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0 100 300 KILOMETERS JUNE 1983
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Copper Basin Planning Area
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0 100 300 KILOMETERS JUNE 1{~83
ALASKA INTERAGENCY
FIRE MANAGEMENT
PLAN:
COPPER BASIN
I recommend the Bureau of Land Management and the State of Alaska fire
suppression organizations implement the Alaska Interagency Fire Management
Plan: Copper Basin. I ccncur with fire management option(s) to be applied
on the lands administered by my organization~ I have reviewed the plan and
recognize the fire management options to be applied by the other cooperating
organizations. on lands adjacent to those administered by my organization.
(For Federal agencies only: I agree to adopt the environmental assessment
of the Alaska Interagency Fire Management Plan: Tanana/Minchumina. I
agree environmental conditions are similar to this plan area and no additional
environmental assessment is required. Based on a review and evaluations of
the information contained in the supporting references, we have determined
that the proposals are not major Federal actions which would significantly
affect the quality of the human environment within the meaning of Section
102 (2) (c) of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Accordingly,
the preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement on the proposed actions
is not required).
Date _l_,.h~~---'-/~f_3 __ _
r Contor
Re onal Director
National Park Service
Jacob Lestenkof
Area Director
Date Bur7soJZ U:Jh
;
Sturgeo
State Forester
partment of Natural Resources
Date ~30. \9.B3 c
Commissioner
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Date ------------------------------
Ac:i:i"1 Regional Director
-'Fish and Wildlife Service
Date /#
I recommend the Bureau of Land Management and the State of Alaska fire suppression
organizations implement the Alaska Interagency Fire Management Plan: Copper
Basin. I concur with fire management option(s) to be applied on the lands
administered by my organization. I have rev.J.ewed the plan and recognize the fire
management options to be applied by the other cooperating organization.
~~~--
Herbert R. Smelcer
Ahtna, Incorporated
Martin N. Finnesand
Chitina Village Council
~-. /. .·
::;; ,-//-~-t'. ~-1~~--M.
· Edna Armstrong t
Hatanuska-Susitna Borough
-·
Chugach Natives, Incorporated
I recommend the Bureau of Land Management and the State of Alaska
fire suppression organizations implement the Alaska Interagency Fire
Managment Plan: Copper Basin where it covers lands in the Talkeetna
Mountains. I concur w1tn fire management option{s) to be applied to
the lands administered by my organization. I have reviewed the plan
and recognize the fire managment options to be applied by the other
cooperating organization.
A~g ~~sident
Chickaloon-Moose Creek Native
Association I Inc. ~if_ 1 _ ~~
~·dent
am
Native Assocation I Inc.
Inc.
A.~~~
B. Agnesr<iwn I President
Tyonek Native Corporation
-I recommend the Bureau of Land Management and the State of Alaska
fire suppression organizations implement the Alaska Interagency Fire
Management Plan: Copper Basin where it covers lands in the
Chickaloon area. I concur with fire management option (s) to be
applied to the lands administered by my organization. I have
reviewed the plan and recognize the fire managment options to be
applied by the other cooperating organization.
~v~P~
Chickaloon-Moose Creek Native
Association, Inc. 9 _ 1 _ i?4
I recommend the Bureau of land Management and the State of Alaska fire
suppression organizations implement the Alaska Interagency Fire
Management Plan: Copper Basin. I concur with fire management
option(s) to be applied on the lands administered by my organization.
I have reviewed the plan and recognize the fire management options to
be applied by the other cooperating organization.
.... /1-cL/f~~ ':::£~~~,~~~ ...
Nick lincoln
Copper Center Village Council
Harding Ewan
Gulkana Village Council
David Gene
Gakona Village Council
Robert Marshall
Tazlina Village Council
------------------------------------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables
List of Figures
i
•••••• ii
I.
II.
INTRODUCTION 1
1
1
2
2
3
3
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
AUTHORITY AND PLANNING TEAM COMPOSITION
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
GENERAL GUIDELINES
RELATIONSHIP TO LAND USE PLANNING
CURRENT FIRE MANAGEMENT POLICY
PUBLIC MEETINGS
PLANNING AREA
A.
B.
c.
D.
GENERAL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • • o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Q • 4
4
4
4
5
5
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
1.
2.
3.
Location and Size •••••••••••••••••••••
Land OWnership •••••••••••••••••••
Population and Facilities ••••••••
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
1.
2.
3.
Climate •••••••
Topography ••••
Soils/Watershed
VEGETATION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• · ••••••••••••••••
1.
2.
3.
Major Plant Communities
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
1.
Black Spruce Woodland •••••••••••••
Open/Closed Black Spruce Forest
White Spruce Woodland •••••••••••••••••••
Open/Closed White Spruce Forest
Mixed White/Black Spruce Woodland
Open/Closed Broadleaf Forest ••••••••••••••••••••
Open/Closed Mixed Forest •••••••••••••••••••••••
Open/Closed Tall Shrub Scrub
Open/Closed Low Shrub Scrub
Graminoid Communi ties •••••••••••••••••••••••••
Herbaceous Tundra •.•••
Mat-and-cushion Tundra
Fire Effects on Vegetation
Postfire Vegetation Recovery ••••••• .10
WilDLIFE .•.•..•..••...•...•....•.......•........ . ................ 10
1.
2.
• • • • • 10 Fire Effects on Habitat ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.
Wildlife Response to Fire •••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••• • • . • • 11
• ••••••••• 11 a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
Moose
Caribou •••••••.•.•••
Dall Sheep
Bison
Black and Grizzly Bears ••••••••••.••••••
Upland Game Birds and Small Game Mammals
Aquatic Furbearers and Waterfowl .•••••••
Terrestrial Furbearers ••••••••••••
Small Mammals and Birds ••••••••
Raptors
Fish
• •• 12
• .12
• •••••••••••.• 12
••.•••.•.• 13
••.•• 13
. .14
.14
.15
.15
• •. 16
III.
IV.
v.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
E.
F.
Table of Contents Continued
THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES o o a o o • c o o o o o e o o o a a o o • o e o Cl o • o ., o .16
0 •• 0 0 0 • 0 ••• 0 0 0 0 • 0 • " ••• 0 ••• 0 0 0 ... 16 1. Animals
2. Plants •••••••.•••.• 17
HUMAN VALUES AND ACTIVITIES oogoooaoooooooooooooooooooooooooocoooe~l7
Wilderness •••••.••••.•••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 17 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Cultural/Historic Resources ········•·o••o·········o·········l7
Visual Resources • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •••••••••••••• 19
• ••••••••• 19 Air Quality
Recreation • •••• 21
Economy •••••••••••• o . o ••••••.•••• o ••••• 2 3
Forestry .••••• o ••• o •••••••••• o • o •••••• o o •••••••••••••••••••. 23
Subsistence and Lifestyle ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24
FIRE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
HISTORICAL FIRE ROLE AND OCCURRENCE .26
.27
• •• 28
FUELS
SUMMARY OF FIRE OCCURRENCE BY·MANAGEMENT UNIT
SUPPRESSION COSTS
SUPPRESSION RESOURCES
FIRE MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
GENERAL OPERATIONAL POLICY
• ••••••••••• 0 32
•• 0 ••••• 0 ••••••• 36
• ••••••••••••••• 38
• •••• 39
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES FOR INDIVIDUAL FIRE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS • •••••• 40
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT • 0 0 ............ 0 •••• 0 •••••••• 0 0 0 • 41
SELECTED REFERENCES OCI00000000000CIOOCIOOOGOG00000000042
APPENDICES
A. Canadian International Agreement
B. Public Fire Plan Meeting Reports
c. Protection of Cultural Resource Values from Wildfire
D. Fire Management Options Map
E. Land Ownership Map
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-
-
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Occurrence of heavy smoke conditions in interior Alaska •••..••.• 22
Man and lightning caused fires by month ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 30
Total number of fires and acres burned by cause .•••••••••••••••• 31
Acres and percentage burned compared to the total
acreage of each management unit •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Fire occurrence by month ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Total number of fires and acres burned by fire size class •••••••
Suppression costs using 1967 as the base year ••••.••••••••••••••
i
33
34
35
37
l.
2.
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Range of emission factors from forest burning ..••••.•••••••••••• 20
Planning area boundaries ••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 29
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I. INTRODUCTION
ALASKA INTERAGENCY FIRE MANAGEMENT PLAN
COPPER BASIN PLANNING AREA
A. AUTHORITY AND PLANNING TEAM COMPOSITION
This plan is being prepared with the approval of the Alaska Land Use Council
(ALUC). The ALUC was formed in 1980 by a provision of the Alaska National
Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA).
The ALUC recommended the formation of the Alaska Interagency Fire Management
Council to organize and coordinate interagency fire management. The group is
comprised of representatives from Alaska Department of Fish and Game; Alaska
Department of Natural Resources; Alaska Department of Environmental Conserva-
tion; National Park Service; u.s. Fish and Wildlife Service; Bureau of Land
Management; Bureau of Indian Affairs; u.s. Forest Service Region 10; and USFS
Institute of Northern Forestry.
The Copper Basin Planning Team is a working group under the Alaska Interagency
Fire Management Council. The planning team is comprised of representatives
from: Ahtna, Inc., Lee Adler; Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Bob Tobey;
U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Mike Small; Copper River Native Association,
Ray Shinn; National Park Service, Brad Cella; Mat-Su Borough, Jake Wright;
Bureau of Indian Affairs, Glenn Anderson; and the team leader from the Alaska
Department of Natural Resources, Jeff Bedford. Information specific to the
Copper Basin Planning Area is presented in this document. Background informa-
tion applicable to all fire management plans in interior Alaska is in the Alaska
Interagency Fire Management Plan: Tanana/Minchumina Planning Area (AIFMP:TM).
The AIFMP:TM is referenced in this document to avoid unnecessary reproduction
and associated costs.
B. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this plan is to provide an opportunity through cooperative
planning for land managers/owners within the planning area to accomplish their
fire-related land-use objectives in the most cost-effective manner. This will
be accomplished by establishing broad fire management strategies for unplanned
wildfires that will permit a reduction, compared to the past suppression only
policy, in suppression costs commensurate with the value of resources warranting
protection. Management options selected should be ecologically and fiscally
sound, operationally feasible, and sufficiently flexible to be changed as new
objectives, information, and technologies become available.
The objectives of this plan are to ensure:
1. Aggressive and continued suppression action will be taken on
fires which threaten human life, private property, and man-made developments.
2. Levels of fire suppression and dollars spent on fighting fires
should be commensurate with the value of the resources warranting protection.
1
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3. Selection of fire management options will optimize the ability
of the landowners/managers to achieve their individual management objectives
for lands and resources they administer.
C. GENERAL GUIDELINES
The plan was prepared within these general guidelines:
1. The boreal forest is a fire dependent ecosystem, which evolved
in association with fire and will lose its character, vigor, and faunal and
floral diversity if exclusion of fire is attempted.
2. This plan recognizes that land ownership will change continually
for several years and that land use plans are in various stages of completion.
Yearly reviews, modifications, and updates of the plan will be made accordingly.
(See Section H).
3. This plan will be implemented during the ~ fire season.
4. The current policy of total suppression will be replaced with a
fire management program for the planning area.
5. The plan will establish fire management options which each land
manager can apply according to his own land-use objectives and constraints.
Each land manager/owner will notify the agency responsible for suppression of
any desired changes in broad fire management strategies. Selection of fire
management options does not preclude the development of prescribed burning
programs by any land manager/owner.
6. The functions of allocating forces, detection, and prevention
will be considered and addressed as needed to accomplish objectives of the plan.
7. This plan will be developed under the Alaska Interagency Fire
Planning Guidelines in order to be compatible with adjacent fire plans.
D. RELATIONSHIP TO LAND USE PLANNING
This plan is not a land use plan. Rather, it is a guide to coordinate use of
fire suppression forces among a wide variety of land managers and to promote a
comprehensive fire management program. It does not develop land use objectives;
it implements these objectives relative to fire management.
Unfortunately, land use planning has only been completed within very small
portions of the planning area. Thus, specific objectives have not been devel-
oped for most of the planning .area. Nevertheless, land managers are guided by
basic policies and objectives which can be stated without land use planning
(e.g., protection of human life). These policies and objectives provide a
solid foundation for this planning effort. As more specific objectives are
developed by various land managers, they will be incorporated into this plan.
The status of land use planning for individual agencies is reviewed below.
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Native Corporation -Planning is in preliminary stages of collecting informa-
tion. No specific planning is underway although the need is recognized to
promote effective use of resources.
State of Alaska -The State has completed land use allocations in most of the
area. General land use planning for the western part of the area has begun
and is scheduled for completion in late 1983, at which time land use planning
will begin for the remainder of the Copper Basin.
National Park Service -Development of the General Management Plan is ongoing
and scheduled for completion by mid 1984.
