HomeMy WebLinkAboutAPA2599I ,
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THE Ei'-l \fH{ONMENT OF ALASKA:
ANALYSIS OF T H E H\.~f"/-I.C T OF POTEi\JTIAL DEVELOPMENT
THE ENVIRONMENT OF ALASKA:
ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
Prepared in Conjunction with a Land Systems Study for the
JOINT FEDERAL-STATE LAND USE PLANNING
COMMISSION FOR ALASKA
August 1976
Pr9pared by
JOHN GRAHAM COMPANY
Environmental Studies Group
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
A. BACKGROUND......................................... 1-1
B. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
II GENERAL IMPACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
A. AIR QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Air Pollution Potential ............................... .
Existing Air Quality Problems ......................... .
Source Specific Emissions ............................ .
Addition of Water Vapor to the Atmosphere .............. .
Modifications of Temperatures and Winds ................ .
Changes in the Heat Balance that Affect Microclimatology ... .
2-2
2-2
2-13
2-17
2-19
2-20
B. NOISE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
1.
2.
3.
Background ....................................... .
Noise Projections ................................... .
Impact Evaluation .................................. .
2-20
2-27
2-28
C. WATER QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
Toxic or Deleterious Substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40
Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Acidity, Alkalinity, and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Temperature... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43
Nutrients .......................... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44
Coliform Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44.
Water Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45
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Section
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
D. TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
General Introduction ................................ .
Effects of Vegetation Removal ......................... .
Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants ...................... .
Effects of Pesticides ................................. .
Effects of Solid Waste ............................... .
Noise Pollution ..................................... .
Monoculture ....................................... .
2-46
2-49
2-52
2-56
2-58
2-59
2-60
E. AQUATIC BIOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60
1. Silt and Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60
2. Toxic Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62
3. Dissolved Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63
4. Acidity and Alkalinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
5. T em perature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
6. Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
7. Exploitation of Fish Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
F. SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
2. Accelerated Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67
3. Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67
4. Mass Wasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-68
5. Subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-68
6. Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-68
7. Alteration of Permafrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-68
8. Changes in the Biological, Chern ical, and
Physical Properties of the Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-68
9. Covering of Soils With an Impervious Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued}
Section Page
G. INTERACTIONS OF PHYSICAL AND BIOTIC ELEMENTS . . . . . . 2-71
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-71
2. Nutrient Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-71
3. TransferofToxicSubstances ........................... 2-72
4. Sediment Transfers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-72
5. Water Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-74
6. Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-75
Ill OCCURRENCE OF SELECTED ACTIONS........................ 3-1
A. LEVEL I ACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
B. LEVEL II ACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
C. LEVEL Ill ACTIONS..................................... 3-8
IV IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SELECTED HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT ACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
A. CLEARING AND GRUBBING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
3. Permits and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
B. EXCAVATION .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4-15
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
3. Permits and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
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Section
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4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
C. CONSTRUCTION FILLING ON LAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25 c
1. Introduction............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
3. Permits and Regulations............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26 c
D. FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
1. Introduction... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
3. Permits and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
E. CONSTRUCTION FILLING IN WATER AND WETLANDS....... 4-41 c
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
3. Permits and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41 c
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
F. DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49
1. Introduction.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49 c
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49
3. Permits and Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-50
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Section
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
G. DRILLING FOR WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-55
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction ....................................... .
Resources Required to Complete Action ................. .
Permits and Regulations .............................. .
Description of Action and Equipment ................... .
Impacts .......................................... .
4-55
4-55
4-55
4-55
4-56
H. EXPLORATION FOR OIL AND GAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-61
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction ....................................... .
Resources Required to Complete the Action .............. .
Perm its and Regulations .............................. .
Description of Action and Equipment ................... .
Impacts .......................................... .
4-61
4-61
4-61
4-61
4-62
I. ROAD CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-75
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction ....................................... .
Resources Required to Complete Action ................. .
Permits and Regulations .............................. .
Description of Action and Equipment ................... .
Impacts .......................................... .
4-75
4-75
4-75
4-75
4-78
J. DAM CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-93
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction ....................................... .
Resources Required to Complete Action ................. .
Permits and Regulations .............................. .
Description of Action and Equipment ................... .
Impacts .......................................... .
4-93
4-94
4-94
4-94
4-95
K. EXPLORATION AND RECOVERY OF HARD ROCK MINERALS. 4-107
1. Introduction ........................................ 4-107
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2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-107
3. Permits and Regulations............................... 4-107
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-107
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 09 c
L. COMMERCIAL LOGGING ................................ 4-119
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-119
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-119
3. Permits and Regulations............................... 4-120
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-120
5. impacts ........................................... , 4-i 25
M. AGRICULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-135 c
1. Introduction........................................ 4-135
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-136
3. Permits and Regulations ............................... 4-137
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-137
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-138
N. COMMUNiTY DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4--i5·i
1. Introduction........................................ 4-151
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-151 c
3. Permits and Regulations............................... 4-155
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-155
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-158
0. RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-179 c
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-179
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-179
3. Perm its and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-179
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-180 (;
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued}
Section
5. Impacts 4-180
P. NATURAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT COMPLEX . . . . . . . . . . . 4-189
1. Introduction ............................. : . . . . . . . . . . 4-189
2. Resources Required to Complete Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-189
3. Permits and Regulations............................... 4-189
4. Description of Action and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-189
5. Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-189
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................ 8-1
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Il-l AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
II-II ESTIMATES OF PARTICLES SMALLER THAN 20-MICRON
RADIUS EMITTED INTO OR FORMED IN THE ATMOSPHERE . . . . 2-6
II-III SUMMARY OF TOTAL ANNUAL EMISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
II-IV
11-V
WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCED BY THE
COMBUSTION OF GASOLINE, FUEL OIL, AND COAL
IN AIR IN THE FAIRBANKS/FORT WAINWRIGHT
AREA DURING COLD SPELLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
SUMMARY OF MAN-MADE WATER SOURCES FOR
THE FAIRBANKS ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
II-VI PRESENT AVERAGE NOISE LEVELS IN dBA
FOR CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT.......................... 2-29
li-Vll NOISE ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
II-VIII
II-IX
II-X
II-XI
RECOMMENDED DESIGN CRITERIA......................... 2-32
OUTSIDE/INSIDE NOISE REDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
DESIGN NOISE LEVEL/LAND USE RELATIONSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37
AIRCRAFT NOISE IMPACT ON SOME HUMAN
ACTIVITIES, BASED ON NEF VALUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38
II-XII A TABULAR MODEL OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
TRENDS TO BE EXPECTED IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF ECOSYSTEMS... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-53
II-XIII SUMMARY OF WASTE PRODUCTS, TRANSFERS,
III-I
111-11
IV-I
IV-II
IV-III
IV-IV
AND IMPACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-73
SELECTED REGIONS AND MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC UNITS . . . . . 3-2
POTENTIAL OCCURRENCE OF SELECTED HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT ACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
EMISSION FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS DURING CLEARING AND
GRUBBINGATVARIOUSPROJECTSITES .................... 4-7
EQUIPMENT UTILIZED IN EXCAVATION ACTIVITIES.......... 4-16
PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR
ROCK-HANDLING PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
xi
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table Page
IV-V EMISSION FACTORS FOR HEAVY-DUTY
DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES................................ 4-19
IV-VI TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS DURING EXCAVATION
AT VARIOUS PROJECT SITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20
IV-VII TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS DURING FILLING
IV-VIII
IV-IX
IV-X
IV-XI
IV-XII
IV-XIII
IV-XIV
IV-XV
IV-XVI
IV-XVII
AT VARIOUS PROJECT SITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
NOISIEST EQUIPMENT TYPES OEPRATING AT
CONSTRUCTION SITES DURING THE FOUNDATION PHASE..... 4-36
TYPICAL RANGES OF NOISE LEVELS AT VARIOUS
CONSTRUCTION SITES DURING FOUNDATION PHASE . . . . . . . . . 4-36
EMISSION FACTORS PER AIRCRAFT
LANDiNG/TAKEOFF CYCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-64
EMISSION FACTORS FOR REFUSE INCINERATORS
WITHOUT CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-65
COMPARISON OF EMITTED POLLUTANTS FOR DIFFERENT
FUELS FOR INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL HEATING . . . . . . . 4-66
ROADWAY CONSTRUCTION PERMITS....................... 4-76
EMISSIONS FROM HEAVY-AND LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLES
FOR 1976 FOR TWO AMBIENT TEMPERATURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-79
CONSTRUCTION NOISE LEVELS FOR ROADWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-80
PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR
CONCRETE BATCHiNG .................................... 4-96
NOISE LEVELS ASSOCIATED WITH DAM
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-98
IV-XVIII CLIMATE EFFECTS FOR A THREE-PHASE FOUR-
SUBCONDUCTOR BUNDLE TEST, 765-KV TRANSMISSION LINE . 4-99
IV-XIX NOISE LEVELS OF SOME MIN lNG EQUIPMENT................ 4-111
IV-XX SELECTED SOURCES OF AIRBORNE PARTICLES
BASED ON INPUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-126
IV-XXI AVERAGE NOISE LEVELS OF LOGGING EQUIPMENT
AT VARIOUS MEASUREMENT DISTANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-126
IV-XXII NUTRIENT CONTENT OF SOILS AND SURFACE WATER
BEFORE AND AFTER TIMBER HARVEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-132
IV-XXIII EMISSIONS FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-140
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table
IV-XXIV PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR
GRAIN HANDLING AND PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-142
IV-XXV COMMUNITY HOUSING STATISTICS......................... 4-152
IV-XXVI NEIGHBORHOOD COST ANALYSIS, AIR POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . 4-160
IV-XXVII TYPICAL AVERAGE NOISE LEVELS AT CONSTRUCTION
SITES ASSOCIATED WITH COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . 4-162
IV-XXVIII TYPICAL COMMUNITY NOISE LEVELS
ESTABLISHED BY ZONING ORDINANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-163
IV-XXIX ESTIMATED SEDIMENT GENERATION FROM
DIFFERING HOUSING PATTERNS........................... 4-167
IV-XXX TYPICAL CONSTITUENTS CHARACTERISTIC OF
STORMWATER RUNOFF !N URBAN AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-168
iV-XXXi STORMWATER RUNOFF VOLUME FROM VARiOUS
TYPES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-168
IV-XXXII PURIFICATION OF RAW SEWAGE BY
TREATMENT PROCESSES.................................. 4-172
IV-XXXIII CONSTITUENT QUANTITIES FROM SEWERAGE EFFLUENT
WITH TERTIARY TREATMENT, LIME CLARIFICATION,
AND MULTIMEDIA FILTRATION .......................... .
IV-XXXIV TYPICAL AMBIENT NOISE LEVELS OF VARIOUS
POTENTIAL RECREATION SITES .......................... .
IV-XXXV NOISE LEVELS OF TYPICAL RECREATION ACTIVITIES ....... .
IV-XXXVI RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT POLLUTANTS
IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL CATEGORIES .................. .
IV-XXXVII PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES
(MUTABILITY) IN PLANTS THAT MAY BE CAUSED
BY TOXIC QUANTITIES (EXCESSES) OF METALS ............. .
IV-XXXVIII TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL NOISE SOURCES .................... .
4-172
4-183
4-183
4-193
4-194
4-196
xiii
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LIST OF MATRIXES
IMPACT ANALYSIS, CLEARING AND GRUBBING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
IMPACT ANALYSIS, EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
IMPACT ANALYSIS, CONSTRUCTION FILLING ON LAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
IMPACT ANALYSIS, FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39
IMPACT ANALYSIS, CONSTRUCTION Fl LUNG IN WATER
AND WETLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-47
IMPACT ANALYSIS, DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-53
IMPACT ANALYSIS, DR I LUNG FOR WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-59
IMPACT ANALYSIS, EXPLORATION FOR OIL AND GAS .................. 4-73
IMPACT ANALYSIS, ROAD CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-91
IMPACT ANALYSIS, DAM CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-105
iMPACT ANALYSIS, EXPLORATiON AND RECOVERY OF
HARD ROCK MINERALS......................................... 4-117
IMPACT ANALYSIS, COMMERCIAL LOGGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-133
IMPACT ANALYSIS, AGRICULTURE ................................... 4-149
IMPACT ANALYSIS, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT....................... 4-177
IMPACT ANALYSIS, RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-187
IMPACT ANALYSIS, NATURAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT COMPLEX . . . . . 4-201
XV
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2-1 Air Quality Regions of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
2-2 Annual Particulate Emissions by Source Category,
Statewide, State of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
2-3 Annual Sulfur Oxide Emissions by Source Category,
Statewide, State of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
2-4 Annual Carbon Monoxide Emissions by Source Category,
2-5
2-6
Statewide, State of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Effects of Air Pollutants Upon Various Receptors in the United States . . . 2-14
Annual Nitrogen Oxide Emissions by Source Category,
Statewide, State of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2-7 Annual Hydrocarbon Emissions by Source Category,
Statewide, State of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
2-8 Construction Equipment Noise Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
2-9
2-10
2-11
2-12
2-13
3-1
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
4-10
4-11
Derivation of Noise Event and Noise Environment Descriptors ........ .
NE F Values and Common Transportation Noises ................... .
Impact Evaluation When Predicted Noise Levels Exceed Criteria ....... .
Speech Interference Levels .................................... .
pH and Soil Acidity or Alkalinity ............................... .
Fourteen Analysis Regions of Alaska ............................ .
Plot of L 50 for Automobiles as a Function of
Volume Flow and Average Speed ............................... .
Plot of L 50 for Trucks as a Function of
Volume Flow and Average Speed ............................... .
Effects of Road Construction on Permafrost ...................... .
Skidder System for Commercial Logging ......................... .
Landing Location for Commercial Logging ....................... .
Declines in Total Nitrogen of the Soil During Fifty
Years of Continuous Cropping with and without Manure ............. .
Effects of Developing Agriculture on Wildlife ..................... .
Hypothetical Unit Hydrographs Relating Stream Runoff to Rainfall .... .
Flood-Frequency Curves Characteristic of a One-
2-25
2-26
2-33
2-35
2-70
3-3
4-82
4-83
4-87
4-123
4-124
4-145
4-148
4-170
Square-Mile Basin in Various States of Urbanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-171
Average Composition of Municipal Refuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-174
Distance of Maximum Concentration and Maximum xu/0 as a
Function of Atmospheric Stability (curves) and Effective
Height of Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-191
xvii
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND
The Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska was established in
accordance with Section 17 of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (Public Law
92-203) and by act of the State of Alaska (Alaska Statute 41.40.01 0). The Commission is
comprised often members representing both federal and state governments and assisted by a
staff which includes planners, economists, lawyers, and resource specialists.
In order to provide the Commission with a data base on the resources of Alaska, a
Resource Planning Team was assembled in July 1972 to prepare a statewide inventory, of
naturai and man-made resources. This inventory was published in July 1974 as the Alaska
Resources Inventory, together with a summary entitled Resources of Alaska, A Regional
Summary. In addition, the Resource Planning Team prepared a set of maps and overlays at a
scale of 1 :250,000 depicting the various physical, biological, and human resources of the
state. These resource documents have served a wide range of needs and have provided the
Commission with the information required to carry out their mandate to make
recommendations as to the disposition of various state and federal lands and to assist Alaska
natives in their land selection process. In addition, the Arctic Environmental Information
and Data Center (AEIDC) has undertaken a program to prepare a series of regional
documents entitled Alaska Regional Profiles, which further describe the environment of the
state.
Under its current research program, the Commission is involved in a series of studies
and issue analyses directed at developing policies and recommendations for inclusion in a
final report to federal and state administratfons, to Congress, and to the Alaska Legislature.
It is the Commission's objective that the recommendations embodied in this final
report will provide direction for developing a comprehensive land management system for
management of Alaska's lands and resources. Included in the report will be
recommendations on procedural changes needed to improve coordination among land
owners and government agencies regulating land use. These recommended procedures will be
designed to avoid conflicts among land users and will include proposed laws, policies, and
programs.
1-1
In order to achieve these goals and establish the necessary procedures for land
management, the Commission has begun a series of three interrelated studies on land
systems, socioeconomics, and management systems. The land systems study, which is the
subject of the initial work program, includes four major elements directed at developing
alternative land use policies and strategies which reflect the sensitivity and interdependence
of major ecosystems in the state. The land systems study program will result in the
production of four major reports. The focus of each of the program elements is briefly
described as follows:
• Element A, Resource Inventory Analysis -Includes a critical analysis of the
resource information already developed by the Commission, recommendations on
future additional research, information requirements needed to improve the
utility of the inventory, and recommendations for maintaining and updating the
inventory.
• Element B, Ecosystems Analysis -Includes an identification and analysis of the
constraints of, and opportunities afforded by, the lands of Alaska, viewed in the
context of its various physical and biological environmental systems.
• Eiement C, impact Anaiysis-invoives the anaiysis of the impact of man's actions
on the environment using three levels of activity, ranging from basic engineering
actions through cumulative actions, to determine the threshold of sensitivity of·
various ecosystems within the state.
• Element D, High Value/Critical Area Identification -Involves an identification of
areas within the state which are of high value or critical importance with respect
to the natural and physical resources of the state.
The first three elements of the land systems study have been undertaken by the
Commission in consultation with a team of resource specialists, planners, environmental
scientists, and lawyers. Element D is to be accomplished by the Commission and its staff,
utilizing information and criteria developed in conjunction with the work program.
The results of the initial land systems study program (Element A) are presented in
three volumes:
1-2
• Environmental Resource Information: Status, Use, Needs, and Recommendations
• Environmental Resource Information: Status, Use, Needs, and Recommendations
-A Summary
• Detailed Evaluation of the Alaska Resources Inventory
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The results of the second land systems study program (Element B) are also contained
in three reports:
• Natural Hazards in the Alaska Environment: Processes and Effects
• The Environment of Alaska: Resource Specific Quantification
• The Environment of Alaska: Analysis of Physical and Biological Determinants
The final work program, undertaken by the consulting team, is presented in this report,
entitled The Environment of Alaska: Analysis of the Impact of Potential Development. This
final study relies heavily on the information developed in the Element B analyses and should
be viewed as an extension of the ecosystems documents. In the traditional method of
impact statement preparation, the key elements in the evaluation process are the discussions
of the
• Existing conditions
• Proposed action
• Impact of the action on the existing environment
The "existing conditions" are described in the report entitled T,'Je Environment of
Alaska: Analysis of the Physical and Biological Determinants. In this study, the major
environmental processes associated with the terrestrial and aquatic environments of Alaska
are described. Included in this discussion are the biotic and abiotic factors of soil formation;
hydrology; meteorology; production, energy flow, and food webs; succession; nutrient
cycles; and interactions of these factors. Application of these environmental processes to
specific physiographic areas of the state is then presented. In all, a total of 14 analysis
regions were evaluated by their various physiographic units, which included coastal
lowlands, coastal uplands, interior lowlands, interior uplands, and steep mountains.
Using this information as the baseline for analysis, this document presents a series of
potential "proposed actions" and overlays them on the various environments described.
How such human activities affect the environment or alter the baseline can then be
presented in the "impact evaluation." The methods and objectives employed in support of
this impact evaluation process are described in the following subsection.
B. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
The major objective which governs the work program for this phase of the Alaska land
systems study is to provide the Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for
Alaska with information on the probable environmental impacts associated with human use
and development of the state's land and resources. The following objectives are more
specifically detailed and have been designed to support the major objective.
1-3
• To detennine and select, in conjunction with the Commission, those human
activities to be analyzed, including basic engineering actions, combinations of
actions, and aggregate actions
• To analyze the selected actions in tenns of the major activities generated and the
resources required to carry out the actions
• To array the selected actions against the physiographic units or ecosystems
described in the Element B report, The Epvironment of Alaska: Analysis of
Physical and Biological Determinants, and determine the expected degree of
occurrence based on the existing natural resources
• To discuss the natural and physical systems or components which could be altered
by an action including the effects on soils, air quality, noise environment, water
quality, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and the interactions of such impacts
• To summarize the impacts associated with each level of activity or type of action
and develop a matrix which identifies the degree of impact on each physiographic
unit
The initial task involved selection of the actions for impact analysis. In conjunction
with the Commission staff, the following activities were selected:
1-4
Level I -Basic Engineering Actions
• Clearing and grubbing
• •
Excavation
Construction fill on land
• Foundation construction
• Construction fill on water and wetlands
• Dredging
• Drilling for water
Level II -Combinations of Engineering Actions
• Exploration for oil and gas
• Road construction
• Dam construction
• Exploration and recovery of hard rock minerals (mining)
• Commercial logging
• Agriculture (fanning for production crops)
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Level Ill -Aggregate Actions
• Community development (200 homes)
• Recreational development
• Natural resource development complex
These activities were selected on the basis of the likelihood of their future occurrence
throughout the state and on the basis that they were representative of a wide range of
resource uses which might result in varying degrees of impact.
The following sections of this report are designed to systematically address the
objectives established. Section II deals with the general nature of the various impacts, how
they are measured, how they are modeled or evaluated, and what activities alter their
quality or occurrence. The environmental aspects considered (air, water, noise, etc.) are
presented in a manner that permits their later application to the specific actions being
analyzed.
Section Ill of the report is basically a constraint analysis which is designed to project
the potential occurrence of the various actions throughout the state. The purpose of this
analysis was two-fold: First, it eliminated from consideration those actions which would not
be expected to occur due to the absence of a required resource or due to the presence of
physical or natural conditions which would preclude development of a resource (e.g., no
arable land in the coastal lowlands of the Arctic would result in its being precluded from the
analysis of agricultural activity). Second, it highlights those areas of the state which are most
likely to experience certain types of development due to the amount and extent of the
natural conditions required to carry out an action.
Section IV reflects the final step in the analysis procedure. Each of the activities or
actions is described, the resources required to complete the action discussed, the general
perm its which might be required specified, and the impacts set forth. Following this
discussion, a matrix is presented which references the environmental effects of the action by
physiographic unit and three levels of severity of impacts with respect to each unit.
The results of this impact analysis, in conjunction with the previous studies
accomplished under the total land systems study, provide the Commission with a substantial
body of information which can be used to systematically evaluate future land management
activities based on the natural environmental character of the land.
1-5
SECTION II
GENERAL IMPACTS
The purpose of this section is to identify the general impacts of human-related
development actions as applied to the following environmental elements:
• Air quality
• Noise
• Water quality
• Terrestrial biology
• Aquatic biology
• Soils
• Environmental interactions
These environmental considerations are discussed in terms of why they are particularly
important, how they are measured or evaluated, how changes might affect the selected
natural or physical environment, and the resulting severity or extent of such impacts.
Such a discussion is designed to provide a broad framework for the subsequent analysis
of specific actions contained in Section IV of this report. Furthermore, the matrix
evaluation employed in the analysis of each selected action is keyed to this general impact
identification. This two-level analysis technique makes it possible for the reader to
understand the environmental implications of each action.
A. AIR QUALITY
It is important to distinguish between the different regions of Alaska based on some
determination of the potential for air pollution problems. In those regions where the
meteorological conditions are particularly suited to producing air pollution problems,
development of all kinds should be scrutinized carefully. In this scheme of analysis, the
meteorological potential, existing air pollution problems, and impacts of the proposed
action are determined separately. A determination of severe in all three should indicate real
problems. A determination of severe in two out of three should require more careful
analysis. Each of these characteristics is somewhat site-dependent and also dependent on the
time of year of operations.
2-1
1. Air Pollution Potential
In Holzworth {1972), an air pollution potential for the contiguous United States
was developed. The present study has not been of the scope to do a similar analysis for the
state of Alaska. Due to the limited number of stations sampling the meteorological
conditions of the upper atmosphere and the predominance of the few stations that do
sample to the lowlands, such a study would be biased or require a number of assumptions
about the influence of topography and the results.
Holzworth {1972) hypothesized two city sizes on which to base his potential. In
this analysis, only meteorological conditions are used to determine the air pollution
potential. A meteorological potential has limitations: {a) it must be inferred from a very few
observing stations and extrapolated to the rest of a region; {b) it is time-dependent so that
averages over a month's data may not reflect the shorter duration bad conditions during the
month; {c) the potential is seasonal and so must reflect "worst case" problems rather than
annual averages.
January 1975 in downtown Anchorage is an example of the limitations of this
approach. The average wind speed for the month was 5.22 knots. On 17 days out of the
month the average was lower than that, and on 4 days of the month the average was less
than 2 knots. On 7 days of the month, the national and state ambient air quality standards
for carbon monoxide {8-hour average) were violated. Furthermore, on the worst day ·
{January 17) the wind speed as measured at the international airport averaged 8. 7 knots
with indication of Chugach winds coming down Turnagain Arm, leaving the downtown area
in a different wind regime with much lower winds. These localized and short-duration
features must be considered in a site-by-site analysis for each potential action.
For the purposes of this analysis, it will be assumed that severe air pollution
potential is associated with (a) surface temperature inversions persisting into the afternoon
for more than 60 percent of the time in any month, {b) wind speeds averaged over a month
less than 6 knots, and {c) less than 5 days with 0.01 inch of precipitation for the same
months as in {a). Moderate air pollution potential is assumed to apply to adjacent
physiographic units or to those areas experiencing surface-based inversions extending into
the afternoon more than 35 percent of the time with wind speeds less than 8 knots, and less
than 5 days per month with precipitation.
2. Existing Air Quality Problems
Pollution problems already exist in the state of Alaska. These must be taken into
consideration in planning decisions for future development. The determination that a
problem exists is based on the state and national ambient air quality standards summarized
2-2
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in Table Il-l. These standards are based on health effects (the primary standards) and on
welfare effects such as soiling and effects on vegetation (secondary standards).
TABLE Il-l. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
National
Primary
Suspended Particulates
Annual geometric mean 75 JLg/m 3
24-hour average 260 JLg/m 3
Sulfur Dioxide
Annual average 80 .ug/m 3
24-hour average 365 .ug/m 3
3-hour average
Carbon Monoxide
8-hour average 10 mg/m 3
1-hou r average 40 mg/m 3
Photochemical Oxidants
1-hour average 160 JLg/m 3
Nitrogen Dioxide
Annual average 100 .ug/m 3
Reduced Sulfur Compounds
30-minute maximum none
,U g/m 3 -micrograms per cubic meter
mg/m 3 -milligrams per cubic meter
1. Never to be exceeded
2. Not to be exceeded more than once per year
Secondary
60 JLg/m 3
150 JLg/m 3
1300 .ug/m 3
10 mg/m 3
10 mg/m 3
160 JLg/m 3
100 JLg/m 3
none
State of
Alaska
60 JLg/m 3
150 JLg/m 3
I 80 .ug/m 3
365 JLg/m 3
1300 .ug/m 3
10 mg/m 3
40 mg/m 3
160 JLg/m 3
100 .ug/m 3
50 .ug/m 3
Notes
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2
2
2
2
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1
2
I
2-3
The state of Alaska is divided into four air quality regions, as shown in Figure 2-1.
Most of the population of the state. and most of the pollution sources are centered in two
areas -Anchorage and Fairbanks. To best characterize existing air pollution problems, the
standards, health effects, existing sources, existing problems, and meteorological effects are
discussed for each pollutant.
a. Particulates
Small discrete masses of solid or liquid matter dispersed in the atmosphere,
especially those of 1 micron or less in diameter, are associated with a variety of adverse
effects on public health and welfare. Particulate matter in the respiratory tract may produce
injury by itself, or it may act in conjunction with gases to increase the effect on the body.
Small particles suspended in the air are chiefly responsible for reduced visibility. Soiling of
buildings and other property is a common effect of high particulate levels.
The national primary standards for particulates are 75 micrograms per cubic
meter {J,Lg/m 3 ) for an annual geometric mean and 260 J,Lg/m 3 for a 24-hour average. Particles
larger than 10 microns in diameter result from mechanical processes such as wind erosion,
grinding and spraying, and the pulverizing of materials by vehicles and pedestrians. Particles
between 1 and 10 microns in diameter usuaiiy include iocai soii, process dusts and
combustion products from local industries, and {for maritime locations) sea salt.
Combustion products and photochemical aerosols make up a large fraction of the particles
in the range 0.1 to 1 micron in diameter and, although particles below 0.1 micron in
diameter have not been extensively identified chemically, the typical urban increase over
natural levels of particles in this size range seems to be entirely due to combustion.
There are significant natural sources of particulates, particularly in Alaska.
Volcanic eruptions, blowing sand and dust, forest fires, and sea salt are all important.
