insecticides are subdivided into three major classes of compounds including methylcarbamates, organophosphates and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Many of these substances produce no serious pollution hazards, because they are non- persistent. Others, such as the chlorinated hydrocarbons, are quite persistent in the environment and are the pesti- cides most frequently encountered in water. Entry of Pesticides into Water Pesticides enter water from soil runoff, direct application, drift, rainfall, spills, or faulty waste disposal techniques. Movement by erosion of soil particles with adsorbed pesti- cides is one of the principal means of entry into water. The amount carried in runoff water is influenced by rates of ap- plication, soil type, vegetation, topography, and other factors. Because of strong binding of some pesticides on soil particles, water pollution by pesticides is thought to occur largely through the transport of chemicals adsorbed to soil particles (Lichtenstein et al. 1966).281 This mechanism may not always be a major route. Bradley et al. (1972)269 ob- served that when 13.4 kg/hectare DDT and 26.8 kg/hectare toxophene were applied to cotton fields, only 1.3 and 0.61 per cent, respectively, of the amounts applied were detected in natural runoff water over an 8-month period. Pesticides can also enter the aquatic environment by direct application to surface waters. Generally, this use is to con- trol mosquito larvae, nuisance aquatic weeds, and, as in several southern states, to control selected aquatic fauna such as snails (Chesters and Konrad 1971).271 Both of these pathways generally result in contamination of surface waters rather than groundwaters. Precipitation, accidental spills, and faulty waste disposal are less important entry routes. Pesticides detected in rain- water include DDT, DDD, DDE, dieldrin, alpha-BHC and gamma-BHC in extremely minute concentrations (i.e., in the order of I0-12 parts or the nanograms per liter level) (Weibel et al. 1966,295 Cohen and Pinkerton 1966,2 74 Tar- rant and Tatton 1968291 ). Spills and faulty waste disposal techniques are usually responsible for shor~-term, high-level contamination. The amount of pesticide actually in solution, however, is governed by a number of factors, the most important probably being the solubility of the molecule. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, for example, have low solubility in water (Freshwater Appendix II-D). Cationic pesticides (i.e., paraquat and diquat) are rapidly and tightly bound to soil particles and are inactivated (Weed Society of America 1970) .294 Most arsenical pesticides form insoluble salts and are inactivated (Woolson et al. 1971).297 A survey of the water and soil layers in farm ponds indicates higher concentrates of pesticides are associated with the soil layers that interface with water than in the water per se. In an ex- tensive survey of farm water sources (U. S. Dept. of Agri- culture, Agricultural Research Service 1969a, 292 hereafter referred to as Agriculture Research Service 1969a267), analysis of sediment showed residues in the magnitude of decimal fractions of a microgram per gram (J.Lg/g) to a high of 4.90 J.Lg/g DDT and its DDE and DDD degradation compounds. These were the principal pesticides found in sediment. Dieldrin and endrin were also detected in sedi- ment in two study areas where surface drainage water entered farm ponds from an adjacent field. Pesticides Occurrence in Water Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are the pesticides most frequently encountered in water. They include DDT and its degradation products DDE and DDD, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, aldrin, and lindane. In a pesticide moni- toring program conducted from 195 7 to 1965, Breidenbach et al. ( 1967)270 concluded that dieldrin was present in all sampled river basins at levels from 1 to 22 nanograms (ng)/liter. DDT and its metabolites were found to occur in most surface waters, while levels of endrin in th~ lower ,Mississippi decreased from a high of 214 ng/1 in 1963 to a range of 15 to 116 ng/1 in 1965. Results of monitoring studies conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (Agricultural Research Service 1969a)267 from 1965 to 1967 indicated that only very small amounts of pesticides were present in any of the sources sampled. The most preva- lent pesticides in water were DDT, its metabolites DDD and DDE, and dieldrin. Levels detected were usually below one part per billion. The DDT family, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, lindane, heptachlor epoxide, trifluralin, and 2, 4-D, were detected in the range of 0.1 to 0.01 J.ig/1. In a major survey of surface waters in the United States con- ducted from 1965 to 1968 for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesti- cides (Lichtenberg et al. 1969),282 dieldrin and DDT (in- cluding DDE and DDD) were the compounds most fre- quently detected throughout the 5-year period. After reach- ing a peak in 1966, the total number of occurrences of all chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides decreased sharply in 1967 and 1968. A list of pesticides most likely to occur in the environ- ment and, consequently, recommended for inclusion in monitoring studies, was developed by the former Federal Committee on Pesticide Control (now Working Group on Pesticides). This list was revised (Schechter 1971)290 and expanded to include those compounds (1) whose persistence is of relatively long-term duration; (2) whose use pattern~ is large scale in terms of acreage; or (3) whose inherent toxicity is hazardous enough to merit close surveillance. The primary list includes 32 pesticides or classes of pesticides (i.e. arsenical pesticides, mercurial pesticides, and several dithiocarbamate fungicides) recommended to be monitored in water. A secondary list of 17 compounds was developed for consideration, if monitoring activities are expanded in the future. The pesticides found on the primary list would be those most likely to be encountered in farm water sup- plies (see Freshwater Appendix II-D). Toxicological Effects of Pesticides on Livestock Mammals generally have a greater tolerance to pesticides than birds and fish. However, the increased use of pesticides in agriculture, particularly the insecticides, presents a poten- tial hazard to livestock. Some compounds such as the or- ganophosphorous insecticides can be extremely dangerous, especially when mishandled or wrongly used. To date, how- ever, there actually have been very few verified cases of livestock poisoning from pesticides (Papworth 196 7). 287 In the few instances reported, the cause of livestock poisoning usually has been attributed to human negligence. For live- stock, pesticide classes that may pose possible hazards are the acaricides, fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, mollus- . cides, and rodenticides (Papworth 1967).287 Acaricides intended for use on crops and trees usually have low toxicity to livestock. Some, such as technical chlorobenzilate, have significant toxicity for mammals. The acute oral LD50 in rats is 0. 7 g/kg of body ,weight (Pap- Water for Livestock Enterprises /319 worth 1967).287 With fungicides, the main hazard to live- stock apparently is not from the water route, but from their use as seed dressings for grain. Of the types used, the organo- mercury compounds and thiram are potentially the most dangerous (McEntee 1950,283 Weibel et al. 1966295). The use of all organomercury fungicides is restricted by the Environmental Protection Agency (Office of Pesticides, Pesticides Regulation Division 1972). 277 Consequently, the possible hazard to livestock from these compounds has, for most purposes, been eliminated. Of the herbicides in current use, the dinitro compounds pose the greatest hazard to livestock. Dinitroorthocresol (DNC or DNOC) is probably the most used member of this group. In ruminants, however, DNC is destroyed rapidly by the rumen organisms (Papworth 1967).287 These compounds are very persistent, up to two years, and for livestock the greatest hazard is from spillages, contamina- tion of vegetation, or water. In contrast, the phenoxyacetic acid derivatives (2 ,4-D, MCPA) are comparatively harm- less. Fertig (1953)278 states that suspected poisoning of livestock or wildlife by phenoxy herbicides could not be substantiated in all cases carefully surveyed. The hazards to livestock from hormone weed killers are discussed by Rowe and Hymas (1955),289 and dinitrocompounds by McGirr and Papworth (1953)284 and Edson (1954).276 The possible hazards from other herbicides are reviewed by Papworth (1967)287 and Radeleff (1970).288 Of the classes of insecticides in use, some pose a potential hazard to livestock, while others do not. Insecticides of vegetable origin such as pyrethrins and rotenones, are prac- tically non-toxic to livestock. Most chlorinated hydrocarbons are not highly toxic to livestock, and none is known to ac- cumulate in vital organs. DDT, DDD, dilan, methoxychlor, and perthane are not highly toxic to mammals, but some other chlorinated hydrocarbons are quite toxic (Papworth 1967,287 Radeleff 1970288). The insecticides that are poten- tially the most hazardous are the organophosphorus com- pounds causing chlorinesterase inhibition. Some, such as mipafax, induce pathological changes not directly related to cholinesterase inhibition (Barnes and Denz 1953).268 Liquid organophosphorus insecticides are absorbed by all routes, and the lethal dose for most of these compounds is low (Papworth 1967,287 Radeleff 1970288). Pesticides in Drinking Water for Livestock The subgroup on contamination in the Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relation- ship to Environmental Health (U.S. Dept. of Health, Edu- cation, and Welfare 1969)293 examined the present knowl- edge -on mechanisms for dissemination of pesticides in the environment, including the water route. There have been no reported cases of livestock toxicity resulting from pesti- cides in water. However, they conclude that the possibility of contamination and toxicity from pesticides is real because of indiscriminate, uncontrolled and excessive use. 320/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water Pesticide residues in farm water supplies for livestock and related enterprises are undesirable and .JllUSt be reduced or eliminated whenever possible. The primary problem of reducing levels of pesticides in water is to locate the source of contamination. Once located, appropriate steps should be taken to eliminate the source. Some of the properties and concentrations of pesticides found in water are shown in Table V-4. Although many pesticides are readily broken down and eliminated by live- stock with no subsequent toxicological effect, the inherent problems associated with pesticide use include the accumu- lation and secretion of either the parent compound or its degradation products in edible tissues and milk (Kutches et al. 1970).28° Consequently, pesticides consumed by live- stock through drinking water may result in residues in fat and certain produce (milk, eggs, wool), depending on the level of exposure and the nature of the pesticide. There is also a possibility of interactions between insecticides and drugs, especially in animal feeds (Conney and Hitchings 1969).275 Nonpolar lipophilic pesticides such as the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides (DDT, lindane, endrin, and other~) tend to accumulate in fatty tissue and may re- sult in measurable residues. Polar, water soluble pesticides and their metabolic derivatives are generally excreted in the urine soon after ingestion. Examples of this class would include most of the phosphate insecticides and the acid herbicides (2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; and others). Approximately 96 per cent of a dose of 2 ,4-D fed to sheep was excreted unchanged in the urine and 1.4 per cent in the feces in 72 hours (Clark et al. 1964).273 Feeding studies (Claborn et al. 1960)272 have shown that when insecticides were fed to beef cattle and sheep as a contaminant in their feed at dosages that occur as residues on forage crops, all except methoxy- chlor were stored in the fat. The levels of these insecticides in fat decreased after the insecticides were removed from the animals' diets. When poultry were exposed to pesticides either by ingestion of contaminated food or through the use of pesticides in poultry houses, Whitehead (1971)296 ob- TABLE V-4-Some Properties, Criteria, and Concentrations of Pesticides Found in Water aldrin ....................... . dieldrin ..................... . endrin ...................... . heptachlor. .................. . heptachlor epoxide ............ . DDT ........................ . ODE .....•..................• 000 ........................ . 2.4·0• ...................... . Solubility pgfliter 110 160 56 350 1.2 60,000 Toxicity LD50 mgjkg Maximum concentration• 38 46 10 130 113 300-1000 pgfl 0.085 0.407 0.133 0.048 0.067 0.316 0.050 0.840 • Maximum concentration of pesticide found in surface waters in the United States, from Lichtenberg et al (1969)282. • Refers to the herbicide family 2,4·0; 2,4,5-T; and 2,4,5-TP. served that the toxicities to birds of the substances used varied greatly. However, nonlethal doses may affect growth rate, feed conversion efficiency, egg production, egg size, shell thickness, and viability of the young. Although the ef- fects of large doses may be considerable, Whitehead con- cluded that little is known about the impairment of produc- tion at low rates commonly used in agricultural practice. Elimination of fat soluble pesticides from contaminated animals is slow. Urinary excretion is insignificant and elimination in feces is slow. The primary route of excretion in a lactating animal is through milk. The lowest concentra- tions of pesticides in feeds that lead to detectable residues in animal tissues or products exceed the amounts found in water by a factor of I 0,000. However, at the comparatively high dosage rates given in feeds, certain trends are apparent. Cows fed DDT in their diet at rates of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 5.0 mg/kg exhibited residues in milk at all feeding levels except at 0.5 mg/kg. As the DDT feed levels increased, contamination increased (Zweig et al. 1961).298 When cows were removed from contaminated feeds, the amount of time required for several pesticides to reach the non-detect- able level was recorded (Moubry et al. 1968).286 Dieldrin had the longest retention time in milk, approximately 100 days. DDT and its analogs, BHC, lindane, endrin, and methoxychlor followed in that order. It should be empha- sized that levels found in farm water supplies do not make a significant contribution to animal body burdens of pesticides compared to amounts accumulated in feeds. Table V-4 shows the toxicity of some important pesti- cides. Assuming the average concentration of any pesticide in water is 0.1 ,ug/1, and the average daily consumption of water by dairy or beef cattle is 60 liters per day, then the average daily intake of DDT would be 0.006 mg. Further, assuming that the average body weight for dairy or beef cat- tle is 450 kg and the LD50 for DDT is 113 mg/kg (Table V-4), then 50 grams would have to be consumed to approach the dose that would be lethal to 50 per cent of the animals. If a steer were maintained on this water for 1,000 days, then it would have ingested about 1/10,000 of the reported LD50. For endrin (LD50= 10 mg/kg), cattle would ingest 1/1,000 of the established LD50. The safety margin is probably greater than indicated, because the calculations assume that all of the insecticide is retained unaltered during the total ingestion period. DDT is known to be degraded to a limited extent by bovine rumen fluid and by rumen microorgan- isms. For sheep, swine, horses, and poultry, the average daily water intake in liters is about 5, 10, 40, and 0.2, re- spectively. Consequently, their intake would be substantially less. Fish as Indicators of Water Safety The presence of fish may be an excellent monitor for toxic levels of pesticides in livestock water supplies. There are numerous and well documented examples in the litera- ture of the biological magnification of persistent pesticides Jali TABLE V-5-Examples of Fish as Indicators of Water Safety for Livestock Material Toxic-levels mgfl for fish Aldrin .................... 0.02 ................... . Chlordane ................ 1.0 (sunfish), ........... . Dieldrin .................. 0.025(trout) ............ . Dipterex .................• 50.0 ................... . Endrin ................... 0.003 (bass). Ferban, fermate ........... 1.0 to 4.0 Methoxychlor. ............ 0.2 (bass) .............. . Parathion ................. 2.0 (goldfish) ........... . Pentachlorophenol......... 0.35 (bluegill) .......... . Pyrethrum (allethrin)...... 2.0to 10.0 ............. . Silvex .................... 5.0 .................... . Toxaphene ................ O.l(bass) ............. . McKee and Wolf, 1963'"· Toxic eftects on animals 3 mg/kg food (poullry). 91 mgjkg body weight in food (cattle). 25 mgjkg food (rats). 10.0 mgjkg body weight in food (calves). 3. 5 mgjkg body weight in food (chicks). 14 mg/kg allalfa hay, not toxic (cattle). 75 mgjkg body weight in food (cattle). 60 mg/1 drinking water not toxic (catUe). 1, 400 to 2, 800 mgjkg body weight in food (rats). 500 to 2,000 mgjkg body weight in food (chicks). 35 to 110 mgfkg body weight in food (cattle). by fish and other aquatic organisms (See Sections III and IV on Freshwater and Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife.) Because of the lower tolerance levels of these aquatic organisms for persistent pesticides such as chlorinated hy- drocarbon insecticides, mercurial compounds, and heavy metal fungicides, the presence of living fish in agricultural water supplies would indicate their safety for livestock (McKee and Wolf 1963).285 Some examples of individual effects of pesticides upon fish compared to animal species are shown in Table V -5. These data indicate that fish gen- erally have much lower tolerance for commonly used pesti- cides than do livestock and poultry. Recommendation Feeding studies indicate no deleterious effects of reported pesticide residues in livestock drinking water on animal health. To prevent unacceptable residues in animal products, the maximum levels proposed in the pesticide section of the Panel of Public Water Supplies are recommended for farm animal water supplies. PATHOGENS AND PARASITIC ORGANISMS Microbial Pathogens One of the most significant factors in the spread of infec- tious diseases of domesticated animals is the quality of water which they consume. In many instances the only water available to livestock is from surface sources such as ponds, waterholes, lakes, rivers and creeks. Not infrequently these sources are contaminated by animals which wade to drink or stand in them seeking refuge from pests. Con- tamination with potential disease-producing organisms comes from surface drainage originating in corrals, feed lots, or pastures in which either sick or carrier animals are kept. Direct evidence relating the occurence of animal patho- gens in surface waters and disease outbreaks is limited. However, water may be a source for listeriosis caused by Water for Livestock Enterprises/321 Listeria monocytogenes (Larsen 1964)302 and erysipelas caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (Wood and Packer in press 1972). 310 Tularemia of animals is not normally waterborne, but the organism Pasteurella tularensis has been isolated from waters in the United States (Parker et al. 1951,303 Seghetti 1952). 305 Enteric microorganisms, including the vibrios (Wilson and Miles 1966) 309 and amoebae, have a long record as water polluting agents. The Escherichia-Enterobacter-Klebscilla group of enterics are widely distributed in feed, water, and the general en- vironment (Breed et al. 1957).299 They sometimes cause urinary disease, abscesses, and mastitis in livestock. Sal- monella are very invasive and the carrier state is easily pro- duced and persistent, often without any general evidence of disease. Spread of the enterics outside the yards, pens, or pastures of infected livestock is a possibility, but the epi- demiology and ecology of this problem are not clear. In the United States, leptospirosis is probably the most intimately water-related disease problem (Gillespie et al. 1957,301 Crawford et al. 1969 300 ). The pathogenic leptospira leave the infected host through urine and lack protection against drying. Direct animal-to-animal spread can occur through urine splashed to the eyes and nostrils of another animaL Infection by leptospirosis from water often is direct; that is, contaminated water infects animals that consume it or come into contact with it. Van Thiel ( 1948) 308 and Gillespie et al. ( 195 7)3°1 pointed out that mineral composition and pH of water are factors affecting continued mobility of voided leptospira. Most episodes of leptospirosis can be traced to ponds, ricefields, and natural waters of suitable pH and mineral composition. For leptospira control, livestock must not be allowed to wade in contaminated water. Indirect contamination of water through sewage is unlikely, although free-living leptospira may occur in such an environment. The Genus Clostridium is comprised of many species (Breed et al. 1957),299 some of which have no pathogenic characteristics. Some such as Clostridium perfrigens and Cl. tetani may become adapted to an enteric existence in ani- mals. Almost all of them are soil adapted. Water has a vital role in environments favorable for anaerobic infections caused by Clostridia. Management of water to avoid oxygen depletion serves to control the anaerobic problem. Temporary or permanent areas of anaerobic water environment are dangerous to livestock. Domestic animals should be prevented from con- suming water not adequately oxygenated. One of the best examples of water-related disease is bacil- lary hemoglobinuria, caused by an organism Cl. hemolyticum found in western areas of North and South America. It has been linked with liver fluke injury, but is not dependent on the presence of flukes. Of particular concern has been the spread of this disease to new areas in the western states. As described by Van Ness and Erickson (1964), 307 each new 322/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water premise is an endemic area which has an alkaline, anaerobic soil-water environment suitable for the organism. This disease has made its appearanc~ in new areas of the West when these areas are cleared of brush and irrigated. To avoid this problem, western irrigation waters should be managed to avoid cattail marshes, hummock grasses, and other environments of prolonged saturation. Anthrax in livestock is a disease of considerable concern. The organism causing anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, may occur in soils with pH above 6.0. The organism forms spores which, in the presence of adequate soil nutrients, vege- tate and grow. The spread of disease by drinking water containing spores has never been proved. Bits of hide and hair waste may be floated by water downstream from manu- facturing plants, but very few outbreaks have been reported from these sources. The disease is associated with the water from pastures where the grass has been killed (Van Ness 1971). 306 The killed grass is brown rather than blackened, a significant difference from water drowned vegetation in general. The epidemiology of virus infections tends to incriminate direct contact; e.g., fomites, mechanical, and biological vectors, but seldom water supplies. Water used to wash away manure prior to the use of disinfectants or other bio- logical control procedure may carry viruses to the general environment. Viruses are classified by size, type of nucleic acid, struc- ture, ether sensitivity, tissue effects (which includes viruses long known to cause recognizable diseases, ~uch as pox and hog cholera), and by other criteria. Only the ether-resistant viruses, such as those causing polio and foot and mouth disease in cattle, appear to present problems in natural water (Prier 1966). 30 4 Parasitic Organisms Parasitic protozoa include numerous forms which are capable of causing serious livestock losses. Most outbreaks follow direct spread among animals. Water contaminated with these organisms or their cysts becomes an indirect factor in spread of infection. Some of the most important parasitic forms are the various flukes which develop as adult forms in man and livestock. Important ecological factors include presence of snails and vegetation in the water, or vegetation covered by intermit- tent overflow. This problem is _very serious in irrigated areas, but only when snails or other intermediate hosts are avail- able for the complete life cycle. Fluke eggs passed by the host, usually in the manure (some species, in the urine), enter the water and hatch into miracidia. These seek out a snail or other invertebrate host where they develop into sporocysts. These transform into redia which in turn may form other redia or several cercariae. The cercariae leave the snail and swim about the water where they may find the final host, or may encyst on vegetation to be eaten later. The life cycle is completed by maturing in a suitable host and establishment of an exit for eggs from the site of the at- tachment. Roundworms include numerous species which may use water pathways in their life cycle. Free-living nematodes can sometimes be found in a piped water supply, but are probably of little health significance. Moisture is an im- portant factor in the life cycle of many parasitic roundworms and livestock are maintained in an environment where con- tamination of water supplies frequently occurs. It is usually thought that roundworm eggs are eaten but water-saturated environments provide ideal conditions for maintaining popu- lations of these organisms and their eggs. Parasitic roundworms probably evolved through evolu- tionary cycles exemplified by the behavior of the genus Strongyloides. Strongyloides spread along drainageways through the washdown of concrete feeding platforms and other housing facilities for livestock. The Guinea worm, Dracunculus, is dependent upon water, because the adult lays eggs only when the host comes in contact with water. Man, dogs, cats, or various wild mam- mals may harbor the adult, and the larvae develop in Cyclops. The life cycle is thus maintained in a water environ- ment when the Cyclops is swallowed by another suitable host. Eggs of "horsehair worms" are laid by the adult in water or moist soil. The larvae encyst and if eaten by an appropri- ate insect will continue development to the adult stage. Worms do not leave the insect unless they can enter water. The prevention of water-borne diseases and parasitisms in domestic animals depends on interruption of the orga- nisms' life cycle. The most effective means is to keep live- stock out of contaminated water. Treatment for the removal of the pathogen or parasite from the host and destruction of the intermediate host are measures of control. WATER FOR IRRIGATION Irrigation farming increases productivity of croplands and provides flexibility in alternating crops to meet market demands. Early irrigation developments in the arid and semiarid West were largely along streams where only a small part of the total annual flow was put to use. Such streams contained dissolved solids accumulated through the normal leaching and weathering processes with only slight additions or increases in concentrations resulting from man's activities. Additional uses of water resources have in many cases concentrated the existing dissolved solids, added new salts, contributed toxic elements, microbiologically polluted the streams, or in some other way degraded the quality of the water for irrigation. Water quality criteria for irrigation has become increasingly significant as new developments in water resources occur. Soil, plant, and climate variables and interactions must be considered in developing criteria for evaluation of irriga- tion water quality. A wide range of suitable water charac- teristics is possible even when only a few variables are con- sidered. These variables are important in determining the quality of water that can be used for irrigation under specific conditions. The physicochemical properties of a soil determine the root environment that a plant encounters following irriga- tion. The soil consists of an organo-mineral complex that has the ability to react both physically and chemically with constituents present in irrigation water. The degree to which these added constituents will leach out of a soil, re- main available to plants in the soil, or become fixed and unavailable to plants, depends largely on the soil charac- teristics. Evapotranspiration by plants removes water from the soil leaving the salts behind. Since uptake by plants is negligible, salts accumulate in the soil in arid and semiarid areas. A favorable salt balance in the root zone can be main- tained by leaching, through the use of irrigation water in excess of plant needs. Good drainage is essential to prevent a rising water table and salt accumulation in the soil surface and to maintain adequate soil aeration. In irrigated areas, a water frequently exists at some depth below the ground surface, with an unsaturated condition existing above it. During and immediately following periods of precipitation or irrigation, water moves downward through the soil to the water table. At other times, water is lost through evaporation from the soil surface, and trans- piration from plants (evapotranspiration) may reverse the direction of flow in the soil, so that water moves upward from the water table by capillary flow. The rate of move- ment is dependent upon water content, soil texture, and structure. In humid and subhumid regions, this capillary rise of water in the soil is a valuable water source for use by crops during periods of drought. Even under favorable conditions of soil, drainage, and environmental factors, too sparing applications of high quality water with total dissolved solids of less than l 00 mg/l would ultimately damage sensitive crops such as citrus fruit; whereas with adequate leaching, waters containing 500 to 1,000 mg/l might be used safely. Under the same conditions, certain salt-tolerant field crops might produce economic re- turns using water with more than 4,000 mg/l. Criteria for judging water quality must take these factors into account. The need for irrigation for optimum plant growth is de- termined also by rainfall and snow distribution; and by temperature, radiation, and humidity. Irrigation must be used for intensive crop production in arid and semiarid areas and must supplement rainfall in humid areas, (See Specific Irrigation Water Considerations below.) The effects of water quality characteristics on soils and on plant growth are directly related to the frequency and amount of irrigation water applied. The rate at which water is lost from soils through evapotranspiration is a direct function of temperature, solar radiation, wind, and humid- ity. Soil and plant characteristics also influence this water loss. Aside from water loss considerations, water stress in a plant, as affected by the rate of evapotranspiration, will determine the plant's reaction to a given soil condition. For example, in a saline soil at a given water content, a plant will usually suffer more in a hot, dry climate than in a cool, humid one. Considering the wide variation in the climatic and soil variables over the United States, it is apparent that water quality requirements also vary considerably. Successful sustained irrigated agriculture, whether in arid 323 324/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water regions or in subhumid regions, or other areas, requires skillful water application based u~on the characteristics of the land, water, and the requirements of the crop. Through proper timing and adjustment of frequency and volumes of water applied, detrimental effects of poor quality water may often be mitigated. WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR IRRIGATION Effects on Plant Growth Plants may be adversely affected directly by either the development of high osmotic conditions in the plant sub- strate or by the presence of a phytotoxic constituent in the water. In general, plants are more susceptible to injury from dissolved constituents during germination and early growth than at maturity (Bernstein and Hayward I 958). 315 Plants affected during early growth may result in complete crop failure or severe yield reductions. Effects of undesirable constituents may be manifested in suppressed vegetative growth, reduced fruit development, impaired quality of the marketable product, or a combination of these factors. The presence of sediment, pesticides, or pathogenic or- ganisms in irrigation water, which may not specifically affect plant growth, can affect the acceptability of the product. Another aspect to be considered is the presence of elements in irrigation water that are not detrimental to crop production but may accumulate in crops to levels that may be harmful to animals or humans. Where sprinkler irrigation is used, foliar absorption or adsorption of constituents in the water may be detrimental to plant growth or to the consumption of affected plants by man or animals. Where surface or sprinkler irrigation is practiced, the effect of a given water quality on plant growth is determined by the composition of the soil solu- tion. This is the growth medium available to roots after soil and water have reacted. Plant growth may be affected indirectly through the in- fluence of water quality on soil. For example, the absorption by the soil of sodium from water will result in a dispersion of the clay fraction. The degree of dispersion will depend on the clay minerals present. This decreases soil permeabil- ity and often results in a surface crust formation that deters seed germination and emergence. Soils irrigated with highly saline water will tend to be flocculated and have relatively high infiltration rates (Bower and Wilcox 1965). 316 A change to waters of sufficiently lower salt content reduces soil permeability and rates of infiltration by dispersion of the clay fraction in the soil. This hazard increases when com- bined with high sodium content in the water. Much de- pends upon whether a given irrigation water is used con- tinuously or occasionally. Crop Tolerance to Salinity The effect of salinity, or total dissolved solids, on the os- motic pressure of the soil solution is one of the most im- portant water quality considerations. This relates to the availability of water for plant consumption. Plants have been observed to wilt in fields apparently having adequate water content. This is usually the result of high soil salinity creating a physiological drought condition. Specifically, the ability of a plant to extract water from a soil is determined by the following relationship: TSS=MS+SS In this equation, (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954 337 hereafter referred to as Salinity Laboratory 1954335) the total soil suction (TSS) represents the force with which water in the soil is withheld from plant uptake. In simplified form, this factor is the sum of the matric suction (MS) or the physical attraction of soil for water, and the solute suction (SS) or the osmotic pressure of the soil water. As the water content of the soil decreases due to evapo- transpiration, the water film surrounding the soil particles becomes thinner and the remaining water is held with in- creasingly greater force (MS). Since only pure water is lost to the atmosphere during evapotranspiration, the salt concentration of soil solution increases rapidly during the drying process. Since the matric suction of a soil in- creases exponentially on drying, the combined effects of these two factors can produce critical conditions with re- gard to soil water availability. In assessing the problem of plant growth, the salinity level of the soil solution must be evaluated. It is difficult to extract the soil solution from a moist soil within the range of water content available to plants. It has been demonstrated, however, that salinity levels of the soil solution and their resultant effects upon plant growth may be correlated with salinity levels of soil moisture at saturation. The ·quantity of water held in the soil between field capacity and the wilting point varies considerably from relatively low values for sandy soils to high values for soils high in clay content. The U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954)335 developed the technique of using a saturation extract to meet this need. Demineralized water is added to a soil sample to a point at which the soil paste glistens as it reflects light and flows slightly when the container is tipped. The amount of water added is reasonably related to the soil texture. For many soils, the water content of the soil paste is roughly twice that of the soil at field capacity and four times that at the wilting point. This water content is called the saturation percentage. When the saturated paste is filtered, the result- ant solution is referred to as the saturation extract. The salt content of the saturation extract does not give an exact i!¥lication of salinity in the soil solution under field condi- tions, because soil structure has been destroyed; nor does it give a true picture of salinity gradients within the soil result- ing from water extraction by roots. Although not truly de- picting salinity in the immediate root environment, it does give a usable parameter that represents a soil salinity value that can be correlated with plant growth. TABLE V-6-Relative Tolerance of Crop Plants to Salt, (Listed in Decreasing Order of Tolerancea) High salt tolerance ECeX11J3=12 Garden beets Kale Asparagus Spinach EC,X11J3=10 ECeX103=16 Barley (grain) Sugar beet Rape Cotton EC X11J3=10 Date palm Medium salt tolerance VEGETABLE CROPS EC.X103=10 Tomato Broccoli Cabbage Bell pepper Caulillower Lettuce Sweet corn Potatoes (White Rose) Carrot Onion Peas Squash Cucumber EC0X103=4 FIELD CROPS ECeX103=10 Rye (grain) Wheat (grain) Oats(grain) Rice Sorghum (grain) Corn (field) Flax Sunflower Castorbeans EC0 X10'=6 FRUIT CROPS Pomegranate Fig Olive Grape Cantaloupe Low salt tolerance ECeX11J3=4 Radish Celery Green beans EC.X10'=3 ECX10'=4 Field beans Pear Apple Orange Grapefruit Prune Plum Almond Apricot Peach Strawberry Lemon Avocado FORAGE CROPS (in decreasing order tolerance) EC,.X11J3=18 Atka li sacaton Saltgrass Nuttall alkaligrass Bermuda grass Rhodes grass Rescue grass Canada wildrye Western wheatgrass Barley (hay) Bridsfoot trefoil ECeX103=12 EC.X10'=12 White sweet clover Yellow sweet clover Perennial ryegrass Mountain brome Strawberry clover Dallis grass Sudan grass Hubam clover Alfalfa (California common) Tall fescue Rye (hay) Wheat(hay) Oats (hay) Orchardgrass Blue grama Meadow fescue Reed canary Big trefoil Smooth brome Tall meadow oafgrass Cicer mi !kvetch Sourclover Sickle milkvetch ECeX103=4 ECeX11J3=4 White Dutch clover Meadow foxtail Alsike clover Red clover Ladino clover Burnet ECeX103=2 • The numbers following EC,X103 are the electrical conductivity values of the saturation extract in millimhos per centimeter at 25 C associated with 50-per cent decrease in yield. Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954'"· Water for Irrigation/325 Salinity is most readily _measured by determining the electrical conductivity (EC) of a solution. This method re- lates to the ability of salts in solution to conduct electricity and results are expressed as millimhos (mhos X I0-3) per centimeter (em) at 25 C. Salinity of irrigation water is ex- pressed in terms of EC, and soil salinity is indicated by the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (EO.). See Table V-6. Temperature and wind effects are especially important as they directly affect evapotranspiration. Periods of high temperature or other factors such as dry winds, which in- crease evapotranspiration rates, not only tend to increase soil salinity but also create a greater water stress in the plant. The effect of climate conditions on plant response to salinity was demonstrated by Magistad and his associates (1943).324 Some of these effects can be alleviated by more frequent irrigation to maintain safer levels of soil salinity. Plants vary in their tolerance to soil salinity, and there are many ways in which salt tolerance can be appraised. Hayward and Bernstein (1958)321 point out three: (l).Test the ability of a plant to survive on saline soils. Salt tolerance based primarily on this criterion of survival has limited ap- plication in irrigation agriculture but is a method of ap- praisal that has been used widely by ecologists. (2) Test the absolute yield of a plant on a saline soil. This criterion has the greatest agronomic significance. (3) Relate the yield on saline soil to nonsaline soil. This criterion is useful for comparing dissimilar crops whose absolute yields cannot be compared directly. The U. S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954)335 has used the third criterion in establishing the list of salt tolerance of various crops shown in Table V -6. These salt tolerance values are based upon the conductivity of the saturation ex- tract (EC.) expressed in mmhos/cm at which a 50 per cent decrement in yield may be expected when' compared to TABLE V-7-Soil Salinities in Root Zone at which Yield Reductions become Significant Crop Date palm .......................................... . ~~::granate} .................................... . Grape .............................................. . Muskmelon ........ _ ................................ . Orange, grapefruit, lemon• ............................ . Apple, pear ........................................ .. Plum, prune, peach, apricot, almond ................... . Boysenberry, blackberry, raspberry• ................... . Avocado .......................................... ··· Strawberry ........................................ .. Electrical conductiVity of saturation extracts (ECe) at which yields decrease by about 10 per cent• mmh/cm at 25 C 8 3.5 3-2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5-1.5 2 1.5 • In gypsiferous soils, ECe readings for given soil salinities are about 2 mmhjcm higher than for nongypsiferous soils. Dale palm would be affected altO mmhjcm, grapes al6 mmhjcm, etc. on gypsiferous soils. • Estimated. ' Lemon is more sensjtive than orange and grapefruit; raspberry more than boysenberry and blackbeuy. Bernstein 1965b'"· 326/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water TABLE V-8-Salt Tolerance of Ornamental Shrubs (Maximum EC.'s tolerated) Tolerant 6-10 Carissa grandiflora (Natal plum) Bougainvillea spectabifis (Bogainvillea) Nerium oleander (oleander) Rosmarinus lockwoodi (Rosmary) Dodonea viscosa atropur- purea Calfistemon viminatis (bolllebrush) Bernstein 1965b'"· Moderately tolerant 4-6 Dracaena endivisa Thuja orientalis (arbor vitae) Juniperus chinensis (spreading juniper) Euonymus japonica grandiftora Lantana camara Elaeagnus pungens (silverberry) Xylosma senticosa Pillosporum tobira Pyracantha Graberi Ligustrum lucidum (Teias privet) Buxus mlcrophylla japonica (Japanese boxwood) Sensitive 2-4 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis var. Brillian te Nandina domestica (heavenly bamboo) Trachelospermum jas- minoides (star jasmine) Viburnum linus robustum Very sensitive llex cornuta Burford (Burford holly) Hedera canariensis (Algerian ivy) Feijoa sellowiana (pineapple guava) Rosa sp. (var. Grenoble rose on Dr. Huey root) yields of that plant grown on a nonsaline soil under com- parable growing conditions. Work has been done by many investigators, based upon both field and greenhouse re- search, to evaluate salt tolerance of a broad variety of plants. In general, where comparable criteria were used to assess salt tolerance, results obtained were most often in agreement. Recent work on the salt tolerance of fruit crops is shown in Table V-7, and for ornamentals in Table V-8. Bernstein (l965a313) gave EC. values causing 10, 25, and 50 per cent yield decrements for a variety of field and forage crops from late seeding stage to maturity, assuming that sodium or chloride toxicity was not a growth deterrent. These values are shown in Figures V-1, V-2, and V-3. The data suggested that the effects of EC. values producing 10 to 50 per cent decrements (within a range of EC. values of 8 to lO mmh/cm for many crops) may be considered ap- proximately linear, but for nearly all crops the rate of change EC. ~, either steepens or flattens slightly as the yield ilEC. decrements increase from less than 25 to more than 25 per cent. Bernstein (l965a)313 also pointed out that most fruit crops were more sensitive to salinity than were field, forage, or vegetable crops. The data also illustrated the highly variable effect of EC. values upon different crops and the nonlinear response of some crops to increasing con- centrations of salt. In considering salt tolerances of .crops, EC. values were used. These values were correlated with yields at field moisture content. If soils were allowed to dry out excessively between irrigations, yield reductions were much greater, since the total soil water stress is a function of both matric suction and solute suction and increases exponentially on ECe in mmhofcm, at 25 C 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 I I I I I I I I I I =~ .. · ttl .... ··· safflower ----------c====rmmN$~~· Rye Wheatb Oats Sorghum Soybean Sesbaniab ----------[=)&4§3~ Riced -----------{==JEt~· Corn -----------r--m Broadbean ---------L-~~-- ::~="----7 j :. 50% Yield Reduction . 25% 10% 3 The indicated salt tolerances apply to the period of rapid plant growth and maturation, from the late seeding stage upward. Crops in each category are ranked in order of decreasing salt tolerance. Width of the bar next to each crop indicates the effect of increasing salinity on yield. Crosslines are placed at 10, 25, and 50 per cent yield reductions. Approximate rank in order of decreasing salt tolerance is indicated for additional crops for most of which complete data are lacking. (Bower personal communication 1972)238 bLess tolerant during seecUing stage. Salinity at this stage should not exceed 4 or 5 mmho /em, ECe. csensitive during germination. Salinity should not exceed 3 mmho/cm during germination. dLess tolerant during flowering and seed-set as well as during the seedling stage. Salinity at sensitive stages should not exceed 4 mmho/cm, ECe of soil water. FIGURE V-1-Salt Tolerance of Field Cropsa drying (Bernstein l965a). 313 Good irrigation management can minimize this hazard. Nutritional Effects Plants require a blanced nutrient content in the soil solution to maintain optimum growth. Use of saline water for irrigation may or may not significantly upset this nutri- tional balance depending upon the composition, concentra- tion, and volume of irrigation water applied. Some of the possible nutritional effects were summarized by Bernstein (1965a)313 as follows: High concentrations of calcium ions in the solution may prevent the plant from absorbing enough potas- sium, or high concentrations of other ions may affect the uptake of sufficient calcium. Different crops vary widely in their requirements for given nutrients and in their ability to absorb them. Nutritional effects of salinity, therefore, appear only in certain crops and only when a particular type of saline condition exists. Some varieties of a particular crop may be immune to nutritional disturbances, while other varieties are severely affected. High levels of soluble sulfate cause internal browning (a calcium deficiency symptom) in some lettuce varieties, but not in others. Similarly, ECe in mmhofcm at 25 C 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 I I Bermuda grass Alkali sacaton, Saltgrass -----[=======lFJ!]~[l!:fii,f]'f.·~·~·~ Nuttallalkali grass Tall wheatgrass --------{======)WJm~~- Crested wheatgrass Rhodes grass, Rescue grass -----c:==:JmtmETI·~~:iZ:~Canada wild rye Western wheatgrass ~---[==~~ Tall fescue Barley hayb --------c====~~~-· Sweet clovers p~';,"u~:!i;~rome -------{====:t~~!ifl{i~?£.~(:•:;!:·.~·.;:;~~-: ::~:::::f-oi-1--------{===,=ii:::aJ~~ii~~JJ!~~~~~ .. ::::i ... ~-~. Bl~~:~:~~~~::n grass L ,;~;N~£~ ~~:;~;: ~, m· Orchardgrass []bi<}yo;;.;;.;.). Blue grama : : ·· M~~~~";,:~~~~1 Big trefoil dri~&~! Smooth brome, Milkvetch · : .· Tall meadow oatgrass, Burnet ~ / ••. / Clovers, alsike ,·;· red ~ ~ ~0% Yield Reduction : 25% 10% asee Figure V-1. (Bower personal communication 1972)338 bLess tolerant during seedling stage. Salinity at this state should not exceed 4 or 5 mmho/cm, ECe. FIGURE V-2-Salt Tolerance of Forage Cropsa Water for Irrigation/327 ECe in mmhofcm at 25 C 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Beetsb I I I j I I I :::::~-s----------------------~----,r~~~ :::::~ ........ ~~~ Cauliflower -------------rl~~&Wfii~. ···· :· Potato Corn Sweetpotato ------------ Lettuce ~~-:-:-:.~P~e_a-.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~irl--~~r-~:*:'L~:~:,;~:,_;~:. Squash, Radish . • . B~::7y------------------------~~ 1 i Jo% Yield Reduction : 25% 10% asee Figure V-1. (Bower personal communication 1972)338 bsensitive during germination. Salinity should not exceed 3 mmhofcm ECe during germination. FIGURE V-3-Salt Tolerance of Vegetable Cropsa high levels of calcium cause greater nutritional dis- turbances in some carrot varieties than in others. Chemical analysis of the plant is useful in diagnosing these effects. A.t a given level of salinity, growth and yield are depressed more when nutrition is disturbed than when nutrition is normal. Nutritional effects, fortunately, are not important in most crops under saline con- ditions; when they do occur, the use of better adapted varieties may be advisable. Recommendation Crops vary considerably in their tolerance to soil salinity in the root zone, and the factors afiectin~ 328/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water the soil solution and crop tolerance are varied and complex. Therefore, no recommendation can be given for these. For specific crops, however, it is recommended that the salt tolerance values (EC.) for a saturation extract established by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff be used as a guide for production. Temperature The temperature of irrigation water has a direct and indirect effect on plant growth. Each occurs when plant physiological functions are impaired by excessively high or excessively low temperatures. The exact water temperatures at which growth is severely restricted depends on method of water application, atmospheric conditions at the time of application, frequency of application, and plant species. All plant species have a tempeature range in which they develop best. These temperature limits vary with plant species. Direct effect on plant growth from extreme temperature of the irrigation water occurs when the water is first applied. Plant damage results only from direct contact. Normally, few problems arise when excessively warm water is applied by sprinkler irrigation. The effect of the temperature of the water on the temperature of the soil is negligible. It has been demonstrated that warm water applied through a sprinkler system has attained ambient temperatures at the time it reaches the soil surface (Cline et al. 1969).318 Water as warm as 130 F can be safely used in this manner. Cold water is harmful to plant growth when applied through a sprinkler system. It does not change in temperature nearly so much as the warm water. However, its effect is rarely lethal. Surface applied water that is either very cold or very warm poses greater problems. Excessive warm water can- not be used for surface irrigation and cold water affects plant growth. The adverse effects of cold water on the growth of rice were suddenly brought to the attention of rice growers when cold water was first released from the Shaf!ta Reservoir in California (Raney 1963). 332 Summer water temperatures were suddenly dropped from about 61 F to 45 F. Research is still proceeding, and some of the available information was recently reviewed by Raney and Mihara (1967).334 Dams such as the Oroville Dam are now being planned so that water can be withdrawn from any reservoir depth to avoid the cold-water problem. Warming basins have been used (Raney 1959). 333 There are oppor- tunities in planning to separate waters-the warm waters for recreation and agriculture, the cold waters for cold-water fish, salmon spawning, and other uses. The exact nature of the mechanisms by which damage occurs is not completely understood. Indirect effect of the temperature of irrigation water on plant growth occurs as a result of its influence on the tem- perature of the soil. The latter affects the rate of water uptake, nutrient uptake, translocation of metabolites, and, indirectly, such factors as stomatal opening and plant water stress. All these phenomena are well documented. The effect of the temperature of the applied irrigation water on the temperature of the soil is not well described. This effect is probably quite small. Conclusion Present literature does not provide adequate data to establish specific temperature recommendations for irrigation waters. Therefore, no specific recom- mendations can be made at this time. Chlorides Chlorides in irrigation waters are not generally toxic to crops. Certain fruit crops are, however, sensitive to chlorides. Bernstein (1967)312 indicated that maximum permissible chloride concentrations in the soil range from 10 to SO milliequivalents (meq)/1 for certain sensitive fruit crops (Table V-9). In terms of permissible chloride concentra- tions in irrigation water, values up to 20 meq/1 can be used, depending upon environmental conditions, crops, and irriga- tion management practices. Foliar absorption of chlorides can be of importance in sprinkler irrigation (Eaton and Harding 1959,319 Ehlig and Bernstein 1959 320). The adverse effects vary between evapo- TABLE V-9-Salt Tolerance of Fruit Crop Varieties and Rootstocks and Tolerable Chloride Levels in the Saturation Extracts Crop Citrus ......................... . Stone fruit. .................... . Avocado ....................... . Grape ......................... . Berries ........................ . Strawberry ..................... . Bernstein 1967'1•. Rootstock or variety Rootstocks { Rangpur lime, Cleopatra mandarin Rough lemon, tangelo, sour orange Sweet orange, citrange { Marianna Lovell, Shalil Yunnan { West Indian Mexican Varieties (V) and Rootstocks (R) i Salt Creek, 1613·3 ) R Dog Ridge Thompson Seedless, PerleHe V Cardinal, Black Rose Varieties { Boysenberry Dlallie blackberry Indian Summer raspberry { Lassen Shasta Tolerable levels of chloride in saturation extract meq/1 25 15 10 25 10 7 40 30 20 10 10 10 5 rative conditions of day and night and the amount of evaporation that can occur between successive wettings (i.e., time after each pass with a slowly revolving sprinkler). There is less effect with nightime sprinkling and less effect with fixed sprinklers (applying water at a rapid rate). Concentrations as low as 3 meq/1 of chloride in irrigation water have been found harmful when used on citrus, stone fruits, and almonds (Bernstein 1967). 312 Conclusion Permissible chloride concentrations dep~nd upon type of crop, environmental conditions and man- agement practices. A single value cannot be given, and no limits should be established, because detri- mental effects from salinity per se ordinarily deter crop growth first. Bicarbonates High bicarbonate water may induce iron chlorisis by making iron unavailable to plants (Brown and Wadleigh 1955).317 Problems have been noted with apples and pears (Pratt 1966)330 and with some ornamentals (Lunt et al. 1956). 323 Although concentrations of 10 to 20 meq/1 of bicarbonate can cause chlorosis in some plants, it is of little concern in the field where precipitation of calcium carbo- nate minimizes this hazard. Conclusion Specific recommendations for bicarbonates can- not be given without consideration of other soil and water constituents. Sodium The presence of relatively high concentration of sodium in irrigation waters affects irrigated crops in many ways. In addition to its effect on soil structure and permeability, sodium has been found by Lilleland et al. ( 1945) 322 and Ayers et al. (1952)311 to be absorbed by plants and cause leaf burn in almonds, avocados, and in stone fruits grown in culture solutions. Bernstein (1967) 312 has indicated that water having SAR *values of four to eight may injure sodium- sensitive plants. It is difficult to separate the specific toxic effects of sodium from the effect of adsorbed sodium on soil structure. (This factor will be discussed later.) As has been noted, the complex interactions of the total and relative concentrations of these common ions upon various crops preclude their consideration as individual components for general irrigation use, except for sodium and possibly chlorides in areas where fruit would be im- portant. Nitrate The presence of nitrate in natural irrigation waters may be considered an asset rather than a liability with respect * For definition of SAR, Sodium Adsorption Ratio, see p. 330. Water for Irrigation/329 to plant growth. Concentrations high enough to adversely affect plant growth or composition are seldom, if ever, found. In arid regions, high nitrate water may result iri nitrate accumulations in the soil in much the same manner as salt accumulates. The same soil and water management practices that minimize salt accumulation will also minimize nitrate accumulation. There is some concern over the high nitrate content of food and feed crops. Many factors such as plant species characteristics, climate conditions, and growth stage are just as significant in determining nitrate accumulations in plants as the amount present in the soil. It is unlikely that any nitrate added in natural irrigation water could be a significant factor. Problems may arise where waste waters containing rela- tively large amounts of nitrogenous materials are used for irrigation. Larger amounts are usually applied than that actually required for plant growth. These wastes, however, usually contain nitrogen in a form that is slowly converted to nitrate. Nevertheless, it is possible that high nitrate ac- cumulations in plants may occur although little evidence is available to indicate this. Conclusion Since nitrate in natural irrigation waters is usually an asset for plant growth and there is little evidence indicating that it will accumulate to toxic levels in irrigated plants consumed by animals, there appears to be no need for a recom- mendation. Effects on Soils Sodium Hazard Sodium in irrigation water may be- come a problem in the soil solution as a component of total salinity, which can increase the osmotic concentration, and as a specific source of injury to fruits. The problems of sodium mainly occur in soil structure, infiltration, and per- meability rates. Since good drainage is essential for manage- ment of salinity in irrigation and for reclamation of saline lands, good soil structure and permeability must be main- tained. A high percentage of exchangeable sodium in a soil containing swelling-type clays results in a dispersed condi- tion, which is unfavorable for water movement and plant growth. Anything that alters the composition of the soil solution, such as irrigation or fertilization, disturbs the equilibrium and alters the distribution of adsorbed ions in the soil. When calcium is the predominant cation adsorbed on the soil exchange complex, the soil tends to have a granular structure that is easily worked and readily perme- eable. When the amount of adsorbed sodium exceeds 10 to 15 per cent of the total cations on the exchange complex, the clay becomes dispersed and slowly permeable, unless a high concentration of total salts causes flocculation. Where soils have a high exchangeable sodium content and are flocculated because of the presence of free salts in solution, subsequent removal of salts by leaching will cause sodium 330/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water dispersal, unless leaching is accomplished by adding calcium or calcium-producing amendments. Adsorption of sodium from a giverf irrigation water is a function of the proportion of sodium to divalent cations (calcium and magnesium) in that water. To estimate the degree to which sodium will be adsorbed by a soil from a given water when brought into equilibrium with it, the Salinity Laboratory (1954)335 proposed the sodium adsorp- tion ratio (SAR): Na+ ~ca++~Mg++ Expressed as me/1 As soils tend to dry, the SAR value of the soil solution in- creases even though the relative concentrations of the ca- tions remain the same. This is apparent from the SAR equation, where the denominator is a square-root function. This is a significant factor in estimating sodium effects on soils. The SAR value can be related to the amount of ex- changeable cation content. This latter value is called the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). From empirical determinations, the U. S. Salinity Laboratory (1954)3 35 obtained an equation for predicting a soil ESP value based on the SAR value of a water in equilibrium with it. This is expressed as follows : ESP= =-[l_OO_a +_b_:_(S_A_R_:_:_)] [l+a+b(SAR)] The constants "a" (intercept representing experimental er- ror) and "b" (slope of the regression line) were deter- mined statistically by various investigators who found "a" to be in the order of -0.06 to 0.01 and "b" to be within the range of 0.014 to 0.016. This relationship is shown in the nomogram (Figure V-4) developed by the U. S. Salinity Laboratory (1954).335 For sensitive fruits, the tolerance limit for SAR of irrigation water is about four. For general crops, a limit of eight to 18 is generally considered within a usable range, although this depends to some degree on the type of clay mineral, electrolyte concentration in the water, and other variables. The ESP value that significantly affects soil properties varies according to the proportion of swelling and non- swelling clay minerals. An ESP of I 0 to 15 per cent is considered excessive, if a high percentage of swelling clay minerals such as montmorillonite are present. Fair crop growth of alfalfa, cotton, and even olives, have been ob- served in soils of the San Joaquin Valley (California) with ESP values ranging from 60 to 70 percent (Schoonover 1963). 336 Prediction of the equilibrium ESP from SAR values of ir- rigation waters is complicated by the fact that the salt con- tent of irrigation water becomes more concentrated in the soil solution. According to the U. S. Salinity Laboratory (1954),335 shallow ground waters 10 times as saline as the irrigation waters may be found within depths of 10 feet, and a salt concentration two to three times that of irrigation water may be reasonably expected in the first-foot depth. Under conditions where precipitation of salts and rainfall may be neglected, the salt content of irrigation water will increase to higher concentrations in the soil solution without change in relative composition. The SAR increases in proportion to the square root of the concentration; there- fore, the SAR applicable for calculating equilibrium ESP in the upper root zone may be assumed to be two to three times that of the irrigation water. Recommendation To reduce the sodium hazard in irrigation water for a specific crop, it is recommended that the SAR value be within the tolerance limits determined by the U.S. Soil Salinity Laboratory Staff. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Soil Aeration The need for adequate oxygen in the soil for optimum plant growth is well recognized. To meet the oxygen re- quirement of the plant, soil structure (porosity) and soil water contents must be adequate to permit good aeration. Conditions that develop immediately following irrigation are not clearly understood. Soil aeration and oxygen availability normally present no problem on well-structured soils with good quality water. Where drainage is poor, oxygen may become limiting. Utilization of waters having high BOD or Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) values could aggravate the condition by further depleting available oxygen. Aside from detrimental effects of oxygen deficiency for plant growth, reduction of elements such as iron and manganese to the more soluble divalent forms may create toxic conditions. Other biological and chemical equilibria may also be affected. There is very little information regarding the effect of using irrigation waters with high BOD values on plant growth. Between source of contamination and point of ir- rigation, considerable reduction in BOD value may result. Sprinkler irrigation may further reduce the BOD value of water. Infiltration into well-drained soils can also decrease the BOD value of the water without serious depleting the oxygen available for plant growth. Acidity and Alkalinity The pH of normal irrigation water has little direct sig- nificance. Since water itself is unbuffered, and the soil is a buffered system (except for extremely sandy soils low in organic matter), the pH of the soil will not be significantly affected by application of irrigation water. There are, how- ever, some extremes and indirect effects. Water having pH values below 4.8 applied to acid soils over a period of time may possibly render soluble iron, Na+ meq/1 20 15 10 5 0 A Salinity Laboratory 1954 3 35 ~ ._,(o ~ o/ ~ & ..f:2~ ~ ~.r;. ·~ f..G ~ ~~ ~ ~ -~.r;. -~ ¢ ~ s-':' ~ (o ::,$' ~ ~ • .::,<9 & § ~ C5" ":)0 ~ 4.;+ 1$' ~ .. ~ -~ ~ ;; .$i .I$'"" ¢ 4.;"' Water for Irrigation/331 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 5 10 15 20 B FIGURE V-4-Nomogram for Determining the SAR Value of Irrigation Water and for Estimating the Corresponding ESP Value of a Soil That is at Equilibrium with the Water 332/Section V~Agricultural Uses of Water aluminum, or manganese in concentrations large enough to be toxic to plant growth. Similarly, additions of saline waters to acid soils could result in -a decrease in soil pH and an increase in the solubility of aluminum and manganese. In some areas where acid mine drainage contaminates water sources,, pH values as low as 1.8 have been reported. Waters having unusually low pH values such as this would be strongly suspect of containing toxic quantities of certain heavy metals or other elements. Waters having pH values in excess of 8.3 are highly alkaline and may contain high concentrations of sodium, carbonates, and bicarbonates. These constituents affect soils and plant growth directly or indirectly, (see "Effects on Plant Growth" above). Recommendation Because most of the effects of acidity and alka- linity in irrigation waters on soils and plant growth are indirect, no specific pH values can be recom- mended. However, water with pH values in the range of 4.5 to 9.0 should be usable provided that care is taken to detect the development of harmful indirect effects. Suspended Solids Deposition of colloidal particles on the soil surface can produce crusts that inhibit water infiltration and seedling emergence. This same deposition and crusting can reduce soil aer.ation and impede plant development. High col- loidal content in water used for sprinkler irrigation could result in deposition of films on leaf surfaces that could re- duce photosynthetic activity and thereby deter growth. Where sprinkler irrigation is used for leafy vegetable crops such as lettuce, sediment may accumulate on the growing plant affecting the marketability of these products. In surface irrigation, suspended solids can interfere with the flow of water in conveyance systems and structures. Deposition of sediment not only reduces the capacity of these systems to carry and distribute water but can also decrease reservoir storage capacity. For sprinkler irrigation, suspended mineral solids may cause undue wear on irriga- tion pumps and sprinkler nozzles (as well as plugging up the latter), thereby reducing irrigation efficiency. Soils are specifically affected by deposition of these sus- pended solids, especially when they consist primarily of clays or colloidal material. These cause crust formations that reduce seedling emergence. In addition, these crusts reduce infiltration and hinder the leaching of saline soils. The scouring action of sediment in streams has also been found to affect soils adversely by contributing to the dissolu- tion and increase of salts in some areas (Pillsbury and Blaney 1966). 331 Conversely, sediment high in silt may improve the texture, consistency, and water-holding capacity of a sandy soil. Effect on Animals or Humans The effects of irrigation water quality on soils and plants has been discussed. However, since the quality of irrigation water is variable and originates from different sources, there may be natural or added substances in the water which pose a hazard to animals or humans consuming irrigated crops. These substances may be accumulated in certain cereals, pasture plants, or fruit and vegetable crops without any apparent injury. Of concern, however, is that the concen- tration of these substances may be toxic or harmful to humans or animals consuming the plants. Many substances in irrigation waters such as inorganic salts and minerals, pesticides, human and animal pathogens have recommenda- tions to protect the desired resource. For radionuclides no such recommendation exists. Radionuclides There are no generally accepted standards for control of radioactive contamination in irrigation water. For most radionuclides, the use offederal Drinking Water Standards, should be reasonable for irrigation water. The limiting factor for radioactive contamination in ir- rigation is its transfer to foods and eventual intake by humans. Such a level of contamination would be reached long before any damage to plants themselves could be ob- served. Plants can absorb radionuclides from irrigation water in two ways: direct contamination of foliage through sprinkler irrigation, and indirectly through soil contamina- tion. The latter presents many complex problems since eventual concentration in the soil will depend on the rate of water application, the rate of radioactive decay, and other losses of the radionuclide from the soil. Some studies, relating to these factors have been reported (l'vfenzel et al. 1963,326 Moor by and Squire 1963,328 Perrin 1963,329 Menzel 1965,325 Milbourn and Taylor 1965 327). It is estimated that concentrations of strontium-90 and radium-226 in fresh produce would approximate those in the irrigation water for the crop if there was negligible up- take of these radionuclides from the soil. With flood or fur- row irrigation only, one or more decades of continuous ir- rigation with contaminated water would be required before the concentrations of strontium-90 or radium-226 in the produce equalled those in the water (Menzel personal com- munication 1972). 339 Recommendation In view of the lack of experimental evidence con- cerning -the long-term accumulation and avail- ability of strontium-90 and radium-226 in irrigated soils and to provide an adequate margin of safety, it is recommended that Federal Drinking Water Standards be used for irrigation water. SPECIFIC IRRIGATION WATER CONSIDERATIONS Irrigation Water Quality for Arid and Semiarid Regions 'Climate. Climatic variability exists in arid and semiarid re- gions. There can be heavy winter precipitation, generally in- creasing from south to north and increasing with elevation. Summer showers are common, increasing north and east from California. Common through the western part of the country is the inadequacy of precipitation during the grow- ing season. In most areas ofthe West, intensive agriculture is not possible without irrigation. Irrigation must supply at least one-half of all the soil water required annually for crops for periods ranging from three to 12 months. Annual precipitation varies in the western United States from practically zero in the southwestern deserts to more than 100 inches in the upper western slope of the Pacific Northwest. The distribution of precipitation throughout the year also varies, with no rainfall during extended periods in many locales. Often the rainfall occurs during nongrowing seasons. The amount of precipitation and its distribution is one of the principal variables in determining the diversion require- ment or demand for irrigation water. Land. Soils in the semiarid and arid regions were developed under dry climatic conditions with little leaching of weather- 'able minerals in the surface horizon. Consequently, these soils are better supplied with most nutrient elements. The pH of these soils varies from being slightly acidic to neutral or alkaline. The presence of silicate clay minerals of the montmorillonite and hydrous mica groups in many of these soils gives them a higher exchange capacity than those of the southeast, which contain kaolinite minerals of lower ex- change capacity. However, organic matter and nitrogen contents of arid soil are usually lower. Plant deficiencies of trace elements such as zinc, iron, manganese are more fre- quently encountered. Because of the less frequent passage of water through arid soils, they are more apt to be saline. The nature of the surface horizon (plow layer) and the subsoil is especially important for irrigation. During soil formation a profile can develop consisting of various hori- zons. The horizons consist of genetically related layers of soil or soil material parallel to the land surface, and they differ in their chemical1 physical, and biological properties. The productivity of a soil is largely determined by the na- ture of these horizons. Soils available for irrigation with restrictive or impervious horizons present management problems (e.g., drainage, aeration, salt accumulation in root zone, changes in soil structure) and consequently are not the best for irrigated agriculture. Other land and soil factors of importance to irrigation are topography and slope, which may influence the-choice of irrigation method, and soil characteristics. The latter are extremely important because they determine the usable depth of water that can be stored in the root zone of the crop and the erodability and intake rate of the soil. Water for Irrigation/333 Water. Each river system within the arid and semiarid por- tion of the United States has quality characteristics peculiar to its geologic origin and climatic environment. In consider- ing water quality characteristics as related to irrigation, both historic and current data for the stream and location in question should be used with care because of the large seasonal and sporadic variations that occur. The range of sediment concentrations of a river through- out the year is usually much greater than the range of dis- solved solids concentrations. Maximum sediment concentra- tions may range from 10 to more than a thousand times the minimum concentrations. Usually, the sediment concentra- tions are higher during high flow than during low flow. This differs inversely from dissolved-solids concentrations that are usually lower during high flows. Four general designations of water have been used (Rainwater 1962) 361 based on their chemical composition: (1) calcium-magnesium, carbonate-bicarbonate; (2) cal- cium-magnesium, sulfate-chloride; (2) sodium-potassium, carbonate-bicarbonate; and (4) sodium-potassium, sulfate- chloride. This type of classification characterizes the chem- ical properties of the water and would be indicative of re- actions that could be expected with soil when used for ir- rigation. Although a listing of data for each stream and tributary is beyond the scope of this report, an indication of ranges in dissolved-solids concentrations, chemical type, and sediment concentration is given in Table V-10 (Rainwater 1962). 361 Customarily, each irrigation project diverts water at one point in the river and the return flow comes back into the mainstream somewhere below the system. This return flow consists in the main of (1) regulatory water, which is the unused part of the diverted water required so that each farmer irrigating can have the exact flow he has ordered; TABLE V-10-Variations in Dissolved Solids, Chemical Type, and Sediment in Rivers in Arid and Semiarid United States Region Dissolved solids concentrations, mg/1 From To Prevalent chemical type• Sediment concenlrations, mg/1' From To Columbia River Basin.......... <100 300 Ca-Mg, C-11.......................... <200 300 Norlhern California ............ <100 700 Ca·Mg, C·b ......................... <200 +SOD Southern California ............ <100 +2,000 Ca·Mg, C·b; Ca-Mg, S·C ............. <200 +15,000 Colorado River Basin ........... <100 +2,500 Ca-Mg, S·C; Ca-Mg, C·b ............. <200 +15,000 Rio Grande Basin ............. <100 +2.000 Ca-Mg, C-b; Ca·Mg, S·C ............. +300 +50,000 Pecos River Basin............. 100 +3,000 Ca-Mg, S·C ......................... +300 +7,000 Western Gull of Mexico Basins.. 100 +3,000 Ca·Mg, C·b; Ca-Mg, S-C; Na·P, S·C... <200 +30,000 Red River Basin ............... <100 +2,500 Ca-Mg, S·C; Na·P, S·C ............... +300 +25,000 Arkansas River Basin.......... 100 +2,000 Ca-Mg, S-C; Ca·Mg, C·b; Na·P, S·C ... +300 +30,000 Platte River................... 100 +1,500 Ca·Mg, C·b; Ca-Mg, S·C ............. +300 +7,000 Upper Missouri River Basin..... 100 +2,000 Ca·Mg, S·C; Na·P, C·b; Na·P, C·b .... <200 +15,000 • Ca-Mg, C·b= Calcium-magnesium, carbonate-bicarbonate. Ca-Mg, S·C= Calcium-magnesium, sulfate-chloride. Na·P, C·b=Sodium-polassium, carbonate-bicarbonate. Na-P, S·C=Sodium-potassium, sulfate-chloride. Annual Load 'Sediment concenlration= .,-----,--.,-Annual Slreamllow Rainwater 1962'"· 334/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water (2) tail water, which is that portion of the water that runs off the ends of the .fields; and (3) underground drainage, required to provide adequate applicl!tion and salt balance in all parts of the fields. The initial flush of tail water may be somewhat more saline than later but rapidly approaches the same quality as the applied water (Reeve et al. 1955).362 Drainage and Leaching Requirements. In all irrigation agri- culture some water must pass through the soil to remove salts brought to .the soil in the water. In semiarid areas, or in the transition zone between arid and humid regions, this drainage water is usually obtained as a result of rainfall during periods of low evapotranspiration, and no excess irrigation water is needed to provide the drainage required. In many arid regions, the needed leaching must be ob- tained by adding excess water. In all cases, the required drainage volume is related to the amount of salt in the ir- rigation water. That drainage volume is called the leaching requirement (LR). It is possible to predict the approximate salt concentra- tion that would occur in the soil after a number of irriga- tions by estimating the proportion of applied water that will percolate below the root zone. In any steady-state leaching formula, the following assumptions are made: • No precipitation of salts occurs in the soil; • Ion uptake by plants is negligible; • There is uniform distribution of soil moisture through the profile and uniform concentration of salts in the soil moisture; • Complete and uniform mixing of irrigation water with soil moisture takes place before any of the mois- ture percolates below the root zone and • Residual soil moisture is negligible. A steady state leaching requirement formula has been developed by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory (1954)363 de- signed to estimate that fraction of the irrigation water that must be leached through the root zone to control soil salin- ity at any specified level. This is given as: LR = Ddw = EC;w D;w ECdw where LR is the leaching requirement; Ddw, the depth of drainage water; D;w, the depth of irrigation water; EC;w, the salinity of irrigation water; and ECdw, the salinity of water percolating past root zone. Hence, if ECdw is determined by the salt tolerance of the crop to be grown, and the salt content of the irrigation water EC;w is known, the desired LR can be calculated. This leaching fraction will then be the ratio of depth of drainage volume to the depth of irrigation water applied. Because the permissible values for ECdw for various yield decrements for various crops are not known, the EC e for 50 per cent yield reduction has been substituted for ECdw· The actual yield reduction will probably be less than 50 per cent (Bernstein 1966). 340 This EC. is the assumed aver- age electrical conductivity for the soil water at saturation for the whole root zone. When it is substituted for the ECdw, the actual EC. encountered in the root zone will be less than this value because, in many near steady state situa- tions, the salinity increases progressively with increase in depth in the profile and is maximum at the bottom of the root zone. Bernstein ( 196 7) 341 has developed a leaching fraction formula that takes into consideration factors that control leaching rates such as infiltration rate, climate (evapotrans- piration), frequency and duration of irrigation, and, of course, the salt tolerance of the crops. He defines the leaching fraction as LF = 1-ETc/IT1 where LF is the leach- ing fraction or proportion of applied water percolating below the root zone; E, the average rate of evapotranspira- tion during the irrigation cycle, Tc; and I, the average in- filtration rate during the period of infiltration, T 1. By utiliz- ing both the required leaching derived from the steady state formula LR= EC;w ECdw and the leaching fraction based upon infiltration rates and evapotranspiration during the irrigation cycle, it is possible to estimate whether adequate leaching can be attained or whether adjustments must be made in the crops to be grown to permit higher salinity concentrations. In addition to determination of crops to be grown, leaching requirements may be used to indicate the total quantities of water required. For example, irrigation water with a conductivity of two mmhos requires one-sixth more water to maintain root zone salt concentrations within eight mmhos than would water with a salt concentration of one mmhos under the same conditions of use. There are a number of problems in applying the leaching requirement concept in actual practice. Some of these relate to the basic assumptions involved and others derive from water application problems and soil variability. • Considerable precipitation of calcium carbonate oc- curs as many irrigation waters enter the soil causing a reduction in the total soluble salt load. In many crops, or crop rotations, crop removal of such ions as chloride was a significant fraction of the total added in waters of medium to low salinity. (Pratt et al. 1967)359 • It is not practical to apply water with complete uni- formity. • Soils are far from uniform, particularly with respect to vertical hydraulic conductivity. • The effluent from tile or ditch drains may not be representative of the salinity of water at the bottom of the root zones. Also, there is a considerable variation in drainage outflow that has no relation to leaching requirement when different crops are irrigated (Pillsbury and Johnston 1965).357 This results from variations in irrigation practices for the different crops. The leaching requirement concept, while very useful, should not be used as a sole guide in the field. The leaching requirement is a long-period average value that can be departed from for short periods with adequately drained soils to make temporary use of water poorer in quality than customarily applied. The exact manner in which leaching occurs and the ap- propriate values to be used in leaching requirement formulas require further study. The many variables and as- sumptions involved preclude a precise determination under field conditions. Salinity Hazard. Waters with total dissolved solids (TDS) less than about 500 mg/1 are usually used by farmers with- out awareness of any salinity problem, unless, of course, there is a high water table. Also, without dilution from precipitation or an alternative supply, waters with TDS of about 5,000 mg/1 usually have little value for irrigation (Pillsbury and Blaney 1966). 356 Within these limits, the value of the water appears to decrease as the salinity increases. Where water is to be used regularly for the irrigation of relatively impervious soil, its value is limited if the TDS is in the range of 2,000 mg/1 or higher. Recommendation In spite of the facts that (1) any TDS limits used in classifyin~ the salinity hazard of waters are somewhat arbitrary; (2) the hazard is related not only to the TDS but also to the individual ions involved; and (3) no exact hazard can be assessed unless the soil, crop, and acceptable yield reduc- tions are known, Table V-11 su~~ests classifications . for ~eneral purposes for arid and semiarid re~ions. Permeability Hazard. Two criteria used to evaluate the ef- fect of salts in irrigation water on soil permeability are: .(1) the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and its relation to the exchangeable sodium percentage, and (2) the bicarbo- nate hazard that is particularly applicable to waters of arid regions. Another factor related to the permeability hazard is that the permeability tends to increase, and the stability of a soil at any exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) increases as the salinity of the water increases (Quirk and Schofield 1955). 36o Eaton (1950), 347 Doneen (1959), 346 and Christiansen and Thorne (1966) 345 have recognized that the permeability hazard of irrigation waters containing bicarbonate was greater than indicated by their SAR values. Bower and Wilcox (1965)343 found that the tendency for calcium carbonate to precipitate in soils was related to the Langelier index (Langelier 1936) 349 and to the fraction of the irriga- tion water evapotranspired from the soil. Bower et al. (1965,344 1968)342 modified the Langelier index or precipita- Water for lrrigation/335 TABLE V-11-Recommended Guidelines for Salinity in Irrigation Water Classification Water lor which no detrimental eHects are usually noticed ......... . Water that can have detrimental eHects on sensitive crops ......... . Water that can have adverse eHects on many crops; requires carelul management practices Water that can be used for tolerant plants on permeable soils w ilh care- ful management practices TDS mg/1 500 50D-1,000 1, OOD-2, 000 2, ooo-5, ooo EC mmhos/cm 0.75 0. 75-1.50 1.5D-3.00 l.OD-7.50 tion index (PI) to the soil system and presented simplified means for calculation. The PI was 8.4-pHc, where 8.4 was the pH of the soil and pHc, the pH that would be found in a calcium carbonate suspension that would have the same calcium and bicarbonate concentrations as those in the ir- rigation water. For the soil system where pK2 and pKc are the negative logarithms, respec- tively, of the second dissociation constant for carbonic acid and the solubility constant for calcite; p(Ca+Mg) and pAlk are the negative logarithms, respectively, of the molar concentrations of (Ca + Mg) and the titrable alkalinity. Magnesium is included primarily because it reacts, through cation exchange, to maintain the calcium concentration in solution. The PI combines empirically with the SAR in the following equation SARse=SAR;w VC(l+PI) where SAR •• and SAR;w are for the saturation extract and the irrigation water, respectively, C is the concentration factor or the reciprocal of the leaching fraction, and PI is 8.4-pH0 • Bower et al. (1968)342 and Pratt and Bair (1969),358 using lysimeter experiments, have shown a high correlation between the predicted and measured SAR •• with waters of various bicarbonate concentrations. The information avail- able suggested a high utility of this equation for calculating permeability or sodium hazard of waters. In cases where C is not known, a value of 4, corresponding to a leaching frac- tion of 0. 25, can be used to give relative comparisons among waters. In this case the equation is SAR •• =2SAR;w(l +PI). Data can be used to prepare graphs, from which the values for pK2 -pKc, p(Ca+Mg), and pAlk can be ob- tained for easy calculation of pH0 • The calculation of pHc is described by Bower et al. (1965). 344 Soils have individual responses in reduction in permeabil- ity as the SAR or calculated SAR values increase, but ad- verse effects usually begin to appear as the SAR value paSses through the range from 8 to 18. Above an SAR of 18 the effects are usually adverse. Suspended Solids. Suspended organic solids in surface water supplies seldom give trouble in ditch distribution 336/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water systems except for occasional clogging of gates. They can also carry weed seeds onto fields wh~re their subsequent growth can have a severely adverse effect on the crop or can have a beneficial effect by reducing seepage losses. Where surface water supplies are distributed through pipelines, it is often necessary to have self-cleaning screens to prevent clogging of the pipe system appliances. Finer screening is usually required where water enters pressure-pipe systems for sprinkler irrigation. There are waters diverted for irrigation that carry heavy inorganic sediment loads. The effects that these loads might have depend in part on the particle size and distri- bution of the suspended material. For example, the ability of sandy soils to store moisture is greatly improved after the soils are irrigated with muddy water for a period of years. More commonly, sediment tends to fill canals and ditches, causing serious cleaning and dredging problems. It also tends to further reduce the already low infiltration charac- teristics of slowly permeable soils. Irrigation Water Quality For Humid Regions Climate The most striking feature of the climate of the humid region that contrasts with that of the far West and intermountain areas is the larger amount of and less season- able distribution of the precipitation. Abundant rainfall, rather than lack of it, is the normal expectation. Yet, droughts are common enough to require that attention be given to supplemental irrigation. These times of shortage of water for optimum plant growth can occur at irregular in- tervals and at almost any stage of plant growth. Water demands per week or day are not as high in humid as in arid lands. But rainfall is not easily predicted. Thus a crop may be irrigated and immediately thereafter receive a rain of one or two inches. Supplying the proper amount of supplemental irrigation water at the right time is not easy even with adequate equipment and a good water supply. There can be periods of several successive years when supplemental irrigation is not required for most crops in the humid areas. There are times however, when supplel)lental water can increase yield or avert a crop failure. Supplemental irrigation for high-value crops will undoubt- edly increase in humid areas in spite of the fact that much capital is tied up in irrigation equipment during years in which little or no use is made of it. The range of temperatures in the humid region in which supplemental irrigation is needed is almost as great as that for arid and semiarid areas. It ranges from that of the short growing season of upstate New York and Michigan to the continuous growing season of southern Florida. But in the whole of this area, the most unpredictable factor in crop production is the need for additional water for optimum crop production. Soils The soils of the humid region contrast with those of the West primarily in being lower in available nutrients. They are generally more acid and may have problems with exchangeable aluminum. The texture of soils is similar to that found in the West and ranges from sands to clays. Some are too permeable, while others take water very slowly. Soils of the humid region generally have clay minerals of lower exchange capacity than soils of the arid and semiarid regions and hence lower buffer capacity. They are more easily saturated with anions and cations. This is an im- portant consideration if irrigation with brackish water is necessary to supplement natural rainfall. Organic matter content ranges from practically none on some of the Florida sands to 50 per cent or more in irrigated peats. One of the most important characteristics of many of the soils of the humid Southeast is the unfavorable root environ- ment of the deeper horizons containing exchangeable aluminum and having a strong acid reaction. In fact, the lack of root penetration of these horizons by most farm crops is the primary reason for the need for supplemental irriga- tion during short droughts. Specific Difference Between Humid and Arid Regions The effect of a specific water quality deterrent on plant growth is governed by related factors. Basic principles involved are almost universally applicable, but the ultimate effect must take into consideration these as- sociated variables. Water quality criteria for supplemental irrigation in humid areas may differ from those indicated for arid and semiarid areas where the water requirements of the growing plant are met almost entirely by irrigation. When irrigation water containing a deterrent is used, its effect on plant growth may vary, however, with the stage of growth at which the water is applied. In arid areas, plants may be subjected to the influence of irrigation water quality continuously from germination to harvest. Where water is used for supplemental irrigation only, the effect on plants depends not only upon the growth stage at which applied, but to the length of time that the deterrent remains in the root zone (Lunin et al. 1963). 352 Leaching effects of inter- vening rainfall must be taken into consideration. Climatic differences between humid and arid regions also influence criteria for use of irrigation water. The amount of rainfall determines in part the degree to which a given constituent will accumulate in the soil. Other factors as- sociated with salt accumulation in the soil are those climatic conditions relating to evapotranspiration. In humid areas, evapotranspiration is generally less than in arid regions, and plants are not as readily subjected to water stress. The importance of climatic conditions in relation to salinity was demonstrated by Magistad et al. (1943).355 In general, criteria regarding salinity for supplemental irrigation in humid areas can be more flexible than for arid areas. Soil characteristics represent another significant difference between arid and humid regions. These were discussed previously. Mineralogical composition will also vary. The composi- tion of soil water available for absorption by plant roots represents the results of an interaction between the constitu- ents of the irrigation water and the soil complex. The final result may be that a given quality deterrent present in the water could be rendered harmless by the soil (remaining readily available), or that the dissolved constituents of a water may render soluble toxic concentrations of an element that was not present in the irrigation water. An example of this would be the addition of a saline water to an acid soil resulting in a decrease in pH and a possible increase in solubility of elements such as iron, aluminum, and manga- nese (Eriksson 1952). 348 General relationships previously derived for SAR and ad- sorbed sodium in neutral or alkaline soils of arid areas do not apply equally well to acid soils found in h~mid regions (Lunin and Batchelder 1960). 35° Furthermore, the effect of a given level of adsorbed sodium (ESP) on plant growth is determined to some degree by the associated adsorbed cations. The amount of adsorbed calcium and magnesium relative to adsorbed sodium is of considerable consequence, especially when comparing acidic soils to ones that are neutral or alkaline. Another example would be the presence of a trace element in the irrigation water that might be rendered insoluble when applied to a neutral or alkaline soil, but retained in a soluble, available form in acid soils. For these reasons, soil characteristics, which differ greatly between arid and humid areas, must be taken into consideration. Certain economic factors also influence water quality criteria for supplemental irrigation. Although the ultimate objective of irrigation is to insure efficient and economic crop production, there may be· instances where an adequate supply of good quality water is unavailable to achieve this. A farmer may be faced with the need to use irrigation water of inferior quality to get some economic return and prevent a complete crop failure. This can occur in humid areas during periods of prolonged drought. Water quality criteria are generally designed for optimum production, but con- sideration must be given also to supplying guidelines for use of water of inferior quality to avert a crop failure. Specific Quality Criteria for Supplemental Irri- gation A previous discussion (see "Water Quality Con- siderations for Irrigation" above) of potential quality deter- rents contained a long list of factors indicating the current state of our knowledge as to how they might relate to plant growth. Criteria can be established by determining a con- centration of a given deterrent, which, when adsorbed on or absorbed by a leaf during sprinkler irrigation, results in adverse plant growth, and by evaluating the direct or in- direct effects (or both) that a given concentration of a qual- ity deterrent has on the plant root environment as irriga- tion water enters the soil. Neither evaluation is simple, but the latter is more complex because so many variables are involved. Since sprinkler application in humid areas is most common for supplemental irrigation, both types of evalua- tion have considerable significance. The following discus- Water for Irrigation/337 sion relates only to t]].ose quality criteria that are specifically applicable to supplemental irrigation. Salinity. General concepts regarding soil salinity as pre- viously discussed are applicable. Actual levels of salinity that can be tolerated for supplemental irrigation must take into consideration the leaching effect of rainfall and the fact that soils are usually nonsaline at spring planting. The amount of irrigation water having a given level of salinity that can be applied to the crop will depend upon the num- ber of irrigations between leaching rains, the salt tolerance of the crop, and the salt content of the soil prior to irriga- tion. Since it is not realistic to set a single salinity value or even a range that would take these variables into consideration, a guide was developed to aid farmers in safely using saline or brackish waters (Lunin and Gallatin 1960). 351 The following equation was used as a basis for this guide: n(ECiw) ECc<o =EC•<il+ 2 where ECc(fl is the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract after irrigation is completed; EC e(i), the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract before irrigation; ECiw, the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water; and n, the number of irrigations. To utilize this guide, the salt tolerance of the crop to be grown and the soil salinity level (EC.<o) that will result in a 15 or 50 per cent yield decrement for that crop must be considered. After evaluating the level of soil salinity prior to irrigation (ECe(i)) and the salinity of the irrigation water, the maximum number of permissible irrigations can be calculated. These numbers are based on the assumption that no intervening rainfall occurs in quantities large enough to leach salts from the root zone. Should leaching rainfall occur, the situation could be reevaluated using a new value for ECe(i)· Categorizing the salt tolerance of crops as highly salt tolerant, moderately salt tolerant, and slightly salt tolerant, the guide shown in Table V-12 was prepared to indicate TABLE V-12-Permissible Number of Irrigations in Humid Areas with Saline Water between Leaching Rains for Crops of Different Salt Tolerance• Irrigation water Total salts mg/1 Electrical conductivity mmhos/cm at 25 C 640 •••.••.•..•..• 1,280 ............. . 1,920 ............. . 2,560 ............. . 3,200 ............. . 3,840 ............. . 4,480 ............. . 5,120 ............. . • Based on a 50 per cent yield decremenl Lunin et al. 1960'"· Number of irrigations for crops having Low salt tolerance Moderate salt tolerance 15 1 4-5 3 2-3 2 1-2 1 High salt tolerance 11 1 5 4 3 2-3 338/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water the number of permissible irrigations using water of varying salt concentrations. This guide is based.on two assumptions: • no leaching rainfall occurs between irrigations. • there is no salt accumulation in the soil at the start of the irrigation period. If leaching rains occur be- tween irrigations, the effect of the added salt is minimized. If there is an accumulation of salt in the soil initially, such as might occur when irrigating a fall crop on land to which saline water had been ap- plied during a spring crop, the soil should be tested for salt content, and the irrigation recommendations modified accordingly. Recommendation Since it is not realistic to set a single salinity value or even a range that would take all variables into consideration, Table V-12 developed by Lunin et al. (1960),354 should be used as a guide to aid farmers in safely using saline or brackish waters for supplemental irrigation in humid areas. SAR values and exchangeable sodium. The principles relating to SAR values and the degree to which sodium is adsorbed from water by soils are generally applicable in both arid and humid regions. Some evidence is available (Lunin and Batchelder 1960), 350 however, to indicate that, for a given water quality, less sodium was adsorbed by an acid soil than by a base-saturated soil. For a given level of exchange- able sodium, preliminary evidence indicated more detri- mental effects on acid soils than on base-saturated soils (Lunin et al. 1964). 353 Experimental evidence is not conclusive, so the detri- mental limits for SAR values listed previously should also apply to supplemental irrigation in humid regions. (See the recommendation in this section following the discussion of sodium hazard under Water Quality Considerations for Ir- rigation.) Acidiry and alkaliniry. The only consideration not pre- viously discussed relates to soil acidity, which is more prevalent in humid regions where supplemental irrigation is practiced. Any factor that drops the pH below 4.8 may render soluble toxic concentrations of iron, aluminum, and manganese. This might result from application of a highly acidic water or from a saline solution applied to an acidic soil. (See the recommeBdation in this section following the discussion of acidity and alkalinity under Water Quality Considerations for Irrigation.) Trace elements. Criteria and related factors discussed in the section on Phytotoxic Trace Elements are equally ap- plicable to supplemental irrigation in humid regions. Cer- tain related qualifications must be kept in mind, however. First, foliar absorption of trace elements in toxic amounts is directly related to sprinkler irrigation. Critical levels estab- lished for soil or culture solutions would not apply to direct foliar injury. Regarding trace element concentrations in the soil resulting from irrigation water application, the volume of the water applied by sprinkler as supplemental irrigation is much less than that applied by furrow or flood irrigation in arid regions. In assessing trace element concentrations in irrigation water, total volume of water applied and the physicochemi- cal characteristics of the soil must be taken into considera- tion. Both factors could result in different criteria for supple- mental irrigation as compared with surface irrigation in arid regions. Suspended solids. Certain factors regarding suspended solids must be taken into consideration for sprinkler irrigation. The first deals with the plugging up of sprinkler nozzles by these sediments. Size of sediment is a definite factor, but no specific particle size limit can be established. If some larger sediment particles pass through the sprinkler, they can often be washed off certain leafy vegetable crops. Some of the finer fractions, suspended colloidal material, could accumulate on the leaves and, once dry, become extremely diffi~ult to wash off, thereby impairing the quality of the product. PHYTOTOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS In addition to the effect of total salinity on plant growth, individual ions may cause growth reductions. Ions of both major and trace elements occur in irrigation water. Trace elements are those that normally occur in waters or soil solutions in concentrations less than a few mg/1 with usual concentrations less than 100 microgram (f.!g) /l. Some may be essential for plant growth, while others are nonessential. When an element is added to the soil, it may combine with it to· decrease its concentration and increase the store of that element in the soil. If the process of adding irrigation water containing a toxic level of the element continues, the capacity of the soil to react with the element will be saturated. A steady state may be approached in which the amount of the element leaving the soil in the drainage water equals the amount added with the irrigation water, with no further change in concentration in the soil. Removal in harvested crops can also be a factor in decreasing the ac- cumulation of trace elements in soils. In many cases, soils have high capacities to react with trace elements. Therefore, irrigation water containing toxic levels of trace elements may be added for many years before a steady state is approached. Thus, a situation exists where toxicities may develop in years, decades, or even centuries from the continued addition of pollutants to irrigation waters. The time would depend on soil and plant factors as well as on the concentration of trace elements in the water. Variability among species is well recognized. Recent in- vestigations by Foy et al. (1965), 402 and Kerridge et al. (1971)425 working with soluble aluminum in soils and in nutrient solutions, have demonstrated that there is also variability among varieties within a given species. ~-- Comprehensive reviews of literature dealing with trace element effects on plants are provided by McKee and Wolf (1963), 436 Bolland and Butler (1966), 378 and Chapman (1966).386 Hodgson (1963)417 presented a review dealing with reactions of trace elements in soils. In developing a workable program to determine accept- able limits for trace elements in irrigation waters, three considerations should be recognized: • Many factors affect the uptake of and tolerance to trace elements. The most important of these are the natural variability in tolerances of plants and of animals that consume plants, in reactions within the soil, and in nutrient interactions, particularly in the plant. • A system of tolerance limits should provide sufficient flexibility to cope with the more serious factors listed above. • At the same time, restrictions must be defined as precisely as possible using presently available, but limited, research information. Both the concentration of the element in the soil solution, assuming that steady state may be approached, and the total amount of the element added in relation to quantities that have been shown to produce toxicities were used in ar- riving at recommended maximum concentrations. A water application rate of 3 acre feet/acre/year was used to calcu- late the yearly rate of trace elements added in irrigation water. The suggested maximum trace element concentrations for irrigation waters are shown in Table V-13. The suggested maximum concentrations for continuous use on all soils are set for those sandy soils that have low capacities to react with the element in question. They are generally set at levels less than the concentrations that pro- duce toxicities when the most sensitiv~ plants are grown in nutrient solutions or sand cultures. This level is set, recog- nizing that concentration increases in the soil as water is evapo_transpired, and that the effective concentration in the soil solution, at near steady state, is higher than in the irriga- tion water. The criteria for short-term use are suggested for soils that have high capacitites to remove from soh.ltion the element or elements being considered. The work of Hodgson (1963)417 showed that the general tolerance of the soil-plant system to manganese, cobalt, zinc, copper, and boron increased as the pH increased, primarily because of the positive correlation between the capacity of the soil to inactivate these ions and the pH. This same relationship exists with aluminum and probably exists with other elements such as nickel (Pratt et al. 1964)449 and boron (Sims and Bingham 1968). 465 However, the abil- ity of the soil to inactivate molybdenum decreases with in- crease in pH, such that the amount of this element that could be added without producing excesses was higher in acid soils. Water for lrrigation/339 TABLE V-13-Recommended Maximum Concentrations of Trace Elements in Irrigation Waters• Element For waters used continuously For use up to 20 years on fine on all soil textured soils of pH 6.0 to 8.5 Aluminum ............................... . Arsenic .................................. . Beryllium ................................ . Boron ................................... . Cadmium ................................ . Chromium ............................... . Cobalt. .................................. . Copper .................................. . Ruoride ................................. . Iron ..................................... . Lead .................................... . Lithium ................................. . Manganese .............................. . Molybdenum ............................. . Nickel. .................................. . Selenium ................................ . Tin' .................................... . Titanium' ............................... . Tungsten' ............................... . Vanadium ............................... . Zinc ...•............................ ····. mg/1 5.0 0.10 0.10 0.75 0.010 0.10 0.050 0.20 1.0 5.0 5.0 2.5• 0.20 0.010 0.20 0.020 0.10 2.0 • These levels will normally not adversely anect plants or soils. • Recommended maximum concentration for irrigating citrus is 0.075 mg/L 'See textfor a discussion of these elements. • For only acid fine textured soils or acid soils with relatively high iron oxide contents. mgjl 20.0 2.0 0.50 2.0 0.050 1.0 5.0 5.0 15.0 20.0 10.0 2.5• 10.0 0.05&' 2.0 0.020 1.0 10.0 In addition to pH control (i.e., liming acid soils), another important management factor that has a large effect on the capacity of soils to adsorb some trace elements without de- velopment of plant toxicities is the available phosphorus level. Large applications of phosphate are known to induce deficiencies of such elements as copper and zinc and greatly reduce aluminum toxicity (Chapman 1966).386 The concentrations given in Table V-13 are for ionic and soluble forms of the elements. If insoluble forms are present as particulate matter, these should be removed by filtration before the water is analyzed. Aluminum The toxicity of this ion is considered to be one of the main causes of nonproductivity in acid soils (Coleman and Thomas 1967,392 Reeve and Sumner 1970,453 Hoyt and Nyborg 197la419). At pH values from about 5.5 to 8.0, soils have great capacities to precipitate soluble aluminum and to eliminate its toxicity. Most irrigated soils are naturally alkaline, and many are highly buffered with calcium carbonate. In these situations aluminum toxicity is effectively prevented. With only a few exceptions, as soils become more acid (pH <5.5), exchangeable and soluble aluminum develop by dissol'\J.tion of oxides and hydroxides or by decomposition of clay minerals. Thus, without the introduction of alumi- num, a toxicity of this element usually develops as soils are acidified, and limestone must be added to keep the soil productive. 340/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water In nutrient solutions toxicities are reported for a number of plants at aluminum concentrations of 1 mg/1 (Pratt 1966),448 whereas wheat is reported to•show growth reduc- tions at 0.1 mg/1 (Barnette 1923). 370 Liebig et al. (1942)432 found growth depressions of orange seedlings at 0.1 mg/1. Ligon and Pierre (1932) 433 showed growth reductions of 60, 22, and 13 per cent for barley, corn, and sorghum, re- spectively, at 1 mg/1. In spite of the potential toxicity of aluminum, this is not the basis for the establishment of maximum concentrations in irrigation waters, because ground limestone can be added where needed to control aluminum solubility in soils. Nevertheless, two disadvantages remain. One is that the salts that are the sources of soluble aluminum in waters acidify the soil and contribute to the requirement for ground limestone to prevent the accumulation or develop- ment of soluble aluminum. This is a disadvantage only in acid soils. The other disadvantage is a greater fixation of phosphate fertilizer by freshly precipitated aluminum hydroxides. In determining a recommendation for maximum levels of aluminum in irrigation water using 5.0 mg/1 for waters to be. used continuously on all soils and 20 mg/1 for up to 20 years on fine-textured soils, the following was considered. At rates of 3 acre feet of water per acre per year the calcium carbonate equivalent of the 5 mg/1 concentration used for 100 years would be 11.5 tons per acre; the 20 mg/1 concen- tration for 20 years would be equivalent to 9 tons of CaC03 per acre. In most irrigated soils this amount of limestone would not have to be added, because the soils have sufficient buffer capacity to neutralize the aluminum salts. In acid soils that are already near the pH where limestone should be used, the aluminum added in the water would contribute these quantities to the lime requirements. Amounts of limestone needed for control of soluble alumi- num in acid soils can be estimated by a method that is based on pH control (Shoemaker et al. 1961).463 A method based on the amount of soluble and exchangeable aluminum was developed by Kamprath (1970).424 Recommendations Recommended maximum concentrations are 5.0 mgflaluminum for continuous use on all soils and 20 mgfl for use on fine textured neutral to alkaline soils over a period of 20 years. Arsenic Albert and Arndt (1931)368 found that arsenic at 0.5 mg/1 in nutrient solutions reduced the growth of roots of cowpeas, and at 1.0 mg/1 it reduced the growth of both roots and tops. They reported that 1.0 mg/1 of soluble arsenic was fre- quently found in the solution obtained from soils with demonstrated toxic levels of arsenic. Rasmussen and Henry (1965)451 found that arsenic at 0.5 mg/1 in nutrient solu- tions produced toxicity symptoms in seedlings of the pine- apple and orange. Below this concentration no symptoms of toxicity were found. Clements and Heggeness (1939)390 re- ported that 0.5 mg/1 arsenic as arsenite in nutrient solu- tions produced an 80 per cent yield reduction in tomatoes. Liebig et al. (1959)431 found that 10 mg/1 of arsenic as arsenate or 5 mg/1 as arsenite caused marked reduction in growth of tops and roots of citrus grown in nutrient solu- tions. Machlis (1941)434 found that concentrations of 1.2 and 12 mg/1 caused growth suppression in beans and sudan grass respectively. However, the most definite work with arsenic toxicity in soils has been aimed at determining the amounts that can be added to various types of soils without reduction in yields of sensitive crops. The experiments of Cooper et al. (1932), 393 Vandecaveye et al. (1936),472 Crafts and Rosenfels (1939),394 Dorman and Colman (1939),396 Dorman et al. (1939),397 Clements and Munson (1947),391 Benson (1953),372 Chis- holm et al. (1955),388 Jacobs et al. (1970),422 Woolson et al. (1971)481 showed that the amount of total arsenic that pro- duced the initiation of toxicity varied with soil texture and other factors that influenced the adsorptive capacity. As- suming that the added arsenic is mixed with the surface six inches of soil and that it is in the arsenate form, the amounts that produce toxicity for sensitive plants vary from 100 pounds (!b)/acre for sandy soils to 300 lb/acre for clayey soils. Data from Crafts and Rosenfels (1939)394 for 80 soils showed that for a 50 per cent yield reduction with barley, 120, 190, 230, and 290 lb arsenic/acre were required for sandy loams, loams, clay loams, and clays, respectively. These amounts of arsenic indicated the amounts adsorbed into soils of different adsorptive capacities before the toxicity level was reached. With long periods of time involved, such as would be the case with accumulations from irrigation water, possible leaching in sandy soils (Jacobs et al. 1970)422 and reversion to less soluble and less toxic forms of arsenic (Crafts and Rosenfels 1939)394 allow extensions of the amounts required for toxicity. Perhaps a factor of at least two could be used, giving a limit of 200 lb in sandy soils and a limit of 600 lb in clayey soils over many years. Using these limits, a con- centration of 0.1 mg/1 could be used for 100 years on sandy soils, and a concentration of 2 mg/1 used for a period of 20 years or 0.5 mg/1 used for 100 years on clayey soils would provide an adequate margin of safety. This is assuming 3 acre feet of water are used per acre per year (I mg/1 equals 2. 71 lb/acre foot of water or 8.13 lb/3 acre feet), and that the added arsenic becomes mixed in a 6-inch layer of soil. Removal of small amounts in harvested crops provides an additional safety factor. The only effective management practice known for soils that have accumulated toxic levels of arsenic is to change to more tolerant crops. Benson and Reisenauer (1951)373 developed a list of plants of three levels of tolerance. Work by Reed and Sturgis (1936)452 suggested that rice on flooded soils was extremely sensitive to small amounts of arsenic, and that the suggested maximum concentrations listed below were too high for this crop. Recommendations Recommendations are that maximum concen- trations of arsenic in irrigation water be 0.10 mg/1 for continuous use on all soils and 2 mg/1 for use up to 20 years on fine textured neutral to alkaline soils. Beryllium Haas (1932) 408 reported that some varieties of citrus seed- lings showed toxicities at 2.5 mg/1 of beryllium whereas others showed toxicity at 5 mg/1 in nutrient solutions. Romney et al. (1962)455 found that beryllium at 0.5 mg/1 in nutrient solutions reduced the growth of bush beans. Romney and Childress (1965)454 found that 2 mg/1 or greater in nutrient solutions reduced the growth of toma- toes, peas, soybeans, lettuce, and alfalfa plants. Additions of soluble beryllium salts at levels equivalent to 4 per cent of the cation-adsorption capacity of two acid soils reduced the yields of ladino clover. Beryllium carbonate and beryllium oxide at the same levels did not reduce yields. These results suggest that beryllium in calcareous soils might be much less active and less toxic than in acid soils. Williams and LeRiche (1968)480 found that beryllium at 2 mg/1 in nutrient solu- tions was toxic to mustard, whereas 5 mg/1 was required for growth reductions with kale. It seems reasonable to recommend low levels of beryl- lium in view of the fact that, at 0.1 mg/1, 80 pounds of beryllium would be added in 100 years using 3 acre feet of water per acre per year. In 20 years, at 0.5 mg/1, water at the same rate would add 80 pounds. Recommendations In view of toxicities in nutrient solutions and in soils, it is recommended that maximum concen- trations of beryllium in irrigation waters be 0.10 mgfl for continuous use on all soils and 0.50 mgfl for use on neutral to alkaline fine textured soils for a 20-year period. Boron Boron is an essential element for the growth of plants. Optimum yields of some plants are obtained at concentra- tions of a few tenths mg/1 in nutrient solutions. However, at concentrations of 1 mg/1, boron is toxic to a number of sensitive plants. Eaton ( 1935,400 1944401 ) determined the boron tolerance of a large number of plants and developed lists of sensitive, semitolerant, and tolerant species. These lists, slightly modified, are also given in the U.S.D.A. Handbook 60 (Salinity Laboratory 1954)459 and are pre- sented in Table V-14. In general, sensitive crops showed toxicities at 1 mg/1 or less, semi tolerant crops at 1 to 2 mg/1, and tolerant crops at 2 to 4 mg/1. At concentrations above Water for Irrigation/341 TABLE V-14-Relative Tolerance of Plants to Boron (In each group the plants first named are considered as being more tolerant and the last named more sensitive.) Tolerant Semitolerant Sensitive Athel (Tamarix asphylla) Sunnower (native) Pecan " Asparagus Potato Black Walnut Palm (Phoenix canariensis) Acala cotton Persian (English) walnut Date palm (P. dactylifera) Pima cotton Jerusalem artichoke Sugar beet Tomato Navy bean Mangel Sweetpea American elm Garden beet Radish Plum Alfalfa Field pea Pear Gladiolus Ragged Robin rose Apple Broadbean Olive Grape (Sultanina and Malaga) Onion Barley Kadota fig Turnip Wheat Persimmon Cabbage Corn Cherry Lettuce Milo Peach Carrot Oat Apricot Zinnia Thornless blackberry Pumpkin Orange Bell pepper Avocado Sweet potato Grapefruit Lima bean Lemon Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954<59. 4 mg/1, the irrigation water was generally unsatisfactory for most crops. Bradford (1966), 379 in a review of boron deficiencies and toxicities, stated that when the boron content of irrigation waters was greater than 0. 75 mg/1, some sensitive plants, such as citrus, begin to show injury. Chapman (1968) 387 concluded that citrus showed some mild toxicity symptoms when irrigation waters have 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1, and that when the concentration was greater than 10 mg/1 pronounced toxicities were found. Biggar and Fireman (1960)375 and Hatcher and Bower (1958)411 showed that the accumulation of boron in soils is an adsorption process, and that before soluble levels of 1 or 2 mg/1 can be found, the adsorptive capacity must be saturated. With neutral and alkaline soils of high adsorption capacities water of 2 mg/1 might be used for some time without injury to sensitive plants. Recommendations From the extensive work on citrus, one of the most sensitive crops, the maximum concentration of 0. 75 mg boronfl for use on sensitive crops on all soils seems justified. Recommended maximum concentrations for semitolerant and tolerant plants are considered to be 1 and 2 mgfl respec- tively. For neutral and alkaline fine textured soils the recommended maximum concentration of boron in irrigation water used for a 20-year period on sensitive crops is 2.0 mgfl. With tolerant plants or for shorter periods of time higher boron concen- trations are acceptable. 342/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water Cadmium Data by Page et al. in press (1972)"4 44 showed that the yields of beans, beets, and turnips were reduced about 25 per cent by 0.10 mg cadmium/! in nutrient solutions; whereas cabbage and barley gave yield decreases of 20 to 50 per cent at 1.0 mg/1. Corn and lettuce were intermediate in response with less than 25 per cent yield reductions at 0.10 mg/1 and greater than 50 per cent at 1.0 mg/1. Cad- mium contents of plants grown in soils containing 0.11 to 0.56 mg/1 acid extractable cadmium (Lagerwerff 1971)427 were of the same order of magnitude as the plants grown by Page et al. in control nutrient solutions. Because of the phytotoxicity of cadmium to plants, its accumulation in plants, lack of soils information, and the potential problems with this element in foods and feeds, a conservative approach is taken. Recommendations Maximum concentrations for cadmium in irriga- tion waters of 0.010 mgfl for continuous use on all soils and 0.050 mgfl on neutral and alkaline fine textured soils for a 20-year period are recom- mended. Chromium Even though a number of investigators have found small increases in yields with small additions of this element, it has not become recognized as an essential element. The primary concern of soil and plant scientists is with its toxic- ity. Soane and Saunders (1959)466 found that 10 mg/1 of chromium in sand cultures was toxic to corn, and that for tobacco 5 mg/1 of chromium caused reduced growth and 1.0 mg/1 reduced stem elongation. Scharrer and Schropp (1935)461 found that chromium, as chromic sulfate, was toxic to corn at 5 mg/1 in nutrient solutions. Hewitt (1953)412 found that 8 mg/1 chromium as chromic or chromate ions produced iron chlorosis on sugar beets grown in sand cultures. Hewitt also found that the chromate ion was more toxic than the chromic ion. Hunter and Vergnano (I953)4n found that 5 mg/1 of chromium in nutrient solu- tions produced iron deficiencies in plants. Turner and Rust (1971)470 found that chromium treatments as low as 0.5 mg/1 in water cultures and 10 mg/kg in soil cultures significantly reduced the yields of two varieties of soybeans. Because little is known about the accumulation of chromium in soils in relation to its toxicity, a concentration of less than 1.0 mg/1 in irrigation waters is desirable. At this concentration, using 3 acre feet water/acre/yr, more than 80 lb of chromium would be added per acre in I 00' years, and using a concentration of 1.0 mg/1 for a period of20 years and applying water at the same rate, about 160 pounds of chromium would be added to the soil. Recommendations In view of the lack of knowledge concerning chromium accumulation and toxicity, a maximum concentration of 0.1 mgfl is recommended for con- tinuous use on all soils and 1.0 mgfl on neutral and alkaline fine textured soils for a 20-year period is recommended. Cobalt Ahmed and Twyman (1953)3 65 found that tomato plants showed toxicity from cobalt at 0.1 mg/1, and Vergnano and Hunter ( 1953) 475 found that cobalt at 5 mg/1 was highly toxic to oats. Scharrer anCl Schropp (1933)460 found that cobalt at a few mg/1 in sand and solution cultures was toxic to peas, beans, oats, rye, wheat, barley, and corn, and that the tolerance to cobalt increased in the order listed. Vanse- low (I966a)473 found additions of 100 mg/kg to soils were not toxic to citrus. The literature indicates that a concentration of 0.10 mg/1 for cobalt is near the threshold toxicity level in nutrient solutions. Thus, a concentration of 0.05 mg/1 appears to be satisfactory for continuous use on all soils. However, because the reaction of this element with soils is strong at neutral and alkaline pH values and it increases with time (Hodgson 1960), 416 a concentration of 5.0 mg/1 might be tolerated by fine textured neutral and alkaline soils when it is added in small yearly increments. Recommendations Recommended maximum concentrations for co- balt are set at 0.050 mgfl for continuous use on all soils and 5.0 mgfl for neutral and alkaline fine textured soils for a 20-year period. Copper Copper concentrations of 0.1 to 1.0 mg/1 in nutrient solutions have been found to be toxic to a large number of plants (Piper 1939,447 Liebig et al. 1942,432 Frolich et al. 1966,403 Nollendorfs 1969,442 Struckmeyer et al. 1969,469 Seillac 1971 462). Westgate (1952)478 found copper toxicity in soils that had accumulated 800 lb/acre from the use of Bordeaux sprays. Field studies in sandy soils of Florida (Reuther and Smith 1954)457 showed that toxicity to citrus resulted when copper levels reached 1.6 mg/meq of cation- exchange capacity per I 00 g of dry soil. The management procedures that reduce copper toxicity include liming the soil if it is acid, using ample phosphate fertilizer, and adding iron salts (Reuther and Labanauskas 1966).456 Toxicity levels in nutrient solutions and limited data on soils suggest a concentration of 0.20 mg/1 for continuous use on all soils. This level used at a rate of 3 acre feet of water per year would add about 160 pounds of copper in I 00 years, which is approaching the recorded levels of toxicity in acid sandy soils. A safety margin can be obtained by liming these soils. A concentration of copper at 5.0 mg/1 applied in irrigation water at the rate of 3 acre feet of water per year for a 20-year period would add 800 pounds of copper in 20 years. Recommendations Based on toxicity levels in nutrient solutions and the limited soils data available, a maximum con- centration of 0.20 mgjl copper is recommended for continuous use on all soils. On neutral and alkaline fine textured soils for use over a 20-year period, a maximum concentration of 5.0 mgjl is recom- mended. Fluoride Applications of soluble fluoride salts to acid soils can produce toxicity to plants. Prince et al. (1949)450 found that 360 pounds fluoride per acre, added as sodium fluoride, reduced the yields of buckwheat at pH 4.5, but at pH values above 5.5 this rate produced no injury. Maclntire et al. (1942)435 found that 1,150 pounds of fluoride in superphosphate, 575 pounds of fluoride in slag, or 2,~00 pounds of fluoride as calcium fluoride per acre had no detrimental effects on germination or plant growth on well-limed neutral soils, and that vegetation grown on these soils showed only a slight increase in fluoride as compared to those grown in acid soils. However, Shirley et al. (1970)464 found that bones of cows that had grazed pastures fertilized with raw rock and colloidal phosphate, which contained ap- proximately two to three per cent fluorides, for seven to 16 years averaged approximately 2,900 and 2,300 mg of fluorine per kilogram of bone, respectively. The bones of cows that had grazed on pastures fertilized with relatively fluorine free superphosphate, concentrated superphosphate, and basic slag fertilizer contained only 1400 mg/kg fluorine. Recommendations Because of the capacity of neutral and alkaline soils to inactivate fluoride, a relatively high maxi- mum. concentration for continuous use on these soils is recommended. Recommended maximum concentrations are 1.0 mgfl for continuous use on all soils and 15 mg,jl for use for a 20-year period on neutral and alkaline fine textured soils. Iron Iron in irrigation waters is not likely to create a problem of plant toxicities. It is so insoluble in aerated soils at all pH values in which plants grow well, that it is not toxic. In fact, the problems with this element are deficiencies in alkaline soils. In reduced (flooded) soils soluble ferrous ions develop from inherent compounds in soils, so that quantities that might be added in waters would be of no concern. However, Rhoads (1971)458 found large reductions in the quality of Water for Irrigation/343 cigar wrapper tobac<;o when plants were sprinkler irrigated with water containing 5 or more mg soluble iron/1, because of precipitation of iron oxides on the leaves. Rhoad's ex- perience would suggest caution when irrigating any crops using sprinkler systems and waters having sufficient reducing conditions to produce reduced and soluble ferrous iron. The disadvantages of soluble iron salts in waters are that these would contribute to soil acidification, and the precipi- tated iron would increase the fixation of such essential ele- ments as phosphorous and molybdenum. Recommendations A maximum concentration of 5.0 mg,jl is recom- mended for continuous use on all soils, and a maximum concentration of 20 mg,jl is recom- mended on neutral to alkaline soils for a 20-year period. The use of waters with large concentrations of suspended freshly precipitated iron oxides and hydroxides is not recommended, because these materials also increase the fixation of phosphorous and molybdenum. Lead The phytotoxicity oflead is relatively low. Berry (1924)374 found that a concentration of lead nitrate of 25 mg/1 was required for toxicity to oats and tomato plants. At a concen- tration of 50 mg/1, death of plants occurred. Hopper (1937)418 found that 30 mg/1 of lead in nutrient solutions was toxic to bean plants. Wilkins (1957)479 found that lead at 10 mg/1 as lead nitrate reduced root growth. Since soluble lead contents in soils were usually from 0.05 to 5.0 mg/kg (Brewer 1966), 383 little toxicity can be expected. It was shown that the principal entry of lead into plants was from aerial deposits rather than from absorption from soils (Page et al. 1971) 445 indicating that lead that falls onto the soil is not available to plants. In a summary on the effects of lead on plants, the Com- mittee on the Biological Effects of Atmosphere Pollutants (NRC 1972)441 concluded that there is not sufficient evidence to indicate that lead, as it occurs in nature, is toxic to vege- tation. However, in studies using roots of some plants and very high concentrations of lead, this element was reported to be concentrated in cell walls and nuclei during mitosis and to inhibit cell proliferation. Recommendations Recommended maximum concentrations of lead are 5.0 mg,jl for continuous use on all soils and 10 mg,jl for a 20-year period on neutral and alkaline fine textured soils. Lithium Most crops can tolerate lithium in nutrient solutions at concentrations up to 5 mg/1 ( Oertli 1962,443 Bingham et al. 1964,377 Bollard and Butler 1966378). But research revealed 344/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water that citrus was more sensitive (Aldrich et al. 1951,369 Brad- ford l963b, 381 Hilgeman et al. 1970415). Hilgeman et al. (1970)415 found that grapefruit developed severe symptoms of lithium toxicity when irrigated with waters containing lithium at 0.18 to 0.25 mg/l. Bradford (l963a)380 reported that experience in California indicated slight toxicity of lithium to citrus at 0.06 to O.IO mg/1 in the water. Lithium is one of the most mobile of cations in soils. It tends to be replaced by other cations in waters or fertilizers and is removed by leaching. On the other hand, it is not precipitated by any known process. Recommendations Recommendations for maximum concentrations of lithium, based on its phytotoxicity, are 2.5 mgfl for continuous use on all soils, except for citrus where the recommended maximum concentration is 0.075 mgfl for all soils. For short-term use on fine textured soils the same maximum concentra- tions are recommended because of lack of inactiva- tion in soils. Manganese Manganese concentrations at a few tenths to a few milli- grams per liter in nutrient solutions are toxic to a number of crops as shown by Morris and Pierre ( 1949), 440 Adams and Wear (1957),364 Hewitt (1965),414 and others. However, toxicities of this element are associated with acid soils, and applications of proper quantities of ground limestone suc- cessfully eliminated the problem. Increasing the pH to the 5.5 to 6.0 range usually reduced the active manganese to below the toxic level (Adams and Wear 195 7). 364 Hoyt and Nyborg (197lb)420 found that available manganese in the soil and manganese content of plants were negatively cor- related with soil pH. However, the definite association of toxicity with soil pH as found with aluminum was not found with manganese, which has a more complex chemistry. Thus, more care must be taken in setting water quality cri- teria for manganese than for aluminum (i.e., management for control of toxicities is not certain). Recommendations Recommended maximum concentrations for manganese in irrigation waters are set at 0.20 mg/1 for continued use on all soils and 10 mgfl for use up to 20 years on neutral and alkaline fine textured soils. Concentrations for continued use can be in- creased with alkaline or calcareous soils, and also with crops that have higher tolerance levels. Molybdenum This element presents no problems of toxicity to plants at concentrations usually found in soils and waters. The prob- lem is one of toxicity to animals from molybdenum in- gested from forage that has been grown in soils with rela- tively high amounts of avaiable molybdenum. Dye and O'Hara (1959)398 reported that the molybdenum concentra- tion in forage that produced toxicity in ruminants was 5 to 30 mg/kg. Lesperance and Bohman (1963)430 found that toxicity was not simply associated with the molybdenum content of forage but was influenced by the amounts ot other elements, particularly copper. Jensen and Lesperance (1971)423 found that the accumulation of molybdenum in plants was proportional to the amount of the element added to the soil. Kubota et al. (1963)426 found that molybdenum concen- trations of 0.01 mg/1 or greater in soil solutions were as- sociated with animal toxicity levels of this element in alsike clover. Bingham et al. (1970)3 76 reported that molybdosis of cattle was associated with soils that had 0.01 to 0.10 mg/1 of molybdenum in saturation extracts of soils. Recommendations The recommended maximum concentration of molybdenum for continued use of water on all soils, based on animal toxicities from forage, is 0.010 mgfl. For short term use on soils that react with this element, a concentration of 0.050 mg/1 is recommended. Nickel According to Vanselow (1966b),474 many experiments with sand and solution cultures have shown that nickel at 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1 is toxic to a number of plants. Chang and Sherman (1953)385 found that tomato seedlings were in- jured by 0.5 mg/l. Millikan (1949)437 found that 0.5 to 5.0 mg/1 were toxic to flax. Brenchley (1938)382 reported toxic- ity to barley and beans from 2 mg/l. Crooke (1954)395 found that 2.5 mg/1 was toxic to oats. Legg and Ormerod (1958)429 found that 1.0 mg/1 produced toxicity in hop plants. Vergnano and Hunter (1953)475 found that 1.0 mg/1 in solutions flushed through sand cultures was toxic to oats. Soane and Saunders (1959)466 found that tobacco plants showed no toxicity at 30 mg/1, and that corn showed no toxicity at 2 mg/1 but showed toxicity at 10 mg/l. Work by Mizuno (1968)439 and Halstead et al. (1969)409 and the review of Vanselow (1966b)474 showed that increas- ing the pH of soils reduces the toxicity of added nickel. Halstead et al. (1969)409 found the greatest capacity to ad- sorb nickel without development of toxicity was by a soil with 21 per cent organic matter. Recommendations Based on both toxicity in nutrient solutions and on quantities that produce toxicities in soils, the recommended maximum concentration of nickel in irrigation waters is 0.20 mg/1 for continued use on all soils. For neutral fine textured soils for a period up to 20 years, the recommended maximum is 2.0 mgfl. l_ Selenium Selenium is toxic at low concentrations in nutrient solu- tions, and only small amounts added to soils increase the selenium content of forages to a level toxic to livestock. Broyer et al. ( 1966)3 84 found that selenium at 0.025 mg/1 in nutrient solutions decreased the yields of alfalfa. The best evidence for use in setting water quality criteria for this element is application rates in relation to toxicity in forages. Amounts of selenium in forages required to prevent selenium deficiencies in cattle (Allaway et al. 1967) 366 ranged between 0.03 and 0.10 mg/kg (depending on other factors), whereas concentrations above 3 or 4 mg/kg were considered toxic (Underwood 1966). 471 A number of investi- gators (Hamilton and Beath 1963,410 Grant 1965,407 Allaway et al. 1966) 367 have shown that small applications of selenium to soils at a rate of a few kilograms per hectare produced plant concentrations of selenium that were toxic to animals. Gissel-Nielson and Bisbjerg (1970)406 found that applica- tions of approximately 0.2 kg/hectare of selenium produced from 1.0 to 10.5 mg/kg in tissues of forage and vegetable crops. Recommendation With the low levels of selenium required to pro- duce toxic levels in forages, the recommended maximum concentration in irrigation waters is 0.02 mg/1 for continuous use on all soils. At a rate of 3 acre feet of water per acre per year this concen- tration represents 3.2 pounds per acre in 20 years. The same recommended maximum concentration should be used on neutral and alkaline fine textured soils until greater information is obtained on soil reactions. The relative mobility of this element in soils in comparison to other trace elements and slow removal in harvested crops provide a sufficient safety margin. Tin, Tungsten, and Titanium Tin, tungsten, and titantium are effectively excluded by plants. The first two can undoubtedly be introduced to plants under conditions that can produce specific toxicities. However, not enough is known at this time about any of the three to prescribe tolerance limits. (This is true with other trace elements such as silver.) Titantium is very insoluble, at present it is not of great concern. Vanadium Gericke and Rennenkampff (1939)405 found that vanad- ium at 0.1, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/1 added to nutrient solutions as calcium vanadate slightly increased the growth of barley, whereas at I 0 mg/1 vanadium was toxic to both tops and roots and that vanadium chloride at 1.0 mg/1 of vanadium was toxic. Warington (1954, 476 1956477) found that flax, soy- beans, and peas showed toxicity to vanadium in the con- Water for Irrigation/345 centration range of o:5 to 2.5 mg/1. Chiu (1953)389 found that 560 pounds per acre of vanadium added as ammonium metavanadate to rice paddy soils produced toxicity to rice. Recommendations Considering the toxicity of vanadium in nutrient solutions and in soils and the lack of information on the reaction of this element with soils, a maxi- mum concentration of 0.10 mg/1 for continued use on all soils is recommended. For a 20-year period on neutral and alkaline fine textured the recom- mended maximum concentration is 1.0 mg/1. Zinc Toxicities of zinc in nutrient solutions have been demon- strated for a number of plants. Hewitt (1948)413 found that zinc at 16 to 32 mg/1 produced iron deficiencies in sugar beets. Hunter and Vergnano (1953)421 found toxicity to oats at 25 mg/1. Millikan (1947)438 found that 2.5 mg/1 produced iron deficiency in oats. Earley (1943)399 found that the Peking variety of soybeans was killed at 0.4 mg/1, whereas the Manchu variety was killed at 1.6 mg/1. The toxicity of zinc in soils is related to soil pH, and liming acid soil has a large effect in reducing toxicity (Barnette 1936,371 Gall and Barnette 1940,404 Peech 1941,446 Staker and Cummings 1941,468 Staker 1942,467 Lee and Page 1967 428). Amounts of added zinc that produce toxicity are highest in clay and peat soils and smallest in sands. On acid sandy soils the amounts required for toxicity would suggest a recommended maximum concentration of zinc of 1 mg/1 for continuous use. This concentration at a water application rate of 3 acre feet/acre/year would add 813 pounds per acre in 100 years. However, if acid sandy soils are limed to pH values of six or above, the tolerance level is increased by at least a factor of two (Gall and Barnette 1940). 