Bureau of Land Management -The Southcentral Management Framework Plan (MFP)
was completed in 1981, was amended in 1982, and directs management of BLM
land in the Copper River Basin.
E. CURRENT FIRE MANAGEMENT POLICY
Refer to pages 3-4 of AIFMP:TM.
F. PUBLIC MEETINGS
One public meeting was held in Glennallen on March 8, 1983. Four members of
the public attended (see Appendix B). Additional meetings were held for the
leaders of the Ahtna Village Fire Councils and the chiefs of the local volun-
teer fire departments. A majority of those affected attended each meeting.
These meetings were held to inform people of the fire plan and to solicit
their comments.
3
II. PLANNING AREA
A. GENERAL
1. Location and Size
The Copper River Planning area encompasses approximately 19,776,585 acres
(30,901 square miles), about 154 square miles smaller than the state of South
Carolina. It is located in the eastern portion of Southcentral Alaska and is
bounded on the east by the Canadian border, on the north by the Alaska Range,
on the west by the Talkeetna Mountains, and on the south by the Chugach Moun-
tains.
The Copper River, the largest in the planning area, roughly divides the area
in half, leaving an east and west portion. Most of the area's population is
located in small settlements along major roads and highways in the western
portion.
2. Land Ownership
Major shifts in land ownership are occurring and will continue for several years
as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), Alaska State-
hood Act, and Alaska National Interest Land Conservation Act. The area includes
Ahtna Regional Corporation, seven recognized native villages, and five native
groups awaiting approval. Corporate native lands include patented, interim-
conveyed, and selected designations for both village and regional corporation,
as well as cemetery and historical site selections. Land that is in the
selected phase of ANCSA is managed by the Federal Agency within whose bound-
aries the selected land lies. Interim conveyed and patented land is managed
by the native corporation.
State land is in a category similar to native lands; that is, patented, tenta-
tively approved, or selected. Approximately 98 percent of State land is
located west of the Copper River. Lands in the Wrangell-Saint Elias National
Park and Preserve are under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages the remaining federal lands in
the planning area.
Additionally, there are parcels of privately patented land. The claimants
for trade and manufacture (T&M) sites, headquarters sites, and patented mining
claims have possessory interests which place the claims in the same category as
private land. Approximately 200 native allotments are in the planning area.
Native allotments are land owned by individual Natives and either held in trust
by the United States or subject to a statuary restriction on alienation. Most
native allotments in Alaska are "restricted" allotments in which the fee is owned
by the Native allottee, subject to a restriction against alienation held by the
United States or a federal officer.
3. Population and Facilities
According to the 1980 Alaska census there are 2,721 people living in the plan-
ning area. A heavy concentration of the populations is settled around the
Glennallen-Copper Center vicinity, with a sparse population in the rest of the
region.
The road system in the planning area consists of three major roads and six
secondary roads. The major roads are: the Richardson Highway which connects
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Fairbanks and Valdez, the Glenn Highway which intersects with the Richardson
Highway at Glennallen and connects the region with Anchorage and southcentral
Alaska, and the Tok cutoff which connects the Richardson Highway with the
Alaska Highway.
The secondary roads are the 1) Denali Highway (seasonal road) which connects
with the Richardson Highway at Paxson, 2) Edgerton cutoff which connects the
Richardson Highway with Chitina, 3) Old Edgerton, a spur of the Edgerton cut-
off, 4) Chitina/McCarthy Road (seasonal) which connects those two communities,
5) Lake Louise Road which connects a major recreation area with the Glenn
Highway, and 6) that portion of the Nabesna road which runs through the plan-
ning area. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline, a major utility corridor, bisects the
planning area.
Most facilities are located near population centers or along the road network.
There are some remote communication sites scattered through out the area.
B. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
1. Climate
The majority of the unit is under continental climatic influences. However,
areas south of the Chitina River are influenced by transitional climatic
conditions.
The unit is characterized by extreme temperature variation with the range
between annual minimum and maximum temperatures over 140°F. Winter tempera-
tures of -50°F or lower are not uncommon and can be expected to occur for
extended periods of time. Freezing conditions have occurred in every month
of the year within the planning unit. Summertime temperatures are relatively
mild but have exceeded 90°F. There is no pronounced diurnal variation in
burning conditions during the peak of the fire season since sunlight and twi-
light hours occur 24 hrs/day throughout the majority of the unit and slightly
less in the southern portion.
The transition zone results from the flow of warm moist maritime air being
blocked by the Chugach Mountains. The abruptness of the zone is demonstrated
by a comparison of Thompson Pass and Chitina areas. Thompson Pass on the
inland side of the Chugach ridge receives an average of 83 inches of precipi-
tation annually with snowfall consistently over 600 inches compared to Chitina
which receives an average of 12 inches with a snowfall of over 50 inches.
The continental zone average annual precipitation ranges between 10 and 14
inches in the lowlands with a snowfall of 50 to 60 inches. Precipitation at
higher elevations in the unit's interior mountain ranges tends to exceed 80
inches as a result of the additional moisture condensation as the air which
has passed over the coastal range is again forced upward. Localized storm
cells occur frequently during the summer months and thunderstorms occur but
are infrequent. Due to the high level of precipitation in both the coastal
and interior mountain ranges numerous glaciers and icefields occur, including
some of the largest in the world. In general both the mean temperature and
precipitation decrease northward.
Prevailing winds are from the south and southwest and tend to be associated
with passage of weather frontal systems. Terrain also plays an important role
in determining wind flow patterns. Severe winds often occur near the mouths
5
of valleys and steep gorges along the mountain ranges. These winds influence
adjacent areas for up to 20 miles.
A climatological study performed for the Bureau of Land Management by the Uni-
versity of Alaska (Searby, 1975) showed wide variations of temperature and
precipitation between years and during an individual season indicating that
any predictions of seasonal or long-range burning conditions would be accom-
panied by a high degree of risk.
2. Topography
The planning unit is composed of six physiographic regions:
a. Talkeetna Mountains -This ice-carved mountain range forms
the western boundary of the unit. It is separated from the Alaska Range to
the north by the Nenana River and the Chugach Mountains to the south by the
upper Matanuska Valley. The summit is composed of peaks ranging in elevation
from 6,000 to 7,000 feet. Several glaciers up to 10 miles (16 km) in length
and numerous ice masses occur within this range.
b. Alaska Range -This long narrow mountain chain forms the
northern boundary of the unit. Steep talus and scree slopes, razorback ridges
and deep valleys predominate, with many peaks higher than 10,000 feet. Huge
glaciers are the source of many of the major rivers and streams. Rivers that
flow from the Alaska Range into the planning area include the Nenana, Susitna,
Maclaren, Gulkana, Gakona, Chistochina, and Slana.
c. Wrangell Mountains -This volcanic range with peaks over
10,000 feet and several that exceed 16,000 feet in elevation forms the eastern
boundary. Numerous large icefields and glaciers, including the Nabesna which
is one of the longest in the world, are sustained in this range. Waters laden
with glacial silt drain from the peaks to feed the Copper and Chitina Rivers,
major waterways of the area.
d. Chugach Mountains -This extremely rugged coastal chain
defines the southern boundary of the fire planning unit. This segment of the
Kenai-chugach Range possesses peaks that range in elevation from 7,000 to
13,000 feet. The upper reaches of this chain contain the Bagley Ice Field and
several piedmont glaciers that drain to the coast.
e. Gulkana Uplands -This area, located in the northwest of
the unit, in conjunction with the Copper River lowlands constitutes the major-
ity of the intermontane basin. The uplands are characterized by large lakes
that occupy ice-scoured basins, numerous thaw lakes, and bogs.
f. Copper River Lowlands -This relatively smooth plain
(1,000-2,000 feet elevation) is deeply incised by the Copper River and its
tributaries. Major tributaries include the Gulkana, Gakona, Chistochina,
Tazlina, Klutina, Tonsina, Slana, Bremner, and its main tributary the Chitina.
This area is also characterized by many large lakes, bogs, and thaw lakes.
The eastern plain of the lowlands is glacial outwash interlaced with steep-
banked streams.
6
3. Soils-Watershed
A description of soils in the planning area can be found in the Exploratory
Soil Survey of Alaska (Rieger et al, 1979). In general, the soils on raised
areas along moraines and hills, or along major drainages, are well-drained,
sandy, or gravelly learns. These are the warmest, most productive, and fre-
quently the driest sites. Severe fire can damage soils on these sites if the
organic mat is thin. However, these sites usually support broadleaf plant
communities which are relatively fire-resistant.
In lowlands, extensive areas are underlain by cold wet soils, usually with
a thick organic mat and often with permafrost. Fire effects on these sites
can vary widely with the severity of fire and the nature of the permafrost.
Permafrost is a condition in which ground temperature remains below freezing
for two or more years. Above the permanently frozen soil is an "active layer"
which thaws and freezes each year. Thawing is retarded by the insulating
effect of a thick organic layer.
Fine-grained permafrost soils may contain up to 50 percent water. They are
extremely unstable and easily eroded when the insulating cover of vegetation
is removed because water released by the melting ice can cause runoff even
on very gentle slopes. Sandy soils can have a fairly high ice content but
resist erosion because of their large particle size. Coarse-grained soils
tend to be very stable because they are generally well-drained.
Many of the soil and substrates in the planning unit are composed of fine-
grained materials. North-facing slopes, south-facing toe slopes, valley bot-
toms, and areas shaded by heavy tree cover are completely underlain by ice-rich
permafrost. Complete removal of the shading or insulating vegetation mat
results in rapid melting of the ice-rich, fine-grained soils and substrates.
Rain may greatly accelerate melting. If the vegetation mat is removed to the
edge of a water body, silt and organic material may wash into the water. Sig-
nificant erosion rarely occurs after wildfires in interior Alaska because
fires rarely consume the entire organic mat, although slumping and landslides
occasionally occur on steep slopes after severe fires.
While wildfires have little effect on watershed values, major erosion fre-
quently results from the use of mechanized fire equipment on ice-rich, fine-
grained, permafrost soil. Complete removal of all of the vegetation and
organic material during fireline construction causes much deeper permafrost
melting than occurs in adjacent burned areas. Runoff channels and deep
gulleys frequently form, and siltation can result.
C. VEGETATION
1. Major Plant Communities
The flora of the majority of the Copper Basin planning area is typical of
interior Alaska. The area includes nearly all plant communities found in
the Interior, ranging from needleleaf and broadleaf forests to alpine tundra.
The predominant forest cover types include black spruce, white spruce, broad-
leaf, and mixed broad-needleleaf. Along the southern boundary of the planning
area the flora reflects some coastal influence and additional species such as
devils club, Sitka spruce, and hemlock can be found.
7
a. Black Spruce Woodland -Black spruce forests with a
canopy closure of less than 25 percent, but greater than 10 percent, typically
occur on poorly-drained permafrost sites. The understory is dominated by
sphagnum moss on wetter sites and feathermoss/lichen on drier sites. Ericaceous
shrubs*, dwarf arctic birch, willow, and cottongrass are also important. The
trees are often very stunted due to the harshness of the site. These black
spruce communities often have a thick organic mat. The surface of the organic
mat quickly responds to changes in the relative humidity, either becoming
moister or drier. This, along with the continuity of fuel over large areas,
allows this vegetation type to burn readily when ignited during dry periods,
usually consuming the overstory. The site will be ready to burn again in 30
to 40 years, once a moss/lichen layer has developed in the new black spruce
stand.
b. Open/Closed Black Spruce Forest -Black spruce stands
with canopy cover greater than 25 percent occur throughout the planning area.
Paper birch is a rare component. These stands are usually located on drier
sites than are woodlands black spruce communities and the trees are often
taller. The understory is usually dominated by feathermosses, although lichens
may form a nearly continuous mat in some stands. Ericaceous shrubs, dwarf
arctic and resin birch, and willows make up most of the shrub layer. Open/
closed black spruce forests burn with a frequency similar to that of black
spruce woodlands.
c. White Spruce Woodland -Within the planning unit white
spruce woodlands occur at the elevational limits of trees. Resin birch and
willows are components of these areas. The organic mat is formed by feather-
moss and lichens.
d. Open/Closed White Spruce Forest -White spruce for-
ests with canopy cover greater than 25 percent form large, productive stands
on well-drained sites, especially along major rivers. White spruce also com-
monly form "stringers" along smaller streams and around lakes. Balsam poplar
often comprise a significant part of the tree canopy in these stands.
In open stands, a wide variety of shrubs and herbs dominate the understory,
along with feathermosses. Alder, resin birch, willow, prickly rose, buffalo-
berry, bunchberry, twinflower, and ericaceous shrubs are common. Fire occurs
much less frequently in these forests than in the black spruce types. When
they occur they tend to have lower intensities, although, fires occasionally
kill white spruce, particularly in older stands.
e. Mixed White/Black Spruce Woodland -These mixed
woodlands commonly occur at the elevational limits of trees. Alder and
resin birch are shrubs that are commonly associated with this forest type.