Vegetation also results in particulates. Some of these natural sources are summarized in
Table 11-11 {Oliver, 1973). Man-made particulate emissions are becoming more and more
important. In Alaska, the primary sources of man-made particulates are transportation, open
burning, industrial and commercial sources, and power plants. The relative contributions of
these sources are shown in Figure 2-2. The distribution of emissions by air quality region is
given in Table 11-111. There are two regions where the particulate standards have been
exceeded -in Anchorage and Fairbanks. The problems in Anchorage are a function
primarily of road dust and particulates generated by transportation. In Fairbanks, power
plants and commercial and institutional sources are most important, but brush and forest
fires in surrounding areas are also a major factor.
Particles suspended in the air scatter and absorb sunlight, reducing the
amount of solar energy reaching the earth, producing hazes, and reducing visibility.
Suspended particulate matter plays a significant role in bringing about precipitation, and
2-4
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COOK INLET INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY
CONTROL REGION NO. 008 ..
•
Figure 2-1. Air Quality Regions of Alaska
NORTHERN ALASKA INTRASTATE AIR
QUALITY CONTROL REGION NO. 009
FAIRBANKS
SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA INTRASTATE AIR
QUALITY CONTROL REGION NO. 011
SOUTH CENTRAL ALASKA INTRASTATE AIR
QUALITY CONTROL REGION NO. 010
(consists of four noncontiguous areas)
Source: TRW Systems Group, 1971
2-6
TABLE II-II. ESTIMATES OF PARTICLES SMALLER THAN 20-MICRON
RADIUS EMITTED INTO OR FORMED IN THE ATMOSPHERE*
(10 6 metric tons per year)
Natural
Soil and rock debris** 100-500
Forest fires and slash-burning debris** 3-150
Sea salt (estimate) (300)
Volcanic debris 25-150
Particles formed from gaseous emissions
SuI fate from H2 S 130-200
Ammonium salts from NH 3 80-270
Nitrate from NO X
60-430
Hydrocarbons from plant exudations 75-200
Subtotal 773-2200
Man-Made
Particles (direct emissions) 10-90
Particles formed from gaseous emissions
Sulfate from S02 130-200
Nitrate NOx 30-35
Hydrocarbons 15-90
Subtotal 185-415
Total 958-2615
*From SMIC (1971)
** Includes unknown amounts of indirect man-made contributions
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G) POWER PLANTS 14.1% ® INDUSTRIAL 18.6%
® PROCESSES 0.4% ® INCINERATION 0.8%
® RESIDENTIAL 6.4% 0 OPEN BURNING 19.4%
0 COMMERCIAL AND 15.5% ® TRANSPORTATION 24.8%
INSTITUTIONAL
Source: TRW Systems Group, 1971
Figure 2-2. Annual Particulate Emissions by Source Category, Statewide, State of Alaska
2-7
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TABLE II-III. SUMMARY OF TOTAL ANNUAL EMISSIONS
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Air Quality Particulates Sulfur Oxides Carbon Hydrocarbons Nitrogen Oxides
Region (tons/year) (tons/year) Monoxide (tons/year) (tons/year)
(tons/year)
Anchorage 2,626 3,017 108,044 29,637 22,085 c
Fairbanks 14,925 5,105 35,182 7.451 14,335
008 3,599 3,517 120,157 50,271 77.475
009 52,143 7,521 40,731 10,801 29,018 0
010 16,799 1,867 17,523 4,863 11,537
011 3,891 6,093 37,191 5,827 5.436
State Total 76.432 18,998 215,602 71,762 123.466 c
Note: Numbers in this table include emissions from forest fires.
Source: TRW Systems Group, 1971
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)
)
)
there is some evidence that rainfall in cities has increased as the cities have developed
industrially. For urban areas in the middle and high latitudes, particulate air pollution may
reduce direct sunlight by as much as one third in the summer and as much as two thirds in
the winter. This effect has implications for the delicate heat balance of the earth's
atmospheric system.
Particles suspended in the air reduce visibility, or visual range, by scattering
and absorbing light coming from both an object and its background, thereby reducing the
contrast between them. On the average, visibility can be expected to be reduced to
approximately 5 miles at a particulate concentration of 150 Mg/m 3 . At a level of 100 Mglm 3 ,
visibility is reduced to 7-1/2 miles.
Particulate air pollution causes a wide range of damage to materials.
Particulate matter may chemically attack materials through its own intrinsic corrosivity, or
through the corrosivity of substances absorbed or adsorbed on it. Merely by soiling
materials, and thereby causing their more frequent cleaning, particulates can accelerate
deterioration.
b. Sulfur Oxides
The presence of sulfur oxides in the ambient air has been associated with a
variety of respiratory diseases and increased mortality rates. They represent a significant
economic burden and have a nuisance impact. When sulfur oxides are inhaled with small
particles, the health effect is increased. Inhalation of sulfur dioxide can cause increased
airway resistance by constricting lung passages.
Sulfur dioxide may cause acute or chronic leaf injury to plants. Both acute
and chronic injury may be accompanied by the suppression of growth and yield. Acute
injury apparently affects the plant's ability to transform absorbed sulfur dioxide into
sulfuric acid, and then into sulfates. At high rates of absorption, sulfite is thought to
accumulate, resulting in the formation of sulfurous acid, which attacks the cells.
The sulfur oxides are common atmospheric pollutants which arise mainly
from the combustion of fuels. Solid and liquid fossil fuels contain sulfur, usually in the form
of inorganic sulfides or sulfur-containing organic compounds. The primary sources of sulfur
oxides in Alaska are process units, transportation, and commercial and institutional
combustion of fossil fuels. The relative contributions are shown in Figure 2-3. The amounts
emitted in the different air quality regions of the state are shown in Table II-III. Ambient air
quality standards for S0 2 have not been exceeded at any of the monitoring sites in Alaska.
Sulfur oxides are related to particulates in that the ultimate product of
reactions of sulfur oxides is sulfates which are particulates. The reductions in visibility are
2-9
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0
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0
0
0
CD POWER PLANTS 5.4% ® INDUSTRIAL 3.4%
® PROCESSES 32.2% ® INCINERATION 0.1%
® RESIDENTIAL 6.6% 0 OPEN BURNING 0.6%
0
0 COMMERCIAL AND 20.2% ® TRANSPORTATION 31.5%
INSTITUTIONAL
Source: TRW Systems Group, 1971
c
Figure 2-3. Annual Sulfur Oxide Emissions by Source Category, Statewide, State of Alaska c
2-10
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)
)
)
)
similar to those for particulates. Laboratory and field studies underscore the importance of
the combination of particulate and sulfur oxide pollution in a wide range of damage to
materials. Corrosion rates in steel are significantly higher when traces of sulfur dioxides are
in the air. Sulfur oxide pollution attacks a wide variety of building materials -limestone,
marble, roofing slate, and mortar -as well as statuary and other works of art, causing
discoloration and deterioration. Sulfur oxide pollution contributes to the damage of
electrical equipment of all kinds.
c. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas arising primarily
from the incomplete or inefficient combustion of carbonaceous fuels. CO is absorbed by the
lung and reacts with the hemoglobin of the circulating blood. The absorption of CO is
associated with a reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and in the readiness
with which the blood gives up its available oxygen to the tissues. The affinity of hemoglobin
for CO is over 200 times that for oxygen.
The national primary standard for CO is based on evidence that levels of
carboxyhemoglobin in human blood as low as 2.5 percent may be associated with
impairment of the ability to discriminate time intervals. The national ambient air quality
standards of 9 parts per million (ppm) for an 8-hour average and 35 ppm for a 1-hour
average are intended to protect against the occurrence of carboxyhemoglobin levels above 2
percent. Evidence indicates that an exposure of 8 or more hours to a CO concentration of
30 ppm will produce blood carboxyhemoglobin levels of about 5 percent in nonsmokers and
manifest impaired performance on other psychomotor tests.
Carbon monoxide is emitted to the atmosphere in greater quantities than
any other urban air pollutant. The amounts of CO emitted by combustion depend on the
efficiency of the burning process and so are a function of oxygen concentration, fiame
temperature, gas residence time, and combustion chamber turbulence. One limiting factor in
the control of CO emissions comes from increasing the efficiency of the combustion by
raising the temperature, but this results in increased nitrogen oxide emissions, which have
been associated with a variety of respiratory diseases.
Figure 2-4 shows the analysis of carbon monoxide emissions by source type
for the entire state of Alaska. It is clear that transportation sources predominate in emitting
CO to the atmosphere. These emissions are concentrated in the vicinity of the cities of the
state. In particular, Anchorage and Fairbanks both have days when the carbon monoxide
standard is violated in the winter months. In Fairbanks, the monthly mean measured value is
often above the 8-hour standard. The regional distribution of the carbon monoxide
emissions is shown in Table 11-111. Anchorage and Fairbanks contribute most of the
emissions to their respective regions.
2-11
G) POWER PLANTS 0.6% ® INDUSTRIAL
® PROCESSES 0.0% ® INCINERATION
® RESIDENTIAL 0.5% 0 OPEN BURNING
® COMMERCIAL AND 1.6% ® TRANSPORTATION
INSTITUTIONAL
Source: TRW Systems Group, 1971
Figure 2-4. Annual Carbon Monoxide Emissions by Source Category,
Statewide, State of Alaska
2-12
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0
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0
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0
6.2%
0.1%
5.4% c
85.6%
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)
)
)
)
Both macrometeorological and micrometeorological factors play a role in the
rate of dispersion of CO emissions. Micrometeorological factors, such as mechanical
turbulence produced by automobiles and airflow around buildings, become important in
determining street-side exposures. Macrometeorological factors can lead to air stagnation,
which causes high community CO levels.
d. Other Pollutants
There are many other pollutants which are known to have health or nuisance
effects. Some of these are summarized in Figure 2-5. Three pollutants have associated
ambient air quality standards -photochemical oxidants, nitrogen oxides, and
hydrocarbons. These are discussed briefly below.
(1) Photochemical Oxidants -Photochemical oxidants are produced in the
atmosphere when nitrogen oxides and some hydrocarbons are exposed to sunlight
Photochemical oxidants cause irritation to the mucous membranes, damage to vegetation,
and deterioration of materials. They affect the clearance mechanism of the lungs and alter
resistance to respiratory bacterial infections. The national primary air quality standard for
photochemical oxidants is based on evidence of increased frequency of asthma attacks for
some people on days when hourly averages reach 0.1 ppm. Eye irritation is possible when
atmospheric concentrations reach this level.
(2) Nitrogen Dioxide -Nitric oxide results from the fixation of nitrogen
and oxygen at high temperatures as in fuel combustion. There are several atmospheric
reactions which lead to the oxidation of nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide, and the presence
of nitrogen dioxide in ambient air is essential to the production of photochemical oxidants.
The presence of nitrogen dioxide in ambient air has been associated with a variety of
respiratory diseases. The statewide distribution ofnitrogen oxide emissions is summarized in
Figure 2-6 and Table II-III.
(3) Hydrocarbons -Defined as organic compounds composed exclusively
of carbon and hydrogen, hydrocarbons are primarily associated with the use of petroleum
products. They are the main components of photochemical smog. Hydrocarbons alone have
no known effect on human health; therefore, the sole purpose of prescribing a hydrocarbon
standard is to control photochemical oxidants. The statewide distribution of hydrocarbon
emissions is summarized in Figure 2-7 and Table 11-111.
3. Source Specific Emissions
The combustion of fossil fuels from each engineering action results in pollutants
being emitted into the atmosphere. Many of the actions will result in pollution problems
when associated with areas that already have problems or when the action itself is a
2-13
AIR POLLUTANTS
PARTICULATES
SULPHUR OXIDES
OXIDANTS
CARBON MONOXIDE
HYDROCARBONS
NITROGEN OXIDES
FLUORIDES
LEAD
POLYCYCLIC ORGANIC
MATTER
ODORS !INCLUDING
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE)
ASBESTOS
BERYLLIUM
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
CHLORINE
ARSENIC
CADMIUM
VANADIUM
NICKEL
MANGANESE
ZINC
COPPER
BARIUM
BORON
MERCURY
SELENIUM
CHROMIUM
PESTICIDES
RADIOACTIVE
SUBSTANCES
AEROALLERGENS
HEALTH MATERIALS
. :'
:;:;:
. ;
. :: : ..
Source: U.S. President's Council on Environmental Quality, 1971
RECEPTORS
SOILING AESTHETICS VEGETATION ANIMAL
.. :
. ::
:::
. :.
. ::
... .. : .. :
:. :
. :.
1/~[////////d DELETERIOUS EFFECTS
Figure 2-5. Effects of Air Pollutants Upon Various Receptors in the United States
n n n
)
)
)
)
)
"
CD POWER PLANTS 6.4% ® INDUSTRIAL
® PROCESSES 0.0% ® INCINERATION
® RESIDENTIAL 1.0% 0 OPEN BURNING
0 COMMERCIAL AND 5.6% ® TRANSPORTATION
INSTITUTIONAL
Source: TRW Systems Group, 1971
Figure 2-6. Annual Nitrogen Oxide Emissions by Source Category,
Statewide, State of Alaska
54.3%
0.0%
0.6%
32.1%
2-15
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c
® c
c
c
c
<D POWER PLANTS 0.7% ® INDUSTRIAL 5.3%
® PROCESSES 41.2% ® INCINERATION 0.1%
0 RESIDENTIAL 0.5% 0 OPEN BURNING 4.6% c
@ COMMERCIAL AND 1.3% ® TRANSPORTATION 46.3%
INSTITUTIONAL
Source: TRW Systems Group, 1971
~
Figure 2-7. Annual Hydrocarbon Emissions by Source Category, Statewide, State of Alaska c
2-16
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)
)
)
large-scale effort. The estimated pollution amounts are described in the discussion for each
action.
Some of the equipment that is associated with certain engineering actions will
come under new source performance standards and will be required to use the latest control
technology to keep the emissions of carbon monoxide, particulates, sulfur dioxides,
nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons to a minimum. The placement of some major pollution
sources with high particulate and sulfur oxide emissions will be governed in part by
nondegradation limits imposed by federal regulations, depending on how the State classifies
different areas of the state. For purposes of the estimation of impacts by physiographic
unit, these general impacts are combined with an estimate of the extent of projects and
existing problems in each region.
4. Addition of Water Vapor to the Atmosphere
Most of the engineering actions involve the release of water vapor to the
atmosphere, which may modify the humidity, cloudiness, or precipitation locally or
regionally, depending on the scope of the project. In the summer months, when the air is
warmer and can hold more water vapor, these effects will be small, if detectable at all. In the
winter, however, when the air is cold and can hold little water vapor, the incidence of fogs,
clouds, riming, and changes in precipitation patterns may be important.
Ice fog is the visible aspect of a man-made air pollution problem which becomes a
nuisance whenever temperatures go below -35 degrees C, particularly in the Fairbanks/Fort
Wainwright area of interior Alaska. It is produced by water vapor output from automobile
exhaust, power plant stacks, household chimneys, and other sources associated with urban
environments. Aside from areas with sources of water vapor, such as hot springs and caribou
herds, ice fog is restricted to populated areas. Its thickness is generally about 10 meters and
rarely exceeds 30 meters, but its thickness and density increase as temperature decreases,
especially below -40 degrees C. The reduction of visibility by ice fog, although serious in
itself, is only one of the more obvious manifestations (Benson, 1970). Ice fog is also seen to
hang in the air for long periods of time after the passage of aircraft and motor vehicles and
may significantly reduce the visibility on roads and runways.
Power plants require cool water to condense the steam produced in generating
power. Estimates of water and carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of gasoline, fuel
oil, and coal (from Benson, 1970) are shown in Table II-IV. Table 11-V gives an estimate of
the relative contributions of different sources to the problem. Automobiles represent a
larger problem than the percentages indicate because of their concentration downtown
(with the additional miscellaneous sources there) and because of the critical reduction in
visibility, particularly at intersections, due to idling at traffic signals.
2-17
TABLE II-IV. WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDIE PRODUCED BY THE COMBUSTION OF GASOLINE,
FUEL OIL, AND COAL IN AIR 11\1 THE FAIRBANKS/FORT WAINWRIGHT AREA DURING COLD SPELLS
Source kg+ Combustion in Air = kg H2 0 + kg C0 2
Gasoline
Monthly 2,700,000 . 3,720,000 8,400,000
Daily 90,000 124,000 279,000
Fuel Oil
Monthly 4,600,000 6,100,000 14,400,000
Daily 152,000 202,000 475,000
Coal, Domestic
Monthly 9,100,000 6,190,000 21,500,000
Daily 305,000 207,000 720,000
Coal, Power Plants
Monthly 33,600,000 23,850,000 79,400,000
Daily 11118,000 760,000 2,640,000
Total Combustion Products
Monthly 39.9 X 106 123.7 X 106
Daily 1.3 X 106 4.1 X 106
Source: Benson, 1970
n n n n
)
' )
....
J
"I
,)
TABLE 11-V. SUMMARY OF MAN-MADE WATER SOURCES
FOR THE FAIRBANKS ATMOSPHERE
Amount
Source (x 106 g H2 0 day-1 )
Combustion Products
Gasoline 124
Fuel oil 202
Coal, domestic 207
Coal, power plants 760
Cooling water from power plants 2600
Miscellaneous (leaks from steam lines, 170
houses, university mine shaft, sewage,
people and animals breathing, etc.)
Total 4063
Source: Benson, 1970
Percent
3
5
5
19
64
4
100
Besides this very visible effect of the addition of water vapor to the atmosphere,
there are less obvious increases in water vapor from the same sources. When the number of
sources increases in a small area, as in some of the more complex engineering actions, the
effects may begin to become perceptible and the local climate may exhibit some
modifications.
5. Modifications of Temperatures and Winds
Heat island effects have been noted in several cities, including Fairbanks. The
temperature in the city exceeds that of the surrounding flats by 5 to 6 degrees when the air
temperature is in the -40 to -45 degrees C range, and by about 3 degrees in the -20 degrees
C range (Benson, 1970). The waste heat that is cast off during the processes of energy
generation and consumption is as much a climatic contaminant as are the gases and particles
that are put into the atmosphere. It is known that a concentration of heat sources (for
example, a city) affects local climate (Peterson, 1969). The hard question is at what point
will waste heat become a climatic factor. The ability to answer this question is hampered by
2-19
the necessarily crude estimates of future power generation amounts and locations and by
the still-uncertain understanding of the dynamic process by which this heat would affect
global climate (Study of Critical Environmental Problems, 1970).
Cities also affect the winds of an area. Because of the building and other
structures associated with towns and cities, the surface roughness is increased and the speeds
of winds in the city are reduced, However, greater turbulence is generated. While the average
wind speed is decreased, local effects, such as the channeling of winds through "city
canyons," often give the opposite impression. When regional winds are light, a city creates
its own windfield. The wind responds to the heat island effect and also the surface
anomalies occurring in the city (Oliver, 1973).
6. Changes in the Heat Balance that Affect Microclimatology
Many of the engineering actions discussed may change the albedo of the surface
and/or the thermal characteristics of the soil. These are two important facets of the heat
balance near the surface as described more fully in The Environment of Alaska: Analysis of
Physical and Biological Determinants (John Graham Company, 1976), Section II. A. Changes
in cloudiness and in particulate loading in the atmosphere are discussed above and also
affect the radiation balance.
Surface properties of the ground surface (or snow surface, depending on season)
determine how much radiation is absorbed or reflected. This is related to the albedo or
reflectivity of the surface and can be modified by dust on snow surfaces or changes in
surface cover (e.g., clearing land, paving of surface, reservoirs). The thermal conductivity of
the surface controls the distribution of absorbed heat between the ground and the air.
Removal of surface layers in clearing and replacement with paving, gravel, fill, or tailing will
alter the thermal structure of the soil.
Changes in cloud cover affect the amount of incoming solar radiation and the
amount of terrestrial radiation reflected back to earth. Particulate matter in the atmosphere
will also affect the amounts of incoming solar radiation.
B. NOISE
1. Background
a. General
Three dimensions of environmental noise are important in determining man's
subjective response. These are (1) the intensity or level of the sound, (2) the frequency
2-20
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spectrum of the sound, and (3) the time-varying character of the sound. Airborne sound is
caused by rapid fluctuation of air pressure above and below atmospheric pressure. Sound
levels are usually measured and expressed in decibels (dB), with 0 dB corresponding roughly
to the threshold of sensitivity or hearing.
The frequency of a sound refers to the number of complete pressure
fluctuations per second in the sound. The unit of measurement is cycles per second (cps) or,
more commonly, hertz (Hz). Most environmental sound consists of a broad band of
frequencies which differ in relative level. The quantitative expression of the frequency and
level content of a sound is its sound spectrum. Many rating methods have been devised to
permit comparison of sound having quite different spectra. Fortunately, the simplest
method correlates with human response practically as well as the more complex methods
(Parkin, 1964; Galloway, et al, 1969; Botsford, 1969). This method consists of evaluating all
of the content of a sound in accordance with a weighting that progressively and severely
deemphasizes the importance of frequencies below 1000 Hz, with mild deemphasis above
5000 Hz. This type of frequency weighting reflects the fact that human hearing is less
sensitive at low frequencies and extreme high frequencies than it is in the frequency
midrange. The weighting curve most often used is called A-weighting, and the level sb
measured is called the A-weighted sound level, or simply A-level.
•."Y
The A-level in dB is expressed as dBA; the letter A is a notation of the
weighting used to obtain the measurement. !n practice, the A-!eve! of a sound source is
conveniently measured using a sound level meter with an electrical filter corresponding to
the A-weighting curve. All American and international standard sound level meters include
such a filter.
Although the A-level may adequately describe environmental noise at any
instant in time, the fact is that the community noise level varies continuously. Most
environmental noise includes a multiplicity of distant noise sources which create a relatively
steady background noise in which no particular source is identifiable. These distant sources
may include traffic, wind in trees, industrial or farming activities, etc. Those noise sources
are relatively constant from moment to moment, but vary slowly from hour to hour as
natural forces change or as human activity follows a daily cycle. Superimposed on this
slowly varying background is a succession of identifiable noisy events of brief duration.
These may include nearby activities or single vehicle passages, aircraft flyovers, etc., which
cause the environmental noise level to vary from instant to instant.
Following standard practice, this report has accounted for the varying
character of environmental sound through statistics (Kittleson and Paulsen, 1964; Scholes
and Vulcan, 1969; Scholes, 1971 ). The statistical descriptor used in this report is the A-level
that is exceeded 10 percent of the time, designated by the symbol L10 . L10 is considered a
good measure of the "average peak" noise. Close to a highway, where noise levels vary from
2-21
moment to moment, human response probably relates more to the noise peaks, such as from
individual vehicle passages, rather than to the median sound level, L 50 , the A-level which is
exceeded 50 percent of the time.
The L 50 level is easier to calculate than L 10 , but its use as a predictor of
human response to traffic noise is most appropriate at a distance from a heavily traveled
roadway. At the other end of the statistical scale is L 90 , the A-level exceeded 90 percent of
the time. This is considered a good measure of background noise at a site.
b. Construction Noise
Construction noise sources, despite the variety and types of equipment used,
have similarities which permit their grouping into a limited number of categories. These
categories are described below and shown graphically in Figure 2-8, together with the
corresponding noise levels associated with their use. The most prevalent noise source in
construction equipment is from the prime mover (i.e., the internal combustion engine,
usually diesel) used to provide motive or operating power. Within these categories, engine
noise predominates with exhaust noise being most significant and inlet and structural noise
being secondary. Engine-powered equipment may be categorized according to its mobility
and operating characteristics -earth-moving equipment, highly mobile; handling
equipment, partly mobile; and stationary equipment.
Construction proceeds in several systematic, discrete phases, each having a
characteristic mix of equipment and consequent noise. Building construction of the type
planned is characterized by five major phases (Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971 a).
Clearing, demolition, and site preparation
II Excavation
Ill Placing foundations
IV Frame erection, floors and roof, skin and windows
V Finishing, cleanup
Defining these construction phases makes it possible to account for variations in site noise
output with time.
The model used in construction noise projections was determined on the
basis of information obtained on the following factors {Bolt, Beranek, and Newman,
1971a):
2-22
• The number of each item of equipment typically present at a site (in a
given phase)
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'1.
7
)
NOISE LEVEL (dBAl AT 50 FT.* 60 70
w z
(!) (!)
z z
w > z 0
Q :E
1-:::c en 1-::::> a: co ~ :E w
0 u
...J
~ z a: w
1-~(!) z
> ~z
co a::::i
0 wO
w 1-Z
a: ~~
w :;,::::c
$
0 a..
1-> z w a:
:E ~
a.. z
::::> 0
0 1-
w <!
1-en
1-
t-Z uw ~~ a.. C..
:E3 -o w
a: w :::c
1-
0
COMPACTORS (ROLLERS)
FRONT LOADERS
BACKHOES
TRACTORS
SCRAPERS, GRADERS
PAVERS
TRUCKS
CONCRETE MIXERS
CONCRETE PUMPS
CRANES (MOVEABLE)
CRANES (DERRICK)
PUMPS
GENERATORS
COMPRESSORS
PNEUMATIC WRENCHES
JACKHAMMERS, ROCK DRILLS
PILE DRIVERS (PEAKS)
VIBRATORS
SAWS
SOURCE: EPA (NTID 300.1, 1971)
*BASED ON LIMITED DATA SAMPLES
Figure 2-8. Construction Equipment Noise Ranges
80 90 100 110
2-23
• The length of the duty cycles of this equipment
• The average noise levels during operation
• The noisiest piece of equipment located 50 feet from an observer
• All other equipment located 200 feet from the observer
• With ambient levels surrounding the site taken to be present in addition
to the equipment noise
c. Traffic Noise
There are many factors influencing roadway noise levels, including the
nature of the road surface, speed of travel, road gradient, road configuration, vertical
configuration, the presence of barriers or other shielding, observer distance, and vehicle mix.
Traffic noise has two major constituents -engine/exhaust and tire/roadway interaction. A
significant number of cars built by major manufacturers produce equal amounts of
engine/exhaust and tire/roadway interaction noise under normal operation. During
acceleration, the engine/exhaust component is predominant. However, trucks are
considerably noiser than automobiles, due to increased tire/roadway interaction. Under
similar conditions, a truck can produce from 10 to 15 dBA more than a car. The greater the ·
percent of trucks on a given roadway, the higher will be the L 10 level or peak noise levels.
Increases in the L 10 are generally associated with increased annoyance (Gordon, et al,
1971 ).
d. Aircraft Noise
Three noise environment descriptions are currently in use in the United
States for describing aircraft noise-NEF, CNEL, and CNR. The Noise Exposure Forecast
(NEF) and Community Noise Equivalent Level (CNEL) are obtained from the Effective
Perceived Noise Level (EPN L) and Single Event Noise Exposure Level (SENEL),
respectively, by applying correction factors for the number of aircraft events occurring
within certain specified time periods during a 24-hour day. Weighting factors are applied for
operations in various periods to account for the increased sensitivity to noise in the evening
and nighttime hours. Corrections for time of day and number of operations are also
included in the calculation of the Composite Noise Rating (CNR), which is the predecessor
of the NEF. However, the CNR is based on the maximum Perceived Noise Level (PNL), with
no integration or correction for the duration of the aircraft noise signal, and no tone
correction. Figure 2-9 shows the derivation of the noise event and the noise environment
descriptors used in this report. Figure 2-10 shows the relation of NEF to familiar sounds and
typical aircraft noise environments.
224
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e
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NOISE EVENT DESCRIPTOR
)
DURATION
FACTOR
EFFECTIVE PERCEIVED -t PERCEIVED
'I NOISE LEVEL
NOISE LEVEL _)
(PNL)
(EPNL)
PURE
TONE
FACTOR
"' ;}
NOISE ENVIRONMENT DESCRIPTOR
)
NUMBER
OF
FLIGHTS
EFFECTIVE NOISE
PERCEIVED -t EXPOSURE
NOISE LEVEL FORECAST
(EPNL) (NEF)
TIME
) OF
DAY
) Figure 2-9. Derivation of Noise Event and Noise Environment Descriptors
2-25
c
TRANSPORTATION NOISES c
Military Jet Fighter Takeoff-500 Ft.-120
Train Siren -50 Ft. -c
Snowmobile-Operator -11/o· lse €
)(IJosi.J
re F:. Ore
Racing Motorcycle Accel. -50 Ft. -Cast (11J
12!:) c
Ski Boat, Inboard Motor, -Unmuffled Exhaust-50 Ft.
lXI
"C
·= DC-3 Takeoff -500 Ft. --
c
Diesel Train, 50 mph-100 Ft. -
Street Motorcycle Accel. -50 Ft. -
Diesel Truck, 40 mph -100 Ft. c -80
Sport Car, 50 mph-50 Ft. -
Auto, 50 mph -50 Ft. -70 c
10 20 50
Source: Bolt, Beranek & Newman, 1970 Number of Takeoffs or Landings per Day
c
c
Figure 2-10. NEF Values and Common Transportation Noises c
2-26
c
' } The primary type of aircraft used in Alaska currently is the non-jet-propeller-
driven, single-or twin-engine aircraft. The noise generated by these aircraft can be separated
into vortex and rotational components. Vortex noise is the major source of broadband noise
and is generated by the formation and shedding of vortices (whirlpools of air} in the flow
past the blade. The major source of rotational noise is due to oscillations of the pressure
field on the air due to the passage of the blade. This rotational noise creates discrete
frequency noises at harmonics of the blade passage frequency.