404 Recommendations Assuming adequate use of liming materials to keep pH values high (six or above), the recom- mended maximum concentration for continuous use on all soils is 2.0 mg/1. For a 20-year period on neutral and alkaline soils the recommended maxi- mum is 10 mg/1. On fine textured calcareous soils and on organic soils, the concentrations can exceed this limit by a factor of two or three with low probability of toxicities in a 20-year period. PESTICIDES (IN WATER FOR IRRIGATION) Pesticies are used widely in water for irrigation on com- mercial crops in the United States (Sheets 1967).502 Figures on production, acreage treated, and use patterns indicate insecticides and herbicides comprise the major agricultural pesticides. There are over 320 insecticides and 127 herbi- cides registered for agricultural use (Fowler 1972). 498 346/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water Along with the many benefits to agriculture, pesticides can have detrimental effects. Of concern for irrigated agri- culture is the possible effects of pesticrde residues in irriga- tion water on the growth and market quality of forages and crops. Pesticides most likely to be found in agricultural water supplies are listed in the Freshwater Appendix II-D. Insecticides in Irrigation Water The route of entry of insecticides into waters is discussed in the pesticide section under Water for Livestock Enter- prises. For example, Miller et al. (1967)500 observed the movement of parathion from treated cranberry bogs into a nearby irrigation ditch and drainage canal, and Sparr et al. (1966)503 monitored endrin in waste irrigation water used three days after spraying. In monitoring pesticides in water used to irrigate areas near Tule Lake and lower Klamath Lake Wildlife Refuges in northern California, Godsil and Johnson (1968)499 detected high levels of endrin compared to other pesticides. They observed that the concentrations of pesticides in irrigation waters varied directly with agri- cultural activities. In monitoring pesticides residues from 1965 to 1967 (Agricultural Research Service 1969a), 483 the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture detected the following pesticides in ir- rigation waters at a sampling area near Yuma, Arizona: the DDT complex, dieldrin, methyl parathion, endrin, endosulfan, ethyl parathion, dicofol, s ,s ,s ,-tributyl phos- phorotrithiate (DEF), and demeton. Insecticides most com- monly detected were DDT, endrin, and dieldrin. For the most part, all residues in water were less' than 1.0 ,ug/1. A further examination of the irrigation water at the Yuma sampling area showed that water entering it contained rela- tively low amounts of insecticide residues while water leav- ing contained greater concentrations. It was concluded that some insecticides were picked up from the soil by irrigation water and carried out of the fields. Crops at the same location were also sampled for insecti- cide residues. With the exception of somewhat higher con- centrations of DDT and dicofol in cotton stalks and canta- loupe vines, respectively, residues in crop plants were rela- tively small. The mean concentrations, where detected, were 2.6 ,ug/g combined DDT, 0.01 ,ug/g endrin, 0.40 ,ug/g dieldrin, 0.05 ,ug/g lindane, 5.0 ,ug/g dicofol, and 1.8 ,ug/g combined parathion. The larger residues for DDT and dicofol were apparently from foliage applications. Sampling of harvested crops showed that residues were generally less than 0.30 ,ug/g and occurred primarily in lettuce and in cantaloupe pulp, seeds, and rind. DDT, dicofol, and endrin were applied to crops during the survey, and from 2.0 to 6.0 lb/ acre of DDT were applied to the soil before 1965. Some crops do not absorb measurable amounts of insecti- cides but others translocate the chemicals in various amounts. At the levels (less than 1.0 ,ug/1) monitored by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in irrigation waters (Agri- cultural Research Service 1969a), 483 there is little evidence indicating that insecticide residues in the water are detri- mental to plant growth or accumulate to undesirable or il- legal concentrations in food or feed crops. Herbicides in Irrigation Water In contrast to insecticides, misuse of herbicides can pre- sent a greater hazard to crop growth. Herbicides are likely to be found in irrigation water under the following circum- stances: (I) during their purposeful introduction into irriga- tion water to control submersed weeds; of (2) incidental to herbicide treatment for control of weeds on banks of irriga- tion canals. Attempts are seldom made to prevent water containing herbicides such as xylene or acrolein from being diverted onto cropland during ir;_rigation. In most instances, however, water-use restrictions do apply when herbicides are used in reservoirs of irrigation water. The herbicides used in reservoirs are more persistent and inherently more phytotoxic at low levels than are xylene and acrolein. The tolerances of a number of crops to various herbicides used in and around water are listed in Table V-15. Residue levels tolerated by most crops are usually much higher than the concentrations found in water following normal use of th~ herbicides. Aromatic solvent (xylene) and acrolein are widely used in western states for keeping irrigation canals free of submersed weeds and algae and are not harmful to crops at concentrations needed for weed control. (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service 1963,504 hereafter referred to as Agricultural Research Service 1963).482 Xylene, which is non-polar, is lost rapidly from water (50 per cent in 3 to 4 hours) by volatility (Frank et al. 1970).497 Acrolein, a polar compound, may remain in flowing water for periods of 24 hours or more at levels that are phytotoxic only to submersed aquatic weeds. Copper sulfate is used frequently to control algae. It has also been found effective on submersed vascular weeds when applied continuously to irrigation water at low levels (Bartley 1969). 487 . The herbicides that have been used most widely on irriga- tion ditchbanks are 2 ,4-D, dalapon, TCA, and silvex. The application of herbicides may be restricted to a swath of a few feet along the margin of the water, or it may cover a swath 15 feet or more wide. A variable overlap of the spray pattern at the water margin is unavoidable and accounts for most of the herbicide residues that occur in water during ditchbank treatments. Rates of application vary from 2 lb per acre for 2 ,4-D to 20 lb per acre for dalapon. For ex- amples of residue levels that occur in water from these treatments see Table V -16. The residues generally occur only during the periods when ditchbanks are treated. The rates of dissipation of herbicides in irrigation water were reported recently by Frank et al. (1970). 497 The herbi- cides and formulations commonly used on ditchbanks are readily soluble in water and not extensively sorbed to soil or other surfaces. Reduction in levels of residues in flowing irrigation water is due largely to dilution. Irrigation canals Water for lrrigation/347 TABLE V-IS-Tolerance of Crops to Various Herbicides Used In and Around Waters• Herbicide Site of use Formulation Treatment rate Concentration that may occur in irrigation waterb Crop injury threshold in irrigation water (mg/1)• Acrolein.............................. Irrigation canals............... Liquid.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 mg/1 for 4 hours............... 10 to 0.1 mgfl................... Flood or furrow; beans-SO, corn-SO, cotton-SO, soybeans-20, sugar beets- SO. O.S mg/1 for 8 hours.............. 0.4to 0.02 mg/1................. Sprinkler; corn-SO, soybeans-15, sugar beets-15. 0.1 mg/llor 48 hours............. 0.05 to 0.1 mg/1 Aromatic solvents (xylene).............. Flowing water in canals or drains. Emulsifiable liquid ...... -.......... 5 to 10 galjcls (350 to 750 mg/1) 700 mgfl or less ................. . Alfalla> 1, SOO, beans-!, 200, carrots- I,SOO,corn-3,000 cotton-1,600, grain sorghum > 800, oats-2, 400, potatoes-!, 300, wheat> 1, 200. applied in 3D-SO minutes Copper sulfate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Canals or reservoirs. . . . . . . . . . . . Pentahydrate crystals. . . . . . . . . . . . . Continuous treatment 0. 5 to 3. 0 mg/1, slug treatment-~ to lib (0.15 to 0.45 kg) per cis water flow 0.04 to 0.8 mg/1 during first 10 miles, 0.08 to 9.0 mgfl during first 10 to 20 miles. Threshold is above these levels. Dalapon.............................. Banks of canals and ditches .... Diquat............................... lnjecled into water or sprayed over surface Water soluble salt. ............... 15 to 30 lb/A or 17to 34 kgfha ... . Less than 0.2 mg/1.... .. . . .. ... . . Beels>7.0, corn>0.35 Usually less than 0.1 mg/1........ Beans-5.0, corn-125 Liquid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 5 mgfl, I to 1.5 lbs/ A, or 1.2 to 1.7 kg/ha Diuron... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Banks and bottoms ol small dry powder ditches Dichlobenil........................... Bottoms of dry canals .. Wettable powder................. Up to S41b/A or 72 kgfha ........ . No data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No data Granules or wettable powder...... 7to 10 lb/A or 7.9to 12.S kgfha... No data ........................ . Allalla-10, corn> 10, soybeans-1.0, sugar beets-1.0 to 10. Endothall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ponds and reservoirs. . . . . . . . . . . Water soluble Na or K salts. . . . . . . I to 4 mgfl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Absent or only traces ...... . Corn-25, field beans-1.0, Alfalfa >10.0 Endothall amine salts ................. . Reservoirs and static-water Liquid or granules ................ canals Fenac ............................... . Bottoms ol dry canals ........... Liquid or granules ................ Monuron ............................ . Banks and bottoms of small dry Wettable powder ................. powder ditches Silvex ............................... . Woody planls and brambles on Esters in liquid form .............. floodways, along canal, stream, or reservoir banks Floating and emersed weeds in .... " ·············· soulhern waterways TCA ................................ . Banks of canals and ditches ..... Water soluble salt. ............... 2,4-D amine ......................... . On banks ol canals and ditches .. Liquid ........................... 0.5to 2.5 mgfl .................. 10 to 20 lb/A or 12.S to 25.2 kgfha Up to S41b/A or 72 kg/ha ......... 2 to 41b/A or 2.2 to 4.4 kg/ha .... 2 to Bib/A or 2.2to 8.8 kgfha .... Up to S41b/A or 72 kgfha ......... I to 41b/A or 1.1 to 4/4 kg/ha .... Absent or only traces ............. Absent or only traces ............. No data ......................... No data. Probably well under 0.1 mgfl 0.01 to t.S mgjl1 day alter appli- cation Usually less than 0.1 mg/1 ........ 0. 01 to 0.10 mg/1:. .............. Corn>25, soybeans>25, sugar beets- 25 Alfalfa-1.0, corn-10, soybeans-0.1, sugar beets-0.1 to 10. No data Corn>5.0, sugar beets and soybeans >0.02. No injury observed at levels used. Field beans> 1.0, grapes-D. 7, sugar beets>0.2, soybeans>0.02, corn- tO, cucumbers, potatoes, sorghum, allalfa, peppers> I. 0. Floating and emersed weeds in southern canals and ditches Picloram............................. For control of brush on water- sheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 to 41b/A or 2.2to 4. 4 kg/ha. . . . No data. Probably less than 0.1 mg/1 " Liquids or granules............... I to 31b/A or 1.1 to 3.3 kgfha.... No data......................... Corn> 10, field beans 0.1, sugar beets>t.O • Sources of data included in this table are: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (19S9)505, Arle and McRae (1959,'" 1960"'), Bruns (1954,4"1957,"0 19S4,"' 19S9'"), Bruns and Clore (1958),'" Bruns and Dawson (1959),"' Bruns et al. (1955,'" 19S4,'" unpublished data 197t•o•) Frank et al. (1970),"' Yeo (1959)507. b Herbicide concentrations given in this column are the highest concentrations that have been found in irrigation water, but these levels seldom remain in the water when it reaches the crop. 'Unless indicated otherwise, all crop tolerance data were obtained by flood or furrow irrigation. Threshold of injury is the lowest concentration causing temporary or permanent injury to crop plants even though, in many instances, neither crop yield nor quality was affected. are designed to deliver a certain volume of water to be used on a specific area of cropland. Water is diverted from the canals at regular intervals, and this systematically reduces the volume of flow. Consequently, little or no water re- mains at the ends of most canals where disposal of water containing herbicides might be troublesome. Residues in Crops Successful application of herbicides for control of algae and submersed vascular weeds in irrigation channels is dependent upon a continuous flow of water. Because it is impractical to interrupt the flow and use of water during the application of herbicides in canals or on canal banks, the herbicide-bearing water is usually diverted onto croplands. Under these circumstances, measurable levels of certain herbicides may occur in crops. Copper sulfate is used :most frequently for control of algae at concentrations that are often less than the suggested tolerance for this herbicide in potable water. Application rates may range from one third pound of copper sulfate per cubic-feet-second (cfs) of water flow to two pounds per cfs of water flow (Agriculture Research Service 1963). 482 Xylene is a common formulating ingredient for many pesti- cides and as such is often applied directly to crop plants. The distribution by furrow or sprinkler of irrigation water con- taining acrolein contributes to the rapid loss of this herbi- cide. Copper sulfate, xylene, and acrolein are of minor im- portance as sources of objectionable residues in crops. Phenoxy herbicides, dalapon, TCA, and amitrole are most persistent in irrigation water (Bartley and Hattrup 1970). 488 It is possible to calculate the maximum amount of a herbicide such as 2 ,4-D that might be applied to crop- 348/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water TABLE V-16-Maximum Levels of Herbicide Residues Found in Irrigation Water as a Result of Ditchbank Treatment• Herbicide and canal treated DALAPON Five-mile Lateral. ................. . Lateral No. 4 ...................... . Manard Lateral. .................. . Yolo Lateral ....................... . TCA Lateral No.4 ...................... . Manard Lateral. .................. . Yolo Lateral. .................... .. 2,4-D AMINE SALT Lateral No.4 ...................... . Manard Lateral. .................. . Yolo Lateral. ..................... . • Frank et al. (1970)'". Treatment rate, lb/A Water flow in cfs Maximum concentration 20 6.7 9.6 10.5 3.8 5.4 5.9 1.9 2.7 3.0 15 290 37 26 290 37 26 290 37 26 of residue, l'g/ I 365b 23 39 162 12 20 69 5 13 36 b High level of residue probably due to alypicaltreatmenl land following its use on an irrigation bank. A four-mile- long body of irrigation water contaminated with 2 ,4-D and flowing at a velocity of one mile per hour, would be diverted onto an adjacent field for a period of 4 hours. A diversion rate of two acre inches of water in 10 hours would deliver 0.8 inch of contaminated water per acre. If this amount of water contained 50 t-tg/1 of 2 ,4-D (a higher con- centration than is usually observed), it would deposit slightly less than 0.009 lb of 2 ,4-D per acre of cropland. Levels of 2 ,4-D residues of greater magnitude h&ve not caused in- jury to irrigated crops (see Table V-15). The manner in which irrigation water containing herbi- cides is applied to croplands may influence the presence and amounts of residues in crops (Stanford Research Insti- tute 1970) .0°9 For example, residues in leafy crops may be greater when sprinkler irrigated than when furrow irri- gated, and the converse may be true with root crops. If there is accidental contamination of field, forage, or vegetable crops by polluted irrigation water, the time inter- val between exposure and harvesting of the crop is im- portant, especially with crops used for human consumption. Factors to be considered with those mentioned above in- clude the intensity of the application, stage of growth, dilu- tion, and pesticide degradability in order to assess the amount of pesticide that may reach the ultimate consumer (U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare 1969). 506 Pesticides applied to growing plants may affect the market quality by causing changes in the chemical com- position, appearance, texture, and flavor of the product harvested for human consumption (NRC 1968).501 Recommendation Pesticide residues in irrigation waters are variable depending upon land and crop management prac- tices. Recent data indicate pesticide residues are declining in irrigation waters, with concentrations less than 1.0 t-tg/1 being detected. To date there have been no documented toxic effects on crops irrigated with waters containing insecticide resi- dues. Because of these factors and the marked variability in crop sensitivity, no recommendation is given for insecticide residues in irrigation waters. For selected herbicides in irrigation water, it is recommended that levels at the crop not exceed the recommended maximum concentration listed in Table V-16. PATHOGENS Plant Pathogens The availability of "high quality" 1rngation water may lead to the reuse of runoff water or tailwater and subse- quently lead to a serious but generally unrecognized prob- lem, that of the distribution of plant pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and possibly viruses. This is most serious when it occurs on previously nonfarmed lands. Distribution of Nematodes Wide distribution of plant-nematodes in irrigation waters of south central Wash- ington and the Columbia Basin of eastern Washington was demonstrated by Faulkner and Bolander (I 966,515 1970 516). When surface drainage from agricultural fields is collected and reintroduced into irrigation systems, without first being impounded in settling basins, large numbers of nematodes can be transferred. Faulkner and Bolander's data indicated that an acre of land in the Lower Yakima Valley may re- ceive from 4 million to over I 0 million plant-parasitic nematodes with each irrigation. Numbers of nematodes transported vary with the growing season, but some that were detectable in irrigation water and demonstrated to be infective were Meloidogyne hapla, Heterodera schaclztii, Pratylen- chus sp., and Tylenchorhynchus sp. Meagher (1967)526 found that plant-parasitic nematodes such as the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans, may be spread by subsoil drainage water reused for irrigation. Thomason and Van Gundy (1961)530 showed another means by which nematodes may possibly enter irrigation supplies. Two species of rootknot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and M.javanica, were found reproducing on arrow- weed, Pluchea sericea, at the edge of sandbars in the Colorado River at Blythe, California. No conclusive evidence that nematodes entered the river was presented, but infested soil and infected roots were in direct contact with the water. Plant-parasitic nematodes are essentially aquatic animals and may survive for days or weeks immersed in water. Unless provisions are made for excluding them from or settling them out of irrigation water, they may seriously deteriorate water quality in areas of the United States de- pendent on irrigation for crop production. Distribution of Fungi Surveys were conducted to de- termine the origins and prevalence of Phytophthora sp., a fungus pathogenic to citrus, in open irrigation canals and reservoirs in five southern California counties by Klotz et al. ( 1959). 523 Phytophthora progagules were detected by trap- ping them on healthy lemon fruits suspended in the water. Of the 12 canals tested from September 1957 to Septem- ber 1958, all yielded Pkytophthora sp. at one time or another, some more consistently than others. Phytophthora citrophthora was the most common and was recovered from 11 canals. In the five canals where it was possible to set the lemon traps at the source of the water, no Phytophthora sp. were recovered. However, as the canals passed through citrus areas where excess irrigation water or rain runoff could drain into the canals, the fungi were readily isolated. Soil samples collected from paths of runoff water that drained into irrigation canals yielded P. citrophthora, indicating that Phytophthora zoospores from infested citrus groves can be in- troduced into canals. One of three reservoirs was found to be infested with P. parasitica. Application of copper sulfate effectively con- trolled the fungus under the static condition of the water in the reservoir. Chlorination (2 mg/1 for 2 minutes) effectively killed the infective zoospores of Phytophthora sp. under laboratory conditions. Mcintosh (1966) 525 established that Phytophthora cacto- rum, which causes collar-rot of fruit trees in British Co- lumbia, contaminates the water of many irrigation systems in the Okanagan and Similkamen Valleys. The fungus was isolated from 15 sources including ponds, reservoirs, rivers, creeks, and canals. It had been established previously that P. cactorum was widespread in irrigated orchard soils of the area, but could not be readily detected in non- irrigated soils. Many plant-pathogenic fungi normally produce fruiting bodies that are widely disseminated by wind. A number do not, however, and these could easily be disseminated by irrigation water. Distribution of Viruses Most plant pathogenic vi- ruses do not remain infestive in the soil outside the host or vector. Two exceptions may be tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and tobacco necrosis virus (TNV). There is some evidence that these persist in association with soil colloids and can gain entry to plant roots through wounds. Hewitt et al. ( 1958) 520 demonstrated that fan leaf virus of grape is transmitted by a dagger nematode, Xiphinema index. To date, three genera of nematodes, Xiphinema, Longidorus, and Trichodorus are known to transmit viruses. The first two of these genera transmit polyhedral viruses of the Arabis mosaic group. Tr'ichdorus spp. transmit tubular viruses of the Tobacco Rattles group. Infective viruses are known to persist in the nematode vector for months in the absence of a host plant. This information, coupled with Faulkner and Bolander's (1966, 515 1970) 516 proof of the distribution of nematodes in .irrigation water, suggested the possibility that certain plant viruses could be distributed in their nematode vectors in irrigation Water for Irrigation/349 water. To date, no direct ~vidence for this has been pub.: lished. Several other soil-borne plant-pathogenic viruses are transmitted to hosts by soil fungi. The ability of the fungus Olpidium brassicae to carry and transmit Lettuce Big Vein Virus (LBVV) was recently demonstrated (Grogan et al. 1958,519 Campbell 1962,513 Teakle 1969 529 ). It is carried within the zoospore into fresh roots and there released. The most likely vehicle for its distribution in irrigation water would be resting sporangia carried in runoff water from infested fields. The resting sporangia are released into the soil from· decaying roots of host plants. Another economically important virus transmitted by a soil fungus is Wheat Mosaic Virus carried by the fungus Polymyxa graminis (Teakle 1969).529 Another means of spread of plant viruses (such as To- bacco Rattles Virus and Arabis Mosaic Viruses that are vectored by nematodes) is through virus-infected weed seed carried in irrigation water. Distribution of Bacteria Bacterial plant pathogens would appear to be easily transported in irrigation water. However, relatively few ·data have been published con- cerning these pathogens. Kelman (1953)522 reported the spread of the bacterial wilt organism of tobacco in drainage water from fields and in water from shallow wells. He also noted spread of the disease along an irrigation canal carry- ing water from a forested area, but no direct evidence of the bacterium in the water was presented. Local spread in runoff water is substantiated but not in major irrigation systems. Controlling plant disease organisms in irrigation water should be preventive rather than an attempt to remove them once they are introduced. In assuring that irrigation water does not serve for the dispersal of important plant pathogens, efforts should be directed to those organisms that are not readily disseminated by wind, insects, or other means. Attention should be focused on those soil- borne nematodes, fungi, viruses, and bacteria that do not spread rapidly in nature. Two major means of introduction of plant pathogens into irrigation systems are apparent. The most common is natural runoff from infested fields and orchards during heavy rainfall and floods. The other is collection of irriga- tion runoff or tailwater and its return to irrigation canals. If it is necessary to trap surface water, either from rainfall or irrigation drainage, provisions should be made to im- pound the water for sufficient time to allow settling out of nematodes and possibly other organisms. Water may be assayed for plant pathogens, but there are thousands, or perhaps millions of harmless microorgan- isms for every one that causes a plant disease. However, plant pathogenic nematodes, and perhaps certain fungi, can be readily trapped from irrigation water, easily identi- fied, and used as indicators of contamination (Klotz et al. 1959,523 Faulkner and Bolander 1966,515 Mcintosh 1966 525 ). 350/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water Plant infection is not considered serious unless an eco- nomically important percentage of Jhe crop is affected. The real danger is that a trace of plant disease can be spread by water to an uninfected area, where it can then be spread by other means and become important. It is unlikely that any method of water examination would be as effective in preventing this as would the prohibitions such as those suggested above. Human and Animal Pathogens Many microorganisms, pathogenic for either animals or humans, or both, may be carried in irrigation water, particularly that derived from surface sources. The list comprises a large variety of bacteria, spirochetes, protozoa, helminths, and viruses which find their way into irriga- tion water from municipal and industrial wastes, including food-processing plants, slaughterhouses, poultry-processing operations, and feedlots. The diseases associated with these organisms include bacillary and amebic dysentery, Sal- monella gastroenteritis, typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, leptospirosis, cholera, vibriosis, and infectious hepatitis. Other less common infections are tuberculosis, brucellosis, listeriosis, coccidiosis, swine erysipelas, ascariasis, cysti- cercosis and tapeworm disease, fascioliasis, and schisto- somiasis. Of the types of irrigation commonly practiced, sprinkling requires the best quality of water from a microbiological point of a view, as the water and organisms are frequently applied directly to that portion of the plant above the ground, especially fruits and leafy crops such as straw- berries, lettuce, cabbage, alfalfa, and clover which may be consumed raw by humans or animals. Flooding the field may pose the same microbiological problems if the crop is eaten without thorough cooking. Subirrigation and furrow irrigation present fewer problems as the water rarely reaches the upper portions of the plant; and root crops, as well as normal leafy crops and fruits, ordinarily do not permit penetration of the plant by animal and human pathogens. Criteria for these latter types may also depend upon the characteristics of the soil, climate and other variables which affect survival of the microorganisms. Benefits can be obtained by coordinating operation of reservoir releases with downstream inflows to provide sedimentation and dilution factors to markedly reduce the concentrations of pathogens in irrigation water (Le- Bosquet 1945,524 Camp et al. 1949 512 ). The common liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, the ova of which are spread from the feces of many animals, com- monly affects cattle and sheep (Allison 1930,510 U.S. Dept. Agriculture 1961 531), and may affect man. The intermediate hosts, certain species of snails, live in springs, slow-moving swampy waters, and on the banks of ponds, streams, and irrigation ditches. After development in the snail, the cer- caria! forms emerge and encyst on grasses, plants, bark, or soil. Cattle and sheep become infected by ingestion of grasses, plants, or water in damp or irrigated pastures where vegetation is infested with metacercariae. Man contracts the disease by ingesting plants such as watercress or lettuce containing the encysted metacercariae. Ascaris ova are also spread from the feces of infected ani- mals and man and are found in irrigation water (Wang and Dunlop 1954). 532 Cattle and hogs are commonly infected, where the adult worms mature in the intestinal tract, some- times blocking the bile ducts. Ascaris ova have been re- ported to survive for 2 years in irrigated soil and have been found on irrigated vegetables even when chlorinated ef- fluent was used for irrigation (Gaertner and Mueting 1951). 517 Schistosomiasis, although not yet prevalent in the United States except in immigrants from areas where the disease exists, should be considered because infected individuals may move about the country and spread the disease. The life cycle of these schistosomes is similar to that of the liver fluke, in that eggs from the feces or urine of infected indi- viduals are spread from domestic wastes and may reach surface irrigation water where the miracidia! forms enter certain snails and multiply, releasing cercariae. Although these cercariae may produce disease if ingested by man, the more common method of infection is through the skin of individuals working in infested streams and irrigation ditches. Such infections are most common in Egypt (Barlow 193 7) 511 and other irrigated areas where workers wade in the water without boots. It is unlikely that the cercariae would survive long on plants after harvest. Little is known of the possibility that enteric viruses such as polioviruses, Coxsackie, ECHO, and infectious hepatitis viruses may be spread through irrigation practices. Murphy and his co-workers (Murphy et al. 1958)527 tested the sur- vival of polioviruses in the root environment of tomato and pea plants in modified hydroponic culture. In a second paper, Murphy and Syverton (1958)528 studied the recovery and distribution of a variety of viruses in growing plants. The authors conclude that it is unlikely that plants or plant fruits serve as reservoirs and carriers of poliovirus. How- ever, their findings of significant absorption of a mammalian virus in the roots of the plants suggest that more research is needed in this area. Many microorganisms other than those specifically men- tioned in this section may be transmitted to plants, animals, and humans through irrigation practices. One of the more serious of these is vibriosis. In some cases, definitive infor- mation on microorganisms is lacking. Although others, such as the cholera organisms, are significant in other parts of the world, they are no longer important in the United States. Direct search for the presence of pathogenic micro- organisms in streams, reservoirs, irrigation water, or on ir- rigated plants is too slow and cumbersome for routine con- . trol or assessment of quality. Instead, accepted index organisms such as the coliform group and fecal coli(Kabler et al. 1964),621 which are usually far more numerous from these sources, and other biological or chemical tests, are used to assess water quality. Recent studies have emphasized the value of the fecal coliform in assessing the occurrence of salmonella, the most common bacterial pathogen in irrigation water. Geldreich and Bordner (1971) 618 reviewed field studies involving ir- rigation water, field crops, and soils, and stated that when the fecal coliform density per 100 ml was above 1,000 organisms in various stream waters, Salmonella occurrence reached a frequency of 96.4 per cent. Below 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml (range l-1000) the occ~rence of Salmonella was 53.5 per cent. Further support for the limit of 1,000 fecal coliforms per l 00 ml of water is shown in the recent studies of Cheng et al. (1971),514 who reported that as the fecal coliforms density reached less than 810 per l 00 mi. downstream from a sewage treatment plant, Salmonella were not recovered. Recommendation Irrigation waters below the fecal coliform den- sity of 1,000/100 ml should contain sufficiently low concentrations of pathogenic microorganisms that no hazards to animals or man result from their use or from consumption of raw crops irrigated with such waters. THE USE OF WASTEWATER FOR IRRIGATION An expanding population requires new sources of water for irrigation of crops and development of disposal systems for municipal and other wastewaters that will not result in the contamination of streams, lakes, and oceans. Irrigation of crops with wastewater will probably be widely practiced because it meets both needs simultaneously. Wastewater From Municipal Treatment Systems Various human and animal pathogens carried in munici- pal wastewater need to be nullified. Pathogens carried in municipal wastewater include various bacteria, spirochetes, helminths, protozoa, and viruses (Dunlop 1968).538 Tanner (1944)558 and Rudolfs et al. (1950)655 have reviewed the literature on the occurrence and survival of pathogenic and nonpathogenic enteric bacteria in soil, water, sewage, and sludges, and on vegetation irrigated or fertilized with these materials. It would appear from these reviews that fruits and vegetables growing in infected soil can become con- taminated with pathogenic bacteria and that these bacteria may survive for periods of a few days to several weeks or more in the soil, depending upon local conditions, weather, and the degree of contamination. However, Geldreich and Bordner (1971)541 noted that pathogens are seldom detected on farm produce unless the plant samples are grossly con- taminated with sewage or are observed to have fecal particles clinging to them. The level of pathogen recovery depends Water for Irrigation/351 upon the incidence of waterborne disease in the area, the soil type, soil pH, soil moisture content, soil nutrient levels, antagonistic effects of other organisms, temperature, humidity, and length of exposure to sunlight. Norman and Kabler (1953)551 made coliform and other bacterial counts in samples of sewage-contamination river and ditch waters and of soil and vegetable samples in the fields to which these waters were applied. They found that although the bacterial contents of both river and ditch waters were very high, both soil and vegetable washings had much lower counts. For example, where irrigation water had coliform counts of 230,000/100 ml, leafy vegetables had counts of 39,000/100 grams and smooth vegetables, such as tomatoes and peppers, only 1,000/100 grams. High entero- coccus counts accompanied high coliform counts in water samples, but enterococcus counts did not appear to be cor- related in any way with coliform counts in soil and vegetable washings. Dunlop and Wang (1961)539 have also endeavored to study the problem under actual field conditions in Colorado. Salmonella, Ascaris ova, and Entamoeba coli cysts were re- covered from more than 50 per cent of irrigation water samples contaminated with either raw sewage or primary- treated, chlorinated effluents. Only one of 97 samples of vegetables irrigated with this water yielded Salmonella, but Ascaris ova were recovered from two of 34 of the vegetable samples. Although cysts of the human pathogen, Entamoeba histolytica, were not recovered in this work, probably due to a low carrier rate in Colorado; their similar resistance to the environment would suggest that these organisms would also survive in irrigation water for a considerable period of tim'e. It should be pointed out, however, that this work was done entirely with furrow irrigation on a sandy soil in a semiarid region, and the low recoveries from vegetables cannot necessarily be applied to other regions or to sprinkler irrigation of similar crops. In fact, Muller ( 195 7) 550 has re- ported that two places near Hamburg, Germany, where sprinkler irrigation was used, Salmonella organisms were iso- lated 40 days after sprinkling on soil and on potatoes, 10 days on carrots, and 5 days on cabbage and gooseberries. Muller (1955)549 has also reported that 69 of 204 grass samples receiving raw sewage by sprinkling were positive for organisms of the typhoid-paratyphoid group (Salmonella). The bacteria began to die off 3 weeks after sewage applica- tion; but 6 weeks after application, 5 per cent of the sam- ples were still infected. These findings emphasize the im- portance of having good quality water for sprinkler irriga- tion. Tubercle bacilli have apparently not been looked for on irrigated crops in the United States. However, Sepp (1963)557 stated that several investigations on tuberculosis infection of cattle pasturing on sewage-irrigated land have been carried out in Germany. The investigators are in gen- eral agreement that if sewage application is stopped 14 days before pasturing, there is no danger that the cattle will con- ------------- 352/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water tract bovine tuberculosis through grazing. In contrast, Dedie (1955)587 reported that these organisms can remain infective for 3 months in waste waters a~d up to 6 months in soil. The recent findings of a typical mycobacteria in intestinal lesions of cattle with concurrent tuberculin sensi- tivity in the United States may possibly be due to ingestion of these organisms either from soil or irrigated pastures. Both animals and human beings are subject to helminth infections-ascariasis, fascioliasis, cysticerosis and tapeworm infection, and schistosomiasis-all of which may be trans- mitted through surface irrigation water and plants infected with the ova or intermediate forms of the organisms. The ova and parasitic worms are quite resistant to sewage treatment processes as well as to chlorination (Borts 1949) 588 and have been studied quite extensively in the application of sewage and irrigation water to various crops (Otter 1951,558 Selitrennikova and Shakhurina 1953,556 Wang and Dunlop 1954 560). Epidemics have been traced to crop con- tamination with raw sewage but not to irrigation with treated effluents (Dunlop 1968). 588 The chances of contamination of crops can be further re- duced by using furrow or subirrigation instead of sprinklers, by stopping irrigation as long as possible before harvest begins, and by educating farm workers on sanitation prac- tices for harvest (Geldreich and Bordner 1971).541 It is better to restrict irrigation with sewage water to crops that are adequately processed before sale and to crops that are not used for human consumption. Standards are needed to establish the point where irriga- tion waters that contain some sewage water must be re- stricted and to indicate the level to which wastewater must be treated before it can be used for unrestricted irrigation. The direct isolation of pathogens is too slow and com- plicated for routine analyses of water quality (Geldteich and Bordner 1971). 541 A quantitative method for Salmonella detection has been developed recently (Cheng et al. 1971).586 However, the minimum number of Salmonella required to cause infection are not known, and data are not available to correlate incidence of Salmonella with the inci- dence of other pathogens (Geldreich 1970).540 The fecal coliform group has a high positive correlation with fecal contamination from warm-blooded animals and should be used as an indicator of pollution until more direct methods can be developed. Information is available indicating the levels of fecal coliform at which pathogens can no longer be isolated from irrigation water. Salmonella were consistently recovered in the Red River of the north when fecal coliform levels were 1000/100 ml or higher, but were not detected at fecal coli- form levels of218 and 49/100 ml (ORSANCO Water Users Committee 197r).552 Cheng et al. (1971)586 reported num- bers of fecal coliform at various distances downstream, and Salmonella was not isolated from samples containing less than 810 fecal coliforms/100 mi. Geldreich and Bordner (1971)541 presented data from nationwide field investiga- tions showing the relationship between Salmonella oc- currence and fecal coliform densities. Salmonella occur- rence was 53.5 per cent for streams with less than 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml and 96.4 per cent for streams with more than 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 mi. A maximum level of 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml of water appears to be a realistic standard for water used for unrestricted ir- rigation. Secondary sewage effluent can be chlorinated to reduce the fecal coliform bacteria below the I ,000 per mllimit, but viruses may survive chlorination. Wastewater used for un- restricted irrigation should receive at least primary and biological secondary treatment before chlorination. Filtra- tion through soil is another effective way to remove fecal bacteria (Merrell et al. 1967,548 Bouwer 1968,584 Bouwer and Lance 1970,585 Lance and Whisler 1972). 544 The elimination of health hazards has been the primary consideration regulating the use of sewage water in the past. But control of nutrient loads must also be a prime con- cern. The nutrients applied to the land must be balanced against the nutrient removal capacity of the soil-plant sys- tem to minimize groundwater contamination. Kardos (1968)542 reported that various crops removed only 20 to 60 per cerit of the phosphorus applied in sewage water, but the total removal by the soil-plant system was about 99 per cent. Many biological reactions account for nitrogen removal from wastewater, but heavy applications of sewage water can result in the movement of nitrogen below the root zone (Lance548 in press 1972). Work with a high-rate groundwater recharge system uti- lizing sewage water resulted in 30 per cent nitrogen removal from the sewage water (Lance and Whisler 1972).544 Nitrate can accumulate in plants supplied with nitrogen in excess of their needs to the point that they are a hazard to livestock. Nitrate usually accumulates in stems and leaves rather than in seeds (Viets 1965). 559 The concentration of trace elements in sewage water used for irrigation should meet the general requirements estab- lished for other irrigation waters. Damage to plants by toxic elements has not yet been a problem on lands irrigated with sewage water in the United States. Problems could develop in some areas, however, if industries release potentially toxic elements such as zinc or copper into sewage treatment sys- tems in large quantities. The concentration of boron in sewage water may become a problem if the use of this ele- ment in detergents continues to increase. The guidelines for salinity in irrigation water-also apply to sewage water used for irrigation. The organic matter content of secondary sewage water does nd't appear to be a problem limiting its use in irrigation. Secondary sewage effluent has been infiltrated into river sand at a rate of I 00 meters per year in Arizona (Bouwer and Lance 1970). 585 The COD of this water was consistently reduced from 50 mg/1 to 17 mg/1 or the same COD as the native groundwater of the area. The organic load might be a factor in causing clogging of soils used for maximum irri- gation to promote groundwater recharge. Suspended solids have not been reported to be a problem during irrigation with treated effluents. Wastewater From Food Processing Plants and Animal Waste Disposal Systems Wastewater from food processing plants, dairy plants, and lagoons used for treatment of wastes from feedlots, poultry houses, and swine operations, may also be used for ir- rigation. Some food processing wastewater is high in salt content and the guidelines for salinity control concerning unrestricted irrigation in the Section, Irrigation Quality for Arid Regions, should be followed (Pearson in press 1972 554). Effluents from plants using a lye-peeling process are gen- erally unsuitable for irrigation due to their high sodium content. All of the wastewaters mentioned above are usually much higher in organic content than secondary sewage effluent. This can result in clogging of the soil surface, if application rates are excessive (Lawton et al. 1960,547 Law 1968,545 Law et al. 1970).546 Only well drained soils should be irrigated, and runoff should be pre- vented unless a closely managed spray-runoff treatment system is used. The nutrient content of the wastewaters varies considerably. The nutrient load applied should be balanced against the nutrient removal capacity of the soil. Food processing wastes present no pathogenic problem and Water for lrrigation/353 may be used for unrestricted irrigation. Since some animal pathogens also infect humans, water containing animal wastes should not be applied with sprinkler systems to crops that are consumed raw. Recommendations • Raw sewage should not be used in the United States for irrigation or land disposal. • Sewage water that has received primary treat- ment may be used on crops not used for human consumption. Primary effluents should be free of phytotoxic materials. • Sewage water that has received secondary treat- ment may also be used to irrigate crops that are canned or similarly processed before sale. • Fecal coliform standard for unrestricted irri- gation water should be a maximum of 1,000/100 mi. • The amount of wastewater that can be applied is determined by balancing the nutrient load of the wastewater against the nutrient removal capacity of the soil. • Phosphorus will probably not limit sewage appli- cation because of the tremendous adsorption capacity of the soil. • The nitrogen load should be balanced against crop removal within 30 per cent unless additional removal can be demonstrated. LITERATURE CITED GENERAL FARMSTEAD USES 1 American Water Works Association. Committee on Tastes and Odors (1970), Committee report: research on tastes and odors. J. Amer. Water. Works Ass. 62(1): 59-62. 2 Atherton, H. V. (1970), Comparison of methods of sanitizing water. 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Labanauskas (1966), Copper [toxicity], in Diagnostic criteria for plants and soils, H. D. Chapman, ed. (Uni- versity of California, Division of Agricultural Science, Berkeley), pp. 157-179. 457 Reuther, W. and P. F. Smith (1954), Minor elements in relation to soil factors: toxic effects of accumulated copper in Florida soils. Proc. Soil. Sci. Soc. Fla. 14:17-23. 46 8Rhoads, F. M. (1971), Relations between Fe in irrigation water and leaf quality of cigar wrapper tobacco. Agron. Jour. 63:938- 940. 459 Salinity Laboratory (1954), U.S. Department of Agriculture. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils [Handbook 60] (Government Printing Of- fice, Washington, D.C.), 160 p. 460 Scharrer, K. and W. Schropp (1933), Sand and water culture ex- periments with nickel and cobalt. z. Pjlan::;enerniihr. Dung. Bo- denk. 31A:94-ll3. 461 Scharrer, K. and W. Schropp (1935), The action of chromic and chromate ions upon cultivated plants. Z· Pjlan::;enerniihr. 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(1966b), Nickel, in Diagnostic criteria for plants and soils, H. D. Chapman, ed. (University of California, Division of Agricultural Science, Berkeley), pp. 302-309. 476 Vergnano, 0. and J. G. Hunter (1953), Nickel and cobalt toxicities in oat plants. Ann. Bot. 17:317-328. 476 War'ington, K. (1954), The influence of iron supply on toxic ef- fects of managnese,. molybdenum, and vanadium on soybeans, peas, and flax. Ann. Appl. Biol. 41:1-22. 477 Warington, K. (1956), Investigations regarding the nature of the interaction between iron and molybdenum . or vanadium in nutrient solutions, with and without a growing plant. Ann. Appl. Biol. 44:535-546. 478 Westgate, P. J. (1952), Preliminary report on chelated iron for vegetables and ornamentals. Soil Sci. Soc. Fla. Proc. 12:21-23. 479 Wilkins, D. A. (1957), A technique for the measurement of lead tolerance in plants. Nature 180:37-38. 480 Williams, R. J. B. and H. H. 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Arle (1964), Tolerance of certain crops to several aquatic herbicides in irrigation water [U.S. Department of Agriculture technical bulletin 1299] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 22 p. m Frank, P. A., R. J. Demint, and R. D. Comes (1970)., Herbicides Literature Cited/365 in irrigation water following canal-bank treatment for weed control. Weed Sci. 18(6):687-692. 498 Fowler, D. L. (1972), The pesticide review-1972 (Agr. Stab. Con- servation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.). 499 Godsil, P. J. and W. C. Johnson (1968), Pesticide monitoring of the aquatic biota at Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge. Pesti- cides Monitoring Journal 1:21-26. 500 Miller, C. W., W. E. Tomlinson and R. L. Norgen (1967), Persis- tence and movement of parathion in irrigation waters. Pesticides Monitoring Journal 1:47-48. 501National Research Council. Agricultural Board (1968), Principles of plant and animal pest control, Volume 6: Effects of pesticides on fruit and vegetable physiology (The National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C.), 90 p. 502 Sheets, T. J. (1967), The extent and seriousness of pesticide buildup in soils, in Agriculture and the Quality of our Environment, N. C. Brady, ed. (American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D. C.), pp. 311-330. 503 Sparr, B. I., W. G. Appleby, D. M. DeVries, J. V. Osmun, J. M. McBride and G. L. Foster (1966), Insecticide residues in water- ways from agricultural use, in Gould, R. F., ed., Organic Pesti- cides in the Environment. Advances in Chemistry Series No. 60, American Chemical Society, Washington, D. C., pp. 146-162. 504 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Service (1963), Crops research: chemical control of submersed waterweeds in western irrigation systems and drainage canals (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 14 p. 505 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service (1969), Suggested guide for weed control, Agricultural Hand- book No. 332, 70 p. 506 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969), Re- port of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their relationship to environmental health, Parts I and II (U.S. Government Printing Of- fice, Washington, D. C.). 507 Yeo, R. R. (1959), Response of field crops to acrolein. Research Committee, Western Weed Control Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, Research Progress Report, p. 71. References Cited 508 Bruns, V. F., J. M. Hodgson, and N. F. Arle (1971), Response of several crops to six herbicides_in irrigation water. Unpublished data. 509 Stanford Research Institute (1970), Investigations of herbicides in water and crops irrigated with water containing herbicides. Unpublished Final Report. 66 pp. PATHOGENS 510 Allison, I. S. (1930), The problem of saline drinking waters. Science 71:559-560. 511 Barlow, C. H. (1937), The value of canal clearance in the control of schistosomiasis in Egypt. Amer. J. Hyg. 25:327-348. 512 Camp, Dresser and McKee (1949), Report on Clarion River pollu- tion statement. Sanitary Water Board, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. 513 Campbell, R. N. (1962), Relationship between the lettuce big- vein virus and its vector Olpidium brassicae. Nature 195:675-677. 514 Cheng, C. M., W. C. Boyle and J. M. Goepfert (1971), Rapid ·quantitative method for salmonella detection in polluted water. Appl. Microbiol. 21(4):662--667. 515 Faulkner, L. R. and W. J. Bolander (1966), Occurrence of large nematode populations in irrigation canals of south central Washington. Nematologica 12(4):591-600. 516 Faulkner, L. R. and W. J. Bolander (1970), Acquisition and 366/Section V-Agricultural Uses of Water distribution of nematodes in irrigation waterways of the Columbia basin in eastern Washington. J. Nematol. 2(4):363-367. 617 Gaertner, H. and L. Mueting (1951), Depth-of soil infiltration by ascarid ova. Z· Hyg. Infektionskr. 132:59-63. 618 Geldreich, E. E. and R. H. Bordner (1971), Fecal contamination of fruits and vegetables during cultivation and processing for market. A review. J. Milk Food Techno!. 34(4):184-195. 619 Grogan, R. G., F. W. Zinc, W. B. Hewitt, and K. A. Kimble (1958), The association of Olpidium with the big vein disease of lettuce. Phytopathology 48(6) :292-297. 620 Hewitt, W. B., D. J. Raski, and A. C. Goheen (1958), Nematode vector of soil-borne fanleaf virus of grapevines. Phytopathology 48(11):586-595. 621 Kabler, P. W., H. F. Clark, and E. E. Geldreich (1964), Sanitary significance of coliform and fecal coliform organisms in surface water. Pub. Health Rep. 79:58-60. 522 Kelman, A. (1953), The b:1cterial wilt caused by Psuedomonas solanacearum: a literature review and bibliography. N. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. no. 99, 194 p. 623 Klotz, L. J., P. P. Wong, and T. A. DeWolfe (1959), Survey of irrigation water for the presence of Phytophthora spp. patho- genic to citrus. Plant. Dis. Rep. 43(7):830-832. 524 LeBosquet, M. (1945), Kanawha River inveztigation. Benefits to pollution abatement from increased low-water flow. U.S. Public Health Service. 525 Mcintosh, D. L. (1966), The occurrence of Phytophthora spp. in irrigation systems in British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 44:1591- 1596. 626 Meagher, J. W. (1967), Observations on the transport of nema- todes in subsoil drainage and irrigation water. Aust. J. Exp. Agr. Anim. Husb. 7(29):577-579. 627 Murphy, W. H., 0. R. Eylar, E. L. Schmidt and J. T. Syverton (1958), Absorption and translocation of mammalian viruses by plants: II. Recovery and distribution of viruses in plants. Virology 6:623. 628 Murphy, W. H., Jr. and J. T. Syverton (1958), Absorption and translocation of mammalian viruses by plants. II. Recovery and distribution of viruses in plants. Virology 6(3):623-636. 629 Teakle, D. S. (1969), Fungi as vectors and hosts of viruses, in Viruses, vectors, and vegetation, K. Maramorosch, ed. (John Wiley, & Sons, Inc., New York), pp. 23-54. 630 Thomason, I. J. and S. D. Van Gundy (1961), Arrowweed, Pluchea sericea, on the Colorado River is a host for root-know nematodes. Plant Dis. Rep. 45(7):577. 531 U.S. Department of Agriculture (1961), Liver flukes in cattle [Leaflet 493] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 8 p. 632 Wang, W. L. and S. G. Dunlop (1954), Animal parasites in sewage and irrigation water. Sewage Indus/. Wastes 26:1020-1032. WASTEWATER FOR IRRIGATION 633 Borts, I. H. (1949), Water-borne diseases. Am£T. J. Pub. Health 39: 974-978. 634 Bouwer, H. (1968), Returning wastes to the land~a new role for agriculture. J. Soil Water Conserv. 23(5):164-165. 635 Bouwer, H. and J. C. Lance (1970), Reclaiming municipal waste- water by groundwater recharge. Proc. AAAS symposium on urbanization in the arid lands. 636 Cheng, C. M., W. C. Boyle, and J. M. Goepfert (1971), Rapid quantitative method for salmonella detection in polluted water. App!. Microbial. 21(4):662-667. 637 Dedie, K. (1955), [Organisms in sewage pathogenic to animals.] Staedtehygiene 6: 1 77-180. 638 Dunlop, S. G. (1968), Survival of pathogens and related disease hazards, in Municipal sewage dfluent for irrigation, C. W. Wilson and F. E. Beckett, eds. (Louisiana Tech Alumni Foundation, Ruston, Louisiana, p. 192. 639 Dunlop, S. G. and W. L. Wang (1961), Studies on the use of sewage effluent for irrigation of truck crops. J. Milk Food Techno!. 24(2) :44-4 7. 640 Geldreich, E. E. (1970), Applying bacteriological parameters to recreational water quality. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 62(2):113- 120. 641 Geldreich, E. E. and R. H. Bordner (1971), Fecal contamination of fruits and vegetables during cultivation and processing for market. A review. J. Milk Food Techno!. 34(4):184-195. 642 Kardos, L. T. (1968), Crop response to sewage effluent, in Munici- pal sewage effluent for irrigation. C. W. Wilson and F. E. Beckett, Editors. Louisiana Polytechnic Institute. 643 Lance, J. C. (1972), in press, Nitrogen removal from wastewater by chemical and biological reactions in the soil. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 644 Lance, J. C., and F. D. Whisler (1972), in press, Nitrogen balance in soil columns flooded with secondary sewage effluent. Soil Science Society of American Proceedings. 545 Law, J. P. (1968), Agricultural utilization of sewage effluent and sludge. An annotated bibliography. Fed. Water Pollution Con. Admin. 646 Law, J. P., R. E. Thomas and L. H. Myers (1970), Cannery waste- water treatment by high-rate spray on grassland. J. Water Pollut. Con. Fed. 42:1621-1631. 64 7 Lawton, G. W., L. E. Engelbert and G. A. Rohlich (1960), Ef- fectiveness of spray irrigation as a method for the disposal of dairy plant wastes. Ag. Exp. Sta. Report No. 6, University of Wisconsin. 648 Merrell, J. C., W. F. Jopling, R. F. Bott, A. Katko, and H. E. Pinder (1967), The Santee Recreation Project, Santee, Cali- fornia. Final Report Publ. No. WP-20-7. Fed. Water Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C. 649 Muller, G. (1955), Pollution of irrigated grass with bacteria of the typhoid-paratypoid group. Komm. Wirtschraft 8:409. 660 Muller, G. (1957), The infection of growing vegetables with domestic drainage. Stadtehyg. 8:30-32. 651 Norman, N. N. and P. W. Kabler (1953), Bacteriological study of irrigated vegetables. Sewage Indus/. Wastes 25:605-609. 662 ORSANCO [Ohio River Valley Sanitation Commission] Water Users Committee (1971), Total coliform: fecal coliform ratio for evaluation of raw water bacterial quality. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 43:63D-640. 663 Otter, H. (1951), Sewage treatment plant of the town of Munster. Munster, Westphalia. Wass. V. Boden 3:211. 664 Pearson, G. A. (1972), in press Suitability for irrigation of waste- water from · food-processing plants. "Journal of Environmental Quality. 666 Rudolfs, W., L. L. Falk, and R. A. Ragotzkie (1950), Literature review on the occurrence and survival of enteric, pathogenic, and relative organisms in soil, water, sewage, and sludges, and on vegetation. I. Bacterial and virus diseases. Sewage Indus/. Wastes 22(10): 1261-1281. 666 Selitrennikova, M. B. and E. A. Shakhurina (1953), Result of organization of fields for sewage in hot climate of Uzbekistan. Gig. Sanit. 7:17-19. 667 Sepp, E. (1963), The use of sewage for irrigation. A literature re- view. (Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, California State De- partment of Public Health, Berkeley, California), p. 6. 668 Tanner, F. W. (1944), The microbiology of foods (Garrad Press, Champaign, Illinois), pp. 649-664. 169 Viets, F. G. (1965), The plant's need for and use of nitrogen. Amer. Soc. Agron. Agron. 10:503-549. I60 Wang, W. L. and S. G. Dunlop (1954), Animal parasites in sewage and irrigation water. Sewage Indus/. Wastes 26:102D-1032. ~---~------------------------------------------~--------------------------------------~------------------------------- Section VI-INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Pag INTRODUCTION .......................... . 369 Description of the Industry ............. 384 WATER UsE ............................. . 369 Processes Utilizing Water ............... 384 ScoPE .................................. . 370 Significant Indicators of Water Quality ... 384 WATER QuALITY REQUIREMENTS ............ . 370 Water Treatment Processes ............. 385 CONCLUSIONS ............................. . 371 PETROLEUM REFINING (SIC 29ll) ............ 385 Recommendations .................... . 371 Description of the Industry ............. 385 BASIC WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES .. . ExTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES ... . Group A Processes .................... . 372 Refinery Water Consumption Trends ..... 385 372 Processes Utilizing Water ............... 386 372 Process Water Properties ............... 386 Process Water Treatment ............... 387 Group B Processes .................... . Group C Processes .................... . INTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES ..... . 373 375 PRIMARY METALS INDUSTRIES (SIC 33) ........ 388 375 Description of the Industry ............. 388 Processes Utilizing Water ............... 388 MAJOR INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER .... . STEAM GENERATION AND COOLING ........... . Description of the Industry ............ . Processes Utilizing Water .............. . Significant Indicators of Water Quality .. . Water Treatment Processes TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS (SIC 22): : : :: : : : : : : Description of the Industry ............ . Processes Utilizing Water. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Significant Indicators of Water Quality .. . Water Treatment Processes LUMBER AND WooD PRODUCTS (SiC "24)·. ·. ·.: : : : Description of the Industry and Processes Utilizing Water .................... . Significant Indicators of Water Quality .. . Water Treatment Processes PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC. 26)::::::: Description of the Industry ............ . Processes Utilizing Water .............. . Significant Indicators of Water Quality .. . 376 Significant Indicators of Water Quality ... 389 376 Water Treatment Processes ............. 389 376 FooD CANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 2032 and 2033). 389 377 Descr~ption of the Industry ............. 389 378 Processes Utilizing Water ............... 390 379 Significant Indicators of Water Quality ... 391 379 Water Treatment Processes ............. 391 379 BoTTLED AND CANNED SoFT DRINKS (SIC 2086). 392 380 Description of the Industry ............. 392 380 Processes Utilizing Water ............... 392 381 Significant Indicators of Water Q:uality ... 392 381 Water Treatment Processes ............. 393 TANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 3lll) .............. 393 381 Description of the Industry ............. 393 382 Processes Utilizing Water ............... 393 382 Significant Indicators of Water Quality ... 394 382 Water Treatment Processes ............. 394 382 MINING AND CEMENT INDUSTRIES (SIC 10) ..... 394 382 Mining .............................. 394 383 Cement .............................. 395 CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 28) ... . 384 LITERATURE CITED ....................... 396 368 INTRODUCTION WATER USE Since the advent of the industrial era, the use and availability of water has been of primary concern to industry both in the selection and design of plant sites and in plant operation. By 1968 the water withdrawal of industry- including both industrial manufacturing plants and inves- tor-owned thermal electric utilities-had reached a total of approximately 84,000 billion gallons per year (bgy). Of these, about 93 per cent or 78,000 bgy was used for cooling or condensing purposes; 5 per cent or nearly 4,300 bgy was used for processing, including water that came in contact with the product as steam or coolant; and less than 2 per cent or 1,000 bgy was used as boiler-feed water (U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 197P9 hereafter referred to as Bureau of the Census 1971). 5 * Of the total intake nearly 30 per cent or 25,000 bgy was brackish water containing more than 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/1) of dissolved solids. The freshwater intake amounted to 59,000 bgy; 56,000 of these took the form of surface water delivered by water systems owned by the user company. Groundwater amounted to 2,300 bgy, a relatively small percentage of the total intake, but its significance and importance cannot be overlooked in view of the number of industrial plants that use it for part or all of their supply. Thirty per cent of the approximately 4,000 bgy used by the manufacturing processes in 1968 was treated or secured from a public water supply. Ninety per cent of all the water the manufacturing industry used for boiler feed and pro- cessing was represented in this figure. Water for cooling or condensing represented over 90 per cent of total industrial water use. The largest part of this was on a once-through basis where only a minimum of treatment was economically feasible. Table VI-1 summarizes the information on water intake, recycling, and consumption for each industrial group con- sidered in this Section. Recycling may include reuse for dif- ferent cooling or process systems, recirculation through cool- ing towers or cooling ponds, recharge of water to an under- ground aquifer, or reuse of effluents from sewage or waste treatment plants. TABLE VI-1-Industrial Plant and Investor-Owned Thermal Electric Plant Water Intake, Reuse, and Consumption, 1968 Water intake (bgy) SIC Industrial group Purpose Cooling and condensing Boiler feed, Process sanitary service, etc. 20 Food and kindred products ....... 427 93 290 22 Textile mill products ............. 24 22 109 24 Lumber and wood products ....... 62 20 37 26 Paper and a I lied products ........ 652 123 1,478 28 Chemicals and allied products ..... 3,533 210 733 29 Petroleum and coal products ...... 1,230 111 95 31 Leather and leather products ..... I I 14 33 Primary metal industrY .......... 3,632 165 1,207 Subtotal. ................. 9,561 745 3,963 Other Industries .......... 574 291 332 Total Industry ............. 10,135 1,036 4,295 Thermal electric plants ........... 68,200 (a) ....................... TOTAL .................. 78,335 1,036 (b) 4,295 • Boiler-feed water use by thermal electric plants estimated to be equivalent to industrial sanitary service, etc., water use. • Total boiler-feed water. Bureau of the Census 1971 5 Gross water use, Water recycled (bgy) including recycling Water consumed (bgy) (bgy) Total 810 535 1,345 57 155 174 329 19 119 87 206 26 2,253 4,270 6,523 175 4,476 4,940 9,416 301 1,436 5,855 7,291 219 16 4 20 1 5,004 2,780 7,784 308 14,269 18,645 32,914 1,106 1,197 1,589 2, 786 84 15,466 20,234 35; 700 1,190 68,200 8,525 76,725 100 83,666 28,759 112,425 1,290 • Literature citations appear at the end of the Section. They can be located alphabetically or by superscript number. 369 Water discharged (bgy) 753 136 93 2,078 4,175 1,217 15 4,696 13,163 1,113 14,276 68,100 82,376 370/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies SCOPE After describing industry's use of waw:r in steam genera- tion and cooling, the panel on Industrial Water Supplies examined ten groups of one or more industries as defined by the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) coding used by the Bureau of the Census (U. S. Executive Office of the President, Bureau of the Budget 1967).22 The industries included textile mills (SIC 22), lumber and wood (SIC 24), pulp and paper (SIC 26), chemical and allied products (SIC 28), petroleum refining (SIC 2911), primary metals (SIC 33), food canning (SIC 2032 and 2033), bottled and canned soft drinks (SIC 2086), tanning (SIC 3111), and mining and cement (SIC 10). Only the major users of water were included, representing a variety of industries in order to insure that a wide cross section of water qualities would be described. Industrial effluents cause water quality changes in the receiving systems, but consideration of these changes was not part of the charge to the Panel on Industrial Water Supplies. The other Sections in this Report include con- sideration of the effects of many specific constituents of such effluents as related to various water uses. WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS Water quality requirements differ widely for the broad variety of industrial uses, but modern water treatment tech- TABLE VI-2-Summary of Specific Quality Characteristics of Surface Waters That Have Been Used as Sources for Industrial Water Supplies (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mgfl and values are maximums. No one water will have all the maximum values shown) Boiler Makeup water Cooling Water Process Water Mining Industry Fresh Brackish• Pulp and Prim. Oil Recovery Characteristics Industrial Utility 700 Textile Lumber Paper Chemical Petroleum Metals Copper Injection Waters Oto1,500 to 5,000 Once Makeup Once Makeup Industry Industry Industry Industry Industry Industry Sulfide Copper psig psig through recycle through recycle SIC-22 SIC·24 SIC-26 SIC·28 SIC·29 SIC-33 Concentra· Leach Sea Formation tor Process Solution Water Water Water Silica (SiO,) ........... 150 150 50 150 25 25 50 85 Alum inurn (AI) ......... 3 3 12,000 Iron (Fe) .............• 80 80 14 80 1.0 1.0 0.3 2.6 10 15 12,000• 0.2 13 Manganese (Mn) ....... 10 10 2.5 10 0.02 0.02 1.0 Copper (Cu)..... . . . . . . . ........ 0.5 Calcium (Ca) ................... 500 500 1,200 1,200 250 220 1,510 400 2,727 (CaCOa) Magnesium (Mg) ............... 100 85 12,000 1,272 655 Sodium & potassium 230 10,840 42,000 (Na+K) Ammonia (NHa) ................. 40 Bicarbonate (HCOa) .... 600 600 600 600 18a 180 600 480 142 281 Sulfate (SO,) .......... 1,400 1,400 680 680 2,700 2,700 850 900 1,634 64,000 2,560 42 Chloride (CI) .......... 19,000 19,000 600 500 22,000 22,000 200• 500 1,600 500 12 ........• 18,980 72,782 Fluoride (F)........... . ........ 1.2 Nitrate (NOa) ................... 30 30 8 Phosphate (PO,) ......•......... 50 4 4 5 5 Dissolved Solids ....... 35,000 35,000 1,000 1,000 35,000 35,000 150 1,080 2,500 3,500 1,500 2,100 ........ 34,292 118,524 Suspended Solids .....• 15,000 15,000 5,000 15,000 250 250 1,000 (•) 10,000 5,000 3,000 Hardness (CaCOa) ..... 5,000 5,000 850 850 7,000 7,000 120 475 1,000 900 1,000 1,530 Alkalinity (CaCOa) ..... 500 500 500 500 150 150 500 500 200 415 Acidity (CaCOa) ........ 1,000 1,000 0 200 0 0 75 pH, units ............•......... 5.0-8.9 3.5-9.1 5.0-8.4 5.0-8.4 6.0-8.0 5-9 4.6-9.4 5.5-9.0 6.0-9.0 3-9 to 11.7 3-3.5 ........ to 6.5 Color, units ...........• 1,200 1,200 1,200 360 500 25 Organics: Methylene blue ac-2d 10 1.3 1.3 1.3 live substances ..... Carbon tetrachloride 100 100 (•) 100 (•) 100 ......... ......... ......... . ....... . ....... 30 extract. ........... Chemical oxygen de· 100 500 100 200 mand (COO) Hydrogen sulfide (H,S) .......... 4 4 20 Temperature, F .......• 120 120 100 120 100 120 951 100 • Water containing in excess ol1,000 mg/1 dissolved solids. • May be :::;1,000 for mechanical pulping operations. c No particles ;::3 mm diameter. d One mgjllor pressures above 700 psig. • No floating oil. t Applies to bleached chemical pulp and paper only. •12,000 mg/1 Fe includes 6,000 Fe+; and 6,000 Fe*. ASTM Standards 1970• or Standard Methods 1971•• nology is capable of treating almost any raw water to render it suitable for any industrial use. The treatment may be costly, and may require large ground space not always available at otherwise suitable plant locations. Sometimes the substitution of a more expensive alternative supply is necessary. Nevertheless, in most cases, the costs involved are but a small part of the total production and marketing costs· of the industrial product in question. It is evident that the more nearly the composition of an available water supply approaches the particular composi- tion needed, the more desirable that water ~s, and, con- versely, the more such compositions differ, the more difficult and expensive it is to modify the water for use. Improper operation or malfunction of control instruments or water treating equipment may cause a deterioration of the treated water, and this, in turn, can cause deterioration or loss of product and damage to equipment. The poorer the quality of the raw water, the more serious the consequences of such malfunctions. Improving the quality of a given water supply will only incrementally decrease the cost of treatment for an industrial installation, because it is often too late to make economical alterations in the existing water treatment facilities. For the same reason, if the quality characteristics of the water supply are allowed to deteriorate from their usual range, the cost for treatment can be substantially increased. On the other hand, improved water supply characte~istics at a given site may mean lower water treatment costs for other industries subsequently established there. Table VI-2 summarizes quality characteristics of surface waters at the point of intake that have been used as sources of boiler makeup, cooling, and process water. CONCLUSIONS • Industry is diversified in kind, size, and product. It incorporates many processes, including different ~j; Bt~-~------------------- lntroduction/371 ones to achi~ve the same ends. Water quality require- ments for different industries, for various industrial processes within a single plant, and for the same process in different plants vary widely. • Water quality requirements at point of use, as dis- tinguished from requirements at point of intake, are established for a number of industrial processes but are inadequately defined or nonexistent for others. • Modern water treatment technology permits water of virtually any quality to be treated to provide the characteristics desired by industry at point of use. Occasionally, this may be costly; but in general the cost of treating water for specific processes is ac- ceptable to industry, because it is only a small part of total production and marketing costs. • Although water quality at point of use is critical for many industrial processes, industry's intake water quality requirements are not as stringent as those for public water supplies, recreational or agricul- tural use, or support of aquatic life. • Because of the diversity of industrial water quality requirements, it is not possible to state specific values for intake water quality characteristics for industrial use. Ordinarily these values lie between those that have been used by industries for sources of water (Table VI-2) and the quality recommended for other uses in other sections of this book. Recommendations Desirable intake water quality characteristics for industrial water supplies can be meaningfully designated as a range lying between the values that have been used by industry for sources of water (Table VI-2) and the quality characteristics recom- mended for other water uses in other chapters of this Section. Values that exceed those in Table VI-2 would ordinarily not be acceptable to industry. BASIC WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES A wide range of treatment processes is available to pro- duce water of the required quality for industry at the point of use. Treatment methods fall into two general categories: external and internal. External treatment refers to pro- cesses utilized in altering water quality prior to the point of use. The typical household water softening unit is an external treatment. Internal treatment refers to processes limited basically to chemical additives utilized to alter water quality at the point of use or within the process. Water softening compounds used in laundering are forms of internal treat- ment. Water treatment processes are in themselves users of water. Normally, 2 to 10 per cent of the feed water ends up as waste generated by treatment processes (see Table Vl-3). Thus, the actual water intake is greater than the treated water produced. EXTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES Figure Vl-1 is a schematic diagram of the most common external water treatment processes. Properly applied, alone or in various combinations, these processes can convert any incoming water quality to a usable quality. A dramatic ex- ample is the conversion of brackish water to a water that exceeds the quality of distilled water. Note that the flow chart illustrates many processes and that a particular process is applied to remove a particular contaminant. If that contaminant does not appear in the water or is harmless for the intended use of the water, that process would not be used. For example, a clear well water might not need filtration prior to further treatment. In addition, the water use determines the extent of treatment. For example, to use Mississippi River water for cooling, rough screening to remove the floating debris may be suf- ficient for some applications, whereas clarification and filtra- tion may be required for other uses. To use that same water for makeup for a super critical pressure boiler would require further treatment by ion exchange, perhaps strong cation, strong anion, and mixed bed exchangers. As previously stated, industry's need for water can be met even under the poorest conditions. However, the use of water treatment systems is not without consequence. Ex- ternal water treatment processes concen.trate a particular contaminant or contaminants. Thus, in the quest for pure water, a waste product is generated. The waste product is a pollutant and the cost of its disposal must be considered as part of the overall cost of water treatment. The estimates of waste volume and solids in Table Vl-3 are based on treating a water with an analysis such as shown .in Table Vl-4. Table Vl-4 also illustrates an analysis of several common forms of water treatment. The estimates are thus typical only of the water described and will vary with different water supplies. Waste volumes are stated as a percentage of inlet flow. Thus, a 2,000 gallon per minute (gpm) clarifier will discharge 40 to 100 gpm of sludge. The following paragraphs briefly describe the available treatment methods, outline their capabilities, and combined with Table Vl-3, provide a general idea of the waste pro- duced. (~he groupings A, B, and C do not imply treatment schemes or necessarily indicate a sequence of treatment.) The processes are applicable to various water characteris- tics; it is immaterial whether the supply is surface or ground water. Since the equipment used can be of appreciable size, available land area can be an important factor in the selec- tion of a particular process. Group A Processes Rough Screens Generally installed at the actual point of intake, rough screens are simple bars or mesh screens used to trap large objects and prevent damage to pumps and other mechanical equipment. Sedimentation This process takes place in large open basins used to reduce the water velocity so that heavier suspended particles can settle out. Clarification Chemical additives (e.g., aluminum salts, iron salts, lime) are used in large open basins so that practically all suspended matter, color, odors, and organic coml?ounds can be removed efficiently. Lime Softening (cold) The equipment used here is 372 similar to that used for clarification. In addition to floccu- lent chemicals, lime and sometimes soda ash are used in large open basins. Clarification is obtained, and a large portion of the calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are removed. Lime Softening (hot) The process is, in general, the same as cold except that it is carried out at or above 212 F. The results are the same but with the added benefit of silica removal. Tl).e characteristics of wastes are the same but at a high temperature. Note that further treatment of hot lime TABLE VI-3-Waste Generated by Treatment Processes Example of waste Treatment process• Character of waste produced Waste volume weight• dry basis percentage now pounds solids/!, 000 Rough screens................. Large objects, debris Sedimentation.................. Sand, mud slurry Clarification.................... Usually acidic chemical sludge and settled matter Cold iime softening............. Alkaline chemical sludge and settled matter Hot lime softening( +212 F)..... Alkaline chemical sludge and sellled matter Aeration...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gaseous, possible air pollutant, such as hydrogen sulfide Filtration, gravity, or pressure.... Sludge, suspended solids 5-10 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 (for packed bed units) Adsorption, activated carbon for Exhausted carbon if notre-2-5 odors, tastes, color, organics generated. Small amounts carbon fines and other solids can appear in backwash. Carbon regeneration is sepa· rate process (usually thermaO in which air pollution prob- lems must be met. Manganese zeolite, for iron removal Iron oxide suspended solids Similar to other filtration prodesses Miscellaneous, e.g., precoal, membrane, dual media filtra- tion fine straining As in other filters. Precoat 1-5 waste includes precoat ma- terials. Reverse osmosis• .............. . Suspended and 90-99 percent 10-50 of dissolved solids plus chem- ical pretreatment if required Electrodialysis• ................ . Suspended and 80-95 percent 10-50 of dissolved solids plus chem- ical pretreatment if required Distillation .................... . Concentrated dissolved and 10-75 suspended so6ds ton exchange processes• Sodium cation................ Dissolved calcium, magnesium and sodium chlorides 2-bed demineralization........ Dissolved solids from feed plus regenerants Mixed bed demineralization.... Dissolved solids from feed pi us regenerants Internal processes.............. Chemicals are added directly into operating cycle. At least a portion of process steam con- taining added chemicals, dis- solved and suspended solids from feed, and possibly con· lamination from process can be extracted from the cycle lor disposal or treatment and re- cycle. 10-14 10-14 • Processes are used alone or in various combinations, depending upon need. gal processed 1.3 1.7 1.7 o.1-o.2 0.1-D.2 (plus precoat ma- terials when used) 1.0-2.0 1.0-2.0 1.5 1.3 4-5 >5 • Amounts based on application of process to raw water shown in Table Vl-4. These values do not necessarily apply when these processes are used in combinations. · • Feed must be relatively free of suspended matter. d There are many variations. Listed here are a few of the most important. [ ___ - Basic Water Treatment Processes/373 TABLE VI-4-Typic_al Raw Water Analyses and Operating Results (mgfl,. unless otherwise indicated) Aller Aller After clarification, clarification, After cold lime filtration, filtration, Constituent Expressed Raw water• clarification softening and sodium-and as and and cation deminerali- filtration filtration exchange zation softening Cations• Calcium..................... caco, 51.5 51.5 38.7 1.0 Magnesium ................. . 19.5 19.5 17.5 1.0 0 Sodium ..................... . 18.6 18.6 18.6 87.6 1-2 Potass•um .................. . 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 0 Total Cations .................. . 91.4 91.4 76.6 91.4 1-2 Anion sa Bicarbonate ................ .. 56.8 47.8 47.8 Carbonate .................. . 0 33.0 0 Hydroxide .................. . 0 0 1-2 Sulfate .................... .. 21.8 30.8 30.8 30.8 Chloride .................... . 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 Nitrate ..................... . 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0 Total Anions .................. . 91.4 91.4 76.6 91.4 1-2 Iron•.......................... Fe 0.16 Nil Nil Nil Nil Silica• .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. SiD, 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 0.01 Color•.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . units 15.0 2-5 2-5 Nil Nil Turbidity• .................... . 100.0 0-2 0-2 Nil Nil pH• .......................... . 6.5-7.5 6.0-8.0 9.0-11.0 6.0-8.0 7.0-9.0 • Taken from Livingstone 19638 ; adjusted slightly lor ion balance and lor expression as CaCO, equivalents. • Developed by the Panel for illustrative purposes. effluent is generally limited to filtration and sodium cation exchange. Aeration This process, which can be in several dif- ferent physical forms, is applied to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide, thereby reducing the chemicals required for cold lime softening. Aeration oxidizes iron and manga- nese to allow their removal by clarification, lime softening, or filtration. No solid wastes flow from an aerator, but re- leased gases such as hydrogen sulfide can present a problem. Miscellaneous There are other special variations of all the primary treatment methods that can be applied under specific circumstances. Group B Processes Filtration This process uses gravity or pressure units in which traces of suspended matter are removed by pas- sage through a bed of sand, anthracite coal, or other granu- lar material. In general, the effluent at the primary stage must be filtered prior to further treatment. Some waters can be filtered without primary treatment. A filter is cleaned by reversing the direction of the water flow (backwashing). Adsorption This is a separation process designed pri- marily to remove dissolved organic materials including odor, taste, and color-producing compounds. Activated carbon is generally used for this purpose. Backwashing of fixed adsorption units produces small amounts of solids as the feed has generally been filtered prior to passage over the carbon. Expanded bed adsorption units do not require regular backwashing. Chemical or thermal regeneration of 374/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies (Items not enclosed in boxes indicate typical water • uses for treatment methods shown.) Raw Water Supply ~ - I Rough S""ns I ! Cooling, Fire Protection, General Utility ·-- r Sodimontation I I Cla.ifi<ation I T I Aeration r Limo Soften in~ r Limo Softoning I (Cold) (Hot) Cooling, Fire ,. ___ Protection, Paper r Filtration l l Clear Water, Paper Cooling, I Manganose I Zeolite I ... J I Adsocption l Rinsing, Potable Beverage Almost Medium r Sodium Cation l Low and Medium Pressure Boilers, .._--- Laundries, Car Washes, Rinses r Doalkalizoc I Exclusive for low and .. ---- Pressure Boilers r Dosilicizoc l ~ -------------1 l:ydwgon Cationl Weak and/or Strong I Dogasification I ' r----.1...--., I Demineralization I I Processes I Low and L----,--...J ~r:~!~~ .. -----I I Boilers I I I I Anion I I Weak andfor I Strong I I Pure Water I Medium Pressure Boilers ... ----Low in Solids,...,. ___ I Boilers Process Ultrapure Water, once thru Boiler, 1500 psig Plus Rinsing I I I Mixod Bod I : ~------------J ...,. ____ I Ullu Fillution I ! Ultimate Water Electronics Pharmaceutical FIGURE Vl-1-External Water Treatment Processes Group "A" Processes -f- Group "8" Processes -l Group "C" Processes (to end) ! ~ Electrodialysis t ! Reverse Osmosis ! ~ Distillation ! I I I t Rinsing, Misc. Furthe1 nt by hange Process, Treat me Ion Exc (Items not enclosed in boxes indicate typical water uses for treatment methods shown.) carbon can remove adsorbed impurities and restore adsorp- tive efficiency and capacity. Manganese Zeolite This process, specifically used for iron removal, is a special combined form of oxidation and filtration with a feed of potassium permanganate. Miscellaneous Many specialized forms applicable to specific conditions are available. These include precoated filters, membrane filters, strainers, and dual media filters. Group C Processes Ultrafiltration Various types of pressure filters in- cluding membranes, cartridges, and discs can remove sus- pended solids larger than 0.1 to 1.0 micron, depending on the application. Reverse Osmosis This relatively new development uses high pressures to force water through a membrane, pre- venting the passage of all suspended matter and up to 90- 99 per cent of dissolved solids. The product water can be used directly or may require further treatment by ion ex- change. The influent must be essentially free of suspended solids. Electrodialysis A relatively new development, this process uses cationic and anionic membranes with applied direct current to remove dissolved solids. The product water can be used directly or may require further treatment by ion exchange. The feed must be essentially free of suspended matter. Distillation This process uses thermal evaporation and condensation of water so that the condensate is free of suspended solids and 98-99 per cent of the dissolved solids are removed. Certain conditions may require the addition of special chemicals. The product water can be used directly or may require further treatment by ion exchange. The feed must be relatively free of suspended matter. Ion Exchange Ion exchange is a versatile process with several dozen variations. Ion exchange technology is rapidly advancing. New resins, regeneration techniques, and opera- tion modes are being introduced. Some of the more common applications are shown in Table VI-3. The exact arrange- ment of an ion exchange system depends upon raw water quality, desired treated water quality, flow rate, and economics. Total demineralization can remove in excess of 99 per cent of dissolved solids with feeds as high as 2,000 parts per million (ppm) or more. The waste produced by an ion exchanger includes the backwash and rinse waters, the regeneration effluent containing the exchanged ions, and the excess regenerative chemical. In general, the feed to any ion exchanger should contain no or only small quantities of suspended matter, color, and organics. Cation Cation exchange removes cations from the water and replaces them with other cations from an wn Basic Water Treatment Processes/375 exchanger. When in the hydrogen or acid form, strong ca- tion (i.e., strong acid) can exchange hydrogen ions for the cations of either weak or strong acids, whereas weak cation (i.e., weak acid) exchanges hydrogen only for that fraction of cations equivalent to the weakly acidic anions present, such as bicarbonate. Sodium Cation This is the simplest form of ion ex- change. Sodium ions are exchanged for hardness ions (e.g., calcium, magnesium). Anion Anion exchange removes anions from the water and replaces them with other anions from the ion exchanger. When in the base form, strong anion exchangers are capable of exchanging hydroxyl ions for the anions of either weak or strong acids, whereas weak anion exchangers exchange only with anions of strong acids. Demineralization In industrial water treatment, de- mineralization refers to a sequence of cation exchange in which hydrogen ions are substituted for other cations fol- lowed by anion exchange in which hydroxyl ions are substi- tuted for other anions. The product is H+ plus OH-; i.e., water. Mixed Bed Mixed bed exchange provides complete demineralization in one step by the use of an intimate mix- ture of cation and anion resin in one unit. It is generally used for the polishing service step of high purity water. A cation-anion exchange system might produce a water con- taining 1.0 ppm of dissolved solids. After treatment by mixed bed, the solids would be down as low as 0.01 ppm. Miscellaneous There are several specialty ion ex- changers including: dealkalizers-chloride anion exchange for the removal of alkalinity; desilicizers-hydroxide anion exchange for the removal of silica (without previous hydro- gen cation). Degasification equipment is used to remove carbon dioxide in order to reduce the work of the strong anion units that follow. INTERNAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES Internal water treatment processes are numerous. They include the addition of acid and alkali for pH control; polyphosphates, phosphonates, or polyelectrolytes for scale control; polymers for dispersal of sediment; phosphates and alkali for precipitation of hardness; amines, chromates, zinc, or silicates for corrosion control; sulfites or hydrazine for oxygen scavenging; and polyphosphates for sequestra- tion of iron or manganese. Here again, the chemical feed is determined by the requirements. The industrial user pro- duces the water quality that is needed, but a problem can be created when the user must dispose of all or part of the treated water. The choice of chemicals added to water must be considered in light of their potential as pollutants. MAJOR INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER STEAM GENERATION AND COOLING Description of the Industry Steam generation and cooling are required in most in- dustries. Waters used for these purposes are in Standard Industry Classifications 20 through 39 (with the exception of 23 and 27), plus the electric utility industry and mining (U. S. Executive Office of the President, Bureau ofthe Bud- get 1967).22 (Water used as makeup for generation of steam that comes into direct contact with a product and cooling water that comes into direct contact with a product were considered to be process waters and, therefore, were not included in this Section.) Both steam generation and cooling are encountered under a wide variety of conditions that require a correspondingly broad range of water quality recommendations. For ex- ample, steam may be generated in boil~rs that operate at pressures ranging from less than 10 pounds per square inch gauge (psig) for space heating to more than 3,500 psig for electric power generation. For any particular operating pressure, the required boiler water quality recommenda- tions depend upon many factors in addition to the water temperature in the steam generator. Thus, the amount of potentially scale-forming hardness present in the makeup water to a low pressure boiler is of far less importance when the steam is used for space heating than when it is used for humidification of air. In the first case, virtually all of the steam is returned to the boiler as condensate so that there is only limited change in the amount of potential scale. In the second case, no condensate returns to the boiler so that scale-forming salts entering with the makeup water are con- centrated. The general recommendations for water to be used for boiler feed water could not be applied directly to an indi- vidual boiler without consideration of boiler design, operat- ing practices, operating temperatures and pressures, makeup rates, and steam uses. All of these affect the nature of water-caused problems that might be anticipated in a boiler and its auxiliaries. These statements apply equally to water at source and at point of use. Most high pressure boiler plants (Table VI-S) use some form of ion exchange in treatment of water for boiler feed. A few components of raw waters can cause abnormal dif- ficulties and expense in these treatment plants. Large organic molecules may block the exchange groups of the ion exchange resins and cannot be removed by normal regeneration procedures. Oily matter, especially of petrol- eum origin, will irreversibly coat ion exchange materials and filter media. Certain forms of silica may also block ion exchange resins irreversibly. Strong oxidants in polluted water have been known to destroy ion exchange resins in a _surprisingly short time. Although most of these problems can be solved by available pretreatment methods, the equip- ment needed for such treatment may require more space than is available. This is especially true in industrial plants located in cities. Cooling water uses are similarly diverse. They may be once-through or recirculated. Once-through cooling waters are drawn from amply large sources such as rivers, lakes, estuaries, or the sea. They are returned to these sources or to other large bodies of water after having passed through heat exchange equipment just once. The quantities of water required for once-through cooling are so huge that it is rarely economically feasible to alter their quality by treat- ment. Therefore, when a plant uses water for cooling on a once-through basis, the construction materials for the cool- ing system must be selected to withstand corrosion by the water available at the site. In such cases, the quality, as well as quantity, of available water may affect plant site selec- tion. The treatments commonly applied to once-through cool- ing waters are (a) screening for removal of debris, plants, or fish that can interfere with water flow, and (b) chlorina- tion for control of biological organisms that interfere with water flow or heat transfer and contribute to localized cor- rosion. A few components of the intake water have been known to cause catastrophic failures in once-through cool- ing equipment. Damaging substances include hydrogen sulfide, oil, and suspended solids. Particularly pernicious are plastic containers usually originating from garbage dis- posal operations, or sheets of flexible plastic that can pass through a pump and then spread across a tube sheet in- 376 Major Industrial Uses of Water/377 TABLE VI-S-Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use for Steam Generation and Cooling in Heat Exchangers (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values that normally should not be exC1!eded. No one water will have all the maximum values shown.) Boiler feedwater Cooling water Quality of water prior to the addition of chemicals used for internal conditioning Characteristic Industrial Electric utilities Once through Makeup for recirculation Low pressure Intermediate High pressure 1,500 to 5, 000 psig Fresh Brackish• Fresh Brackish• 0 to 150 psig pressure 700 to 1,500 psig 150 to 700 psig Silica (SiO,) ............................................. 30 10 0.7 0.01 50 25 50 25 Aluminum (AQ ........................................... 0.1 0.01 0.01 (b) (b) 0.1 0.1 Iron (Fe) ................................................ 1 0.3 0.05 0.01 (b) (b) 0.5 0.5 Manganese (Mn) ......................................... 0.3 0.1 0.01 0.01 (b) (b) 0.5 0.02 Calcium (Ca) ............................................ (b) 0.4 0.01 0.01 200 420 50 420 Magnesium (Mg) ........................................ (b) 0.25 0.01 0.01 (b) (b) (b) (b) Ammonia (Nit.) .................................•....... 0.1 0.1 0.1 .07 (b) (b) (b) (b) Bicarbonate (H CO a) ...................................... 170 120 48 0.5 600 140 24 140 Sulfate (SO,) ............................................ (b) (b) (b) (d) 680 2,700 200 2,700 Chloride (CI) ............................................ (b) (b) (b) (b,d) 600 19,000 500 19,000 Dissolved solids .......................................... 700 500 200 0.5 1,000 35,000 500 35,000 Copper (Cu) ............................................. 0.5 0.05 0.05 0.01 (b) (b) (b) (b) Zinc (Zn) ................................................ (b) 0.01 0.01 0.01 (b) (b) (b) (b) Hardness (CaCOa) ....................................... 350 1.0 0.07 0.07 850 6,250 650 6,250 Alkalinity (CaCOa) ........................................ 350 100 40 1 500 115 350 115 pH, units ................................................ 7.D-10.0 8.2-10.0 8.2-9.0 8.8-9.4 5.D-8.3 &.D-8.3 (b) (b) Organics: Methylene blue active substances ........................ 1 1 0.5 Carbon tetrachloride extract. ............................ 1 1 0.5 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) ........................... 5 5 1.0 Hydrogen sullide (H,S) ................................... (b) (b) (b) Dissolved oxygen (0,) .................................... 2.5 0.007 0.007 Temperature, F .......................................... (b) (b) (b) Suspended solids ......................................... 10 5 0.5 • Brackish water-dissolved solids more than 1,000 mg/1 by delinition 1963 Census of Manufacturers. • Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered. • Zero, not delectable by test • Controlled by treatment for other constituents. • No noati ng oil ASTM 1970• or Standard Methods 1971" stantaneously shutting off a substantial part of the cooling water flow. Treatment of once-through cooling waters drawn from underground aquifers is further limited if the water is con- served by return to an aquifer through recharge wells. In such cases treatment must not create changes that can cause clogging of the return aquifer. When cooling ponds are used for heat rejection, the eco- nomics of water treatment are similar to those encountered with once-through cooling waters. On the other hand, most recirculating cooling water systems utilize cooling towers, and in these the water withdrawn from surface, ground, or municipal sources is small in comparison with the rate of circulation through the heat transfer equipment. Under these conditions, water treatment is economically feasible. Indeed, it becomes a necessity because of the changes in water composition produced by evaporation, air scrubbing, and other processes occuring during recirculation. As in the case of steam generation, there is such a great variety of materials and operating conditions encountered in industrial heat exchange equipment, such a wide range of chemical and physical changes that can take place in the 0.1 (b) (b) 1 1 (b, c) (e) (e) 1 2 1.0 75 75 75 75 (b) ················· ················ (b) (b) 0.007 present present (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) 0.05 5,000 2,500 100 100 recirculated cooling water, and such a variety of water treatment and conditioning methods, that quality recom- mendations for makeup water for recirculating cooling systems can have only very limited practical significance. The needs of any specific system must be established on the basis of the makeup water composition and the construction and operating characteristics of each system. In general, the lower the hardness and alkalinity of the water supply, the more acceptable it is for cooling tower makeup. Processes Utilizing Water Steam Generation In 1968, manufacturing plants used about 1,036 billion gallons of water for boiler feed (makeup), sanitary service, and uses other than process or cooling (Bureau of the Census 1971).5 No basis is given for a breakdown of this figure into its components, but boiler feed is the largest part. Boiler makeup requirements of steam electric powerplants are small compared with their cooling water requirements. They are estimated to be only about 0.3 million gallons per day for a 1 million kilowatt plant operating at full load (Water Resources Council 1968).24 378/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies Based on the 1970 figures of 281 million kilowatts capacity of steam electric plants, a maximum of .. about 31 billion gallons of water was the total intake for steam generation in these plants (Edison Electric Institute personal communication 1970).25 It is estimated that this quantity approximates the "sanitary service and other uses" in the industrial require- ments, so that of the 1,036 billion gallons for combined "boiler feed and sanitary services" (Bureau of the Census 1971)5 the intake for steam generation alone in 1968 is as- sumed to have been approximately 1,000 billion gallons. Recycling condensed steam back to the boiler will vary from zero for some industrial uses and district steam generat- ing plants to almost 100 per cent for thermal power genera- tion plants. Boiler makeup will vary from negligible losses and blow- down in the thermal power plants to substantially the total water intake in district steam generating plants with no re- turn of steam condensate. Even for these district steam gen- erating plants, the condensate usually goes to a sewer from which it ultimately returns to a surface water course and so cannot be said to have been consumed. It is estimated that 10 per cent of the intake water used for boiler feed in in- dustrial plants is either lost to the atmosphere or incor- porated in products. Thus, the total water consumption for steam generation is about 100 bgy. Discharge is boiler blowdown and steam condensate that is lost to sewers. This corresponds to the difference between intake and consumption or 900 bgy (Bureau of the Census 1971).5 Cooling Waters Once-through cooling water use dur- ing 1968 in industry other than commercial power genera- tion was at the rate of approximately 3,000 bgy for steam electric power generation, and 7,000 bgy for other uses (Bureau of the Census 1971).5 It is estimated that water recirculation for cooling in these plants was at least 20,000 bgy. Total cooling water drawn from source by commercial steam electric power plants approximated 58,200 bg in 1970, including the Tennessee Valley Authority and a number of other publicly owned steam electric plants (Federal Power Commission 1971).6 Recirculating cooling systems in these plants are estimated to provide 10 to 15 per cent of the total cooling requirements for this industry, which represents a small proportion of the total water in- take. The use of recirculating cooling water systems is ex- pected to increase rapidly as cooling water volume require- ments increase and as restrictions become more stringent on maximum discharge temperatures. Including sea water, approximately one-third of the water used for once-through cooling was brackish. Some plants recirculate brackish water, but because of the limited number of such operations, water quantities have not been established for this type of cooling. Recirculating cooling water systems require a much smaller withdrawal for makeup than the amount withdrawn TABLE Vl-6-Total Water Quantities Used For Once-Through Cooling Use Industrial steam·electric generaton ........................... . Other ..................................................... . Commercial power .......................................... . TOTAL ..............•...•..........................•. Water quantities (bgy) 3,000 7,000 58,000 68,000 for once-through cooling systems of equivalent heat re- moval capacity. Although the rate of recirculation is fre- quently only two or three times as high as the once-through flow rate for equivalent cooling, the withdrawal rate for once-through cooling may be 20 to 80 times as high as that required for makeup to a cooling tower system of equivalent cooling capacity. The actual reduction in volume of water drawn from source by recirculation depends upon the tem- perature difference across the cooling tower and the chemical composition of the recirculating water. No data are avail- able to provide actual totals of water withdrawn from sources for cooling tower makeup or returned as cooling tower blowdown. An increasing number of plants use municipal sewage treatment plant effiuent or industrial waste treatment plant effiuent as makeup water for recirculation through cooling towers. This, in effect, is a double recirculation of available water supplies or, from another viewpoint, an elimination of most water withdrawal from natural sources. The use of such treatment plant effiuent as cooling tower makeup must be approached with caution since inadequate removal of organic matter, particularly detergents, nitrogen com- pounds, and phosphates, in the treatment plant can create severe operating difficulties in cooling towers as a result of foaming, excessive microbiological growths, or calcium phosphate deposits. Significant Indicators of Water Quality Table VI-2 shows the quality characteristics of waters that have been treated by existing processes to produce waters acceptable for boiler makeup and cooling. In general terms, the water fed to a steam boiler should be of such qual- ity that it: • forms no scale or other deposits; • causes no corrosion of the metals present in the boiler, feed water system, or condensate return system; • does not foam or prime; • does not contain enough silica to form turbine blade deposits in high-pressure boilers. In order to produce waters meeting these requirements, the waters from available supplies are first processed through external water treatment equipment, such as filters or ion exchangers, and then internal conditioning chemicals are added. Table Vl-5 shows quality require- ments for boiler feed waters that have already been pro- cessed through a required external water treatment equip- ment, but have not yet received any required application of internal conditioning chemicals. The values for boiler feed water quality requirements must be considered only as rough guides. Usually, more liberal maximum concentrations are acceptable in feed water for boilers operating at lower pressures within each range. However, even here there are many deviations in practice because of differences in the construction and opera- tion of different boilers. For example, all other thipgs being equal, the higher the makeup rate, the higher the quality of the makeup water should be. Ideally, cooling waters should be: • nonscaling with reference to such limited solubility compounds as calcium carbonate, sulfate, and phos- phate; • nonfouling as a result of formation of sedimentary deposits or of biological growths; • noncorrosive at operating flow rates and skin tem- peratures to materials of construction in the system, including metals, wood, concrete, asbestos-cement, and plastics. Table VI-5 shows quality requirements for cooling waters both once-through and makeup for recirculation, subse- quent to any required external treatment (other than so- called side stream filters or centrifugal separators for re- moval of suspended matter from recirculating cooling waters) but prior to the addition of any internal treatment chemicals. For both steam generation and cooling, the more nearly the composition of water at the source (Table VI-2) ap- proaches the quality required at point of use (Table VI-5), the more desirable it is. However, in some instances it may be preferable to resort to a lower-quality, lower-cost raw water, if economic treatment can be expected to yield a lower overall cost. Water Treatment Processes The water treatment processes marked by an X in Table VI-7 are used in producing water of the appropriate quality for either cooling or boiler makeup. In addition to external treatment processes outlined in Figure VI-I, commonly used internal conditioning processes are also included in Table VI-7. Not all of these processes are used for the treatment of any individual intake water. Only those pro- cesses to produce the quality required are used. The fact that external water treatment processes may be a source of potential waste water problems has been men- tioned. The blowdown from evaporative systems, both boiler waters and recirculated cooling water, can become one of these potential problems. This can be caus~d by increased concentration of dissolved solids from the evaporative pro- cess, by increased suspended solids scrubbed from the air or Major Industrial Uses of Water/379 TABLE VI-7-Processes Used in Treating Water for Cooling or ·Boiler Makeup Suspended solids and colloids removal: Straining .............................. . Sedimentation .......................... . Coagulation ............................ . FiHration .............................. . Aeration ............................... . Dissolved solids modification Softening Cold lime .............................. . Hot lime soda .......................... . Hot lime zeolite ........................ . Cation exchange Sodium .................• Alkalinity Reduction Cation exchange hydrogen .............................. . Calion exchange hydrogen and sodium .... . Anion exchange ........................ . Dissolved solids removal: Evaporation ............................ . Demineralization ....................... . Dissolved gases removal: Degasification mechanical. ......................... . vacuum ............................. . heat ................................ . Internal conditioning: pH adjustment. ........................ . Hardness sequestering .................. . Hardness precipitation .................. . Corrosion inhibition General ............. . EmbriHiement. ........................ . Oxygen reduction ....................... . Sludge dispersal.. ........................ . Biological control ......................... . Once through X X X X X X X Cooling Recirculated X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Boiler makeup X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X developed by growth of biological organisms, or by chemi- cals added to the recirculated water for control of scale, cor- rosion, or biological growths. TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS (SIC 22) Description of the Industry In the 1967 Census ~f Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971), 5 the textile industry was reported to employ 929,000 individuals in 7,080 plants, adding over $8 billion of value annually through manufacturing. The Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1969 (U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1969)18 reported that the industry invested over $1 billi<;>n in new facilities during that year. Cotton is the most important fiber in American textiles and represents about one-half of the total fiber used. Wool and rayon approximate 10-15 per cent of the consumption, and uses of noncellulosic synthetic fibers are increasing rapidly. The basic processes involved in finishing textiles include scouring, dyeing and printing, bleaching, and special finish- ing (U.S. Department of The Interior Federal Water Pol- lution Control Administration 1968). 21 Wool is usually scoured before being woven into cloth. Cotton is woven in the dry state except for stiffening of the warp, known as 380/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies sizing. Subsequently, the cloth is scoured to remove size and natural impurities before bleaching and dyeing. Synthetic fibers do not require scouring, but cloth made from blends of synthetics and natural fibers may be scoured before finishing. Water of proper quantity and quality is essential to the textile industry. Most of the early mills in the United States were located in New .England, where rivers were capable of providing water for power and ample high quality process water with only minimum treatment. In recent years the trend has been for textile plants to move to the Southeast and locate closer to the raw material (cotton). Need for water as a source of energy has diminished because of the ability to operate with various fuels and electricity. Raw water quality has become less important, because develop- ments in treatment technology have made it economically possible to produce water of adequate quality with the exist- ing wide range of raw water characteristics. This combina- tion of circumstances makes raw water supply and quality less vital in determining plant location today, although emphasis on treatment to correct deficiencies in raw water quality continues. Processes Utilizing Water Total 1967 water intake for textile industries using over 20 million gallons annually (684 plants) was 154 billion gallons, 71 per cent of which was used as process water. Of all water intake by the industry, 51 per cent i.s derived from company-developed surface supplies, 10 per cent from ground water, I per cent brackish, and 38 per cent from pub- lic supplies. Gross water use by textile plants totalled 328 bg, 174 bg of which was reused in 353 of the 684 facilities (Bureau of the Census 1971).5 Trends in new textile tech- nology are toward increased reuse of water. Cotton and wool finishing plants use 30,000 to 70,000 gal- lons per 1,000 pounds of cloth. Synthetic finishing mills use considerably less (3,000-29,000 gal/1,000 lb), because lack of natural impurities reduces washing requirements. Wool usually is scoured by moving it through a two-to six-bowl "train," the first one or two of which contain de- tergents or soaps, and alkalis at 30-50 C. Subsequent bowls are for rinsing and often may be operated in counterflow pattern to conserve water. Usually scouring solutions are not recycled, although effluent rinse waters may be used to make up scouring baths. Cotton scouring removes natural impurities, as well as sizes added during conversion of fibers into cloth. Scouring operations in series of tanks ("J" boxes) are carried out under highly alkaline conditions (pH 12) and temperatures of 80-120 C and must be followed by thorough rinsing to remove residual color and other chemicals. Mercerizing cotton has involved a major use of water in many mills, but mercerizing is decreasing with increased adoption of cotton and synthetic blends. Bleaching cotton is done generally with chlorine, while hydrogen peroxide is used for wool and blends containing synthetic fibers. Chlorine is used under slightly alkaline solution (pH 9) and hydrogen peroxide under acid condi- tions (pH 2.5-3.0). Rinsing of bleached fiber or cloth re- quires high quality water. Dyeing also requires high quality water. Specific require- ments and process conditions vary widely depending on types of fibers and characteristics of dyes employed. Cotton generally is dyed at moderately high pH, wool at slightly acidic pH, and synthetics under various conditions depend- ent upon character of fiber. Dyeing operations constitute major uses of water in the textile industry. Significant Indicators of Water Quality The textile industry employs a great variety of raw ma- terials, chemical additives, and manufacturing processes to meet a broad range of finished product specifications. Ac- cordingly, water quality requirements in this industry vary extensively, depending on circumstances attending uses, and no single listing of recommendations could be meaning- ful for the industry as a whole. To be desirable for use in the textile industry, water should be low in iron, manganese, and other heavy metals, dissolved solids, turbidity, color, and hardness; it should be free from undesirable biological forms (N ardell 1961,13 McKee and Wolf 1963)9• Although raw water supplies of rather undesirable quality have been employed successfully by textile industries (see Table VI-2) with appropriate treatment to correct deficiencies, it is apparent that the more closely raw water quality approaches requirements at the point of use (Table VI-8), the more desirable that source would be. Turbidity and color are objectionable in water used in textile industries, because they can cause streaking and stain- ing. Iron and manganese stain or cause other process dif- ficulties at low concentrations. Hardness is objectionable in many operations, especially in scouring where soap curds may be produced, and in processes where deposits of pre- cipitated calcium and magnesium may adhere to the ma- terial. In wool processing, all scouring, rinsing, and dyeing operations may require zero hardness water. Zeolite-softened or deionized water may be used for manufacturing syn- thetic fibers (Nordell 1961 )_13 Nitrates and nitrites have been reported as injurious in dyeing of wool and silk (Michel 1942).10 In Table VI-8 typical ranges of desirable maximum con- centrations of constituents that have been suggested for waters used in textile production are summarized (Mussey 1957,12 Nordell 1961,13 McKee and Wolf 1963,9 Ontario Water Resources Commission 197014). The values relate to water quality at point of use before addition of internal conditioning or manufacturing process chemicals. Although data in Table VI-8 may give general guidelines to water quality requirements in this industry, each plant must be TABLE VI-S-Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use by the Textile Industry• Characteristic Typical maximum ranges Iron, mg/1 Fe ............................................... . Manganese, mg/1 Mn ................................••....... Copper, mg/1 Cu ............................................. . Dissolved solids, mg/1 ........................................ . Suspended matter, mg/1.. ....................................• Hardness, mg/1 as CaCOs .................................... . Color, units ................................................. . Turbidity, units ..•........................................... Sulfate, mg/1 ................................................ . Chlorides, mg/1. .....................................•....... Alkalinity, mg/1 as CaCOa .................................... . Aluminum oxide, mg/1 AJ.Os .................................. . Silica, mg/1 SiOs ..............................•.............. Organic growths ............................................. . • Water quality prior to addition of substances"used for internal conditioning. 0.0-0.3 0.01-0.05 0.01-5 100-200 0-5 0-50 0-5 0.3-5 100 100 50-200 8 25 absent considered in light of the manufacturing processes and other circumstances specific to that installation. Water Treatment Processes Some ground supplies are capable of furnishing large quantities of water having quality consistent with industry requirements. However, in many instances other factors de- sirable in plant location can make it necessary to use a raw water supply of quality not meeting process requirements. In particular, most surface sources are not capable of sup- plying water suitable for textile industry uses without treat- ment. The 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971)5 indicated that of 154 bg water intake (for plants using over 20 million gallons annually), 89 bg were treated in some fashion. Table VI-9 summarizes the total quantity of water and water treatment method employed by each process for 1971 and the number of establishments employ- ing them. Another approach employed by many textile industries is to obtain potable water through purchase from public supplies. Although this often provides a satisfactory ar- rangement, it must be noted that some waters adequate in TABLE VI-9-Water Treatment Processes Employed by Textile Industrial Establishments in 1971 Type of process Aeration ..........................................• Coagulation ....................................... . Filtration ......................................... . Softening ......................................... . Jon exchange ...................................... . Corrosion control. ................................. . pH adjustment.. .................................. . Settling .......................................... . Other ..........................•......•........... Total employing treatment. ......................... . No treatment performed ..........•.................. Bureau of the Census 1971• ----~····---·-·------------- bgy treated 2 52 70 33 9 30 48 33 7 Number of establishments 16 116 184 209 27 121 132 64 45 408 276 Major Industrial Uses of Water/381 quality for potable purposes do not meet requirements for some types of textile processing. Also, methods of treatment employed in some public systems may have adverse effects on water quality for use in the textile industry. The 1967 Census of Manufacturers reported discharge of 136 bg by the textile industry, leaving 18 bg (12 per cent) evaporation or incorporation into produCts (Bureau of the Census 1971). 5 Of the 136 bg discharged, 54 bg re- ceived some degree of treatment prior to discharge. LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS (SIC 24) Description of the lnd.ustry and Processes Utilizing Water The total amount of lumber used for various purposes in the United States has not changed significantly in the past three decades (Landsberg et al. 1963). 7 There have, how- ever, been some important shifts in the end products manu- factured by the industry. The use of pulpwood for veneer logs has shown steady increases. Lumber for use in wooden containers has been declining, as has wood used for fuel, although fuel wood still accounts for almost 15 per cent of lumber use. In recent years, about 40 per cent of wood consumption has been for building purposes and 20 per cent for the manu- facture of a variety of wooden and paperboard containers, furniture, and other wood products. Paper products, other than containers, account for about 12 per cent of lumber consumption. The remaining 13 per cent is used in a variety of wood-related products such as charcoal, synthetic fibers, and distillation products. The wood and lumber products industry is a relatively small water user. Of the 36,795 establishments surveyed in the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971), 5 only 0.5 per cent or a total of 188 reported the use of 20 million gallons of water or more in 1968. Total water withdrawn by plants using 20 million gallons or more per year showed a decrease from 151 billion gallons in 1964 to 118 billion gallons in 1968. Less than 10 per cent of the water withdrawn by these larger water using plants is given any form of treatment prior to use. In general, the lumber industry collects logs from the forest and prepares them for use by sawing the logs into various shapes. Earlier in this country's history, logs were cut in the winter when the snow was on the ground to facilitate their transfer by dragging them overland to rivers. The rivers transported the logs to millsites. The logs were frequently left in the water, if they could be fenced off or driven into a backwater to prevent them from going further downstream. While the log was floating, the water prevented it from drying and cracking at the cut end. Today, lumber may be transported to a mill that may not be near a river. If the logs accumulate, the ends are moistened by floating them in a pond or by spraying the log pile to prevent cracking. The log is frequently debarked by water jets before it is cut into the desired shape. 382/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies TABLE VI-lo-Quality Characteristics of Waters That Have Been Used by the Lumber Industry Characteristic Suspended Solids ..................................................... . pH, units ............................................................ . ASTM 1970< or Standard Methods 1971" Value 3 mm, diameter 5to 9 Some lumber is treated with chemicals to reduce fire hazards, retard insect invasion, or prevent dry rot. These preservative processes use small volumes of water in a preparation of chromates, cupric ions, aluminum ions, silicates, fluorides, arsenates, and pentachlorophenates. Some forest products are processed mechanically or chem- ically to make a variety of consumer products. Significant Indicators of Water Quality There are few significant indicators of water quality for the lumber industry. The suspended solids should be less than 3 millimeters in diameter and the pH should prefer- ably be between 5.0 and 9.0 to minimize corrosion of the equipment (Table VI-10). (Water used for transportation does not qualify as process water.) Water used to prepare solutions for treatment of lumber should be reasonably free of turbidity and precipitating ions. Frequently, because of the highly toxic nature of these solutions, efforts are made to recycle as much solution as possible. Thus, makeup water is required to compensate for the portion of the solution lost when forced into the lumber under pressure, and thus evaporated during seasoning. Water Treatment Processes For the lumber production phase only, straining may be required. Clarification may be practiced for water used in lumber preservation, but this would be necessary in only very small volume. PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS (SIC 26) Description of the Industry The United States is the world's largest producer and user of paper and allied products. The industry's net sales in 1970 were over $21 billion with over 52 million tons of product produced (American Paper Institute 1970).1 The per capita consumption of paper products in 1969 was roughly 560 pounds per person, an increase of more than 100 pounds per person in the past decade. It is anticipated that close to 62 million tons of paper and paperboard will be produced in the United States in 1980, as compared with 44 million tons in 1965 (Miller Freeman Publications un- dated).U The pulp and paper industries described encompass a number of basic manufacturing processes involved in the. TABLE VI-11-Basic Categories of the Pulp and Paper Industry Type of plant Paper and paperboard .................................................. . Pulp mills ............................................................ . Integrated pulp and paper mills .......................................... . Roofing paper mills .................................................... . Converting plants (units owned by pulp and paper companies) ............... . Headquarters, offices, research and engineering labs (separate from mills) .... . Totals .......................................................... . Number of plants in United States 1969 493 48 228 n 787 152 1,785 production of a wide variety of paperboard and paper products. These include packaging, building materials, and paper products ranging from newsprint to coated and un- coated writing papers, tissues, and a number of other special types of paper and paperboard for domestic and industrial purposes. Table VI-11 shows the basic categories of the industry. Processes Utilizing Water The manufacture of pulp and paper is highly dependent upon an abundant supply of water. The major process water uses are for preparation of cooking and bleaching chemicals, washing, transportation of the pulp fibers to the next processing step, and formation of the pulp into the dry product. The industries involved in the manufacture of paper and allied products rank third in the withdrawal of water for manufacturing purposes (behind primary metal industries and chemical and allied products). Of the 5,890 plants surveyed by the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971),5 619 plants reported withdrawing 20 million gallons of water or more in 1968. Table VI-12 shows the amount of water withdrawn in 1964 and 1968 for those plants using more than 20 million gallons per year. More than half of the water withdrawn in 1968 was treated prior to use and recirculated about three times before discharge. Less than 10 per cent of the water withdrawn was consumed in the manufacturing processes. TABLE VI-12-Total Water Intake and Use-Paper and Allied Products (billion gallons) Water intake Total .......................... , ............. . Treated prior to use ................................ .. Gross waler used (Includes recirculated water) ......... . Water discharged Total. ....................................... . Bureau of the Census 1971' 1968 2,252 1,311 6,522 1968 2,078 1964 2,064 987 5,491 1964 1,942 TABLE VI-13-Water Process Used by Paper and Allied Products Manufacturing Manufacturing process Typical water use in 1,000 gallons/ton product• Wood Preparation Hydraulic barking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Drum barking....................................... 0.3 Wood washing...................................... 0.2 Groundwood Pulp Slone groundwood .................................. . Refiner groundwood ................................ .. Cold soda pulp ..................................... . Neutra I Sulfite Semichemical No recovery......................................... 15 With recovery....................................... 10 Krall and Soda Pulping................................. 25 Prehydrolysi s. . .. .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . . .. .. 2 Krall Bleaching Semibleach......................................... 25 Highbleach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Dissolving grades (soft wood)......................... 50 Dissolving grades (hard wood)........................ 50 Acid Sulfite Pulping No recovery......................................... 70 MgO recovery.. .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . 9 N Ha recovery. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . 8 Sulfite Pulp Bleaching Paper grade......................................... 20 Dissolving grade..................................... 45 De-inking Pulp Magazine & ledger.. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . 28 News.............................................. 28 Paper Making Coarse paper........................................ 10 Fine paper.......................................... 30 Book paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Tissue paper.. . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . 30 Specialfies• Waste Paperboard..................................... 10 Building Products Building papers...................................... 10 Fells............................................... 3 Insulating board........ .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 15 Hardboard.......................................... 13 ~~-······································ 1 • Figures shown represent averages over two-week period with 90 percent frequency. • Varies widely depending upon product. Environmental Protection Agency, unpublished data" Approximately 70 per cent of the water used in the in- dustry was withdrawn from surface supplies. Other water sources were ground water supplies (about 17 per cent) and public water supplies (about 11 per cent). Tidewater ac- counted for the remainder of the water used. Water with- drawn for process purposes constituted the largest percent- age of water used by the industry (about 65 per cent) while the other major water uses were for cooling purposes. While the industry has been aptly categorized in general terms by SIC code numbers, a typical plant falling under an SIC code may be engaged in a variety of individual manu- facturing processes. For this reason, a clearer picture may be obtained by describing water use in terms of manufactur- ing processes rather than by SIC subcategories. Table VI-13 classifies the processes used in producing pulp and paper products manufactured in the United States .. These processes have been categorized based on the logical sequence in production along with the use of water Major Industrial Uses of Water/383 made by each process. Presenting the information in this fashion makes it possible to estimate water requirements for any individual mill based on the manufacturing processes employed and the tons of product produced. Significant Indicators of Water Quality A survey by the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI Water Supply and Treatment Committee unpublished data 1970,27 Walter 1971)23 of water quality requirements for the paper industry revealed a total of 23 specific water quality problems resulting from im- purities in the raw water source. The primary causes of the problems centered on hardness, alkalinity, turbidity, color, and iron. In addition, manganese along with iron and color was reported as having an adverse effect on bleaching pro- cesses; manganese also produced black spots on paper. In some cases, algae and bacteria interfered with the paper machine operations by causing slime. In addition to causing scale in the mill water supply, high hardness interferes with washing operations and causes fouling in resin sizing and digesting processes. Suspended matter and turbidity inter- fere with the brightness of the product and cause difficulties by clogging wires and felts in the paper machines. Highly colored waters have an adverse effect on paper brightness and are particularly undesirable for white and dyed papers as well as pulps. Control of pH of the water supply at the mill is important to avoid corrosion of the equipment and for effective use of fillers, sizes, and dyes in the process water. To avoid some of the problems mentioned above, the 1967 Census of Manufacturers reported that in 1968 more than one half of the water withdrawn for use by plants in the pulp and paper industry utilizing more than 20 million gallons per day was treated prior to use (Bureau of the Census 1971).0 The treatment consisted of the various pro- cesses shown in Table VI-14. The source of water and its composition vary widely de- pending on plant location. The treatment of the mill water supply consequently varies. In general, however, TAPPI TABLE VI-14-Water Treatment Processes-Paper and Allied Products Process Billion gallons treated Aeration.................................... 62.8 Coagulation................................. 821.8 Filtration................................... 890.4 Softening................................... 116.1 fon exchange................................ 53.5 Corrosion control............................ 187.5 pH adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357.5 Settling..................................... 494.5 Other...................................... 93.1 Total................................. 1,311.4 Bureau of the Census 19715 Number of establishments 28 194 272 239 148 126 119 107 45 466 -------------------- 384/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies TABLE VI-15-Summary of TAPPI Specifications for Chemical Composition of Process Water for Manufacture Kraft paper Groundwood Soda and Substance-max ppm Fine paper papers sulfite pulp Bleached Unbleached Turbidity (SiO,) ................. 10 40 100 50 25 Color in platinum units ........... 5 25 100 30 5 Total hardness (CaCOa) .......... 100 100 200 200 100 Calcium hardness (CaCOa) ........ 50 50 Alkalinity lo M.O. (CaCOa) ... • .... 75 75 150 150 75 Iron (Fe) ....................... 0.1 0.2 1.0 0.3 0.1 Manganese ~Mn) ................ 0.03 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.05 Residual chlorine (CI,) ........... 2.0 Silica (soluble) (Si02) ........... 20 50 100 50 20 Total dissolved solids ............ 200 300 500 500 250 Free carbon dioxide (C02) ........ 10 10 to 10 10 Chlorides (CI) ............................... 200 200 75 75 Magnesium hardness (CaCOa) ................ 50 Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry 1957" indicates that the chemical composltlon of process water for use by the paper and allied products industry should have the specifications shown in Table VI-15. The produc- tion of some specialty papers, however, requires water of considerably higher quality. CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODU CTS (SIC 28) Description of the Industry The chemical and allied products industry is quite com- plex because of its wide range of products and processes. This industry produces more than w;ooo commercial products covering a broad range of uses. Most of the prod- ucts are converted to another form by other industries be- fore reaching the consumer. Thus, many are little known or understood by the general public. Processes Utilizing Water The Bureau of the Census subdivides chemical and allied products into 27 industries. Many of these are shown in Table VI-16, along with estimates of the water intake for process uses by each industry. Water is essential to most of the processes used in chemical manufacturing. It can be used to separate one chemical from another or to remove a chemical from a gas stream. It can be the medium in which a chemical reaction occurs. It can be employed as a carrier to introduce materials into a reaction system or to dissolve or wash impurities from a product. It often is part of the final product. Water can also be used in the vapor form as steam heat to facilitate chem- ical reactions or process operations. It can be used in the liquid form to remove heat generated by other chemical re- actions or operations. Water is also the product of some chemical reactions. Generally, the minimum water quality required for a specific process has been determined through experience and is discussed below. In some cases the minimum quality has never been establisheq because the available water in use is acceptable and not necessarily the minimum quality that can be used. Significant Indicators of Water Quality The number and diversity of manufacturing facilities in the chemical and allied products industry and their wide- spread geographical locations in the United States are such that the waters used for process applications vary widely in chemical constituents. Table VI-17 lists some of the quality characteristics in raw water supplies that have been used to provide water for process use in this industry. The figures in Table VI-17 represent extremes, and no water would have all the values shown. Because of the multitude of products and processes in the chemical industry, only general characteristics can be ap- plied for process water quality required at the point of use. The ranges of quality are so wide, even for similar products, that specific characteristics are not meaningful. In the manufacture of plastic materials and resins, for example, some products require water equivalent to potable water with a maximum total dissolved solids limit of 500 mg/1, while other products require a high level of treatment (i.e., clarification, demineralization, sterilization, and membrane filtration) with a maximum total solids limit well below 1 mg/l. Low turbidity is the key quality requirement for most of the process water used in the chemical and allied products industries. Other general quality requirements may involve TABLE VI-16-Process Water Intake by Chemical and Allied Product Industries with Total Water Intake of 20 or More bg During 1968 Process water intake• SIC Industry group and industry bg per cent 2£12 Alkalies and Chlorine .............................. . 