The organic mat is composed of feathermosses and lichens.
f. Open/Closed Broadleaf Forest -Aspen and balsam pop-
lar are the two species common on upland sites in the planning area. Aspen
are most common on warm, well-drained sites. A well developed understory of
alder, willow, highbush cranberry, and low shrubs is usually present, as well
* Ericaceous shrubs include blueberry, cranberry, Labrador tea, and other
shrubs belonging to the taxonomic family Ericaceae.
8
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as herbaceous vegetation, mosses, and lichens. Fires are infrequent in deci-
duous forests and generally are low intensity when they do occur. However,
these fires often kill the thin-barked overstory, after which a new broadleaf
stand will quickly reestablish.
g. Open/Closed Mixed Forest -These forests are composed
of aspen/white spruce, aspen/black spruce, or balsam poplar/white spruce stands.
Balsam poplar is an intermediate successional stage leading to white spruce.
Aspen are most common on well-drained sites and are also an intermediate stage
which results in sites usually dominated by white spruce but occasionally by
black spruce. The dominance by black spruce may be the result of the area
being burned by an intense fire previously. Alder, willow, prickly rose, and
ericaceous shrubs are common.
h. Open/Closed Tall Shrub Scrub -Tall willow, alder,
and shrub birch form dense stands between treeline and alpine communities and
also occur in some riparian zones and on floodplains. The understory varies
considerably, consisting of dense grasses and herbs, or mosses and lichens.
Fires tend to burn slowly and with low intensity on the rare occasions when
they occur in this vegetation type.
i. Qpen/Closed Low Shrub Scrub -Low willows and shrub
birch form extensive communities, particularily near the foothills of the
Alaska Range. On moist sites the understory consists of a dense feathermoss/
ericaceous shrub mat, while on dry sites there may be nearly continuous cover
of lichens. The meager fuels and typically moist conditions seldom support
fires of any notable size.
j. Graminoid Communities-The sites occupied by these
communities vary widely from wet to dry. The sites are usually not extensive,
but are frequently encountered. Elymus, carex, fescue, and calamagrostis
species are widely distributed and can burn readily when dry. The tussock
tundra type, dominated by cottongrass, often occurs on the edges of wet areas.
Fires in tussock tundra can burn with high intensity at any time of the warmer
months because of the large amounts of dead material. Fires can burn very
deeply into the organic mat after a long dry period, but more characteris-
tically consume only the surface layer.
k. Herbaceous Tundra -Meadow communities dominated by
grasses and other herbaceous plants, particularly fireweed, are found on
adequately drained protected sites. Fires would be infrequent and of low
intensity, because of low fuel loading and high moisture content of live fuels.
1. Mat-and-cushion Tundra -These communities are
located where harsh environmental conditions limit the development of vege-
tative cover. Discontinous low growing mats of vegetation, primarily of
Dryas species and prostrate willow, are found, along with ericaceous shrubs,
other forbs, sedges, and sometimes lichens. Fire occurrence is very low
because fuels are sparse and discontinuous, and any fire would be quite
small.
2. Fire Effects on Vegetation
Refer to pages 14 and 15 of the AIFMP:TM.
9
3. Postfire Vegetative Recovery
Refer to pages 15 through 18 of the AIFMP:TM.
D. WILDLIFE
1. Fire Effects on Habitat
Fire is a natural occurrence within Alaska ecosystems. Generally, the effects
of fire on habitat are much more significant than the effects on resident
animals. Habitat changes determine the suitability of the environment for
future generations of animals. Fires may have a short-term negative impact
on resident animals by displacing them, disrupting critical reproductive
activities, or, rarely, killing them. However, these animal populations re-
cover quickly if suitable habitat is available. Generally, fire improves
the habitat for a wide variety of species. The adverse effects that the
immediate generation of wildlife may experience are usually offset by the
benefits accrued for future generations.
Most of the planning area is covered with a mosaic of forest, bog, and tundra
habitat types that have been collectively termed the northern boreal forest.
Fire is the primary agent of change in the boreal forest and is responsible
for maintaining habitat heterogeneity. Wildlife have evolved in the presence
of fire and have adapted to its presence. Indeed, the continued well-being
of most species of wildlife depends on periodic disturbance of the habitat
by fire.
The grasses and herbaceous plants that quickly reestablish on burned areas
provide an ideal environment for many species of small mammals and birds. A
rapid increase in microtine population usually occurs following a fire. This
abundance of small prey animals in turn makes the recently burned area an
important foraging area for predatory animals and birds. However, the size
of the fire and the subsequent proximity to cover and denning or nesting sites
affects the degree of use by larger animals.
Fire severity and frequency greatly influence the length of time that the grass
and herbaceous plant stage will persist. Severe burning delays the reestab-
lishment of shrubs, a benefit to grazing animals and seed-eating birds. Fre-
quent reburning of a site further retards generation of shrubs and se~dlings
and prolongs the grassland environment.
For some species of wildlife, such as bison, this perpetuation of a grassland
environment is beneficial. Where bison are present, a management program that
entails periodic burning to preclude invasion by shrubs and trees can supple-
ment the rangeland that is naturally available along the braided river courses.
Browsers such as moose, ptarmigan, and hares can benefit from the fire as soon
as shrubs and tree seedlings begin to reestablish. If a fire leaves most of
the shrub root and rhizome systems intact, sprouting will occur very soon
after burning. In the case of early season fires, some forage may be avail-
able by the end of the growing season and limited use by browsing animals may
occur. Forage quality is much improved, with increased digestability and pro-
tein and mineral content for some years after fire. As tall shrubs and tree
saplings begin to dominate, the site provides shelter and forage for a greater
10
variety of wildlife. Although the rate of regrowth varies among burned areas
and is dependent on many factors, this productive stage can persist for as
long as 30 years after fire.
The greatest diversity of wildlife will be found during the tall shrub-sapling
stage. Many species, which up to that point have frequented the burned area
only to hunt or forage, begin to find that it provides shelter and denning or
nesting sites as well. This abundance and diversity of wildlife, in turn,
makes these burned areas extremely important to people, whether it be to hunt
and trap or to view and photograph.
On most sites the young trees outgrow the shrubs and begin to dominate the
canopy after 25 to 30 years. At this point the shrub component thins out and
changes, as more shade-tolerant species replace the willows. Subsequently,
use by browsing animals such as moose, hares, and ptarmigan declines. On
mesic sites which are developing into black spruce forest, the lichen biomass
becomes significant during this period and increases in abundance for 50 to 60
years.
As the forest canopy develops and the understory species disappear, a burned
site becomes progressively less productive. Relatively few animal species
find the requirements necessary for their survival in the mature spruce forest
that will eventually develop in the absence of further fire.
Because lichen cover increases in these more mature stages of black spruce
stands, these areas are valuable for lichen foraging animals such as caribou.
In older stands, lichens are slowly replaced by feather and sphagnum mosses.
On valley bottoms where a muskeg-bog situation exists, lichen cover also de-
velops, but, contrary to the upland sites, lichens may persist as succession
advances.
Generally speaking, large, severe fires are not nearly as beneficial to wild-
life as are more moderate fires. Less intense fires quickly benefit browsing
animals and their predators by opening the canopy, recycling nutrients, and
stimulating sprouting of shrubs. In addition, the mature trees which are
killed but not consumed by the fire, provide nesting sites for hole nesters
such as woodpeckers, flickers, kestrels, and chickadees, as well as some
cover for other animals. A severe fire that burns off the aboveground biomass
and kills root systems, slows the regeneration of the important browse species,
which must now develop from seeds.
Some sites, however, have progressed so far toward a spruce forest community
that very little shrub understory exists from which regeneration of the site
may occur. Furthermore, many sites are so cold and poorly drained that black
spruce have a competitive edge over the less tolerant shrub species. In these
situations, a light fire simply results in more spruce. Severe fire or fre-
quently recurring fires are necessary to kill the seeds in the spruce cones
and prepare a suitable seedbed for other species. Then the value of the site
to most species of wildlife is enhanced.
2. Wildlife Response to Fire
a. Moose -Moose were formerly more abundant within
virtually all portions of this planning area. Quality and quantity of moose
11
br~wse in much of the area appears to be deteriorating and until fire or other
disturbances are permitted to occur, overall carrying capacity for moose will
not significantly increase. Fire suppression activities have interrupted the
natural fire regime in much of the area to the overall detriment of moose and
other species dependent on early forest sera! stages.
Moose populations usually increase following fire due to increased production
of high quality browse in the burned area. However, if the moose population
has declined for reasons other than poor habitat, moose may be slow to utilize
new habitat created by burning and numbers may not increase dramatically.
Under these circumstances the remaining moose have little trouble obtaining
sufficent browse without utilizing the new burn. Use of a burned area will
depend largely on whether it is situated in an area traditionally used by
moose or through which they migrate. Dispersal to new areas may be slow.
If, however, a fire occurs in an area where the moose population is near car-
rying capacity of the range, then competition for food and social pressures
between individuals will result in more rapid exploitation of new habitat
created by a fire. The use of burned areas by moose is also related to the
amount of available cover. Fires of moderate size or large fires that contain
numerous unburned inclusions enhance the edge effect resulting in better moose
habitat, compared to extensive severe fires.
b. Caribou -It appears that caribou may not be adversely
affected by fire to the degree once believed. The short-term effects of fire
on caribou winter range are mostly negative. These include destruction of
forage lichens, reduced availability of other preferred species in early
postfire succession, and temporary alterations in caribou movements. However,
forage quality of vascular plants will be improved by fire.
Long-term effects are generally beneficial. Light fires may rejuvenate stands
of lichens with declining production. Fire helps maintain diversity in veg-
etation type, replacing old forest stands where lichens have been replaced by
mosses, thereby initiating the successional cycle which leads to the reestab-
lishment of lichens. Fire creates a mosaic of fuel types that naturally
precludes a series of large, extensive fires that may be devastating to
caribou habitat. Caribou are nomadic and each herd has historically utilized
a range much larger than necessary to meet its short-term food needs. Thus,
effects of fire upon the forest system can be accomodated and may be essential
to prevent large severe fires which burn huge portions of a herd's range and
result in lowering of range carrying capacity.
c. Dall Sheep -Winter range, lambing areas, and mineral
licks are critical elements of Dall sheep habitat. Because the vegetative
cover found on sheep range does not carry fire well in most cases, fire nor-
mally does not play a significant role in sheep population dynamics. However,
in some areas where fire has occured on sheep range, the plant response ap-
peared beneficial and sheep utilization of the area increased. Additionally,
under some circumstances, fire may enhance sheep range by depressing treeline
in areas where the boreal forest has encroached on alpine habitat.
d. Bison -Wildfires are extremely beneficial to bison.
A portion of the present habitat is maintained primarily by river erosion and
12
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flooding. However, fire has the potential for greatly improving and expand-
ing bison habitat away from the floodplain. The grasses and forbs that are
the mainstay of their diet quickly reestablish after a fire. Burning serves
to stimulate new growth and remove the mat of old material, causing earlier
green-up. In addition, an extensive, severe fire may result in a long lasting
grass stage, by killing sprouting trees and shrubs, and tree seeds.
e. Black and Grizzly Bears -Black and grizzly bears
are both benefited by fire, responding in much the same way as do their prey
species. Both are omnivorous, and fires increase the availability of both
plant and animal foods. Blueberries, cranberries, and soapberries increase
following fire, particularily in upland areas. Moose calves are important in
the diets of both the black and grizzly bears in the springtime. Early stages
of plant succession tend to increase moose production, therefore, more calves
are available as prey. Small mammals are more readily available and play an
important role in bear diets during the snow-free months. The grizzly, in
particular, should benefit from increased large rodent populations following
fire, although this is speculative and not proven. Because black bears make
extensive use of lowland marshy areas during spring, fires ocurring in such
areas should be considered beneficial for this species.
f. Upland Game Birds and Small Game Mammals -Upland
game birds and small mammals are also herbivores and, as such, generally bene-
fit from the increased forage and diversity created by fires in the boreal
forest.
Sharp-tailed grouse prefer the open, shrubby areas created by fire over the
dense forest. In the absence of fire, sharp-tailed grouse frequent the open
muskeg bogs; however, openings created by fire apparently are preferred and
are not nearly as limited. Sharp-tailed grouse extensively utilize young
burns both for foraging and for essential reproductive activities such as
"lekking" (display activity on communal dancing grounds). Since the onset
of fire suppression sharp-tail numbers have declined dramatically.
Ptarmigan summer habitat is high elevation alpine areas that have extremely
low fire occurrence. However, fires near treeline could increase ptarmigan
nesting habitat by removing spruce trees that are encroaching on alpine tundra
sites. Since most ptarmigan migrate to lowland areas for the winter months
where their primary winter foods are young willow and birch, fires in the
boreal forest can improve habitat for ptarmigan.