2. Noise Projections
a. Highway Noise Model
Noise level projections were made for the traffic activity using a model
presented in the National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 117, Highway
Noise-A Design Guide for Highway Engineers (Gordon, et al, 1971 }. This model employs
three basic parameters for noise level prediction:
• Roadway characteristics
• Observer characteristics
• Traffic characteristics
Based on the traffic characteristics of peak volumes, percent truck mix, and
maintainable speeds, the program yields a reference L 50 noise level at a specified distance of
100 feet from the near lane of traffic. Subsequent adjustments to the reference level are
made for the unique roadway and observer characteristics. The adjusted values yield the
predicted L 50 and L 10 levels for a specific location. The following adjustments are
characteristic of the highway noise model:
• Distance: -4 to -5 dBA for doubling
• Volume: +3 dBA for doubling
• Speed: +9 dBA for doubling
• Ground Cover: -0 to -3 dBA per 100 feet
• Gradient: +3 dBA for 5 percent grade (trucks only}
• Barriers: -5 to -15 dBA, depending on height, thickness, slope, and
material used
2-27
b. Construction Noise Model
Noise level projections were made for the construction activity using a model
presented in Noise from Construction Equipment and Operations, Building Equipment, and
Home Appliances (Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971a). The model is based on the average
levels produced by construction equipment. A list of present average levels for various types
of ~quipment is shown in Table II-VI. The projected levels based on this construction noise
model also take into account the reduction of noise levels based on divergence decrease due
to spreading of the sound waves and the transmission loss experienced for noise levels within
a building or home with closed windows (Harris, 1957).
c. Aircraft Noise Model
Because of the similarity of the various aircraft currently in use in Alaska, it
may be convenient to group them into a single class characterized by an EPN L vs distance
curve and a set of takeoff and landing profiles. The takeoff and landing profiles are then
combined with the EPNL vs distance curves to give a set of EPNL contours. A single EPNL
contour will depict on a map of the area about an airport the EPN L due to one particular
operation of a certain class of aircraft.
The total noise exposure produced by aircraft operations at a given point is
viewed as being composed of the EPNL's produced by each aircraft class on different flight
paths. For a given aircraft ciass on a given fiight path, the i\iEF can be expressed as
NEF =
where
=
=
EPNL+ 10 Log (N 0 + NE + 16.67 NN)-88
Number of fiights during the day i0700/i900)
Number of flights during evening (1900/2200)
Number of flights during the night (2200/0700)
3. Impact Evaluation
a. Environmental Protection Agency, Suggested Noise Impact Criteria
The Environmental Protection Agency criteria (Wyle Laboratories, 1971) are
based on the amount of increase attributable to a new noise source. Increases are divided
into three ranges as they relate to expected community response:
• Up to 5 dBA Increase-Few complaints if increase is gradual
2·28
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TABLE 11-VI. PRESENT AVERAGE NOISE LEVELS
IN dBA FOR CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
Equipment Noise Level in dBA at 50 Feet
Earth-moving equipment
Front loader
Backhoes
Dozers
Scrapers
Tractors
Graders
TrtJck
Paver
Material handling equipment
Concrete mixer
Concrete pump
Crane
Derrick
Stationary equipment
Pumps
Generators
Compressors
Impact equipment
Pile drivers
Jackhammers
Rock drills
Pneumatic tools
Other equipment
Saws
Vibrators
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971a
79
85
80
88
80
85
91
89
85
82
83
88
76
78
81
101
88
98
86
78
76
2-29
• 5 to 10 dB A Increase -More complaints, especially if conflict with
sleeping hours
• Over 10 dBA Increase-Substantial number of complaints
Relative to these ranges, generally no attention is needed if the increase is less than 5 dBA.
Some consideration should be given to additional abatement measures if the range increase
is 5 to 10 dB A. If the increase is over 10 dB A, the impact is considered serious and warrants
close attention.
b. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Noise Assessment
Guidelines
These guidelines (Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971 b) are primarily used to
determine if new construction sites are compatible with residential development. However,
the reverse can also be applied to determine if the noise levels produced by construction
sites are compatible with present residential uses. The noise levels are based on
time-weighted permissible exposures as shown in Table 11-V II.
c. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Report 117
This report (Gordon, et al, 1971) suggests recommended design criteria for
various building types, as shown in Table II-VIII. These criteria have been derived from
previous research projects and specify maximum noise levels that would be considered
acceptable by the average individual with respect to sleep interference, speech, radio and
television interference, and annoyance. Noise impact is determined for each building type
by comparing existing and future noise levels. As shown in Figure 2-11, when the existing
level is above the criteria, an increase of 1 to 5 dBA results in some impact. An increase of 6
dBA or more would result in great impact. If the existing level is below the criteria, an
increase of 0 to 5 dBA would cause no impact, 6 to 15 dBA would cause some impact, and
more than 15 dBA increase would be considered great impact. This method can be applied
to the inside/outside recommended design criteria. Table II-IX shows the inside/outside
noise reduction that can be expected for various types of structures by geographical area.
d. Speech and Sleep Interference
Background noise above certain levels interferes with one's ability to
understand oral communication and disturbs sleep. Figure 2-12 illustrates some current
knowledge regarding speech interference.
2-30
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0
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TABLE II-VII. NOISE ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES,
DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
General External Exposures (dBA)
Unacceptable
Exceeds 80 dBA 60 minutes per 24 hours
Exceeds 75 dBA 8 hours per 24 hours
Normally Unacceptable
Exceeds 65 dBA 8 hours per 24 hours
Loud repetitive sounds on site
Normally Acceptable
Does not exceed 65 dBA more than 8 hours per 24 hours
Acceptable
Does not exceed 45 dBA more than 30 minutes per 24 hours
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971b
2-31
2-32
TABLE II-VIII. RECOMMENDED DESIGN CRITERIA
Lso (dBA) L1o
Structure Day Night Day
Residences Inside* 45 40 51
Residences Outside* 50 45 56
Schools Inside* 40 40 46
Schools Outside* 55 61
Churches Inside 35 35 41
Hospitals Inside 40 35 46
Convalescent Homes Outside 50 45 56
Offices
Stenographic Inside 50 50 56
Private Inside 40 40 46
Theaters
Movie Inside 40 40 46
Legitimate Inside 30 30 36
Hotels and Motels Inside 50 45 56
* Either inside or outside design criteria can be used, depending on the utility
being evaluated.
Source: Gordon, et al, 1971
c
0
(dBA) c
Night
46 c
51
46
0
41
41 c
51
56
46 0
46
36
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51
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0
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aJ ,
ii!!
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iii
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..J
w
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PREDICTED NOISE LEVEL-CRITERION LEVEL IN dB
D NOIMPACT SOME IMPACT
Figure 2-11. Impact Evaluation When Pr,edicted Noise Levels Exceed Criteria
GREAT IMPACT
Source: Gordon, et al, 1971
c
0
TABLE 11-IX. OUTSIDE/INSIDE NOISE REDUCTION
Open Closed c
Windows Windows
Structure Geographic Area (dBA) (dBA)
Residences South and southwest 12 20 c
North and northeast 17 25
Schools South and southwest 12 20
North and northeast 17 25
" v
Churches Ali areas 20 30
Hospitals
Convalescent Homes All areas 17 25
c
Offices All areas 1"'7 "'I:: I I LiJ
Theaters All areas 20 30
Motels and Hotels South and southwest 12 20 0 North and northeast 17 25
Source: Gordon, et al, 1971
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20
16
10
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0:: 6 UJ
2
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110
VOICE LEVEL Jl,ND DISTANCE BETWEEN TALKER AND
LISTENER FOR SATISFACTORY FACE-TO-FACE SPEECH
COMMUNICATIONS AS LIMITED BY AMBIENT NOISE
SOURCE: "SIL-PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE",
J.C. WEBSTER, SOUI'JD AND VIBRATION,
AUGUST, 1969
w
01 Figure 2-12. Speech Interference Levels
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120
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130
e. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Policy
and Procedure Memorandum (PPM 90-2), 1973
This document requires (1) identification of existing developed land uses
which may be affected by highway noise; (2) prediction of highway-generated noise levels
from anticipated future traffic on the facility; (3) measurement of existing noise levels; and
(4) comparison of predicted levels with both existing levels and design noise levels listed in
the noise standards. The design noise level standards are based on the L 10 level. The design
noise level/land use relationships are shown in Table 11-X. Where projected noise levels
exceed the design noise levels for a particular land use activity, identification and analysis of
feasible noise abatement measures are required.
f. Impact Estimate for NEF Values, Department of Housing and Urban
Development
This document (Wilsey and Ham, 1972) compares the impact estimate for
various NEF values to numerous human activities, as shown in Table II-XI. Four categories
of impact are used:
• Low Impact -Activity can be performed with little or no interruption
from aircraft noise, though noise may be noticeable above background
levels.
• Moderate Impact -Activity can be performed, but with some
interference from aircraft noise due to level or frequency of
interruptions.
• Serious Impact -Activity can be performed, but only with difficulty
due to level or frequency of aircraft noise.
• Critical Impact -Activity cannot be performed acceptably in the
aircraft noise environment.
The effects of noise and vibration on wildlife are described in Section II. D.6 and in the
analyses of specific actions in Section IV of the report.
C. WATER QUALITY
This section describes and discusses the major parameters which can affect the quality
of water including turbidity, toxic or deleterious substances, dissolved oxygen content,
acidity and alkalinity, temperature, nutrients, coliforms, and water movement. The
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c
TABLE 11-X. DESIGN NOISE LEVEL/LAND USE RELATIONSHIP
Land Use
Category
A
B
c
D
E*
Design Noise
Level-L10
60dBA
(exterior)
70dBA
(exterior)
75dBA
(exterior)
55 dBA
(interior)
Description of Land Use Category
Tracts of lands in which serenity and quiet are of extraordinary
significance and serve an important public need, and where the
preservation of those qualities is essential if the area is to
continue to serve its intended purpose. Such areas could include
amphitheaters, particular parks or portions of parks, or open
spaces which are dedicated or recognized by appropriate local
officials for activities requiring special qualities of serenity and
quiet.
Residences, motels, hotels, public meeting rooms, schools,
churches, libraries, hospitals, picnic areas, recreational areas,
playgrounds, active sports areas, and parks.
Developed lands, properties, or activities not included in Cate-
gories A and B, above.
For requirements on undeveloped lands, see paragraphs 5a(5) and
(6) of PPM 90-2.
Residences, motels, hotels, public meeting rooms, schools,
churches, libraries, hospitals, and auditoriums.
*The interior design noise level in Category E applies to indoor activities for those situations where
no exterior sensitive land use or activity is identified.
Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, 1973
2-37
TABLE 11-XI. AIRCRAFT NOISE IMPACT ON SOME
HUMAN ACTIVITIES, BASED ON NEF VALUE
Impact Estimate for NEF Value
Human Activity
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Intensive Conversation
Telephone Use
Sleeping
Reading, Writing, Studying
Live Theater
Watching Films, Television
Listening to Music
Spectator Sports
Outdoor Activities
Physical Recreation
Technical Manual Work
Skilled Manual Work
Key: Low Impact B Moderate Impact ~ Serious Impact !I Critical Impact •
Source: Wilsey and Ham, 1972
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subsequent effects of a change in these water quality parameters on aquatic life are
discussed in Section I I.E, Aquatic Biology.
1. Turbidity
a. General Discussion
Turbidity is caused by the presence of continuously suspended particulate
matter such as clay, silt, glacial flour, organic matter, bacteria, and other microorganisms
within a particular water body. It is not a measure of the concentration of these suspended
) solids, but a measure used to describe the opaqueness produced in water by the suspension.
------------The-~oncentration-of-the substances-causes light-to-be-scattered and absorbed-rather than------
transmitted through water. Natural concentrations of suspended matter in streams are
influenced by such factors as topography, geology, soil conditions, intensity and duration of
rainfall, and the type and amount of vegetation within the drainage basin.
' )
Streams may have considerabie variation in suspended soiid concentrations
from day to day. In addition, there may be substantial differences in these concentrations ·in
different stretches of the same stream. This may occur where material carried as bed load is
thrown into suspension at a narrows or falls where the velocity increases, or at the
confluence of other streams with different origins and fuvial characteristics.
b. Impacts
Effects of suspended particles vary with composition, particle size, and
concentration, as discussed under Section II.E, Aquatic Biology. Typical effects of
suspended particles include their
• Erosional properties on stream and river beds
• Abrasive action on aquatic plants and animals
• Ability through blanketing and sedimentation to influence substrate
characteristics and/or plant physiological processes in lakes, streams,
and estuaries
• Ability to reduce underwater light penetration by reflecting incoming
solar radiation (This characteristic influences photosynthetic rate of
plants and, indirectly, plant distribution.)
• Ability to provide additional substrate and surface locations on which
bacteria and other microorganisms may grow
2-39
•
•
Adsorption and/or absorption properties, including the ability to
accumulate and concentrate various chemicals, among which are
pollutants and pesticides
Ameliorating properties on water temperatures (In general, suspended
particles minimize water temperature fluctuations by absorbing and
radiating heat .at a slower rate than the surrounding water.)
A major adverse effect on aquatic organisms could occur if excessive concentrations of
suspended matter were present at a time when the water is normally clear.
2. Toxic or Deleterious Substances
a. General Discussion
There are many substances dissolved or suspended in waters that may be
toxic. These substances are those materials vvhose concentrations may adversely affect
public health during the exercise of characteristic uses, or that may interfere with biological
communities or populations to a degree which is damaging to the ecosystem. Metal ions,
herbicide and pesticide residues, and fuels are typical substances which are toxic to aquatic
life when discharged to water systems through human use. These substances may be
contributed directly from vvaste discharges as in mining or manufacturing processes, or
indirectly as in stormwater runoff from agricultural areas or cities. Seasonal fluctuations in
water use and runoff amounts may cause concentration changes during the year, but
continuous downstream transport tends to reduce levels in the upper reaches of streams
while increasing them in major receiving basins.
b. Impacts
(1) Metals -Trace amounts of many metals occur naturally in water.
However, when present in large amounts, they may constitute a very serious form of
pollution because they occur in stable compounds and are not easily removed by oxidation,
precipitation, or any other natural process. A characteristic feature of metal pollution is its
persistence in time as well as in space for years after the pollution-causitive operations have
ceased. Changes in pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and turbidity are factors which can
alter the toxicity of metals. At the present time, however, it is not possible to predict
accurately the amount of total metal in any environment that may be lethal, biologically
active, or contributory to toxicity.
Metal concentrations in excess of natural conditions are found in runoff
waters from cities and urban areas -zinc from galvanized products, lead, chromium, and
nickel from the operation and maintenance of motor vehicles. Metal concentrations in
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)
)
)
excess of natural conditions are found in wastewater discharges. Aluminum, cadmium,
copper, lead, mercury, chromium, zinc, and nickel are typical metals in wastewaters.
Metal concentrations in excess of natural conditions are found in
leachates from freshly exposed rock surfaces (e.g. aluminum, copper, manganese, copper,
iron, and sulfate). Lake sediments may also act as a reservoir for metal, which then enter
into the water phase according to the solubility of the compound.
The effects of metal concentrations in excess of natural conditions on
aquatic life are discussed in Aquatic Biology, Section II.E.2.
(2) Pesticides-Pesticides are chemicals, either natural or synthetic, which
are used to control or destroy plant and animal life considered adverse to human society.
Often they are categorized according to their use or intended target (e.g., insecticide,
herbicide, fungicide), but their release in the environment presents an inherent hazard to
many nontarget organisms. Some degree of contamination and risk is assumed with nearly
all pesticide use. The risk to aquatic ecosystems depends upon the chem leal and physical
properties of the pesticide, type of formulation, frequency, rate and method of application;
and the nature of the receiving system. The pesticides of greatest concern are those that are
persistent for long periods and accumulate in the environment; those that are toxic to man,
fish, and wildlife; and those that are used in large volumes over broad areas.
The major sources of pesticides in water are runoff from treated lands,
industrial discharge, and domestic sewage. Significant contributions may also occur in
fallout from atmospheric drift and in precipitation. In lakes the sediments may act as a
reservoir from which pesticide is partitioned into the water phase according to the solubility
of the compound, the concentration in the sediment, and the type of sediment. The effects
of pesticides on aquatic life are discussed in Aquatic Biology, Section II.E.2.
(3) Fuels and Lubricants-Fuel, hydraulic fluid, and lubricant spills can be
expected. Most spills would be small and associated with routine fueling and maintenance of
construction equipment. The extent of water quality degradation would depend upon the
following: (a) the type of fuel or lubricant, (b) amount spilled, (c) season, (d) location, and
(e) success of remedial action. Should a major spill occur, there would be long-term adverse
impacts on water quality; however, repeated small spills of fuels and lubricants may be as
serious a water quality problem as a single large spill.
The spillage of fuels and lubricants in surface waters results in the
release of water soluble substances or tainting substances which may be deleterious to
aquatic life. Oils will also spread over surface waters, forming a thin film which will interfere
with re-aeration and photosynthesis activity. The effects of these spillages are discussed in
Aquatic Biology, Section II. E.2.
2-41
3. Dissolved Oxygen
a. General Discussion
Dissolved oxygen in natural waters is important both as a regulator of the
metabolic processes of communities and organisms, and as an indicator of the balance
between oxygen-consuming and oxygen-producing processes. Photosynthesis and physical
aeration are the primary sources of oxygen in stream and lake waters. The contribution of
each source is not equal and varies greatly with time of day, season, current velocity, wave
action, stream or lake morphology, temperature, and biological characteristics. Under
natural conditions, stream waters typically contain a relatively high concentration of
oxygen, tending toward oxygen saturation. In lakes, the concentrations of oxygen may be
uniform with depth or decrease with depth, depending on the season and mixing conditions
acting within the lake.
b. Impacts
A number of factors operate to change dissolved oxygen concentrations in
lakes and streams:
• Decreases in turbulent flow will reduce physical aeration. Conversely,
turbulent action wi!! increase aeration.
• Respiratory activities of plants and animals and oxidation of organic
matter will deplete dissolved oxygen concentration in water bodies.
• Oxygen is replenished through plant photosynthesis .
• The solubility of oxygen in water varies inversely with temperature.
Thus, raising of water temperature could result in loss of oxygen from
streams.
The effects of dissolved oxygen changes on aquatic life are discussed in Aquatic Biology,
Section II. E.2:
4. Acidity, Alkalinity, and pH
a. General Discussion
Acidity in natural waters is caused by carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly
dissociated acids, and the salts of strong acids and weak bases. Alkalinity is the capacity of
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the water and its constituents to neutralize or buffer the acidity. The pH of a water is a
numerical value used as an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity.
b. Impacts
In most fresh waters, the pH falls within the range of 6.5 to 8.5. The pH
scale extends from 0, very acidic, to 14, very alkaline, with a neutrality point which varies
with temperature (pH = 7.0 at 25 degrees C). However, since pH depends upon minerals in
the riverbed and input from the surrounding watershed, considerable variation from neutral
pH may be enountered under natural conditions. Changes in the pH for a given water could
be caused by the entry of strongly acidic or basic substances. The effects of changes in pH
values on aquatic I ife are discussed in Aquatic Biology, Section II. E.2.
5. Temperature
a. General Discussion
Temperatures of surface waters in Alaska vary from 0 to 20.5 degrees C as,a
function of latitude, altitude, season, time of day, duration of flow, depth of water, an'd
many other variables. The agents that affect temperature are so numerous that it is unlikely
that two bodies of water, even in the same latitude, would have exactly the same thermal
characteristics.
b. Impacts
Because significant temperature changes may affect the composition of an
aquatic or terrestrial community, induced changes in the thermal characteristics of an
ecosystem may be detrimental. Therefore, a "natural" seasonal cycle should be maintained,
annual spring and fall changes in temperature should be gradual, and large unnatural
day-to-day fluctuations should be avoided. Deviations from "natural" water temperatures
can be caused by the following actions:
• Deforestation (more temperature fluctuations and greater tempArature
extremes)
• Stream channelization (depending on local conditions, can either
increase or decrease temperature)
• Impoundment of flow water (generally increases temperature)
• Deep water releases from large reservoirs (decreases temperature of
receiving waters and increases temperature in reservoir)
2-43
• Heated effluent from waste discharges or facilities utilizing water as a
cooling (increases temperature)
The latter two actions will cause rapid thermal changes. The effects of changes in thermal
characteristics of water bodies on aquatic organisms are described in Aquatic Biology,
Section II. E.5.
6. Nutrients
a. General Discussion
Chern icals necessary to the growth and reproduction of rooted or floating
flowering plants, ferns, algae, fungi, or bacteria are considered to be nutrient chemicals. All
these chemicals are not yet known, but those that have been identified are classified as
macronutrients, trace elements or micronutrients, and organic nutrients. The macronutrients
are calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, sulfur, carbon and carbonates, nitrogen, and
phosphorus. The micronutrients are silica, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron,
titanium, chromium, cobalt, and perhaps vanadium. Examples of organic nutrients are
biotin, B12 , thiamine, and glycylglycine (EPA-R3-73-033, March 1973).
b. Impacts
There is a natural, gradual, and steady increase in external nutrient supply
throughout the existence of a water body; however, artificial or cultural enrichment will
result from increased nutrient addition through human activity. The effect of nutrient
addition to water bodies is discussed in Aquatic Biology, Section li.E.6.
7. Coliform Bacteria
a. General Discussion
Bacteria are microscopic unicellular organisms, typically spherical, rod-like,
or spiral and thread-like in shape, often clumped into colonies. Some bacteria cause disease;
others perform an essential role in nature in the recycling of materials (for example, by
decomposing organic matter into a form available for reuse by plants).
b. Impacts
F eca I co I i form bacteria are present in the intestines or feces of
warm-blooded animals. The occurrence of these bacteria in water is regarded as the single
most important indicator of public health hazard from infectious agents. The survival of
coliform bacteria in natural waters increases with decreasing temperatures. Accordingly, any
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accidental discharge of sanitary waste materials into water could have long-lasting effects on
human uses, since it would be possible to ingest live pathogenic organisms if untreated
surface water were used for drinking purposes.
8. Water Movement
a. Surface Waters
Precipitation in the form of rain or melting snow drains land surfaces into
small depressions and through natural valleys to form creeks, small streams, and ultimately,
large rivers. The amount of water reaching a river channel depends on the precipitation,
topographic relief, soil character, permafrost, and amount of vegetation in the drainage
basin. All of these variables are water-dependent and vary dramatically within each basin
and from season to season.
Temperature and the presence of permafrost cause wide fluctuations in
stream flows and are not appreciably modified by groundwater recharge or storage. The
velocity and turbulence of water movement are among its most important environmental
characteristics; for example, plants and aquatic organisms depend upon water movement to
deliver materials for their nutrition and respiration. The continuous flow of stream waters is
the dominant characteristic distinguishing streams from lakes and ponds. However, water
moves vertically and horizontally in lakes and ponds from wind action and the breakup of
thermal stratification.
b. Groundwater
The direction of groundwater movement in the alluvial floodplain deposits
of a river is generally parallel to the direction of stream flow, whereas the direction of
movement in the adjacent terraces, alluvial fan deposits, and upland deposits is, in general,
parallel to the surface slopes. The direction of movement in confined zones within the
alluvium or bedrock aquifers, and within fracture or joint systems within bedrock, is
independent of surface features. Ground temperature changes and the presence of
permafrost can also cause wide fluctuation in groundwater movement and its recharge.
In general, the movement of water is cyclical, without permanent sources or
sinks. However, a pollutant may enter at any phase of the cycle and be transmitted within
that phase or other phases.
2-45
D. TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
1. General Introduction
All engineering actions affect vegetation and wildlife in several basic ways.
Foremost is the quantitative and qualitative shift in species composition that occurs directly
from the engineering action. In animals, shifts in density and distribution may additionally
occur, indirectly, from the social dislocation of animals. For some species and in certain
localities of Alaska, species shifts may result in genetic changes of the indigenous plants and
animals. These three general results occur regardless of the engineering action and frequently
occur simultaneously or are sequentially interrelated. Implications of these three impacts are
discussed below.
a. Quantitative and Qualitative Shift in Species Composition
Engineering actions, be they temporary or permanent, will impact plants and
wildlife. The specific impacts, however, are determined by the characteristics of each action
including location, size, duration, season, and equipment used. Structural changes in the
vegetation will result in "setting back" the state of a natural successional community to that
of an earlier stage. The resulting temporary or permanent shift will be reflected in changing
animal populations. Environmental and vegetative community factors are often drastically
changed as cover vegetation is removed. Open clear-cut conditions are inducive to the·
development of a rich herbaceous layer, whereas intermittent and small openings in the
canopy result in revegetation by indigenous tree species. Food and cover for many species
are more abundant during earlier phases of succession than after the forest has formed a
canopy.
Because each animal is characterized by a specific ecological niche, or is best
adapted to a specific habitat, the horizontal and vertical dimensions of a plant community
are extremely important. Bird species diversity, for example, has been correlated with
foliage height diversity (MacArthur and MacArthur, 1961 ). Foliage height apparently
represents some aspect of environmental complexity that allows birds to specialize on a
particular part of the habitat In fact, many animals besides birds restrict their activities to
different levels within a forest; some feed on the ground, others feed among understory
vegetation, and some restrict their activity to the upper parts of the canopy. Therefore,
when habitats are changed to fields and marshes, which are structurally simpler,
opportunities for within-habitat specialization decrease. For birds, this has been
demonstrated by Cody (1968). The direct relationships between species diversity to stability
and resilience to perturbations are complex and have been argued on theoretical grounds
and with some empirical data. Nevertheless, in general, it does appear that complex and
diverse environments characterized by complex food webs are more stable than simpler
ones.
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Perhaps the most direct and serious influence on plant and animal
communities results from direct harvest of plant and animal resources. Timber cutting and
hunting may quickly and dramatically change the species composition of an area or may
subtly influence plant and animal characteristics over many years. Selective animal
harvesting to a large extent determines population characteristics of subsequent generations.
Quota, sex, and size of harvestable populations determine the age structure of the remaining
population. Continual cropping of the largest (and frequently dominating) individuals may
result in populations characterized by smaller (i.e., younger) and less experienced animals
which, because of their inexperience, may be more susceptible to predation. Hunting,
however, is also a tool by which wildlife can be maintained at a level the habitat can sustain.
Periodic shortages in quantity and quality of food cause death, starvation, and migration,
and hunting may alleviate these natural limitations.
Other forms of recreation may seriously impact terrestrial organisms. In
spring and other critical periods, all-terrain vehicles may severely damage vegetation and
destroy soil characteristics, thereby altering the vegetative composition of a region and/or
the habitat for wildlife. Late winter snow machine use, if it occurs when ungulates give birth
or at other critical periods in their life cycle, will also be detrimental to wildlife. It is at this
time that energy must be preserved for survival and not wasted because of harrassmentby
humans.
b. Social Dislocation of Wildlife
Engineering actions may disturb certain animals to such an extent that their
social organization Is altered. Harrassment of animals, either directly by humans or
indirectly through noise and other pollutants from machines, may result in the social
dislocation of several species. For example, the continual disturbance and subsequent
dispersal of musk-ox herds by helicopters exposes these animals to increased predation
(Weeden and Klein, 1971 ). Mountain sheep have abandoned part of their range after
disturbance and reoccupation of abandoned range is very slow. Caribou also are influenced
by human activity that causes a disturbance in social structure. Seasonal caribou migrations
are maintained by the older (and usually female) animals which return to the calving
grounds that have been previously used. Therefore, the adverse impacts resulting from man's
engineering actions described must take into account the behavior of such social animals and
assess the significance a loss of these animals will have on the total population.
c. Genetic Changes in Species
Frequently, engineering actions result in plant communities and wildlife
populations that are smaller and isolated from each other. In other cases, engineering actions
(e.g., road construction, power lines) provide habitat along which plant and animal species
2-47
may migrate and extend their range, often times penetrating through otherwise unfavorable
habitat.
Smaller size and increased isolation of plant communities tend to prevent the
easy exchange between members of one stand with those of another. Apparently,
cross-pollination is affected by a fractionalized environment in which outcrossing may be
successfully limited. Seed dispersal and successful establishment of species may also be
hindered by intersite vegetational and other barriers. The genetic implications of these
limitations are extremely important. In isolated stands, "opportunities for inward migration
are smaller and nonexistent" (Curtis, 1971, p. 515). Random gene fixation may increase,
especially as isolating mechanisms increase. Specifically, genetic drift -one of the most
important forces in evolutionary changes in small populations -is more likely to be an
important factor in populations founded by a small group of colonists (Mayr, 1942) and in
small isolated habitats.