18.9 2.6 2813 Industrial Gas ..................................... .. 5.3 0. 7 2815 Cyclic Intermediates and Crudes ......•................ 19.3 2.6 2816 Inorganic Pigments ................................. . 21.2 2.9 2818 Organic Chemicals, n.e.c.b ........................... . 394.0 53.7 2819 Inorganic Chemicals, n.e.c.b .......................... . 75.2 10.3 2821 Plastic Materials and Resins ........................ .. 50.9 6.9 2822 Synthetic Rubber ................................... . 15.1 2.1 2823 Cellulosic Man-made Fibers ......................... . 30.5 4.2 2824 Organic Fibers, noncellulosic ......................... . 7.7 1.0 2833 Medicinal$ and Botanicals ........................... . 2.7 0.4 2834 Pharmaceutical Preparations ......................... . 3.9 0.5 2841 Soap and Other Detergents .......................... . 1.9 0.3 2861 Gum and Wood Chemicals ........................... . 0.8 0.1 2871 FertiUzers ......................................... . 24.2 3.3 2892 Explosives ......................................... . 28.0 3.8 Subtotal ............................•........... 699.6 95.4 Nonlisted Industries ................................ . 33.8 4.6 28 Chemicals and Allied Products ...................... .. 733.4 100.0 • Not including use for sanitary, boiler feed, or cooling water purposes. • Not elsewhere classified. TABLE Vl-17-Qual#y Characteristics of Waters That Have Been Used by the Chemical and Allied Products Industry (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values are maximums. No one water will have all the maximum values shown.) Characteristic Silica (SiO,) ....................................... . Iron (Fe) .......................................... . Manganese (Mn) .................................. . Calcium (Ca) ....................................... . Magnesium (Mg) ................................... . Ammonia (NHa) .................................... . Bicarbonate (H CO a) ................................ . Sullate (SO.) ...................................... . Chloride (CI) ....................................... . Dissolved Solids .................................... . Suspended Solids .................................. .. Hardness (CaCOa) .................................. . Alkalinity (CaCOa) .................................. . pH, units .......................................... . Color, units ........................................ . Odor threshold number ............................. . 800(0,) ......................................... . COD(O,) ......................................... . Tempera ure ...................................... . 00(02) .......................................... . Concentration (a) 10 2 250 100 (a) 600 850 500 2,500 10,000 1,000 500 5.5-9.0 500 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) • Accepted as received Of meeting other limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered. ASTM 1970• or Standard Methods 1971" total dissolved solids, hardness, alkalinity, iron, and manganese. Where these latter requirements apply, they generally fall in the range of the Drinking Water Standards (U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962). 20 Thus, water from public and private drinking water systems is widely used without further treat- ment for process applications in the chemical industry. The rigorous water quality requirements for certain products can include nearly all of the characteristics used in describing water quality; however, this high quality represents a very small fraction of the industry's total water use for process purposes. Table VI-18 shows an example of the quality of process water at point of use in a large chemical plant that manu- factures a wide variety of products. The distribution of water processes used is not to be considered typical for the industry. The table is presented to show the levels of treat- TABLE Vl-18-Quality Characteristics of Process Water at Point of Use in a Large Multiproduct Chemical Plant Treatment process Raw water (screened)• ............................ . Clarification, filtration, and chlorination' ............. . Softening Oon exchange)• ......................... . Demineralization (lon exchange) ..................... . percent 71 10 14 5 Dissolved solids Hardness (mg/las mg/1 CaCOa) 95 95 95 <1 50 50 <0.5 • Dissolved solids and hardness are actual values at this plant location. In most cases water of higher dissolved solids (500 mgjl max) and higher hardness (250 mg/1 max) would be acceptable. 'Turbidity less than one unit ' Includes steam and boiler feed water used in processes. Major Industrial Uses of Water/385 ment applied in merely one multiproduct plant. The pro- cess water usage in that plant is 1.2 gallons per pound of product. This is only 2 per cent of the plant's gross water usage; cooling water accounts for all but a slight amount of the balance. Water Treatment Processes The normal water purification process for raw surface water supplies usually involves clarification (coagulation, sedimentation, filtration). This may be supplemented by softening, demineralization, and other special treatment processes. However, most of the treatment methods shown in Figure VI-1 could be used. In many cases waters from public supplies or from private wells are acceptable as received and are used without treat- ment. This constitutes a large portion of the total process water used in the chemical industry. Generally, the cost of process water treatment is a small part of the overall cost of manufacturing in the chemical industry because of the modest water quality requirements acceptable for many process uses. By contrast, certain pro- cesses require exceedingly high-quality water resulting in water treatment costs that can be more than a significant share of the manufacturing costs. PETROLEUM REFINING (SIC 2911) Description of the Industry The principal use of water iri the petroleum industry is in refining. Other operations, such as crude oil production and marketing, rely on water but do not use significant amounts. Some water is used in the exploration branch for drilling wells and some is used in the operation of natural gasoline plants, but the amount is insignificant in relation to that used for the refining process. Refinery Water Consumption Trends The 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971)5 indicated a gross water use (including recycle) of 7,290 bg. This represented an 18 per cent increase over the 1964 usage. However, the water intake to refineries report- ing both in 1964 and 1967 was indicated to be 1,400 bg. This stable demand can be attributed to the increased use of air for cooling purposes, resulting from increasingly scarce fresh water. In addition, the growing cost of water quality improvement prior to use and prior to final dis- posal encourages conservation and reuse. Of those refineries included in the 1967 census report, 91 per cent are reusing water. The total discharge from these refineries was about 1,210 bg, a 7 per cent decrease from 1964. About 13 per cent of the total water intake by refineries comes from public water supplies, and the remaining 87 per cent comes from company-owned facilities. The company- owned water supply comes from surface (53 per cent), 386/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies TABLE Vl-19-Summary of Specific Quality Characteristics of Surface Waters That Have Been Used as Sources for Petroleum Water Suppties Characteristic smca (SiD,) ......•••...•.•...•.•.....••...•.•.....••....... lron(Fe) ....•.....••....•••..........••....••...........•.• Calcium (Ca) .........••..•..•.......•..•.•.....•............ Magnesium (M&) .................•.•.•.....•................ Sodium and Potassium (Na and K) .••.•.•.••.••••....••...•.•. Ammonia (NHa) ...••........•.....•....•........•........•.. Bicarbonate (HCOa) .............•..........•...........•..... Sulfate (SO,) ..................•..............•........••... Chloride (CI) .........•.....•...•.•.......................... Fluoride (F) ..•............•.......................... · · · · · • Nitrate (NOa) .................•...........•.. , .... · · · · · · · · · · Dissolved Solids ...•............••..................•........ Suspended Solids ................•...................•....... Hardness (CaCOa) ..••.....•.•...•.•...•.•.............•...•. Alkafinity (CaCOa) ....•.............•........................ pH, umts ...................................•............•.. Color, units ............................•...........•........ Chemical Oxygen Demand (0,) ....................•.......... Hydrogen Sulfide (H,S) ......•......•.......•.....•.......... Concentration m&/1 85 15 220 85 230 40 480 900 1600 1.2 8 3500 5000 900 500 6.0-9.0 25 1000 20 ground (9 per cent), and tidewater (38 per cent). The use of ground water is being phased out in many .locations in favor of impounded surface water. The quality character- istics of surface waters treated to produce waters acceptable for process use are given in Table VI-19. Processes Utilizing Water Of the total water intake to all refineries, 86 per cent is used for heat removal by either once-through or recirculat- ing cooling systems, 7 per cent is used for steam generation and sanitary purposes, and 7 per cent for processing. The water distribution in a hypothetical refinery limited to fresh- water makeup is shown in Figure VI-2. Here, the distribu- tion is about 56 per cent for cooling, 24 per cent for boilers and sanitary purposes, and 20 per cent for processing. These values differ from the overall average, because the cooling water is circulated. Process Water Properties Process water used in refineries may be characterized by the physical and chemical properties of the water. The rele- vant properties are described in the following paragraphs and in Table VI-20. A. Inorganic salts that cause deposition and corrosion can be removed from crude oil by a solvent action. Desalt- ing by intimate contact with water is the preferred method. Oil products are frequently purified by washing with acid or caustic solution; diluent water and afterwash water is used in these processes. Catalytic cracking produces quanti- ties of ammonia and carbon dioxide that form deposits unless water is injected into the system to keep them in solu- tion. B. To transfer heat in numerous operations, barometric condensers are used to create low pressure conditions in fractional distillation. Some catalytic processes require quenching of furnace effluents. Hot water is sometimes pumped through pipelines to facilitate the transfer of high- viscosity petroleum products. C. Chemical reactions can occur in process water. When quicklime is used in water softening, water enters into the slaking process. At certain times in platforming, water is introduced to chemically condition the catalyst. D. Water used merely as a carrier must be considered, such as in the periodic cleaning of the plant or in transport- ing solids through pipelines. E. Kinetic energy in the form of hydraulically operated cutters is used in decoking furnaces and descaling boiler tubes. Hydraulically operated brushes are used to clean condenser tubes. F. Some· processes use more than one of these properties simultaneously; e.g., water can be introduced into frac- tionator overhead lines both as a solvent and as a carrier. Ion exchange backwash also relies on these two properties of water. TABLE Vl-20-Process Water Uses in Oil Refineries Use Washing ...................... . Desalting ..............•........ Barometric condenser ........... . Caustic dilutant. .•.•............ Absorber injection .............. . Flue Gas quench ...............• Water wash after caustic ........ . Tank ballast. ..................• Furnace quench ..............•.• Fractionator O.H. injection ...... . Pipelines ..................•.... Ume slaking ................... . lon exchange backwash .........• Quantity used gallbbl• 1.5-6.0 2.0-8.0 3.D-6.0 0.1-o.5 0.4-1.5 0.5-2.0 0.1-o.4 0.1-o.3 3.0-7.0 0.1-o.3 Property (see above) D&E A B A A B A B A&D B&C c A&D Treatment (see page 387) Recommendations Recycled plant eHiuent is satisfactiJY. Precipitation of calcium and magnesium salts are undesirable in this process. Recycled plant effluent may be satisfactory. Caution should be exercised because components in the effluent can react with components in the gaseous material being condensed. These reactions, oc· curring in intimate contact with water, can result in the formation of stable emulsions and/or calcium soaps, which would require downstream chemical treatment Calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and bicarbonates are undesirable. Calcium salts are undesirable. Deionized water or steam condensate must be used in this process. Calcium and magnesium salts are undesirable. Sea water is satisfactory. Recycled steam condensate employed for this process. Deionized water or steam condensate must be employed in this process. Raw water supply with Ryznar Index adjusted below 6.0. Raw water supply satisfactory. Recycled plant effluent not satisfactory. Raw water supply or ion exchanged water, depending upon type ol ion exchange. • Gallons ol water per barrel of crude oil processed. Refinery capacities are in the range ol20,000 to 180,00 barrels of crude oil per day. Process Water Treatment The treatments of refinery process water before use gen- erally fall into three categories. These are shown below and in Table VI-20. l. No treatment needed. The dissolved and suspended solids are limited only by the restrictions on the plant Makeup (2300) Process water Total (850 ) water ~·~------------------~ (4150) Condensate return Makeup (1000) (500) Evaporation l (1550) 1 Major Industrial Uses of Water/387 effluent. In many instances, the plant waste discharge can be recycled. 2. Some treatment, external or internal, needed. Some normal constituents of water undergo physicochemical changes, e.g., calcium carbonate is precipitated by heat. These must be removed or neutralized. t 3. Complete of removal solids needed. Usually, these Figures m 1 ,OOO's gallons water/day J Circulating cooling water (750) Cooling tower .blowdown (750) Process water to waste (850) Condensate to waste Steam lost (500) (400) Blowdown (100) Total Plant Waste (2100) FIGURE VI-2--Water Distribution in a Hypothetical $55 Million Refinery That Processes 50,000 bbl./Day of Crude (Courtesy of Chemical Engineering Magazine) 388/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies waters are vaporized and any water soluble salts remaining are undesirable. These waters may be d-eionized water or steam condensate. PRIMARY METALS INDUSTRIES (SIC 33) Description of the Industry The primary metals industrial group is defined in the SIC Manual as those "establishments engaged in the smelt- ing and refining of ferrous and nonferrous metals from ore, pig, or scrap; in the rolling, drawing, and alloying of fer- rous and nonferrous metals; in the manufacture of castings, forgings, and other basic products of ferrous and nonferrous metals; and in the manufacture of nails, spikes, and insu- lated wire and cable. The major group also includes the production of coke." (U. S. Executive Office of the Presi- dent, Bureau of the Budget 1967).22 Process water utilization by the primary metals industry as given in the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971)5 is summarized in Table VI-21. The produc- tion of iron and steel utilized almost 88 per cent of all pro- cess water used by the industry. For this reason, water quality requirements have been included only for this seg- ment of the industry. Processes Utilizing Water The iron and steel industry as defineq for this report includes pig iron production, coke production, steel making, rolling operations, and those finishing operations common to steel mills, such as coke reduction, tin plating, and galvaniz- ing. Although many steel companies operate mines for ore and coal, this Section does not dismiss ore beneficiation plants, coal cleaning plants, or fabricating plants for a variety of specialty steel products. Most of the iron and steel making facilities in the United States are centered in integrated plants. These have gen- erally been located in the Midwest and East where major water sources are available. A few mills have been built in water-short areas because of economic advantages that outweighed the increased cost of recirculating water. The major processes involved in the manufacture of steel require process water, some in several ways. The succeeding para- TABLE VI-21-Process Water Utilization Industry Iron and steel production ............................ . Iron and sleelfoundries ............................. . Copper industry .................................... . Aluminum industry ................................. . All olher primary metal industries .................... . Total process water, primary metals ............. . Bureau of the Census 19715 SIC No. 331 332 3331; 3351 3334; 3352 33 Process water used, 1968 bg. 1,049 12 50 36 60 1,207 graphs present a brief description of the process and the process use of water. The production of coke involves the heating of coal in the absence of air to rid the coal of tar and other volatile products. Process water is used in the direct cooling of the incandescent coke after removal from the coke oven in a process called coke quenching. This quenching process is nothing more than dousing the coke with copious amounts of water. Pig iron production is accomplished in the blast furnace. Process water is used to cool or quench the slag when it is removed from the furnace. The major use of process water in the blast furnace is for gas cleaning in wet scrubbers. Steel is manufactured in open hearth or basic oxygen fur- naces. Process water may be used in gas cleaners for either of these furnaces. The major products of the steel making processes are ingots. Ingots, after temperature conditioning, are rolled into blooms, slabs, or billets depending upon the final product desired. These shapes are referred to as semifinished steel. Water is used for cooling and lubricating the rolls. These semifinished products are used in finishing mills to produce a variety of products such as plates, rails, struc- tural shapes, bars, wire, tubes, and hot strip. Hot strip is a major product, and the manufacturing process for this item will be briefly described. The continuous hot strip mill receives temperature condi- tioned slabs from reheating furnaces. Oxide scale is loosened from the slabs by mechanical action and removed by high pressure jets of water prior to a rough rolling stand, which produces a section that can be further reduced by the finish- ing stand of rollers. A second scale breaker and series of high pressure water sprays precede this stand of rolls in which final size reductions are made. Cooling water is used after rolling for cooling the strip prior to coiling. Most hot- rolled strip is pickled by passing the strip through solutions of mineral acids and inhibitors. The strip is then rinsed with water. Much hot-rolled strip is further reduced in thickness into cold rolls in which the heat generated by working the metal is dissipated by water sprays. Palm oil or synthetic oils are added to the water for lubrication. After cold reduction, the strip is often cleaned by using an alkaline wash and rinse. Tin plate is made from cold-rolled strip by either an electrolytic or hot-dip process, more commonly by the former. The electrolytic process consists of cleaning the strip using alkaline cleaners, rinsing with water, light pickling, rinsing, plating, rinsing, heat treating, cooling with water (quenching), drying, and coating with oil. The galvanizing or coating of steel strip with various other products is car- ried out basically by the same general scheme as tinning. The volume of water used in the manufacture of steel is a variable that depends on the quantity and quality of the available water supply. The quantity presently being used varies from a minimum of about 1,500 gal/ton of product, where water i~ reus<:;d intensively, to about 65,000 gal/ton, where water is used on only a once-through basis. Both of these figures include total water utilized, not just process water. These figures contrast the range of water intake be- tween plants in areas having extremely limited water sup- plies and those in areas with almost unlimited water sup- plies. Data on the amount of process water required as com- pared with other water uses indicate that only 24 per cent of the water taken into a steel plant is termed process water (Bureau of the Census 1971). 5 Representatives of. the in- dustry have indicated that process water may account for as much as 30 to 40 per cent of the total water intake. Recycling of water is receiving much attention from the industry as a method to reduce water utilization, reduce stream pollution, and minimize the cost of controlling this pollution. Although individual plants within the iron and steel industry have been practicing reuse of water to varying degrees for some years, the major changes are yet to come. According to the 1967 Census qf Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971),5 the gross water used in the iron and steel industry (SIC 331) in 1968 was approximately 6,500 billion gallons. This gross water use when compared with a water intake of about 4,400 billion gallons indicates that 2,100 billion gallons were reused. This quantity reflects total water reuse, not just of process water. The consumption of water by the industry amounted to approximately 263 billion gallons in 1968. (No corresponding calculation cari be made because no data on process water discharge are available.) Significant Indicators of Water Quality The quality of surface waters that are being utilized by the iron and steel industry varies considerably from plant to plant. The desired quality of water for various process TABLE 22-Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use for the Iron and Steel Industry (SIC 33) (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values that normally should not be exceeded. Table indicates quality of the water prior to the addition of substances used lor internal conditioning.) Quenching, Selected rinse waters Characteristics hot rolling, Cold rolling gas cleaning Partially Softened Demineralized Settleable solids .............. 100 5.0 5.0 0.1 Suspended solids ............. (a) 10 5.0 0.1 Dissolved solids .............. (a) (a) (a) 0.5 Alkalinity (CaCOa) ............ (b) (b) (b) 0.5 Hardness (CaCOa) ............ (b) (b) 100 0.1 pH, units .................... 5-9 5-9 6-9 (d) Chloride (CI) ................. (a) (a) (a) 0.1 Dissolved Oxygen (02) ........ (c) (c) (c) (c) Temperature, F .............. 100 100 100 100 Oil .......................... (a) 1.0 1.0 0.02 • Accepted as received if meeting other limiting values: has never been a problem at concentrations encountered. b Controlled by treatment lor other constituents. ' Minimum to maintain aerobic conditions. d Concentration not known. ASTM 1970' or Standard Methods 1971" Major Industrial Uses qf Water/389 uses is difficult to define.. For a few processes using relatively small quantities of water, limits on some constituents are known. For most of the process water used, however, only a few of the water quality characteristics have been recog- nized as a cause of operational problems. For the other characteristics or properties neither the technological nor economical limits are known. (However, the quality of the water available has been much less important than the quantity in determining where a steel mill should be built.) Ranges of values for the selected quality characteristics for existing supplies are listed in Table VI-22. The water qual- ity indicators that are considered important to the industry are settleable, suspended, and dissolved solids; acidity and alkalinity; hardness; pH; chlorides; dissolved oxygen; temperature; oil; and floating materials. Water Treatment Processes Most integrated steel plants have two or more process water systems. One system is the general plant water supply. It receives only mechanical skimming and straining for control of floating and suspended materials that could harm pumps and possibly internal conditioning. This water is used for such diverse tasks as coke quenching, slag quench- ing, gas cleaning, and in the hot-rolling operations. For some of these operations, many mills use effluent from another process or recycle water in the same process, and the water might actually be of very poor quality. However, the only limits for these process uses which could be estab- lished based on present knowledge are those listed in Table VI-22. The other process waters used by the steel industry comprise only 2 to 5 per cent of the total volume but often require considerably improved quality. Almost universally, one of these two improved supplies is clarified while the second is, in addition, either softened or demineralized. The clarified water is usually a coagulated, settled, and filtered supply that is either treated by the steel company or purchased from a municipality. The use for this water is mainly in the cold-rolling or reduction mill where surface properties of the product are particularly important. The softened or demineralized water is required for rinse waters following some pickling and cleansing operations. The more particular processes from a water quality point of view are the coating operations, such as tin plating, gal- vanizing, and organic coating. Some plants use softened and others demineralized water for identical purposes. The quality limits desired for these two types of water, softened and demineralized, are given in Table VI-22. FOOD CANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 2032 AND 2033) Description of the Industry The U. S. canning industry is comprised of about 1,700 canneries. These plants produce some 1,400 canned food items such as fruits, vegetables, juices, juice drinks, seafoods, 390/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies meats, soups, and specialty products. In 1970, canned foods amounted to about 28 billion pounds packed in 938 million standard cases. The quantities of the m;jor products are: vegetables, 294 million cases; fruits, 153 million cases; juices, 130 million cases; fish, 26 million cases. Processes Utilizing Water One of the most important operations in commercial canning is thorough cleaning of the raw foods. The pro- cedures of cleaning vary with the nature of the food, but all raw foods must be freed of adhering soil, dried juices, in- sects, and chemical residues. This is accomplished by sub- jecting the raw foods to high-pressure water sprays while being conveyed on moving belts or passed through revolv- ing screens. The wash water may be fresh or reclaimed from an in-plant operation, but it must contain no chemicals or other materials in concentrations that adversely affect the quality or wholesomeness of the food product. Washed raw products are transported to and from the various operations by means of belts, flumes, and pumping systems. These involve major uses of water. Although the freshwater makeup must be of potable quality, recirculation is practiced to reduce water intake. Chlorination is used to maintain recycled waters in a sanitary condition. Another major use of water is for rinsing chemically peeled fruits and vegetables to remove excess peel and caus- tic residue. Water of potable quality must be used in the final rinsing operation. Green vegetables are immersed in hot water, exposed to live steam or other sources of heat to inactivate enzymes and to wilt leafy vegetables, thus facilitating their filling into cans or jars. Blanching waters are recirculated, but makeup waters must be of potable quality. Steam genera- tion, representing about 15 per cent of water intake, when used for blancing or injection into the product must be pro- duced from potable waters free of volatile or toxic com- pounds. Syrup, brine, or water used as a packing medium must be of high quality and free of chlorine. After heat processing, the cans or jars are cooled with large volumes of water. This water must be chlorinated to prevent spoilage of the canned foods by microorganisms in case cooling water is aspirated during formation of a vacuum in the can. Figure VI-3 shows a flow sheet of the various uses of water and origin of waste streams. Most fruit and vegetable canning, as opposed to canning of specialty products, is highly seasonal. The demand for water may vary l 00-fold throughout the months of the year. The water-demand variation may be severalfold even for plants that pack substantial quantities of non- seasonal items. The gross quantities of water used per ton of product vary widely among products, among canneries, and during years in the same cannery. The proportion of gross water supplied by recirculation has increased over the years, and Water ' Steam Sirup, Brine Raw Product ' Washing Blanching, Concen- trating Filling, Sealing Exhausting, Processing Cooling Cleaning, Waste Fiuming ' Liquid Waste Solid Waste FIGURE VI-3-Uses of Water in Food Canning Industry TABLE VI-23-Gross Water Intake (annual use over 20 mg) ' for Canning Plants Item Water quantity (bgy) Intake................................... 59 Reuse................................... 35 Consumption............................. 6 DiRharge................................ 53 Percent of intake quantity 100 59 10 90 the trend is expected to continue. A tendency has .been noted to use more water per ton of product as the proportion of recirculated water increases. New methods of processing are being evaluated that will reduce the amount of water being used for a given operation and will discharge less organic matter into the wastewater. The trend toward more recirculation of water will continue to increase. As recircu- lation increases, methods will be employed to improve the quality of the recirculated water and to reduce the amount of fresh water added to the system. Unfortunately, the maximum use of reclaimed water is hindered by specific federal and state regulations originally adopted for other guiding principles that do not now necessarily apply. · The same problem occurs with water conservation, whereby regulations in certain instances demand fixed volumes of water use that, because of process and equip- ment changes, are no longer necessary. Table VI-23, gives the rate of gross water intake as based on the 1967 Census of Manufacturers (Bureau of the Census 1971)5 for canning plants. A breakdown of the quantities and percentages of the total water used in the various process operations based on data from the National Canners Association is as follows, Table VI-24. TABLE VI-24-Total Water Use in Canning Plants In-plant use Water quantity (bgy) Raw product washing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. 1 Producttransport•......................... 9.4 Product preparation•....................... 9.4 Incorporation in product•. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 6 Steam and water sterilization of containers... 14.1 Container cooling.......................... 33.9 Plant cleanup............................. 7.5 • Fluming and pumping of raw product • Blanching, heating, and soaking of product • Preparation of syrups and brines that enter the container. Significant Indicators of Water Quality Percent oltotal use 15 10 10 6 15 36 8 Of the 48 billion gallons of water intake for canned and cured seafoods and canned fruits and vegetables 24 billion gallons were drawn from public surface water supplies and more than 20 billion gallons from groundwater sources. Approximately 4 billion gallons came from private surface water supplies. Major Industrial Uses of Water/391 The quality of raw waters for use in the food canning industry should be that prescribed in Section II on Public Water Supplies in this Report. Table VI-25 has been prepared to indicate the quality characteristics of raw waters that are now being treated for use as process waters in food canning plants. The values given are not intended to imply that better quality waters are not desirable or that poorer quality waters could not be used in specific cases. Significant water quality require- ments for water at point of use are given in Table VI-26. Although the quality characteristics indicated in Table VI-26 may be desirable, it is recognized that many sources of water supplies contain chemicals and other materials in excess of the indicated levels, but with advance treatment these waters may also provide any quality desired at a price. If the water needs of the nation are projected into the future, the time may come when a completely closed-cycle system will be required in some areas. This means that the waste effluent from a food plant may have to be treated to achieve a high quality water for reuse. Water Treatment Processes Surface waters used by the food canning industry require treatment before use as process waters. Usually, this treat- ment involves coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. More extensive treatment may be required for those waters incorporated in the product. Container cooling waters are routinely treated by heavy chlorination to render them free of significant types of hac- TABLE VI-25-Quality Characteristics of Surface Waters That Have Been Used by the Food Canning Industry (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values are maximums.) Characteristic Alkalinity (CaCDa) ...................................• pH, units ........................................... . Hardness (CaCDa) ................................... . Calcium (Ca) ........................................ . Chlorides (CI) .......... ·-........................... . Sulfates (SD,) ....................................... . Iron (Fe) .........................•.................. Manganese (Mn) ....................................• Silica (SiD,) dissolved ............................... . Phenols ... · ......................................... . Nitrate (NDa) ....................................... . Nitrite (ND,) ....................................... . Fluoride (F) ........................................• Organics: carbon chloroform extract ................... . Chemica I oxygen demand (0,) ........................ . Odor, threshold number .............................. . Taste, threshold number ............................. . Color, units ......................................... . Dissolved solids ..................................... . Suspended solids .................................... . Coliform, counl/100 mi. .............................. . Concentration mg/1 300 8.5 310 120 300 250 0.4 0.2 50 (a) 45 (c) (a) 0.3 (b) (a) (a) 5 550 12 (a) • As speciOed in Water Quatity Recommendations for Pubtic Water Supp(J in this Report • Accepted as received (if meeting other limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered • Not detectable by tell ASTM 1970• or Standard Methods1971." 392/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies TABLE Vl-26-Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use by the Canned, Dried, and Frozen Fruits and Vegetables Industry .. (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values that normally should not be exceeded. The Table indicates quality of water prior to the addition of substances used lor internal conditioning.) Characteristic Acidity (H,so,) ..................................... . Alkalinity (CaCOa) ................................... . pH, units ........................................... . Hardness (CaCOa) ................................... . Calcium (Ca) ........................................ . Chlorides (CI) ....................................... . Sulfates (SO,) ...................................... . Iron (Fe) ........................................... . Manganese (Mn) .................................... . Chlorine (CI) ........................................ . Fluorides (F) ........................................ . Sifica (SiD,) ........................................ . Phenols ............................................ . Nitrates (NOa) ...................................... . Nitriles(NO,) ...................................... . Organics: Carbon tetrachloride extractables .................... . Odor, threshold number ............................ . last~. threshold number ............................ . Turbidity ......................................... . Color, units ....................................... . Dissolved solids ..................................... . Suspended solids .................................... . Coliform, counlj100 mi ............................... . Total bacteria, counl/100 mi. ......................... . Canned specialties (SIC 2032) Canned fruits and vegetables (SIC 2033) Dried fruits and vegetables (SIC 2032) Frozen fruits and vegetables (SIC 2037) mg/1 0 250 6.5-8.5 250 100 250 250 0.2 0.2 (a) 1 (b) 50 (3, 4) 10 (b) (c) 0.2 (e) (c) (c) (f) 5 500 10 (j) (g) • Process waters lor food canning are purposely chlorinated to a selected, uniform level. An unchlorinaled supplY must be available lor preparali on of canning syrups. • Waters used in the processing and formulation of foods lor babies should be low in fluorides concentration. Be- cause high nitrate intake is alleged to be involved in infant illnesses, the concentration of nitrates in waters used lor processing baby foods should be low. ' Not detectable by test. • Because chlorination of food processing waters is a desirable and widespread practice, the phenol content of intake waters must be considered. Phenol and chlorine in water can react to form chlorophenol, which even in trace amounts can impart a medicinal off-flavor to foods. • Maximum permissible concentration may be lower depending on type of substance and its effect on odor and taste. J As required by U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Pubfic Health Service (1962'0). a The total bacterial count must be considered as a quality requirement lor waters used in certain food processing operations. Other than aesthetic considerations, high bacterial concentration in waters coming in contact with frozen foods may significantly increase the count per gram for the food. Waters used to cool heat-sterilized cans or jars of food must be low in total count for bacteria to prevent serious spoilage due to aspiration of organisms through con- tainer seams. Chlorination is widely practiced to assure low bacterial counts on container cooling waters. ASTM 1970• or Standard Methods 1971" teria. Waters used for washing and transporting raw foods are generally chlorinated, particularly if all or a portion of the water is recirculated. In some cases, waters in which vegetables are blanched may require treatment to reduce hardness. BOTTLED AND CANNED SOFT DRINKS (SIC 2086) Description of the Industry Since 1954 there has been a marked reduction in the number of plants producing soft drinks-from 5,469 in 1954 with a production of 1,176,674,000 cases to 3,230 in 1969 with a production of 2,913,110,000 cases (National Soft Drink Association).* It is obvious that numerous small plants have been discontinued as producing units. This trend continues. Processes Utili:z:ing Water In the production of soft drinks, water is used not only in the finished product itself but also for washing containers, cleaning production equipment, cooling refrigeration and air compressors, plant clean-up, truck washing, sanitary purposes (restrooms and showers), lawn watering, low- pressure heating boilers, and air conditioning. Estimates of the total water quantities utilized in the soft drink industry for all purposes are: intake, approximately 18 bgy; recycle, 4 bgy; consumption, 4 bgy; and discharge, 14 bgy (Bureau of the Census 1971).5 The figure of 18 bgy intake is based upon production ot 2.9 billion cases per year and an average of 6 gallons ot water used per case by the 130 largest plants surveyed that represent only 5 per cent of the plants in the industry. (The figure of 6 gallons per case is based on the limited data now available.) The 7967 Census of Manufacturers lists the gross water usage in 1968, including recycle, as 9 billion gallons and total water intake as 8 billion gallons (Bureau of the Census 1971).0 The reuse of water within the industry has for some years increased and is still increasing as the older and smaller plants are replaced by new and larger plants that use recirculating rather than once-through cooling water equipment, modern bottle washers that use less water per case than older equipment and other devices. The increased use of nonreturnable containers in recent years has resulted in lower quantities of water used for bottle washing. The consumption figure of 4 billion gallons is based upon the water content of the total quantity of beverage pro- duced in 1968. The discharge figure of 14 billion gallons is the difference between the estimated 18 billion gallons of intake and the 4 billion gallons of product water. Significant Indicators of Water Quality Water that is mixed with flavoring materials to produce the final product must be potable. Likewise, potable .water is needed for washing fillers, syrup lines, and other product handling equipment. The water used for washing product containers must also be potable. Although other water uses do not require potability, it has not been customary to use nonpotable water for any purpose in a soft drink plant. The water that becomes a part of the final product must not only be potable, but must also contain no substances that will alter the taste, appearance, or shelflife of the bever- age (Table VI-27). Because beverages are made from many * A case is defined as 24 bottles each containing 8 ounces of beverage. In the above figures, bottles larger or smaller than 8 ounces have been converted to 8 ounce equivalents. TABLE VI-27-Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use by the Soft Drink Industry (SIC 2086)• (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values that normally should not be exceeded. The.Table indicates the quality ol water prior to the addition of substances used lor internal conditioning.) Characteristic Alkalinity (CaCOa) ...................................• pH, umts .................... , ...................... . Hardness (CaCOa) ................................... . Chlorides (CI) ....................................... . SuHates (Sih) ....................................... . Iron (Fe) ........................................... . Manganese (Mn) .................................... . Fluoride (F) ............•............•....•.......•.• Total dissolved solids ...................•............. Organics, CCE ...................................... . Coliform ba ;leria .................................... . Color, units .................•........................ Taste .............................................. . Odor ............................................... . Concontrati on mg/1 85 (b) (b) 500 (c) 500 (c) 0.3 0.05 (d) (b) 0.2 (e) (d) 5 . (e,f) (e,f) • The more important parameters are listed. Although not included in the table, all Drinking Water Standards (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service 1962)" lor potability apply. • Controlled by treatment lor other constituents. · II present with equivalent quantities of Mg and Ca as sulfates and chlorides, the permissible limit may be some- what below 500 mg/1. • Not greater than PHS Drinking Water Standards (1962)". •In general, public water supplies are coagulated, chlorinated, and filtered through sand and granular activated carbon to insure very low organic content and freedom from taste and odor. I Not detectable by test. ASTM 1970• or Standard Methods 1971". different syrup bases, however, the concentration and type of substances that affect taste, or other characteristics, are not the same for all beverages. For this reason, a single standard cannot apply to all types of soft:drinks. The majority of plants use only water from a public sup- ply. Some use water from private wells. None use water directly from surface sources. The quality characteristics for intake water are essentially the same as requirements for potable water. Water Treatment Processes There are few, if any, public water supplies that are suitable as product water without some in-plant processing. Almost l 00 per cent of the bottling plants have as minimum treatment sand filtration and activated carbon purification. About 80 per cent of the plants also coagulate and super- chlorinate the water preceding sand filtration and carbon purification. When the total alkalinity of the intake water is too high, lime is used to precipitate the alkaline salts. There are very few bottling plants whose intake water is so highly mineralized that the brackish taste affects soft drinks. Among the reasons are the facts that flavoring com.:. ponents in soft drinks mask the taste of many brackish waters without altering the taste of the drink and that towns with highly mineralized water supplies are either avoided as locations for bottling plants or suitable private supplies are used. Uniformity of water composition is most desirable. Con- trol of in-plant processing is difficult when the composition of the water varies from day to day. Surface waters that are Major Industrial Uses of Water /393 subject to heavy biological gr~wths or heavy pollution from organic chemicals are also. difficult to process. Except for process water, most public water supplies are suitable for all other usages without external treatment. Occasionally, cation exchangers are used to soften water for bottle washing, cooling, and boiler feed water, but in- ternal conditioning is used in most plants for scale and corrosion control. TANNING INDUSTRY (SIC 3111) Description of the Industry The leather tanning industry is many industries, as each type of leather constitutes a different process. Basically, there are only three or four types of tannage (vegetable, mineral, combination of vegetable-mineral, and synthetics) but many finishing processes. Processes Utilizing Water Water is used in all processes of storage, sorting, trim- ming, soaking, green fleshing, unhairing, neutralizing, pickling, tanning, retanning, fat-liquoring, drying, and finishing of the hides. It is an essential factor in each process. The chemical composition of the water is considered critical in obtaining the desired quality of leather. There is limited reuse of process water in the tanning industry. Data on water utilization by the leather tanning and finishing industry as reported in the 1967 Census of Manu- facturers (Bureau of the Census 1971)5 includes 14.8 bgy intake, 3. 7 bgy reuse and recirculation, and 0.8 bgy con- sumption. TABLE VI-28-Quality Requirements of Water at Point of Use by Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry (SIC 3111) (Unless otherwise indicated, units are mg/1 and values that normally should not be exceeded. Table indicates the quality of water prior to addition of substances used lor internal conditioning.) Characteristic Alkalinity (CaCOs) ...................... . pH, units .............................. . Hardness (CaCOa) ...................... . Calcmm (Ca) .......................... . Chloride (CI) ........................... . Sulfate (SO,) .......................... . Iron (Fe) .............................. . Manganese (Mn) ....................... . Organics: carbon chloroform extract ...... . Color, units ............................ . Coliform bacteria ....................... . Turbidity ..............................• Tanning processes General finishing (a) 6.6-8.0 150 60 250 250 50 (e) (e) 5 (j) (c) processes (a) 6.6-8.0 (b) (b) 250 250 0.3 0.2 0.2 5 (f) (c) Coloring (a) 6.6-8.0 (c, i) (c, d) (e) (e) 0.1 0.01 (c) 5 (e) . (c) • Accepted as received (if meeting other listed limiting values); has never been a problem at concentrations encountered. • Lime softened. • Not detectable by lest d Demineralized or distilled water. • Concentration not known at which problems occur. I PHS Drinking Water Standards (1962).•• ASTM 197114 or Standard Methods 1971" 394/Section VI-Industrial Water Supplies Significant Indicators of Water Quality The chemical composition of the wliter is important in producing high-quality leather. For some processes, such as the finishing of leather, distilled or demineralized water is best. The microbiological content of the water is equally im- portant, but this can be controlled by use of disinfectants. The quality requirements at point of use are shown in Table VI-28. Water Treatment Processes Most tanning and leather product industries are located in urban areas and use public water supplies or ground water. A few tanneries use surface supplies, usually chlori- nated. They may also need additional treatment such as clarification, and iron and manganese removal. A limited volume of water, whether from the public water supply or company-owned systems, may be softened, distilled, or demineralized. MINING AND CEMENT INDUSTRIES (SIC 10) Mining Description of the Industry lndustrial usage of the term mining is broad and includes mining operations and quarrying; extraction of minerals, petroleum, and natural gas; well operations and milling (e.g., crushing, screening, washing, froth flotation); and other processing used to render minerals marketable. Processes Utilizing Water Mining operations are numerous, and many of them involve the use of water. However, the amount of water used is often relatively small, or its use is simply that of providing a suspending medium (as in coal washing) with minimal requirements of water quality. The principal consideration in these operations is that water acidity be relatively low so that corrosion of equipment is kept to a minimum. On the other hand, a number of the operations involved in this general category require the use of large quantities of water with certain quality requirements relating to im- purity, type,' and level. These operations are froth flotation, mine dump leaching, and secondary oil recovery. With re- gard to froth flotation, an operation extensively used to re- cover valuable minerals from low-grade ores, large ton- nages of material are processed each day. For example, in one large plant, 100,000 tons of copper ore per day are treated for recovery of copper sulfide. Generally, flotation is carried out at approximately 25 per cent solids by weight, and freshwater makeup constitutes about 25 per cent of the total water requirement. In such systems, water is normally recycled so that the impurity level of both inorganic and organic constituents builds up with repeated reuse. It is not possible to list maximal limits of impurity levels for such waters, but the levels found in the processing water of one operating plant (i.e., a copper sulfide concentrator) are TABLE Vl-29-Analysis of Typical Freshwater Makeup and Process Water for a Copper Sulfide Concentrator Constituent (mg/1) Water type H Ca M 0 so., Cl TDS pH• Freshwater makeup .. 100 87 104 18 8 140 8.0 Process water ....... 1530 1510 415 345 1634 12 2100 11.7 • H is total hardness expressed as CaCOa; Ca is total calcium hardness expressed as CaCOa; M is total alkalinity expressed as CaCOa; 0 is total hydrate expressed as CaCOa; so, is total sulfate; Cl is total chloride; TDS is total dissolved solids. listed in Table VI-29. Also listed is the analysis of the fresh- water makeup that is added to the recycled water. This com- bination provides the total process water used for this plant. This fresh water is excellent for flotation. The actual process water used can probably be best described as one bordering on being problematic. The high Ca++ concentra- tion together with the high content of hydroxides of heavy metals (column 0) place this water in this category. Another process that is used extensively in the industry is the leaching of mine waste for recovery of copper. Large quantities of leach solution-approximately 225 million gallons per day-are added to properties located in this country. Most of the properties are located in arid areas, so that water reuse is mandatory. Solutions returned to the mine dumps for leaching have been subjected to treatment for copper recovery by replacement with metallic iron and then to further treatment to set the level of iron in solution. The analysis of a typical leach solution is presented in Table VI-30. Of these species, the amount of ferric ion is perhaps the most critical, in that if the concentration is too high, precipitation of basic iron sulfate occurs within the dump and renders the dump impermeable to solution flow. In this regard it is also important that there be no concen- tration of suspended solids in such leach solutions as they too render the dump impermeable to flow of solution. As a result, these solutions are filtered prior to introduction to the mine dump. Secondary oil recovery has assumed great importance in the oil industry. One of the techniques used in recovering oil is water flooding of a formation. With this technique water is pumped into a formation under high pressure, and a mixture of water and oil is then recovered from another well drilled into the formation. Such a process requires TABLE Vl-30-Typical Analysis of Leach Solution in Dump Leaching of Copper Constituent At++" .•...••...•.•.•..••.••.•••..•..••..•.•••.••..• Mgi+ ...................•.............•...........• Fe* .........••.....•.......................••....• Fe+* .................•.................•.....•...• so.-............................................. . pH .....•...•...............................•....... Concentration (mgfl) 12,000 12,000 6,000 6,000 64,000 3-3.5 I l careful consideration of a number of factors, including permeability of the rock of which the formation is composed; type and amount of clay in the rock; ionic composition of the connate water; and composition, solids, and bacterial content of the water injected into the formation. If the clay content of the host rock is of a bentonitic nature (i.e., a swelling type clay, which when used with fresh water is not in equilibrium with the ions contained in the connate water), the clay will swell and render the formation impermeable to water flow. An effective means of obviating this is to re- inject the same water, filtered of solids, into the formation. Another means is to keep the salt content of the water high. Stabilization of the water exiting from the formation must be considered, because gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are released from the water. If these gases are not added to the water prior to re- injection into the formation, the water will not be in equilib- rium with the connate water, salts, and rock of the forma- tion. Precipitation of compounds may result, and permeabil- ity will be altered. Waters that are conveniently available are used for water injection. In addition to formation and surface waters, sea water is often used. The composition of sea water and a water from a sand formation are listed in Table Vl-31. Anaerobic bacteria are also a problem in water flooding, since they are capable of producing such compounds as hydrogen sulfide in the water. Effective bactericides are available to control this potential problem. The quantity of water used in water flooding depends on the production of the well involved. A commonly added quantity would be 400 to 500 barrels per day, which is equivalent to 16,800 to 21,000 gallons per day. In view of all of the secondary oil production using this technique, then, extremely large quantities of water are involved. For example, in 1960 approximately 634 million barrels of oil were produced by injection techniques in California, Illi- nois, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming (Ostroff 1965).15 Major Industrial Uses of Water/395 TABLE Vl-31-Composition of Sea Water and a Formation Water Expressed as mgfl. Constituent co,-.................................. . HCOa-................................. . sor .................................. . Cl-.•......................•............ ca++ ................................... . M('+ .................................. . Na++K+ ............................... . Fe (totaQ ..••..•..•..•..•...•..•......... oa++ ................................... . TDS .•.....•..•.••........•..•..•...•... pH ..................................... . Ostroff 1965" Cement Sea water 142 2,560 18,980 400 1,272 10,840 0.02 34,292 Marg~nuia sand (La.) 0 281 42 72,782 2,727 655 42,000 13 24 118,524 ..5 The manufacture of cement involves combining lime- stone with silica sand, alumina, and iron oxide, crushing and grinding this mixture, burning at high temperature, cooling, and regrinding clinker to fine size. If water is used at all, it is used in the initial grinding step. In terms of water consumed, approximately 200 gallons are used per ton of finished cement. Because of the high temperatures used in the burning process (approximately 2500 F), water quality requirements are minimal. The alkali content of the process water can be a problem, however, if it is present in relatively high con- centration, because the alkali oxides are volatilized and condensed on the fine particulate matter produced during the burning process. If the amount of oxide is relatively high, oxide will build up as the fine particulate matter is recycled to the kiln. Alkali oxide may be removed from the fine particulate matter by water leaching, but this practice results in the problem of disposing of water very high in alkali salts. Even if water leaching is not used, the problem of disposing of the oxide-bearing particulate matter also exists. liTERATURE CITED 1 American Paper Institute (1970), Annual report: a test of stamina- action taken and results obtained by the American Paper Institute in a year of recession (New Y9rk), 12 p. 2 American Public Health Association, American Water Works As- sociation, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 13th ed. (American Public Health Association, Washington, D. C.), 874 p. 3 American Society for Testing and Materials (1970), Water and atmospheric analysis, part 23 of American Society for Testing and Materials book of standards (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), 1052 p. 4 ASTM standards (1970) (see citation 3 above.) 6 Bureau of the Census (1971) (see citation 19 below.) 6 Federai Power Commission (1971), Data compiled from FPC form 67: Steam-electric plant air and water control data, for the year ended December 31, 19[70]. [This information is available for inspection and copying in the reference room of the Office of Public In- formation, Federal Power Commission, W_ashington, D. C. 20426.] 7 Landsberg, H. H., L. L. Fischman, and J. L. Fisher (1963), Re- sources in America's future (Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore), 10 I 7 p. 8 Livingstone, D. A. (1963), Chemical composition of rivers and lakes [Geological Survey professional paper 440-G ], in Data of geo- chemistry, 6th ed., M. Fleischer, ed. (Government Printing Of- fice, Washington, D. C.), 64 p. 9 McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, eds. (1963), Water quality criteria, 2nd ed. (California State Water Quality Control Board, Sacra- mento), 548 p. 1o Michel, R. (1942), Water as the cause of poor colors and failures in dyeing. Farb. u. Chemischrein 89. n Miller Freeman Publications (undated), The pulp and paper market: an analysis of the industry by Miller Freeman Publications, publishers of Pulp and paper magazine (San Francisco). 12 Mussey, 0. D. (1957), Water requirements of the rayon-and acetate-fiber industry [Geological Survey water supply paper 1330-D ], in Study of manufacturing processes with emphasis on present water use and future water requirements. Water requirements of selected industries. (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), p. 141-179. 13 Nordell, E. (1961), Water treatment for industrial and other uses, 2nd ed. (Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York), 598 p. 14 Ontario Water Resources Commission (1970), Guidelines and criteria for water quality management in Ontario (Toronto, Ontario). 15 Ostroff, A. G. (1965), Introduction to oilfield water technology (Prentice- Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey), pp. 5, 7. 16 Standard methods (1971) (see citation 2 above.) 17 Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (1957), Water technology in the pulp and paper industry [TAPPI Monograph Series No. 18] (New York), Appendix, p. 162. 18 U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census (1969), Statistical abstract of the United States: 1969, 90th ed. (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 1032 p. 19 U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census (1971), Water use in manufacturing, section MC67(1)-7 of 1967 census of manu- facturers: industrial division (Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D. C.), 361 p. 20 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service (1962), Public Health Service drinking water standards, rev. 1962 [PHS Pub. 956] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.), 61 p. 21 U.S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968), Textile mill products, in The cost of clean water, vol. 3: Industrial waste profiles (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 133 p. 22 U.S. Executive Office of the President. Bureau of the Budget ( 1967), Standard industrial classification manual (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 615 p. 23 Walter, J. W. (1971), Water quality requirements for the paper industry. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 63(3):165-168. 24 Water Resources Council (1968), Electric power uses, part 4, chapter 3 of The nation's water resources (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), p. 4-3-2. 26 Edison Electric Institute (1970), Personal communication (Richard Thorssell, 750 3rd Avenue, New York, New York). 26 Environmental Protection Agency (1971), Unpublished data, George Webster, Office of Water Quality Programs, Washington, D.C. 27 TAPPI: Water Supply and Treatment Committee (1970), Un- published data, presented at the T APPI Air and Water Conference June 8-10/70. 396 Appendix ·I-RECREATION AND AESTHETICS TABLE OF CONTENTS QUANTIFYING AESTHETIC AND RECREA- TIONAL VALUES ASSOCIATED WITH WATER QUALITY........................ 399 EVALUATION TECHNIQUES................... 399 Nonmonetary benefit evaluations. . . . . . . . 399 CuRRENT LEAST-CosT EvALUATIONS. . . . . . . . . . 400 SPECIAL EvALUATION PROBLEMS.............. 400 Monetary benefit evaluations....... . . . . . 399 LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 401 398 QUANTIFYING AESTHETIC AND RECREATIONAL VALUES ASSOCIATED WITH WATER QUALITY Provisions of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (U. S. Congress 1968), 13 The National Environmental Policy Act (U.S. Congress l970a),l4 and the Flood Control Act, Sec- tion 209 (U.S. Congress l970b),15 have added impetus to the need for quantification of aesthetic and recreational values associated with water quality. Evaluation Techniques The two techniques necessary to assess total aesthetic and recreational values are (a) monetary benefit evaluations, and (b) nonmonetary benefit evaluations. Monetary benefit evaluations usually start by determining costs of visiting a site from various distances and adopt a weighted average based on calculations of individual costs to visit a particular site from various zones and the number of visitors from each zone. The representative unit cost is then multiplied by the total number of expected visitors (the demand) to determine the total minimum benefit. (See Hotelling (1949),5 Trice and Wood (1958)/2 Clawson (1959),2 and Knetsch (1963).6) Another procedure for imputing dollar values to benefits is to presume that benefits are equal to foregone costs of doing the same thing another way. Frankel (1965)4 showed that the cost of down- stream removal of coliforms at a water treatment plant was less than the upstream cost of disinfection at a waste water treatment plant. The conclusion to be drawn was that the benefits of chlorination at the particular waste water treat- ment plant were not equal to the costs saved downstream, and hence the practice could be discontinued at the waste water treatment plant. Nonmonetary benefit evaluations attempt to attach quantita- tive scales in terms of dollars and dimensionless scores to nonmonetary recreational and aesthetic values. These at- tempts fall into three categories. 1 Waste treatment evaluation techniques Son- nen (1967)11 devised a scheme of multipliers ranging from 0 to about 10 that, when multiplied by the identifiable mone- tary benefits of waste treatment, yielded an estimate of in- tangible benefits. The value of the multipliers was a function of: (a) the downstream users' local, regional, or national scope; (b) the private or public affiliation of the downstream users; (c) the number of people involved in each downstream use; and (d) the relative importance of each constituent in the waste that might influence the enjoyment or use of the water. Only the subfactor for constituent influence was re- calculated for each constituent to be partially removed by the alternative treatment processes under consideration. The objective was a benefit-cost analysis of waste treatment al- ternatives with intangible benefits given quantitative weight. It was shown in a hypothetical stream discharge case that net benefits calculated with monetary benefits alone were maximized by a less complete removal process than was optimal when nonmonetary benefits were included in the analysis. Partial removals of 27 constituents to serve five downstream users, including recreational and aesthetic use, were evaluated. Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (1968)16 modified this procedure to evaluate alternatives for: (l) wastewater reclamation to protect current Tecreation benefits and to provide more; and (2) protection of a particular water to levels (of coliforms) suitable for harvesting shellfish while other competing uses of the water predominated (WRE 1969).17 Ralph Stone and Co. (1969),1° in assessing the value of cleaning up San Diego Bay, asked 27 knowledgeable people to rank the Bay's 12 possible uses, giving weights from I to I 0 to both the economic value and the social value of each use to the community as the interviewee perceived that value. In both the economic and the social value responses, tourism, fishing, marina activities, and park and recreation use ranked highest while industrial activity rated low, and waste disposal rated last in both responses. 2 Water Resource Project Recreation Evalu- ation WRE (1970)18 devised two methods for evaluating intangible benefits as functions of the monetary benefits identified: a "benefits foregone-subjective decision" method, and a "nonmonetary expression of benefits" method. In the former the intangible benefits associated with wild, undeveloped streams are presumed to be equal to the foregone monetary benefits that would accrue to other users if the streams were fully developed. In the latter in- tangible, aesthetic benefits are presumed to be estimable fractions of the identifiable monetary benefits. These two WRE methods have been demonstrated for both a wild river area and a developed stream in the Pacific Northwest. 399 ---------~ ~-----~ 400 j Appendix !-Recreation and Aesthetics 3 Ecological Impact Analysis Six notable studies in recent years derived evaluation methods that require ranking sites on various scales, with c~nstant upper and lower limits. (I) Whitman (1968)19 developed a rating scheme for streams in urban areas based on seven factors related to the environment: three factors are assigned 20 per cent relative weights, and four I 0 per cent relative weights. Each stream is to be given a rating from 0 to the upper limit for each factor on the basis of how uniquely each of the subjective criteria is satisfied. (2) Dearinger (1968)3 developed weighted ratings for subfactors encom- passing a range of environmental characteristics including climate, scenery, hydrology, user characteristics, and water quality. (3) Leopold (1969)7 ranked scenic values by placing each stream in categories that measure the site's uniqueness with respect to all others evaluated. His three major cate- gories embraced physical factors, biological and water quality factors, and human use and interest factors. No superior-inferior ranking was implied for any category. (4) Morisawa and Murie (1969)9 presented a 1 to 10 value-rating scale to apply quantitative weight to otherwise subjective stream characteristics, placing major emphasis on total dissolved solids content and sediment load with respect to water quality. (5) Leopold et al. (1971)8 devised a 3' X3' score sheet on which 86 "existing characteristics and conditions of the environment" are scored according to how they will be affected by any of 98 possible "actions which may cause environmental impact." Of the 86 charac- teristics, water quality was only one, althmigh,_temperature was given a row of its own too. Unfortunately, no explicit score is given to the goodness or badness of the scores, and much subjective decision-making rem,ains after these analy- ses have contributed what objectivity they can. (6) Battelle- Columbus ( 1971 )1 desired a hierarchical arrangement of critical environmental quality characteristics arranged in four major categories: ecology, environmental pollution, aesthetics, and human interest. The system measures en- vironmental impacts in environmental quality units (EQU); each analysis produces a total score in EQU based on the magnitude of specific environmental impacts ex- pressed by the relative importance of various quality char- acteristics as prescribed by a predetermined weighting and ranking scheme. Current Least-Cost Evaluations The economic objective for water-quality-oriented pro- jects, such as water and waste treatment plants, has been to meet stipulated water quality standards or criteria at least cost. However, least-cost an~lysis, which is important and proper at the design stage, has entered water quality management evaluations too soon on most occasions. The hasty assumptions are made that (1) certain uses are to be provided or protected, and (2) water quality criteria to pro- tect those uses are absolutely correct both with respect to constituents named and concentrations assigned. But caveats by the experts throughout this book about lack of scientific evidence to support meaningful criteria attest to the fallacy of these assumptions. qiearly if some prior analysis, such as a benefit-cost analysis including aesthetic values, could demonstrate that secondary treatment of wastes would provide adequate protection of the most justifiable mix of downstream uses in a specific set of circum- stances, then least-cost analysis would be the proper tooho determine the cheapest secondary treatment process to install. Unfortunately, the biggest stumbling block to this more nearly ideal sequence of analyses has been the lack of procedures for quantifying all the relevant values discussed above, including both monetary and nonmonetary ones. But it should be recognized that least-cost analysis is prop- erly applied only after the uses to be protected and the quality criteria to protect them have been determined through prior evaluation. Special Evaluation Problems There are problems that have not yet been addressed by researchers. • The perception of median value by the average person enjoying himself or his surroundings has not been normalized. The average recreator is not aware of his environment in terms of the silt load or coli- form organism measures that the scientists use to characterize the environment. • A related problem is that of vicarious pleasure and its benefit to society as a whole. • There is no method available that defines absolute and relative uniqueness. Methods that rank relative uniqueness on scales of 1 to 10 do not answer the optimal questions of water resource use, and methods like WRE's (1970)18 cannot claim validity for more that comparative evaluations of projects within a single river basin. • There is no single, meaningful measure of water quality that can be related to the costs of attaining it and the benefits stemming from it. In his study of waste treatment alternatives, Sonnen (1967)11 was unsuccessful at separating the benefits that over- lapped from removal of one constituent and were undoubtedly counted again in assessing the benefits of removal of others. • The quantification of aesthetic and recreational values associated with marine and estuarine waters demands particular attention. Further research must attempt to determine the levels of each constituent that enhance, preserve, reduce, or elimi- nate use of water. With these quality-use spectra, sociolo- gists, psychologists, economists, engineers, and politicians will eventually be able to characterize objectively the aver- age, normative response of the populace to the environment and to deduce the values and relative values people wish to place on the conditions to be found there. LITERATURE CITED 1 Battelle-Columbus ( 1971), Design of an environmental evaluation sys- tem, Final Report to Bureau of Reclamation (U.S. Department of the Interior, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio), 61 p. 2 Clawson, M. (1959), Methods for measuring the demand for and value of outdoor recreation (Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.), 36 p. 3 Dearinger, J. A. (I 968), Esthetic and recreational potential of small naturalistic streams near urban areas, Research Report No. 13 (Uni- versity of Kentucky Water Resources Institute, Lexington), 260 p. 4 Frankel, R. ]. (1965), Economic evaluation of Water-An engineering- economic model for water quality management, First Annual Report (University of California, Sanitary Engineering Research La- boratory Report No. 65-3) 167 p. 6 Hotelling, H. (1949), [Letter], in The economics of public recreation: an economir: study of the monetary evaluation of recreation in the national parks (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.), pp. 8-9. 6 Knetsch, J. L. (1963), Outdoor recreation demands and benefits. Land Economics 39:387-396. 7 Leopold, L. B. (1969), Quantitative comparison of some aesthetic factors among rivers [Geological Survey circular 620] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 16 p. 8 Leopold, L. B., F. E. Clarke, B. B. Hanshaw and J. R. Balsey {1971), A procedure for evaluating environmental impact (Geological Survey Circular 645, Washington, D.C.), 13 p. 9 Morisawa, M. and M. Murie (1969), Evaluation of natural rivers: final report [U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, research project C-1314] (Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio), 143 p. 10 Ralph Stone and Company, Inc., Engineers (I 969), Estuarine- oriented community planning for San Diego Bay, prepared for the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 178 p. 11 Sonnen, M. B. (1967), Evaluation of alternative waste treatment facilities, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Sanitary Engineering Series No. 41, Urbana, Illinois, 180 p. 12 Trice, A. H. and S. E. Wood (1958), Measurement ofrecreational benefits: a rejoinder. Land Economics 34:367-369. 13 U.S. Congress (1968), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Public Law 90-542, S. 1075, October 2, 1968, 12 p. 14 U.S. Congress (1970a), National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Public Law 91-190, S. 1075, 5 p. 16 U.S. Congress (I970b), Flood Control act of 1970, Public Law 91-611, Title II, 9lst Congress, H.R. 19877, pp. 7-18. 16 Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (1968), Waste water reclamation potential for the Laguna de Rosa, Report to the California State Water Resources Control Board, 86 p. 17 Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (1969), Evaluation of alternative water quality control plans for Elkhorn Slough and Moss Landing Harbor, presented to the California State Water Resources Control Board, 63 p. 18 Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (1970), Wild rivers-methods for evaluation, prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, 106 p. 19 Whitman, I. L. (1968), Uses of small urban river valleys, Baltimore Corps of Engineers [Ph.D. dissertation] The Johns Hopkins University, 299 p. 401 . Appendix II-FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE TABLE OF CONTENTS APPENDIX II-A APPENDIX II-E MIXING ZONES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 GUIDELINES FOR TOXICOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON APPENDIX II-B PESTICIDES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY IN-APPENDIX II-F DICES.................................. 408 PESTICIDES REcoMMENDED FOR MoNITORING IN APPENDIX II-C THE ENVIRONMENT....................... 440 THERMAL TABLES.......................... 410 APPENDIX II-G APPENDIX II-D ToxiCANTS IN FISHERY MANAGEMENT. . . . . . . . . 441 PESTICIDES TABLES .......................... . 420 LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 402 APPENDIX II-A MIXING ZONES A. Mathematical Model References Mathematical models based, in part, on the considera- tions delineated in General Physical Consideration of Mixing Zones are available for prediction of heated-water discharge from power plants into large lakes (Wada, 1966;32 Carter, 1969; 6 Edinger and Polk 1969,10 Sundaram et al. 1969,3° Csanady, 1970,7 Motz and Benedict 1970,22 Pritch- ard 1971,27 Stolzenbach and Harleman 1971,29 Zeller et al. 1971,36 Policastro and Tokar in press),26 cooling ponds and impoundments (Brady et al. 1969,4 D' Arezzo and Masch 1970), 8 rivers (Jaske and Spurgeon 1968,17 Water Resources Engineers 1968,35 Parker and Krenke! 1969,25 Kolesar and Sonnichsen 1971)/9 estuaries (Ward and Espey 1971)33 and ocean outfalls (Baumgartner and Trent 1970). 3 Mathematical models of the distribution of non-thermal discharges into various receiving systems are also available for diffusion in lakes, reservoirs and oceans (scale effects) (Brooks 1960,5 Allan Hancock Foundation 19651), diffusion in bays and estuaries where tidal oscillations and density stratification are factors (O'Connor 1965,2 3 Masch and Shankar, 1969,21 Fischer 1970,12 Leendertse 1970),20 and dispersion in open channels and rivers (Glover 1964/3 Bella and Dobbins, 1968,2 Dresnack and Dobbins, 1968,9 Fischer 1968,11 Thackston and Krenke! 1969,31 Jobson and Sayre 1970/8 O'Connor and Taro 1970).24 Time-of-exposure models are discussed by Pritchard (1971). 27 B. Development of Integrated Time-Exposure Data For a Hypothetical Field Situation 1. A proposed discharge of a waste contammg alkyl- benzene sulfonates (ABS) to a lake containing rainbow trout is under consideration. The trout regularly swim paral- lel to the shoreline where the shallows drop off to deeper water. The expected plume configuration, estimated ABS concentrations, and time of exposure for a swimming trout to various concentrations are shown in Figure II-A-1. No avoidance or attraction behavior is assumed. It is decided that an ET2 is appropriate for this situation (see Comment a. below). 2. To test if this mixing zone meets necessary water quality characteristics, toxicity bioassays with rainbow trout are performed (see Section III, pp. 118-123). Ob- serve mortality after each exposure to selected concentra- tions at time intervals of approximate geometric or logarith- mic progression: i.e., 10, 15, 30 and 60 minutes; 2, 4, 8, between 12 and 16, 24, and between 30 and 36 hours; 2, 3, 4, and if qesired 7, 10 or more days. While only the shorter time periods are involved in this example, greater periods are necessary in some cases. After exposure, trout should be held in uncontaminated water for extended periods so that delayed effects of exposure can be evaluated. While mor- tality was selected in this example as the response to be assessed, a more conservative physiological or behavioral response would provide a more positive factor of safety. 3. Plot percentage mortality on a probability (probit) scale with time on a logarithmic scale as in Figure II-A-2, and fit by eye a straight line to the set of points for ach concentration. The object of this is to determine for each concentration the median lethal time where the fitted line crosses 50 per cent mortality (the ET50) and the ET2, the time causing 2 per cent mortality. 4. Plot the sets of ET50 and ET2 values on logarithmic paper and fit each set of points to create the toxicity curves as in Figure II-A-3. 5. Substitute the information on plume characteristics and time of passage (Figure II-A-I) and the toxicity curves (Figure II-A-3) in the summation of effects formula: T1 + T2 + T3 ... + T n _::;I ET2 at C 1 ET2 at C 2 ET3 at Ca ET2 at Cn Since the total is slightly over 1.0 a mortality greater than 2 per cent is expected, and the recommendation is not met. If the total was 1.0 or less, a mortality of 2 per cent or less would be expected and the recommendation would be met. 403 404/ Appendix If-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Average Concentration = 8 mg/1 ET2 = 00 (greater than 4 days) 5 mg/1 Shoreline Average concentration = 15 mg/1 Average concentration = 30 mg/1 ET2 =52 min. ET2 = 17 min. FIGURE II-A-1-Predicted Concentrations of ABS in an Effluent Plume, and Times of Passage of Migrating Fish. Hypothetical. Comments a. Use of the ET(X). A probability distribution is involved in mortality, and it is therefore impossible to give any valid estimate of an exposure time which would cause zero per cent mortality. The probability of mortality merely be- comes increasingly smaller as the exposure time becomes less. Therefore it is necessary to choose some arbitrary per- centage mortality as equivalent to negligible effect. Two per cent was chosen as a useful level in the example above since it is a low number yet still high enough that the ex- trapolation of the probit line to that value has reasonable validity. Other mortality levels can be selected to fit given situations. When mortality is the response measured rather than a more conservative one, a safety factor can be utilized by requiring the sum of the integrated time-exposure effects to equal less than unity. b. Toxicity Curves. For other toxicants, the curves may be greatly different from those shown in Figure II-A-3, e.g., complex reflex or rectangular hyperbolas. Further dis- cussion of toxicity curves, and illustration of curves of var- ious shapes is given by Warren (1971,34 pp. 199-203) and Sprague (1969).28 It is possible to calculate equations for the toxicity-curves, or portions of them, as was done for temperature-mortality data (pp. 151 ff.). However, the equations for many toxi- cants are cumbersome because of logarithms or other trans- formation. Since the equations are merely the result of empirically fitting the observed experimental curves, it is easier and about equally effective to read values of interest directly from a graph such as Figure II-A-3. {i il~ .~ Cd ~ :;a ~ e u tl ~ 98 95 90 70 50 30 10 5 2 0.1 1.0 10 Exposure, Hours FIGURE 11-A-2-Mortality of Rainbow Trout Exposed to Concentrations of ABS. 12 mg/1, and Control, 0 mg/1 No Mortality in 240 Hours to 240 hours 100 ~ ~ l:l-~· ::::: ~ ~· ~- ~ ! 406/ Appendix If-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife 100 "' ... 10 ;:l 0 :r: >. 50% mortality .~ c;j ...., ... 0 :;s ...., s:: OJ u ... OJ ... s:: OJ .e: 0 ell ~ 0 ...., minutes OJ \ s E:: 1 ~, '-\ 2% mortality \ \ \ \ \ " 0.1 1 10 100 Concentration, mg/1 FIGURE II-A-3-Toxicity Curves for ABS to Rainbow Trout. The times to 50 per cent mortality and times to 2 per cent mortality have been read from the lines fitted in Figure II-A-2. c. Threshold Effective Time. Organisms may survive for 30 minutes, an hour, or sometimes several hours, even in extremely high concentrations of the pollutant (see caveat under d). d. Lethal Threshold Concentration. Survival for an in- definitely long period may be possible at the lethal threshold concentration which may be close to concentrations which are quickly lethal. Organisms which exhibit an abrupt lethal threshold or a long threshold effective time may be es- pecially vulnerable to sublethal effects and careful investiga- tion of this possibility should be made. e. Need for Experimental Determination of ET(X). Al- though it would be convenient to have some rule of thumb for estimating the ET(X) from the ET50, as is done by the "2° rule" for short-term exposure to high temperature (see Section III, pp. 161-162), there does not seem to be any such simple generalization which can be applied to toxicants in general. The relatively few examples which can be found in the literature indicate variable relationships. A L _______ __ Appendix II-A-Mixing Zones/407 series of comparison~ between toxicity curves for 5 per cent and 50 per cent mortality are given by Herbert (1961,14 196515) and Herbert and Shurben (1964).16 The ratios be- tween LC5 and LC50 for the same exposure times are as follows: fluoride 0.4; a demulsifier 0.55; ammonium chlor- ide 0.55 (high concentrations) and 0.8 (low concentra- tions); washing powders 0. 75, and a corrosion inhibitor 0.88. Even for the same pollutant the ratio is different for different concentrations when the time-concentration rela- tion is curved, as it is for many substances. A difference is also found when the toxicity curves are not parallel, as for ABS in Figure II-A-3. The LC2/LC50 ratio for ABS varies from 0.46 to 0. 72 at high concentrations and short times, and increases to 0.87 for the 96-hour exposures. Because of this variability, no simple rule of thumb can be proposed for estimating, from the 50 per cent values, the concentrations which will produce negligible mortality or the exposure times for negligible mortality. It is necessary to determine. this empirically by the steps used in constructing Figure II-A-2. APPENDIX 11-B COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY INDICES Evaluation Systems for Protection There are two basic approaches in evaluating the effects of pollution on aquatic life: the first by a taxonomic group- ing of organisms; the second by identifying the community of aquatic organisms. First, the saprobian system of Kolkwitz and Marsson (1908,49 1909 50 ), modified and used by Richardson (1928),63 Gaufin (1956), 44 Hynes (1962)48 and Beck (1954, 38 195539), depended upon a taxonomic grouping of organisms related to their habitat in clean water, polluted water, or both. This approach requires a precise identification of organisms. It is based on the fact that different organisms have different ranges of tolerance to the same stress. Patrick ( 1951) 59 and Wurtz (1955)67 used a system of histograms to report the results of stream surveys based on the differences in toler- ance of various groups of aquatic organisms to pollution. Beck ( 1955 )3 9 developed a biotic index as a method of evaluating the effects of pollution on bottom fauna or- ganisms. The biotic index is calculated by multiplying the number of intolerant species by two and then adding the number of facultative organisms. Beck designated a biotic index value greater than 10 to indicate clean water and a value less than 10 to indicate polluted water. Other tech- niques based on the tolerance of aquatic organisms to pol- lution have been reported by Gaufin (1958)45 and Beak (1965)_37 The breakdown of an assemblage of organisms into pol- lution-tolerant, -intolerant, and -facultative categories is somewhat subjective, because tolerance for the same organisms may vary under a different set of environmental conditions. Needham (1938)58 observed that environmental conditions other than pollution may influence the distribu- tion of organisms. Pollution-tolerant organisms are also found in clean water areas (Gaufin and Tarzwell, 1952).46 Therefore, the concept of the use of taxonomic groupings of organisms to evaluate water quality biologically has certain difficulties and is not commonly accepted today. The second approach is to use the community structure of associations or populations of aquatic organisms to evaluate pollution. Hairston (1959)47 defined community structure in terms of frequency of species per unit area, spatial distribution of individuals, and numerical abundance of species. Gaufin (1956)44 found that the community struc- ture of benthic invertebrates provided a more reliable cri- terion of organic enrichment than presence of a specific species. Diversity indices that permit the summarization of large amounts of information about the numbers and kinds of organisms have begun to replace the long descriptive lists common to early pollution survey work. These diversity indices result in a numerical expression that can be used to make comparisons between communities of organisms. Some of these have been developed to express the relation- ships of numbers of species in various communities and overlap of species between communities. The Jaccard Index is one of the commonest used to ex- press species overlap. Other indices such as the Shannon- Weiner information theory (Shannon and ·weaver 1963)64 have been used to express the evenness of distribution of individuals in species composing a community. The divers- ity index increases as evenness increases (Margalef 1958,52 Hairston 1959,47 MacArthur and MacArthur 1961,55 and MacArthur 1964 53). Various methods have been developed for comparing the diversity of communities and for de- termining the relationship of the actual diversity to the maximum or minimum diversity that might occur within a given number of species. Methods have been thoroughly discussed by Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964), 51 Patten (1962), 60 MacArthur (1965), 54 Pielou ( 1966,61 1969 62 ), Mcintosh (1967)57, Mathis (1965)56 , Wilhm (1965),65 and Wilhm and Dorris (1968)66 as to what indices are appropriate for what kinds of samples. An index for diversity of community structure also has been developed by Cairns, Jr. et al. (1968)40 and Cairns, Jr. and Dickson (1971)41 based on a modification of the sign test and theory runs of Dixon and Massey (1951).42 Diversity indices derived from information theory were first used by Margalef (1958)52 to analyze natural com- munities. This technique equates diversity with informa- tion. Maximum diversity, and thus maximum information, 408 exists in a community of organisms when each individual belongs to a different species. Minimum diversity (or high redundancy) exists when all individuals belong to the same species. Thus, .mathematical expressions can be used for diversity and redundancy that describe community struc- ture. As pointed out by Wilhm and Dorris (1968),66 natural biotic communjties typically are characterized by the presence of a few species with many individuals and many species with a few individuals. An unfavorable limiting factor such as pollution results in detectable changes in com- munity structure. As it relates to information theory, more information (diversity) is contained in a natural community than in a polluted community. A polluted system is simpli- fied, and those species that survive encounter less competi- tion and therefore may increase in numbers. Redundancy in this case is high, because the probability that an individual belongs to a species previously recognized is increased, and the amount of information per individual is reduced. L_ ______ _ Appendix II-B---'Community Structure and Diversity lndices/409 The relative value of usiilg indices or models to interpret data depends upon the information sought. To see the rela- tive distribution of population sizes among species, a model is often more illuminating than an index. To determine in- formation for a number of different kinds of communities, diversity indices are more appropriate. Many indices over- emphasize the dominance of one or a few species and thus it is often difficult to determine, as in the use of the Shannon- Weiner information theory, the difference between a com- munity composed of one or two dominants and a few rare species, or one composed of one or two dominants and one or two rare species. Under such conditions, an index such as that discussed by Fisher, Corbet and Williams (1943)43 is more appropriate. To use the Shannon-Weiner index, much more information about the community is obtained if a diversity index is plotted. This section is the basis for the criteria on change of diversity given in the sections on Suspended Solids and Hardness, Temperature, and Dissolved Oxygen. APPENDIX 11-C THERMAL TABLES-Time-temperature relationships and lethal threshold temperatures for resistance of aquatic organisms (principally fish) to extreme temperatures (from Coutant, in press75 1972). Column headings, where not self- explanatory, are identified in footnotes. LDSO data obtained for single times only were included only when they amplified temperature-time information. Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal Species Stagefage Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ("C) LD50 threshold• Temp• Time N• r• ("C) upper lower Abudefduf saxa-Adult ........ ············ ············ ........... Northern Gulf Heath, W. G. Upper .. 32 ......... 42.9005 -0.0934 -0.9945 37.0 36.0 tilis (Sargent of California (1967)89 major) Adinia xenica Adult ........ ············ ............ Jefferson Co., Strawn and Upper .. 35 (0 °foo)' 21.9337 -0.4866 -0.9930 43.0 40.5 (diamond Killi· Texas Dunn 35 (5 °foo)' 27.7919 -0.6159 -0.9841 43.5 41.0 flsh) (1967)99 35 (10 Ofoo)• 26.8121 -0.5899 -0.9829 43.5 41.0 35 (20 °foo)' 28.3930 -0.6290 -0.9734 43.5 41.0 Atherinops affinis Juvenile ...... 6.8-6.2 em ... ............ ··········· LaJolla, Calif. Doudoroff Upper .. 18.0 30.5(24) (topsmelt) (1945") 20 42.2531 -1.2215 -0.9836 33.5 31.5 31.0 Lower .. 14.5 7.6(24) 18.0 8.8(24) 20 -0.4667 0.3926 0.9765 11.0 5.0 10.5 25.5 13.5(24) Brevoortia tyran-Larval 17-34 mm Mixed Beaufort Har • Lewis (1965)" Lower 7.0 0.96111 0.2564 9 0.9607 4.0 5.0 nus (Atlantic bor, North 10.0 0. 7572 0. 2526 12 0.9452 5.0 -1.0 6.0 menhaden) Carolina 12.5 0.6602 0.2786 12 0.9852 5.5 >7.0 (36"N) 15.0 0.5675 0.2321 14 0.9306 7.0 >8.0 20.0 0.2620 0.1817 3 0.9612 4.0 Brevoortia tyran-Young-of-the· ............ ............ ··········· Beaufort; Lewis and He!· Upper 21 (5 Ofoo) 57.9980 -0.1643 35.0 34.0 nus (Atlantic year N.C. tier (1968)" 27 (5 °foo) 85.1837 -2.3521 35.0 34.5 ··············· menhaden) Lower 16 (26-30 °foo) ........ 7.0 3.0 6.5 18 (10 °foo) ........ ..... ........ 7.0 3.0 6.5 Brevoortia tyran-Yearling ............ ............ ........... Beaufort, Lewis and He!· Upper 21 (5 Of oo) 35.7158 -1.0468 3 -0.9174 34 33 ···················· nus (Atlantic N.C. tier (1968)" 22-23 (4-6 °f oo) 21.8083 -0.6342 10 -0.9216 35 31 32.5 menhaden) Crassius auratus Juvenile ............ 2g ave. Mixed Commercial Fry, Brett, & Upper 1-2 28 (14) (goldfish) dealer Clawson 10 31 (14) (Toronto) (1942)" (and 17 34 (14) Fry, Hart, & 24 36 (14) Walker, 32 20.0213 -0.4523 41.0 39.0 39.2(14) 1946)" 38 21.9234 -0.4773 43.0 41.0 41.0(14) 41.0 Lower 19 1.0(14) 24 5.0(14) 38 15.5(14) Catostomus com-Adult (1-2 yr) 18-19.9 Mixed Don River, Hart (1947") Upper 5 33.6957 -1.1797 2 27.5 27.0 26.3 mersonni (white (mode) Thornhill, 10 19.9890 -0.6410 3 -0.6857 29 28 27.7 sucker) Ontario 15 31.9007 -1.0034 2 30 29.5 29.3 20 27.0023 -0.8068 4 -0.9606 31.5 30 29.3 25 22.2209 -0.6277 7 -0.9888 32.5 29.5 29.3 Lower 20 2.5 25 6.0 • It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett •=Incipient ~thai temperature of Fry, et aL, (1946~83 (1952)." • Salinity. • Number of median resistance times used lor calculating regression equation. 1 Log time in hours to 50% mortality. Includes 2-3 hr. required lor test bath to reach the test temperature. 'Correlation coefficient (~·rtect flt of all data points to the regression line=l.O). 410 r· C::' I Appendix 11-C /411 THERMAL TABLES-Continued Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ("C) LD50 threshold• Temp• Time N• I' ("C) upper lower Coregonus astedii Juvenile ············ ............ Mixed Pickerel Edsall and Upper 2 8wks 16.5135 -0.6689 -0.9789 23.0 19.0 19.7 (cisco) Lake,• Colby, 5 4wks 10.2799 -0.3645 -0.9264 24.0 20.0 21.7 Washtenaw 1970102 10 >2wks 12.4993 -0.4098 -0.9734 28.0 24.0 24.2 Co., Mich. 20 2wks 17.2967 -0.5333 -0.9487 30.0 26.0 26.2 25 3wks 15.1204 -0.4493 -0.9764 30.0 25.5 25. 7(U) Lower 2 8wks 1.5 0.3 <0.3 5 4wks 1.0 0.5 <0.5 10 >2wks 2. 7355 0.3381 0.9021 3.0 0.5 3.0 20 2wks 2.5090 0.2685 0.9637 4.5 0.5 4.7 25 3wks 1.7154 0.1652 0.9175 9.5 0.5 9.7 Coregonus hoyi Juvenile 60.0 mm ············ Mixed Lake Michi· Edsall, Roltiers Upper 5 11 da• 15.8243 -0.5831 5 -0.9095 26.0 22.0 22.2 (bloater) (age 1) 5.0. 5.8 gan all & Brown, 10 5 da 9.0700 -0.2896 6 -0.9516 30.0 23.0 23.6 Kenosha, 197080 15 5 da 17.1908 -0.5707 4 -0.9960 28.0 24.5 24.8 Wise. 20 5 da 28.6392 -0.9458 4 -0.9692 29.0 25.5 26.2 25 5 da 21.3511 -0.6594 5 -0.9958 30.0 26.5 26.7 Cyprinodon varie· Adult ············ ............ ........... Jefferson Strawn and Upper 35 (0 °/oo) 27.9021 -0.6217 -0.9783 43.0 40.5 gatus (sheeps· County, Dunn 35 (5 '/oo) 35.3415 -0.7858 -0.9787 43.5 41.0 40.5 head minnow) Texas (1967") 35 (10 '/oo) 30.0910 -0.6629 -0.9950 43.5 41.5 35 (20 '/oo) 30.0394 -0.6594 -0.9982 43.5 41.5 Cyprinodon varie· Adult ············ ............ ........... Galveston Simmons Upper 30 700 hrs.h 35.0420 -0.8025 41.4 40.8 ......... ......... gatus variegatus Island, Gal· (1971)97 (from 21.3 C) (sheepshead veston, Texas minnow) Dorosoma cepedi· Underyearling ············ ............ ........... PUI·in·Bay, Hart (1952)" Upper 25 field & 47.1163 -1.3010 -0.9975 35.5 34.5 34.0 anum (gizzard Ohio 3-4 da shad) 30 38.0658 -0.9694 4 -0.9921 38.0 36.5 36.0 35 31.5434 -0.7710 5 -9.9642 39.0 37.0 36.5(u) Lower 25 10.8 30 14.5 35 20.0 Dorosoma cepedi· Underyearling ············ ............ ........... Knoxville, Hart (1952)" Upper 25 32.1348 -0.8698 35.5 35.0 34.5 anum (gizzard Tenn. 30 41.1030 -0.0547 -0.9991 38.0 36.5 36.0 shad) 35 33.2846 -0.8176 -0.9896 39 36.5 36.5 Esoxlucius Juvenile Minimum ............ ........... Maple, On· Scott (1964)" Upper 25.0 17.3066 -0.4523 -0.9990 34.5 32.5 32.25 (Northern Pike) 5.0cm tario, Canada 27.5 17.4439 -0.4490 -0.9985 35.0 33.0 32.15' 30.0 17.0961 -0.4319 -0.9971 35.5 33.5 33.25(U) Esox masquinongy Juvenile Minimum ............ ........... Deerlake Scott (1964)" Upper 25.0 18.8879 -0.5035 -0.9742 34.5 32.5 32.25 (Muskellunge) 5.0cm Hatchery 27.5 20.0817 -0.5283 -0.9911 35.0 33.0 32.75 Ontario, 30.0 18.9506 -0.4851 -0.9972 35.5 33.5 33.25 Canada (u) Esox hybrid Juvenile 5.0cm Maple, On· Scott (1964)" Upper 25.0 18.6533 -0.4926 -0.9941 34.5 33.0 32.5 (luciusx masqui· minimum tario, Canada 27.5 20.7834 -0.5460 -0.9995 35.0 33.0 32.75 nongy) 30.0 19.6126 -0.5032 -0.9951 35.5 33.5 33.25 (U) Fundulus chryso· Adult ············ ............ ........... Jefferson Strawn & Dunn Upper 35 (0'/oo)-23.7284 -0.5219 -0.9968 43.0 39.0 38.5 Ius (golden top· County, (1967)" 35 (5'/oo)-21.2575 -0.4601 -0.9969 43.5 40.0 minnow Texas 35 (20 '/oo)-21.8635 -0.4759 -0.9905 43.5 40.0 Fundulus diapha· Adult ············ ............ ........... Halifax Co. Garside and Upper 15 (0 '/oo)i 27.5 nus (banded and Annapo· Jordan 15 (14 '/oo) 33.5 killifish) lis Co., Nova (1968)" 15 (32 °/oo) 27.5 Scotia Fundulus grandis Adult . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • 0 • ........... Jefferson Strawn & Upper 35 (0 '/oo) 22. 9809 -0.5179 8 -0.9782 42.0 38.5 (guff killifish) County, Dunn 35 (5'/oo) 27.6447 -0.6220 7 -0.9967 42.5 39.5 Texas (1967)" 35 (10 '/oo) 24.9072 -0.5535 9 -0.9926 43.0 39.0 35 (20 '/oo) 23.4251 -0.5169 8 -0.9970 43.0 39.5 Fundulus hetero· Adult ............ ............ ........... Halifax Co. Garside and Upper 15 (0 '/oo)i 28.0 clitus (mummic· and Annapo· Jordan 15 (14 '/oo) .... ........ 34.0 hog) lis Co., Nova (1968)" 15 (32 '/oo) 31.5 Scotia •II is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett 1 Experimental fish were reared !rom eggs taken from adults from this location. (1952).74 • These times alter holding at 8 C lor > 1 mo. b Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation. • Acclimated and tested at 10 '/oo salinity. 'Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= 1.0). 'Tested in three salinities. • =Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)." ; Tested at 3 levels of salinity. • Experimental fish were hatched from eggs obtained from adults from this location. 412/ Appendix If-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife THERMAL TABLES-Continued Accfimation log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ("C) LDSO lhrHhotd• Temp• Time N• .. ("C) upper lower Fundulus par· Adult 6-7 em ............ Mixed Mission Bay, Doudoroll Upper 14 23.3781 -0.6439 -0.9845 34.0 32.0 32.3 vipinnis (Cali· Cali!. (sea· (1945)79 20 50.6021 -1.3457 11 -0.9236 37.0 34.0 34.4 rornia kimnsh) water) 28 24.54~7 -0.5801 7 -0.9960 40.0 36.0 36.5 (tested in seawater Lower 14 2.1908 1.0751 3 0.9449 1.6 0.4 1.2 except as noted) 20 2.7381 0.2169 6 0.9469 7.0 2.0 5.6 20 2.5635 0.3481 4 0.8291 4.0 2.0 3.6 20 (into45% 2.6552 0.4014 8 0. 7348 4.0 2.0 3.8 sea water 1 day belore testing) Fundulus put· Adult ........... ............ ........... Jefferson Strawn and Upper 35 (0 0/oo) 28.1418 -0.6304 8 -0.9741 43.0 39.0 38.5 vereus (bayou County, Dunn 35 (5 0/oo) 29.3774 -0.6514 7 -0.9831 43.5 40.0 killifish) Texas (1967)99 35 (10 '/oo) 25.0890 -0.5477 5 -0.9956 43.5 41.5 35 (20 °/oo) 30.4702 -0.6745 8 -0.9849 43.5 40.0 Fundulus similis Adult ............ ............ ........... Jefferson Strawn and Upper 35 (0 °/oo)' 22.9485 -0.5113 6 -0.9892 43.0 40.5 (longnose killi· County, Dunn 35 (5 0/oo) 25.6165 -0.5690 6 -0.9984 43.5 41.0 fish) Texas (1967)" 35 (10 '/oo) 26.4675 -0.5863 -0.9925 43.5 41.0 35 (20 '/oo) 26.5612 -0.5879 -0.9953 43.0 40.5 Gambusia affinis Adult ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Knoxville, Hart (1952)" Upper 25 39.0004 -0.9171 39 38 37.0 affinis (mosquito· Tenn. 30 30.1523 -0.7143 -0.9938 40 37.5 37.0 fish) 35 23.8110 -0.5408 -0.9978 41.5 39 37.0(U) Gambusia affinis Adult ............ ............ ........... Jefferson Co., Strawn & Upper 35 (0 '/oo)' 22.4434 -0.5108 5 -0.9600 42.0 40.0 (mosquitofish) Texas Dunn 35 (5 °/oo) 23.1338 -0.5214 5 -0.9825 42.5 40.5 (freshwater) (1967)99 35 (10 Ofoo) 23.4977 -0.5304 8 -0.9852 42.5 40.0 35 (20 '/oo) 22.1994 -0.5001 6 -0.9881 42.5 40.0 Gambusia allinis Adult ............ ............ ........... Jefferson Co., Strawn and Upper 35 (0 '/oo)' 17.6144 -0.3909 5 -0.9822 42.5 40.5 (mosquitofish) Texas Dunn 35 (5 '/oo) 18.9339 -0.4182 5 -0.9990 42.5 40.5 (saltwater) (1967)" 35 (10 '/oo) 23.0784 -0.5165 7 -0.9982 42.5 39.5 35 (20 °/oo) 22.8663 -0.5124 6 -0.9957 42.5 40.0 Gambusia affinis Adult ............ ............ Mixed Welaka, Hart (1952)'' Upper 15 32.4692 -0.8507 -0.9813 37 36 35.5 holbrooki Florida 20 38.3139 -0.9673 -0.9843 38.5 37.5 37.0 (mosquitofish) 30 31.4312 -0.7477 -0.9995 40 38 37.0 35 28.1212 -0.6564 -0.9909 40 38.5 37.0(U) Lower 15 1.5 20 5.5 35 14.5 Garmannia Adult ............ ............ ........... Northern Gull Heath (1967)" Upper 32 21.7179 -0.5166 -0.9905 37.0 36.0 . ................... Chiquita (goby) ol California Coast Gaslerosteus acu. Adult 37 mm ave. 0.50 gave. Mixed Columbia Blahm and Upper 19 ......... 19.3491 -9.5940 -0.9998 32 26 25.8 leatus (three· River near Parente spine sti~kle· Prescott, (1970)I" un· back) Oregon published data Girella nigricans Juvenile 7.1-8.0 em ............ Mixed LaJolla, Cali· Doudoroll Upper 12 21.1277 -0.6339 6 -0.9338 31.0 27.0 28.7 (opaleye) rornia (33"N) (1942)78 20 19.2641 -0.5080 7 -0.9930 35.0 31.0 31.4 28 24.7273 -0.6740 4 -0.9822 33.0 31.0 31.4 Lower 12 1.4851 0. 4886 8 0.955£ 5.0 1.0 5.5 20 -1.3878 0.6248 6 0.9895 8.0 5.0 8.5 28 -0.1238 0.2614 6 0.9720 13.0 6.0 13.5 lctalurus ............. • • • • • • 0 • • • • • ............ ........... Florida to On· Hart (1952)" Upper 5 14.6802 -0.4539 4 -0.9782 29.5 28.0 27.8 (Amicurus) neb· tario (41o· 10 16.4227 -0.4842 10 -0.9526 31.5 29.5 29.0 ulosus (brown cations) com· 15 28.3281 -0.8239 3 -0.9881 33.0 32.5 31.0 bullhead) bined 20 23.9586 -0.6473 11 -0.9712 35.0 32.5 32.5 25 22.4970 -0.5732 12 -0.9794 37.0 34.0 33.8 30 24.2203 -0.5917 19 -0.9938 38.5 35.5 34.8 34 19.3194 -0.4500 5 -0.9912 37.5 36.0 34.8 Lower 20 0.5 25 4.0 30 6.8 lctalurus puncta. Juvenile ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Centerton, Allen & Upper 26 34.7119 -0.8816 13 -0.9793 39.0 36.6 36.6 Ius (channel (44-57 da Ark. Strawn 30 32.1736 -0.7811 17 -0.9510 40.6 37.4 37.8 catfish) old) (hatchery) (1968)72 34 26.4204 -0.6149 20 -0.9638 42.0 38.0 38.0 •It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett • Correlation coefficient (perlect fit or all data points to the regression line= 1.0). (1952).74 d =Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)." • Number of median resistance times used lor calculating regression equation. • Salinity. Appendix Jl-C/413 THERMAL TABLES-Continued Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal Species Stagejage Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ("C) LD50 lhresholdd Temp• Time N• I' ("C) upper lower fctalurus puncta-Juvenile ············ ············ ........... Joe Hogan Allen & Upper 25 34.5554 0.8854 -0.9746 37.5 35.5 35.5 Ius (channel (11.5 mo) State Fish Strawn 30 17.7125 -0.4058 -0.9934 40.0 37.5 37.0 catfish) Hatchery, (1968)7"2 35 28.3031 -0.6554 -0.9906 41.0 38.0 38 Lonoke, Arkansas lctalurus puncta-Adult ............ ············ Mixed Welaka, Fla. Ha~t (1952)88 Upper 15 34.7829 -1.0637 3 -0.9999 31.5 30.5 30.4 tus(l. lacustris) and Put-in-20 39.4967 -1.1234 4 -0.9980 34.0 33.0 32.8 (channel catfish) Bay, Ohio 25 46.2155 -1.2899 5 -0.9925 35.0 34.0 33.5 Lower 15 0.0 20 0.0 25 0.0 Lepomis macro-Adult ············ ············ Mixed Welaka, Hart (1952)88 Upper 15 25.2708 -0.7348 5 -0.9946 33.0 31.0 30.5 chirus purpures-Florida 20 28.0663 -0.7826 6 -0.9978 34.5 32.5 32.0 cens (bluegill) 25 23.8733 -0.6320 10 -0.9750 36.0 33.0 33.0 30 25.7732 -0.6581 5 -0.9965 38 34.5 33.8 Lower 15 2.5 20 5.0 25 7.5 30 11.0 Lepomis macro-Adult Mixed Lake Mendota, Hart (1952)88 Upper 2D-23 38.6247 -1.0581 -0.8892 35.5 34.0 chirus (bluegill) Wisconsin 30 30.1609 -0.7657 -0.9401 38.0 36.0 Lepomis megalotis Juvenile >12mm Mixed Middle Fork, Neill, Strawn & Upper 25 35.4953 -0.9331 14 -0.9827 36.9 35.4 35.6 (longear sunfish) White River, Dunn 30 20.5981 -0.4978 22 -0.9625 39.0 36.5 36.8 Arkansas (1966)" 35 30.7245 -9.7257 43 -0.9664 41.5 37.3 37.5 Lepomis sym-Adult ............ ··········· Jefferson Co., Strawn & Upper 35 (0 °/oo)• 20.7487 -0.4686 -0.9747 42.0 39.0 metricus (ban-Texas Dunn 35 (5 '/oo) 23.5649 -0.5354 -0.9975 42.0 39.0 tam sunfish) (1967)" 35 (20 '/oo) 10.4421 -0.2243 -0.9873 41.5 39.5 Lucania parva Adult ............ ............ ........... Jefferson Co., Strawn and Upper 35 co 'fool' 21.2616 -0.4762 -0.9844 42.5 38.5 (rainwater killi· Texas Dunn 35 (5 °/oo) 24.3076 -0.5460 -0.9846 42.5 39.0 fish) (1967)99 35 (10 '.'oo) 24.3118 -0.5467 -0.9904 42.5 39.0 35 (20 °/oo) 21.1302 -0.4697 -0.9940 42.5 39.5 Menidia menidia 8.3-9.2 em 4.3-5.2 gm Mixed New Jersey Hoff & West-Upper 7 19.8801 -0.7391 -0.9398 24.0 20 22.0 (common silver-(average (average (40°N) man (1966)" 14 18.7499 -0.6001 6 -0.9616 27.0 23.0 25.0 side) lor test for test 21 65.7350 -2.0387 6 -0.9626 32.0 28.0 30.4 groups) groups) 28 37.6032 -1.0582 5 -0.8872 34.0 30 32.5 Lower 7 -9.8144 8. 9079 5 0.8274 2 1 1.5 14 -1.2884 2.5597 6 0.8594 5 1 2.0 21 -1.4801 1.1484 6 0.9531 7 4.3 28 -8.2366 1.3586 5 0.9830 15 8.7 Micropterus sal· 9-11 mo. age ............ ............ ........... Welaka, Hart (1952)88 Upper 20 35.5107 -1.0112 -0.9787 34 32 32 moides !Iori-Florida 25 19.9918 -0.5123 -0.9972 36.5 33 33 danus (large-30 17.5645 -0.4200 -0.9920 38 34.5 33. 7(u) mouth bass) Lower 20 5.2 25 7.0 30 10.5 Micropterus sal-············· ............ ............ ··········· Put-in-Bay, Hart (1952)88 Upper 20 50.8091 -1.4638 34 33 32.5 moides (large-Ohio 25 26.3169 -0.6846 -0.9973 36.5 35 34.5 mouth bass) 30 29.0213 -0.7150 -0.9959 38.5 37 36.4(U) Lower 20 5.5 30 11.8 Micropterus sal-Under yearling ············ ............ ··········· Knoxville, Hart (1952)88 Upper 30 36.0620 -0.9055 -0.9788 38.5 37 36.4 moides (large-Tenn. 35 23.9185 -0.5632 -0.9958 40 37.5 36.4(u) mouth bass) Micropterus sal-............. ············ ............ ........... Lake Men-Hart (1952)'8 Upper 22 34.3649 -0.9789 -0.9789 33.8 32.0 31.5 moides (large-dota, Wis-30 35.2n7 -0.9084 -0.9845 37.5 35.5 mouth bass) cons in Mysis relicta Adult ............ ............ Mixed Trout Lake, Smith (1970)98 Upper 7.5C >1wk 6.1302 -0.1470 0.9245 26 16 16 (Opposum Cook shrimp) County, Minnesota • It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett • Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0). (1952).'' d =Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).8' • Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation. • Salinity. 414/ Appendix II-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife THERMAL TABLES-Continued Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ("C) LD50 thresholdP Temp• Time N• I' ("C) upper lower Neomysis awat· Adult >7mm . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Sacramento· Hair (1971)86 Upper 10.3• 73 (48) schensis (opos-San Joaquin 11.0 72.5(48) sum shrimp) della, Cali· 15.1 73.8(48) fornia 18.3 76.1(48) 19.0 74.0(48) 19.0 8.4694 -0.2150 ......... 24.2-25.4/ 21.7 77.0(48) 22.0 77.5(48) 22.4 76.0(48) Notemigonus Adult ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... Composite• Hart (1952)" Upper 10 42.7095 -1.3507 3 -0.9998 30.5 29.5 29.5 crysoleucas of 1. Welaka, 15 30.2861 -0.8933 4 -0.9844 32.5 31.0 30.5 (golden shiner) Fla. 2. PUI· 20 31.0275 -0.8722 15 -0.9869 34.5 32.0 32.0 in-Bay, Ohio 25 34.2505 -0.9226 9 -0.9665 g6.o 34 33.5 3. Algonquin 30 26.3829 -0.6615 10 -0.9940 37.5 35 34.5 Park, On· Lower 15 1.5 tario 20 4.0 25 7.0 30 11.2 Notropis atheri· Juvenile IH.9g.mode Mixed Chippewa Hart (1941)87 Upper. .. 5 20.9532 -0.7959 -0.9519 24.5 23.5 23.3 noides (emerald ( <1yr) Creek, Wei· 10 36.5023 -1. 2736 27.5 27.0 26.7 shiner) land, Ontario 15 47.4849 -1.5441 -0.9803 30.5 29.5 28.9 20 33.4714 -0.9858 -0.9805 32.5 31.5 30.7 15 26.7096 -0.7337 -0.9753 34.0 31.5 30.7 Lower 15 1.6 20 5.2 25 8.0 Notropis cornutus Adult ············ ············ ··········· Toronto, On-Hart(1952)" Upper 10 29.0 29.0 29.0 (common shiner) tario 15 45.4331 -1.3979 31.5 31.0 30.5 20 34.5324 -1.0116 -0.9560 33.0 31.5 31.0 25(win· 24.9620 -0.6878 -0.9915 34.0 32.0 31.0 ter) 25 28.5059 -0.1741 -0.9973 35.5 32.0 31.0 30 28.1261 -0.7316 -0.9946 36.5 34.0 31.0(U) Notropis cornutus Adult 4.0-5.9g Mixed Don River, Hart (1941)87 Upper 5 26.7 (common (mostly 2 yr) (mode) Thornhill, 10 40.1738 -1.3522 -0.9129 30.0 29.0 28.6 shmer) Ontario 15 45.0912 -1.3874 -0.9999 32.0 31.0 30.3 20 34.5324 -1.0116 -0.9560 33.0 31.5 31.0 25 24.9620 -0.6878 -0.9915 34.0 32.0 31.0 Lower 20 3.7 25 7.8 Notropis cornutus Adult Knoxville, Hart (1952)'• Upper 25 25.5152 -0.6794 6 -0.9938 35.5 33.0 33.0 (common shiner) Tenn. 30 24.9660 -0.6297 10 -0.9978 38.0 34.5 33.5(u) Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh· 3.81±0.29 0.3D±0.15g Mixed Dungeness, Brett (1952)" Upper 11.1821 -0.4215 -0.9573 24.0 22.0 21.3±0.3 gorbuscha (pink water fry em Wash. 10 11.9021 -0.3865 -0.9840 26.5 23.0 22.5±0.3 salmon) (3.8 mo.) (hatchery) 15 12.8937 -0.4074 -0.9884 27.0 23.5 23.1±0.3 20 16.2444 -0.4074 -0.9681 27.5 24.0 23.9±0.6 24 14.1111 -0.4459 -0.9690 27.5 24.5 23.9 Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh· 5.44±0.89 1.62±1.03g Mixed Nile Creek, Brett (1952)" Upper 14.3829 -0.5320 -0.9839 24.0 22.0 21.8 keta (chum water fry em B.C. 10 14.1713 -0.4766 9 -0.8665 26.5 22.5 22.6 salmon) (4.9 mo.) (hatchery) 15 15.8911 -0.5252 8 -0.9070 27.0 23.0 23.1±0.4 20 16.1894 -0.5168 9 -0.9750 27.5 23.5 23.7 23 15.3825 -0.4721 4 -0.9652 27.0 24.0 23.8±0.4 Lower 5 10 0.5 15 4.7 20 6.5 23 7.3 Oncorhynchus Juvenile ............ ············ . .......... Big Creek Blahm and Upper 10%' 16.9245 -0.5985 -0.8827 28 11 22.0 keta (chum Hatchery, Parente 50% 15.9212 -0.5575 -0.9972 29 11 23.2 salmon) Hoodsport, (1970)101 90% 16.8763 -0.5881 -0.9995 29 11 23.6 Wash.h unpublished data a II is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett 1 For maximum of 48 hr exposure. The lower lemperature is uncorrected for heavy mortality of control animals at (1952).74 "acclimation" temperatures above about21.6. • Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation. o The author concluded that there were no geographic differences. The Welaka, Florida subspecies was N.c. bosii, • Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= 1.0). the others N.c. auratus, based on morphology. • =Incipient etlhal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)." • Tested in Columbia River Water at Prescott, Oregon. • All temperatures estimated from a graph. < Mortality Value. Appendix 11-C/415 THERMAL TABLES-Continued Accfimation log time=a+b (temp.) Dala limits Lethal Species Slagejage Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ("C) LD50 thresholdd Temp• Time N• I' ("C) upper lower Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh· 4.78±0.6 1.37±0.62g Mixed Nile Creek, Brett (1952)" Upper 5 21.3050 -0.7970 24.0 23.0 22.9±0.3 Kisutch (coho water fry em B.C. 10 19.5721 -0.6820 -0.9847 26.0 24.5 23.7 salmon) (5.2 mo.) (hatchery) 15 20.4066 -0.6858 -0.9681 27.0 24.5 24.3±0.3 20 20.4022 -0.6713 -0.9985 27.5 25.5 25.0±0.2 23 18.9736 -0.6013 -0.9956 27.5 25.0 25.0±0.2 Lower 5 0.2 10 1.7 15 3.5 20 4.5 23 1.0 6.4 Oncorhynchus Juvenile ............ ............ ··········· Kalama Falls, Blahm & Upper 10 (10%)' 15.4616 -0.5522 6 -0.8533 29 1.7 23.2 kisutch (coho Wash. McConnell (50%) 18.4136 -0.6410 6 -0.9705 29 17.0 23.5 salmon) (hatchery)• (1970)100 (90%) 15.9026 -0.5423 4 -0.97!0 29 17.0 23.7 unpublished 14• (10%) 8.5307 -0.2969 10 -0.9063 29 14.0 14.0 data (50%) 8.5195 -0.2433 10 -0.8483 29 0.14 ......... 17.0 (90%) 22.0 Oncorhynchus Adult a 570 mm a 2500 gave. Mixed Columbia Coulant Upper 17• 5.9068 -0.1630 -0.9767 30 26 kisutch (coho ave. River at (1970)76 salmon) Priest Rap· ids Dam Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh· 4.49±0.84 0.87±0.45g Mixed Issaquah, Brett (1952)" Upper 5 17.7887 -0. 6623 -0.9383 24.0 22.5 22.2±0.3 nerka (sockeye water fry em Wash. 10 14.7319 -0.4988 -G.9833 26.5 23.5 23.4±0.3 salmon) (4.7 mo) (hatchery) 15 15.8799 -0.5210 -0.9126 27.5 24.5 24.4±0.3 20 19.3821 -0.6378 -0.9602 27.5 24.5 24.8±0.3 23 20.0020 -0.6496 -0.9981 26.5 24.5 24.8±0.3 Lower 5 0 0 0 10 4 0 3.1 15 5 0 4.1 20 5 0 4.7 23 7 1.0 6.7 Oncorhynchus Juvenile 67 mm ave. ............ Mixed National Fish McConnell & Upper 10 10o/cl 18.4771 -0.6458 -0.9671 29 17 21.5 nerka (sockeye (under Hatchery' Blahm 50% 18.5833 -0.6437 -0.9750 29 17 22.5 salmon) yearling) Leaven· (1970)103 90% 20.6289 -0.7166 -0.9553 29 17 23.0 worth, unpublished 20 10% 17.5227 -0.5861 -0.9739 29 21 23.5 Wash. data 50% 16.7328 -0.5473 -0.9552 29 21 23.5 90% 15.7823 -0.5061 -0.9539 29 21 23.5 Oncorhynchus Juvenile lOD-105 mm ............ Mixed National Fish McConnell & Upper 10 l°C (1C%)i 6.4771 -0.2118 -0.9887 32 14 nerka (sockeye (yearling) are for test Hatchery Blahm per day rise salmon) groups Leaven· (1970)103 to accl. temp. worth, unpublished (50%) 9. 0438 -0.2922 -0.9392 32 14 23.5 Wash.' data (90%) 9.0628 -0.2859 4 -0.9534 32 14 12" (10%) 13.2412 -0.4475 4 -0.9955 29 17 (50%) 18.1322 -0.6178 4 -0.9598 29 17 23.5 (90%) 17.5427 -0.5900 4 -0.9533· 29 17 15.5" (10%) 12.1763 -0.4004 5 -0.9443 32 17 (50%) 13.6666 -0.4432 5 -0.9720 32 17 22.5 (90%) 12.7165 -0.4057 4 -0.9748 32 17 11" (10%) 17.4210 -0.6114 5 -0.9549 29 20 (50%) 17.2432 -0.5885 4 -0.9450 29 20 23.5 (90%) 17.2393 -0.5769 4 -0.9364 29 20 Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh· 4.44±0.40 1.03±0.27g Mixed Dungeness. Brett (1952)" Upper 5 9.3155 -0.3107 -0.9847 25.0 22.5 21.5 tshawytscha water fry em Wash. 10 16.4595 -0.5575 -0.9996 26.5 24.5 24.3±0.1 (Chinook (3.6 mo.) (hatchery) 15 16.4454 -0.5364 -0.9906 27.0 25.5 25.0±0.1 salmon) 20 22.9065 -0.7611 -0.9850 27.5 25.0 25.1±0.1 24 18.9940 -0.5992 -0.9923 27.5 25.0 25.1±0.1 Lower 10 1.0 0 0.8 15 3.0 0.5 2.5 20 5.0 0.5 4.5 23 8.0 1.0 7.4 •II is assumed in this lable that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett •14 C-acclimated fish were collected from !he Columbia R!ver 4-6 wks following release from the hatchery (1952).74 (and may have included a few fish from other upstream sources). River water was supersaturated with Nitrogen, • Number of median resislance times used for calculating regression equation. and 14·C fish showed signs of gas.bubble disease during tests. ' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all dala points to the regression line= 1.0). • River lemp. during fall migration. d =Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)." ' Tested in Columbia River water at Prescott, Oregon. •10 C-acclimated fish came directly from the hatchery. ; Per cent mortalities. J Dala were presented allowing calculation of 10% and 90% mortality. 416/Appendix If-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife THERMAL TABLES-Continued Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits Lethal Species Stagejage Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ('C) LD50 threshold• Temp• Time N• r• ('C) upper lower Oncorhynchus Juvenile 39-124 mm . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Columbia Snyder & Upper 10• 16.8t09 -0.5787 -0.9998 29 25 24.5 tshawytscha averages River at Blahm (tO%!) t8.9770 -0.662t -0.99t8 29 23 22.9 (chinook for various Prescott, (1970)105 (90%) 17.0278 -0.5845 -0.9997 29 25 24.5 salmon) test groups Oregon unpublished toa t5.7tOt -0.5403 -0.9255 29 20 23.5 data (tO%) t5.t583 -0.5312 8• -0.9439 29 20 20.5 (90%) 15.2525 -0. 5t30 8 -0.9360 29 20 23.5 12 t8.2574 -0.6149 5• -0.982t 29 23 20.5 t3 12.4058 -0.3974 6 -0.9608 32 17 20.0 (10%) t0.14t0 -0.32t8 7 -0.9496 32 17 19.5 (90%) t2. 7368 -0.4040 6 -0.9753 32 17 23.0 18• 13.3175 -0.4240 11 -0.9550 30 20 20.5 (10%) t1.5122 -0.3745 t2 -0.94t3 30 20 20.0 (90%) t4. 2456 -0.4434 10 -0.9620 30 20 23.5 Oncorhynchus Juvenile 84 mm ave. 6.3g ave. Mixed Little White Blahm & Upper 11 2-3-wks tshawytseha Salmon, McConnell tO%' t3.3696 -0.469t -0.9504 29 17 23.0 (Chinook salmon River (t970)100 50% t4.6268 -0.5066 -0.9843 29 17 23.5 spring run) Hatchery, unpublished 90% t9.2211 -0.6679 -0.9295 29 17 23.8 Cook, data 20 1C/day rise Washington from toe 10% 22.6664 -0.7797 -0.9747 29 2t 23.8 50% 21. 398t -0.1253 -0.9579 29 2t 24.7 90% 20.9294 -0.7024 -0.9463 29 21 24.8 Oncorhynchus Juvenile 40 mm. ave. ············ Mixed Eggs from Snyder & Upper t3.50t9 -0.4874 -0.9845 29 8 20 tshawytscha Seattle, Blahm (10%)i 8.9t26 -0.3t98 6 -0.96t8 29 8 13.5 (chinook salmon) Wash. (1970)105 (90%)i to. 649t -0.3771 6 -0.9997 29 8 ? raised from unpublished yolk-sac data stage in Columbia River water at Prescott, Oregon Oncorhynchus Juvenile 90.6 mm ave. 7.8 gave. Mixed Little While Blahm & Upper 11 2-3 wks tshawytseha Salmon McConnell tO%• t8.6889 -0.6569 -0.96t8 29 17 23.5 (chinook salmon Riverhatch· (t970)100 50% 20.547t -0.7t47 -0.9283 29 17 24.2 fall run) ery, Cook, unpublished 90% 20.8960 -0.723t -0.9249 29 17 24.5 Washington data Upper 20 1Cjday rise from toe tO% 21.6756 -0.7438 -0.9550 29 2t 24.5 50% 22.2t24 -0.7526 -0.9738 29 21 24.5 90% 20.5t62 -0.6860 -0.9475 29 2t 24.5 Oncorhynchus "Jacks" 2500 mm ave. 2000 g. ave. Males Columbia Coutant Upper 17' 13.2502 -0.412t -0.8206 30 26 ? tshawytscha 1-2 yrs old River at (1970)" t9l 9.4683 -0.2504 -0.9952 26 22 22 (Chinook Grand Rapids salmon) Dam Perea navescens Juvenile 49 mmave. 1.2 gave. Mixed Columbia Blahm and Upper t9 Held plus 15.360t -0.4t26 ........ 38 32 (yellow perch) River near Parente 4 da. Prescott, (1970)101 Ore. unpublished · data Perea navescens Adult (4 yr 8.0-9.9 g Mixed Black Creek, Hart (t947)" Upper 5 7.0095 -0.22t4 -0.9904 26.5 22.0 21.3 (yellow perch) mode) mode Lake Sim· 11 17.6536 -0.6021 26.5 26.0 25.0 coe, Ontario t5 12.4t49 -0.364t -0.9994 30.5 28.5 27.7 25 21.27t8 -0.5909 -0.9698 33.0 30.0 29.7 Lower 25 3.7 Petromyzon Prolarvae . . . . . . . . . . . . ············ ··········· Great Lakes McCauley Upper t5 and 20m .... 17.5642 -0.4680 t8 -0.9683 34 29 28.5 marinus (sea (1963)" lamprey, land· locked) •It is assumed in this table thatthe acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett • These were likely syflergistic eftects of high N2 supersaturation in these tests. (1952).74 • Excluding apparent long-term secondary mortality. • Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation. ' Data were available for 10% and 90% mortality as well as 50o/o- • Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= 1.0). i Data also available on 10% and 90% mortality. • =Incipient lethal temperature oi Fry, et al., (1946)." • Data available for tO% and 90% mortality as well a.50o/o- • Fish tested shorfly after capture by beach seine. • River temperatures during fall migrations two different years. I Data were also available for calculation of 10% and 90% mortality of June lest groups. m No difterence was shown so data are lumped. Appendix ll-C /417 THERMAL TABLES-Continued Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex Pimephales Adult (mostly . . . . . . . . . . . . mostly 0-2 g Mixed (Hyborhynchus) I yr) notatus (blunt- nose minnow) Pimephales Adult (I yr) promelas (fat- head minnow) Poecilia latipinna Adult (Sailfin molly) Pontoporeia affinis Adult Pseudopleuro- nectes ameri- canus (winter Hounder) Rhinichthys Adult atratulus (blacknose dace) Rhinichthys Adult(?) atratulus (black· nose dace) Rhinichthys Adult atratulus (Black- nose dace) Salmo gairdnerii Juvenile (Rainbow trout) Salmo gairdnerii Yearling (rainbow trout) Salmo gairdnerii Juvenile (rainbow trout) 2.0-3.9g mode Mixed Mixed 6.0-7.1 em 3.4-4.2 g Mixed (averages (averages for test for test groups) groups) .... 2.0-3.9 (mode) Mixed 4.5±0.4 em . .. . . . . . . . . Mixed 9. 4±6. 0 em . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed and 15.5± !.Scm Location Reference Etobicoke Cr., Hart (1947)" Ontario Don River, Hart (1947)" Thornhill, Ontario Jefferson Co., Strawn and Texas Dunn (1967)" Lake Superior Smith (1971)"' near Two unpublished Harbors, data Minn. New Jersey (40'N) Knoxville, Tenn. Toronto, Ontario Hoff & West- man (1966)90 Hart (1952)" Hart (1952)" Don River, Hart (1947)" Thornhill, Ontario Britain East end of Lake Superior London, England (Hatchery) Alabaster & Welcomme (1962)70 Craigie, D.E. (1963)77 Alabaster & Downing (1966)" • It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett (1952).74 b Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation. 'Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= 1.0). • =Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)." Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Extreme---------------- Data limits ('C) Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Upper Upper Lower Upper Temp• Time 5 10 15 20 25 15 20 25 10 20 30 20 30 35 35 35 35 7 14 21 28 7 14 21 28 20 25 28 (0 °/oo)' (5 °/oo) (10 °/oo) (20 °/oo) 24.6417 -0.8602 55.8357 -1.8588 28.0377 -0.8337 34.3240 -0.9682 50.8212 -1.4181 upper lower 27.0 26.5 29.5 29.0 -0.9974 32.0 31.0 -0.9329 34.0 32.5 -0.9490 35.0 34.0 30.0 29.5 60.7782 -2. DODO 6.9970 -0.1560 41.3696 -1.1317 4 -0.7448 33.0 28.5 5 -0.9670 36.0 34.0 27.4296 -0.6279 25.6936 -0.5753 28.8808 -0.6535 27.1988 -0.6146 9.1790 -0.5017 28.2986 -1.1405 24.3020 -0.8762 49.0231 -1.6915 60.8070 -1.9610 2.4924 0.8165 2.2145 0.2344 21.2115 -0.5958 7 19.6451 -0.5224 10 21.3360 -0.5651 7 -0.9902 42.5 -0.9835 42.5 -0.9949 42.0 -0.9791 42.5 12 38.5 39.0 39.0 39.5 10.8 -0.9852 24.0 20.0 -0.9507 26.0 23.0 -0.9237 29.0 26.0 -0.9181 30.0 29.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0. 7816 6.0 1.0 0.9970 7.0 4.0 -0.9935 33 30 -0.9979 35 30.5 -0.9946 35.5 32.5 LD50 10.4 (30 da) Upper 5 15 20 25 27 -0.9632 31.5 27 27(1 hr) Upper Lower Upper Upper Upper 5 10 15 20 25 20 25 Raised in soli water 20 (tested in soft water) 20 (tested in hard water) Raised in hard water 20 (tested in soft water) 20 (tested in hard water) 15 20 • Salinity. 19.8158 -0.5771 24.5749 -0.7061 20.1840 -0.5389 77.1877 -2.7959 49.1469 -1.6021 19.6975 -0.5734 26.5952 -0.7719 23.5765 -0.6629 18.4654 -0.5801 13.6531 -0.4264 14.6405 -0.4470 15.0392 -0.4561 15.1473 -0.4683 12.8718 -0.3837 15.6500 -0.500 19.6250 -0.6250 J Dissolved oxygen Cone. 7.4 mg/1. • Dissolved oxygen Cone. 3.8 mg/1. • See note (under Salmo salar) about Alabaster 1967." 2• 2 30.0 -0.9926 33 30.0 -0.9968 35 32.0 27.5 27.0 -0.8521 30.5 29.5 -0.9571 31.5 30.0 -0.9897 33.5 29.5 -0.9937 34.0 30.0 -0.9787 29.6 26.3 -0.9742 29.1 26.3 -0.9787 29 27 -0.9917 29 27 -0.9781 29 27 -0.9841 29 27 Lethal threshold• ('C) 26.0 28.3 30.6 31.7 33.3 10 4.2 7.5 28.2 31.7 33.2 1.5 10.5 10.5 22.0 23.7 27.0 29.1 1.0 1.0 14 6.0 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 26.5 28.8 29.6 29.3 29.3 2.2 5.0 26.5 26.5 418/Appendix Il-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife THERMAL TABLES-Continued Species Stagejage Length Weight Sex Location Reference Salmo gairdnerii Adult 2650 mm 4000 g ave. Mixed Columbia Coutant (anadromous) ave. River at (1970)76 (Sieelhead Priest trout) Rapids Dam Salmo salar Smolls(l-2 About!& em ............ Mixed River Axe, Alabaster (Atlantic salmon) yrs) ave. Devon, (1967)" England Salmo salar Newly hatched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Cullercoats, Bishai (1960)73 (AUantic salmon) larvae North Shields, England (hatchery) Salmo salar 30 da after ............ ............ Mixed Cullercoals, Bishai (1960)73 (Atlantic salmon) hatching North Shields, England (hatchery) Salmo salar Parr(! yr) 10 em ave. . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed River Axe, Alabaster (Atlantic salmon) Devon, (1967)68 England Salmo salar Smolls(l-2 11.7±1.5cm Mixed River North Alabaster (ADantic salmon) yrs) Esk, ScoUand (1967)" Salmo salar Smalls (1-2 14.6±1.3 em Mixed River Severn Alabaster (Atlantic salmon) yrs) Gloucester, (1967)68 England Salmotrulla Newly hatched ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Cullercoals, Bishai (1960)" (brown trout) try North Shields, England (hatchery) Salmotrutta 30 da after ············ . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Cullercoats, Bishai (1960)73 (Brown trout, hatching North sea run) Shields, England (hatchery) Salmotrutta Juvenile 10.1±0.8cm ............ Mixed London, Alabaster & (brown trout, 7.4±4.5 England Downing searun) em (hatchery) (1966)" Salmotrulla Smalls (2 yr.) Aboul21 em ............ Mixed River Axe, Alabaster (brown trou~ ave. Devon, (1967)68 searun) England Salvelinus fonti-Juvenile . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ··········· Pleasant McCauley nalis (Brook Mount (1958)" trout) Hatchery, Wayne Co., Penna. and Chatsworth Hatchery, Ontario'> • II is assumed in this table lhallhe acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett (1952)." b Number of median resistance limes used for calculating regression equation. • Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= t.O). • =lncipienllelhallemperature of Fry, elal., (1946).•• Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits ("C) Ememe-------------------------------- Temp• T!me upper lower Upper IS• ········· 10.9677 -0.3329 -0.9910 29 21 Upper 9.2 (field) 43. 6667 -1.6667 21 (I) (I) 9.3" 23.7273 -0.9091 2 10.9" 126.5000 -5.000 Tested in 30% seawater 9.2 (field) 44.6667 -1.6667 2 ........ ............ Tested in 100% sea· water 9.2 (field) 14.7368 -0.5263 2 ........ ............ Acclimated 7 hr in sea· water; tested in sea- water 9.2 (field) 36.9999 -1.4286 ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . Upper 6 (brought up to 13.59 -0.4287 -0.9678 28.0 20.0 lest temp. in 6 hours) Upper 5 8.9631 -0.2877 -0.9791 25.0 22 10 15.7280 -0.5396 -0.9689 26.0 22 20 11.5471 -0.3406 -0.9143 26.0 22 Upper 9.3 (field) 33.3750 -1.2500 2• 10.9 (field) 28.0000 -1.0000 2 Upper 11.7 25.9091 -0.9091 2• ........ ............ Upper 16.7 14.5909 -0.4545 2• ........ ............ Upper 6 (raised to test temp. over 6 hr period) 12.7756 -0.4010 -0.9747 28.0 20.0 Upper 5 15.2944 -0.5299 -0.8783 25.0 22.0 10 23.5131 -0.8406 -0.9702 26.0 22.0 20 14.6978 -0.4665 -0.9797 26.0 22.0 Upper 6 36.1429 -1.4286 2• 15 21.5714 -0.7143 2 20 17.6667 -0.5556 2 Uppe 9.3 (field) 18.4667 -0.6667 2• 10.9" 33.0000 -1.2500 2 Upper 10 17.5260 -0.6033 -0.9254 25.5 24.5 20 20.2457 -0.6671 -0.9723 27.0 25.0 • River temp. during fall migration, LD50 ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... Lethal threshold• ('C) 21 ......... ......... 22.0 22.2 23.3 23.5 . ........ ......... 22.0 22.2 23.4 23.5 I Alabaster filled by eye, a straight line to median death times plotted on semilog paper (log lime), then reported only the 100 and 1000 min intercepts. These intercepts are the basis tor the equation presented here. • See note for Alabaster 1967." • Resulls did not differ so data were combined. Appendix II-C /419 THERMAL TABLES-Continued Acclimation log time=a+b (temp.) Dalalimils Lethal Species Slagejage Length Weight Sex Location Reference Extreme ("C) LD50 thresholdd Temp• Time Nb r• ("C) upper lower Safvelinus lonti· Yearling ............. x =7.88 g Mixed Codrington, Fry, Hart & Upper 13.4325 -0.4556 -0.9997 26.0 23.5 23.5 nalis (brook range 2-Ont. (hatch· Walker II 14.6256 -0.4728 28.0 25.0 24.6 trout) 25 g ery (1946)83 15 15.1846 -0.4833 28.5 25.5 25.0 20 15.0331 -0.4661 29.0 25.5 25.3 22 11.1967 -0.5367 6 29.0 26.5 25.5 24 11.8467 -0.5567 10 30.0 25.5 25.5 25 17.8467 -0.5567 3 29.0 26.0 25.5 Salvelinus lonti-Juvenile ............ ............ ........... Onlario, Fry and Gib· Upper 10 13.2634 -0.4381 -0.9852 26.5 24.0 23.5-24.0 nalis (namaycush Canada son (1953)" 15 16.9596 -0.5540 -0.9652 28.0 24.5 ? hybrid) 20 19.4449 -0.6342 -0.9744 28.0 24.5 24.0-24.5 Salvelinus 1-2 yr. old 21.1 gm ave. Mixed Hatcheries in Gibson and Upper 8 1 wk 14.4820 -0.5142 -0.9936 26 23 22.7 namaycush (I yr) 82.8 Onlario Fry (1954)" 15 14.5123 -0.4866 -0.9989 21 24 23.5 (Lake trout) gm ave. 20 17.3684 -0.5818 -0.9951 21 24 23.5 (2 yr) Scardinius Adult 10 em Mixed Brilain (field) Alabaster & Upper 20 26.9999 -0.7692 2• ........ ............ ......... erythrophthala· Downing mus (rudd) (1966)" Semotilus atro-Adult 2.0-3.9 gm Mixed Don River, Hart (1947)" Upper 5 42.1859 -I. 6021 -0.9408 26.0 25.0 24.7 maculatus mode Thornhill, 10 31.0755 -1.0414 -0.8628 29.0 28.0 27.3 (Creek chub) Onlario 15 20.8055 -0.6226 -0.9969 31.0 30.0 29.3 20 21.0274 -0.5933 -0.9844 33.5 30.5 30.3 25 16.8951 -0.4499 -0.9911 35.0 31.0 30.3 Lower 20 0.1 25 4.5 Semotilus afro-Adult ············ ············ ........... Toronto, Hart (1952)" Upper 10 (Toronto only) 29 28 27.5 maculatus Onlario 15 (Toronto only) 20.8055 -0.6226 3 -0.9969 31 30 29 (Creek chub) Knoxville, 20 (Toronto Dolly) 19.1315 -0.5328 6 -0.9856 33 30.5 30.5 Tenn. 25 19.3186 -0.4117 18 . -0.9921 36 32 31.5 30 22.8982 -0.5844 19 -0.9961 37 33 31.5 Sphaeroides annu-Adult ············ ............ ........... Northern Gulf Heath (1961)" Upper 32.0 25.4649 -0.6088 -0.9716 37.0 36.0 latus (Puffer) of Calif. Coast Sphaeroides macu-············· 13.8-15.9 em 62.3-79.3 gm Mixed New Jersey Hoff and West· Upper 10 11.3999 -0.2821 -0.9988 30.0 25.0 27.5 latus (Northern (average) (average) (40 N) man (1966)" 14 35.5191 -1.0151 -0.9449 32.0 27.0 30.2 puffer) 21 21.5353 -0.5746 -0.9914 32.0 30.0 31.2 28 23.7582 -0.6183 -0.9239 33.5 31.1 32.5 Lower 14 -1.1104 0.6141 0.9760 10.0 6.0 8.8 21 -3.9939 0.7300 0.9310 12.0 8.0 10.7 28 -7.4513 0.8498 0.9738 16.0 10.0 13.0 Thaleichthys Sexually 161 mmave. 31 gm ave. Mixed Cowlitz River, Blahm & Upper river temp. 7. 7440 -0.2740 -0.9142 29.0 8.0 10.5 pacificus Mature Wash. McConnell (Eulachon or (1970)100 Columbia River unpublished Smelt) dala Tilapia mossam· 4 months 8.0-12.0 em 10.0-11.0 gm ........... Transvaal Allanson & Upper 22 313.3830 -8.3878 4 -0.8898 31.10 36.5 36.94 bica (Mozam· Africa Noble 26 14.0458 -0.2800 5 -0.2140 37.92 37.5 37.7 bique mouth· (1964)71 28 41.1610 -0.9950 4 -0.3107 38.09 37.9 37.89 breeder) 29 94.8243 -2.4125 5 -0.7781 38.10 37.0 37.91 30 41.3233 -1.0018 6 -0.9724 38.50 37.6 37.59 32 34.0769 -0.8123 4 -0.9209 38.4 37.6 37.6 34 123.1504 -3.1223 3 -0.9938 38.4 38.2 38.25 36 68.6764 -1.7094 6 -0.9053 38.71 37.9 38.2 Tinea tinea Juvenile 4.6±0.4cm ............ Mixed England Alabaster & Upper 15 33.2000 1.0000 2• (tench) Downing•• 20 29.6667 0.8333 3 (1966) 25 27.1429 0.7143 2 • It is assumed in this !able that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett • Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all dala poinls to the regression line= 1.0). (1952),74 d = fncipienllethaltemperature of Fry, eta f., (1946)." b Number of median resislance times used for calculating regression equation. • See previous note lor Alabaster 1967.68 Pesticide Organism ALDRIN................................ CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ................... . Gammarus fasciatus ................... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis .............. . Asellus brevicaudus ................... . Daphnia pulex ........................ . Simocephalus serrulatus ................ . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ................. . Pleronarcys californica ................. . Acroneuria pacifica .................... . FISH Pimephales promelas .................. . Lepomis macrochirus .................. . Salmo gairdneri. ...................... . Oncorhynchus kisutch .................. . Oncorhynchus tschawylscha ............ . DDT.................................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris .................... . Gammarus fascialus ................... . Palaemoneles kadiakensis .............. . Orconectes nais ....................... . Asellus brevicaudus .................... . Simocephalus serrulatus ................ . Daphnia pulex ......................... . INSECT Pteronarcys calilornica .................. . Pleronarcella badia .................... . Claassenia sabulosa .................... . FISH Pimephales promelas .................. . Lepomis macrochirus .................. . Lepomis microlophus ................... . Micropterus salmoides ................. . Salmo gairdneri ....................... . Salmo gairdneri. ...................... . Salmo trutta ..........................• Oncorhynchus kisutch .................. . Perea navescens ...................... . lctalurus punctalus .................... . lctalurus melas ........................ . TOE (ODD) Rholhane®.. ... .. ... .. . .. ... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ................... . Gammarus fasciatus ................... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ..............• Asellus breviacaudus ................... . Simocephalus serrulatus ................ . Daphnia pulex ........................ . INSECT Pleronarcys californica ................. . APPENDIX 11-D Organochlorine Insecticides Acute toxicity LC50 pg/liter 9800 4300 50 8 28 23 1.3 180 200 28 13 11.7 45.9 7.5 1.0 0.8 2.3 0.24 4.0 2.5 0.36 7.0 1.9 3.5 19 8 5 2 7 9 16 5 0.64 0.86 0.68 10.0 4.5 3.2 380 420 hours 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 Sub-acute effects pg/liter Reference Sanders 1969'" Sanders in press'" ........................................ Sanders and Cope 1966'" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1968'28 2.5pgjliter (30 day LC5D). ................ Jensen and Gaufin 1966118 22pgfliter (30 day LC50)................. Jensen and Gaufin 196611• Henderson et al. 1959110 Katz 196111' Sanders 1969"' Sanders in press'" Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Macek and McAllister 1970121 0.26pgjl (15 day LC50).................. FPRL Annual Report"' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Macek and McAllister 1970"' Sanders 19691" Sanders in press126 Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Appendix Il-D/421 Organochlorine Insecticides-Continued Pesticide Organism· DIELDRIN .............................. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris .... Gammarus fasciatus ................... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis .............. . Orconectes nais ....................... . Asellus brevicaudus ................... . Simocephalus serrulatus ................• Daphnia pulex ........................ . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ................. . Pleronarcys californica ................. . Acroneuria pacifica .•................... Pleronarcella badia .................... . Claassenia sabulosa ................... . FISH Pimephales promelas .................. . Lepomis macrochirus .................. . Salmo gairdneri. ...................... . Oncorhynchus kisutch ................. . Oncorhynchus tschawytscha ............ . Poecillia latipipna. . . . . . . . ............ . Poecillia latipipna ..................... . Lepomis gibbosus ..................... . CHLORDANE ..... . lclaluras punctatus .................... . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacuslris ................... . Gammarus fasciatus ................... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis .............. . Simocephalus serrulatus ................ . Daphnia pulex ......................... . INSECT Pleronarcys californica ................. . FISH Pimephales promelas .................. . Lepomis macrochirus .................. . Salmo gairdneri. ...................... . Oncorhynchus kisutch .................. . Oncorhynchus tschawytscha ............ . ENDOSULFAN THIODAN................ CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fascialus ....•...........•... Daphnia magna ....................... . INSECT Pleronarcys californica ................. . lschnura sp ........................... . FISH Salmo gairdneri. ...•................... Catastomus commersoni.. .............. . ENDRIN.. .. • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRUSTACEAN HEI'TACHLOR ......................... . Gammarus lacustris ....................• Gammarus fascial us ................... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis .............. . Orconectes nais .......................• Asellus brevicaudus ...........•.......• Simocephalus serrulatus ................• Daphnia pulex ........................ . INSECT Pteronarcys californica ................. . Pleronarcys californica ................. . Acroneuria pacifica ...................•. Pteronarcella badia .................... . Claassenia sabulosa .................... . FISH Pimephales promelas ................... . Lepomis macrochirus .................. . Salmo gairdneri. ...................... . Oncorhynchus kisutch ...•.............. Oncorhynchus lschawytscha ............ . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ...................• Gammarus fasciatus ................... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis .............. . Orconectes nais.. ........•............• Simocephalus serrulatus ................• Daphnia pulex ..............•........... Acute toxicity LC50 ,.g/liter hours 460 96 600 96 20 96 740 96 5 96 190 48 250 48 0.5 96 39 96 24 96 0.5 96 0.58 96 16 96 8 96 10 96 II 96 96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ····················· ···················· 6.7 96 4.5 96 26 96 40 96 4.0 96 20 48 29 48 15 96 52 96 22 96 44 96 56 96 57 96 5.8 96 52.9 96 2.3 96 71.8 96 0.3 96 3.0 96 3.0 96 0.9 120 0.4 120 3.2 96 1.5 96 26 48 20 48 0.25 96 2.4 96 0.32 96 0.54 96 0. 76 96 1.0 96 0.6 96 0.6 96 0.5 96 1.2 96 29 96 40 96 1.8 96 7.8 96 47 48 42 48 Sub-acute effects ,.g;liter 2. 0 (30 day LC50) 0.2 (30 day LC50) 3.0 (19 week LC50) 0. 75 (reduced growth & reproduction-34 week) I. 7 (affect swimming ability and oxygen con· sumption-100-day) 2.5 (120 hour LC50) ..................... . Reference Sanders 1969"' Sanders in press'" Sanders and Cope 19661" Sanders and Cope 1968128 Jensen and Gaufin 1966118 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Henderson et al. 1959113 Katz 1961119 Lane and Livingston 197012• Cairns and Scheir 19641•• FPRL"' Sanders 19691" Sanders in press'" Sanders and Cope 1966'27 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Henderson et al. 195911• Katz 1961'" Sanders 1969'" Schoettger 19701" Sanders and Cope 1968128 Schoettger 1970'" Schoettger 1970'" Sanders 1969124 Sanders in press"' •............................•.•..•..... Sanders and Cope 1966'27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1968128 1.2 (30 day LC50)........................ Jensen and Gaufln 1966118 0.03 (39 day LC50) .....•................• Sanders and Cope 1968128 Henderson et al. 1959"' Katz 1961"' Sanders 1969'24 Sanders in press'" Sanders and Cope 1966'27 422/ Appendix If-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Organochlorine Insecticides-Continued Pesticide Organism HEPTACHLOR.......................... INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ................. . Pleronarcella badia .................... . Claassenia sabulosa .................... . FISH Pimephales promelas ................. .. Lepomis macrochirus .................. .. Lepomis microlophus ................... . Salmo gairdneri. ...................... . Oncorhynchus kisutch ................. .. Oncorhynchus tschawytscha .•.•......•.. LINDANE............................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ................... . Gammarus fasciatus ................... . Asellus brevicaudus ................... . Simocephalus serrulatus .....•..........