Spruce grouse appear not to be benefited by fires because of their preference
for mature coniferous forest habitat. Changes in habitat that affect avail-
ability and suitability of nesting areas, brood rearing areas, feeding places,
or roosting sites would significantly impact spruce grouse.
Snowshoe hares normally prefer older stands of black spruce and thick alder
tangles during lows in their 10-year cycles. During population highs, how-
ever, hares will use even severly burned areas. Hares normally use open
areas during summer months when their diet consists largely of herbaceous
plants and leaves from low shrubs which are more abundant and nutritious on
recently burned sites. Small fires or large fires with numerous unburned
inclusions of black spruce or other heavy cover should provide optimal habitat
for hares.
13
g. Aquatic Furbearers and Waterfowl -When fires occur
in riparian (streamside) areas and marshes, they can be beneficial to muskrat,
beaver, goose, duck, and sw.an populations. Without fire, ponds will usually
be filled in by marsh vegetation. Organic matter accumulation will then favor
the establishment of shrubs and trees. Fire rids marshes of dead grass,
sedges, and shrubs and thereby tends to open up dense marsh vegetation to a
degree that suits feeding waterfowl. Burning also stimulates the growth of
new shoots which are of greater forage quality. Beaver benefit from the in-
crease in willow production around lakes. Fire can have a short term nega-
tive impact when it occurs during nesting or molting periods.
Fire is also an important factor in the maintenance of marsh systems. In dry
summers, peat marshes can burn down to the point where new bodies of water are
created. Burning also alters the insulative effect of old marsh vegetation
and allows solar heat to penetrate and alter the marsh subsurface where perma-
frost or ice lenses are prevalent. Subsequent melt-outs can result in new
ponds and altered vegetative cover.
h. Terrestrial Furbearers -The furbearers other than
beaver and muskrat are carnivorous and tend to respond to fire in a manner
similar to that of their primary prey populations. some predators such as
lynx are very specific, concentrating their efforts toward securing snowshoe
hares. Others, such as the red fox, are less specific and are able to thrive
on a variety of prey species such as rodents, hares, birds, and even fruits
and berries at certain times of the year.
Because of their extremely large home ranges, wolves should not be adversely
affected by fires of small or moderate size and will derive benefits from such
fires as habitat conditions develop that favor prey species. Extremely large
fires in caribou winter range, however, may cause changes in caribou migration
routes and choice of wintering areas. In that case, wolves would also be
forced to disperse or switch to alternate prey species.
Fire probably benefits wolverine in most cases because ample food sources are
apparently their key habitat requirement.
Red foxes have been characterized as animals of open grasslands and low shrubs,
subsisting primarily upon rodents and hares. Red foxes should benefit in the
first 10 to 20 years following fire, during which the numerical response of
red-backed and meadow vole populations is apparent.
Lynx appear to prefer the same habitat types as snowshoe hares, their primary
prey. Fires which benefit hares by increasing browse production in associa-
tion with adequate cover will also benefit lynx. Numerous small fires with
numerous unburned inclusions should create optimal conditions for hares and
lynx.
There is a common assumption that all fires are detrimental to Pine marter
populations because intense fires remove large trees which provide denning
habitat. However, the presence may expand the food base for marten. Food
preferences are broad and marten are not dependent upon a particular prey
species. Mice and voles constitute the main source of food, along with birds,
squirrels, and berries. The frequently voiced assuption that martens depend
heavily upon red squirrels probably is not valid in Alaska.
14
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Large fires that result in extensive replacement of mature spruce with aspen
and birch are decidedly detrimental to marten. Marten usually abandon these
sites. However, the mosaic created by small fires or fires with unburned
inclusions of spruce probably benefit marten populations more than they harm
them. Cover and denning sites are retained in the unburned portions, while
nearby openings created by fire become important foraging areas.
Both the least and short-tailed weasel benefit from the increased prey abun-
dance that usually follows burning.
Coyote populations are benefited by fires that result in many openings within
the boreal forest or which result in replacement of forest with grassland.
i. Small Mammals and Birds -Fires either immediately
benefit most small mammals or cause only temporary declines in their popula-
tions. Because vegetative recovery enormously increases available biomass on
burned areas, population declines are more than compensated for in a short
time. Red-backed voles, a species known to inhabit mature black spruce for-
ests, will quickly exploit newly burned areas adjacent to mature stands of
black spruce. Meadow voles often will begin using such a burned area in about
the third year. Peak rodent densities in one study occurred 7 to 16 years
following fire, when environmental conditions could be tolerated by both red-
backed and meadow voles. The implications of these observations are that
predators largely dependent upon rodents will derive maximal overall benefits
from a fire during that period of rodent abundance.
Although most small mammal species thrive best in early sera! stages of vege-
tation, a few, like the red squirrel and flying squirrel, are adapted to old-
age coniferous forests. These squirrels are dependent on white spruce for
food and cover, and would be adversely affected by fire.
The habitat requirements for passerine birds varies greatly. Some like the
pine grosbeak are specialized seed eaters that prefer spruce forest. However,
most species frequent younger sera! stages of vegetation and are most abundant
in areas of greatest plant diversity. All burned areas will not be the same
age nor size in an area with a history of fire, nor will conditions in same
age burns be the same because of differences in prefire vegetation and fire
severity. This presents a diverse vegetative mosaic that will support a wide
spectrum of bird life. Extensive stands of black spruce, on the other hand
present a rather narrow set of environmental conditions which restricts the
number of bird species which can inhabit such areas.
Studies of songbirds in relation to fire in the north are scarce; however, one
study (Klein, 1963) graphically demonstrated some of the changes that can occur
following fire in the boreal forest. After burning of a white spruce forest in
Alaska in 1948, only 19 birds of 7 species were seen during 20 hours of obser-
vation. By 1957, 9 years later, nearly 200 birds of 19 species were seen, but
by 1961, 13 years later, only 16 species were observed. Woodpeckers were well
represented because of insects in the fire-killed spruce.
j. Raptors-Hawks, owls, eagles, and falcons generally
benefit from fire. Small raptors that feed on mice and voles benefit most
rapidly, since the herbaceous vegetation that is preferred by these small ro-
dents returns to a burned site quickly after a fire. Raptors that specialize
15
in preying on hares, grouse, and ptarmigan benefit the most when shrubs and
sapling trees invade the burned site. Small fires or large fires with many
unburned inclusions would generally be best because of the vegetative mosaic
that would result. The sharp-shinned hawk ·is probably the only raptor in
Alaska that might be adversely impacted by fire. These hawks forage in the
scrubby, open black spruce muskegs and prefer spruce trees for nesting sites.
Other raptors are not nearly so restrictive in their foraging and nesting
requirements. Golden eagles, great gray owls, great horned owls, boreal
owls, goshawks, and hawk owls will nest in conifers, but neither require them
nor necessarily prefer them. Kestrels, hawk owls, and boreal owls nest in
tree cavities created by nesting woodpeckers. Burning produces standing dead
trees that are readily utilized by woodpeckers, flickers, and other hole
nesting species. Other raptors such as short-eared owls and harriers forage
and nest in grassy meadow situations which are usually created and maintained
by fire.
k. Fish -Fire effects which can directly impact fish
populations are increased siltation, altered water quality (D.O., pH, sus-
pended and dissolved solids, total hardness, turbidity) and water temperature
changes. Indirectly any alteration of the nutrient flow which adversely af-
fects aquatic organisms or a reduction in emergent insect production will
also affect fish populations, at least temporarily.
The extent of surface erosion after a fire will depend on the topography and
soil type of the immediate area. Very little surface erosion normally occurs
on burned sites in portions of interior Alaska with gentle topographical
features. Thus stream siltation is usually negligible. Siltation becomes
more of a problem in steep areas and when heavy equipment is used to supress
the fires.
The available data concerning postfire effects on stream temperatures and
stream production capabilities is inadequate at this time to accurately
assess the effects of fire on productive salmon streams. Certainly in-
appropriate fire suppression activities could have detrimental effects
to salmon streams by blocking migration for returning spawners with
debris, logs, and so forth.
E. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES AND OTHER RARE SPECIES
1. Animals
Under the Federal Endangered Species Act, as amended (16 usc 1531-1543), five
species of animals, all birds, are listed as endangered in Alaska. They are
as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Eskimo curlew Numenius borealis
Aleutian Canada goose Branta canadensis leucopareia
Arctic peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus tundrius
American peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus anatum
Short-tailed albatross Diomedea albatrus
The State of Alaska also recognizes the same five species in its Miscellaneous
Game Regulations Number Three booklet, dated July 1, 1982.
16
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Of the five endangered birds, only the peregrine falcons may occur in the Cop-
per Basin Fire Planning Area. Parts of the area have been carefully inventoried
for peregrines or their nests. The route of the oil pipeline, the proposed
Susitna Dam location, and the major rivers have received the most inventory
emphasis. No peregrines have been found. Nevertheless, occasional reports of
peregrine falcons, usually undocumented, have been made. The important thing
to note is that no known peregrine falcon nests or designated critical habitat
exists in the Copper River Basin.
No threatened species are listed for Alaska.
2. Plants
No plants in Alaska are listed as either threatened or endangered at the present
time. However, over 30 species are currently listed on a Notice of Review for
possible listing after additional study. Federal agencies in Alaska normally
treat Notice of Review listed species as threatened or endangered.
Three taxa proposed for threatened status (Murray, 1980) have been located within
the planning unit. Two of the taxa occur on dry sites, Papaver alboroseum is
found on high, well-drained alpine ridges and Smelowskia borealis var. villosa
occurs on calcereous screes at high elevations. The third taxon, Montia bostockii
is found in wet, alpine sedge-grass-forb meadows and in the moist centers of frost
scars. The low fire potential in these areas minimizes the risk of destruction by
fire and the inaccessibility or unsuitability of the areas precludes their consid-
eration as staging areas for fire equipment or personnel. Although conflict
between the occurrence of these plants and fire operations is unlikely, their
presence should be noted.
F. HUMAN VALUES AND ACTIVITIES
1. Wilderness
Wrangell St. Elias National Park and Preserve contains the designated wilder-
ness within the planning area. As a natural ecosystem process, fire will main-
tain characteristics associated with wilderness areas. The opportunity for
primitive recreation and solitude will be enhanced. Conversely, the use of K
bulldozed firelines would be inappropriate in wilderness areas.
2. Cultural/Historic Resources
CUltural resources are the prehistoric and historic evidence of human activi-
ties. In addition to physical remnants, cultural resources can be found in oral
accounts and customs passed down through the generations, and in lifestyles
and lifeways that continue to be lived. Because fire suppression is only a
recent activity in Alaska, most cultural values, especially lifeways, have
evolved in fire dependent environments. Some aspects of the cultural heritage
in the planning area have been significantly influenced by fire, since fire
has played a major role in the vegetation and wildlife resources that substan-
tially contribute to those lifeways, customs, and cultural styles.
The planning area contains a variety of known cultural resources, including
archeological sites thousands of years old, native cemeteries, former community
sites, and travel routes associated with native and pioneer heritage. Evidence
17
of more recent human settlers includes cabins, roadhouse sites, telegraph lines,
mines, trails, and tools and equipment associated with European explorers and
settlers (Appendix C).
Although some surveys have been done and others are ongoing, only a relatively
small portion of the planning area has been extensively investigated for cul-
tural resources. Until surveys can be completed, all cabins and other remains
must be considered culturally valuable.
In assessing the impacts of fire and fire suppression activities on cultural
resources, it is advisable to draw a distinction between surface and subsurface
resources. Surface resources are primarily historic in nature and tend to be
constructed of flammable materials. Natural processes of deterioration have
not operated long enough to level structures. Subsurface resources are pri-
marily prehistoric and archeological, and tend to consist largely on non-flam-
mable material because natural processes of deterioration have eliminated most
organic matter. Furthermore, subsurface resources tend to be much less visible
than surface resources because structures have been leveled and the material
covered by vegetation.
a. Effects of Fire -Information concerning the effects
of fire and fire suppression activities on cultural resources is scanty. Some
information has been gathered concerning fire effects in the lower 48 states,
but any attempt to generalize from this data to radically different conditions
in Alaska would not be appropriate. Nevertheless, logic and reason would seem
to indicate that surface historic structures are subject to severe effects from
fire itself. Organic materials used in construction are likely to be damaged
or destroyed as a result of burning. Subsurface resources are much less likely
to be significantly affected by fire. In a severe fire, organic material such
as bone, ivory, and wood that is present in the soil matrix will be destroyed.