The genetic effects of insularity on animal populations were reviewed by
Simberloff (1974) and Simberloff and Abele (1976) and have been shown to parallel those
predicted for plants. Small, constantly inbreeding populations eventually fix fewer genes
and lose the rest through genetic drift. On the other hand, engineering actions and general
impacts, in many cases, result in environmental and site changes that are conducive to
dispersal and therefore to a mixing of gene pools. In addition, isolated islands resulting from
man's activities are frequently utilized by colonizing species to extend their range. This has
clearly been demonstrated for many introduced species which are associated with and
distributed by humans. In remote locations far from their normal range, these introduced
plant species grow and reproduce successfully, especially if they colonize areas in which
their associated predators and diseases have not been established. In many cases, they are
stronger competitors and exclude endemic populations.
The genetic implications described for plants also pertain to animals.
Inbreeding in isolated populations also results in the loss of genotypic diversity because of
genetic drift. In addition, colonizing animal pests that are associated with human activity
often exhibit the ability to compete more successfully than endemic populations. The
introduction of rats and fox on the Aleutian Islands is a fine example of colonizing and
competitive introduced species that can be detrimental to endemic bird and animal species.
Insect pests and disease also are readily and often unknowingly distributed by humans. The
detrimental effects of vicarious introduced pests are often not apparent until populations
have become well established and control measures are difficult and expensive to
implement.
All engineering actions would be expected to significantly affect the species
composition at the location that the activity is taking place. Social disorganization and
genetic changes would also be affected; however, the importance of engineering impacts on
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these two parameters is difficult to ascertain because they are dependent on species
characteristics, including number of individuals in the population, location of species, and
life cycle phenomena.
In addition to the impacts that are expected to occur for every engineering
action, there are some impacts that are specific for each engineering action. For example,
iron ore processing is expected to produce certain air pollutants, whereas gold mining will
produce others. Therefore, a discussion of specific effects that may result from one or more
specific engineering actions follows.
2. Effects of Vegetation Removal
a. Primary Production and Energy Flow
The clearing of vegetation will result in the removal of energy-rich material
from the site. Regardless of vegetation type, the removal of plants will decrease the total
energy represented by their biomass and in addition will remove the annual productivity
attributed to their photosynthesis. The removed biomass and concomitant annual
production will no longer be available to microbial soil-forming processes (e.g., nitrification,
humification) or to animals that directly or indirectly depend on this vegetation for food
and/or shelter.
b. Soil Water Balance
Removal of vegetation can decrease the water table elevation by creating
increased runoff and thereby decreasing percolation through the soil to the aquifer.
Conversely, clear-cutting and removal of vegetation decrease natural transpiration and may
thereby increase the amount of water percolation into the soil, which can elevate an aquifer.
The particular effects of vegetation removal on the soil water balance are dependent on the
site vegetation and the physiographic characteristics of a site's slope and aspect. For
example, in seasonally wet locations, a reduction in transpiration may create swampy areas
from a perched water table.
c. Successional Sequence
The removal of vegetation frequently will alter the successional sequence of
a site. Site geography, elevation, and seed availability will, to a large extent, determine the
early successional pioneer species that generally colonize cleared areas. The reversion to
early successional status of a site, however, may or may not be beneficial, depending on land
use planning objectives.
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d. Microclimatology
Clearing an area will remove the climatologically ameliorating vegetation.
Vegetation removal will specifically alter the effects of solar radiation, albedo, emissivity,
wind speed, and other microclimatological characteristics of the site, resulting in a denuded
site characterized by extremes in light and temperature. In addition, the new environmental
characteristics affect the physical and chemical structure of the exposed soil. The
permafrost regions of Alaska are especially sensitive to these influences.
e. Soil Characteristics
Vegetation removal results in reduced protection against erosion, landslides,
and rapid runoff. The risk of this damage is greatest when removing vegetation on steep
slopes and in permafrost areas, where flash floods may frequently occur. In addition,
clearing of vegetation increases soil damage by accelerating the decomposition of the humus
layer, which is generally essential to both the chemical and physical genesis of soil. In many
cases, clearing is accomplished by using heavy machinery which compacts the soil and is
generally deleterious to the site.
f. Perimeter Species
Removal of vegetation from one region may indirectly affect the vegetative
composition in adjacent areas. The influence may be either direct, as when trees are
removed from a region and thus influence the seed source and recolonization of another
region, or indirect, as exhibited by wind throw areas that occur in remaining surrounding
trees after removal of part or all of the vegetation.
g. Fire Hazard
Vegetation removal may, in certain localities of Alaska, increase the fire
hazard. Fire is a real possibility, especially in those areas where the vegetation is cut but not
completely removed, such as the slash remaining after a logging operation.
h. Insect Population Dynamics
Another important result of clearing is the establishment of favorable
environments for some insects. Many insects adapt or live within environments characterized
by specific vegetation types, drainage and moisture regimes, and soil properties such as
temperature, pH, texture, and chemical composition. Incomplete removal of vegetation
from a cut area may encourage insect outbreaks such as those caused by bark beetles.
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i. Fungal Diseases
Vegetation, especially forests, is subject to fungal diseases. Decay caused by
heart and root rotting fungi is common in the southeast region, and probably other regions,
of Alaska. Fungi occur naturally as trees mature. In many cases, disease and fungal
infections in trees increase because of climatic or man-caused stresses. For example, several
fungal species frequently occur in injured tree tissues damaged by heavy construction or
logging equipment. In other cases, compaction of soil by heavy equipment may injure or
otherwise stress the roots of trees, causing the tree to be more susceptible to attack. Slash
that includes infected cull material discarded after an engineering operation also may spread
decay to the remaining healthy vegetation. Infections frequently occur in scars from
windthrown or other falling trees, and engineering actions that increase the likelihood of
this type of damage will be harmful to the vegetation.
j. Food and Shelter for Wildlife
Removal of vegetation frequently reduces the food and shelter of birds and
mammals, and therefore the carrying capacity of a region. Permanent loss of habitat will
result in displaced birds and animals that may find suitable unoccupied habitat or will
compete with members of their own or other species for other available habitat.
k. Landscape Dissection and Edge Effects
Engineering actions and their eventual results in many cases dissect or break
up vegetation types, which then become characterized by a mosaic of community and
species types. Excluding the Alaskan migrants, the ranges of animals species differ and
generally vary from a few acres (snowshoe rabbit) to several square miles (moose) to many
square miles (wide-ranging bear and wolves). Each species depends on free mobility and
access to habitat that meets all of their requirements. The integrity of these home ranges is
necessary for the livelihood and success of many Alaskan species. On the other hand, species
such as deer, moose, and grouse are classified as "edge" species, requiring openings in
forests, early stages of forest succession, and heterogeneous herbaceous vegetation. These
conditions frequently result from man's activities, and therefore an increase in these animal
species may be expected. Extensive stands of single vegetational communities, frequently
characterized by few species, do not support high populations of wildlife; however, these
communities may be important to large carnivore species. Dissection, fractionalization, and
irreparable changes to the land may lead to local or regional extermination of plants and
animals, especially those that are considered endangered and threatened. Once their
population numbers fall below the level of effective reproduction, these plants and animals
become extinct.
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Table II-XII lists the general attributes that are characteristic of early and
mature developmental stages of most ecosystems. Engineering actions that drastically
remove vegetation or substantially alter the site will adversely affect vegetation and can be
expected to cause corresponding changes in ecosystem attributes.
3. Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants
a. On Plants
Vegetation in many cases is more sensitive to air contaminants than animals.
Among the pollutants that are known to extensively harm plants are sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen fluoride, and ethylene. Plant damage caused by constituents of petrochemical
smog, especially ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates, and higher aldehydes is relatively well known.
Nevertheless, air quality criteria and standards based on the effects of pollutants on
vegetation are nonexistent. High concentrations of most pollutants are known to cause
acute damage to tissues, but limited information is available on reduction in crop growth
and productivity, and very little on chemical and physical changes in plant cells and on
interference with plant enzyme systems. The effects of pollutants on vegetation at various
levels of light, humidity, temperature, and soil, as well as the change in plant susceptibility
with life form and age, also have not been adequately assessed. The following discussion of
air pollutants and their effects on vegetation was compiled to highlight general
vegetation/atmospheric pollution interactions. Specific effects should be assessed at each ·
site. Much of the following data were published by the American Chemical Society (1968).
(1) Carbon Monoxide -Carbon monoxide has not been demonstrated to
produce adverse reactions in higher types of plant life at concentrations which produce loss
of consciousness or death in animals. The possible effects of high carbon monoxide levels
within the soil have not been thoroughly investigated, but significant impacts on vegetation
and microorganisms at ambient ieveis are uniikeiy.
(2) Hydrocarbons -Hydrocarbons primarily originate from the incomplete
combustion of gasoline. Ethylene apparently is the only hydrocarbon known to have
adverse effects, and in high concentrations may cause abnormal leaf growth; the abscission
of leaves, flower buds, and flowers, and inhibition of growth. For example, concentrations
of a few parts per billion are extremely damaging to orchids, whereas slightly higher levels
adversely affect the growth of tomatoes.
(3) Nitrogen Dioxide -High and continuous dosages (0.25 ppm for 8
months and 0.5 ppm for 35 days) of nitrogen dioxide have been shown to affect leaf
abscission, chlorosis, and the yield of naval oranges. One ppm for 8 hours will produce
significant growth reduction, expressed as fresh and dry heights, with no visible lesion
damage.
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TABLE II-XII. A TABULAR MODEL OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
TRENDS TO BE EXPECTED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystem Attributes Developmental Stages
Community Energetics
Gross production/community respiration (P/R ratio)
Gross production/standing crop biomass (P/B ratio)
Biomass supported/unit energy flow (B/E ratio)
Net community production (yield)
Food chains
Greater or less than 1
High
Low
High
Linear, predomi-
nantly grazing
Community Structure
Total organic matter
Inorganic nutrients
Species diversity-variety component
Species diversity-equitability component
Biochemical diversity
Stratification and spatial heterogeneity
(pattern diversity)
Niche specialization
Size of organism
Life cycles
Life History
Small
Extrabiotic
Low
Low
Low
Poorly organized
Broad
Small
Short, simple
Nutrient Cycling
Mineral cycles Open
Nutrient exchange rate, between organisms and Rapid
environment
Role of detritus in nutrient regeneration
Growth form
Production
Internal symbiosis
Nutrient conservation
Unimportant
Selection Pressure
For rapid growth
(r-selecti on)
Quantity
Overall Homeostasis
Undeveloped
Stability (resistance to external perturbations)
Entropy
Poor
Poor
High
Low Information
Source: Odum, 1969
Mature Stages
Approaches 1
Low
High
Low
Weblike, predomi-
nantly detritus
Large
lntrabiotic
High
High
High
Well organized
Narrow
Large
Long, complex
Closed
Slow
Important
For feedback control
( K-selection)
Quality
Developed
Good
Good
Low
High
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{4) Sulfur Dioxide -Sulfur dioxide will cause damage to vegetation at
concentrations of 1 ppm for 1 hour or 0.3 ppm for 8 hours.
{5) Hydrogen Sulfide -No harmful effects on plants at relatively high
concentrations.
{6) Hydrogen Fluoride -This inorganic gas, from industrial processes such
as aluminum processing, is extremely toxic to some living organisms and is likely to be an
acute problem wherever materials containing fluorides are processed. It is taken up from the
air by nearly all plants, and certain species are especially sensitive, being damaged by
concentrations as low as 1 part per billon. Vegetation may remain unaffected but still
concentrate fluorides, resulting in toxic levels in forage and leafy vegetables. When forage
crops containing 30 to 50 ppm of fluoride measured on a dry weight basis are regularly
consumed over a long period, the teeth and bones of I ivestock {cattle) may show changes;
however, the extent of this effect depends upon age, nutritional factors, and the form of the
fluoride ingested.
{7) Photochemical Oxidants -Many types of plants are sensitive to
photochemical air pollution. {See Section II.A.2.) Ozone injury to leaves in sensitive species
will occur after exposure to 0.03 ppm for 8 hours, and injury has been reported after 4
hours of exposure at 0.05 ppm.
(8} Particulates -Particulates generally are detrimental to plants when
they plug leaf stomates, thereby preventing the exchange of gases necessary for
photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration. A more important and unique effect of
particulates, especially in cold and snow-covered Alaska tundra environments, is their
influence on the reflective properties of snow. Snow covered by fine sand, dust, and soot
absorbs radiation, accelerates snowmelt, and hastens growth and reproduction of species,
often to their detriment. Prematureiy deveioping piants are more vuinerabie to adverse
weather effects and frequently succumb to unexpected or abnormally cold temperatures.
Apparently, the vegetative composition paralleling oil pipeline supply roads of arctic Alaska
has been gradually changing in response to the perturbations caused by vehicular traffic
dispersing particulates along the route (Ugolini, personal communication).
b. On Wildlife
Too little information is available regarding the effects of atmospheric
pollutants on animal species to specify air quality standards for wildlife and/or the effects of
pollutants on wildlife. In many cases, information is extrapolated from man to animal. In
other cases, effects have been established only for laboratory animals. Neither method
pinpoints the influence of air contaminants on wild I ife. Nevertheless, the general trend
observed may be used to clarify, to some extent, the general effect of atm aspheric
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contaminants on wildlife. Supportive data for the following paragraphs were documented by
the American Chemical Society (1969).
(1) Carbon Monoxide-Carbon monoxide has a great affinity for the
oxygen molecule to form carboxyhemoglobin. Hypoxia, or diminished availability of
oxygen to the cells of the body, results in animals that are exposed to high concentrations
of carbon monoxide. The effects of various concentrations of carbon dioxide on human
health have been established and, although extrapolation to wildlife populations depends
upon the characteristics of individual species, the general physiological effects demonstrated
for humans would also occur in most animals. The level of human protection against carbon
monoxide poisoning would adequately protect the wildlife of an area.
(2) Hydrocarbons -The effects of hydrocarbons on wildlife species have
not been adequately determined.
(3) Nitrogen Oxide -Nitrogen oxide in humans and test animals, including
mice and rats, has shown that high nitrogen dioxide levels increase the susceptibility to
respiratory infections and result in acute respiratory diseases in humans (e.g., emphysema,
bronchitis) and pneumonitis, alveolar distention, tachypnea, and terminal and bronchiolar
hypertrophy in mice and rats.
(4) Sulfur Dioxide -Sulfur dioxide is extremely irritating to upper
respiratory tracts in concentrations of a few parts per mill ion. In addition, droplets of
sulfuric acid carry absorbed sulfur dioxide far deeper into the respiratory system than the
free gas above penetrates, thus spreading the effect of this irritant. (Hydrogen sulfide in the
open atmosphere rarely exceeds the level of mere nuisance.)
(5) Hydrogen Sulfide-Hydrogen sulfide at levels of 1 ppm for 1 hour may
cause sensory irritation to animals. At several hundred ppm, acute sickness, neurotoxicity,
and death may occur. However, it is unlikely that these levels are reached in community air
pollution.
(6) Hydrogen Fluoride -Concentrations of 2 to 5 ppm have resulted in
desquamation of the skin. Mucous membrane irritation also occurs from hydrogen fluorides,
but quantitative data are not yet adequate to establish standards.
(7) Photochemical Oxidants -Photochemical oxidants primarily affect the
respiratory system of animals. Exposure to extremely high levels for several hours produces
hemorrhage and edema in the lungs and nasal, throat, and eye irritations. Lower
concentrations for 0.12 week have not produced any apparent ill effects in humans and are
not expected to adversely affect wildlife. Ozone, however, at 1 ppm for 8 hours daily for 1
year has produced bronchiolitis and fibrositis in rodents.
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(8) Particulates -Particulate air pollution (e.g., dust, soot, beryllium, lead,
asbestos) present in large concentrations has been known to cause injury to the respiratory
system. The extent of injury, whether temporary or permanent, and the possible secondary
effects with the transportation of particulate matter within the body are uncertain.
Particulates derived from burning material may also affect animals.
4. Effects of Pesticides
a. On Plants
(1) Accumulation of Residues -Pesticide residues that build up in the soil
conceivably are injurious to crops grown in later years. Factors affecting pesticide
accumulation are the pesticide used, soil type, soil moisture, soil temperature, cover crops,
soil cultivation, mode of application and fomulation, and microbial degradation. Available
data indicate that pesticides persist longer in soils that are organic, dryer, and colder,
indicating that pesticides in Alaska may be long-lived. Residual arsenic pesticides (e.g., those
used on commercial apple orchards) are generally confined to the top 6 to 8 inches of the
soil and do not harm established trees where roots extend below that level. The roots of
young trees do not reach that deeply and have been injured or killed by residue arsenic.
(2) Absorption by Crops -Pesticide residues may be absorbed by crops
and native vegetation. In Wisconsin, aldrin and dieldrin concentrations in cucumbers have
been shown to be 2 to 6 percent of the concentrations in the soil. Carrots exhibit 22 to 80
percent of the soil concentration (American Chemical Society, 1969).
(3) Contamination of Surface Waters -Pesticide residue is either in
continuous transport on suspended particulate material or in bottom sediments. Accumula-
tion in plants can occur and transfers to feeding organisms can subsequently occur.
(4) Toxicity to Nontarget Plants-Pesticides, when used in agriculture and
forestry, may frequently be toxic to nontarget plants. Crops have been harmed by airborne
weed killers, particularly of the phenoxy (2,4-D) type, that drift long distances from the
point of application (American Chern ical Society, 1969). Ester types are especially volatile
and may drift for miles and still damage sensitive crops. The effect of airborne pesticides on
noncrop and native species has not been determined. One specific aspect that needs
considerable study is the effect of smoke from burning materials that are contaminated by
pesticides.
b. On Animals
Pesticides have been used for at least 20 years, but studies on their effects on
wildlife and their environment have begun only recently. In general, studies have shown that
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• Residues are common both in wildlife and habitat.
• Species that depend on aquatic or wetland habitats are more heavily
exposed to insecticide residues than those on dry terrestrial habitats.
The dry-land carnivorous species, however, are the exception, as
exemplified by predatory birds.
• Moderate to high levels of residues found in the tissues of some species
probably result from direct exposure rather than from the biological
concentration associated with the food chains.
Specific effects and the physiological base for the differing responses in differing species to
pesticide residues are still essentially unknown. It has been shown, however, that relative
immunity to residues can be acquired by vertebrates that live in heavily contaminated
environments and reproduce selectively for resistance. Specific effects of pesticides are
discussed below.
(1) Soil Productivity -Excessive pesticides may have harmful effects on
living organisms in soil, which in turn are part of and function in soil genesis, thereby
directly affecting soil productivity.
(2) Concentrations in Food Chains-The effects of pesticides in water may
be a serious hazard, especially if the residue is stable and concentrated in the food chain, as
has been shown for residues of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the conterminous United States
(e.g., DDT and DOD in lakes). One such classic example is found in the plankton/small
fish/predaceous fish/predaceous bird and mammal food chain. Contamination initially
occurs with small quantities of DOD or DDT being absorbed by algae, phytoplankton, and
zooplankton, which are then concentrated at each step of the food web and eventually are
expressed in detrimental quantities within avian populations such as peregrine falcons,
hawks, and eagles and marine mammal populations such as seals and walrus.
Serious toxicity and symptoms of poisoning may not appear until the
final trophic level and are most frequently lethal to the immature individuals. With regard to
such populations as peregrine falcons, hawks, and eagles, nests are built and eggs laid, but no
young are fledged. This is physiologically based and caused by concentrations of pesticide.
Residues in lipid and fatty acid tissues alter the normal hormonal balance and cause the
breakdown of estrogen in birds, which then affects the blood calcium level and in turn
adversely affects the adult and its unhatched egg. The eggs may either fail to develop or may
be thin-shelled and brittle and break prior to chick hatching. In seals and walrus and other
marine mammals, pesticide residues also concentrate and may be transferred to humans if
the affected animal is eaten.
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(3) Toxicity to Nontarget Organisms -Pesticides frequently are toxic to
nontarget organisms. The hazard to nontarget organisms depends partly on the nature of the
exposure, such as inhalation, ingestion, or contact with the skin. The hazard to mammals is
generally greater because pesticides are directly absorbed from the lungs more quickly and
completely than from the digestive tract or through the skin. The degree of respiratory
hazard cannot be evaluated until more is known about the concentrations of pesticides and
their breakdown products in the air at various times and places. In general, the
concentrations actually reported for pesticides in the air, except in the immediate vicinity of
the point of application, are not high enough to present an acute hazard to most animals
during short periods of exposure. However, cattle have been killed by TEPP (tetraethyl
pyrophosphate) when air inversions held a cloud of dust in a restricted area for 2 hours
(Quimby, 1965).
5. Effects of Solid Waste
Solid waste generally refers to rubbish, refuse garbage, and other material that is
discarded actively or inadvertently as a by-product of man's activity. Rubbish includes
combustible items such as cartons, boxes, paper, grass, plastics, bedding, and clothing; and
noncombustible items such as ashes, cans, crockery, metal furniture, and glass. Garbage
refers to waste resulting from growing, preparing, cooking, and serving food. Regardless of
the term used, solid wastes result wherever man has stayed for any substantial time. Solid
waste can be further characterized according to the physical and chemical makeup of the·
major constituents, as follows:
• Municipal Refuse -Complex heterogeneous substances produced and
discarded by people throughout their lives. These substances include paper,
garbage textiles, glass, metallics, and ceramics.
• Industrial Solid Waste -This generally includes nonferrous scrap metals,
stones, bricks, etc.
• Construction Solid Waste-Material left after construction, including vehicle
tires, detonating wire, fuel cans, barrels, unused poured cement, and
numerous other substances characteristic of specific construction operations.
• Automobiles -Discarded automobiles are a major problem which does not
fit neatly into any of the three preceding categories.
a. Removal of Space
Solid waste influences vegetation and animals by taking up space that
normally exhibits plant communities or affords animal habitat. Sanitary landfills, especially
near large urban centers, may occupy many acres of otherwise potential wildlife habitat.
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b. Damage from Leachate
As a result of leaching from solid wastes, weathering (e.g., oxidation and
biodegradation) may cause chemical changes and subsequently damage plant and animal
species. Noxious and unpleasant gases may also be produced and may influence animal
distribution.
c. Health, Aesthetics, and General Ecology
Waste disposal is frequently a health, aesthetic, and ecological problem.
Inorganic wastes, including fuel cans, barrels, and detonating wire, may influence the
behavior of animals by restricting the freedom of movement, or provide hazards to animals
by ensnaring and otherwise killing them. Biological wastes also may be detrimental to
animals. Grizzly bears, wolves, wolverines, gulls, ravens, and many other animals and birds
scavenge in garbage pits and are sometimes destroyed wantonly because they pose a threat
to humans.
An important consideration not directly pertaining to solid waste disposal or
atmospheric pollutants is the accidental spillage of chemicals, oil, and other substances used
in the construction process. Regionally, this impact may not be significant; however,
localized sources may be detrimental to both plants and animals.
6. Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is frequently an important source of disturbance to wildlife.
Although the effects of noise from aircraft, construction and drilling equipment, blasting,
and other sources that occur with the various engineering actions are poorly documented, it
may be assumed that during critical periods (e.g., breeding and calving) and in special
environments (open, unprotected lakes and smaii vaiieys) noise wiii be detrimentai to animai
populations. Gallop, et al (1974) reported that during breeding there was a measurable
reproductive failure attributed to disturbance. Sterling and Dzubin (1974) found that sea
ducks vacate traditional molting areas when disturbed by aircraft. Gallop, Goldsberry, and
Davis (1974) indicated that molting waterfowl alter normal behavior patterns, and with
repeated exposure behavioral alteration would have detrimental effects on the population.
Data on ungulate populations indicate that habituation to disturbances may occur
for some animals, including reindeer (Thompson, 1972), caribou (McCourt and Horstman,
1974), and Dall sheep (Thompson, 1972). However, in many cases the extent of impact
varied with season and activity and generalizations should not and could not be made.
Barren ground caribou, for example, were most influenced by aircraft noise during the
post-calving season and least influenced during fall migration and summer movements.
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Until rigorous tests are established that will determine the influence of aircraft,
compressors, and other equipment at all stages during the life cycle of birds and mammals,
noise pollution should be minimized as much as possible.
7. Monoculture
Simplification of communities often results in population outbreaks. By
producing monoculture, man reduces the diversity of primary producers, which almost
always results in decreasing diversity at higher trophic levels. Decreased plant and animal
diversity frequently is associated with environmental instability in that population changes
in one or a few species affect trophic interactions within all other species of an interrelated
ecosystem. For example, in even-aged pure western hemlock stands, black-headed budworm
infestations are more devastating than in uneven-aged mixed stands because it is easier for a
pest to spread when the food resource is identical in nature (Harris and Farr, 1974).
Diversity of plant species and age structure in certain cases may sometimes increase damage,
especially for those pest species that require alternate hosts. Therefore, the potential
detrimental impacts by pests (including economic loss) on agricultural and timber
monocultures should be assessed prior to production. It is essential to understand the
relation between pest infestation levels and potential crop loss.
E. AQUATIC BIOLOGY
Water quality parameters as discussed in Section II.C subsequently affect the aquatic
biology and are further discussed in the following subsections.
1. Silt and Turbidity
The composition and concentrations of materials suspended in water are
important because they influence light penetration, temperature, and other properties of
water which affect aquatic life. Increases in silt and turbidity from human activity are more
likely to affect aquatic life in waters which have minimal natural sedimentation.
a. Plants and Water Density
The growth of fixed and suspended aquatic plants can be limited by
excessively turbid waters or by silt covering plant surfaces. Because silt particles absorb
more sunlight than clearer waters, turbid water near the surface is warmed more rapidly,
resulting in a density decrease which inhibits vertical mixing. This action reduces the rate of
downward oxygen transfer, which may result in a change in the composition of biological
communities. Some fish and invertebrates may be replaced by other species which require
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less oxygen, or the increase in turbidity may reduce the density and diversity of the
biological community.
b. Fish and Shellfish
The mechanical and abrasive action of particulate material is important to
more advanced aquatic organisms such as fish and shellfish. Gills may become clogged and
the respiratory and excretory functions of these organs may be impaired. Fish can survive
relatively high concentrations of suspended matter (several thousand milligrams per liter of
water) for short periods, but prolonged exposure for most species results in a thickening of
the cells of gill tissue ("clubbed" gills), which interferes with respiration. Irritated gill tissue
is also an avenue of infection for fungi and pathogenic bacteria. Salmon are more sensitive
to turbid water than other fish such as carp and bullhead, which thrive in waters clogged
with decaying vegetation and other organic material.
c. Fish Spawning
Excessively turbid water may lim it successful spawning since some species of
fish will not spawn in water with large amounts of suspended sediment. Spawning areas for
salmon require loose gravel, which allows water and oxygen to reach the buried eggs. As
rocks or masses of sediment are carried downstream, they may destroy or sweep away
critical spawning areas. Silt deposits also may smother buried eggs by interfering with the
percolation of water through the gravel.
d. Benthic Invertebrates
Silt deposited on the bottom of a stream may smother and destroy benthic
invertebrates, which serve as the primary food source for developing salmonids.
e. Fish Migration
) Some species, particularly salmon, will not move into streams with a high silt
content and their migration patterns may be modified.
f. Contaminated Sediment
Suspended mineral particles have large, irregular surface areas to which toxic
materials such as pesticides, heavy metals, and radioactive materials adhere. This property of
silt particles is particularly important if it leads to an accumulation of toxic material in a
limited area with the possibility of sudden release of these toxicants when sediments are
disturbed. This characteristically occurs when contaminated sediments are dredged from
harbors.