• Daphnia pulex ....................... .. INSECT Pteronarcys ealifornica ........•..•..•... FISH Pimephales promelas ................. .. Lepomis macrochirus .•...•.•..•.••...•. Lepomis microlophus ................... . Micropterus salmoides ..•....•........•. Salmo gairdneri. ....•..•.•..•..•..••... Salmotrutta .............•.••.........• Oncorhynchus kisutch ••••.............• Perea flavescens ...................... . lctalurus punctatus ................... .. lctalurus r<las ....................... .. METHOXYCHLOR...................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ................... . Gammarus fasciatus ........•........•.• Palaemonetes kadiakensis ..............• Orconectes nais ..............•.•...•.•. Asellus brevicaudus .........•.......••.• Simocephalus serrulatus ........•.......• Daphnia pulex •...........•..•........• INSECT Pleronarcys ealifornica ................. . Taeniopteryx nivalis ................... . Stenonema spp ........................ . FISH Pimephales promelas .•.•.•...........•. Lepomis macrochirus ................. .. Salmo gairdneri. ...........•..•..•..... Oncorhynchus kisutch .................. . Oncorhynchus tschawytscha .•...•....... Perea flavescens ...................... . TOXAPHENE........................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris .••.....•..........• Gammarus fasciatus ................... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis .......•...•..• Simocephalus serrulatus .•..............• Daphnia pulex ...............•......•.• INSECTS Pleronarcys californiea .•.......•.••....• Pleronarcella badia ................... .. Claassenia sabulosa ................... .. FISH Pimephales promelas .................. . Lepomos macrochirus .................. . Lepomis microlophus .................. . Micropterus salmoides ............•.•..• Salmo gairdnerii. ..................... . Salmotrutta ........•..•.......•.....•• Oncorhynchus kisutch .•••.....•••...•.• Perea flavescens ...................... . Jctalurus punctatus .................... . lctalurus me las ...................... .. Acute toxicity LC50 pg/liter 1.1 0.9 2.8 56 19 11 19 59 11 48 10 10 520 460 4.5 87 68 83 32 21 2 41 68 44 64 0.8 1.9 1.0 0.5 3.2 5 0.78 1.4 0.98 0.63 7.5 62.0 62.6 66.2 27.9 20.0 26 6 28 10 15 2.3 3.0 1.3 14 18 13 2 11 3 8 12 13 5 hours 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 Sub-acute effects pgfliter Reference Sanders and Cope 1968"" Henderson et al. 1959"' Bridges 1961••7 Katz 1961119 Sanders 1969•24 Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968"' Macek and McAllister 1970121 Sanders 1969•24 Sanders in press'" Sanders and Cope 1966'27 Sanders and Cope 1968"' Merna unpublished data"' Merna 0.125 (reduced egg hatchability)........... Merna unpublished data"" . .. .. .. . . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . Henderson et aL 195911• Katz, 196111° 0. 6 (reduced growth) 8 months. • • • . . . . • . . . Merna unpubUshed data"' Sanders 1969m Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1966'27 Sanders and Cope 1968'" Macek and McAIUster 1970121 Macek and McAllister 1970121 Pesticide Organism ABATE®............................. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacuslris ........... . INSECT Pleronarcys californica ......... . FISH Salmo gairdneri. .............. . AZINPHOSMETHYL GUTHION®..... CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Gammarus pseudolimneaus ..... . Palaemoneles kadiakensis ...... . Asellus brevicaudus ........... . INSECTS Pleronarcys dorsata ........... . Pleronarcys californica .........• Acroneuria lycorias ............ . Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis .... . Hydropsyche beltoni ........... . Ephemerella sub varia .......... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Lepomis microlophus ........... . Microplerus salmoides ......... . Salmo gairdneri. .............. . Salmo !rolla .................. . Oncorhynchus kisulch ......... . Perea Oavescens .............. . fctalurus punctalus ............ . lctalurus melas ............... . AZINPHOSETHYL ETHYL GUTHJON® CRUSTACEANS Simocephalus serrulalus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . FISH Salmo gairdneri. .............. . CARBOPHENOTHION TRITHION ®... CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lactuslris ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Asellus brevicaudus ........... . CHLOROTHION.. •.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRUSTACEAN Daphnia magna ............... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . CIODRIN® ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacuslris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Micropterus salmoides ......... . Salmo gairdneri. .............. . lctalurus punctatus ............• COUMAPHOS CO·RAL ®. .. . . . . . . . . . . . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . INSECTS Hydropsyche sp •............... Hexagenia sp •.................. FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .•......... Salmo gairdneri. .............. . Oncorhynchus kisutch .......... . DEMETON SYSTOx®................ CRUSTACEANS Gammarus fasciatus ........... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Organophosphate Insecticides Acute toxicity LC50 pg/liler 82 10 158 0. ffi 0.10 1.2 21.0 12.1 1.5 12.0 93 5.2 52 5 14 4 17 13 3290 3500 4 3.2 19 5.2 1.2 1100 4.5 2800 700 15 11 250 1100 55 2500 0.07 0.15 1.0 5 430 18000 180 1500 15000 27 3200 100 hours 96 96 96 96 96 120 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 24 24 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 Sub-acute effects pg/liler 0.16 (20 day LC50) .......... . 4.9 (30 day LCSO) ........... . 1. 5 (30 day LC50) ........... . 2.2 (30 day LCSO) ........... . 7. 4 (30 day LC50) ........... . 4.5 (30 day LC50) ........... . No effect pg/liler Appendix Il-D/423 Reference Sanders 1969'" Sanders and Cope 1968128 FPRL"' Sanders 1969124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders in press"' 0.10-30 day................ Bell unpublished data"' 1.36-30 day ............... . 1. 73-30 day ............... . 4. 94-30 day ............... . 2.50-30 day ............... . Sanders in press'" Bell unpublished data"' Sanders and Cope 1968128 Bell unpublished data"' Katz 196111' Macek and McAllister 1970121 Macek and McAllister 1970121 Sanders and Cope 1966'., FPRLm Sanders 1969"' Sanders in press'" Water Qua!iy Criteria 1968 Pickering el al. 1962123 Sanders 1969124 Sanders in press'" FPRLm FPRL"' FPRL"' Sanders 1969"' Sanders in press'" Water Quality Criteria 1968 Carlson 196611• Katz 1961'" Sanders in press1•• Pickering et al. 1962'23 424/ Appendix II-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Organophosphate Insecticides-Continued Pesticide Organism DIAZINON.. .•. . • . . .• . ••• . • . . • . . • . • . . • CRUSTACEANS Gammarus pseudolimneaus .....• Gammarus lacustris ...•.......• Simocephalus serrulatus ........• Daphnia pulex .••.............. Daphnia magna .•..........•..• INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ......... . pteronarcys dorsata .......•..... Acroneuria lycorias .••.......... Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis .•..• Hydropsyche beltoni ..........•. Ephemerelia subvaria ......•..•. DICHLORVOS DDVP VAPONA®. .. . . . . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ..•.•..•.... Gammarus faciatus ...........•. Simocephalus serrulatus ....•.... Daphnia pulex ..•.....•..•..... INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ....••.•.• FISH Lepomis macrochirus ..•.....•.. DIOXATHION DELNAV®. •. . . • . . . . . . • CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris .•.•.....•.• Gammarus fasc1atus ......•...•• FISH Pimephales promelas ....•...•.. Lepomis macrochirus ....•.••..• Lepomis cyanellus .........•.•.• Micropterus salmoides .•.....••. DISULFOTON DI-SYSTQN®. •• . . . • . • . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ...•.......• Gammarus fasciatus ....•.•..... Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ........ . Pteronartys californica ...•.•.... Acroneuria pacifica .........•... FISH Pimephales promelas .•.....•.•• Lepom1s macrochirus .•••....... DURSBAN®........ •• . •• . . . . • . . . . . • . • CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris .••..•..•... Gammarus fasciatus .......••... INSECTS Pteronarcys californica .......••• Pteronarcella badia .•..•.....•.. Claassenia sabulosa .......•..•. FISH Lepomis macrochirus •.•..•..•.• Salmo gairdneri ....•..•.....•.. ETHION NIALATE® •• . •• . . • . . • . • . . . . . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris .•...•.....• Gammarus fasciatus ......•....• Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ......... . FISH Lepomis macrochirus .•.•.•..•.. Micropterus salmoides .••.•.•... Salmo gairdneri. ..•..........•. Salmo clarkii. .•......•..•.•... lctalurus punctatus •...•..•..•.• EPN...... •• . • . • • • •• . • . • • • . • . ••• . • • • • • CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris. , ••.•..•..• Gammarus fasciatus ...•....•..• Palaemonetes kadiakensis .....•• FISH Pimephales promelas ..•.•.•..•• Lepomis macrochirus .•.•.•...•• Acute toxicity LC50 l'g/liter 200 1.4 0.90 25 1.7 0.50 0.40 0.26 0.07 0.10 869 270 8.6 9300 34 61 36 52 21 38 5 24 8.2 3700 63 0.11 0.32 10 0.38 0.57 2.6 11 1.8 9.4 5.7 2.8 220 150 560 720 7500 15 7 0.56 110000 100 hours 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 Sub-acute enects l'g/liter No enect l'g/liter Reference 0.27 (30 day LC50)........... 0.20 (30 day)............... Bell unpublished data"' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders 19691" . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1966'27 4. 6 (30 day LC50) ........... . 1. 25 (30 day LC50) .......... . 2.2 3.54 1.05 1. 9 (30 day LC50) ........... . 1. 4 (30 day LC50) ........... . 0.26 (21 day) .....•.....•... Biesinger unpublished data'" 3.29 (30 day) .............. . 0. 83 (30 day) 1.29 1.79 0.42 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Bell unpublished data"' Sanders 1969'" Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968128 FPRL"' Sanders 19691" Sanders in press'26 Pickering et al. 1962'" Sanders 1969'" Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1968128 Jensen and Gaufin 1964'" Pickering et al. 1962"' Sanders 1969'" Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1968128 FPRL"' FPRL'" Sanders 1969"' Sanders in press"' Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1968',. FPRL"' Sanders 1969'" Sanders in presst26 Solon and Nair 1970"' Pickering et al. 1962"' Appendix 11-D/425 Organophosphate Insecticides-Continued Pesticide Organism FENTHION BAYTEX® ................ CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ...........• Gammarus fasciatus ............ Palaemonetes kadiakensis ....... Orconectes nais ................ Asellus brevicaudus ............. Simocephalus serrulatus ......... Daphnia pulex ................. INSECTS Pteronarcys californica .......... FISH Pimephales promelas .....•..... Lepomis macrochirus ........... Lepomis microlophus ...........• Micropterus salmoides .......... Salmo gairdneri. ............... Salmo trutta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oncorhynchus kisutch ........... Perea flavesens ................ lctalurus punctatus ............. lctalurus melas ................ MALATHION......................... CRUSTACEANS Gammarus pseudolimneaus ..... . Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . Asellus brevicaudus ........... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . Daphnia magna ............... . INSECTS Pteronarcys californica ......... . Pleronarcys dorsata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acroneuria lycorias ............ . Pteronarcella badia ............ . Classenia sabulosa ............• Boyeria vinosa ................ . Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis .... . Hydropsyche bettoni. .......... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Lepomis cyanellus ............. . Lepomis microlophus .......... . Micropterus salmoides ......... . Salmo gairdneri. .............. . Salmo trutta .................. . Oncorhynchus kisutch .......... . Perea fla.escens .............. . lctalurus punctatus ............ . lctalurus melas ............... . METHYL PARATHION BAYER E601.... FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Lepomis microlophus .......... . Micropterus salmoides ......... . Salmo gairdneri. .............. . Salmo trutta .................. . Oncorhynchus kisutch ......... . Perea flavescens .............. . ltalurus punctatus ............. . llalurus melas ................ . MEVIIIPHOS PHOSDRIN®.. ... . . . . . . . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ...........• Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Asellus brevicandus ............ . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................• L___~------ Acute toxicity LC50 l'g/liter 8.4 110 50 1800 0.62 O.Bfl 4.5 2440 1380 1880 1540 930 1330 1320 1650 1680 1620 1.0 0.76 12 180 3000 3.5 1.8 10 1.0 1.1 2.8 9000 110 120 170 285 170 200 101 263 8970 12900 8900 5720 5170 5220 2750 4740 5300 3060 5710 6640 130 2.8 12 56 0.43 0.16 hours 96 96 120 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 95 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 Sub-acute effects l'g/liter 1.5 (20 day LC50) ........... . No effect l'g/liter Reference Sanders 19S91" Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968'" Macek and McAllister 1970"' 0.023 (30 day LC50).... .. . .. . 0.008-30 day ............... Bell unpublished data•M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders 1969'" 0.5 (120 hour LC50) ......... . Sanders in press'" 9.0 Sanders and Cope 1966'" 0.6-21 day................. Biesinger unpublished data"' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1968128 11.1 (30 day LC50) ........... 9.4-30 day ................. Bell unpublished data"' 0.3 (30 day LC50)............ 0.17-30 day ............... . Sanders and Cope 1968128 2. 3 (30 day LC50). . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 65-30 day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bell unpublished data•M 0.52 0.28-30 day ............... . 0. 34 0. 24-30 day .•.....•........ 580 (spinal deformity 10 month) 20D-10 month exposure...... Mount and Stephen 19671"' 7.4 (spinal deformity several 3.6-11 months.............. Eaton 1971111 months) Pickering et al. 19621" Macek and McAllister 1970121 Macek and McAllister 1970"' Sanders 1969'" Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1966127 426/ Appendix Il-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Organophosphate Insecticides-Continued Pesticide Organism MEVINPHOS PHOSDRIN® ____________ INSECTS Pleronarcys californica _________ _ FISH Lepomis macrochirus __________ _ Micropterus salmoides. ________ _ HALED Dl BROM®_ ----------___ ----. CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris. __________ _ Gammarus fasciatus. __________ _ Palaemonetes kadiakensis. _____ . Drconectes nais .............. .. Asellus brevicaudus ... _ .... _ .. _ Simocephalus serrulatus ........ _ Daphnia pulex _ .... _ ........ _ .. INSECTS Pteronarcys californica .... _ .. _ . _ FISH Lepomis macrochirus .• _ ....... . Salmo gairdneri. ........ _ .. _ .. _ OXYDEMETDN METHYL META-CRUSTACEANS SYSTOX®. ... ... ...... ... . . ... ..... Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ...... _ .... . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ... _ ..... . FISH Lepomis macrochirus ......... _ . Salmo gairdneri ............. _ .. PARATHION.......................... CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris. _ ......... _ Gammarus fasciatus. _ ..... _ ... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... _ Simocephalus serrulatus ....... _. Daphnia pulex ................ _ Orconectes nais ............... . Asellus brevicaudus _ . __ ...... _ . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ......... . Pleronarcys dorsata ............ . Pleronarcella badia ..... _ ...... . Claassenia sabulosa ... _ ...... _ . Acroneuria pacifica ........... .. Acroneuria lycorias ............ . Ephemerella sub varia .......... . Ophigomphus rupinsulensis ..... . Hydropsyche beltoni. ...... _ ... _ Acute toxicity LC50 ,.g;liter 5.0 70 110 110 14 90 1800 230 1.1 0.35 8.0 180 132 190 1000 35 14000 4000 3.5 2.1 1.5 0.37 0.60 0.04 600 36 3.0 4.2 1.5 3.0 0.16 3.25 hours 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 Sub-acute eftects ,.g;liter 1.6 (120 hour LC50) .......... 2.2 (30 day LC50) .......... .. 0.90 (30 day LC50) .......... . 0.44 (30 day LC50) ....... _ .. . 0.013 (30 day LC50) ......•... 0.056 (30 day LC50) .......... 0.22 0.45 No eftect ,.g/liter Reference Sanders and Cope 1968128 FPRL"' FPRL"' Sanders 1969"' Sanders in press"' Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968128 FPRL137 FPRLm Sanders 1969124 Sanders in press12s Sanders and Cope 1968128 FPRL137 FPRL1 37 Sanders 1969124 Sanders in press12s Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders in press1" Jensen and Gaulin 1964117 Bell unpublished data'" Sanders and Cope 1968128 Jensen and Gaulin 1964117 Bell unpublished data1" Bell unpublished data"' Appendix II-D/427 Organophosphate Insecticides-Continued Pesticide Organism PARATHION .......................... FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus •.......... Lepomis cyanellus ............. . Micropterus salmoides ......... . PH ORATE THIMET® •. • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Drconectes nais ... PHDSPHAMIDDN.................... CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Orconectes nais ............... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........• Daphnia pulex ................ . INSECTS Pteronarcys californica ......... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . lctalurus punctatus ............ . RONNEL............................. FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . T EPP................................. CRUSTACEANS TRICHLDRDPHDN DIPTEREX DYLDX Gammarus lacustris ..... . Gammarus fasciatus ..........•. FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . INSECTS Pteronarcys californica ......... . Pteronarcys californica ......... . Acroneuria pacifica ............ . Pleronarcella badia ............ . Claassenia sabulosa ............ . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Acute toXicity LC50 pg/liter 1410 65 425 190 9 0.60 50 2.8 16 7500 6.6 8.8 150 100000 4500 70000 305 39 210 1900 1100 40 0.32 0.18 69 35 16.5 11 22 109000 3800 hours 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 Sub-acute effects pg/liter No effect pg/liter Reference Solon and Nair 19701" Pickering et al. 1962'" Sanders 1969124 Sanders in press'" Sanders 1959124 Sanders in press1" Sanders and Cope 1966'" Sanders and Cope 1968"' FPRLm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . Solon and Nair 1 970"' 9.8 (30 day LC50) .......•.... 8.7 (30 day LC50) ........... . Sanders 1 969'24 Sanders in press"' Pickering et al. 1962"' Sanders 1969"' Sanders and Cope 1966'" Jensen and Gaufin 1964117 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Jensen and Gaufin 1964117 Sanders and Cope 1968'28 Sanders and Cope 1 968''' Pickering et al. 19621" 428/ Appendix If-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Pesticide Organism CARBARYL SEVIN® ......•........•.• CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . Asellus brevieaudus ........... . Simocephalus serrulatus .•....... Daphnia pulex ................ . Daphnia magna ............... . INSECTS Pteronarcys ealiforniea ......... . Pteronarcys dorsata ........... . Pteronarcella badia ............ . Claassenia sabulosa ............ . Acroneuria lycorias ............ . Hydropsyche beHoni ........... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Lepomis microlophus ..........• Micropterus salmoides ......... . Salmo gairdneri. .............. . Salmo truHa .................. . Oncorhynchus kisutch ...•...... Perea navescens .............. . lctalurus punctatus ............ . lctalurus melas ...............• BAYGON.. ... ... . .. .... .. ...•.. ... .. . CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . INSECT Pteronarcys ealiforniea .........• AMINOCARB METACIL.. •.. ... ... .. .• CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ..•........• BAYER 37344.......................... INSECTS Pteronarcys ealiforniea ......... . ZECTRAN............................ CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ..•.............. INSECTS Pteronarcys ealiforniea .........• FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Lepomis microlophus ..•........ Micropterus salmoides ......... . Salmo gairdneri. .............. . Salmo truHa ..................• Oncorhynchus kisutch .......... . Perea flavescens .............. . lctalurus punctatus ............ . lctalurus melas .•.............. Carbamate Acute toxicity LC50 l'g/liter 16 26 5.6 8.6 240 7.6 6.4 4.8 1.7 5.6 ...................... ...................... 9000 6760 11200 6400 4340 1950 764 745 15800 20000 34 50 13 12 5.4 46 40 83 13 10 10 17000 11200 16700 14700 10200 8100 1730 2480 11400 16700 hours 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 Sub-acute effects 11g/liter No effect 11g/liter Reference Sanders 19691" Sanders in press'" Sanders and Cope 1966"' 5.0 63 day .................. Biesinger unpublished data"' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1968128 23.0 (30 day LC50)... ... . .. . . 11.5 30 day ................. Bell unpublished data"• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1968'" 2.2 (30 day LC50)............ 1.3 30 day.................. Bell unpublished data•,. 2. 7 (30 day LC50)............ 1.8 30 day ..............•... 680 (deline survival andre- production 6 months) 25 (20 day LC50) ............ . 210 (6 month) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carlson unpublished data"• Macek and McAllister 1970121 Sanders 1969124 Sanders in press"• Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 1969'24 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 1969'24 Sanders in press'" Sanders and Cope 1961)127 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Macek and McAllister 1970'2' Pesticide Organism ACROLEIN AQUALIN.................. FISH Lepomis macrochirus ..... . Salmo trutta .. Lepomis macrochirus .. AM!NOTRIAZOLE AMITROL... .. . .. . . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus BALAN ........ . BENSULFIDE .... CHLOROXURON .... CIPC ..... . DACTHAL. Daphnia magna .... . Cypridopsis vidua ............. . Asellus brevicaudus ....... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ......... . FISH Lepomis macrochirus .... . Oncorhyncus kisutch ........... . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus faciatus ... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus faciatus ..... FISH Lepomis macrochirus .... FISH Lepomis macrochirus ..... FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . DALAPON (SODIUM SALT)............ CRUSTACEAN Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . INSECT Pteronarcys californica ......... . FISH Pimepha les promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Oncorhynchus kisulch ..... . DEF.................................. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ..... INSECT Pteronarcys californica ...... . DEXON. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris .... INSECT Pteronarcys californica ....... . DICAMBA ..... . . . . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua .............. . Asellus brevicaudus ............ . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais .............. . FISH Lepomis macrochirus ..... DICHLOBENIL CASAR ON® ..... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Hyallella azteca ............... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua ........... • .. . Asellus brevicaudus ............ . PalaeriJOnetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais .............. . INSECTS Pteronarcys californica ......... . Tendipedidae Callibaetes sp ................. . limnephilus .................. . Enallegma .................... . FISH LepomiS' macrochirus .......... . Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants Acute toxicity LC50 l'g/liter 80 46 79 30000 32000 325000 1100 1400 25000 8000 700000 16000 11000 290000 290000 340000 100 2100 3700 24000 3900 20000 11000 10000 8500 5800 3700 10000 7800 34000 9000 22000 7000 78110 10300 13000 20700 20000 hours 24 24 24 48 48 48 96 96 48 48 48 48 48 96 96 48 96 96 96 96 96 48 96 96 96 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 48 Sub-acute eftects l'g/liter No eftect l'g/liter Appendix II-D/429 Reference Bond et al. 19SQto6 Burdick et al. 1964108 100,000 l'g/148 hr........... Sanders 1970125 100, ODD l'g/1 48 hr •.......... 100, DOD l'g/1 48 hr •.......... 100, DOD l'g/1 48 hr •.......... 100,000 l'g/148 hr........... Sanders 1970125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bond et al. 1960"' 100, DOD l'g/1 96 hr •... 100,000 l'g/148 hr •.......... 100,000 l'g/148 hr •.......... 100,000 l'g/148 hr •.......... 1DD,ODOI'g/148 hr: ......... . 1DD,DOD l'g/148 hr •.......... 100, ODD l'g/1 48 hr •.......... Sanders 1970125 Sanders 1970125 Hughes and Davis 1964116 Hughes and Davis 1964116 Hughes and Davis 1964116 Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 19681" Surber and Pickering 1962"' Bond et al. 1960106 Sanders 1969124 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 196912< Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 1969124 Sanders 197012' Hughes and Davis 1962"' Sanders 1969124 Sanders 1970125 Wilson and Bond 1969133 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 1970125 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Wilson and Bond 1969"' 430/ Appendix [[-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants-Continued Plllil:ida Organism DICHLONE PHYGON XL.............. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus tasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua .............. . Asellus brevicaudus ............ . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Micropterus salmoides ......... . DIQUAT. ........ ...... .. ......... .... CRUSTACEAN DIURON ............................. . HJallella azteca ............... . INSECTS Callibaetes sp .................• Limnephilus ..................• Tandipedidae ................. . Enallagma .................... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Micropterus salmoides ......... . Esox lucius ................... . Stizostedion vitreum vitreum ... . Salmo gairdneri ............... . OncorhJnchus tshaWJischa ..... . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacuslris ........... . Gammarus fasl:iatus ........... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulax ................• INSECT Pleronarcys cantornica .........• FISH OncorhJnchus kisutch .......... . DIFOLITAN............... ... ......... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ...........• INSECT Plaronarcys californica ......... . DINITROBUTYL PHENOL............. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasl:iatus ........... . DIPHENAMID........................ CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . CJpridopsis vidua .............. . Asellus brevicaudus ............ . Palaamonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . DURSBAN............................ CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . INSECT Pleronarcys cantornica .........• Pleronarcella badia ............ . Claassenia sabulosa ............ . 2,4-D (PGBE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua .............. . Asallus brevicaudus ............ . Palaemonetes kldiakensis ...... . Drconectas nais.. ...........•.• 2,4·D (BEE)........................... CRUSTACEAN. Gammarus lacustris ...........• Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua .............. . Asallus brevicaudus ...•......... Palaamonetes kadiakensis .....•• Orconectes nais.. ..........•... INSECT Pleronarcys cantornica .........• Acute toxicity LCSO pgfliter 1100 100 25 120 200 450 3200 70 120 48 16400 33000 >100000 >100000 14000 35000 7800 16000 2100 11200 28500 160 700 2000 1400 1200 16000 800 40 1800 ······················ 56000 50000 ······················ 58000 0.11 10 0.38 0.57 1600 2500 100 320 2200 2700 440 5900 5600 1800 3200 1400 1600 hours 96 96 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 96 48 48 96 96 48 48 96 48 96 96 96 ···················· 48 48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 48 48 96 96 48 48 48 48 96 Sub-acute effects ,.g/liter No effect pg/liter Reference Sanders 1969124 Sanders 1970125 Bond et al. 19601" Hughes and Davis 196211' Wilson and Bond 19691" Wilson and Bond 19691" Surber and Pickering 1962"1 Gilderhus 1967112 Surber and Pickering 1962131 Gilderhus 1967112 Bond et al. 1960106 Sanders 1969124 Sanders 1970125 Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 19681"' Bond et al. 19601'" Sanders 19&9124 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 19701" 100,000pgfl48 hr •.......... Sanders 1970126 100,000pg/148 hr •.......... 100,000 pgfl 48 hr •.........• 100,000 pg/1 48 hr •.......... 100,000pg/148·hr ......... . Sanders 1969124 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 19691" Sanders 1970125 Sanders 1969124 Sanders 1970126 Sanders and Cope 196111•• Appendix II-D/431 Herbicides, Fungicides, Dejoliants-Continu~d Pesticide Organism 2,4-D(BEE) ........................... FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . 2,4-D (IOE)......... ... . ... .. .. ... ... . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . 2,4-D (DIETHYLAMINE SALT)._...... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ....... _ ... _ Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Crypidopsis vidua ............ _. Asellus brevicaudus ............ . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . ENDOTHALL Dl SODIUM SALT....... FISH Pimephales notatus ............ . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Micropterus salmoides ......... . Notropis umbratilus ............ . Micropterus salmoides ......... . Oncorhynchus tschawytscha .... . ENDOTHALL DIPOTASSIUM SALT .... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus ......... _ . EPTAM.... ... ... ... . . ... .... ... .. . ... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus ........... . FENAC(SODIUM SALT) ............... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris. _ ......... _ Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia pulex ................ . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua ............ .. Asellus brevicaudus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais .............. . INSECT Pteronarcys californica ......... _ FISH Lepomis ...................... . HYAMINE1622 ....................... FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus .......... . Oncorhynchus kisutch ...... _ .. . HYAMINE 2389 ...................... . FISH Pimephales promelas .......... . Lepomis macrochirus. __ .... _ .. . HYDROTHAL 47...................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus ........... . HYDROTHAL 191 ..................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris .......... __ Gammarus fasciatus ........... . HYDROTHAL PLUS................... FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . IPC ................................. .. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... _ Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . KURON......... .... . ... ... ... . ... ... . CRUSTACEAN Simocephalus serrulatus ....... _. Daphnia pulex. _ .............. . MCPA...... ... . ... .... .. ... ... . . . . ... FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . MOLINATE. ........... _.............. CRUSTACEAN Gammaruslacustris ........... _ Gammarus lasciatus .. _ ..... _. _. Daphnia magna ............... . Asellus brevicaudus .• _ •.... _ . _ . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ... __ . _ Orconectes nais ... _ ... _ ....... . Acute toxicity LC50 pg/liter 5600 2400 4000 8000 110000 125000 120000 95000 200000 136000 320000 160000 23000 12000 4500 6600 55000 15000 1600 1400 53000 2400 1200 510 500 480 3500 10000 19000 10000 10000 2400 2000 1500 4500 300 600 400 1000 5600 hours 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 48 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 48 96 96 48 48 48 48 48 96 96 48 48 48 48 Sub-acute effects pg/liter No effect pg/liter Reference 1500 pg/llethalto eggs in 48 300 pg/110 mo •............ _ Mount and stephan 1967'" hour exposure Sanders 1969"' Sanders 1969124 100,000 pgfl 48 hr... .. .. .. .. Sanders 19701" 100, ooo pg/1 48 hr .......... . 100,000 pg/1 48 hr .......... . 100,000 pg/148 hr .......... . Walker 1964132 Bond et al. 1960106 100,000pgjl96 hr ........... Sanders1969124 Surber and Pickering 1962111 Sanders 19701" Sanders 1969124 100,000 pg/148 hr........... Sanders 19701" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanders and Cope 1966127 100,000pgfl48 hr ........... Sanders 19701" 100,000 pg/148 hr ......... .. 100,000 pg/148 hr ......... .. 100,000 pg/1 48 hr .......... . Sanders and Cope 1968128 Hughes and Davis 1962114 Surber and Pickering 1962111 Bond et al. 1960104 Surber and Pickering 1952111 Sanders 19701" Sanders19691" Sanders1970"' Hughes and Davis1964lll Sanders 1969"' Sanders 19701" Sanders and Cope 1966"' Sanders and Cope 1966127 Hughes and Davis1964111 Sanders19691" Sanders 19701" 432 (Appendix !!-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife Herbicides, Fungicides, Defoliants-Continued Pesticide Organism MONURON...... .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . FISH Oncorhynchus kisutch .......... . PARAQUAT........................... CRUSTACEAN PEBULATE ....... . Gammarus lacustris ............ . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex .......•......... INSECT Pteronarcys californica ......... . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus ........... . PICLORAM........ .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . INSECT Pteronarcys californ!ca ......... . PROPANIL.... .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus ........... . SILVEX (BEE)......................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua .............. . Asellus brevicaudus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . SILVEX (PGBE)................... .. .. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua .............. . Asellus brevicaudus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ......• Orconectes nais ............... . FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . SILVEX (IDE)......................... FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . SILVEX (POTASSIUM SALT).......... FISH Lepomis macrochirus .......... . SIMAZINE............................ CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris •.•......•.• Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua ............. . Asellus brevicaudus ........... . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . FISH Oncorhynchus kisutch .......... . TRIFLURALIN........................ CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus lasciatus ........... . Daphnia magna ............... . Daphnia pulex ................• Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Cypridopsis vidua .............. . Asellus brevicaudus ............ . Palaemonetes kadiakensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . INSECT Pteronarcys californica ......... . VERNOLATE... .. .. ... . .. . . ... ... . . .. CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Dapbnia magna ............... . Cypridopsis vidua .............•. Ase!lus bravicaudus ............ . Palaemonetes kadial<ensis ...... . Orconectes nais ............... . Acute toxicity LC50 hours 110000 48 11000 96 4000 48 3700 48 ······················ ................ 10000 27000 48000 161JOO 250 2100 4900 40000 8000 60000 1100 840 180 200 500 3200 1661)0 16000 83000 13000 1000 3200 6600 2200 1000 560 240 450 250 200 1200 50000 3000 1800 13000 1100 240 5600 1900 24000 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 48 48 48 48 96 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 96 48 48 48 96 96 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 96 96 96 48 48 48 48 48 Sub-acute eftects pgjliter No eftect pgfliter Reference Bond et al. 1960106 Sanders 1969124 Sanders and Cope 1966"' 100,000 pg/196 hr........... Sanders and Cope 19681" Sanders 1970125 Sanders 1969124 Sanders and Cope 1968"' Sanders 1970125 Sanders 1970125 Hughes and Davis 1963115 Sanders 1970125 100, ooo pg/1 48 hr •.......... Hughes and Davis 1963115 Hughes and Davis 1963ll5 Hughes and Davis 1963115 Sanders 1969124 100,000 pg/148 hr........... Sanders 1970125 100,000 pg/148 hr........... Sanders 1970125 100;000 pg/1 48 hr .......... . 100,000 pg/148 hr •.......... Bond et al. 19601" Sanders 1969124 Sanders 1970125 Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders 1970"' Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 1969"' Sanders 1970125 Pesticide Organism AlLETHRIN .......................... CRUSTACEAN Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ..•......... Simocephalus serrulatus ........• Daphnia pulex ................ . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica .........• FISH Lepomis macrochi rus .......... . Salmo gairdneri. .............. . PYRETHRUM........................ CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ........... . Gammarus fasciatus ........... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica .... ROTENONE.......................... CRUSTACEANS Gammarus lacustris ..... . Simocephalus serrulatus ........ . Daphnia pulex ................ . INSECTS Pleronarcys californica ......... . Botanicals Acute toxicity LC50 JLE/Iiter 11 56 21 2.1 56. 19 12 11 42 25 1.0 2600 190 100 380 hours 96 96 48 48 96 96 96 96 96 48 48 96 96 48 48 96 Sub-acute effects JLg/liter No effect JLg/liter Appendix II-D/433 Reference Sanders 1969124 Sanders in press12' Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968I28 FPRL"' Sanders 1969"' Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968128 Sanders 196o••• Sanders and Cope 1966127 Sanders and Cope 1968128 APPENDIX 11-E GUIDELINES FOR AQUATIC TOXICOLOGICAL RESEARCH . ON PESTICIDES More than one billion pounds of pesticides were produced in the United States in 1969 (Fowler et al. 1971)_152 How- ever, before such materials can be transported in interstate commerce, they must be registed according to provisions of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act and amendments. Responsibility for implementing this act is vested in the Pesticide Regulation Division of the En- vironmental Protection Agency. Properties of pesticides that must be considered in the registration process include: efficacy on the intended pest; safety to the applicator and to the consumer of treated products; and effects on non- target species including those of aquatic ecosystems. Guidelines .for research into effects of pesticides on aquatic life are of concern to this Panel. In view of docu- mented effects of pesticides on aquatic Iif~ and the appar- ently ubiquitous distribution of certain pesticides in fish (] ohnson 1968,158 Henderson, Johnson and Inglis 1969, m Mollison 1970172), it seems reasonable to conclude that exist- ing guidelines are not sufficient. Mount (1967)173 reported that there were numerous studies on toxicological and physiological effects of pesticides in fish, but that the data were inadequate because of several common deficiencies. Further, he concluded that there was a paucity of data that could be used to correlate toxicological, physiological, or analytical findings with significant damage to aquatic forms. Therefore, research guidelines for predicting potential haz- ards of pesticides to be used in, or those with a high probabil- ity for contamination of aquatic communities must result in findings that are relatable within the scientific disciplines concerned. Guidelines for research and objectives suggested by this Panel are: (I) to provide a research framework that generates anticipatory rather than documentary information concerning effects of pesticides on aquatic com- munities; (2) to encourage research that is directly applicable to the process of pesticide registration. The framework (Figure II-E-1) is designed with fish a the primary test animal(s). However, it is also compatible with parallel investigations intended to provide data es- senti~l to the protection of fish-food organisms. In all cases, sufficient numbers of individuals and replications must be included to estimate statistical significance of results. All studies should report sources, physical quality, disease treatments, and holding conditions (photoperiod, diet and feeding rate, water quality) of test animals. The Panel recommends that chemical analyses be performed on test animals, diets, and holding waters to document pre- exposure of test animals to pesticides or other contaminants. Analytical methods should include results for reagent blanks, and they should document limits of sensitivity, detection, reproducibility, and recovery efficiency for extracts. The guidelines are general and are not intended to limit research nor to present specific methods. If pesticide investi- gations can be tailored, at least in part, along accepted guidelines, then a much greater reservoir of interrelated anticipatory data will become available for the purpose of registering pesticides and establishing water quality criteria. All, or parts of the guidelines, may be utilized by an investi- gator depending upon: the capacity of his laboratory and staff; extent and applicability of biological or chemical data already available; intended use pattern(s) and target(s) of the pesticides; or research objectives other than registration. I. PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS A. Acute Toxicity: Static Bioassay (Litchfield and Wil- coxon 1949,1 64 Lennon & Walker 1964,163 Nebeker & Gaufin 1964,176 Sanders and Cope 1966,1 80 Burdick 1967,144 Sprague 1969,1 82 Schoettger 1970,181 Environmental Protec- tion Agency 1971) .1so I. Purpose The limitations of static bioassays are recognized; however, they do provide the first, and probably quickest, index of relative toxicity. Further, they are useful in esti- mating the relative influence of variables such as species smceptibility, temperature, pH, water quality, and rate of chemical deactivation on toxicity. Thus, acute static bio- 434 F.~;,, PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS I. Acute Toxicity Static Bioassay II. Acute Toxicity Intermittent-flow Bioassay III. Growth and Reproductive Screening Aquarium Fishes IV. Chronic Effects Diluter and Feeding Exposures V. Pond and Stream Ecosystem Studies asee text for discussion. II. Uptake, Storage, Excretion III. Food Chain Accumulation IV. Clinical Physiology Biochemistry Pathology FIGURE Il-E-1-A Research Frameworka SUPPORT SYSTEMS I. Analytical Methods Development V. Fate of the Chemical Physicochemical Interactions Biodegradation and Residue Kinetics ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ (.>'1 :n:'t'l'l~ 436/ Appendix II-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife assays are essential to delineate prerequisites for chronic studies. 2. Scope a. Initial bioassay These studies are conducted with technical and formulated pesticides using one type of water (reconstituted). The 96-hour LC50 (tolerance limit for 50 per cent of the test animals) is determined for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) at 12 C, and for bluegills (Lepomis machrochirus), fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) at 22 C. Suggested species of invertebrates included daphnids (Daphnia magna), glass shrimp (Palaemonetes kadiakensis), scud (Gammarus pseudo- limnaeus), and midge larvae (Chironomus plumosus). b. Definitive bioassay Bioassays conducted as described above. Trout are tested at 7 C and 1 7 C, whereas bluegills, fat- head minnows, and channel catfish are tested at 17 C and 27 C. Water quality (reconstituted) is modified to include soft and hard waters, and water of ca. pH 6 and 9 (Marking and Hogan 1967,1 67 Berger, Lennon and Hogan 1969).139 Other tem- peratures and potentially threatened species must be added or substituted depending upon specific conditions under which the pesticide is to be used. c. Deactivation index Several series of test concentrations as in a or b are prepared and stored for appropriate intervals, such as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 N days. After storage, the solutions are bioassay conducted at the same time. Division of the reference 96-hour LC50 values by the values for stored solutions gives an estimate of rate of pesticide deactivation when plotted against storage time. Additional trials may be required to determine effects of variables such as pH, tempera- ture, light. Residue analyses of stored solutions provide excellent support data for measures of biological deactivation. B. Acute Toxicity: Intermittent-flow Bioassay Jensen & Gaufin 1964,157 Mount and Brungs 1967,174 (Standard Methods 1971).185 1. Purpose Intermittent-flow bioassays are designed to minimize or overcome deficiencies characteristic of static bioassays, and are particularly suited for long exposures of test animals to pesticides with low water solubilities. Specialized apparatus is required for such studies, but results are generally con- sidered more reliable, and more representative of actual toxicity than those derived from static bioassay. Neverthe- less, the speed and flexibility of the latter make them essen- tial in establishing operational designs (e.g., water quality, temperature, species) for the former method. 2. Scope a. 96-hour LC50 This is a standard bioassay and is obtained with any water supply (analyzed for chemical charac- teristics) suitable to the selected test species. When variables such as temperature or water quality af- fect toxicity (as determined in sections IA2b and IA2c), flowing bioassays must be designed accord- ingly. In some instances, a design consistent with water quality and species in the locality of pesti- cide use may be appropriate. Because intermittent- flow bioassays require analyzed concentrations (rather than calculated values), analytical methods must be developed prior to the start of bioassays. The use of radio-labeled pesticides greatly assists analysis. Also, test animals treated with radioactive pesticides are invaluable for preliminary estimates of pesticide uptake, storage, and excretion. In ad- dition, gross observations should be made for pathological and behavioral changes. b. Lethal threshold concentration (Threshold LC50) The Threshold LC50 is estimated subsequent to determination of the 96-hour LC50 and may re- quire lower concentrations. In general, the bio- assay is conducted as in IB2a, but contined in 48- hour increments after the 96-hour observation per- iod. The Threshold LC50 is determined when further mortality has ceased in all test tanks, com- pared to the control. If toxicant-related mortality continues beyond 30 to 60 days, the bioassay may be 9-iscontinued and the LC50 reported according to the test duration. Pesticide uptake, storage, and excretion studies may be more meaningful, when conducted on test animals, from these studies than on those exposed for only 96 hours. C. Growth and Reproductive Screening: Aquarium Fishes (Hisaoka and Firh't 1962,156 Clark and Clark 1964,146 Breeder and Rosen 1966142). 1. Purpose Mount (1967)173 indicated that growth and reproduction of fish were important in assessing safe concentrations of pesticides, and could be determined within one year. How- ever, when estimates of potential hazards are needed for a relatively large number of pesticides, and space and time are limited, tests using fish with short life cycles may be desirable for establishing priorities for later research. Species such as the ovoviviparous guppy (Poecilia reticulata) and oviparous zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio) produce numerous progerw that may reach sexual maturity within six weeks under laboratory conditions. Thus, effects of pesticides may be followed through several generations within a short time. 2. Scope Zebrafish and guppies are exposed to pesticides in inter- mittent-flow diluters. Also, the pesticide may .be incor- porated into their diets if food chain studies suggest that dietary uptake is a potentially significant route of exposure. Observations are made on mortality, growth, egg produc- tion, and hatchability, and on incidence of offspring anom- alies (e.g., terata, mutations). D. Chronic Effects: Diluter and Feeding exposures (Bur- dick, et al., 1964,145 Macek 1968,1 65 Eaton 1970,148 Environ- mental Protection Agency 1971,150 Johnson et al. l97F59). l. Purpose In general, these studies are conducted as in 102 and are central to predicting safe concentrations of pesticides to sport, commercial, or forage fishes, and to fish-food or- ganisms. 2. Scope Chronic studies may either include the complete life cycle or a portion of the cycle. Full chronic studies are conducted currently with fathead minnows, daphnids, and scuds and involve continuous exposures of eggs, juveniles and adults. Rainbow trout, brook trout (Salvelinusjontinalis), channel catfish, bluegills, and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmonides) are used in partial chronics, and adults are ex- posed co~tinuously through spawning. Flow-through bio- assays are performed by exposing the test animals to pesti- cides (or degradation products) in water, in their diets, or both, depending upon relative stability of the pesticide and its tendency to accumulate in fish-food organisms. Where profiles of pesticide degradation in water are established, studies simulating degradation should be incorporated into the concentration spectra by periodic modification of toxi- cant solutions (concentration and composition). Exposures should include the reproductive phase or a selected interval prior to reproduction depending upon species and antici- pated time of pesticide application. Chronic studies should evaluate effects on growth, and on natural and artificial reproduction. Studies · with invertebrates should include measured effects on metamorphosis and reproduction. Clinical observations on physiological, biochemical, and pathological effects, as well as analyses for residues, degra- dation products, and residue kinetics should be correlated with effects on growth and reproduction. E. Pond and Stream Ecosystem Studies (Cope, et al. 1970,147 Kennedy et al. 1970,161 Kennedy and Walsh 1970,1 60 Lennon and Berger 1970162). l. Purpose Laboratory estimates of safe pesticide applications must be confirmed by controlled research in lentic and lotic ecosystems. Therefore, ponds or artificial streams are in- valuable in studying the impact of pesticides under inter- acting physical, chemical, and biological conditions. 2. Scope Applications of pesticides are made according to antici- pated rate and use patterns. However, concentration spectra should include both excessive rates, and rates estimated to Appendix ll-E/437 be safe in laboratory. studies. Species used in the studies should approximate those found in intended areas of pesti- cide usage. Factors to be studied include: a. mortality b. growth c. reproductive success d. gross behavior e. clinical physiology, biochemistry and pathology f. invertebrate metamorphosis g. species diversity h. trophic level production 1. energy transfer j. fate of the chemical II. SUPPORT SYSTEMS A. Chemical Methods Development 1. Purpose Residue analyses of water and of fish and fish-food or- ganisms exposed to pesticides are potent indicators of probable biological accumulation or degradation of these chemicals. Biological systems used in the primary research framework easily provide study materials which permit cor- relations between biological effects and residues. The use of radio-labeled pesticides early in the research framework quickly pinpointed location of the pesticide and degradation products and greatly assisted refinement of analytical methods. Various combinations of isolation and identifica- tion techniques are required to analyze metabolites or degradation products in test animals exposed chronically to pesticides. 2. Scope Methods may begin with acute, static bioassays for deac- tivation indexes (IA2c) or later with acute, intermittent- flow bioassays. The studies are expanded as dictated by in- terpretation of results. Concentrations of 14C-, 36Cl-, 32P-, or 35S-labeled pesticides are determined radiometrically with- out extraction and cleanup (Hansen and Bush 1967,1 54 Nuclear-Chicago Corporation 1967,177 Biros 1970a140). At least four test animals (including fish) should be collected at five intervals during the pesticide exposure to estimate uptake and degradation rates. For smaller organisms, a minimum of 100 milligrams of wet sample are required. After development and refinement of analytical methods, spot checks of radioactive samples will confirm residues. Analyses of metabolites and degradation products require that sample extracts be cleaned up with gel permeation or adsorption chromatography (U. S. Department of Health Education and Welfare 1968,187 1969,188 Stalling, Tindle and Johnson 1971,184 Tindle 1971).186 Radioactive residues must be characterized by TLC autoradiography, and further identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC- MS) or other spectroscopic methods (Biros 1970b,141 Stalling 1971).183 438/ Appendix II-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife B. Uptake, Storage and Excretion 1. Purpose Investigations of chemical residues are undertaken early in the research framework to obtain a working perspective of pesticide persistence, degradation, and bioconcentration in aquatic organisms. The studies should attempt to corre- late residue kinetics with toxicology and chronic effects. Thus, later research can be better designed to assess inter- actions of pesticides with fish, fish-food organisms, and water quality (ID). 2. Scope The studies should include: a. radiometric or chemical analyses or both, of test animals at intervals during acute, intermittent- flow bioassays to determine rates of accumulation and residue plateaus; b. determination of biological half-life of accumulated residues after termination of exposure (Macek et al. 1970) ;166 c. determination of degree of pesticide degradation in water and test animals by comparing residues of radioactive materials with concentration of parent chemical, measured chemically (Johnson et al. 1971,169 Rodgers and Stalling 197F79 ). (Autoradio- grams of thin-layer chromatographic plates may provide the initial data on degradation products.) C. Food-Chain Accumulation (Brock 1966,143 Johnson et al. 1971,169 Metcalf et al. 1971).1 70 1. Purpose The functions of laboratory food chain studies include: estimates of propensity for pesticide (or its degradation product), uptake by each member of a 3-component food chain, estimates of potential pesticide transfer to higher trophic levels, and determinations of residue concentrations likely to be encountered in forage of fish. (Residue values are used in formulating pesticide-containing diets, section IC and ID.) 2. Scope A suggested laboratory food chain may be composed of: an appropriate primary producer (green algae) such as Scenedesmus, Ankistrodesmus and Chlorella Spp. ; or decomposers (bacteria) such as Aerobacter, Bacillus, Achromobacter, Flavo- bacter, Aeromonas Spp.; a primary consumer such as Daphnia magna, D. pulex, or other suitable microcrustacea; and a secondary consumer such as fathead minnows or small blue- gills, largemouth bass, rainbow trout. Members of the food chain are exposed to radio-labeled pesticides in diluters (or other constant-flow devices) at concentrations appropri- ate for the most sensitive element. Rate of uptake and resi- due plateau are measured radiometrically and the identities of parent compound or degradation products are confirmed by chemical methods, whenever possible. The potentials for biotransfer and biomagnification are determined by feeding pesticide-treated lower members to higher trophic levels with and without concurrent water exposures. An alternative, but less desirable, type of feeding trial would utilize artificial foods fortified with appropriate amounts of pesticide. D. Clinical: Physiology, Biochemistry, Pathology (Mat- tingly 1962,1 69 Mattenheimer 1966,168 Natelson 1968,176 Pickford and Grant 1968,178 Grant and Mehrle 1970,163 Mehrle 1970171). 1. Purpose Clinical studies are most closely associated with chronic investigations of pesticidal effects on growth and reproduc- tion. It is likely that these effects are expressions of earlier, more subtle physiological, biochemical, or pathological dysfunctions. Thus, selected clinical examinations may re- veal correlations that are useful in early detection of ad- verse effects. These studies may also reveal impaired homeo- stasis mechanisms for compensating ephemeral environ- mental stresses (e.g., oxygen deficiency, starvation, exercise, rapid changes in temperature, pH, salinity) that are not otherwise anticipated in this reserach framework. 2. Scope Routine clinical studies are impractical during full chronic investigations with fathead minnows (and other small test animals), because of their small size and the dif- ficulty in collection of adequate amounts of tissue. However, at hatching, young are observed for incidence of abnor- malcy; and other young removed for thinning, should be used in histocytological examinations and stress tests. The latter tests measure relative survival under stresses such as those mentioned in IIDl above. Individuals from partial chronic and pond or stream studies are also examined and tested as in full chronic studies. Because of larger size, they are useful in clinical studies. These studies, however, are not necessarily intended as ends in themselves. Examples of ap- propriate clinical examinations include: a. stress response-induced production of cortisol by injection of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (purified mammalian ACTH); b. thyroid activity-126iodine (1 26I) uptake; c. osmoregulatory ability-serum sodium, chloride, and osmolality; d. diagnostic enzymology-clinical analyses for ac- tivities of liver and serum glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase, glutamate-pyruvate transaminase, glutamate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactate dehydrogenase; e. ammonia detoxifying mechanism (brain and liver glutamate dehydrogenase, brain glutamine synthe- tase, and ammonia concentrations in brain and serum); f. cholinesterase activity of serum and brain; g. general nutritional state and activity of microsomal and mitochondrial enzymes-injection of 14carbon- labeled glucose and relative evolution of 14C02 by liver; and h. histocytological examinations of liver, brain, pan- creas, gill, and · kidney by light and electron microscopy. E. Fate of the Chemical 1. Purpose The environmental fate of a pesticide is determined by its interactions with physicochemical and biological processes. Its distribution is the result of partition betweel\ the biota and sedimentation processes, and degradation rates as- sociated with each of these. Segmentally, these studies at- tempt to predict the relative ecodistribution of pesticides, identify physicochemical and biological degradation prod- ucts, and describe their kinetics. Biological effects of these compounds must be correlated with residues in order to anticipate their ecological impact under the conditions of use. 2. Scope a. Biodegradation and Residue Kinetics Fish and invertebrates-these studies on residue degradation and uptake are more definitive than the initial uptake studies involved in acute inter- mittent-flow bioassays. Equilibrium of the residues (parent compound or metabolites or both) in the organisms during the exposure period must be documented to strengthen correlation of exposure concentrations and biological effects. Special con- sideration must be given to multiple component pesticides. Both the composition and isomer ratios can be altered and should be included in determin- ing safe levels of pesticide exposure. The chemical burden and kinetics of uptake in the test organism are determined by sampling at not less than four intervals during the test exposures. No less than three fish or other samples per concentration are analyzed at each sampling period. Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) and Gas- liquid chromatography-mass spectrograph (GLC- MS) analyses are then made on each sample to determine which fractions of the radioactive resi- dues are attributed to the parent compound(s) and what changes occurred in the composition and isomer-ratios of the pesticide. Thin layer chromato- graphic examination of nonvolatile metabolites is recommended for compounds which cannot be analyzed by GLC (Biros 1970b,141 Johnson et al. 197P59). Chemical information obtained from the various invertebrate organisms is examined in light of pos- sible impact on the food chain of fish and other Appendix Il-E/439 organisms. These data give an estimate of the rela- tive importance of bioconcentration, biopassage, and biodegradation in the various trophic levels in predicting the effect on ecosystems (Eberhardt, Meeks, and Peterle 1971).149 Microorganisms-These studies are designed to ascertain whether or not a pesticide or its degrada- tion product(s) is biodegradable by microorganisms in an aquatic environment (Faculty of American Bacteriologists 1957).151 Benthic muds are incu- bated with the pesticide (or degradation product(s) or both) in liquid culture. One sample is sterilized to distinguish chemical or biological degradation, or both. Variables investigated concerning the basic microorganism-pesticide interaction during incubation are: • duration: 1-3-7-14-21-30 days; • temperature: 15-25-35 C; • pH: 5.0-7.0-9.0; • oxygen tension: aerobic or anaerobic (nitro- gen overlay). b. Physico<_::hemical Interactions These studies are designed to determine the in- teractions of water quality factors as they affect rates of sorption, desorption, and loss of chemicals from the aquatic system, and chemical modifica- tions of the parent compound. These data permit accurate assessment of the biological availability to, and effects of the subject chemical on, the aquatic biota. Sediment binding studies (i.e., sorption, desorp- tion rates) should consider the effects of as many combinations of the following as possible: • pH: 6, 7.5, 9; • hardness: 10, 45, 300 ppm as CaC03 ; • temperature: 7, 17, 27 C; • sediment type (heavy, light, high/low-or- ganic); binding profile, i.e., degree of binding as a function of particle size and composition. Chemical degradation rates as influenced by the previous characteristics should also be analyzed. In addition, the importance of photodegradation (visible and ultraviolet) must also be examined. Product identification will utilize analyses by GLC, mass spectrometry, and infrared spectrom- etry. Degradation products will be synthesized where necessary for biological or chemical testing. Vo1atization and loss of pesticides from the aqueous system· must also be considered, particularly where factors of pH or temperature are important. Common or trade name Aldrin ........................................... . Amitrole ......................................... . Arsenic-containing pesticides (Inorganic and organic) Atrazine ......................................... . Azinphosmethyl (Gulhion®) ....................... . Benzene hexachloride (BHC) ...................... . Caplan .......................................... . Chlordane ....................................... . 2, 4-D Oncludi ng salts, eslers, and other derivatives) ... DDT (including its isomers and dehydrochlorination products) Dicamba ......................................... . Dieldrin ......................................... . Dilhiocarbamate pesticides: Maneb ....................................... . Ferbam ........................................ . Zineb ......................................... . Endrin .......................................... . Heptachlor ...................................... . Heptachlor epoxide ............................... . Lindane ......................................... . Malathion ....................................... . Mercury-containing pesticides (Inorganic and organic) Methoxychlor .................................... . Methyl parathion ................................. . Mirex ........................................... . Nitralin (Pianavin®) .............................. . Parathion ........................................ . PCNB ........................................... . Picloram ......................................... . Silvex (including salts, esters, and other derivatives) .. . Strabane® ...................................... . 2, 4, 5· T (including salts, esters, and other derivatives) .. TOE (DOD) (including its isomers and dehydrochlorina- tion products) Toxaphene ....................................... . Trifluralin ....................................... . APPENDIX 11-F Pesticides Recommended for Monitoring in the Environment! Chemica I name• not less than 95 percent of 1,2,3,4, 10, 10-hexachloro- 1, 4, 4a, 5, S, Sa-hexahydro-1, 4-endo-exo-5, S·dimetha- no-naphlha lene 3-amino-s-triazole 2-chloro-4·(ethylamino)-6·(isopropylamino)-s-triazine D, 0-dimethyl phosphorodithioate S-esler with 3-(mer- caplomethyl)-1, 2, 3-benzotriazin'4(3H)-one 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-hexachlorocyclohexane,consisting of several isomers and conlain ing a specified percentage of gamma isomerb N -[(lrichloromethyl)thio]-4-cyclohexene-1, 2-dicarboxi- mide at least 60 percent of 1, 2,4, 5, 6, 7, s, 8·octachloro-3a,4, 7, 7a-tetrahydro-4, 7-methanoindan and not over 40 percenl of related compounds (2, 4·dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid 1,1, 1-trichloro-2,2·bis(p·chlorophenyl)ethane; technical DDT consists of a mixture of the p,p'-isomer and the o, p'-isomer (in a ratio of about 3 or4 to 1) 3, 6-dichroro-o-an i sic acid not less than S5 percent of 1,2,3,4, 10, 10-hexachloro- 6, 7 -epoxy -1, 4, 4a, 5, 6, 7, S, Sa -octahydro-1, 4-endo- exo-5, S-dimethanonaphthalene [ ethy lenebi s( dithioca rbamalo )] manganese; tris(dimethyldithiocarbamato)iron; [ethylenebis(dilhiocarbamato)]zinc; 1, 2,3, 4, 10, 10-hexachloro-6, 7 ·epoxy-1, 4, 4a, 5, 6, 7,S, Sa -oclahydro-1, 4-endo-endo-5, S-dimethanonaphtha- lene 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, S, S-heptachloro-3a, 4, 7, 7a-tetrahydro-4, 7- methanoi ndene 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, S,S-heptachloro-2,3-epoxy-3a,4, 7, 7a-telra- hydro·4, 7-melhanoindan 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-hexachlorocyclohexane, gamma isomer of not less than 99 percent purity diethyl mercaptosuccinale S·ester with 0, O·dimethyl phosphorodithioate 1,1, 1-trichloro-2, 2-bis(p-melhoxyphenyl)ethane; tech- nical melhoxychlor contains some o, p'-isomer also 0, 0-dimethyl 0-(p-nitrophenyl) phosphorolhioate dodecachlorooclahydro -1, 3, 4 -metheno -1 H -cyclobula [cd]pentalene 4-(methylsulfonyl)-2, 6-dinitro-N, N-diproylaniline 0, 0-diethyl 0-(p-nilrophenyl) phosphorothioate pentachloronitrobenzene 4-amino-3, 5, 6-trichloropicolinic acid 2-(2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy)propionic acid terpene polychlorinates containing 65 percent chlorine (2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy)acetic acid 1, 1 -dichloro-2, 2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane; technical TD E contains some o, p' -isomer also chlorinated camphene containing 67-69 percent chlorine a:, a:, a: -trifluoro-2, 6-dinitro-N, N-dipropyl-p-toluidine 440 Common or trade name Chemical namea Secondary List of Chemicals for Monitoring DCNA (Botran®)... ............................... 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline Carbaryl.......................................... 1-naphthyl methylcarbamate Demetron (Syslox®).... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mixture of D, 0-diethyl S (and 0)-[2-(ethylthio)ethyQ phosphorothioates Diazinon......................................... 0, 0-diethyl 0-(2-isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinyl) phosphorothioate Disulfoton (Di-Syston®)............................ 0, D-diethyl S-[2-elhylthio)ethyQphosphorodithioate Diuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 1-dimethylurea Endosullan (Thiodan®).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7 -hexachloro-5-norbornene-2,3-dimethanol cyclic sulfite Fenac'............................... . . . . . . . . . . . . (2, 3, 6-trichlorophenyl)acetic acid Fluometuron...................................... 1, 1-dimethyl-3-(a, a, a·lrifiuoro-m-tolyl)urea Inorganic bromide from bromine-containing pesticides Lead-containing pesticides such as iead arsenate Linuron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-1-methoxy-1-methylurea PCP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pentachlorophenol Propanild ........................................• · 3', 4' -dichloropropionanilide Triazine-type herbicidesd: Simazine....................................... 2-chloro-4, 6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine; Propazine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 -chloro-4, 6-bisOsopropylamino)-s-triazine; Prometryne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 4-bis(isopropyla mino)-6-(methylthio )-s-triazine TBA............................................. 2, 3, 6-trichlorobenzoic acid, usually available as mixed isomers List of Special Chemicals lor Monitoring• Polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs)......................... Mixtures of chlorinated biphenyl compounds having vari- ous percentages of chlorination. Polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins......................... Dibenzo-p-dioxins having various degrees of chlorination such as the telra-, hexa-, or octachlorodibenzo-p- dioxins, present as impurities in various chlorine-con- taining phenols and early samples ol2,4, 5-T. • Chemical names are in accordance with Chemical Abstracts. • Report individual isomers when possible. c Some compounds are used primarily on one or two crops or in certain regions rather than counlry-wide; lor ex- ample, the herbicides lenac and propanil are used mainly on sugar cane and rice, respectively. d Note that alrazine has been moved to the Primary List • This list contains chemicals which, although not considered to be pesticides themselves, are of special interest in monitoring studies. I Schechter, 1971.1" APPENDIX 11-G TOXICANTS IN FISHERY MANAGEMENT There is much evidence that primitive people in Asia and South America used poisonous plants to capture fresh- water and saltwater fishes for food. In China, extracts from toxic plants have been employed for thousands of years to remove undesirable fish from ponds under intensive fish culture. The practice of applying .toxicants in sport fishery management of waters by poisoning non-game fish has been used as a management tool (Prevost 1960) .19 3 Some of the many causes and instances of fishes in pest situations were discussed by Lennon (1970).191 A survey commissioned by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 1970 disclosed that 29 countries on the five continents are using toxicants in the culture or ma,nagement of food and game fishes (Lennon et al. 1970) .192 Forty-nine of the 50 states in the United States and most provinces in Canada have used or are using piscicides in fishery programs. The toxica~ts are employed to correct various problems in farm, ranch, and fish-produc- tion ponds; in natural lakes and reservoirs; and in streams and rivers. The chemicals that served most commonly as fish toxi- cants since the 1930's were basically insecticides in nature and formulation. Rotenone and toxaphene, for example, were applied predominantly as piscicides in the United States and Canada in 1966 (Stroud and Martin 1968),194 but several dozens of chemicals including natural poisons, inorganics, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and organophos- phates have had testing or use to kill fish (Lennon et al. 1970).192 There is a significant change in the use of toxicants in fishery management. Increasing concerns by the public and government regarding broad spectrum, persistent pesticides have resulted in stiff requirements for registration of fish toxicants and regulation of their use in public waters. Well justified emphasis is being placed now on the develop- ment and use of piscicides that are specific to fish, harmless at use levels to non-target plants and animals, non-persistent in the aquatic environment, and safe to handle and apply. An enormous amount of research is required now to secure or retain registration of a fish toxicant. The research in- eludes long-term studies on safety to man and mammals, on efficacy to target fish, on residues in fish and other aquatic life, and on degradation or deactivation of the toxicant in the environment. Programs for the management of public waters are being more closely scrutinized for any temporary or long-term ef- fects they will have on the environment. More emphasis is being placed on the enhancement and protection of the in- tegrity of ecosystems as the main goal for management of our living resources. The importance of preserving a di- versity of aquatic habitats and natural communities as important gene pools, which may be of inestimable value to mankind in the future, as well as for education, research, and aesthetic enjoyment must be clearly recognized. If control measures are undertaken which will kill non-target aquatic species (fish or invertebrates), then careful con- sideration should be given to preserving populations of these species for restrocking in order to reestablish stability of the community. Furthermore, more attention should be given to beneficial use of nuisance populations of aquatic organisms and efficient harvesting methods should be developed as part of any integrated control program. There are five divisions of the management process that must be considered by fishery managers and project review boards. They are: Demonstration of need A fishery problem is at first presumed to exist, then studied and defined, and proven or disproven. If proven, the need for immediate or eventual correction is assessed and weighed against all possible environmental, scientific, and political considerations. The need then is documented and demonstrated to those in a decision-making capacity. Selection of method(s) for solution of problem All possible solutions to the problem by means of chem- ical, biological, physical, and integrated approaches must be considered and evaluated in terms of effectiveness on target fishes, safety to non-target plants and animals, and environmental impact. An important rule of thumb is that a toxicant should be used only as a last resort. 441 442/ Appendix II-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife The selection of an approach to solve the problem, there- fore, must be accomplished on the bc;sis of sound fact-find- ing and judgment. Every opportunity for exploiting an integrated approach to management and control deserves consideration to protect the integrity of ecosystems. The selection of an approach to management of native fish populations and control of exotic species should be approved by an impartial board of review. Selection of a toxicant If a chemical approach to solution of the problem is chosen, the next major step is selection of the correct toxi- cant. The toxicant must be one registered for the use, specific to the target species, and relatively compatible with the environmental situation. · Method of Application The proximity of application transects on lakes or meter- ing stations on streams is an important consideration. Ap- plication points must be close enough together to avoid locally excessive concentrations that may be harmful to non-target life. Every opportunity to achieve selective action on target organisms by adjusting the application method or tiriling should be exploited. Pre-and post-treatment assessments Careful surveys and assessments of the target and non- target life in the problem area are needed prior to a treat- ment. The data must be quantitatively and qualitatively representative. The actual application must be preceded by competent ecosystem study of the habitat to be treated. Moreover, on- site bioassays of the candidate toxicant must be conducted against representative target and non-target organisms col- lected in the problem area. The dose (concentration plus duration of exposure) of toxicant needed for the reclama- tion is calculated from the results of the on-site bioassays. Following an application, thorough ecosystem studies and assessments of target and non-target life must be made in the problem area. Some surveys should be accomplished immediately; others should be prosecuted periodically for 1 to 2 years to evaluate the effect of the treatment to deter- mine if the original problem was corrected, and to detect any long-term and/or adverse effects on non-target life and the environment in general. All chemical treatments of public waters should be re- viewed by impartial boards at appropriate state and federal levels. Resource administrators, managers and scientists in fisheries, wildlife, ecology, and recreation should be repre- sented on the boards, and they should call in advisors from the private and public sectors as necessary to evaluate pro- posed projects realistically and fairly. A board must have decision-making authority· at each step of the treatment process; thus, a smoothly working system for getting facts from the field to the board and its decisions back to the field is necessary. Furthermore, a review board must have con- tinuity so that it can assess the results of preceding treat- ments and apply the experience obtained to subsequent management activities. lir· . . :: '· LITERATURE CITED APPENDIX II-A 1 Allan Hancock Foundation (1965), An investigation on the fate of organic and inorganic wastes discharged into the marine environ- ment. Publication 29 (University of Southern California, Cali- fornia State Water Quality Board), 117 p. 2 Bella, D. A. and Yf. E. Dobbins (1968), Difference modeling of stream pollution. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, SA5, 94(6139):995-1016. 3 Baumgartner, D. J. and D. S. Trent (1970), Ocean outfall design, part 1, literature review and theoretical development. U.S. Department of Interior report (Federal Water Quality Ad- ministration, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon). 4 Brady, D. K., W. L. Graves and J. C. Geyer (1969), Surface heat exchange at power plant cooling lakes. Department of Geog- raphy and Environmental Engineering Report No. 5 (The Johns Hopkins University). 6 Brooks, N. H. (1960), Diffusion of sewage effluent in an ocean cur- rent. Proceedings of First International Conference on Waste Disposal in the Marine Environment (Pergamon Press, New York). 6 Carter, H. H. (1969), A preliminary report on the characteristics of a heated jet discharged horizontally into a transverse current. Part 1: constant depth. [Technical Report No. 61], Chesapeake Bay Institute, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore). 7 Csanady, G. T. (1970), Disposal of effluents in the Great Lakes. Water Research 4:79-114. 8 D'Arezzo, A. J. and F. D. Masch (1970), Analysis and predictions of conservative mass transport in impoundments. Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas. 9 J:>resnack, Robert and William E. Dobbins (1968), Numerical analysis of BOD and DO profiles. Journal of the Sanitary Engi- neering Division, ASCE SA5 94(6139):789-807. 10 Edinger, J. E. and E. M. Polk, Jr. (1969), Initial mixing ofthermal discharges into a uniform current. Department of Environ- mental and Water Resources Engineering [Report No. 1], Vanderbilt University, Nashville. 11 Fischer, H. B. (1968), Dispersion predictions in natural streams. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, SA5, 94(6169): 927-943. 12 Fischer, H. B. (1970), A method for predicting pollutant transport in tidal waters. Water Resources Center [Report 132], Uni- versity of California, Berkeley. 13 Glover, Robert E. (1964), Dispersion of dissolved or suspended materials in flowing streams. Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 433-B (U.S. Government Printing Office), 32 p. 14 Herbert, D. W. M. (1961), Freshwater fisheries and pollution control. Proceedings cif the Society for Water Treatment Journal, 10:135-156. 16 Herbert, D. W. M. (1965), Pollution and fisheries. In: Ecology and the Industrial Society, 5th Symposium, British Ecological Society (Blackwell Scientific, Oxford), pp. 173-195. 16 Herbert, D. W. M. and D. S. Shurben (1964), The toxicity of fluoride to rainbow trout. Water Waste Treatment Journal 10: 141-143. 17 Jaske, R. T. and J. L. Spurgeon (1968), Thermal digital simula- tion of waste heat discharges. 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(1965), Estuarine distribution of non-conservative substances. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, SAl, 91(4225):23--42. 24 O'Connor, D. J. and D. M. Toro (1970), Photosynthesis and oxygen balance in streams. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, SA2, 96(7240 :547-571. 26 Parker, F. L. and P. A. Krenkel (1969), Thermal pollution: status of the art. Department of Environmental and Water Resources Engineering [Report No. 3], Vanderbilt University, Nashville. 26 Policastro, A. J. and J. V. Tokar. Heated effluent dispersion in large lakes, state-of-the-art of analytical modeling, part I. Critique of model formulations, Argonne National Laboratory, ANL ES-11 (in press). 27 Pritchard, D. W. (1971), Design and siting criteria for once- through cooling systems. American Institute of Chemical Engi- neers, 68th annual meeting, Houston. 28 Sprague, J. B. (1969), Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. 1: Bioassay methods in acute toxicity. 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Jordan (1968), Upper lethal tempera- tures at various levels of salinity in the euryhaline Cyprinodon- tids Fundulus heteroclitus and F. diaphanus after isosomotic acclima- tion. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 25(12):2717-2720. 86 Gibson, E. S. and F. E. J. Fry (1954), The performance of the lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush, at various levels of temperature and oxygen pressure. Can.]. Zoo[. 32(3):252-260. 86 Hair, J. R. (1971), Upper lethal temperature .and thermal shock tolerances of the opossum shrimp, Neomysis awatschensis, from the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, Califqrnia. Calif. Fish Game 57(1):17-27. 87 Hart, J. S. (1947), Lethal temperature relations of certain fish of the Toronto region. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. Sec. 5(41):57-71. 88 Hart, J. S. (1952), Geographic variations of some physiological and morphological characters in certain freshwater fish [University of Toronto biology series no. 60] (The University of Toronto Press, Toronto), 79 p. 89 Heath, W. G. (1967), Ecological significance of temperature tol- erance in Gulf of California shore fishes. J. Ariz. Acad. Sci. 4(3): 172-178. . 90 Hoff, J. G. and J. R. Westman (1966), The temperature tolerances of three species of marine fishes. J. Mar. Res. 24(2):131-140. 91 Lewis, R. M. (1965), The effect of minimum temperature on the survival of larval Atlantic I;nenhaden Brevoortia ryrannus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 94(4):409-412. 92 Lewis, R. M. and W. F. Hettler, Jr. (1968), Effect .of temperature and salinity on the survival of young Atlantic menhaden, Bre- voortia ryrannus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4):344-349. 93 McCauley, R. W. (1958), Thermal relations of geographic races of Salvelinus. Can.]. Zoo[. 36(5):655-662. 94 McCauley, R. W. (1963), Lethal temperatures of the develop- mental stages of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus L. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 20(2):483-490. 96 Neill, W. H., Jr., K. Strawn, and J. E. Dunn (1966), Heat resist- ance experiments with the longear sunfish, Lepomis miegalotis (Rafinesque). Arkansas Acad. Sci. Proc. 20:39-49. 96 Scott, D. P. (1964), Thermal resistance of pike (Esox lucius L.) muskellunge (E. masquinongy) Mitchill, and their F 1 hybrids. ]. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21(5):1043-1049. 97 Simmons, H. B. (1971), Thermal resistance and· acclimation at various salinities in the sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus Lacepede). Texas A&M Univ. Soc. No. TAMU-SG-71-205. Literature Cited/445 98 Smith, W. E. (1970), Tolerance of Mysis r~licta to thermal shock and light. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(2):418-422. 99 Strawn, K. and J. E. Dunn (1967), Resistance of Texas salt-and freshwater marsh fishes to heat death at various salinities, Texas-T. Series, 1967:57-76. References Cited 10° Blahm, T. H. and R. J. McConnell, unpublished data (1970), Mortality of adult eulachon Thaleichthys pacificus chinook slamon and coho salmon subjected to sudden increases in water tem- perature. (draft). Seattle Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle. 101 Blahm, T. H. and W. D. Parente, unpublished data (1970), Effects of temperature on chum salmon, threespine stickelback and yellow perch in the Columbia river, Seattle Biological Labora- tory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle. 102 Edsall, T. A. and P. A. Colby (1970), Temperature tolerance of young-of-the-year cisco, Coregonus artedii. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3) :526-531. 103 McConnell, R. J. and T. H. Blahm, unpublished data (1970), Resistance of juvenile sockeye salmon 0. nerka to elevated water temperatures. (draft) Seattle Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle. 104 Smith, W. E. unpublished data (1971), Culture reproduction and temperature tolerance of Pontoporeia affinis in the laboratory. (draft) National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota. 10 6 Snyder, G. R. and T. H. Blahm, unpublished data (1970), Mor- tality of juvenile chinook salmon subjected to elevated water temperatures. (draft Man.) Seattle Biological Laboratory. U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle. APPENDIX 11-D 106 Bond, C. E., R. H. Lewis and J. L. Fryer. (1960), Toxicity of various herbicidal materials to fish. Second seminar on Biological problems in water pollution. R. A. Taft San. Eng. Cen. Tech. Rept. W60-3. pp 96-101. 107 Bridges, W. R. (1961), Biological problems in water pollution, Third Seminar. (1961) U.S.P.H.S. Pub. No. 999-WP-25, pp. 247-249. 108 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean, and E. J. Harris (1964), Toxicity of aqualin to fingerling brown trout and bluegills. N.Y. Fish Game]. 11(2):106-114. 109 Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier (1964), The effect upon the pump- kinseed sunfish Lepomis gibbosus (Linn.) of chronic exposure to lethal and sublethal concentrations of dieldrin. Notulae Natur. (Philadelphia) no. 370:1-10. 110 Carlson, C. A. (1966), Effects of three organophosphorus insecti- cides on immature Hexagenia and Hydropsyche of the upper Missis- sippi River. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(1):1-5. 111 Eaton, J. G. (1971), Chronic malathion toxicity of the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinsque). Water research, Vol. 4, pp. 673-684. 112 Gilderhus, P. A. (1967), Effects of diquat on bluegills and their food organisms. Progr. Fish-Cult. 29(2):67-74. 11 3 Henderson, C., Q. H. Pickering,and C. M. Tarzwell (1959), Relative toxicity of ten chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides to four species of fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(1):23-32. 114 Hughes, J. S. and J. T. Davis (1962), Comparative toxicity to bluegill sunfish of granular and liquid herbicides. Proceedings Sixteenth Annual Conference Southeast Game and Fish Com- missioners. pp. 319-323. 115 Hughes, J. S. and J. T. Davis (1963), Variations in toxicity to bluegill sunfish of phenoxy herbicides. Weeds 11 (l) :50-53. 116 Hughes, J. S. and J. T. Davis (1964), Effects of selected herbi- 446/ Appendix II-Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife cides on bluegill and sunfish. Proceedings Eighteenth Annual Conference, Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commissioners, Oct. 18-21, 1964, pp. 48D-482. 117 Jensen, L. D. and A. R. Gaufin (1964), Long-term effects of organic insecticides on two species of stonefly naiads. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(4):357-363. 118 Jensen, L. D. and A. R. Gaufin (1966), Acute and long-term effects of organic insecticides on two species of stonefly naiads. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 38(8):1273-1286. 119 Katz, M. (1% I), Acute toxicity of some organic insecticides to three species of salmonids and to the threespine stickleback. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90(3):264-268. 12o Lane, C. E. and R. E. Livingston (1970). Some acute and chronic effects of dieldrin on the sailfin molly, Poecilia latipinna. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3):489-495. 121 Macek, K. J. and W. A. McAllister (1970), Insecticide suscepti- bility of some common fish family representatives. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(1):20-27. 122 Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephen (1967), A method of establishing acceptable toxicant limits for fish-malathion and the butoxy- ethanol ester of 2, 4-D. Transactions American Fisheries Society. Vol. 96, No. 2, pp. 185-193. 123 Pickering, Q. H., C. Henderson and A. E. Lemke (1962), The toxicity of organic Phosphorus insecticides to different species of warmwater fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. Vol 91, No 2, pp. 175-184. 124 Sanders, H. 0. (1969), Toxicity of pesticides to the crustacean, Gam- marus lacustris [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife technical paper 25] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 18 p. 125 Sanders, H. 0. (1970), Toxicities of some herbicides to six species of freshwater crustaceans. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42(8, part 1):1544-1550. 126 Sanders, H. 0. 1972, In press. Fish Pesticid~ Res. Lab. Columbia, Mo. Bureau of Spt. Fish. and Wildlife. ·The toxicities of some insecticides to four species of Malocostracan Crustacea. 127 Sanders, H. 0. and 0. B. Cope (1966), Toxicities of several pesti- cides to two species of cladocerans. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(2): 165-169. 128 Sanders, H. 0. and 0. B. Cope (1968), The relative toxicities of several pesticides to naiads of three species of stoneflies. Limnol. Oceanogr. 13(1): 112-117. 129 Schoettger, R. A. (1970), Toxicology of thiodan in several fish and aquatic invertebrates [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in- vestigation in fish control 35] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 31 p. 130 Solon, J. M. and J. H. Nair, III. (1970), The effect of a sublethal concentration of LAS on the acute toxicity of various phosphate pesticides to the Fathead Minnow Pimephales promelas Rafinesque. Bull. Envr. Contam. and Toxico. Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 408-413. 131 Surber, E. W. and Q. H. Pickering (1962), Acute toxicity of endo- thal, diquat, hyamine, dalapon, and silvex to fish. Progr. Fish- Cult. 24(4): 164-171. 132 Walker, C. R. (1964), Toxicological effects of Herbicides on the fish environment. Water & Sewerage Works. 111(3):113-116. 133 Wilson, D. C. and C. E. Bond, (1969), The effects of the herbi- cides diquat and· dichlobenil (casoron) on pond invertebrates. Part I. Acute toxicity. Transactions Am. Fishery. Soc. Vol. 98, No. 3 pp. 438-443. References Cited 134 Bell, H. L., unpublished data (1971) National Water Quality La- boratory, Duluth, Minnesoata. 135 Biesinger, K. E., unpublished adta (1971), National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota. 136 Carlson, C. A., unpublished data (1971). National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota. 137 FPRL, unpublished data (1971), Fish Pesticide Res. Lab. Annual Rept. Bur. Spt. Fish. and Wildlife. Columbia, Mo. 138 Merna, J. W., unpublished data (1971), Institute for Fisheries Re- search, Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Ann Arbor, Michigan E.P.A. grant # 18050-DLO. APPENDIX 11-E 139 Berger, B. L., R. E. Lennon, and J. W. Hogan, (1969), Labora- tory studies on antimycin A as a fish toxicant. U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Investigations in Fish Control, No. 26; 21 p. 140Biros, F. J. (1970a), A comparative study of the recovery of metabolized radiolabeled pesticides from animal tissues. Inter- American Conf. on Toxicology and Occupational Medicine, Aug., 1970; p. 75-82. 141 Biros, F. J. (1970b), Enhancement of mass spectral data by means of a time averaging computer. Anal. Chern. Vol. 42; p. 537-540. 142 Breeder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen, (1966), Modes of Reproduction in Fishes. The Natural History Press, New York, 941 p. 143 Brock, T. D. (1966), Principles of Microbial Ecology. Prentice- Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; 306 p. 144 Burdick, G. E. (1967), Use of bioassays in determining levels of toxic wastes harmful to aquatic organisms [American Fisheries Society special publication no. 4] (The Society, Washington, D.C.), pp. 7-12. 14 5 Burdick, G. E., H. J. Dean and E. J. Harris (1964), Toxicity of aqualin to fingerling brown trout and bluegills. N.Y. Fish Game J. 11(2):106-114. 146 Clark, J. R. and R. L. Clark (1964), Sea-water systems for experi- mental aquariums [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife research report 63] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 192 p. 147 Cope, 0. B., E. M. Wood, and G. H. Wallen (1970), Chronic effects of 2,4-D on the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(1):1-12. 148 Eaton, J. G. (1970), Chronic malathion toxicity to the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque). Water Research, Vol. 4; p. 673-684. 149 Eberhardt, L. L., R. L. Meeks, and T. J. Peterle (1971), Food chain model for DDT kinetics in a freshwater marsh. Nature 230:60-62. 150 EPA, (1971), Chronic toxicity studies, test procedure, Bioassay methods for the evaluation of toxicity of industrial wastes and other substances to fish. In: Standard Methods for the Evalua- tion of Water and Waste Water. 151 Faculty of American Bacteriologists (1957), Manual of Micro- biological Methods. McGraw-Hill Co. New York, 315 p. 152 Fowler, D. L., J. N. Mahan, and H. H. Shepard (1971), The pesticide review, 1970. U.S. Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, 46 p. 16 3 Grant, B. R. and P. M. Mehrle (1970), Pesticide effects on fish endocrine function, in Progress in sport fishery research, 1970 (Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.). 154 Hansen, D. L. and E. T. Bush (1967), Improved solubilization procedures for liquid scintillation counting of biological ma- terials. Anal. Biochem. 18(2):320-332. 155 Henderson, C., W. L. Johnson, and A. Inglis (1969), Organo- chlorine insecticide residues in fish (Nat'l. Pesticide Monitoring Program). Pesticides Monitoring Journal, Vol. 3, No. 3; p. 145-171. 16 6 Hisaoka, K. K. and C. F. Firh't, (1962), Ovarian cycle and egg production in the zebrafish, Brachycla nio rerio. Copeia, Vol. 4. 157 Jensen, L. D. and A. R. Gaufin (1964), Effects of ten insecticides on two species of stonefly naiads. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93(1): 27-34. 158 Johnson, D. W. (1968), Pesticides and fishes-a review of selected literature. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 97, No. 4; p. 398-424. 159 Johnson, B. T., R. Saunders, H. 0. Sanders, and R. S. Campbell (1971), Biological magnification and degradation of DDT and aldrin by freshwater invertebrates. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. (In press). 160 Kennedy, H. D. and D. F. Walsh, (1970), Effects of malathion on two freshwater fishes and aquatic invertebrates in ponds. U.S. Bur. of Spt. Fish. and Wildlife, Tech. Paper 55; 13 p. 161 Kennedy, H. D., L. L. Eller, and D. F. Walsh, (1970"), Chronic effects of methoxychlor on bluegills and aquatic invertebrates. U.S. Bur. Spt. Fish. and Wildlife, Tech. Paper 53; 18 p. 162 Lennon, R. E. and B. L. Berger. ( 1970), A resume of field applica- tions of antimycin A to control Fish. U.S. Bur. Spt. Fish. and Wildlife, Investigations in Fish Control, No. 40; 19 p. 163 Lennon, R. E. and C. R. Walker ( 1964 ), Investigations in fish con- trol. I. Laboratories and methods for screening fish-control chemicals [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife service circular 185] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 18 p. 164 Litchfield, J. T., Jr. and F. Wilcoxon (1949), A simplified method of evaluating dose-effect experiments. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Vol. 96; pp. 99-113. 165 Macek, K. J. (1968), Reproduction in brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) fed sublethal concentrations of DDT. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 25(9): 1787-1796. 166 Macek, K. J., C. A. Rodgers, D. L. Stalling and S. Korn (1970). The uptake, distribution and elimination of dietary 14 C-DDT and 14C-dieldrin in rainbow trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., Vol. 99, No. 4, p. 689-695. 167 Marking, L. L. and J. W. Hogan (1967), Toxicity of Bayer 73 to fish [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife investigations in fish control 19] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 13 p. 168 Mattenheimer, H. (1966), Micromethods for the clinical-chemical and biochemical laboratory (Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan), 232 p. 169 Mattingly, D. (1962), A simple fluorimetric method for the esti- mation of free 11-hydroxy corticoids in human plasma. J. Clin. Pathol. 15:374-379. 17° Metcalf, R. L., K. S. Gurcharan, and I. P. Kapoor (1971), Model ecosystem for the evaluation of pesticide biodegradability and ecological magnification. ES&T 5(8): 709-713. 171 Mehrle, P. M. (1970), Amino acid metabolism of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) as affected by chronic dieldrin exposure [Ph.D. dissertation] University of Missouri, Columbia, 79 p. 172 Mollison, W. R. (1970), Effects of herbicides on water and its inhabitants. Weed Science, Vol. 18; p. 738-750. 173 Mount, D. I. (1967), Considerations for acceptable concentrations of pesticides for fish production. In: A Symposium on Water Quality Criteria to Protect Aquatic Life, Annual Meeting, Kansas City, Missouri, Sept. 1966, Edwin L. Cooper, Editor. American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 4; p. 3-6. 17 4 Mount, D. I. and W. A. Brungs (1967), A simplified dosing ap- paratus for fish toxicology studies. Water Res. 1(1):21-29. 175 Natelson, S. (1968), Microtechniques of Clinical Chemistry, C. C. Thomas Co., Springfield, Ill. 578 p. 176 Nebeker, A. V. and A. R. Gaufin (1964), Bioassays to determine pesticide toxicity to the amphipod crustacean, Gammarus lacustris. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci. Arts Letters 41(1):64-67. 177 Nuclear-Chicago Corporation (1967), Preparation of samples for Literature Cited j 44 7 liquid scintillation counting. (The Corporation, Des Plaines, Illinois), loose-leaf. 178 Pickford, G. E. and B. F. Grant (1968), Response of hypophy- sectomized male kilifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) to thyrotropin preparations and to the bovine heterothyrotropic factor. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 10(1):1-7. 179 Rodgers, C. A. and D. L. Stalling (1971), Dynamics of an ester of 2,4-D in organs of three fish species. Weeds. (In press). 18° Sanders, H. 0. and 0. B. Cope (1966), Toxicities of several pesti- cides to two species of cladocerans. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95(2): 165-169. 181 Schoettger, R. A. (1970), Toxicity of thiodan in several fish and aquatic invertebrates [Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife investigation in fish control 35] (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 31 p. 182 Sprague, J. B. (1969), Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. I. Bioassay methods for acute toxicity. Water Research, Vol. 3; p. 793-821. 183 Stalling, D. L. (1971), Analysis of organochlorine residues in fish: Current research of the Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory. Proc. 2nd. Intn. Conf. on Pesticide Chem., Tel Aviv, Israel (In press). 184 Stalling, D. L., R. C. Tindle and J. L. Johnson (1971), Pesticide and PCB cleanup by gel permeation chromatograph. Jour. Assn. Official Anal. Chem., (In press). 185 Standard methods (1971), American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Con- trol Federation (1971), Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 13th ed. (American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.), 874 p. 186 Tindle, R. C. (1971), Handbook of procedures for pesticide residue analyses. U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Fish-Pesticide Research in press. 187 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Food and Drug Administration (1968), FDA guidelines for chemistry and residue data requirements of pesticide petitions (Government Printing Office, Washinbton, D.C.), 22 p. 188 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1969), Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their Relationship to Environmental Health (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.), 677 p. APPENDIX 11-F 189 Schechter, M. S. (1971), Revised chemicals monitoring guide for the National Pesticide Monitoring Program Journal. Vol. 5, No. I, p. 68-71. APPENDIX 11-G 191 Lennon, R. E. (1970), Fishes in pest situations, p. 6-41 In C. E. Palm (chrm). Principles in plant and animal pest control, vol. 5: Vertebrate pests: Problems and Control. National Academy of Sciences, Wash., D.C. 192 Lennon, R. E., J. S. Hunn, R. A. Schnick, and R. M. Burress (1970), Reclamation of ponds, lakes, and streams with fish toxicants: a review. Fisheries Technical Paper 100, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome: 99 p. 193 Prevost, G., (1960), Use of fish toxicants in the Province of Quebec. Can. Fish. Culturist, Vol. 28, 13-35. 194 Stroud, R. H. and R. G. Martin (1968), Fish conservation high- lights 1963-1967. (Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, D.C.), 147 p. -------~---------- Appendix 111-=-MARINE AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE .......................••.......... TABLE 1. AcuTE DosE OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS FOR AQUATIC ORGANISMS .................... . TABLE 2. SuBLETHAL DosEs OF INORGANIC CHEMICALS FOR AQUATIC ORGANISMS ................. . TABLE 3. AccuMULATION oF INoRGANIC CHEMICALS FOR AQUATIC ORGANISMS ..................... . 449 TABLE 4. MAxiMUM PERMISSIBLE CoNCENTRATIONS oF IN- ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN FooD AND WATER ... 450 TABLE 5. TOTAL ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF INORGANIC 481 CHEMICALS IN THE U.S.A.................. 483 461 TABLE 6. ORGANIC CHEMICALS TOXICITY DATA FOR AQUA 'riC ORGANISMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 469 LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 448 APPENDIX Ill-MARINE TABLES 1-6 PREFACE Tables l-3 in this Appendix have been compiled to pro- vide information on the effects of inorganic constituents on marine organisms. Data on bioassay tests with fresh water organisms are included, especially when the information concerning marine organisms is inadequate. This was also done when the same investigator studied both fresh water and marine organisms. The substances tested are listed in alphabetical order, generally based upon the constituent in the compound considered to be critical. The entries are ar- ranged within substances by year of publication and author. The units used are those presented in the original publica- tion. In some cases it is impossible to know whether the concentration is expressed in terms of the element or the compound tested, but if the information was presented in the original publication, it is so indicated. The organism used in the test is identified as in the original reference, giving the specific name wherever it is available. Very ab- breviated descriptions of the conditions of the test are pre- sented. The value of the compilation is to indicate the range of concentrations tested, the species used, and the references to the original work. The reader is urged to refer to the original reference for more precise details about the test conditions or to the author if the necessary details were omitted in the publication. Generally, in Table l the acute dose for a 96 hr LC50 is presented. If the time of the test was different, it is indicated in parentheses after the concentration listed, for example, (48 hr). 449 L =Laboratory bioassay BS =bioassay static BCF =bioassay continuous flow BA =bioassay acute BCH ="bioassay chronic a= water temperature b =ambient air temperature c=pH d =alkalinity (total, phenolphthalein or caustic) e =dissolved oxygen f=hardness (total, carbonate, Mg or GaO) g =turbidity h =oxidation reduction potential i =chloride as Cl j =BOD, 5 day; (])=BOD, short-term k=COD l=Nitrogen (as N02 or N03) m=ammonia nitrogen as NH3 n=phosphate (total, ortho-, or poly) o =solids (total, fixed, volatile, or suspended) p=C02 BOD= biochemical oxygen demand 450/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife 'I' ABLE 1-Acute dose of inorganic chemicals for aquatic organ 'isms Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LCSO Specie.. Conditions literature citation• Constituent Acute dose 96 br LCSO Species Conditions literature citation• Aluminum ........ 250 ppm Micropterus sal· AI(SQ,)a; 18 H,O; pH Sanborn 19451os Ammonia ......... 212 ppm (2 day) bidity, ammonium (AI) moides 7.2-7.6; 64-8 ppm (NHa) dichromate fish and river crab ······················ Podubsky and Sled· 37 ppm (2 day) static acute bioassay; ronsky 1948" a,c,d,e,g, highly turbid 88 ppm (few Hrs) Sebastes marinus ················ Pulley 19501oo water; NH,OH 17.8 mgfl (short Sebastes marinus AtCia; sea water Pulley 19501oo 1, 4000 ppm (2 day) Gambusia aHinis static acute bioassay; Wallen etal. time) a,c; ammonium sui· 1951133 235 mg/1 Gambusia aHinis t9-22 C; turbid water; WaRen eta!. fate; d,e,g; highly turbidity 2351o 25 1957133 turbid water mgjl; AI,(SO,)a· 248 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affinis ammonium sulfide; Wallen et al. 18H,Q static acute bioassay; 1957133 133 mg/1 Gambusia affinis highly turbid water WaRen et al. a,c,d,e,g; highly 1957133 turbid water used 240 ppm (48 hr) Gambusia aHinis A(,Cb, static acute bio· Wallen et al. 240 ppm (2 day) same as above, but assay turbid water; 1951133 ammonium sulfite a,c,d,e,g used. 135 mg/1 (48 hr) Gambusia aHinis A!,Cb, static acute bio· WaRen et al. 420 ppm (2 day) static acute bioassay; assay turbid water; 1951133 a,c,d,e,g; Ammonium a,c,d,e,g thiocyanate; highly Ammonia .... 18.5 mg/1 (48 brs) Lepomis tap water; reoxygenated TurnbuR et al. turbid (NHa) macroch;rus 20 C; NH,OH 1954130 3.1 mg/1 Lepomis soft water; 30 C Academy of Natural 15 mg/1 (48 hr) cone. as NH.OH; tap macrocbirus Sciences 19602 water; 20 c. 3.4 mg/1 soft water; 20 C 6.0 ppm Lepomis continuous flow, acute Cairns Jr. and 23.7 mg/1 bard water; 30 C macroehirus bioassay, a,c,e,f; Scheier unpub· 24.4 mg/1 hard water; 20 C aerated distilled lished 1955"' 90 mg/1 Physa heterostropba soft water, 20 C NH,Ct 94.5 mg/1 soft water, 30 C 300 mg/1 (6 brs) minnows hard water; NH,CI LeClerc and Deva· 133.9 mg/1 bard water, 20 & 30 C minck 1955" 6 mg/1 Lepomis In standard distilled 400G-5000 mg/1 minnows distiRed water; NH,CI LeClerc and Deva-macrochirus water; NH,CI (6 brs) minck 1955" 8.2 ppm Pimephales static acute bioassay; in Henderson et al. 8. 0 mgjl (time not Daphnia ······················ Meinck et al. promelas hard water; c,d,e,f 196050 specified) 195679 5.2 ppm Pimephales static acute bioassay; 17.5 mg/1 (48 hr) Pimepbales cone. as NH,OH; Black et al. 195113 promelas soft water; c,d,e,f. promelas tap water; 0.4 (24 hr) Salmo gairdneri unionized HHa; static Lloyd and Herbert 7.7 ppm Lepomis NH,CI; distilled aerated Cairns Jr. and acute bioassay; 196076 macrocbirus water; static acute bio· Scheier 1957" a,b,c,d,e. toxicity In· assay; a,c,d,f. NH,CI creased with increas· as N; ing pH (from 7. 0 to 248 mg/1 Gambusia aHinis 21 C; in turbid water WaRen et al. 8.2) using (NH•)•S 1951133 24.6 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri static acute bioassay, Herbert and Shur- 490 mg/1 Gambusia aHinis in turbid water; NH,CI Wallen et al. a,c,d,f NH,CI as N; ben 1964" 1957133 202 ppm (1 day) Carassius carassius static acute bioassay; Dowden and Ben· 240 mgjl using (NH,),SOa· H,Q: a,c, "standard refer-nell1965" 2D-21 C; turbidity ence water" NH,CI lowered from 220 to 161 ppm (2 day) 25 mg/1 50 ppm 114 mg/1 Gambusia aHinis using NH,SCN; turbid Wallen elal. 139 ppm Daphnia magna water 16-23 C 1957133 725 ppm (1-4 day) Lepomis 1290 mg/1 Gambusia aHinis turbid water; 2D-21 C Wallen etal. macrochirus using (NH,),SO.,; re· 1957133 241 ppm (1 day) Lymnaea, sp (eggs) duced turbidity from 173 ppm (2 day) 240-25 mg/1 70 ppm 240 mg/1 Gambusia affinis highly turbid water; Wallen et al. 60 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna a,c; NH,OH; static (NH,),CrO, 1957"' acute bioassay; 136 mg/1 (NH,),Cr,o, "standard reference 37 mg/1 Gambusia affinis turbid water Wallen et al. water'' 1957133 32 ppm (2 day) 910 mg/1 (24 hr) Gambusia aHinis using NH,SCN; turbid Wallen el al. 20 ppm water 16-23 C 1957133 423 ppm (I day) Daphnia magna static acute bioassay, 238 ppm (2 day) Gambusia aHinis static acute bioassay, Wallen etal. a,c, standard refer· ence water and lake a,c,d,e,g; ammonium 1957133 water using ammon-acetate; high turbidity ium sulfate pH 7.6-8.8. 433 (2 day) 238 ppm (2 day) Gambusia alfinis same as above using 292 ppm (NH)aCOa 299 ppm (1 day) static acute bioassay; 510 ppm (2 day) Gambusia alfinis static acute bioassay, Wallen et al. a,c, standard reference a,c,d,e,g, high tur· 1957!33 water; ammonium bidity; NH,&I sulfite 270 ppm (2 day) Gambusia alfinis static acute bioassay, Wallen etal. 273 ppm (2 day) a,c,e,f,d, high tur· 1951133 203 ppm bidity; ammonium 200 mgjl ( 4 days) Cyprinus carpio (NH,),SO, Malacea 1966'• chromate 300 mg/1 ( 4 days) gudgeon static acute bioassay; 160 mg/1 (4 days) Rhodeus sericeus a,c,d,e,f, high tur· 73.4 mg/1 (2 days) Daphnia " • Citations are listed at the end of the Appendix. They can be located alphabetically within tables or by their superior numbers which run consecUtively across the tables for the entire Appendix. Appendix III-Table 7/451 TABLE 1-Continued Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation• Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation• Ammonia ...... D. 4 ppm (I days) Abramis brama a,c,d,e,f; continuous-Ball1967• Beryllium ......... 11 ppm same as above but using (NHa) now bioassay (Be) hard water and 0.29 ppm (7 days) Perea fluviatillis beryllium sulfate 0.35 ppm (5 days) Rutilis rutilis 0.2 ppm same as above but using 0.36 ppm (6 days) Scardinius erythro· soli water phlhalmus 31.0 mg/1 Fundulus 20-22 C; no feeding Jackim el al. D. 41 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri heleroclitus during the 96 hrs; 197064 34-47 ppm (2 days) Salmo gairdneri acute sialic bioassay, Brown 196817 aerated water a,c,d,e,f,o (See sodium borate, also) 6.3 mgjl (48 hr) Salmo gairdneri ammonia as N Brown 196817 Boron ........... 15,000 mg/1 Lepomis 20 C; borontifluoride Turnbull el al. 420 ppm (5 day) Nitzschia linearis ammonium sail; a,c,e; Patrick el al. (B) (24 hr) macrochirus 1954130 sialic acute bioassay 196891 18,000-19,000 mgjl minnows in distilled water; 20 C; LeClerc and Deva- 90.0 ppm Physa helerostropha (6 hr) minck 1950", 3.4 ppm Lepomis ammonium salt; a,c,e; 195573 macrochirus sialic acute bioassay 19,000-19,500 mg/1 in hard water; 20 C; 0.44 ppm (3 hr) Salmo gairdneri 100% mortality un-Lloyd and Orr (6 hr) ionized NHa; 10.5 C 196977 18,000 mg/1 Gambusia alfinis boric acid; 20-23 C; Wallen el al. pH 8-10 (24 hr) pH 5.4-7.3 1957133 Antimony ..... ... 12 ppm Pimephales antimony potassium Tarzwell and Hen-5,600 mg/l (Sb) promelas tartrate; sialic acute derson 1960124 12,000 mg/1 sodium borate, 22-26 C; bioassay; a,c,d,f; (24 hr) pH 8.6-9.1 hard water 8, 200 mg/1 (48 hr) 20 ppm same as above using 3,600 mg/1 soli water 10,500 ppm (2 day) Gambusia alfinis boric acid; static acute Wallen et al. 17 ppm same as above, using bioassay; a,c,d,e,g; 1957133 hard water and anti· highly turbid water mony trichloride 20-23 c 9 ppm same as above except Cadmium ......... 45 mg/1 Drizias Cd(NDah·4 H,D Doudoron and using soli water and (Cd) Katz 195337 antimony trichloride 0.056 mg/1 guppy cone. as Cd; using Shaw and Lowrance 80 ppm same as above using Cd(NDa),-4 H,D 1956112 hard water and anti· 5 ppm Pimephales sialic acute bioassay; Tarzwell and Hen- mony trioxide promelas a,c,d,f; hard water; derson 1960124 80 ppm same as above using cadmium chloride soli water and anti· 0.9 ppm same as above, using mony trioxide soli water (See sodium arsenite also) 1.05 mg/1 static acute bioassay, Pickering and Hen- Arsenic ........... 48 ppm (24 hr) Nolropsis hudsonius Boschelti and Me· c,d,e,f; soli water; derson 1965" (As) Loughlin 19571s CdC!,; cone. as Cd. 29 ppm ( 48 hr) 72.6mg/l same as above; using hard water 27 ppm (12 hr) 1.94 mg/1 Lepomis sialic acute bioassay; young salmon & arsenic trioxide Holland el al. macrochirus c,d,e,f; soli water trout 196057 100 mg/1 (4 days) Rhodeus sericeus sodium arsenate Malacea 1966" CdCJ, cone. as Cd. 160 mg/1 (4 days) Cyprinus carpio 1.27 mg/1 Lebistes reticulalus same as above 5 mg/1 (2 days) Daphnia 2.84 mg/1 Lepomis cyanellus same as above 66.0 mg/1 same as above, but Barium ........... 2083 mgjl (36 hr) young eels 20 C; using BaCh Doudoron and Katz using hard water (Ba) 195337 0.17 ppm Pimephales cadmium cyanide com-Doudoroff el al. 200 ppm (time not Crassius auralus BaCh Bijan and Des-promelas plex, sodium cyanide 1966" given) chi ens 19561' (439 ppm CN) and 100 ppm (lime not Bulinus contortus cadmium sulfate given) (528 ppm Cd). Syn- 11 ppm (lime not Planorbis glabratus BaCh Bijan and Des-lhetic soli water; given) chiens 19561' sialic acute bioassay; 1640 mgjl Gambusia affinis turbid water; 20 C BaCiz Wallen el al. a,c; cone. as CN 1957133 0.008-0.01 ppm Salmo gairdneri continuous flow, acute Ball1967' 4440 mg/1 (24 hr) (I day) bioassay; a,b,f; hard 10, DOD ppm (2 day) Gambusia affinis sialic acute bioassay, Wallen el al. water a,c,d,e,g; turbid 1957133 30 mg/1 (1 day) water; barium carbo· 30 ppm (1 day) continuous flow, acute Velsen and Alder- nate; 20 C bioassay, a,b,f dice 19671" 3, 200 ppm (2 day) same as above using 0.12 mg/l (4-8 Crassoslrea in flowing water; 20 C Shuster and Pring! e barium chloride weeks) Yirginica salinity 31 ppt; CdClz. 1969113 Beryllium ...... 1.3 mg/1 Lepomis beryllium sulfate; in Tarzwell and Hen-2.5 H,D (Be) macrochirus soli water derson 19561" 27.0 mg/1 Fundulus 20-22 C; no feeding Jackim el al. 12 mg/1 "<>: in hard water heleroclilus during the 96 hr 1970" 15 ppm Pimephales sialic acute bioassay; aerated water. promelas a,c,d,f, hard water; o. 2 mg/1 (8 wk) Crassoslrea ...................... Pringle (in press)" beryllium chloride Yirginica 0.15 ppm same as above using 0.1 mg/1 (15 wk) ······················ soli water Calcium .......... 8, 400 mg/1 (24 hr) Lepomis ······················ Doudoron and 20 ppm same as above using (Ca) macrochirus Katz 195337 hard water & 10,000 mg/l Lepomis 20 C; Ca(NDah Trama 1954b127 beryllium nitrate macrochirus 0.15 ppm same as above but using 10,000 ppm Ca(NDa),; static acute soli water bioassay; a,d,e,f ~: .. 452/Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Calcium...... . . . 10,650 ppm (Ca) 9,500 ppm 11,300 ppm 7,752 mg/1 (22- 27 hr) 160 mg/1 56,000 ppm 13,460 ppm (2 day) 220 ppm (2 day) 240 ppm (I day) 56,000 ppm (2 day) 11,300 ppm saturation 5%(fimenol given) 3, 526 ppm (!-day) 3,005 ppm (2 day) 8, 350 ppm (I day) 4, 485 ppm (I day) 3, 094 (2 day) 2,373 ppm (3 day) 3, 200 ppm (5 day) 2,980 ppm 3,130 ppm (5 day) 10,650 ppm Carassius auralus Gambusia affinis Lepomis macrochirus Gambusia affinis Daphnia magna cacr.; a,d,e,f; static acute bioassay in standard water continuous flow, acute bioassay, a;c;ef; aerated water; small fish used. same as above except large fish used in disfilled water Ca(OH)2 eaco,; a,c,d,e,g, turbid water static acute bioassay 19- 21 c cacr.; turbid water; static acute bioassay; a,c,d,e,g Ca(OH)2; a,c,d,e,g; sialic acute bioassay, turbid water; 21-23 C caso.; a,c,d,e,g; turbid water; static acute bioassay. 21-25 C a,c,d,e,i; aerated water; CaC12Iarge fish used 2:14.24 em long; static acute bioassay. 18-20 C; in soft water; caso, 20-23 C; DO 0.18-0.22 ppm (C02= 13.75- 69.30 ppm) CaCI2 CaCb; a,c, static acute bioassay; standard reference water same as above Lepomis same as above macrochirus Lymnaea sp. (Eggs) same as above Nitzschia linearis same as above same as above static acute bioassay; a,c,e; caso, same as above Lepomis macrochirus Nitzschia linearis static acute bioassay; a,c,e, cacr, Lepomis macrochirus same as above (See also potassium chloride and sodium chloride) Chloride.......... 0.08 ppm (7 day) Salmo gairdneri (CJ) continuous flow acute bioassay; a,c,e; from mono and dichlor- amines. 20 C; 23°/oo salinity pH 8.0 10 ppm (24 hr) Sphaerodes maculatus ..... 19.25 ppm (16 hr) fingerling silrers cone. as residual Cl (See potassium chromate and dichromate and sodium chromate and dichromate also) Chromium........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lepomis 22±0.2 C (Cr) macrochirus 300 mg/1 (24 hr) 145 mg/1 (24 hr) 213 mg/1 (48 hr) 82 mg/1 Gambusia affinis Na.CrO, Na.Cr2o, Na.Cr2o, turbid water, 19-23 C; pH 7.5-7.8; 240 mg/1 ammonium chromate TABLE 1-Continued LHerature citation* Academy of Nat· ural Sciences 196()2 Cairns Jr. and Scheier unpub- lished 1955,"2 1958,26 195927 Industrial Wastes 195661 Industrial Wastes 195661 Jones 1957" Wallen el al. 19571" Cairns Jr. and Scheier 1957," 1951J26 Academy of Nat· ural Sciences 19602 Ahuja 1964' Dowden and Ben· nefl1965" Patrick et al. 196891 Patrick et al. 196891 Merkens 195881 Eisler and Edmunds 196641 Holland el al. 196057 Abegg 19501 Abegg 19501 Turnbull et al. 1954!30 Wallen etal. 1957"3 Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Chromium. . . . . . . 56 mg/1 (Cr) 104 mg/1 96 mg/1 135 mg/1 92 mg/1 103 mg/1 40.0 ppm (48 hr) 320 ppm 382 ppm 369 ppm 196 mg/1 (time not given) 110 ppm 110 mg/1 170 mg/1 100 mg/1 113 mg/1 135 mg/1 0.21 mg/1 (time not given) 0. 25 mg/1 (time not given) 17.3 mg/1 (lime not given) 40.6 mg/1 (time not given) 110 mg/1 75 mg/1 ( 48 hr) 60 mg/1 (12 days) 0.01 mg/1 (48 hr) 0.1 mg/1 (48 hr) 0.1 ppm (1 day) 0.03 ppm (2 day) 0.2 ppm (1 day) 5.07 mg/1 67.4 mg/i 7.46mg/l 71.9 mgfl 4.10 mg/1 Lepomis macrochirus Lepomis macrochirus Micropterus salmoides Lepomis macrochirus sunfish Salmo gairdneri sunfish sunfish Navicula snail sunfish Polycelis nigra Carcinus maenas Daphnia magna Daphnia magna Lymnaea sp (Eggs) Pimephales prometas Lepomis macrochirus Carassius auratus Lebistes reliculatus Conditions turbid water, 18-20 C; pH 5.7-7.4; ammon- ium dichromate (136 mg/1) turbid water; 17-21 C; pH 7.6-8.1 potassium chromate (400 mg/1) turbid water; 21-30 C; pH 5.4-6.7 potassium dichromate (280 mg/1) turbid water; 20-22 C; pH 7.7-8.6sodium chromate; (420 mg/1) turbid water; 24-27 C; pH 6.0-7.9 sodium dichromate (264 mg/1) K2Cr2o, in soft water; 18 C and 30 c in hard water; 18 C in hard water; 30 C Cr hexavalent; static acute bioassay; a,c,d,l, g. soft water. alkali and hardness toxicity dichromate in hard water; K2Cr.O, 22 C; lime value; soft water 22 C; "; hard water time value; 20 C; soli water "; hard water 20 C; hard water chromic acid potassium bichromate chromic sullate; a,c; standard reference water; static acute bioassay same as above Cr.(SO,J,+Na2Cr2o,; same as above chromium potassium sulfate; c,d,e,f soft water; static acute bioassay; cone. as Cr same as above using hard water sam& as above using soft water same as above using hard water using soli water same as above using soft water Literature citation• Cairns Jr. and Scheier 1958;26 195927 Fromm and Schiff· man 1958" Trama and Benoit 1958128 Trama and Benoit 1958128 Trama and Benoit 1958128 Schiffman and Fromm 1959uo Academy of Nat- ural Sciences 196()2 Academy of Nat- ural Sciences 19602 Academy of Nat- ural Sciences 196()2 Trama and Benoit 1960129 Raymounl and Shields 1962,1oa 1964105 Meletsea 1963'0 Dowden and Ben- nell1965" Pickering and Hen· derson 1965" Appendjx Ill-Table 1/453 TABLE 1-Continued ·constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation* Constituent Acute dose 91i hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation• Chromium ...... · 67.4-71.9 mg/1 Lepomis Hard water; pH 8.2 Pickering and Hen-Copper ........... meisteri hard water coso,; 1961141 (Cr) macrochirus Alk. 300 mg/1 derson 1966" (Co) a,c,d,i 3.33-7.46 mg/1 Pimelometopon soft water; pH 7.5 0.425 ppm Gyraulus static acute bioassay; pulchrum (fat-Alk. 18 mg/1 circumstriatus a,c,d,i; hard water; head) coso, 27.3-133 mg/1 minnows, Carassius hard water; pH 8.2 Pickering and Hen-0.27 ppm Physa same as above auratus K,cr,o,; Atk. 300 derson 1966" heterostropha mg/1 1.5 mg/1 (2-3 d) Nereis ............... Raymount and 17.6-118 mg/1 soft water; pH 7. 5 Shields 1962103 K,cr,o,; Atk. 18 0.27 ppm Physa heterostropha 21 C hard water as Wurtz 1962140 mg/1 coso, 45.8 mg/1 soft water; pH 7.5 0.050 ppm same as above; young K,cr,o,; Atk. 18 0.56 ppm (1 day) static acute bioassay; Wurtz 1962140 mgjl a,c,f; Cuso, hard and 180 ppm zebra danio adults cone. as Cr (K,cr,o,) Cairns Jr. and soft water. Scheier 1968" 90 ppm (1 day) Carassius auratus cone. as copper sulfite Floch et at. 1963" 1500 ppm zebra danio eggs Poecilia reticulata 4. 74 ppm Lepomis a,c,d,e,; static acute bio-Cairns, Jr. and 15 ppm (1 day) toad and frog Cone. as copper sulfite Floch et at. 196341 macrochirus assay fish acclima-Scheier 1968"'8 tadpoles tized for 2 weeks in a 10 ppm (2 days) synthetic dilution 5 ppm (3 days) water using chrom-20 ppm (3 day) Dragon fly larvae cone. as copper sulfite Floch et at. 196341 ium-cyanide mixture 40 ppm (1 day) 0.26 ppm Lepomis a,c,d,e; static acute bio-Cairns Jr. and 2 ppm (1 day) Daphnia longispina macrochirus assay fish acclima-Scheier 196828 0.1 ppm Nereis vireos time not specified Raymount and tized for 2 weeks in a Shields 1963104 synthetic dilution 2 ppm (2 hr) Salmo gairdneri CuSO,.SH,O Herbert and Van water. Dyke 1964" 170 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay, Trama and Benoit 0.2 ppm (48 hr) macrochirus a,c,d,f,g; dichromate; 1958128 1.5ppm Gammartls tacustris static acute bioassay; Nebeker and Gaufin fish were acclimated a,e, Coso, 1964" for 2 weeks in syn· • 19 ppm (12 days) Nereis vireos time not specified Raymount and thetic dilution. Shields 1963104 Copper ........... 1.0 ppm (6.5 day) Gasterosteus static acute bioassay; Jones 1938" 0.980 ppm Lepomis CuCb Cope 1965" (Co) acuteatus a,c; using Cu(NO,), macrochirus 0.23 mg/1 (6 hr) Balanus balanoides hypertonic seawater Pyefinch and Molt 2.8 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay; 1948101 macrochirus coso,; a 0. 46 mg/1 (6 hr) n crenatus 0. 8 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri a,c,e,f,l,m; field study Herbert et at. 3. 3 mg/1 (24 hr) Orizias CuCb 2H,O DoudoroH and in a river 196552 Katz 1953" 0.034 ppm (1 day) Salmo salar continuous flow, acute Sprague 1965"8 0. 74 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay; Trama 1954a"' bioassay g,c,f; with macrochirus a,c,d,e, distilled 3 l'g/1 Zn and 21'g/l aerated water Co 7.0 mg/1 (48 hr) 20 C; pH 8.3 Turnbull et at. 321'g/l (time not juvenile salmon in very soft water Sprague and Ram- 1954130 given) (14 mg/1 hardness) sey 19651" 0.18 ppm Pimephates static acute bioassay; Palmer and Ma-0.150 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri static acute bioassay, a, Cope 1966" promelas a,c,d,e,f; Cuso, Ioney 195590 coso. 84 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affinis static acute bioassay; Wallen et at. 2.800 ppm (2 day) Lepomis same as above Cope 19li6" turbid water; 1957133 macrochirus a,c,d,e,g; Coso, 1.5ppm Pimephales as eN-using copper DoudoroH et at. 75 mg/1 Gambusia aHinis 24-27 C; using copper Wallen et at. promelas cyanide complex; 196638 sulfate in highly 19571" static acute bioassay; turbid water a,c; soft water 56, 000 ppm (2 day) Gambusia aHinis cupric oxide; static acute Wallen etal. 1.2 ppm same as above except bioassay a,c,d,e,g; 1957133 cone. as Co turbid wale r 19-20 C 1.14 mg/1 Pimelometopon in hard water; Coso,. Pickering and Hen- 38 ppm (1 day) Salmo gairdneri cuso.; a,c,e,f,i,p; Turnbull-Kemp pulchrum 5H,O derson 196694 (fry) static acute bioassay 1958131 10.2mg/l Lepomis in hard water" 1.25 mg/1 (time Lepomis in soft water; 18-20 C; Academy of Nat-macrochirus not given) macrochirus CuCb ural Sciences 0.048 ppm Salmo salar BSA;a; incipient lethal Sigler et at. 1966114 19602 level with 0. 600 Zn 48 hr. Daphnia magna .............. Cabejszek and 3.0 ppm Orconectes ruslitus continuous flow acute Hubschman 1967" Stasiak 1960" bioassay, a,c,e,f; 1.9 ppm Japanese oyster Copper sulfate Fujiya 1960" 20 C; intermolting 1.9 mg/1 oysters pH 8.2; 12 C Fujiya 1960," stage 1961 44 1.0 ppm (1 day) same as above; adult 1.4 ppm Pimephales static acute bioassay; Tarzwell and Hen-crayfish used promelas a,c,d,f, hard water; derson 1960124 1.0 ppm (6 day) same as above; juvenile cuso, crayfish used 0.05 ppm same as above using 1.0 ppm (6 day) same as above; re- soft water cently hatched young 10 ppm Lepomis same as above using which remained cling- macrochirus hard w•ter ing to pleopods of 0.2 ppm same as above using female during 1st soft water moll were used. 1.9 mg/1 oysters Cuct,-2 H,o Fujiya 1961" 0.25 mg/1 Oroconectes rusti-time not given Hubschman 1967" 0.40 oom Limnodrilus hoH-static acute bioassay; Wurtz and Bridges cus embryo 454/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 1-Continued Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation• Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation• Copper ........... 0. 51 mg/1 (2 hr) Waltersipora copper sodium citrate Wisely and Blick Cyanide .......... 0.06 ppm<l day Micropterus static acute bioassay, a (Cu) pH 7.9-8.2 1967137 (CN-) salmoides 3. 85 mg/1 (2 hr) Bugula copper sodium citrate Wisely and Blick 0. 05-0.07 ppm Pomoxis annularis static acute bioassay; a pH 7.9-8.2 1967137 (<1 day) 0. 51 mg/1 (2 hr) Spirorbis copper sodium citrate 0.02-0.04 ppm Pomoxis annularis continuous flow bio· pH 7.9-8.2 (<1 day) assay; a 2. 9 mg/1 (2 hr) Galeolaria caper sodium citrate 0. 25 ppm (24 hr) Pimephales NaCN; cone. as CN; Doudoroft el al. pH 7.9-8.2 promelas 20 c 1966" 22.5 mg/1 (2 hr) Mytilus copper sodium citrate 0. 24 ppm (48 hr) pH 7.2-8.2 0.23 ppm 0.4-0.5 ppm Salmo gairdneri static acute bioassay; Brown 196817 0.20 ppm (24 hr) cone. as CN-; NaCN; (2 day) a,c,d,e,f plus 0.14 ppm Zn 1.25 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay, Cairns Jr. and 0.19 ppm (48 hr) cone. as CN-; NaCN; macrochirus a,c,d,e; Cu++; fish Scheier 1968'' plus 0.13 ppm Zn acclimatized 2 wks. in 0.18 ppm Pimephales cone. as eN-; NaCN syn. dil. water. promelas 1.04 ppm static acute bioassay; 0.23 ppm (24 " plus 0.12 ppm a,c,d,e; fish acclima-hours) Cd tized 2 wks in syn. 0.21 ppm (48 hr) " plus 0.11 ppm dil. water copper-Cd 26.0 ppm Lepomis copper acetic acid; all Cairns Jr. and 0.17 ppm " plus o. 09 ppm macrochirus fish acclimatized 2 Scheier 1968" Cd wks. in syn. dil. water. 0. 2 mg/1 (11 min) Salmo gairdneri ............. Neil1957•' 5.2 ppm a,c,d,e; static acute bio-0.12-0.18 mg/1 Lepomis in hard water and soft Academy of Nat- assay same as above macrochirus soft water ural Sciences except that copper-19602 acetaldehyde was 0.16 mg/1 cone. as HCN Doudoroff et al. used. 1966" 5.2 ppm same as above except 0.01 mg/1 (48 hr) Salmo gairdneri ............... Brown 196817 that acetone; copper 0.18 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay; Cairns Jr. and mixture was used macrochirus a,c,d,e; all fish ac-Scheier 1968'• 430 mg/1 adult minnows static test Mount1968" climatized 2 weeks in 470 mg/1 Pimephales continuous flow bioassay Mount1968" syn. dil. water promelas 0.026 ppm all fish acclimatized 2 84.0 pg/1 Pimelometopon soli water; static bio· Mount and Stephen weeks in syn. sil. pulchrum assay 196984 water; static acute 75pg/l : " continuous flow bioassay; a,c,d,e bioassay 0.019 ppm same as above; CN-Cr 0.795-0.815 ppm Nitzschia linearis static acute bioassay, Patrick et al. complex used (5 day) a,c,e; CuCt. 196891 4. 74 ppm same as above; CN- 1.25 ppm Lepomis same as above napthenic acid mix· macrochirus lure 0. 2 mg/1 ( 48 hr) Penaeus duorarum in the dark; 15 C; Portmann 1968" 0.026 ppm same as above; CN used cuso. 3.90 ppm same as above; CN-Zn 30 mg/1 (48 hr) Penaeus aztecus complex used 100 mg/1" shore crab 0.432 ppm Physa heterostropha static acute bioassay; Patrick et aL 1 mg/1" cockle a,c,e 196891 430 pg/1 Pimelometopon static bioassay; hard Mount and Stephen 0.18 ppm Lepomis asme as above pulchrum water 196984 macrochirus 470 pg/1 continuous flow bio-Mount and Stephen (See also Manganese (Mn)) assay; hard water 19691" FlUorine .... 64 mg/1 (10 days) fish using KF Tauwell19571" 1.7mg/l Capeloma decisum soft water Arthur and Leon-(F) ard 1970• 2. 7-4.6 mg/1 Salmo gairdneri using NaF; 55 C; 3.0 Neuhold and Sigler 0.039 mgfl Physa integra soft water Arthur and Leon-(218 hrs) ppm Ca 1960•• ard 1970• 75-91 mg/1 Cyprinus carpio using NaF; 3 ppm Ca 0.20 mg/1 Gammarus pseudo· soft water and Mg; 65-75 F limnaeus 222-273 ppm Salmo gairdneri 3 ppm Ca and Mg; 46 F 48 hr Salmo gairdneri ······················ Brown and Dalton (424 hrs) 1970!8 242-261 ppm 3 ppm Ca and Mg; 55 F 3.2 mg/1 Fundulus 29-22 C; no feeding Jackim et al. (214 hrs) heteroclitus during the 96 hrs. 197054 2. 3-7. 3 mg/1 (time Salmo gairdneri 18 C; in soft water using Angelovic et al. aerated water not given) NcF 1967' (See also potassium and sodium cyanides.) 2. 6-6. 0 mg/1 (time 13 C; in soft water using Cyanide .......... 0.3 ppm (5.25-Rhinichthys atratu-ferro· and ferricyanides Burdick and Lip· not given) NaF (CN-) 7.5 hr.) Ius and Semotilus used. Cone. as cya-scheutz 1948'1 5.9-7.5 mg/1 (lime 7.5 C; in soft water atromaculatus nide used; daylight not given) using NaF o. 33 mg/1 (14 min.) Coregonus artedii .............. Wuhrmann and Gold ....... 0.40 mg/1 (time stickleback Jones 1939" adult Woker 1948"' (Au) not given) 0.18 mg/1 (24 hr) Lepomis in soft water Turnbull et al. Iron ........ 74 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affinis static acute bioassay; Wallen etal. macrochirus 1954130 (Fe) a,c,d,e,g high tur-19571" 0. 06 ppm (1 day) Lepomis auritus continuous flow and Reno 1955100 bidity; FeCia static acute bioassays; 133 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affinis static acute bioassay; Fe.(SO,)a a,c,d,e,g; 0.01-0.06 ppm Lepomis same as above; static turbid water; 19-23 C (<1 day) macrochirus only 10, 000 ppm (2 day) static acute bioassay; 0.05-0.06 ppm same as above; contin· Fe,o,; a,c,d,e,g; (<1 day) uous flow turbid water; 16-23 C Appendix III-Table 7/455 TABLE 1-Continued Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation• Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation• 10,000 ppm (2 day) static acute bioassay; Wallen eta!. Lead ............. stoneflies, mayflies Q,; pH and hardness Warnick and Bell a,c,d,e,g; FeS; turbid 1957133 (Pb) are constant 1969134 water; 20-26 C 188.0 mg/1 Fundulus 2D-22 C; no feeding dur-Jackim el al. 350 ppm (2 day) same as above except heteroclilus ing 96 hours; aerated 1970" comp'd used was water Feso,. 2o-21 c. Magnesium .. 16,500 mg/1 Gambusia aftinis in turbid water; Wallen etal. 36 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna static acute bioassay; Dowden and Ben-(Mg) MgCI,·SH,O 19571" a,c, standard ref. nel1965" 17,750 ppm (2 day) Gambusia aftinis BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid water; FeCb water MgCI, 21 ppm (2 day) 15,500 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affinis BSA; a,c,e,d,g; turbid 15 ppm water MgSO, mayflies, stoneflies, constant D2; pH and Warnick and Bell 3, 391 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna BSA; a,c, standard Dowden and Ben-caddisflies hardness 196913' reference water; nell1965" D. 3 ppm ( 4% days) Gasterosteus static acute bioassay; Jones 1938" MgCJ, aculealus a,c, using Pb(NO,), 3,489 ppm 1.4 mg/1 (48 hr) Lepomis in lap water Turnbull el al. 3,803 ppm BSA; a,c; standard Dowden and Ben-macrochirus 1954130 reference water; nett 196539 2. 0 mg/1 (24 hr) MgSO, 6. 3 mg/1 (24 & 19,000 ppm (1 day) Lepomis same as above 48 hrs) macrochirus 10 mg/1 (24 & 48 "; Pb(NOa)• 10,530 ppm (1 day) Lymnaea sp. (eggs) same as above hrs) 240 mg/1 Gambusia affinis Pb(NO,), used in Wallen el al. (See also Potassium permanganale) highly turbid water 1957133 Manganese ....... 5500 mg/1 (24 hrs) fish, young eels MnCb lwao 1936" 75 mg/1 Pimephales in hard water Tarzwell and Hen-(Mn) Oshima 1931" promelas derson 1956,"' 500 mg/1 (48 hrs) Tinea tinea MnF, Simonin and Pier- 1960124 ron 1937115 3.2 mg/1 in soft water; PbCb 1000 mg/1 (time not fish Mnso,. H,O; cone. as Meinck el al. used given) Mn 1956" >100 mg/1 in hard water; PbCb 7,850 mg/1 (24 hrs) Orizias MnCb DoudoroH and used Katz 1953" 26 mg/1 (lime not Carassius auratus PbSO, used Jones 195767 1,400 ppm Cypr!nus carpio, ···················· Tabala 1959121 given) killifish, Daphnia, 240 ppm (2 days) Gambusia aftinis static acute bioassay; Wallen et al. Salmo gairdneri a,c,d,e, turbid water 1957133 Mercury .......... 5 mg/1 (75 hr) Artemia salina cone. as Hg using Corner and Spar- Pb(NO,), (Hg) Hgt.; pH 8.1 row 1956" 56,000 ppm (2 day) Gambusia aftinis sialic acute bioassay; 0.05 mg/1 (2.5 hr) Acllia clausi cone. as Hg pH 8.1 Corner and Spar- a,c,d,e,g; PbO; high row 1956" turbidity D. 30 mg/1 (") Elminius cone. as Hg pH 8.1 0.34 mg/1 (48 hr) stickleback, 1DOD-3000 mg/1 of dis-Gill et al. 1960" BOO mg/1 (") Artemia cone. as Hg pH 8.1 Oncorhynchus solved solids 40 mg/1 (22 hr) Artemia salina cone. as Hg using kisutch HgCb pH 8.1 0. 41 mg/1 (24 hr) Oncorhynchus 1DOD-3000 mg/1 dis-0.9-60 mg/1 phytoplankton Hueper 1960" kisulch solved solids D. 53 mg/1 (24 hr) sticklebacks 1DOD-3000 mg/1 dis-0. 027 mg/1 (lime bivalve larvae HgCb (D. 02 mg/1 of Woelke 19611" solved solids not given) Hg) >75ppm Pimephales static acute bioassay; Tarzwell and Hen-0.04 mg/1 Rhodeus sericeus Malacea 1966" promelas a,c,d,f, hard water; derson 1960124 0.05 mg/1 gudgeon ······················ Malacea 1966'• PbCI, 0.30 mg/1 Cyprinus carpio ·················· 2. 4 ppm (24 hrs) same as above using 0.02 mg/1 minnow soft water 0.15 mgfl (48 hr) Daphnia ·············· 7.48 mg/1 Pimephales static acute bioassay; Pickering and Hen-2.6 ppm (24 hr) Ambassis safgha cone. as HgC(, Ballard and Oliff promelas & c,d,e,f, soft water; derson 1965,93 196910 Lepomis lead acetate 7. 8 mg/1 1966" 6.5x1o-• M Mylilus eduols pH 7.8-8.2; HgCI2 Wisely and Blick macrochirus DO; 18 mg/1 Alk; planulalus 1967"' 20 mg/1 hardness 9.0X1o-• M Crassoslrea com-pH 7.8-8.2; HgCb 5.58 mg/1 Pimephales static acute bioassay; Pickering and Hen-mercialis promelas c,d,e,f; cone. as Pb; derson 196593 5.0X1o-7 M Wattersipora pH 7.8-8.2; HgCI2 Wisely and Blick PbCI, used, soft water (2 hours) cucullala 1967"' 482.0 mg/1 same as above with hard 1.0x1o-1 M Buluga neritina pH 7.8-8.2; HgCb Wisely and Blick water (2 hours) 1967137 23.8 mg/1 Lepomis same as above with soft 7.0X1o-7 M Spirorbis lamellosa pH 7.8-8.2; HgCb macrochirus water (2 hours) 442.0 mg/1 same as above with hard s.ox1o-1 M Galeolaria com-pH 7.8-8.2; HgCb water (2 hours) mercialis 31.5 mg/1 Carassius auralus same as above with soft 9.0X1o-7 M Artermia sanna pH 7.8-8.2; HgCI, water (2 hours) 20.6 mg/1 Lebisles reticulalus same as above with soft 0.1 mg/1 (48 hr) Penaeus duorarum 15; in the dark; HgCI2 Porlmann 1968" water 6 mg/1 ( 48 hr) Penaeus azlecus 15 C; in the dark; HgCb 49.0 ppm (1 day) lubificid worms static acute bioassay; Whitley 1968135 1 mg/1 (48 hr) Hemigrapsis a,c; Pb(NO,),pH 6.5 oregonensis 27.5 ppm (1 day) tubificid worms 10 mg/1 (48 hr) Clinocardium nullalfi 27.5 ppm (1 day) lubificid worms static acute bioassay; Whitley 196813' 26 ppm (24 hr) Daphnia magna Lake Erie water in Ballard and Oliff a,c, Pb(NO,), Ambassia safgha sealed containers; 196910 3.12 mg/1 Salvelinus fontinalis ................ Dorfman and Whit-HgCb Fundulus worth 1969" 0.23 mg/1 Fundulus 2D-22 C; no feeding Jackim el al. heleroclilus heleroclilus during the 96 hrs; 197064 1-3 ppm ( 48 hrs) Salmo gairdneri ·············· Kariya el al. 1969•• aerated water 456/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 1-Continued CoHslituent Acute dDse 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions literature citation* Coostituent Awte dose 96 hr LC50 Species Condittoos literature citalillll• Molybdenum ...... 70 mg/1 Pimepbales MoO,; pH 7. 4; Alk. 18 Tarzwell and Hen-pH ....... ······· 282 ppm (2 day) Gambtlsia aftinis static acute bioassay; Wallen et aL (Mo) promelas mgjl; hardness 20 derson 19561" HCI; tllfbid water; 1957"' mgj1; soft water a,c,d,e,g 370 mg/1 MoO,; pH 8. 2; Alk. pH 10.5 Lepomis maximum pH Cairns Jr. and 360 mg/1; hardness macrochirus Scheier 19582' 4tiO mg/1; hard water pH 3.5 Lepomis a,c,d,e,i; disl aerated Cairns Jr. and Nickel ............ 0. 8 mg/1 (time not sficklebatks coocentrafion as Ni; Murdock 1953" macrocbirus water; large fish Scheier 1959" (Ni) given) Ni(NO,), used; 14.24 em 0.95 mg/1 Pimepbales BSA; a,c,d; nickel cya-Doudoroff et al. length 20 C prometas nille complex syn. 196638 4-S mg/1 (6 br) minnows in distilled water; HCI LeClerc 196071 soft water 10D-110 mg/1 minnows in hard water, HCI 1. 0 mg/1 (time not sticklebaCks concentration as Ni; Jones 195767 (6 hrs) given) 15-18 c 0.16 ppm (3 day) Lepomis juveniles used; HCN; Doudoroff et aL 24 ppm Pimephales BSA; a,c,d,f; hard Tarzwell and Hen-macrochinn static acute bioassay; 1966" promelas water nickelous derson 19601" a,c,d,f,p; chloride 1.0 fliHII (20 min) lctaklrus punctatus static acute bioassay; Bonn and FoiUs 4 ppm same as above using fingerlillgs a,c, H,S 196714 soft water Phosphate ........ 24 hours Lepomis 22±0.H Abegg 19501 25 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri field study on a river; Herbert et a1. (Po.•-> m<H:rOChirus a,c,e,f,l,m 196552 720 mg/1 Gambussia affinis turbid water; 19-23 C; Wallen et al 5.18 mg/1 Pimephales BSA; c,d,e,f; soft water; Pickering and Hen· NaH,PO, 1957"3 pro me las nickel chloride; cone. derson 1965," 1380 mgjl turbid water; 19-24 C; as Ni 1966" Na.P,Q,10H,O 42.4 mr/1 same as above using 151 mg/1 turbid water; 17-22 C; hard water NaoPO, 5.18 mg/1 Lepomis ...................... 138 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c,d,e,g; tllfbid Wallen et al. macrochirus water phosphoric 1957"' 39.6 mg/1 same as above using acid; 22-24 C ~ard water Phosphorus ....... 0.105 ppm (2 day) Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k, lsom 1960<' 9.82 mg/1 Carassius auratus same as above using (P) macrochirus n,o; colloidal pre- soft water moved; 26 C; cone. 4.45 mg/1 Lebistes reticulatus same as afHive using asP soft water 0. 053 ppm (3 day) same as above 160 ppm (2 day) Sa!mo gairdneri BSA; a,f; NiSQ, Willford 1966"' 0.025 ppm same as above 270 ppm (2 day) Salmo trutta BSA; a,f; NiSO.. Willford 1966"' Potassium .... ... 2.0 ppm (2 day) Hydro psyche BSA; a; soft water; Roback 1955101 (K) KCN 242 ppm (2 day) Salvefinus fontinafis same as above 0.5 ppm (2 day) Stenonema 75 ppm (2 day) Salvefmus same as above 2010 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,f; ICI Trama 1954b127 namaycush macrochirus 165 ppm (2 day) lclalurus punclabls same as above 3,000 ppm BSA; a,d,e,f; KNO,; 495 ppm (2 day) Lepomis same as above syn. dilution water macrochirM 450 ppm a,c,e,f; aerated dis!. Cairns Jr. and 200 mg/1 ( 48 hr) Penaeus dlorarum 15 C; in the dark; Portmann 1968" water; K,CrQ,; small Scheier unpub- NiSO, fish; continuous flow llshed 195514' 150 mg/1 (48 hrs) Penaeus aztacus acute bioassay 300 mg/1 (48 hrs) He!lligrapsis orego-630 ppm continuous How, acute neASis bioassay K,cro,; 500 mg/1 ( 48 hrsl Clinocardlmn medi~m size fish nuHalll a,c,e,f; pH 7.9to 8.6 48 hrs Salmo gairdneri ...................... Brown and DaH011 5.50 ppm same as above using 1970" large fish See also sodium nitrate 0.22 ppm (I day) Rhinichithys continuous now, acute Lipschuetz and Nitrate ........... 64 hours Daphnia magna 25 C; Lake Erie water; Anderson 1948• atratulus bioassay; a,c,a; KCN Cooper 1955" (No,-) daphnids 8-hours old meleagris 8.1 mgfl (24 hours) Gatnbusia alllnis 21-24 C; in highly turbid Wallen etal 0.45 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,e; KCN Cairns Jr. 1957" macrochirus water; NaND, 1957"' 320 ppm BSA; a,c,e; f(,Cr,Q, Cairns Jr. 1957" 9.5 mgjl (48 & 96 hr) 4,200 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affmts BSA; a,c,d,e,g; lurbld WaUan el al. water KCI 1957133 pH ............... 