Intense heat is also likely to fracture and otherwise damage non-organic material
such as ceramics and chipped stone. Because of well-developed vegetation mats
and generally moist soils, fire in this region does not usually burn extensive
areas to mineral soil. Therefore, severe impacts to subsurface cultural resources
are very unlikely. Much of the planning area is known to have burned in the past.
Evidence of such burning has been observed on several archeological sites that
have been excavated, apparently with no evidence of severe impacts from the fires.
b. Effects of Fire Suppression -The possibility of damage
to surface cultural resources from fire suppression activities is relatively
slight. This is particularly true of standing historic structures which can be
easily observed, even by untrained individuals. Consequently it is likely that
most suppression activities such as fireline and camp construction can be located
so as to prevent impacts to surface cultural resources. Surface sites such as
lithic scatters will be disturbed by fireline construction and similar ground
disturbing activities.
Subsurface cultural resources are more likely to be damaged by suppression
activities, particularly fireline construction. Such resources are difficult
to observe, particularly in regions such as the Copper River area where well-
developed vegetation mats obscure them, increasing the likelihood that such
sites will not be discovered until after they have been disturbed.
18
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3. Visual Resources
The effect of fire on the visual resource is primarily beneficial but can be
adverse in areas of high visual sensitivity. In general, areas of high visual
sensitivity correspond to major travel corridors and population centers. Wild-
fire is an integral part of the ecological process that maintains or enhances
natural visual diversity. In the short-term, a small fire (up to 50,000 acres),
blackens an area creating sharp visual contrast and possibly visual interest.
Extremely large, severe fires (over 50,000 acres) with few unburned or less
severely burned inclusions, create large expanses of blackened landscape which
are monotonous and result in reduced visual impact on some users (viewers),
although others will view the scene positively, or make no value judgement.
Even large burned areas may create a pleasing visual effect once vegetation
regrowth has begun.
Fire suppression can cause highly adverse damage to visual resources. Short-
term impacts are generally acceptable unless viewed from observation positions
such as highways, high use areas, or scenic overlooks. Long-term impacts are
unacceptable and are usually a result of bulldozed firelines. Bulldozers dis-
turb the organic mat and expose mineral soil, creating distinct unnatural lines
across the landscape, and sharp color contrast that may take decades to disappear.
4. Air Quality
The inevitable fate of vegetation is decomposition and eventual incorporation
into soil. During a very short period of time while a fire is burning, pro-
cesses of oxidation and chemical transformation occur which are similar to
those that slowly occur in decomposition, with the concurrent production of
some materials that go into the atmosphere and are eventually returned to the
vegetation system. There is a great chemical similarity between the products
of combustion of forest fuels and the products of decay. A summary of emis-
sions (figure 1) from forest burning indicates relatively large amounts of
carbon dioxide, water, particulates, and carbon monoxide. Lesser amounts of
hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxides, and essentially no sulfur oxides are produced
from forest fires (Martin, 1976).
There are substances, termed and regarded as "pollutants", which emanate from
forest burning and enter the atmosphere. Carbon Dioxide (CO ) and water (H 20)
emissions are not considered pollutants. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is toxic and
lethal concentrations of CO have been found in the active part of some fires.
High CO concentrations at the fire site decrease rapidly in a direction toward
ambient conditions. The burning of forest fuels contributes only 1/600 of
the total co emitted from other natural sources. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
(HC) of low molecular weight are related to Los Angeles-type photochemical
smog. Hydrocarbons known to be photochemically reactive are present in wood-
smoke but, with the exception of ethylene, in very small amounts. Hydrocarbons
are extremely widespread in the plant world in volatile oils, waxes, and resins.
The most prevalent HC in the atmosphere is methane (marsh gas) which originates
primarily from the decay of organic material. The relative importance of HC
emitted from forest fires, as far as photochemical smog is concerned, appears
to be negligible. Nitric oxide (NO) is also regarded as an important pollutant
because of its involvement in photochemical smog processes which may produce
19
co..,
H20 1000-2000
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ._,,,,,,,,'' '' ,, ''' :\,,,,,,,
'"'"'VISIBILITY.'''''' 1000-2000 H 2o ''''''·PROBL~s·''''''' ~,,,,,, ~ ~,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
· ~~=~~f"~=-f-~;:~1~r~~1~
~.:-VISIBILITY:._.
PARTICULATES 3-50 ~~t.~: AND i:J~1:.
• ~ HF.,AJ. p~ :< ~
50-200 PARTICULATES
BACKFIRE
EMISSION
FACTORS
(LBS/TON)
PHOTOCHEMICAL
PRODUCTS
CD 20
HC 10
150 co
40 HC
HEAD FIRE
·EMISSION
FACTORS
(LBS/TON)
OZONE
Figure 1 Range of emission factors from forest burning. Because di £ fi-
culties in sampling and the complexity of the problem, estimated levels of
emission factors may vary greatly from these data. (Figure is adapted free
t.hat of P. W. Ryan. Southern Forest Fire Laboratory. USDA Forest Service,
i1acon, Ga. Figures for emissions of carbon dioxide • ...,ater, and particulates
have been modified.)
20
-
-
...
..
-
damaging compounds such as ozone (03 ) and peroxyacylnitrates. NO is not a com-
bustion product, but forms when air is heated higher than 2800°F. On a global
basis, natural production of NO, mostly by soil orgainsms, exceeds man's pro-
duction by 15 to 1. Forest fires are an insignificant source of NO. There
is no evidence that the emissions from combustion of forest fuels are a threat
to human health (USDA Forest Service 1976).
The visible column of smoke from a forest fire contains a lot of water, very
small aerosols of organic matter, and some unburned carbon in finely divided
form. The water condenses on the particulates, forming a cloud of water drop-
lets. The total accumulation of particulates or aerosols from burning wood
is very small in comparison with that emanating normally from forests. The
principal valid objection to the burning of forest fuels as regards particulate
pollution is the temporary interference with visibility. Military, commercial,
recreational, and even fire detection and suppression aircraft activities can
all be adversely affected by smoke. However, data from the Alaskan interior
indicate that smoke conditions severe enough to impact aircraft (visibility
reductions to six miles or less) do not occur to the extent generally assumed
(refer to Table 1). Yearly occurrences of heavy smoke range from an average
of three days per year at Big Delta (not in planning area) to 0.4 days per
year at Gulkana. Even when heavy smoke is present, it is seldom (less than
40%) so severe as to exceed the Visual Flight Rule (VFR) weather minimums for
aircraft within a control zone airspace and rarely (less than 15%) exceeds
VFR minimums for areas outside of control zone airspaces. The historical
occurrence, extent, and duration of heavy smoke in the interior of Alaska indi-
cates that the problem is minimal.
5. Recreation
Types of recreation in the area include hunting, fishing, recreational trapping,
camping, hiking, boating, cross-country skiing, dog sledding, berry picking,
gold panning, photography, mountain climbing, nature study, and wildlife view-
ing. Also automobiles, busses, aircraft, snowmobiles, and ATVs are used in
recreational pursuits.
As with other human activities, most recreation is centered around major access
routes and population centers. The most intense use is concentrated along roads.
Rivers, lakes, and airstrips concentrate use to a much lesser extent. Few
recreation activities occur away from major access points, with the exception
of hunting.
Fire promotes vegetation and wildlife diversity which can enhance recreation
opportunities in both short and long term. Negative effects of fire on recre-
ation generally are short-term and are directly related to fire effects on
specific resources used in recreation. Effects on visual and cultural resources,
wildlife, and vegetation will have immediate and direct effects on use of these
resources for camping, sightseeing, hunting, and other activities. Recreation
users are generally mobile, thus, if recreation is precluded by fire in one
area, they generally can find an alternate area in which a similar recreational
activity can be pursued. However, smoke thick enough to limit aircraft flights
could result in impact on recreational and commercial activities.
21
• •
--
ation Name Number of
years of
data
g Delta 24
'I lkana 20
,rthway 21
·J tal Number
of
1oke Days
of total
1mber of
,oke-days
distance
ass
J • TABLE I •
OCCURRENCE OF HEAVY SHOKE CONDITIONS
Total number Yearly av. Total number of days visibility was
of smoke days number of limited by heavy smoke by distance
(2) smoke days class (miles) ( 1)
( 2) U-1/tl J/16-J/tl 1/l-J/4 1-l 1/l J-b
71 3.0 1 1 1 22 46
7 . 4 -0--0--0-1 6
29 1.4 -0--0-1 10 18
107 1 1 2 33 70
'
.93 .93 1. 87 30.85 5.42
;
Occurrence of
heavy smoke condi-
tions in Interior
Alaska
(1) Heavy smoke -
visibility.reduc-
tions to 6-miles or
less.
(2) Smoke day -
Any day in which
smoke, haze, or
smoke and haze was
reported at any one
of eight tri-hourly
observations for the
given station.
N V.F.R. weather N
minimums for air-
ports within a
control zone
airspace are a
1,000 foot ceiling
and 3-mile visi-
bility.
V.F.R. weather
minimums for air-
craft operations
outside of the
control zone
airspace are "clear
of clouds" and
1-mile visibility.
6. Economy
Due to lack of significant fires and organized crews, fire and fire suppres-
sion activities have had a minimal effect on the economy of the Copper River
planning area in the past 10 years. The State of Alaska currently employs
about 14 people, 2 full-time, 12 seasonal. Equipment, aircraft, and support
services are procured occasionally. Contracting of aircraft services can be
an important source of income for local air charter companies, especially in
fire monitoring activities.
A busy fire season ~have a significant impact on village economies, especi-
ally with the plan through the Department of Natural Resources to organize and
train crews in the Copper River Area.
Fire can affect sport hunting and subsistence as well as trapping activities
by altering wildlife habitat, with increases or decreases in associated species.
7. Forestry
The region exhibits a potential for small commercial harvesting of standing
timber stocks. Present inventory of the region indicates roughly 25 percent
of the area is covered by forest. The u.s. Forest Service has estimated that
287,000 acres of the timber crop is of commercial grade, with 303.8 million
cubic feet of growing stock and a board-foot volume of 1,159.6 million feet.
Additionally, a non-commercial stratum was examined that had substantial stand-
ing volume but did not meet the growth criteria for commercial forest land.
This stratum contained 152,800 acres with a volume of 157.9 million cubic feet.
There are small timber sales in the planning area that are conducted by the
Department of Natural Resources, BLM, and Ahtna Native Corporation. The timber
harvested in these sales is used locally for house logs, saw timber, and fire
wood. Also timber within Wrangell Saint Elias National Park and Preserve is
used for firewood and by permit for house logs. The mountain ranges surrounding
the Copper River Valley rise abruptly from the plateau confining most timber
stands including non-commercial, to a 5 to 25 mile wide band along the larger
rivers. The only exception is the Lake Louise area extending northwest to the
Talkeetna Range and Alaska Range foothills. Within that area are many acres
of the non-commercial, poorly drained, black spruce sites so typical of much
of interior Alaska.
Of the units inventoried both by area (76%) and volume (85%), white spruce is
predominant. Aspen is next, followed by cottonwood, with no birch type,
although scatterings of birch are found mixed with other types. The best and
highest volume stands are found along the Klutina River; other good stands are
on river-bottom terraces and levees adjacent to the Copper, Chitina, and Tazlina
Rivers.
Although the various broadleaf species have different potential lifespans, they
are all managed on a 70-year rotation under natural conditions. After the age
of 70 or 80 years, broadleaf species are very susceptible to fungal decay,
primary cause of mortality. Although white spruce is capable of surviving for
over 300 years, few stands reach this age, because overstocked or old stands
tend to develop heavy fuel loading which make them susceptible to fire.
Fire protection increases the probability that commercial forests will reach
their full rotation ages. However, some commercial size stands are so small
in area and inaccessible that fire protection is not justified.
23
Effects of Fire -All commercial forest species in interior Alaska germinate
and grow best on mineral soil in open sunlight. Because seedling success is
quite low on organic seedbeds or under shaded conditions, fire provides opti-
mum conditions for both hardwood and spruce seedlings.
Aspen and birch are very susceptible to damage from fire because of their thin
bark. White spruce and balsam poplar have thicker bark and may survive light
surface fires. Most fires will result in prolific sprouting from roots and
stem bases of aspen and birch, while balsam poplar sprouts to a lesser degree.
All species are generally killed by severe fires which destroy their shallow
root systems. However, these fires create the seedbed which permits the
reestablishment of hardwood stands from seed and the replacement of decadent
white spruce stands.
Many species of wildlife such as moose, beaver, and sharp-tail grouse benefit
from the effects of forest fires. Generally, the animals that subsist on browse,
hardwood buds, and bark benefit from forest fires.
8. Subsistence and Lifestyle
The residents of the Copper Basin fire planning area have lifestyles and life-
ways oriented to the outdoors. Fishing, hunting, and gathering activities
provide much of the food needs of rural residents. However, the degree of
dependency upon the natural resources of the area varies considerably, ranging
from those who lead a truly subsistence lifestyle to those who supplement their
income by hunting, trapping, and fishing.