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2. Toxic Substances
a. Physiological Effects of Heavy Metal Ions
Heavy metal ions may affect the gills of aquatic organisms, impairing
respiration and resulting in slow death. Enzyme processes may also be interrupted and eggs
may be prevented from hatching normally. The toxicity of some metals is directly related to
water hardness and the pH is important in governing their solubility and ionic species in
water. At a high pH, many metal ions combine with other materials and form insoluble
compounds which precipitate. Other factors which influence the toxicity of metals are
dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts.
b. Heavy Metal Ions in Sediments
Metals which have accumulated in sediments may exhibit extreme local and
downstream toxicity when disturbed by natura! or human processes.
c. Physiological Effects of Pesticides
Many pesticides, such as DOD and DDT, have low water solubility and are
rapidly absorbed in animal lipids or suspended materials in the water. These dissolved
chemicals may cause abnormal physiological changes to aquatic organisms or may result in·
impaired reproduction or development of the young.
d. Pesticides in Sediments
Pesticides which have accumulated in sediments may exhibit extreme local
and downstream toxicity when disturbed by natural or human processes.
e. Pesticides and Toxicity
Most pesticides are degraded by metabolic and chemical processes in a
relatively short time (e.g., malathion and methoxy chlor). However, some chemicals are
extremely stable and degrade slowly or form persistent degradation products (e.g., dieldrin,
endrin, and chlordane). Aquatic organisms then may accumulate these compounds by
absorption from water or through eating contaminated food. The transfer of pesticide
residues from prey to predator in the food chain results in the accumulation of residues in
the higher trophic levels. Fish may survive high residue concentrations because the pesticide
is incorporated into body fat, but residues concentrated in the eggs of mature fish may be
lethal to the developing fry. Residues in fish may be directly harmful if stress causes body
fat to be metabolized and releases the absorbed pesticide. Temperature changes may also
affect the toxicity of pesticides.
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f. Pesticide Long-Term Effects
Fish populations normally recover from pesticide exposure within a few
months but, if the young of anadromous species are destroyed, future migrations to the area
may be decreased. The recovery of aquatic invertebrates in heavily contaminated areas
usually requires a longer period of time. If residues persist in bottom sediments, benthic
organisms may be harmed even though water concentrations are low. I,.Jndesirable insect
species may be the first to repopulate the area and the entire aquatic community
development may be changed.
g. Other Toxic Substances
Additional substances which may be toxic to aquatic organisms include
ammonia (NH 3 ), detergents, petroleum compounds, sulfides, and chlorine. The action of
these substances will be discussed where applicable for a specific engineering action.
3. Dissolved Gases
a. Dissolved Oxygen
Any decrease in the level of dissolved oxygen may adversely affect the
production of aquatic organisms. Most species of adult fish can survive at very low
concentrations of dissolved oxygen but growth, activity, and embryonic development can be
limited if oxygen is reduced below saturation. Salmon and other cold water fish generally
require more oxygen than warm water fish. Normal development of salmon eggs requires a
higher level of oxygen than other salmon life processes because the eggs are buried in gravel
and are not exposed to all the oxygen in the water. Oxygen requirements of invertebrates
and other aquatic species are generally compatible with fish; any reduction of oxygen
saturation may decrease production.
b. Dissolved Gas Supersaturation
Excessive total dissolved gas pressure caused by natural or artificial mixing of
water and air (supersaturation) is known primarily for its effects on the northwestern
United States Columbia River salmon fishery, and is due to the extensive development of
dams for hydroelectric power on this river. Anadromous fish may be affected as they swim
through supersaturated water on their migration to or from spawning grounds. The effect
occurs when the total gas pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure and the dissolved gases
begin to come out of solution and form bubbles. Fish swimming in water under these
conditions (from the surface to 10 feet for 130 percent saturation) may develop symptoms
of gas bubble disease, as bubbles appear on the fish and then within the skin, on the roof of
the mouth, and within the fins and abdominal cavity. Gas bubbles may also form behind the
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eyes, causing distension of the eyeballs. Eventually, gas emboli in the blood may become
large enough to obstruct blood vessels and cause death.
4. Acidity and Alkalinity
There is no optimum pH value for aquatic life but the pH ranges from 6.5 to 8.5
in most productive waters. Some regions have naturally soft waters with a low pH, resulting
from the addition of tannic acid leached from trees. These waters are generally less
productive and, although many species of fish can live in the acid water, they grow more
slowly than those living in alkaline streams. The tolerance of fish to extreme pH levels varies
with temperature, dissolved oxygen, prior acclimation, and hardness.
a. Addition of Acids or Alkalinities
The addition of acids or alkalinities to water may be harmful, not only by
producing acid or alkaline conditions but also by increasing the toxicity of other materials
in the water. For example, acidification of water may release free carbon dioxide, which
exerts a toxic action in addition to that of the lower pH. Alkaline conditions may cause the
formation of ammonia in quantities which may be toxic. Specific causes and effects of
alteration of acidity and alkalinity are treated in the impact analysis sections of this report.
Of particular importance are the effects caused by surface mining, as discussed in Section
IV.K.
b. Nutrients and Productivity
The availability of many nutrients varies with pH; solubility changes in iron
or trace metals may alter the production of the entire aquatic community.
c. Carbonate Buffering and Productivity
The addition of mineral acids interrupts the carbonate buffering capacity of
water, which reduces fluctuations in pH and forms the carbon reservoir for photosynthesis.
Since the exchange rate between atmospheric carbon dioxide and water is limited, the
carbonate buffering system is closely correlated to the productivity of an aquatic system.
Any interference with the buffering system could reduce productivity proportionately.
5. T em perature
The composition of aquatic commumt1es depends largely on the temperature
characteristics of their environment. Organisms have upper and lower thermal tolerance
lim its, optimum temperature for growth, preferred temperatures, and temperature
limitations for migration, spawning, and egg incubation. Temperature also affects the
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physical properties of the aquatic medium including viscosity, ice cover, and oxygen
capacity. Since the body temperature of most aquatic organisms conforms to the water
temperature, the natural variations in water temperature create conditions that are generally
above or below optima for particular physiological, behavioral, and competitive functions of
the species.
a. Long-Term Temperature Changes
Long-term water temperature changes may affect aquatic organisms by
inhibiting or altering the time of spawning or migration, egg or juvenile development, and
growth, or by increasing disease susceptibility. The effects of these impacts may differ by
species, resulting in a change in the structure of aquatic communities due to increased
predation on the less adaptable species.
b. Dissolved Gases
Temperature changes also affect the amounts of atmospheric gases which can
remain dissolved in the water. Very warm water contains limited oxygen, which in turn may
limit swimming speed, thus increasing predation or decreasing the ability to obtain food.
c. Productivity
The addition of heat may alter aquatic communities and result in growths of
nuisance organisms, provided other environmental conditions, such as nutrient availability,
are satisfactory. Plankton growth has been stimulated in artificially heated lakes and
excessive algae growths have occurred in the effluent channels of power stations. This plant
growth may result in offensive odors and obstructed water intake systems, and the
decomposition of algae may decrease the oxygen available for other organisms.
6. Nutrients
Although aquatic animals are not directly affected by the am_ount of nutrients in
water, they may be indirectly influenced by the effects of these essential chemicals on plant
growth. The addition of nutrients and their effects on a body of water is referred to as
eutrophication.
a. Plant Productivity
Since plants vary in the amounts and kinds of nutrients they require, one
species or a group of species may gain dominance over another group because of the
variation in concentration of nutrients. The overabundant growth of aquatic plants may
cause disagreeable odors or unattractive growth which inhibits human use of the water.
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When the plants die, their decomposition may deplete oxygen supplies and result in fish
kills.
b. Animal Productivity
Eutrophic lakes typically produce greater crops of fish than nutrient-poor
lakes since more food is available for the detritus consumers and other aquatic organisms
upon which fish feed. As long as nuisance blooms of algae and extensive aquatic weed beds
do not hinder the growth of fish species, some enrichment may be desirable. Streams and
estuaries, as well as lakes, may show symptoms of overenrichment, but there is less
opportunity for nutrient accumulation because of the continual transport of water.
7. Exploitation of Fish Populations
Fish populations are naturally limited by environmental factors such as
temperature extremes, rainfall intensity, stream flow, and predation which may vary the
availability or accessibility of spawning sites, food, or migration routes. Increased human
activity results in increased sport, commercial, or subsistence fishing, which may decrease
the population of mature fish to a level which can no longer sustain the species. The
anadromous salmonids of Alaska are particularly susceptible to fishing pressure. An
increased harvest may decrease the numbers of fish in a stream to a level which cannot
withstand the natural variations due to extreme environmental conditions, and the entire·
stream population may be destroyed. Other aquatic and terrestrial systems which have
adapted to annual salmon migrations may be affected if migrations are interrupted or
significantly diminished.
F. SOILS
1. Introduction
The impacts of man's actions on soils are aptly expressed in the two statements
that follow:
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It is an irony of history that semi-desert conditions now prevail in much of the
region once known as the Fertile Crescent .... Moreover, the earlier peoples had on
the whole a higher standard of living than most of the present inhabitants. The
degradations of the region came about almost entirely because of human discord
and neglect. The ancient peoples had ingeniously developed the lands of the Fertile
Crescent by intelligent use of meager water resources .... Then invaders laid waste
to the region and a long decline set in. A succession of indolent and mutually
intolerant people allowed the cisterns and reservoirs to fall into ruin, the irrigation
channels and terraces to crumble, the trees to be cut down, the low vegetation to be
destroyed by sheep and goats and the land to be scoured by erosion. [Garbell,
1965]
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Hence, to correct these evils, it is necessary to remove the causes, which, for the
most part, had their origin 100 years ago in the silting we now see. Other causes I
will name are the great and frequent inundations and the huge quantities of refuse
and mud which the mountain torrents and rivers are carrying and depositing at the
present day in the lagoons, something unknown to antiquity. For then, both
mountains and valleys were full of trees and vast forests, as a result of which in
those times the rains, falling upon these woods, soon dispersed, and all the water
descending directly was almost wholly absorbed by the dead leaves and the ground
itself; that small portion that ran hither and thither through the forest, held back
by the trunks and roots of the trees, turned into vapor, consuming itself aim ost
completely in the ditches and gullies .... But at the present time, as the mountains
of the exulted dominion have been ruined and despoiled of their clothing, the rains,
finding nothing to restrain them, and the snows remaining exposed to the sun, fall
precipitately, straight down upon the lower levels. Laden with great quantities of
residual matter, they swell in the turbulent brooks and rivers to such an extent that
each year, by the forces of this impact, they break dikes, lay waste the fields,
destroy edifices, country homes, and sometimes even entire hamlets ....
[Kittredge, 1608]
Traditionally soils have been considered to be the product of the five natural
factors of parent material, vegetation, climate, topography, and time. However in recent
years, soil scientists have established the importance of man as an agent creating soil change
(Detwyler, 1971). Man-induced soil impacts which can be expected to occur in Alaska are
described in the following paragraphs.
2. Accelerated Erosion
Actions that remove vegetation, mechanically disturb the soil, and/or alter
hydrologic processes typically accelerate erosion. In general, such accelerated erosion results
in loss of valuable land and decreased fertility and productivity of the area impacted, and
may result in the necessity for primary soil succession (reestablishing soils) to occur.
3. Sedimentation
In conjunction with accelerated erosion is the deposition of the eroded materials
in other environments. The soil material is characteristically moved by the agents of air or
water. The deposition of the eroded material on other environments may be of positive or
negative value. For example, periodic flooding and silt deposition on floodplains recharge
the inundated areas with nutrients, resulting in a periodic natural fertilization process. On
the other hand, silt deposition on gravel bars used by salmonids for spawning can smother
eggs and destroy the area as a breeding area.
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4. Mass Wasting
Actions which alter topography, drainage, and/or the stability of slopes (e.g.,
building loads) can result in the gravitational downhill movement of material (flowing
waters excluded) called mass wasting (i.e., solifluction, soil creep, landslides, and
avalanches). For a more detailed discussion of these impacts see Natural Hazards in the
Alaska Environment (John Graham Company and Boeing Computer Services, Inc., 1975).
Damage typically resulting from mass wasting is not subtle and includes loss of life and
property, increases in erosion and sediment, and destruction of vegetation, as well as
creating a blight on the visual and aesthetic character of an area.
5. Subsidence
Three forms of subsidence can be expected to result from development actions in
Alaska: (a) subsidence due to thermal erosion of permafrost; (b) subsidence due to
compression of soils, particularly organic soils and landfills; and (c) subsidence due to the
withdrawal of subterranean fluids. Impacts include changes in topography and drainage,
damage to structures, formation of water bodies, and flooding.
6. Compaction
Actions placing physical stresses on surface soils (e.g. compacting by heavy ·
construction equipment) can result in compaction of some soils. Such compaction leads to a
reduced ability of vegetation to regenerate and an increase in the impervious nature of the
soils, with a subsequent change in groundwater recharge and runoff characteristics which
can create erosion off site.
7. Alteration of Permafrost
The occurrence of permafrost establishes particularly sensitive and dynamic
properties of the soil. Actions which alter this thermal equilibrium of the permafrost active
layer system can lead to subsidence, erosion and sedimentation, and extensive mass wasting
until the thermal equilibrium is reestablished. Small-grained soils with high ice content are
the most sensitive and unstable.
8. Changes in the Biological, Chemical, and Physical Properties of the Soil
The soil is a component of the ecosystem which stores and releases essential
nutrients and water to biotic systems and water to hydrologic processes. Many of man's
actions result in changes in the ability of soils to store nutrients and water, and in the ability
of soils to accept or release nutrients and water. Also, man's actions can remove or
introduce water, nutrients, and other materials at changed rates, resulting in the depletion or
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saturation of the soils with respect to these elements. Such soil changes are reflected in the
interdependent hydrologic and biologic processes. Specific changes in the soil's ability to
accept, store, and release nutrients and water typical to Alaska are as follows.
a. Soil pH
Soil pH can be changed by a number of man's actions including the
introduction of mining spoils; the addition of lime, fertilizers, and pesticides; and the
alteration of soil temperature. Changes in pH are reflected in the soil's ability to hold avions
and cations and the ability of particular plants to efficiently remove nutrients from the soil.
Small changes in pH result in conditions favorable to some species and inimical to others.
Extreme pH values are toxic as shown in Figure 2-13.
b. Soil Temperature
Temperature and biochemical activity are directly related. Actions which
remove vegetation generally cause an increase in soil temperature and may result in increases
in chemical activity of the soil, decomposer activity, and depth to permafrost.
c. Soil Structure
Compaction of some soils results in reduced space between soil particles,
which can lower the air and water concentrations in the soil bulk. In addition, the
infiltration ability of the soil is reduced, and aerobic microbial activity is hampered (e.g.,
phosphatizing and nitrifying bacterial action). Rain on denuded soils tends to form a surface
slush which seals the soil pores, reducing infiltration and generating increased surface runoff
and erosion.
d. Soil Fertility
Loss of soil through erosion is the most obvious means by which soils
become infertile. Continued removal of soil nutrients (by such things as harvest of crops) at
a rate greater than what is being generated by the soil system will lead to a reduction in soil
fertility.
9. Covering of Soils With an Impervious Layer
Roads, houses, airports, etc., cover the soil surface with an impervious material
which reduces the area's ability to absorb water. This reduced capacity for absorption may
have secondary impacts on groundwater and runoff (e.g., increases stormwater runoff to
flood stages). In addition, soils covered with an impervious layer are generally removed from
biological production systems.
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ALKALI
TOXICITY
OPTIMUM
RANGE FOR
MANY CROPS
ACID
TOLERANT
PLANTS
ACID
TOXICITY
STRONG
MODERATE
MILD
NEUTRAL
SLIGHT
MEDIUM
STRONG
VERY
STRONG
EXTREME
RELATIVE
pH ALKALINITY
ALKALOID VALUES OR ACIDITY
9 100
8 10
7
6 10
5 100
4 1,000
3 10,000
ACIDIC
NOTES: Actual acidity or alkalinity changes 10 times, or 1000 percent, for each unit of pH;
also, the point of direct acid toxicity is below the level of extremely acid soils.
TYPICAL PLANTS
LIVING IN
THESE RANGES
ARCTIC FORGET-
ME-NOTS
ARCTIC
BLADDER-POD
ASPENS
{e.g., Populus spp.)
CONIFERS
{e.g., Picea spp.)
HEATHS
{e.g., Vaccinium spp.)
MOSSES
{Sphagnum spp.)
Due to climatic stresses of Alaska, lethal limits are probably more severe than indicated.
Figure 2-13. pH and Soil Acidity or Alkalinity
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G. INTERACTIONS OF PHYSICAL AND BIOTIC ELEMENTS
1. Introduction
Physical and biotic elements of the environment interact through food webs,
precipitation, runoff, etc., to form ecosystems. Although climate and geology provide a
setting in which ecosystems function, the movement of energy and material through space
and time establishes the mechanics of an ecosystem. Even seemingly "simple" ecosystems,
such as those of the Arctic, are very complex and incompletely understood.
To consider and describe all potential or even probable consequences of the
selected actions on the biotic and physical systems comprising the ecosystems of Alaska is
literally impossible. The basic reasons for this inability include (a) a general lack of
knowledge concerning the mechanics of Alaska's many ecosystems and (b) the fact that all
elements of an ecosystem are linked, and describing all connections and consequences would
appmach an infinite number of items. However, those impacts which are best understood
and also judged to be significant are identified. Those impacts selected are on nutrient
transfers, transfers of toxic substances, sediment transfers, water transfers, and migratory
behavior.
2. Nutrient Transfers
Nutrient transfers from terrestrial to aquatic systems generally increase as human
development activities are initiated. In conjunction with harvest, these transfers result in a
loss of nutrients in terrestrial systems which results in a loss of fertility. In aquatic systems,
these increased nutrient transfers generally result in increased nutrient concentrations and
subsequent eutrophic effects.
a. Additions to Aquatic Systems
The problem of increased concentrations of nutrients in aquatic systems is
compounded by fertilization in forestry and agricultural land use activities, which r-esults in
nutrients finding their way to aquatic systems and in human or animal waste placed in
aquatic systems.
b. Removal from Aquatic Systems
Some aquatic systems are dependent on nutrients and other materials
imported from external ecosystems. Reduction of nutrient inputs can result in reduced
primary productivity and possible collapse of important fisheries.
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c. Removal from Terrestrial Systems
Erosion, leaching, and harvesting remove nutrients from the soil. These
nutrients require replacement if long-range productivity is to be maintained.
3. Transfer of Toxic Substances
All of the engineering actions under analysis generate a certain amount of waste
material, which can contain various amounts of toxic materials. Table II-XIII shows some of
the typically introduced waste pollutants, the environment into which they are generally
discharged, the environment into which the pollutant is then transferred, and the general
impact on flora and fauna. As shown, many of the potentially toxic materials are transferred
from environment to environment. The transfers of such substances can occur through food
chains, precipitation, runoff, and leaching or other mechanisms.
The 1972 amendment to the federal Water Pollution Control Act defined toxic
pollutants. In July 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency designated the following 12
chemicals as toxic water pollutants: aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDT and its derivatives ODE
and DOD, toxaphene, cadmium, mercury, cyanide, benzedine, and PCP (polychlorinated
biphenyls). Chemicals which are under scrutiny for possible inclusion to the list are arsenic,
secenium, chromium, lead, asbestos, sevin, zinc, chlordane, lindane, acridine, hydroquinone,
orthochlorophenol, beta-naphthol, alpha-naphthol, beryllium, nickel, antimony, heptachlor,
camphor, methyl parathion, parathion, and di-n-butyl phthalate (Council of Environmental
Quality, 1975).
4. Sediment Transfers
Development actions traditionally increase the transfer of sediment from
terrestriai to aquatic systems and from upper to iower watersheds. However, some actions
reduce regional and ecosystem transfers.
a. Increased Sediment Transfers
Actions which remove vegetation disturb the soil, inhibit revegetation, or
result in areas which have no vegetative cover, and typically cause erosion and subsequent
siltation of local receiving waters. Vegetation helps to maintain soils on a given area through
physical impediment of soil particles and movement by roots, stems, and leaves. Vegetation
also reduces the energy level of raindrops prior to their striking the ground, which reduces
the ability of the rainfall to place soil particles in suspension and thereby remove soil from
the site. Vegetation further reduces the quantity of water discharged from a given area,
reducing the ability of water to create and move sediments downstream of the site.
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TABLE II-XIII. SUMMARY OF WASTE PRODUCTS, TRANSFERS, AND IMPACTS
Environments into which Wastes are Discharged/Transferred
Wastes
Air
Gases and associated particulate matter
(e.g., S02 , C02 , CO, smoke, soot) X
Photochemical compounds of
exhaust gases X
Urban/industrial solid wastes
Persistent inorganic residues
(e.g., lead, mercury) X
Persistent organic compounds
Oil
Organochlorine residues T
Pharmaceutical wastes
Short-life wastes
Sewage
Fertilizer residues with N2 , P
Detergent with P
Radioactivity X
Land dereliction
Heat X
Noise X
Deliberate wasting -CBW
(e.g., defoliation)
Key: X -Environments into which wastes.are discharged
T -Environments into which wastes get transferred
Source: Simmons, 1974, p. 278
Fresh
Water
T
T
T
XT
X
X
T
X
T
X
T
Clinical Effects
Oceans Land of Residues on
Humans?
T T Yes
? T Yes
X X No
TX X Yes
X T No
X X Disputed
T Unknown
X Possible pathogen
carrier
T X Yes, especially N2
T No
X T Yes
X No
No
Yes
T X Yes
0 Little or no impact * Aquatic systems
1 -Moderate impact
2 -Severe impact
Impact
Fauna Flora
1 1
1 1
0 0
2 1
2 1
2 1
? ?
2 1
2* 1 *
2* 1*
2 2
2 2
2* 2*
1 0
2 2
Vegetation and erosion must be given special consideration in permafrost
areas. Vegetation is a regulatory mechanism in the thermal budget of permafrost areas.
Removal of vegetation in permafrost areas can result in increased depth of the active layer,
subsidence, surface mass wasting hazards, and less spectacular (though equally severe)
erosional gullies. Mass wasting and gully erosion increase sediment transfer from terrestrial
to aquatic ecosystems and, if extensive, can increase downstream sediment transfers
between regions. Increased imperviousness of a watershed or a se_gment of a watershed can
result in increased water peaks and quantities of discharge, which results in the increased
ability of the water downstream of the area to erode and move materials.
b. Decreased Sediment Transfers
Although development actions typically increase the potential for transfers
of sediment between environments and regions, some actions reduce transfers (e.g., dredging
and damming). Dams act as sediment catchment basins in rivers and reduce the transfer of
sediment downstream. Reduction in sediment input to coastal marine beaches may increase
beach erosion. In many cases, the damming of rivers has resulted in increased development
activity in the upper watershed, which can drastically increase the sediment and material
load of the river. This drastic increase can subsequently cause a very rapid and unpredicted
deposition of sediment in the dam reservior. Dredging across areas of littoral drift results in
removal of input material downdrift from the dredging site. The frequent result of such an
action is erosion of valuable beaches downdrift of the dredged channel.
5. Water Transfers
The effects of development on transfers within the hydrologic cycle are of three
basic types: increased transfer rates, decreased transfer rates, and alteration of the temporal
pattern of transfer rates.
a. Increased Transfer Rates
Actions which compact soil, remove vegetation, or cover soils with
impervious material may result in a decrease in the ability of the watershed to contain water
(retention). When this occurs the discharge rates increase. Water is typically discharged
shortly following precipitation. Increases in the rate of discharge can cause flooding
downstream, scouring, xerification of the watershed, reduction in the recharge of
groundwater, increased transfer of sediment and nutrients to systems downstream, and
decreased evapotranspiration.
b. Decreased Transfer Rates
Actions which impede or reduce water transfer include damming and
removal for human consumption and use. These activities may typically result in the
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reduction of normal water transfers out of the watershed. Such actions result in increased
evapotranspiration and the raising of groundwater tables. Possible consequences include
reduced water availability downstream, waterlogging of soils, and increased concentrations
of salts in surface layers of the soil which would normally be removed by leaching. In areas
of permafrost, actions which impede runoff can cause permafrost melt, which causes
subsidence followed by lake or pond formation.
c. Alteration of Transfer Rates
Not only do development actions change the rates of water transfers
between ecosystems and even regions, but they alter the temporal patterns of transfer.
Actions that compact soil, remove vegetation, or increase the· imperviousness of the
watershed generally result in increased fluctuation of flow with higher peaks and lower lows.
In such cases removal of water from the watershed quickly follows rainfall or snowmelt.
However, when such things as damming occur in conjunction with flood control or
consumptive uses, this pattern of removal is often altered. High flows are lowered by closing
the spiiiway and iow fiows are increased by opening the spillway. Seasonal cycles in wa~er
transfers are subsequently muted. Downstream ecosystems which are linked to the norn;1al
seasonal fluctuation in water conditions can be strongly affected by such alterations in
temporal patterns.
6. Migration
Migratory populations are particularly sensitive to development. Characteristic
influences are described in the subsequent paragraphs.
a. Impediments to Migration
Physical impediments to migration by dams, roads, and other rights-of-way
can prevent or reduce access to essential habitats of migratory species. Resultant population
losses of regional and even national significance are possible. Anadromous fish and caribou
are organisms most sensitive to this type of impact, although altitudinal migratory species
(e.g., brown/grizzly bears and moose) can also be affected.
b. Infringement on Critical Concentration Areas
Developmental infringement, through habitat alteration, pollution, and
disturbance at critical concentration areas (e.g., staging areas, calving areas, wintering
grounds, overwintering fishery areas), can have significant deleterious effects on
interregional and intraregional populations. Modification of the habitat by vegetation
removal, altering succession or changing community composition, can result in less favorable
conditions for species using critical areas. Disturbance from noise, human presence, and
2-75
domestic pets in these areas can result in reduced reproductive success in some species,
increased mortality in other species, and may have no effect in other cases. Introduction of
pollutants (particularly in aquatic environments in the form of toxic substances), changes in
the levels of dissolved gases, or the introduction of organic materials requiring oxygen for
decomposition may result in reduced reproductive success and/or increased mortality, or the
aberration of migratory behavior.
c. Selective Pressure on Migratory Behavior
Hunting pressure can establish "artificial" selection on migratory
populations by removing individuals traveling through accessible areas during migration.
This type of selection can el im in ate, reduce, or alter migration patterns, with potential
consequences of reduced carrying capacity, overgrazing, erosion, and population collapse.
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SECTION Ill
OCCURRENCE OF SELECTED ACTIONS
In order to identify those areas where the presence of certain natural resources would
contribute to their likely exploitation or development, a constraint analysis was made. This
analysis identifies the potential occurrence of an activity, but not the expected time of
occurrence. The purpose of the analysis is to identify those physiographic units which might
be subject to the impacts of certain human activities and the associated environmental
features of those physiographic units. The selected regions and physiographic provinces
which were evaluated are listed in Table III-I and shown in Figure 3-1. A description of the
key physical and biological processes which distinguish the environment of each of the
physiographic units within the 14 analysis regions is contained in the report entitled T,7e
Environment of Alaska: Analysis of Physical and Biological Determinants (John Graham
Company and Boeing Computer Services, Inc., 1976a).
The presence and quantification of the resources subject to development pressure in
each physiographic province vvere determined in The EnvironmetJt of ,4/aska: Resource
Specific Quantification (John Graham Company and Boeing Computer Services, Inc.,
1976b). The resources quantified by land units in this document are as follows:
• Renewable Resources
Agriculture {R 1 )
Range (R 2 )
Forestry (R 3 )
Wildlife (R 4 )
Fisheries (R 5 )
Water (R 6 )
Vegetation types (R 7 )
Recreation opportunities ( R8 )
Preservation opportunities ( R9 )
Subsistence opportunities ( R 10 )
Hydropower opportunities (R 11 )
• Nonrenewable Resources
Oil and gas (R 12 )
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3-2
TABLE III-I. SELECTED REGIONS AND MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC UNITS
Region
A. Arctic
B. Northwest
c. Upper Yukon/Porcupine
D. Tanana
E. Yukon/Koyukuk
F. Yukon/Kuskokwim Delta
G. Upper Kuskokwim
H. Cook Inlet
I. Copper River
J. Aleutian
K. Bristol Bay
L. Kodiak/Shelikof
M. Gulf of Alaska
N. Southeast Alaska
Key: CL -Coastal Lowlands
CU -Coastal Uplands
IL -Interior Lowlands
IU -Interior Uplands
SM Steep Mountains *
*Several steep mountain units are not mapped separately from
upland units because of size or other reasons.
Major Physiographic Units
CL, CU, SM
CL, CU, IL, IU, SM
IL, IU, SM
IL, IU, SM
IL, IU, SM
CL, CU, SM
lL, IU, SM
CL, CU, IL, IU, SM
IL, IU, SM
CL, CU, SM
CL, CU, SM
CU,SM
SM, CL, CU
CL, CU, SM
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
0
c
c
LEGEND
SYMBOL REGION
ARCTIC
HORTKWEIT
c UPPER YUKOti·POACUPINE
0
E YUKottttOYUKUK
YUKON KUSKOKWIM DELTA
G UPPER MU&XOII;WIM
H
J ALEUTIAN
K IRISTOLIAY
M
N
PHYSIOGRAPHIC UNITS
Cl CGUT.t.L LOWlAND
"" COMTALIAANO
IHTfRIOfti.OWLAND .. .. TI!IUOfii .... AIID ... ......""'-"T ...