1.3 ppm ( 45 min) lclalum punctatus static acute bioassay; Bonn and Forns 480 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c,d,e,g; highly Wallen et al a.~. H2S; !Ising ad-196714 turbid water; 19571" vanced fingfl"lings K,cro, 1.4 ppm (45111in) same as above, using 1.6 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c,d,e,g; KCN, Wallen et at. adults turbid water 1957"' 0.07 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairlhleif static acute bioassay; Brown 196817 320 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affhris BSA; a,c,d,e,a; turbid wanen et aL HCN; a,c,d,e,f,o water; K,cr,o, 1957133 10mgjl trout ...................... Belding 1927" 324 ppm (2 day) Gambusia affinis BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid · Wallen etal pH 4.0 (lime IIDI Carassius atlfllfts ...................... Jones 1939'' water KNO, 1957133 riven) 12 p,m (2 daJ) GaRtbusia alfiOis BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid Wallen eta!. pH 3. 65 (3 day) Lepomis continuous flow, acute Cairns Jr. and water KMnO, 1957"' macrochirus bioassay HCI; a,e,e,f Scheier unpub-0.45 ppm Lepomis BSA, a,e; KCN; 5-9 Cairns Jr. and fished 1955"' macrochirus ppm oxygen Scheier 1958'' 0.069 ppm (I day) Lagondon stati~ KUte bioassay; Daugherty and Gar-0.12 ppm BSA: a,e; KCN; 2 ppm rh0111iloides HCN; aerated sea rell1951" DO water; a; 1.01 ppm P!lysa heterostrorma liSA; a,e; KCN; 5-9 aerated sea water; Garrettl957" ppm DO static acute bioassay. 0.48 ppm Physa heleroslropha BSA; a,e; KCN 2 ppm HCN DO Appendix III-Table 1/45 7 TABLE 1-Continued Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation* Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation* Potassium ........ 320 ppm Lepomis continuous flow, acute Cairns Jr. and Potassium ........ 2 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; standard Dowden and Ben- (K) macrochirus bioassay, K,cr,o,; Scheier 195826 (K) reference water; KCN nell1965" aerated distilled water 0. 7 ppm (3 day) BSA; a,c; standard pH 6.2; a,c,e,f; reference water; KCN 320 ppm BSA; a,e,; 5-9 ppm DO 0.4 ppm BSA; a,c; standard 320 ppm " 2 ppm DO reference water; KCN 195 ppm Micropterus BSA; a,c,d,e; K,cro, Fromm and Schiff-796 ppm (1 day) Lymnaea sp. BSA; a,c; standard Dowden and Ben- salmoides man 1958" reference water; KCN nell1965" 1, 337 ppm (5 day) Nitzschia linearis BSA; a,c,e; KCI Patrick et al. 147 ppm (3 day) Lymnaea sp. BSA; a,c; standard • 196891 reference water; KCN 940 ppm Lepomis same as above 130 ppm macrochirus 705 ppm (1 day) Carassius carassius BSA; a,c; standard Dowden and Ben- 2,010 ppm Physa heteroslropha same as above reference water nett 1965" 7. 8 ppm (5 day) Nitzschia linearis BSA; a,c,e; K,cro, Patrick et al. K,cr,o, 196891 0.4 ppm Daphnia magna same as above 16.8 ppm Physa heterostropha same as above Patrick et al. 739 ppm (1 day) Lepomis 196891 macrochirus 168.8 ppm Lepomis same as above 905 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna K,Fe(CN),; BSA; a,c; Dowden and Ben- macrochirus standard reference nett 1965" 550 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,i; aerated Cairns Jr. and water macrochirus dist. water; K,cro,; Scheier 1959" 549 ppm (2 day) Daphnia magna same as above large fish used; 14-24 0. 6 ppm (3 day) same as above em long 0.1 ppm same as above 0.57 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,b,c,d,e,i; 900 ppm BSA; a,c; KNOa; macrochirus aerated distilled standard reference water; large fish used water 14.24 em in length; 45.6 mg/1 Pimephales BSA; c,d,e,f; soft water; Pickering and Hen- KCN promelas K,cro, cone. as Cr derson 1965" 320 ppm BSA; a,c,d,e,f; 18-30 17.6 mg/1 Pimephales BSA; c,d,e,f; soft water; c; K,cr,o, promelas K,cr,o, cone. as Cr 382 ppm same except in hard 27.3 mg same as above using water at18 c hard water 369 ppm "al30 C 118.0 mg/1 Lepomis same as above using Pickering and Hen- 320 ppm distilled aerated water; macrochirus soft water derson 1965" BSA; a,c,d,e,i; 133.0 mgfl Lepomis same as above using K,cr,o,; fish 14.24 macrochirus hard water em 37.5 mg/1 Carassius auratus same as above using 100 ppm (1 day) Salmo gairdneri BSA; a,c,d,g; K,cro, Schiffman and soft water Fromm 1959uo 30.0 mg/1 Lebistes reticulatus same as above using 0.43 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,f; KCN Cairns Jr. and soft water macrochirus Scheier unpub-28.0 ppm (2 day) Hydropsyche and BSA; a; soft water; Roback 19651" lished 19551" Stenonema K,cr,o, 0.45 ppm BSA; a,e, KCN; normal Cairns Jr. 196524 3. 5 ppm (2 day) oxygen content 4.2 ppm (4 day) Lepomis BSA; KMnO, Kemp et al. 1966" 0.12 ppm BSA; a,e; KCN; low macrochirus oxygen content 3.7 ppm Semotilus BSA; KMnO, 1.08 ppm Physa heterostropha BSA; a,e; KCN; normal atromaculatus oxygen content in 0.208 ppm Nitzschia linearis BSA; a;c;e; K,cr,o, Patrick et al. water 196891 0.48 ppm BSA; a,e; KCN; low 17.3 ppm Physa heterostropha BSA; a,c; K,Cr,O, oxygen content 113.0 ppm Lepomis same as above 320 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,e; K,cr,o,; macrochirus macrochirus normal DO content Selenium ......... 2.5 mg/1 Daphnia 23 C; cone. as Se; added Bringmann and in water (Se) sodium selenite Kuhn 1959" 320 ppm BSA; a,e; K,cr,o,; low Silver ...... 0.0043 mgfl (lime guppies cone. ol Ag, placed in Shaw and Lowrance DO content in water (Ag) not given) water as silver 1956112 0.49 ppm (2 days) Brachydanio rerio BSA; a,c,d,e,l; dist. Cairns Jr. et al. nitrate water adults KCN; 1965'• 0.04 mg/1 Fundulus 20-22 C; no feeding Jackim et al. 24 C; 5-9 ppm heteroclitus during the 96 hours; 1970" 117 ppm (2 day) Brachydanio rerio BSA; a,c,d,e,l; KCN; aerated water eggs 24 C; 5-9 ppm Sodium ...... .... 12,946 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay; Trama 1954b'" DO; distilled aerated (Na) macrochirus a,d,e,l; synthetic water. dilution water; NaCI 0.16 ppm (2 day) Lepomis same as above (not 12,000 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay; Trama 1954b127 macrochirus eggs) macrochirus a,c,e,l, synthetic 180 ppm (2 day) Brachydanio rerio BSA; a,c,d,e,l; K,Cr,O,; dilution water; NaNOa 24 C; 5-9 ppm DO 20 c adults 0.23 ppm Pimephales BSA; a,c, NaCN; SYIL Doudoroff et al. 1500 ppm (2 day) same as above using promelas soft water; cone. as 1966'8 eggs CN 440 ppm (2 day) same as above not 45 ppm (1 day) Notropsis hudsonius BSA, a,c,d,e; NaAsO, Boschetti and Me- using eggs Loughlin 195716 679 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; standard ref. Dowden and Ben-29 ppm (2 day) Notropsis hudsonius water KCI netl1965" 27 ppm (3 day) 5, 500 ppm (1 day) Lepomis same as above Dowden and Ben-8, 200 ppm (2 day) Gambusia allinis static acute bioassay; Wallen et aL macrochirus net1965" a,c,d,e,g; Na.S. o, 1957"' 1,941 ppm (1 day) Lylllftaea sp. same as above ased; turbid water 458/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 1-Continued Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 iPecies Conditions literature citation* Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions literature citation* Sodium ........... 18,100 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid Sodium ........... 0.19 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; standard ref. Dowden and Ben· (Na) water; using NaCI (Na) water; cone. as Na2· nett 1965" 500 ppm (2 day) Gambusia aHinis BSA; a,c,d,e,g; CrD,; plus 240 ppm Na,CrD.; turbid water Na,cD, plus 2,078 420 ppm (2 day) BSA; Na,Cr.D,; ppm Na.SD. a,c,d,e,g; turbid water 76 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; standard ref. 925 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c,d,e,g; NaF; water; cone. as Na • turbid water SiD,; plus 161 ppm 10,000 ppm (2 day) static acute bioassay; Na.cD,; plus 1,396 a,c,d,e,g; turbid water; ppm Na.SD. NaNDa 9,000 ppm (2 day) Hydropsyche BSA; a; NaCI; soft Roback 1955101 2,400 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c,d,e,g; turbid water water; NaSiDa 2,500 ppm (2 day) Stenonema 750 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c,d,e,g; Na,S; 13,750 ppm (1 day) Carassius carassius BSA; a; c; NaCI; Dowden and Ben· turbid water standard ref. water nett 1965" 9,500 ppm lepomis a,c,e,f; NaND,; aerated Cairns Jr. and 10,500 ppm (1 day) Culex sp (larvae) macrochirus distilled water Scheier 1958," 6, 447 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; NaCI; Dowden and Ben- 195927 standard ref. water nett1965'' 9,000 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,i; aerated 14, 125 ppm (1 day) lepomis macrochirus water; distilled; macrochirus NaND a; large fish 3,412 ppm (1 day) Lymnaea sp (eggs) 0.35 ppm Pimephales BSA; c,d,e,f; NaCN Henderson et al. 18,735 ppm (1 day) Mollienesa latopinna promelas hard water 195949 0.21 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; standard ref. 0.23 ppm same as above using water; Na,CrD.; plus soft water 130 ppm NaSiDa 0.15 ppm lepomis same as above using Henderson et al. 0.28 ppm same as above; cone. as macrochirus hard water 1959" Na,crD. plus 3,044 0.78 percent NaCI Daphnia magna NaCI at 25 C Prasad 1959•• ppm Na.sD. 12 hrs. 22 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; Na,Cr2D1; Dowden and Ben- 0. 93 percent NaCI Daphnia magna NaCI at25 C Prasad 1959•• standard ref. water nett 1965" (24 hrs) 4,206 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a,c; standard 0.50 percent NaCI Daphnia magna NaCI at 50 C Prasad 1959•• reference water; 02hrs) NaND, 5.9-7.5 ppm Salmo gairdneri BSA; a; 45 F; Naf Academy of Nat· 12,800 ppm (1 day) lepomis BSA; a,c; NaNDa; (2 days) ural Sciences macrochirus standard ref. water 19602 6,375 ppm (1 day) Lymnaea sp. (eggs) 2.6-6.0 ppm BSA; a; 55 C; Naf 5, 950 ppm (2 day) BSA; a,c; NaNDa; (2 day) standard ref. water 6,200 ppm limnodrilus BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI Wurtz and Bridges 3,251 ppm hoffmeister 1961141 895 ppm (1 day) Amphipoda BSA; a,c; NaSiDa; 1, 500 ppm ······················ standard ref. water 6,150 ppm Erpobdella punctata ...................... 630 ppm (1-4 days) Lymnaea sp. (eggs) BSA; a,c; NaSiDa; 3,200 ppm Helisoma BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI standard ref. water campanulala 16 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna standard ref. water; 3,500 ppm Gyraulus ······················ Na,s; a,c; BSA; circumstristus 13 ppm (2 day) 5,100 ppm Physa heterostropha ······················ 9ppm 6,200 ppm Physa heterostropha BSA; a,c,d,i; NaCI Wurtz and Bridges 36.5 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri static acute bioassay; a, Cope 1966" 1961I4I NaAsD2 1,100 ppm Sphaerium cr. tenue 44.0 ppm (2 day) lepomis same as above 1,150 ppm ······················ macrochirus 8,250 ppm Asellus communis ······················ 80. o ppm (2 day) Pleronarcys same as above 24,000 ppm Argia sp. same as above using californica hard water 1.8 ppm (2 day) Daphnia magna same as above Cope 1966" 1.0 percent Nais sp. BSA; a,f; hard water; learner and Ed- (36 mins) NaCI wards 196370 1.4 ppm (2 day) Simocephalus same as above 60.0 ppm (2 day) Carcinus maenas BSA; a; Na.crD, Ray mount and serrulatus Shields 1962100 44 ppm (LC50) lepomis BSA; a,c,d,i,g; NaAsD, Crosby and Tucker 26ppm Salmo gairdneri BSA; a; NaAsD,; Cope 1965'• macrochirus 1966" 55-75 F 60 ppm (LC50) Salmo gairdneri BSA; NaAso,; a,c,d,i,g Crosby and Tucker 3D ppm lepomis BSA; a; NaAsO,; 1966" macrochirus 55-75 F 25ppm Field study-river; Gilderhus 1966" 45ppm Pleronarcys BSA; a; NaAsO,; 60 F Cope 1965'1 a,c,f,i,m; NaAs02 14,120 ppm (1 day) Daphnia magna static acute bioassay; Dowden and Ben· 34ppm Carassius auratus same as above a,c, standard reference nett 1965'' 35 ppm lepomis same as above water; cone. as macrochirus NaSiDa plus 950 ppm 0.038 ppm Pleronarcys static acute bioassay; Sanders and Cope NaHSD, cafifornica a,c,d,e,f; NaAsO, 196610' 11,723 ppm (2 day) Daphnia magna same as above, but with 2800 ppm (1 day) Salmo gairdneri static acute bioassay; Alabaster 1967• 785 ppm NaHSO, a,e Na.S.D, 22 ppm Daphnia magna same as above, but with 1800 ppm (2 day) same as above 15 ppm NaHso. 0.7 ppm (1 day) Lepomis static acute bioassay; Hughes and Davis 0.15 ppm BSA; a,c; standard macrochirus a,b,e; NaAsD2 196760 reference water; cone. 2, 430 ppm (5 day) Nitzschia linearis BSA; a,c,e; NaCI Patrick et aL as Na,CrO,; plus 196891 187 ppm Na,CO, plus 12,940 ppm lepomis BSA; a,c,e; NaCI 88 ppm NaSiOa macrochirus Appendix III-Table 7/459 TABLE 1-Continued Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation* Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation* Sulphide Zinc .............. 6.91 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,i; ZnCh; Cairns Jr. and (See sodium sulphide and hydrogen sulphide under sodium and hydrogen (H+)) (Zn) macrochirus cone. as Zn+ 2; Scheier 1959" Tdanium ......... 120 ppm Pimephales BSA; a,c,d,f; titanium Tanwell and Hen· aerated distilled (Ti) pro me las sulfate; hard water derson 1956"'• water; large fish 19601" 3.5 mg/1 Lepomis soft water; 30 C Academy of Nat- 8.2 ppm same as above using macrochirus ural Sciences soft water 19602 Uranium .......... 3. 7 ppm Pimephales BSA; a,c,d,f; uranyl Tanwell and Hen-4.2 mg/1 soft water; 20 C Academy of Nat- (U) pro me las acetate soft water derson 1956123, ural Sciences 1960124 19602 3.1 ppm same as above using 12.5-12.9 mg/1 hard wa1er; 20 & 30 C Academy of Nat- uranyl nitrate ural Sciences 135 ppm BSA; a,c,d,f; uranyl 19602 sulfate hard water 6.91 ppm Lepomis continuous flow, acute Cairns Jr. and 2.8 ppm same as above using macrochirus bioassay; a,c,e,f; Scheier unpub· soft water ZnCio; aeraled dis· lished 1955142 Vanadium ........ 55 ppm Pimephales BSA; a,c; vanadium tilled water (V) promelas pentoxide hard water 20 ppm BSA; a,c,e; ZnCh Cairns Jr. 1957" 13 ppm same as above using 0.6 ppm Lepomis zinc chlorate and sulfate Lloyd 1960" soft water macrochirus used; 17.5 C, diluted, 30 ppm BSA; a,c; vanadyl fingerlings well water used; 4.5 sulfate hard water ppm Ca 4.8 ppm same as above using 4 ppm (48 hrs) Lepomis LD50 value, BSA; a,c,d; Herbert 1961" soft water macrochirus zinc sulphate cone. as 55 ppm Lepomis same as above using Zn macrochirus hard water 10 ppm Umnodrilus hoff-BSA; a,c,d,i; zinc sulfate Wurtz and Bridges 6 ppm same as above using meisteri 1961141 soft water 14ppm Physa heterostropha same as above Zinc ...•......... D. 7 ppm (4.5 days) Gasterosteus BSA; a,c; zinc sulphate Jones 1939" 38.5 ppm Asellus communis same as above (Zn) aculeatus 56 ppm Argia sp. same as above 0.072 ppm (64 hr) Daphnia magna Lake Erie water; 25 C Anderson 1948• 4.2 ppm (1 day) Physa heterostropha BSA; zinc sulphate Wurtz 19621" 2-6 ppm (24 hr) Salmo gairdneri 1.9 ppm (2 day) static acute bioassay, fingerlings hard water Goodman 1951•• zinc sulfate 3-4 ppm (48 hr) 1.9 ppm (3 day) static acute bioassay zinc hard water Goodman 1951•• 1.9 ppm Physa heterostropha same as above 13ppm Biomphalaria biossyi 14 C; pH 7.8±0.2; Hoffman and 49.0 ppm (1 day) Helisoma same as above oxygenated tap water Zakhary 1951" companulata 4.8 ppm 17 C; pH 7.8±0.2; 49 ppm (2 day) Helisoma static acute bioassay Wurtz 1962"o oxygenated tap water companulata zinc 1.4 ppm 20 C; pH 7.8±0.2; 13.4 ppm (3 & 4 same as above oxygenated tap water day) 0.58 ppm Biomphalaria biossyi 23 C; pH 7.8±0.2; Hoffman and 10:.12 ppm (48 hr) Cyprinus carpio pH 7.D-7.2; 28-30 C Sreenivasan and oxygenated Zakhary 1951" 8.8 mg/1 CD Raj 1963"o 0.6 ppm Salmo gairdneri zinc chlorate and sulfate Lloyd 1960" 1D-15 ppm (48 hr) Tilapia mossambica fingerlings used. 17. 5 C, diluted, 10 ppm (48 hr) Danio sp well water used; 4.5 3. 86 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri BSA; a,c,d,f; zinc Herbert and ppm Ca sulphate Shurben 1964" 2.8&-3.63 ppm Lepomis 18-30 C; soft water Cairns Jr. and 21>-40 ppm (48 hr) Salmo gairdneri cone. as Zn using Herbert and Wake- macrochirus Scheier 1957" smolts znso,; changing per· ford 1964" 1D-12 ppm 18-30 C; hard water cent salinity; hard· 7.20 mg/1 Lepomis standard dilution water; Cairns Jr. and ness 320 ppm; alk macrochirus 20 C; ZnCJ. concen-Scheier 1958," 240 ppm; aerated !ration 1959" water 3.5 mg/1 standard dilution water; " 19582• 27 ppm-85 ppm Salmo gairdneri cone. as Zn. using 20 c (48 hr) znso,; hardness 320 8.02 mg/1 standard dilution water ppm; alk. 240 ppm; 1D-12 ppm Lepomis static acute bioassay; Cairns Jr. and aerated water; pH 7. 8 macrochirus a,c,d,e,f,i,n,g; 18 C; Scheier 19511'' 13.4 ppm Helisoma 13 C; hard water; Raymount and hard water campanulata zinc sulfate (3.03 ppm Shields 19541oo 2.5-3.8 ppm adult same as above using Zn) time not given soft water 3.85 ppm 13 C; in soft water 1D-12 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,f,i; 30 C; Cairns Jr. and znso,; 0.87 ppm zn macrochirus hard water Scheier 1958'• time not given 1. 5-3.6 ppm ";soft water 0.04-2.00 ppm Salmo salar continuous flow acute Schoenthal1964111 (aduH) (1 day) bioassay a,c,f; lab 8.02 ppm lepomis BSA; a,e; ZnCh; con~. Cairns Jr. and water had 3pg/l Zn macrochirus as Zn"" 5-9 ppm DO; Scheier 19511'• and 2pg/l Cu 4.9 ppm same as above using 2.5-13.3 ppm aquatic animals ······················ Skidmore 1964"' 2 ppm DO o. 75-1.27 ppm Physa heterostropha BSA; a,c,d,e,g; 20 C; O.Gpg Salmo salar cone. as Zn, LC50 Sprague 1964ll7 Zn ion soft !'later Value; Zn added as 2.6&-5.57 ppm same as above using znso, continuous flow hard water bioassay; a,c,d,e,f 0.62-ll. 78 ppm BSA; a,c,d,e,g; 30 C; 2.8&-3.78 ppm Lepomis 18 C; in soft water; Cairns Jr. 1965" Zn ion soft water macrochirus BSA; a,f 2.31Hi.36 ppm same as above using O.SD-2.10 ppm 30 C; in soft water; hard water BSA;a,f 460 j Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 1-Continued Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50. Species Conditions Literature citation* Constituent Acute dose 96 hr LC50 Species Conditions Literature citation* Zinc .............. 6.60-9.47 ppm 18 C; in hard water; Zinc .......... 4.6 ppm Salmo gairdneri static acute bioassay, Ball1967• (Zn) BSA; a,f (Zn) c,e; zinc sulfate 6.18-9.50 ppm 31f c; in hard water; 16.0 ppm (5 days) Perea fluiratilis same as above BSA;a,f 17.3 ppm (5 days) Rutilus rulilus same as above 28 ppm (2 day) Brachydanio rerio BSA; a,c,d,e,f; distilled Cairns Jr. et al. 8.4 ppm (7 days) Gobio gobio same as above (adult) water, aerated; 24 C; 196529 14.3 ppm (5 day) Abramis brama same as above 5-9 ppm DO; ZnCh; juvenile salmon .. Srpague and Ram- cone. as Zn sey 1965n• 105 ppm (2 day) "(eggs) same as above 5X1o-• M to bryozoans, tube-Wisely and Blick 5. 2 ppm (2 day) Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e,f; aerated 7.5xJO-• M worms, bivalve 1967137 macrochirus distilled water; molluscs ZnCh; cone. as Zn; Salmo gairdneri alkylbenzene sulphonate Brown 1968" 24 C; 5-9 ppm DO used 3. 9 ppm (2 day) Salmo gairdneri field study, river; Herbert et al. 2.8-3.5 ppm BSA; a,c,d,e,f,o Brown et al. 1968" a,c,e,f,l,m. 1965" 4.2 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,d,e; Zn*; all Cairns Jr. and 0.96 mg/1 Pimephales BSA; c,d,e,f; soft water Pickering and Hen-macrochirus fish acclimatized for Scheier 19611'• promelas zinc sulfate; cone. as derson 196593 2 weeks in syn. dil. Zn water 33.4 mg/1 same as above using 1 ppm (32 hrs) Lebistes reticulatus BSA; a,c,f,n,o Chen and Selleck hard water 196830 5.46 mg/1 Lepomis same· as above using 0. 75 ppm (63 hrs) Lebistes reticulatus BSA; a,c,f,n,o macrochirus soft water 0.56 ppm (96 hrs) Lebistes reticulatus BSA; a,c,f,n,o 40.9mg/l Lepom;s same as above using 4. 3 ppm (5 day) Nitzschia linearis BSA; a,c,e; ZnCh Patrick et al. macrochirus hard water 196891 6.44 mg/1 Carassius· carassius same as above using 0. 79-1.27 ppm Physa heterostropha BSA; a,c,e; ZnCh Patrick et al. soft water 196891 1.27 mg/1 Lebistes reticulatus same as above using 2.86-3.78 ppm Lepomis BSA; a,c,e; ZnCh hard water macrochirus 0.88 mg/1 Pimephales BSA; c,d,e,f; zinc ace-Pickering.and Hen-7:2 ppm (20 day) Lepomis same as above; contin-Pickering 1968" promelas tate; soft water; cone. derson 1965" macrochirus uous flow acute bio- as Zn 196694 assay. 1.8 mg/1 DO; 5.37 mg/1 Lepomis BSA; c,d,e,f; soft water; Pickering and Hen-a,c,d,e,f macrochirus ZnCh; cone. as Zn derson 1965", 12.0 ppm (20 day) same as above with 196694 5.6 mg/1 DO 1.69 mg/1 (12 days) Pimephales Pickering and Vigor 10.0 mg/1 (48 hr) Penaeus duorarum 15 C; in the dark, ZnSO, Portmann 1968" promelas (eggs) 1965" cone. as Zn 3.95 ppm (1 day) Pimephales BSA; a,c,d; zinc sullate; 100 mg/1 (48 hr) Penaeus aztecus promelas tap water for eggs 12 mg/1 (48 hr) Hemigrapsis 2.55 ppm (2 day) same as above oregonensis 1.83 ppm same as above 200 mg/1 ( 48 hr) Clinocardium 1. 71 ppm (7 day) same as above 1.63 ppm (12 day) same as above nuttalli 0. 95 ppm (1 day) BSA; a,c,d; zinc sulfate; 46.0 ppm tubificid worm static acute bioassay; Whitley 1968"' tap water, minnow fry a,c, zinc sulfate 0. 95 ppm (2 day) same as above 7.5 ppm Pimephales ·············· Rachlin and Peri- 0.87 ppm same as above promelas mutter 1968102 0. 87 ppm (7 day) same as above 7.6 ppm 23 C (inbred strains) 4.9 ppm Pimephales continuous flow acute Mount1966" 12.0 ppm Xiphophorus 23 c" promelas bioassay a,c,d,e; hard-46 ppm (24 hr) tubificid worm pH 7.5 Whitley 1968"' ness 50 mg/1; pH 8.0 32.3 ppm same as above with 9.2 mg/1 Pimephales Brungs 1969" hardness 200 mg/1 promela~ and pH 6.0 10 ppm Daphnia Tlm. Zn"'" Tabata 1969121 Appendix Ill-Table 2/461 APPENDIX III-TABLE 2-Sublethal doses of inorganic chemicals for aquatic organisms Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Aluminum ......•. 106 mg/1 Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza· Anderson 1944149 Ammonia ......... 5 mg/1 Diaptomus (AI} tion, in Lake Erie (NHa) oregonensis water; Ah(SO,)a 152 mg/1 Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza- 190 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1944"9 lion; using (NH,J,so, lion, a,e, BSA; alumi· 13 mg/1 Diaptomus same as above num ammonium sui-oregonensis fate 0.04 N Gasterosteus immediate negative Jones 1948"' 206 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-aculeatus response lion; BSA, a,e; using 0.01 N reactions are slow; some aluminum potassium are overcome by the sulfate exposure 136 ppm Daphnia magna same, using aluminum •1 mg/1 Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1950152 sulfate lion, 25 C; NH,CI <6.7 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-111948151, 420 mg/1 Navicula seminulum 50 percent reduction of Academy of Nat· lion after 64 hrs; 1950152 growth; soft water; ural Sciences AhCb; BSA, a: 25 C 22 c 1960146 Ammonia ......... <134 ppm or Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1944149 420 mg/1 50 percent reduction of (NHa) 91 mg/1 lion in 64 hr, BSA, growth; hard water; a,e, ammonium chlo· 22 c ride, 25 C 320 mg/1 50 percent reduction of <8.75 ppm BSA; a,e; threshold of growth; soft water; immobilization; am· 28 c monium hydroxide 420 mg/1 50 percent reduction of <106 ppm threshold of immobiliza· growth; hard water; lion; ammonium sUI· 28 c fate BSA; a,c 410 mg/1 50 percent reduction of 8. 75 mg/1 threshold cone. of im· growth; soft water; mobilization using 30 c NH,OH; 25 C 350 mg/1 50 percent reduction of 17 ppm Steurastrum inhibition of growth Chu 19421" growth; hard water; paradoxum 30 c 1000 ppm Salmo gairdneri loss of equilibrium in Grindley 1946188 420 mg/1 22 C in hard and soft 27.3 min. in tap water 50 percent re- water; ammonium duction in division chloride; cone. as am-(growth) monia, a,c,e,f 5.D-8.0 ppm (NHa) Oncorhynchus in aerated fresh water. Holland et al. 1000 ppm same as abbve, loss of kisutch loss in equilibrium 1960199 equilibrium in 52.5 spasms with gills and min. jaw; gaping 50 ppm same as above; loss of 3.5-10.0 ppm Oncorhynchus in aerated salt water; 111960199 equilibrium in> 1000 tshanytscha reduction in growth; min. loss of equilibrium; 3000 ppm same as above using Alk. 112 ppm; DO distilled water; loss of 8.4ppm equilibrium in 291 min. Antimony 1000 ppm .same as above using (Sb) (See also Na) distilled water; loss of 37 ppm Daphnia magna thresho'd of immobiliza· Anderson 19481" equilibrium in 715 min. 100 ppm same as above using lion; antimony tri- chloride; BSA; a distilled water; loss of 15 mg/1 protozoans K(SbO)C,H,O,; hin-Bringmann and equilibrium in 4, 310 drance ol food intake Kuhn 1959159 mins. 3.5 mg/1 green algae " hindrance of cell 1000 ppm Salmo gairdneri loss of equilibrium in Grindley 1946188 division 19.8 min; tap water; 9 mg/1 Daphnia " hindrance of BSA; a,c,e,f. ammon-movement ium sulfate; cone. as 1.0 mg/1 Micropterus caused projectile vomit· Jernejcic 1969204 NHa 3000 ppm same as above using salmoides ing SbOH(C,H,OoK2) distilled water; loss of used equilibrium in 318 Arsenic mins. (As) (See also Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)) 1000 ppm same as above using 20 ppm Salmo gairdneri and cone. of arsenic using Grindley 1946188 distilled water; loss of minnows sodium arsenite, fish equilibrium in 847 overturned in 36 hrs. mins. 250 ppm ................ cone. of arsenic using 100 ppm same as above using sodium arsenate, fish distilled water; loss of overturned in 16 hrs. equilibrium in >5. 760 3D-35 ppm minnows fins, scales damaged, Boschetti and Me· mins. diarrhea, heavy Loughlin 19571" 91 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a: threshold of im· Anderson 1948151 breathing and hem- mobilization in 64 hrs. orrhage around fin ammonium chloride; areas. 3.1 mg/1 Leptodora kindtii threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151 4-10pg Mytilus edules amount of As retained Saute! et al. lion in flesh 1964"' 86 mgjl Cyclops vernalis 0.5-2pg Mytilus edules amount of As retained in 75 mgfl Mesocyctops threshold of immobiliza. Anderson 1948151 shell when exposed to leukarti tion 100 g/1 of As 462/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 2-Continued Constituent Chronic dose Species C~ditions Literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Arsenic .... 100 g/1 As bysuss accumulated Calcium .......... 1.25X111' M Cymnogaster ag-activation of brain Abou-Donia and (As) 250-500 l'g (Ca) gregata acetylcholinesterase Menzel 19671« 100 g/1 As excreta contained 550-Chlorine .... 0.3 ppm trout symptoms of restless-Cole 1941"' 8001'g (CI) ness, dysphea, loss of 1.8 mg/1 Stizostedion vitreum as As (3.0 ml of arse-Jernejcic l969'"' equilibrium & spastic vitreum (walleye) nous acid) regurgita-convulsions lion of stomach con-10 mgjl (5 days) Macrocystis pyrilera 10-15 percent reduction Clendenning and tents into throat in photosynthesis North 19601" Barium ........... <83 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 19441" Chloride (see also sodium and potassium) (Ba) lion, BaCiz; BSA; a;c (Cr) 2mM Salmo gairdneri change in respiration Amend etal. • (see also Sodium (Na) & Potassium (K)) rate 1956148 12 mg/1 Leptodora kindtii threshol~ of immobiliza-Anderson 19481" Chromium tion; 20-25 C; BaCiz (Cr) (see also sodium and potassium) 133 mg/1 Cyclops vernalis threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 19481" <D.6ppm Daphnia magna chromic acid; threshold Anderson 19441" tion; 20-25 C; BaCiz of immobilization; 5000 mg/1 fish same as above BSA a;c; 29 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a; threshold of im-Anderson 1948,161 <3.6ppm threshold of immobiliza-"19481<1 mobilization; BaCI2; 1950152 tion; chromic chlorlde; 25 c BSA; a; 64 hrs. Beryllium ......... 3 mg/1 Carassius auratus using lagoon wastes Pomelee 1953"' 6.4-16.0 ppm Chlorococcum complete inhibition of Hervey 19491" (Be) from Be plant fish be-variegatus growth lor 56 days; came sluggish alter 21 Cr as dichromate. days 3.2-6.4 ppm Chlorococcum same as above 11r'-1ir' M Fundulus cone. affecting liver en-Jackim et al. 1971J2" humicola heteroclitus zyme activity 3.2-6.4 ppm Scenedesmus same as above Boron ............ 5000 mg/1 Salmo gairdneri slight darkening of the Wurtz 1945"8 obliquus skin using boric acid 0.32-1.6 ppm Lepocinclis steinii same as above 80,000 mg/1 caused immobilization 728 ppm Lepomis hydration of tissues of Abegg 1950143 and loss of equilibrium macrochirus body due to coagula- of fish; using boric acid ~on of mucous cover- 10 mg/1 marine fish violent irritant response Hiatt et al. 1953"' ing body; 22.5 C; Bromine pH 5.9 (Br) •• (see also Na) 1.0 ppm BOD 10 percent reduction in tngols 1955202 <0.0026 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 19481" 02 utilization; lab tion; CaCI2; BSA; a; bioassay; j; chromic in 64 hrs. sulfate. 10.0 ppm marine fish violent irritant activity Hiatt et al. 1953197 0.2 ppm fish retarded rate of growth U.S. Dept of caused by irritation of and resulted in in-Commerce respiratory enzymes creased mortality 1958"' Cadmium ......... 0.0026 mg/1 Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151, (Cr+•) (Cd) lion 1950152 0.21 mg/1 Microregma threshold effect Bringmann and o. 05-0.10 mg/1 Australorbis produced distress syn-Harry and Aldrich Kuhn 19591" glabratus dromes; distilled 1958191 not given Salmo gairdneri change in erythrocyte Haisband and water. surface area and in-Haisband 142 ppm Sewage organisms 50 percent inhibition of Hermann 19591" crease or decrease in 1963190 o, utilization; BOD; haematocrit value a; CdSO, 2-4 mg/1 Salmo gairdneri raising of hematocrits Schiffman and 0.1-0.2 ppm Crassostrea 20-week exposure; little Shuster and Pring! e Fromm 1959"1 virginica shell growth losl pig-1969236 2.5 ppm Cr. as chromate; lab bio-Fromm and Stokes mentation of mantle assay; tap water; glu-1962180 edge; coloration of cose transport by gut digestive diverticulae segments reduced 40 50 ppm Fundulus palhological changes in Gardner and Yevich percent from controls. heteroclitus ;nlestinal tract, kid-1970186 10-50 ppm fish decreased extractable Castell et at. ney, and gills; changes protein content of 1970163 in essosinophillineage blended fish muscle 11r"-1()-2M Fundulus cone. affecting liver en-Jackim et al. Cobalt... ......... >26ppm Daphnia magna coballous chloride; BSA; Anderson 194414' heteroclitus zyme activity 1970203 (Co) a;c; lhreshold of im- Calcium. 1,332 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 19441" mobilization. (Ca) lion; CaCiz BSA; a;c >3.1 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948161 920 ppm threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948"' lion lor 64 hr exposure tion; CaCiz; BSA; BSA; a; CoCI, a;c; 20-25 C 2.8 mg/1 Daphnia magna threshold of immob;liza-Ohio River Valley 1130 mg/1 Cyclops vernalis threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948161 lion using CoCiz Water Commis- tion; 20-25 C using sion 1950"o CaCiz 5 mgfl Daphnia threshold effects CoCh Bringmann and 1440 mg/1 Mesocyclops same as above Kuhn 19591" leukarti 2.5 mg/1 E. coli 22,080 mg/1 white fish fry same as above 1.0 mg/1 Scenedesmus 12,060 mgjl pickerel fry same as above 0.5 mg/1 Microregma 8,400 ppm Lepomis CaCb 1.34 percent loss Abegg 1950143 64.0 ppm Sewage organisms 50 percent inhibition of Hermann 1959"' macrochirus of tissue fluid; pH 02 utilization; BOD; 8.3; 22.5 C; dissolu-a; CoCiz lion of mucous cover-5 mgjl Saphrolegnia suppression of growth Shabalina 19Jl4233 ing of body causing dehydration of museu-0.5, 0.05, and Cyprinus carpio inhibition of growth in lature 5 mgfl (young) small carp Appendix III-Table 2/463 TABLE 2-Continued Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Cobalt... ......... 5 mg/1 Saprolegnea suppressed growth Copper. .......... 0. 56 ppm Zn; and (Co) 10-50 ppm fish decreased extractable Castell et al. (Cu) soft water (7 days) protein content of 1970163 35-45 percent of Salmo salar inhibition of migratory Sprague and blended fish muscle. incipient lethal habits Saunders 19632" Copper •.......... l!<g/1 Cu Chi orella suppressed growth; 4-hr Nielsen 193921 ' level (Cu) pyrenoidosa exposure 20 C; 61<g/l 0.1 mg/1 Nereis virens threshold of toxicity; · Raymount and Fe cone. as Cu. accumu-Shields 1964"' 2.5-.0 l'g/1 Chlorella decreased pholosyn-lation in gut and pyrenoidosa lhelic rate body wall. Nitzchia palea 1-2 mg/1 Carcinus threshold of toxicity; Reish 1964"' 0.1 mg/1 Cu roach cannot withstand cone. Nielsen 1939219 11-12 day exposure greater than given 2.31£g/l Salmo salar as Cu.; threshold for Sprague et al. 2.0 ppm large mouth black in distilled water; Cole 1941"7 avoidance for parr. 19642" bass cuso, lethal thres· 0.42!<g/l as Cu; plus 6.11£g/l hold Zn; fish are 9.5-15.3 0.13 ppm Crassostrea turn green in 21 days Gallsoff 1943185 em in length; avoid· virgimca (unmarketable!) a nee 0.096 mg/1 Daphnia magna threshold cone. of im· Anderson 1944149 0. 7 ppm go by reduced appetite and re-Syazuki 1964"9 mobilization using duced o, consumption cupric chloride freshwater; pH 7. 2; 0.1 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 194414' still water lion using Cuso, 1-5 ppm cuso, Oncomelania decrease in food con-Winkler and Chi BSA; a;c formosana sumption; concentra-1964"' >0.2 mgjl Bugula netritina complete inhibition of Miller 1946215 lion of Cu along wall growth of attached of digestive gland and fauna in the loose spongy 0.02..0.3 mg/1 barnacles growth of young Miller 1946215 connective tissue of barnacles is inhibited the stomach and <0.2..0.3 mg/1 Bugula nerifina retarded growth Miller 194621' proximal intestine. <0.2 mgjl retarded polypi de forma-10-20 l'g/1 sea urchin retards body growth of Bougis 196515' bon pluteal larvae, regress- 0.027 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151 ing of arms is re- lion, cupric chloride; larded. BSA; a; (64 hrs) 301'g/l sea urchin affects growth of arms 2.7 mg/1 Cyclops vernalis threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151 0.01-0.1 ppm Helix pomaitia increase in mucous DeCiaventi 1965"' lion secretion and no 1.9 mg/1 Mesocyclops response to tactile leukarti stimuli 0.0024 mg/1 Diaptomus 201'g/l oysters green color in oysters Sprague et al. oregonensis 1965"' 0.178 mg/1 Oncorhynchus loss of equilibrium and 0.05 ppm inhibition of self gorbuscha initial mortalities; purification Cu(NOsh 1.25X10-• M Cymalogaster acetylcholinesterase Abou-Donia and metal sheet; 45 Balanus amphitrite malformation of the shell Weis 1948253 aggregata activity is inhibited Menzel1967144 percent Ni 55 bases; edges scalloped by Cu+2 percent Cu not smooth 1601'g/l common guppy reduction in number of Cusick 1967171 0.027 mg/1 Daphnia magna threshold cone. of im-Anderson 19501" mucous cells. mobilization using 0.06 ppm Salmo salar chronic static bioassay, Grande 1967187 cupric chloride cuso,, as Cu. 0.16 mg/1 sea urchin as Cu; abnormalities Cleland 1953155 0.02 mg/1 Oncorhynchus sublethal effects on Grande 1967187 occur in eggs fingerlings. 0.1 mg/1 Australorbis produced distress syn-Harry and Aldrich <!.Oppm crayfish Orconectes inhibition of respiratory Hubschman 19672" glabratus drome. 1958191 rusticus enzymes degenerative 21 ppm Sewage organisms 50 percent inhibition of Hermann 1959"' effect of cells and o, utilization ;BOD; tissues including dis- copper sulphate; a; ruption of gluthathi • 1.0 mg/1 Sphaerotilus inhibition of growth, Academy of Nat-one equilibrium. cone. of cuso, ural Sciences continuous flow bio· 1960146 assay 0.1..0.5 ppm oyster changes in digestive di· Fujiya 1960182 <1.0 ppm crayfish same as above verticuium tissues 0.35-0.43 toxic Salmo salar reduction in number of Saunders and with desquamation units spawning salmon Sprague 19672" and necrosis of 0.056 ppm Daphnia inhibition of growth Hueck and Adema stomach epithelium. 1968201 0.563 ppm Oncorhynchus loss of equilibrium and Holland et al. 5.6 ug/1 Salmo gairdneri threshold avoidance level Sprague 19682" gorbuscha initial mortalities in 1960199 0. 055-0. 2651'gfml dinoflagellates growth inhibition at20 C Mandelli 196921' (young) 19 hrs; cone. as Cu. 0.025-0.05 ppm oysters bodies became bluish· Shuster and pH 7. 9; Cu(N O,), green in color; and Pringle 1969'" shell showed excellent 1.00 ppm Oncorhynchus survival, growth, repro-Holland et al. growth; mantle edge kisuthh silver ductive and feeding 1960199 pigmentation in- salmon responses creased; and mortal· 16 ppm Rana pipiens chronic static bioassay; Kaplan and Yoh ities increased. a;c; copper sulfate 1961207 331'gfl Pimephales prevention of spawning Mount and 1.1 ppm Salmo gairdneri water, copper sulfate as Lloyd 1961b'" promelas hard water Stephen 1969217 Cu; BSA; a;e;p; ·3 10-50 ppm fish decreased extractable Castell et al. days; 3.5 ppm Zn protein content of 19701" 0.044 ppm Salmo gairdneri same as above using uoyd 1as1bm blended fish muscle 464/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 2-Continued Constituent Chronic dose Species '!:onditions Literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Copper ... 0.2 mg/1 Oncorhynchus inhibition of growth Hazel and Meith Iron .............. 1 day exposure using (Cu) tshanytscha 197Ql92 (Fe) ferrous sulfate. 1o-•-1o-• M Killifish change in liver enzyme Jackim et al. 27 !Lg/1 Phaeodactylim Severe clumping of Davies 1966172 activity 1970203 tricornutum diatom cells. Cyanide ........ 0.1-0.3 ppm Crassius auratus hard water using KCN; Cole 1941 1" 1.25X1o-• M Cymatogaster inhibition of AChE Abou-Donia and (CN-) respiratory depressant aggregata activity Menzell19671" 0.126 mg/1 trout overturned in 170 mins. Ohio River Valley 1D-1DD mg/1 Carassius auratus epithelial edema, hyper-Ashley 19701" Water Commis-secretion of mucous, sion 1950"' inflammation, capil- 0.15 mg/1 trout overturned in 170 mins. Southgate 1950'" lary congestion. de- CN-struction of respiratory 0.7 mg/1 Salmo gairdneri fish overturned Herbert and Mer-epithelium, blockage ken 19521" of gill filaments and 1 ppm fish gills become brighter in Southgate 1953"9 lamellae by micro- colour due to inhibi-ferruginous ppt. and lion by cyanide ofthe occurrence of intra- oxidase responsible for cellular iron in epi- transfer of o, from thelia! cells blood to tissues Lead ......... ... 5 mg/1 fish precipitation of mucous Westfall1945'" sx1o-•M Mayorella increased respnation of Reich 1955"' (Pb) of gills decreasing palestinensis organism in glucose-permeabiliiy of gills to containing solUtiOns; dissolved o, (DO= a;c; BSA; 6.2 ppm) 7300 mg;l Chiarella Inhibition of photosyn-Re1ch 1955'" 1.25 ppm Daphnia magna threshold cf immobiliza-Anderson 1948"' thesis lion; 64· hrs. PbCh 0.1 mg/1 fish fish overturned Neil19562" BSA; a 1 ppm fish respiratory depressant-Jones 1964"' D. 33-644 mg/1 tadpoles negative reaction; lead Jones 1948'" gills became brighter nitrate in color 0.04 N Gasterosteus Fish reacted negatively Jones 194112" 0.25 ppm go by, perch, mullet change in o, uptake; Syazuki 1964"9 aculeatus then positively due to reduction in appetite osmotic pressure of of some. still water; solution pH 8.2 KCN 50 mg/1 catfish injury to blood cells Doudoroff and Katz 10 mg/1 Lepomis 3. o mg/1 free co,; Doudoroff et al. during exposure up to 195317' macrochirus cone. as eN-super-1966177 183 days; cone. as ficial coagulation of lead acetate; in tap mucous: Alk. 1. 5 water mg;l resulting in 30.6 ppm barnacles deformation of shells Stubbings 1959247 death of some; pH due to growth on un- 6. 0; eN-complexed favorable substrates. wilhs1tver; 1.0 mg/1 Cyprinus carpio harmed serum during Fujiya 1961"' not given Cyprinus carpio loss of equilibrium, Malacea 1966"' long exposure; cone. minnow, gudgeon nervous system and as Pb Rhodeus sericeus reSpiration are ef-1.25 ppm Poecilia reticulata retardation of growth, Crandall and Good- fected. increase in mortality, night 19621" 2 mM eN-squid affects the Ca emux in Blaustein and delayed sexual matur- the axons; after 9D-Hodgkin 1969155 ity 150 min rate constant 2.0 ppm Lebistes reticulatus chronic static bioassay Crandall and Good- for loss of Ca was in-Pb(NO,), retardation night 19621" creased 5-10 fold. of growth, delay in sexual maturity and Fluorine ...... 270 mg/1 Daphnia 23 C using NaF Bringmann and increased mortality (F) threshold effect Kuhn 19591" 95 mg/1 Scenedesmus 24 C using NaF 27 percent in 90 days. threshold effect 1.2sx1o-• M Cymatogaster inhibition of acetyl-Abou-Oonia and 226 mg/1 Microregma aggregata chloneslerase activity Menzel 196714' 180 mg/1 Eschenchia coli 27 C using NaF 25 ppm Rana pipiens Sloughing of the skin Kaplan et al. lhreshold effect after 20-days; loss of 1967208 500 ppm Oncorhynchus Alk 47.5 ppm; DO 8.4 Holland et al. righting reflexes; loss of normal semi-erect kisutch ppm; after 72 hr ex-1960199 posure survivors were posture in poor condition, dark 150 ppm total loss of righting re- flexes; excitement, in color with light salivation, and museu- colored spots at end of far twitchings present snout. 150 ppm Salmo gairdneri 90 percent mortality in Herbert and Shur- upon 1st exposure; darkening of liver, 21 days; BSA; a;d; ben 19641" hard water gall bladder. spleen & kidney observed Iron .............. 2.0 mg/1 trout, salmon, blockage of gills; Fe,o, Nielson 1939219 1000 ppm Rana pipiens for 48 hrs. gastric Kaplan et al. (Fe) roach mucosa eroded. red 1967208 <152 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a; c; threshold of Anderson 194414 ' blood cell and white immobilization FeS04 blood cell counts de- 130 ppm BSA; a; c; threshold of Anderson 19441", creased with increas- immobilization FeCI, 1950152 ing Pb. <38 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a; threshold of Anderson 1948"1, 10, 20, 40 mg/1 Lepomis cyanellus avoided these concen-_ Summerfeit and mobilization in 64 19501" !rations Lewis 1967248 hrs; 25 mg/1 Salvelinus malma reduction of growth Dorfman and Whit- 5. 0 ppm (1 day) go by reduction in appetite in Syazuki 196424 ' worth 19691" f:, !!~· -- Appendix III-Table 2/465 TABLE 2-Continued Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation LeaL ........... 1o-"l-1o-' M killifish change in liver enzyme Jackim et at. pH ...... 62 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1944"9 (Pb) activity 1970"' lion; HCI BSA; a;c 0.1-6.2 mg/1 Crassostrea induced changes in Pringle (unpub-pH 2.8 Crassius auratus coagulation of mucous Weslfall19452" virginica mantle & gonad lished)"' on gills; H,so, tissue. pH 5.4 Gasterosteus reacted negatively to _pH Jones 1948205 Magnesium ......• 50 ppm Staurastrum certain inhibition of Chu 1942"' aculeatus less than 5. 4 and (Mg) paractoxum growth using MgSO, greater than 11. 4 740 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a; threshold of Anderson 1948151 pH 11.4 immobilization MgCt, pH 6.5 oyster pumping is reduced Korringa 1952"9 7.2 ppm Botryococcus inhibition of growth pH 5. 51 (3 day) Oncorhynchus 0.1 N HCI; critical level, Holland et at. Manganese lshawytscha flowing-salt 1960199 (Mn) (see also Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na)) 50-150 ppm short-necked clam o, uptake became ab-Syazuki 1964"9 50 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151, normal; increase in lion, MnCt, BSA; a 1950152 consumption with 24· 50 mg/1 Daphnia magna as Mn,threshold of.im-Bringmann and hr. exposure. mobilization; 23 C Kuhn 19591" Potassium. inhibition of growth Chu 1942 1" 1.25Xlo-• Cymatogaster activation of acetyl· Abou-Donia and (K) aggregata cholinesterase Menzel19671" 0.6 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1944"9 10,000 ppm Lebistes reticulatus inhibition of essential Shaw and Grush kin lion; K,cr,o,; BSA; sulfhydryl groups at-1967"' a;c !ached to key enzyme, 0.63 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1944"9 lab bioassay lion; BSA; a;c; 10,000 ppm Bufo valliceps same as above; using KMnO, tadpoles 373 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1944"9 1,000 ppm Daphnia magna as above lion; BSA; a;c; KCI loss of equilibrium in Grindley 1946188 Mercury .......... <0.006 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151 23. B mins. K,cr,o,; (Hg) tion; HgCI2; a; BSA; BSA; a;c;e;f 0.61 ppm Sewage organisms 50 percent inhibition of Hermann 19591" 1000 ppm Salmo gairdneri loss of equilibrium in 02 utilization; HgCI2 54.6 mins.; BSA; BOD; a; K,cr,o, tap water; 3.2X1o-• mgfhr Japanese eel, accumulation in the Hibiya and Oguri cone. as Cr Crassius auratus kidney 1961198 200 ppm Salmo gairdneri loss of equilibrium in Grindley 1946188 0.01 ppm Lebistes reticutatus cation combined with Shaw and Grushkin 188 min. BSA; essential sulfhydryl 1967234 K,cr,o, tap water group attached to a cone. as Cr key iJ,zyme to cause 2000 ppm Salmo gairdneri loss of equilibrium; in Grindley1946"' inhibition; a;c;e; BSA 42. o mins; K,cro,; 0.1 ppm Bufo valliceps same as above using BSA; a;c;e;f; cone. as tadpoles Cr 0.1 ppm Daphnia magna same as above 1000 ppm toss of equilibrium in 79 to-'-lG-2 M killifish change in liver enzyme Jackim el at. mins. BSA: K,cro,; activity 1970'" cone. as Cr; a;c;e;f Molybdenum 54 mg/1 Scenedesmus threshold cone. for Bringmann and 20 ppm loss of equilibrium in (Mo) deleterious effect Kuhn 1959159 3580 min; BSA; Nickel. .... <0.7 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza· Anderson 1948151 K ,cro, cone. as Cr; (Ni) lion Ni(NH,)2(SO,), a;c;e;f BSA; a; 432 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151 0.7 mg/1 Daphnia threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1950152 lion; BSA; a;c; KCI lion; NiCt, for 64 hrs 1.5 mg/1 Scenedesmus threshold of immobiliza-Bringmann and 10.5 ppm Sewage organisms 50 percent reduction of Sheets 1957"5 lion; NiCt, Kuhn 19591" BOD values; K,cro, 0.1 mg/1 E. coli threshold of immobiliza· 15 ppm sewage organisms 50 percent inhibition of Hermann 1959195 lion; NiCI2 o, utilization; BOD; 0.05 mg/1 Microregma threshold of immobiliza· KCN; a lion; NiCt, 17.0 ppm sewage organisms 50 percent inhibition of Hermann 1959195 1.25X1o-• M Cymatogaster inhibition of acetyl-Abou-Donia and o, utilization; BOD; aggregata cholinesterase activity Menzel 19671" a K,cr,o, 10 ppm Lebistes reticulatus bioassay; a;c;e; cation Shaw and Grushkin 0.072 ppm Rabora hetero-20 percent mortality in Abram 19641" combined with essen-1967"' morpha 7 days; KCN; BSA tial sulfhydryl group Selenium. >BOO ppm fresh-water fish accumulation of Se in Barnhart 19581" attached to key en-(Se) liver, from bottom zyme to cause inhibi· deposits in reservoir lion. 2.5 mg/1 of Se Daphnia medium threshold effect Sri ngmann and 100 ppm Bufo valliceps same as above, using using sodium selenite; Kuhn 19591" tadpoles 23 c 10 ppm Daphnia magna same as above. 2.5 mg/1 of Se Scenedesmus median threshold level; 0.5-10 mg/1 Cyanophyta growth inhibition Sparling 1968"1 using sodium selenite; Nitrate ........... 0.0007 N minnow as Pb(NO,),; showed Jones 1948205 24 c negative response 90 mg/1 of Se Escherichia coli median threshold level, 1.25xto-1 M Cymatogaster Pb(NOa)2; caused 73 Abou-Donia and using sodium selenite; aggregata percent inhibition of Menzel1967 1" 27 c AChE activity 183 mg/1 of Se Microregma median threshold level, 10, 20-40 mg/1 Lepomis cyanellus avoided these concen-Summerfeit and using sodium selenite !rations Lewis 19672" Silver ... 6X10-• Bacterium coli inhibits enzymes; Yudkin 193725' pH ............... pH 9.0 (Ag) 3.3X10-• M 20 c Ag,so, oyster larvae injury to larvae Gaardner 1932"' 0.0051 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza. Anderson 1948151 pH 4.0 fish coagulation of proteins Cole 1941'" lion; BSA; (64 hrs) of epithelial cells silver nitrate; a; L ------~------------------------------------------------------------ 466/Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 2-Continued Constituent Chronic dose Species Oenditions Literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Silver.. 0.03 mg/1 Daphnia median threshold effect Bringmann and Sodium ........... 3680 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1948151 (A g) Kuhn 19591" (Na) tion; NaCI BSA a;c; 0.03 mg/1 Microregma 0.007 N Gasterosteus fish displayed distress; Jones 1948205 0.05 mg/1 Scenedesmus aculeatus lap water; BSA; c;e; 0.04 mg/1 Eschericha coli pH 6. 8 with H ,so,; 0.15JLg/l Echinid larvae ............... Soyer 1963240 Na,s 10-100 l'g/1 Paracentrolus as AgNO,; abnormalities 2.47 ppm Daphnia magna 50 percent are im· Freeman and or inhibition of growth mobilized in 1 DO hr Fowler 1953"' of eggs exposure; BSA; a;c; 2JLg/l as AgNO,; delay in de-Na.SiQ, velopment and de· 158 ppm 50 percent are im· formation of resulting mobilized in 100 hr plutei exposure; BSA; a;c; 0.251'g/l threshold cone. for ef-Na.SiQ,; plus feet; as AgNO, 2, 899 ppm Na.SO, 0.50 l'g/1 Arbacia threshold cone. for ef· 0.0003 N Gasterosteus survival time of 72 hrs. Jones 19411205 feclfor eggs aculealus tap water. BSA; c;e; 0.1 ppm Lebistes reticutatus calion combines withes· Shaw and Grushkin pH 6.8; Na,S sential sutlhdryl group 1967'" 0.201 ppm Daphnia magna 50 percent immobiliza-Freeman and attached to key en-tion; BSA; 100 hr ex-Fowler 1953"' zyme causing inhibi· posure a;c; Na2Cr04; lion; BSA; a;c;e plus 119 ppm 0.1 ppm Bufo vamceps same as above using Na,sio, & 2180 ppm tadpoles Na,so, 0.1 ppm Daphnia magna same as above 0.276 ppm 50 percent immobiliza· 10-'-11)-2 M Fundulus change in liver enzyme Jackim et at. tion during 100 hr heteroclitus activity 197[203 exposure BSA; a;c; Sodium 6143 ppm NaCt Daphnia magna threshold of immobitiza-Anderson 1944"' Na.CrO,; plus 2984 (Na) lion; BSA; NaCI; a,c pprq Na.SO, 8500 ppm Daphnia magna BSA; a;c; threshold of Anderson 1944"' 0.159 ppm 50 percent immobiliza· immobilization; tion for 100 hr expo- NaND, sure; BSA; a;c; <3.4 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza· Anderson 1946150 Na,cro,; plus 93 ppm lion; BSA; NaCN Na,SiO, 5000 ppm threshold for immobiliza· Anderson 1946"o 0.33 ppm 50 percent immobiliza-Freeman and lion; unfavorable tion during 100 hr Fowler 1953110 osmotic effect exerted; exposure Na,Cro, BSA; NaND, plus 408 ppm Na,co,; 9.4 ppm cone. causing immobili· Anderson 19461" BSA; a;c; zation; BSA; Na,s 85 ppm 50 percent immobiliza- <0.32 ppm Daphnia magna Threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1946"0 tion, 100-hr exposure; a;c; BSA; Na,SiOa lion; BSA; Na,cro, plus 180 ppm Na.SO, 8200 ppm same as above using Anderson 1946"o 86 ppm 50 percent immobiliza- NaBr lion; 100 hr exposure; 210 ppm threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1946150 a;c; BSA; Na,sio, tion; BSA; NaBrO, plus 182 ppm Na.CO, 9.1 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 19461" plus 0.146 ppm lion; BSA; NaAsQ, Na.Cro, 953 ppm Phoxinus phoxinus loss of equilibrium in Grindley 1946188 0.195 ppm Daphnia magna 50 percent immobiliza- 54.6 min; BSA; a;c; tion; 100 hr exposure; e;f; NaAsO,; tap or a;c; BSA; Na.CrQ, disL water; cone. as plus 240 ppm Na.CO, As and 2079 Na,so, 290 ppm loss of equilibrium in 73 ppm 50 percent immobiliza· 186 min; BSA; a;c;e; lion, 100 hr exposure; I; NaAsQ,; tap water a;c; BSA; Na,SiQ, or dist. water plus 155 ppm Na.CO, 17.8 ppm loss of equilibrium in and 1343 ppm Na.SO, 2174 mins; BSA; 0.35 ppm 50 percent immobitiza- a;c;e;f; NaAsO,; tap or lion; Na.CrO,; BSA; dis!. water. a;c; 100 hr exposure; <20 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 1946"0 plus 87 ppm sodium bi- sulfate and 440 ppm lion; BSA; sodium sodium carbonate arsenate. cone. as Na.CrQ, 2970 ppm Phoxinus phoxinus lost equilibrium in 205 Grindley 19461" 92 ppm 50 percent immobiliza- mins. BSA; a;c;e;f; tion; Na.SiQ,; BSA; dist. or tap water; a;c; 100-hr exposure; sodium arsenate dis!. plus 38 ppm NaHSO,; or tap water and 194 ppm Na,co, 820 ppm lost equilibrium in 467 427 ppm Daphnia magna 50 percent immobiliza-Freeman and mins; BSA; sodium tion; Na,SiO, BSA; Fowler 1953179 arsenate; a;c;e;f; a;c; 100 hr exposure; dis!. or tap water plus 177 ppm NaHSO, 234 ppm lost equilibrium; 0.286 ppm 50 percent immobiliza· a;c;e;f; dis! or tap tion; Na.CrQ,; BSA; water; 951 min a;c; 100 hr exposure; sodium arsenate 70 ppm NaHSO, Appendix III-Table 2/467 TABLE 2-Continued Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Sodium ..........• 126 ppm 50 percent immobiliza-Zinc •............ 25 ppm Salmo gairdneri loss of equilibrium in Grindley 1946"' (Na) lion Na2SiOa; BSA; (Zn) 133 min; a;c;e;l; zinc a;c; 100 hr exposure; sulfate; cone. as Zn; +52 ppm NaHSOa BSA; and 2308 ppm Na.· 24 mg/1 fish av01dance concentration Jones 19411'" so, of ZnSOdH20 506 ppm 50 percent immobiliza-0.15 mg/1 of Zn Daphnia magna threshold cone. of zinc Anderson 1950152 tion Na.SiOa; BSA; immobilization using a;c; 100 hr exposure; Zn(N0a)2 plus 144 ppm NaHSOa. and 0.861 ppm 0. 04 mg/1 of Zn rainbow trout prevention ot hatching of Affleck 19521" Na.Cro, rainbow trout eggs in 0.306 ppm 50 percent immobiliza-sell water. tion Na2Cro,; BSA; 0.16 mg/1 Psammechinus abnormalities ollerlili· Cleland 195>"5 a;c; 100 hr exposure; miciavis zation cleavage of eggs plus 75 ppm NaHSO, of urchins when in and 3312 ppm Na.so, zinc sulfate; cone. 0.42 ppm 50 percent immobiliza-of Zn. lion; BSA; 100 hr ex-1 mg/1 Planorbis and ······················ Deschiens et al. posure; a;c; Na2cro, Bulinus (snails) 1957174 1.0 ppm sewage organisms j; 100 percent reduction Ingots 19552"' 920 ppm sewage organisms reduction in BOD Sheets 1957235 in 02 utilization BOD; values by 50 percent Na.Cro, zinc sulfate 3.6 ppm sewage organisms reduction by 50 percent Sheets 1957"5 55 ppm sewage organisms reduction of BOD value Sheets 1957"5 in the BOD values; by 50 percent in an BOD; NaCN unbuffered system; 100 ppm sewage organisms 50 percent inhibition of Hermann 19591" zinc borolluoride. 02 utilization; BOD; 0.75 ppm sewage organisms reduction of BOD Sheets 1957235 a; sodium arsenate value by 50 percent 4ppm Cladophora complete decomposition Cowelll96516' in an unbuffered sys- in 2 weeks; field study tem; zinc cyanide in lake; a;c; NaAs02 1.8 mg/1 Daphnia magna median threshold effect; Bringmann and 4ppm Spirogyra zygnema same as above Cowell! 965"' as Zn Kuhn 1959159 4 ppm Potamogeton (plant) same as above 1.4-2.3 mg/1 Escherichia coli same as above 4 ppm zooplankton NaAs02; field study in lake; a;c; significant I.D-1.4 mg/1 Scenedesmus same as above reduction evident 0.33 mg/1 Microregma same as above 6.5 ppm Daphnia magna median immobilization Crosby and Tucker 1.25 ppm & Poecilia reticulata retardation of growth, Crandall and Good- concentration; a;c;d; 196617° 230 ppm (common guppy) increased maturity nightl962 16 ' i;g; BSA; NaAs02 and delayed sexual 1.4ppm Simocephalus threshold of immobiliza Sanders and Cope maturity; as Zn; serrulatus lion; NaAsO,; BSA; 1966'28 znso, 78 F 35-45 percent of Salmo salar migration of salmon is Sprague and 1.8 ppm Daphnia magna same as above incipient lethal disturbed when cop-Saunders 1963246 Sulfide •.......... 5.0 ppm suckers causes respiratory para!· Cole 19411" level. per-zinc pollution ex- (S-) ysis ceeds this dosage 0.86 ppm sunfish 100 mg/t lobster causes increase in Zn Bryan 1964162 3.8 ppm Salvetinus malma levels in urine, excre- 4.3 ppm Crassius auratus tory organs, hepato- 6.3 ppm Cyprinus carpio pancreas and gills 3.2 mg/1 trout overturned in 2 hrs; Southgate 19411'" O.D-5.0 ppm Lepom•s continuous flow bioassay, Mount 1964216 pH 9.0 macrochirus acute; a;c;f; accumu~ 3.2 mg/1 trout overturned in 10 mins.; Lepiosteus osseus lation of Zn in bones pH 7.8 Dorosoma petenense and gills. 3.2 mg/1 trout overturned in 4 mins.; Dorosoma pH 6.0 cepedianum Titanium .•....... 4. 6 mg/1 o!Ti Daphnia median threshold level; Bringmann and Alosa chrysochloris (Ti) 23 c Kuhn 195915' Cyprinus carpio 2. 0 mg/1 of Ti Scenedesmus median threshold effect; Carassius auratus 24 c 53.3 mg/1 Salmo salar avoidance response in Sprague 1964'42 4. 0 mg/1 o!Ti Microregma median threshold level; 50 percent of fish; Uranium .......... 13 mg/1 Daphnia threshold effect of Bringmann and BSA; a;c;d;e;l; cone. (U) uranyl nitrate; as U Kuhn 1959159 as Zn. 22 mg/1 Scenedesmus threshold effect of 53 mg/1 Salmo salar avoidance cone. lor parr; Sprague et at. uranyl nitrate; as U cone. as Zn. 1964'" 1. 7-2.2 mg/1 Escherichia coli threshold effect of 12.6 ppm shellfish decrease in o, uptake Syazuki 196424' uranyl nitrate; as U in presence of Zn 28 mg/1 of U Microregma threshold effect of sulfate as Zn; I hr uranyl nitrate exposure in polluted 0.5 mg/1 of U Escherichia coli disturbs 0, balance of Guskova and sea water. water and inhibits GriHein 196418' 30 ppm goby rate of 02 uptake is de· Syazuki 1964"' development of en-creased, reduction of teric bacteria· appetite; as zinc; I Zinc .•.•........• 0.1 mg/1 roach cannot withstand Nielson 1939"' day exposure (Zn) 48 ppm Daphnia magna threshold of immobiliza-Anderson 19441" 0.15 ppm oysters green color evident; tion; BSA; a;c; zinc cause inhibition of sulfate sell-purification 468/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 2-Continued Constituent Chronic dose Species • Conditions Literature Citation Constituent Chronic dose Species Conditions Literature Citation Zinc ............. 1601'gfl Poecilia reliculala zinc damaged epithelium Cusick 1967171 Zinc ............. 0.8 mg/1 Salmo gairdneri histological damage to Brown el al. (Zn) of gills, reduction in (Zn) gills; Zn added along 1968160 the number of mucous with alkylbenzene cells; pH 6; distilled sulfonate water, high mortality 100 l'g/1 freshwater mussels accumulation of Zn in Pauley and rate Leydig cells and Nakatani 19682"21 157 & 180 ppm Fundulus as Zn; sluggish and un-Eisler 1967178 mucous cells of the heteroclitus coordinated after 2 epithelial layers hrs; DO. 7.2-7.4 5.6/Lg/1 Cyanophyta avoidance reactions to Sprague 1968"' ppm; 20 C; pH 8.0; sub·lelhal cone. of salinity 25 o 1 oo Zn. low avoidance 10.0 ppm Lebistes reticulatus bioassay; a;e;c; com-Shaw and Grush-threshold bines with essential kin 1967'" 5.6/Lg/1 Salmo gairdneri avoidance reactions Sprague 1968"' sulfhydryl group at- !ached to a key en-0.18 mg/1 Pimphales reproduction inhibited; Brungs 19591s1 zyme. promelas no effect on survival 10.0 ppm Bufo valliceps same as above (using growth or maturation. tadpoles) 18.0 ppm Salmo gairdneri reduction of mitotic in-Rachlin and 1.0 ppm Daphnia magna same as above dex of gonadal cells Perlmutter 0.35-0.43toxic Salmo salar reduction in number of Saunders and by 70 percent 19692" units salmon reaching Sprague 196722' 32.0 ppm Salmo gairdneri complete inhibition of spawning grounds mitotic division (avoidance reactions 16 ppm (24 hr) Cyprinus carpio hardness 25 ppm Ca; Tabata 1969'" of migrating salmon) as Zn .,,~ L Appendix III-Table 3/469 APPENDIX III-TABLE 3-Accumulation of inorganic chemicals.jor aquatic organisms Constituent Concentration in sea water Barium(Ba)..... ... ... . ... ... . .. . .......................... . Cadmium ....................... mcd (Cd) 12 ~£11+2 mg/1 stable Cd Calcium ............ .. (Ca) mcd 12~LC/1+20 ,.g/1 stable Cd mcd 12 ,.c/1+20 ,.g/1 stable Cd 16 mg/1 (5 days) 8 mgfl (30 days) 20 mg/1 (20 days) 38 mg/100 ml CaCI2 946 ,.c/201 22 C not measured 8.52X10' cpm/ml 9.42X1D' cpm/ml 7. 37X10• cpm/ml not measured 1 ,.c Ca"CI2 7.37X1D• cpm/ml 1D•cpm/ml 10• cpm/ml Chromium...................... 111-13.01£ injected into air (Cr) bladder Speties Gracilaria foliifera Chasmychthys gulosus Ulva pertusa Venerupis philippinarum Leander sp. Strongylocentrotus pulchernmus Chasmychthys gulosus Venerupis philippinarum Lepomis macrochirus Daphnids Tilapia mossambica Lebistes Lebistes Focus vesiculosus Ceramium rubrum Enteromorpha intestinalis Lebistes (15 days) Danio Crassius auratus Tissue or organ viscera dig. tract gill skin scales vertebrae muscle head and fins whole mantle gill adductor other viscera shell viscera muscle shell digestive tract gonad aristotle's lantern test viscera digestive tract gill skin scales vertebrae muscles head and fins gill mantle adductor other viscera shell gill fresh weight after 48 hrs. fish tissue spine body body Carcass head viscera muscle spine carcass head viscera muscle thallus Whole spine (10 days) head (10 days) total (10 days) viscera (10 days) muscle (10 days) whole (22 days) intestine liver pancreas spleen kidney head Kidney gill muscle backbone Concentration in tissue Concentration factor 1,2011-13,000 3.6 (6 days) 15 (3 days) 3.0 (2 days) 0.3 (2 days) 2.2 (10 days) 0.18 (3 days) 0.077 (3 days) D. 37 (8 days) 11 (4 days) 58 (8 days) > 100 (3 days) 8.3 (3 days) 52 (8 days) >3 >250 0.38 (1 day) 725 110 (1.5 days) ·························· >8 634 l'gfkg 252 ,.gjkg 484 ,.gjkg 138.3 mg/100 g 2. 1x1o-2 ,.cjgm >3 >10 >10 >6 11 (6 days) 0. 92 (6 days) 0. 80 (5 days) 0. 22 (3 days) 0.16 (4 days) 0.96 (9 days). 19 (1 day) 9.8 (1.5 days) 5.1 (3 days) 8.3 (1.5 days) >1 Ca. 0.6 62.±0.4 0.12±0.01 0. 72±0. 003 (10 days) 0.82±0.004 .......................... 1.00±0.045 .......................... 1.07±0.039 .......................... 0.59±0.087 " ........ "" """" .... 0.102±0.024 " ........ " .... """ """ 1.87±0.10 .......................... 100.0±2.92 .......................... 21.3±1.12 .......................... 7.3±0.48 """"" .... "" ...... " 3.7±0.31 90 percent uptake in 24 hours ....... . " .... " .... """ .... "" 1011-300 "" """"" "" .... " 100-300 5.5X1D• cpm/10 mg 2.8X1D• cpm/100 mg 1. 7X1D• cpm/100 mg 1.4X1D• cpm/100 mg 1.2X1D• cpm/100 mg .2X1D• cpm/100 mg 2.8X1D• cpm/100 mg 25 cpmjmg 25-40 cpmjmg 25-40 cpmjmg 611-100 cpm/mg 200 cpmjmg 275 cpmjmg 411-60 cpmjmg 10 cpmjmg 311-40 cpmjmg ------------------------------~------- Literature Citation Bedrosinn 19622" Hiyama and Shimizu 1964280 Hiyama and Shimizu 1964"' Mount and Stephan 1967"' Korpincnikov eL al. 1956'" Boroughs et. al. 19572" Rosenthal1957 300 Rosenthal1957 3" Swill and Taylor 1960305 Taylor and Odum 19603" Rosenthal1963'" Hibiya and Oguri 1961"' 470/Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Constituent Chromium ..................... . (Cr) Chromium ..................... . (Cr+') Concentration in sea water 0.204 pCi/ml 17,804 cpm/g 17,833 cpm/g 18,226 cpm/g 0.31pgfl O.lpg/1 0.3pgfl 0.3pgjl 0.3pgjl 3.0pgjl lOpg/1 500" Species Crassius auratus Lampsilis radiata Hermione Hermione Chromium...................... !=cone. of phytoplankton Mummichog (Cr) culture-Cr transferred down food chain TABLE 3-Continued Tissue or organ gonad air bladder soft tissues whole ,, ,, whole gonad muscle gills spleen liver (132 MCi/mg=initial cone. in Zooplankton, post-larvae fish dig. tract whole phytoplankton culture.) lpCi CrCb/1 5.3pCi 51 CrCb injected Cobalt. ....................... . (Co) Podophthalmus vigil Gadus macrocephalus Chelidonichthys kumu Evynnis japonica Lateolabrax japonicus Seriola quinqueradiata Germo germo Katsuworms vagans Scomber japonicus Cololabis saira Sardinops melanosticta Cleipea pallasii stichopus tremulus Palinurus sp. Polypus sp. Dmmastrephes sloani Ostrea gigas Pecten yessoensis Meretrix meretrix lusoria Porphora sp. gills muscle midgut gland carapace blood gills midgut glands whole Concentration in tissue 30-60 cpm/mg 1,000 cpmjmg 89.6 pCifg 10,373 cpm/g(9 day) 5,410 cpmjg (11 day) 3, 713 cpmjg (22 day) 440 0.59 0.31 0.21 Concentration factor 3.0 (5 days) 8.1pgfg (1 day) (dry) 0.4pg/g (2 day) (live) 0. 7 pg/g (3 day) (live) 0.9pgfg (5 day)(live) l.lpg/g (7 day) (live) 1.3 pgfg (9 day) (live) 1. 7 pg/g (12 day) (live) 2.3pgfg (15 day) (live) 2. 7 pg/g (19 day) (live) 14.0 pg/g (4 day) (live) 22.0 pgfg (8 day) (live) 26.0 pgfg (11 day) (live) 34.0 pg/g (15 day) (live) 24pg/~ (2 day) 40" (4 day) 53" (6 day) 68" (8 day) 84"(11 day) 106pgfg (13 day) 206" (3 day) 288" (6 day) 428" (11 day) 495" (14 day) 856" (3 day) 1139 " (6 day) 1436" (11 day) 1834" (14 day) 3.5 (7.5 days) 5.0 (9.0 days) 7.5 (12.5 days) 8.0 (15.0 days) 12.0 (19.0 days) 9.0 0.5 . . ... .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. ... 1. 7 6.9 1.7 .......................... L2 5000 dpm/mg(max) (2 days) 79-80 dpmjmg (") (2-4 days) 9.9 73. 6.2 75 dpm/mg (max) (6 days) ......................... . 50 dpmjmg(max) (14 days) ......................... . 10 dpmjmg(max) (16 days) ......................... . 3000 (max) (16 days) 1000 (max) (5 days) 800 dpmjmg(max) (0-8 days) .......................... 36 .......................... 82 .......................... 20 . .. ... . .. . . ... ... . .. . . . .. . 30 . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . 14 . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . ... .. . 28 .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. ... 84 .......................... 28 . .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . 84 .......................... 64 .......................... 26 240 4,000 52 62 170 190 200 64 Literature Citation Hibiya and Oguri 1961'" Harvey 1969"' Chipman 1967'" Chipman 1967"' Chipman 1967"' Baptist and Lewis 1967"' Sather 1967"' Ichikawa 1961"' Constituent CobaH.. .................. . '.:(Co) Concentration in sea water 2.54 dpmjml 25.4 dpm/ml 254 dpm/ml 2540 dpmjml 25,400 dpm/ml 254,000 dpm/ml 2.54 dpmjml 25.4 dpm/ml 254 dpm/ml 2540 dpmjml 25,400 dpmjm 254,000 dpm/m 6.81X10' dpmjanimal (average) Black Sea N. W. Pacific Black Sea N. W. Pacific Black Sea N. W. Pacific 0.0006-0.015 ppm 0.0008-.0240 ppm 0.0023-0.0026 0.027 p Cijml Alakanuk Alaska Kenai, Alaska Seward 4.5X10-•JLCiJ125 mt 4.5x1o-• ~'Ci/125 ml 5°Co pCi/1 0.47 pCi/1 "Co 1.2 pCi/1 soco Copper ......................... 0.002 N sol'n (Cu) TABLE 3-Continued Species Tissue or organ Laminaria sp. whole Monostroma sp. Chasmichthys gulosus Chasmichthys gulosus Chasmichthys gu losus Chasmichthys gulosus Chasmichthys gulosus Chasmichthys gulosus Cambarus longulus longerostris whole 0.60g 0.49g 0.54g Cambarus longulus longerostris 0.45g 0.65g 0.55g 0.60g 0.80g 0.54g 0.45g 0.55g 0.43g Cambarus longulus longerostris gut blood muscle gonad integument hepatopanoreas Ulva rigida whole Ulva persuda Cystoseira barbata Sargassum thumbergii Leander adspersus Leander pacificus Crassostrea viginica flesh Crassostrea viginica flesh Lampsiles radiata soft tissues Oncorhunchus tshawytscha muscle F. & M. (King salmon) ······················ liver Oncorhynchus keta roe Chum salmon muscle ···························· liver roe Oncorhynchus nerka muscle M. (Sockeye Salmon) muscle F. Salmon liver Oncorhynchus nerka roe Salmon bone Oncorhynchus kisutch (silver salmon) muscle F. muscle M. livers roe Plectonema boryanum whole cell Plectonema boryanum whole cell Tridacna crocea kidney Plankton whole Sea invertebrates whole. Fish whole Algae whole Plankton whole Sea Invertebrates whole Fish whole Plankton whole Algae whole Sea invertebrates kidney Fish liver Fundulus heteroclitus dried flesh undried flesh Appendix Ill-Table 3/471 Concentration in tissue 166 dpmjanimat 1, 071 dpmjanimal 8, 984 dpmjanimal 46,000 dpmjanimal 785, 000 dpmjanimal 8, 761,000 dpmjanimal 793 dpmjanimal 3921 dpmjani mal 23,322 dpmjanimal 78, 881 dpmjanimal 35,874,000 dpmjanimal 26,900,000 dpm/animal 1.12X10' dpmjg 2.93X103 dpm/g 3.09X10' dpmjg 2.97X10' dpmjg 2.28X10 5 dpmjg 1. 96X10 5 dpmjg 27 15 Concentration factor 0.101 (0.25 days) 0.511 (1 day) 1.57 (2 days) 2.89 (4 days) 4.58 (6 days) 4.56 (9 days) 164 90 81 63 66 61 624 213 145 216 334 203 335 380 "" ... "" ... ... 45 "" ... " ... · 420 99.3-1153 ppm 313-3174 ppm 361-863 ppm 21.3 p Cijg 0.36JLCifg (7 days) 0.32JLCifg " 0.28 JLCifg " 0.18 JLCifg (7 days) 56000 pCijg 100 pCijg 950 pCi/g 18 pCijg 8.8 pCijg 15.0 pCijg 11.0 pCijg 0.69 pCi/g 58 pCijg 33" 2600" 130 ,, 0.0100 percent (1 hr) 0.0164 percent (3 hrs.) 0.0230 percent (4 hrs.) 0.00226 percent (1 hr) 0. 00360 percent (3 hrs) 0.00529 percent (4 hrsl 11 7 0.6X10' 2.4X10• 2.5X10' 790 9,400 50,000 42,000 13,000 32,000 60,000 6,000 3,200 22,000 28,000 11,000 6,400 7,200 33,000 37,000 6,200 (25 C) 4 500 (30 C) 3,500 (35 C) 2,500 (40 C) Literature Citation Ichikawa 1961284 Hiyama and Khan 1964"' Wiser and Nelson 1964'10 Wiser and Nelson 1964"' Polikarpov et al. 1967"' Preston 1967'" Preston 1967"7 Harvey 1969"' Jenkins 1969'" Harvey 1969277 Harvey 1969'" Welander 1969"" Welander 1969"" Welander 196930' White and Thomas 191230' 472/Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 3-Continued Constituent Copper ...... . (Cu) Gold .... (Au) Iron ... (Fe) Concentration in sea water N/1000 sol'n. cuso, .004 N CuSo sol'n oral dose 1.1x10-• mgjml 0.01 mg/1 0.01 mg/1 Species Tautoga onitis Fundulus heteroclitus Lampsilis radiata blue crab croaker croaker blue crab Dactyolpteru5 volitans (Gurnard) Mackerel Melanogrammus aeglefinus (Haddock) Wh1ting Plaice Cod Trachurus japonicus Pleuronectes sp. Scomber japonicus Cololabis saira Lateolabrax japonicus Chrysophyrus major Sardinops maleanostricta Theragra chalcogramma Clupea pallasii Acanthogobius flarimanus Anthocidaris crassispina Stichopus japonicus Panulirus lobster Penaeus (common shrimp) Paneaeopsis sp. shrimp Paralithodes camtschatica Neptunus marine crab Octopus fangsiano Turbo cornutus Haliotus gigantea Haliotus diversicolor Meretrix meretrix lusoria Yenerupis japonica Ostrea gigas Porphyra tenera Gelidium amansii Tissue or organ whole (dry) blood system alimentary tract residue flesh dried flesh soft tissues gills muscle carapace blood kidney gills skin (scales) liver muscle heart spleen gonad dig gland stomach-gut gonads flesh flesh flesh flesh flesh flesh whole intestine Whole Concentration in tissue 0.008 percent 0.010 percent Cu Dry 0. 003 percent " 0.005 percent " 0.009 percent " percent by weight of Cu. in dried flesh 0.0160 percent (1 hr) 0. 0156 percent (2 hr) 0.0201 percent (3 hr) 1.6pg(g • 7 perceni of oral dose after 4 days • 6 percent of oral dose after 4 days .08 percent of oral dose after 4 days .04 percent of oral dose after 4 days 0.01 percent of oral dose after 148 hours • 056 percent of oral dose after 148 hours • 009 percent of oral dose after 148 hours • 02 percent of oral dose after 148 hours • 03 percent of oral dose after 148 hours • 0008 percent of oral dose after 148 hours • 042 percent of oral dose after 148 hours • 001 percent of oral dose after 148 hours 12 percent of oral dose after 4 days 3 percent of oral dose after 4 days • 8 percent of oral dose after 4 days 0.9x10-• mgfg of fish 1.0X10-• 6X1o-• o.4x1o-• 2X1o-• 1.2X1.0 mgjg Concentration factor 228.5 700 600 1,800 3,000 3,000 400 2,000 400 1,800 2,000 10,000 78,000 1,000 1,000 4,000 4,000 2,000 6,000 9,000 3,000 17,000 13,000 7,000 8,000 2,000 4,000 Literature Citation Harvey 1969"' Duke et al. 1966272 Duke et al. 1966272 Aten et al. 1961"• lchi kawa 1961'" Ichikawa 1961'" Ichikawa 19612"' Constituent Concentration in sea water Iron ........................... (Fe) 0.00004 nCijkg 0.00004 n Cijkg Black sea N. W. Pacific 75n cpm/g 38n cpmjg 4.5x10-•~" Ci/125 ml 3.3 mg/1 Fe 3.4 days 1.0 mg/1 1.0 mg/1 3.3 mg/1 1.0 mg/1 3.3 mg/1 1.n mg/1 3.3 mg/1 124 pCi/1 of "Fe Manganese ..................... ............................ (Mn) 10no l"g/1 for 15 days, animals were starved 1non l"g/1 Mn absorption in 72 hours absorption in 72 hours TABLE 3-Continued Species Laminaria sp Undario pinnatifida Hizikia fusiforme Phytoplankton Euphausids Mytilus kelp lepas (barnacle) squid squid purple sea cucumber sea urchins Ulva rigida Ulva persuda quahog clam Plectonema boryanum Mytilus edulis Mytilus edulis l. Algae, fish Clupea harengus Gadus sp. Scomber sp. Pleuronectes sp. Stichopus regalis Sepia officinalis Octopus vulgaris Haliotus tubercalata Pectan jacobaeus Ostrea edulis Mactra corallina Ulva lactuca Enteromorpha sp. Laminaria saccharina Fucus serratus Homarus vulgaris 2nll-350 g Homarus vulgaris 2nll-350 g. Homarus vulgaris 2nll-350 g. Homarus vulgaris Homarus vulgaris "(728 g) Homarus vulgaris Tissue or organ whole muscle liver whole whole whole whole shell tissue feces shell tissue feces whole cell soft tissue digestive gland gills gills mantle mantle whole muscle liver whole whole blood abdominal muscle hepalopancreas gills shell teeth of gastric mill stomach fluids hind gut and rectum excretory organs ovary whole blood abdominal muscle hepalopancreas gills shell teeth of gastric mill Carapace edge whole blood urine stomach fluid abdominal muscles hepatopancreas gills excretory organs ossicles and teeth Appendix III-Table 3/473 Concentratoin in tissue n.5 n Cijkg 1.5 n Cijkg n. 36 n Ci/kg 0.03 140.n " n.76 8.6 76.0 0.48 Concentration factor 5,Bno 1,3no 2,900 .......................... 730 9. 5Xln' cpmjg 670 cpmjg 1.2X10' cpm/g 1.1X10' 2.3X1D' 1.7X1n• 0.181" Cijg (2 day) 0.17 I" Ci/g (2 day) D. 211" Cijg (2 day) n.23JL Cijg (2 day) 480 p Cijg an pCi/g 264, non p Cifg 1no 2,6nD (25 C) 2,400 (3n C) 2, 700 (35 C) 3,2nD (40 C) 5.5 1.5 5. (3-4 day) (max) 5. 4 (2-3 day) (max) 1.3 (average) 1.8 (max) (0.3 day) 1. 0 (max) (1 day) .4 (max)(2. 7 day) 95 . ......................... 32n 3. 9JLgfg wet tissue 15 day 0.8" 4.1JLgfg wet tissue 15 day 26.9" 2n7" 1n6" 1.611 3.4" 5.1" 3.3" 2.4JLgfg wet tissue 15 day 0.8 11 4.8" 2n.B" 225" 155JLgfg wet tissue 2361"gfg 80 70 2nO 10,noo 50,oon 750 1n.nno 1,500 62C 1,300 1,500 3nD 7,5nD 1.42 0.66 0.18 0.15 2.30 2.14 1.91 1.42 Literature Citation Ichikawa 1961"' Palmer and Beasley 19672" Palmer and Beasley 1967"' Polikarpov et al. 1967295 Andrews and Warren 1969"' Harvey 1969"' ;, Hobden 19692&1 Hobden 1969281 Welander 19693" Ichikawa 1961284 Bryan and Ward 19652" Bryan and Ward 19652" Bryan and Ward 1965"' Bryan and Ward 19652" Bryan and Ward 19652" 4 7 4/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 3-Continued Constituent Concentration in sea water Species Tissue or organ Concentration in tissue Concentration factor Literature Citation Manganese ..... ............... 2.0 l'c/1 absorption in 12 hours Homarus vulgaris (728 g) shell carapace 96.7 ml'cfg 7.06 Bryan and Ward 1965'" (Mn) shell claw 18.7" 1.37 shell Ietson 181.0" 1l.2 whole animal 52.5" 3.82 2. 0 l'c/1 in sea water plus Homarus vulgaris (744 g) whole blood 27.4" 2.20 10 mg Mn in stomach ab· urine 12.3" 0.99 sorption in 12 hrs. stomach fluid 3.8" O.l1 abdominal muscle 2.1" 0.17 hepalopancreas 6.1 11 0.49 gills 36.7" 2.96 excretory organs 17.3" 1.40 ossicles and teeth 31.8" 2.56 shell, carapace ll4.0" 10.8 shell, claw 85.6" 6.91 shell, Ietson 151.0" 12.2 2.0 !'C/1 in sea water plus 10 Homarus vulgaris (744 g) whole animal 59.5 ml'cfg 4.80 Bryan and Ward 1965'" mg Mn in stomach absorption in 12 hrs. 21'gfl normal sea water speci-Homarus vulgaris 20D-350 g. excretory organs 3. 7 l'gfg ····················· Bryan and Ward 1965'" mens; unstarved ovary 1.6 II ··············· 10 mg Mn pipetted into stomach Homarus vulgaris 320 g. blood (7 hr) 651'g/g ····················· hepatopancreas (2") 165" ............... stomach fluid (2 hr) 385" ................ urine (7") 85" ··············· muscle (7") 10" ............... shell (7 ") 205" ··············· ossicles and teeth (2 ") 130" ···················· excretory organs (7") 100" ····················· gills (7 hr) 55" ················· 0.31'Ci/l Mn" Anodonta nuttalliana calcareous tissue 97,000 cpmjg ··············· Harrison 196727' mantle 45,000 cpmjg ···················· gills 29,000 cpm/gm ................. 0.31'Ci/l Mn"+G.1 ppm Mn Anodonta nuttalliana adductor muscle 14,000 cpm/g ······················ Harrison 1967"' dig. gland and stomach 18,000 cpm/g ··············· gonad and intestine 11,000 cpm/g u" body fluid 3,000 cpm/g 0. 03l ppm stable Mn Unio shell 76H9.51'g/g 2.3X10' Merlini 1967'" 5.1-6.0 em gills 14185+12" 6.0X10' mantle 13088±1470" 5.5X10' visceral sac 3571±8l5" 1.5X1D' adductor muscle 2539±411" 1.1 0. 033 ppm stable Mn Unio 6.1-7. 0 em shell 892±13.0" 2.6X104 gills 18257± 1179" 7.7X104 0.033 ppm Unio 6.1-7.0 em mantle 17765±5811'gfg 7.5X1D' Merlini 19672" visceral sac 4308±307" 1.8X104 adductor muscle 2565±296" 1.1X10' Unio 7.1-8.0 em shell 956±21.0" 2.8XID' gills 20737±1972" 8.8X10' mantle 19659±984" 8.lXID' visceral sac 5034±622" 2.1X104 adductor muscle 3067±319" 1.3X104 0.0004 pCijmi"Mn Unio 5.1-6. 0 em shell 0.82X111' gill ························ 3.6X10• mantle .................... 3.0X1D' 0. 2 ppm stable Mn Unio 7.1-8.0 em visceral sac 5070±10951'gfg 7.6X104 adductor muscle 2514±504" 1.8XJ04 0.00015 pCi/mi"Mn Unio 4.1-5. 0 em shell 1.9X104 gill 43.0X104 0.00015 pCi/ml Unio 4.1-5.0 em mantle 22.0XJ04 Merlini 1967'" Mn" visceral sac ·························· 5.6X10 4 Unio 5.1-6. 0 em shell ........................ 1.6XID' gill .......................... 35. OXIO< mantle .......................... 26.0X10< visceral sac 9.5X10• Unio 6.1-7.0 em shell .................... 2.0X10' gill .................... lO.OX10< mantle .................... 28.0X10< visceral sac ..................... 8.6X10• Unio 7.1-8.0 em shell ..................... 1.8X10• gill ..................... lO.OX10< mantle ..................... 23.0X10• visceral sac .......................... 7.6X10• 0. 004 pCi/ml Unio 5.1-6.0 em visceral sac .......................... 1.1X10' Mn"' Unio 6.1-7.0 em shell .......................... 0.68X10• gills .......................... 3.1X10• mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7X10' Appendix Ill-Table 3/475 TABLE 3-Continued Constituent Concentration in sea water Species Tissue or organ Concentration in tissue Concentration factor Literature Citation Manganese ......... o. 004 pCi/ml Unio 6.1-7.0 em visceral sac ·························· 1.1X10' Merlini 1967'" (Mn) Mn54. Unio 7.1-8.0 em shell ················· 0.53X10' gills ................. 3.8X10' mantle ················· 4.0X104 visceral sac ................. 1.1X10' 0.02 ppm stable Mn Unio 5.1-6.0 em shell 299±64.0 l'gfg 1.5X10' gills 1254±1292" 8.7X104 mantle 7576±986" 5.3X104 visceral sac 2154±212" 1.5X104 adductor muscle 2008±29" 1.4X10' Unio 4.1-6.1 em shell 225±5.6" 1.1X1Q4 gills 11391±649" 8.0X10' mantle 4805±48!" 3.4X1(14 adductor muscle 1104±115" 0. 77X10' 0.02 ppm stable Mn Unio 6.1-7.1 em shell 378±26.0 l'g/g 1.9X104 Merlini 1967'" gills 18154±1562" 13.0X10' mantle 15008±1288" 10.0X10' visceral sac 4964±553" 3.5X10' adductor muscle 2056±135" 1.4X104 Unio 7.1-8.0 em shell 515±31.5/lg/g 2.5X104 gill 20279±616" 14.0X1Q4 mantle 16316±703" 11.0X10• Calif. Mytilus edulis whole 830 Polikarpov et al. 1967'" Calif. Mylilus californicus whole 800-830 1.4/lgfl Laminaria digitata plant 0.33/lgfg 236 Bryan 1969'" 4.5X1o-• Plectonema boryanum whole cell 0.131'Ci/g 15, 3GO (25 C) Harvey 1969277 I'Ci/125 ml 0.16" 27,700 (30 C) 0.19" 35, 300 (35 C) 0.17" 27, 900 (~0 C) 0.013 pCi/ml Lampsiles radiata soft tissue 30.9 pCijg 2380 Harvey 1969277 clam shell 15.0" 1150 Mercury ......... 0.2 mg/1 using HgCiz Elminius whole body 0. 92 mg/1 dry wt. .......................... Corner and Rigler 1958270 (Hg) 1000 mg/1 using HgCiz Artemia whole body 0.47 mg/1 " .......................... 50 mgfl Hg using HgCI, Leander serratus Branchioslegite 4.3 mg/g dry wt. .................... Pleopods 0.48 mg/g dry wt. .......................... dorsal chitin 0.13 ·························· gills 0.49 mg/g ·························· antennary gland 0.32 mg/g .......................... hepatopancreas 0.02 mg/g ..................... central nervous system 0.04 mg/g ..................... muscle 0.00 mg/g ..................... 10 l'g/1 Hg injected in 0.01 ml Leander serratus branchiostegite 13.0 l'g/g dry wL ..................... Corner and Rigler 1958270 sea water as HgCI, pleopods 2.2 ·························· dorsal chitin 3.4 .......................... gills 29.3 ·························· 10 l'g/1 Hg injected in 0. 01 ml antennary gland 13. 3/lg/g dry wL .......................... sea water as HgCiz hepatopancreas 4.4 .......................... central nervous system 3.5 .......................... muscle 2.7 .......................... 7. 61<c injected dose into air Crassius auratus intestine 1000 cpmjmg .......................... Hibiya and Oguri 1961"" bladder liver 1000 " .......................... pancreas 1500 " .......................... spleen 1500 " .......................... kidney 11000 " .......................... head kidney 2500-3000 " .......................... gill 200-300 " .......................... muscle 100-200 " .......................... backbone 100-200 " .......................... gonad 400-700 " .......................... air bladder 900-1400 " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 ng/g Hg using mercuric Cod blood 2. 511 ng/g (7 days) 39.2 Hannerz 196827 • nitrate heart 4.574 71.47 liver 0.876 13.69 spleen 1.998 31.22 gonads 0.4412 6.89 kidneys 1.529 23.89 stomach 1.248 19.50 brains 0.190 2.97 eyes 0.270 4.22 gills 234.784 3668.20 fins 7.173 112.08 scales 5.620 87.81 muscles 0.21162 3.38 bones 0.675 5 days 10.55 heart 1.711 19.72 ~:. 476/Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 3-Continued Constituent Concentration in sea water Species Tissue or organ Concentration in tissue Concentration factor Literature Citation Mercury ....................... 0.06 ngfg Hg using mercuric Cod liver 0.365 5.70 Hannerz 19682" (Hg) nitrate spleen 0.913 14.27 gonads 0.487 7.61 kidneys 0.798 12.47 stomach 0.670 10.47 brains (0.193) 3.02 eyes 0.153 2.39 gills 147.818 2309.70 fins 3.443 53.79 scales 3.865 60.39 muscles 0.105 1.64 bones 0.250 3.91 0.05 ng/g Hg using mercuric Glossosiphonia complanata whole 670 (65 days) chloride (mean value) Herpobdella octoculata .......................... 534 sludge worms ·························· 517 Planorbis sp. ·························· 414 Lynmaea stagnalis ·························· 293 Physa fontinalis .......................... 637 (14 days) Ephemeroptera larvae .......................... 138 (65 days) ·························· 28 (14 days) TrichOptera larvae ·························· 513 (49 days) Tipula ·························· 517 Chironomidae larvae .......................... 175 ·························· 362 (65 days) 0.05 ng/g Hg using HgCI, damselfly nymphs ·························· 655 (mean value) Hydrophilidae larvae ·························· 603 Corixa sp. .......................... 414 Notonecta glauca .......................... 483 Gerris ·························· 431 Planorbis sp. ·························· 560 (one month) Lymnaea stagnafis ·························· 247 Corixa sp. .......................... 431 0. 30 ng/g Hg mercuric chloride Pike blood 176 ngfg (8 days) 587 Hannerz 19682" heart 258 860 liver 377 1,258 0.30 ng!g·Hg mercuric chloride Pike spleen 608 ng/g (8 days) 2,027 Hannerz 1968"' gut 199 663 kidneys 495 1,653 gonads 107 357 eyes 36 120 brain 284 947 gills 878 2,928 ·scales 214 713 fins 406 1,353 muscles 26 87 bone 56 187 o. 06 ng/g Hg mercuric nitrate Cod blood 0. 29 ng/g (2 days) 4.8 heart 0.58 9.7 liver 0.08 1.3 spleen 0.35 5.8 kidneys 0.21 3.5 0.06 ngfg Hg mercuric nitrate Cod gut 0. 20 ng/g (2 days) 3.3 Hannerz 1968"• brain 0.15 2.5 .eyes 0.05 0.8 gills 47.8 796.6 fins 1.46 24.3 scales 2.99 49.8 muscles 0.03 0.5 bones 0.07 1.2 Nickel. ........................ 8. 2±0. 2 cpmjg present in soil Tridacna crocea kidney 158.0±2.6 cpm/g .......................... Beasley and Held 1969"' (Ni) ............................ Tridacna crocea kidney 41. 2±0. 6 cpm/g 80.0±1.0 cpm/g present in soil kidney 163.0±3.0 cpm/g .......................... Silver .......................... 7. 51'c injected into air bladder Crassius auratus intestine 200-300 cpm/mg .......................... Hibiya and Oguri 1961"' (A g) liver 2250 " .......................... pancreas 250-400 cpm/mg .......................... spleen 200-500 " .......................... kidney ~400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . head kidney ~400 .......................... gill ~250 .......................... 7. 51'c injected into air bladder Crassius auratus muscle 100 cpmfmg .......................... Hibiya and Oguri 1961"' backbone 150 .......................... gonad 200 .......................... air bladder 500-2500 " .......................... Constituent uranium ...... . (U) Zinc ......... . (Zn) Concentration in sea water 3.0XTO-• percent 200, ooo cpm/1 12, ooo cpm/1 45,000 cpm/1 (22 days) 45,000 cpm/1 (22 days) 45,000 cpm/1 (3 day) 5,000 cpm (45 hrs) 5,000 cpm (45 hrs) 5,000 cpm/1 5000 cpm/1 20 ppm injected dose 9.3 p.C Species Charaphytae diatomae fish Meretrix meretrix tuzoria Cyprinus carpio Cyprinus carpio Cyprinus carpio Cyprinus carpio Salmo gairdneri Crassius auratus TABLE 3-Continued whole whole boned kidney Tissue or organ gonads hard roe) gonads (soli roe) muscle blood brain gill viscera (without liver) mantle liver adductor muscle siphon marginal part of foot central part of foot ashed soli tissue kidney gill scale heart skin caudal fin intestine hepatopancreas vertebrae muscle gall bladder gill skin scale caudal fin vertebrae intestine ga.l bladder hepatopancreas kidney gill skin scale caudal fin vertebrae intestine gall bladder hepatopancreas kidney heart muscle gil. skin scale caudal fin vertebrae intestine gall bladder hepatopancreas kidney heart muscle tissue gills intestine liver pancreas spleen kidney head kidney Concentration in tissue 2.0X1(t-3 percent U 6.8Xllr4 percent U 5.4X11r'-1.2X1o-• percent 1.05X1o-•-9.4X1o-• percent 4.15X1o-'-3. 7X1o-• percent 2.9X1o-'-1.9X1o-• percent 1.37X1o-'-1.32X11r' percent 2.2X1o-7-7.0X11r7 percent 3.22X10-'-1.0X1o-• percent 510 cpm/g 275 " 270 " 245 " 165 " 165 " 145 140 II 15.8 cpmjg 299 cpm/g 285 " 65 II 57 II 51 50 cpmjg 27 " 26 " 3 2 127 " 0 35 II 0 27 " 0 33 89 II 119 " 31 cpmjg 87 86 II 29 If 121 " 51 251 " 1180 " 173 " 9 128 " 40 II 31 56 " 36 II 50 " 39 cpm/g 65 II 690 " 37 II 4 7.4-12 ppm 60-63 ppm 475 cpmjmg 250 " 200 " 75 II 130 " 175 " Appendix Ill-Table 3/477 Concentration factor Literature Citation Kovalsky et at. 1967"• Saiki and Mori 1955'02 1.3 Saiki and Mori 1955302 Saiki and Mori 1955'02 Saiki and Mori 1955'02 Lloyd 1960"' 540-4400 Hibiya and Oguri 1961278 478/Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Constituent Concentration in sea water Species Zinc ........................... injected dose 9.3 p.C Crassius auratus (Zn) ···························· Clupea harengus Anguilla anguilla Mugil cephalus Pleuronects sp. Stichopus tremulus Palaemon vulgaris Callinectes hastatus OctopUs vulgaris Sepia officinalis Loligo vulgaris Haliotus tuberculata Ostrea edulis Pecten japobaeus Geldium gracilaria Laminario digitata (10.3p.c) 0.25 ppm Zn lctalurus nebulosus " 0.5 ppm Zn " l.OppmZn (3.08 p.C) 3.0 ppm Zn (61.6p.e) 6.0 ppm Zn (10.3 p.c) 0.25 ppm Zn (10.3p.c)0.50 ppmZn (10.3 p.c) 1.0 ppm Zn (30.8 p.c) 3.0 ppm Zn (61.6p.c) 6.0 ppm Zn 8.5p.C/I; pH 7.3 26 hrs. in the Porphyra dark 8.5 p.C/1; 26 hrs in the light pH 8.6 8.5 p.c/1; 26 hrs. in the light pH 7.3 8.5p.C/I; in 26 hours pH 8.6 Porphyra in the dark 100 p.g/115 day exposure Homarus vulgaris (300 g) 100 p.g/115 day exposure Homarus vulgaris (300 g) 100 p.g/143 day exposure (390 g) 100 p.g/1 plus 6600 p.g Zn over (290 g) 10 days (injected); 13 days in sea water 100 p.g/1 plus 6600 p.g Zn over Homarus vulgaris (290 g) 10 days (injected); 13 days in sea water 100 p.g/1 Zn in sea water plus 6600 p.g Zn over 10 days (injected); 3 days after injections 100 p.g/1 Zn in sea water plus Homarus vulgaris (460 g) 6600 p.g Zn over 10 days (injected); killed 19 days after injections TABLE 3-Continued Tissue or organ gill muscle backbone gonad air bladder whole whole fish whole algal disc whole algal disc whole algal disc whole algal disc blood urine excretory organs abdominal muscle hepatopancreas stomach fluid gills shell ovary blood urine excretory organs abdominal muscle hepatopancreas stomach fluid gills shells vas. deferens blood urine excretory organs abdominal muscle hepatopancreas stomach fluid gills shell blood urine excretory organs abdominal muscle hepatopancreas stomach fluid gills shell vas deferens Concentration in tissue 110 u 30 II 75 II 40 II 185cpm/mg 4,400 4,200 540 2,900 1,400 1,900 4,400 11' 000 2,600 5, 700 10,000 40,000 0.045p.g/g 0.061 u 0.025 u 0.529 u 1.510 u 0.066 u 0.067 u 0.100 u 1.040 u 2.110 u 230 counl/min/g fresh wt. 400 counljmin/g fresh wl 300 count/min/g fresh wl 330 counlfmin/g fresh wl 6. 7 p.g/g wet wt. 1.7 28.8 13.6 42.6 1.1 17.8 11.7 30.8 p.g/g wet wl 10.0 40.0 27.8 13.3 51.9 0.8 37.5 9.3 12.0 17.5 4.0 47.0 14.4 158.0 p.g/g wet wt. o. 1 p.g/g wet wl 24.4 10.1 8.9 31.8 24.8 12.4 117.0 u 1.4 29.0 13.8 13.4 Concentration factor 17,000 80 400 Literature Citation Hibiya and Oguri 1961"' Ichikawa 1961'" Joyner 1961'" Gutknecht1963'" Bryan 1964"' Bryan 1964'" Bryan 1964"' Constituent Concentration in sea water Zinc........................... 3000 "g Zn injected into (Zn) stomach; 300 hrs later, lOOO "g Zn; 7 hrs after injection 3000 "g injection 150 hrs later 0.004~LC/144 days 0. 4 g radioactive brine-shrimp injested-44 days 2.5"c/l 7X1o-• "c/ml 0.0021'c/l "Zn 0. 43 c/g "Zn 0.43 cjg 65Zn 13 "c/1 Zn+15 l'g/1 stable Zn 6 "c "Zn 1, 860 "g/i+ stable Zn 6 "c .,zn 60 l'gfl stable Zn 13 "c/1 65Zn+ 15 l'g/1 stable Zn 6 "c/I"Zn+1,860 l'g/1 stable Zn 6 l'c/I"Zn+60 l'g/1 stable Zn same as above Same as above 25 "Ci "Zn/1 (1.81'Cifl'g) 7. 1 l'gfl 25 day exposure 600 "gfg alter 30-31 days uptake 2.21'gfl 0.028 pCi/ml 25 I'Ci "Zn/1 0.104X1Q-1! pCi Appendix III-Table 3/479 TABLE 3-Continued Species Homarus vulgaris (300 g) Paralichthys Liltorina obtusata Fucus edentatus Carteria sp., Witzschia closterium mullet mullet oysters mud crabs clams snails marsh grass blue crabs mummichogs croakers oysters mud crabs clams snails marsh grass blue crabs mummichogs croakers Oysters Clams mud clams blue crabs mummichogs croakers scallops Ulva pertusa Yernerupis philippinarum Leander sp. Tissue or organ hepatopancreas blood excretory organs urine whole animal whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole visceral mass shell visceral mass shell viscera muscle exoskeleton Slronglyocenlrotus pulcherrimus dig. tract gonad test Crassostrea virginica Mercenaria mercenaria Aequipeclen irradians Panoplus herbslii Aronyx sp Laminaria digitata Lampsilis radiata Plalichthys stellatus Crassostrea gigas dig. tract gonad lest whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole whole plant soli tissues whole Concentration in tissue 240 l'gfg wet wt. 27 117 "g/g wet wL 24 l'gfg wet wt. Concentration factor 17 . .. . ... . . . . .. . . . . ... ... ... 25 6. 5X10< cpm/g (3 days) 21 pgfg (of animal) 4. 2X10• cpmjg (4 days) 77±21 ""cjg (1 day) 54±32 " (1 day) 39± 17 " (1 day) 38±10 35±11 32±4 26±9 13±3 73±8 " (66 days) 20±5 20±6 20±6 13±8 22±1 18±6 22±2 1,111±502 (1 day) 509±1661'1'C/g 853±281" 323±172""cjg(1 day) 379±229 60±46 5,561±578 " (15,900) (13,200) (230) (135) 290 (4 days) 34 (3 day) 4 (3 day) 68 (4 days) 10 500 40 150 200 (11 days) 14 (14 days) 10 200 25 (1 day) 15 193 146 130 139 18 22 19 350 282 .......................... 243 114.2 pCijg 40-90±37 "gZnjg 0.99p Cijg- 317 216 177 166 1800 4080 5.6x1o-•- Literature Citation Bryan 19642" Hoss 19642" Mehran and Tremblay 1955202 Regnier 1965"• Duke et al. 1966"'" Duke 1967271 Duke 1957211 Duke et al. 1966"'" Cross et al. 1968"" Bryan 19692" Harvey 19692" Renfro and Osterberg 19692" Salo and Leet1969'" 480/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Constituent Concentration in sea water Zinc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751'C/I Zn" (Zn) Species Euphausids Prawns-shrimp Crassostrea virginica TABLE 3-Continued Tissue or organ exoskeleton muscle eyes haemolymph exoskeleton muscle hepatopancreas eyes haemolymph soft tissue mantle gills labial palps muscle dig. gland remainder extracellular nuid pallial fluid Concentration in tissue Concentration factor Literature Citation 51.1±10.4 cpm/mg Fowler et aL 1970'" 27.8±7.0 " 4.4±1.4 16.5±8.3 " 65. 8±5. 7 cpm/mg Fowler et aL 1970'" 17.9±4.9 " 6.6±3.0 0.9±0.2 8.8±3.1 159.4±77.6 ppm 1-2XJ06 Wolfe1970"' 135 ppm 182" 123" 79 ppm 260" 175" 6.5" 1.2, Appendix Ill-Table 4/481 APPENDIX III-TABLE 4-Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Inorganic Chemicals in Food and Water Constituent Maximum Permissible Concentration Ammonia (NHa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 5 mg/1 5 ppm Arsenic (As)... 3.5 mg/kg Barium (Sa) .... Boron (B). Bromine (Br) ..... . Bromine (Br) ......... 0.1 mg/1 1.0 mg/kg 0.2 mg/1 5 ppm 1.0 mg/1 30 ppm 8 ppm 75 ppm 50 ppm 40 ppm 30 ppm 25 ppm 10 ppm 5 ppm 50 ppm 100 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 325 ppm 400 ppm Bromine (Br) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25 ppm Bromine (Br) .. 20 ppm 15 ppm 10 ppm 5 ppm 60 ppm 40 ppm 25 ppm 400 ppm 125 ppm 90 ppm 130 ppm 125 ppm 75 ppm 50 ppm 25 ppm Cadmium (Cd).................. 0.1 mg/1 0.01 mg/1 0.05 mg/1 Calcium (Ca)...... 75 mg/1 Chromium (Cr).... .... .. .. 0.05 mg/1 0.05 mg/1 0.05 mg/in' 71'Z/in' Copper (Cu).. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. 1. 0 mg/1 1.0 mg/1 0.05 mg/1 2 mg/1 7 mg/1 20 mgjkg 60 mg/kg 300 mg/kg Substance Allowed to Contain Given Concentration drinking water apples and pears fruils and vegetables ready-to-drink beverages food drinking water certain foods drinking water cotton seed citrus fruits vegetables, broccoli, carrots, melons, parsnips, potatoes eggplant, okra, summer squash, sweet corn, sweet potatoes, tomatoes pineapple cucumber, lettuce, peppers cottonseed, peanuts asparagus, cauliflower lima beans, strawberries cereals beans, bittermelons, cantalopes, bananas, citrus lruits, cucumber, guavas, lilchi fruit, Iongan frui~ mangoes, papaya, pepper, pineapple, zucchini, cherries and plums malting of barley parmesan & roqueforl cheese dried eggs, processed herbs and spices raspberries, summer squash citrus fruit cherries and plums walnuts and strawberries apricots, nectarines, peaches eggplant muskmelon, tomato broccoli, cauliflower, peppers, pineapples, straw- berries dog lood cereals dehydrated citrus fruit for caiUe endive and lettuce bananas almond hulls, carrots, celery, snap beans, turnip almonds, brussel sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, mel on, peanuts, peppers, pineapples, tomatoes berries, cottonseed, cucumbers, grapes drinking water drinking water drinking water drinking water drinking water drinking water for covering surface of food containers closure area of packing containers drinking water drinking water drinking water ready-to-drink beverages cider and concentrated soft drinks mostloods yeast and yeast products solid pectin Conditions & Comments Reference recommended limitfor domestic water supplies; concentra-World Health Organization 1961'" (WHO 1961) lion as NH,(+) tolerance for residues ammonium sulfate Food & Drug Administration 1971'" (FDA 1971) limilfor residue on sprayed fruits & vegetables using copper FDA 1971'16 arsenate, calcium arsentae & magnesium arsenate limit for content Food Standards Committee for England & Wales 1959'" regulation on content of food Food Standards Committee for England & Wafes1959'" recommended limit for domestic water supplies; cone. as WHO 1961 3" NHt(+) maximum permissible content maximum allowable limit residues from post-harvest application residues from post-harvest application tolerance for residues using nematocide ethylene dibromide; concentration as Br tolerance for residues using nematocide ethylene dibromide; cone. as Br concentration as Br tolerance for residues fumigated after harvest with dibromide bromate calculated as Br tolerance for residues residues for Bromides calculated as Br Department of National Health & Welfare, Canada 1911 (CANADA 1971)"' U. S. Department of Health, Education & Welfare, Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards 1962 (PHS 1962)317 FDA 1971'16 FDA 1971'16 FDA 1971"6 FDA 1971'16 tolerance for residues of inorganic bromides; concentration FDA 1971'16 as Br soil treatment with nematocide 1, 2-dibromo 3, chloropro- pane tolerance for residues calculated as Br tolerance for res!dues calculated as Br tolerance for residues calculated as Br maximum permissible concentration of Cd in domestic sup- plies mandatory limit of Cd in domestic supplies tolerance limit of Cd in domestic supplies permissible limit mandatory limit for Cr+6 in domestic supplies mandatory limit limit not to be exceeded FDA 1971'16 Kirkor 1951'1• PHS 1962317 WHO 1961319 World Health Organization International Standards for Drinking Water 1958 (WHO 1958)'18 PHS.19623" WHO 1961'1• FDA 1971'16 concentration calculated as Cr using chromic chloride com-FDA 1971'16 plexes recommended limit PHS 1962317 permissible limit for domestic water supplies permissible limit for domestic water supplies established limits established limits established limits WHO 1958318 WHO 1961'1• British Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1956112 482/Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 4-Continued Constituent Maximum Permissible Substance Allowed to Contain Conditions & Comments Reference Concentration Given Concentration Copper (Cu) .................... 3 ppm pears tolerance for residues complexed copped for copper carbo· FDA T97J316 nate; post-harvest use TOO ppm certain foods maximum quantities CANADA T9713!3 Cyanide (CN) ................•.. O.OT mg/1 drinking water maximum allowable limit WHO T958,3!8T96T3!9 O.OT mg/1 drinking water recommended limit PHS T9623!7 0.2 mg/1 drinking water mandatory limit " 25 ppm cereals and grains post-harvest application of CaCN FDA 197T016 250 ppm spices post-harvest fumigation with HCN; tolerances for residues FDA T97T3!6 TOO ppm cereals 25 ppm nuts, i.e. almonds, etc. 125 ppm cereal flours limits not to be exceeded 90 ppm cereals cooked before eating re~dues of HCN shall not exceed these limits 50 ppm uncooked pork 20 ppm cocoa 0. T5 percent bakery products O.T percent egg white solids 0. 095 percent frozen meat 0. T5 percent yeast Fluorine (F) .................... T.2 mg/1 drinking water recommended control limits optimum; 5D-53. 7 F PHS T962'11 0.7 mg/1 drinking water at79.3-90.5 F T.5 mg/1 drinking water recommended limit WHO T96J319 7 ppm apple, apricot, bean, beet, blackberries, blue-tolerance of combined fluorine for insecticidal fluorine com· FDA T97J316 berries, boysenberries, broccoli, brussel pounds, cryolite and synthetic cryolite sprout, etc. most fruits & vegetables Fluorine (F) ...................• 25 ppm certain foods maximum CANADA T971'!3 Iron (Fe) ....................... 0.3 mg/1 drinking water recommended limit PHS T9623!7 0.3 mg/1 drinking water permissible limit WHO 1958318 T.O mgjl drinking water excessive limit O.T mgjl drinking water recommended limit WHO T96J319 Lead (Pb) ...................... TO ppm certain foods maximum permissible levels mandatory limitfor domestic CANADA 197T313 water supplies 0.05 mg/1 drinking water PHS T9623!7 0.1 mg/1 drinking water WH 0 T958,318T96J319 7 ppm most fruit, i.e. apples, grapes, mangoes, peaches, tolerance of combined lead using lead arsenate FDA T97J316 cherries, etc; tomatoes, young berries, rasp- berries, peppers,:etc. Magnesium (Mg) ............... T25 mg/1 drinking water recommended limit for domestic water supply WH0196T319 Manganese (Mn) ...............• 0.05 mg/1 drinking water recommended limit for domestic water supply PHS T962317 O.TO mg/1 drinking water permissible limit tor domestic water supply WHO 1958318 0.50 mg/1 drinking water excessive limit for domestic water supply Manganese (Mn) ................ 0.01 mg/1 drinking water recommend limit for domestic water supply WHO 1961'19 Mercury (Hg) ................... 0.005 mg/1 drinking water maximum permissible concentration Kirkor T95J315 0.5 ppm certain foods interim guidelines CANADA 197T3!3 Nickel (Ni) ..................... 1.0 mg/1 drinking water maximum permissible concentration Kirkor T951'1• Nitrates ........................ 50 mg/1 drinking water recommended limit for domestic water supply WHO 196J319 Selenium (Se) .................. 0.01 mg/1 drinking water mandatory limit for domestic water supply PHS 1962317 0.05 mg/1 drinking water WHO T958,31819613!9 Silver (A g) ....................• 0.05 mgjl drinking water PHS T962317 Zinc (Zn) ....................... 5 mg/1 drinking water recommended limit for domestic water supply 5 mg/1 drinking water WHO 1958,3!819613!' 65 ppm peanut, vine hay & sugar beets using Zn ion calculated as Zn FDA T9713!• 25ppm straws of barley oats & rye, wheat T5 ppm bananas, fodder of Held corn, sweet corn and pre & posl·harvest use, Zn ion calculated as Zn popcorn Zinc (Zn) ....................... 10ppm apples, celery, crabapples, fennel, pears, quinces, pre and post-harvest use, Zn ion calculated as Zn FDA 197J316 papayas 7ppm cranberries,cucumbers,grapes,summersquash, using Zn ion calculated as Zn tomatoes, melons 5 ppm grains of barley, oats, rye and wheal 2 ppm carrots, sugar beets 0.5 ppm corn, grain, cotton seed, kidney, liver, onions, peanuts 0.1 ppm asparagus 30 ppm peaches tolerance for residues of fungicide ba~c zinc suHate Appendix III-Table 5/483 .4PPENDIX Ill-TABLE 5-Total Annual Production of Inorganic Chemicals in the U.S.A. (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1971)"" Total Annual Product Total Annual Product Constituent Form of Element Production Code Year Constituent Form of Element Production Code Year (short Ions) (short tons) Aluminum ...•.• AI,0.--100 percent 6,639,891 2819511 1969 Cyanide ........ HCN-100 percent 205,208 2819451 1969 (AQ AICia-liquid & crystal 23,838 2819611 & 1969 (CN) 2819615 AICia-(100 percent) anhydrous 39,511 2819617 1969 AI.Oa•3 H,0-100 percent 325,767 2819625 1969 Fluorine ........ HF-100 percent anhydrous 221,536 2819461 1969 AIF:r-(tech) 143,131 2819627 1969 (F) NaF-100 percent 6,885 2819728 1969 Ab(SO,):r-(comm) 1,243,803 2819651 1969 Na.SiF,-100 percent 48,975 2819751 1969 17 percent AI.Oa HF-100 percent 17,206 2819465 1969 Ammonia ....... synthetic-anhydrous 12,917,842 2819131 1969 Hydrogen ....... H.so.-100 percent 29,536,914 28193-1969 (NHa) byproduct liquor 14,000 2819131 1969 (H+) Ntt.CI-gray & while 26,615 2819141 & 1965* 2819143 Iron ............ FeCia-100 percent 66,674 2819942 1969 NH,N0.--100 percent 5,891,234 2819151 1969 (NH,),S0,-100 percent 1,915,721 2819157 1969 (Fe) FeS0,-100 percent 192,020 2819943 1969 Barium ......... BaCO:r-100 percent 79,002 2819904 1969 Manganese ..... MnS0,•4 H20 40,806 2819950 1969 (Ba) (Mn) Bismuth ........ subcarbonate 100 percent (bi,O,COa)· H,O 57 28199-1969 Mercury .......• mercury-redistilled 475,688 (lbs) 2819953 1969 (Bi) (Hg) Boron .......... boric acid-100 percent 138,969 2819411 1969 Nickel. ......... NiSO,• 6 H,0-100 percent 20,388 2819956 1969 NaB.Oz·10 H,o 624,257 2819724 1969 (Ni) Calcium ..•..... carbide-(Comm) 856,039 2819912 1969 Phosphorus ..... elemental-whi;e & red (tech) 628,957 2819958 & 1969 (Ca) CaHPO.-animal feed grades 100 percent 496,027 2819919 1969 (P) 2819959 CaHPO.-olher grades 416,096 2819920 1969 POCia-100 percent 31,404 2819960 1969 CaCO:r-100 percent 206,078 2819913 1969 p,s,-100 percent 55,759 2819961 1969 P•Oo-100 percent 3,566 2819962 1966* Chlorine ....•..• 100 percent cr. gas 9,413,885 2812111 1969 PCia-100 percent 57,312 2819963 1969 (CQ 100 percent cr. liquid 4,399, 712 2812115 1969 calcium hypochlorite (75 percent Cl) 42,941 2819211 1969 Silver. ......... AgCN-100 percent 1,795 2819971 1969 HCI-100 percent 1,910,757 2819441, 1969 (Ag) (thousand av oz.) 2819445 & AgNO:r-113,809 2819972 1969** 2819447 NaCI0.--100 percent 187,221 2819727 1969 ' Sulphide ........ NaSH-100 percent 27,364 2819729 1969 Chromium ...... chromic acid-100 percent 24,859 2819431 1969 Na,s-&0-62 percent concentrated 22,222 2819782 1967*** (Cr) sodium bichromate and chromate 152,593 2819929 & 1969 Na,s-&0-62 percent concentrated crystal 122,022 2819781, 1969 & liquid (totaQ 2819782, & 2819931 2819783 Copper ......... Cu0-100 percent 1,910 2819934 1968* (Cu) cu,0-100 percent 1,742 2819935 1969 Zinc ...........• ZnCI.-100 percent 27,986 2819984 1966* cus0.·5 H.0-100 percent 47,163 2819936 1969 (Zn) znso,. 7 H.0-100 percent . 57,774 2819987 1969 *1965through 1966 figures withheld to avoid disclosing the figures for individual companies. •• Includes unspecified amounts produced and shipped on contract basis. ••• combined with 81 and 83 for 1969. 484/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested Formulation Insecticides Organochloride Aldrin................ Technical Aldrin................ Technical Aldrin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 percent Aldrin... . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 percent Aldrin.. . . . . • . . . . . . . . 100 percent Aldrin............... . .............•........... Aldiin .. ............ Aldrin ..............• Aldrin ............... Aldrin ..............• Aldrin ..............• Aldrin ............... Aldrin .•..........•.. Aldrin .•...•......... Aldrin ............... Aldrin ..............• Aldrin •.............. Aldrin •.....•........ Aldrin ..•..........•. Tri·&·Dust. .••....... Chlordane ............ Chlordane .•.......... Chlordane .•.......... DDT ......•....••... DDT ........•.•..•.• DDT ....•....•.••... DOT ........•..•.... DDT ..••...•..•.•... DDT ..•.•........... DDT ...•...•........ DDT .•.•...........• DDT ....•.•....•.... DDT .......••....•.. DDT ..........•..... DDT ..••..•......... DDT ..•...•.•..•.... DDT ...•...........• DDTb ..•.•...•.•••.• Toxaphene .•..••.•.•. Parathion ••...•.•..•• DOT .•.............. DOT ................ DDT ............•..• DDT ..........•....• DDT ..•..•..•.•...•. DDT ..•.......••.... DDT ..•.....•.•..... DDT .•.•............ DDT .•.•......•..... DDT .••.•........... DDT ......•......... DDT ....•.•......... DDT ...•..••.......• DDT .•.•............ DDT •...•........... DDT. .•.•.•...••..•. 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent Technical Technical Technical Technical Technical 81 percent Benzene Hexachoride 100 percent 100 percent 100 percent .......................... .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... Wettable powder Wettable powder Wettable powder Wettable powder Wettable powder Technical Grade 77 percent 77 percent P,P' isomer P, P'isomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... P, P'isomer P,P' isomer P, P'isomer P, P'isomer P, P'isomer P, P1 isomer P,P'isomer P,P'isomer P,P'isomer Organism Tested Palaemon macrodactylus* Palaemon macrodactylus Crangon septemspinosa Palaemonetes vulgaris Pagurus longicarpus Mercenaria mercenaria Fundulus heteroclitus Fundulus heteroclitus Fundulus majalis Menidia menidia Mugil cephalus Thalassoma bilasciatum Sphaeroides maculatus Anguilla rostrata Gasterosteus aculeatus Cymatogaster aggregata Cymatogaster aggregata Micrometrus minimus Micrometrus minimus Penaeus setiferus Penaeus aztecus Palaemon macrodactylus Palaemon macrodactylus Gasterosteus aculeatus Dunaliella euchlora Dunaliella euchlora Dunaliella euchlora Phaeodactylum tricornutum Skeletonema costatum Skeletonema costatum Skeletonema costatum Cyclotella nana Cyclotella nana Protococcus sp Chiarella sp Dunaliella euchlora Phaeodactylum tricornutum Monochrysis Jutheri Crassostrea virginica Penaeus duorarum Palaemon macrodactylus Palaemon macrodactylus Crangon septemspinosa Palaemonetes vulgaris Callinectes sapidus Callinectes sapidus Pagurus longicarpus Fundulus heteroclitus Fundulus heteroclitus Fundulus majalis Menidia menidia Mugil cephalus Anguilla rostrata Thalassoma bifasciatum Sphaeroides maculatus * N.D. Italic type fonts were not available in a suitable point s!ze. Ed. • Concentration of Tri·&·dust Common Name Korean shrimp Korean shrimp Sand shrimp Grass shrimp Hermit crab Hard clam Mummichog Mummichog Striped killifish AUantic silverside Striped mullet Bluehead Northern puffer American eel Threespine stickleback Shiner perch Shiner perch Dwarf perch Dwarf perch White shrimp Brown shrimp Korean shrimp Korean shrimp Threespine stickleback ·························· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·························· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·························· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·························· ·························· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . American oyster Pink shrimp Korean shrimp Korean shrimp Sand shrimp Grass shrimp Blue crab Blue crab Hermit crab Mummichog Mummichog Striped kilifish Atlantic silverside Striped mullet American eel Bluehead Northern puffer APPENDIX Ill-TABLE 6-Toxicity Ufe Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act ingred.) (mm) in water ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 31 3.5 Larvae Larvae Eggs Larvae 42 55 49 57 85 80 168 56 22-44 . ................ ················· . ................ ················· 41.6±5.9 11.9±.45 ················· . ................ 22-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . ••••..........•• ················· ················· ················· ................. ················· ................. 27 mean height 13.3 mm(Aug.) ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 31 Adult Adult 3.5 42 55 40 59 46 56mm 80 mm 140mm • 74 (.51-1.08) 3 (1. 1-8.5) 8 9 33 500 1000 > 10000 410 4 8 17 13 100 12 36 5 27.4 7.4 2. 26 (1. 08-4. 74) 18 2.03 (1-4.2) 35• 400• 18 (1D-38) II (7-18) 160. 1000 100 10 1000 1000 100 10 1000 100 600 600 600 600 40 > 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.12 0.86 (0.47-1.59) 0.17 (O.O!HI.32) 0.6 2. 19. (9.-36.) 35. (21-57) 6 3 5 1 .4 .9 4 7 89. TL·50 TL-50 LC-50 LC·50 LC·50 Methods of Assessment 37 percent survival 00 percent TLM TLM LC-50 LC-50 LC-50 LC·50 LC·50 LC-50 LC·50 LC·50 TLM TL·50 TL·50 TL-50 TL·50 TLM TLM TL-50 TL·50 TLM 42 percent reduction in o, evolution 32 percent reduction in o, evolution 30 percent reduction in o, evolution 35 percent reduction in o, evolution 39 percent reduction in o, evolution 32 percent reduction in o, evolution 36 percent reduction in Q, evolution 33 percent reduction in o, evolution 33 percent reduction in Q, evolution Effect of toxicant on growth of phytoplank· ton 0.50 value a 1. 00 rat!o of D.O. 0. 74 of ExptjO.O. 0. 91 control 0.57 Weight difference between control and ex. peri mental oysters TL·50 TL·50 TL·50 LC-50 LC·50 TLM TLM LC·50 LC·50 LC-50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 Data for Organic Compounds Test Procedure Temp C Salinity 01 oo Other Environmental Criteria 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 10 day two-cell stage fertilized 10 day eggs introduced into test media 48 hr 50 percent of eggs develop normally 12 day 50 percent of larvae survive 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr static bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay o, production measured by Winkler Light-and-Dark Bottle Technique. Length of test 4 hr. Organisms grown in test media con- taining pesticides for 10 days O.D. measured at 530 ml' 36 wk chronic lab bioassay 28 day flowing lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr flowing lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 13-18 12-30 13-18 12-30 20±.5 24 20±.5 24 20±.5 24 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 20 24 20 24 20 24 20 24 20 24 20 24 20 24 20 24 20±.5 25 13±1 28 14-18 25(25-26) 13±1 16 14-18 28 17.4-22.3 31.4 17.4-22.3 31.4 1a-1e 12-30 13-18 12-30 20±.5 25 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 9-25 21-29 13-18 13-18 20 20 10 21 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 27-29 24-33 12-30 12-30 24 24 8.6 8.6 2.4 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 • Mixture of 1. 0 ppb of DDT, Toxaphene, Parathion. ' Residue after 36 week exposure. Turb. 1-12 JTU Turb. 1-12 JTU pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-p mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7. 7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 mg/1 pH 8.0 D.O. 7.1-7. 7 mg/1 pH 6.8-7.4 Total alkalinity= 45-57 ppm 5.0 JTU Turbidity Turbidity 7 (5-10) JTU Turbidity 18 JTU Turbidity 7 JTU pH=8.15-8.2 pH=8.15-8.2 Turb. 1-12 JJU Turb. 1-12 JTU pH 6.8-7.4 Total Alkalinity as CaCoa 45-57 ppm 250 ft.-c for 4 hrs 500 ft.-c continuous Turb. 1-12 JTU Turb. 1-12 JTU pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.C DO 7.1-7.8 Appendix III-Table 6/485 Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mgfkg Other Parameters Reference 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None None 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None Results analyzed using.1-tailed !-values 8.4 5.3 T -test significance 5.3 at 0. 05 level 2. 9 None 5.5 2.5 5.2 2.9 2.3 1.0(0.23-0.42) 0.38(0.22-0.54) Mean in water weights were statistically DDE=13.0' different at 0.05 after 22 wks. DDE=.20 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None SL 95 percent confidence 1. 5 Interval/slope func. 1. 9 None None None None None None None None None DDT=29.0 Toxaphene=9.0 Parathion=.007 0.19 (muscle) Tissue changes associated with gill, kidneys, digestive tu- bules, visceral ganglion and tissues beneath gills. Mycelial fungus also present. Earnest (unpublished)'" Eisler 1969"7 Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 197011'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Katz 1961'" Earnest and Benville (unpublished)'" Chin and Allen 1957'" Chin and Allen 1957323 Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Katz 1961"' Derby and Rober 1971'" Ukeles 1962'" Lowe et al. 1971b'" Nimmo el a1. (unpublished)'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1969'" Mahood el al. 1970"2 Mahood el al. 1970'" Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1970a"' Eisler -1970b"' Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b3" 486/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 6- Substance Tested Formulation IJrganism Tested Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb acl ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water DDT .••••..•.....•.. P,P'isomer Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22-44 mm 11.5 TLM DDT ..•••.•..•..•... Technical grade Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch 48-104 7.6 TL-50 DDT .•.•.•..•....... Technical grade Micrometrus minimus Dwarf perch 48-104 4.6 TL-50 DDT ..•............. P,P'isomer Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch . ................ .45 (0.21-0.94) TL-50 DDT.. ••....•.....•. P,P'i!O'bmer Micrometrus minimus Dwarf perch ················· 0.26 (0.13-0.52) TL-50 Dieldrin ...•.....•...• 85 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ················· 16.9 (10.8-33.4) Dieldrin ..•..•.....•.. 85 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp . ................ 6.9 (3. 7-13.1) Dieldrin ..•.•......... 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp 26 mm 7 LC-50 Dieldrin ..•....•...... 100 percent Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 mm 50 LC-50 Dieldrin ...•.........• 100 percent Pagurus Iongicarpus Hermit crab 3.5mm 18 LC-50 Dieldrin .............• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crassostrea virginica American oyster Egg 640. TLM Dieldrin .............. ·························· Nassa obsoleta Mud snail Adult 1,000 No. egg cases deposited significant less than control. Control= 1473 Expl=18 Dieldrin .•••..•....... .......................... Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 37mm 5 LC-50 Dieldrin ...•.........• 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 51 mm 5 LC-50 Dieldrin .............. 100 percent Fundulus majalis Striped killifish 40 mm 4 LC-50 Dieldrin .............. 100 percent Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside 57 mm 5 LC-50 Dieldrin .............. 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 85 mm 23 LC-50 Dieldrin .............• 100 percent Anguilla rostrata American eel 57 mm .9 LC-50 Dieldrin .............. 100 percent Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead 80 mm 6 LC-50 Dieldrin .............• 100 percent Sphaeroides maculatus Northern puffer 168 mm 34. LC-50 Dieldrin ...•.•........ Technical Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22-44 13.1 TLM Dieldrin ......•....... Technical Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch 48-104 3.7 TL-50 Dieldrin ....•......... Technical Micrometrus minimus Dwarf perch 48-104 5. TL-50 Dieldrin .............• 0.012 percent W /V Poecilia Iatipinna Sailfin mollie ? 7.5 Reduced reproduction control-young born 65 Exp.-young born 37 Dieldrin ........•..... 0.012 percent W /V Poecilia Iatipinna Sailfin mollie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. SGOTactivity' ' 12. increase Dieldrin .............• Technical Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch ................. 1.5(0.73-3.20) TL-50 Dieldrin .............. ·Technical Micrometrus minimus Dwarf perch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.44 (1.1&-5.11) TL-50 Endrin ............... 99 percent Palaemon macrodactyiiiS Korean shrimp ················· 4.7 (2.3-9.4) TL-50 Endrin ............... 99 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ················· .12 (0.05-0.25) TL-50 Endrin ............... 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp 26mm 1.7 LC-50 Endrin ............... 100 percent Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 mm 1.8 LC-5~ Endrin .•....•........ 100 percent Pagurus Iongicarpus Hermit crab 3.5 12 LC-50 Endrin ............... 100 percent Nassa obsoleta Mud snail Adult 1,000 No. egg cases deposited significantly less than Control. Control=1473 Expl=2 Endrin ............... ·························· Crassostrea virginica American oyster Egg 790 TLM Endrin ..•..•......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 42 mm 0.6 LC-50 Endrin .......•..•.... 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 51 mm .6 LC-50 Endrin ............... 100 percent Fundulus majalis Striped killifish 40(mm) 0.3 LC·50 Endrin .............•. Technical 98 percent Fundulus similis Longnose kiiHfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.23 LC-50 Endrin ............... Technical 98 percent Brevoortia patronus Menhaden . ................ 0.8 LC-50 Endrin ............... Technical 98 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 LC-50 Endrin .............•. 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 83(mm) 0.3 LC-50 Endrin ............... 100 percent Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside 54(mm) 0.05 LC·50 Endrin ............... 100 percent Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead 90(mm) 0.1 LC-50 Endrin ..............• 100 percent Anguilla rostrata American eel 57(mm) 0.6 LC-50 Endrin ..............• roo percent Sphaeroides maculatus Northern puffer 131 (mm) 3.1 LC-50 Endrin ............... Technical90 percent Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22-44 0.5 TLM Endrin ...•.......•.•. Powder 75 percent Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 25-37 1.5 TLM Endrin ............... Technical 98 percent Cyprinodon vareigatus Sheepshead minnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.32 LC-50 Endrin ...........•... Technical 98 percent Leiostomus xanthurus Spot ················· 0.45 LC-50 Endrin ...........•.•. Technical Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch 48-104 0.8 TLM Endrin .......•....... Technical. Micrometrus minimus Dwarf perch 48-104 0.6 TLM Endrin ..............• Technical Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch 48-104 0.12 (0.0&-0.25) TLM Endrin ............... Technical Micrometrus minimus Dwarf Perch 48-104 0.13 (0.0&-0.27) TLM Heptachlor. •........• 99 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ................. 14.5 (8.2-25.9) TL-50 Heptachlor .•........• 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp 26 8 LC-50 Heptachlor .•........• 100 percent Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 440 LC-50 Heptachlor. •......... 100 percent Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab 3.5 55 LC-50 Heptachlor. .......... 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 42 50 LC-50 Heptachlor. ...•.....• 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 35 50.0 LC-50 Heptachlor ..........• 100 percent Fundulus majaUs Striped killifish 40 32 LC-50 Heptachlor .••.......• 100 percent Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside 54 3 LC-50 Heptachlor .•......•.• 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 100 194 LC-50 Heptachlor. ......•... 100 percent Anguilla rostrata American eel 56 10 LC-50 Heptachlor .•....•...• 100 percent Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead 80 .8 LC-50 Continued Test Procedure 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr inter. flow lab bioassay 96 hr inter. flow lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr inter. flow lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr exposure to 1.0 ppm then 133 day post exposure in clean water 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 34 wk flowing water 48 hr flowing water test 96 hr inter. flow lab bioassay ' 96 hr inter. flow lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr inter. flow lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr sialic lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static exposure of adults to 1. 0 ppm. 133 day post exposure in clean water 48 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr flowing lab bioassay 24 hr flowing lab bioassay 24 hr flowing lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr flowing lab bioassay 24 hr flowing lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hritatic lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay Temp C Salinity 0/oo Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation 20±.5 13±1 13±1 14-18 14-18 13-18 13-18 20 20 20 24±1 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 13±1 13±1 17-30 27±1 14-18 14-18 13-18 13-18 20 20 20 20±.5 24±1 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 25 27 29 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20 28 17 13±1 13±1 14-18 14-18 13-18 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 25 26 28 18 27 12-30 12-30 24 24 24 ? 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 15 29 25-30 28 12 12-30 12-30 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 19 29 21 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 29 23 26 18 28 28 12-30 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 Tot. Alk. as caco, 24-57 ppm pH 6.8-7.4 Turb. 12 JTU Turb 4 JTU Turb H2JTU Turb H2JTU pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=B.O pH=B.O pH=8.0 pH=B.O pH=B.O pH 6.8-7.4 Tot. Alk CaCo, 45-57 ppm Turb 6 JTU Turb 24 JTU Turb H2JTU Turb 1-12 JTU pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 None . . 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None None None No. of egg cases deposited significantly different at 0. 001 level None None None None None None None None None None None None Activity significantly greater at 0.05 level 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval None None None No. of egg cases deposited significantly different at 0.0011evel None None None None None None None None None None None None pH=6.8-7.4 Tot. Alk. as (CaCOa) None 45-57 Turb. 1-12 JTU pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8· (CaCo,) 45-57 ppm None None None 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None None None None None None None None None None Appendix III-Table 6/487 Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters 0.55(.44-.65) ppm 1.0(0.48-2.0) ppm Blood 11.98 Brain 13.3 Gi1137.6 ppm 2.33(0.00168- 0. 00307) ppm 1. 26(0. 00086- 0.0017) 0.13(0.02-6.27) 0.11(0.08-0.15) Reference Katz 1961"' Earnest and Benvile (unpublished)'" Earnest and Denville (unpublished)'" Earnest and Denville (unpublished)'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Eisler 1969"' Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1969'27 Davis and Hidu 1969'" Eisler 1970c"• Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'29 Eisler 1970b329 Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b"' Katz 1961"' Earnest and Denville (unpublished)'" Earnest and Denville lane and Livingston 1970'" Lane and Scura 1970'" Earnest and Denville (unpublished)'" Earnest and Denville Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest Eisler 19693" Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1970c"0 Davis and Hidu 1969'" Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Lowe 1965'" Lowe 1965'" Lowe 1965"' Eisler 1970b32' Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'29 Katz 1961"' Katz and Chadwick 19613" Lowe 19653" Lowe 1965"' Earnest and Denville (unpublished)"' Earnest and Denville Earnest and Denville Earnest and Denville Earnest (unpublished)'" Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1969"' Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1970a"' Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b3" ------------------~----------- 488/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 6-- Substance Tested Formulation Olf,!nism Tested Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water Heptachlor •......•... 100 percent Sphaeroides maculatus Northern puffer 168 188 LC-50 Heptachlor .•....•...• 72 percent Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22-44 111.9 TLM Ratio O.D. Expt. Ratio O.D. Control lindane ..........•..• ·························· Protococcus sp. . ......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 0. 75 O.D. exptjO.D. control Lindane ............•. ·························· Chlorella sp. ·························· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 0. 57 D. D. expfO.D. control Lindane .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dunaliella euchlora ·························· ················· 9,000 0.60 O.D. expfO.D. control Lindane .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phaeodactylum lricornutum . ......................... ················· 5,000 0. 30 D.O. exptjO.D. control Lindane ......•....... ····.······················ Monochrysis lutheri .................. ················· 5,000 1.00 D.D. exptjD.D. control Lindane .............. 100 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ················· 12.5 (4. 7-32. 7) TL-50 Lindane .............. 100 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 (5.8-15.0) TL-50 lindane .............. 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp 26 5 LC-50 lindane .............. 100 percent Palaemoneles vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 10. LC·50 Lindane ..•........... 100 percent Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab 3.5 5. LC-50 Lindane ......•....... 100 percent Nassa obsoleta Mud snail 15 10000 Reduced deposition of egg cases from 1473 by control to 749 by Expl Lindane ........•.•.•. ·························· Crassostrea virginica Eastern oyster Egg 9100 TLM Lindane ............•. .......................... Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Egg > 10000 TLM Lmdane ............•. ·························· Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Larvae >10000 TLM Lindane .............. 100 percent Fundulus heleroclitus Mummichog 42 20 LC-50 Lindane ....•.•.....•. 100 percent Fundulus heleroclitus Mummichog 55 60 LC·50 Lindane ....•.•.•..... 100 percent Fundulus majalis Striped killifish 49 28 LC-50 Lindane ......•.•..... 100 percent Menidia menidia Allanli& silverside 57 9 LC-50 Lindane ....•.....•... 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 85 66 LC-50 Lindane ..•........... 100 percent Anguilla roslrala American eel 56 56 LC-50 Lindane ...•.......... 100 percent Thalossoma bifasciatum Bluehead 90 14 LC-50 Lindane ......•....... 100 percent Sphaeroides maculalus Northern puffer 168 35 LC-50 Lindane .............. 100 percent Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22•44 50 TLM Methoxychlor ...•.•... 89.5 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp . ................ .44 (0.21-D. 93)-TL-50 Methoxychlor ......... 89.5 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ................. 6. 7 (4. 37-10. 7) TL·5D Methoxychlor ......•.• 100 percent Crangon seplemspinosa Sand shrimp 26 4. LC-50 Methoxychlor ...•..... 100 percent Palaemoneles vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 12. LC-50 Methoxychlor ..•.....• 100 percent Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab 3.5 7. LC-50 Methoxychlor .....•..• 100 percent Fundulus heleroclitus Mummichog 42 35 LC-50 Methoxychlor .......•• 100 percent Fundulus heleroclilus Mummichog 55 35 LC-50 Methoxychlor ..•..•..• 100 percent Fundulus majalis Striped killifish 40 30 LC-50 Methoxychlor ........• 100 percent Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside 57 33 LC-50 Methoxychlor .••.•...• 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 100 63 LC-50 Methoxychlor ....•...• 100 percent Anguilla roslrata American eel 56 12. LC·50 Methoxychlor .•..•...• 100 percent Thalassoma bifascialum Bluehead 86 13. LC-50 Methoxychlor ....•...• 100 percent Sphaeroides maculalus Northern puffer 203 150. LC-50 Methoxychlor ........• 89.5 percent Gaslerosteu> aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22-44 69.1 TLM Mirex ....••....•....• Technical Tetrahymena pyriformis .......................... .. ............... 0.9 16.03 percent decrease in population size Mirax .......•..•.•... Bail (.3 percent mirex) Penaeus aztecus Brown shrimp 24 One particle of mirex 48 percent paralys!s or death in 4 days bail/shrimp Mirex ......•.......•. Bail (.3 percent mirex) Palaemoneles pugio Grass shrimp 25 One particle of mirex 63 percent paralysis/or death in 4 days bail/shrimp Mirex ......•.......•. Technica~ Penaeus duorarum Pink shrimp 55 1.0 100 percent paralysis/or death in 11 days Mirex ........•....... Technical Penaeus duorarum Pink shrimp 55 0.1 36 percent paralysis/or death in 35 days Mirex ................ Bail (0.3 percent mirex) UCA pugilalor Fiddler crab 20 One particle of mirex 73 percent paralysis/or death in 14 days bail per crab Mirex ...........•.•.. Bail (0.3 percent) mirex Callinectes sapidus Blue crab 23 1 particle of bail/crab 84 percent paralysis/death in 20 days Mirex .........•...... .......................... Callinectes sapidus Blue crab Adult 5.6X104 TLM (4.D-7.8)X10' TDE .......•.•....••• 99 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp .. ............... 8.3 (4.8-14.4) TL-50 TOE ...........•..•.. 99 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ................. 2.5 (1.6-4.0) TL-50 Toxaphene ....•..•.•. Polychloro dicyclic Terpanes Protococcus sp. .. ........................ ................. 40 • 77 O.D. expl/0.0. control with chloraled camphene Chlorella sp. .......................... ................. 40 • 70 D.O. expi/D.D. control 60 percent emulsion con-Dunaliella euchlora .......................... ................. 70 53 D.D. expl/0.0. control centrale Phaeodactylum lricornutum .......................... ................. 10 .54 O.D. explfO.D. control Monochrysis lulheri ........................ -................. 10 .00 D.D. expi/D.D. control Toxaphene •...•..•..• 100 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ................. 20.3 (8. 6-47. 9) TL·5D Toxaphene ...••..•..•. .......................... Callinectes sapidus Blue crab Adult 370 (186-700) TLM Toxaphene ••.•....... Polychloro bicyclic Terpanes Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Eggs 1120 TLM with chlorinated camphene Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Larvae 250 TLM Predominalory Toxaphene ••...•..•.• 100 percent Gasterosleus aculealus Threespine stickleback 22-44 7.8 TLM 67-69 percent CL Thiodan® .••••..••••• 96 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ................. 17.1 (8. 4-39. 8) TL-50 Thiodan® ••.••..•..•. 96 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ················· 3.4(1.8-6.5) TL-50 Continued Test Procedure 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay Test organisms grown in test media containing pesticides for ten days Absorbance measured at 530 m" 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr flowing lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay. Acute toxicity experiment followed by 133-day post exposure in clean water. 48 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr stalit lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent-now lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr growth test Static bioassay Static bioassay Flowing water bioassay Flowing water bioassay Flowing water bioassay 96 hr flowing water bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr flowing water lab bioassay Test organisms grown in test media for 10 days absorbance measured at 530 mt 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr flowing water lab bioassay Temp C Salinity •/oo Other Environmental Criteria 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 13-18 13-18 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 24±1 24±1 24±1 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 13-18 13-18 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 26 22 25 17 14 29 29 21 13-18 13-18 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 13-18 21 24±1 24±1 20±.5 13-18 13-18 24 25 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 12-30 12-30 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 12-30 12-30 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 21 33 29 •too 29 •too 27 •too 27 19.3 12-30 12-30 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 12-30 8.6 25 12-30 12-30 pH=B.O DO 7.1-7.8 pH 6.8-7.4 Total Alkalinity 500 ftc-continuously Turb H2JTU pH=8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D.O. 7.1-7. 7 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D.O. 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 O.D. 7.1-7. 7 pH=8.0 O.D. 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 O.D. 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 O.D. 7.1-7. 7 pH=8. 0 O.D. 7.1-7. 7 pH=8.0 O.D. 7.1-7. 7 Turb. H2JTU Turb. 1-12 JTU pH=8.0D07.1-7.7 pH=8.0D07.1-7.7 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0D07.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D07.1-7.7 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH=8.0D07.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D07.1-7.7 pH=6.8-7.4 Total alkalinity (CaCo,) 45-57 Cultures grown in Tetrahymena broth None None None Turb. H2JTU Turb. H2JTU Turbidity 1-12 JTU Turb H2JTU Turb H2JTU Appendix III-Table 6/489 None None None None None None None Statistical Evaluation 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None None None No. of eggs deposited significantly less at 0.001 level. X•>10.8 Chi-square analysis None None None None None None None None None None None None 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None None None None None None None None None None None None Measured effect is an average of there· suits of tests in which a significant dif· ference existed (P<0.05) Residue levels mgtkg Other Parameters . . .. ... .... ... .... .. .... .. . .. ... ... 1.1 0.26 ppm 0.30 ppm ................................... L3 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval None 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval Eisler 1970b"' Katz 1961"3 Ukeles 19623" Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 196234' Ukeles 1962"' Reference Earnest (unpublished)'"' Earnest (unpublished)'"' Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1970c"0 Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969°24 Davis and Hidu 1969'" Eisler 1970a3" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b'" Katz 1961333 Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1969'" Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 197011'" Katz 1961333 Cooley et al. (unpublished)'" Lowe et at. 1971a"• Lowe et at. 1971a"• Lowe et al. 1971a"0 Lowe et at. 1971a"0 Lowe et al. 1971a"• Lowe et al. 1971a"• Mahood et at. 197()342 Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest Ukeles 1962'" Earnest (unpublished)'"' Mahood et al. 1970"' Davis and Hidu 1969'24 Davis and Hidu 19693" Katz 1961"' Earnest (unpublished)"' Earnest 490/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested Formulation • Organism Tested Common Name Insecticides Organophosphates Abate................ .. ....................... . Dunaliella euchlora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abate................ . ....................... .. Dunaliella euchlora ·························· Abate................ . ....................... .. Phaeodactylum tricornutum ·························· Abate................ . ....................... .. Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... Abate................ . ....................... .. Skeletonema costatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abate................ . ........................ . Skeletonema costatum ·························· Abate ............... . Cyclotella nana ·························· Abate ............... . Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp Abate ............... . Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp Baytex .............. . Dunaliella euchlora .......................... Baytex ............. .. Dunaliella euchlora .......................... Baytex .............. . Dunaliella euchlora .......................... Baytex .............. . Phaeodactylum trtcornutum ·························· Baytex .............. . Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... Baytex .............. . Phaeodactylum trtcornutum .......................... Baytex .............. . Skeletonema costatum .......................... Baytex .............. . Skeletonema costatum .......................... Baytex .............. . Skeletonema costatum .......................... Baytex .............. . Cyclotella nana .......................... Baytex ............. .. Cyclotella nana .......................... Baytex ............. .. Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp Baytex .............. . Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp CO·RAL ............ . Crassostrea virginica Eastern oyster CO·RAL.. .......... . Crassostrea virginica Eastern oyster CO·RAL ............ . Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam CO·RAL ............ . Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam CO·RAL ............ . Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback DDVP ............... .......................... Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp DDVP ............... .......................... Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp DDVP ............... .......................... Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab DDVP ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog DDVP ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog DDVP ............... .......................... Fundulus majali s Striped kililfish DDVP ............... .......................... Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside DDVP ............... .......................... Mugil cephalus Striped mullet DDVP ............... .......................... Anguilla rostrata American eel DDVP ............... .......................... Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead DDVP ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sphaeroides maculatus Northern puffer Delnav ............... 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp Delnav ............... 100 percent Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp Delnav ............... 100 percent Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab Dicapthon ............ .......................... Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Dicapthon ............ .......................... Mercenarta mercenaria Hard clam Dioxathion ........... 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog Dioxathion ........... 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog Dioxathion ........... 100 percent Fundulus majalis Striped killifish Dioxalhion ........... 100 percent Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside Dioxathion ........... 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet Dioxathion ........... 100 percent Anguilla rostrata American eel Dioxathion ........... 100 percent Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead Dioxathion ........... 100 percent Sphaeroides maculatus Northern puffer Dipterex ............. 50 percent soluble powder Dunaliella euchlora .......................... Dipterex ............. Soluble powder Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... Dipterex ............. Soluble powder Phaeodactylum tricornutum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dipterex ............. Soluble powder Protococcus sp. .......................... Dipterex ............. Soluble powder Chlorella sp. .......................... Dipterex ............. Soluble powder Chlorella sp. .......................... Dipterex ............. Soluble powder Monochrysis lutheri .......................... Dipterex ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crassostrea virginica American oyster Di·syston ..•......... .......................... Crassostrea virginica American oyster Di·syston ............ .......................... Crassostrea virginica American oyster Di·syston ............ .......................... Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Di·syston ............ .......................... Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Dursban ............. Technical Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch Dursban ............. Technical Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch Dursban ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp Dursban ............. .......................... Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp Guthion .............. .......................... Crassostrea virginica American oyster Guthion .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Guthion .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam TABLE 6- Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water ................. 1000 ................. 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 ················· 100 ················· 1000 ................. 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 . ................ 2550 (994-6540) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 (72. 5-853) ················· 1000. ················· 100 ................. 10 ................. 1000 •.....•..•....... 100 ................. 10 ................. 1000 ................. 100 ................. 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 ................. 5.3 (3.13-8.92) ................. 3.0 (1.5-6.0) Egg 110 Larvae >1000 Egg 9120 Larvae 5210 22-44 1470 26 4 31 15 3.5 45 42 3700 55 2680 40 2300 50 1250 84 200 59 1800 80 1440 168 2250 26 38 31 285 3.5 82 Eggs 3340 Larvae 5740 42 56 20 84 15 50 6 85 39 59 6 80 35 168 75 ... 50,000 ................. 50,000 ................. 100,000 ................. 100,000 ................. 50,000 ................. 500,000 ................. 50,000 Larvae 1,000 Eggs 5860 Larvae 3670 Eggs 55280 Larvae 1390 55 3.5 55 3. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 (O.lD-0.63) .. ............... 