In recent years moose hunting has provided a source of meat to supplement the
needs of rural residents. Presently moose occupy most of the planning area
and are frequently found in areas adjacent to population centers or in areas
where access is available. Additionally, moose hunting produces an important
cash income to local guides, sporting goods stores, and service-oriented busi-
nesses by meeting the needs of hunters from urban areas of Alaska and non-
residents.
Historically, people living in this planning area have relied more heavily on
caribou to meet many of their domestic needs. The Nelchina and Mentasta caribou
herds occupy extensive ranges throughout the planning area and are accessible
to most basin residents during various portions of the year. The summer range
of the Nelchina caribou herd includes portions of the Alaska Range, the Talkeetna
Mountains, and the Alphabet Hills.
Fall hunting usually entails the use of aircraft or all-terrain vehicles, al-
though a number of caribou are taken off the Denali Highway and Lake Louise
Road. The Nelchina caribou winter range extends from the Lake Louise flats to
Slana along the Copper River. During the winter caribou are accessible along
the major road systems and by snowmachine. The Mentasta caribou herd is pri-
marily located along the western slopes of the Wrangell Mountains and extends
north across the Copper River to the Mentasta Mountains. The Mentasta herd is
hunted during the fall along the Nabesna Road and also by airplane and ATV
along the base of the Wrangell Mountains.
Black bear hunting provides food, recreation, and economic value during a time
of year when most hunting seasons are closed. Most black bears are hunted in
24
-
-
-
-
-
spring and early summer. During the fall, bears frequent the good berry pro-
ducing hillsides and are often taken incidental to other hunting activities.
More than 50 percent of the bears harvested are taken by local residents and
are used for food.
Grizzly bears are rarely eaten and most of the harvest is by sport hunters.
Some are killed as nuisance or in defense of life and property. There is a
considerable amount of guiding activity in the planning area, which in turn
generates fees that are used towards the management of other species.
The Copper River bison herd is hunted by the local residents more than the
Chitina herd because it is more accessible by airplane or boat. The Chitina
herd is in a more remote area accessible only by air. The meat is a highly
valued food supplement.
Dall sheep are numerous in mountain portions of the planning area. Extensive
areas of sheep habitat are inaccessible except for airplane, horse, or backpack
travel. Most sheep are taken by sport hunters and supplying the needs of these
hunters is a major income source to the basin. However, sheep are taken for
subsistence use by many locals where roads and trails make walk-in hunts
feasible.
Migrating waterfowl play a small part as food supplement for residents of the
planning area. There is a small amount of recreational and subsistence hunting
of waterfowl on the ponds and lakes along the road system. Waterfowl reared in
this area do contribute to the migratory species that provide recreational
hunting opportunities for many throughout the United States and Canada.
Grouse, ptarmigan, and hares are also used locally as important supplements to
other food sources. Usually these species are readily available and easily
caught in snares or shot. Most are used to augment food needs; however, sport
hunting has increased throughout the area. Hares are also used as dog food
and as bait for traps. Although the hides are fragile they are sometimes used
for mittens and garments, and occasionally the pelts are sold commercially.
Trapping is a major source of income for a few families residing in the plan-
ning area, and an income subsidy for others. Marten, fox, mink, coyote, lynx,
beaver, and muskrat are the furbearers of greatest importance to local residents.
Trapping effort depends on both abundance of the furbearers and the prices being
received for the various pelts. Many pelts are retained for local domestic uses
such as mittens, hats, and garment trim. Carcasses of lynx, beaver, and muskrat
are frequently/used for human or dog food. All are usable as trap bait •
. 7
Lynx and fox are the economic mainstay of most trappers in the area. Because
of the importan~ of lynx and fox in the local economy, factors that influence
their abunda~must be carefully evaluated.
The wolf and wolverine are also highly valued furbearers. However, wolves and
wolverine are more difficult to trap and occur at lower densities than do
other furbearers. Consequently, the harvest remains relatively low.
25
III. FIRE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
A. HISTORICAL FIRE ROLE AND OCCURRENCE
Fire occurrence in the Copper River Basin follows the general pattern found
throughout the boreal forest region of the northern hemisphere. Fire plays a
dominant ecological role in the establishment and appearance of the expansive
forests of this region. Indeed, the greatest testimonial to the past fire
history of the Copper River Basin is in the forest itself, where a complex
mosaic of forest types indicate where fires have previously burned. This broad
mosaic can be seen from nearly any vantage point in the basin.
The earliest records of exploration by western man contain evidence of the
magnitude of fire occurrence during the exploration era of this region. The
journals of Canadian explorer-authors W.H. Davies (1843) and A.P. Low (1896)
contain references to numerous large fires. These writers attribute large
areas of burned forest to the Native population, who were known to start fires
to enhance hunting, to kill insect pests, and to kill timber for firewood.
Carelessness with camp and cooking fires was also a leading cause of wildfire.
Almost all early explorers reported encountering forest fires. William R. Aber-
crombie in his journal of the Copper River Exploring Expedition (1898) described
large fires in the vicinity of Klutina Lake. He stated "the entire valley
seemed to be on fire, which made traveling through the timber very dangerous,
as the falling trees were liable to injure man or beast if they did not stam-
pede the entire pack train."
On his journey to the Tanana River in 1898, E.F. Glenn traveled through the
country north of the Tazlina River. He reported, "We entered what we called
the 'burned district' which seemed to extend as far as the country is visible
toward the Copper River and to the northward almost to the Alaska Range."
With the discovery of gold in the Klondike and copper in the Chitina valley,
white men began to bring in their own brand of carelessness. The Copper River
Valley was a principal route from the coast to the gold fields of the north.
Construction of the Copper River and Northwestern Railroad (CR&NWRR) and the
Valdez to Eagle telegraph further aided the rapid spread of civilization. With
this influx of white men in the Copper River country, an increase in the inci-
dence of man-caused fire was inevitable. There appeared to be a widespread
belief that fires were "good for the land." Intentionally set fires became
more common for reasons that included increasing moose browse and grass pro-
duction, to kill mosquitos, and to make prospecting easier. Fires due to
carelessness also increased. Railroad and construction fires, debris burning,
campfires, and tobacco smoking were additional causes of fires.
Although there is only fragmented information available about the number and
extent of fires during the period from the turn of the century until the advent
of fire control, there were several fires of notable proportions. They include:
1. The 1915 Sourdough Hill Fire, which was presumably set by sparks from the
CR&NWRR. It burned from Chitina to the Kennecott River and from the Chitina
River to the mountains on the north; 384,000 acres were burned.
26
-
-
...
..
..
-
-
-
2. The 1915 Kenecott Fire was intentionally set to kill timber so as to
provide fuel-wood for sale at the Kennecott mine; about 64,000 acres were
burned.
3. The 1927 Willow Creek Fire was started by construction crews and burned
between the Copper River and Tonsina River with the Richardson Highway as
the western boundary; 128,000 acres were burned.
4. The 1947 Tazlina Fire burned 125,000 acres from Tazlina Lake to the Glenn
Highway. The cause is unknown.
From 1939 until 1945, fire control in Alaska was the responsibility of the
Alaska Fire Control Service of the U.S. General Land Office. In 1946 the
Bureau of Land Management became the responsible fire control and record
keeping agency.
The first complete records available are of the 1953 fire season. The lack
of efficient communication is evident in these early reports. Much of the
fire suppression responsiblility fell upon local "Per Diem" guards who inde-
pendently oversaw firefighting activities in their area. The dedication and
fortitude of such men as V.J. "Judge" Henderson and Fred Rungee were the main
factors in keeping fires of this area within manageable limits.
Improved communication and equipment in the 1960s aided in more efficient ini-
tial attack and most fires were suppressed when they were small. However,
notable exceptions were the Ahtell Creek fire in 1967 which burned 2,200 acres
on both sides of the Tok Highway and threatened the community of Slana and
the 1969 Kenny Lake Fire which burned 1,830 acres and several buildings. Both
fires were man-caused.
In 1979, the State of Alaska acquired fire protection responsibility from the
Bureau of Land Management. In June of 1981, the Wilson Camp Lightning Fire
burned 13,000 acres on the western slopes of Mt. Drum -8,000 acres the first
day -and threatened to jump the Copper River between Glennallen and Copper
Center.
B. FUELS
The fuels in the Copper River Basin are similar to those in much of Alaska
and contribute to similar fire behavior and problems. The majority of the
fire-prone areas are typified by complexes of fine fuels, both living and
dead, which react rapidly to changes in relative humidity. They are capable
df rapid drying, even after substantial rainfall. Fuel beds are often con-
tinuous, with few breaks. Deep organic mats allow fires to be carried beneath
the surface, increasing the possibility of hold over fires and the difficulty
of mop-up.
Black spruce and white spruce are often associated with these fuel complexes
and contribute to additional fire behavior considerations. Spruce trees
(especially black spruce) often have branches growing near the ground and
retain a large number of dead branches. These dead fuels form a vertical
ladder that easily carries a surface fire into the crowns. The problems
27
associated with crown fires are increased when the spruce grow in dense
stands with closed canopies, forming a continuous fuel bed above the ground.
In addition to crowning, spotting ahead of the main fire is a common problem
in spruce stands. The embers are lofted as crowns burn, and are carried by
the wind to points ahead of the main fire.
Fuels under broadleaf stands and tall shrub scrub communities do not create the
same problems, because they are not as dense, they usually do not burn as read-
ily and crown fires are rare. Fires occur in this fuel type after snowmelt but
before green-up in spring, then again after leaf drop in the fall. However,
the potential for suppression problems does exist after periods of extensive
drying.
A third important fuel type in the planning area is tussock tundra. From a
fuels and fire viewpoint, the tussock tundra is essentially a grassland. Vir-
tually all of the burnable material is small diameter and loosely packed dead
grass and sedges. This fuel wets and dries very rapidly, burns quickly, and
because there is typically a substantial amount of fuel, the fires can be
remarkably intense when burning under dry, windy conditions. This situation
presents a set of suppression problems unique to the fuel type. Line building
may be questionable and is certainly time consuming because of the commonly
deep layers of organic material. For the same reasons, mop-up is slow and
tedious. Because the dead grass fronds are retained on the tussocks, this
fuel type is ready to burn any time the area is snow free, and even beyond
that under the right circumstances.
Elevations above 3,000 feet form effective barriers to fire spread because
they generally do not support enough vegetation to carry fire. Extensive
high elevation areas in the Wrangell Mountains, Chugach Mountains, Talkeetna
Mountains, and the Alaska Range are unvegetated and form natural firebreaks.
Major, wide rivers such as the Copper, Susitna, and Chitina form natural,
but not invincible, firebreaks as well.
C. SUMMARY OF FIRE OCCURRENCE BY MANAGEMENT UNIT
The Copper Basin Planning Area has been divided into 11 fire management units.
Their boundaries generally follow ridges, highways, or major rivers as shown
in Figure 2.
Summaries of information from old fire reports and other records have been made
for these management units and appear in the tables on the following pages.
These summaries cover the years 1956 through 1978.
The Copper Basin is a unique area in that it experiences continental climate
and has fuel types similar to the interior, but has a much lower incidence of
{
lightning-caused fires. Less than six percent of all fires were caused by
lightning and only three of the management units had 10 percent or greater
lightning-caused incidence (see Table 2).
One-third of the fires in Unit E-1 were lightning-caused but only three fires
were reported during the period studied (see Table 3). Unit E-5 had 15 percent
28
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
COPPER BASIN INTERAGENCY FIRE PLAN
MANAGEMENT UNITS
.:t tolTE ft..N A'T& o~AC.
"'8oi.I~DAA.Y
Figure 2
29
N
..
•
Table 2
Man-and Lightning-Caused Fires by Month
(1956-1978)
Number
of
Other!/ Fires April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Total
~1an 19 92 136 102 94 89 14 4 550
Lightning 0 0 4 24 4 1 1 0 34
0
M
%
Lightning 0 0 2.9 19.0 4.1 1.1 6.7 0 5.8
by Month
!/ November through March.
Table 3
Total Number of Fires and Acres Burned by Cause
(1956-1978)
ManageT7nt Number of Fires/Acres Burned
Uni~
Lightning % Man-Caused %
1 1/l 33/8 2/12 67/92
2 4/87 7/25 54/255 83/75
3 5/116 9/44 50/150 91/56
4 2/2 6/l 31/291 94/99
5 7/102 15/76 41/32 85/24
6 0/0 16/118 100/100
7 3/2 8/1 36/135 92/99
8 3/0 1/0 214/4598 99/100
9 1/10 5/l 21/2557 95/99
10 2!4 8/13 26/31 92/87
11 6/702 10/19 59/3069 90/81
Totals 34/1026 6/8 550/11248 94/92
1/ See Page 29 for map delineating management units.