~ / 1
·~l /). ~·
'~~
\
' M \
N
Figure 3-1. Fourteen Analysis Regions of Alaska APPROXIMATE LOCATION
w w
Coai(R 13 )
Geothermal (R 14 )
Mineral extractives (R 15 )
Areas suitable for urban development ( R 16 )
Antiquities (R 17 )
The actions which were selected for analysis included all of the Level II (combinations
of engineering actions) and Level Ill (aggregate actions) activities. The basic engineering
actions (Level I) were generally excluded from this analysis as they would be expected to
generally occur in conjunction with the more complex development activities. Exceptions to
this exclusion included the Level I actions of water drilling and dredging. Descriptions of the
methods used in each level of analysis.are contained in the following subsections.
The basic purpose of this report is to describe the environmental impacts associated
with development. In order to determine these impacts, resource development or
exploitation was defined as (1) an increase in existing exploitation, or (2) the development
of available resources. Based on the development actions selected for this impact analysis,
the major resources which would potentially be required include minerals, timber,
agricultural lands, fisheries, oil and gas, hydroelectric power, and recreation amenities. The
potential occurrence of development actions was therefore determined based on the
following criteria:
• Existence and quality of the resource
• Accessibility of the resource
• Development of nearby resources
• Anticipated requirements or existing plans for resource use
Some or all of these factors, depending upon the specific resource, were then considered in
order to determine the possibility of the occurrence of various actions within a given
physiographic unit. The criteria applied to each selected action are discussed individually
and summarized in a table of their potential occurrence by physiographic unit.
A. LEVEL I ACTIONS (by alphabetical designation)
Dredging (F)
The Bureau of Land Management identified areas for water transportation and dock
facilities in their preliminary transportation and utility corridor system (1974). Both the
Corps of Engineers (Orson Smith, personal communications) and the Division of Waters and
Harbors (Alaska State Department of Public Works, Don Stater, personal communications)
3-4
c
c
c
c
c
c
0
0
0
c
c
)
)
...
}
)
identified sites requiring maintenance dredging of existing navigation channels. These sites
form the basis of the potential occurrence of the activity.
Potential
Occurrence
0
1
Criteria Description
No identified dredging sites
Potential dredging activity for navigation and drainage
improvements
2 Maintenance dredging and new dredging activities
B. LEVEL II ACTIONS (by alphabetical designation)
Exploration for Gas and Oil (H)
The potential occurrence of exploration for oil and gas is based on the potential for
development of these resources (Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission, 1974).
Potentia!
Occurrence
0
1
Criteria Description
No potential
Oil and gas reserves are assumed to exist based on available
geologic data
2 Drilling occurs or has occurred with remaining resources
Road Construction (I)
The Bureau of Land Management (1974) has identified transportation and utility
corridors. This identification is based on anticipated needs for development of Alaska's
mineral, coal, gas, and oil resources; general transportation; and electrical transmission lines
-each requiring the construction of roadways for a particular use. The potential occurrence
of roadway construction is, therefore, based on the preliminary conceptual corridor system
(Bureau of Land Management, 1974) and the five-year construction program of the Alaska
State Department of Highways (1975).
3-5
Potential
Occurrence
0
1
Criteria Description
No roadways identified
Roadways identified by the corridor system (Bureau of Land
Management, 1974)
2 Five-year construction program (State of Alaska, Department of
Highways, 1975)
Dam Construction (J)
In this report, it is assumed that all damming activities will be of a multipurpose nature
(flood control, power generation, water supply, etc.). Therefore, the potential occurrence of
damming is based on the Technical Advisory Committee report on F?esources and Electric
Power Generation, Alaska Power Administration (1974).
Potential
Occurrence Criteria Description
0 No identified sites
1 Sites favorable for potential hydroelectric facilities (61 sites)
2 Projects which appear to have the greatest likelihood of
near-future development and the greatest potential in terms of
long-range state and national needs (15 sites)
Exploration and Recovery of Hard Rock Minerals (K)
The potential occurrence of activities associated with exploration and recovery of hard
rock minerals is based on the potential for development of coal and mineral resources
identified by the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission (1974). The data base is
contained in The Environment of Alaska: Resource Specific Quantification (John Graham
Company and Boeing Computer Services, Inc., 1976b).
3-6
c
c
c
c
c
c
0
0
0
0
0
j
)
)
..
;l
)
Potential
Occurrence
0
1
2
Criteria Description
No minable resources identified
Mineral or coal deposits which are known to occur or which have
favorable geological, geophysical, and geochemical data
Mineral or coal resource areas which exhibit current mining
operations or past producing areas with known remaining
resources
Commercial Logging (L)
The potential occurrence of commercia! logging in a region was based on the presence
of the commercial forest types in the region, as described in The Environment of Alaska:
Resource Specific Quantification (John Graham Company and Boeing Computer Services,
Inc., 1976b), the occurrence of current cutting activities, and the occurrence of population
centers.
Potentia!
Occurrence
0
1
Criteria Description
One percent or less of the resource potential occurs in the region
Greater than 1 percent of the state's forest resources occur in the
region, but no significant lumber activity or population centers
occur in the region
2 Greater than 1 percent of the potential forest resources occur in
the area and current logging or population centers occur
Agriculture (M)
Areas in Alaska with agricultural potential have been mapped and published by Reiger
(1974), Snodgrass (1974), and the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission (1974).
All maps were based on the Exploratory Soil Survey of Alaska, initiated in 1967 and
completed in 1973, at 1 :500,000 (by the Soil Conservation Service). Areas with current
agricultural use are also identified by Snodgrass (1974) and the Alaska Crop and Livestock
Reporting Service ( 1975). These data are contained in The Environment of Alaska:
3-7
Resource Specific Quantification {John Graham Company and Boeing Computer Services,
Inc., 1976b). The data base was used to determine potential occurrence for development of
agriculture resources as follows.
Potential
Occurrence Criteria Description
0 One percent or less of the state's arable lands occur in the area
2
Area has greater than 1 percent of the state's arable lands, but no
current agricultural activity and no local markets {population
centers)
Area has greater than 1 percent of the state's arable lands, has
current agricultural utilization and/or local markets {population
centers)
C. LEVEL Ill ACTIONS {by alphabetical designation)
Community Development {N)
The Water Resources Council, Alaska Water Study Committee, has identified regions in
Alaska where population increases are expected to cause expansion or growth of existing
community settlements {1975). These population increases will result from development of
oil and gas resources, mining, tourism, transportation centers, services, and government
installations. Therefore, the potential occurrence of new settlements or the growth of
existing communities is based on the development of oil and gas, coal, and mineral
resources. The data base is derived from those resources identified as having a high potential
for development {John Graham Company and Boeing Computer Services, Inc., 1976b).
3-8
Potential
Occurrence
0
Criteria Description
No resource development
New settlements or growth of existing communities from the
development of one resource
2 New settlements or growth of existing communities from the
development of two or more resources
c
0
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
.,
y
)
)
...
J
)
Recreational Development (0)
The Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission has identified areas in Alaska where
recreational activities are expected to be developed. At a minimum, each development
facility is expected to provide access facilities for aircraft, passenger boats, motor vehicles,
or a combination of each. The areas served may be utilized for intensive recreation,
low-density recreation, or wilderness. (Areas intended for intensive recreation generate high
activity or participation levels; lower participation levels and recreation pursuits of a passive
nature are associated with low-density recreation areas.) Native corporations and federal and
state agencies, as well as other private groups, are expected to provide the land and funding
for developments. It is assumed that expected developments will occur first at or near major
population centers, then along existing or new roads, and finally in bush locations. The level
of development will depend on the recreational activity being provided and the demand for
that activity. Therefore, the potential occurrence of recreational development is based on
the identified focal points .
Potential
Occurrence
0
1
Criteria Description
No resource development proposed
Areas in which recreational development has been proposed
2 Areas in which recreational development has been proposed and
which are located within 200 air miles of major population and
transportation centers
Naturai Resource Deveiopment Compiex (P)
Resource extraction complexes are built for development of oil and gas resources,
minerals, coal, fisheries, and timber. Therefore, the potential occurrence of a resource
extraction complex is based on the potential for development of these resources, identified
by the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission (1974). The data base is contained in
The Environment of Alaska: Resource Specific Quantification (John Graham Company and
Boeing Computer Services, Inc., 1976b).
Potential
Occurrence
0
Criteria Description
No resource development
3-9
Potential
Occurrence Criteria Description
Resource extraction complex from the development of one
resource: oil and gas (HP), minerals (VHP), coal, fisheries, timber
2 Resource extraction complex from the development of two or
more resources: oil and gas (HP), minerals (VHP), coal, fisheries,
timber
The results of the potential occurrence analyses are shown in Table III-II by region and
physiographic province. The mean for each physiographic province provides an indication of
which land units have the highest or lowest potential occurrence of the ten human
development activities evaluated. Nine physiographic units have a mean expected occurrence
value of 0.1 to 0.5, ten units have a mean potential occurrence of 0.6 to 0.9, seventeen units
a mean of 1 to 1.5, and five units a mean of 1.6 to 2. In addition, the areas designated
follow an expected pattern, with coastal lowland areas having an average expected
occurrence of 1.3, coastal uplands 1.14, interior lowlands 0.94, interior uplands 0.87, and
steep mountains 0.83.
3-10
c
0
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
TABLE III-II. POTENTIAL OCCURRENCE OF SELECTED HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACTIONS
Regions Level Ill
Physiographic Unit p
A. Arctic CL 1 2
cu 2 2
SM 3 0
B. Northwest CL 4 2
cu 5 2
IL 6 0
IU 7 1
SM 8 0
C. Upper Yukon/ IL 9 2
Porcupine
IU 10 2
SM 11 1
D. Tanana IL 12 2
IU 13 2
SM 14 1
E. Yukon/Koyukuk IL 15 1
IU 16 2
SM 17 1
F. Yukon/Kuskokwim CL 18 2
Delta cu 19 1
SM 20 1
G. Upper Kuskokwim IL 21 2
IU 22 2
SM 23 0
H. Cook Inlet CL 24 2
cu 25 2
IL 26 0
IU 27 0
SM 28 2
I. Copper River IL 29 2
IU 30 0
SM 31 2
J. Aleutian CL 32 2
cu 33 2
SM 34 2
K. Bristol Bay CL 35 2
cu 36 2
SM 37 0
L. Kodiak/Shelikof cu-38 2-
SM 39 1
M. Gulf of Alaska CL!U 40 2
SM 41 2
N. Southeast CL 42 1
cu 43 2
SM 44 2
Key to Actions: A -Clearing and Grubbing
B -Excavation
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
1
1
1
0
0
2
2
2
2
0
2
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
2
2
. 1
1
2
2
2
2
2
C -Construction Filling on Land
D -Foundation Construction
N M
2 0
2 0
0 0
2 0
2 0
0 0
1 0
0 0
1 1
2 1
1 0
1 2
2 2
1 0
0 1
2 1
1 0
2 1
1 0
1 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 2
2 2
0 0
0 0
2 0
2 1
0 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 1
2 1
0 0
-2 0
1 0
2 0
2 0
1 0
1 0
2 0
E -Construction Filling in Water and Wetlands
F -Dredging
G -Drilling for Water
H -Exploration for Oil and Gas
L
0
0
o·
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
2
2
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
Q
2
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
1
1
2
2
2
Level II Level I
K
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
0
1
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
- 2
2
2
2
0
2
2
J I H G F
0 1 2 0
0 l 2 0
0 1 1 0
1 2 2 2
2 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
2 2 2 1
2 1 2 1
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
2 1 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
2 1 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 0
0 1 0 0
2 1 0 0
2 1 2 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 2 0 0
0 1 2 0
0 1 2 0
0 1 2 0
1 2 2 2
1 1 2 0
1 1 0 0
... 0 .. .2 2 --. ... 2
0 0 1 0
0 2 2 2
2 2 2 0
0 1 2 2
1 2 0 0
2 1 2 0
I -Road Construction
J -Dam Construction
E D c B A
- -------
K -Exploration and Recovery of Hard Rock Minerals
L -Commercial Logging
M -Agriculture
N -Community Development
0 -Recreational Development
P -Natural Resource Development Complex
Mean Ratio
for Ten Actions
1.0
1.0
0.4
1.5
1.1
0.4
'li
0.6
0.3
1.5
1.6
0.8
1.4
1.4
0.8
1.0
0.9
0.8
1.4
0.5
0.5
0.9
1.1
0.4
1.6
1.6
0.3
0.4
1.3
1.1
0.1
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.6
1.3
0.5
1.5
0.6
1.5
1.5
1.1
1.2
1.5
0
SECTION IV
IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SELECTED
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACTIONS
One of the major purposes of an impact analysis is to assure that environmental values
receive equal consideration with economics in the decision-making process. A principal
means to accomplish these objectives is to call attention to environmental relationships
which may not have been given adequate consideration during initial planning of a project.
The vehicle often employed for such comment and analysis is the environmental impact
statement (EiS). The use of such a tool is proving to be an effective and reasonable way to
curb pollution and disruption of our environment by placing values on the environment.
The preparation of impact statements by federal agencies was mandated by Congress
with passage of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (Public Law 91-190). Since
that time, rna ny states and municipalities have adopted similar acts to cover
nongovernmental activities. The typical impact statement generally follows the format
established by the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) and includes the following·
sections:
• Description of the proposed action
Description of existing environment
• Environmental impacts of the proposed action
• Unavoidable adverse environmental effects
• Alternatives to the proposed action
• Relationship between local short-term environmental uses and the maintenance
and enhancement of long-term productivity
• Any irreversible and irretrievable resource commitments associated with the
proposed action
The content of the environmental impact statement transcends those items typically
involved in the decision to proceed with a project and requires the knowledge and expertise
4-1
of a wide range of environmental scientists, planners, social scientists, economists, and
engineers. This interdisciplinary approach to project analysis is designed to examine the
consequences of human actions on the natural, physical, and human environments; to
determine if the resulting changes will result in significant loss or disruption to the
environment; and to provide a discussion of alternatives which will result in less disruption
and damage.
In support of this approach, impact analyses have been developed for 17 development
actions. The selection of these actions was based on their degree of complexity and
potential occurrence within the state of Alaska. The degree of complexity relates to such
things as the time required to carry out the action, the level of disruption expected, the
amount and extent of resources committed, and the level of activity generated by
construction and operation of the project.
Level I actions are defined as basic engineering activities. The actions are generally
associated with all development activities, are accomplished within a relatively short time
span, often have only short-term impacts on the environment (though these may be
significant and severe), and require relatively small commitments of resources and initially
high levels of human construction activity. Classifying the severity of an engineering action
is subjective at best and frequently is considered a function of the density and distribution
of the natural resource (environmental attribute) or the extent of the engineering action.
For example, detrimental effects on 10 of 50 localized animals (or plants or other·
environmental attribute) may be considered severe, whereas impacts on 10 of 5000 animals
(or plants or other environmental attribute) may be considered slight. Likewise,
construction impacts from one building may be considered slight, whereas impacts from
1000 may be severe. However, in both cases the impact to the animal (or plants or other
environmental attributes) is severe in that the animal (plant and/or resource) is exterminated
or removed and the completion of the action results in an irretrievable and irreversible
condition. Hence, construction and foundations (i.e., Level I activity) is classified as a severe
impact regardless of animal population and project size characteristics, and it is only the
extent of the impact that changes with the level of action (Level I action versus Level Ill).
In and of themselves, basic engineering actions are generally not the sole subject of an
environmental impact statement. However, they do represent the initial activities
undertaken in support of more complex developments which generally require a further
commitment of land resources and a commitment over time to an environment dominated
by human presence and activity. These Level I actions selected for analysis include
• Clearing and grubbing
• Excavation
• Construction filling on land
• Foundation construction
4-2
)
• •
Construction fill on water and wetlands
Dredging
• Drilling for water
Level II actions are combinations of engineering actions which result in the
construction of generally single-purpose facilities or activities which are used over an
extended period of time. Many of these types of activities have been subjected to the impact
statement process. The land and resources committed to support such projects are often
extensive. Because of these commitments, the impacts tend to be more extensive and are
often felt at distances far removed from the actual project site. For example, road
construction requires an extensive commitment of land.
The primary impacts include removal of vegetation and alteration of soils and
topography. The indirect impacts associated with use of the road include loss of wildlife
habitat; accelerated runoff; contamination of runoff vvaters from oil, gas, and heavy metals;
increased carbon monoxide emissions; and increased noise levels. These impacts in turn
create other impacts such as a loss of wildlife carrying capacity, impediments to migration,
transport of toxic substances to water bodies (thus adversely affecting fisheries or other
aquatic flora and fauna), as well as adverse effects on the health and welfare of nearby
residents (human and animal) due to the degradation of the air quality and increased noise
disturbances.
In addition to these primary impacts, roads may create an impetus which results in
significant secondary effects. Roads open areas to further development, provide access to
previously unused areas, and generally stimulate growth. This growth and/or commitment of
areas to human use may result in the alteration of an entire area and al! the associated
natural and physical processes.
For these far-reaching actions, knowledge of the potential changes (short-term,
long-term, primary, and secondary) should be examined prior to undertaking a project. A
complete analysis of the anticipated changes will allow the project sponsor, land manager,
public, and decision-makers to view the project in light of the potential losses accrued and
make an informed judgement on whether such losses are outweighed by the gains achieved.
The Level II actions selected for analysis include
• Exploration for oil and gas
• Road construction
• Dam construction
• Exploration and recovery of hard rock minerals
• Commercial logging
• Agriculture
4-3
Level Ill actions are termed cumulative based on the fact that they generally involve a
variety of human activities and actions and a greater degree of activity. These actions, like
those of Level II, are often subjected to the impact statement process. The pollution
potential is aggravated by the presence of significant human populations requiring various
modes of transportation, public services, utilities, and significantly greater commitments of
land and resources over time. As was the case with the Level II actions, these activities may
create secondary impacts of greater proportion than those associated with the initial action.
In other words, Level Ill actions are often growth-inducing and attract developments in
support of the major activity. Included in this level of action are the following
developments:
• Community development
• Recreational development
• Natural resource development complex
The following impact sections contain an analysis of the major environmental effects
associated with each action, In order to perm it a better understanding of the activities
associated with a specific action, a brief descriptive introduction is provided. Following the
introduction are discussions of the resources required to carry out the action, some of the
permits or regulations which might be required, the activities and equipment employed, and
finaiiy the impacts created by the action. These impacts as they affect air quality, noise,
water resources, aquatic biology, terrestrial biology, soils, and interactive processes are
related to the activities previously described and are not site specific. The relative degree of
impact or the severity of the resulting changes to the environment are analyzed by
employing a matrix.
For each action the matrix covers each of the state's 44 physiographic units which
were previously identified and described in the document entitled The Environment of
Alaska: Analysis of Physical and Biological Determinants (John Graham Company, 1976).
(Also see Table III-I and Figure 3-1 for a graphic view of these units.) These physiographic
unit descriptions serve as the basis for the analysis of the severity of the associated impacts.
In addition to the severity of impact, the actions are evaluated on the basis of the potential
occurrence as described in Section Ill. Together, these matrixes should assist land use
planning in the state of Alaska by providing a basis for determination as to the amount and
extent of various impacts as they are related to a wide variety of future development
actions.
Finally, it should be kept in mind that a complete and detailed evaluation of impacts
from human development activities requires a further site specific level of analysis. Those
impacts discussed will provide the land manager and decision-maker with the basic
information required to determine how a project might alter the environment. However, in
order to fully understand the benefits and losses of any proposal, it will also require detailed
4-4
site studies, further analysis of the project components, modeling of all related impacts,
discussion of measures which will lessen the severity of various impacts, and a thorough
analysis of alternatives which might achieve the project objectives using different methods,
other sites, or modified plans.
It should also be kept in mind that impacts vary, not only with geographic location,
but also with season and in some cases even with the time of day. Where possible, these
variations have been discussed. Due to the number of permutations which could occur, the
following impacts generally reflect worst-case conditions with no particular mitigation
employed to lessen severity.
A. CLEARING AND GRUBBING
i. introduction
Land clearing involves the removal of obstructions from the ground surface, and
grubbing is the uprooting of stumps, roots, and other obstructions which interfere with
subsequent construction. These actions generally precede most other construction activities.
Clearing does not involve the demolition or removal of buildings or other human structures.
A specific example of clearing and grubbing activity is the preparation of land a for house
and access road construction.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
No additional resources beyond equipment, fue!, and manpov\ler are required for
clearing and grubbing activities.
3. Permits and Regulations
Clearing and grubbing activities are generally not controlled by perm it from a
government agency; however, they are often related to the placement of foundations, which
may be subject to permit. Burning permits are generally required for associated disposal of
refuse from this action.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Clearing and grubbing involves the removal of aboveground vegetation and
subsurface roots and stumps. Generally, small trees and those of no economic value are
pushed down with a bulldozer without cutting through the trunk. Larger trees are cut above
the ground and the stumps are excavated with a bulldozer. To avoid disturbing adjacent
property, hand-clearing and grubbing (in which trees are selectively removed and stumps are
4-5
cut flush to the ground) may be required. Chain saws are occasionally used to clear trees in a
permafrost area and the ground is disturbed as little as possible to maintain the insulating
properties of the groundcover.
Grubbing involves the removal of root systems from the soil so they will not
interfere with later construction. In Alaska, root systems are not well developed or extensive
enough to require excavation and the roots are usually exposed when the tree is pushed
over. Occasionally, large deeply rooted trees are pushed over and excavated with a backhoe
or bulldozer to weaken the root system for removal. Equipment similar to that listed for
excavation activities (Section IV.B) may be used for clearing and grubbing, depending upon
the extent of the activity.
Depending on its value, timber debris may be sold as lumber, removed to an
off-site disposal area, or burned. In the majority of cases in Alaska, the last method may be
the cheapest, but can have detrimental effects from smoke, fire hazard, and other pollution
problems. Burning the debris of a large area requires a permit from the state forester.
Commercial logging is uncommon for small projects because of small profit,
unmerchantable, and often undesirable wood. Off-site disposal requires a special stockpiling
area, which may create a fire hazard. Chipping for mulch is a recent and rather expensive
development, but saves the cost of hauling. Oversized wood is sometimes cut for firewood.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
A major source of emissions to the atmosphere results from dust generated
by activities on the site. Particulate emissions are directly proportional to the area of land
being worked, the level of activity, the silt content of the soil, and inversely proportional to
the square of the moisture content. Since the burning of refuse is common, the emissions
from this practice are also important. Ground level open burning is affected by many
variables including wind, ambient temperature, and composition and moisture content of
the debris burned; size and shape of the debris; and compactness of the pile. In general, the
relatively low temperatures associated with open burning increase the emission of
particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons, and suppress the emission of nitrogen
oxides. Typical values are given in Table IV-I. Mitigating measures such as chipping or use of
forced air to achieve cleaner burning can reduce such problems.
b. Noise
During clearing and grubbing, the noisiest sources of equipment at a site are
generally trucks (91 dBA) and scrapers (88 dBA). Ground clearing tends to be one of the
noisiest phases of construction. Typical composite noise levels for various types of projects
are shown in Table IV-II.
4-6
TABLE IV-I. EMISSION FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING
(in pounds per ton)
Agricultural Landscape Refuse
Pollutant Field Burning Wood Refuse and Pruning
Particulates 17 17 17
Sulfur oxides neg neg neg
Carbon monoxide 100 50 60
Hydrocarbons ( CH 4 ) 20 4 20
Nitrogen oxides 2 2 2
TABLE IV-II. TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS DURING
CLEARING AND GRUBBING AT VARIOUS PROJECT SITES
Energy Level, dB(A)*
Type of Project
All Pertinent Minimum Required
Equipment Present at Site Equipment Present at Site
Domestic housing 84 83
Office buildings, hotels, hospitals,
and schools 84 84
Industrial parking garage, recreation
sites, stores, and service stations 84 87
Public works, roads, highways, sewers,
and trenches 84 84
* 50 dBA ambient
Source: Bolt, Barenek, and Newman, 1971 a
4-7
c. Water Resources
The area cleared and grubbed presents a surface potentially erodible by
precipitation and stonnwater runoff. The placement of material into suspension depends
upon the character of the soil, the topographic gradient, and the amount and type of
precipitation. An increase over natural concentrations of suspended matter could result in
the impacts identified in Section II.C.1, Turbidity. In larger clearing and grubbing actions, a
change in water table can occur and increased flood potentials may also result.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Clearing and grubbing will eliminate endemic plant and resident animal
species, likely drive mobile animals away during the activity period, and/or result in the loss
or alteration of the habitat. The effects on wildlife depend upon the bird and animal species
present on the site, the season of clearing and grubbing, the iocation of the activity, and the
extent of the operation. Permanent loss of habitat used for food and shelter, resting,
breeding, and other life processes will result in displaced birds and animals, who may find
suitable unoccupied habitat or will compete with members of their own or other species for
available habitat. Increased competition will eventually reduce populations. The actual loss
of forage plants, however, can be considered minor in relation to total range now available.
Depending upon the extent of the operation, clearing and grubbing will ·
exhibit some or all of the characteristics that occur when vegetation is removed. (See
Section II.D.2, Effects of Vegetation Removal.) Foremost among these influences, however,
is the often long-range detrimental effect to the soil which is especially important in soils
characterized by pennafrost, where the active layer is increased, and in soils on steep slopes
where mass wasting, etc., is likely to occur. Grubbing will distribute the organic and
inorganic materials and result in soils without any characteristic structure. Further, the
porosity and permeability of the soil will be influenced by the compaction that occurs when
using large bulldozers and other heavy equipment. Where degradation of the permafrost and
erosion does not occur, the compaction by vehicles changes the plant composition. A
lichen-dominated community may change to a predominately sedge community (Weeden
and Klein, 1971) and, although both types are important to caribou, lichen is the superior
and chief winter forage which is often in limited supply, whereas sedges are an important
summer food.
Secondary environmental impacts will result from air, water, and land
pollution resulting from the clearing and grubbing operation. The extent to which these
pollutants will influence plant and animal populations will depend on characteristics of the
plants and animals on the site and the equipment used in the operation. The general impacts
of these environmental pollutants are described in Section II.D. Localized and high
concentrations of air pollutants (specifically, sulfur dioxide exhaust emissions from
4-8
')
construction equipment) have been shown to have detrimental effects on the lichens
extensively utilized by caribou. Hydrocarbon from clearing and grubbing equipment also
may be locally damaging to sensitive plants. In general, clearing and grubbing will make a
large area unattractive and unavailable to many animals (e.g., caribou, wolves, sheep, and
goats) and will destroy the vegetation on the site.
e. Aquatic Biology
Clearing and grubbing does not normally affect the aquatic environment.
However, activities conducted during rainy weather or without proper erosion control could
result in the impacts discussed in Section II. E.1. Vegetation removed from stream shorelines
increases insolation and could result in increased temperatures and effects discussed in
Section II. E.5.
f. Soils
(1) Erosion -The removal of vegetation increases erosion from a given site
because (a) raindrops strike the soil surface with full force, which places soil particles into
suspension and facilitates their movement by runoff; (b) rainfall on bare soils can form
surface slush that seals soil pores and increases surface runoff; (c) removal of stems and
roots of vegetation, which mechanically inhibit the movement of water and soil particles,
decreases resistance to surface flow and movement of soil particles; and (d) sunlight and
wind acting directly on the soil can accelerate drying of the soil, which results in wind
erosion. The erosion potential of soils is largely based on soil type and slope. Increased slope
increases the erosion potential for any given soil, while soil particle size and cohesiveness are
inversely related to the erosion potential of the soil. Immediate revegetation, careful site
drainage, and buffer strips can mitigate these impacts.
(2) Sedimentation -Soil erosion is frequently accompanied by
sedimentation. Sediment removed from the site by erosion is deposited off the site,
frequently in streams and lakes. Actions taken to mitigate erosion will mitigate
sedimentation. In addition, sediment basins can be used to trap sediments before they enter
aquatic environments.
(3) Mass Wasting -Removal of vegetation and grubbing can result in
increased probability of mass wasting. Of particular sensitivity are areas of steep slopes and
high precipitation, areas of permafrost, and areas of porous soils underlain by tilted
impervious material. Mass wasting in areas of permafrost is discussed in Section II.F.
Removal of vegetation decreases the coefficient of friction for the weathered rock debris
(soil) by reducing the anchoring effect of roots. In southeast Alaska, Swanston (1969) states
that slopes greater than 34 degrees are highly susceptible to landslides.
4-9
(4) Subsidence -Subsidence can occur following clearing and grubbing in
areas of permafrost. (Refer to the discussion on permafrost, below.)
(5) Compaction -Clearing and grubbing with heavy equipment,
particularly if repeated, can lead to compaction in some soils. Most Alaskan trees are
shallow-rooted; therefore, their root systems are susceptible to compaction and are easily
damaged.