0.01 (0.002-0.046) Eggs 620 Eggs 860 Larvae 860 36 percent reduction in o, evolution 23 percent reduction in o, evolution 38 percent reduction in o, evolution 28 percent reduction in o, evolution 55 percent reduction in o, evolution 23 percent reduction in 02 evolution 80 percent reduction in o, evolution TL-50 TL·50 27 percent reduction in o, evolution 27 percent reduction in o, evolution 16 percent reduction in o, evolution 29 percent reduction in o, evolution 29 percent reduction in o, evolution 35 percent reduction in 02 evolution 19 percent reduction in o, evolulion 51 percent reduction in o, evolution 26 percent recuction in o, evolution 50 percent reduction in o, evolution 48 percent reduction in o, evolution TL·50 TL·50 TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 TLM TLM LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 LC·50 .54 (O.D. explfO.D. conl) .85 (O.D. explfO.D. conl) .39 (0 D expl/0 D. conl) .54 (O.D. explfO.D. conl) • 70 (O.D. explfO.D. conl) .00 (O.D. expljO.D. cont.) .55 (O.D. expi/O.D. conl) TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TL·50 TL·50 TLM TLM TLM Continued Test Procedure o, evolution measured by Winkler Light-and-Dark Bottle Technique 11. of culture incubated 20 hrs in pesticide so ln. then placed in test bottles. 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent now lab bioassay o, evolution measured by Winkler Light-and-Dark Bottle Technique 1 I. of culture incubated 20 hrs in pesti- cide soln. then placed in test bottles. 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay Organisms grown in test media con- taining pesticide lor 10 days optical density measured at 530 m,. 48 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr flowing water lab bio. 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr. intermittent flow lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay Temp C Salinity •/oo other Environmental Criteria . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. 250 ft-c for 4 hrs. 13-18 13-18 13-18 13-18 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 24±1. 24±1. 20 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 24±1. 24±1. 24±1. 24±1. 24±1. 20.5±1. 20.5±1. 13-18 13-18 24±1. 24±1. 24±1. 12-30 12-30 12-30 12-30 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 25 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 22-28 22-28 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 25 25 12-30 12-30 Turb. 1-12 JTU 250 11.-c lor 4 hrs Turb. 1-12 JTU Turb. 1-12 JTU pH 6.8-7.4 total alkalinity 45-57 ppm pH8.0D07.1-7.7 pH 8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH 8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH 8.0 D07.0-7.7 pH 8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH8.0D07.1-7.7 pH 8.0 D07.1-7.7 pH 8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH 8.8 DO 7.1-7.7 pH 8.0 D07.1-7.7 pH8.0D07.1-7.7 pH 8.0 D07.1-7.7 pH 8.0 D07.1-7.7 pH 8.0 DO 7.1-7.7 pH 8.0 DO 7.0-7.7 pH 8.0 pH 8.0 pH 8.0 pH 8.0 pH 8.0 pH 8.0 pH 8.0 Turb. 1-12 JTU Turb. 1-12 JTU Statistical Evaluation All percent t=6.1 significant t=4.1 at 0.05 t=3.8 level t=2.5 t=4.8 t=2.2 t=6.8 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals All percent t=5.4 significant t=6. 7 at0.05 t=2.6 level t=2.5 t=2.5 t=3.5 t=2.3 t=5.9 t=3.2 t=3.8 t=2.7 95 percent confidence intervals 95 percent confidence intervals None Nona None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None 95 percant conHdenca interva I 95 percent confidenca iftterval None None None Appendix III-Table 6/491 Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference Derby and Ruber 1971'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Derby and Ruber 1971'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Katz 1961"' Eisler 1969"' Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1969327 Eisler 1969327 Eisler 1969'27 Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 197011'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b"' Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"' Davis and Hidu 19693" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Millemann 1969"' Millemann 1969'" Earnest (unpublished)'" Earnest Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" ~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 492/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 6- Substance Tested Formulation .organism Tested Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water Guthion .............. ·························· Cyprinodon variegatus Sheepshead minnow 40-70 Acetylcholinesterase activity• in control· vs-experimental groups control=1.36 expl=0.097 Guthion .............. 93 percent Gasterosteus aculealus Threespine stickleback 22-44 4.8 TLM Malathion ............ ··················· Tetrahymena pyriformis ·························· log-phase 10,000 8. 8 percent decrease in a population size measured as absorbance at 540 ml' Malathion ............ 95 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.5 (19.6-26.1) TL·50 Malathion ............ 95 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ················· 33.7 (21.3-53.1) TL-50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp 26 33 LC-50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 82 LC·50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab 35 83 LC-50 Malathion ............ ·························· Crassostrea virginica American oyster Egg 9070 TLM Malathion ............ .............. Crassostrea virginica American oyster Larvae 2660 TLM Malathion ............ 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 42 70 LC·50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 56 80 LC-50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Fundulus majafls Striped killifish 84 250 LC-50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside 50 125 LC·50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 48 550 LC·50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead 80 27 LC-50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Anguilla rostrata American eel 57 82 LC-50 Malathion ............ 100 percent Sphaeroides maculatus Northern puffer 183 3250 LC·50 Malathion ............ 57 percent Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22-44 76.9 TLM Methyl Parathion ..... 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp 26 LC·50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 percent Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 LC-50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 percent Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab 3.5 LC-50 Methyl Parathion ..... ············· Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 38 8,000 LC·50 Methyl Palathion ..... 100 Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 55 58,000 LC·50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 Fundulus majalis Striped killifish 84 13,800 LC-50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside 50 5, 700 LC-50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 48 5,200 LC·50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 Anguilla rostrata American eel 59 16,900 LC·50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead 90 12,300 LC-50 Methyl Parathion ..... 100 Sphaeroides maculatus Northern puffer 196 75,800 LC-50 Parathion ............ .............. Cyprinodon variegatus Sheepshead minnow 46-70 10 Acetylcholinesterase activity• in control· vs.-expl groups Control= 1. 36 Expl= 0.120 Phorate .............. .......................... Cyprinodon variegatus Sheepshead minnow 46-70 Acetylcholinesterase activity• in control· vs-expt groups Control= 1. 36 Expt= 0.086 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Crangon septemspinosa Sand shrimp 26 11 LC-50 Phosdrin®. ........... 100 percent Palaemonetes vulgaris Grass shrimp 31 69 LC·50 Phosdrin®. .......... 100 percent Pagurus longicarpus Hermllcrab 3.5 28 LC·50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 42 65 LC-50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Fundulus heteroclitus Mummichog 56 300 LC-50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Fundulus majalis Striped killifish 84 75 LC·50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside 50 320 LC-50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 100 300 LC-50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Anguilla rostrata American eel 59 65 LC·50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Thalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead 80 74 LC·50 Phosdrin® ........... 100 percent Sphaercides maculatus Northern puffer 168 800 LC-50 TEPP ..... ··············· Protococcus sp. .......................... ................. IXIO• • 62. OD expi/DD control TEPP ................ ·························· Protococcus sp. .......................... ················· 5XIO• .00 DO expi/OD control TEPP ................ ·························· Chlorella spo ................•......... ················· 1XI05 .65 OD expt/DD control TEPP ...... oo ........ ·························· Chlorella spo .......................... ................. 3XIO• o27 OD expi/DD control TEPP ............... o .......................... Dunaliella euchlora .......................... ···.·············· 3XIO• o49 OD expl/00 control TEPP ............... .......................... Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... . ................ 1XIO• . 58 OD expi/DD control TEPP ...... .......................... Monochrysis lutheri . ......................... ................. 1XIO• .83 OD expi/DD control TEPP ....... oo ....... .......................... Monochrysis lutheri . ................ 3XIO• • 38 DO expi/DD control TEPP ................ .......................... Crassostrea virginica American oyster Egg >lXIII' TLM TEPP ...... ooo ....... .......................... Crassostrea virginica American oyster Larvae >lXIII' TLM Insecticides Carbamates Baygon .............. .......................... Dunaliella euchlora . ......................... ................. 1000 25 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon .............. .......................... Dunaliella euchlora .. ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 32 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon. 0 ........... 0 .......................... Dunaliella euchlora .......................... .. ............... 10 27 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon .............. .......................... Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 23 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon .............. .......................... Phaeodactylum tricornutum ................ .. ............... 100 28 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon 0 0 ............ .......................... Phaeodactylum tricornutum .. ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 40 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon .............. .......................... Skeletonema costatum .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 30 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skeletonema costatum ..................... ................. 100 23 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon ......... 0 0 .. 0. .......................... Skeletonema costatum ..................... .. ............... 10 29 percent reduction in o, evolution Baygon .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cyclotella nana ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 53 percent reduction in o, evolution • ACh hydrolys~d/hr/mgo brain Continued Test Procedure Temp C Salinity 0/oo Other Environmental Criteria 72 hr static exposure 21+2. 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr growth test in Tetrahymena broth 26 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent flow lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96-hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 72 hr static exposure 72 hr static exposure 96 hr static Jab bioassay 96 hr static Jab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static Jab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static Jab bioassay 96 hr static Jab bioassay 96 hr static Jab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 48 hr static Jab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay o, evolution measured by Winkler Light-and-Dark Bottle technique 1 I. of culture incubated 20 hrs in pesticide solution, then placed in test bottles 4 hrs. 13-18 13-18 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 24±1. 24±1. 20 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 29±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 21±2. 21±2. 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 24±1 24±1 25 12-30 12-30 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 4 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 pH=7.±0.2 pH 6.8-7.4 Total Alkalinity as caco, 45-57 Turb H2JTU Turb 1-12 JTU pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0D07.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7.8 pH=8.0 DO 7.D-7.7 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 pH=6.8-7.4 45-57 Total alkalinity as caco, pH=8.0D07.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D07.1-7.7 pH=8.0 DO 7.1-7. 7 pH=8.0 DO 7.D-7. 7 pH=8.0 pH 7±.2 pH 7±.2 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 00=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 00=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 pH=8.0 D0=7.1-7.7 500 ft.·c continuous 500 ll.·c continuous 500 fl·c continuous 500 ft.·c continuous 500 ft.·c continuous 500 ft.·c continuous 500 lt.·c continuous 500 ft.·c continuous 250 ft.·c 4 hrs Appendix Ill-Table 6/493 Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mgjkg Other Parameters Reference Statistical difference at 0.001 Ieveii= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coppage (unpublished)'" 21.40 None Statistical difference at 0.05 level 95 percent confidence interval 95 percent confidence interval None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None Statistically different at 0.001 level I= 21.0169 Katz 1961"' Cooley and Keltner (unpublished)'" Earnest (unpublished)"' Earnest (unpublished)'" Eisler 1969327 Eisler 1969327 Eisler 1969327 Davis and Hidu 1969'24 Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b329 Eisler 1970b329 Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b32' Katz 1961'" Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b32' Eisler 1970b"' Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1910J'" Coppage (unpublished)'" Statistically different at 0.0011evel I= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coppage (unpublished)'" 4.603 None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None All percent 1=4.5 significant t=4. 6 at0.05 1=6.8 level 1=1.9 1=2.5 t=3.8 1=4.3 1=2.1 1=2.9 1=11.0 Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1969327 Eisler 1969'27 Eisler 1970a'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b3" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1970b'" Eisler 1910b'" Eisler 1970b32 ' Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'47 Ukeles 19623" Ukeles 1962'"' Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 19623" Ukeles 1962'" Davis and Hidu 1969'24 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Derby and Huber 1971'" Derby and Ruber 1971'" Derby and Ruber 1971'" Derby and Huber 1971"' Derby and Huber 1971'" Derby and Huber 1971'" Derby and Ruber 1971'" Derby and Huber 1971"' Derby and Huber 1971'" Derby and Huber 197132' 494/Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 6- Substance Tested Formulation • Organism Tested Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water Sevin® .............. 95 percent Dunaliella euchlora ........................... ................. 1000 .65 D.D. exptjD.D. control Sevin® .............• 95 percent Phaeodactylum tricornutum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················· 100 •. 00 D.D. expi/D.D. control Sevin® .............. 95 percent Monochrysis lutheri .......................... ················· 1000 • .00 D.D. expt/D.D. control Sevin® .............. 95 percent Chlorella sp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················· 1000 .80 D.D. exptjO.D. control Sevin® .•............ 95 percent Chlorella sp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················· 10,000 .00 O.D. exptjO.D. control Sevin® .............. 95 percenl Protococcus sp. ·························· ················· 1000 • 74 O.D. exptjO.D. control Sevin® .•............ 95 percent Protococcus sp. .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 • .00 O.D. expi/O.D. control Sevin® .............. 100 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ················· 12.0 (8.5-13.5) TL·50 Sevin® .............. 100 percent Palaemon macrodactylus Korean shrimp ················· 7.0 (1.5-28) TL·50 Sevin® .............. 80 percent Upogebia pugettensis Mud shrimp 40 (36-60) TLM Sevin® .............. 80 percent Callianassa californiensis Ghost shrimp •o TLM Sevin® .............. 80 percent Callianassa californiensis Ghost shrimp Adult 130 TLM Sevin® •............. ·80 percent Cancer magister Dungeness crab Juvenile (male) 600 (596-610) EC-50 (Paralysis or death) loss of equilib· rium Sevin® ........•..... 80 percent Hemigrapsis oregonensis Shore crab Adult (female) 270 (66-690) EC·50 (Paralysis loss of equilibrium or death) Sevin® .............. 80 percent Crassostrea gigas Pacific oyster Larvae 2200 (1506-2700) EC-50 prevention of development to straight linge shell stage. Sevin® .............. .......................... Crassostrea virginica American oyster Eggs 3,000 TLM Sevin® .............. ·························· Crassostrea virginica American oyster Larvae 3,000 TLM Sevin® .•............ ·························· Mercanaria mercenaria Hard clam Eggs 3,820 TLM Sevin® .............. .......................... Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Larvae >2,500 TLM Sevin® .••........... 80 percent Clinocardium nuttaiP Cockle clam Adults 7,300 TLM Sevin® .....•......... 80 percent Clinocardium nuttalli Cockle clam Juvenile 3,850 TLM Sevin® .............. 80 percent Mytilus edulis Bay mussel Larvae 2, 300 (1406-2900) EC-50 prevention of development to straight linge shell stage. Sevin® .............. 80 percent Parophrys vetulus English sole Juvenile 4,100 (3206-5000) TLM Sevin® .............. 80 percent Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner perch Juvenile 3, 900 (3806-4000) TLM Sevin® ...•.......... 80 percent Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback Juvenile 6, 700 (5506-7700) TLM Sevin® .•.•.......... 95 percent Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback 22-44 3,990 TLM Sevin® .............. 98 percent Leiostomus ~anthurus Spot 18mm 100 65 percent survived in experimental and control test Sevm® ..•........... 80 percent Dnchorynchus keta Chum salmon Juvenile 2, 500 (2206-2700) TLM Sevin® •.•........... 80 percent Cancer magister Dungeness crab egg/prezoeal 6 Prevention of hatching and molting Sevin® ............•. 80 percent Cancer magister Dungeness crab Zoea 10 Prevention of molting and death Sevin® .............. 80 percent Cancer magister Dungeness crab Juvenile 280 Death or paralysis Sevin® .............. 80 percent Cancer magister Dungeness crab Adult 180 Death or paralysis Insecticides Miscellaneous Apholate ....•..••...• .......................... Palaemoneles vulgaris Grass shrimp 29.5 >5X10 6 TLM Apholate ............• ·························· Palaemonetes vulgari' Grass shrimp 29.5 5.50X10' Post exposure TLM Apholate ............• ·························· Nassa obsoleta Mud snail 13.4 >3X10' TLM Apholate ............. ·························· Nassa obsoleta Mud snail 13.76 I.OX10' Reduction in the # of egg cases deposited from 103 for control to 70 for expl Apholate .•........... ·························· Nassa obsoleta Mud snaH 12.71 1.0X10' Reduction in # of egg cases depo~ted from 103 by control to 16 by expl Apholate ..•.•..•....• ·························· Fundulus majalis Striped killifish 41.5 >5.X10 6 TLM Herbicides Benzorc acid Chloramben .•........ Technical acid Chlorococcum sp. .......................... ················· 1.15X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Technical acid Chlorococcum sp. .......................... ................. 5.X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Technical acid Dunaliella tertiolecta .......................... ················· 1.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Technical acid Dunaliella tertiolecta ·························· ················· 5.X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Technical acid lsochrysis galbana .......................... ················· 1X10' 50 percent decrea•e in o, evolution Technical acid lsochrysis galbana .......................... ················· 1.5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Technical acid Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... ················· 1.0X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Technical acid Phaeodactylum tricornutum ·························· ................. 2.5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Ammonium salt Chlorococcum sp. .......................... ................. 2.225XJ06 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Ammonium salt Chlorococcum sp. .......................... ................. 4.X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Ammonium salt Dunaliella tertiolecta .......................... ················· 2.75XJ06 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Ammonium salt Dunaliella tertiolecta .......................... ................. 4.X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Ammonium salt lsochrysis galbana .......................... ................. 1.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Ammonium salt lsochrysis galbana .......................... ················· 3.5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth • No growth bu: organisms were viable. Continued Test Procedure 10 day growth lest 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr intermittent-flow lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr sialic lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 14 hr static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 5 months continuous flow chronic lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 50 days static conditions 96 hr static lab bioassay 100 day post exposure to 96 hr static lab bioassay altO ppm. 96 hr static lab bioassay f Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu) after lO,days f Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Growth measured u ABS. (525 mu) after 10 daJS f Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Growth measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 10 days Temp C Salinity •joo Other Environmental Criteria 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 13-18 13-18 20±2 20±2 20±2 20±2 20±2 20±2 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 20±2 20±1 20±2 20±2 20±2 20±2 20±.5 16-29 15 10±1 10±1 18±1 18 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 12-30 12-30 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 24-30 25 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 24 24 24 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 500 ft.-c continuous 500 fl-c continuous 500 fl-c continuous 500 fl.-c continuous 500 fl.-c continuous 500 fl.-c continuous 500 ft.-c continuous Turbidity 1-12 JTU Turbidity 1-12 JTU pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH=6.8-7.4 Total alkalinity 45-75 ppm pH 7.8 pH 7.8 pH 7.8 pH 7.8 pH 7.8 pH 7.8 pH= 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH= 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH= 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 None None None None None None None Statistical Evaluation 95 percent confidence limits 95 percent confidence limits None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None Reduction significant at 0.01 level. Analysis by Chi-square Reduction significant at 0.01 level. Anaiysis by Chi-square None Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method, 1947'" I o, evolution measured by Gilson differential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test90 minutes. Appendix III-Table 6/495 Residue levels mgjkg Other Parameters No pathology; mild AChE inhibition. Reference Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'", Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 1962"' Earnest (unpublished)'"' Earnest (u~published)"" Stewart et aL 1967"' Stewart et al. 1967"• Stewart el al. 1967"' Stewart et al. 1967"' Stewart et al. 1967"' Stewart et al. 1967"' Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 19693" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Stewart et al. 1967'" Buller et al. 1968"' Stewart et al. 196734' Stewart et al. 1967"' stewart et al. 1967"' Stewart et al. 1967346 Katz 1961"' Lowe 1967339 Millemann 1969"' Buchanan et al. 1969'" Buchanan et al. 1969"' Buchanan et al. 1969'21 Buchanan et al. 1969'" Eisler 19663" Eisler 1966'" Eisler 1966'" Eisler 1966"' Eisler 1966'" Eisler 1966'" Walsh 1972"' Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " wa.sh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " 496/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested Formulation Ammonium salt Ammonium salt Methyl ester Methyl ester Methyl ester Methyl ester Methyl ester Methyl ester Methyl ester Methyl ester Dipyridylium Diquat. .............. Dibromide Diquat. .............. Dibromide Diquat. .............. Dibromide Diquat. .............. Dibromide Diquat. .............. Dibromide Diquat. .............. Dibromide Diquat. .............. Dibromide Diquat. ............. Dibromide Paraquat.. ........... Dichloride Paraquat. ............ Dichloride Paraquat. ............ Dichloride Paraquat.. ........... Dichloride Paraquat. .......... ,. Dichloride Paraquat.. ........... Dichloride Paraquat.. ........... Dichloride Paraquat. ............ Dichloride Nitrile Dichlobenil ........... Technical acid Dichlobenil ........... Technical acid Dichlobenil ........... Technical acid Dichlobenil. .......... Technical acid Dichlobenil ........... Technical acid Dichlobenil ........... Technical acid Dichlobenil ........... Technical acid Dichlobenil. .......... Technical acid Organochlorine MCPA .............. . MCPA .............. . Phenoxyacetic acid 2,4-D ............... Ester 2,4-D ............... Ester 2,4-D ............... Salt 2,4-D ............... Salt 2,4-D ............... Technical acid 2,4-D ............... Technical acid 2,4-D ............... Technical acid 2,4-D ............... Technical acid 2,4-D ............... Technical acid 2,4-D ................ Technical acid • Organism Tested Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodaclylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella lertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Common Name .......................... .......................... .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... ·························· .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .............. _, ........... .......................... ..................... ...................... .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... .......................... .......................... American oyster American oyster American oyster American oyster American oyster American oyster .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... TABLE 6- Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water ················· 3.25X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0X10' 50 percent decrease in growth ················· 2X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ················· 2.5X10 3 50 percent decrease in growth ················· 1.75X103 50 percent decrease in o, evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5X103 50 percent decrease in growth ················· 1.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ················· 5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth ················· 2.75X103 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 5.X103 50 percent decrease in growth ................. >.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ················· 2.X10 5 50 percent decrease in growth ................. >5.X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3X104 50 percent decrease in growth ................. >5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 1.5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth ................. >5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 1.5X104 50 percent decrease in growth ................. >5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5X104 50 percent decrease in growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 2X104 50 percent decrease in growth ................. 5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth ................. 3.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ··~· ......•...... l.XlD' 50 percent decrease in growth ................. 9X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 6X10 4 50 percent decrease in growth ................. 1.25X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 6X10 4 50 percent decrease in growth ................. 1X105 50 percent decrease in o, evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Xlli' 50 percent decrease in growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 2.5Xlli' 50 percent decrease in growth Egg 1.562Xlli' TLM Larvae 3.13X10• TLM Egg 8X103 TLM Larvae 740 TLM Egg 2.044X10• TLM Larvae 6.429Xlli' TLM ................. 6X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ················· 5X104 50 percent decrease in growth ................. 9X104 50 percent decrease in o, evolution ................. 7.5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth ................. 6X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5X104 50 percent decrease in growth -------------------------------------------- Appendix III-Table 6/497 Continued Test Procedure Tempe Salinity o I oo Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mgjkg Other Parameters Reference f 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Growth measured as ADS. (525 mu) 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " after 10 days f 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Growth measured as ADS. (525 mu) 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " after 10 days J 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " Growth measured as ADS. (525 mu) 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Walsh " after 10 days J 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················ Walsh " Growth measured as ADS. (525 mu) 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " after 10 days J 20 30 pH= 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh 1972"' Growth measured as ADS. (525 mu) 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " after 10 days J 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Growth measured as ADS. (525 mu) 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " after 10 days J 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Growth measured as ADS. (525 mu) 20 30 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " after 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" .................... ................ Walsh 1972'4' Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... Walsh " ................ Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Walsh " .................... ................ 10 days f 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " ···················· Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 ················ Walsh " .................... 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " ···················· Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days 48 hr static lab bioassay 24±1 ································ None .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Davis and Hidu 1969"' 14 day static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ None .. .................. ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'"' 48 hr static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ None .. .................. ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'" 14 day static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ None .................... . ............... Davis and Hidu 1969"' 48 hr static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ None . ................... ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'" 14 day static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ None . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .............. Davis and Hidu 1969'" J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" .................... ................ Walsh 1972'" Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Walsh " .................... ................ Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ................ Walsh " .................... 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ................ Walsh " .................... Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Walsh " .................... ................ 10 days I o, evolution measured by Gilson differental respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Length of test 90 minutes. 498/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife TABLE 6-. Substance Tested Formulation Organism Tested Common Name Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water 2,4·0 ............... Technical acid Phaeodactylum llicornutum ·························· ................. 6X104 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4·0 ............... Technical acid Phaeodactylum tricornutum ·························· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5X104 50 percent decrease in growth 2,4·0 ............... Batoxyethanol ester Chlorococcum sp. ·························· ................. IXIO• 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4·0 ............... Butoxyethanol ester Chlorococcum sp. ·························· ................. 7.5X104 50 percent decrease in growth 2,4-0 ............... Butoxyethanol ester Ounaliella tertiolecla ·························· ················· IXIO• 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4·0 ............... Butoxyethanol ester Ounaliella tertiolecla ·························· . ................ 7.5X104 50 percent decrease in growth 2,4·0 ............... Butoxyethanol ester lsochrysis galbana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················· IXID' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4·0 ............... Butoxyethanol ester lsochrysis galbana ·························· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth 2,4·0 ............... Butoxyethanol ester Phaeodactylum llicornutum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················· 2X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4·0 ............... Buloxyethanol ester Phaeodactylum llicornutum .......................... ················· 1.5XIO• 50 percent decrease in growth EMIO ............... 2,4-0 cmpd Crassoslrea virginica American oyster Eggs 1.682X104 TLM EMID ..............• 2,4-0 cmpd Crassoslrea virginica American oyster larvae 3.0X104 TLM 2,4,5-T .............. Technical acid Chlorococcum sp. ·························· ................. 1.5X105 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4,5-T .............. Technical acid Chlorococcum sp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················· 1.0X105 50 percent decrease in growth 2,4,5-T .............. Technical acid Ounaliella tertiolecla ·························· •.........••••••. 1.5XIO• 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4,5-T .............. Technical acid Ounaliella tertiolecta ·························· ················· 1.25XIO• 50 percent decrease in growth 2,4,5-T .............. Technical acid lsochrysis galbana ·························· ················· 5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4,5-T .............. Technical aicd lsochrysis galbana ·························· ················· 5X104 50 percent decrease in growlh 2,4,5-T .............. Technical acid Phaeodactylum tricornutum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················· 7.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 2,4,5-T .............. Technical acid Phaeodactylum lricornutum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 5X104 50 percent decrease in growth Phthalic Endothall ............ Technical acid Chlorococcum sp. ·························· ................. 1X105 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endolhall ......... .' .. Technical acid Chlorococcum sp. ·························· . ................ 5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Endolhall ............ Technical acid Ounaliella tertiolecia .......................... ················· 4.25XIO• 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endothall ............ Technical acid Ounaliella tertiolecla ·························· ................. 5X104 50 percent decrease in growth Endothall ............ Technical acid lsochrysis galbana ·························· ················· 6XID' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endothall ............ Technical acid lsochrysis galbana ·························· ................. 2.5XIO• 50 percent decrease in growth Endothall ............ Technical acid Phaeodactylum lricornutum ·························· ................. 7.5X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endothall ............ Technical acid Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Endothall ............ Amine salt Chlorococcum sp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ >IXIO• 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endothall ............ Amine salt Chlorococcum sp. .......................... .. ............... 3X105 50 percent decrease in growth Endothall ............ Amine salt Ounaliella tertiolecla .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >1X10 6 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endolhall ............ Amine salt Ounaliella tertiolecla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5X104 50 percent decrease in growth Endothall. ........... Amine salt lsochrysis galbana .......................... ................. >1X10 6 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endothall ............ Amine salt lsochrysis galbana .......................... ................. 2.25X104 50 percent decrease in growth Endothall ............ Amine salt Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... ................. >1XI0 5 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Endothall. ........... Amine salt Phaeodactylum llicornutum .......................... ................. 2.5XIO• 50 percent decrease in growth Endothall ............ .......................... Crassoslrea virginica American oyster Egg 2.822XIO• TLM Endothall ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crassoslrea virginica American oyster larvae 4.80BXIO• TLM Endothall ............ ·························· Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Egg 5.102XIO• TLM Endothall ............ .......................... Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam Larvae 1.25XIO• TLM Picolinic acid Jordon® 101 ......... .......................... Chlorococcum sp • .......................... ················· >2XIO• 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Jordon® 101 ......... .......................... Chlorococcum sp. ·························· ················· IXIO• 50 percent decrease in growth Jordon® 101 ......... .......................... Ounaliella tertiolecla . ......................... ................. >2X10 6 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Jordon® 101.. ....... .......................... Ounaliella tertiolecla ·························· ................. 1.25XIO• 50 percent decrease in growth Jordon® 101 ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lsochrysis galbana ·························· ................. IXIO• 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Jordon® 101 ••....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lsochrysis galbana .......................... ................. 5X10' 50 percent decrease in growth Jordon® 101 ......... .......................... Phaeodactylum tricornutum .......................... ················· >72X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution Jordon® 101.. ....... .......................... Phaeodactylum lricornutum .......................... ················· 1X105 50 percent decrease in growth Appendix III-Table 6/499 Continued Test Procedure Tempe Salinity • 1 oo Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Ewluation Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.16000 lux 12/12 ···················· ················ Walsh " 10 days 48 hr static lab bioassay 24±1 ································ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Davis and Hidu 1969'" 14 day static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ ................................... .................... . ............... Davis and Hidu 1969'" J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method"' .................... ................ Walsh 1972'" Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7. H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ················ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" .................... ................ Walsh 1972'" Measured as ADS (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7. H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ·'·············· Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7. H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7. H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.16000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh " 10 days f 20 30 pH 7.H.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " 10 days 48 hr static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ Nona .................... ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'" 14 day static lab bioassay 24±1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None ···················· ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'" 48 hr static lab bioassay 24±1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None .................... ················ Davis and Hidu 1969'" 12 day static lab bioassay 24±1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None .................... ................ Davis and Hidu 196!1'" J 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" .................... ················ Walsh 1972'" Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ................ Walsh " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.16000 lux 12/12 Walsh " .................... ................ Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.H.1 6000 lux 12/12 ················ Walsh " .................... Measured as ADS. (525 mu) after 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ................ Walsh " .................... 10 days o, evolution measured by Gilson difterential respirometer on 4 ml of culture in log phase. Test length 90 minules 500/Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested Formubltion Propionic acid Dalapon.. .. . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Dalapon.............. Technical acid Dalapon.............. Technical acid Dalapon.............. Technical acid Dalapon.............. Technical acid Dablpon.. .. . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Dalapon. .. . . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Dalapon. .. . . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Silvex... .. . . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Silvex................ Technical acid Silvex................ Technical acid Silvex. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Silvex................ Technical acid Silvex................ Technical acid Silvex ............... . Silvex ............... . Toluidine Trifluralin............ Technical acid Trifluralin............ Technical acid Trifluralin............ Technical acid Trifluralin............ Technical acid Trifluralin............ Technical acid Trifluralin.. .. . . . . . . . . Technical acid Trifluralin............ Technical acid Trifluralin............ Technical acid Triazine Ametryne.. . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Ametryne............ Technical acid Ametryne............ Technicalacid Ametryne............ Technical acid Ametryne............ Technical acid Ametryne. . . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Ametryne............ Technical acid Ametryne. . . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Atrazine.. ... . . . . . . . . . Technicalacid Atrazine.............. Technical acid Atrazine.. ... . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Atrazine.............. Technical acid Atrazine.. ... . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Atrazine.............. Technical acid Atrazine.. .. . . . . . . . . . . Technical a&id Atrazine.............. Technical acid Prometone........... Technical acid Prometone........... Technical acid Prometone........... Technical acid Prometone........... Technical acid Prometone........... Technical acid Prometone.. .. . . . . . . . Technical acid • Organism Tested Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodaclylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Ounaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodaclylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella tertiolecta Dunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Common Name American oyster American oyster TABLE 6- Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment Egg Larvae (mm) in water 2.5X10• 5X10• 2.5X11l' 1.X10• 4X10• 2X10' 2.5X11l' 2.5X10' 2.5X105 2.5X11l' 2X1D' 2.5X10• 2.5X10• 5X1D' 5.9X10' 710 5X10' 2.5X10 3 >5X10• 5X103 4X10' 2.5X1D' >5X10• 2.5X103 . ................ 20 10 ................. 40 40 ................. 10 10 ................. 10 20 ..... ... ... .. ... . 100 100 ................. 300 300 •. .... .. ... ... .. . 100 100 ................. 100 200 . ................ 400 500 2X10' 1.5X10' 1X10' 1X10' 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth TLM TLM 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth Appendix III-Table 6/501 Continued Test Procedure Temp C Salinity 0 J oo Other Environmental Criteria Statistical Evaluation Residue levels mgjkg Other Parameters Reference J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Walsh "- 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/.12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 0 0 0 0 000 LO 0 00 000 0000 0 ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days 48 hr static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ None . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .............. Davis and Hidu 1969'" 14 day static lab bioassay 24±1 ................................ None .................... . ............... Davis and Hidu 1969"' J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh 197234• Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 day~ J 28 30 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ···················· ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Utchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" ···················· ................ Walsh 1972"• Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ................................... .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Walsh " 10 days j 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ················ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh " 10 days J 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 .................... ................ Walsh Measured as ADS. (525 mu) alter 20 30 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 ................ Walsh " .................... 10 days I o, evolution measured by Gilson Differential Respirometer on 4 ml of cuHure in log phase. Length of test 90 min. 502/ Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested Formulation Prometone. . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Prometone. . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Simazine............. Technical acid Herbicides Substituted urea compounds Diuron ........................................ . Diuron. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . Diuron............... Technical Diuron. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . Technical Diuron. .. . . . . . . . . . . . • Technical Diuron. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . Technical Diuron. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Diuron............... Technical acid Diuron............... Technical acid Diuron............... Technical acid Diuron............... Technical Diuron .............. . Diuron............... Technical Diuron............... Technical acid Diuron............... Technical acid Diuron............... Technical Diuron............... . ........................ . Diuron .............. . Diuron............... . ........................ . Diuron............... Technical acid Diuron............... Technical acid Fenuron.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . Fenuron ............. . Fenuron ............. . Fenuron.............. Technicalacid Fenuron. ... . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Fenuron. ... . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Fenuron.............. Technical acid Fenuron.............. Technical acid Fenuron ............. . Fenuron. ............. Technical acid Fenuron. ............. Technical acid Fenuron ............. . Fenuron ............. . Fenuron ............. . Fenuron.............. Technical acid Fenuron.............. Technical acid Monuron ............ . Monuron ............ . Monuron ............ . Monuron............. Technical acid Monuron............. Technical acid Monuron............. Technical aicd Monuron............. Technical acid Monuron............. Technical acid Monuron ............• Monuron ............ . Monuron. .. . • . . . . . . . . Technical acid Monuron............. Technical acid Monuron ............• Monuron............. Technical acid Monuron............. Technical a·id Monuron ............ . Monuron ............ . Orpnism Tested Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella terliolecta llunaliella tertiolecta lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Protococcus Chiarella sp Dicrateria i nornata Nanochloris sp Chlorococcum sp Chlorococcum sp Chlorococcum sp Chlorococcum sp Dunaliella terliolecta Dunal!ella tertiolecta Dunaliella terliolecta Dunaliella euchlora lsoehrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Monochrysis lutheri Monochrysis lutheri Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodaclylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Protococcus sp. Chiarella sp Chiarella sp Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella terliolecta Dunaliella terliolecta Dunaliella euchlora lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Monochrysis lutheri Monoehrysis lutheri Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum lricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Protoeoccus sp. Protococcus sp. Chi orella sp. Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Dunaliella terlioleta Dunaliella terliolecta Dunaliella euchlora Dunaliella euchlora lsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Monochrysis lutheri Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum lricornutum f o, evolution measured with a Gilson dinerential despirometer on 4 ml of cuHure in log-phase. Common Name TABLE 6- Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act. ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water ... . .. . . . ... .. . .. 100 250 2.5X1()3 2X10' 4X10' 5X10' ................. 600 500 ................. 600 500 0.02 4.00 ................. g ................. g 10 ................. g 20 10 10 ................. 20 ................. g 0.4 ................. g 10 10 g 0.02 ................. 0.4 4.0 10. 10. 2,900 290 2,900 1,000 750 2,000 1,250 1,500 290 1,250 750 290 2,900 290 1,250 750 1. 20 1. 100 100 100 90 150 1 20 100 130 1 90 100 1 20 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth .52 OPT. DEN. expljOPT DEN control .34 OPT DEN. expljOPT DEN control 32.3 percent decrease (CH,O)x 18.8 decrease (CH,O)x 61 percent inhibition of growth 65.6 inhibition (CH,O) 50 percent reduction o, evolution! 50 percent reduction in growth 50 percent reduction o, evolution! 50 percent reduction in growth 17.9 percent decrease (CH,O)x .44 OPT. DEN. expljOPT. DEN control 37.4 percent decrease (CH ,O)x 50 percent reduction o, evolution! 50 percent reduction in growth 35.7 percent decrease (CH,O) .DO optical density expljoptical density control • 79 OPT. DEN expljOPT DEN control .00 OPT. DEN expljOPT DEN control 50 percent reduction o, evolution 1 50 percent reduction in growth • 33 Opt. Den. Ex pi/Opt. Den· Control . 82 Opt. Den. ExptjOpl. Den. Control .DO Opl Den. Expt/Opl Den. Control• 68 percent inhibition of growth 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth • 46 Opl Den. ExplfOpt. Den. Control 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease growth • 67 Opl Den. Expi/Opl Den. Control • DO Opt. Den ExpljOpt. Den. Control .82 Opt. Den. Expi/Opt Den. Control 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease growth • 90 OD expi/OD control .00 OD expljOD control• .30 OD expi/OD control 54 percent inhibition of growth 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease growth 1.00 OD expi/OD control .00 OD expljOD control• 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth .83 OD expi/OD control 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease in growth . 65 OD expljOD control .00 OD expi/OD control • Cone. which decrease uowlh by 50-75 percent as determined by Walsh and Grow Diuron 10 ppb; fenuron 1000 ppb; monuron 100 ppb; neburon 30 ppb. • No uowth but organisms viable. Continued Test Procedure f Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Measured as ABS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Measured as APS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Measured as APS. (525 mu) after 10 days f Measured as APS. (525 mu) after 10 days 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test ~1b day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test f f 10 day growth test 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test 1 o day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test 1 0 day growth test 10 day growth test f 1 0 day growth test 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test Temp C Salinity '/oo Other Environmental Criteria 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20±.5 20±.5 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20±.5 20 20 20 20 20±.5 20±.5 20±.5 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 30 20 30 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20 30 20 30 20 30 20 30 20 30 20.5±1 20 30 20 30 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 30 20 30 20 30 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20 30 20 30 ~0 30 20 30 20 30 20.5±1 20.5±1 20 30 20 30 20.5±1 20 30 20 30 20.5±1 20.5±1 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.16000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 11.-c continuous 500 fl·c continuous 500 11.-c continuous pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 fl·c continuous pH 7.9-8.1 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 fl.·c continuous 500 11.-c continuous 500 11.-c continuous pH 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 fl.·c continuous 500 ft.·c continuous 500 fl·c continuous pH 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 pH= 7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 fl.·c continuous 500 11.-c continuous pH=7.9-8.1 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 11.-c continuous pH=7.9-8.1 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 ft.·c continuous 500 fl.·c continuous ;, None None Statistical Evaluation Significant at 0.051evel Significant at 0.051evel None Significant at 0.051evel Litchfield & Wilcoxon method'" Significant at 0.05level None None Significant at 0. 05 level Litchfield & Wilcoxon method'" Significant at 0.05level None None Litchfield and Wilcoxon method'" None None None None Litchfield & Wilcoxon method'" None None None None Litchfield & Wilcoxon method'" None None None None Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" None Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" None Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" None None Appendix Ill-Table 6/503 Residue levels mgjkg Other Parameters Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962'" Reference Walsh and Grow 1971'" Walsh and Grow 1971'" Walsh and Grow 1971"' Walsh and Grow 1971"' Walsh 1972348 Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Walsh and Grow 197134' Ukeles '" Walsh and Grow 1971'" Walsh 1972348 Walsh " Walsh and Grow 197134• Ukeles 1962347 Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 19623" Walsh 1972"8 Walsh " Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles·1962'" Ukeles 1962'" Walsh and Grow 1971'" Walsh 19723" Walsh " Walsh " Walsh 1972"8 Ukeles 19623" Walsh 1972348 Walsh " Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 1962"7 Walsh 1972348 Walsh " Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 1962"7 Walsh and Grow 1971'" Walsh 1972348 Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Ukeles 1962'" Walsh 1972"8 Walsh " Walsh " Ukeles 1962347 Walsh 1972"8 Walsh " Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 1962'" 504/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested Neburon. Neburon. Formulation Neburon .. . Neburon .. . Neburon. Neburon. Neburon. Technical acid Technical acid . . . . . Technical acid Technical acid Technical acid Neburon ... . Neburon .. . Neburon. Neburon. Neburon Neburon ... Technical acid . . . . . . Technical acid Technical acid Neburon. . . . . . . . . . . Technical acid Bactericides, Fungicides Nematocides, and misc. Aroclor. . . . . . . . . . . 1254 Aroclor.. 1254 Aroclor.. 1254 Aroclor ......... .. 1254 Aroclor ......... .. 1254 Chloramphenicol. . Chloramphenicol ..... . Oelrad ........ Oelrad Oowacide A. . . . . 97 percent Oowacide A. . . . 97 percent Oowacide A. .. .. . .. .. 97 percent Oowacide A.. . . 97 percent Oowacide A.. .. . 97 percent Oowacide A.. .. 97 percent Oowacide A. . . 97 percent Oowacide G .. . Oowacide G ........ .. Giseofulvin Giseofulvin .......... . Lignasan............. 6.25 percent lignasan. 6.25 percent lignasan ............. 6.25 percent Lignasan............. 6.25 percent Lignasan.. ... . .. .. .. 6.25 percent Nabam .......... . Nabam ......... .. Nabam .... .. Nabam .... .. Nabam .... . Nabam .............. . Nabam .............. . Nabam ...... . Nemagon® .. . Nemagon® .. . Nitrofurazone. Nitrofurazone ..... Omazene Omazene ............ . Omazene ............ . Omazene ............ . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Nitrilotriacetic acid ... . Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium sal\ Monohydrated sodium salt h No growth but organisms viable. Organism Tested Protococcus sp. Chlorella sp. Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Chlorococcum sp. Ounaliella tertiolecta llunaliella tertio tecta Ounaliella euchlora fsochrysis galbana lsochrysis galbana Monochrysis lutheri Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Phaeodactylum tricornutum Tetrahymena pyriformis Penaeus duorarum Penaeus duorarum Leiostomus xanthurus Lagodon rhomboides Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Crassostrea virginica Protococcus sp Chlorella sp. Ounaliella euchlora Phaeodactylum tricornutum Monochrysis lutheri Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Protococcus sp. Chlorella sp. Ounaliella euchlora Phaeodactyfum tricornutum Monochrysis lutheri Protococcus sp. Chlorella sp. Ounaliella euchlora Phaeodactyfum tricornutum Monochrysis lutheri Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Crassostrea virginica Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Cyclotella nana Tisbe furcata Acartia clausi Common Name Pink shrimp Pink shrimp Spot Pinfish Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam American oyster Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam American oyster Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam American oyster American oyster Trigriopus japonicus ........................ .. Pseudodiaptimus coronatus ......................... . Eurytemora affinis ......................... . .............................................. Crab zoea Nereis vireos Sand worm TABLE 6- life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb acl ingred.) Methods of Asseument (mm) in water .. ............... 40 40 30 20 30 ... .... . ......... 20 .. .. . ... ... ...... 40 ... .. .... ... .. ... 40 .... ... .. . .. ... .. 20 30 40 40 40 .............. 30 Log-phase 25-38 95-125 24 30 Egg Larvae Larvae Larvae Eggs Larvae Eggs Larvae Egg Larvae Egg Larvae Egg Egg Larvae Egg Larvae Egg Larvae Egg Larvae Adult 10 0.94 3.5 7.429X1D• 5.X10' 72 31 2.5X10' 5X10' 5Xlil' 2.5X10' 2.5X10' 1X1D• 750 <250 <250 <250 <1.X103 6 6 6 0.6 6 1X1D• 1X103 100 1X103 100 <500 1.75X10' <500 1X10' 780 >1X105 >1X1D• 81 378 78 340 5X10' 2.7X1D• 1.35X10' 3.2X10' 7X1D' 1.25X10' 1.65X10' 5.5X10' .41 00 expl/00 control . 31 00 expl/00 control 68 percent inhibition in growth 50 percent decrease 0• evolution 50 percent decrease growth 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease growth • 47 00 expl/00 control 50 percent decrease o. evolution 50 percent decrease growth .DO 00 expl/00 control .10 00 expl/00 control 50 percent decrease o, evolution 50 percent decrease growth 13.30 percent decrease in population size measure at 540 m" 51 percent mortality 50 percent mortality 50 percent mortality 50 percent mortality TLM TLM TLM TLM • 75 0 0 expl/0 0 control • 74 D.O. expl/0.0. control .52 D.O. expl/0.0. control .48 D.O. expl/0.0. control .22 D.O. expl/0.0. control TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM • DO D.O. expl/0.0. control • DO D.O. expl/0.0. control .31 D.O. expl/0.0. control .55 D.O. expl/0.0. control .00 D.O. expl/0.0. control .53 D.O. expl/0.0. control .63 D.O. expl/0.0. control .27 D.O. expl/0.0. control .00 D.O. expl/0.0. control• .48 D.O. expl/0.0. control TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM 38 percent growth as compared to controls TL-50 TL·50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 Continued Test Procedure Temp C Salinity •/oo Other Environmental Criteria 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test 1 0 day growth test .! 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test f 10 day growth test 96 hr static lab bioassay 20.5±1 20.5±1 20 20 20 20 20 20.5±1 20 20 20.5±1 20.5±1 20 20 26 15 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-29 water 35 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-20 water 18 day chronic exposure in flowing sea-11-18 water 12 day chronic exposure in flowing sea- water 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr state lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static Jab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 72 hr static lab bioassay 72 hr static lab bioassay 72 hr static lab bioassay 72 hr static lab bioassay 72 hr static lab bioassay 72 hr static lab bioassay 72 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 16-22 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.e±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 20 15(1) 15(1) 15(1) 15(1) 15(1) 15(1) 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 32 28 16-32 20-32 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22·28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 32 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 500 ft-c continuous 500 ft-c continuous pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 pH= 7. 9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 pH=7.9-8.1 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 500 ft.-c continuous pH=7.9-8.1 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12d 500 ft-c continuous 500 ft-c continuous pH=7.9-8.1 pH=7.9-8.1 6000 lux 12/12 Grown in Tetrahymena broth 250 ft-c 14 hrs on/10 hrs off I o, evolution measured with a Gilson dinerential respirometer on 4 ml of cul!ure in log-phase. None None None Statistical Evaluation Litchfield & Wilcoxon method'" None Litchfield & Wilcoxon method"' None None Litchfield & Wilcoxon Method'" None Decrease significant at 0.051evel Significant at.005 level Significant at 0.0011evel Significant at 0.05level None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None Appendix Ill-Table 6/505 Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference 46 ppm 13 ppm Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962347 Walsh and Grow 1971 3" Walsh 1972348 Walsh " Walsh " Walsh " Ukeles 1962"" Walsh 1972348 Walsh " Ukeles 1962347 Ukeles 196234' Walsh 197234• .... Walsh " Cooley and Keltner (unpublished)"" Nimmo et al. (unpublished)'" Nimmo et al. (unpublished)'" Hansen et al. 1971'" Hansen et al. 1971"' Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 1969'24 Davis and Hidu 1969"" Ukeles 1962"' Ukelas 19623" Ukeles 19623" Ukeles 1962347 Ukeles 1962347 Davis and Hidu 19693" Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 1969'24 Davis and Hidu 19693" Davis and Hidu 1969'24 Davis and Hidu 19693" Ukeles 19623" Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 196234' Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 196234' Davis and Hidu 19693".!4 Davis and Hidu 1969"4 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 19693".!< Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 19693".!4 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Davis and Hidu 1969324 Erickson et al. 1970"' NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970344 506/ Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested Formulation Nilrilolriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nilrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nilrilotriacetic acid. . . . Monohydrated sodium salt Nitrilotriacetic acid. . . . Monohydrated sodium salt Nitrilolriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nilrilolriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nitrilolriacetic acid. . . . Monohydrated sodium salt Nilrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nitrilolriacetic acid. Nitrilolriacelic acid ... . Nitrilolriacetic acid ... . Nilrilolriacetic acid ... . Nitrilolriacetic acid. Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Monohydrated sodium salt Organism Tested Nereis virens Palaemonetes vulgaris Palaemonetes vulgaris Palaemonetes vulgaris Penaeus setiferus Penaeus setiferus Homarus americanus Homarus americanus Homarus americanus Uca pugilalor Uca pugilator Pagurus longicarpus Pagurus longicarpus Nassa obsoleta Nitrilolriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Nassa obsoleta Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Mytilus edulis Nilrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Mytilus edulis Nitrilotriacetic acid. . . . Monohydrated sodium salt Mercenaria mercenaria Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Mercenaria mercenaria Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Asterias forbesi Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Asterias forbesi Nilrilotriacelic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Fundulus heteroclitus Nitrilolriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Fundulus heteroclilus Nitrilolriacetic acid. . . . Monohydrated sodium salt Fundulus heteroclitus Nilrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Stenotomus chrysops Nitrilolriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Slenolomus chrysops Nilrilolriacelic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Roccus saxatilis Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Roccus saxatilis Nitrilolriacetic acid. . . . Monohydrated sodium salt Roccus saxatilis Nitrilotriacetic acid.... Monohydrated sodium salt Roccus saxatilis Phenol ........ . Phenol ........ . Phenol ........ . Phenol. ....... . Phenol. ............. . Phenol .............. . Phenol .............. . Phenol .............. . Phygon® ............ . Phygon®. ........... . Phygon® ............ . Phygon® ............ . PVP-Iodine .......... . PVP-Iodine .......... . PVP-todine .......... . PVP-Iodine .......... . PVP-Iodine .......... . • No growth but organisms viable. Protococcus sp. Chlorella sp. Dunaliella euchlora Phaeodaclylum tricornutum Monochrysis lutheri Crassostrea Yirginica Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Prolococcus sp. Chlorella sp. Dunaliella euchlora Phaeodactylum tricornutum Monochrysis lutheri Common Name Sand worm Grass shrimp Grass shrimp Grass shrimp White shrimp White shrimp American lobster American lobster American lobster Fiddler crab Fiddler crab Hermit crab Hermit crab .............. Oyster Mud snail Mud snail Bay mussel Bay mussel Hard clam Hard clam Starfish Starfish Mummichog Mummichog Mummichog Scup Scup Striped bass Striped bass Striped bass Striped bass American oyster Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam American oyster American oyster TABLE 6- Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb acl ingred.) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water Adult Adult Adult Sub-adult Sub-adult Sub-adult (292 grams) Sub-adult (292 grams) First larval stage Adult Adult Adult Adult Lar.ae Adult 5.5XIO• 4.1XIO• l.SXIO• .. l.OX10 6 1Xl06 5Xl0 6 3.8XIO• 3.15Xl0' 1Xl0 5 1X10' 1Xl06 5.5Xl0 6 l.SXIO• 3.5Xl0• 5.5XIO• Adult 5.1Xl06 Adult 6.1 XIO• Adult 3.4Xl0 6 Adult >1X10 7 Adult >1X10' Sub-adult 3X10' Sub-adult 3Xl0 6 Adult 5.5XIO• Adult 5.5Xl0 6 Adult 1Xl03 Sub-adult 3.15Xl06 Sub-adult 3.15Xl0' Juvenile (65 mm) 5.5Xl0 6 Juvenile (65 mm) 5.5Xl06 Juvenile (65 mm) 3Xl06 Juvenile (65 mm) IOXIO• Egg Egg Larvae Egg Larvae Egg Larvae 3X10' 3Xl0 5 1Xl05 1Xl05 1X10' 5.825Xl0• 5.263Xl0' 5.5Xl0' 14 1.75X10' 14 41 • ............... l.XIO• . ................ 2Xl0' ................. 5X10' . ................ 5Xlll' . ................ 5Xlll' TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 subjected to histopathologic examination 78 percent mortality 90 percent mortality TL-50 TL-50 100 percent mortality 25 percent mortality 46 percent mortality TL-50 TL-50 46 percent mortality TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 Examined for histopathology TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-50 TL-100, Histopathology TL-0 .59 O.D. exptjO.D. control .63 O.D. exptjO.D. control .51 O.D. expf/O.D. control • .00 O.D. exptjO.D. control • .00 O.D. exptjO.D. control TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM TLM • 59 O.D. expljO.D. control • 65 O.D. explfO.D. control • • 00 O.D. explfO.D. control •. 00 O.D. explfO.D. control .61 O.D. explfO.D. control ;)· Continued Test Procedure 168 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 22 day chronic flowing lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 7 day static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 45 day chronic flowing lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 24 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay -168 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 96 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 168 hr static lab bioassay 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 48 hr static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth test 10 day growth lest Temp C Salinity '/oo Other Environmental Criteria 20 20 20 20 18-24 20 20 20 20 ambient 20 20 20 20 30 30 20 20 20 20 30 ambient 18-24 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 24±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5±1 20.5.1=1 24-30 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 22-28 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mg;t; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mg/1; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mg/1 pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mg/1; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mg/1; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D 0 ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mgjl; pH 7.8 Subdued natural light D.O. ca 4 mg;l; pH 7.8 None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None Statistical Evaluation Appendix III-T-able 6/507 Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Digestive diverticulata histopathology Intestinal Pathology Renal Pathology Reference NMWQL 19703" NMWQL 19703" NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970"4 NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 19703" NMWQL 1970344 NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970334 NMWQL 1970334 NMWQL 19703" NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 19703" NMWQL 1970'34 NMWQL 19703" NMWQL 1970"4 NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 19703" NMWQL 1970334 NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970"' NMWQL 1970'" NMWQL 1970"' Ukeles 1962'" Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 1962'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'24 Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Davis and Hidu 1969'" Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962"7 Ukeles 1962347 Ukeles 1962"' Ukeles 1962347 508/Appendix III-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife Substance Tested PVPolodine .......... 0 PVP-lodine .......... 0 Roccal® ............. . RoCCl!l® ............. . Sulmel.. ............ . Sulmet.. ............ . TCC ................ . TCC .. o .... o ........ . TCP ...... o ......... . TCP ....... o ........ . Tinted Tinted Formulation ,rganism Tested Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Mercenaria mercenaria Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea virginica Common Name Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam Hard clam American oyster American oyster TABLE 6- Life Stage or Size Cone. (ppb act ingredo) Methods of Assessment (mm) in water Egg 1o71X10' TLM Larvae 3o494X10' TLM Egg 190 TLM Larvae 140 TLM Egg IX10• TLM Lai'Yae 1XID• TLM Egg 32 TLM Larvae 37 TLM Egg 600 TLM Larvae 1X103 TLM Continued Test Procedure 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 12 day static lab bioassay 48 hr static lab bioassay 14 day static lab bioassay Temp C Safinily •!oo Other Environmental Criteria 24±1 . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24±1 ································ 24±1 ································ 24±1 ································ 24±1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24±1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24±1 ································ 24±1 ................................ 24±1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24±1 •••••••••••••••••••••••• to ••••••• Statistical Evaluation None None None None None None None None None None Appendix Ill-Table 6/509 Residue levels mg/kg Other Parameters Reference .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Davis and Hidu 1969'" ···················· ................ Davis and Hidu 19693" ···················· ................ Davis and Hidu 1969"' ···················· ················ Davis and Hidu'1969'" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················ Davis and Hidu 1969"' ···················· ················ Davis and Hidu 1969'" ···················· ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'" .................... ................ Davis and Hidu 19693" . ................... ................ Davis and Hidu 1969'" ~---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LITERATURE CITED TABLE I 1 Abegg, R. (1950), Some effects of inorganic salts on the blood specific gravity and tissue fluids of the bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus Raj. 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Chadwick (1961), Toxicity of endrin to some Pacific Northwest fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90(4) :394-397. 336 Lane, C. E. and R. J. Livingston (1970), Some acute and chronic 518/Appendix Ill-Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife effects of dieldrin on the sailfin molly, Poecilia latipinna. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3) :489-495. 336 Lane, C. E. and E. D. Scura (1970), Effects• of dieldrin on glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase in Poecilia latipinna. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27(10) :1869-1871. 337 Litchfield, J. T. and F. Wilcoxon (1947), A simplified method of evaluating dose-effect experiments. J. Pharmacal. Exp. Ther. 96: 99-113. 338 Lowe, J. I. (1965), Some effects of endrin on estuarine fishes. Proc. Southeast Ass. Game Fish Commissioners 19 :271-276. 339 Lowe, J. I. (19~7), Effects of prolonged exposure to Sevin on an estuarine fish, Leiostomus xanthurus Lacepede. Bull. Environ. Contam. Tox_icol. 2(3) :147-155. 340 Lowe, J. 1., P. R. Parrish, A. J. Wilson, Jr., P. D. Wilson, and T. W. Duke (l97la), Effects ofmirex on selected estuarine orga- nisms, in Transactions of the 36th North American wildlife and natural resources conference, J. B. Trefethen, ed. (Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C.) vol. 36, pp. 171-186. . 341 Lowe, J.l., P. D. Wilson, A. J. Rick, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (197lb), Chronic exposure of oysters to DDT, toxaphene and parathion. Proc. Nat. Shellfish Ass. 61:71-79. 342 Mahood, R. K., M.D. McKenzie, D. P. Middaugh, S. J. Bollar, J. R. Davis and D. Spitsbergen (1970), A report on the cooperative blue crab study--South Atlantic states (U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries), 32 p. 343 Millemann, R. E. (1969), Effects of Dursban on shiner perch, in Effects of pesticides on estuarine organisms [Progress report, res. grant 5 Rol CC 00303] U. S. Public Health Service, National Com- municable Disease Center, pp. 63-76. 344 NMWQL (1970), National Marine Water Quality Laboratory, An evaluation of the toxicity of nitrilotriacetic acid to marine organisms. Progress report F.W.Q.A. Project 18080 GJ4. 346 Nimmo, D. R., A. J. Wilson, Jr. and R. R. Blackman (1970), Localization of DDT in the body organs of pink and white shrimp. Bulletin of Environmental Contaminatipn and Toxicolog)i. 5(4) :333-341. 346 Stewart, N. E., R. E. Millemann, and W. P. Breese {1967), Acute toxicity of the insecticide Sevin and its hydrolytic product 1- Naphtol to some marine organisms. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 96(1): 25-30. 347 Ukeles, R. (1962), Growth of pure cultures of marine phytoplankton in the presence of toxicants. Appl. Microbial. 10(6) :532-537. 348 Walsh, G. E. {1972), Effects of herbicides on photosynthesis and growth of marine unicellular algae. Hyacinth Control J. lO :45-48. 349 Walsh, G. E. and T. E. Grow (1971), Depression of carbohydrate in marine algae by urea herbicides. Weed Sci. 19(5):568-570. References Cited 35° Cooley, N. R. and J. Keltner unpublished data from Gulf Breeze Laboratory, Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, Florida. 361 Cooley, N. R., J. Keltner and J. Forester, unpublished data from Gulf Breeze Laboratory, Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, Florida. 362 Coppage, D. L. unpublished, Organophosphate Pesticides: Specific level of brain AChE inhibition related to death in Sheepshead minnows. (submitted to Trans. Amer. Fish Soc.) 363 Earnest, R., unpublished data (1971), Effects of pesticides on aquatic animals in the estuarine and marine environment, in Annual Progress Report 1970 (Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl. U. S. Dept. Interior, Columbia, Mo.) 364 Earnest, R. D. and P. Benville, unpublished, Acute toxicity of four organochlorine insecticides to two species of surf perch. Unpub- lished data Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory; Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; U. S. D. I.; Columbia, Missouri. 366 Nimmo, D. R., R. R. Blackman, A. J. Wilson, Jr., and J. Forester unpublished data, Toxicity and distribution of Aroclor® 1254 in pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum). Gulf Breeze Laboratory, En- vironmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, Florida. GLOSSARY absorption penetration of one substance into the body of another. acclimation the process of adjusting to change, e.g. temperatures, in an environment. acute involving a stimulus severe enough to rapidly induce a response; in bioassay tests, a response ob- served within 96 hours typically is considered an acute one. adsorption the taking up of one substance at the surface of another. aerobic the condition associated with the presence of free oxygen in an environment. aerobe an organism that can live and grow only in the presence of free oxygen. allocthanous said offood material reaching an aquatic community from the outside in the form of organic detritus. alluvial transported and deposited by running water. amoebiasis an infection caused by amoebas, especially by Entamoeba histolytica. amphoteric able to react as either acid or base. anadromous fish fish that typically inhabit seas or lakes but ascend streams at more or less regular inter- vals to spawn; e.g., salmon, steelhead, or American shad. anaerobic the condition associated with the lack of free oxygen in an environment. anaerobe an organism for whose life processes a com- plete or nearly complete absence of oxygen is essential. anhydremia a deficiency of water in the blood. anorexia loss of appetite. anoxic depleted of free oxygen; anaerobic. antagonism the power of one toxic substance to di- minish or eliminate the toxic effect of another; inter- actions of organisms growing in close association, to the detriment of at least one of them. application factor a factor applied to a short-term or acute toxicity test to estimate a concentration of waste that would be safe in a receiving water. backwashing cleaning a filter or ion exchanger by re- versing the flow of liquid through it and washing out captured matter. benthic aquatic bottom-dwelling organisms including: ( 1) sessile animals, such as the sponges, barnacles, mussels, oysters, some worms, and many attached algae; (2) creeping forms, such as insects, snails, and certain clams; and (3) burrowing forms which include most clams and worms. bioaccumulation uptake and retention of environ- mental substances by an organism from its environ- ment, as opposed to uptake from its food. bioassay a determination of the concentration or dose of a given material necessary to affect a test organism under stated conditions. biomass the living weight of a plant or animal popula- tion, usually expressed on a unit area basis. biotic index a numerical index using various aquatic organisms to determine their degree of tolerance to differing water conditions. biotoxin toxin produced by a living organism; the biotoxin which causes paralytic shellfish poisoning is produced by certain species of dinoflagellate algae. black liquor waste liquid remaining after digestion of rags, straw, and pulp. bloom an unusually large number of organisms per unit of water, usually algae, made up of one or a few species; a bur of iron or steel, square or slightly oblong, rolled from an ingot to a size intermediate between an ingot and a billet, generally in the range of 6" X 6" to lO"X 12" (Section VI). blowdown the discharge of water from a boiler or cooling tower to dispose of accumulated salts. body burden the total amount of a substance present in the body tissues and fluids of an organism. boiler feedwater water provided to a boiler for con- version to steam in the steam generation process; usually a mixture of make-up water and returned steam condensate. assimilation the transformation and ipcorporation of buffer capacity the ability of a solution to maintain substances (e.g., nutrients) by an organism or ecosys- tem. its pH when stressed chemically. capillary water the water held in the small pores of a 519 520/Water Quality Criteria 1972 soil, usually with a ten.sion greater than 60 centimeters of water. carrying capacity the maximum.biomass that a sys- tem is capable of supporting continuously (Section IV); the number of user-use periods that a recreation resource can provide in a given time span without ap- preciable biological or physical deterioration of that resource, or without appreciable impairment of the recreation experience for the majority of the users (Section I). catadromous fish fishes that feed and grow in fresh water but return to the sea to spawn, e.g., the American eel. chelate to combine with a metal ion and hold it in solution preventing it from forming an insoluble salt. chemotaxis orientation or movement of a living organism in response to a chemical gradient. chronic involving a stimulus that lingers or continues for a long period of time, often one-tenth of the life span or more. climax community the stage of ecological develop- ment at which a community becomes stable, self- perpetuating, and at equilibrium with the environment. coagulation a water treatment process in which chem- icals are added to combine with or trap suspended and colloidal particles to form rapidly settling aggregates. coliform bacteria a group of bacteria inhabiting the intestines of animals including man, but also found elsewhere. It includes all the aerobic, nonspore form- ing, rod-shaped bacteria that produce from lactose fermentation within 48 hours at 37 C. colloid very small particles (10 anistroms to I micron) which tend to remain suspended and dispersed in liquids. colluvial material that has moved down hill by the force of gravity or frost action and local wash and ac- cumulated on lower slopes or at the bottom of the hill. conjunctivitis an inflammation of the mucous mem- brane that lines the inner surface of the eyelid and the exposed surface of the eyeball. conservative pollutant a pollutant that is relatively persistant and resistant to degradation, such as PCB and most chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. cumulative brought about or increased in strength by successive additions. demersal living or hatching on the bottom, as fish eggs than sink to the bottom. detritus unconsolidated sediments comprised of both inorganic and dead and decaying organic material. diurnal occurring once a day, i.e., with a variation period of I day; occurring in the daytime or during a day. diversity the abundance in numbers of species in a specified location. dredge spoils the material removed from the bottom during dredging operations. drench to administer orally with water a large dose of a substance such as medicine to an animal. dystrophic said of brownwater lakes and streams usually with a low lime content and a high organic content; often lacking in nutrients. emesis the act of vomiting. enteric of or originating in the intestinal tract. epilimnion the surface waters in a thermally stratified body of water; these waters are characteristically well mixed. epiphytic living on the surface of other plants. euphotic zone the lighted region that extends ver- tically from the water surface to the level at which photosynthesis fails to occur because of ineffective light penetration. eutrophic abundant in nutrients and having high rates of productivity frequently resulting in oxygen depletion below the surface layer. evapotranspiration the combined loss of water from a given area during a specified period of time by evaporation from the soil or water surface and by transpiration from plants. exchange capacity the total ionic charge of the ad- sorption complex active in the adsorption of ions. exophthalmos an abnormal protrusion of the eyeball. external treatment passage of water through equip- ment such as a filter or water softener to meet desired quality requirements prior to point of use. facultative able to live under different conditions, as in facultative aerobes and facultative anaerobes. fecal coliform bacteria bacteria of the coliform group of fecal origin (from intestines of warm-blooded ani- mals) as opposed to coliforms from non-fecal sources. filial generation the offspring of a cross mating. finfish that portion of the aquatic community made up of the true fishes as opposed to invertebrate shellfish. flocculation the process by which suspended colloidal or very fine particles are assembled into larger masses or floccules which eventually settle out of suspension; the stirring of water after coagulant chemicals have been added to promote the formation of particles that will settle (Section II). food chain the transfer of food energy from plants or organic detritus through a series of organisms, usually four or five, consuming and being consumed. food web the interlocking pattern formed by a series of interconnecting fo6d chains. free residual chlorination chlorination that main- tains the presence of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or hypochlorite ion (OCI-) in water. fry the stage in the life of a fish between the hatching of the egg and the absorption of the yolk sac (Sections III and IV); in a broader sense, all immature stages of fishes. groundwood the raw material produced from both logs and chips, used mainly in the manufacture of newsprint, toweling, tissue, wallpaper, and coated specialty papers. half-life the period of time in which a substance loses half of its active characteristics (used especially in radiological work) ; the time required to reduce the concentration of a material by half. hemostasis the cessation of the flow of blood in the circulatory system. histopathologic occurring in tissue due to a diseased condition. hydrophobic unable to combine with or dissolve in water. hydrophytic growing in or in close proximity to J water; e.g., aquatic algae and emergent aquatic vascu- lar plants. hypertrophy nontumorous increase in the size of an organ as a result of enlargement of constituent cells without an increase in their number. hypolimnion the region of a body of water that ex- tends from below the thermocline to the bottom of the lake; it is thus removed from much of the surface influence. internal treatment treating water by addition of chemicals to meet desired quality requirements at point of use or within a process. intraperitoneal into the abdominal cavity. kraft process producing pulp from wood chips in the manufacture of paper products; involves cooking the chips in a strong solution of caustic soda and sodium sulfide. labile unstable and likely to change under certain in- fluences. LCSO see median lethal concentration. LDSO see median lethal dose. lentic or lenitic environment standing water and its various intergrades; e.g., lakes, ponds, and swamps. leptospirosis a disease of animals or man caused by infection from an organism of the genus Leptospira. lethal involving a stimulus or effect causing death directly. life cycle the series of life stages in the form and mode of life of an organism, i.e., between successive recur- rences of a certain primary stage such as the spore, fertilized egg, seed, or resting cell. limnetic zone the open-water region of a lake, sup- porting plankton and fish as the principal plants and animals. lipophilic littoral zone having an affinity for fats or other lipids. the shallow shoreward region of a body Glossary/521 of water having light penetration to the bottom; fre- quently occupied by rooted plants. 1i ttoral zone the shoreward or coastal region of a body of water. lotic environment nvers. running waters, such as streams or lysimeter a device to measure the quantity or rate of water movement through or from a block of soil, usually undisturbed and in situ, or to collect such perco- lated water for quality analysis. macronutrient a chemical element necessary in large amounts, usually greater than l ppm, for the growth and development of plants. macrophyte the larger aquatic plants, as distinct from the microscopic plants, including aquatic mosses, liver- worts and larger algae as well as vascular plants; no precise taxonomic meaning; generally used synony- mously with aquatic vascular plants in this Report. make-up water water added to boiler, cooling tower, or other systems to maintain the volume of water re- quired. marl an earthy, unconsolidated deposit formed in fresh- water lakes, consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate mixed with clay or other impurities in varying propor- tions. median lethal concentration (LCSO) the concen- tration of a test material that causes death to 50 per cent of a population within a given time period. median lethal dose (LDSO) the dose of a test ma- terial, ingested or injected, that kills 50 per cent of a group of test organisms. median tolerance limit (TLSO) the concentration of a test material in a suitable diluent (experimental water) at which just 50 per cent of the test animals are able to survive for a specified period of exposure. mercerize to treat cotton thread with sodium hy- droxide so as to shrink the fiber and increase its color absorption and luster. mesotrophic having a nutrient load resulting in moderate productivity. metabolites products of metabolic processes. methemoglobinemia poisoning resulting from the oxidation of ferrous iron of hemoglobin to the ferric state where it is unable to combine reversibly with molecular oxygen; agents responsible include chlorates, nitrates, ferricyanides, sulfonamides, salicylates, and various other substances. methylation combination with the methyl radical (CHs). mho a unit of conductance reciprocal to the ohm micelle an aggregation or cluster of molecules, ions, or minute submicroscopic particles. micronutrient chemical element nece:;sary in only 522/Water Quality Criteria 1972 small amounts for growth and development; also known as trace elements. mouse unit the amount of paralytic shellfish poison that will produce a mean death time of 15 minutes when administered intraperitoneally to male mice, of a specific strain, weighing between 18 and 20 grams. necrosis the death of cellular material within the body of an organism. nephrosclerosis a hardening of the tissues of the kidney. nitrilotriacetate (NT A) the salt of nitrilotriacetic acid; has the ability to complex metal ions, and has been proposed as a builder for detergents. nonconservative pollutant a pollutant that is quickly degraded and lacks persistence, such as most organophosphate insecticides. nonfouling a property of cooling water that allows it to flow over steam condenser surfaces without accumu- lation of impediments. nonpolar a chemical term for any molecule or liquid that has a reasonable degree of electrical symmetry such that there is little or no separation of charge; e.g., benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and the lower paraffin hydrocarbons. nutrients organic and inorganic chemicals necessary for the growth and reproduction of organisms. oligotrophic having a small supply of nutrients and thus supporting little organic production, and seldom if every becoming depleted of oxygen. organoleptic pertaining to or perceived by a sensory organ. parr a young fish, usually a salmonid, between the larval stage and the time it begins migration to the sea. partition coefficient the ratio of the molecular con- centration of a substance in two solvents. pCi-picocurie a measure of radioactivity equivalent to 3. 70 X I0-2 atoms disintegrating per minute. pelagic occurring or living in the open ocean. periphyton associated aquatic organisms attached or clinging to stems and leaves of rooted plants or other surfaces projecting above the bottom of a water body. pesticide any substance used to kill plants, insects, algae, fungi, and other organisms; includes herbicides, insecticides, algalcides, fungicides, and other substances. plankton plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zoo- plankton), usually microscopic, floating in aquatic systems such as rivers, ponds, lakes, and seas. point of supply the location at which water is ob- tained from a specific source. point of use the location at which water is actually used in a process or incorporated into a product. prime to cause an explosive evolution of steam from a heating surface, throwing water into a steam space. process water water that comes in contact with an end product or with materials incorporated in an end product. productivity the rate of storage of organic matter in tissue by organisms including that used by the organ- isms in maintaining themselves. pycnocline a layer of water that exhibits rapid change in density, analogous to thermocline. psychrophilic thriving at relatively low temperatures, usually at or below 15 C. recharge to add water to the zone of saturation, as in recharge of an aquifer; the term may also be applied to the water added. refractory resisting ordinary treatment and difficult to degrade. rip-rapping covering stream banks and dam faces with rock or other material to prevent erosion from water contact. safety factor a numerical value applied to short-term data from other organisms in order to approximate the concentration of a substance that will not harm or im- pair the organism being considered. sessile organism motionless organisms that reside in a fixed state, attached or unattached to a substrate. seston suspended particles and organisms between 0.0002 and I mm in diameter. shellfish a group of mollusks usually enclosed in a self- secreted shell; includes oysters and clams. shoal water shallow water. slaking adding water to lessen the activity of a chemical reaction. sludge a solid waste fraction precipitated by a water treatment process. smolt a young fish, usually a salmonid, as it begins and during the time it makes its seaward migration. sorption a general term for the processes of absorption and adsorption. species diversity a number which relates the density of organisms of each type present in a habitat. standing crop biomass the total weight of organisms present at any one time. stoichiometric the mass relationship in a chemical reaction. stratification the phenomenon occurring when a body of water becomes divided into distinguishable layers. subacute involving a stimulus not severe enough to bring about a response speedily. sublethal involving a stimulus below the level that causes death. succession the orderly process of community change in which a sequence of communities replaces one another in a given area until a climax community is reached. sulfhemoglobin the reaction product of oxyhemoglo- bin and hydrogen sulfide. sullage waste materials or refuse; sewage. superchlorination chlorination wherein the doses are large enough to complete all chlorination reactions and to produce a free chlorine residual. surfactant a surface active agent altering the inter- facial tension of water and other liquids or solids, e.g. a detergent. synergistic interactions of two or more substances or organisms producing a result that any was incapable of independently. tailwater water, in a river, or canal, immediately downstream from a structure; in irrigation, the water that reaches the lower end of a field. teart a disease of cattle caused by excessive molyb- denum intake characterized by profuse scouring, loss of pigmentation of the hair, and bone defects. teratogen a substance that increases the incidence of birth defects. Glossary/523 thermocline a layer in a thermally stratified body of water in which the temperature changes rapidly rela- tive to the remainder of the body. TLm see median tolerance limit. trophic accumulation passing of a substance through a food chain such that each organism retains all or a portion of the amount in its food and eventually ac- quires a higher concentration in its flesh than in the food. trophic level a scheme of categorizing organisms by the way they obtain food from primary producers or organic detritus involving the same number of inter- mediate steps. true color the color of water resulting from substances which are totally in solution; not to be mistaken for ap- parent color resulting from colloidal or suspended matter. 524/Water Quality Criteria 1972 CONVERSION FACTORS Units Multiplied by Equal Acres................... 4.047X10-1 ........... . Hectares Square feet Square meters Square miles Square yards Centimeters Inches Gallons (oil) Liters 4.356X104 ••••........• 4.047X103 ....•.••....• 1.562X10-3 ....••...... 4.840X103 .....•••.••.. Angstrom units........... 1X10-8 .....•.•.••••••• 3.937X10-9 .....••••••. Barrels (oil) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 .................... . British thermal units ..... . Centimeters ............. . Degrees centigrade ....... . Degrees farenheit ........ . Feet ................... . Gallons ................. . (Imperial) ............ . (U.S.) ............... . (Water) .............. . Gallons/day ............ . 1.590Xl02 •.••••.••.•••• 7.776Xl02 ••••••••••••• 3.927X10-4 ........... . 0.252 ................. . 2. 929 X10-4 ••.....••.•. 3. 937X10-1 ........... . (°CXt) +32 ........... . (°F-32)i ............. . 12 .................... . 1. 646 X 10-4 ....••••••.• 1. 894 X 10-4 .....•••.•.• 0.305 ................. . 1/3 ................... . 3.069X10-6 •••••••••••• 3. 785X103 •......•....• 0.134 ................. . 2.31X102 ••••••••••.• ;. 3. 785X10-3 •••••••••••• 4.951X10-3 .•••.•.••••• 3.785 ................. . 8 ..................... . 4 ..................... . 1.201 ................. . 0.833 ................. . 8.345 ................. . 5.570X10-3 •••••••••••• 3.785 ................. . Foot pounds Horse-power hours Kilogram calories Kilowatt hours Inches Farenheit degrees Centigrade degrees Inches Miles (nautical) Miles (statute) Meters Yards Acre feet Cubic centimeters Cubic feet Cubic inches Cubic meters Cubic yards Liters Pints (liquid) Quarts (liquid) U. S. gallons Imperial gallons Pounds (Water: 39.2 F) Cubic feet/hour Liters/day Gallons/minute........... 8.021 ................. . Cubic feet/hour (Water) .............. . Gallons/square foot/ minute Gallons/square mile ...... . Gallons/ton (short) ...... . Grams ................. . 2.228X10-3 ••...•.•.•.• 6. 308 X 10:.._2 ••...•.•.... 6.009 ................. . Cubic feet/second Liters/second Tons (water: 39.2 F)/ day 40. 74.................. Liters/square meter/ minute 1.461.................. Liters/square kilometer 4.173.................. Liters/ton (metric) 3.527X10-2 •••••••••••• Ounces 2.205X1Q-3 •••••••••.•. Pounds Grams/liter.............. 58.41. ................ ~ Grains/gallon 103 • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • Parts per million (assumes density of 1 gram/milliliter) L CONVERSION FACTORS-Continued Units Grams/liter ............. . Grams/cubic meter ...... . Inches .................. . Kilograms .............. . Kilometers .............. . Liters .................. . Liters/square kilometer ... . Meters ................. . Microns ................ . Miles (nautical) ......... . Miles (statute) .......... . Milligrams .............. . Milliliters ............... . Millimeters ............. . Multiplied by 8.345X10-3 •••••••••••• 6.243X10-2 •••••••••••• 0.437 ................. . 2.54 .................. . 2.205 ................. . 1.102 X 10-3 •••••••••••• 9.842X10-4 .••.•••••••• 3.281X103 ...•••..••••• 3. 937X104 ..••••..••••• 0.621 ................. . 0.540 ................. . 1.094X103 ••••••••••••• 1. 000028 X 103 •••••••••• 3.532X10-2 •••••••••••• 61.03 ................. . 1.000028X10-3 •..••••.. 1.308X10-3 •••••••••••• 0.227 ................. . 0.588 ................. . 3.281 ................. . 39.37 ................. . 5.400 X 10-4 •••••••••••• 6.214X10-4 ....•••...•• 1.094 ................. . 104 ................... . 10-4 .................. . 3.281X10-6 •...••••..•• 3. 937X10-5 •...••....•• 10-6 .................. . 10-3 .................. . 6.076X103 ••••••••••••• 1.852 ................. . 1.852X103 ..••••.•..... 1.151 ................ . 2.027X103 ...•••••.••.. 5.280X103 ..••••••.•... 6.336X104 ..••••••.•..• 1.609 ................. . 1.609X103 ...•••••••... 0.869 ................. . 1. 760X103 ••••••••••••• 3 .527X10-5 ..•.•••.••.. 2.205 X10-6 ..•.••••••.• 1.000028 .............. . 6. 102 x 10-2 ........... . 3.381X10-2 •••••••••••• 3.281X10-3 .•..•..••...• 3. 937X10-2 •••••••••••• Equal Pounds/ gallon Pounds/cubic foot Grains/cubic foot Centimeters Pounds Tons (short) Tons (long) Feet Inches Miles (statute) Miles (nautical) Yards Cubic centimeters Cubic feet Cubic inches Cubic meters Cubic yards Gallons Gallons/square mile Feet Inches Miles (nautical) Miles (statute) Yards Jlngstrom units Centimeters Feet Inches Meters Millimeters Feet Kilometers Meters Miles (statute) Yards Feet Inches Kilometers Meters Miles (nautical) Yards Ounces Pounds Cubic centimeters Cubic inches Ounces (U. S.) Feet Inches 10-3 . . . • • • . . • • • • • • . • • • • Meters 103 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Microns 1. 094 X 10-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . Yards -------------------------------------- Conversion Factors/525 526/Water Quality Criteria 1972 CONVERSION FACTORS-Continued Units :Million gallons/ day ...... . Pounds ................. . Pounds/acre ............ . Pounds/gallon ........... . Pounds/square inch ...... . lVI ultiplied by 1.547 ................. . 0.028 ................. . 28.32 ................. . 0.4!54 ................. . 16 .................... . 4.464 X 10-4 ........... . 4 .. '536 X 10-4 •........... 5.ox10-4 ...........••. 1.122 ................. . 0.120 ................. . 7 .480 ................. . 6. 80i5 X 10-2 ••••••••••.• 5.171 ................. . Equal Cubic feet/second Cubic meters/second Liters/second Kilograms Ounces Tons (long) Tons (metric) Tons (short) Kilograms/hectare Grams/cubic centimeter Pounds/cubic foot Atmospheres Centimeters of mercury (0 C) 70. 31. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centimeters of water (4 C) 6.895X104 •....•.••.•.. Dynes/square centi- meter 70.31.................. Grams/square centi- meter 27 .68.................. Inches of water (39.2 F) 2. 036. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inches of mercury 7.031X102 ••••••••••••• 1.440X102 ••.•••••••••• Square feet.............. 2.296X10-5 ........... . 1.44X102 •••••••••••••• 9.290X10-2 •••••••••••• 3.587X10-8 ..•.•....... 1/9 ................... . Square meters. . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .4 71_X 10-4 .•.....•••.• 10-4 .....••........•••. 104 .....•.•.......••... 10. 76 ................. . 1..5.50 X 103 ••••••••••••• 3.861 x10-7 ....••••.... 1.196 ................. . Square miles. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 .40 X 102 •••••••••••.•• 2 .. 'i90X102 •...••••••••. 2. 788X107 ............ . 2.590 ................. . 3.098X106 ••••••••••••• Tons (metric). . . . . . . . . . . . 103 •••••••••••••••••••• 3.527X104 ....••••..•.• 2.205X103 ••••••••••••• 0.984 ................. . 1.102 ................. . Tons (short)............. 8.897X108 ....•.•.....• 9.072X102 ••••••••••••• 3.2X104 •...•••••••••.. (32 F) Kilograms/square meter Pounds/square foot Acres Square inches Square meters Square miles Square yards Acres Hectares Square centimeters Square feet Square inches Square miles Square yards Acres Hectares Square feet Square kilometers Square yards Kilograms Ounces Pounds Tons (long) Tons (short) Dynes Kilograms Ounces CONVERSION FACTORS-Continued Units Multiplied by Tons (short) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 X 103 ••••••••••••••••• 0.893 ................. . 0.907 ................. . Watts................... 3.414 ................. . 44.25 ................. . 1. 341 X 10-a ........... . ·1. 434 X I0-2 •••••••••••• Yards................... 91.44 ................. . 3 ..................... . 36 .................... . 0.914 ................. . 4.934X10-4 ....••••.•.. 5.682X10-<~ ........... . Equal Pounds Tons (long) Tons (metric) BTU/hour Foot-pounds/minute Horse power Kilogram-calories/ minute Centimeters Feet Inches Meters Miles (nautical) Miles (statute) Conversion Factors/527 ~---------------------------------------------------------==------------------ BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES CommiHee on Water Quality Criteria GERARD A. RoHLICH is C. W. Cook Professor of Environ- mental Engineering and Professor at the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas at Austin. He received B.S. degrees from Cooper Union in 1934 and the University of Wisconsin in 1936, and an M.S. in 1937 and a Ph.D. in Sanitary Engineer- ing in 1940 from the University of Wisconsin. Dr. Rohl- ich's expertise is in wastewater treatment and in eutro- phication and pollution of lakes and streams. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering. ALFRED M. BEETON is Associate Director (Biology) of the Center for Great Lakes Studies, and Professor of Zool- ogy at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. He received a B.S. degree from the University of Michi- gan in 1952, an M.S. in 1954 and Ph.D. in Zoology in 1958 from the University of Michigan. Dr. Beeton's major research interest is the eutrophication of the Great Lakes. He is Coordinator of the Water Quality Sub-program of the University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Program. BosTWICK H. KETCHUM is Associate Director of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. He received an A.B. in Biology from St. Stephens College, Columbia, in 1934, and a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1938. A specialist in nutrient cycling and phytoplankton physiology, he is the holder of two Honorary Sc.D. degrees and the 1972 recipient of the David B. Stone Award. CoRNELIUS W. KRUSE is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Environmental Health in the School of Hygiene and Public Health at the Johns Hopkins University. He received a B.S. in civil engineering at the Missouri School of Mines in 1934, an M.S. in Sanitary Engineering at Harvard University in 1940, and a Doctor of Public Health from the University of Pittsburgh in 1961. Dr. Kruse is a specialist on infec- tious and toxic agents in external environments. THURSTON E. LARSON received a B.S. in Chemical Engineer- ing in 1932 and a Ph.D. in Sanitary Chemistry in 1937 from the University of Illinois. He is a specialist in water chemistry and head of the Chemistry Section of the Illinois State Water Survey. Dr. Larson is a past-president of the American Water Works Associa- tion. EMILIO A. SAVINELLI is a specialist in water and wastewater treatment and President of Drew Chemical Corpora- Parsippany, New Jersey. He received a B.C.E. in Sanitary Engineering in 1950 from Manhattan College and a M.S.E. in 1951 and a Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1955 from the University of Florida. RAY L. SHIRLEY received his B.S. and M.S. in agriculture at the University of West Virginia in 1937 and 1939, respectively, and a Ph.D. in agricultural biochemistry from Michigan State University in 1949. Dr. Shirley specializes in animal nutrition and metabolism. He is Professor of Animal Science and in charge of the Nu- trition Laboratory at the University of Florida, Gaines- ville. Panel On Recreation and Aesthetics MICHAEL CHUBB is Associate Professor of Environmental and Recreational Geography at Michigan State Uni- versity. He received a B.Sc.F. from the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto in 1955, a M.S. in resource development in 1964 and a Ph.D. in Geog- raphy from M.S.U. in 1967. He has been employed in river development for the Ontario Department of the Environment and has served as a recreation planner with the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. He is a specialist in recreation resource carrying capac- ity and recreation survey research. MILO A. CHuRCHILL is Chief, Water Quality Branch, Tennessee Valley Authority. He received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University of Illinois in 1933, and a Master of Public Health from The Johns Hopkins University in 1952. He is a specialist in effects of impoundment on water quality, bacterial quality ot streams and reservoirs, and stream reaeration. NoRMAN E. jACKSON is Acting Assistant Chief, Planning Division, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Directorate of Civil Works, Washington, D. C. He received a B.S. 528 in Civil Engineering from Vanderbilt University in 1935 and a M.S. in Sanitary Engineering from The Johns Hopkins University in 1950. A former Director of Sanitary Engineering, District of Columbia, and Special Assistant to the Director, Department of En- vironmental Services, D.C., he specializes in urban water and wastewater facilities and in planning water resources in regional and basin settings. WILLIAM L. I}.LEIN is chemist-biologist for the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission at Cincinnati, ·Ohio. He received a B.S. degree from Ke~t State in 1949, and a Master of Public Health in 1957 in Sani- tary Chemistry and Biology from the University ot North Carolina. He is a specialist in water pollution control, water monitoring, and associated data evalua- tion. PERCY H. McGAUHEY is a professional consultant in civil and sanitary engineering and Director Emeritus o± Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, Depart- ment of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley. He received an M.S. degree from the Uni- versity of Wisconsin in 1941, and an honorary D.Sc. from Utah State University in 1971. He is the author of Engineering Water Quality Management (McGraw- Hill, 1968). His specialties are wastewater reclamation, organic clogging of soils, economic evaluation of water, and solid wastes management. ERIC W. Moon is Associate Professor of Public Health (Environmental Health), Yale UIJ.iversity School of Medicine. He received a B.S. degree in engineering from the University of Connecticut in 1938 and an M.P.H. degree from Yale University in 1943. For several years he has been chairman of the Joint Com- mittee on Swimming Pools and Bathing Places, Ameri- can Public Health Association. He is a member of the Expert Advisory Committee on Environmental Health, World Health Organization, and is the recipient of an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Upsala College. RALPH PoRGES is Head of the Water Quality Branch of the Delaware River Basin Commission. He received a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Rutgers University in 1936 and spent four years as a Research Fellow at the University of North Carolina. He was with the U.S. Public Health Service for 26 years, specializing in stream pollution and plague and typhus control. He is a holder of the William D. Hatfield Award of the Water Pollution Control Federation. LESLIE M. REID is Professor and Head of the Department of Recreation and Parks at Texas A&M University. He received a B.S. in Forestry from the Michigan Technological University in 1951, an M.S. in Resource Development from Michigan State University in 1955, and a Ph.D. in Conservation in 1963 from the Uni- versity of Michigan. His major research interest is in natural resources planning. He is consultant with the Biographical Notes/529 National Park Service and a past-president of the Society of Park ~nd Recreation Educators. MICHAEL B. SoNNEN is a Senior Engineer with Water Re- sources Engineers, Inc. in Walnut Creek, California. He received a B.E. in Civil Engineering at Vanderbilt University in 1962, an M.S. in Sanitary Engineering in 1965, and a Ph.D. in Sanitary Engineering in 1967, both from the University of Illinois. His major research interest is the evaluation of costs and benefits accruing to water users supplied with various qualities of water. RoBERT 0. SYLVESTER is Professor and Head, Division of Water and Air Resources, Department of Civil En- gineering, University of Washington. He received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from Harvard University in 1941. His teaching, research and professional interests have centered around water quality, water supply, and water resources-quality management. C. WILLIAM THREINEN is Administrative Assistant, Depart- ment of Natural Resources, State of Wisconsin, Madi- son. He is also acting assistant director of the Bureau of Fish Management in the Department of Natural Resources. He received his B.S. degree from the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, and his M.S. in public administra- tion from Harvard University. He specializes in rough fish problems in Wisconsin, population dynamics of largemouth bass, lake use studies, wild rivers planning, and access site utilization and development. Panel On Public Water Supplies RusSELL F. CHRISTMAN is Director, Division of Environ- mental Affairs and Professor of Applied Chemistry at the University of Washington. He received an M.S. in 1960 and a Ph.D. in 1962 in Chemistry from the Uni- versity of Florida. His major research activities involve the identification of organic materials in natural water systems. PAUL D. HANEY is a member of the firm of Black & Veatch, Consulting Engineers, Kansas City, Missouri. He re- ceived a B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of Kansas in 1933, and an M.S. degree in Sanitary Engineering from Harvard University in 193 7. He is a diplomate of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and a past-president of the Water Pollution Control Federation. RoBERT C. McWHINNIE, Chief of Planning and Resource Development, Board of Water Commissioners, Denver, Colorado. He received a B.S. degree in civil engineer- ing from the University of Wyoming and has taken advanced courses in sanitary engineering from the University of Colorado. He is Director of the Metro- politan Denver Sewage Disposal District and chairman of the Technical Advisory Committee on Urban Flood Control. He specializes in odor, temperature, and phe- nolic compounds in public water supplies. 530/Water Quality Criteria 1972 HENRY J. ONGERTH is Chief of the Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, State Department of. Public Health, California. He received a B.S. degree from University of California (Berkeley) in civil engineering (sanitary option) in 1935 and an M.P.H. in 1950 from the Uni- versity of Michigan. He was a member of the advisory committee of the 1962 revision of the Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards and chairman of the Public Advisory Committee presently working on the 1972 revision of the Drinking Water Standards. He is a member of the American Academy of Environ- mental Engineers and a specialist in fluorides, chlorides, and sulfates in water. RANARD J. PICKERING is Chief of the Quality of Water Branch, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey at Washington, D.C. He received an A.B. with Highest Honors in 1951 and an M.A. in 1952 from Indiana University, and a Ph.D. from Stanford Uni- versity in 1961, all in Geology. His specialties are low temperature geochemistry and behavior of radionu- clides in fluvial environments. JoSEHP K. G. SILVEY is Distinguished Professor, Chairman of Biological Sciences, and Director of the Institute for Environmental Studies at North Texas State Uni- versity, Denton. He received his B.S. from Southern Methodist University in 1927, his M.A. in 1928 and his Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of Michigan in 1932. He is a specialist in eutrophication and in reser- voir ecology with reference to the effect of micro- organisms on taste and odors. J. EDWARD SINGLEY is a Professor in the Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Chemistry from Georgia Institute of Technology in 1950 and 1952, respectively, and his Ph.D. degree in Water Chemistry from the University of Florida in 1966. He is a specialist in the chemistry of water and wastewater treatment. RICHARD L. WooDWARD is Vice President of Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., consulting engineers in Boston, Massa- chusetts. He received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, in 1935, an M.S. in Sanitary Engineering from Harvard Univer- sity in 1948, and a Ph.D. in Physics from the Ohio State University in 1952. He specializes in water quality problems and water and wastewater treatment. Panel on Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife JoHN CAIRNS, JR. is University Professor of Zoology and Director of the Center for Environmental Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blackburg, Virginia. He received an A.B. from Swarth- more College in 1947, and an M.S. in 1949 and a Ph.D. in 1953 from the University of Pennsylvania. He is a specialist in the effects of stress upon aquatic organisms. CHARLES C. CouTANT is Project Supervisor of Thermal Effects Studies in the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Ten- nessee. He received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in Biology from Lehigh University in 1960, 1962, and 1965, respectively. A general aquatic ecologist by training, he specializes in man's impacts on aquatic life, through impoundments, pesticides, general in- dustrial pollution, and thermal additions. RoLF HARTUNG is Associate Professor of Environmental and Industrial Health at the School of Public Health at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. He re- ceived a B.S. in 1960, anM.W.M. in 1962, and a Ph.D. in 1964 in Wildlife Management from the University of Michigan. He is a specialist in toxicology, and his interests include diseases produced by toxicants in man and wildlife. HowARD E. JoHNSON is Associate Professor of Fisheries and Wildlife at Michigan State University. He received a B.S. degree from Montana State University in 1959, an M.S. in 1961, and a Ph.D. in Fisheries in 1967 from the University of Washington. His major research in- terests are the effects of toxic materials on aquatic life and the distribution of biocides in aquatic systems. RuTH PATRICK is Chairman and Curator of the Department of Limnology of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. She received a B.S. degree from Coker _ College in 1929, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Virginia in 1931 and 1934, respectively. She is also Adjunct Professor at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1971 she was appointed a member of the Hazardous Materials Advisory Committee of the Environmental Protection Agency, and a member of Governor Shapp's Science Advisory Committee in 1972. Her research is on the structure and functioning of aquatic communities of rivers and estuaries with particular interest in diatoms. LLOYD L. SMITH, Jr. is Professor, Department of Entomol- ogy, Fisheries, and Wildlife, University of Minnestoa at St. Paul. He received his B.S. degree from the University of Minnesota in 1931, his M.S. degree in 1940, and his Ph.D. degree in 1942 from the University of Michigan. His areas of expertise are fishery dynam- ics, effects of water quality on fish production, and aquatic biology. He has been chairman of ORSANCO aquatic life advisory committee since its formation. JoHN B. SPRAGUE is Associate Professor in the Department of Zoology at the University of Guelph, Ontario. He received a B.Sc. in 1953 from the University of Western Ontario with the University Gold Medal and an M.A. in 1954 and a Ph.D. in 1959 in Zoology from the Uni- versity of Toronto. He served on the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, studying effects of pollution on aquatic organisms. He is a specialist in biological ef- fects of mine wastes and heavy metals and in methods of bioassay with aquatic organisms. > Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife RICHARD T. BARBER is Associate Professor (Zoology and Botany) at Duke University and Director of the Cooperative Research and Training Program in Oceanography at Duke University Marine Labora- tory. He received a B.S. degree from Utah S!ate Uni- versity in 1962 and a Ph.D. in Oceanography from Stanford University in 1967. His major research ef- fort is in the Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis program, and his specialties include growth of phyto- plankton in nutrient-rich systems, microbial oxidation of organic matter in seawater, and organic-metal in- teractions in marine systems. jAMES H. CARPENTER is an Associate Professor in the De- partment of Earth and Planetary Sciences at The Johns Hopkins University. He is presently on leave at the National Science Foundation as Head, Oceanography Section, Division of Environmental Sciences. He re- ceived a B.A. with a major in chemistry and a minor in biology from the University of Virginia in 1949, and an M.S. in 1952 and a Ph.D. in 1957 in Oceanography from The Johns Hopkins University. His research con- cerns the physical, chemical and biological processes that influence nutrient and metal concentrations in estuarine and coastal waters. L. EuGENE CRONIN is Director of the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Natural Resources Institute, University of Maryland, College Park. He received his A.B. from Western Maryland College in 1938 and his M.S. in 1942 and Ph.D. in 1946 in Biology from Maryland University. His specialties are estuarine ecology and the physiology and population dynamics of marine in- vertebrates. HoLGER W. jANNASCH is Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Massa- chusetts, where he heads the program in Marine Ecol- ogy at the Marine Biological Laboratory. He received his Ph.D. in General Microbiology at the University of Gottingen, Germany. His field of research is the physiology and ecology of aquatic microorganisms. G. CARLETON RAY is Associate Professor at The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. He received a Ph.D. degree in Zoology from Columbia University in 1960. Currently he is also a research associate at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in conjunction with the Marine Mammal Program of the International Biological Program under support of the National Science Foundation. He is an authority on physiological ecology, acoustics, and be- havior of marine mammals. Biographical Notes/531 THEODORE R. RICE is Director of the Atlantic Estuarine Fisheries Center, ·National Marine Fisheries Service, Beaufort, North Carolina. He received his A.B. from Berea College in 1942, and his M.S. in 1947 and Ph.D. in 1949 in Biology-Ecology from Harvard University. His fields of research are radioecology, estuarine ecol- ogy, and environmental contaminants. He served on the National Academy of Sciences Committee that prepared "Radioactivity in the Marine Environment." RoBERT W. RISEBROUGH is an Associate Research Ecologist at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of the University ot California. He received an A.B. in Zoology from Cornell University in 1956 and a Ph.D. in Molecular Biology from Harvard University in 1962. His principal research interest is the pollution ecology of coastal waters. MICHAEL W ALDICHUK is Program Head, Pacific Environ- ment Institute, West Vancouver, British Columbia. He received a B.A. in Chemistry in 1948 and an M.A. in 1950 from the University of British Columbia, and a Ph.D. in Oceanography in 1955 from the University of Washington. From 1954 to 1969, he specialized in oceanographic studies related to marine pollution problems while with the Fisheries Research Board's Biological Station in Nanaimo. He is Chairman of the IMCO /FAO /UNESCO /WMO /WHO /IAEA/UN Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP). Panel on Agricultural Uses of Water HENRY V. ATHERTON is Professor of Dairy Industry and Dairy Bacteriologist in the Animal Sciences Depart- ment at the University of Vermont and the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. He received his B.S. degree and his M.S. degree from the University of Vermont in 1948 and 1951, respectively, and his Ph.D. in Dairy Technology and Biochemistry from the Pennsylvania State University in 1953. His research interests are in milk quality as influenced by bulk milk cooling on farms, farm water supplies, and dairy sanitation. ROBERT D. BLACKBURN is at the Agricultural Research Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plantation Laboratory, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. He graduated from Auburn University in 1959 with an M.S. in Botany. He is an authority on aquatic weeds and a consultant to the U.S. Navy, FAO, and the Puerto Rican Water Resources Authority. He is editor of Hyacinth Control Journal. PETER A. FRANK is Research Plant Physiologist with the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. He received a B.S. in 1952, an M.S. in 1953, and a Ph.D. in Plant Physiology and Biochem- istry from Michigan State University in 1955. His interests are the physiology, ecology, and management of aquatic vegetation. 532/Water Quality Criteria 1972 VIcTOR L. HAUSER is an Agricultural Engineer, U.S. Water Quality Management Laboratory, .Agricultural Re- search Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Durant, Oklahoma. He received his B.S. from Okla- homa State University in 1952 and his M.S. in Agri- cultural Engineering from the University of California in 1957. He is a specialist in water conservation in agriculture and in ground water recharge. His current research is in the field of water quality management. CHARLES H. HILL, ]R. is in the Poultry Department, North Carolina State University, Raleigh. He received his B.S. in 1948 from Colorado A&M College, and his M.S. in 1949 and his Ph.D. in Nutrition Chemistry in 1951 from Cornell University. His specialties include nutritional requirements of poultry and the roll of nutrients in disease resistance. PHILIP C. KEARNEY is Leader of the Pesticide Degradation Laboratory, Agricultural Environmental Quality In- stitute, National Agricultural Research Center, Belts- ville, Maryland. He received his B.S. from the Uni- versity of Maryland in 1955, his M.S. in 1957 and his Ph.D. in Agriculture from Cornell University in 1960. His research interests are in the environmental impli- cation of pesticides and their biochemical transforma- tion. JESSE LuNIN is currently the Environmental Quality Special- ist on the National Program Staff of the Agricultural Research Service. He received a B.S. in Soil Science from Oklahoma State University in 1939, an M.S. in 1947 and a Ph.D. in 1949 from Cornell University in Soil Chemistry. His research interests are soil-water- plant relations and water quality and waste manage- ment. LEWIS B. NELSON is Manager of the Office of Agricultural and Chemical Development, Teneessee Valley Author- ity, Muscle Shoals, Alabama. He received a B.S. in Agronomy at the University ofldaho in 1936, an M.S. in 1938 and a Ph.D. in 1940 in Soil Science at the University of Wisconsin. His interests are soil and water conservation research, soil fertility, and fertilizer technology. He is head of TVA's National Fertilizer Development Center. OscAR E. OLSON is Professor and Head of the Experimental Station, Biochemistry Department at South Dakota State University, Brookings. He received his B.S. degree in 1936 and his M.S. degree in 1937 from South Dakota State University, and his Ph.D. in Biochemistry in 1948 from the University of Wisconsin. His research interests are selenium poisoning and nitrate poisoning. PARKER F. PRATT is Professor of Soil Science and Chairman of the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering, University of California, Riverside. He received his B.S. degree from Utah State University in 1948 and his Ph.D. in Soil Fertility from Iowa State University in 1950. He is a specialist in long-term ef- fects of irrigation on soil properties and crop produc- tivity, quality of irrigation waters, and nitrates and salts in drainage waters. GLENN B. VAN NEss is Senior Veterinarian, Animal Health Diagnostic Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland, APHIS, U.S. Department of Agriculture. He received his D.V.M. from Kansas State University in 1940. His special interests are in the ecology of infectious disesaes of livestock, and he has published studies of ecology of anthrax and bacillary hemoglobinuria. Panel on lndustial Water Supplies IRVING B. DICK is a consulting chemical engineer. He re- ceived his BSE in Chemical Engineering from the University of Michigan in 1926, and after 42 years with Consolidated Edison Company of New York he retired in 1968 as Chief Chemical Engineer. His in- terests are fuel oil additives, fuel combustion, and water treatment for uses in power generation. CHARLES C. DINKEL is the Director of Field Services of Drew Chemical Corporation, Parsippany, New Jersey. He received a B.S. in Chemistry from Wagner College in 1948, and an M.S. in Oceanography from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at LaJolla in 1951. He is a member of the American Chemical Society and a specialist in water and wastewater treatment. MAURICE C. FuERSTENAU is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Metallurgical Engineering at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology. He received· his B.S. from the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology in 1955, and an M.S. in 195 7 and a Doctor of Science in Metallurgy in 1961 from the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology. He is a specialist in inter- facial phenomena and extractive metallurgy. ARTHUR W. FYNSK is a Senior Consultant in the Engineering Service Division, Engineering Department, of E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company. He received a B.S. in Civil Engineering in 1950 and an M.S. in Sanitary Engineering in 1951, both from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is a specialist in industrial water resources and treatment. GEORGE J. HANKS, Jr. has been Manager-Environmental Protection for the Chemicals and Plastics Group of Union Carbide Corporation since 1968. He received a B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Princeton University in 1942. WILLIAM A. KEILBAUGH is Manager of Research and De- velopment of the Cochrane Division of Crane Co., King of Prussia, Pennsylvania. He received an A.B. in Chemistry from Allegheny College, Meadville, Penn- sylvania il! 1939, and is a specialist in water and waste- water treatment. ]AMES C. LAMB III is Professor of Sanitary Engineering at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He received a B.S. in 1947 from Virginia Military Institute and an M.S. in 1948 and an Sc.D. in 1953 in Sanitary Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology. His research specialties include treatment pro- cesses for industrial wastes and water quality manage- ment. JAMES K. RrcE is President and General Manager of Cyrus Wm. Rice Division of NUS Corporation, a firm of consulting engineers and scientists. He received his B.S. and M.S. in Chemical Engineering from Carnegie- Mellon University in 1946 and 1947, respectively. His field of expertise is industrial water and wastewater treatment and reuse. J. jAMES RoOSEN is Director of Environmental Studies for the Engineering Research Department of The Detroit Edison Company, Detroit, Michigan. He received his B.S. in Chemical Engineering in 1959 from the U ni- versity of Detroit where he also conducted graduate studies. His expertise is in water systems engineering and research as applied to the electric utility industry. RoBERT H. STEWART is a partner of Hazen & Sawyer, New York City, a firm offering engineering services in management of water resources. He received his A.B. from Harvard College in 1953, his M.S. in 1958 and M. Eng. in 1959 from Harvard University. His special- ties are the design and management of water supply systems for industries and public utilities. SIDNEY SussMAN is technical director, Water Treatment De- partment, Olin Corporation. He received a B.S. in Chemistry from Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in Biographical Notes/533 1934 and a Ph.D . .in Chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1937. He is a specialist in industrial water technology and accredited as a Cor- rosion Specialist by the National Association of Cor- rosion Engineers. He is the author of the chapter on water for cooling and steam generation in the Ameri- can Water Works Association's handbook and serves on the Association's Committee on Standard Methods. CHARLES H. THORBORG is associated with Gulf Degremont, Inc., Liberty Corner, New Jersey. His B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering was received in 1961 from Fairleigh Dickinson University, Rutherford, New Jersey. For the past ten years he has been concerned with water and wastewater treatment. BERNARD J. WACHTER is with WAPORA, Inc., Washington, D. C. He is a biophysicist specializing in industrial water treatment. Prior to joining WAPORA, he was editor of the journal, Industrial Water Engineering. WALTER J. WEBER, JR. is Professor of Environmental and Water Resources Engineering and Chairman of the University Program in Water Resources at the Univer- sity of Michigan at Ann Arbor. He received a Sc.B. in Engineering from Brown University in 1956, an M.S.E. in Sanitary Engineering from Rutgers University in 1959, an A.M. in Applied Chemistry in 1961 and a Ph.D. in Water Resources Engineering in 1962 from Harvard University. His professional interests are in municipal and industrial water and waste treatment and the chemistry of natural waters. APHA (see American Public Health Associ- ation) ASTM (see American Society for Testing and·Materials) Abegg, R. (1950), 452, 456, 462 Abott, R.T. (1950), 27 Aberg, B. et al. (1969), 313, 314 Aboaba, F.O. (see Bruhn, H.D. et al., 1971), 26 Abou-Donia, M.E. (1967), 251, 462-465 Abram, F.S.H. (1964), 465 Abu-Errish, G.M. (1967), 316 Academy of Natural Sciences (1960), 450, 452-454, 458, 459, 461, 463 Ackefors, H. et al. (1970), 237 Ackman, R.G. (1970), 253, 254 -(see Addison, R.F. et al., 1971), 254 -(see Dyer, W.G. et al., 1970), 254 Adame, B. (see England, B. et al., 1967),92 Adams, A.W. et al. (1966, 1967), 315 -(see Mugler, D.J. et al., 1970), 315 Adams, F. (1957), 344 Adams, G.R. (1969), 238 Addison, R.F. et al. (1971), 254 -(see Ackman, R.G. et al., 1970), 254 Adelman, I.R. (1970), 193, 256 Adema, D.M. (1968), 463 Adler, F.E.W. (1944), 228 Adolph, E.F. (1933), 305 Affleck, R.T. (1952), 467 Agriculture Research Service (1961), 180 (1963), 346, 347 (1969a), 318, 319, 349 (1969b), 165 -(see also U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agri- culture Research Service) Ahling, B. (1970), 83 Ahmed, M.B. (1953), 250, 342 Ahuja, S.K. (1964), 452 Aiken, D.E. (see Zitko, V. et al., 1970), 254 Akin, G.W. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1965), 335 Alabaster, J.S. (1962), 417 (1966), 417-419 (1967), 417, 418, 458 Albaugh, D.W. (see Cairns, J., Jr. et al., 1968), 408 -(see Cairns, J., Jr. et al., 1969), 117 Albersmeyer, W. (1957), 147 (1959), 147 Albert, W.B. (1931), 340 -(see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340 Alderdice, D.F. (1967), 118, 451 Aldous, J.G. (1968), 130 Aldrich, D.G. et al. (1951), 344 AUTHOR INDEX Aldrich, D.V. (1958), 462, 463 Alexander, G.V. (see Romney, E.M. et al., 1962), 341 Allan Hancock Foundation (1965), 403 Allanson, B.R. (1964), 419 Allaway, W.H. et al. (1966, 1967), 345 -(see Kubota, J. et al., 1963), 344 -(see Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316 Allee, W.C. (1913), 135, 137 Allen, D.M. (1957), 485 (1958), 267 Allen, H.L. (1971), 25 Allen, J.P. (1960), 196 Allen, K.O. (1968), 160, 412, 413 Allison, I.S. (1930), 350 Altschaeffi, A.G. (see Harrison, W. et al., 1964), 279 Alvard, W. (1964), 124 Aly, O.M. (1971), 80 -(see Faust, S.D. et al., 1971), 80 Amberg, H.R. (see Haydu, E.P. et al., 1952), 256 Amend, D.F. (1969), 173 Amend, D.R. (1952), 78 -et al. (1969), 462 American Conference of Governmental In- dustrial Hygienists (1958), 59 American Paper Institute (1970), 382 American Petroleum Institute (1949), 258 (1963), 258 American Public Health Association (1957), 29 American Public Health Association, Ameri- can Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1971), 21 -(see also Standard Methods, 1971), 51, 119, 275 American Public Health Association, Engi- neering Division and Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, Joint Committee on Bathing (1936, 1940), 29 American Society of Civil Engineering (1967), 220, 221 American Society of Limnology and Ocean- ography (1972), 22 American Society of Testing & Materials Book of Standards, Part 23, (1970) Table Vl-2 . . . . 370 Table VI-S . . . . 377 Table Vl-10 .... 382 Table VI-17 .... 385 Table Vl-22 .... 389 Table VI-25 .... 391 Table Vl-26 .... 392 535 Table VI-27. . . . 393 Table VI-28. . . . 