31
lightning incidence and E-ll had 10 percent during the same period. From
1956 to 1978 the largest lightning-caused fire burned 700 acres, but in 1981
lightning caused the 13,000 acre Wilson Camp Fire, the largest fire in the
planning unit during the recording of fire history. The coastal transition
zone which is represented by Unit E-6 and the eastern 80 percent of Unit E-7
had no lightning-caused fires.
Although the overall lightning-caused incidence was quite low, lightning did
account for nearly 20 percent of all fire starts during the month of July.
Only about 0.06 percent of the entire Copper Basin Planning Area was burned
by wildfire during the 23 year period of record (see Table 4).
OVer 94 percent of the 584 fires reported from 1956 through 1978 were man-
caused. This includes the four fires that burned more than 1,000 acres. Most
of these were roadside fires near the population centers. Incidence also
increases with distance from the major mountain ranges with the exception of
the Mentasta Pass area. Management Unit E-8, which covers the road network
from Gakona through Glennallen to Kenny Lake, had over 37 percent of all wild-
fire starts but comprises less than 1 percent of the planning area's land mass.
From 1956 through 1978 over 2.8 percent of this unit's acreage was burned by
wildfire, which is 45 times greater than the Basin average. An important
exception to this pattern of roadside fires are late season remote man-caused
fires, most of which are started during hunting season which usually begins
in mid-August.
Monthly wildfire occurrence of all causes is relatively constant throughout
the Basin for the months of May through September. June had the highest
number of incidents representing 24 percent of the average season's fires
(see Table 5). September has the lowest percent occurrence of these five
months, with 15.4 percent. The number of fire starts is dramatically lower
for the months of April and October. The remainder of the year has less
than 1 percent of total fire starts. With the exception of E-1, all units
had not received 90 percent of their average season's fire starts until after
September 1st.
With the notable exception of the Wilson Camp Fire of 1981, all wildfires
since 1956 of over 1,000 acres were started near the road network (see Table 6).
The 2,500 acre Copper Canyon Fire and the 1,830 acre Edgerton Fire both burned
within Unit E-8. Unit E-9 had the 2,200 acre Ahtell Creek Fire and E-ll had
the 1,800 acre Bone Creek 5 Fire.
Within most management units during an average fire season, 90 percent of the
fire acreage is burned by the end of July. Exceptions include E-2 and E-6
which reach the 90 percent level in August, E-4 in September, and E-1, which
had only three fires in 23 years, in May. It should be noted that for each
management unit except E-3 and E-11, one large fire comprised over 50 percent
of all acres burned from 1956 through 1978.
D. SUPPRESSION COSTS
Annual suppression costs have been extremely variable ranging from $569 in 1962
to $2,663,791 in 1981. The Wilson Camp Lightning Fire accounted for over
32
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
t~gmt. Uni tsl/
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
TOTAL
Table 4
Acres and Percentage Burned Compared to the Total
Acreage of Each Management Unit (1956-1978).
Acres In Unit Acres/% Burned
2,062,050 13/0.0006
3,196,522 342/0.0107
1,324,846 266/0.0201
627,091 293/0.0467
1,586,965 134/0.0084
2,368,145 118/0.0049
4,482,024 137/0.0031
162,852 4598/2.8234
1,295,726 2567/0.1981
986,272 35/0.0035
1,684,092 3771/0.2239
19,776,585 12274/0.0621
!( See Page 29 for map delineating management units
33
J ) ,
Table 5
Fire Occurrence by Month
{1956-1978)
Management April May June
Unit_!/
July August September October Other_g_/
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 4 11 17 12 12 1 1
3 2 7 12 12 9 12 0 1
4 1 2 6 9 4 7 3 0
5 1 3 6 15 12 10 1 0
6 0 1 2 1 6 5 1 0 <;f'
M
7 0 4 10 10 9 5 0 0
8 11 49 56 41 31 23 6 0
9 1 3 8 3 4 2 0 1
10 1 4 8 4 3 6 2 0
11 2 11 21 14 8 8 1 0
Total 19 91 140 127 98 90 15 3
% by Month 3.2 15.8 23.9 21.6 16.8 15.4 2.6 0.7
1/ See Page 29 for maps delineating management units.
I_! November through March.
Table 6
Total Number of Fires and Acres Burned by Fire Size Class!/
(1956-1978)
Number of Fires/Acres Burned
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Totals
Ail
1/0
40/0
29/0
18/0
41/0
6/0
28/0
168/0
16/0
21/0
38/0
406/0
B
1/1
13/25
19/40
11/21
4/7
8/33
10/32
44/83
2/7
6/20
20/48
138/317
c
1/12
4/117
6/126
3/79
2/27
2/85
2/65
1/10
1/15
3/38
25/574
II Definitions of the size classes are as follows:
Class A is less than 0.25 acre.
Class B is larger than A but less than 10 acres
D
1/200
1/100
1/193
1/100
1/105
1/120
2/350
1/260
9/1428
Class C is larger than B but less than 100 acres.
Class D is 100 acres or larger but less than 300 acres
Class E is 300 acres to 999.99 acres
Class F is larger than E but less than 5000 acres
Class G is greater than 5000 acres
2/ See Page 29 for map delineating management units.
E
2/1625
2/1625
F
2/4430
1/2200
1/1800
4/8330
G
Total
3/13
58/342
55/266
33/293
48/134
16/118
39/137
217/4598
22/2567
28/35
65/3771
584/12274
'}_! Class "A"fires are up to 0.25 acre is size. Since individual fire statistics were rounded to the
nearest acre all class "A" and some class "B" fires appear to have zero aG:res burned which is not the case.
98 percent of the costs for 1981. It burned from June 17 to September 16,
covered over 13,000 acres, and cost $2,626,771 to suppress. For comparison,
Table 7 shows annual suppression costs from 1956 through 1978. They have
been adjusted for inflation with 1967 as the base year.
From 1956 through 1978 four fires accounted for 54 percent of total adjusted
suppression costs. These were not the largest fires of that period, ranking
third, fifth, seventh, and tenth in acreage burned. Their relatively high
cost was due to heavy manning to protect dense population areas or to depen-
dence on expensive air attack methods.
The Copper Basin has not been an area of frequent large fire occurrence. In
twenty-five years of fire history (1956-1981) there have been only 16 fires
of size class "D" (100+ acres) or larger. Five of these exceeded 1,000 acres
(Class F-1000 to 4999 acres or Class G 5000+ acres). These five large fires,
although accounting for less than 1 percent of the incidence, comprised over
84 percent of the acreage burned.
E. SUPPRESSION RESOURCES
Wildfire protection on all lands within the Copper Basin area is provided by
the Southcentral District of the State Division of Forestry. They protect
Federal lands in this part of the State in return for having state lands west
and north of Fairbanks protected by the BLM.
During fire season, State Forestry maintains initial attack forces at their
Copper River Area Office near Tazlina and Anchorage-Mat-Su Area Office near
Big Lake. These are primarily tanker forces that will be supplemented by
helitack when the fire danger warrants. Retardant bases and one retardant
aircraft with water scooping capability will be stationed in the Southcentral
District. The Gulkana Airport can accomodate retardant aircraft.
36
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Table 7
Suppression Costs Using 1967 as the Base Year
Year Number Adjustm~nt Adjusted Acres
of Fires!/ Cost .! Factor = Cost Burned
1956 23 11,903 .830 14,341 126
1957 21 31,415 .843 37,266 1008
1958 36 61,097 .866 70,551 4328
1959 11 11 ,084 .873 12,696 218
1960 19 21,821 .887 24,601 288
1961 10 902 .896 1,007 1
1962 7 569 .906 628 0
1963 17 24,823 .917 27,070 227
1964 11 1,690 .929 1,819 1
1965 9 2,745 .945 2,905 22
1966 22 20 '720 .972 21,317 175
1967 34 37,670 1.000 37,670 2,247
1968 15 16,600 1.042 15,931 25
1969 71 637,630 1.098 580,719 2,911 r-
1"1
1970 47 19,000 1.163 16,337 27
1971 28 171,195 1.213 141,134 365
1972 17 15,877 1.253 12,671 5
1973 23 15,256 1.331 11,462 14
1974 45 172,644 1.477 116,888 214
1975 13 19,004 1. 612 11 '789 22
1976 40 43 '171 1.705 25,320 31
1977 20 44,870 1.815 24,722 8
1978 43 65,736 1.954 33,642 11
Total 1,242,486
:,..-!' t 2 ~0~1 ~a·
1. Includes false alarms.
2. Factor for 1956 was extrapolated as average change for years 1957-1962.
IV FIRE MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
Refer to pages 47 through 50 for the AIFMP:TM. Also refer to Appendix D in
the Copper Basin Fire Plan for map delineating management option boundaries.
38
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
V GENERAL OPERATIONAL POLICY
Refer to pages 51 through 53 of the AIFMP:TM.
39
VI OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES FOR INDIVIDUAL FIRE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Refer to pages 55 through 69 of the AIFMP:TM.
Additionally fire suppression activities are bound by cooperative
agreements between the Bureau of Land Management and the National
Park Service as well as the Bureau of Land Management and the State
Department of Natural Resources.
40
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
VII ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Refer to pages 71 through 97 of the AIFMP:TM.
41
VIII SELECTED REFERENCES
Refer to pages 99 through 100 of the AIFMP:TM.
Selkregg, Lidia L. 1974. Alaska Regional Profiles -Southcentral Region,
Volume 1. State of Alaska. 255 p.
42
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-
-
-
-
..
-
-
-
-
APPENDIX A
CANADIAN INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT
A. Synopsis. An agreement has been consummated by exchange of diplomatic
notes between the US Department and Canadian Government approving an
agreement signed by Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development
of Canada and Secretary of the Interior. This agreement identifies the
parties as follows: Canada -Department of Indian Affairs and Northern
Development (Canadian Forest Service) and United States -Department of
the Interior (BLM).
The purpose of this agreement is for cooperation of both parties in the
detection and suppression of fires in the buffer zone (an area 10 miles on
either side of the boundary of Yukon Territory and Alaska). Upon detec-
tion of a fire anywhere in the buffer zone, either party may commence
suppression action without prior notice to the other part. However, when
the fire is on land of the other party, the party that initiated suppression
action will notify the other party of its action. The party that initiated
the action may continue or discontinue action on the fire by giving
notice to the other party of its intentions. In the event one party
commences suppression action in the buffer zone and notifies the other
party, the other party may appoint a laison officer charged to observe
the progress and report on it or actively join the party which has com-
mended suppression action and participate in it. Unless otherwise agreed
upon a fire in the buffer zone that both parties take action on will be
taken over by the party in whose territory the fire has occurred.
B. Reimbursements. There are no reimbursements between either party, thus
waiving all claims on liability against each other for any loss, damage,
injury, or death resulting from failure of either party to begin suppres-
sion action or discontinue action. Each party will provide its own fire
control resources in suppression action with the buffer zone, and assume
its costs, expenses, and liabilities without any right of reimbursement
from the other party.
C. Fire Plan 0 erational Procedures. Where Alaska Fire plans have identified
imited action areas no initial attack) within the ten-mile buffer zone,
the following procedures will be adhered to:
Intent
It is our intent to prevent all fires originating within Alaska from
crossing over into Canada, unless specific written agreements between
adjacent land managers/owners permit exchange of wildfire across the
border.
Procedures
All fires detected within the ten-mile buffer zone will be immediately
reported to the responsible protection agency. For follow-up com-
munication with the involved land manager and responsible protec-
tion agencies, the following shall apply:
1. Fortymile Unit: AFS-FCC, follow up by Circle Hot Springs FMO
2. Copper Basin Unit: DOF, Copper River Area Office
3. Upper Yukon -Tanana Unit: AFS ~ FCC, follow up by Circle
Hot Springs FMO
If in the professional judgment of the evaluator, the fire possesses
...
...
...
-
a clear and immediate threat to burn onto Canadian lands, immediate -
suppression action will be taken (unless modified by specific written
agreement), commensurate with other suppression priorities.
In all cases, the involved land manager will be immediately notified
of actions taken and/or actions recommended.
-
-
----~---------
APPENDIX B
United States Department of the Interior
Memorandum
BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT
Glennallen Resource Area
P.O. Box 147
Glennallen, Alaska 99588
To: Area Manager, Glennallen
From: Natural Resource Specialist, Glennallen
March 15, 1983
Subject: Public Meeting on the Regional Fire Plan
1111 ll.ltPLY aiPJ:a TO
9210(017)
On March 8, 1983, a public meeting was held at the Glennallen school to
hear public comment on the draft Copper Basin Regional Fire Plan. In my
view, the meeting was well advertised, but poorly attended. Because it
was a small group there was not a great deal of comment, but the comments
made by the public were in general agreement with the plan. No comments
opposed to the plan were voiced by the public, and several comments speci-
fically stated that moose used to be more plentiful when there were more
fires.