(6) Permafrost -In areas underlain by permafrost, clearing and grubbing
can lead to severe erosion, mass wasting, and subsidence. Removal of vegetation and
grubbing disturbs the thermal equilibrium between the permafrost, the active layer, surface
vegetation, and climatic conditions. Permafrost areas of fine soils with high ice content are
the most sensitive to disturbance because they tend to consolidate considerably upon
melting and cannot readily discharge moisture from melted interstitial ice. Subsidence is
more apt to occur on level giOund, while mass wasting is more typical in steeper areas.
However, liquifaction of the active layer, particularly during spring thaw, can move
materials through solifluction on slopes of less than 3 degrees. Most erosion and mass
wasting will occur during the critical spring thaw period (U.S. Department of the Interior,
1975).
(7} Changes in the Bic!cgical, Chemical, and Physical Properties of the Sol!
pH -In taiga and tundra soils, clearing and grubbing can be expected to change soils from·
acid to alkaline conditions and have dramatic effects on the biology of the soil by generally
changing the decomposer community from one dominated by fungus to one dominated by
bacteria (Flannagan, et al, 1970). This results in more rapid decomposition of organic
material and an increase in nutrient release. Undeveloped surface mineral soils in southeast
Alaska are alkaline (pH = 8), but become slightly acidic (pH = 5) in 30 to 50 years as they
mature (Hanes, et al, 1974). Clearing and grubbing may reverse this trend in pH.
(8) Temperature -Clearing and grubbing result in increased average spring,
summer, and fall soil temperature, and increased diurnal fluctuation in soil temperatures.
Although the effects of vegetation removal have not been measured for many areas in
Alaska, increases of 6 degrees F at a 3-inch depth and 5 degrees F at a 24-inch depth have
been recorded following clear-cutting in southeast Alaska (Gregory, 1956). In areas of
permafrost, removal of vegetation and organic surface mat reduces insulation and shading.
Consequently, soil temperature increases are followed by degradation of permafrost and
increase in the depth of the active layer.
(9) Nutrients -Losses of soil from the site caused by erosion include losses
of nutrients within the body of the soil. Likewise, the removal of plant material from the
site will result in a loss of the nutrient capital of the site. Increased soil temperature caused
by removal of vegetation establishes greater soil decomposer activity, with subsequent
4-10
)
)
increased nutrient release from organic materials of the soil. If revegetation occurs
immediately, a portion of these released nutrients are taken up by the invading plant. If
revegetation does not occur, leaching can result and a transfer of nutrients to aquatic
systems is probable, which increases the need for artificial refertilization of the soils.
(1 0) Soil Structure -Clearing and grubbing through compaction agitation,
shearing, and losses of divalent bonding agents can cause a breakdown of soil body. Soils of
southeast Alaska are particularly sensitive to degradation of soil body (Harris, et al, 1974).
In addition, soil zonal layers will be disturbed and liquid water volume, water vapor volume,
soil air volume, and soil community composition will be altered.
g. Interactions
Potential consequences of clearing and grubbing on interactions are itemized
as foiiows:
(1) Increased sediment and nutrient transfer from terrestrial to aquatic
systems can occur. Potential secondary effects are a reduction in spawning habitat,
alteration in makeup of benthic communities, decreased light penetration with possible
localized reduction in primary production, and increased nutrient concentrations with
subsequent changes in productivity.
(2) Some possibility of accidental spill of toxic substances, particularly
petrochemical products, may occur. Through incomplete combustion and engine drip, small
quantities can be expected to find their way to aquatic systems. Petroleum contaminants
have both immediately letha! and chronically toxic effects on biota. Secondary effects are
also deleterious (e.g., interference with gas exchange at water surface and matting of fur or
feathers, with subsequent loss in insulation and/or buoyancy).
(3) Without appropriate mitigating measures, clearing and grubbing in areas
of permafrost can result in subsidence due to changes in the thermodynamics of the surface
heat exchange layer by removal of insulating organic material. The collection of water in
depressions, with its high specific heat, further activates thawing of permafrost. Subsidence
in permafrost areas frequently results in the formation of water bodies.
(4) In areas of seasonal concentrations, disturbance of migratory species by
noise, habitat removal, or presence of humans can have significant adverse effects on
regional, statewide, and nationwide populations.
4-11
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
K. BRISTOL BAY
L KOOIAK/SHEUKOF
M. GULF OF ALASKA CL/
cu
N. SOUTHEAST
IMPACT ANALYSIS, CLEARING AND GRUBBI 1NG
AIR QUALITY NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES 2·1 TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2·36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2.a,c,d
2.b
3
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SECTION II, PAGES 2..J6 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-46 TO 2-8)
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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I
AQUA11C BIOLOGY
' SECTION II, fAGES 2-60 TO 2-66
REFERENC~O PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
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SOIL RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2-66 TO 2-70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
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2.3,4,5,6,7
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SECTION II. PAGES 2·71 TO 2·76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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4.a;6.b
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4-13
B. EXCAVATION
1. Introduction
The act of excavation is the digging, scooping, or cutting of material resulting in a
hole or change in the original surface condition. For this report, excavated materials include
soil, rock, peat, mineral resources, and ice. Excavation is accomplished through processes
dependent upon the qualities and quantities of the material to be excavated, the sensitivity
of the environment, and economic considerations. Common excavation processes include
manual and mechanical digging, drilling and blasting, and hydraulic sluicing.
Common excavation is the removal of materials by mechanical or hydraulic means
without the use of explosives, while rock excavation is the removal or disposal of rock larger
than 1-1/2 cubic yards or any solid rock requiring blasting for removal. The basic purposes
for surface excavation are to
•
•
Remove and relocate surplus material for foundations or to contour
roadways and drainages
Relocate material for use at a different site such as the excavation of gravel
from a borrow pit
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
Equipment, fuel, manpower, and land use requirements are project-dependent. A
rock quarry, for example, requires land to maneuver trucks, park idle equipment, stockpile
material, and store refuse. If processing plants (crushing, screening, etc.) are used, the land
requirements increase tremendously for plant construction and material storage.
3. Permits and Regulations
Excavation activities are generally not controlled by permit from a government
agency; however, they are often related to the placement of foundations, which are subject
to permit in major cities.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Following clearing and grubbing operations, unsuitable material is removed from
the site. The area is then surveyed through cross-sectioning. During this operation, the area
to be excavated is sectioned into 25-foot grids to determine the amount of material
excavated through comparison of grid point elevations. Construction methods employed in
common excavations may involve the equipment listed in Table IV-III.
4-15
TABLE IV-111. EQUIPMENT UTILIZED IN EXCAVATION ACTIVITIES
Excavation Equipment
Dipper shovel
Hoe shovel
Dragline
Clamshell
Hydraulic shovel
Drag scraper
Backhoe
Paddler leader
Bucket loader
Crawler tractor
Wheeled tractor
Cabledozer
Hydraulic dozer
Front-end loader
Compacting Equipment
Tandem roller
Towed roller
Sheepsfoot
Tamping roller
Pneumatic-tired (self-powered)
Vibrator compactor
4-16
Rough and Fine Grading Equipment
Towed scraper
Self-powered scraper
Leveling-drag scraper
Land leveler
Land plane
Paddle-wheel scraper
Motor grader
Hauling Equipment
Light dump truck
Off-the-road dump truck
Bottom dump truck
Side dump truck
Miscellaneous Equipment
Compressor
Generator
Drill rig
Water truck
Where solid rock is excavated, explosives are detonated within predrilled holes
and the material is removed to a disposal site. If the material is loose rock or aggregate, or
the soil is cemented, shovel operations are often employed to load trucks for transport to
fill sites. During deep excavation, groundwater may be encountered. Dewatering is required,
especially in sand and soils where extreme instability may occur at the bottom of the
excavation due to excessive shear stress.
Permafrost excavation in Alaska occurs by thawing the soil prior to excavation or
by fracturing the frozen soil into removable pieces. Soil may be thawed by solar radiation
after the removal of natural insulation such as vegetation. By removing the vegetative mat,
the active layer thaws sooner and expands. After thawed material is removed, the remaining
soil is then subjected to thawing, thus creating a new active layer which subsequently may
be excavated. In placer mining operations, water jets are used to speed thawing and excavate
simultaneously.
In many cases, the fracturing method is considered more desirable for permafrost
excavation, as it can be less expensive than mechanization and more expedient than either
mechanized or solar radiation techniques. In confined areas or on small projects, saws and
pneumatic hammers are used. Obviously, this procedure has limited application, although it
offers flexibility which larger equipment techniques do not have. Steam drilling is used for
small excavations such as setting piiing in permafrost soiis or thawing smaii areas. This
technique requires precision to prevent the steam from thawing the surrounding areas not
intended for excavation.
Permafrost slope cuts are limited to a maximum slope of 2:1, unless otherwise
substantiated by a soils investigation. For excavations less than 12 feet deep, the excavator is
generally responsible for settling or caving on adjacent property resulting from inadequate
precautions or protection. For futher detailed information, refer to the Uniform Building
Code and local construction specifications (e.g., Standard Construction Specifications of the
Greater Anchorage Area Borough, 1973). In almost all engineering projects, if unsuitable
materials are encountered, they are removed by excavation and replaced with satisfactory
materials.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The major source of emissions to the atmosphere results from dust generated
by activities on the site. Particulate emissions are directly proportional to the area of land
being worked, the level of construction activity, and the silt content of the soil (i.e.,
particles smaller than 75 J,.Lm in diameter) and inversely proportional to the square of the
moisture content as represented by Thornthwaite's precipitation/evaporation index. An
4-17
approximate emission factor is 1.2 tons per acre of construction per month of activity (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1975).
Stone quarrying and crushing operations result in further emissions, given in
Table IV-IV. Factors affecting emissions include the amount of rock processed; the method
of transfer of the rock; the moisture content of the raw material; the degree of enclosure of
the transferring, processing, and_ storage areas; and the degree to which control equipment is
used on the processes.
Gaseous em1ss1ons from diesel-powered vehicles may be estimated from
values given in Table IV-V. Since excavation generally occurs after the ground is thawed,
formation of ice fog is not expected. The removal of topsoil and the insulating material on
the surface will increase the heat balance of the soil surface and may Influence the depth of
penetration of energy into the soil. Particulates settling on snow surfaces may be sufficient
to locally increase the rate of snowmelt.
b. Noise
The major type of internal combustion equipment present during excavation
is highly mobile earth-moving equipment. Noise levels at 50 feet from earth-moving
equipment range from about 73 to 96 dB(A). Generally this phase of construction is the
noisiest. Typical composite noise levels for various types of construction projects during
excavation are shown in Table IV-VI.
c. Water Resources
The site of the excavation presents a surface potentially erodible by
prec1p1tation and stormwater runoff. Any suspended material not trapped within the
excavation or that is suddenly flushed out could change natural concentrations of suspended
matter, resulting in the impacts identified in Section II.C.1, Turbidity.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Both primary and secondary effects may be expected from surface
excavation. Primary impacts of excavation include the permanent or temporary removal of
endemic plant communities. The removal of vegetation will result in some of the outcomes
described in Section IV.A.5.f, of which the possibility of increased landslides and rapid
water runoff would be the most important. Localized sources of air pollution may occur
either from the use of excavation equipment or from the accidental spillage of industrial
fuel. One of the most serious influences on plants and animals, especially in the arctic
tundra, is the production of particulate matter. (See Section II.D.)
4-18
I
TABLE IV-IV. PARTICULATE EMISSION
FACTORS FOR ROCK-HANDLING PROCESSES
Uncontrolled Total
Type of Process
lb/ton kg/MT
Dry crushing operations
Primary crushing 0.5 0.25
Secondary crushing and screening 1.5 0.75
Tertiary crushing and screening 6.0 3.0
(if used)
Recrushing and screening 5.0 2.5
Fines mill 6.0 3.0
Miscellaneous operations
Screening, conveying, and handling 2.0 1.0
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975
TABLE IV-V. EMISSION FACTORS FOR
HEAVY-DUTY DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES
Running (30 kph)
(in grams/kilometer)
Carbon monoxide 17.8
Hydrocarbons 2.9
Nitrogen oxides 13.0
(11.2 for new diesels after 1978)
Particulates 0.81
Sulfur oxides 1.7
Aldehydes 0.2
Organic acids 0.2
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975
Suspended Emission
lb/ton kg/MT
0.1 0.05
0.6 0.3
3.6 1.8
2.5 1.25
4.5 2.25
Idle
(in grams/minute)
0.64
0.32
1.03
4-19
TABLE IV-VI. TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS
DURING EXCAVATION AT VARIOUS PROJECT SITES
Energy Level, dB(A)*
Type of Project All Pertinent Minimum Required
Equipment Present at Site Equipment Present at Site
Domestic housing 88 75
Office buildings, hotels, hospitals,
and schools 89 79
Industrial parking garage, recreation
sites, stores, and service stations 89 71
Public works, roads, highways, sewers,
and trenches 88 78
* 50 dBA ambient
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971a
4-20
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(
(
)
J
J
Wildlife living within or depending upon the plant community that is being
removed as a result of excavation may either die or emigrate (which may further decrease
their life expectancy), depending on species characteristics, season, habitat type, and terrain.
Drilling, use of explosives, power shovels, and other noisy heavy equipment are especially
distressing to animals during the breeding season. Birds frequently abandon nests and their
young when disturbed, and mammals may fail to breed or successfully nurse and protect
their young. In caribou and other ungulates, harassment interferes with the normal
interaction of cow and calf and causes the pair to move before the calf is dry or has nursed
properly. In extreme cases, cows will abandon calves, which then have little chance of
survival. In addition, scattered mature animals exhibit higher mortality rates because they
are more vulnerable to predation.
The extensive human activity commonly associated with excavation projects
will also negatively influence animal behavior, especially those species that are incompatible
with man, such as bear and wolf. Behavioral changes may inciude sociai disiocation, as
described in Section 11.0 and the preceding text.
e. Aquatic Biology
Surface excavation does not normally affect the aquatic environment.
Extensive excavation may aiter drainage to a degree that the receptor stream or water body
can be damaged by sediments and increased runoff. Activities conducted during rainstorms
or without proper erosion control could result in the impacts discussed in Section II.E.1.
f. Soils
Those impacts discussed in Section IV.A, Clearing and Grubbing, are also
applicable to excavation. Additional impacts are as follows:
• Excavation will change the biological, chemical, and physical makeup
of the soil.
• Excavation generally disrupts the integrity of the surface soil layer.
• Revegetation on excavated soils must start with primary plant
succession. Therefore, an excavated site will take a long time to recover
from this impact and again be useful to wildlife or man.
g. Interactions
Potential consequences of excavation on interactions are itemized as follows:
4-21
----------
(1) Increased sediment and nutrient transfer from terrestrial to aquatic
systems can occur. Potential secondary effects are a reduction in spawning habitat,
alteration in makeup of benthic communities, decreased light penetration with possible
localized reduction in primary production, and increased nutrient concentrations with
subsequent changes in productivity.
(2) Some possibility of accidental spill of toxic substances, particularly
petrochemical products, may occur. Through incomplete combustion and engine drip, small
quantities can be expected to find their way to aquatic systems. Petroleum contaminants
have both immediately lethal and chronically toxic effects on biota. Secondary effects are
also deleterious (e.g., interference with gas exchange at the water surface and matting of fur
or feathers, with subsequent loss in insulation and/or buoyancy).
(3) Without appropriate mitigating measures, excavation in areas of
permafrost can result in subsidence due to changes in the thermodynamics of the surface
heat exchange layer by removal of insulating organic material. The collection of water in
depressions, with its high specific heat, further activates thawing of permafrost. Subsidence
in permafrost areas frequently results in the formation of water bodies.
(4) Blasting associated with rock excavation may be lethal to localized
aquatic populations. The extent of !etha! range is a function of the size of the charge and
the velocity of the shock wave. Slow velocity charges (i.e., black powder) are less lethal.
Species sensitivity to blasting varies, those with air bladders being generally more sensitive.
Salmon eggs in gravel are highly sensitive to shock waves. State laws prohibit blasting within
one quarter of a mile of a salmon spawning stream.
(5) In areas of seasonal concentrations, disturbance of migratory species by
noise, habitat removal, or presence of humans, can have significant adverse effects on
regional, statewide, and nationwide populations.
4-22
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c
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
0
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PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
L KODIAK/SHELIKOF
M. GULF OF ALASKA CU
cu
SECTION 11. PAGES 2·1 T02-2D
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SECTION ll,PAGES2·20 TO 2·36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2.a,c,d
2.a,c,d
1.2.3
1,2,3,4,5,6 1.b
l.a,b,d
1,2,3,4.5,6
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IMPACT ANALYSIS, EXCAVATION
WATER RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2·36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-46 TO 2-60
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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AOUA(ICBIOLOGY
SECTION II,'PAGES 2·60 TO 2-66
REFEREN~ED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
1.c,d 1..a,b.e
I
I.
l.d,e t.a.b.c.f
t.a,b,c,f
t.d,e 1.a.b.c.f
SOIL RESOURCES
SECTION 11, PAGES 2.00 TO 2-70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
'·' S.a,b.c:,d
2,3,4,5,7
S.a.b.c,d
2.3.4
'·' a.a.b.c:.d
2,3,4,5,7
B.a.b.c.d
B.a)>,c,d
2.3.4.5.7
B.a.b,c.d
B.a,b,c.d
B.a.b.c.d
2.3.4
B.a,b,e,d
B.a,b,e,d
2.3,4
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2.3.4
B.a,b,c.d
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2.3.4
B.a,b.c.d
B.a.b.c.d
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2,3
'·' B.a,b,c.d
4,5,7
B.a.b,c.d
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2,3,4
B.a.b.c.d
B.a.b.c.d
2.3.4.6
B.a.b.c.d
"'·' B.a.b.c.d
S.a,b.c.d
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'·' B.a,b,c,d
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2,3,4,5,7
' B.a.b.c.d
2.3.4.5.7
2.3.5.7
6
B.a,b,c.d
2.3.6
2,3,5,6 .. 7
2,3
B.a.b.c.d
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2.3.6
2.3.6
S...b.c,d
2,3
2,3
2,3
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2,3
2,3
2,3
2.3.4
2.3.5.7
'·'
2•
6 ••
INTERACTIONS
SECTION II, PAGES 2·71 TO 2·76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
4..a;S.c
4.a;5.c
2.• ..
2• ..
2.a.c
2.a.c
2.a,c
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2.a.c ..
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., .
2.a,e
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4.a;5.c
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4.a;5.c
2.a,c
4.a;5.c
2.a.c
4.a;5.c
2.a,c
4.a;S.c
2••
4.a;S.c
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2.a,c
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2.a,c
4.a;5.c
2• ..
2.a.c
4.a;5.c
2• ..
2~•
4.a:S.c
4-23
C. CONSTRUCTION FILLING ON LAND
1. Introduction
Filling is the process of depositing solid material to fill depressions or build up
existing topographic features on land. Fill material may include soil, rock, or solid waste.
This discussion will involve the methods and requiremef')tS related to landfill employing soil
and rock materials. Filling on wetlands is discussed in Section IV. E.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
Major emphasis on the quality of fill material is placed on the compactibility of
the material for support and impermeability. Selected fill material may be composed of
specific combinations of soil and rock to utilize the particular properties of the
combination.
3. Permits and Regulations
Where fill is required, the type of material is specified in construction documents.
The placement of fill, however, is controlled by city, borough, and state agencies. The
Alaska Department of Natural Resources has required permits for some filling operations.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
The landfill site is first cleared and grubbed and the topsoil is removed.
Undesirable subsurface material is also removed and replaced by frost-resistant granular
material. The site is then compacted. The fill material is then spread over the site and
compacted in layers to the grade and site lines specified. The machinery requirements are
similar to those required for excavation (e.g., hauling, grading, and compacting equipment).
(See Table IV-III.) Fuel needs are generally the same as those necessary for excavation.
Backfilling and dumping are typical placement functions, and the fill may be
compacted through static weight, kneading action, pneumatic tire, and impact. Backfilling
involves the replacement of material in an area that has been previously excavated and then
compacted. Most frequently, the material excavated from the site is utilized. Peat can be
used in agriculture as an organic fertilizer and to condition the soil, for mulching, and for
landscaping.
Static weight compaction is commonly used in fill operations and utilizes the
weight of smooth-surfaced rollers to compress the fill. The use of steel-wheeled rollers is
generally limited to surficial compaction and coarse aggregates where crushing action is most
useful. Kneading compaction employs the use of sheepsfoot rollers (steel drums surfaced
4-25
with metal projections). The projections (feet) compact the lower layers and, as the feet lift
out of the fill, the material remains completely compacted. Pneumatic tire compaction is
similar in concept to the preceding method, except that the roller is comprised of numerous
tires which knead and compact the fill by their weight and wobbling action. Impact
compaction is accomplished with an automated hammer which pounds the fill to
compaction. This method is most useful in confined areas which are not accessible to the
other machinery discussed.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The major source of emissions to the atmosphere from landfill operations
results from the transport and processing of fill materials. Particulates are blown from the
loads of dump trucks and road dust is stirred up by the movement of vehicles on the bare
surface. Control techniques involve watering, chemical stabilization, and reduction of
surface wind speed using windbreaks or source enclosure. The quantity of suspended dust
emissions in pounds per ton of fill may be estimated by the following expression:
where
Emissions Factor = 0.33
PE =
(PE/100):?
Thornthwaite's precipitation/evaporation index
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975)
Gaseous emissions from the vehicles used in the operations may be estimated from values
given in Table IV-V.
When temperatures are below minus 30 degrees F, the combustion of fossil
fuels will serve to increase the humidity of the air. If there is not sufficient wind to dissipate
this water vapor, fog may form that may persist for hours or days. The change in thermal
characteristics of the surface layers, depending on the type of fill, will influence the thermal
structure in the soil and may modify temperatures at the surface slightly or may serve as an
additional insulating layer for permafrost beneath.
b. Noise
Filling, like clearing and grubbing and excavation, requires primarily
earth-moving equipment. The associated noise levels at 50 feet range from 73 to 96 dBA
4-26
(
(
(
(
(
~
during this phase of construction. Site noise characteristics are similar to those shown in
Table IV-VII for various types of construction projects.
TABLE IV-VII. TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS
DURING FILLING AT VARIOUS PROJECT SITES
Energy Level, dB(A)*
Type of Project
All Pertinent Minimum Required
Equipment Present at Site Equipment Present at Site
Domestic housing 83 83
Office buildings, hotels, hospitals,
and schools 84 84
Industrial parking garages, recreation
sites, stores, and service stations 84 83
Public works, roads, highways, sewers,
and trenches 84 84
* 50 dBA ambient
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971 a
c. Water Resources
The area filled presents a surface potentially erodible by precipitation and
stormwater runoff. The placement of material into suspension depends upon the character
of the fill and the amount and type of precipitation. An increase over natural concentrations
of suspended matter could result in the impacts identified in Section II.C.1, Turbidity.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Landfilling operations directly and indirectly influence plants and animals.
The area of average depth of fill and season of operation will to a large extent determine the
specific impact. Small fills may directly eliminate individual plants and animals, whereas
larger fills may destroy local populations or entire communities. In general, small
nonmigratory species will be more susceptible to disturbance than larger animals, which may
merely be displaced. Landfilling operations and concomitant disturbances will frequently
preclude the use of the area by wildlife. Small localized operations will probably not be
4-27
characterized by long-range detrimental effects on plant and animal communities. However,
key wildlife habitat areas, such as calving, bear denning, or mineral lick areas, should not be
utilized. Indirect effects of landfilling operations stem primarily from changes in air and
water quality and from excessive heavy equipment noise. Decreasing air and water quality
may affect local plant and animal communities, whereas industrial noise, especially during
critical times (e.g. breeding season, migration season), can influence wildlife distribution and
abundance.
Many of the detrimental results discussed in greater detail in the section on
the effects of vegetation removal (Section 11.0.2) and the effects of pollutants on plant and
animal species (Section II. D.3) must be taken into consideration and clearly evaluated
before landfilling is considered. Because clearing and grubbing frequently precedes
landfilling, the plant and wildlife impacts discussed in Section II.D are also pertinent and
should be considered as possible outcomes of landfilling operations.
e. Aquatic Biology
Construction filling on land does not normally affect the aquatic
environment. However, activities conducted during rainstorms or without proper erosion
control could result in the impacts discussed in Section II.E.1.
f. Soils
Construction fill on land is anticipated to have the following effects on the
soil characteristics of a site.
(1) Accelerated Erosion and Sedimentation -Fill material can be highly
susceptible to erosion. The bare fill material is subject to the unbuffered mechanical effects
of wind and rain, with consequent erosional effects. In addition, fill materials are at times
difficult to revegetate, particularly if they are of dredge spoils. The longer the fill remains
unvegetated, the greater the potential for erosion.
(2) Subsidence -Fill on organic soils can lead to long-term subsidence due
to the high bulk, low strength, and unstable nature of the soil. Also, some fill materials are
organic (e.g. trees, roots, shrubs, wood) and are therefore decomposable. Over time,
decomposition of these materials will lead to reduced volume of the fill and consequent
subsidence and soil instability and their use is therefore unadvisable.
(3) Changes in the Biological, Chemical, and Physical Properties of the Soil
pH -The soil system previously residing on the fill site will be smothered and essentially
destroyed, and will be replaced by an immature soil system having an undeveloped soil
fauna. The soil system eventually developed on the site over time will depend on the
4-28
(
(
(
(
(
)
climatic conditions and the fill material, but will probably differ from surrounding soils,
resulting in a permanent change in the biotic community of the site.
g. Interactions
J Potential consequences of construction filling on land on interactions are
)
)
itemized as follows:
( 1) Increased sediment and nutrient transfer from terrestrial to aquatic
systems can occur. Potential secondary effects are a reduction in spawning habitat,
alteration in makeup of benthic communities, decreased light penetration with possible
localized reduction in primary production, and increased nutrient concentrations with
subsequent changes in productivity.
(2) Some possibility of accidental spill of toxic substances, particularly
petrochemical products, may occur. Through incomplete combustion and engine drip, small
quantities can be expected to find their way to aquatic systems. Petroleum contaminants
have both immediately lethal and chronically toxic effects on biota. Secondary effects are
also deleterious (e.g., interference with gas exchange at water surface and matting of fur or
feathers, with subsequent loss in insulation and/or buoyancy).
(3) In areas of seasonal concentrations, disturbance of migratory species by ·
noise, habitat removal, or presence of humans can have significant adverse effects on
regional, statewide, and nationwide populations.
4-29
...
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
I. COPPER RIVER
K. BRISTOL SAY
L KODIAKISHELIKOF
IU
IU
IMPACT ANALYSIS, CONSTRUCTION Fl LUNG ON LAND
AIR DUAliTY NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES 2·1 TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SECTION II, PAGES 2-20 TO 2-36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
1
2..11,c,d
b.o:.d
MODERATE
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3
,.
3
SEVERE MODERATE
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
1,6
1,6
1,6
1,8
1,6
1,6
1,6
1,8
1,6
1,6
1,0
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1,5
1,6
1,6
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1,8
1,6
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1.0
1,6
1,6
1,6
1,6
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II,PAGES2-46T02-60
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
1•
O...•J
1•
2.<,oJ
1•
2A,j
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2.c,d,e.g.h
......
2.c,d,l ..
2.c,d,e
2.c,d,e,i
6
1.b.c
6
1.b,c
3.b;6
1,b,c
2.c):3.b
1 ...
6
1.b,c
8
1.b,c
0
1.b,c
3.b;6
l.b,c
'-'
1.b,c
2.1;6
1.b,c
2.1;6
1.b,c
2.i;6
1.b,c
8
1.b,c
2.c,d,e,i
1.b.c
2.i;6
1b<
6
1.b,c
2.C,d,1,i
1.b,c
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8
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2.1:6
1>•
6
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6
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2.c,d,e,l;6
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I AOUA TIC BIOLOGY
secnoN II, PAGES 2-«1 TO 2-GG
RE~ERENCEO PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE ; MODERATE
1.c.d 1 ...
1.a,b,c.f
1.a)l,c,f
SOIL RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES2-06T02-70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE
6,6,7
8.b,c
2,3,4.7 ..
6,7
S.b,c
2.3.4.7
8 ...
7
S.b,c
7 ...
5,7
11.b,c
2,3,4,7 ...
2,,
2,3,4
5,7
2,3.4,7
5,7
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2,3,4
2.3.•
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2,3,4,5 ..
2,3,4,5 ....
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3,5,7
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•• 7
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6,7
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B.a,b,c
' S.a.b.c
5
8.a,b,c
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B.a,b,c
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,
B.a,b.c
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B.a,b,c
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6
8•
....
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5
8.d
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8..11,b
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5
8.d
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2,3,6 ..