393 American Water Works Association ( 1971), 61, 68, 69, 71, 74, 89 Committee on Tastes and Odors (no date), 74 (1970), 302 Research Committee on Color Problems (1967), 63 Task Group 2500R (1966), 74 Ames, A.M. (1944), 89 Anderlini, V.C. et al. (1972), 226 -et al. (in press 1972), 246, 252 -(see Connors, P.G. et al., in press 1972a, 1972b), 226 Anderson, B.G. (1944), 145, 243, 250, 461- 467 (1946), 243, 245, 466 (1948), 124, 135, 242, 250, 255, 456, 459, 461-466 (1950), 119, 120, 461-465, 467 -(see Duodoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121 Anderson, B.T. (1971), 24 Anderson, D.W. (1968), 197, 227 (1969), 176 (1970), 197 -et al. (1969), 227 -(see Risenbrough, R.W. et al., 1969, 1970j, 227 -(see Connors, P.G. et al., 1972a), 226 Anderson, E.A. et al. (1934), 93 Anderson, G.C. (1960), 20 Anderson, J.B. (see Van Horn, W.M. et al., 1949), 256 Anderson, J.M. (see Zitho, V. et al., 1970), 254 Anderson, L.D. (see Bay, E.G., 1965, 1966), 18 Anderson, P.W. -1968), 80 -(see Faust, S.D. et al., 1971 ), 80 Anderson, R.B. (1970), 225 Anderson, R.O. (1959), 160 Andres, L.A. (see Maddox, D.M. et al., 1971), 26 Andrew, R.W. (see Biesinger, K.E. et al., 1971 ), 180 Andrews, H.L. (1969), 473 Andrews, J.W. (1971), 149, 160 (1972), 154 Andujar, J.J. (1966), 29 Anet, E.F. (see Bishop, C.T. et al., 1959), 317 Angelovic, J.W. et al. (1961), 249 -et al. (1967), 454 -(see Sigler, W.F. et al., 1966), 248, 453 536/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Ansell, A.D. (1968), 155 Appleby, W.G. (see Sparr, B.I. et a!., 1966), 346 Applegate, R.L. (see Hannon, M.R. et a!., 1970), 183 Applegate, V.C. eta!. (1957), 243 Ariel, I. (see Dupont, 0. et a!., 1942), 56 Arkley, R.J. (see Bingham, F.T. et al., 1970), 344 Arle, H.F. (1959, 1960), 347 -(see Bruns, V.F. et a!. 1955, 1964, un- published data 1971), 347 Armiger, W.H. (see Foy, C.D. eta!., 1965), 338 Armour, J.D. (1970), 175 Armstrong, J.G. et a!. (1958), 315 Arndt, C.H. (1931), 340 Arnholt, J.J. (see Kaplan, H.M. eta!., 1967), 464 Arnold, F.A. (see Leone, N.C. eta!., 1954), 66 Arnon, D.I. (1953), 22, 252 Aronovski, I. (see Wassermann, M. et a!., 1970), 83 Aronson, A.L. (1964, 1971), 313 Arthur, J.W. (1970), 190, 454 (1971), 189 Aschner, M. eta!. (1967), 147 Asher, C.J. (see Brayer, T.C. eta!., 1966), 344 Ashley, L.M. (1970), 464 Ashton, P.G. (1969, 1971), 14 Asimov, Isaac (1966), 272 Aten, A.H.W. eta!. (1961), 472 Athanassiadis, Y.C. (1969), 245 Atherton, H.V. (1970), 301, 302 -et a!. (1962), 302 Atton, F.M. (see Wobeser, G. et a!., 1970), 173, 251 Aub, J.C. (1942), 87 Autian, J. (see Nematollahi, J. eta!., 1967), 174, 175 Avault, J.W. Jr. (1968), 26 Avigan, J. (1968), 145 Axley, J.H. (see Woolson, E.A. et a!., 1971), 318, 340 Ayers, A.D. et a!. (1952), 329 -_(see Magistad, O.C. eta!., 1943), 324, 336 Ayers, J.C. (1963), 302 Ayers, J.P. (1951), 230 -(see Ketchum, B.H. eta!., 1951), 280 Backus, R.H. (see Harvey, G.R. eta!., 1972), 264 -(see Horn, M.H. eta!., 1970), 257 Bader, R.G. (1972), 15, 238 Bair, F.L. (1969), 335 -(see Pratt, P.F. et a!., 1964), 339 -(see Pratt, P.F. eta!., 1967), 335 Bagley, G.E. (1967), 228 -et a!. (1970), 176 -(see Krantz, W.C. et a!., 1970), 266 -(see Mulhen, B.M. eta!., 1970), 227 Bagnall, L.D. (1970), 26 Bailar, J.C., Jr. (1956), 74 Bailey, D.E. (1913), 307 Bailey, T.A. (1956), 26 Baker, M.N. (1949), 1 Bakkum, W.C.M. (see Aten, A.H.W. et a!., 1961),472 'nalassa, J.J. (1961), 60, 70 (1964, 1965), 311, 313 (1966), 56 (1967), 245, 309, 316 (1968), 312 -(see Schroeder, H.A. et a!., 1963a,b), 62, 310, 311, 313 Balch, R. (1955), 173 Baldwin, N.S. (1957), 160 Baldwin, R.E. (see Korschgen, B.M. et a!., 1970), 149 Ball, I.R. (1967), 179, 182, 187, 451, 460 (1967a,b), 119 Ball, L.B. (1945), 252 Ball, R.C. (see Hamelink, J.L. et a!., 1971), 183 Ballantyne, E.E. (1957), 308 Ballard, J.A. (1969), 455 Balsey, J.R. (see Leopold, L.B. eta!., 1971), 400 Bamback, K. (see Kehoe, R.A. et a!., 1940), 70 Bandt, H.H. (1948), 249 Bandt, H.J. (1933), 147 (1955), 147, 148 Banker, R.F. (1968), 90 Baptist, J.P. (1967), 470 Baranowski, A. (1969), 25 Barber, C.W. (see Hill, C.H. eta!., 1963), 311 Bardach, J.E. et a!. (1965), 190 Bardet, J. (1913), 72 Barinov, G.V. (see Polikarpov, G.G. et a! 1967), 471, 473, 475 Barlow, C.H. (1937), 350 Barnes, D.K. (see Harvey, E.N. et al 1944a,b), 135, 136 Barnes, I. (see White, D.E. eta!., 1970), 31 \ Barnes, J.M. (1953), 319 Barnett, A.J.G. (1952), 315 Barneett, R.M. (1923), 340 (1936, 1940). 345 Barnhart, R.A. (1958), 255, 465 Baroni, C. et a!. (1963), 56 Barth, E.F. (1970, 1971), 55 -et a!. (1966), 55 Barthel, W.F. (see Curley, A. et al., 1971), 313 Bartley, C.H. (see Slanetz, L.W. eta!., 1965), 276 Bartley, T.R. (1969), 346 (1970), 347 Barton, M.A. (1969), 39 Barton, E. (1932), 93 Bartrand, D. (see Deschiens, R. eta!., 1957), 467 Bartsch, A.F. (1959), 18 Basch, R.E. eta!. (1971), 189 Basu, S.P. (1959), 139 Batchelder, A.R. (1960), 337, 338 -(see Lunin, J. eta!., 1963), 336 -(see Lunin, J. eta!., 1964), 338 Bates, R.R. (see Courtney, K.D. eta!., 1970), 79 -(see Innes, I.R.M. et a!., 1969), 76 Battelle-Columbus (1971 ), 400 Bauer, H. eta!. (1961), 83 Baumann, E.R. (1962), 301 Baumgartner, D.J. (1970), 403 Bay, E.C. (1964, 1965, 1966), 18 (unpublished data), 18 Bayless, J.D. (1968), 279 Bazell, R.J. (1971), 249 Beadle, L.D. (1958), 18 Beak, T.W. (1965), 408 Bear, F.E. (see Prince A.L. et al., 1949), 343 Beard, J.W. (1967), 91 Beasley, T.M. (1967), 473 (1969), 476 Becth, D.A. (1943), 316 (1962), 86 (1963), 345 (1964), 86, 316 -(see Bradley, W.B. eta!., 1940), 314 Bechtel Corp. (1969), 222 Bech, W.M. (1954, 1955), 408 Becker, D.E. (see Brink, M.F. et al., 1959), 316 Beck, W.J. (see Hasty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278 Becker, C.D. et a!. (1971), 161 Becker, E. (1964), 61, 70, 88, 89 Beckman, E.L. (1963), 32 Beding, D.L. (1927), 456 Bedrosinm, P.H. (1962), 469 Beeson, W.M. (1964), 315 (1965, 1966a,b,c), 317 -(see O'Donovan, P.B. et al., 1963), 312 -(see Ott, E.A. et a!., 1966a), 316 Beeton, A.M. (1969), 23, 124, 127, 230 (1972), 19 Behnke, A.R., Jr. (1942), 137 Behrman, A.S. (1968), 301, 302 Beiningen, K.T. (1968), 135 Belisle, A.A. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227 -(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970), 176, 227 Bell, H.L. (1969), 249, 455 -(unpublished, 1971), 147, 148, 150, 423- 426, 428 Bell, J.F. et al. (1955), 196 -(see McKee, M.T. eta!., 1958), 196 Bella, D.A. (1968), 403 Bellrose, F.C. (1951, 1959), 228 Bender, M.E. (1969), 183 -et a!. (1970), 179 Benedict, B.A. (1970), 403 Bennett, B.M. (1963), 56 Bennett, H.J. (1965), 249, 450, 452, 455, 457, 458 Benoit, D.A. (1958), 452, 453 (1960), 452 (1971), 120, 122 -(unpublished data, 1971), 180, 181 Benoit, R.J. et al. (1967), 127 Benschop, H. (1968), 265 -(see Vas, J.G. eta!., 1968), 227 Benson, N.G. (1970), 27 Benson, N.R. (1951, 1953), 340 Benville, P. (unpublished), 210, 485-487 Berger, D.D. (1970), 198 Berg, G. (1967), 91 (1971), 91, 92 -et al. (1967), 91 -et al. (1968, 1971), 92 -(see Clarke, N.A. eta!., 1962), 91 Berg, L.R. (1963), 316 Berg, W. eta!. (1966), 252 -(see Johnels, A.G. eta!., 1967), 172 Berg, W.E. eta!. (1945), 138 -(see Whitaker, D.M. eta!., 1945), 137 Berger, B.L. (1969), 435 (1970), 437 Berglund, R. (1967), 252 Bergrund, F. (1969), 72, 313 Berlin, M. (1963, 1969), 313 Berman, D. (see Berg, G. eta!., 1967), 91 Bernstein, L. (1958), 324, 325 (1959), 328 (1965a), 326, 327 (1965b), 325, 326 (1966), 334 (1967), 328, 329, 334 Berry, R.A. (1924), 343 Berryman, M.H. (see Mitrovic, U.U. et a!., 1968), 191 Berrien, P.L. (see Whitworth, W.R. et a!., 1968), 27 Bertine, K.K. (1971 ), 72, 251 Berwick, P. (1970), 79 Besch, K.W.T. (see Zitho, V. eta!., 1970), 254 Best, L.C. (see Geldreich, E.E. et a!., 1965, 1968), 57 Bestougeff, M.A. (1967), 144 Betson, R.P. (1970), 39 Beulow, R. (1972), 75 Beyerle, G.B. (1960), 154 Bhoota, B.V. (see Camp, T.R. eta!., 1940), 89 Bibr, B. (1970), 60 Bidstrup, P.L. (1950), 78 Biely, J. (1948), 308 Biesinger, K.E. (1971 ), 119, 120, 122 -(unpublished data, 1971), 180-182, 424, 425, 428 -eta!. (unpublished data, 1971), 180 Biggar, J.W. (1960), 341 Biggs, R.B. (1970), 281, 282 Bijan, H. (1956), 244, 451 Bingham, F.T. (1968), 339 -eta!. (1964), 343 -eta!. (1970), 344 -(see Page, A.L. et al., in press, 1972), 342 Bird, E.D. (see Black, A.P. et a!., 1965), 301 Birke, G. eta!. (1967), 314 (1968), 252 Biros, F.J. (1970a), 437 (1970b), 437, 438 Bisbjerg, B. (1970), 345 Bischoff, A.I. (1960), 17, 18, 183 Bishai, H.M. (1960), 160, 418 Bishop, C.T. et a!. (1959), 317 Bishop, L.M. (see Fitch, C.P. eta!., 1934), 317 Bitman, J. eta!. (1969), 198 Blabaum, C.J. (1956), 250 Black, A.P. (1963a,b), 63 -et al. (1963), 63 -et al. (1965), 301 Black, H.H. eta!. (1957), 450 Blackburn, R.D. eta!. (1971), 26 -(see Holm, L.G., 1969), 26, 27 -(see Maddox, D.M. eta!., 1971), 26 Black, E.C. (1953), 161 Blake, J.R. (see Williams, M.W. eta!., 1958), 78 Blackman, R.R. (see Nimmo, D.R. et al., 1970), 267 -(see Nimmo, D.R. eta!., 1971), 176, 268 Blahn, T.H. (unpublished data, 1970), 412, 414-416, 419 Blaney, H.F. (1966), 332, 335 Blankenstein, E. (see Miettinen, V. et a!., 1970), 172-174 Blau, A.'f.?. (see Street, J.C. et a!., 1968), 83, 198, 226 Blaustein, M.P. (1969), 464 Blaylock, B.G. (1969), 273 Blick, A.P. (1967), 460 Blick, B. (1967), 455 Blick, R.A.P. (1967), 454 Bligh, E.G. (1971), 251 Blinks, L.R. (1947), 136 -(see Whitaker, D.M. et al:, 1945), 137 Bliss, C.I. (1937), 153 Bloom, S.E. (see Peakall, D.B. et a!., in press, 1972), 225, 226 Bloomfield, R.A. eta!. (1961), 315 Blumer, M. (1968), 145 (1969, 1972), 257, 253, 262 (1971), 144,145,237 -eta!. (1970), 258, 262 Blus, L.]. et al. (1972), 227 The Boating Industry (1971), 9 Bodansky, M. (1923), 65 Boetins, J. (1954), 148, 149 (1960), 181 Bohman, V.R. (1963), 344 -(see Weeth, H.J. et a!., 1968), 308 :Solander, W.J. (1966, 1970), 348, 349 Bollar, S.J. (see Mahood, R.K. eta!., 1970), 489 Bollard, E:G. (1963), 339 (1966), 244, 343 Bond, C.E. (1969), 184, 429, 430 -et a!. (1960), 429-432 Bond, G.C. (see Manheim, F.T. eta!., 1970), 287 Bonn, E.W. (1967), 193, 456 Booth, R.L. eta!. (1965), 75 Bordner, R.H. (1971), 57, 302, 351, 352 -(see Geldreich, E.E. eta!., 1962a,b), 57 Borg, D.C. (see Cotzias, G.C. et al., 1961), 60 Borg, K. eta!. (1969), 313 Borgono, J.M. (1972), 56 Borg, K. et a!. (1968), 252 -et al. (1969), 198 Borgstrom, George ( 1961), 216 Boring, W.D. (see Huff, C.B. eta!., 1965), 301 Bormann, F.H. (1967), 22 -(see Likens, G.E. et al., 1970), 125 Borough, H. eta!. (1957), 469 Borovicka, R.L. (see Terriere, L.C. et a!., 1966), 183 Borts, I.H. (1949), 352 Boschetti, M.M. (1957), 451, 457, 461 Bott, R.F. (see Merrell, J.C. et al., 1967), 352 Bouck, G.R. (1971), 137 Author lndex/537 Bougis, P. (1965), 463 Bouldin, D.R. (see Lathwell, D.J. et a!., 1969), 24 Boutwell, R.K. (1963), 56 Bouwer, H. (1968, 1970), 352 Bowen, H.J.M. (1956), 244 Bowen, V.T. (1971), 240 -(see Harvey, G.R. et a!., 1972), 264 Bower, C.A. (1958), 341 (1965), 324, 335 (1972), 326, 327 -et a!. (1965, 1968), 335 -(see Lunin J. et a!., 1960), 337, 338 (1972), figure V -2, 327 (1972), figure V-3, 327 Boycott, A. E. (1908), 137 Boyd,C.E. (1967, 1969, 1970a, 1971a),25 (1970b), 26 (1971 b), 25-27 Boyd, W.L. (see Fitch, C.P. eta!., 1934), 317 Boyle, W.C. (see Cheng, C.M. et al., 1971), 351, 352 Bracken, F.K. (see Gillespie, R.W. et a!., 1957), 321 Brackett, S. (1941), 19 Bradford, G.R. (1963a,b), 344 (1966), 341 (1964), 343 -(see Aldrich, D.G. et al., 1951), 344 -(see Bingham, G.R. eta!., 1964), 343 -(see Bingham, G.R. eta!., 1970), 344 -(see Liebig, G.F. et a!., 1959), 340 Bradley, J.R. eta!. (1972), 318 Bradney, L. (1946), 55 Bradley, W.B. eta!. (1940), 314 Bradley, W.H. (see Han, J. et al., 1968), 145 Brady, D.K. eta!. (1969), 403 Brand, E.D. et a!. (1951), 138 Brard, D. (1935), 62 Brashears, M.L., Jr. (1946), 89 Braus, H. et a!. (1951), 74 Bray, E.E. (see Stevens, N.P. et al., 1956), 145 Breder, C.M. (1966), 162 Breed, R.S. eta!. (1957), 321 Breeder, C.M. (1966), 435 Breeman, H.A. (see Vos, J.G. et al., 1968), 265, 227 Breese, W.P. (see Stewart, N.E. eta!., 1967), 495 Breger, I.A. (1970), 25 Breidenback, A.W. et a!. (1967), 318 Breland, H.L. (1970), 306 Brenchley, W.E. (1938), 344 Brennan, E.G. (see Prince, A.L. et al., 1949), 343 Brett, J.R. (1941), 153, 161 (1952), 120, 157, 160, 168, 410-419 (1956), 152, 153 (1960), 154 (1969), 160 (1970), 160, 162 (1971), 154, 160 -eta!. (1969), 154 -(see Fry, F.E.J. eta!., 1942), 161, 410 Breuer, J.P. (1962), 279 Brewer, R.F. (1966), 343 538/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Brewerton, H.V. (see Hopkins, C.L. et al., 1966), 184 Bridges, C.H. (1961), 453, 458, 459 Bridges, W.R. (1961), 422 Briggle, L.W. (see Foy, C.D. et al., 1965), 338 Brightbill, C.K. (1961), 8 Bringmann, G. (1959), 457, 461, 462, 464- 467 (1959a), 243, 250, 253, 255, 256 (1959b), 253, 256 Brink, M.F. et al. (1959), 316 Brinkley, F.J. (1943), 139 British Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries & Food (1956), 481 Britton, S.W. (see Brand, E.D. et al., 1951), 138 Brock, T.D. (1966), 437 Brockway, D.R. (1950), 187 Broecker, W.S. (1970), 244 -(see Goldberg, E.D. et al., 1971), 241,244, 245, 251 Brookhaven National Lab. (1969), 165, 220 Brooks, N.H. (1960), 403 Brooks, R.R. (1965), 246 Brosz, W.R. (see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308 Brown, C.L. (1968), 124 Brown, E. et al. (1970), 51 Brown, E.H. (see Edsall, T.A. et al., 1970), 411 Brown, G.W. (1970), 125 Brown, J.G. (see Lilleland, 0. et al., 1945), 329 Brown, J.W. (1955), 329 -(see Ayres, A.D. et al., 1952), 329 Brown, R.P. (1969), 278 Brown, V.M. (1968), 120,133,142, 178,181, 451, 454, 456, 460 (1970), 454, 456 -et al. (1968), 460, 468 -et al. (1969), 122 -(see Mitrovic, U.U. et al., 1968), 191 Brayer, T.C. et al. (1966), 345 Brues, A.M. (see Ducoff, H.S. et al., 1948), 56 Bruhn, H.D. et al. (1971), 26 -(see Koegel, R.G. et al., 1972), 26 Brungs, W.A. (1967), 121, 435 (1969), 120, 122, 182, 234, 460, 468 (1972), 132, 176 -(unpublished data, 1971 ), 180 -(in preparation, 1972), 189 Bruns, V.F. (1954, 1955, 1957-1959, 1964, 1969), 347 -(unpublished data, 1971), 347 -et al. (1955, 1964), 347 Brust, H.F. (see Olson, R.A. et al. 1941), 249 Bruvold, --(1967), 90 Bryan, G.W. (1964), 467, 478, 479 (1965), 473, 474 (1969), 475, 479 Bryant, A.R. (see Chang, S.L. et al., 1958), 91 Buchanan, D.V. et al. (1969), 267,495 Buchanan, W.D. (1962), 56,243 Bucher, C.J. (see Havens, W.P. et al., 1941), 29 Buck, D.H. (1956), 128 Buck, O.H. (1956), 16 • Buck, W.B. (see Hemphill, F.E. et al., 1971), 313 Buckingham, R.A. (1970), 39 Buehler, E.V. et al. (1971), 67 Bugbee, S.L. (1972), 18 Bugg, J.C. et al. (1967), 266, 267 Bullard, R.W. (1970), 32, 33 Bullock, T.H. (1955), 152 Burcar, P.J. (see Wersaw, R.L. et al., 1969), 183 Burden, R.P. (see Fair, G.M. et al., 1948), 55 Burdick, G.E. (1948), 190, 454 (1964), 184 (1967), 434 -et al. (1958), 190 -et al. (1964), 429,437 -et al. (1968), 184, 195 -(see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121 Bureau of the Census (see U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census) Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1971 ), 9 Burgess, F.J. (1967), 220,222 Burke, J.A. (1970), 175 Burks, B.D. (1953), 17 Burks, S.L. (1972), 144 Burns, J. (1972), 28 Burnson, B. (1938), 89 Burress, R.M. (see Lennon, R.E. et al., 1970), 440 Burrows, R.E. (1964), 140, 187, 188 Burttschell, R.H. et al. (1959), 80 Buscemi, P.A. (1958), 24 Busey, F. (seeCairns,J.,Jr.etal., 1968), 177, 408 Bush, E.T. (1967), 437 Bush, R.M. (1972), 21 Bushland, R.C. (see Claborn, H.V. et al., 1960), 320 Buss, C.L (see Fitzhugh, O.G. et al., 1944), 86 Buswell, A.M. (1928), 69 Butcher, J.E. (see Harris, L.E. et al., 1963), 312 Butler, G. (1966), 55 Butler, G.D. (1959), 8 Butler, G.W. (1961), 316 (1966), 244, 339, 343 Butler, P.A. (1966a,b; 1969), 37 -et al. (1968), 495 Butt, C.G. (1966), 29 Butterfield, C.T. (1946), 55, 89 (1948), 55 -et al. (1943), 55 Byerrum, R.U. (see Decker, L.E. et al., 1958), 60 -(see Mackenzie, R.D. et al., 1958), 62 Byers, H.G. (1935), 316 -et al. (1938), 316 Byers, R.K. (1959), 70 Byran, G.W. (1971), 248 Cabejszek, L (1960), 453 Cade, T.J. et al. (1970), 227, 267 Cain, S.A. (1961), 27 Cairns, J. Jr. (1956), 180 (1957), 450, 452, 456, 459 (1958), 68, 145, 182, 452, 456-459 (1959), 145, 452, 456-459 (1963), 190 (1964), 421 (1965), 457' 459, 460 (1967), 117 (1968), 16, 126, 152, 408, 452-454, 460 (1969), 117, 119 (1971), 117,408 -(unpublished data, 1955), 450, 452, 456, 457, 459 -et al. (1965), 457 -et al. (1968), 117 -(see Benoit, R.J. et al., 1967), 127 -(see Patrick, R. et al. 1967), 22 -(see Patrick, R. et al., 1968), 119, 451, 452, 454, 457, 458, 460 -(see Sparks, R.E. et al., 1969), 117 Calabrese, A. et al. (unpublished), 250, 255 Calandra, J. C. (see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 78 Calderwood, H.N. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1947), 116, 147 Callicot, J.H., Jr. (1968), 29 Calvin, M. (see Han, J. et al., 1968), 145 Camarena, V.M. (see Tracy, H.W. et al., 1966), 90 Camp, A.A. (see Couch, J.R. et al., 1963), 26 Camp, Dresser, McKee (1949), 350 Camp, T.R. et al. (1940), 89 Campbell, A.G. (see Gibbard, J. et al., 1942), 36 Campbell, E.A. (1961), 312 Campbell, R.N. (1962), 349 Campbell, R.S. (see Johnson, B.T. et al., 1971), 436-438 Canada Food & Drug Directorate (personal communication), 251 Canada Interdepartmental Committee on Water (1971), 241 Cangelosi, J.T. (1941), 60 Cannell, G.H. (see Pratt, P.F. et al., 1967), 334 Canter, L.W. (see Rowe, D.R. et al., 1971), 266 Cappel, J. (see Treon, J.F. et al., 1955), 77 Capps, D.L. (1971, 1972), 308 Carey, F.G. (1969), 138 Cargo, D.G. (1971), 19 Carlisle, H. (1947), 79 Carlson, C.A. (1966), 423 (1971), 427 Carlson, C.W. -(see Adams, A.W. et al., 1966}, 315 -(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959}, 307, 308 -(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1961}, 195 -(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1962}, 308 Carpenter, S.J. (1955}, 25 Carriker, M.R. (1967}, 279, 281, 282 Carritt, D.E. (1954}, 281 Carson, W.G. (1970), 145 Carter, H.H. (1969), 403 Carswell, J.K. (1972}, 75 Castro, E. (see Creger, C.R. et al., 1963), 26 Carter, D.L. (see Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316 Carter, R.F. (1965), 29 Cary, E.E. (see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1967), 345 -(see Kubota, J. et al., 1967), 316 Case, A.A. (1957), 315 Casper, V.L. (1967), 266, 267 Cassard, D.W. (see Weeth, H.J. et al., 1960), 307 Castell, C.H. et al. (1970), 462, 463 Catoe, C.E. (1971), 258 Cotzias, G.C. et al. (1961), 60 Cecil,-H. C. (see Bitman, J. et al., 1969), 198 Census of Manufacturers, 1967, 381, 382, 385, 388, 389, 391-393 Cerva, L. (1971), 29 Cervenka, R. (1959), 248 Chadwick, G.G. (1961), 487 (1971), 147 Chalmers, T.C. (see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36 Chamberlain, T.K. (see Lynch, J.J. et al., 1947), 24 Chambers, C.W. (see Butterfield, C.T. et al., 1943), 55 Chambers, J.S. (1950), 38 Chanay, M.D. (see Cairns, J., Jr. et al., 1968), 117' 408 Chang, A.T. (1953), 344 Chang, S.L. (1959), 55 (1967, 1968), 91 -et al. (1958), 92 -(see Berg, G et al., 1967), 91 -(see Clarke, N.A. et al., 1962), 91 -(see Fair, G.M. et a!., 1948), 55 Chapman, C. (1968), 279 Chapman, G.A. (see Bouck, G.R. et al., 1971), 137 Chapman, H.D. (1966), 339 (1968), 341 -(see Liebig, G.F., Jr., 1942), 340, 342 Chapman, W.H. et al. (1968), 173 Cheek, C.H. (see Swinnerton, J.W. et al., 1962), 138 Chemical Engineering News, (1971), 310 Chen, C.W. (1968), 460 Chen, K.P. (1962), 56 Cheng, C.M. eta!. (1971), 351, 352 Chesters, G. (1971), 318 -(see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968), 183 Chi, L.W. (1964), 463 Childress, J.D. (1965), 341 -(see Romney, E.M. et al., 1962), 342 Chin, E. (1957), 485 (1958), 267 Chin, T.O.Y. et al. (1967), 91 Chipman, W.A., Jr. (1949), 261, 262 (1967), 470 -(see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1947), 116, 147 Chisholm, D. et al. (1955), 340 Chisholm, J.J., Jr. (1964), 70 Chiu, T.F. (1953), 345 Cholak, J. (see Kekoe, R.A. et al., 1940), 70, 87 Chorin-Kirsch, T. (see Aschner, M. et a!., 1967), 147 Chow, T.J. (1962), 121 (1966, 1968), 249 -(see Murozumi, M. et al., 1969), 249 Christensen, G.M. (1971), 119,120,122 -(unpublished data, 1971), 180-182 Christensen, R.E. (see Anderson, D.W. et al., 1969), 176, 227 Christiansen, J .E. (1966), 335 (1970), 197 Christianson, A.G. (see Weibel, S.R. et al., 1966), 318, 319 Christman, R.F. (1963a,b), 63 (1966), 63, 80 Chu, S.P. (1942), 22, 461, 465 Chubb, Michael (1969, 1971), 14 Chupp, N.R. (1964), 228 Church, D.C. (see Kutches, A. G. et al., 1970), 320 Churchill, M.A. (1959), 167 (1969), 162 (1972), 9 Claborn, H.V. et al. (1960), 320 Clapp, C.L. (see Scholander, P.F. et al., 1955), 138 Clark, A. (see Owens, M. eta!., 1969), 24 Clark, D.E. et a!. (1964), 320 Clark, H.F. (see Geldreich, E.E. et al., 1962a,b; 1965), 57 -(see Kabler, P.W. et al., 1964), 351 Clark, J. (1967), 221 Clark, J.R. (1964), 435 (1969), 152 Clark, N.A. (see Huff, G.B. et al., 1965), 301 Clark, R. (1968), 124 -(see Sapiro, M.G. eta!., 1949), 314 Clark, R.B. (1971), 261 Clark, R.L. (1964), 435 Clark, R.M. (1967), 91 -et al. (1967), 92 -(see Berg, G. et al., 1967), 91 Clark, R.T. (1943), 139 Clarke, F.E. (see Leopold, L.B. eta!., 1971), 400 Clarke, G.L. (1947), 255 Clarke, N.A. (1959), 55 (1961), 92 -et al. (1962), 91, 92 Clarke, W.E. (see Hunter, B.F. et al., 1970), 196 Clarkson, T.W. (1971), 72 Clawson, G.H. (see Fry, F.E.J. eta!., 1942), 161, 410 Clawson, M. (1959), 399 Cleland, K.W. (1953), 463, 467 Clemmens, H.P. (1958, 1959), 173 Clements, H.F. (1939, 1947), 340 Clendenning, K.A. (1958), 250 (1960), 247, 248, 252 -(see North, W.J. et al., 1965), 145 Clendenning, V.A. (1960), 462 Cleveland, F.P. (see Treon, J.F. et al., 1955), 76,77 Cline, J.F. et al. (1969), 328 Clore, W.J. (1958), 347 Close, W.H. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971), 305 Author lndex/539 Cohen, J.M. (1961), 78 . -et ~l. (1960), 64, 69, 71, 93 -(see Hannah, S.A. et al., 1967), 89 Coburn, D.R. et al. (1951), 228 ~Code of Federal Regulations, (1967), 273, 274 Cohen, J.M. (1966), 318 -(see also Weibel, S.R. et al., 1966), 318, 319 Colburn, William, (1971), 14 Colby, D. (see Burdick, J.E. et al., 1964), 184 Colby, P.A. (unpublished data, 1970), 411 Colby, P.J. (1967), 193 (1970), 160 Cole, --(1966), 76, 77 Cole, A.E. (1941), 144, 462-464, 467 Coleman, N.T. (1967), 339 -(see Bingham, F.T. eta!., 1970), 344 Coleman, P.R. (see Hunter, B.F. et al., 1970), Coleman, R. (1939), 340 -(see Dorman, C. et al., 1939), 340 Collier, R.S. (see Calabrese, A. et al., un- published), 250, 254, 255 Collins, T.F.X. (1971), 79 Comes, R.D. (1967), 183 (1970), 347' 348 -(see Frank, P.A. et al., 1970), 346 Comly, H.H. (1945), 73 Commoner, B. (1970), 274 Conn, L.W. et al. (1932), 62 Conners, P.G. eta!. (1972a), 226 -et a!. (in press, 1972b), 226, 246, 252 -(see Anderlin, V.C. et al., 1972), 226 Conney, A.H. (1969), 320 Gooch, F.G. (1964), 197 Cook, J.W. (see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78 Cook, R.S. (1966), 228 Cook, S.F. (1969), 18 Cooley, N.R. et al. (unpublished data), 489, 493, 505 Cooper, A.C. (1962), 135, 137-139 Cooper, A.L. (1955), 456 Cooper, E.L. (1953, 1960), 154 Cooper, H.P. et al. (1932), 340 Cooper, K.W. (see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944a), 135 Cope, O.B. (1961), 119, 184 (1965), 453, 458 (1966), 248, 420-434, 453, 458, 467 (1968), 420-433 -et al. (1970), 437 Copeland, B.J. (1964), 144 (1969), 124, 279 Coppage, D.L. (unpublished), 267, 268, 493 Copson, H.R. (1963), 55 Corbet, A.S. (see Fisher, R.A. et a!., 1943), 409 Corino, E.R. (see Revelle, R. et al., 1972), 257 Corneliussen, P.E. (1972), 77, 78 Corner, E.D.S. (1956), 248, 455, 475 (1968), 261 Cordone, A.J. (see Shapovalov, L. et a!., 1959), 27 Cornelius, W.O. (1933), 147 540/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Cort, W.W. (1928), 18 (1950), 19 Corwin, N. (1956), 276 -(see Ketchum, B.H. et a!., 1958), 258 Cottam, G. (1969), 24 Couch, J.R. et a!. (1963), 26 -(see also Creger, C.R. et a!., 1963), 26 Couch, R.E. (see Gunn, C.A. eta!., 1971), 40 Coulston, F. (see Stein, A.A. eta!., 1965), 76, 77 Council on Environmental Quality (1970), 221, 278, 279 (1971), 244,249,257 Courchaine, R.J. · (1968), 55 Courtenay, W.R., Jr. (see Lachner, E.A. eta!., 1970), 27 Courtney, K.D. (1971), 79 -et a!. (1970), 79 Coutant, C.C. (1968), 137, 139, 152, 164 (1969, 1971), 152 (1970), 165,415, 416, 418 (1970a), 152, 153, 161 (1970b), 153 (1970c), 152, 161, 169 -(unpublished da:a, 1971) 161 (1972), 410 -(see Becker, C.D. eta!., 1971), 161 Cowell, B.C. (1965), 467 Cowgill, P. (1971), 14 Cowley, L.J. (see Addison, R.F. eta!., 1971), 254 Cox, D.H. et a!. (1960), 314 Cox, R. (see Zweig, G. eta!., 1961), 320 Crabtree, D.G. (1970), 227 Craighead, F.C., Jr. (1966), 28 Craigie, D.E. (1963), 417 Crandall, C.A. (1962), 181, 464, 467 Crawford, J.S. eta!. (1969), 315 Crawford, M.D. (1967), 68, 70 -eta!. (1968), 68 Crawford, R.F. (1960), 314 Crawford, R.P. et a!. (1969), 321 Crawford, T. (1967), 68 Creger, C.R. (1963), 26 -(see Couch, J.R. eta!., 1963), 26 Crema, A. (1955), 56 Crofts, A.S. (1939), 340 Cromartie, E. (see Bagley, G.E. eta!., 1970), 176 -(see Mulhern, B.M. eta!., 1971), 176, 227 Cronin, L.E. (1967), 27 (1970), 245, 246, 282 -et a!. (1969), 279 Crooke, W.M. (1954), 344 Crosby, D.G. (1966), 458, 467 Cross, F.A. eta!. (1968), 479 Crossman, R.A., Jr. (1970), 26 Csanady, G.T. (1970), 403 Csonka, E. (see Miller, V.L. eta!., 1961), 313 Cucuel, F. (1934), 72 Cummings, R.W. (1941), 345 Curley, A. eta!. (1971), 313 Curran, E.J. (1971 ), 262 Cusick, J. (1967), 463, 468 D' Agostino, A. (1969), 23 Dahl, L.K. (1960), 88 Dahling, D.R. (see Burge, G. et a!., 1968), 92 t>aines, R.H. (see Prince, A.L. et a!. 1949), 343 Dale, W.E. eta!. (1963), 76 -(see Hayes, W.J., Jr. eta!., 1971), 76 Dalenberg, J.W. (see Aten, A.H.W. et a!., 1961), 472 Dalke, P.D. (1964), 228 Dalton, R.A. (1970), 454, 456 Damant, G.C.C. (1908), 137 Damron, B.L. et a!. (1969), 313 Dana, S.T. (1957), 14 Daniel, J.W. (1969), 313 -eta!. (1971), 313 Dantzman, C.L. (1970), 306 D'Arezzo, A.J. (1970), 403 Dart, R.E. (see Galagan, D.J. eta!., 1957), 66 Das, R.R. (1969), 25 Dasmann, R.F. (1966), 28 Daugherty, F.M. (1951), 456 Davids, H.W. (1951), 62 Davidson, D.F. (1967), 86 Davidson, R.S. (see Kemp, H.T. et a!., 1966), 457 Davies, A. (see Thomas, S.B. et a!., 1966), 302, 306 Davies, A.G. (1966), 464 Davies, B. (see Harrel, R.C. eta!., 1967), 144 Davis, C.C. (1964), 23 Davis, E.M. (see Angelovic, J.W. et a!., 1967), 454 Davis, G.E. (1971), 117 Davis, G.K. (1951, 1957), 307 (1966), 317 -(see Cox, D.H. et a!., 1960), 314 -(see Shirley, R.L. et a!., 1950), 314 -(see Shirley, R.L. eta!., 1970), 343 Davis, H.C. (1969), 485, 487, 489, 49( 493, 495,497,499,501,505,507,509 Davis, J. (see Risebrough, R.W. eta!., 1970), 227 Davis, J.J. (1960), 301-303 Davis, J.R. (see Mahood, R.K. eta!., 1970), 489 Davis, J.T. (1962), 429-431 (1963), 432 (1964), 429 (1967), 458 Davis, Larry C. (see Sonnen, Michael B. et a!., 1970), 39 Davies, R.O. (1958), 139 Davison, K.L. eta!. (1962), 315 -eta!. (1964), 314 -et a!. (1965), 315 -(see Jainudeen, M.R. eta!., 1965), 315 Dawley, E.M. (see Ebel, W.J. et a!., 1970), 161 -(see Ebel, W.J. eta!., 1971), 137 Davis, H.C. (1960, 1969), 281 (1969), 265-268 Derby, S.B. (Sleeper) (1971), 485,491,493 Dawson, J.H. (1959), 347 Dawson, M.D. (see Kerridge, P.C. et a!., 1971), 338 Dean, H.J. (see Burdick, G.E. et a!., 1964), 429, 436 -(see Burdick, G.E. eta!., 1968), 183, 184, 190, 195 Dean, H.T. (1936), 66 Dean, J.M. (see Crows, F.A. et al., 1968), 479 -(see Fowler, S.W. eta!., 1970), 480 Dean, R.B. (1970), 55 -(see Berg, G. et al., 1968), 92 Deans, R.J. (1964), 315 Dearinger, John A. (1968), 39, 400 DeBoer, L.M. (1961), 68 Decker, C.F. (see Decker, L.E. eta!., 1958), 60 -(see Mackenzie, R.D. et a!., 1958), 62 Decker, L.E. et a!. (1958), 60 DeClaventi, LB. (1965), 463 Dedie, K. (1955), 352 DeEds, F. (1950), 60 Defoe, D.L. (see Nebeker, A.V. et a!., 1971), 177 Dejmal, V. (1957), 56 DeMann, J.G. (see Turnbull, H. eta!., 1954), 145, 191, 244, 450-455 Demint, R.J. (see Frank, P.A. et a!., 1970), 346, 347, 348 De Mont, J.D. (in press), 135 Denz, F.A. (1953), 319 Deobald, H.J. (1935), 309, 312 de Oliveira, L.P.H. (1924), 255 Department of Lands & Forests, Ottawa (1968), 28 Department of National Health & Welfare [Canada] (1971), 481, 482 Deschiens, R. (1956), 244, 451 (1957), 467 -(see Floch, H. eta!., 1963), 453 Devlaminck, F. (1950), 457 (1955), 245, 450, 451 DeVos, R.H. (see Koeman, J.H. et al., 1969), 83, 175 -(see Vos, J.G. et al., 1970), 198, 225, 226 DeVries, D.M. (see Sparr, B.I. eta!., 1966), 346 DeWolfe, T.A. (see Klotz, L.J. eta!., 1959), 349 Dick, A.T. (1945), 252 Dickens, F. (1969), 124, 279 Dickson, K.L. (1971), 117, 408 Diesch, S.L. (1966), 29 -(see Crawford, R.P. eta!., 1969), 321 Dill, W.A. (see Shapovalov, L. eta!., 1959), 27 Dillion, R.T. (see Van Slyke, D.D. et a!., 1934), 138 Dimick, R.E. (1952), 255 -(see Haydu, E.P. et al., 1952), 256 DiPalma, J.R. (1965), 56 Diskalenko, A.P. (1968), 73 DiToro, D.M. eta!. (1971), 277 D'Itri, E.M. (unpublished data, 1971), 172 Dixon, W.J. (1951), 408 Dobbins, W.E. (1968), 403 Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1966), 272 Doell, C.E. (1963), 8 Donawick W.J. (1966), 313 Doneen, L.D. (1959), 335 Dorfman, D. (1969), 455, 464 Dorman, C. (1939), 340 -et al. (1939), 340 Dorris, T.C. (1964, 1966), 144 (1968), 35, 144, 275, 408, 409 -(see Harrel, R.C. et al., 1967), 144 Doudoroff, P. (1942), 412 (1945), 410, 412 (1950), 139 (1953), 177,179,180,242,247,250,251, 253, 451, 453, 455, 464 (1956), 189, 252, 314, 315, 330, 346 (1957), 135, 139, 255 (1961 ), 242 (1965, 1967), 131 (1969), 324 0970), 131-13~ 139, 151 (1971 ), 270 -et al. (1951), 121 -et al. (1966), 123, 140, 189, 241, 451, 453, 454, 456, 457, 464 -(see Hart, J.S. et al., 1945), 142 -(see Hermann, R.B. et al., 1962), 132 -(see Shumway, D.L. et al., 1964), 132 -(see Stewart, N.E. et al., 1967), 132 Dougan, R.S. (1966), 302 Douglas, F.D. (see Simon, J. et al., 1959), 315 Dovel, W.L. (1970), 282 -(see Flemer, D.A. et al., 1967), 279, 281 Dowden, B.F. (1965), 249, 450, 452, 455, 457, 458 Downing, A.L. (1966), 417-419 Downing, K.M. (1954), 190 (1955), 187, 243 (1957), 187 Drake, C.H. (see Favero, M.S. et al., 1964), 31 Dresnack, Robert (1968), 403 Dressman, R.C. (see Lichtenberg, J.J. et al., 1969), 319, 320 -(see Lichtenberg, J.J. et al., 1970), 182 Drill, V.A. (1953), 79 Drinker, K.R. et al. (1927), 317 -(see Thompson, P.K. et al., 1927), 317 Droop, M.R. (1962), 22 Druce, R.G. (see Thomas, S.B. et al., 1966), 302, 306 Drury, D.E. (1969), 189 DuBois, K.P. (1959), 56 -(see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 78 DuCoff, H.S. et al. (1948), 56 Dudley, R.G. (1969), 132 Dudley, W.A. (see Romoser, G.L. et al., 1961), 311, 316 Duffy, J.R. (see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1971), 183 Dugdale, D.C. (1970), 277 Duggan, R.E. (1972), 77, 78 Duke, T.W. (1967), 479 -et al. (1966), 472, 479 -et al. (1970), 83, 176, 264 -et al. (1971a), 489 -(see Lowe, J.l. et al., 1971), 267 Dunlap, L. (1971), 172 Dunlop, R.H. (see Wobeser, G. et al., 1970), 173, 251 Dunlop, S.G. (1954), 350, 352 (1961), 351 (1963), 188 (1968), 351, 352 Dunn, J.E. (1967), 410-417 -(see Neill, W.H., Jr. et al., 1966), 413 Dunstan, W.M. (1971), 275, 276 Dupont, 0. et al. (1942), 56 Dupuy, J.L. (1968), 38 Durfor, C.N. (1964), 61, 70, 88, 89 Durham, W.F .. (1962), 78 Durnum, W.H. et al. (1971), 306, 310-313, 316 Duryee, F.L. (see Kutches, A.J. et al., 1970), 320 Dustman, E.H. et al. (1970), 198, 313 Duthie, J.R. (1968), 74 Dyer, W.J. et al. (1970), 254 Dye, W.B. (1959), 344 EIFAC (see European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission) EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) (1971), 434, 437 Earle, T.T. (1948), 27 Earley, E.B. (1943), 345 Earnest, R.D. (unpublished data, 1971), 266, 267, 485-487, 489, 491, 493, 495 Easterbrock, C. C. (see Sundaram, T.R. et al., 1969), 403 Eaton, F.M. (1935, 1944), 341 (1950), 335 (1959), 328 Eaton, J.G. (1970), 120, 122, 184, 185, 437 (1971), 123, 189, 425 -(unpublished data, 1971), 179, 180 Ebel, W.J. (1968), 135 (1969), 135, 137 (1971), 137 -et al. (1970), 160 Ebeling, G. (1928), 249 Eberhardt, L.L. et al. (1971), 439 Edinger, J.E. (1969), 403 Edison Electric Institute (1970), 378 Edmondson, W.T. (1961, 1968, 1969), 20 (1970), 20-22 (1972), 19 Edmunds, --(1966), 452 Edsall, T.A. (1970), 160 -(unpublished data, 1970), 411 -et al. (1970), 411 Edson, E.F. (1954), 319 (1957), 78 Edwards, H.E. (1967), 184 Edwards, R.W. (1963), 458 Egan, D.A. (1970), 313 Egusa, S. (1955), 137, 138 Ehlig, C.F. (1959), 328 -(see Alloway, W.H. et al., 1967), 345 Eichelberger, J.W. (see Lichte~berg, J.J. et al., 1969), 319, 320 -(s~e Lichtenberg, J.J. et al., 1970), 182 Eimhjellen, K. (see Jannasch, H.W. et al., 1971), 277, 280 Author lndex/541 Eipper, A.W. (1959), 26 Eisler, R. (1966), 452, 495 (1967), 468 (1969, 1970a,b), 266-;:-268, 485,487,489, 491, 493 .. (1970c), 487, 489 -(see LaRoche et al., 1970), 261 Ekman, R. (see Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313, 314 Elder, J.B. (see Dustman, E.H. et al., 1970), 198, 313 El-Dib, M.A. (1971), 80 Eldridge, E.F. (1960), 89 Eldridge, W.E. (see Holland, G.A. et al., 1960), 242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463- 465 Eller, L.L. (see Kennedy, H.D. et a!., 1970), 195, 436 Ellis, M.D. (see Ellis, M.M. et al., 1946), 249 Ellis, M.M. (1937), 22, 131, 139, 187, 191, 245, 253, 254 -eta!. (1946), 249 Elms, D.R. (1966), 301 Elrod, R.P. (1942), 57 Elson, P.F. (1965), 248 (1967), 184 -(see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1964), 463, 467 -(see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1965), 122, 463 -(see Sprague, J.B. eta!., 1971), 183 Elvehyen, C.A. (1935), 138, 309 Embry, L.B. eta!. (1959), 307, 308 -(see Emerick, R.J. et al., 1965), 315 -(see Goodrich, R.D. et a!., 1964), 315 -(see Hoar, D.W. et al., 1968), 315 -(see Weichenthal, B.A. eta!., 1963), 315 Emerick, R.J. eta!. (1965), 315 -(see Adams, A.W. et al., 1966), 315 -(see Goodrich, R.D. et al., 1964), 314 -(see Hoar, D.W. eta!., 1968), 315 -(see Olson, O.E. eta!., 1963), 315 -(see Weichenthal, B.A. et al., 1963), 315 Emerson, J.L. eta!. (1970), 79 Emery, R.M. eta!. (1972), 20 Enderson, J.H. (1970), 198 Engelbert, L.E. (see Lawton, G.W. et a!., 1960), 353 England, B. et a!. (1967), 92 Engle, J.B. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1947), 116, 147 Englehorn, O.R. (1943), 135 English, J.N. eta!. (1961), 34 -et al. (1963), 148 -(see Booth, R.L. et a!., 1965), 75 -(see Surber, E.W. et al., 1965), 148 Enns, W.R. (1968), 18 Environmental Protection Agency, 57, 58, 91 -(unpublished data, 1971), 48 -(draft, 1972), 301 -(in press, 1972), 318 Div. of Water Hygiene, Water Quality Office (1971), 37 Office of Pesticides, Pesticides Regulation pivision (1972), 319 Eprsano, C. (see Maloues, R. et al., 1972), 135 Eppson, H.F. (see Bradley, W.B. et al., 1940), 314 542/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Ericksson, E. (1952), 337 Erickson, K. (1964), 321 Ericksen, L.V. (1959), 147 Erickson, S.J. eta!. (1970), 268, 505 Erne, K. (see Borg, K. et al., 1969), 198, 252, 313 Esmay, M.L. et a!. (1955), 302 Espey, W.H. (1967), 229, 281, 282 (1971 ), 403 Ettinger, M.B. (1962), 55 -(see Barth, E.F. et al., 1966), 55 -(see Burttschell, R.H. eta!., 1959), 80 -(see Ludzack, F.J. et al., 1957), 145 European Island Fisheries Advisory Com- mission (1965), 127 (1969), 140, 241 Evans, A. (1969), 135,136,138 Evans, E.D. (see Stevens, N.P. et a!., 1956), 145 Evans, E.T.R. (1946), 195 Everhart, W.H. (1953), 142 (1971), 179, 181 Eye, J.D. (1968), 130 Eylar, O.R. (see Murphy, W.H. et al., 1958), 350 FAO (see Food & Agricultural Organization) FDA (see U.S. Department of Health, Edu- cation, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration) FPRL Annual Report (unpublished data, 1971), 420-424, 426, 427, 433 FRC (see Federal Radiation Council) FWPCA (see Federal Water Pollution Con- trol Administration) Faber, R.A. eta!. (1972), 227 Faculty of American Bacteriologists (1947), 439 Fagerstrom, T. (1971), 172 Fair, G.M. eta!. (1948), 55 -et a!. (1968), 275 Fairhall, L.T. (1942), 87 (1957), 62 Falk, H.L. (see Innes, J.R.M. eta!., 1969), 76 -(see Courtney, R.D. eta!., 1970), 79 Falk, L.L. (see Rudolph, W. et al., 1950), 89, 351 Falk, R. (see Aberg, B. eta!., 1969), 313, 314 Falkowska, Z. et a!. (1964), 250 Farmanfarmaian, A. (see Jannasch, H.W. et al., 1971), 277, 280 Farr, F.M. (see Couch, J.R. eta!., 1963), 26 Farr, F.M. (see Creger, C.R. eta!., 1963), 26 Fast, A.W. (1968), 165 -(unpublished data, 1971), 165 Faulkner, L.R. (1966), 348, 349 (1970), 348, 349 Faust, S.D. (1968, 1971), 80 -eta!. (1971), 80 Favero, M.S. eta!. (1964), 31 Fay, L.D. (1964, 1966), 196 Federal Power Commission (1971), 378 Federal Radiation Council (1960), 273 (1961), 273, 274 -(see also U.S. Federal Radiation Council) Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis- tration (1963), 75 (1966), 57 (1968), 59, 91 Feltz, H.R. eta!. (1971), 183 Fenderson, O.C. (1970), 225 Feng, T.P. (1946), 59 Ferguson, D.E. (1968), 184 Ferguson, H.F. (see Simons, G.W., Jr. et a!., 1972), 29 Ferm, V.H. (see Mulvihill, J.E. eta!., 1970), 310 Fertig, S.N. (1953), 319 Fetterolf, C.M. (1962), 147 (1964), 148, 191 -eta!. (1970), 18 -(see Basch, R.E. eta!., 1971), 189 Field, H.I. (1946), 195 Fifield, C.W. (see Litsky, W. eta!., 1953), 31 Fimreite, N. (1970), 251 -et a!. (1970), 252 Finn, B.J. (see Halstead, R.L. et a!., 1969), 344 Finney, D.J. (1952), 121 Fireman, M. (1960), 341 Firh't, C.F. (1962), 435 Fischer, H.B. (1968, 1970), 403 Fischman, L.L. (see Landsberg, H.H. et a!., 1963), 381 Fishbein, L. (see Innes, J.R.M. eta!., 1969), 76 Fisher, D.W. (see Likens, G.E. eta!., 1970), 125 Fisher, H.L. (see Chapman, W.H. et al., 1968), 173 Fisher, J .L. (see Landsberg, H.H. et a!., 1963), 381 Fisher, R.A. eta!. (1943), 409 Fisheries Research Board of Canada (un- published, 1971), 179 Fishman, M.J. (see Brown, E. et a!., 1970), 51 Fitch, C.P. eta!. (1934), 317 Fitzhugh, O.G. (1941), 60 -eta!. (1944), 86 Flemer, D.A. (1970), 281 -eta!. (1967), 279, 281 Fletcher, J.L. (1971), 254 -et a!. (1970), 254 -(see Dyer, W.J. eta!., 1970), 254 Flinn, D.W. (1965), 1 Flis, J. (1968), 187 Florida State Board of Health (unpublished data), 18 Fleming, R.H. (see Sverdrup, H.V. et al., 1942), 216 -(see Sverdrup, H.V. eta!., 1946), 241 Floch, H. et a!. (1963), 453 Foehrenbach, J. (1972), 37 Foget, C.R. (1971), 262 Follis, B.J. (1967), 193, 456 Food & Agriculture Organization (1967), 216 (1971), 239, 241, 247 Food and Drug Administration (unpub- lished data), 79 Food Standards Committee for England and Wales (1959), 481 Forbes, S.A. (1913), 145 Ford, W.L. (1952), 280 Forester, J. (see Cooley, N.R. et al., un- published data), 489 Foster, G.L. (see Sparr, B.I. eta!., 1966), 346 Foster, M. et a!. (1970), 258 Foster, R.F. (1943), 21 (1956, 1957), 180 Fowl, D.L. (1972), 318, 345 -eta!. (1971), 434 Fowler, I. (1953), 466, 467 Fowler, M. (1965), 29 Fowler, S.W. eta!. (1970), 480 -(see Cross, F.A. eta!., 1968), 479 Fox, A.C. (see Hannon, M.R. et a!., 1970), 183 Foy, C.D. eta!. (1965), 348 Foyn, E. (1965), 222 Francis, G. (1878), 317 Frank, N. (1941), 57 Frank, P.A. (1967), 183 -et a!. (1970), 346-348 Frank, R. (personal communication), 175 Frank, K.W. (1935), 86 (1936), 309 -(see Smith, M.I. et a!., 1936), 86 Frankel, R.J. (1965), 399 Frant, S. (1941), 60 Franklin, P.M. (see Thomas, S.B. et al., 1953), 302 Frens, A.M. (1946), 307 Fraser, M.H. et al. (1956), 57 Frawley, J.P. et al. (1963), 78 -(see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78 Frear, D.E.H. (1969), 80, 174 Fredeen, F.H. (1964), 18 Freegarde, M. et a!. (1970), 261 Freeman, L. (1953), 466, 467 Freeman, R.A. (1971), 179 Fremling, C.R. (1960a,b), 17 French, C.R. (see Brand, E.D. et a!., 1951), 138 Freund, G.F. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1965), 301 Friend, M. (1970), 226 Fries, G.F. (see Bitman, J. et al., 1969), 198 Frink, C.R. (1967), 24 Frisa, C. (see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183, 195 Frisch, N.W. (1960), 63 Frolich, E. et al. (1966), 342 Fromm, P.O. (1958), 452, 457 (1959), 457, 462 (1962), 462 (1970), 187 Frost, D.V. (1967), 56, 309, 310 -(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968b), 309 Fry, F.E.J. (1947), 120, 152 (1951), 161 (1953), 419 (1954), 160, 419 (1957), 139 (1960), 131 (1964), 152, 154 (1967), 152, 161 -(unpublished, 1971), 154 -et al. (1942), 410 -et al. (1946), 153, 160, 170, 410-419 Fryer, J.L. (see Bond, C.E. 1960), 429-432 Fujuya, M. (1960). 248, 453, 363, 364 (1961), 453 -(see Bardach, J.E. et al., 1965), 190 Fukai, R. (1962), 240 Fulkerson, W. (see Wallace, R.A. et al., 1971), 72, 173, 240, 252 Fuller, R.G. (see Kemp, H.T. et al., 1966), 457 Fuller, W.H. (see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970), 344 Funnell, H.S. (1969), 313 Fyfe, R.W. (see Fimreite, N. et al., 1970), 252 Gaarder, T. (1932), 241, 465 Gaertner, H. (1951), 350 Gage,J.C. (1961, 1964,1969, 1971),313 Gage, S. De M. (see Simons, G.W., Jr. et al., 1922), 29 Gaines, T.B. (see Dale, W.E. et al., 1963), 76 Gakstatter, J.L. (1965), 183 Galagan, D.J. (1953, 1957), 66 Gall, O.E. (1940), 345 Gallatine, M.H. (1960), 337 -(see Lunin, J. et al., 1960, 1964), 338 -(see Lunin, J. et al., 1963), 336, 337 Galtsoff, P.S. (1931), 148 (1932), 248 (1943), 463 (1946), 246 (1949), 261, 262 (1964), 148 -et al. (1935), 147 -et al. (1947), 116, 147 -(see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121 Gamm, S.H. (see Mulvihill, J.E. et al., 1970), 310 Gammon, J.R. (1970), 128, 157 Gange, T.J. (see Page, A.L. et al., in press, 1971), 343 Gannon, J.E. (1969), 124, 127 Garber, M.J. (see Pratt, P.F. et al., 1967), 334 Gardner, G.R. (1970), 462 Gardner, M.J. (see Crawford, M.D. et al., 1968), 68 Garner, G.B. (1963), 315 (1970), 246 -(see Bloomfield, R.A. et ~1., 1961), 315 Garrett, J.T. (1951, 1957), 456 Garrigou, F. (1877), 72 Garside, E.T. (1968), 411 Gart, J.J. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Gast, M. (in press), 179, 180 Gastler, G.F. (1957), 308 -(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308 Gauch, H.G. (see Magistad, O.C. et al., 1943), 325, 336 Gaufin, A.R. (1952, 1956, 1958), 408 (1953), 22 (1964), 424, 426, 427, 435, 453 (1966), 420, 421 -et al. (1965), 195 Gaylor, D.W. (see Courtney, K.D. et al., 1970), 79 Gebhards, S. (1970), 124 Geiling, E.M.K. (1959), 56 Geiser, P.B. (see Leone, N.L. et al., 1954), 66 Geldreich, E.E. (1966), 31, 36 (1970), 31, 36, 57, 352 (1971), 16, 57, 302, 351, 352 -et al. (1962a,b; 1964, 1965, 1968), 57 -(see Kabler, P.W. et al., 1921), 351 Genderen, H. (1970), 265, 267 Genoway, R.G. (1968), 137, 139 Gentile, J.H. (unpublished data, 1972), 247 -(see Erickson, S.J. et al., 1970), 268, 505 Gerbig, C.G. (see Emerson, J.L. et al., 1970), 79 Gericke, S. (1939), 345 Gerlach, A.R. (see Terriere, L.C. et al., 1966), 183 Gerlad, R.W. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60 Gerloff, G.R. (see Hansen, 0. et al., 1954), 22 Gersh, I. et al. (1944), 137 Gertel, K. (1963), 302 Geyer, J.C. (see Brady, D.K. et al., 1969), 403 -(see Fair, G.M. et al., 1968), 275 Ghassemi, M. (1966), 63, 80 Ghelardi, R.J. (1964), 408 Gibbard, J. et al. (1942), 36 Gibson, E.S. (1954), 160, 419 Gibson, M.B. (1953), 419 Gilbertson, M. (see Connors, P.G. et al., in press, 1972b), 226 Gilderhaus, P.A. (1967), 430, 458 Gill, J.M. et al. (1960), 455 Gill, S.L. (1946), 36 Gillespie, R.W. et al. (1957), 321 Gillett, J.W. (1969), 185 Gillis, M.B. (see Nelson, T.S. et al., 1962), 316 Gilman, A.Z. (1965), 56 Ginn, J.T. (1944), 60 Girling, E.F. (see Curley, A. et al., 1971) 313 Gish, C.D. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227 Gissel-Nielson, G. (1970), 345 Glass, G. (see Biesinger, K.E. et al., 1971), 180 Glenn, M.W. (1967). 316 Glover, Robert E. (1964), 403 Glueckauf, E. (1951), 135 Godsil, P.J. (1968), 346 Goepfert, J.M. (see Cheng, C.M. et al., 1971), 351, 352 Goerlitz, D.F. (1963), 63 (1966), 63, 301 Goheen, A.C. (see Hewitt, W.B. et al., 1958), 349 Goldberg, E.D. (1957), 243 (1970), 172, 251 (1971), 72, 242, 244, 245 (1972), 226 -et al. (1971), 251, 256 -(see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 226, 227 Goldberg, M.C. (see Wersaw, R.L. et al., 1969), 183 Author Index/543 Gpldman, C.R. (1964, 1972), 23 Goldman, J.C. et al. (1971), 23 Goodgal, S. (1954), 281 Gooding, D. (1954), 247 Goodman, J. (1951), 459 Goodman, L.S. (1965), 56 Goodnight, C.J. (1962), 181, 464, 467 Goodrich, R.D. et al. (1964), 315 Gomaa, H.M. (1971), 80 Gonzalez, J. et al. (unpublished, 1971), 247 Gorham, F.P. (1898, 1899, 1904), 135 Gorham, P.R. (1960, 1964), 317 -(see Bishop, C.T. et al., 1959), 317 Gortner, R.A. (see Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934), 317 Gotsev, T. (1944), 59 Gouine, L. (see Fetterholf, C.M., 1970), 18 Gould, T.C. (1967 , 311 Grady, G.F. (see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36 Graetz, D.A. (see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968), 183 Graham, J.M. (1949), 160 Graham, R.J. (1968), 144 Grande, M. (1967), 463 Graham, R. (see Sampson, J. et al., 1942), 316 Grant, A.B. (1961), 316 (1965), 345 Grant, B.F. (1968), 438 -(unpublished, 1971), 176 Grant, B.R. (1970), 438 Grant, C.M. (see Pomeroy, L.R. et al., 1965), 281 Gravelle, C.R. (see Chin, T.D.Y. et al., 1967), 91 Graves, W.L. (see Brady, D.K. et al., 1969), 403 [Great Britain] Dept. of the Environment (1971), 51, 55 Green, R.S. (see Breidenbach, A.W. et al., 1967), 318 Greenbank, J. (see Hart, J.S. et al., 1945), 142 Greenwood, D.A. (see Harris, L.E. et al., 1963), 312 -(see Shupe, J.L. et al., 1964), 312 Greer, W.C. (1957), 145 -(see Wallen, I.E. et al., 1957), 245,450-457 Greeson, P.E. (1970), 313 Gregorius, F. (1948), 62 Greiber, R. (1972), 56 Greichus, Y.A. (see Hannon, M.R. et al., 1970), 183 Greig, R.A. (1970), 198 Greitz, U. (see Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313, 314 Gress, F. (see Schmidt, T.T. et al., 1971), 83 Grice, A.D. (see Weihe, P.H. et al., in press, 1972), 280 Grice, G.D. (see Harvey, G.R. et al., 1972), 264 Griffin, A.E. (1960), 71 Griffin, J.J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 226, 227 Griffin, L.N. (1964), 467 Griffith, D. de G. (1970), 261 544/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Griffith, W.H., Jr. (1962-1963), 195 Grimmet, R.E.R. eta!. (1937), 316 Grindley, J. (1946), 461, 465-467 Grob, D. (1950), 78 Grodhaus, G. (1963), 18 Grogan, R.G. eta!. (1958), 349 Gross, M.G. (1970), 278, 279, 281 -(see Goldberg, E.D. et al., 1971), 241, 244, 245, 251 Gross, W.G. (1946), 62, 311 Grow, T.E. (1971), 503, 505 Gruce, G.D. (see Vacarro, R.S. eta!., 1972), 280 Grudina, L.M. (see Maleshevskaya, A.S. e a!., 1966), 313 Grummer, R.H. (see Lewis, P.K. et a!., 1957), 316, 317 Grushkin, B. (1967), 465, 466, 468 Guess, W.L. (see Nematollahi, J. et a!., 1967), 174, 175 Gumtz, G.D. (1971), 262 Gunn, C.A. eta!. (1971), 40 Gunn, S.A. (1967), 311 Gunnerson, C.B. (1966), 80 Gunnerson, C.G. (see Breidenbach, A.W. et al., 1967), 318 Gunter, G. (see Cronin, L.E. eta!., 1969), 279 Gunther, F.A. eta!. (1968), 227 Gurcharan, K.S. (see Metcalf, R.L. et a!., 1971), 437 Guseva, K.A. (1937, 1939), 250 Guskova, V.N. (1964), 467 Guss, P.L. (see Halverson, A.W. 1962, 1966), 316 Gustafson, G.G. (1970), 175-177 Gutknecht, J. (1963), 478 Guyer, B.E. (see Esmay, M.C. et al., 1955), 302 Gwatkin, R. (1946), 315 Haas, A.R.C. (1932), 341 Haegele, H.A. (1970), 198 Raga, H. (see Kariya, T. et a!., 1969), Ha:ga, Y. (see Kariya, T. eta!., 1969), 455 Hair, J.R. (1971), 414 Hairston, N.G. (1959), 408 Hale, W.H. eta!. (1962), 315 Hall, A. (see Bardach, J.E. eta!., 1965), 190 Hall, A.E. (see Applegate, V.C. eta!., 1957), 243 Hall, E.E. (see Cooper, H.P. eta!., 1932), 340 Hall, E.S. (1965), 63 Hall, T.F. (1961), 26 Halstead, B. W. (1965), 38 Halstead, R.L. et a!. (1969), 344 Halverson, A.W. eta!. (1962, 1966), 316 Hamelink, J.L. eta!. (1971), 183 Hamilton, A. (1971),. 172 Hamilton, J.W. (1963), 345 (1964), 86 Hamlin, J.M. (see Jackim, E. et a!., 1970), 244,255,451,454,455,457,462,465,466 Hammel, W.D. (see Anderson, E.A. et a!. 1934), 93 Hammond, A.L. (1971), 251 Hammond, P.B. (1964), 313 Hampson, G.R. (1969), 258 .Han, J. eta!. (1968), 145 Hanko, E. (see Borg, K. et a!., 1969), 198, 252, 313 Hannah, S.A. et al. (1967), 89 Hannan, H.H. (1971), 24 Hannon, M.R. et al. (1970), 183 Hannerz, L. (1968), 172, 173, 251, 475, 476 Hansel, W. (1962), 315 -(see Davison, K.L. et al., 1964), 314 -(see Jainudeen, M.R. et al., 1965), 315 Hansen, D.J. et al. (1971), 176,177,505 Hansen, D.L. (1967), 437 Hansen, 0. eta!. (1954), 22 Hanshaw, B.B. (see Leopold, L.B. et al., 1971), 400 Hapkirk, C.S.M. (see Grimmett, R.E.R. et a!., 1937), 316 Harbourne, J .F et a!. ( 1968), 313 Harding, R.B. (1959), 328 Hare, G.M. (1969), 239 Harleman, D.R.F. (1971), 403 Harmeson, R.H. et a!. (1971), 73 Harms, R.H. (see Damron, B.L. et al., 1969), 313 Harmstrom, F.C. (1958), 18 Harrel, R.C. et a!. (1967), 144 Harrington, R.B. (see Ott, E.A. et al., 1965, 1966b,c,d), 317 -(see Ott, E.A. et al., 1965a), 316 Harris, E.J. (see Brudick, G.E. et al., 1964), 429, 436 -(see Brudick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183, 184, 190, 195 Harris, E.K. (see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1960), 64, 69, 71, 93 Harris, L.E. et al. (1963), 312 Harris, M. (see Berg, W.E. et al., 1945), 138 -(see Whitcher, D.M. et al., 1945), 137 Harriss, R.C. et al. (1970), 173 Harris, R.H. (1968), 89 -(see Singley, J.E. et al., 1966), 63 Harris, S.J. (see Bitman, J. et al., 1969), 198 Harrison, F. (1967), 474 Harrison, W. et al. (1964), 279 Harry, H.W. (1958), 462, 463 Hart, E.R. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Hart, J.S. (1944), 139 (1945), 142 (1947), 160, 410, 414, 416, 417, 419 (1952), 160,411-414,417,419 -et al. (1945), 142 -(see Fry, F.E.J. et al., 1946), 153,160, 170, 410-419 Hart, W.B. (see Doudorof, P. et al., 1951), 121 Hartley, W.J. (1961), 316 Hartung, R. (1965, 1967a), 196 (1966), 196, 262 (1967b), 197 (1968), 145 (1970), 196, 146, 183 Harvey, E.N. et al. (1944a), 135 (1944b), 135, 136 (1962), 95, 97, 99, 135 Harvey, G.R. et al. (1972), 264 Harvey, H.H. (1962), 135, 137-139 Harvey, H.W. (1947), 250 Harvey, R.S. (1969), 470-473, 475, 479 Haskell, D.C. (1958), 139 Hasselrot, T.B. (1968), 172 Hasseltine, H.E. (see Lumsden, L.L. et al., 1925), 36 Hatch, R.C. (1969), 313 Hatchard, C.G. (see Freegarde, M. et al., 1970), 261 Hatcher, B.W. (see Maclntire, W.H. et al., 1942), 343 Hatcher, J.T. (1958), 341 Hatchcock, J.N. et al. (1964), 316 Hathrup, A.R. (1970), 347 Haverland, L.H. (1961), 307 -(see Weeth, H.J. et al., 1960), 307 Hawk, R.E. (see Curley, A. eta'., 1971), 313 Hawkes, A.L. (1961), 196 Hawkinson, G.E. (see Gersh, I. et al., 1944), 137 Hawksley, R.A. (1967), 181 Haydu, E.P. (1968), 117 -(unpublished data), 247, 253 -et al. (1952), 256 Hayes, B.W. (see Mitchell, G.E. et al., 1967), 315 Hayes, W.J., Jr. (1962), 78 (1963), 79 -et al. (1971 ), 75 -(see Dale, W.E. et al., 1963), 76 -(in press), 77 Haynes, W.S. (see Vigil, J. et al., 1965), 73 Hays, H. (1972), 226, 227 -(see Connors, P.G. et al., in press, 1972b), 236 Hayward, H.E. (1958), 324 Hazel, C.R. (1970), 464 -et al. (1971), 187 Hazen, A. (1892, 1896), 63 (1895), 69 Heath, A.G. (see Sparks, R.E. et al., 1969), 117 Heath, R.G., 198 -et al. (1969), 197, 226 -et al. (in press, 1972), 226 Heath, W.G. (1967), 410, 412, 419 Hedstrom, C.E. (1967), 92 Heggeness, H.G. (1939), 340 Heidel, S.G. (1971), 306 -(see Durum, W.H. et al., 1971), 306, 310- 313, 316 Heinle, D.R. (1969), 162 Held, E.E. (1969), 476 Heller, V.G. (1930, 1932, 1933), 307 (1946), 62, 211 Helm, W.T. (see Sigler, W.F. et al., 1966), 248, 453 Helminen, M. (see Henriksson, K. et al., 1966), 198, 252 Hem, J.D. (1960), 130 (1970), 87, 313 -(see Durum, W.H. et al., 1971), 306, 310- 313, 316 Hemmingsen, E.A. (1970), 136 Hemphill, F.E. et al. (1971), 313 1 1 . J Henderson, C. (1956), 243, 256, 451, 455, 456, 459 (1957), 122, 234 (1959), 458 (1960), 243, 244, 253, 451, 453, 455, 456, 459 (1965), 451, 452, 455-457, 460 (1966), 145, 180-182, 453, 455, 456, 460 -et al. (1959), 420-422 -et al. (1960), 190, 450 -et al. (1969), 182, 434 -(see Black, H.H. et al., 1957), 450 -(see English, J.N. et al., 1963), 148 -(see Pickering, Q.H. et al., 1962), 184, 423-426 Henley, D.E. (1970), 147 -(see Silvey, J.K. et al., 1972), 82 Hennessey, R.D. (see Maddox, D.M. et al., 1971), 26 Henrikson, K. et al. (1966), 198, 252 Henry, W.H. (1965), 340 Henson, E.B. (1966), 17 Hentges, J.F., Jr. (1970), 26 Herbert, D.W.M. (1952), 464 (1960), 178, 187, 450 (1961), 407, 459 (1962), 143 (1963), 459 (1964), 122,182,403,450,453,459,464 (1965), 122, 187' 407' 453 -et al. (1965), 455, 456, 460 Hermann, E.R. (1959), 462, 463, 465, 467 Herman, S.G. (1968), 266-268 -(see Risenbrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 83, 175, 198, 264 Herrmann, R.B. et al. (1962), 132 Hershkovitz, G. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245 Hervey, R.J. (1949), 180 Hess, A.D. (1956, 1958), 17 Hess, J.B. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245 Hester, H.R. (see Sampson, J. et al., 1942), 316 Hettler, W.F. (1968), 410 Hewitt, E.J. (1948), 345 (1953), 342 (1966), 344 Hewitt, W.B. et al. (1958), 349 -(see Grogan, R.G. et al., 1958), 349 Heyroth, F.F. (1952), 66 Hiatt, R.W. (1953), 462 -et al. (1953), 245, 246 -(see Boroughs, H. et al., 1957), 409 Hibiya, T. (1961), 465, 469, 470, 475-478 Hickey, J.J. (1968), 197, 226 (1970), 197 -(see Anderson, D.W. et al., 1969), 176, 227 Hicks, D.B. (1971), 147 Hidu, H. (1969), 265, 268, 281, 485, 487, 489,491,493,495,497,499,501,505,507, 509 Higgins, J.E. (see Bugg, J.C. et al., 1967), 266, 267 Hilgeman, R.H. et al. (1970), 344 Hill, C.H. (1963), 311 -(see Hathcock, J.N. et al., 1964), 316 Hill, E.V. (1947), 79 Hill, M.N. (1964), 216 Hill, W.R. (1939, 1947), 87 Hillebrand, 0. (1950), 24 Hills, B.A. (1967), 136 Hilscher, R. (see Simons, G.W., Jr. et al., 1922), 29 Hilsenhoff, W.L. (1959, 1968), 18 Hiltibran, R.C. (1967), 26 Hiltz, D.F. (see Dyer, W.J. et al., 1970), 254 Hinchliffe, M.C. (1952), 19 Hine, C.H. (1970), 181, 252 Ringley, H.J. (see Dyer, W.J. et al., 1970), 254 Ringley, J. (see Ackman, R.G. et al., 1970), 254 Hinkle, M.E. (see White D.E. et al., 1970), 313 Hinman, J.J., Jr. (1938), 93 Hiratzka, T. (1953), 79 Hirohata, T. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Hiroki, K. (see Theede, H. et al., 1969), 193, 256 Hirono, T. (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60 Hisaoka, K.K. (1962), 435 Hissong, E.D. (see Prinzle, B.H. et al., 1968), 38, 246, 247 Hitchings, G.H. (1969), 320 Hiyama, Y. (1964), 469, 471 Hoadley, A.W. (1968), 31 Hoak, R.D. (1961), 89 Hoagland, E. (see Weibe, P.H. et al., in press, 1972), 280 Hoar, D.W. et al. (1968), 315 Hobden, D.J. (1969), 473 Hodges, E.M. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1970), 343 Hodgkin, A.L. (1969), 464 Hodgson, J.F. (1960), 342 (1963), 339 Hodgson, J.M. (see Bruns, V.F. et al., 1955), 347 Hoekstra, W.G. (see Lewis, P.K. et al., 1957), 316, 317 Hoelscher, M.A. (see Ernbry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307' 308 Hoff, J.G. (1963), 147 (1963), 148 (1966), 160, 413, 417, 419 Hoffman, D.O. (1951), 459 Hoflund, S. (see Sapiro, M.L. et al., 1949), 314 Hogan, J.W. (1967), 435 -(see Berger, B.L. et al., 1969), 435 Hogan, M.D. (see Courtney, K.D. et a!., 1970), 79 Hoglund, B. (1972), 164 Hoglund, L.B. (1961), 139 Hokanson, J.F. (1964), 315 Hokanson, K.E.F. (1971), 190, 191 Holden, A.V. (1970), 55, 176, 225 Holden, P. (1958), 17 Holden, W.S. (1970), 83 Holeman, J.N. (1968), 281 Holland, G.A. et al. (1960), 242, 246, 247, 256, 451, 452, 461, 463-465 Author lndex/545 Holluta, J. (1961), 7 Holm, C.H. (see Meyers, J.J. et al., 1969), 32 Holm, H.H. (see Patrick R. et al., 1954), 116 Holm, L.G. et al. (1969), 26, 27 Holmes, C.W. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971), 305 Holmes, D.C. et a!. (1967), 83, 175 Holmes, R.W. (1967), 258 Holt, G. (1969), 198 Hoopes, J.A. (see Zeller, R.W. et al., 1971), 403 Hopkins, C.L. et al. (1966), 184 Hopkins, S.H. (see Cronin, L.E. et al., 1969), 279 Hopper, M.C. (1937), 343 Hoppert, C.A. (see Decker, L.E. et al., 1958), 60 -(see Mackenzie, R.D. et al., 1958), 62 Horn, M.H. et al. (1970), 257 Horne, D.A. (see Fletcher, G.L. et al., 1970), 254 Horner, G.M. (see Vandecaveye, S.C. et al., 1936), 340 Horning, W.B. (1972), 160 Ross, D.E. (1964), 479 Hosty, T.S. et al. (1970), 278 Hotchkiss, N. (1967), 27 Hotelling, H. (1949), 399 Hovens, W.P. et al. (1941), 29 Howard, T.E. (1965), 241 -(see Schaumburg, F.D. et al., 1967), 120 Howell, J.H. (see Applegate, V.C. et a!., 1957), 243 Hoyer, W.H. (see McKee, M.T. et al., 1958), 196 Hoyle, R.J. (see Fletcher, G.L. et al., 1970), 254 Hoyt, P.B. (1971), 339 (1971b), 344 Hubbard, W.M. (see Kehoe, R.A. et al., 1940), 70 Hubbert, F., Jr. (see Hale, W.H. et al., 1962), 315 Hubert, A.A. (see Bell, J.F. eta!., 1955), 196 Hublow, W.F. et al. (1954), 245 Hubschman, J.H. (1967), 453, 463 Huckins, J.N. (1971), 175-177 Hueck, H.J. (1968), 463 Hueper, W.C. (1960), 455 (1963), 56, 75 Huet, M. (1965), 279 Huff, C.B. et al. (1965), 301 -(see Geldreich, E.E. et al., 1962a,b; 1965), 57 Huggett, R.J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 226, 227 Hughes, D.F. (see Anderson, D.W. et a!., 1969), 176, 227 Hughes, J.S. (1962), 429-431 (1963), 432 (1964), 429 (1967), 458 Huguet, J.H. (see Gill, J.M. et al., 1960), 455 Hummerstone, L.G. (1971), 248 Hungate, F.P. (see Cline, J.F. et al., 1969), 328 546/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Hunn, J.S. (see Lennon, R.E. et al., 1970), 440 Hunt, E.G. (1960), 17, 18, 183 Hunt, G.S. (1957), 145, 195 (1962), 145 (1966), 196, 262 Hunt, L.M. (see Clark, D.E. et al., 1964), 320 Hunter, Brian (unpublished data), 196 Hunter, B.F. et al. (1970), 196 Hunter, C.G. (1967), 76 -et al. (1969), 76 Hunter, F.T. et al. (1942), 56 -(see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56 Hunter, J.E. (1971), 308 Hunter, J.G. (1953), 342, 344, 345 Hunter, J.V. (1971), 80 Hutchins, L.W. (1947), 238 Hutchinson, --(1969), 19 Hutchinson, G.E. (1957), 142 (1967), 23 Hutchinson, G.L. (see Stewart, B.A. et al., 1967), 73 Hymas, T.A. (1954), 79, 319 Hynes, H.B.N. (1961), 184 (1962), 408 ICRP (see International Commission on Radiological Protection) IMCO (Intergovernmental Maritime Con- sultative Organization) (1965a,b), 262 Ichikawa, R. (1961), 470-473, 478 Ide, F.P. (1967), 184 Idler, D.R. (1969), 254 Idyll, C.P. (1969), 28 Industrial Wastes (1956), 452 Ingle, R.M. (1952), 124 Inglis, A. (see Henderson, C. et al., 1969), 182, 434 lngols, R.S. (1955), 248, 462, 467 Ingram, A.A. (1959, 1967), 18 -(see Bay, E.C., 1966), 18 Ingram, W.M. (1963), 55 (1967), 17 -(see Kemp, L.E. et al., 1967), 35 -(see Ludzack, F.J. et al., 1957), 145 Innes, J.R. et al. (1969), 76 Interdepartmental Task Force on PCB (1972), 82 International Commission on Radiological Protection (1960), 83, 273 (1964, 1965), 273 International Committee on Maximum Allowable Concentrations of Mercury Compounds (1969), 314 Ippen, A.T. (1966), 279 Irukayama, K. (1967), 251 Irvine, J.W. (see Hunter, F.T. et al., 1942), 56 -(see Lowry, O.H. et al., 1942), 56 Isaac, P.C.G. (1964), 281 Ishinishi, N. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Isom, B.G. (1960), 254, 456 Ison, H.C.K. (1966), 55 Ito, A. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83 Ito, Y. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83 .Ivanov, A.V. (1970), 73 lvriani, I. (see Wassermann, M. et al., 1970), 83 Iwao, T. (1936), 250, 251, 455 Jack, F.H. (see Cox, D.H. et al., 1960), 314 Jackim, E. et al. (1970), 244, 255, 451, 454, 455, 457, 462, 465 Jackson, M.D. (see Bradley, J.R. et al., 1972), 318 Jacobs, L.W. et al. (1970), 340 Jacobson, L.O. (see Ducoff, H.S. et al., 1948), 56 Jaglan, P.S. (see Gunther, F.A. et al., 1968), 227 Jainudeen, M.R. et al. (1965), 315 James, E.C., Jr. (1949), 305 James, G.V. (1965), 301 Jamnback, H. (1945), 18 Jangaard, P.M. (1970), 254 Jannasch, H.W. et al. (1971), 277, 280 Jargaard, P.M. (1970), 240 Jaske, R.T. (1968), 403 (1970), 160, 162 Jeffries, E.R. (see Hublow, W.F. et al., 1954), 246 Jellison, W.L. (see Parker, R.R. et al., 1951), 321 Jenkins, C.E. (1969), 471 Jenkins, D.W. (1964), 25 Jenne, E.A. (see Malcoln, R.L. et al., 1970), 25 Jensen, A.H. (see Brink, M.F. et al., 1959), 316 Jensen, A.L. et al. (1969), 175, 176 (1971), 162 Jensen, E.H. (1971), 344 Jensen, L.D. (1964), 424, 426, 427, 435 (1966), 420, 421 -(see Gaufin, A.R. et al., 1965), 195 Jensen, S. (1969), 251, 264, 313 (1970), 83 (1972), 225, 226 -et al. (1969), 83, 172, 198, 226-268 -et al. (1970), 177, 268 Jensen, W.l. (1960), 196 Jensen-Holm, J. (see Nielson, K. et al., 1965), 79 Jernejcia, F. (1969), 243, 461, 462 Jernelov, A. (1969), 172, 198,251, 313 (1971), 172 (1972), 174 -(see Jensen, S. et al. 1970), 268 Jerstad, A.C. (see Miller, V.L. et al., 1961), 313 Jitts, H.R. (1959), 281 Jobson, H.E. (1970), 403 Joensuu, 0.1. (1971), 72, 172,251 Johansson, N. (see Jensen, S. et al., 1970), 177 Johnels, A.G. (1969), 257 -eta!. (1967), 172, 173, 175, 176 -(see Berg, W. eta!., 1966), 252 -(see Birke, G. et a!., 1968), 252 -(see Jensen, S.A. et al., 1969), 83, 198, 226, 264, 267 The Johns Hopkins University Dept. of Sanitary Engineering & Water Resources (1956), 74 Johnson, A.H. (see Conn, L.W. et al., 1932), 62 Johnson, B.T. eta!. (1971), 437-439 Johnson, D., Jr. et al. (1962), 316, 317 Johnson, D.W. (1968), 184, 434 Johnson, H. E. (1967, 1969), 184 Johnson, J.L. (unpublished data, 1970), 175 -(see Stalling, D.L. et al., 1971), 437 Johnson, N.M. (see Likens, G.E. et al., 1970), 125 Johnson, M.W. (see Sverdrup, H.V. et al., 1942), 216 -(see Sverdrup, H.V. et a!., 1946), 241 Johnson, W.C. (1968), 346 Johnson, W.K. (1964), 55 Johnson, W.L. (see Henderson, C. et a!., 1969), 182, 434 Johnston, W.R. (1965), 335 Jones, B. (1971), 164 Jones, J.R.E. (1938), 68, 242, 250, 453, 455 (1939), 181, 250, 253, 454, 456, 459 (1940), 250 (1948), 241, 255, 461, 464-467 (1957), 245, 452, 455, 456 (1964), 189, 464 Jopling, W.F. (see Merrell, J.C. eta!., 1967), 352 Jordan, C.M. (1968), 411 Jordan, D.H.M. (1964), 122 -(see Herbert, D.W.M. et al., 1965), 453, 456 Jordan, H.A. et al. (1961), 315 Jordan, H.M. (see Brown, V.M. eta!., 1969), 122 Jordan, J.S. (1951, 1952), 228 Jordan, R.A. (see Bender, M.E. eta!., 1970), 179 Jorgensen, P.S. (see Williams, M.W. et a!., 1958), 78 Joshi, M.S. (see Page, A.L. et al., in press, 1971), 343 Joyner, T. (1961); 478 Kabler, P.W. (1953), 351 (1966), 301, 302 -eta!. (1964), 351 -(see Chang, S.L. eta!., 1958), 91 -(see Clarke, N.A. eta!., 1962), 91 -(see Geldeich, E.E. et al., 1962a,b; 1964), 57 Kaeberle, M.L. (see Hemphill, F.E. et a!., 1971), 313 Kaempe, B. (see Nielson, K. et al., 1965), 79 Kahrs, A.J. (see Adams, A.W. et a!., 1967), 315 Kaiser, L.R. (see Vigil J. eta!., 1965), 73 Kalmbach, E.R. (1934), 196, 197 Kalter, S.S. (1967), 91 Kamphake, L.J. (see Cohen, J.M. et a!., 1960), 64, 69, 71, 93 Kamprath, E.J. (1970), 340 Kanisawa, M. (1967), 56 (1969), 60 -(see Schroeder, H.A. eta!., 1968a), 312 -(see Schroeder, H.A. eta!., 1968b), 309 Kanwisher, J.W. (see Scholander, P.F. eta!., 1955), 138 Kaplan, H.M. (1961), 463 -et a!. (1967), 464 Kapoor, I.P. (see Metcalf, R.L. eta!., 1971), 437 Kardashev, A.V. (1964), 244 Kardos, L.T. (1968), 352 Kare, M.R. (1948), 308 Kariya, T. eta!. (1969), 455 Karppanen, E. (see Henriksson, K. et al., 1966), 198, 252 Katko, A. (see Merrell, J.C. eta!., 1967), 352 Kato, K. (see Yoshimura, H. eta!., 1971), 83 Katz, E.L. (see Pringle, B.H. eta!., 1968), 38, 246, 247 Katz, M. (1950), 139 (1953), 177, 179, 180, 242, 247, 250, 251,253,451,453,455,464 (1961), 242, 267, 420-423, 485, 487, 489, 491, 493, 495 (1967), 91 (1969), 140 -(see Van Hornet a!., 1949), 256 Kaupman, O.W. (1964), 196 Kawahara, F.K. (see Breidenbach, A.W. et a!., 1967), 318 Kawalczyk, T. (see Simon, J. et a!., 1959), 315 Kawano, S. (1969), 60 Kay, H. (see Simon, C. eta!., 1964), 73 Kearney, P.C. (see Woolson, E.A. et al., 1971), 318, 340 Keaton, C.M. (see Vandecaveye, S.C. et a!., 1936), 340 Keck, R. (see Malous, R. eta!., 1972), 135 Keen, D.J. (1953, 1955), 230 Keeney, D.R. (see Jacobs, L.W. et al., 1970), 340 Kehoe, R.A. (1940a), 70, 87 (1947, 1960a,b), 70 Keimann, H.A. (see Havens, W.P. et a!., 1941), 29 Keith, J.A. (1966), 198 -(see Fimreite, N. eta!., 1970), 252 Keller, F.J. (1963), 125 Keller, W.T. (see Whitworth W.R. et al., 1968), 27 Kelly, C.B. (see Hasty, T.S. eta!., 1970), 278 Kelly, S. (1958), 55 (1964), 90 Kelman, A. (1953), 349 Keltner, J. (unpublished data), 493, 505 -(see Cooley, N.R. et a!., unpublished data), 489 Kemeny, T. (1969), 76 Kemp, H.T. eta!. (1966), 457 Kemp, P.H. (1971), 140, 241 Kemper, W.D. (see Stewart, B.A. et a!., 1967), 73 Kendrick, M.A. (1969), 277 Kennedy, F.S. (see Wood, J.M. eta!., 1966), 172 Kennedy, H.D. (1970), 437 -et a!. (1970), 195, 437 Kennedy, V.S. (1967), 152 Kennedy, W.K. (1960), 314 Kenner, B.A. (see Geldreich, E.E. et a!., 1964, 1968), 57 Kenzy, S.G. (see Gillespie, R.W. et a!., 1957), ::21 Kerridge, P.C. eta!. (1971), 338 Kerswill, C.J. (1967), 184 Ketchum, B.H. (1939), 275 (1951, 1953, 1955), 230 (1952), 230, 280 (1967), 228, 229 -et a!. (1949, 1958), 275 -et-a!. (1951), 280 -(see Redfield, A. eta!., 1963), 275 -(see Revelle, R. eta!., 1972), 257 Ketz, --(1967), 91 Keup, L.E. (1970), 301 -eta!. (1967), 35 Keys, M.C. (see Bower, C.A. eta!., 1965), 335 Khan, J.M. (1964), 471 Kienholz, E.W. eta!. (1966), 315 Kiigemai, U. (see Terriere, L.C. eta!., 1966), 183 Kimble, K.A. (see Grogan, R.G. et a!., 1958), 349 Kimerle, R.A. (1968), 18 Kimura, K. (see Kariya, T. eta!., 1969), 455 King, D.L. (1970), 23 King, J.E. (see Lynch, J.J. eta!., 1947), 24 King, P.H. (1970), 130 King, W.R. (see Buchler, E.V. eta!., 1971), 67 Kinnan, R.N. (see Black, A.P. et a!., 1965), 301 Kinne, 0. (1963), 162 (1970), 152, 162 Kip, A.F. (see Lowry, O.H. eta!., 1942), 56 -(see Hunter, F.T. eta!., 1942), 56 Kirk, W.G. (see Shirley, R.L. et a!., 1970), 343 Kirkor, T. (1951), 481, 482 Kirven, M.N. (see Risebrough, R.W. et a!., 1968), 83, 175, 198, 264, 266-268 Kitamura, M. (1970), 251 Kiwimae, A. eta!. (1969), 313 Kjellander, J.O. (1965), 301 Klavano, P.A. (see Miller, V.L. eta!., 1961), 313 Kleeman, I. (1941), 60 Klein, D.A. (see Atherton, H.V. eta!., 1962), 302 Klein, D.H. (1970), 172, 251 (1971), 172 Klein, Louis (1957), 1 Klein, M. (see Innes, J.R.M. eta!., 1969), 76 Klingler, G.W. (1968), 145 (1970), 146 Klingler, J.W. (1970), 196 Klotz, L.J. eta!. (1959), 349 Klumb, G.H. (1966), 302 Klussendorf, R.C. (1958), 316 Author lndex/547 Knets,ch, J.L. (1963), 399 Knight, A.P. (1901), 249 Knowles, G. (see Owens, M. et a!., 1969), 24 Koegel, R.G. eta!. (1972), 26 Koehring, V. (see Galtsoff, P.S. eta!., 1935), 147 Koeman, J.H. (1970), 198, 225, 226, 265, 267 -et a!. (1969), 83, 175 -(see Vas, J.G. eta!., 1970), 118, 225 Koenuma, A. (1956), 256 Koff, R.S. eta!. (1967), 36 Kofoid, C.A. (1923), 89 Kofranek, A.M. (see Lunt, O.R. eta!., 1956), 329 Kohchi, S. (see Kwatsune, M. eta!., 1969), 83 Kohe, H.C. (see Lunt, O.R. eta!., 1956), 329 Kohls, G.M. (see Parker, R.R. et a!., 1951), 321 Kohlschutter, H. (see Meinck, F. et a!., 1956), 145,241,243,250,251,450,455 Kolbye, A.C. (1970), 240, 251 Kolesar, D.C. (1971 ), 403 Kolkwitz, R. (1908, 1909), 408 Konrad, J.G. (1971), 318 Kopp, B.L. (1969), 93 Kopp, J.F. (1965), 245 (1969), 56, 59, 60, 62, 64, 70, 87 (1970), 309-312, 314, 316 Korn, S. (see Macek, K.J. eta!., 1970), 436 Korpincnikov, V.S. eta!. (1956), 469 Korringa, P. (1952), 27, 241 Korschen, L.J. (1970), 266 Korschgen, B.M. eta!. (1970), 149 Kott, Y. eta!. (1966), 245 Kovalsky, V.V. et a!. (1969), 477 Kramer, R.H. (see Smith, L.L., Jr. et a!., 1965), 128, 154 Krantz, W.C. et a!. (1970), 266 Kratzer, F.H. (1968), 316 Kraus, E.J. (1946), 79 Kraybill, H.F. (1969), 185 Kreitzer, J.F. eta!. (in press, 1972), 226 -(see Heath, R.G. eta!., 1969), 197, 198, 226 Kreider, M.B. (1964), 32 Kreiss!, J.F. (1966), 301, 302 Krenke!, P.A. (1969), 152, 403 (1969a), 152 Krishnawami, S.K. (1969), 147 Krista, L.M. (1962), 308 -eta!. (1961), 195, 308 -(see Embry, L.B. eta!., 1959), 307, 308 Kristoffersen, T. (1958), 301 Krone, R.B. (1962), 16 (1963), 127 Kroner, R.C. (1965), 245 (1970), 309-312, 314, 316 Krook, L. (see Davison, K.L. eta!., 1964), 314 Krygier, J.T. (1970), 125 Kubota, J. eta!. (1967), 316, 344 Kuhn, R. (1959), 457, 461, 462, 464-467 (1959a), 243, 250, 253, 255, 256 (1959b), 253, 256 Kunin, R. (1960), 63 Kunitake, E. (see Kuratsune, M. et a!., 1969), 83 548/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Kunkle, S.H. (1967), 39 Kupchanko, B.E. (1969), 145, 147 Kuratsune, M. eta!. (1969), 83 Kutches, A.J. eta!. (1970), 320 Labanauskas, C.K. (1966), 342 Lackey, J.B. (1959), 252, 253 Lackner, E.A. eta!. (1970), 27, 28 LaCasse, W.J. (1955), 25 Lagerwerff, J.V. (1971), 342 Lakin, H.W. (1967), 86 -(see Byers, H.G. eta!., 1938), 316 Lamar, W.L. (1963), 63 (1966), 63, 301 (1968), 301 Lamont, T.G. (see Mulhern, B.M. et a!., 1970), 227 Lamson, G.G. (1953), 66 Lance, J.C. (1970), 352 -(in press, 1972), 352 Landsberg, J .H. et a!. (1963), 381 Lane, C.E. (1970), 481, 487 Lange, R. (see Jensen, S. et a!., 1970 , 268 Langelier, W.F. (1936), 335 Langham, R.F. (see Decker, L.E. et a!., 1958), 60 -(see MacKenzie, R.D. eta!., 1958), 62 Langille, L.M. (see Li, M.F. eta!., 1970), 254 LaQue, F.L. (1963), 55 Larghi, L.A. (see Trelles, R.A. et a!., 1970), 56 Larimore, R. (1963), 124 LaRoche, G. (1967), 262 (1972), 240, 246, 248, 257 -eta!. (1970), 261 Larochelle, L.R. (see Sproul, O.T. et a!., 1967), 92 La Roze, A. (1955), 249 Larsen, C. (1913), 307 Larsen, H.E. (1964), 321 Larson, T.E. (1939), 55 (1961), 68 (1963), 89 -(see Harmeson, R.H. eta!., 1971), 73 Larwood, C.H. (1930), 307 Lasater, J .E. (see Holland, G.A. et a!., 1960), 242,246,247,451,452,461,463-465 Lasater, R. (see Wallen, I.E. et a!., 1957), 145, 245, 450-457 Lassheva, M.M. (see Malishevskaya, A.S. et al., 1966), 313 Lathwell, D.J. et al. (1969), 24 Laubusch, E.J. (1971), 55, 301 Lauff, G.H. (1967), 216 Laventner, C. (see Aschner, M. et a!., 1967), 147 Lau, J.P. (1968), 353 -et al. (1970), 353 Lawler, G.H. (1965), 164 -(see Sunde, L.A. et al., 1970), 20 Lawrence, J.M. (1968), 26, 305 Lawton, G.W. eta!. (1960), 353 Lazar, V .A. (see Kubota, J. et a!., 196 7), 316 Leach, R.E. (see England, B. et a!., 1967), 92 Leak, J.P. (see Lumsden, L.L. eta!., 1925), 36 Learner, M.A. (1963), 458 LeBosquet, M. (1945), 350 J..eClerc, E. (1950), 451 (1955), 245, 450, 451 (1960), 245, 456 LeCorrolla, Y. (see Flock, H. eta!., 1963), 453 Leduc, G. (see Doudoroff, P. et a!., 1966), 123,140,189,241,451,453,455,457,464 Lee, C.R. (1967), 345 Lee, D.C. (see Broyer, T.C. eta!., 1966), 345 Lee, D.H.K. (1970), 73 Lee. G.B. (see Lotse, E.G. eta!., 1968), 183 Lee, G.F. (1962), 80 (1971 ), 83 Lee, R.D. (see McCabe, L.J. eta!., 1970), 56, 70 Leendertse, J.J. (1970), 403 Leet, W.L. (1969), 479 Lefevre, P.A. (see Daniel, J.W. eta!., 1971), 313 Legg, J.T. (1958), 344 Lehman, A.J. (1951), 79 (1965), 76, 77, 79 Lehman, H.C. (1965), 8 Leitch, I. (1944), 305 Leka, H. (see Papavassiliou, J. et a!., 1967), 57 Lekarev, V.S. (see Kovalsky, V.V. et a!., 1967), 477 Lemke, A.E. (see Henderson, C. eta!., 1960), 190 -(see Pickering, O.H. et a!., 1962), 184, 423-426 Lemke, A.L. (1970), 161 Lemon, E.R. (see Kubota, J. eta!., 1963), 344 Lener, J. (1970), 60 Lenglois, T.H. (1941), 126 Lennon, R.E. (1964), 434 (1967), 119 (1970), 437, 441 -eta!. (1970), 441 -(see Berger, B.L. et a!., 1969), 435 Leonard, E.N. (1970), 454 Leonard, J.W. (1961), 27 Leone, LA. (see Prince, A.L. eta!., 1949), 343 Leone, N.C. eta!. (1954), 66 Leopold, A. (1953), 1 Leopold, L.B. (1971), 400 -eta!. (1964), 22, 126 -et a!. (1969), 400 Lesperance, A.L. (1963, 1971), 344 (1965), 307 -(see Weeth, H.J. eta!., 1968), 307 LeRiche, H.H. (1968), 341 Leuschow, L.A. (see Machenthun, K.M. et a!., 1960), 20 Levander, A.O. (1970), 86 Levy, M.D. (1923), 65 Lewis, C.W. (1967), 470 Lewis, D. (1951), 315 Lewis, K.H. (see McFarren, E.F. eta!., 1965), 38 Lewis, P.K. eta!. (1957), 316, 317 Lewis, R.F. (1965), 302 Lewis, R.H. (see Bond, C.E. et a!., .l960), 429-432 Lewis, R.M. (1965, 1968), 410 Lewis, W.M. (1960), 249, 464, 465 Li, M.F. et a!. (1970), 254 Lichtenberg, J.J. (1960), 74 (1969), 320 (1970), 182 -et a!. (1969), 319 -(see Breidenback, A.W. eta!., 1967), 318 Lichtenstein, E.P. et al. (1966), 318 Lieber, M. (1951), 62 (1954), 60 Lieberman, J.E. (see Leone, N.C. et a!., 1954), 66 Liebig, G.F. eta!. (1942), 340, 342 -et a!. (1959), 340 Ligas, F.J. (see Krantz, W.C. et al., 1970), 266 Lignon, W.S. (1932), 340 Likens, G.E. (1967), 22 -eta!. (1970), 125 Likosky, W.H. (see Curley, A. et a!., 1971), 313 Lilleland, 0. et a!. (1945), 329 Lillick, L. (see Ketchum, B.H. et a!., 1949), 275 Lincer, J.L. (1970), 175, 267 -(see Cade, T.J. eta!., 1970), 227 -(see Peakall, P.B. et al., in press, 1972), 225, 226 Lincoln, J.H. (1943), 21 Lind, C.T. (1969), 24 Lindroth, A. (1957), 135 Lindsay, N.L. (1958), 69, 71 Lindstrom, 0. (see Swenson, A. et a!., 1959), 313 Link, R.P. (1966), 313 Linn, D.W. (see Sigler, W.F. et al., 1966), 248, 453 Linnenbom, V.J. (see Swinnerton, J.W. et a!., 1962), 138 Lipschuetz, M. (1948), 190, 454, 456 Litchfield, J.T., Jr. (1949), 121, 434, 495, 497, 499, 501, 503, 505 Litsky, W. eta!., (1953), 31 Little, C.O. (see Mitchell, G.E. eta!., 1967), 315 Little, E.C.S. (1968), 26 Liu, O.C. (1970), 277 Livermore, D.F. (1969), 26 -(see Bruhn, H.D. eta!., 1971), 26 -(see Koegel, R.G. et a!., 1972), 26 Livingston, R.E. (1970), 421 Livingston, R.J. (1970), 487 Livingstone, D.A. (1963), 301, 373 Ljunggren, P. (1955), 59 Lloyd, M. (1964), 408 Lloyd, R. (1960), 178, 179, 187, 450, 459, 477 (1961), 122, 133, 182, 187 (1961a), 120 (1961b), 120, 463 (1962), 142 (1964), 122 (1969), 122, 187, 242, 451 -(see Herbert, D.W.M. et a!., 1965), 453, 456 Locke, L.N. (1967), 228 -(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970), 227 Lockhart, E.E. et al. (1955), 61, 89 Loforth, G. (1969), 251 (1970), 173 -(see Ackefors, H. et al., 1970), 237 Lombard, O.M. (1951), 56 Longbottom, J.E. (see Lichtenberg, J.J. et al., 1969), 319, 320 -(seeLichtenberg,J.J.etal., 1970), 182 Laos, J.J. (see Cairns, S., Jr. et al., 1965), 457 Loosanoff, V.L. (1948), 241, 281 (1962), 281, 282 Lopinot, A.C. (1962), 147 (1972), 28 Lorente, de No., R. (1946), 59 Lotse, E.G. et al. (1968), 183 Loveless, L. (see Romoser, G.L. et al., 1961), 311, 316 Low, J.B. (1970), 197 Lowe, J.I. (1965), 37 (1967), 495 (1971), 267 -et al. (1965), 487 -et a!. (1971a), 489 -(see Duke, T.W. eta!., 1970), 83, 176, 177, 264 -(see Hansen, D.J. et al., 1971), 176, 505 Lowman, F.G. (1960), 251, 253 -eta!. (1971), 240,243,244,246-248 Lowrance, B.R. (1956), 253, 451, 457 Lowry, O.H. et al. (1942), 56 Lucas, R.C. (1964), 14 Ludemann, D. (1953), 251 Ludwig, D.D. (1962), 301 Ludzach, F.J. (1962), 55 -et al. (1957), 145 Lumsden, L.L. et al. (1925), 36 Lund, (1965), 301 (1967), 92 Lund, J.W.G. (1950), 275 Lundgren, K.D. (see Swensson A. et al., 1959), 313 Lunin, J. (1960), 337, 338 -et al. (1960, 1964), 338 -et al. (1963), 336 Lunt, O.R. et al. (1956), 329 -(see Frolich, E. et al., 1966), 342 Lunz, R.G. (1938, 1942), 281 Lyle, W.E. (see Moubry, R.J. et a!., 1968), 320 Lynch, J.J. eta!. (1947), 24 Lynch, M.P. (see Harrison, W. eta!., 1964), 279 Lyon, W.S. (see Wallace, R.A. et al., 1971), 72, 173, 240, 252 Maag, D.D. (1967), 316 Mace, H.H. (1953), 142 Macek, K.J. (1968), 184, 437 (1970), 420-423, 425, 428, 438 -(unpublished data, 1971), 184 Macklin, L.J. (see Romoser, J.L. et a!., 1961), 311, 316 Macklis, L. (1941), 340 Machenthun, K.M. (1963), 55 (1967), 17, 18 (1969), 17, 35 (1970), 302 -et al. (1960), 20 -(see Keup, L.E. et al., 1967), 35 Machin, J.G. (1961), 124, 281 Machle, W. (1948), 62 Maddox, D.M. et al. (1971), 26 Madsen, M.A. (see Harris, L.E. et al., 1963), 312 Magistad, O.C. et al. (1943), 324, 336 Magnusson, H.W. (1950), 38 Mahan, J.N. (see Fowler, D.L. et al., 1971), 434 Mahood, R.K. et a!. (1970), 489 Malacea, I. (1963), 452 (1966), 450, 451, 455, 464 Malaney, G.W. (1959), 252 -et al. (1962), 301, 302 Malcolm, J.F. (see Fraser, M.H. et al., 1956), 57 Malcolm, R.L. et al. (1970), 25 Malherbe, H.H. (1967), 92 Malishevskaya, A.S. et al. (1966), 313 Mallman, W.L. (see Litsky, W. et al., 1953), 31 Malone, F.E. (1960), 1 Maloney, T.E. (1955), 453 -(see Erickson, S.J. et al., 1970), 268, 505 Malous, R. et al. (1972), 135 Mandelli, E.F. (1969), 87 Manheim, F.T. et al. (1970), 281 Mann, K.H. (1970), 254 Martny, B.A. (1971, 1972), 25 Mansueti, R.J. (1962), 279 Manzke, H. (see Simon C. et al., 1964), 73 Maramorosch, K. (1967), 91 Marchetti, R. (1965), 190 Margalef, R. (1958), 408 Margaria, R. (see Van Slyke, D.D. et al., 1934), 138 Marion, J.R. (1971), 248 Marisawa, M. (1969), 400 Marking, L.L. (1967), 435 Marsh, M. (see Drinker, K.R. et al., 1927), 317 -(see Thompson, P.K. et al., 1927), 317 Marsh, M.C. (1904), 135 Marshall, A.R. (1968), 279 Marshall, R.R. (1968), 124 Marsson, M. (1908, 1909), 408 Martin, A.C. (1939), 25 Martin, D.J. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1972), 225 Martin, E.C. (1969), 124 Martin, J.H. et al. (in press, 1972), 252 -(see Anderlini, V.C. et al., 1972), 226, 246 -(see Conners, P.G. et al., 1972a), 226 Martin, R.G. (1968), 8, 441 Martin, S.S. (see Sigler, W.F. et al., 1966), . 248, 453 Masch, F.D. (1967), 281, 282 (1969, 1970), 403 Mascoluk, D. (see Addison, R.F. et al., 1971), 254 Masironi, R. (1969), 68 Mason, J.A. (1962), 36 Author lndex/549 ~ason, J.W. (see Rowe, D.R. et al., 1971), 266 Mason, K.E. (1967), 311 Mason, W.P. (1910), 69 Massey, F.J., Jr. (1951), 408 Mathews, D.C. (see Hiatt, R.W. et al., 1953), 245, 246, 462 Mathis, B.J. (1968), 144 Mathis, W. (see Schoof, H.F. et al., 1963), 174 Matrone, G. (see Hathcock, J.N. et al., 1964), 316 -(see Hill, C.H. et al., 1963), 311 Matson, W.R. (see Bender, M.E. et a!., 1970), 179 Matsuzaka, J. (see Huratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Mattenheimer, H. (1966), 438 Matingly, D. (1962), 438 Maulding, J .S. (1968), 89 -(see Black, A.P. et a!., 1963), 63 -(see Singley, J.E. et al., 1966), 63 Maurer, D. (see Melous, R. eta!., 1972), 135 Mayer, F.L., Jr. (1970), 184 (1972), 176 Meade, R.H. (1969), 281 -(see Manheim, F.T. eta!., 1970), 281 Meagher, J.W. (1967), 348 Medcof, J .C. (1962), 38 -(see Gibbard, J. et al., 1942), 36 Medvinskaya, K.G. (1946), 89 Meehan, O.L. (1931), 243 Meeks, R.L. (see Eberhardt, L.L. et al., 1971), 439 Megregian, S (see Butterfield, C.T. et a!., 1943), 55 Mehran, A.H. (1965), 479 Mehring, A.L., Jr. (see Johnson, D., Jr. et al., 1962), 316,317 Mehrle, P.M. (1970), 438 (unpublished, 1971), 176 Meiller, F.J. (1941), 60 Meiman, J.R. (1967), 39 Meinck, F. et al. (1956), 145, 241, 243, 250, 251, 450, 455 Meith, S.J. (1970), 464 -(see Hazel, C.R. et al., 1971), 187 Meloy, T.P. (1971), 262 Menzel, B.W. (1969) 152 Menzel, D.B. (1967), 251, 462-465 -(see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1972), 225 Menzel, R.G. (1965), 332 -(personal communication, 1972), 332 -et al. (1963), 332 Menzie, C.M. (1969), 80 Mercer, W.A. (1971), 302 The Merck, Index of Chemicals & Drugs (1952), 65 (1960), 70, 72, 86, 241 Merilan, C.P. (1958), 314 Merkens, J.C. (1952), 464 (1955, 1957), 187 (1958), 189, 452 Merlini, M. (1967), 474, 475 Merna, J.W. (unpublished data, 1971), 422 Merrell, J.C. et al. (1967), 352 550/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Merriman, D. et al. (1965), 157 Merritt, M.C. (see Lockhart, E.E. et al., 1955), 61, 89 Mertz, W. (1967), 311 (1969), 62 Metcalf, R.L. et al. (1971), 438 Metcalf, T.G. (1968), 276 -(see Hasty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278 -(see Slanetz, L.W. eta!., 1965), 276 Metzler, D.W. (see Coburn, D.R. et a!., 1951), 228 Meyer, K.F. (1937), 38 Meyers, J.J. eta!. (1969), 32 Miale, J.B. (1972), 73 Michapoulos, G. (see Papavassiliou, J. eta!., 1967), 57 Michel, R. (1942), 380 Michigan Dept. of Agriculture (personal communications, 1970), 184 Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources (1969), 261 (1970), 14 Middaugh, D.P. (see Mahood, R.K. et a!., 1970), 489 Middlebrooks, E.J. (see Goldman, J.C. eta!., 1971),23 Middleton, F.M. (1956, 1961b), 75 (1960, 1.961a), 74 (1962), 80 -(see Braus, R. eta!., 1951), 74 -(see Burttschel, R.H. eta!., 1959), 80 -(see also Rosen, A.A. et al., 1956), 75 Mienke, W.M. (1962), 240 Miettinen, J.K. (see Miettinen, V. et a!., 1970), 172-174 Miettinin, V. eta!. (1970), 172-174 Mihara, Y. (1967), 328 Mihursky, J.A. (1967), 152 Mikolaj, P.G. (1971 ), 262 Milbourn, G.M. (1965), 332 Miles, A.A. (1966), 321 Millar, J.D. (1965), 149 Millemann, R.E. (1969), 491, 495 -(see Buchanan, D.V. eta!., 1969), 267, 495 -(see Butler, P.A. eta!., 1968), 495 -(see Stewart, N.E. et al., 1967), 495 Miller, C.W. eta!. (1967), 346 Miller Freeman Publications (undated), 382 Miller, J.P. (see Leopold, L.B. et al., 1964), 22, 126 Miller, J.T. (see Byers, H.G. eta!., 1938), 316 Miller, M.A. (1946), 463 Miller, R.R. (1961), 27 Miller, R.W. (in press), 135 Miller, V.L. eta!. (1961), 313 Miller, N.J. (1971), 310 Millikan, C.R. (1947), 435 (1949), 344 Milne, D.B. (1971), 316 Milner, J.E. (1969), 56 Minakami, S. (see Yoshimura, H. et a!., 1971), 83 Miner, M.L. (see Shupe, J.L. et al., 1964), 312 Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries & Food (1967), 273 Ministry of Mansport, Canada (1970); 262, 263 Minkina, A.L. (1946), 249 Minter, K.W. (1964), 144 Mironov, O.G. (1967), 261 (1971 ), 261 Mitchell, G.E. et al. (1967), 315 Mitchell, H.H. (1962), 304 Mitchell, I. (see Courtney, K.D. eta!., 1970), 79 -(see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Mitchell, J.D. (see Miegler, D.J. et al., 1970), 315 Mitchell, T.J. (1969), 273 Mitchener, M. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1968a), 312 -(see Schroeder, H.A. eta!., 1968b), 309 Mitrovic, U.U. eta!. (1968), 191, 460 -(see Brown, V.M. et al., 1968), 468 Mizuno, N. (1968), 344 Mock, C.R. (1967), 279 Modin, J.C. (1964), 267 Moeller, H.C. (1962, 1964 ), 78 -(see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78 Moffet, J.W. (1957), 27 Modin, J.C. (1969), 37 Moiseev, P.A. (1964), 244 Molinaii, V. (see Deschiens, R. et al., 1957), 467 Mollison, W.R. (1970), 434 Molnar, G.W. (1946), 32 Monk, B.W. (see Ebel, W.J. eta!., 1970), 161 -(see Ebel, W.J. et al., 1971), 137 Mood, E.W. (1968), 33 Moon, C.E. (see Emery, R.M. et al., 1972), 20 Moorby, J. (1963), 332 Moore, B. (1959), 30, 31 Moore, D.P. (see Kerridge, P.C. et al., 1971), 338 Moore, E.W. (1951), 246 (1952, 1958), 89 Moore, H.B. (see McNultey, J.K. et a!., 1967), 279 Moore, J.A. (1971), 79 Moore, M.J. (1971), 302 Moore, P.D. (see Allaway, W.H. eta!., 1966), 345 Moore, R.L. (1960), 18 Moore, W.A. (see Black, H.H. eta!., 1957), 450 Moreng, R.E. (see Kienholz, E.W. et a!., 1966), 315 Morgan, G.B. (1961), 256 Morgan, J.J. (1962), 130 Morgan, J.M. (1969), 60 Morgan, R. (see Amend, D.R. et a!., 1969), 462 Mori, T. (1955), 477 Morikawa, Y. (see Kuratsune, M. et a!., 1969), 83 Morris, B.F. (1971), 257 Morris, H.D. (1949), 344 Morris, J.C. (1962), 80 (1971), 92 -(see Fair, G.M. eta!., 1948), 55 Morris, J.N. (1967), 70 -(see Crawford, M.D. eta!., 1968), 68 Morris, M.J. (1956), 305 Morris, V.C. (1970), 86 Morrison, F.B. (1936, 1959), 305 Morrison, S.R. (see Mount, L.E. et al., 1971 ), 305 Mortimer, C.H. (1941), 21 Mosley, J.W. (1964a,b), 36 (1967), 91 (1969), 277 -(see Koff, R.S. et a!., 1967), 36 Mosley, W.H. (see Chin, T.D.Y. et al., 1967), 91 Matt, J.C. (1948), 453 Motz, L.H. (1970), 403 Moubry, R.J. et al. (1968), 320 Moulton, F.R. (1942), 66 Mount, D.I. (1964), 467 (1965), 121 (1966), 68, 179, 460 (1967), 120-122, 184, 185, 425, 431, 434, 435, 469 (1968), 120, 122, 180, 184, 234, 454 (1969), 180, 454, 463 (1970), 160, 171 -(unpublished, 1971), 173, 174 -(personal communications, 1971 ), 173 Mount, L.E. eta!. (1971), 305 Mt. Pleasant, R.C. (1971 ), 55 Moxon, A.L. (1936), 309 (1937), 316 Mrak, E.M. (1969), 182, 185 Mrowitz, G. (see Simon, C. et al., 1964), 73 Mueting, L. (1951), 350 Mugler, D.J. et al. (1970), 315 Muhrer, M.E. (see Bloomfield, R.A. et al., 1961), 315 Mulawka, S.T. (see Pringle, B.H. et al., 1968), 38, 246, 247 Mulbarger, M. (see Barth, E.F. et al., 1966), 55 Mulhern, B.M. et al. (1970), 227 -et al. (1971 ), 176 -(see Krantz, W.C. et al., 1970), 266 Mullen, R.N. (see Atherton, H.V. et al., 1962), 302 Muller, G. (1955, 1957), 351 Mulligan, H.F. (1969), 25 -(see Lathwell, D.J. et al., 1969), 24 Mullison, W.R. (1966), 79 Mullin, J.B. (1956), 245 Mullison, W.R. (1970), 183 Mulvihill, J.E. et al. (1970), 310 Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (1965), 278 (1968), 282 Munson, J. (1947), 340 Murata, I. et al. (1970), 60 Muratori, A., Jr. (1968), 34 Murda!, G.R. (see Moubry, R.J. et al., 1968), 320 Murdock, H.R. (1953), 250, 253, 256, 455 Murie, M. (1969), 400 Murozumi, M. et al. (1969), 249 Murphy, W.H. et al. (1958), 350 Murphy, W.H., Jr. et al. (1958), 350 Murphy, W.J. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956), 29 Murray, G.D. (see Breed, R.S. et al., 1957), 321 Musil, J. (1957), 56 Muss, D.L. (1962), 68 Mussey, O.D. (1957), 380 Muth, O.H. (1963), 316 -(see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1966), 345 -(see Oldfield, J.E. et al., 1963), 86 Myers, L.H. (see Law, J.P. et al., 1970), 353 McAllister, F.F. (see Meyers, J.J. et al., 1969), 32 McAllister, W.A. (1970), 420, 422, 423, 425, 428 MacArthur, J.W. (1961), 408 MacArthur, R.H. (1961, 1964, 1965), 408 McBride, J.M. (see Sparr, B.l. et al., 1966), 346 McCabe, L.J. (1970), 70 -et a!. (1970), 56 -(see Winton, E.F. et al., 1971), 73 McCall, J.T. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1957), 307 McCance, R.A. (1952), 304 McCarthy, E.D. (see Han, J. et al., 1968), 145 McCarthy, H. (1961), 26 McCauley, R.N. (1964), 145 McCauley, R.W. (1958), 418 (1963), 416 McClure, F.J. (1949), 310 (1953), 66 McComish, T.S. (1971), 154, 160 McConneli,R.J. (1970), 415,416,419 McCormick, J.H. et al. (1971), 154, 160 McCormick, W.C. (see Silvey, J.K.G. et al., 1950), 74, 89 McCrea, C.T. (see Harbourne, J.F. et al., 1968), 313 McCroan, J.E. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956), 29 McCulloch, W.F. (1966), 29 -(see Crawford, R.D. eta!., 1969), 321 McDermott, G.N. (see Booth, R.L. et a!., 1965), 75 -(see English, J.N. et al., 1963), 34, 148 -(see Surber, E.W. eta!., 1965), 148 McDermott, N.G. (see Black, H.H. et a!., 1957), 450 MacEachern, C.R. (see Chisholm, D. et a!., 1955), 340 McElroy, W.D. (see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944a), 135 -(seeHarvey,E.N.etal., 1944b), 135,136 McEntee, K. (1950), 319 (1962), 314 (1965), 315 -(see Davison, K.L. eta!., 1964), 314 MacFarlane, R.B. (see Harriss, R.C. et a!., 1970), 173 McFarren, E.F. eta!. (1965), 38 McGovock, A.M. (1932), 138 McGirr, J.L. (1953), 319 McGrath, H.J.W. (see Hopkins, C.L. et al., 1966), 184 Mclllwain, P.K. (1963), 315 Macinnes, J.R. (see Calabrese, A. et a!., unpublished), 250, 253, 255 Maclntire, W.H. et a!. (1942), 343 Mcintosh, D.L. (1966), 349 Mcintosh, I.G. eta!. (1943), 315 -(see Grimmett, R.E.R. eta!., 1937), 316 Mcintosh, R.P. (1967), 408 Mcintyre, C.D. (1968), 165 McKee, J.E. (1963), 2, 55,-74, 144,177, 179, 189, 241, 255, 308-314, 317, 321, 339, 380 McKee, M.T. eta!. (1958), 196 McKendw, J.B.J. (see Armstrong, J.G. et a!., 1958), 315 MacKenzie, A.J. (see Menzel, R.G. et a!., 1963), 332 McKenzie, M.D. (see Mahood, R.K. et a!., 1970), 489 MacKenzie, R.D. et a!. (1958), 62 McKim, J.M. (1971), 120, 122 -(unpublished data, 1971), 180 McKinley, P.W. (see Malcolm, R.L. et a!., 1970), 25 McKnight, D.E. (1970), 196 McLaran, J.K. (see Clark, D.E. et al., 1964), 320 MacLean, A. (1939), 61 MacLean, A.J. (see Halstead, R.L. et a!., 1969), 344 McLean, E.D. (see Shoemaker, H.E. et al., 1961), 340 McLean, G.W. (see Pratt, P.F. eta!., 1964), 339 McLean, W.R. (1962), 36 MacLeod, J.C. (see Smith, L.L., Jr. et a!., 1965), 218 McLoughlin, T.E. (1957), 451, 457, 461 McManus, R.G. (1953), 56 McNabb, C.D. (see Mackenthun, K.M. eta!., 1960), 20 McNary, R.R. (see Kehoe, R.A. et al., 1940), 70 McNeil, W.J. (1956), 139 McNultey, J.K. eta!. (1962), 279 MacPhee, A.W. (see Chisholm, D. et a!., 1955), 340 McQuillan, J. (1952), 57 McRae, G.N. (1959, 1960), 347 N AS (see National Academy of Sciences) NCRP (see National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements) NMWOL (see National Marine Water Quality Laboratory) NRC (see National Research Council) Nagai, J. (see Yoshimura, H. eta!., 1971), 83 Nair, J.H., III (1970), 424, 427 Nakagawa, S. (see Murata, I. eta!., 1970), 60 Nakatani, R.E. (1967), 137, 468 Narf, R.P. (1968), 18 Narver, D.W. (1970), 154 Nason, A.P. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1967), 245 -(see Schroeder, H.A. eta!., 1968a), 312 Natelson, S. (1968), 438 National Academy of Engineering Author lndex/551 Committee on Ocean Engineering (1970), 274 National Academy of Sciences (1969), 19, 172 Committee on Effects of Atomic Radia- tion on Oceanography and Fisheries (1957), 38 National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council (1957), 271 (1959a,b; 1962), 273 (1961), 270-273 (1972), 70 Committee on Oceanography (1970), 220, 222, 274 Committee on Pollution (1966), 4 National Council for Streams Improvement (1953), 249 National Marine Water Quality Laboratory (1970), 505, 507 (1971), 268 National Radiation Protection and Measure- ments (1959), 273 National Research Council Agricultural Board (1968), 348 Committee on Animal Nutrition (1966), 306 (1968a), 305, 311, 312, 317 (1968b), 305, 30~ 312 (1970), 306, 311, 314 (1971a), 305, 312, 315 (1971b), 306, 311, 317 Committee on Biologic Effects of At- mospheric Pollutants (1972), 313, 343 National Research Council Committee on Oceanography (1971), 241 Food & Nutrition Board (1954), 88 National Water Quality Laboratory (1971), 154, 160 Naughton, J.J. (see Hiatt, R.W. et ai., 1953), 245, 246, 462 Naumova, M.K. (1965), 62 Neal, W. (see Castell, C.H. et al., 1970), 462, 463 Neal, W.B. (see Ducoff, H.S. et al., 1948), 56 Nebeker, A.V. (1964), 434, 453 (1971), 133, 138, 164 -eta!. (1971), 177 -(see Gaufin, A.R. et al., 1965), 195 Needham, P.R. (1938), 408 Needler, A.W.H. (see Gibbard, J. et al., 1942), 36 Neeley, H.C. (1970), 174 Nehring, D. (1963), 256 Neil, J .H. (1956, 1957), 464 Neill, W.H., Jr. et al. (1966), 413 Neller, J.R. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1951, 1957), 307 Nelson, A.A. (see Fitzhugh, O.G. et al., 1944), 86 Nelson, C. (see Page, A.L. et al., in press, 1972), 342 Nelson, D.A. (see Calabrese, A. et al., un- published), 250, 253, 255 Nelson, D.J. (1964), 471 Nelson, D.L. (see Olson, O.E. et al., 1963), 315 552/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Nelson, N. (1971), 173, 174 Nelson, T. (see Gaufin, A.R. et al., 1965), 195 Nelson, T.S. et al. (1962), 316 Nematollahi, J. et al. (1967), 174,175 Nesheim, M.G. (1961), 86 Neuhold, J.M. (1960), 454 -(see Angelovic, J.W. et al., 1961), 249 -(see Mayer, F.L., Jr. et al., 1970), !84 Neumann, E.D. (see Holland, G.A. et al., 1960), 242, 246, 247, 451, 452, 461, 463- 465 Nueshul, M. (see Foster, M. et al., 1970), 258 -(see North, W.J. et al., 1965), 145 Nevitt, G.A. (see Galagan, D.J. et al., 1957), 66 New Scientist (1966), 83 Newburgh, L.H. (1949), 32 Newland, H.W. (1964), 315 Newland, L.W. (see Lotse, E.G. et al., 1968), 183 Newmann, A.L. (see Jordan, H.A. et al., 1961), 315 Newmann, E.A. (see Buchler, E.V. et al., 1971), 67 Newton, M.E. (1967), 147 (1971), 149 -(see Basch, R.E. et al., 1971), 189 -(see Fetterholf, C.M., 1970), 18 Nichols, M.S. (1956), 250 Nicholson, H.P. (see Feltz, H.R. et al., 1971), 183 Niehaus, J.F. (1967), 91, 92 Nielsen, N.O. (see Wobeser, G. et al., 1970), 173, 251 Nielson, K. et al. (1965), 79 Nielson, R.L. (see Mcintosh, I.J. et al., 1943), 315 Nielson, S.S. (1939), 463, 464, 467 Nilsson, R. (1969), 245 (1970), 179 (1971), 74 Nimmo, D.R. (unpublished data), 485, 505 -et al. (1970), 267 -et al. (1971), 176, 268 Nishizumi, M. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Noble, R.G. (1964), 419 Nockles, C.F. (see Kienholz, E.W. et al., 1966),315 Noddack, I. (1939), 243 Noddack, W. (1939), 243 Nogawa, K. (1969), 60 Nollendorfs, V. (1969), 342 Nordell, E. (1961), 130, 380 Norgen, R.L. (see Miller, C.W. et al., 1967), 346 Norman, N.N. (1953), 351 North, W.J. (1958), 250 (1960), 247, 248, 252, 462 (1967), 237, 258 -et al. (1965), 145 Norton, William R. (see Sonnen, Michael B. et al., 1970), 39 Notomi, A. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83 Nuclear-Chicago Corp. (1967), 437 Nutrition Reviews (1966a,b), 312 Nyborg, M. (1971a), 339 (1971b), 344 O'Conner, D.J. (1965), 277, 403 (1970), 403 -(see Di Toro, D.M. et al., 1971), 277 O'Conner, O.T. et al. (1964), 179 O'Cuill, T. (1970), 313 O'Donovan, D.C. (1965), 301 O'Donovan, P.B. et al. (1963), 312 Odum, E.P. (1960), 469 Odum, H.T. (1967, 1971), 220 Oertli, J.J. (1962), 343 Officers of the Department of Agriculture & the Government Chemical Laboratories (1950), 308 Ogata, G. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1968), 335 Ogata, M. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Oglesby, R.T. (1969), 20 Oguri, M. (1961), 465, 469, 470, 475-478 O'Hara, J.L. (1959), 344 Ohio River Valley Sanitation Commission (see ORSANCO), 57 Ohio River Valley Water Commission (1950), 462, 464 -(see also ORSANCO) Oki, K. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Okun, D.A. (see Fair, G.M. et al., 1968), 275 Olcott, H.S. (see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1972), 225 Old, H.N. (1946), 36 Oldfield, J.E. et al. (1963), 86 -(see Allaway, W.H. et al., 1966), 345 Oliff, W.D. (1969), 455 Oliver, H. (see Sautet, J. et al., 1964), 461 Oliver, R.P. (1966), 301 Olivier, H. (see Sautet, J. et al., 1964), 243 Oliver, L. (1949), 18 Olsen, J.S. (see Bowen, V.T. et al., 1971), 240 Olson, O.E. (1957), 308 (1967), 86 -et al. (1963), 315 -(see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308 -(see Halverson, A.W. et al., 1962), 316 -(see Krista, L.M. et al., 1961), 195, 308 -(see Seerley, R.W. et al., 1965), 315 Olson, P.A. (1956, 1958), 180 Olson, R.A. et al. (1941), 249 Olson, T.A. (1967), 220, 222 Olsson, M. (1969), (see Jensen, S.A. et al., 1969), 83,198,226,264,267,268 -(see Jensen, S.A. et al., 1970), 177 Olsson, S. (see Jensen, S.A. et al., 1969), 175, 176 Ontario Water Resources Commission, (1970), 380 Orlob, Gerald T. (see Sonnen, Michael B. et al., 1970), 39 Ormerod, P.J. (1958), 344 Orr, L.D. (1969), 122, 187,242,451 ORSANCO (1950), 254 (1955), 245 (1960), 244, 249 (1971), 188 Water Users Committee (1971), 57, 352 Orsanco Quality Monitor (1969), 34 Orthlieb, F.L. (1971), 258 Oseid, D. (1971), 193 Oshima, S. (1931), 250, 251, 455 Osmun, J. V. (see Sparr, B. I. et al., 1966), 346 Osterberg, C.L. (1969), 479 -(see Bowen, V.T. et al., 1971), 240 -(see Cross, F.A. et al., 1968), 479 Ostroff, A.G. (1965), 395 Otis, C.H. (1914), 25 Ott, E.A. et al. (1965, 1966b,c,d), 317 -et al. (1966a), 316 Otter, H. (1951), 352 Otterlind, G. (1969), (see Gensen, S.A. et al., 1969),83, 175,176,198,226,264,267,269 Outboard Boating Club of America (1971), 34 Owens, M. et al. (1969), 24 Owens, R.D. (see Shirley, R.L. et al., 1950), 314 PHS (see also U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service) (1962), 70, 90 Packer, R.A. (1972), 321 Packham, R.F. (1965), 63 Paden, W.R. (see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340 Paez, L.J.P. (see Trelles, R.A. et al., 1970), 56 Page, A.L. et al. (in press, 1971 ), 343 -et al. (1972), 342 -(see Bingham, F.T. et al., 1964), 343 Page, N.R. (1967), 345 Pahren, H.R. (see Black, H.H. et al., 1957), 450 Palensky, --(unpublished data), 147, 148, 149 -(unpublished, 1971), 147, 148 Pallotta, A.J. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Palmer, C.M. (1955), 453 Palmer, H.E. (1967), 473 Palmer, I.S. (see Halverson, A.W. et al., 1966), 316 Palmork, K.H. (see Jensen, S. et al., 1970), 268 Papageorge, W.B. (1970), 175, 176, 205 Papavassiliou, J. et al. (1967), 57 Papworth, D.S. (1953, 1967), 319 Parchevsky, V.P. (set Polikarpav, G.G., 1967), 471, 473, 475 Parente, W.D. (unpublished data, 1970), 412, 414, 416 Paris, J.A. (1820), 55 Parizek, J. (1960), 310 Parker, C.A. (see Freegarde, M. et al., 1970), 261 Parker, F.L. (1969), 152, 403 (1969a), 152 Parker, H.E. (1965, 1966d), 317 -(see Ott, E.A. et al., 1966c), 317 Parker, R.R. et al. (1951), 321 Parrish, P.R. (see Hansen, D.J. et al., 1971), 176, 177, 505 -(see Lowe, J.l. et al., 1971), 267 -(see Lowe, J.l. et al., 1971a), 489 Parsons, T.R. (1968), 241 Patrick, R. (1951), 408 (1968), 120 -(unpublished data, 1971), 180 -et al. (1954), 116 -et al. (1968), 119 -(see Dourdoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121 Patras, D. (1966), 29 Patrick,--(1971), 190 Patrick, R. (1949, 1966), 22 -et al. (1967), 22 -et al. (1968), 451,452,454,457,458, 460 Patt, J.M. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60 Patten, B.C. (1962), 408 Patterson, C. (1966), 249 -(see Murozumi, M. et al., 1969), 249 Patterson, W.L. (1968), 90 Pauley, G.B. (1967), 137 (1968), 468 Pavelis, G.A. (1963), 302 Payne, J.E. (see Kaplan, H.M. et al., 1967), 464 Payne, W.L. (see Hill, C.H. et al., 1963), 311 Payne, W.W. (1963), 56, 75 Peakall, D.B. (1968), 266-268 (1970), 175, 226 (1971), 226 -et al. (in press, 1972), 225, 226 -(see Risebrough, R.W. et al., 1968), 83, 175, 198, 264 Pearce, G.W. (see Dale, W.E. et al., 1963), 76 -(see Schoof, H.F. et al., 1963), 174 Pearce, J.B. (1969), 277 (1970), 222 (1970a), 279, 281, 282 (1970b), 279-281 (1970c), 280 (1971), 280 Pearson, E.A. (see Gill, J.M. et al., 1960), 455 Pearson, G.A. (in press, 1972), 353 Pearson, R.E. (1972), 160 Pease, D.C. (1947), 136 -(seeHarvey, E.N. et, al., 1944a), 135 -(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 316 -(see Harvey, E.N. et al., 1944b), 135, 316 Peck, S.M. (1943), 83 Pecor, C. (1969), 184 Peech, M. (1941), 345 Peek, F.W. (1965), 160 Peeler, H.T. (see Nelson, T.S. et al., 1962), 316 Peirce, A.W. (1957, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1966, 1968a, 1969b), 307 Pelzman, R.J. (1972), 27 Penfound, W.T. (1948), 27 (1953), 26 Pensack, J.M. (1958), 316 Pennsylvania Fish Commission (1971), 160 Pensinger, R.R. (1966), 313 Pentelow, F.T.K. (1935), 147 (1936), 148 Peoples, S.A. (1964), 309 -(see Ziveig, G. et al., 1961), 320 Pepper, S. (see Thorhaug, H. et al., 1972), 238 Peretz, L.G. (1946), 89 Perkins, P.J. (see Hunter, B.F. et al., 1970), 196 Perlmutter, A. (1968), 460 (1969), 468 Perrin, F. (1963), 332 Persson, J. (see Aberg, B. ~t al., 1969), 313, 314 Persson, P.l. (see Johnels, A.G. et al., 1967), 172, 17~ Peterle, T.J. (see Eberhardt, L.L. et al., 1971), 439 Peterson, L.A. (see Struckmeyer, B.E. et al., 1969), 342 Peterson, N.L. (1951), 89 Peterson, P.J. (1961), 316 Peterson, S.A. (1971), 26 Peter, J.B. (see Rozen, A.A. et al., 1962), 80 Peters, J. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Peters, J.C. (1964), 124 Petrucelli, L. (see Innes, J .R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Petukhov, N.J. (1970), 73 Pfander, W.H. (1963), 315 Pfitzenmeyer, H.T. (1970), 279 -(see Flemer, D.A. et al., 1967)., 279, 281 Pickering, Q.H. (1959), 458 (1962), 429, 431 (1965), 451, 452, 455-457, 460 (1966), 145,180-182,190,453,455,456, 460 (1968), 182, 460 -et al. (1962), 184, 423-426, 430 -(unpublished, 1971), 180, 181 -(in press), 179, 180 -(see Henderson, C. et al., 1959); 420-422 -(see Henderson, C. et al., 1960), 190, 450 Pickett, R.A. (see O'Donovan, P.B. et al., 1963), 312 Pickford, G.E. (1968), 438 Piech, K.R. (see Sundaram, T.R. et al., 1969), 403 Pielou, E.G. (1966, 1969), 408 Pierce, P.E. (see Curley, A. et al., 1971), 313 Pierce, R.S. (see Likens, G.E. et al., 1970), 125 Pierre, W.H. (1932), 340 (1949), 344 Pierron, A. (1937), 455 Pillsbury, A.F. (1965), 335 (1966), 332, 335 -(see Reeve, R.C. et al., 1955), 334 Pillsbury, D.M. (1939, 1957), 87 Pimentel, D. (1971), 185 Pinchot, G.B. (1967), 80 Pinkerton, C. (1966), 318 Pinder, H.E. (see Merrell, J.C. et al., 1967), 352 Pinto, S.S. (1963), 56 Piper, C.S. (1939), 342 Pippy, J.H.C. (1969), 239 Pirkle, C.l. (see Hayes, W.J., Jr. et al., 1971), 76,77 Author lndex/553 Plantin, L.O. (see Birke, J. et al., 1968), 252 Platonow, N. (1968), 313 Plotkin, S.A. (1967), 91 Plumlee, M.P. (see O'Donovan, P.B. et al., 1963), 312 Plummer, P.J.G. (1946), 315 Podubsky, V. (1948), 253, 450 Polgar, T.T. (see Saila, S.B. etal., 1968), 278 Policastro, A.J. (in press), 403 Polikarpov, G.G. (1966), 240 -et al. (1967), 471, 473, 475 Polk, E.M., Jr. (1949), 403 Poltoracka, J. (1968), 165 Pomelee, C.S. (1953), 310, 462 Pomeroy, L.R. et al. (1965), 281 Ponat, A. (see Theede, H. et al., 1969), 193, 256 Pond, S. (see Addison, R.F. et al., 1971), 254 Porcella, D.B. (see Goldman, J.C. et al., 1971), 23 Porges, R. et al. (1952), 11 Porter, R.D. (1970), 197, 198,226 Portmann, J.E. (1968), 454-456, 460 Postel, S. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60 Potts, A.M. et al. (1950), 60 Potter, V. (1935), 86 Powers, E.B. (1943), 139 Prakash, A. (1962), 38 Prasad, G. (1959), 458 Pratt, H.M. (see Faber, R.A. et al., 1972), 227 Pratt, M.W. (see Chapman, W.H. et al., 1968), 173 Pratt, P.F. (1966), 329, 340 (1969), 335 -et al. (1964), 339 -et al. (1967), 334 -(see Shoemaker, H.E. et al., 1961), 340 Prentice, E.F. (see Becker, C.D. et al., 1971), 161 Preston, A. (1967), 471 Prevost, G. (1960), 441 Prewitt, R.D. (1958), 314 Price, H.A. (1971), 83 Price, T.J. (see Duke, T.W. et al., 1966), 472, 479 Prier, J.E. (1966), 322 (1967), 92 Prince, A.L. et al. (1949), 343 Pringle, B.H. (1969), 451, 462, 463 (in press, 1972), 451 -(unpublished data), 250, 465 -et al. (1968), 38, 246, 247 Pritchard, D.W. (1971), 168, 169, 403 Proust, J.L. (1799), 72 Prouty, R.M. (see Blus, L.J. et al., 1972), 227 -(see Mulhern, B.M. et al., 1970), 227 Provasoli, L. (1969), 23 Provost, M.W. (1958), 17, 18 Pruter, A.T. (unpublished, 1972), 216 Prytherch, H.F. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1935), 147 Pshenin, L.P. (1960), 256 Public Health Service (see PHS & U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service) Public Works (1967), 33 554/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Publis, F.A. (see Nebeker, A.V. eta!., 1971), 177 Pugh, D.L. (1963), 315 Pulley, T.E. (1950), 242, 450 Purdy, G.A. (1958), 144 Pyefinch, K.A. (1948), 453 Quicke, J. (see Sautet, J. eta!., 1964), 243, 461 Quillin, R. (see Malaney, J.W. et al., 1959), 252 Quinn, J.l. (see Sapiro, M.L. et a!., 1949), 314 Quirk, J.P. (1955), 335 Quortrup, E.R. (1942), 196 Rachlin, J.W. (1968), 460 (1969), 468 Radeleff, R.D. (1970), 319 -(see Claborn, H.V. eta!., 1960), 320 Ragatz, R.L. (1971), 29 Ragotzkie, R.A. (see Rudolfs, W. et al., 1950), 89, 351 Rainwater, F.H. (1960), 51 (1962), 333 Raj, R.S. (1963), 459 Raleigh, R.J. (see Harris, L.E. et a!., 1963), 312 Ralph Stone & Co., Inc., Engineers (1969), 3-99 Ramsay, A.A. (1924), 307 Ramsey, B.A. (1965), 453, 460 Randall, C.W. (1970), 130 Randall, D.J. (1970a), 136 (1970b), 138 Randall, G.B. (see Favero, M.S. eta!., 1964), 31 Randall, J.S. (1956), 57 Raney, E.G. (1969), 152 Raney, F.C. (1959, 1963, 1967), 328 Ranson, G. (1927), 147 Rapp, G.M. (1970), 32, 33 Raski, D.J. (see Hewitt, W.B. et a!., 1958), 349 Rasmussen, G.K. (1965), 340 Ratcliffe, D.A. (1970), 227 Rathbun, E.N. (see Gersh, I. eta!., 1944), 137 Ravera, J. (see Bowen, V.T. eta!., 1971), 240 Rawls, C.K. (1964), 27 Raymount, ].E.G. (1962), 452,453,458 (1963), 453 (1964), 247, 248, 452, 459, 463 Redden, D.R. (see Silvey, J.K.G. et a!., 1950), 74, 89 Redfield, D.C. (1949), 275 (1951), 280 -eta!. (1963), 275 -(see Ketchum, B.H. eta!., 1949), 230, 275 -(see Turner, H.J. eta!., 1948), 247 Reed, D.J. (see Gunn, C.A. eta!., 1971); 40 Reed, J.F. (1936), 340 Rees, J. (personal communication), 175 Reeve, N.G. (1970), 339 Reeve, R.C. et a!. (1955), 334 Regnier, J.E. (1965), 479 Reich, D.J. (1964), 248, 463 Reichel, W.L. (see Bagley, G.E. eta!., 1970), 176 -(see Mulhern, B.M. eta!., 1970, 1971), 227 Reinchenbach-Klinke, H.H. (1967), 187 Reid, B.L. (see Crawford, J.S. et a!., 1969), 315 Reid, D.A. (see Foy, C.D. eta!., 1965), 338 Reid, G.K. (1961), 142 Reid, W.B. (see Fraser, M.H. eta!., 1956), 57 Reimer, C.W. (1966), 22 -(see Benoit, R.J. eta!., 1967), 127 Reinert, R.E. (1970); 184, 197 Reinhard, C.E. (see Anderson, E.A. et a!., 1934), 93 Reisenauer, H.M. (1951), 340 Reish, K. (1955), 464 Renberg, L. (1972), 225, 226 Renfro, W.C. (1933), 135 (1969), 479 Renn, C.E. (1955), 454 -(see O'Conner, O.T. eta!., 1964), 179 Rennenkampff, E.V. (1939), 345 Reuther, W. (1954, 1966), 342 Revelle, R. et a!. (1972), 257, 262 Reynolds, D.M. (see Turner, H.J. et a!., 1948), 247 Reynolds, L.M. (1970), 227 (1971), 175, 176 Reynolds, Reginald (1946), 1 Rhoads, F.M. (1971), 343 Rhoades, J.W. (1965), 149 Rhoades, L.l. (1970), 226 Rice, T.R. (see Lowman, F.G. et a!., 1971), 240, 243, 244, 246-248, 251, 253 Richards, F.A. (1956), 276 -(see Redfield, A. C. eta!., 1963), 275 Richards, F.A. (see Lowman, F.G. et a!., 1971),240,243,244,246-248,251,253 Richardson, R.E. (1913), 145 (1928), 22, 408 Richter, C.P. (1939), 61 Riddick, T.M. et a!. (1958), 69, 71 Rider, J.A. (1962, 1964), 78 -(see Williams, M.W. eta!., 1958), 78 Rieche, P. (1968) (see Risebrough, R.W. et a!., 1968),83, 175,198,264,266-268 Rigler, F.H. (1958), 475 Riley, F. (1971), 221 Riley, G.A. (1952), 230 -(see Cooper, H.P. et a!., 1932), 340 Riley, J.P. (1956), 245 Riley, R. (1967), 92 Ringen, L.M. (see Gillespie, R.W. et a!., 1957), 321 Risebrough, R.W. (1968), 266-268 (1969), 226 (1970), 175, 176 (1972), 226, 266 -(in press, 1972), 226, 227 -eta!. (1968), 83, 175, 198, 226, 227, 264 -et al. (1970), 227 -et a!. (1972), 225 -(see Anderlini, V.C. eta!., 1972), 226, 246, 252 -(see Anderson, D.W. et a!., 1969), 176, 227 -(see Conners, P.G. eta!., in press, 1972b), 226 -(see Faber, R.A. eta!., 1972), 227 -(see Schmidt, T.T. eta!., 1971), 83 -(see Spitzer, P., unpublished), 227 Rissanen, K. (see Miettinen, V. eta!., 1970), 172-174 Ritchie, D.E. (see Flemen, D.A. et al., 1967), 279, 281 Rittinghouse, H. (1956), 196 Roback, S.S. (1965), 456-458 -(see Patrick, R. et al., 1967), 22 Roebeck, G.G. (s:e Hannah, S.A. et a!., 1967), 89 -(see McCabe, L.J. eta!., 1970), 56, 70 Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center (1953), 241 Roberts, H., Jr. (see Menzel, R.G. et a!., 1963), 332 Roberts, M. (see Hunter, C.G. et a!., 1969), 76,77 Roberts, W.K. (1963), 315 Robertson, E.A. (see Bugg, J.C. eta!., 1967), 266, 267 Robertson, W.B., Jr. (see Krantz, W.C. eta!., 1970), 266 Robertson, W.K. (see Shirley, R.L. et a!., 1957), 307 Robins, C.R. (see Lachner, E.A. eta!., 1970), 27 Robinson, J. (1967), 75 -(see Hunter, C.G. eta!., 1969), 75 Robinson, J.G. (1968), 161 (1970), 160 Robinson, J.R. (1952), 304 Robinson, J.W. (see Korschgen, B.M. eta!., 1970), 149 Robinson, L.R. (1963), 63 Robinson, S. (see Chin, T.D.Y. eta!., 1967), 91 Robinson, V.B. (see Imerson, J.L. et a!., 1970), 79 Robinson, W.D. (see Mcintosh, I.G. et a!., 1943), 315 Rodgers, C.A. (1971), 438 -(see Macek, K.J. et a!., 1970), 438 Rodhe, W. (1969), 21 Roessler, M.A. (1972), 238 Rogers, B.A. (see Saila, S.B. eta!., 1968), 278 Rogers, C.F. (see Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934), 317 Rogers, W.B. (see Cooper, H.P. et al., 1932), 340 Rohlich, G.A. (1967), 19 -(see Lawton, G.W. eta!., 1960), 353 -(see Zeller, R.W. eta!., 1971), 403 Romney, E.M. eta!. (1962, 1965), 342 Romoser, G.L. eta!. (1961), 311, 316 Root, D.A. (see Camp, T.R. eta!., 1940), 89 Rosata, P. (1968), 184 Rose, D. (1971), 248 Rosen, A.A. (1956), 75 (1962), 80 (1966), 74 -(see Burttschell, R.H. eta!., 1959), 80 Rosen, C.G. (see Achefors, H. et a!., 1970), 237 -(see Wood, J.M. et al., 1969), 172 Rosen, DE. (1966), 162, 435 Roseneau, D.G. (see Cade, T.J. et al., 1970), 227, 267 Rosenfeld, D. (see Wassermann, M. et al., 1970), 83 Rosenfeld, I. (1964), 316 Rosenfels, R.S. (1939), 340 Rosenthal, H.L. (1957, 1963), 469 Rottiers, D.V: (see Edsall, T.A. et al., 1970), 411 RQunsefell, G.B. (1953), 142 Rourke, G.A. (see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1961), 78 Rowe, D.R. et al. (1971), 266 Rowe, G.T. (see Vaccaro, R.S. et al., 1972), 280 Rowe, V.K. (1954), 79 (1955), 319 Royal Society of London, (1971), 220, 222 Ruber, E. (1971), 485, 491, 493 Rucker, R.R. (1951, 1969), 173 Rudinger, G. (see Sundaram, T.R. et al., 1969), 403 Rudolfs, W. et al. (1950), 351 -et al. (1953), 253 Rudolfs, W. et al. (1950), 89 Rumbsby, M.G. (1965), 246 Russel, J.C. (see Silvey, J.K.G. et al., 1950), 74,89 Russell-Hunter, W.D. (1970), 19 Rust, R.H. (1971), 342 Ruttner, F. (1963), 142 Ruzicka, J.H.A. (1967), 267 Ryther, J.H. (1954), 274, 276 (1969), 216, 217, 264 (1971), 275, 276 SCEP (see Study of Critical Environmental Problem) Soalfeld, R.W. (1956), 164 Sadisivan, V. (1951), 317 Saeki, Y. (see Murata, I. et al., 1970), 60 Saffiotti, U. (see Baroni, C. et al., 1963), 56 Saiki, M. (1955), 477 Saila, S.B. et al. (1968), 278 Salinger, A. (see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278 Salinity Laboratory (1954), 324, 325, 330, 331, 333, 341 -(see also U.S. Department of Agriculture, Salinity Laboratory) Salisbury, R.M. (see Winks, W.R. et al., 1950), 315 Salo, E.O. (1969), 479 Saloman, C.H. (1968), 124, 279 Salotto, B.V. (see Barth, E.F. et al., 1966), 55 Sampson, J. et al. (1942), 316 Sanboorn, N.H. (1945), 450 Sanders, H.L. (1956, 1958), 279 Sanders, H.O. (1966), 420-433, 458, 467 (1968, 1969), 420-433 (1970), 429-432 (in press, 1972), 420-428, 433 -(see Johnson, B.T. et al., 1971), 436-438 Sanders, 0. (1971), 175 Sanders, R.L. (1969), 258 Sanderson, W.W. (1958), 55 (1964), 90 Santner, J.F. (1966), 190 Sapiro, M.L. et al. (1949), 314 Sartor, J.D. (1971), 262 Saruta, N. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Sass, J. (1972), 258, 262 -(see Blumer, M. et al., 1970), 258, 260 Sather, B.T. (1967), 470 Sattlemacher, P.G. (1962),-73 Saunders, D.H. (1959), 342, 344 Saunders, H.O. (1966), 434 -(in press), 176 Saunders, R: (see Johnson, B.T. et al., 1971), 436-438 Saunders, R.L. (1963), 122, 463, 467 (1967), 463, 468 -(see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1964), 463, 467 -(see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1965), 122, 463 Sautet, J. et al. (1964), 243, 461 Saville, P.D. (1967), 312 Savino, F.X. (see Johnson, D. et al., 1962), 316, 317 Sawyer, C.N. (1946), 55 (1947), 20, 22 Sayers, W.T. (see Feltz, H.R. et al., 1971), 183 Sayre, W.W. (1970), 403 Scharrer, K. (1933, 1935), 342 Schaumburg, F.D. et al. (1967), 120 Schaut, G.G. (1939), 193 Schechter, M.S. (1971), 319, 440 Scheier, A. (unpublished data, 1955), 450, 452, 456, 457, 459 (1957), 450, 452, 459 (1958), 68, 145, 182, 452, 456-459 (1959), 452, 456-459 (1963), 190 (1964), 421 (1968), 453, 454, 460 -(see Cairns, J., Jr. et al., 1965), 457 -(see Patrick et al., 1968), 119, 451, 452, 454, 457, 458, 460 Schields, J. (1962), 452, 453 (1963), 453 (1964), 452 Schiffman, R.H. (1958), 452, 457, 462 (1959), 457 Schipper, I.A. (1963), 315 Schisler, D.K. (see Kienholz, E.W. et al., 1966), 315 Schlickenrieder, W. (1971), 55 Schlieper, C. (see Theede, H. et al., 1969), 193, 256 Schmidt, E.L. (see Murphy, W.H. et al., 1958), 350 Schmidt, T.T. et al. (1971), 83 Schneider, C.R. (see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1966), 123, 140, 189, 241, 451, 453, 456, 457, 464 Schneider, Mark (no date), 136, 137 Schneider, P.W., Jr. (see Bouck, G.R. et al., 1971), 137 Schnich, R.A. (see Lennon, R.E. et al., 1970), 440 Schoenthal, N.D. (1964), 184, 459 Author lndex/555 Sehoettger, R.A. (1970), 421, 434 Schofield, R.K. (1955), 335 Scholander, P.F. et al. (1955), 138 Schoof, H.F. et al. (1963), 174 Schoonover, W.R. (1963), 330 Schrieber, R.W. (in press, 1972), 266 -(see Connors, P.G. et al., 1972a), 226 Schroeder, H.H. (1961), 60, 70 (1964), 311, 313 (1965), 60, 311, 313 (1966), 56 (1967), 56, 309, 316 (1968a), 312 (1968b), 309 (1969), 60 (1970), 245 -et al. (1963a), 62, 310, 311, 313 -et al. (1963b), 62, 311 -et al. (1967), 245 Schroepfer, G.J. (1964), 55 Schropp, W. (1933, 1935), 342 Schubert, J.R. (see Oldfield, J.E. et al., 1963), 86 Schults, W.D. (see Wallace, R.A. et al., 1971), 72, 240, 252 Schulz, K.H. (1968), 83 -(see Bauer, H. et al., 1961), 83 Schulz, K.R. (see Lichenstein, E.P. et al., 1966), 318 Schultz, L.P. (1971), 19 Schulze, E. (1961), 148 Schuster, C.N., Jr. (1969), 462, 463 Schwartz, L. (1943), 83 (1960), 86 Schwarz, K. (1971), 316 Schweiger, G. (1957), 250-252 Seiple, G.W. (see Bell, J.F. et al., 1955), 196 Scott, D.P. (1964), 42, 43, 411 Scott, K.G. (1949), 87 Scott, M.L. (1961), 86 (1969, 1970), 316 Scrivner, L.H. (1946), 195, 308 Sculthorpe, C.D. (1967), 24-27 Scura, E.D. (1970), 487 ~eagran, H.L. (1970), 198 Sedlak, V.A. (see Curley, A. et al., 1971), 313 Seerley, R.W. (see Emerick, R.J. et al., 1965), 315 Seillac, P. (1971 ), 342 Seghetti, L. (1952), 321 Selitrennikova, M.B. (1953), 352 Sell, J.L. (1963), 315 Selleck, R.E. (1968), 460 Selleek, B. (see Cotzias, G.C. et al., 1961), 60 Selye, H. (1963), 308 Sepp, E. (1963), 351 Serrone, D.M. (see Stein, A.A. et al., 1965), 76, 77 Servizi, --(unpublished data), 252 Shabalina, A.A. (1964), 462 Shakhurina, E.A. (1953), 352 Shankar, N.J. (1969), 403 Shanklin, M.D. (see Esmay, M.L. et al., 1955), 302 Shannon, C.E. (1963), 408 Shapiro, J. (1964), 63 556/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Shapovalov, L. et al. (1959), 27 Sharp, D.G. (1967), 91 Sharpless, G.G. (see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970), 344 Shaw, J.H. (1954), 66 Shaw, M.D. (1966), 301 Shaw, W.H.R. (1956), 253,451,457 (1967), 465, 466, 468 Sheets, T.J. (1967), 345 -(see Bradley, J.R. et al., 1972), 318 Sheets, W.D. (1957), 465, 467 -(see Malaney, G.W. et al., 1959), 253 Shelbourn, J.E. (see Brett, J.R. et al., 1969), 154, 160 Shelford, V.E. (1913), 135, 137 Shell, E.W. (see Avault, J.W., Jr. et al., 1968), 26 Shelton, R. (see Hosty, T.S. et al. 1970), 278 Shelton, R.G.J. (1971), 144 Shemtab, A. (see Kott, Y. et al., 1966), 245 Shepard, H.H. (see Fowler, D.L. et al., 1971), 434 Shephard, F.P. (1963), 17 Sherk, J.A., Jr. (1971), 229,281,282 Sherman, G.D. (1953), 344 Shields, J. (1962), 458 (1964), 247, 248,459,463 Shigematsu, I. (1970), 245 Shilo, M. (1967), 317 Shimizu, M. (1964), 469 Shimkin, M.B. (see Leone, N.C. et al., 1954), 66 Shimono, 0. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Shiosaki, R. (see England, B. et al., 1967), 92 Shirakata, S. (1966), 135, 137, 138 Shirley, R.L. (1951), 307 (1970), 305 -et al. (1950), 314 -et al. (1957), 307 -et al. (1970), 343 -(see Cox, D.H. et al., 1960), 314 Shoemaker, H.E. et al. (1961), 340 Shoop, C.T. (see Brett, J.R. et al., 1969), 154, 160 Shults, W.D. (see Wallace, R.A. et al., 1971), 173 Shumway, D.L. (1966), 147-149 (1967), 131 (1970), 131, 133, 139, 151 (1971), 270 -(unpublished data, 1971), 147-149 -et al. (1964), 132 -(see Stewart, N.E. et al., 1967), 132 Shupe, J.L. et al. (1964), 312 -(see Harris, L.E. et al., i 963), 312 Shurben, D.G. (see Mitrovic, U.U. et al., 1968), 191 Shurben, D.S. (1960), 187 (1964), 182, 403, 450, 459, 464 Shuster, C.N., Jr. (1969), 451 Sigler, W.F. (1960), 316, 454 (1961), 316 -et al. (1966), 248, 453 -(see Angelovic, J.W. et al., 1961), 249 Sigworth, E.A. (1965), 78 Silva, F.J. (see McFarren, E.F. et al., 1965), .. 38 Silvey, J.K.G. (1953), 74 (1968), 79 -et al. (1950), 74, 89 -et al. (1972), 82 Simmons, H.B. (1971), 411 Simmons, J.H. (see Holmes, D.C. et al., 1967), 175 Simon, C. et al. (1964), 73 Simon, F.P. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60 Simon, J. et al. (1959), 315 Simonin, P. (1937), 455 Simons, G.W., Jr. et al. (1922), 29 Simmons, J.H. (see Holmes, D.C. et al., 1967), 83 Sims, J.R. (1968), 339 Simpson, C.F. (see Damron, B.L. et al., 1969), 313 Sinclair, R.M. (1971), 27 Sincock, John L. (1968), 194 Singley, J.E. et al. (1966), 63 -(see Black, A.P. et al., 1963), 63 Sjostrand, B. (see Berg, W. et al., 1966), 252 -(see Birke, G. et al., 1968), 252 -(see Johnels, A.G. et al., 1967), 172, 173 Skea, J. (see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968), 183, 184, 195 Skidmore, J.F. (1964), 177, 459 Skinner, C.E. (1941), 57 Skirrow, G. (1965), 241 Skoog, F. (see Hansen, 0. et al., 1954), 22 Skougstad, M.W (see Brown, E. et al., 1970), 51 Skrentry, R.F. (see Lichenstein, E.P. et al., 1966), 318 Slantez, L.W. et al. (1965), 276 -(see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278 Slater, D.W. (1971 ), 9 (1972), 8, 9 Siemon, K.W. (see Armstrong, J.G. et al., 1958), 315 Small, L.F. (see Cross, F.A. et al., 1968), 479 -(see Fowler, J.W. et al., 1970), 480 Smith, A.L. (see Lynch, J .J. et al., 1947), 24 Smith, B. (see Costell, C. H. et al., 1970), 462, 463 Smith, D.D. (1969), 278 Smith, E.E. (see Pomeroy, L.R. et al., 1965), 281 Smith, G.S. (see Gordan, H.A. et al., 1961), 315 Smith, H.F. (see Huff, G.B. et al., 1965), 301 Smith, J.E. (1968), 258, 261 Smith, L.L., Jr. (1960), 154 (1967), 193 (1970), 193, 256 (1971), 190, 191, 193 (i.1 press, 1971), 193 -et al. (1965), 128 Smith, L.M. (see Zweig, G. et al., 1961), 320 Smith, M.A. (see Applegate, V.C. et al., 1957), 243 Smith, M.l. (1937, 1941), 86 -et al. (1936), 86 Smith, N.R. (see Breed, R.S. et al., 1957), 321 Smith, O.M. (1944), 65 Smith, P.F. (1954), 342 ~(see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970), 344 Smith, P.W. (1963), 124 Smith, R.O. (see Galtsoff, P.S. et al., 1935), 147 Smith, R.S. et al. (1951, 1952, 1961), 31 Smith, S.H. (1964), 27, 157 Smith, W.E. (1956), 164 (1970), 413 (unpublished data, 1971), 417 Smith, W.H. (see Ott, E.A. et al., 1965; 1966b,c,d), 317 -(see Ott, E.A. et al., 1966a), 316 Smith, W.W. (1944), 89 Smitherman, R.O. (see Avault, J.W., Jr. et al., 1968), 26 Sneed, K.E. (1958, 1959) 173 Snegireff, L.S. (1951), 56 Snihs, J.O. (see Aberg, B. et al., 1969), 313, 314 Snyder, G.R. (1970), 416 Snyder, P.J. (see Rowe, D.R. et al., 1971 ), 266 Soane, B.K. (1959), 342, 344 Sobkowicz, H. (see Falkowska, Z. et al., 1964), 250 Sollman, T.H. (1957), 56, 59, 64 Sollo, F.W., Jr. (see Harmeson, R.H. et al., 1971), 73 Solon, J.M. (1970), 424, 427 Sommer, H. (1937), 38 Sommers, S.C. (1953), 56 Sonis, S. (see Jackim, E. et al., 1970), 244, 255, 451, 454,455, 457, 462, 46\ 466 Sonnen, Michael B. (1967), 399, 400 -et al. (1970), 39 Sonnichsen, J.C. (1971), 403 Sonoda, M. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Sorge, E.F. (1969), 238 Saunders, R.L. (1967), 248 -(see Sprague, J.B. et al., 1965), 248 Sonthgate, B.A. (1948), 249, 255, 467 (1950, 1953), 464 Southward, A.J. (see Corner, E.D.S. et al., 1968), 261 Southward, E.G. (see Corner, E.D.S. et al., 1968), 261 Souza, J. (see Blumer, M. et al., 1970), 258, 260 Soyer, J. (1963), 252, 255, 466 Spafford, W.J. (1941 ), 308 Spann, J.W. et al. (1972), 226 -(see Heath, R.G. et al., 1969), 197, 198, 226 Sparks, A.K. (1968), 38 Sparks, R.E. et al. (1969), 117 Sparling, A.B. (1968), 465 Sparr, B.l. et al. (1966), 346 Sparrow, B.W. (1956), 248, 252, 455 Spector, W.S. (1955), 65 Spencer, N.R. (see Maddox, D.M. et al., 1971), 26 Spiegelberg, U. (see Bauer, H. et al., 1961), 83 Spigarelli, S.A. (1972), 164 Spitsbergen, D. (see Mahood, R.K. et al., 1970), 489 Spitzer, P. (unpublished), 227 Spooner, C.S. (1971), 39 Sprague, J.B. (1963), 240, 463, 467 (1964), 248, 467 (1964a), 179 (1964b), 179, 181 (1965), 122, 240, 248, 453, 460 (1967), 248, 463, 468 (1968), 463, 468 (1968a). 179, 182 (1968b), 179 (1969), 118-122, 189, 234, 404, 424 (1970), 118-120, 145, 234, 254 (1971), 118, 119, 183, 234, 248 --et al. (1964), 463, 467 --et al. (1965), 122, 248, 463 Sproul, O.J. et .. al. (1967, 1972), 92 (1972), 92 Sprunt, A.N. (see Krantz, W.C. et al., 1970), 266 Spurgeon, J.L. (1968), 403 Squire, H.M. (1963), 332 Sreenivasan, A. (1963), 459 Stadt, Z.M. (see Galagan, D.J. et al., 1957), . 66 Stake, E. (1967, 1968), 25 Staker, E.V. (1941, 1942), 345 Stalling, D.L. (1971), 175, 176, 438 (1972), 174-176, 200, 201 -(unpublished, 1970), 175 -(unpublished, 1971), 177 -(in press, 1971), 175 --et al. (1971), 437 -(see Macek, R.J. et al., 1970), 438 Standard Methods (APHA) (1971), 435 Table VI-2, 370 Table VI-5, 377 Table VI-10, 382 Table VI-17, 385 Table VI-22, 389 Table VI-25, 391 Table VI-26, 392 Table VI-27-28, 393 Standard Methods (EPA) (1971), 51, 52, 54, 55, 63,67, 74, 75,80,82,90, 120,190,275, 435 Stanford Research Institute (unpublished data, 1970), 348 Stanford University (see American Society of Civil Engineering, 1967), 220, 221 Stark, G.T.C. (1967), 121 (1968), 460 -(see Brown, V.M. et al., 1968), 468 Starr, L.E. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956), 29 Stasiak, M. (1960), 453 Stearns, R.D. (see Thorhaug, A. et al., 1972), 238 Stedronsky, E. (1948), 253,450 Steele, R.M. (1968), 164 Stein, A.A. et al. (1965), 75, 77 Steinhaus, E.A. (see Parker, R.R. et al., 1951), 321 Stephan, C.E. (1967), 120, 184, 185 (1969), 180, 452, 463,469 Stephan, C.F. (1967), 122, 425, 431 Stevenson, C.A. (see Leone, N.C. et al., 1954), 66 Stevenson, R.E. (see Chang, S.L. et al., 1962), 91 -(see Clarke, N.A. et al., 1962), 91, 92 Stevens, D.J. (see Bouck, G.R. et al., 1971), 137 Stevens, N.P. et al. (1956), 145 Stevenson, A.H. (see Smith, R.S. et al., 1951), 31 Stewart, B.A. et al. (1967), 73 Stewart, E.H. (see Menzel, R.G. et al., 1963), 332 Stewart, K.M. (1967), 19 Stewart, N.E. et al. (1967), 132, 495 -(see Buchanan, D.V. et al., 1969), 267, 495 -(see Butler, P.A. et al., 1968), 495 Stickel,--(unpublished data, 1972), 197 Stickel, L.F. (1970), 226 -(see Dustman, E.H. et al., 1970), 198, 313 Stickney, J.C. (1963), 136 Stickney, R.R. (1971), 149, 160 (1972), 154 Stiff, M.J. (1971), 179 Stiles, W.C. (1968), 276 Stob, M. (1965), 317 -(see Ott, E.A. et al., 1966c), 317 Stock, A. (1934, 1938), 72 Stoff, H. (see Meinch, F. et al., 1956), 450, 455 Stoke, A. (1962), 250 Stokes, R.M. (1962), 462 Stokinger, H.E. (1958), 59, 65 (1963), 72 Stolzenbach, K. (1971), 403 Stoof, H. (see Meinck, F. et al., 1956), 241, 243, 250, 251 STORET, (see Systems for Technical Data) Story, R.V. (see Kehoe, R.A. et al., 1940), 70, 87 Stout, N. (1971), 9 Stover, H.E. (1966), 301 Straskraba, M. (1965), 24 Straube, R.L. (see Ducoff, H.S. et al., 1948), 56 Strawn, K. (1967), 410-413, 417 (1968), 412, 413 -(see Neill, W.H., Jr. et al., 1966), 413 Straun, K. (1961), 154, 157, 160 (1968), 160 (1970), 154, 160 Street, J.C. et al. (1968), 198, 226 --et al. (1969), 83 -(see Mayer, F.L., Jr. et al., 1970), 184 Strickland, J.D.H. (1968), 241 Strickland-Cholmley, M. (1967), 92 Strong, E.R. (see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121 Stroud, R.H. (1968), 9, 441 (1969), 28 ·(1971), 221 Struckmeyer, B.E. et al. (1969), 342 Stubbings, H.G. (1959), 464 Author lndex/557 St.udy of Critical Environmental Problems, 261 Study Group on Mercury Hazards (1971), 72 Stumm, W. (1962), 130 (1963), 54 Stunkard, H.W. (1952), 19 Stutz, H. (see Faust, S.D. et al., 1971), 80 Sturgis, M.B. (1936), 340 Sturkie, P.D. (1956), 316 Sudheimer, R.L. (1942), 196 Sugerman, J. (see Bay, E.C., 1965), 18 Sullivan, R.J. (1969), 243 Summerfiet, T.C. (1967), 464, 465 Sumner, M.E. (1970), 339 Sund, J.M. (see Simon, J. et al., 1959), 315 Sundaram, T.R. et al. (1969), 403 Sunde, L.A. et al. (1970), 20 Sunde, M.L. (1967), 305 -(personal communication, 1971 ), 305 Surber, E.W. (1931), 243 (1959), 18 (1961), 24 (1962), 429-431 --et al. (1965), 148 -(see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121 -(see English, J.N. et al., 1963), 34 Sutherland, A.K. (see Winks, W.R. et al., 1950), 315 Sutton, D.L. (see Blackburn, R.D. et al., 1971), 26 Sverdrup. H.V. et al. (1942), 216 --et al. (1946), 241 Svetovidov, A.N. (see Korpincnikov, V.S. et al., 1956), 469 Swader, J. (see Williams, M.W. et al., 1958), 78 Swain, F.M. (1956), 145 Swan, A.A.B. (1961), 313 Swanson, C. (see Lilleland, 0. et al., 1945), 329 Swedish National Institute of Public Health (1971), 173 Swensson, A. (1959), 313 -(see Kiwimae, A. et al., 1969), 313 Swartz, B.L. (see Koff, R.S. et al., 1967), 36 Swartz, L.G. (see Code, T.J. et al., 1970), 227, 267 Sweeney, C. (see Burdick, G.E. et al., 1968), 195, 183 Swift, E. (1960), 469 Swift, M.N. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60 Swingle, H.S. (1947), 24 Swinnerton, J.W. et al. (1962), 138 Swisher, R.D. (1967), 190 Sy, S.H. (see Koegel, R.G. et al., 1972), 26 Syazuki, K. (1964), 463-465, 467 Sykes, J.E. (1968), 216 Sylvester, R.D. (1960), 20 Symons, J.M. (see McCabe, L.J. et al., 1970), 56, 70 Synoground, M.O. (1970), 160, 162 Systems for Technical Data (STORET) (1971), 306 Syverton, J.T. (1958), 350 -(see Murphy, W.H. et al., 1958), 350 558/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 T APPI (see Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry) Tabata, K. (1969), 455, 460, 468 Tagatz, M.E. (1961), 145 Tai, F .H. (see Struckmeyer, B.E. et al., 1969), 342 Takeuchi, T. (1970), 172 Takigawa, K. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Tanabe, H. (see McFarren, E.F. et al., 1965), 38 Tanner, F.W. (1944), 351 Tardiff, R.G. (see Winton, E.F. et al., 1971), 73 Tarjan, R. (1969), 76 Tarrant, K.R. (1968), 83, 182, 227, 318 Tarzwell, C.M. (1952), 408 (1953), 22 (1956), 243, 256, 451, 455, 456, 459 (1957), 454 (1959), 458 (1960), 243, 244, 253, 451, 453, 455, 459 (1962), 122, 234 -(see Henderson, C. et al., 1959), 420, 422 -(see Henderson, C. et al., 1960), 450, 456 -(see LaRoche, G. et al., 1970), 261 Tatton, J.O.G. (1967), 267 (1968), 83, 182, 227, 318 -(see Holmes, D.C. et al., 1967), 83, 175 Taylor, C.B. (1951), 57 Taylor, J .L. (1968), 124, 279 Taylor, N.H. (1935), 312 Taylor, N.W. (see Rosen, A.A. et al., 1956), 75 Taylor, T. (see Blackburn, R.D. et al., 1971), 26 Taylor, R. (1965), 332 Taylor, R.E. (see Hale, W.H. et al., 1962), 315 Taylor, W.R. (1960), 469 Teakle, D.S. (1969), 349 Teal, J.M. (1969), 138 -(see Horn, M.H. et al., 1970), 257 Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) (unpublished, 1970), 384 Water Supply and Treatment Com- mittee (unpublished, 1970), 383 Teel, R. W. (see Garifin, A.R. et al., 1965), 195 Tejning, S. (1967), 314 Tempel, L.H. (see Esmay, M.L. et al., 1955), 302 Templeton, W.L. (1958), 244 -(in press, 1971), 273 Ten Noever de Brauw, M.C. (see Koeman, J.H. et al., 1969), 83, 175 -(see Vas, J.G. et al., 1970), 198, 225, 226 Tennant, A.D. (see Hosty, T.S. et al., 1970), 278 Terriere, L.C. et al. (1966), 183 Terrill, S.W. (see Brink, M.F. et al., 1959), 316 Thackston, Edward L. (1969), 403 Thatcher, L.I. (1960), 51 Thatcher, T.O. (1966, 1970), 190 Thaysen, A.C. (1935), 147 (1936), 147, 148 "'rheede, H. et al. (1969), 193, 356 Thomann, R.V. (see DiToro, D.M. et al., 1971), 277 Thomas, A. (1912), 471 Thomas, B.F. (see Thomas, S.B. et al., 1953), 302 Thomas, E.A. (1953), 22 Thomas, G.W. (1967), 339 Thomas, N.A. (1970), 18 (1971), 147 Thomas, R.E. (1944), 89 -(see Law, J.P. et al., 1970), 353 Thomas, S.B. (1949), 301, 302 (1952), 57 (1958), 303 -et al. (1953), 302 -et al. (1966), 302, 303 Thomas, W.C., Jr. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1965), 301 Thompson, D.J. (see Emerson, J.L. et al., 1970), 79 Thomason, I.J. (1961), 348 Thompson, J.E. (1968), 74 Thompson, J.G. (see Macintire, W.H. et al., 1942), 343 Thompson, J.N. (1969, 1970), 316 Thomson, J.S. (1944), 305 Thompson, P.K. et al. (1927), 317 -(see Drinker, K.R. et al. 1927), 317 Thomson, W. (see Hazel, C.R. et al., 1971), 187 Thorhaug, A. et al. (1972), 238 Thorne, J.P. (1966), 335 Thorup, R.T. (see Sproul, O.J~ et al., 1967), 92 Tibbo, S.N. (see Zitko, V. et al., 1970), 254 Tilden, J.E. (see Fitch, C.P. et al., 1934), 317 Tillander, M. (see Mietinen, V. et al., 1970), 172-174 Tiller, B.A. (see Brown, V.M. et al., 1969), 122 Timmons, F.L. (1966), 25 -(see Bruns, V.F. et al., 1955), 347 Tindle, R.C. (see Stalling, D.L. et al., 1971), 437 Tipton, I.H. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1967), 245 Titus, H.W. (see Johnson, D. et al., 1962), 316, 317 Tobias, J.M. (see Potts, A.M. et al., 1950), 60 Toerien, D.F. (see Goldman, J.C. et al., 1971), 23 Tokar, J.V. (in press), 403 Tomassi, A. (1958), 69, 71 Tomlin, A.D. (1971), 183 Tomlinson, W.E. (see Miller, C.W. et al., 1967), 346 Tommers, F.D. (1948), 241,281 Top, F.H. (see Crawford, R.P. et al., 1969), 321 Toro, D.M. (1970), 403 Townsley, S.J. (see Boroughs, H. et al., 1957), 469 Tracey, H.W. et al. (1966), 90 Trainer, D.O. (1966), 228 (1970), 226 Trama, F.R. (1954a), 453 (1954b), 451, 456, 457 (1958), 452, 453 (1960), 452 Trautman, M.B. (1939), 124 Traxler, J.S. (see Li, M.F. et al., 1970), 254 Freichler, R. (see Coburn, D.R. et al., 1951), 228 Trelles, R.A. et al. (1970), 56 Tremblay, J.L. (1965), 479 Trembley, F.J. (1965), 160, 165 Trent, D.S. (1970), 403 Treon, J.F. (1955), 77 -et al. (1955), 76 Tressler, W.L. (see Olson, R.A. et al., 1941), 249 Trice, A.H. (1958), 399 Trosin, T.S. (see Korpincnikov, V.S. et al., 1956), 469 Truchan, J.G. (see Basch, R.E. et al., 1971), 189 True, L.F. (see Hilgeman, R.H. et al., 1970), 344 Tsai, C.F. (1968, 1970), 189 Tschenkes, L.A. (1967), 86 Tsuji, H. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83 Tsukano, Y. (see Lichenstein, E.P. et al., 1966), 318 Tucker, C.L. (see Lockhart, E.E. et al., 1955), 61, 89 Tucker, F.H. (see Dorman, C. et al., 1939), 340 Tucker, J.M. (see Bower, C.A. et al., 1968), 335 Tucker, R.K. (1966), 458, 467 (1970), 198, 227 Tur, J. (see Falkowska, Z. et al., 1964), 250 Turekian, K.K. (see Goldberg, E.D. et al., 1971), 241,244,245,251 Turmbull, H. et al. (1954), 145, 191, 244, 450-455 Turnbull-Kemp, P. St. J. (1958), 453 Turner, H.J., Jr. et al. (1948), 247 Turner, M.A. (1971), 342 Turner, R.O. (see Malaney, G.W. et al., 1962), 301, 302 Tusing, T. (see Frawley, J.P. et al., 1963), 78 Twitty, V.C. (see Berg, W.E. et al., 1945), 137, 138 Twyman, E.S. (1953), 250, 342 Tzannetis, S. (see Papavassiliou, J. et al., 1967), 57 Ueda, T. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Uhler, F.M. (1939), 25 Uhlig, H.H. (1963), 64 Ui, J. (1967, 1970), 251 Ukeles, R. (1962), 174, 265, 283, 485, 489, 491,493,495,503,505,507 Ulfarson, U. (see Kiwimae, A. et al., 1969), 313 Ulland, B.M. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Ullberg, S. (1963), 313 Underwood, E.J. (1971), 309-314,317,345 United Kingdom Ministry of Technology (1969), 120, 179 U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research Center (1966), 17 U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (1972) -(see Stickel,--(unpublished data, 1972), 194 U.S. Congress (1948), 2 (1965),2, 10 (1968), 10, 39, 399 (1970a,b), 399 U.S. Department of Agriculture (1961), 350 Agriculture Research Service, (1963), 346 (1967), 86 (1969), 318, 347 -(see also Agriculture Research Service) Division of Economic Research, 2 Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), 324 -(see, also Salinity Laboratory) U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census (1969), 377 (1971), 244, 369, 377-383, 385, 388, 389, 391-393, 483 Table VI-1, 369 Table VI-9, 381 Table VI-12, 382 Table VI-14, 383 Table VI-21, 388 Fisheries of the U.S. (1971 ), 2 National Oceanographic and Atmos- pheric Administration, 2 Office of Technical Services (1958), 462 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (1966), 20 (1969), 76, 78, 348, 437 Education and Welfare (1969), 319 Food and Drug Administration (1963, 1964), 310 (1968), 437 (1971), 240, 481, 482 Public Health Service (1959), 66 (1961), 73 (1962), 50, 51, 273, 385, 392, 393, 481, 482 (1965), 36, 302 (1968), 37 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare-Public Health Service, and Ten- nessee Valley Authority, Health & Safety Dept. (1947), 25 U.S. Department of the Interior (1969), 221, 243-245, 248, 250, 255 (1970), 221 (1971), 8 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1967), 9 (1970), 39 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (see also FWPCA) (1966), 57 (1967), 18 (1968), 2, 4, 31, 55, 80, 91, 195, 241, 379 Geological Survey (1970), 72 U.$. Department of Science and Industrial Research (1961), 242 U.S. Executive Office of the President Bureau of the Budget (1967), 369, 370, 376, 388 U.S. Federal Radiation Council (1960), 84, 318 (1961), 274, 318 (1961a,b), 84 -(see also Federal Radiation Council) U.S. Federal Security Agency Public Health Service (1953), 62 U.S. Geological Survey (1969), 91 U.S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (1962), 39 U.S. Tariff Commission (1970), 264 Urry, F.M. (see Street, J.C. et al., 1968), 83, 198, 226 Uspenskaya, V.I. (1946), 181 Uzawa, H. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83 Vaccaro, R.F. (see Ketchum, B.H. et al., 1958), 275 Vacarro, R.S. et al. (1972), 280 Valerio, M.G. (see Innes, J.R.M. et al., 1969), 76 Vallee, B.L. (1959), 93 Valtonen, M. (see Miettinen, V. et al., 1970), 172-174 Van Dam, L. (see Scholander, P.F. et al., 1955), 138 Van der Mass, H.L. (see Vos, J.G. et al., 1970), 198, 225, 226 Van Donsel, D.J. (see Geldreich, E.E. et al., 1968), 57 Vandyke, J.M. (1964), 122, 453 van Esch, G.J. (see Baroni, C. et al., 1963), 56 Van Gundy, S.D. (1961), 348 Van Hoeven, W. (see Han, J. et al., 1968), 145 Van Horn, M. (see Malaney, G.W. et al., 1962), 301, 302 Van Horn, W.M. (1955), 173 (1958), 193 (1959), 256 -et al. (1949), 256 -(see Doudoroff, P. et al., 1951), 121 VanLiere, E.J. (1963), 136 Van Ness, G.B. (1964), 321 (1971), 322 VanSlyke, D.D. et al. (1934), 138 Van Thiel, P.H. (1948), 321 Vance, C. (see Heath, R.G. et al., in press, 1972), 226 Vandecaveye, S.C. et al. (1936), 340 Vanselow, A.P. (1959), 340 (1966a), 342 (1966b), 344 -(see Aldrich, D.G. et al., 1951), 344 -(see Liebig, G.F. et al., 1942), 340, 342 Vatthauer, R.J. (see Jordan, H.A. et al., 1961), 315 Author lndex/559 Veith, G.D. (1971), 83 Veldee, M.V. (see Lumsden, L.L. et al., 1925), 36 Velsen, F.P.J. (1967), 451 Velz, C.J. (1934), 89 Vergnano, B. (1953), 342, 344, 345 Vermeer, K. (1970), 227 Vermilli~n, J.R. (1957), 66 (see Galagan, D.J. et al., 1957), 66 Vernon, E.H. (1958), 164 Verrett, J. (1970), 83, 225 Victoreen, J.T. (1969), 302 Viets, F.G., Jr. (1965), 352 (see Stewart, B.A. et al., 1967), 73 Vigil, J. et al. (1965), 73 Vigor, W.N. (1965), 460 Vinogradov, A.P. (1953), 240 Vinton, W.H., Jr. (see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1963a,b), 62, 310, 311, 313 -(see Schroeder, H.A. et al., 1964, 1965), 311, 313 Vohra, P. (1968), 316 Volganev, M.N. (1967), 86 Volker, J.F. (1944), 60 Vollenweider, R.A. (1968), 22 Von Donsel, D.J. (1971), 16 Voors, A.W. (1971), 68 Vorotnitskaya, I.E. (see Kovalsky, V.V. et al., 1967), 477 Vos, J.G. (1970), 198, 225, 226 (in press, 1972), 225 -et al. (1968), 225, 227 -et al. (1970), 198, 225, 226 WHO (see World Health Organization) WRE (see Water Resources Engineering, Inc.) Wada, Akira (1966), 403 Wadleigh, C.H. (1955), 329 -(see Ayres, A.D. et al., 1952), 329 -(see Magistad, O.C. et al., 1943), 324, 336 Wadsworth, J.R. (1952), 309 Wagstaff, D.J. (see Street, J.C. et al., 1968), 83, 198, 226 Wahlstrom, R.C. (see Embry, L.B. et al., 1959), 307, 308 Wakeford, A.C. (1964), 459 Walden, C.C. (1965), 241 -(see Schaumburg, F.D. et al., 1967), 120 Walden, D.N. (1969), 135, 136, 138 Walford, L.A. (1951), 280 Walker, C.R. (1964), 431, 434 (1965), 26 Walker, K.F. (see Fry, F.E.J. et al., 1964), 153,160,170,410-418 Walker, T.M. (see Burdich, G.E. et al., 1964), 184 Wall, E.M. (see Grimmett, R.E.R. et al., 1937), 316 Wallace, A. (see Frolich, E. et al., 1966), 342 Wallace, J.H. (see Patrick, R. et al., 1954), 116 Wallace, R.A. et al. (1971), 72, 173, 240, 252 Wallen, G.H. (see Cope, O.B. et al., 1970), 436 Wallen, I.E. (1951), 128 560/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972 -et a!. (1957), 145, 245, 450-457 Waller, W.T. (1969), 117 Walsh, D.F. (1970), 437 -(see Kenndy, H.D. eta!., 1970), 195, 437 Walsh, G.E. (1971), 503, 505 (1972), 265, 266, 495, 497, 499, 501, 503, 505 Walsh, L.M. (see Jacobs, L.W. eta!., 1970), 340 Walter, C.M. (1972), 18 Walter, J.W. (1971), 383 Walters, A.H. (1964), 301 Walton, G. (1951), 73 -(see Braus, R. et al., 1951), 74 Wang, P.P. (see Klotz, L.J. eta!., 1959), 349 Wang, W.L. (1954), 350, 352 (1961), 351 Wanntorp, H. (see Borg, K. et al., 1969), 198, 252, 313 Warburton, S. (see Vigil, J. et al., 1965), 73 Ward, E. (1965), 473,474 Ward, G.H. (1971), 403 Ward, M.K. (see Williams, H.R. et al., 1956), 29 Warington, K. (1954, 1956), 345 Wark, J.W. (1963), 125 Warner, R.E. (1965), 121 Warnick, S.L. (1969), 249, 455 Warren, C.E. (1965), 131 (1971), 19, 117, 139,404 -(see Hermann, R.B. et al., 1962), 132 -(see Shumway, D.L. eta!., 1964), 132 Warren, S. (1969), 473 Wassermann, D. (see Wasserman, M. et a!., 1970), 83 Wassermann, M. eta!. (1970), 83 Warren, S.L. (see Dupont, 0. et a!., 1942), 56 Water Quality Criteria (1968), 423 Water Resources Council (1968), 377 Water Resources Engineers, Inc. ( 1968), 399, 403 (1969), 399 (1970), 399, 400 Water Systems Council (1965, 1966), 301 Watkinson, J. (see Harbourne, J.F. et a!., 1968), 313 Watson, C.G. (in press, 1971), 273 Wattie, E. (1946), 55, 89 -(see Butterfield, C.T. eta!., 1943), 55 Waybrant, R.C. (see Hamelink, J.L. et al., 1971 ), 183 Wear, J.l. (1957), 344 Weaver, W. (1963), 403 Weber, C.W. (see Crawford, J.S. et a!., 1969), 315 Weber, W.J. (1963), 54 Webster, H.L. (see Conn, L.W. eta!., 1932), 62 Weed Society of America (1970), 318 Weeth, H.J. (1961), 307 (1965, 1971, 1972), 308 -eta!. (1960), 307 -eta!. (1968), 308 Weibel, S.R. eta!. (1955), 319 -eta!. (1966), 318 Weichenthal, B.A. eta!. (1963), 315 Weidner, R.B. (see Weibel, S.R. et al., 1966), 318, 319 Weigle, O.M. (1932), 93 Wei!, I. (see Fair, G.M. eta!., 1948), 55 Weilerstein, R.W. (see Williams, M.W. eta!., 1958), 78 Weir, P.A. (1970), 181, 252 Weir, R. (see Frawley, J.P. eta!., 1963), 78 Weiser, H.H. (see Malaney, G.W. et a!., 1962), 301, 302 Weiss, C.M. (1965), 183, 463 Weiss, Ray (no date), 138 Welander, A.D. (1969), 471, 473 Welch, E.B. (1969), 22 (1972), 21 -(see Emery, R.M. et al., 1972), 20 Welch, P.S. (1952), 130 Welch, R.L. (1971), 83 Welcomme, R.L. (1962), 417 Welsch, C.W. (see Bloomfield, R.A. et a!., 1961), 315 Welsch, W.F. (1954), 60 Weldon, L.W. (see Holm, L.G. et a!., 1969), 27 Welker, B.D. (1967), 124 Wenk, E. (see Revelle, R. eta!., 1972), 257 Wentworth, D.F. (see Sproul, O.J. et al., 1967), 92 Wersaw, R.L. eta!. (1969), 183 Wershaw, R.L. (1970), 313 Wessel, G. (1953), 22, 252 West, J.L. (see Adams, A.W. eta!., 1967), 315 Westermark, T. (1969), 251 -(see Berg, W. et al., 1966), 252 -(see Birke, G. et a!., 1968), 252 -(see Johnels, H.G. et al., 1967), 172 Westfall, B.A. (1945), 464, 465 (1937), 86 -(see Ellis, M.M. et a!., 1946), 249 -(see Smith, M.l. et al., 1936), 86 Westgard, R.L. (1964), 137 Westgate, P.J. (1952), 342 Westlake, D.F. (1966), 24 Westlake, W.E. (see Gunther, F.A. et a!., 1968), 227 Westman, J.R. (1963), 147, 148 (1966), 160, 413, 417, 419 Weston, R.F. (see Turnbull, H. eta!., 1954), 145,191,244,450-455 Weston, J. (1966), 198 -(see Kiwimae, A. et a!., 1969), 313 Wetmore, A. (1919), 227 Wetzel, R.G. (1969, 1971), 25 Wheeler, R.S. (1949), 305 Whetzal, F.W. (see Weichenthal, B.A. eta!., 1963), 315 Whipple, D.V. (1931), 148 Whipple, G.C. (1907), 61, 89 Whipple, W.J. (1951), 173 Whisler, F.D. (in press, 1972), 352 Whitledge, T. (1970), 277 Whitaker, D.M. et a!. (1945), 137 -(see Berge, W.E. et al., 1945), 138 Whitaker, J. (see Sunde, L.A. eta!., 1970), 20 White, C.M. (see Cade, T.J. eta!., 1970), 267 White, D.B. (see Harriss, R.C. et a!., 1970), 173 White, D.E. eta!., 1970), 313 White, G.F. (1912), 471 White, J.C., Jr. (see Angelovic, J.W. et a!., 1967), 454 Whitehead, C.C. (1971), 320 Whiteley, A.H. (1944a), 135 -(see Harvey, E.N. eta!., 1944b), 135, 136 Whitley, L.S. (1968), 455, 460 Whittle, G.P. (see Black, A.P. et al., 1963), 63 Whitman, I.L. (1968), 40, 400 Whitworth, W.R. (1969), 455, 464 -eta!. (1968), 27 Wicker, C.F. (1965), 279 Wiebe, A.H. (1932), 138 Wiebe, J.P. (1968), 162 Wiebe, P.H. et a!. (in press, 1972), 280 -(see V acarro, R.S. et al., 1972), 280 Wiemeyer, S.N. (1970), 197, 198, 226 Wilber, C.G. (1969), 241, 243, 245, 248, 250, 255, 256 Wilcoxon, F. (1949), 434 Wilcox, L.V. (1965), 324, 335 -(see Lunin, J. et al., 1960), 337 -(see Reeve, R.C. eta!., 1955), 334 Wilcoxon, F. (1947), 495,497,499, 501,503, 505 (1949), 121 Wilder, D.G. (1952), 242, 250 Wilhm, J .L. (1965), 408 (1966), 144 (1968), 35 Wilhm, J.S. (1968), 275, 408, 409 Wilkins, D.A. (1957), 343 Willford, W.A. (1966), 173, 456 Williams, A.B. (1958), 279 Williams, G.B. (see Fisher, R.A. et al., 1943), 409 Williams, C.H. (1971), 79 Williams, H.R. et a!. (1956), 29 Williams, K.T. (1935), 316 -(see Byers, H.G. eta!., 1938), 316 Williams, M.W. eta!. (1958), 78 Williams, R.J.B. (1968), 341 Willis, J.N. (see Duke, T.W. et a!., 1966), 472, 479 Willm, E. (1879), 72 Wilson, A.J., Jr. (1970), 266 -(see Duke, T.W. eta!., 1970), 83, 176, 264 -(see Hansen, D.J. et a!., 1971), 176, 177, 505 -(see Lowe, J.l. eta!., 1971), 267 -(see Lowe, J.l. eta!., 1971a), 489 -(see Nimmo, D.R. eta!., 1970), 267 -(see Nimmo, D.R. et al., 1971), 176,268 Wilson, D.C. (1969), 184, 429, 430 Wilson, G.S. (1966), 321 Wilson, P.D. (see Hansen, D.J. et al., 1971), 176, 268, 505 -(see Lowe, J.l. eta!., 1971), 267 -(see Lowe, J.l. eta!., 1971a), 489 -(see Nimmo, D.R. et al., 1971), 176, 268 Wilson, R.H. (1950), 60 Wilson, W.B. (see McFarren, E.F. et al., 1965), 38 Winchester, C.F. (1956), 305 Wing, F. (see Tracy, H.W. et al., 1966), 90 Winkler, L.R. (1964), 463 Winks, W.R. et al. (1950), 315 Winter, A.J. (1964), 315 Winterberg, S.H. (see Maclntire, W.H. et al., 1942), 343 Wintner, I. (see O'Conner, O.T. et al., 1964), 179 Winton, E.F. (1970), 73 --et al. (1971), 73 Wirsen, C.O. (see Jannasch, H.W. et al., 1971), 277, 280 Wisely, B. (1967), 454, 460 Wisely, R.A.P. (1967), 455 Wiser, C.W. (1964), 471 Wobeser, G. et al. (1970), 173, 251 Woelke, C.E. (1961), 252, 455 (1967), 120 Wojtalik, T.A. (1969), 162 (unpublished data, 1971), 163 Woker, H. (1948), 187, 454 (1955), 190 -(see Wuhrmann, K. et al., 1947), 187 Wolf, H.H. (1963), 380 Wolf, H.W. (1963), 2, 55, 74, 144, 177, 179, 189, 241, 255, 308-314, 317, 321, 339, 371 Wolfe, D.A. (1970), 480 Wolfe, M.A. (see Cline, J.F. et al., 1969), 328 Wolgemuth, K. (1970), 244 Wolman, A.A. (1970), 266 Wolman, M.G. (see Leopold, L.B. et al., 1964), 22, 126 Wood, C.S. (1964), 253 Wood, E.M. (see Cope, O.B. et al., 1970), 436 Wood, J.W. (1968), 138 --et al. (1969), 172 -(see Hublow, W.F. et al., i954), 245 Wood, R.L. (1972), 321 Wood, S.E. (1958), 399 Woodward, R.L. (1958), 59, 65 -(see Chang, S.L. et al., 1958), 91 -(see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1960), 64, 69, 71,93 -(see Cohen, J.M. et al., 1961), 78 Woolsey, T.D. (see Smith, R.S. et al., 1951, 1952, 1961), 31 Woolson, E.A. et al. (1971), 318,340 Work, R.C. (see McNultey, J.K. et al., 1962), 279 World Health Organization (1958, 1961), 481, 482 (1959), i8 (1963, 1970), 65 (1967), 252 Wretling, A. (1967), 252 Wright, F.B. (1956), 301, 302 Wright, M.J. (1962, 1965), 315 -(see Davison, K.L. et al., 1964), 314 -(see Simon, J. et al., 1959), 315 Wright, R.L. (1966), 149 Wu, H. (1962), 56 Wuhrmann, K. et al. (1947, 1952), 187 (1948), 187' 454 (1955), 190 Wunderlich, W.E. (1962), 27 (1969), 26 Wurtz, A. (1945), 244, 245, 462 Wurtz, G.B. (1955), 408 (1961 ), 453, 458, 459 (1962), 453, 459 Wyatt, J.T. (see Silvey, J.K. et al., 1972), 82 Yae, Y. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971 ), 83 Yamagata, N. (1970), 60, 245 Yamaguchi, A. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Yamamoto, H. (see Yoshimura, H. et al., 1971), 83 Author Index/56! Yas.;_take, W.T. (see Amend, D.R. et al., . 1969), 462 Yaverbaum, P.M. (1963), 250 Yeo, R.R. (1959), 347 -(see Bruns, V.F. et al., 1964), 347 Yevich, P.P. (1970), 246, 462 Yoh, L. (1961), 463 Yonge, C.M. (1953), 279 Yoshimura, H. et al. (1971), 83 Yoshimura, T. (see Kuratsune, M. et al., 1969), 83 Young, J.E. (see Clark, D.E. et al., 1964), 320 Young, J .0. (1967), 311 Younger, R.L. (see Clarke, D.E. et al., 1964), 320 Yount, J.L. (1963), 24 (1970), 26 Yudkin, J. (1937), 465 Yule, W.N. (1971), 183 Yurovitskii, Yu. G. (1964), 132 Zabik, M.J. (1969), 183 Zaitsev, Yu, P. (see Polikarpov, G.G. et al., 1967), 471, 473, 475 Zakhary, R. (1951), 459 Zehender, F. (see Wuhrmann, K. et al., 1947), 187 Zeller, R.W. et al. (1971), 403 Zillich, J.A. (1969), 147 (1972), 189 Zimmerman, E.R. (see Leone, N.C. et al., 1954), 66 Zimmerman, J.E. (see Jordan, H.A. et al., 1961), 315 Zinc, F.W. (see Grogan, R.G. et al., 1958), 349 Zingmark, R. (see Foster, M. et al., 1970), 258 Zitko, V. et al. (1970), 254 ZoBell, C.E. (1969), 261 Zweig, G. et al. (1961), 320 2, 4, 5-TP (2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy-propionic acid), 79 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), 79 Livestock intake, 319 ABS (alkylbenzene sulfonate), 67, 190, 403 ABS concentrations Predictions, 404 Rainbow trout mortality, 405 ABS toxicity curves, 406 Acanthamoeba, 29 Acartia tonsa, 246 Achromobacter, 438 Acid soils Aluminum toxicity, 339 Acipenser, 132 Actinastrum, 147 Actinomycetes, 147 Acute bioassay procedures Fish, 1'19 Acute gastroenteritis Polluted shellfish, 277 Adsorption Backwashing, 373 Chemical regeneration of carbon, 373 Organic materials removal, 373 Thermal regeneration of carbon, 373, 375 Aeration Clarification, 373 Carbon dioxide reduction, 373 Filtration, 373 Lime softening, 373 Aerobacter, 438 Aerobic waters Sulfonates, 67 Aeromonas, 438 Agricultural crops EC. values, 326 Salt tolerance, 325, 326 Agricultural irrigation Arid regions, 323, 324 Subhumid regions, 324 Agricultural waters Aquatic organisms Pesticide tolerance, 321 Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides con- tent, 318 Climate, 333 Clostridium, 321 Clostridium perfrigens, 321 Clostridium tetani, 321 Disease-producing organisms, 321 Erysipelas, 321 Escherichia-Enterobacter-Klebscilla, 321 Listeriosis, 321 SUBJECT INDEX Nutritional effects, 326 Parasitic organisms, 321 Pathogens, 321 Salinity in irrigation, 324, 325 Salmonella, 321 Toxicity to livestock, 319 Tularemia, 321 Agriculture Field crops Salt tolerance, 326 Forage crops Salt tolerance, 327 Fruit crops Salt tolerance, 325 Herbicides, 345 Insecticides, 345 Iron bacteria, 302 Irrigation, 300 Irrigation waters, 333 Milk storage, 302 Ornamental shrubs Salt tolerance, 326 Pesticides, 318 Plant growth Temperature effects, 328 Polluted water, 300 Salt tolerance of crops, 337 Soil bacteria Arthrobacter, 302 Soil-irrigation effects, 333 Soil salinities Root zone-yield significance, 325 Summer showers, 333 Trace elements in soils, 338 Vegetable crops Salt tolerance, 327 Water for livestock, 304 Water supply management, 300 Winter precipitation, 333 Agriculture runoffs Freshwater nutrients, 274 Air-saturated seawater, 261 Alabama Water hyacinth, 27 Alga Uranium effects, 256 Algae Chromium toxicity, 180 Copper toxicity, 180 Manganese toxicity, 250 Molybdenum concentration, 253 Rad tolerance, 272 Uranium concentrate, 256 Algae growth, 23, 275 562 Algal blooms, 317 Algal growth Artificial destratification, 165 Temperature effects, 165 Algal nutrition Phosphates, 253 Algal-pH interaction, 141 Alkali disease Livestock, 316 Alkaline waters Calcium carbonate saluratation, 54 Hardness, 54 pH value, 54 Taste, 54 Alkalinity Corrosive waters, 54 Natural waters, 54 Weak acid anions, 54 Alkalinity composition, 52 Aluminum-pH relationship, 242 American Fisheries Society, 28 American Kestrels Egg shell thinning, 197 Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226 American Oyster Silt tolerance, 281 American Public Health Association, 29, 36 American Society of Ichthyologists and Her- petologists, 28 Ammonia Corrosiveness, 55 Groundwater, 55 Public water supply, 65 Rainbow trout mortality, 242 Sewage treatment, 55 Surface water, 55 Water distribution systems Algal nutrient, 55 Microbial nutrient, 55 Water disinfectant, 55 Water solubility, 186 Ammonia-dissolved oxygen relationship, 242 Ammonia-pH relationship, 188 Ammonia toxicity Fish species, 187 Amphibians Muscular dystrophy, 250 Anabaena circinalis, 147 Anabaena jlos-aquae, 317 Anaerobic sediments, 239 Anaerobic soil-water environment, 322 Anas platyrhynchos, 196, 226 Anas rubripes, 195 Anas strepera, 228 Anemones Chlorine tolerance, 247 Animal protein Marine environment, 216 Animal protein consumption Fish source, 216 Animals Cadmium content, 245 Drinking water intake, 306 Water consumption, 308 Water content Daily calcium requirements, 306 Daily salt requirements, 306 Water requirements Beef cattle, 305 Dairy cattle, 305 Horses, 305 Sheep, 305 Swine, 305 Anion exchange, 375 Ankistrodesmus, 438 Annual temperature cycle, 171 Anopheles jreeborni, 25 Anopheles quadrimaculatus, 25 Antarctica Cadmium level, 246 Antarctica fowl Mercury tolerance, 252 Antarctica Fern Cadmium levels, 246 Mercury tolerance, 252 Anthrax Bacillus anthracis, 322 Antimony Bioassay of fish, 243 Green algae effects, 243 Antimony poisoning Humans, 243 Anus acuta, 228 Anus sp., 228 Aphanizomenon jlos-aquae, 317 Aquaculture, 277 Aquatic acclimation Ecological balance, 154 Aquatic animals Gas bubble disease, 132 Ionizing radiation absorption, 145 Manganese concentration, 250 Oxygen uptake, 270 PCB-reproduction effects, 177 Silver toxicity, 255 Aquatic birds Cl. botulinum outbreaks, 196 Aquatic communities Alteration, 165 Animal populations, 194 Oxygen concentrations, 131 Thermal criteria, 166 Thermal patterns, 165 Toxicants, 220 Aquatic ecosystems (See also Aquatic orga- nisms) Artificial impoundments, 124 Balance, 110 Biota, 109 Bogs-wildlife relationships, 194 Community structure, 109, 110 Dimethylmercury content, 172 Dissolved solids, 142 Environmental change, 109 Estuaries, 219 Habitats, 109 Marshes-wildlife relationships, 194 Monomercury content, 172 Muskegs-wildlife relationships, 194 Oxygen requirements, 132 Pesticide contamination, 182 Pollutants, 194 Pollutants effects, 220 Pollution effects, 23 7 Seepage-wildlife relationship, 194 Suspended solids interactions, 126 Swamps-wildlife relationship, 194 Temperature sensitivity, 157 Wastes lethal toxicity, 117 Water level fluctuation, 194 Water pollutants, 109 Water temperature, 151 Water temperature fluctuations, 160 Aquatic ecosystem-wildlife relationship, 194 Aquatic environment, 109 Biological monitoring, 116 Chemical structurt::, 110 Dialkyl phthalate residues, 17 4 Dredging effects, 124 Iron contaminants, 249 Mercury from coal burning, 172 Mercury from industrial processes, 172 Mercury from weathering processing, 171 Organic mercury, 172 Physical characteristics, 110 Pollutant concentrations-disease relation- ship, 236 Radioactive materials, 190, 270 Radioactivity levels control, 273 Radioisotope introduction, 271 Radioisotopes-food web relationship, 271 Selenium content, 254 Summer nutrient additions, 276 Aquatic food chains Mercury content, 17 4 Aquatic form Chronic radiation dose effects, 273 Aquatic habitats, 110 Mercury contamination, 173 Aquatic invertebrates Thallium toxicity, 255 Aquatic life Asphyxiation, 137 Behavior effects, 236 Bioassay system, 235 Bioresponse testing, 234 Carbon dioxide effects, 139 Chlorine toxicity, 189 Chromium sensitivity, 247 Chromium toxicity, 247 Community structure, 408 Detergent toxicity, 190 Dissolved gas pressure, 135 .Extreme temperature exposure, 161 Floating logs effects, 128 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191, 193 Subject Index/563 Inorganic chemicals-marine environment interactions, 239 Lead concentration effects, 181 Local habitats, 157 Metal hydroxide toxicity, 179 Metal toxicity, 179 Migration temperature, 164 Oil-detergents toxicity, 261 Oil loss effects, 144 Oil spills effects, 258 Oily substances toxicity, 145 Oxygen requirements, 131 pH-metals relationship, 179 pH toxicity, 140 Pesticide effects, 434 Pollutants-genetic effects, 237 Pollution effects evaluation, 408 Reproduction-water temperature relation- ships, 164 Spawning temperatures, 164 Supersaturation Physiological adaptation, 137 Temperature acclimation, 171 Thermal criteria, 157 Thermal requirements, 164 Thermal resistance, 161 Thermal tolerance, 160 Water temperature limits, 165 Water temperature safety factor, 161 Winter maxima temperature, 160 Aquatic macrophytes Aesthetic values, 26 Sports fishermen, 26 Aquatic mammals Surface oil hazards, 196 Aquatic microorganisms Bioassays, 235 Water characteristics alteration, 127 Aquatic molluscs Mercury intake, 173 Aquatic organisms Aliphatic hydrocarbon synthesization, 145 Arsenic chronic effects, 243 Arsenic lethal doses, 243 Arsenic poisoning, 243 Average temperature tolerance, 170 Bioassays, 1 09 Boron toxicity, 244 Bromine toxicity, 245 Cadmium chronic effect, 246 Chlorine exposure, 189 Chlorine toxicity, 189, 246 Chronic exposure to mercury, 17 4 Clean water relationship, 408 Community diversity, 408 Community structure, 109 Copper lethality, 248 Diversity indices, 408 Dredging effects, 124 Environmental changes, 152 Flavor impairing materials uptake, 148 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256 Inorganic chemicals Accumulation, 469-480 Dosage, 450-460 Sublethal doses, 461-468 564/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Irradiation, 271 Larvae pollution sensitivity, 236 Lethal threshold temperatures, 410 Mercury compounds, 252 Mercury concentration in tissue, 17 4 Migrations, 236 Methylmercury intake, 172 Mortality levels, 162 Organic compounds Toxicity data, 484-509 Organochlorine compounds Accumulation, 183 Organochlorine pesticide accumulation, 185 pH effects, 141 Particulate material Bottom-settling effects, 281 Phosphates-primary production effects, 281 Phosphates tolerance, 253 Phytoplankton growth, 124 Pollutant concentrations, 233 Pollutant sublethal effects, 233 Polluted water, 408 Pollution-nutrition relationship, 237 Polychlorinated byphenyls in tissues, 177 Polychlorinated byphenyls toxicity, 176 Primary productivity, 281 Radioactivity effects, 190, 270 Radioisotope concentrations, 193, 271 Radioisotope content, 192 Reproductive cycle-chronic toxicity ef- fects, 235 Species protection, 109, 110 Sublethal lead effects, 250 Temperature changes, 151 Temperature-reproduction relationships, 171 Temperature resistance, 410 Temperature tolerance, 151 Testing, 119 Thallium nitrate effects, 256 Thermal criteria, 168 Thermal responses, 152 Thermal shock, 168 Thermal shocks mix, 170 Threshold values, 282 Toxic concentrations acceptability, 118 Uranium toxicity, 256 Waste contamination, 109 Waste exposure time, 231 Water quality management, 109 Water temperature, 151 Aquatic plant communities Bicarbonate alkalinity, 194, 195 Aquatic plant growth Cation requirement, 23 Aquatic plants Barium chloride lethality, 244 Free oil effects, 144 Ionizing radiation absorption, 19 5 Mercury content, 251 Oil emulsions effects, 144 Oxygen requirements, 131 Oxygen uptake, 270 Silt deposits accumulation, 19 5 Aquatic pollution Larvae mortality, 236 Aquatic populations Dissolved oxygen concentrations, 270 Thermal alterations, 152 Aquatic populations survival Water temperature effects, 161 Aquatic species Critical temperatures, 171 Harvest control, 110 Hydrogen sulfide chronic exposure level, 193 Aquatic systems (See also Aquatic ecosystems and Aquatic organisms) Dissolved solids Animal growth, 142 Plant growth, 142 Herbicides content, 183 Inorganic materials interaction, 111 Organic material interaction, 111 Pesticide distribution, 183 Physical factors Bottom contour, 111 Currents, 111 Depth, 111 Flow ve!ocity, 111 Light penetration, 111 Reaeration capability, 111 Temperature, 111 Volume of water, 111 Water exchange rate, 111 Temperature-chemical reactions, 111 Aquatic test animals Daphnia, 119 Daphnia magna, 119 Aquatic testing organisms Acclimation, 120 Aquatic vascular plants Bicarbonate alkalinity, 24 Biomass for waterfowl, 27 Biomass vs. boating, 27 Carbon dioxide effects, 24 Carbonate alkalinity effects, 24 Control methods, 26 Current velocity effects, 24 Dissolved oxygen effects, 24 Evaporation effects, 24 Harvest, 26 Light penetration effects, 24 Nutrient supplies effects, 24 Oxygen balance, 24 Prediction model, 24 pH effects, 24 Phytoplankton interaction, 25 Sediment composition effects, 24 Swimming tolerance, 63 Water circulation, 24 Aquatic vectors Culex fatigans, 17 Disease Encephalitis, 1 7 Malaria, 17 Schistosomiasis, 17, 18 Midge production, 18 Mosquitos, 17, 18 Snails, 19 Aqueous ecosystem Persistent pollutants, 264 Arabis mosaic virus, 349 Arbacia Silver nitrate effects, 255 Arcatia tonsa Chlorine exposure times, 247 Ardea herodias, 227 Argentina Epidemiological studies, 56 Arid regions Climate Irrigation waters, 333 Drainage waters, 334 Irrigation water quality, 333 SAR values, 338 Arizona Fish fauna, 27 Irrigation water, 352 Aroclor®, 176, 177,226 Arrow oil spill, 262, 263 Arsenic Aquatic organisms poisoning, 243 Biological oxidation, 56 Chemical forms, 56 Cumulative poison, 243 Dermatological manifestations, 56 Drinking water, 56 Carcinogenic effects, 309 Human consumption, 309 Toxicity, 309 Epidemiological studies, 56 Farm animals Water toxicity, 309 Food intake concentrations, 56 Growth stimulant, 56 Human chronic exposure, 56 Human tolerance, 56 Inorganic, 56 Microorganism poisoning, 243 Pentavalent inorganic form, 56 Pesticides, 243 Public water supply, 56 Surface water, 56 Toxicity in water, 309 Toxicity to man, 56 Toxicity variance, 243 Water intake concentration, 56 Arsenic as carcinogen, 56 Arsenic poisoning Human reactions, 56 Toxic symptoms, 56 Arsenic-selenium relationship, 240 Arsenicals, 310 Arthrobacter, 302 Arthropods Fish food, 193 Arthropods-hydrogen sulfide relationship, 193 Ashy petrel Cadmium effects, 246 Mercury concentrations, 252 Asia Fishery management, 441 Ocean sediments, 281 Asian clam (Corbicula manilensis), 27 Atlantic Barium concentration, 244 Tar ball abundance, 257 Atlantic Coast Fisheries, 221 Waste disposal, 222, 278 Atlantic coast streams Carbon dioxide content, 139 Atlantic salmon Copper concentrations, 181 Copper lethal effects, 248 Zinc-copper reactions, 240 Atomic energy installations Radiation-aquatic life relationships, 273 Au Sable River, 14 Australia Water use Livestock, 307 Aythya affines, 195 Aythya americana, 195, 228 Aythya collaris, 228 Aythya valisneria, 195, 228 BOD (see also biochemical oxygen demand), 55, 330 BOD test Effluent quality, 55 Sewage treatment measurement, 55 BOD5 (5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand test), 275 Bacillus, 438 Bacillus anthracis, 322 Back Bay, Virginia Aquatic plant production, 194 Silt deposits, 19 5 Bacteria Coliform index, 58 Public water supply, 57 Rad tolerance, 272 Bacterial pathogen detection, 276 Baha, California Sedimented oils, 145 Tampico Maru spill, 258 Bald Eagle Dieldrin accumulation effects, 227 Bankia setacia, 243 Ballanus ballanoides, 261, 255 Baltimore, Maryland Urban streams, 40 Banana waterlily Waterfowl food, 194 Barium Adverse physiological effects, 59 Dust inhalation, 59 Human dosage, 59 Industrial use, 243 Injection-toxic effects, 59 Muscle stimulant, 59 Nerve block, 59 Public water supply, 59 Solubility, 59 Vasoconstriction, 59 Barium chloride Bioassays, 244 Barnacles Chlorine tolerance, 247 Silver toxicity, 255 Bathing beaches Bacteriological standards, 30 Long Island Sound, 31 Bathing places Diseases, 29 Water quality, 29 Bathing waters, 29 Chemical quality, 33 Contamination, 29 Fecal coliform index, 31 Illness incidences, 31 Meningoencephalitis, 29 Water quality requirements, 30 Bays Nonthermal discharge distribution Mathematical model, 403 Beach quality Jetties and piers, 17 Bear River Migratory Bird Refuse Cl. botulinum outbreak, 196 Benthic communities Sedimented oils effects, 196 Beryllium Surface waters, 310 Water solubility, 244 Bicarbonates Fruit crops, 329 Bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), 18 Bikini Manganese radionuclide uptake, 251 Bioaccumulation of mercury, 172 Bioassay design Biological characteristics, 236 Bioassay evaluation, 121 Bioassay methods Flow-through, 119 Static, 119 Bioassay procedures, 120 Bioassay tests Physiological processes, 237 Bioassays Application factors, 121 Aquatic life stages, 235 Aquatic life tainting, 149 Aquatic microorganisms, 235 Chemical concentration, 123 Continuous flow, 119 Dissolved oxygen, 121 Exposure effects, 236 Laboratory experimentation, 119 Lethal threshold concentrations, 122 Long-term testing, 236 Minnow mortality, 128 Pollutants, 122 Safe-lethal concentration ratios, 121, 122 System design, 235 Toxicant concentration, 121 Toxicant mixtures Sublethal effects, 122, 123 Toxicants Long-term effects, 118 Toxicity measurements, 118 Toxicity tests, 121 Water quality, 118 Water tainting, 149 Subject Index/565 Biochemical oxygen demand (see also BOD), 34 Biographical notes (Committee and panel members), 528-533 Biological communities Canals, 171 Embayments, 171 Biological methylation, 172 Biological monitoring program Bioassays, 116, 117 Field surveys, 116 In-plant, 116 Simulation techniques, 116 Biological treatment procedures Virus removal, 92 Biological wastes Organic toxicants, 264 Biomonitoring procedures, 120 Biomphalaria glabrata, 18 Bioresponses Long-term testing, 236 Biosphere Toxic organics hazards, 264 Biota temperature deviations, 151 Bird feathers Mercury concentrations, 252 Bird life Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide tox• icity, 227 Lead ingestion effects, 228 Birds Mercury contamination, 198 Mercury poisoning, 172 PCB toxicity, 198 Bismuth Sea water, 244 Bivalve larvae Mercuric chloride lethality, 252 Black duck Winter food requirements, 195 Black flies-pH effects, 141 Black Sea Yeast uranium uptake, 256 Black waters oxygen content, 132 Blackfly larvae, 18, 22 Bloodworms (Chironomidae), 22 Bluegill sunfish Antimony tolerance, 243 Phosphorus toxicity, 254 Bluegills, 435, 437, 438 Blue-green algae, 22 Anabaena, 22 Anabaena jlos-aquae, 317 Aphanizomenon jlos-aquae, 317 Coelosphaerium keutzingianum, 317 Discharge canals, 171 Gloeotrichia echinulata, 317 M icrocoleus vaginatus, 22 Microcystis aeruginosa, 22, 317 Nitrogen-sea water relationship, 276 Nodularia spumigena, 317 Schizothrix calcicola, 22 Toxicity, 317 Blue-green algal Green Lake, Washington, 20 566/ Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Lake Sammamish, Oregon, 20 Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20 Lake Washington, Washington, 20 Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire, 20 Livestock water intake, 317 Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), 37 Bluegills, 128 Aroclor® exposure, 177 Aroclor® toxicity, 176 Cadmium lethality, 180 Chromium toxicity, 180 Hardwater-zinc toxicity, 182 Hydrogen sulfide tolerance, 193 Malathion exposure effects, 185 pH effects, 141 Pesticide synergisis, 184 Phthalate ester toxicity, 175 Phenol toxicity, 191 Softwater-zinc toxicity, 182 Bluegill sunfish Cadmium lethality, 180 Blythe, California Irrigation water, 348 Boating Social aesthetics, 14 Boca Cieza Bay Dredging effects, 279 Boilers Blowdown, 378 Cooling waters, 379 Once-through, 376 Equipment damage, 376 Feedwater, 377 High-pressure, 376 Heat transfer equipment, 377 Ion exchange, 376 Ion exchange resins, 376 Low-pressure, 376 Makeup treatment processes, 379 Oily matter, 376 Once-through cooling Underground aquifers, 377 Oxidants, 376 Recirculated water Biological growths, 379 Corrosion, 379 Scale control, 379 Recycling steam condensate, 378 Regeneration, 376 Scale-forming hardness, 376 Silica, 376 Waste water potential Biological organisms, 379 Suspended solids, 379 Water makeup, 378 Water quality requirements, 376, 377 Boilers evaporation process Dissolved solids concentrate, 379 Boilers feed water quality requirements, 379 Boric acid Minnow fatality, 245 Boron Groundwater, 310 Natural waters, 310 Public water supply, 59 Sea water, 244 -"Boston Oil pollution, 145 Botanicals Recommended concentrations, 187 Bottled and canned soft drinks Description of industry, 392 Water composition, 393 Water quality indicators, 392 Water quality requirements Point of use, 393 Water reuse, 392 Water softening processes, 393 Water treatment processes, 393 Water use Consumption, 392 Discharge, 392 Intake, 392 Recycle, 392 Water use processes, 392 Bottom fauna Sunken oil effects, 262 Bottom materials resuspension Nutrient fertilization occurrence, 281 Toxic materials release, 281 Bottom sediments Hydrogen sulfide content, 256 Oil degradation, 262 Botulism Bird mortality, 197 Botulism epizootic areas, 196, 197 Botulism poisoning, 196 Boundary waters canoe area, 13 Brachydanio rerio, 435 Brackish waters Oyster-pH relationship, 241 Branta Canadensis, 228 British Columbia Irrigation water contaminates, 349 Bromine Water taste effect, 245 Brook trout, 437 Chromium chronic effects, 180 Copper-reproduction effects, 180 Hard water LCSO values, 181 Mercury toxicity, 173 Methylmercury content, 173 Oxygen requirements, 131 pH effects, 141 Softwater LCSO values, 181 Water temperature-mortality relationship, 162 Brown pelican Heavy metals pollution, 226 PCB-shell thinning relationship, 226 Reproductive failure, 197 Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227 Brown trout (Salmo trutta), 27 pH effects, 141 Brownsville Ship Channel Spoil deposits, 279 Burbot pH effects, 141 Burea of Land Management, 9 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, 9, 10 Bureau of Reclamation, 9 Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 9 Di-n-butyl phthalate Toxicity to fish, 17 5 Buzzards Bay Fuel oil spill, 258 CAM (Carbon absorption method), 75 CAM sampler Low-flow, 75 High-flow, 75 CCE (Carbon-chloroform extract), 75 Carcinogenic properties, 75 Drinking water, 75 Water quality measurement, 75 COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), 275, 330 Cabot tern Oily water effects, 196 Caddis flies pH effects, 141 Iron effects, 249 Caddo Lake, Texas, 26 Cadmium Absorption effects Ruminants, 310 Cardiovascular disease, 60 Cumulative poison, 179 Drinking water, 310 Electroplating plants, 60 Ground water, 310 Itai-itai disease, 245 Fish poisoning, 179 Hepatic tissue, 60 Mammal poisoning, 179 Natural waters, 310 Pesticides, 245 Poisoning, 60 Public water supply, 60 Renal tissue, 60 Shell growth effects, 246 Toxicity, 60, 310 Water pollutant, 245 Zinc smelting by-product, 239 Cadmium concentration Public water supply, 60 Calanus, 261 California Agriculture waters Climatic effects, 333 Aquatic animal introduction, 28 Fish fauna, 27 Grasscarp introduction, 28 Lithium toxicity, 344 California coastal waters Cadmium level, 246 Mercury content, 252 California current, 32 California Fish and Game Commission, 28 California mackeral DDT contamination, 237 Cambarus, 173, 176 Canada Lakes, 21 Pesticides use, 440 Canada Geese Lead ingestion effects, 228 Canadian prairies Fish contamination, 240 Mercuries in birds, 251 Mercury in fish, 251 Canals Cooling water, 171 Herbicides content, 347 Plant growth~ 23 Canvasback Lead ingestion effects, 228 Winter food requirement, 195 Cape Cod, Massachusetts Coastal waters-temperature effects, 238 Carassius auratus, 141, 181, 187, 193, 244 Carbamate insecticides Mammalian toxicity, 78 Recommended concentrations, 186 Carbon dioxide in water, 139 Carcinus maenus, 247, 248 Carp (Cyprinus carpis), 27 Ammonia exposure effects, 187 Arsenic toxicity, 243 Flavor impairing contaminants, 149 Flavor tainting, 147 Iron lethality threshold, 249 pH effects, 141 Casmerodius albus, 227 Castalia jlava, 194 Castle Lake, 23 Catfish pH effects, 141 Cation-anion exchange, 375 Cation exchange, 375 Catostomus commersonni, 193 Cattail pH effects, 141 Cattle Drinking water Sodium chloride content, 307 Molybdenum tolerance, 314 Teart toxicosis, 314 Water needs, 304, 305 Cattle feed Arsenic-selenium relationship, 240 Caturnix, 226 Cement industry Description, 395 Water leaching Oxide-bearing particulates, 395 Water leaching processes, 395 Water quality requirements, 395 Water use, 395 Ceratophyllum, 24 Cercariae, 322 , Cercaria stagnicolae, 19 Channel catfish, 128, 435, 437 Phthalate ester toxicity, 17 5 Flavor-impairing contaminants, 149 Chattahoochee River, 305 Chemical and allied products Industry description, 384 Manufacturing facilities, 384 Plant locations, 384 Process water usage, 385 Treatment processes Chlorination, 385 Clarification, 385 Demineralization, 385 Filtration, 385 Ion exchange, 385 Raw water, 385 Softening, 385 Water quality, 384 Indicators, 384, 385 Water quality requirements Low turbidity, 384 W atet; use, 384 Chemical and allied product industry Process water intake, 384 Chemical-environmental interaction, 239 Chemical industry Process water characteristics, 384 Chemical treatment procedure Virus removal, 92 Chesapeake Bay, 19 Dredging effects, 279 Eurasian milfoil, 27 Ferric hydroxide content, 249 Nitrogen content effects, 281 Phosphates contents effects, 281 Spoil biomass, 279 Chicks Water salinity intake, 308 Chile Aquatic animal introduction, 28 Dermatological manifestations, 56 China Fishery management, 441 Seaweed culture, 223 Chinook salmon Ammonia concentrations, 242 Cadmium-zinc effects, 246 Chlorine lethal threshold, 246 Chromium toxicity, 180 Gas bubble disease, 138, 139 Gill hyperplasia-ammonia relationship, 187 Chironomus plumosus, 435 Chiarella pyrenoidosa, 245 Chiarella Spp, 438 Chlorides Foliar absorption, 328 Fruit crops sensitivity, 328 Irrigation water, 328 Public water supply, 61 Chlorinated hydrocarbons Insecticides, 318 Human intake, 77 Water solubility, 318 Pesticides, 197 Chlorination Bacteria resistence, 277 Virus resistence, 277 Chlorine Aquatic organisms tolerance, 247 Hydraulic systems, 246 Paper mill treatment, 189 Potable water treatments, 189 Power plant treatment, 189 Sewage effluents treatment, 189 Subject lndex/567 Textile mill treatment, 189 Toxicity, 246 Water solubility, 246 Chlorine disinfectant Public water supply, 50 Chlorine-pH relationship, 246 Chlorine pollutants Aquatic organism toxicity, 247 Chlorophenoxy herbicides Public water supply, 78, 79 Recommended safe levels, 79 Toxicity, 79 Chlorophyll a, 21 Chlorosis, 329 Chromium Drinking water Ruminants use, 311 Freshwater organisms sensitivity, 247 Human toxicity, 62 Lake waters, 311 Oyster mortality, 247 Public water supply, 62 River waters, 311 Valence forms, 62 Chrysaora quinquecirrha Chesapeake Bay, 19 Cladophora, 20, 124 Clams Disease vectors, 36 Clarias batrachus, 28 Clarification, 372 Chemical additives, 372 Clear Lake, California Pesticides Trophic accumulation, 183 Clear Lake, Texas Brown shrimp production, 279 White shrimp production, 279 Climate Agriculture waters, 333 Humid-arid regional differences, 336 Irrigation waters, 333 Climate conditions Evapotranspiration, 336 Clostridium, 321 Clostridium botulinum, 196 Clostridium hemolytium, 321 Clostridium perfrigens, 321 Clostridium tetanic, 321 Coagulation process Public water supply, 50 Coastal contaminants, 264 Coastal engineering projects Sedimentation, 279 Suspended loads, 279 Coastal environment Contaminants, 217 DDT compound pollutants, 226 Coastal marine environment Toxic wastes, 224 Coastal marine waters Recreational activities, 219 Shell fish yields, 219 Coastal plain estuaries Oxygen depletion, 270 568/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Coastal regions Pollutant retention time, 230 Coastal waters Cadmium content, 245 Dissolved oxygen distribution, 270 Eutrophy, 19 Marine fish production, 217 Marine life-oil contamination effects, 261 Particulate materials content, 281 Persistent pollutants, 225 Pollutant retention time, 230 Pollution effects, 222 Waste disposal sites, 221 Waste disposals, 228 Zones of passage, 115 Coastal zone management Experiments, 282 Cobalt Drinking water Farm animals use, 311 Surface waters, 311 Vitamin B12, 311 Cod Phosphorus tolerance, 254 Coelosphaerium K uetzingianum, 317 Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), 27 Aroclor® toxicity, 176 Barium chloride effects, 244 Carbon dioxide concentrations, 139 Chlorine lethal threshold, 246 DDT contamination, 237 Dissolved oxygen requirements, 139 Oxygen requirements, 132 Potassium chromate lethality, 247 Coho salmon fry Cadmium sensitivity, 180 Coke production Water use, 388 Coldwater fish Dissolved oxygen criteria, 132 Coliform bacteria Public water supply Sanitary quality, 57 Coliform index Pathogenic microorganisms, 58 Color Public water supply, 63 Colorado reservoir Fish mortality-selenium effects, 255 Colorado River, 14, 40 Nematode content, 348 Columbia Basin, Washington Irrigation waters, 348 Columbia River Atomic energy installations, 273 Gas bubble disease, 135 Salmon spawning, 273 Commercial fisheries Water temperature, 151 Committee on Bathing Beach Contami- nation, 29 Committee on Bathing Places, 29 Committee on The Biologic Effects of Atmos- phere Pollutants, 343 Committee on Exotic Fishes and Other Aquatic Organisms, 28 Common egret Dieldrin accumulation effects, 227 ·common tern Heavy metals pollution, 226 Connecticut Fish fauna, 27 Osprey shell thinning, 227 Contaminated waters, 322 Continental shelf Solid waste disposal, 280 Water quality-suspended solids relation- ship, 222 Continental weathering, 251 Conversion tables, 524-527 Cooling ponds, 377 Power plant discharge, 403 Cooling systems Recirculating, 377, 378 Cooling tower makeup Organic matter removal, 378 Cooling towers Operating difficulties, 378 Cooling water, 377, 378 Centrifugal separators, 379 Noncorrosive, 379 Nonfouling, 379 Nonscaling, 379 Recirculated, 376 Recirculating rate, 378 Requirements, 377 Source composition quality, 379 Stream filters, 379 Treatment processes, 379 Cooling water entrainment, 168 Cooling water systems Cooling towers, 377, 378 Copepods Chlorine exposure, 246 Crude oil effects, 261 Diesel oil effects, 261 Copper Algae controls, 24 7 Difficiency in humans, 64 Drinking water Poultry, 311 Ground water, 64 Human metabolism, 64 Human toxicity, 312 Lake waters, 311 Nutritional anemia, 64 Public water supply, 64 River waters, 311 Surface water, 64 Swine, 312 Trace element, 311 Copper uses, 248 Corbicula manilensis, 27 Coregonus, 141 Coregonus artedii, 164, 184 Coregonus clupeaformis, 164 Coregonus hoyi, 184 Coregonus kiyi, 184 Corps of Engineers, 9 Cotton bleaching, 380 Crabs Arsenic toxicity, 243 Chromium toxicity, 247 Copper effect, 248 pH sensitivity, 241 Crappies, 128 Crassius auratus, 245, 252 Crassostrea gigus Copper toxicity, 248 Crassostrea virginica, 246, 248, 250, 253, 255, 281 Crater Lake, Oregon, 16, 40 Crayfish Aroclor® toxicity, 17 6 Manganese tolerance, 250 Mercury content, 173 Cricotopus bicinctus, 18 Crop contamination Polluted irrigation waters, 348 Raw sewage, 352 Crop pathogens Fungi, 348 Crops Herbicide residues, 347 Herbicide tolerances, 346 Insecticides residues, 346 Manganese toxicity, 344 Crude oil Aquatic life toxicity, 261 Crude oil production, 257 Ctenopharyngodon idella, 27 Culexfatigans, 17 Cultus Lake, British Columbia Mercury levels, 252 Currituck Sound, North Carolina Silt deposits, 195 Cyanide Chlorination, 65 Human toxicity, 65 Industrial waste concentrations, 189 Oral toxicity, 65 Public water supply, 65 Temperature-toxicity effects, 190 Cyanide toxicity, 189 Cyclops, 322 Cyclotella meneghiniana, 22 Cyprinus carpio, 27, 141, 147, 149, 187, 243 DDT Carcinogenic effects, 76 Human exposure, 76 Milk contamination, 320 DNC (Dinitroorthocresol), 319 DNOC (See: DNC) Dairy sanitation, 302 Daphnia, 122, 141, 173, 243, 250 Chromium chronic effects, 180 Nickel chloride threshold, 253 Selenium threshold, 255 Uranium effects, 256 Daphnia magna, 435, 438 Bromine mortality, 245 Cadmium sensitivity, 180 Copper tolerance, 180 Ferric chloride effects, 249 Lead toxicity, 181 Nickel sensitivity, 181 ' \ ~ PCB-reproduction effects, 177 Phthalate ester toxicity, 17 5 Reproduction-zone effects, 182 Daphnia pulex, 438 Daphnia sp., 256 Gas bubble disease, 138 Daphnids, 435 Deep sea Manganese nodules, 250 Organic waste disposal, 277 Permanent thermocline, 217 Solid wastes disposal, 280 Deep sea dumping, 277 Deep water decomposition, 275 Deep water-photosynthesis relationship, 275 Defoliants Recommended concentration, 186 Demineralization Cation exchange, 375 Dermatological manifestations Chile, 56 Detergents Phosphates, 191 Toxicity, 190 Detroit River Duck refuge, 195 Sedimented oil, 145 Diatoms Cyanide toxicity, 190 Cyclotella meneghiniana, 22 Gomphonema parvulum, 22 Melosira varians, 22 Navicula cryptocephala, 22 Nit;:;chia palea, 22 Diesel oil spill Shell fish fatality, 258 Dilution water Toxicants testing, 120 Diquat (1, 1'-ethylene-2,2'-dipyridylium di- . bromide), 79 Discharge canals Blue-green algae, 171 Discharge temperature, 378 Dissolved gases Cavitation, 136 Partial pressures, 135 Dissolved gas-pressure criteria, 138 Dissolved oxygen Anaerobic reduction prevention, 65 Lakes, 65 Reservoirs, 65 Public water supply, 65 Dissolved solids Public water supply, 90 Distillation Thermal evaporation, 375 Water condensation, 375 Distilled water Ferrous iron concentrate, 69 Zinc taste threshold, 93 Ditch water Sewage contaminates, 351 Ditchbank treatment, 346 Domestic wastes Phosphorus content, 22 Dorosoma cepedianum, 139 Double-crested Cormorants Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227 Dracunculus, 322 Dragonflies pH effects, 141 Drainage-soil erosion effects, 126 Drainage waters Arid regions, 334 Cadmium content, 245 Drinking water CCE, 75 Arsenic content effects, 56 Hmp.ans, 309 Mice, 309 Rats, 309 Barium content tolerance, 59 Cadmium content, 60, 310 Animals use, 31 0 Carbamate insecticides, 78 Chemical content, 481, 482 Chromium content, 62 Copper content Farm animals use, 311 Poultry, 311 Cyanide content, 65 Fluoride content, 66 Insecticide contamination, 76 Insecticides content, 76 Lead content Livestock, 313 Ruminants, 313 Nitrates content, 315 Nitrilotriacetate content, 7 4 Nitrite content, 315 Nitrite toxicity, 73 Organoleptic properties, 80 Organophosphorus insecticide, .78 Pesticides content Livestock, 319 Radionuclide content, 85, 318 Salinity, 195 Selenium content, 86 Farm animals, 316 Rats, 316 Sodium chloride content Cattle, 307 Day-old poults, 308 Laying hens, 307 Sheep, 307 Swine, 307 Sodium content, 88 Sodium sulfate content, 307 Sulfate ions content, 89 TDS concentration, 90 Vanadium content, 316 Zinc content, 93 Drinking water quality, 31 Drinking water standards, 50, 51, 57, 59, 70, 90, 91, 301-303, 310, 332 EC (electrical conductivity), 325 ECe (electrical conductivity of saturation ex- tract), 325 ElF AC (European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commiss~on), 127 EQU (environmental quality units), 400 Subject Index/569 ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage), 330, 0 335 ESP values Soils, 331 E. histolytical, 29 Ecological impact analysis Environmental characteristics Climate, 400 Hydrology, 400 Scenery, 400 Users, 400 Water quality, 400 Streams, 399 Ecological problems Simulation techniques, 117 Ecology, 400 Ecosystems Biota, 219 Hydrographic patterns, 219 Eggshell thinning-DDT relationship, 198 Eel grass Boron effects, 245 Eels Arsenic toxicity, 243 Manganese tolerance, 250 Eichhornia crassipes, 27 Electrical semiconductors Arsenic content, 243 Electrodialysis Anionic membrane, 375 Cationic membrane, 375 Ion exchange, 375 Electroplating industry Ground water Waste contamination, 310 Elodea, 24 Embayments Cooling waters, 171 Plant growth, 23 Emulsified Oils, 144 Emulsified oils toxicity, 145 Endothal (disodium 3, 6-endoxohexa-hydro- phlhalate), 79 England Bathing waters, 29 Salt water beaches, 31 Eniwetok Manganese radio nuclide uptake, 251 Entamoeba coli, 351 Entamoeba histolytica, 351 Enteric viral contamination Sewage effluents, 91 Enterobacter (aerobacter) aerogenes, 57 Enterobacter cloacae, 57 Environment Physical manipulation, 124 Environmental conditions Laboratory experiments, 282 Environmental management Waste stream constituents, 116 Environmental pollution, 400 EPA Pesticide Regulation Division, 434 Ephemera, 141 Ephemera simulans, 133 Epidemiological studies 570/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Argentina, 56 Tiawan, 56 Erysipelas, 321 Erysyselothrix rhusiopathiae, 321 Escherica coli, 57 Nickel concentrations, 253 Uranium effects, 256 Escherichia-Enterobacter-Klebscilla, 321 Esox lucius, 172, 193 Estuaries Cadmium pollution, 246 Commercial fishing, 221 Dissolved oxygen distribution, 270 Eutrophy, 19 Fertilization by man Algae growth, 20 Slime organisms growth, 20 Water weeds growth, 20 Fertilizing pollutants, 276 Fish breeding grounds, 217 Fisheries support, 221 Marine fish production, 216 Migratory fishes, 217 Motile benthos, 281 Nonthermal discharges distribution Matheii).atical model, 403 Nutrient enrichment, 277 Organic pollutants, 264 Overenrichment, 20 Particulate transport, 16 Plant growth, 23 Pollutant distribution, 230 Pollutant retention time, 228, 230 Power plant discharge, 403 River wastes, 221 Sanitary quality, 276 Sewage pollution, 275 Shad spawning, 221 Sport fishing, 221 Sublethal pollutants, 239 Tidal cycle, 216 Tidal flow, 220 Urban population, 219 Waste disposal, 228 Zones of passage, 115 Estuarine birds PCB Contamination, 264 Estuarine ecology, 277 Estuarine ecosystems Dredging effects, 279 Pesticide toxicity, 264 Estuarine environment Oil pollution, 261 Estuarine fish PCB concentrations, 177 Estuarine organisms Oxygen needs, 270 Estuarine pollution Pesticides, 37 Production reduction, 221 Waste products, 277 Estuarine turbidity Clam eggs tolerance, 281 Oyster tolerance, 281 Estuarine waters Cadmium content, 245 Pesticide contamination, 37 Estuary Protection Act, 10 Estuary sediments, 127 :fulachon, 164 Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), 27 Europe Estuarine birds PCB Contamination, 264 Marine aquaculture Oyster, 73 Well waters Nitrates content, 73 European Atlantic coasts Temperature effects, 238 European Inland Fisheries Advisory Com- mission, 140 Eurytemona affinis, 247 Chlorine exposure time, 247 Eutrophic lakes Green Lake, Oregon, 20 Supersaturation, 136 Evaporation, 328, 329 Evapotranspiration, 324 Humidity, 323 Solar radiation, 323 Temperature effects, 323, 325 Wind effects, 323, 325 Evapotranspiration by plants Irrigation waters, 323 The Everglades, 40 Exaphtalmus, 137 External radiation, 271 Sources, 194 FAO (see also Food and Agriculture Organi- zation), 131, 252 FDA (see also Food and Drug Administra- tion), 72 FRC (see also U.S. Federal Radiation Coun- cil), 273 FDF (fast-death factor), 317 FWPCA (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration), 55 Falco pereginus, 197, 227 Falco sparverius, 197, 226 Farm Animals Brain mercury content, 313 Drinking water copper content, 311 Kidney mercury content, 313 Liver mercury content, 313 Methemoglobinemia, 51, 315 Selenium needs, 316 Toxic water Arsenic, 309 Vanadium toxicity, 316 Zinc toxicity, 316 Farm ponds Pesticide contamination, 318 Farm water supply Pesticide content, 320 Farmstead water Ground water, 302 Federal quarantine regulations, 302 Fasicola hepatica, 350 Fathead minnows, 128, 435, 438 Antimony effects, 243 Aroclor® exposure, 177 Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244 Cadmium lethality, 179 Chlorine toxicity, 189 Chromium chronic effects, 180 Copper-reproduction effects, 180 Detergent toxicity, 191 Hard water LC50 values, 181 Nickei-LC50 values, 181 Zinc toxicity, 182 Hydrogen sulfide bioassays, 193 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193 Malathion exposure effects, 185 Methylmercury mortality, 173 Nickel concentration Reproduction limitations, 181 Nickel effects, 253 Nickel lethality, 253 Oil refinery effiuents effects, 144 Oxygen requirements, 132 PCB-reproduction effects, 177 Phthalate ester toxicity, 175 Soft water LCSO values, 181 Zinc toxicity, 182 Nickei-LC50 values, 181 Uranium exposure effects, 256 Fauna introduction Aquatic plant control, 28 Commercial fishing, 28 Forage, 28 Insect control, 28 Official agencies, 28 Pond culture, 28 Predation, 28 Sport fishing, 28 Federal Drinking Water Standards, 318 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenti- cide Act, 4.34 Federal Power Commission, 10 Federal quarantine regulations Farmsteads, 302 Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1948), 2 Federal Water Project Recreation Act, 10 Filter-feeding organisms Oil ingestion, 262 Filtration, 3 73 Backwashing, 373 Primary treatment, 373 Fingernail clams, 22 Finland Mercury contamination, 252 Fish Acute ammonia toxicity, 187 Aluminum effects, 179 Antimony content, 243 Cadmium effects, 246 Carbon dioxide concentrations, 139 Chromium toxicity, 180 Commercial value, 240 Contamination, 240 Cyanide toxicity, 190 Dissolved oxygen-pH tolerances, 241 Dissolved oxygen requirements, 131, )34 Ferricyanide toxicity, 190 Free oil effects, 144 Gas bubble disease, 135, 137 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193 Iron lethality threshold, 249 Manganese toxicity, 250 Mercury Accumulation, 252 Concentration, 72 Content, 1·98 Fatality dosage, 181 Intake, 173 Metal toxicity, 177 Muscular dystrophy, 250 Nickel toxicity effects, 253 Oil effects, 162, 261 Oil emulsions effects, 344 Pesticide levels Toxic monitors, 321 Polychlorinated byphenyls Content, 175 Dietary exposure, 176 Exposure, 176 Residue, 175, 176 pH changes tolerance, 241 pH--chlorine relationship, 189 Pesticide residues, 183 Pesticide-survival relationship, 184 Phenolics-taste relationship, 191 Phosphorus experimentation, 254 Phosphorus poisoning, 254 Phosphorus sensitivity, 240 Rad dosage, 272 Reduced oxygen concentrations Level of protection, 133 Safe environmental level, 194 Sulfide toxicity, 255 Supersaturation, effects, 137 Supersaturation tolerance, 138 Suspended solids tolerance, 128 Temperature acclimation, 161 Thallium exposure, 256 Thermal requirements, 151 Turbidity effects, 128 Water temperature exposure, 160 Zero net growth, 154 Fish development Light sensitivity, 162 Salinity sensitivity, 162 Thermal sensitivity, 162 Fish-eating birds PCB accumulation, 226 Fish eggs Fluoride effects, 249 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191 Iron hydroxides effects, 249 Fish farm ponds Growth factors, 128 Fish fauna, 27 Fish fry Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 191 Fish food Aquatic macrophytes, 25 Fish food organisms Arsenic concentrations, 243 Fish growth rates Water temperature, 157 Fish hatcheries Aquaculture, 151 Fish kills Water temperature, 171 Fish life processes Biochemical-physiological deficiencies, 239 Fish reproduction Thermal sensitivity, 162 Fish tainting Phenolated compounds, 147 Fish tast<;: Phenolics, 191 Fisheries Economics-human health relationship, 240 Mercury contamination effects, 237 Pollutant effects, 221 Fisheries pond culture Phytoplankton, 24 Fishery management, 441 Aquatic vascular plants, 27 Application, 442 Methods, 441 Need, 441 Posttreatment assessment, 442 Pretreatment assessments, 442 Toxicant selection, 442 Toxicants Rotenone, 441 Toxaphene, 441 Fishing license Water recreation, 8 Fission products, 191, 271 Fjords Oxygen depletion, 270 Pollutant retention time, 230 Flatworm Manganese content, 250 Flavobacter, 438 Floating oils, 144 Flood irrigation, 350 Florida Growing seasons, 336 Lakes, 27 Soils--copper toxicity, 342 Walking catfish introduction, 28 Water hyacinth, 27 Florida elodea (Hydrilla verticilla), 26 Florida oil barge Fuel oil spill, 258, 260 Florida State Board of Health, 18 Flounder spawn Crude oil effects, 261 Flowing water Organisms pollution, 18 Flukes Miracidia, 322 Flouride Dental fluorosis, 66 Public water supply, 66 .Water pollution control, 66 Fluoride poisoning Livestock, 312 Fluoride uses, 248 Subject lndex/571 Fluorine Animal intake, 312 Well water, 312 Fluorine occurrances, 248 Foaming agents Ground water, 67 Public water supplies, 67 Surface water, 67 Synthetic anionic surfactants, 67 Synthetic detergents, 67 Food and Agriculture Organization (see also FAO), 441 Food canning industry Chlorination processes, 390 Description, 389 Food cleaning, 390 Fruits, 392 Gross water intake, 391 High-pressure water sprays, 390 Process water, 391 Coagulation, 391 Disinfection, 391 Filtration, 391 Sedimentation, 391 Recirculation processes, 390 Steam generation, 390 Total water use, 391 Vegetables, 392 Water-demand variation, 390 Water processes, 390 Water quality indicators, 391 Water quality requirements Point of use, 392 Water quantity, 390 Water sources, 391 Water supplies Chemical content, 391 Water treatment processes, 391 Water use, 389, 390, 391 Food canning processes Water quality, 390 Food and Drug Administration (see also FDA) Mercury concentration standards, 72 Food and Drug Directorate Canada, 251 Food poisoning Clostridium botulinum, 196 Food quality Chemicals content, 481, 482 Inorganic chemical concentrations, 481, 482 Forest Service, 39 Fouling organisms Chlorination lethality, 247 Frasier River, British Columbia Sockeye salmon production, 164 Fresh water Aluminum toxicity, 242 Animals PCB mortality, 176 Boron effects, 244 Chemical characteristics Alkalinity, 111 Hardness, 111 Nutrients, 111 pH,111 Ecosystems 572/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Pollutant concentrations, 264 Fathead minnow Bioassay tests, 253 Fish-pH requirements, 241 Gas bubble formation, 136 Indicator communities, 22 Iron Biological effects, 249 Mercury concentrations, 173 Mercury content, 72 Mixing zones Definition, 112 Water quality characteristics, 112 Molybdenum-phytoplankton growth ef- fects, 252 Nickel toxicity, 253 pH extremes, 241 pH values, 140 Phosphate content, 253 Sorption process, 228 Fresh water aquaculture Pollution effects, 223 Fresh water aquatic organisms Environmental relationship, 109 Fresh water fish Biologically magnified mercury, 173 Dissolved solids Osmotic stress, 142 Lead concentrations, 250 Manganese lethality, 251 Oxygen needs, 270 pH effects, 141 un-ionized ammonia toxicity, 187 Fresh water fisheries Chemically inert suspended solids, 128 Fresh water lakes Malaria vectors, 25 Fresh water macrophytes Biologically magnified mercury, 173 Fresh water organisms Ammonia toxicity, 242 Chromium toxicity, 24 7 Cyanides toxicity, 248 Oxygen requirements, 132 Uranyl salts toxicity, 256 Fresh water phytoplankton Biologically magnified mercury, 173 Fresh water systems Agriculture runoff nutrients, 27 4 Fresh water receiving systems Biological characteristics, 111 Chemical characteristics, 111 Physical characteristics, 111 Waste discharges, 111 Fresh water stream pollution Pathogen occurrence, 57 Salmonella detection, 57 Fundulus, 251, 253 Fundulus heteroclitus, 244, 246, 247, 255, 261 Fundulus sp., 173 Fungicides Recommended concentration, 186 Furrow irrigation, 350, 351 GBD (gas bubble disease), 135 GLC (gas-liquid chromatography), 439 GLC-MS (gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrograph), 439 •Gadwall Lead ingestion effects, 228 Galveston Bay Background concentrations-wind action, 281 Suspended material concentrations, 281 Gam busia affinis, 191 , 24 5 Gammarus, 141, 173, 176 Gammarus Jasciatus, 176 Gammarus pseudolimnaeus, 189, 191, 435 PCB-reproduction effects, 177 Gammarus sp., 256 Gas bubble disease, 138 Gas analysis methods Gas-liquid chromatography, 138 Instrumentation, 138 Gas bubble disease, 135, 137 Etiology, 135 Exopthalmus, 137 Hydrostatic pressure, 135 Sublethal effects, 138 Gas bubble formation Aquatic life interface, 137 Hydrostatic-dissolved gas-pressure re- lationship, 136 Gas nuclei Bubble formation, 136 Gasterosteus aculeatus, 242, 255 Generation plants Thermal power, 378 Genetic studies Aquatic pollutants, 237 German lakes Tainting, 147 Germany Mercury content in water, 72 Grizzard shad Carbon dioxide sensitivity, 139 Glass shrimp, 435 Aroclor® toxicity, 176 Global oil pollution of seas, 257 Gloeotrichia echinulata, 317 Glossary of terms, 519-523 Goldfish Ammonia tolerance, 187 Barium concentration, 244 Bromine mortality, 245 Hydrogen sulfide bioassays, 193 Mercuric chloride effects, 252 Nickel chloride lethality, 253 Nickelous chloride effects, 253 pH effects, 141 Sodium selenite tolerance, 254 Softwater lead content, 181 Gomphonema parvulum, 22 Gonyaulax, 38 Toxic dinoflagellates, 38 Gonyaulax contenella, 38 Gonyaulax tamarensis, 38 Grand Canyon, Colorado, 14 Grand Canyon National Park, 40 Grass carp (Ctenopharynegodon idella), 27 Great Blue Herons Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227 Great-crested Grebe Mercury contamination, 252 Great Lakes E. botulism outbreaks, 196 Fish contamination, 240 Pollutant retention time, 230 Predatory aquatic birds, 197 Sea lamprey, 27 Thermocline changes, 161 Green algae Antimony effects, 243 Great South Bay, New York Nitrogen-phosphorus ratios, 276 Green Lake, Washington, 20 Blue-green algal, 20 Reclamation, 20 Greenland snow Lead content, 249 Ground waters Ammonia content, 55 Artesian, 52 Boron content, 310 Cadmium content, 60, 310 Contamination, 352 Contamination by deep-well injection, 52 Contamination by leaching, 52 Copper content, 64 Dissolved inorganic salts, 301 Farmstead use, 302 Fluorine concentrations, 248 Foaming agents, 67 Iron content, 69, 249 Manganese content, 71, 250 Minerals, 301 Nutrient concentration, 22 Public water supply, 50 Quality, 52 Radioactivity, 84 Radionuclides content, 317 Salinity, 330 Sodium concentration, 88 Soluble salts content Farmsteads, 302 Sulfate concentration, 89 Sulfonates, 67 Temperature variation, 89 Waste contamination, 310 Waste mixing, 52 Ground water degrading, 52 Ground water quality Public water supply, 52 Growing season Florida, 336 Michigan, 336 New York, 336 Guinea worm, 322 Gulf coast Channelization, 279 Dredging, 279 Estuaries, 279 Filling effects, 279 Spoils dumping, 279 Waste dumping, 278 Gulf of Mexico Lake sediments, 145 Gulf Stream, 32 Guppies Lead-growth effects, 181 Nickel chloride lethality, 253 Gyraulus, 19 Haliaetus albicilla, 252 Haliaetus leucocephalus, 227 Hallett Station, Antarctica Camium in water ford, 246 Halogens Water treatment, 301 Hamburg, Germany, 351 Harbor channels Wastes buildup, 278 Harbor oil spillage, 263 Hard water Antimony salts, 243 Boron toxicity, 245 Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244 Cadmium content, 180 Chromium concentration, 180 Copper concentrations, 180 Lead solubility, 181 Nickel content, 253 Zinc-fecundity effects, 182 Hard water lakes, 25 Hardness Public water supply, 68 Heat exchangers Quality requirements, 377 Heat rejection, 377 Herbicides 2,4-D, 79, 346 2,4,5-T Embryo toxicity, 79 Tetratogenic effects, 79 Terata toxicity, 79 2,4,5-TP, 79 Amitrole, 347 Canals, 347 Chlorophenoxy, 76 Dalapon, 346 Human ingestion, 79 Recommended concentration, 186 Silvex, 346 TCA, 346 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 79 Toxicity, 26 Herring Phosphorus poisoning, 254 Herring Gulls Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227 Heterodera schachtii, 348 Historical background Agriculture, 2 Baseline data, 4 Commercial, 2 Disease, 1 Environmental quality, 1 Environmental Protection Agency, 2 Purification by filtration, 1 Recreation, 2 Water quality criteria, 2, 4 Water quality guidelines, 1, 2 Water standards, 4 Water uses, 2, 4 Homarus americanus, 242, 280 Horses Molybdenum tolerance, 314 Horsehair worms, 322 Hudson Canyon Solid wastes dumping, 280 Human health Radiation restrictions, 273 Humans Chronic lead poisoning, 250 Methemoglobinemia, 315 Rad dosage, 272 Rem.dosage, 272 Humid region Climatic factors, 336 Deep horizons, 336 Evapotranspiration, 336 Humid area irrigation Saline waters, 337 Humid regions Irrigation water quality, 336 Rainfall predictions, 336 SAR values, 338 Soil acidity, 338 Soil characteristics, 336 Temperature ranges, 336 Trace elements, 338 Hydrilla verticillata, 26 Hydrocarbons Degradation, 261 Marine microorganism degradation, 260 Hydrocooling Raw produce, 302 Hydrodynamics Temperature changes, 152 Hydroelectric power Thermal fluctuations, 162 Hydrogen Sulfide Water solubility, 193 Hydrogen sulfide-pH relationships, 192 Hydrosoils, 183 Hydrostatic pressure, 135, 136 Hypothetical power plant Temperature change Water cooling, 169 ICRP (International Commission on Radio- logical Protection), 273 IDOE (International Decade of Ocean Ex- ploration), 226 Ictaluridae, 141 lctalurus punctatus, 128, 149, 435 Ictalurus serracanthus, 171 Illinois Grass carp introduction, 28 Illinois River Sedimented oils, 145 Impoundments Power plants discharge, 403 Incipient lethal temperature, 161 Calculations, 161 Indonesia Marine aquaculture, 223 Industrial effluents, 370 Detergent content, 190 Industrial raw water Intake systems Asian clam pest, 27 Industrial wastes Cyanide content, 189 Subject lndex/573 Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20 Organic toxicants, 264 Sea disposal, 278, 280 Industry Food canning Water use, 389 Heat-exchange equipment, 377 Petroleum refining water use, 385 Steam generation, 376 Textile mill products, 379 Water cooling, 376 Infectious hepatitus Polluted shellfish, 277 Inorganic chemicals production United States, 483 lnorganics Pollutants-life cycle effects, 240 Inorganics-bacteria interaction, 239 Insecticides Aldrin, 77 Cattle feed, 320 Chlordane, 77 Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 76, 318 DDT, 77 Dieldrin, 77 Drinking water, 76 Endrin, 77 Heptachlor, 77 Heptachlor epoxide, 77 Human absorption, 76 Human ingestion, 78 Lindane, 77 Methoxychlor, 77 Methylcarbamates, 318 Organophosphates, 318 Toxaphene, 77 Toxicity, 76, 78 Intensive aquaculture Carrying capacity, 224 Cultivated organisms, 224 Waste accumulation sensitivity, 224 Pollution sensitivity, 224 Internal radiation, 271 Sources, 194 International Commission on Radiological Protection, 85 Intertidal organisms--oil spill effects, 258 Invertebrates Copper toxicity, 247 Gas bubble disease, 138 Ion exchange Regeneration techniques, 375 Total demineralization, 375 Waste, 375 Ionizing radiation Animal absorption, 272 Biological effects, 195, 272 Genetic effects, 272 Plant absorption, 272 Irish Sea, Windscale, England Atomic energy installation, 273 574/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Iron Farm animals Toxicity, 312 Ground waters, 69 Industrial uses, 249 Insects tolerance, 249 Public water supply, 65, 69 Surface waters, 69 Iron bacteria pH effects, 141 Irrigation, 300 Canals, 346 Ditches Plant growth, 23 Duration, 334 Efficiency Suspended solids, 332 Frequency, 334 Management, 326 Sprinklers, 324 Thermal fluctuations, 162 Irrigation waters Absorption, 324 Acrolein content, 346 Adsorption, 324 Animal pathogens, 350 Arid regions Climate, 333 Ascaris ova, 350, 351 Bacterial plant pathogens, 349 Beryllium toxicity, 341 BOD values, 330 Bacillary hemoglobinuria, 322 Boron content, 341 Brackish, 336 Calcium carbonate precipitation, 334, 335 Chemical composition Calcium-magnesium, carbonate-bicar- bonate, 333 Calcium-magnesium, sulfate-chloride, 333 Sodium-potassium, sulfate-chloride, 333 Chlorides content, 328 Citrus fungus, 348, 349 Climate, 336 Climate effects, 333 Coliform content, 351 Copper sulfate content, 346 Crop yields, 324 Crops, 323 Diseases, 350 Ditch effluent, 334 Drainage, 334 Drainage from rainfall, 334 Enteric viruses, 350 Evaporation, 323 Evapotranspiration by plants, 323 Flukes, 322 Fruit crops Salt tolerance, 328 Herbicide content, 346 Application to crops, 348 Herbicide dissipation, 346 Herbicide levels, 34 7 Herbicide residues levels, 348 Human pathogens, 350 Irrigation waters (cont.) Humid-arid region differences, 336 Humid regions, 336 Infective nematodes Heterodera schachtii, 348 " Pratylenchus sp., 348 Meloedogyne hapla, 348 Tylenchorhynchus sp., 348 Inorganic sediments, 336 Iron content, 343 Leaching rains, 338 Leaching rates Climate, 334 Infiltration, 334 Leaching requirements, 334 Crop indicator, 334 Limestone Aluminum solubility control, 340 Lithium toxicity, 344 Microorganisms, 350 Nematode vector, 349 Nematodes Longidorus, 349 Trichodorus, 349 Xiphinema, 349 Nitrates, 329 Organic matter content, 336 pH values, 330 Parathion, 346 Pathogens, 351 Percolation, 334 Permeability hazard, 335 Pesticides controls Xylene, 347 Pesticide residues, 346 Pesticides, 345 Phenoxy herbicides, 347 Physicochemical properties of soil, 323 Phytoloxic constituents, 324 Phytoloxic trace elements, 338 Plant disease control, 349 Plant growth, 323, 324 Plant nematodes distribution, 348 Plant pathogens, 348 Introduction, 349 Nematodes, 349 Precipitation distribution, 333 Radioactive contamination, 332 Radium-226 concentration Fresh produce, 332 Runoff reuse, 348 ~ SAR values, 331 Sago pondweed content, 25 Saline content, 324 Salinity, 337 Guidelines, 335 Hazards, 335 Measurements, 325 Salinity-nutrition effect, 326 Salinity tolerance of plants, 325 Salt tolerance of crops, 334 Salts-soil permeability effects, 335 Saturation percentage, 324 Semiarid regions Climate, 333 Sodium, 329 Sodium adsorption, 330 Soil hazard to animals, 332 Soil hazard to humans, 332 Soil salinity Sodium content, 329 Soils pH values, 333 Steady-state leaching Iron uptake, 334 Moisture distribution, 334 Precipitation, 334 Residual soil moisture, 334 Salt concentration, 334 Uniform mixing, 334 Strontium-90 concentration Fresh produce, 332 Surface horizon, 333 Suspended solids, 335 TDS content, 335 Temperature, 328 Trace elements, 337, 339 Trace elements toxicity, 338 Tubercle bacilli, 351 Waste water, 351 Water quality, 323, 324, 333 Water quality criteria, 337 Xylene content, 346 Irrigation water-crop relationships, 337 Israel rearing ponds Tainting, 147 Itai-itai disease, 60, 24 Japan Fish-management lethality effects, 251 Itai-itai disease, 60 Seaweed culture, 223 Japanese fishing Mercury contamination, 252 Japanese quail Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226 Jellyfish, 19 Kelp Boron effects, 245 Chlorine effects, 247 Chromium effects, 247 Copper-photosynthesis relationships, 248 Lead tolerance, 250 Mercuric chloride effects, 252 Kelp resurgence Pollution effects, 237 Killfish Silver lethality, 255 Kentucky Recreational water, 39 Klamath Lake Wildlife Refuges, 346 LAS (linear alkyl benzene sulfonate), 67, 190 LBVV (Lettuce Big Vein Virus), 349 LC50 (median lethal concentration), 118 LOT (load on top), 262 Laboratory control conditions Biological effects, 239 Labrador current, 32 Lagondon rhomboides, 177 Lagoons Mosquito infestations, 18 Lake Classification, 19 Enrichment, 20 Hypothetical integrated time-exposure data, 403 Lake Erie Arsenic content, 243 Biotic shifts, 23 Dophnia magna-manganese effects, 250 Nickel chloride effects, 253 Suspended matter, 126 Watershed, 23 White fish population, 164 Lake fish Reproduction-temperature relationships, 162 Lake herring Reproduction temperatures, 164 Lake Huron Antimony content, 243 Lake hypolimnia, 157 Lake Michigan, 11 Chubs contamination, 184 Coho Salmon contamination, 184 DDT contamination, 237 Lake herring contamination, 184 Pesticide residue Coho Salmon fry mortality, 184 Lake trout contamination, 184 Temperature, 164 Lake Poinsett, South Dakota Pesticides Trophic accumulation, 183 Lake productivity Plankton, 82 Lake St. Clair Mercury content, 198 Lake Sammamish, Oregon, 20 Lake Sebasticook, Maine, 20 Lake sediments Gulf of Mexico, 145 Minnesota, 145 Lake stratification Turbidity effects; 127 Lake Superior Pollutant retention time, 230 Lake Tahoe, California, 16, 40 Lake thermoclines, 157 Lake trout Reproduction temperatures, 164 Lake trout fry Mortality DDT-DDD residue, 184 Lake Washington Chlorophyll a content, 21 Eutrophy from sewage, 20 Oligatrophic-mesotrophic lake, 20 Oscillatoria rubescens content, 20 Phosphate content, 22 Lake waters Carbon content, 23 Chromium content, 311 Copper content, 311 Lead content, 312 Lake water cooling Hypothetical power plant, 166 Lake Winnisquam, New Hampshire, 20 Lakes Biomass, 22 Blue-green algae, 22 Carbon-algae relationship, 23 Deep layers, 132 Dissolved oxygen, 65 Dissolved oxygen regime, 133 Dinamic characteristics, 21 Eutrophy, 19 Fish crops, 20 Florida, 27 Hypolimnion, 132 Ice for'mation, 161 Industrial discharge-temperature relation- ship, 195 Mosquito infestation, 18 Nonthermal discharge distribution Mathematical model, 403 Nutrient concentrations, 22 Nutrient effects, 20 Organic mercury content, 172 Overenrichment, 20 Oxygen concentration, 132 Particulate transport, 16 Pesticides content, 183 Phosphorus content, 81 Plankton content, 20 Pollutant retention time, 230 Pollution distribution, 230 Power plant discharge, 403 Sedimentation, 17 Soluble oxygen depletion, 111 Trophic states, 21 Waste water inflow Nutrient concentration, 22 Surface water temperatures, 164 Water density-surface water temperature relationship, 164 Wind waves, 17 Zones of passage, 115 Land and Water Conservation Fund, 10 Land-water relationships, 126 Largemouth bass, 437, 438 Antimony effects, 243 Carbon dioxide sensitivity, 139 Dissolved oxygen requirements, 134 Gas bubble disease, 138 Mortality-water temperature relationships, 171 Oxygen requirements, 132 Plume entrainment effects, 170 Largemouth black bass, 128 Larus argentatus, 227 Laying hens Drinking water Sodium chloride content, 307 Lead Chronic toxicity, 181 Hard water solubility, 181 Human intake by food, 70 Industrial exposure, 70 Intoxication in children, 70 . Lake waters, 312 Public water supply, 70 Excessive levels, 70 River waters, 312 Subject Index/575 Soft water solubility, 181 Surface waters, 70 Toxicity, 70 Water hardness, 181 Toxicity in animals, 313 Waterfowl ingestion, 196 Lead in fish Safe-to-lethal ratio, 181 Lead-multiple sclerosis relationship, 250 Lead-muscular dystrophy relationships, 250 Lead poisoning Cattle, 313 Children, 70 Livestock, 313 Symptoms in man, 250 Zoo animals New York City, 249 Leander squill a, 24 7 Lebistes, 181 Leeches, 22 Leiostomus ;:.anthurus, 177 Lentic water Gas bubble disease, 135 Lepomis gibbosus, 141 Lepomis macrochirus, 128, 141, 149, 177, 180, 182, 184, 191, 193, 243, 254, 435 Lepomis microlophus, 128 Leptospirosis, 29 Agricultural waters, 321 Lesser scaup Winter food requirements, 195 Lime softening, 372, 373 Clarification, 373 Filtration, 373 Flocculent chemicals, 373 Silica removal, 373 Sodium cation exchange, 373 Listeria monocytogenes, 321 Listeriosis, 321 Livestock Agricultural water toxicity, 319 Anthrax, 322 Body water loss Diuretic effects, 304 Evaporation, 304 Chronic fluoride poisoning, 312 Drinking water Lead content, 313 Pesticides content, 319 Fluoride poisoning, 312 Insecticide poisoning, 319 2,4-D intake, 319 Lead poisoning, 313 MCPA intake, 319 Mercury absorption, 313 Mercury intake, 314 Methyl mercury, 313 Parasitic protozoa, 322 Livestock water Livestock Pesticides in water, 318 Pesticides poisoning, 319 Phenoxyacetic acid derivatives, 319 Water consumption, 304 Water intake 576/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Iron content, 312 Mercury content, 314 Molybdenum intake, 314 Nitrates effects on reproduction, 315 Nitrates poisoning, 314 Nitrites poisoning, 314 Radionuclides toxicity, 317 Selenium poisoning, 316 Toxic algae, 317 Water salinity effects, 307 Zinc in diet, 317 Livestock water Pesticide content, 318 Acaricides, 319 Fungicides, 319 Herbicides, 319 Insecticides, 319 Molluscides, 319 Rodenticides, 319 Lobsters Aluminum concentration, 242 Lead tolerance, 250 Long Island, New York Great South Bay, 276 Marine waters, 37 Osprey shell thinning, 227 Long Island Sound, 31 Cadmium in water fowl, 246 Mercury concentration, 252 PCB in fish, 226 Longidorus, 349 Lota lota, 141 Louisiana Water hyacinth, 27 Louisiana marshes Background values, 281 Lower Yakima Valley, Washington Irrigation water Plant-parasitic nematodes, 348 Lumber and wood industry Description, 381 Processes using water, 381 River use, 381 Lumber industry (See also Lumber and wood industry) Solution treatment, 382 Water quality characteristics; 382 Water quality indicators, 382 Water turbidity, 382 Lymnaea, 19 Lumnaea emarginata, 19 MBAS (methylene blue active substances), 67, 190 MCPA Livestock intake, 319 MPC (maximum permissible concentration), 274 MPN (most probable number), 36 MS (matric suction), 324 Macrocystis, 245 Macrocystis pyrifera, 247, 248, 250, 252 Macroinvertibrate population Suspended solids effects, 128 Mallards Oily water effects, 196 Makeup water Municipal sewage treatment, 378 Mallard Ducks PCB-shell thinning relationship, 226 Lead ingestion effects, 228 Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226 Man-made radioisotopes, 271 Manganese Distribution systems deposits, 71 Ground water, 71 Industrial use, 250 Natural water Trace element, 313 Public water supply, 65, 71 Seawater phytoplankton growth, 250 Surface waters, 71 Manganese toxicity, 250 Manganese zeolite, 375 Marine alga Mercury sensitivity, 173 Marine animals Manganese concentration, 251 Nickel content, 253 PCB mortality, 176 Marine aqua culture Disease sensitivity, 224 Economic factors, 223 Europe, 223 Extensive culture, 222 Southeast Asia, 223 Floating cage culture, 223 Intensive culture, 222, 223 Species harvest, 222 United States, 223 Water exchange effects, 223 Water quality, 223, 224 World food production, 222 Marine aquatic life Boron toxicity, 245 Water quality criteria, 219 Marine biotoxins, 37 Marine birds Oil pollution effects, 258 Marine communities Aluminum hydroxide effects, 242 Marine contaminants, 264 Marine ecosystems Halogenated hydrocarbons, 264 Intertidal zones, 220 Pollutant concentration, 225 Pollution effects, 216, 220 PCB contamination, 264 Sewage treatment products, 27 4 Shell thinning-DDT relationship, 227 Toxic pollutants, 220 Water quality, 216 Marine embayments Fertilization by man Algae growth, 20 Slime organisms growth, 20 Water weeds growth, 2 Marine environment Acute toxicities Bioassays, 233 Animal nutrition, 240 Animal protein production, 216 Antagonism, 240 Aquatic organisms Bioanalysis, 233 Assessment methods Bioassay design, 235 Base metal contamination, 239 Beryllium photosynthesis, 244 Biological production, 220 Biological species, 217 Bioresponse testing, 234 Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, 230 DDT compound pollutants, 226 Energy flow, 220 Exchanges, 219 Fecal coliform index, 276 Fishery production indicators, 222 Food chain bioaccumulation, 240 Hazard assessment, 234 Incipient LC50-acute toxicity relation- ship, 234 Inorganics Toxicity, 234, 235 Inorganic chemicals pollution, 238, 239 Materials cycling, 220 Mercury levels, 252 Metals accumulation, 240 Mixing zones, 231 Modelling, 235 Modification effects, 219 Nutrient elements additives, 275 Oil contamination, 257 Oil pollution Gas chromatography identification, 258 Oil pollution control, 257, 262 Ore processing releases, 239 Organic material production, 275 Organic pollutants, 264 pH fluctuation, 241 Persistent pollutants Atmospheric fallout, 264 River runoffs, 264 Ship dumping, 264 Pesticide content, 37 Petroleum hydrocarbon losses, 257 Plant nutrition, 240 Pollution Sublethal effects, 236 Pollutant bioanalysis, 233 Pollutant categories, 238 Pollutant distribution, 228, 229 Pollutant toxicity, 233 Pollution effects, 218 Radioactive discharges, 273 Species diversity, 220 Synergism, 240 Temperature pollution, 238 Variable conditions, 217 Marine fish production Estuaries, 216 Marine fisheries Coastal waters crops, 221 Estuarine crops, 221 Ocean crops, 221 Marine life Pesticide toxicity, 264 M;arine organisms Cadmium concentration<;, 246 Contaminant accumulation, 217 Copper accumulation, 248 Crude oil toxicity, 258 DDT contamination, 264 Environment modification tolerance, 224 Hydrocarbon ingestion, 260 Mercury content, 251 Oil ingestion, 237 Marine organisms mortality Oil spills effects, 258 Marine organisms Oil toxicity, 261 Oil toxicity studies, 261 Organics toxicity, 264 Oxygen loss, 270 Oxygen needs, 270 Pollutants effects, 221 Pollutant uptake, 228 Thermal limits, 238 Uranyl salts toxicity, 256 Vanadium concentration, 257 Marine phytoplankton Ethyl mercury phosphate lethality, 173, 252 Organic material production, 275 Marine plants Cadmium content, 245 Fertilizing elements, 275. Manganese concentration, 251 Nickel content, 253 Marine system organic chemicals Fungicides, 265 Halogenated hydrocarbons, 268 Herbicides, 265 Insecticides, 266 Pesticides, 265 Plasticizers, 268 Surface-active agents, 268 Tar, 268 Toxicity, 265 Marine vegetation Boron effects, 245 Marine waters Ecosystems, 219 Fish residue concentrations, 225 Human uses, 219 Mutagen pollutants, 225 Persistent pollutants, 225 Phosphate input control, 254 Pollutant accumulation rates, 225 Pollutant-physiological function relation- ship, 225 Sludge disposal, 277 Teratogen pollutants, 225 Marine wildlife Aldrin toxic effects, 227 Birds, 224 Dieldrin effects, 227 Eggshell thinning, 225 Embryos mortality-PCB relationship, 226 Endrin effects, 227 Fish, 224 Food webs, 224 Heavy metals pollution, 226 Heptachlor effects, 227 Invertebrates, 224 Lead ingestion, 228 Mammals, 224 Organochlorine insecticides, 227 PCB accumulation, 226 Plankton as food, 224 Pollutant concentrations in fish, 225 Radionuclides accumulations, 226 Reproductive capacity, 225 Reptiles, 224 Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226 Marshes Alkalinity-salinity relationship, 196 Malaria vectors, 25 Plant growth, 23 Mayflies Iron effects, 249 pH effect, 141 Oxygen requirements, 133 Maylasia Marine aquaculture, 223 Meloidogyne hapla, 348 Meloidogyne incognita, 348 M.javanica, 348 Mendota Lake, Wisconsin, 20 Melosira varians, 22 Menistee River, 14 Mercury Acute poisoning, 72 Agricultural use, 72 Alkyl compounds, 72 Animal organs, 313 Beer, 72 Bird mortality, 198 Chronic exposure, 72 Chronic poisoning, 72 Fish tolerance, 72, 181, 198 Freshwater,.72 Global production, 251 Human ingestion, 72 Human intake in food, 72 Industrial exposure, 72 Industrial uses, 251 Livestock, 314 Maximum dietary intake, 72 Natural waters, 313 Ocean contaminants, 251 Poultry, 313 Public water supply, 72 Rain water, 72 Sea water, 72 Springs, 72 Surface waters, 313 Swordfish contamination, 237 Tap water, 72 Toxicity, 72 Tuna fish contamination, 237 United States Rivers, 72 Streams, 72 Mercury apsorbtion Livestock, 313 Mercury in fish Human poisoning, 172 Trophic level in food chain, 172 · Mercury in water Germany, 72 Mercury pollution, 72 Mercury toxicity, 251 Metals toxicity Fish, 177 Subject Index/577 Metals toxicity-pH relationship, 241 Metheglobinemia Humans, 315 Drinking water, 73 Farm animals, 315 Heredity defects, 73 Water analysis, 73 Methylcarbamates Insecticides, 318 Methyl mercury Livestock, 313 Methylene blue Foaming agents measurement, 67 Methymercury in environment, 172 Mice Drinking water Arsenic content, 309 Michigan, 14 Au Sable River, 14 Growing seasons, 336 Manistee River, 14 Pere Marquette River, 14 Pine River, 14 Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 14 Microbial oil decomposition Oxygen requirement, 261 Microbial species Particulate substratum, 127 Microbiological degradation Oil in sea, 263 Microbiological index Estuarine sanitary quality, 276 M icrocystis aeruginosa, 317 Micropterus salmoids, 128, 132, 134, 138, 139, 149, 243 Micropterus salmonides, 437 Microregma, 256 Nickel concentrations, 253 Midge larvae, 435 Midges, 22 Milk contaminants DDT, 320 Dieldrin, 320 Minamata disease, 172 Minamata, Japan Mercury contamination of fish, 172 Minamata Bay, Japan Mercury discharge, 251 Mercury lethal levels, 251 Mineralized water, 90 Minerals Sorptive capacity, 127 Mining and cement industry (See also Mining industry and Cement industry) Description, 394 Mining industry Formation water composition, 395 Freshwater makeup, 394 Copper sulfide concentration, 394 578/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Froth flotation operations, 394 Leach solution analysis, 394 Leaching processes, 394 Oil recovery Released gases, 395 Water composition, 394 Water flooding, 394 Water injection, 395 Process water Chemical composition, 394 Copper sulfide concentration, 394 Recycled water, 394 Sea water composition, 395 Secondary oil recovery, 394 Water flooding Anaerobic bacteria, 395 Quantity, 395 Water processes, 394 Water quality requirements, 394 Water quantity, 394 Water reuse, 394 Water use Formation, 395 Impurity levels, 394 Sea water, 395 Surface waters, 395 Minnesota Lake sediments, 145 Minnows Boric acid lethality, 245 Ferric hydroxide effects, 249 Manganous chloride lethality, 251 pH effects, 141 Phenol toxicity, 191 Sodium arsenate Lethal threshold, 243 Miracidia, 322 Mississippi Grass carp introduction, 28 Water hyacinth, 27 Mississippi River, 372 Detergent concentration, 191 Pesticide content, 319 Missouri Cadmium in springs, 245 Mine. waters Cadmium content, 310 Missouri River, 11 Coliform densities, 57 Tainting, 147 Water plant intake, 57 Water quality Bacterial content, 57 Mixed bed exchange Complete demineralization, 375 Mixed water body, 171 Mixing zone Aquatic species Pollution exposure time effect, 231 Bioassay methodology applicability, 114 Biological considerations, 113 Configuration, 114 Discharges, 112 Hypothetical field situations, 403 Mathematical models, 112, 403 Nonmobile benthic organisms, 113 Organisms exposure, 113 Overlapping effects, 114 Physical considerations, 112 Plankton protection, 113 Plume configuration, 114 Receiving systems, 112, 114 Receiving waters, 231 Short-time exposure Thermal effects, 114 Short-term exposure Toxicity effects, 114 Strong swimmers, 113 Water quality, 403 Time exposure calculations, 113, 114 Water quality characteristics, 231 Weak swimmers, 113 Molluscs Cadmium concentration, 246 Chromium toxicity, 247 Copper toxicity, 180 Gas bubble disease, 135 Pesticide content, 37 Toxic planktonic algae, 38 Mollusks (See Molluscs) Molybdenum Alga growth factor, 253 Cattle, 314 Industrial use, 253 Livestock, 314 Toxicity to animals, 344 Molybdenum tolerance Farm animals, 314 Horses, 314 Sheep, 314 Swine, 314 Molybdenum toxicity Rats, 314 Monona Lake, Wisconsin, 20 Moriches Bay, New York Nitrogen-phosphorus ratios, 276 Morone americana, 249 Morone saxatilis, 27, 279 Moses Lake, Oregon, 21 Mosquito fish Boron effects, 245 Phenol toxicity, 191 Mosquitos, 17, 18 Mud-water interface Hydrogen sulfide content, 191 Muddy waters, 127 Mummichog Chromium toxicity, 247 Oil toxicity, 262 Municipal raw water Intake systems Asian clam pest, 27 Municipal sewage discharge, 274 Municipal treatment systems Wastewaters, 351 Municipal wastewater Pathogens, 351 Municipal waters Chlorinated disinfectant, 80 Myriophyllum, 24 Myriophyllum spicatum, 26, 27 Mytilus edulis, 37 NCRP (National Council on Radiation Pro- tection and Measurements), 273 NSSP (National Shellfish Sanitation Pro- gram), 36 NTA (nitrilotriacetate), 74, 191, 276 Affinity for elements, 7 4 Affinity for toxic metals, 74 Biodegradation, 74 Naegleria gruberi, 29 Nannochloris atomus, 276 National Council on Radiation Protection, 85 National Park Service, 9, 10, 14 National Recreation and Parks Association, 14 National Shellfish Sanitation Program, 36 Natural radiations Oceans, 271 Natural state of waters, 21 Natural streams Water quality, 39 Natural surface waters Ferric content, 249 Fluorine content, 248 Total dissolved solids Carbonates, 142 Chlorides, 142 Nitrates, 142 Phosphates, 142 Sulfates, 142 Natural water temperature Evaporation, 32 Solar radiation, 32 Wind movement, 32 Natural waters Acidity, 140 Acute toxicity studies, 234 Alkalinity, 140 Calcium carbonate, 54 Hydrolyzable coagulates, 54 Aluminum ionization, 179 Ammonia content, 55 Aquatic life, 35 Beryllium content, 244 Boron, 310 Cadmium conte\}t, 3~0 Carbon dioxide, 140 Carbonate system, 140 Chemical system Carbonate equilibria, 54 Chromium occurrence, 62 Galena content, 312 Manganese content, 313 Mercury content, 313 Nitrates concentrations, 314 Nitrite concentration, 314 Oxygen concentration, 131 pH change, 140 pH--cyanide levels, 189 pH fluctuations, 140 pH values, 80, 140 Phosphates content, 253 Pollution, 39 Recreational resources Carrying capacity, 13 Salmonella organisms, 31 Sodium concentrations, 88 'i Sorption process, 228 Sunlight absorption, 126 Sunlight penetration, 16 Suspended solids, 16 Temperature, 32 Viruses, 322 Water quality Alkalinity, 54 Zinc content, 316, 317 Natural weathering-lead effects, 249 Navicula, 147 Navicula cryptocephala, 22 Nereis diversicolor, 248 Nereis vir ens, 24 7, 248, 261 New England Coastal waters Nitrogen compounds, 276 New Jersey coast Solid waste disposal, 280 New York Ground water contaminants, 310 Growing seasons, 336 New York Bight Acid-iron wastes disposal, 280 Fish fin rot, 280 Spoil deposit slope, 282 New York City Zoo animals Lead poisoning, 249 New York Harbor Benthic community alterations, 279 Sewage sludge dump, 279 Newfoundland Fish survey, 254 Newfoundland coast Phosphorus poisoning, 254 Nevada Beef heifers Saline waters effects, 307 Nickel Daphnia magna sensitivity, 181 Fish sensitivity, 181 Industrial uses, 253 Ion toxicity, 253 Nickel lethal concentrations, 253 Niigata, Japan Mercury poisoning, 251 Nitrate in milk, 314 Nitrate-nitrite concentration Toxicity, 73 Nitrate-nitrogen Ruminants, 314 Water quality, 302 Nitrate poisoning Infant methemoglobinemia, 73 Nitrate tolerance Poultry, 315 Nitrates Irrigation water, 329 Plant growth, 329 Nitrates intake Farm animals, 315 Livestock, 314 Nitrates-reproduction effects Livestock, 315 Nitrilotriacetate Drinking water, 74 Nitrite tolerance Poultry, 315 Nitrites Methemoglobinemia, 73 Public water supply, 73 Nitrites poisoning Livestock, 314 Nitzschia dr licatissum, 173 Nitzschia palea, 22 Nodularia spumigena, 317 North America Cl. hemolyticum in water, 321 Estuarine birds PCB contamination, 264 Marine waters DDT compounds pollutants, 226 Osprey shell thinning, 227 Well waters Nitrates content, 73 North American birds Eggshell thinning, 197 North Atlantic Ocean Marine organisms PCB contamination, 264 North Dakota State Department of Health, 89 Northeast Pacific Barium in fish, 244 Northern pike Mercury assimilation, 172 Mercury sensitivity, 173 Northern pike eggs Hydrogen sulfide concentrations, 256 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193 Northern pike fry Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193 Nuphar, 24 Nutrient-rich water Diatoms content, 22 Nymphaea odorata, 25 Ocean outfalls Power plant discharge, 403 Ocean sediments Mercury concentrations, 172 Oceanites oceanicus, 246 Oceanodroama homochroa, 246, 252 Oceans Lead input, 249 Natural radiation, 190, 271 Nonthermal discharge distribution Mathematical model, 403 Oil contamination, 257 Oil persistence, 260 Particulate material discharge, 278 Pollutants, 216 · Uranium content, 256 Waste dumping, 278 World War II oil spills, 261 Ocl!romonas, 256 Odonata, 141 Odor Water contaminant indicator, 74 Subject lndex/579 Odoriferous actinomyces Water flavor impairment, 148 Ohio River, 31 Channel catfish contamination, 149 Oil and grease Public water supply, 74 Oil detection Remote sensor characteristicS, 259 Oil industry (See also Petroleum industry) Rock formation Permeability, 395 Water flooding technique, 394 Oil pollution Control procedures, 262, 263 Description, 258 Sea birds, 261 Oil pollution sources, 257 Oil refinery effiuents Bioassays, 144 Fish toxicants, 144 Oxidation ponds, 144 Tainted fish, 147 Toxicants Fathead minnows, 144 Waste water, 144 Oil slicks, 257 Oil spills Biological analyses, 258 Chemical analyses, 258 Ecological effects, 258, Z60 Oil toxicity Bioassay, 261 Oil-water experiments, 261 Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, 349 Oklahoma Livestock Water salinity effects, 307, 308 Old Faithful, 40 Olor columbianus, 228 0. Gorbuscho, 252 Once-through cooling Brackish water, 378 Chlorination, 376 Equipment failure, 376 Screening, 376 Sea water, 378 Water quantities, 378 Withdrawal rate, 378 Once-through cooling waters, 378 Oncorhynchus kisutch, 27, 132, 139, 176, 180, 184, 244, 246, 247 Oncorhynchus nerka, 139, 153, 160, 164, 173, 252 Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 138, 139, 153, 180, 187, 242, 246 Open channels Nonthermal discharges distribution Mathematical model, 403 Open ocean Fish production, 217 Organic chemicals toxicity Marine system, 265 Organic compounds Toxicity data, 484-509 Organic matter-infaunal feeding habits re- lationships, 279 ?r "---- 580/Water Qualiry Criteria, 1972 Organic toxicants Biological wastes, 264 Industrial waStes, 264 Pesticides, 264 Sewage, 264 Organic-carbon adsorbable public water supply, 75 Organochlorine pesticides Recommended concentrations, 186 Organophosphate insecticides Recommended concentrations, 186 Organophosphates Insecticides, 318 Organa-insecticides Mammalian toxicity, 78 Organophosphorus insecticide Public water supply, 78 Oriental oyster drill (Tritonaliajaponica), 27 Organic water pollution Oxygen reduction, 133 Oscillatoria, 147 Oscillatoria agardhi, 147 Oscillatoria princeps, 147 Oscillatoria rubescens, 20 Osprey Mercury contamination, 252 Ottawa River, Ohio Sedimented oil, 145 Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com- mission, 9 Oviparous zebrafish, 435 Ovoviviparous guppy, 435 Oxidation ponds Algal blooms, 144 Phytoplankton, 144 Primary productivity, 144 Surface oils, 144 Oxygen Fish requirements, 131 Oxygen content of water, 261 Oxygen depletion, 27 4 Oyster beds Sewage contamination, 277 Oyster culture, 223 Oysters DDT residue, 37 Aluminum concentration, 242 Arsenic content, 243 Cadmium content, 245 Chlorine sensitivity, 246 Chromium tolerance, 247 Copper toxicity, 248 Disease vectors, 95 Gill discoloration, 147 Hydrogen sulfide lethality, 255 Lead tolerance, 250 Nickel concentrations, 253 Silver concentration, 255 Toxic plankton intake, 38 Ozone Water treatment, 301 PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls), 83, 175, 198 Contaminants Chlorinated dibenzofurans, 17 6 Residues Salmon eggs, 177 Toxicity, 175, 198 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 174, 175 pH Acidity indicator, 140 Alkalinity indicators, 140 Fluctuation, 194 Hydrogen ion activity, 140 Public water supply, 80 pH in soils, 339 pH-metals relationships, 179 pH-reedhead grass .relationship, 194 PI (precipitation index), 335 PI-SAR equation, 335 Pacific Barium concentration, 244 Pacific Coast Gonyaulax contenella, 38 Temperature effects, 238 Waste dumping, 278 Pacific Northwest Precipitation, 333 Pacific Ocean, 32 Pacific salmon Chlorine tolerance, 246 Gas bubble disease, 137 -Hydrogen sulfide bioassay, 255 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256 Thermal tolerance, 137 Pacific testing grounds Manganese isotope concentrations, 251 Paints Arsenic content, 243 Palaemonetes kadiakensis, 435 Paleomonetes, 176 Panaeus deorarum, 176 Pandion haliaetus, 227, 252 Paper and allied products Industry description, 382 Manufacturing processes Acid sulfite pulping, 383 Building products, 383 De-inking pulp, 383 Groundwood pulp, 383 Kraft· and Soda pulping, 383 Kraft bleaching, 383 Neutral sulfite semichemical, 383 Paper making, 383 Prehydrolysis, 383 Sulfite pulp bleaching, 383 Waste paperboard, 383 Wood preparation, 383 Water processes, 383 Water quality indicators Alkalinity, 383 Color, 383 Hardness, 383 pH control, 383 Iron, 383 Turbidity, 383 Water treatment processes Aeration, 383 Coagulation, 383 Errosion control, 383 Filtration, 383 Ion exchange, 383 pH adjustment, 383 Plant location, 383 Settling, 383 Softening, 383 Paper and pulp industry Water supply, 382 Surface water use, 383 Water intake, 382 Water supply, 383 Water use, 382 Paper products consumption, 382 Paracentrotus Silver nitrate concentrations, 255 Paracentrotus lividis, 252 Parasitic organisms Flukes, 322 Particulate material Detritus origin, 281 Particulate material suspension Estuarine organisms responses, 281 Marine organisms responses, 281 Paseo del Rio, Texas, 40 Pastuerella tularensis, 321 Pathogen source Fecal contamination, 58 Pathogenic microorganisms, 27f, Pathogens in sea, 280 Pecten novazetlandicae, 246 Pelagodroma nivea, 246, 252 Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, 227 1 Pelecanus occidentalis, 197, 226 Penaeus aztecus, 279 Penaeus setiferus, 279 Perea, 141 Perea jlaverscens, 149, 164 Perea jlaviatilis, 256 Perch pH effects, 141 Thallium nitrate content, 256 Pere Marquette River, 14 Perigrines DDE residue accumulation, 227 Dieldrin accumulation effects, 227 Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227 Peregrine falcon Reproductive failures, 197 Pertomvzon merinus, 243 Pesticide chemicals Dietary intake, 78 Pesticide-pH relationship, 183 Pesticide persistence, 183, 184 Pesticide tables Botanicals, 433 Carbamates, 428 Defoliants, 429-432 Fungicides, 429-433 Herbicides, 429-432 Organochlorine insecticides, 420-422 Organophosphate insecticides, 423-427 Pesticides Acute toxic interaction, 185 Acute toxicity values, 185 Aquatic contamination, 182 Aquatic life, 434 Aquatic life toxicity, 184 Arsenic content, 243 Cadmium content, 245 Carbamate, 76 Cattle feed, 320 Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 76 Chemical characteristics, 76 Environment accumulation, 182 Environmental effects, 182 Environmental monitoring, 440 Estuarine pollution, 37 Farm animal feed, 320 Fat soluble, 320 Fish tolerance levels, 184 Livestock water, 318 Malathion, 183 Metabolic degradation, 183 Methoxychlor, 183 Nonmetabolic degradation, 183 Organic toxicants, 264 Organochlorine compounds, 183 Organophosphate toxicity, 184 Organophosphorus, 76 PCB analysis, 175 Phthalate esters content, 17 4 Public water supply, 76 Recommended concentrations, 186 Research framework, 434 Research guidelines, 434 Residue in fish, 183 Stream transport, 183 Toxicity, 76, 182, 320 Toxicological research, 434 Water entry, 318 Water for livestock, 304 Water solubility, 183, 318 Pesticides in fish Physiological effects, 434 Toxicological effects, 434 Pesticides in water Concentrations, 319 Properties, 319 Sources, 182 Pesticides poisoning Livestock, 319 Pesticides research Acute toxicity, 434, 435 Aquatic organisms Bioconcentration, 438 Degradation, 438 Bacteria Achromobacter, 438 Aerobacter, 438 Aeromonas Spp., 438 Bacillus, 438 Daphnia magna, 438 Daphne pulex, 438 Flavobacter, 438 Microcrustacea, 438 Bioassays, 435, 437 Biochemistry, 438 Blue gill, 438 Chemical analysis, 434 Chemical degradation, 439 Chemical methods, 437 Chronic effects, 437 Clinical studies, 438 Deactivation index, 435 Degradation in water, 438 Environmental fate, 439 Fathead minnow, 438 Fish Residue degradation, 439 Residue uptake, 439 Food-chain accumulation, 438 Green algae Ankistrodesmus, 438 Chlorella spp., 438 Scenedesmus, 438 Gro"!th of fish, 435 Largemouth bass, 438 Lethal threshold concentration, 435 Microorganisms, 439 Pathology, 438 Persistence, 438 Photodegradation, 439 Physicochemical interactions, 439 Physiology, 438 Pond ecosystem studies, 437 Rainbow trout, 438 Reproauction of fish, 435 Residue analyses, 437 Residues Biological half-life, 438 Stream ecosystem studies, 437 Test animals Chemical analyses, 438 Radiometric analyses, 438 Pesticide tolerance Aquatic organisms Agriculture waters, 321 Petroleum hydrocarbons Biological effects, 258 Petroleum industry Refining operation-water use, 385 Petroleum refineries Process water use, 386 Water intake, 386 Petroleum refining Description of industry, 385 Discharge, 385 Process water properties Ammonia from catalytic cracking, 386 Carbon dioxide from catalytic cracking, 386 Caustic solution purification, 386 Chemical reactions, 386 Heat transfer, 386 Inorganic salts, 386 Kinetic energy, 386 Plant cleaning, 386 Process water treatments, 387 Water distribution, 387 Water quality characteristics Surface waters, 386 Water supply sources, 385 Petroleum-species toxicity ranges, 145 Petromyzon marinus, 27 pH changes Benthic invertebrates sensitivity, 241 · Fish sensitivity, 241 Plankton sensitivity, 241 Phalacrocorax auritus, 227 Subject lndex/581 Pheasants Mercury concentrations, 252 Phenol toxicity, 191 Phenolic compounds Chemical oxidation of organophosphorus pesticides, 80 Hydrolysis of organophosphorus pesticides, 80 Hydroxy derivatives, 80 Phenoxyalkyl acid herbicides Microbial degradation, 80 Photochemical oxidation of carbamate pesticides, 80 Public water supply, 80 Phenolic compounds sources Domestic sewage, 80 Fungicides, 80 Industrial waste water discharges, 80 Pesticides, 80 Philippines Marine aquaculture, 223 Phosphate Algal nutrient, 253 Public water supply, 81 Phosphates-eutrophication relationship, 253 Phosphorus Laboratory studies, 254 Phthalate esters Chronic toxicity, 80, 175 Human growth retardation, 82 Human health, 82 Plastics plasticizers, 82 Public water supply, 82 Phthalate ester residues Aquatic organisms, 174 Physa, 19 Physa snails, 22 Physical treatment procedures Virus removal, 92 Phytophthora cactorum, 349 Phytophthora citrophthora, 349 Phytophthora parasitica, 349 Phytophthora sp., 348, 349 Phytoplankton Aluminum tolerance, 242 Crude oil effects, 261 Phytoplankton growth, 275 Phytoplankton-nitrogen relationship, 276 Pike Mercury concentration, 173 pH effects, 141 Pike perch Arsenic toxicity, 243 Pimephales promelas, 128, 132, 141, 144, 173, 177, 180-182, 185, 189, 191, 193, 243, 244, 253, 435 Pine River, 14 Pink shrimp Aroclor® toxicity, 176 Pin tails Lead ingestion effects, 228 Placentia Bay Fish mortalities, 254 Phosphorus in cod, 254 Plankton Barium content, 244 l-________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .. 582/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Diatom population, 82 Growth stimulation Artificial lake heating, 165 Mercury sensitivity, 173 Public water supply, 82 Plant communities Salinity effects, 19 5 Plant growth Aluminum concentrations effects, 340 Arsenic levels, 340 BOD, 330 Boron, 341 Cadmium, 342 Canals, 23 Chromium, 342 Cobalt, .342 Copper concentration, 342 Embayments, 23 Estuaries, 23 Fluoride, 343 Irrigation ditches, 23 Lead toxicity, 343 Lithium, 343 Manganese, 344 Marshes, 23 Molybdenum, 344 Nickel, 344 Ponds, 23 Public water supply sources, 23 Rivers, 23 Shallow lakes, 23 Vanadium, 345 Plant life Nickel toxicity, 253 Plant organisms Aluminum adsorption, 242 Plant-parasitic nematodes, 348 Plant-pathogenic virus, 349 Plants Boron tolerance, 341 Boron toxicity, 341 Evapotranspiration, 323 Molybdenum accumulation, 344 Nickel toxicity, 344 Nitrate accumulation, 329, 352 Nutrient requirements, 22 Radionuclides absorption, 332 Soil salinity tolerance, 325 Tin content, 345 Titantium content, 345 Toxic elements, 352 Tungsten content, 345 Zinc toxicity, 345 Plecoptera, 141 Pleuronectiformes Water tainting, 149 Pluchea sericea, 348 Plume Thermal exposure, 170 Plume entrainment, 170 Largemouth bass mortality, 170 Plume water Bottom organisms, 170 Pocideps cristatus, 252 Poecilia reticulata, 435 Pollutant-carcinogenic effects, 240 Pollutant exposure time calculations, 232 Pollutant-mutagenic effects, 240 Pollutant-teratogenic effects, 240 Pollutant toxicity-pH relationship, 241 Pollutants Biological effe~ts, 233 Genetic effects, 237 Polluted dredge spoils, 279 Polluted shellfish Acute gastroenteritis, 277 Infectious hepatitis, 277 Polluted water Algae, 23 Carbon dioxide content, 139 Coliform data interpretation, 57 Shellfish, 36 Polycelis nigra, 250 Polychaete Chromium toxicity, 247 Copper effects, 248 Copper uptake, 248 Polychlorinated biphenyls Accumulation in humans, 83 Chlorinated dibenzofurans contamination, 83, 225 Epidemiological studies, 83 Estuarine birds, 264 Human exposure effects, 83 Human ingestion, 83 Industrial uses, 264 Industrial uses, 83 Public water supply, 83 Rainwater, 83 'Sewage effluents, 83 Solubility, 83 Toxicity, 83 r usho disease, 83 Poly.myxa gramizis, 349 Porrtoxis, 128 Ponds ]Vfalaria vectors, 25 Plant growth, 23 "Pop-eye" (See Exophtalmus and Gas bubble disease) Potable waters CCE, 75 Algae control Copper sulfate, 347 Phosphorus concentration, 81 Potamogeton, 21 , Potamogeton pectinatus, 24, 194 Potamogeton perjoliatus, 194 Potomac River Basin Watershed alteration, 125 Poultry Mercury toxicity, 313 Nitrate tolerance, 315 Nitrite tolerance, 315 Water requirements, 305 Zinc in diet, 317 Poultry feed Arsenic-selenium relationship, 240 Power boats Water turbulence effects, 14 Power plants Cooling systems Water temperature effects, 161 Discharge water temperature, 162 Power plants discharge Algae growth, 165 Cooling ponds, 403 Estuaries, 403 Impoundments, 403 Lakes, 403 Ocean outfalls, 403 Rivers, 403 Pratylenchus sp. 348 Prawns Chromium toxicity, 247 Precipitation Pacific Northwest, 333 United States, 333 Primary metals Description of industry, 388 Primary metals industry Coke production Water use, 388 Demineralized water use, 389 Iron production Water use, 388 Plant locations, 388 Process water use Aluminum, 388 Copper, 388 Iron foundries, 388 Steel foundries, 388 Steel production Water use, 388 Water intake, 389 Water quality indicators, 389 Water quality requirements, 389 Water recycling, 389 Water treatment processes Clarification, 389 Plant water supply, 389 Water use, 388 Primary productivity Photosynthetic rate, 21 Primordial radioisotopes, 190 Daughters, 271 Decay products, 271 Private water supply Methemoglobinemia, 72 Virus disease, 91 Providence Harbor Dredge spoils dumping, 278 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 31 Psychrophilic bacteria Milk storage, 302 Public Health Laboratory Service, England, 29 Public water management, 441 Public water supply Alkalinity, 54 Ammonia as pollutant, 55 Ammonia nitrogen content, 55 Anionic surfactants concentrations, 67 Arsenic Hyperkertosis-skin cancer correlation, 56 Arsenic content, 56 Bacteria, 57 Public water supply (cont.) Bacterial indicators Fecal coliform, 57 Bacteriological characteristics, 50 Barium content, 59 Boron, 59 Cadmium, 60 Concentrations, 60 Contamination, 60 Carbamate insecticide, 78 Chelates toxicity, 74 Chloride, 61 Concentration, 61 Taste, 61 Chlorinated hydrocarbons Poison to humans, 76 Chlorination effects on turbidity, 90 Chlorophenoxy herbicides, 79 Chlorine disinfectant, 50 Chlorine use, 246 Chromium, 62 Chromium concentrations, 62 Chronic alkyl mercury poisoning, 72 Coagulation, 63 Coliform bacteria, 57 Collection apparatus High-flow samples, 75 Low-flow samples, 75 Mini-sampler, 75 Colloidal ferric oxide, 69 Color, 63 Color removal, 63 Contaminants, 51 Copper, 64 Cyanide, 65 Dissolved oxygen, 65 Excreted waste, 91 Filterable residue, 90 Fluoride, 66 Fluoride content, 66 Foaming agents, 67 Ground water, 50 Bacteria-aquifer reaction, 52 Characteristics, 52 Chemical-aquifer reaction, 52 Hydrologic characteristics, 52 Pollutant decomposition, 52 Quality, 52 Growth-producing organisms, 89 Growth promoting factors, 81 Hardness, 68 Human health, 51 Industrial consumers, 68 Iodine-131 content, 84 Iron Distribution systems deposits, 69 Taste, 69 Iron content, 69 Irrigation uses, 59 Itai-itai disease, 60 Lead toxicity, 70 Lead-210 content, 85 Low-energy radionuclides, 84 Manganese Concentration, 71 Taste effect, 71 Manganese content, 71 Public water supply (cont.) Mercury, 72 Metal ions, 68 Methylene blue reactions, 67 Microbial hazard measurements, 57 Mineral salts concentrations, 90 Monitoring programs, 51 Nitrate-nitrite concentration, 73 Nitrates content, 73 Nitrites content, 73 Odor, 74 Oil and grease, 74 Human health hazard, 74 Od~r-producing problems, 74 Taste problems, 74 Organics-carbon adsorbable, 75 Organophosphorus insecticide, 78 pH, 63, 80 Anticorrosion procedures, 80 Pesticides, 7 6 Phenolic compounds, 80 Phosphate concentration Noxious plant growth, 81 Phosphates, 81 Eutrophication, 81 Controllable nutrient, 81 Phthalate esters, 82 Plankters Odor problems, 82 Taste problems, 82 Plankton, 82 Plankton counts, 82 Plankton-pH relationship, 82 Platinum cobalt standards, 63 Polychlorinated biphenyls, 83 Productivity-respiration relationship, 82 Quality recommendations, 50, 51 Radioactivity, 84 Radiochemical analysis, 85 Radioiodine isotopes, 85 Radionuclide concentrations, 85 Radiophysical analysis, 85 Radium-226 concentration, 85 Radium-228 content, 85 Raw water analytical analysis, 52 Reservoirs, 79 Rural areas, 52 Sampling Chronological, 51 Spatial, 51 Sanitary quality indicators Coliform bacteria, 57 Selenium, 86 Selenium toxicity, 86 Silver, 87 Silver concentration, 87 Silver solubility, 87 Sodium, 88 Soluble colored substances, 63 Strontium-89 content, 84 Strontium-90 content, 84 Sulfite concentration, 88 Surface water classification, 53 Temperature, 89 Total dissolved solids (TDS), 90 Toxic content, 50 Subject Index/583 Treatment processes, 51 Nitrates-nitrites, 73 Tritium, 84 Turbidity, 90 Turbidity-coagulation relationship, 90 United States, 61 Unmixed bodies of water Oxygen depletion, 65 Uranyl ion, 91 Viruses, 91 Water hardness Detergents, 68 Soaps, 68 Water management, 52 Water quality Chronic hazard, 51 Periodic hazard, 51 Water sources exchange, 52 Water transmition of virus, 91 Water treatment processes, 50 Well water distinctions, 52 Zinc content, 93 Public water supply sources Plant growth, 23 Puget Sound Oriental oyster drill, 27 Puerto Rico, 18 Pulp and paper industry Categories, 382 Manufacturing process, 382 Pumpkinseed pH effects, 141 Rad (Radiation absorbed dose), 196, 272 Radiation absorption calculators, 196 Radiation calculations, 272 Radiation detection, 190, 270 Radiation sources Decay products, 271 External, 271 Internal, 271 Primordial radioisotopes, 271 Radioactive materials Aquatic environment, 270 Cycling, 271 Surface waters, 271 Tritium, 192 Radioactive materials cycling, 191 Radioactive wastes, 191, 193, 271 Radioactivity Aquatic environment, 190 Aq1.1atic organisms, 270 Characteristics, 190 Exposure pathways, 194 Graded scale of action, 84, 86 Gross alpha concentration, 85 Gross beta concentration, 85 Ground water, 84 Human tolerance, 84 Marine environment, 190 Nuclear facilities, 84 Public water supply, 84 Gross alpha concentrations, 85 Gross beta concentrations, 85 Sources, 190 Surface waters, 84 584/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Transient rates, 84 Tritiated water, 85 Radioactivity characteristics, 27 Radioactivity-genetic changes relationship, 196 Radioisotopes Daughters, 190 Food web interaction, 271 Man-made, 191, 271 Tracers, 271 Tritium tracers, 271 Radioisotopes as tracers, 192 Radioisotopes-food web relationship, 193 Radionuclide intake Iodine-131, 84 Radium-226, 84 Strontium-89, 84 Strontium-90, 84 Radionuclides P 32, 38 Zn65, 38 Drinking water, 318 Ground waters, 317 Human intake, 84 Irrigation water, 332 Livestock, 317 Shellfish, 38 Surface waters, 317 Water for livestock, 304 Radium-226 Fresh produce, 332 Rainbow trout, 435, 437, 438 Ammonia excretion, 187 Ammonia sensitivity, 242 Ammonia toxicity, 187 Antimony tolerance, 243 Cadmium lethality, 179 Chlorine residue, 189 Chromium chroni<. effects, 180 Chromium toxicity, 180 Copper concentrations, 180 Ethylmercury content, 173 Fluoride lethality, 249 Iron sensitivity, 249 Gas bubble disease, 138 Hypothetical lake study, 403 Metal concentrations lethality, 178 Methylmercury assimilation pH effects, 141 Pesticide synergisis, 184 Phthalate ester toxicity, 175 Softwater LC50 values, 181 Thallium nitrate effects, 256 Water quality Mortality probability, 403 Zinc-swimming speed relationship, 182 Rainfall-soil erosion effects, 126 Rainwater Pesticide content Alpha-BHC, 318 DDD, 318 DDE, 318 DDT, 318 Dieldrin, 318 Gamma-BHC, 318 PCB, 83 Rapid sand filtration Public water supply, 50 Rappia maritima, 194 Rappia occidentalis, 194 Rats Drinking water Arsenic content, 309 Selenium, 316 Molybdenum toxicity, 314 Rattail maggots (Eristalis lenox), 22 Raw milk storage, 302 Raw milk supplies Sanitation standard, 302 Raw produce Hydrocooling, 302 Washing, 302 Raw shellfish Human consumption, 36 Raw surface water Disinfection processes, 58 Dissolved oxygen, 65 Process treatment, 58 Quality, 50 Raw water Ammonia chlorin~ demand, 55 Ammonia-chlorine reaction, 55 Analytical analysis, 52 Bacteriological quality, 57 Color, 63 Dissolved oxygen, 65 Quality, 50 Sources, 50 Raw water Fluoride concentrations, 66 Fluoride fluctuations, 66 Monitors, 76 Raw water quality Uranium content, 91 Raw water source Radionuclide concentrations, 85 Raw water supply Ammonia, 65 Bacteria species, 302 Iron, 65 Manganese, 65 Microbial contaminants, 301 Raw water sources Nitrite concentrations, 73 Raw water supply Odor-producing microorganisms, 7 4 pH, 80 Receiving waters Circulation effects, 230 Mercury content, 172 Mining Metallic ion leaching, 239 Mixing zones, 231 Persistant pollutants, 230 Pollution concentration, 230 Sewage load, 275 Sorption process, 228 Waste disposal, 228 Waste disposal toxicity, 228 Recharge wells, 3 77 Recirculating cooling water systems, 378 Recreation Park planning, 8 Water quality, 8 Water quality loss, 10 Water resources, 8 Recreation-aesthetic relationship, 8 Recreation water Aesthetic value factors, 13 Algal biomass measurement, 21 Contamination from outboard motor ex- haust, 148 Objectionable aesthetic quality, 12 Primary productivity, 21 Reservoirs on rivers, 13 Turbidity, 13 Water resource relationships, 15 Recreation water quality Excessive nutrients, 12 Excessive temperature, 12 Recreation water values Biological factors, 13 Physical factors, 13 Recreational resources Water carrying capacity, 13, 14 Recreational water Adsorption of materials, 16 Aesthetic values, 35 Aesthetics, 30 Agriculture runoff effects, 37 Appearance, 16 Aquatic life, 35 Aquatic macrophytes, 26 Aquatic organisms Species introduction, 27 Aquatic vectors, 17 Beach maintenance, 17 Beach zone effects, 16 Bioaccumulation, 230 Blackfly larvae, 22 Boating, 34 Boating safety, 35 BOD, 34 Carp introduction, 27 Chemical concentrations, 30 Chlorophyll a, 21 Chromium pollution Cricotopus bicinctus, 18 Colorado River, 40 Contamination Naegleria group, 29 Crater Lake, 40 Cultural encroachment effects, 35 Diseases, 17 Eutrophication rate-relationship, 21 Everglades, 40 Fingernail clams, 22 Fish, 35 Free-living amoeba, 29 Grand Canyon National Park, 40 Great Lakes Coho salmon transplant, 27 Hypolimnetic oxygen, 21 Jellyfish, 19 Kentucky watersheds, 39 Lake eutrophication, 19, 20 Lake Tahoe, 40 Leeches, 22 Light penetration, 16 Micronutrients Calcium, 22 Carbon, 22 Carbonates, 22 Magnesium, 22 Nitrogen, 22 Phosphorus, 22 Potassium, 22 Sodium, 22 Sulfur, 22 Malaria vectors Anopheles freeborni, 25 Anopheles quadrimaculatus, 25 Marshes macrophytes, 26 Microbacteriological indicators, 31 Microbiological content, 31 Micronutrient Boron, 22 Cobalt, 22 Copper, 22 Manganese, 22 Molybdenum, 22 Silica, 22 Titanium, 22 Vanadium, 22 Zinc, 22 Midges content, 22 Nutrient content, 22 Nutrient enrichment measurement, 23 Old Faithful, 40 Organic nutrients B 12, 22 Biotin, 22 Glycylglycine, 22 Thiamine, 22 Oxygen deficit, 21 Pacific Coast Striped bass transplant, 27 Brown trout introduction, 27 Pathogenic bacteria content, 31 Pathogenic microorganisms, 30 Pestiferous mosquitoes, 25 pH characteristics, 33 Photosynthesis, 24 Physa snails, 22 Plant growth Nuisance factor, 25 Quality, 30 Lead content, 34 Requirements, 30 Regulations, 14 Shoreline-surface area ratio, 14 Southeast Michigan Boating, 14 Suspended solids (SS), 34 Temperature, 16 Toxic wastes, 18 Unites States, 34 Urban areas, 35, 39 Vector mosquitoes, 25 Water fowl, 35 Water quality, 29, 34, 35 Recreational water quality Bacteriological analysis Bathing places, 29 Chemical analysis Bathing places, 29 Engine exhaust, 34 Environmental characteristics, 400 Pollution sources Bathing places, 29 Waste discharges, 35 Waste disposal systems, 34 Water-dependent wildlife, 35 Red Riv.er, 352 Redear sunfish, 128 Redfish Bay, Texas Dredging effects, 279 Redheads Lead ingestion effects, 228 Winter food requirements, 19 5 Rem (roentgen equivalent man), 196, 272 Reservoir productivity Plankton, 82 Reservoir sediments, 18 Reservoir water Geosmin, 147 Reservoirs Algae-manganese relationship, 250 Dissolved oxygen, 65 Eutrophy, 19 Food storage, 13 Hydroelectric power, 13 Mosquito control, 13 Mosquito infestation, 18 Nonthermal discharge distribution Mathematical model, 403 Soluble oxygen depletion, 111 Zones of passage, 115 Reverse osmosis, 375 High pressure water, 375 Rhode Island Sound Dredge dumping, 278 Ring Doves PCB---shell thinning relationship, 226 Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 226 Ringnecked ducks Lead ingestion effects, 228 River crabs Nickel toxicity, 253 River flow Regulatory waters, 333 tail water, 334 Underground drainage, 334 River Havel Manganese content, 250 Uranium effects on protozoa, 256 River surveys Bioassays, 117 River temperature effects, 160 River transport, 219 River waters Chromium content, 311 Copper content, 311 Dissolved constituents, 142 Estuary mixing, 16 Lead content, 312 Organisms transport, 115 Pesticide content, 318 Subject lndex/585 Poliutant retention time, 230 Sewage contaminates, 351 Rivers, 39 Aquatic macrophytes, 24 Arid areas, 333 Ditritus from particulate material, 281 Eutrophy, 19 Fertilization by man Algae growth, 20 Slime organisms growth, 20 Water weeds growth, 20 Ice formations, 161 Irrigation flow, 333 Nonthermal discharge distribution Mathematical model, 403 Particulate concentrations, 126 Particulate transport, 16 Plant growth, 23 Power plant discharge, 403 Sediment-aquatic plant relationship, 17 Sediment loads, 281 Semiarid areas, 333 Thermal effects, 160 Zones of passage, 115 Roach Thallium nitrate effects, 256 Rocky Mountains Lake fish, 20 Rough screens, 372 Roundworms, 322 Rudd Boron effects, 245 Ruminants Cadmium absorption, 310 Chromium intake, 311 Drinking water lead content, 313 Nitrate nitrogen, 314 Rutilus rutilis, 256 SAR (sodium adsorption ratio), 329, 330, 335 SAR values Irrigation water, 331 SDF (slow-death factor), 317 SIC (standard industrial classification), 370 (see also Suspended solids) Sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), 24 Waterfowl food plant, 194 St. Andrew's, New Brunswick Zinc in salmon, 240 Saline lands reclamation, 329 Saline irrigation waters Field crops, 325 Forage crops, 325 Fruit crops, 325 Vegetable crops, 325 Saline water Crop tolerance, 324 Irrigation, 324 Livestock use, 308 Plant growth, 324 Poultry use, 308 Salvelinus fontinalis, 437 Salmo gairdneir, 138, 141, 172, 173, 179-182, 184, 187, 189, 242, 243, 249, 256, 435 Salmo salar, 181, 240 Salmo trutta, 24, 141 586/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Salmon Flavor impairing phenols Industrial wastes, 149 Tainted water, 148 Salmon eggs PCB residues-mortality relationships, 177 Mercury effects, 252 Salmonella, 31, 321, 351 Salmonella sp., 31 Salmonella typhimurium, 313 Salmonid spawning Oxygen requirements, 133 Salmonids pH effects, 141 Salt water beaches England, 31 United States, 31 Salvelinus fontinalis, 131, 134, 141, 162, 180- 182 Salvelinus namaycush, 164, 184 San Antonio River, 40 San Antonio, Texas, 40 San Diego Bay, 399 San Francisco Bay-Delta system sediment flow, 127 San Joaquin Estuary Simulati!Jn modeling Phytoplankton prediction, 277 San Joaquin Valley, California Soils ESP values, 330 Sand worm Oil toxicity, 261, 262 Santa Barbara Oil well blowout, 258, 260 Santa Barbara spill Animal communities fatality, 258 Plant communities fatality, 258 Sea bird deaths, 258 Sargassum, 242 Sauger Spawning temperature, 171 Scenedesmus, 147, 253, 256, 438 Nickel concentrations, 253 Scordinius erythrophthalmus, 245 Schistosoma eggs, 18 Scud, 435 Sea biota Oil effects, 262 Sea birds Oil ingestion, 262 Oil lethal dosage, 262 Oil pollution mortality, 258, 261 Sea bottom sediments Iron contaminants, 249 Sea disposal operations Dredge spoils, 278 Sea food Chlorine combinations-taste effects, 246 Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), 27 Antimony tolerance, 243 Sea nettles (see Jelly fish) Sea oil contamination, 257 Underwater reservoir seepage, 257 Sea oil spills Sea birds fatality, 258 Sea-run trout Hydrogen sulfide bioassay, 256 Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 256 Sea surface Atmospheric oil precipitates, 257 Sea surface oil Marine birds fatalities, 258 Remote sensing, 258 Sea water Alkalinity, 241 Aluminum salts precipitate, 241 Ammonia toxicity, 242 Arsenic concentration, 243 Barium precipitate, 243 Beryllium content, 244 Bismuth concentration, 244 Boron concentration, 244 Bromine content, 245 padmium content, 245 Chemistry Alkalinity, 241 Chlorine pollutants, 247 Chromium concentrations, 247 Copper concentration, 248 Dissolved oxygen, 275 Euphotic zone, 241 Fluoride content, 248 Ion exchange process, 228 Manganese content, 250 Mercury content, 72, 252 Nickel content, 253 Oil dispersal methods, 262, 263 pH extremes, 241 pH variations, 241 Photosynthesis, 241 Potassium chromate effects, 247 Redfish-aluminum chloride toxicity, 242 Sorption process, 228 Sulfate content, 255 Uranium content, 256 Uranium toxicity, 256 Sea water-antagonism relationship, 240 Sea water-fresh water differences, 241 Sea water-synergism relationship, 240 Sea food Cadmium mutagenic effects, 246 Cadmium teratogenic effects, 246 Sublethal pollutants-food value effects, 237 Seattle, Washington Green lake, 20 Seaweed culture, 223 Sedimentation, 372 Sedimentation process Public water supply, 50 Seepage areas Malaria vectors, 25 Selenium Human toxicity, 86 Industrial uses, 254 Insclubility, 86 Livestock, 316 Physical characteristics, 254 Public water supply, 86 Toxicity, 254 Selenium poisoning Alkali disease, 316 Livestock, 316 Selenium toxicity Livestock, 316 Semiarid areas Irrigation water quality, 333 Climate, 333 Seston (See also Particulate materials), 281 Sewage Beneficial use, 277 Nickel salts-biochemical exidation effects, 253 Organic pollution, 275 Organic toxicants, 264 PCB, 83 Sewage effluents Detergent content, 190 Mercury concentration, 172 Sewage emissions Municipal areas, 27 4 Sewage fungus (Sphaerotilus), 22 Sewage sludge Ecological effects, 279 Heavy metals concentrations, 279 Sewage treatment Ammonia, 55 Economic factors, 277 Sewage treatment plants Effluents, 378 Organic material removal, 275 Sewage treatment processes Viruses, 91 Sewage wastes Degradable organic materials, 274 Sewage water Trace elements concentration, 352 Virus survival, 92 Shallow lakes Nutrients, 22 Plant growth, 23 Power boats, 14 Sheep Drinking water Sodium chloride content, 307 Molybdenum tolerance, 314 Shellfish Bacteria content, 36 Bacteriological quality, 36 Clams, 36 Commercial value, 36 Contamination, 36 DDD content, 37 DDE content, 37 DDT contamination, 37 DDT content, 37 Arsenic content, 243 Dieldrin content, 37 Dinoflagellates, 38 Estuarine waters Pesticide contamination, 37 Gonyaulax content, 37 Gonyaulax tamarensis, 38 Marine biotoxins, 36 Mussels, 36 Oil ingestion, 327 Paralytic poisoning from ingestion, 37 Pesticide effects, 36 Pesticide levels, 3 7 Pesticide toxicity, 37 Polluted water, 36 Public health-pollution effects, 277 Radionuclides, 36 Radionuclides content, 38 Toxic trace metals content, 38 Toxicity, 37 Trace metals, 36 Oysters, 36 Virus vectors,· 36 W!lter quality, 36 Shipworm Arsenious trioxide control, 243 Shoveler Lead ingestion effects, 228 Silver Argyria, 87 Argyrosis, 87 Commercial uses, 254 Cosmetic effects in humans, 87 Industrial uses, 255 Public water supply, 87 Water treatment, 301 Similkamen Valley, British Columbia, 349 Simuliidae, 141 Sludge deposits Crab shells necrosis, 280 Hydrogen sulfide content, 193 Lobster necrosis, 280 Sludgeworms (Tubificidae), 21 Snails Barium chloride lethality, 244 Snake River Gas bubble disease, 135 Snow petrel Cadmium level, 246 Mercury content, 252 Sockeye salmon Gas bubble disease, 139 Pyridyl mercuric acetate tolerance, 173 Water temperature, 160 Sodium Ground waters, 88 Human diet, 88 Irrigation water, 329 Public water supply, 88 Soils, 329 Solubility, 88 Surface waters, 88 Sodium cation Ion exchange, 375 Sodium hypochlorite Water treatment, 301 Sodium intake Human health, 88 Sodium selenite toxicity, 254 Goldfish tolerance, 254 Soft drink industry (See Bottled and canned soft drinks) Soft water Antimony salts, 243 Beryllium chloride toxicity, 244 Cadmium content, 180 Chromium concentration, 180 Copper concentration, 180 Copper toxicity, 240 Lead solubility, 181 Nickel content, 253 pH effects, 140 Sodium selenite, 254 Soil Acidity, 330 Aeration, 330 Alkalinity, 330 Alkalinity calculations, 335 Filtration Bacteria removable, 352 Fungus Wheat Mosaic Virus, 349 Management, 339, 340 Pathogenic virus vectors, 349 Salinity, 337 Sodium, 329 Soil Conservation Service, 10 Soil tolerance to chemicals, 339 Soil water and electrical conductivity, 334 Soils Arid, 333 Arsenic toxicity, 340 Boron accumulation, 341 Cadmium content, 342 Chromium accumulation, 342 ESP values, 331 Fluoride content, 343 Humid region, 336 Irrigation, 333 Lead toxicity, 343 Mineralogical composition, 336 Molybdenum concentrations, 344 pH content, 337 pH values, 330, 339, 344 Selenium content, 345 Sodium content, 329 Soluble aluminum, 339 Suspended solids, 332 Zinc toxicity, 345 Solid wastes Biological effects, 279 Sea dumping, 280 Solid wastes disposal, 278 Solid wastes--sport fishing relationships, 280 Soluble colored substances Polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids, 63 South Africa W afra spill, 262 South America Cl. hemolyticum in water, 321 Fishery management, 441 South Bay Oyster shell layers, 279 South Carolina Intracoastal Canal Dredging effects, 279 South Dakota Fowl drinking water, 308 Southeast Asia Marine aquaculture, 223 Southeast Michigan Recreational water and boating, 14 Southern California .Marine ecosystems-DDT residues relation- ship, 227 PCB in fish, 226 Subject lndex/587 Soviet studies Marine radioactivity, 244 Spatula clypeata, 228 Sphaerotilus, 21 Spinner perch Manganese toxicity, 251 Sporocysts, 322 Sport fisheries Water temperature, 151 Spotted bullhead Spawning temperature, 171 Spring water Dissolved gases, 136 Zinc content, 93 Sprinkler irrigation, 332, 350 Iron content, 343 Raw sewage, 351 Suspended solids, 338 Trace elements, 338 Steam Condensate recycling, 378 Steam electric plants Boiler makeup requirements, 377 Tennessee Valley Authority, 378 Steam generation, 377 Boilers, 3 7 6 Boiler feed, 377 Discharge, 378 Economics, 379 External water treatment equipment, 378 Industry, 376 Source water composition, 379 Water consumption, 378 Water quality requirements, 378 Water·treatment processes, 379 Total water intake, 378 Steel head trout Pyridyl mercuric acetate tolerance, 173 Sterna hirundo, 226, 246, 252 Sterna vittata, 246, 252 Stickleback Aluminum nitrate lethal threshold, 242 Lead--sublethal effects Manganese tolerance, 250 Nickel effects, 253 Nickel lethal limits, 253 Silver nitrate content, 255 Stizostedion canadense, 171 Stizostedion vitreum, 243 Stizostedion vitreum vitreum, 128, 193 Stonflies Iron effects, 249 pH effects, 141 STORET (Systems for technical data), 306 Stratified lakes Thermal patterns, 165 Stream channelization, 124 Stream waters Benthic fauna, 22 Blood worms, 22 Blue-green algae, 22 Rattail maggots, 21 Sewage fungus, 22 Sludgeworms, 21 Streams Water quality, 400 588/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Streams Blackfly larvae, 18 DDT contamination, 184 Diluting capacity, 230 Dissolved oxygen requirements, 133 Flow turbulence, 115 Industrial discharge-temperature relation- ship, 195 Nutrient enrichment, 22 Organic mercury content, 172 Over enrichment, 20 Oxygen concentration, 132 Pesticides content, 183 Pollution, 230 Coliform measurement of contaminants, 57 Fecal contamination, 57 Oil slick, 147 Silt-fish population effect, 128 Site uniqueness measurement Biological factors, 400 Human use, 400 Interest factors, 400 Physical factors, 400 Water quality factors, 400 Toxic waters concentrations Application factors, 123 Transport, 126 Streptopelia risoria, 226 Striped bass (M or one saxatilis ), 27 Eggs hatching conditions, 279 Strongyloides, 322 Strontium-90 Fresh produce, 332 Sturgeon Oxygen requirements, 132 Subirrigation, 350 Suisun Marsh, California Water salinity, 195 Sulfates Ground water, 89 Laxative effects, 89 Public water supply, 89 Sulfide toxicity, 191, 193 Sulfides By-products, 255 Toxicity, 255 Water solubility, 191 Sunken oil Bottom fauna mortality, 262 Supersaturation Water quality, 135 Supplemental irrigation, 337 Surface horizon, 333 Surface irrigation Suspended solids, 332 Surface irrigation water Cercariae, 350 Helminth infections, 352 Surface sea water Lead content, 249 Surface waters Aesthetic quality, 11 Aluminum content, 309 Ammonia content, 55 Arsenic content, 56 Barium concentration, 59 Beryllium content, 310 Chromium concentration, 62 Classification, 53 Cobalt content, 311 Contamination, 50 Copper, 64 Copper concentration, 64 Dissolved inorganic salts, 301 Dissolved solids, 142 Enteric viral contamination, 91 Fluorine content, 312 Foaming agents, 67 Gas nuclei, 135 Hardness, 142 Hardness factors, 142 Hydrated ferric oxide, 69 Hydrated manganese oxides, 71 Industrial wastes Chromium content, 311 lodine-131 content, 84 Iron content, 69 Lead content, 70 Manganese content, 71, 250 Mercury content, 313 Minerals, 301 Mosquito productivity, 25 Natural color, 130 Natural temperatures, 151 Nutrient concentration, 22 Nutrient content analyses, 306 Nymphaea odorata, 25 Pesticide contamination, 318 Pesticide content, 318 Pesticide entry, 318 Phosphorus content, 81 Quality characteristics, 370, 371 Surface water use Quality characteristics Food canning industry, 391 Surface waters Radioactive materials, 192, 271 Radioactivity, 84, 190, 270 Radionuclides content, 317 Sodium concentrations, 88 Strontium-89 content, 84 Strontium-90 content, 84 Sulfonates, 67 Supplies, 50 Suspended particles, 16 Suspended particulate concentrations, 126 Suspended sediment content, 50 Suspended solids, 335 Temperatures, 16 Temperature variation, 89 Vanadium, 316 Water color-aquatic life effects, 130 Watershed, 22 Surf ace water-photosynthesis relationship, 275 Surface waters saturation Oxygen loss, 270 Surface water supply Deleterious agents, 51 Toxic agents, 51 Virus, 91 Suspended particulates Biological effects, 281 Suspended sediments Physical-chemical aspects, 281 Suspended solids Soils, 332 Swamps Malaria vectors, 25 Oxygen content, 132 Sweden Environmental mercury residues, 252 Environmental methylmercury, 172 Industrial mercury use, 252 Mercury in fish, 172, 251, 252 Supersaturation, 135 Swimming water Chemical quality, 33 Clarity, 33 Sewage contamination, 31 Temperature ranges, 32 Turbidity, 33 Water quality requirements, 30 Swine Drinking water Sodium chloride content, 307 Copper intake, 312 Molybdenum tolerance, 314 Swordfish Mercury content, 237 TAPPI (Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry), 383 TAPPI manufacture specifications Process water Chemical Composition, 384 TDS (Total dissolved solids), 90, 335 Specific conductance measurements, 90 TL50 (Median tolerance limit), 118 TLm (Median tolerance limit), 118 TNV (Tobacco necrosis virus), 349 TMV (Tobacco mosaic virus), 349 TSS (Total soil suction), 324 TV A (see Tennessee Valley Authority) Taiwan Epidemiological studies, 56 Tampico Bay, Calif. Pollution-kelp resurgence relationship, 237 Tampico Maru Diesel fuel spill, 258, 260 Tanning Industry Description, 393 Quality requirements Point of use, 393 Water process, 393 Water quality Microbiological content, 394 Water quality indicator, 394 Water treatment processes, 394 Water use Chemical composition, 393 Tap water Aluminum nitrate Lethal threshold, 242 Manganese-sticklebacks lethality effects, 250 Tritium content, 85 Tar balls, 257 Neuston net collection, 257 Teal Lead ingestion effects, 228 Temperate lakes Thermal stratification, 111 Temperature Coolant waters, 89 Oxygen transfer in water, 16 Plant growth, 328 Public water supply, 89 Recreational water, 16 Surface waters, 16 Temperature exposures, 170 Tennessee Valley Authority, 9, 378 Tennessee Valley streams Fish population, 162 Teredo, 243 Tern Mercury concentrations, 252 Tern eggs Cadmium levels, 246 Texas Caddo Lake, 26 Ponds, 24 Textile industry Census of Manufacturers, 1967, 381 Deionized water, 380 · Potable water, 381 Surface water intake, 380 Water color, 380 Water hardness, 380 Water intake sources, 380 Water quality, 380 Water quality requirements, 380, 381 Water treatment processes, 381 Water turbidity, 380 Water use, 380 Zeolite-softened water, 380 Textile mills Locations, 380 Raw water quality, 380 Textile mill products Cotton, 379 Industry description, 379 Noncellulosic synthetic fibers, 379 Rayon, 379 Wool, 379 Textile processes Scouring operations, 380 Water use, 380 Textiles Silk dyeing damage, 380 Wool dyeing damage, 380 Thalasseus sandvicensis, 196 Thaleichthys pacijicus, 164 Thallium Industrial use, 256 Neuro-poison, 256 Rat poison, 256 Thermal criteria Hypothetical power plant, 166 Thermal electrical power Thermal fluctuations, 162 Thermal exposures Developing fish eggs sensitivity, 170 Thermal fluctuations Navigation, 162 Thermal plume stratification, 170 Thermal Tables Time-temperature relationships Fish, 410-419 Opossum shrimp, 413, 414 Thiobacillus-Ferrobacillus, 141 Tidal cycles Seston values, 281 Tidal environment, 168 Tidal oscillations, 219 Tidal water • Organism transport, 115 Top minnow Mercury toxicity, 173 Nickel toxicity, 253 Torrey Canyon spill, 262 Oil--detergent toxicity, 261 Oil spill effects, 258, 260 Total dissolved gases Water quality, 135 Toxic algae Livestock, 317 Toxic organics, 264 Hazards, 264 Biosphere, 264 Toxic water Concentration calculations, 123 Toxicants Ammonia, 186 Fishery management, 441 Insecticides, 441 Toxicity in water Livestock, 309 Tracers Radioiaotopes, 271 Tritium, 271 Trapa hatans; 27 Trichobilhazia, 18 Trichodorus, 349 Trichoptera, 141 Tritonalia japonica, 27 Tropical waters Biological activity, 441 Trout Boron effects, 245 Dissolved oxygen requirements, 134 Flavor-imparing chemicals n-butylmercaptan, 148 a-cresol, 148 2, 4-dichlorophenol, 148 pyridine, 148 Lakes, 20 Odoriferous actinomyces, 148 Phenol toxicity, 191 Zinc toxicity, 182 Tularemia, 321 Tule Lake, 346 Tuna fish Mercury content, 237 Turbidity Coagulation, 90 Filtration, 90 Subject lndex/589 Public water supply, 90 Sedimentation, 90 Turkey Point, Fla. Power plant-temperature changes, 238 Tylenchorhynchus sp., 348 Tylenchulus semipenetrans, 348 Typha, 141 Ultrafiltration, 375 Ultraviolet sterilization Water treatment, 301 Ulva, 21 Underground aquifers, 377 United States Agricultural nitrogen use, 27 4 Agricultural waters Leptospirosis, 321 Aquatic vascular plants, 25 Arid areas Water quality characteristics, 333 Coastal waters Temperature variations effects, 238 Inland waters Biota, 142 Irrigation water, 351 Lake waters Chromium content, 311 Copper content, 311 Iron content, 312 Lakes, 21 Malaria vectors, 25 Marine aquaculture Oyster, 223 Marine environment Radioactivity content, 190 Mercury consumption, 251 Northeastern coast, 32 Pesticides use, 434, 441 Polychlorinated byphenols in freshwater fish, 177 Precipitation, 333 Public water supplies, 61, 62 Radioactivity in water, 85, 270 Recreation waters, 34 River waters Composition, 333 Copper content, 311 Lead content, 312 Rivers Chromium content, 311 Mercury content, 72 Salt water beaches, 31 Semiarid areas Water quality characteristics, 333 Streams Mercury content, 72 Surface waters Mercury content, 313 Pesticides content, 319 Synthetic organic chemicals Production, 264 Water quality, 129 Water temperatures, 151 United States Atlantic coasts Temperature effects, 238 590/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 United States Bureau of Commercial Fish- eries, 37 United States Census, 1970, 9 United States Department of Agriculture, 10, 346 United States Department of Defense, 9 United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, 10 United States Federal Radiation Council, 84, 85, 318 United States Salinity Laboratory, 324, 325, 328, 330, 334 Upper Chesapeake Bay Biota seasonal patterns, 282 Fish nursery, 281 Physical hydrography, 282 Upper water layers Oxygen content, 276 Uranium Industrial uses, 256 Water solubility, 256 Uranium-sea water interaction, 256 Uranyl ion Public water supplies, 9~ Urban streams Baltimore, Md., 40 Flow variability, 40 Washington, D.C., 40 Urban waters, 39 Urban water quality, 40 Urban waterways contamination, 40 Urechis eggs Uranium effects, 256 Utah Fish fauna, 27 Vallisneria americana, 194 Vanadium Commercial processes, 257 Drinking water, 316 Industrial uses, 25 7 Surface waters, 316 Vanadium toxicity Farm animals, 316 Vashon glacier, 20 Virgin Islands coast Solid waste disposal, 280 Virology techniques, 92 Viruses Classification, 322 Infections, 322 Public water supply, 91 WHO (World Health Organization), 251 WRE (Water Resources Engineers, Inc.), 399 W afra spill, 262 Wales Bathing waters, 29 Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus}, 28 Walleye Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193 Walleye eggs Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193 Walleye fingerlings, 128 W armwater fish Dissolved oxygen criteria, 132 Warm water temperatures Fish kills, 171 Vi ashington Irrigation water Plant nematode distribution, 348 Washington, D.C. Urban streams, 40 Water chestnut introduction, 27 Waste material disposal recommendations, 282 Waste treatment Benefit-cost analysis, 399, 400 Evaluation techniques, 399 Waste water Animal waste disposal systems, 353 Chlorine disinfection, 276 Fish tainting, 147 Food processing plants, 353 Nitrogen removal, 352 Organic content, 353 Waste water effluents Pollutant concentrations, 264 Waste water injection, 115 Waste water potential Blowdown, 379 Boiler waters, 279 Evaporative systems, 379 External water treatment processes, 379 Recirculated cooling water, 379 Waste water reclamation Recreational benefits, 399 Waste water treatment Copper concentrations, 7 4 Lead concentrations, 74 Waste water treatment plants Discharges, 147 Waste water treatment processes Recreation, 13 Water Carbon dioxide content, 139 Manganese stability, 251 pH values, 140 Pesticides content, 346 Water adsorption Clay minerals, 16 Microorganisms, 16 Toxic materials, 127 Water alkalinity, 54 Carbonate-bicarbonate interaction, 140 Water analyses Metals-biota relationship, 179 Water birds Surface oil hazards, 196 Water chemistry-plants interrelationships, 24 Water chestnut (Trapa natans), 27 Water circulation Pollutant mixing, 217 Water color Compensation depth, 130 Compensation point, 130 Inorganic sources Metals, 130 Organic sources Aq{.atic plants, 130 Humic materials, 130 Peat, 130 Plankton, 130 Tannins, 130 Origin, 130 Water color-industrial discharge effects, 130 Water color measurements Platinum-cobalt method, 130 Water components Metallocyanide complex Toxicity, 140 Water composition, 306, 371 Air scrubbing, 377 Evaporation, 377 Water contaminant indicator Odor, 74 Taste, 74 Water contamination Nitrates, 314 Pesticide3 Farm ponds, 318 Water density Lakes, 164 Water-dependent wildlife, 34 Water development projects, 10 Water disinfectant Ammonia-chlorine reactions, 55 Water distribution systems Ammonia, 55 Water entry of pesticides Direct application, 318 Drift, 318 Faulty waste disposal, 318 Rainfall, 318 Soil runoff, 318 Spills, 318 Water flavor impairment, 148 Water flea Thallium nitrate effects, 256 Water hardness Biological productivity, 142 Definition, 142 Lead toxicity, 181 Metal toxicity level, 177 Scale deposits, 68 Utility facilities, 68 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes}, 27 Water level control Shell fish harvest, 399 Water management techniques, 50 Water nitrate concentrations, 73 Water oxygen Salinity effects, 276 Temperature effects, 276 Water oxygen depletion Duckweed, 24 Water hyacinth, 24 Water lettuce, 24 Water plume Configuration effects, 170 Water pollutants Oxygen level reduction, 133 Toxicity, 133, 140 Waterfowl mortalities, 195 Water polluting agents Enteric microorganisms, 321 Water pollution Crude oil toxicity, 144 Oils, 144 Water pollution control, 11 Water pressure tension, 135 Water processes Mining industry, 394 Paper and allied products, 383 Tanning industry, 393 Water productivity,. 140 Water quality CCE,.75 m-cresol Threshold odor concentration, 80 o-cresol Threshold odor concentration, 80 p-cresol Threshold odor concentration, 80 Acid conditions Adverse effects, 140 Aethetics, 8, 399 Agarsphenamine, 87 Agricultural importance, 300 Algae content Farmsteads, 301 Alkaline conditions Adverse effects, 140 Alkalinity, 140 Analysis, 352 Animal use Daily calcium requirements, 306 Daily salt requirements, 306 Aquatic vascular plants, 23 Benefit-cost analysis, 399 Biomonitoring receiving systems, 109 Biomphalaria glabrata, 18 Boating, 28 Body burdens of toxicants, 116 Carbonate buffering capacity, 140 Chemical and allied products, 384 Chemical compound concentrations, Fish tainting, 148 Oyster changes, 14 7, 148 Coastal region nutrient, 270 Commercial fin fishing, 28 Commercial shell fishing, 28 Composition, 371 Contamination Outboard motor oil, 148 Cotton bleaching processes, 380 Deterioration, 10, 321 Dietary nutrient content, 305 Dilution water Toxicant testing, 120 Dissolved oxygen concentrations, 134 Dissolved oxygen criteria, 133, 134 Element content Cobalt, 306 Iodine, 306 . Magnesium, 306 Sulfur, 306 Estuaries, 222 Estuary nutrients, 270 Eutrophy, 21 Evaluation techniques, 399 Farm animals use, 321 Farmsteads Water quality (cont.) Nonpathogenic bacterial contaminants, 301 Fish production requirements, 195 Flavor impairment, 148 Food canning processes, 390 Harbors, 35 Hardness Equivalent calcium carbonate, 68 Polyvalent cations, 68 Hydrogen ion concentration, 140 Industrial discharge Color effc:cts, 130 Industrial effluents, 370 Inorganic chemicals concentration, 481, 482 Insecticides content, 195 Irrigation waters, 323, 324, 333, 336, 337 Isotope content, 307 Kraft pulp mills, 147 Livestock use Biologically produced toxins, 304 Excessive salinity, 304 Mineral content, 304 Parasitic organisms, 304 Pathogenic organisms, 304 Pesticide residues, 304 Radionuclides, 304 Toxic elements, 304 Marine ecosystems, 216 Marketing costs, 371 Mercury pollution, 172 Mesotrophy, 21 Midge production, 18 Minerals, 88 Mortality probability, 404 Municipal sewage, 274 Nitrate-nitrogen level, 302 Nutrients, 19 Odor-producting bacteria Farmsteads, 302 Oil loss effects, 144 Oil refinery effluents effects, 144 Oil spills effects, 144 Oligotrophy, 21 Organic mercury toxicity, 173 Outboard motor exhaust, 148 pH, 140 Paper and allied products, 383 Particulates Aquatic life, 16 Biological productivity, 16 Pathogens from fecal contamination, 58 Phenol Threshold odor concentrations, 80 Phenols, 80 Phosphorus concentrations, 81 Physical factors, 13 Plankton density, 82 Pollutant bioassays, 118 Polychlorinated byphenals content, 83 Preserving aesthetic values, 11 Radioactive materials restrictions, 273 Receiving systems-biota interaction, 109 Recreation, 8, 29, 399 Requirements, 370, 371 Point of intake, 371 Point of use, 371 Sanitary indicators, 57 Shell fish, 36 Subject lndex/591 Significant indicators, 378 Sodium content, 88 Soil-plant growth effects, 324 Soils, 323 Sport fin fishing, 28 Sport shell fishing, 28 Suspended solids effects, 222 Supersaturation, 135 Swimming, 28 Tainting, 147, 149 Textile dyeing processes, 380 Textile industry Point of use, 380, 381 Thermal criteria, 152 Thermal regimes, 152 Total dissolved gases, 135 Toxic wastes, 18 Toxicants, 404, 407 Toxicity curves calculations, 407 Trace metals pH effects, 140 Treatment equipment, 371 Virus-disease relationship, 91 Waste material Application factors, 121 Zinc content-taste relationship, 93 Zone of passage, 115 Water Quality Act (1965), 2 Water quality calculation Lethal threshold concentration, 407 Threshold effective time, 407 Water quality characteristics Aesthetics, 400 Drifting organisms, 113 Ecology, 400 Environmental pollution, 400 Human interest, 400 Migrating fish protection, 113 Mixing zones, 231 Multiproduct chemical plant, 385 Water quality criteria, 10, 91 Acute pollutants, 118 Chronic pollutants, 118 Crop responses, 300 Cumulative pollutants, 118 Inorganic chemical protection, 239 Least-cost analysis, 400 Lethal pollutants, 118 Marine aquatic life, 219 Marine environment Methods of assessment, 233 Selenium toxicity, 345 Subacute pollutants, 118 Sublethal pollutants, 118 Wildlife, 194 Water quality deterioration Wisconsin Lakes, 20 Water quality effects Suspended particulates, 16 Water quality evaluations Monetary benefit, 399 Site ·determination, 399 Nonmonetary 'benefit, 399 Waste treatment techniques, 399 592/Water Quality Criteria, 7972 Water quality indicators Chemical and allied product industry, 384 Tanning industry, 394 Water quality management, 400 Aquatic organisms, 109 Water quality-plant growth interrelation- ships, 24 Water quality projects Economic objectives, 400 Water quality recommendations, Ground water, 52 Public water supply, SO Water management, 52 Water quality requirements Agriculture, 300 Farmstead use, 301 Human farm population, 301 Long-term biological effects, 114 Water quality standards, 52 Artificial ground water recharge, 53 Mixed water body, 171 Water quality variation, 18 Water receiving systems Nonthermal discharge distribution Mathematical model, 403 Water recreation Boating, 9 Camping, 9 Commercial, 9 Corps of Engineers, 9 Fishing, 9 Fishing licenses, 8 Legislation, 9 Management, 11 Participants, 9 Picnicking, 9 Point discharges, 12 Private, 9 Programs, 9 Public, 9 Regulations, 9 Sightseeing, 9 Sportsmen, 8 Subsurface drainage, 12 Surface flows, 12 Swimming, 9 Waterfowl hunters, 9 Water skiing, 9 Water recreation facilities costs, 9 Water requirements Beef cattle, 305 Cattle, 305 Dairy cattle, 305 Horses, 305 Livestock Water balance trials, 305 Water loss, 304 Water needs, 304 Poultry, 305 Sheep, 305 Swine, 305 Water resources Project recreation evaluation Intangible benefits, 399 Nonmonetary expression of benefits, 399 Recreation, 8 Water resource use Evaluation problems, 400 Water-related diseases Bacillary hemoglobinuria, 321 Water safety Fish indicators, 320, 321 Water salinity Duckling mortality, 195 Livestock consumption, 307 Toxicity in dairy cattle, 307 Water salinity ions Bicarbonates, 309 Calcium, 309 Chloride, 309 Magnesium, 309 Osmotic effects, 307 Sodium, 309 Sulfates, 309 Water solubility DDT, 197 Water supply Quantity for livestock, 304 Raw water quality, 50 Reservoirs, 13 Suspended solids Clay, 301 Sand, 301 Silt, 301 Thermoduric microorganisms Farmsteads, 302 Water supply management Agriculture, 300 Water supply sources Ammonia content Cold temperature, 55 Aquatic vegetation control, 79 Water surface Turbidity-absorption effects, 127 Water surface tension, 136 Water tainting, 149 Bioassays, 149 Biological causes, 147 Chemicals, 14 7 Water tainting tests, 149, 150 Bluegill, 149 Channel catfish, 149 Exposure, 149 Fish, 149 Flatfishes, 149 Largemouth bass, 149 Organoleptic evaluation, 149 Salmon, 149 Trout, 149 Yellow perch, 149 Water temperature, 152 Acclimation, 153 Aquatic ecosystems, 151 Aquatic life Analysis, 168 Migration, 164 Spawning, 164 Aquatic sensitivity, 168 Artificial temperature elevations, 160 Channel catfish, 154 Commercial fisheries, 151 Community structure, 165 Fish Zero net growth, 154 Fish exposure, 160 Fish growth rates, 157 Fish spawning conditions, 163 Food organisms production, 164 Growth comparisons, 158 Lethal threshold, 152 Life expectancy, 32 Nuisance organisms growth, 165 Ocean currents effects, 32 Power plant discharge, 166 Safety factor , Aquatic life, 161 Seasonal changes, 154 Short-term exposure, calculations, 168-170 Sockeye salmon, 154, 160 Spawning period, 162 Sport fisheries, 151 Spring fall, 164 Spring rise, 164 Suspended particulates-sunlight penetra- tion effects, 127 Warming rates, 127 Thermal springs effects, 32 Winter maxima, 160 Water temperature acclimation, 153 Water temperature-botulism poisoning re- lationship, 197 Water temperature calculations, 154, 157 Water temperature criteria, 152, 154, 166 Hypothetical power plant, 167 Prolonged exposure, 153 Seasonal prolonged exposure, 154 Water temperature resistence Chinook salmon, 153 Water temperature tolerance Salmon, 153 Water temperature variation Aquatic life development, 162 Water transmissions of virus, 91 Water transport Particulate matter, 16 Siltation, 16 Water treatment Chemical Halogens, 301 Sodium hypochlorite, 301 Economics, 377 Health hazards, 57 Heat, 301 Ozone, 301 Raw water at farmsteads, 301 Silver, 301 Ultraviolet sterilization, 301 Water treatment facilities Agriculture, 300 Water treatment processes, 372, 379 PCB, 83 pH effects, 80 Adsorption, 373 Aeroation, 373 Alkalinity reduction, 272 Alkalinity removal, 375 Anion exchange, 375 Boiler makeup, 379 Cation exchange, 375 Chemical and allied products, 385, 386 Chlorination, 92 Clarification, 372 Coagulation, 50 Colloid removal, 379 Color stabilizing effect, 63 Cooling, 379 Corrosion control, 375 Demineralization, 375 Dissolved gases removal, 379 Dissolved solids removal, 379 Dissolved solids modification Softening, 379 Distillation, 37 5 Electrodialysis, 375 External, 372, 374 Contaminants, 372 Raw water analysis, 373 Waste products, 372, 373 Filtration, 373 Foaming agents, 67 Food canning industry, 391 Hardness precipitation, 375 Internal, 372, 375 Ion exchange, 375 Iron sequestration, 375 Lime softening, 372, 373 Lumber industry, 382 Manganese sequestration, 375 Manganese zeolite, 375 Mixed bed exchange, 375 Nitrates-nitrites, 73 Oil and grease, 7 4 Oxygen scavenging, 375 pH control, 375 Paper and allied products, 383 Petroleum refining, 385 Phenolic compounds, 80 Plankton counts, 82 Rapid sand filtration, 50 Reverse osmosis, 375 Rough screens, 372 Scale control, 375 Sedimentation, 50, 372 Sediment dispersal, 375 Silica removal, 375 Sodium, 88 Sodium cation, 375 Sodium removal, 88 Suspended solids removal, 379 Temperature effects, 89 Textile industry, 381 Turbidity, 90 Ultrafiltration, 3 7 5 Water treatment technology, 370 Water use Chemical and allied products, 384 Chemical manufacture, 384 Coolant, 89 Drinking water, 301 Farm household, 301 Farmsteads, 300 Drinking, 302 Household, 302 Food canning industry, 391 Potable water, 390 Industrial plant sites, 369 Industr-ial requirements, 378 Industry, 369 Boiler-feed, 369 Bottled/canned soft drinks, 370 Chemical and allied products, 384 Chemical products, 370 Condensing-cooling, 369 Food canning, 370, 389 Lumber and wood, 370 Manufacturing plants, 369 Mining/cement, 370 Once-through cooling, 376, 378 Petroleum refining, 370, 385 Plant intake, 369 Primary metals, 370 Pulp and paper, 370 Steam generation, 370, 376 Sources, 370 Tanning, 370 Textile mills, 370 Treatment facilities, 371 Treatment processes, 372 Treatment technology, 370, 371 Industry intake Brackish water, 369 Freshwater, 369 Ground water, 369 Surface water, 369 Irrigation, 89 Livestock, 304 Lumber and wood industry, 381 Lumber and wood processing, 381 Milk for marketing, 301 Mining industry, 395 Objectionable odors, 301 Paper and allied products, 382 Paper and pulp industry, 382 Manufacturing purposes, 382 Surface supply, 383 Paper and pulp process, 382 Primary metals industry, 388 Coke products, 388 Hot strip mill, 388 Pig iron products, 388 Steel-making processes, 388 Tin plate, 388 Produce preparation, 301 Recycling, 369 Textile industry, 380 Washing Milk-handling equipment, 302 Raw farm products, 302 Waste carrier, 89 Water use processes Bottled and canned soft drinks, 392 Steam generation, 377 Water virus survival, 276 Waterborne disease, 91, 351 Waterfowl Lead poisoning, 228 Lead toxicity, 228 Winter patterns, 195 Waterfowl food plants Subject lndex/593 Alkalinity-growth relationship, 194 . Reedhead grass, 194 Waterfowl foods Salinity, 195 Waterfront preservation, 10 Watershed alterations Channelization, 124 Clearing of vegetation, 124 Diking, 124 Dredging, 124 Filling, 124 Impounding streams, 124 Rip-rapping, 124 Sand and gravel removal, 124 Shoreline modification, 124 Watersheds, 39 Waubesa Lake, Wise., 20 Well water Contamination from farming, 73 Fertilization contamination, 73 Fluorine content, 312 Nitrate content, 73 West Falmouth, Mass. Oil spill, 258 Whales, 217 Whistling swans Lead ingestion effects, 228 White amur (see grass carp) Whitefish pH effects, 141 White Oak Creek, Oak Ridge Atomic energy installations, 273 White Oak Lake, Oak Ridge Atomic energy installations, 273 White pelicans Shell thinning-DDE relationship, 227 White perch Ferric hydroxide effects, 249 White suckers Hydrogen sulfide toxicity, 193 Whitetailed sea eagle Mercury contamination, 252 Widgeongrass Waterfowl food, 194 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, 10, 39 Wild celery Waterfowl food, 194 Wildlife Food protection, 194 Light penetration-plant growth relation- ship, 195 PCB content, 175 Shelter, 194 Survival, 194 Wildlife embryos 2, 4, 5, T herbicide contaminant, 225 Chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins toxicity, 225 Chlorinated phenols, 225 Pentachlorophenol fungicide contaminant, 225 Wildlife species Pollutants-life cycle relationship, 225 Wilson's petrel Cadmium effects, 246 594/Water Quality Criteria, 1972 Windscale, England Radiation outfall, 273 Wisconsin lakes, 20 l!lorganic nitrogen content, 22 Inorganic phosphorus content, 22 Wood preservatives Arsenic content, 243 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Oil spill studies, 258 World oceans River sediment loads, 281 Xiphinema, 347 Xiphinema index, 349 Yellow perch Spawning conditions, 164 Yuma, Arizona Irrigation water pesticides content, 346 r usho disease PCB, 83 Zinc Bioaccumulation, 257 Dietary requirement Livestock, 317 Poultry, 317 Human metabolism need, 93 Natural waters, 316, 317 Public water supply, 93 Water hardness-toxicity effects, 182 Zinc solubility Alkalinity, 93 pH value, 93 Zinc toxicity, 257 Farm animals, 316 Zone of passage Coastal waters, 115 Estuaries, 115 Lakes, 115 ~eservoirs, 115 Rivers, 115 Water quality, 115 Zooplankters Gas bubble disease, 138 Zooplankton Aluminum tolerance, 242 Asphyxiation, 137 Zostera marinus, 245 "k U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19740---499-296 l I