The following is a list of attendees; please note that the last six are
planning team members:
Jerome Luebke
George Hopson
Sam George
Fred Rungee
Bob Tobey (ADF&G)
Jeff Bedford (DNR)
Ray Shinn (CRNA)
Lee Adler (AHTNA)
Jake Wright (Mat-Su)
myself (ELM)
APPENDIX B CONTINUED
,
Copper River Native Association
ATN/\ T~ENE NENE'
Drawer H • Copper Center, Alaska 99573 • Phone (907) 822-5241
·siA-83-62
MEMORANDUM
TO: Area Forester~ Copper River
FROM: Forest Fire Management Plan -C.R.N.A.
SUBJECT: COPPER BASIN FIRE PLAN MEETING WITH VILLAGE REPRESENTATIVES
DATE: May 2, 1983
On April 14, 1983, Jeff Bedford, Area Forester for the Copper River
Area gave an intense and detailed description of the Copper River
Basin Fire Plan. Mr. Bedford discussed the Why•s, Where•s and What
For•s of the plan. The representative seem to be in general aggreement
with the plan. One question asked by a representative was "Why wasn•t
this plan thought of before?".
Bela~ is a list of attendee•s:
RS/ap
Wilbur Sanford (Chistochina)
Sam George (Copper Center)
Ronnie Gene (Gakona) .
Daniel Nicholai (Mentasta)
C,eoraae Hobson (Tazlina)
Lee Adler (Ahtna)
Ray Shinn (C.R.N.A.)
-
-
-
-
APPENDIX C
Protection of Cultural Resource Values from Wildfire
The Alaska Land Use Council has determined that fire protection warrants
a coordinated interagency approach. A uniform set of criteria for fire
protection and response, and a process and schedule for completing fire
management plans on lands within Alaska has been initiated. To facilitate
this approach and other related activities, the Alaska Interagency Fire
Management Council was organized. The Council is currently sponsoring
four fire planning efforts, covering approximately 120,000,000 acres,
that are to be completed by June 1, 1983. Within the next two to three
years, the remaining land base will be similarly addressed.
The planning process has recognized protection requirements for cu~tural
. and historic resources pursuant to CFR 36 Sec. 800(a) for nonsite specific
areas, and 800.8(a)(3) for programs designed to further preservation and
enhancement of National Register or eligible properties.
Implementation of final decisions will result in a higher level of
protection for cultural resources than is currently provided. Specific
objectives to be accomplished are:
1. Cultural values needing protection will be identified and
mapped.
2. Cultural resources will be given a relatively high value
rating as compared to other resource concerns.
Background
For over 30 years, occurrence of wildfire has been treated as an emergency
situation wherein full suppression was the only action taken. It has
been demonstrated that the costs associated with suppressing all wildfires
has reached the point of diminishing returns; that damage created by the
suppression action can often be more harmful than the fire itself; and
current research has documented the need for ecologically based fire
management policies. This has altered the attituae of allowing strict
fire suppression policies to remain intact.
Fire is becoming recognnized as a normal feature of the natural history
of any area. The evolutionary development of plants and animals has
occurred in a natural system where fire was a part of the environment.
Human occupation of any area was also subjected to the natural fire
regime, as well as increase in fire occurrence due to human activity.
In Alaska, the natural national fire· regime is characterized by having a
return interval of 50 to 200 years, depending on the cover type and
location under consideration.
This natural fire cycle has implications for cultural resources: Sites
in excess of 200 years old are likely to have been burned over, and some
site locations may have been burned repeatedly. Structural elements
made of flammable materials have in all probability been lost. Conversely,
non-flammable materials have likely been burned, but not damaged, since
scientifically valid data have been excavated in recent years.
Fire Plans
The Alaska Interagency Fire Management Council is preparing Fire ~fanagement
Plans for the State. These plans allow four categories of suppression:
Full Suppression -Fires will be controlled through immediate and
aggressive action.
Modified Suppression -Fires will be contained unless othenvise
directed by land manager/owner upon completion of an annual evaluation.
Limited Suppression -Fires will be allowed to burn with the exception
of necessary action to prevent undesirable escape from the area.
Critical sites within such sites will receive specific protection.
Critical Protection Sites -This designation is for those areas
where fire presents a real and immediate threat to human safety and
designated physical developments. Fires burning in these areas
will be immediately and aggressively suppressed.
For fire protection purposes, cultural resources are divided into two
classes; structural and non-structural sites:
Structural Sites are those values which stand above the ground and
are made of flammable materials. Non-Structural Sites are values
on or under the ground and are typically non-flammable.
Structural sites are vulnerable to damage from fire, but because they
are relatively obvious, they are less likely to be endangered by suppression
activity. Non-structural sites are not likely to be harmed by fire, but
are vulnerable to fire suppression activities such as construction of
control lines, temporary fire camps, and other activities. All fire
crews will be briefed as to their responsibility for cultural resources.
Illegal collecting by fire crews will not be tolerated.
Cultural resources will be protected and mapped according to the following
criteria:
Critical suppression is given to structural resources designated as
National Historic Landmarks. Only protection of life or occupied
homes may have a higher priority.
-Full suppression is for structures on, or eligible for inclusion on
the National Register of Historic Places.
-Not sensitive is for abandoned structures that are not eligible for
inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. Protection
is given to the same level as surrounding lands.
-Full suppression is given non-structural sites on the National
Register. Suppression activity must be off the site. This includes
any site currently being excavated.
-Avoid. No suppression activity is to take place within this area.
•
-The National Park Service· (NPS) may wish to protect cultural resource
sites on a park's List of Classified Structures or Cultural Sites
Inventory. Sites on this list may be given the same level of
protection as sites designated on the National Register of Historic
Places.
Maps will be based on existing data and will be updated each winter to
accommodate new information. An example of the mapping process is
attached.
..
... ,, 'f
~lAP LEGEND
U/TERAGEi!CY FIRE MAtiA.GE,'1ENT PLANNING
The map legend symbols are provided on "tack back" mylar to insure all teams
use the sarr.e symbols for mapping. The symbols are used to identify five broad
categories of infonnation and specific suppression standards for sensitive
features. The symbols were chosen to be compatable with the digitizing/com-
puter graphics system used on the Fortymile Area.
CATEGORY I: J:XTERIOR PERH1ETER OF THE PLAWI !riG AREA.S.
A set of symbols is provided to distinguish which planning area, if anv, is on
either side of the outer boundary lines. The sy111bols provided refer to:
U l\rp-rL . ..1.. ~ UllPU\riN!:D ARE.;!.S
T; r-vi TAilr\i-IA/i·IIt!CHUI·HiiA PLAiHl!tlG f<RE.;
F 1\/I FOR IYi: r LE P L;.n.'l r ::G A;(EA
C B COPPE~ SASIN PLAmiii:G ARE.;
K-I KUSKOK~·IH·1-IUA,'·I~lA PLA~:~I UiG AREA
UPPER YUKOi!-TAilAi!A PLA:~,·:rr:G ARE~: ~~o~e--.'1 ~ista~:e in
printing occurred. "UK-T" should have the "K" re:::oved.
CATESQRY !I: FIRE 1-!ANAGEi·!DIT OPTION BOUNDARY L!~IES.
Larse letter symbols are provided for each of the four ;:-:anagement opt~ons:
Critical (C). F•Jll (F), i·lodified (~·1), and limited (L). These, 1ike Category
I sy~bols, should be placed along the appropriate side of the 1ines frequently
enough to insure that the dispatchers remain oriented correct1~'·
c F M L
CAT~GORY ![!: ALL STRUCT~~ES (including historically sisnificant struct~~es).
A sma11 ;::<Jint (!esignJtor sy.:-~bol (¢)is to be ;:-laced on ':~e struct,~re sit~. ,\
small 1etter :walifjer symbol is to be p1,1ced next'::) th.:: ;:iOint desi•Jnil:Jr to
spec~fy what :~v~l of suppression the struc:ur~ recu1rcs.
o F i-UL L
-tJ.N
' ~ ' ,. ..... . .
.. .,~.· .. CATEGORY IV: KNm{N CULTURAL/HISTORIC: RESOURCES (Not including structures) •
The symbol "<C" is the point designator for these resources. Use the small
Jetter qualifiers next to the point symbol to define activity 1eve1.
FULL
cA AVOID
CATEGORY V: T&E SPECIES
The symbol "J.." is the point designator for these resources.
~F FULL
~A AVOID
..
...
NOTE: If the maps v1e prepare this year are to be :JSed next year for digiti-zing, then the lines drawn must be kept thin! -
UNPL
\> Fl\1
("L.i:nited" fire management
option area)
<e.A.
(Cuitural resource to ce avoided)
(s ""r···~ ""''r" I.. ............ "" -
rc~u i ;i nJ
full oro-
tee~ ion) L ~
(Area not covered ~Y Jn
approved fire plan)
(Area coverP~ by the
Fort;mile Fire Plan)
L
("FuJi" fire
,'·!anage:nen: .;rea)
("Modified" fire
management plan)
(Nonsensitive Structure)
(T&E: Site to
be avoided) -
+
+
-...-!'~ ~-~.'' :::::::;::::::::::
t 1 0 I I It 1 o t 11
1 t I 101 I I I I It
0 ' I' tot 1 t 10 I
I I' I o 1 t t 1 O If
'Itt' It I o I I I
0 I It I o I I If t 0
11 It I I
0 It I I I
+
+
FIRE MGMT. PLANNING UNIT
COPPER BASIN
ALBERS EQUAL AREA PROJECTION ·
SCALE 1: 1000000
06/14/83
Rf033C
+
APPENDIX D
COPPER BASIN
FIRE M ANAGEMENT PLANNING ARE A
June 1983
Land Status
Public Land
State of Alaska
National Park
ARLIS
Alaska Resources
Library & Information Services
Anchor~lfe . Al::~~k~
---LEGEND---
' NATIVE LANDS
STATE LANDS
NH T. PHltKS
+
<51)
L\ 2.1. 3 '"2.
. ""''"~
Ai-\53
I 14-'
CJ c
... -
60 .cc'
ARLI S
Alaska Resour ces .
Library & Informati~_n ,g f'r\Jl r
Anchorafle. ~1 ··
8D
.<.J Bl , 3:t.
• A~
A463
J1&3
• • • . . . • • • ......
r• • • • ..... ..... . . . . .
D
I
I
COPPER BASIN FIRE MANAGEMENT PLANNING UNIT
..
~~·== :;.; .. . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • ;..·· ~ ~ .
:::::. ~ ........ . . . . . . ~~~
~~:: ~~ . ::: ~~ .. ~: ~: : ~. . . .. . . . .. "" . . . ............. . .. ::J ,:::u;::::: :· -~~~:~ ~
~ {:::-) ~:;;;; ~ ,__. ~-~: ............ '""""'-~ ..
~:r: ~~ .. ~~~~::::: · .,.
• ::: ~-lllo.. ,_.·:lio.l.oll~t:::::::::::::: . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . ............ .
::::::: .... ~-:·:·:·. :::::::::::~ ...
. • • • • • • I~ t-• P" • • • • • • •••••••• ro r' . . . . . . . ,. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. • ... :jL ... I ...... , ...... 1;; ............... . . . . . . . . :-• . .,.,., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : .. . . . . . . . . ............. ~· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·~· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... '· I ~ . . . • . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·-. . . . . . . . ........... "' " .... -~"'~ • . . . • . . • • • • • • • • • • ';]' ! "" ·~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'\ ,., . . . . . . . . . . . . :~ . • . . . . . • •••• .:.a ••••• . . . . . . . . "'-. """:
.:::::::: ~~'\~~ ~~,
~~~ ........ :""""':.... . ···:j =====~~ ~~~ .'.·.·.·:·:·:•:::::,~~~ J ~·=·· .·.·.·.·.·.·.·.··J:::: ~ . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . ..
• • • • • • ·~ r-""ooi • • • ~~
,.....,_,..~;~~~
~ ~
I ~~ ~~""~ ... / ·?:. ~ w~~L~ ~"~-~-.L~I .) ~~ ·.·.·.·.·.·.·,... . t~~~~ ~ .. ~:ili· •
:l ~
·~ ~)
)
. ~ ~ ~~~
\ -
FULL PROTECTION
MODIFIED ACTION (JULY 10)
MODIFIED ACTION (AUGUST 10)
MODIFIED ACTION (SEPTEMBER 30)
""~~~ .........:-,. ~z.:-:·:·1~::) ~,..,..., ... : ~ . .-~·-......... . · ..... ~·.--: : . . . . . . . . • • • • •
)
[ill]] LIMITED ACTION
~DENTIFIED IN MAP ATLAS ~
Critical Sites a Areas
Full Protection Sites (including elevated portions Trans-Alaska Pipeline)