6 8-
6 ..
S.~t,b,c,d
6
B.d
B.a,b,c,d
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B.a,b,c,d
3,6
B.a,b,c,d ........
2,3,5,6
6.~t.b,c.d
5,6
8.a,b,c,d
B.a.b,c,d
4,5,6
B.a.b,c,d
S....b.c.d
INTERACTIONS
SECTION II, PAGES 2·11 TO 2-76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2..11,C
2..11,C
'·' 6 .•
2.o
4.a;G.b
2 .. ..
2.a.c
...
2.a,c ..
.... ..
2.< ..
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4 .. ;s ..
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2•
5•
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2•
6•
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....
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4.a;5.a
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N. SOUTHEAST
1,2,3 ....
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1b ....
1,6 1• ,..
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6 .... " B.a,b,c,d
B.a,b,c,d
2.a,c
2• ..
4.a;S.a
4-31
D. FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION
1. Introduction
Foundations channel concentrated structural loads to the ground where they are
evenly distributed. Permafrost requires special care in the planning of foundations,
particularly in discontinuous zones where ground temperatures range between minus 5
degrees C (23 degrees F) and minus 1.5 degrees C (29 degrees F). In these areas, any slight
warming of the soil can produce a great change in soil conditions which the foundation must
be designed to withstand. Warmth from a building penetrates the ground and thaws the
permafrost, causing the surface grade to fall and the building to settle. The most significant
local factors are sunlight exposure, vegetative cover, and soil drainage. Ideally, in the
discontinuous zone the site should be located on the south side of a hill composed of coarse
materials and sparsely covered with vegetation. Such a site is usually warm and dry enough
to perm it conventional footing foundations used in temperate zones. However, under less
favorable conditions, pile foundations are necessary to attach the structure to the
permafrost and to resist the upward heaving action of the active layer.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
In addition to equipment and manpower, concrete, steel and wood are resources
used.
3. Permits and Regulations
Within city or borough jurisdiction, the Uniform Building Code (1973) provides
the standards for foundation construction. In the city and borough of Anchorage, the
Standard Construction Specifications (1973) amend the Uniform Building Code.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
A core drill is used to investigate the depth of the permafrost and active layer, the
soil composition, the water content of the soil, and the presence of hard rock and ice lenses.
In discontinuous permafrost areas, measurements to the nearest foot are required to locate
the foundation site. When the site is underlain by permafrost, three techniques may be used
to minimize the effects of the frozen ground: ice excavation and removal, insulation, and
refri ge ration.
The first technique is called elimination and may be used when the depth of
permafrost is not excessive. In such soil, footing foundations may be built with or without
basements. The second technique includes the maintenance of the permafrost through
separation from the heated building. The layer of cold air beneath the floor of a structure
4-33
built on pilings maintains the temperatures necessary for permafrost. The building must be
insulated, and gravel may be placed on the ground surface to further reduce heat
conduction. The third technique involves insulation with refrigeration to maintain the
frozen soil. This method is more costly than the first two, but avoids setting pilings deep in
the permafrost, and thus speeds the construction process.
To implement these techniques, two methods of building foundations are used-
excavation and pile setting. In the first method, an entire basement is excavated to
undisturbed soil below the active layer, which is commonly less than 8 feet. Steel-reinforced
concrete footings and walls line the excavation. Occasionally, footings and piers are built to
support a building without a basement. In this case the excavation is less extensive, but must
be below the active layer. Pile setting is achieved with comparatively little surface
disturbance. Ideally, this operation occurs in the spring when the ground surface is still
frozen, and the permafrost has sufficient time to freeze around the pilings before
construction begins in summer. The site is cleared by hand and the insulating moss cover is
disturbed as little as possible. Gravel may be placed over the moss to increase insulation and
maintain the permafrost below. Pilings may be placed by either drilling or steaming and
driving.
The steaming and driving process is the easiest and often the quickest way to
anchor the piles firmly. This process provides high-pressure steam to biow the sand and
other fine materials out of the hole. Each hole requires about 3 hours of steam and the
jetting pipe may need to be hammered through material which cannot be blown out of the
thawing soil. Generally, the piles are driven through the active layer and 10 feet into the
permafrost. After 4 months, the piles are satisfactorily frozen and are capable of
withstanding the expansive heaving of the active layer in the fall. Construction of the
building occurs during the next wann season. Drilling is used when the permafrost might be
damaged by steaming or when a building must be built quickly after the foundation sets.
Drilling piles do not need to be driven, and the sand slurry placed around them in the hole
will refreeze more rapidly than in steamed holes.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The most important em1ss1ons to the atmosphere are those from the
operation of heavy-duty machinery. Those emissions, previously tabulated in Table IV-V,
include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and sulfur oxides.
Certain types of pile driving involve the possible emission of fugitive dust and may be of
particular importance in depositing this dust on surrounding snow cover and hastening
snowmelt.
4-34
c
c
b. Noise
The foundation phase of construction is somewhat less noisy than other
phases. The two noisiest pieces of equipment for various types of projects are shown in
Table IV-VIII, together with the noise levels as measured at 50 feet. For some types of
foundations, impact equipment and tools are required for placement and driving of piles.
Conventional pile drivers are either steam-or diesel-powered. In both cases, the impact of
the hammer/pile interaction is the dominant noise component. These noise levels are
difficult to measure or project due to the fact that the levels are affected by the pile type
and length, but peak levels are approximately 100 dBA at 50 feet. Composite noise ranges
associated with foundation work at various project sites are shown in Table IV-IX and
include all equipment normally employed during this construction phase.
c. Water Resources
:;) Excavation or surface disturbance prior to the placement of the foundation
)
structure may present a potentially erodible surface by precipitation and stormwater runoff.
An increase over natural concentrations of suspended material could result in the impacts
identified in Section II.C.1 and cause a change in the pH of the receiving water, as discussed
in Section II.C.4.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Construction of foundations poses the same problems to plants and animals
that numerous other engineering actions (e.g., excavation) are expected to pose. Foremost
among these are the complete destruction of vegetation within the immediate construction
site and the additional destruction and/or damage to vegetation resulting from the emission
of noxious gases, accidental spillage of fuel, and discarded refuse. In addition to these three
impacts, animals would also be influenced by the noise from the steaming and driving
operation. Impacts on animals, however, would primarily be determined by the season of
construction. Construction before the breeding and nesting season of birds and/or the
calving season of ungulates would reduce the detrimental impact of construction.
Some of the secondary (and frequently long-range) impacts of foundation
construction occur with the removal of vegetation and changes in land use patterns. These
are clearly described in Section II. D.
e. Aquatic Biology
Foundation construction does not normally affect the aquatic environment.
However, activities conducted during rainstorms or without proper erosion control could
result in the impacts discussed in Section II. E. Salmon spawning areas may be affected by
4-35
TABLE IV-VIII. NOISIEST EQUIPMENT TYPES OPERATING
AT CONSTRUCTION SITES DURING THE FOUNDATION PHASE
Type of Project Type of Equipment Noise Level
Domestic housing Concrete mixer 85 dBA
Pneumatic tools 85 dBA
Office buildings Jackhammer 88dBA
Concrete mixer 85 dBA
Industrial Jackhammer 88 dBA
Concrete mixer 85 dBA
Public works Truck 91 dBA
Scraper 88 dBA
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971a
TABLE IV-IX. TYPICAL RANGES OF NOISE LEVELS AT
VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION SITES DURING FOUNDATION PHASE
Energy Level, dB(A) *
Type of Project
All Pertinent Minimum Required
Equipment Present at Site Equipment Present at Site
Domestic housing 81 81
Office buildings, hotels, hospitals,
and schools 78 78
Industrial parking garage, recreation
sites, stores, and service stations 77 77
Public works, roads, highways, sewers,
and trenches 88 88
* 50 dBA ambient
Source: Bolt. Beranek. and Newman, 1971 a
4-36
the removal of gravel (Section II.E.4) from streambeds for foundation insulation in
permafrost areas.
f. Soils
Those impacts attributed to clearing and grubbing and excavation are
applicable to foundations. An additional impact is that foundations generally include
coverage of the site with impervious material and essentially permanently remove the soil
covered from use in the surrounding ecosystem.
g. Interactions
Those interaction impacts which were identified for excavation are also
applicable to construction of foundations.
4-37
C. UPPER YUKONf
PORCUPINE
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
J. ALEUTIAN
K. BRISTOL BAY
L KOOIAK/SHELIKOF
. '
IMPACT ANALYSIS, FOUNDATION CONSTRUCtiON
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES2·1 TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2-36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2.ll,c.d
2.•.c.d
1,2.3.4.5.6 1.b
3.a,b,.d
1.2.3.4.5.6 1.b
3.a,b,d
1.2.3.4.5.6
J.a,b,d
1.2.3.4.5,6
3.a.b.d
1.2.3.4.5.6 l.b
2,3,4,5,6
2,3.4,5,6
1,2:,3,4.5,6
2,3,4,5,6
2;3.4,5,6
a ... .b.d
'-'
3.a,b,d
3.ll,b,d
3.ll,b,d
'-'
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3.ll,b,d
1,2:;3,4,5,6 t.b
4,5,6
2,3,4,5.6
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'-'
3.ll,b.d
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1,2:;3,4.5,6 t.b
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1,2:;3,4,5,6 t.b
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1,2:,3,4,5,6 1.b
1,2,3,4,5,6
1.2.3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
2.3.4.5,6
1,2:,3,4,5,6
4,5,6
2,3,4.5.6
2.3.4.5.6
2,3.4.5.6
.3 ... b.d
3.a.b.d
3.a.b,d
3.a,b,d
3.ll,b,d
3.ll,b,d
'·' 3.a,b,d
3.a,b,d
3.a,b,d
1.2,3.4.5,6 t.b
3.a,b,d
2,3,4.5.6
3.a,b.d
2,3,4,5,6
3.a,b,d
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3.a.b,d
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1.2,3.4,5.6 1.b
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1,2:,3,4,5,6 t.b
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'·' 3.a,b,d
3.ll,b,d
1.2,3,4,5.6 1.b
2,3,4,5,6
3.a,b,d ..•
3.a,b,d
1,2,3,4,5,6 l.b
l..,b,d
SECTION II, PAGES 2-36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
, ..
•• 6
'·'
'·'
•• 6
•. 6
•• 6
'·'
'·'
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•• 6
•• 6
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•• 6
'·'
'·'
•• 6
•• 6
•• 6
'·'
'·'
'·'
•• 6
•• 6
'·6
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-46 TO Z-60
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2.c,ej
2.e,j
2.c:,ej ..
2.e.j ...
2.a.d.e.j ...
2.j
2.j
2.c,e,j
2.c,e,j;6
2.c,e,g,j;6
2.c,d,e,j ...
2.e.j ...
2.j
...
2.c.d,e,j ..
2.f.j
2.c,d,eJ
...
2.j
'·' 2.c,d,t,j ..
2.e.j ...
2.j
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2.j
2.]
2.j ...
2.c.d.e,j
2.c,d,a,j
2.g,j
2.g,j
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2.c,d.e,j
...
2.c.d.e.j ...
2.c,d.e.j
'·' 2.j
...
>;
2.c.d.e.i ..
2.j
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2.c.d.e.i
MODERATE
>;
S.a;G
2.c.i
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6
1.b.e ...
1.b,c:
4.b;6
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3.b;4.b
l.b,c
4.b;6
1.b,c
4.b;6
t.b.c
4.b;6
1.b.c:3.b
4.b;6
t.b,c
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4.b;6
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4.b;6
t.b,c
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1.b,c
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4.b;6
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4.b;6
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4.b;6
t.b,c
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4.b;6
1.b,c
4.b;6
l.b,c
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4.b;6
1.b,c;2.i
4.b;6
t.b,c
'·'
l.b.c;2.i
4.b;6
~OUATIC BIOLOGY
SECTION 11, PAGES 2-60 TO 2-66
REFEfiENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
l.e.d
t.d,e
t.d,e
1.a,b.e
' •..
l.a,b,c,f
' •..
' ..
1.ll.b,t,f
SECTION II, PAGES 2-66 TO 2·70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
5,6,7
8.b,c
2,3,4,5,6,7
8.b,c
2,3,4,7
5.7
B.b.c
2,3,4,7
8.b,c
7
8.b,c
8.b,c
2,3,4,7
'·'
6.7
8.b,c
2;3,4,7
8.b.c
'·'
'·'
'·'
2;3.4
6.7
2,3,4,7
2,3,4
'·'
2,3,4
5.7
2,3.4
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2,3,4,5
a ... b
2,3,4,5
3.5,7
6
8.a,b,c.d
2.3.4,7
8.11,b,c
6.7
2,3,5,7
8.ll.b.C
'·' a.~~.b,c
5.7
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5
8.ll,b,C:
6
8.ll.b,<:
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2,3,4
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2,3,4,7
8.a,b,c
2,3,4,7
8.11,b,c
'·'
6
'·'
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.S.a,b
2,3,7
5
SA
a.~~.b
a.~~,b
4,5,6
a .• .b.c.d
2.3,7
5
S.d
8.a,b
2.3.6
S.d
8.a,b,c,d
6
ad
U..,b,c,d
2,3,4,6
8.a.b,c.d
'·' U..,b,c,d
2,3,6,6 .......
6~
B.l,b,c,d
INTERACT19NS
S£CTION ll, PAGES 2-71 TO 2-76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
2..a,<;:
4.a;6.b
,. 6.,
2.li,C
,.
4.ll;6.b
4.ll;6.b
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....
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1,2,3,4,5,6 1.b .......
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2.c,d.e
2.c,d,e,i;6
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4.b;6
1.d,e t.a.t>.c.f
' ..
. ....... .. ..
0
E. CONSTRUCTION FILLING IN WATER AND WETLANDS
1. Introduction
Construction filling in water and wetlands occurs when solid material is used to
construct breakwaters for harbor protection or to reclaim land for building purposes. Fill
materials include soil, rock, rubble waste, dredged spoil, and sanitary solid waste.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
Major emphasis on the quality of fill material is placed on the compactability of
the material for support and the ability of the fill material to resist continuous wave action.
The selection of fill material is usually determined by the water depth, bottom conditions,
and equipment required for the fill operation. In the case of a breakwater, the core material
of waste rock and sand extends above the water level and is then coveied with an envelope
of small crushed rock and gravel (filter course) to prevent the core material from washing
out. Armor rock (15 to 20 tons) overlays the filter course. All materials are selected for
both their availability and the wave climate design.
3. Permits and Regulations
The placement of fill material in water and wetlands is controlled by city,·
borough, state, and federal agencies. The Alaska Department of Natural Resources and the
Department of Fish and Game require perm it approval for construction filling in wetlands,
and the U.S. Corps of Engineers requires permit approval for filling in navigable waters.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Fill material and dredged spoil are two principal methods of construction filling in
waters and wetlands. The former is utilized in interior regions, and a combination of mass
dumping and spoil disposal is used in marine and river water bodies. Suitable fill material is
spread over the site and compacted in layers to grade and site line specifications. Machinery
requirements are similar to those identified for landfilling and dredging operations. The use
of truck or barge cranes may be required for placement of large rocks or concrete blocks.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The major source of emissions to the atmosphere from landfill operations
results from the activities involved in extraction, transport, and processing of fill materials.
Particulates are blown from the loads of dump trucks and road dust is stirred up by the
4-41
movement of vehicles on the bare surface. Control techniques involve watering, chemical
stabilization, and reduction of surface wind speed using windbreaks or source enclosure. The
quantity of suspended dust emissions in pounds per ton of fill may be estimated by the
following expression:
where
Emissions Factor = 0.33
PE = Thornthwaite's precipitation/evaporation index
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975)
Gaseous emissions from the vehicles used in the operations may be estimated from values
previously given in Table IV-V.
b. Noise
Filling operations generally create a short-term noise impact ranging from an
average of 79 to 88 dB(A) at 50 feet with all pertinent equipment present at the site. The
major noise sources are associated with earth-moving equipment and engine-powered·
materials handling equipment. Engine noise typically predominates, with exhaust noise
usually being most significant, and inlet and structural noise being of secondary importance.
c. Water Resources
The deposition of fill material can be expected to increase the turbidity of
the water due to the composition of the fill material and the resuspension of bottom
sediments, resulting in the impacts discussed in Section II.C.1. Any organic matter in the fill
material can be expected to depress dissolved oxygen concentrations (Section II.C.3).
Freshly exposed rock surfaces of fill material may contribute metal concentrations in excess
of natural conditions (Section II.C.2).
d. Terrestrial Biology
The act of filling on riparian vegetation or wetlands covers low-lying
vegetation and the root systems of trees, killing both. The trees often remain as dead snags.
Generally, revegetation on dredge spoil material is slow as compared to other disturbance
types. Riparian and wetland community types would be initially replaced by site-dependent
terrestrial early-successional communities. These communities would, in turn, be invaded by
site-dependent later-successional communities. Such communities would represent different
4-42
.) assemblages of plant and animal species as compared to the original riparian and wetland
communities.
Wetlands in the conterminous United States have been measurably reduced
by filling. Estimates of 40 to 100 million acres (one third to one half of the United States
wetlands) of reclaimed wetlands have been discussed in various studies (Harmon, 1968; U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 1965; Shaw and Fredine, 1956). Many of these have been lost
by filling. The filling of wetlands reduces the regional carrying capacity for
wetland-dependent species. The ability of a region to support wetland-dependent organisms
would therefore be impaired.
With the reduced waterfowl breeding habitat within the conterminous
United States, Alaska's wetlands become even more valuable as waterfowl breeding areas. In
dry years, when many wetlands dry up in Canada and the midwestern United States,
Alaskan wetlands are even more intensely used (Fortenbery, 1974). Waterfowl of Alaskan
origin provided approximately 13 percent of the 100,000,000 waterfowl annually harvested
within the United States between 1956 and 1962 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1975).
Historically, estuarine wetlands have been severely affected by man's
activities, particularly filling. For the total continental United States, 23 percent of the
estuaries have been moderately modified (U.S. Fish and Wiidlife Service, 1970). Estuaries
are important to a number of migratory species. The extent to which anadromous fish fry ·
and juvenile crustaceans utilize estuarine marshes in Alaska is undocumented. In other
estuaries, the marshes have proven to be important rearing grounds for similar species
(Odum, 1971 ). Filling of estuaries reduces the regional estuarine carrying capacity.
e. Aquatic Biology
The primary impact of the deposition of fill material occurs as aquatic
habitat is covered and thus precluded from future aquatic production. The severity of this
destruction depends upon the importance of the area for breeding, feeding, or migrating
functions of existing species. The destruction of salmon spawning areas will directly
decrease future production from the area since specific physical characteristics are required
for salmonid reproduction.
Secondary effects occur as silt and turbidity are increased in the project
vicinity due to the dispersal of fill materials. This increased turbidity decreases light
penetration and covers plant surfaces, thereby reducing photosynthesis and plant
production. Benthic organisms may also be killed or suffer reduced growth if they are
covered by sediment. Although fish can survive relatively high amounts of suspended matter
for short periods, chronic exposure (such as from resuspended sediments in backwater areas)
4-43
may destroy gill tissue and interfere with respiration. Salmonid species are generally more
sensitive to suspended sediment than other species.
Fill material contaminated with pesticides, metals, acids, or alkalines may
release toxins to surrounding waters and thus chronically affect the life processes of nearby
organisms. These materials may be transferred to terrestrial food chains as wildlife harvest
aquatic species. Fill in marine or estuarine waters may cause sedimentation, which blankets
shellfish or interferes with their growth, reproduction, or respiration. Excessive turbidity
may also inhibit cirtical fish movements such as salmon migration.
Long-term effects on aquatic production occur due to the accessibility which
fill operations normally enhance. Additional human use of an area generally results in
increased fishing and other activities not conducive to optimum aquatic productivity.
f. Soils
Fill on water and wetlands is anticipated to have the following effects.
(1) Accelerated Erosion and Sedimentation -Fill material can be highly
susceptible to erosion. The bare fill material is subject to the unbuffered mechanical effects
of wind and rain, with consequent erosional effects. In addition, fill materials are at times
difficult to revegetate, particularly if they are of dredge spoils. The longer the fill remains
unvegetated, the greater the potential for erosion.
(2) Subsidence -Filling on wetlands and subsequent use of the area for
development, particularly peat bogs and fen, can lead to long-term subsidence. Many
wetlands are underlain by highly organic soils which slowly decompose and mineralize over
time. In an undisturbed wetland, organic material is continuously added to the soil,
compensating for the loss. However, filling the wetlands precludes the introduction of
organic material and places these high bulk soils under stress. Predictably, subsidence
follows. Also, some fill materials are putrescible and over time will reduce their volume.
Consequently, fills containing these materials are highly unstable.
(3) Changes in the Biological, Chemical, and Physical Properties of Soil -
The wetland soils system will be replaced by the fill material which can have diverse physical
and chemical properties and will have an undeveloped soil biology. Reformation of a soil
system will depend on the climatic conditions and type of spoil material used.
g. Interactions
The potential consequences of fill on water and wetlands are itemized as
follows:
4-44
)
)
)
(1) Fills placed near or at the water edge would result in temporary
increases in sediment and nutrient transfers from terrestrial to aquatic systems. The transfers
are a result of the unvegetated bare nature of the fill material, which remains prone to
erosion by surface water runoff until revegetated. Revegetation on fill sites is generally
slower than revegetation on other disturbed sites. Potential secondary effects are reduction
in spawning habitat, alteration in makeup of benthic community, increased turbidity, and
increased nutrients.
(2) The filling on water results in greatly increased suspended sediments.
Such sediments can cause mechanical impediment to gills or other breathing structures,
resulting in suffocation. If timing of downstream migration of juvenile anadromous fish
coincides with the presence of high concentrations of suspended sediments, substantially
increased mortalities are predictable.
(3) Filling of wetlands has several hydrologic effects that result in reduced
low flows and increased high flows. Wetlands act like a sponge in hydrologic systems and
buffer stream flows. They can absorb large quantities of water and generally provide a wide
surface for drainage during wet conditions and release water during dry conditions. Removal
of the wetland can result in flooding downstream during wet periods and reduction of flows
during dry periods. The degree of the effect is dependent on local conditions.
(4) In areas of seasonal concentrations, disturbance of migratory species by
noise, habitat removal, or presence of humans can have significant adverse effects on
regional, statewide, and nationwide populations.
{5) Some possibility of accidental spiii of toxic substances, particuiariy
petrochemical products, may occur. Through incomplete combustion and engine drip, small
quantities can be expected to find their way to aquatic systems. Petroleum contaminants
have both immediately lethal and chronically toxic effects on biota. Secondary effects are
also deleterious (e.g., interference with gas exchange at water surface and matting of fur or
feathers, with subsequent loss in insulation and/or buoyancy).
4-45
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
S. NORTHWEST
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM OEL TA
H. COOK INLET
L KODIAK/SHELIKOF
M. GULF OF ALASKA ClJ
IMPACT ANALYSIS, CONSTRUCTION FILLING IN WATER AND WETLANDS
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II,PAGE$2-1 T02-20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SECTION II. PAGES 2-20 TO 2.36
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-36 TO 2-45
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-46 TO 2-60
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-60 TO 2-66
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-66 TO 2·70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
INTERACTIONS
SECTION II, PAGE$2-71 TO 2-76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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4-47
0
)
F. DREDGING
1. Introduction
Dredging is underwater excavation required to maintain adequate water depths in
navigation channels and dock areas, to develop port and industrial facilities, and to obtain
fill material. The dredged material (spoil) may be deposited on land or in water, depending
upon the chemical quality of the sediments.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
The resources required for a dredging operation are the dredging equipment and
an acceptable spoil disposal site.
3. Perm its and Regulations
State and federal resource and regulation agencies have imposed restrictions for
dredging operations. The principal agencies are the Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.
Corps of Engineers, Department of Fish and Game, Department of Environmental
Conservation, and Department of Natural Resources. Coordination with these agencies will
be required prior to initiating a dredging operation.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
The pipeline dredge and clamshell bucket are two principal methods of dredging
in Alaskan waters. A pipeline dredge consists of a large centrifugal pump mounted on a
specially designed barge. A suction pipe, equipped with a cutter head to break up bottom
materials, is lowered to a controlled depth by cables from the barge. The cutter head is
driven by a power source on the barge and the bottom material is sucked up through the
pipe and pumped to a disposal site through a pipeline. On some dredges the cutter head is
replaced by a water jet that breaks up or loosens the bottom sediments. (Pipeline dredges
are measured by the diameter of the suction pipe. They range from small 4-inch sand
pumpers to large 36-inch dredges.)
The clamshell bucket dredge is a float-mounted hoist that utilizes a bucket
consisting of two similar halves which are hinged at the top. The other essential components
include a barge or float, hoisting machinery, a swinging boom, and an anchoring system.
Some dredges are also equipped with winches to shift barges to facilitate material disposal.
Buckets are designed for hard or soft digging materials. Hard digging buckets are heavier and
have a more powerful closing mechanism than soft digging buckets. This added weight
generally necessitates a reduction in bucket capacity. Clamshell bucket dredges are not
equipped with disposal pipelines like the pipeline dredges. They are dependent upon
4-49
auxiliary disposal equipment, which generally consists of barges and a supporting tug to
move the barges to the disposal area.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The primary source of emissions to the atmosphere from dredging operations
is windblown dust from dredge spoils. If a coagulation compound is not used, these spoils
may constitute a major source of fine-grained particulates. Much of the equipment
employed in dredging is powered by diesel engines. These constitute a min or source of
em iss ions of several pollutants. Average emission levels of diesel powered engines were
previously shown in Table IV-V.
b. Noise
The major sources of noise from dredging operations are associated with the
use of internal-combustion equipment, pumps, and compressors, and engine-powered
earth-moving equipment for remote spoil disposal. Stationary equipment, such as pumps or
compressors, generally runs continuously at relatively constant power and speed. Noise
levels at 50 feet range from about 70 to 80 dB(A), with pumps typically at the low end of
the range. Earth-moving equipment, including trucks, shovels, and front-loaders, generally ·
creates noise levels which range from 73 to 96 dB(A) at 50 feet. The greatest potential for
noise abatement of earth-moving equipment is achieved in quieting the engine by use of
improved mufflers. These short-term impacts are often alleviated by truck routing along
routes which will avoid humans or animals, which are noise-sensitive, and by scheduiing such
transports at times which do not interfere with human activities such as sleep.
c. Water Resources
Dredging activities have the potential for creating significant water quality
degradation. The release of turbidity-producing and toxic materials and the depression of
dissolved oxygen levels are the primary water quality problems associated with dredging.
Turbidity created by dredging and spoil disposal has been shown to persist and spread
considerable distance, particularly in rivers (Section II.C.1 ). In sediments containing
significant quantities of organics, agitation or resuspension may reduce oxygen levels due to
high initial oxygen demand (Section II.C.3). The exposure of unoxidized sludges adds to the
oxygen demands placed on waters from other sources. Sulfides and other components from
industrial wastes may reach toxic concentrations during dredging and disposal activities
(Section II.C.2).
4-50
d. Terrestrial Biology
Underwater excavation would generally have few direct adverse impacts on
terrestrial plant and animal communities. Indirect effects of air pollution, however, may be
detrimental to both aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals. Noise may significantly alter
wildlife behavior and affect rookeries. Disturbance due to noise and the presence of humans
in pristine environments can resu It in reduced reproductive success, particu I arty if rookeries
are affected. The incidence of abandonment and predation increases at breeding colonies
which are so disturbed. Other secondary effects are discussed in the subsection on
interactions, below.
e. Aquatic Biology
The disturbance of bottom materials by dredging operations or through the
discharge of spoii materials may affect aquatic iife, as discussed in Section I I.E.1. Dredging
may also directly remove gravel or other substrates required for successful spawning. If
organic material is released, dissolved oxygen levels may be lowered and the growth,
activity, or development of aquatic organisms may be affected, as discussed in Section
ll.E.3.
f. Soils
No direct impacts on soils are anticipated by dredging activities. However,
dredging that transect an area where materials are being moved along the coast (littoral
drift), and can lead to erosion downdrift of the dredging site (Bosccom, 1964; Baur, 1974)
and subsequent loss of valuable land. Also, dredging as a method of draining peat wetlands
can have indirect consequences due to the subsequent oxidation of the drained peat soils,
which resu Its in subsidence (Weir, 1950).
g. Interactions
J The potential consequences of dredging are itemized as follows:
J
(1) Dredging in flowing waters, which results in deepened channels, alters
the hydrodynamic regime of the water body. Changes in transport and scouring patterns can
significantly alter deposition, temperature distribution, nutrient availability, dissolved
oxygen distribution, and other environmental factors which influence aquatic ecosysyems.
Such changes in physical attributes can result in alterations in the plant and animal
communities present at the channel site and adjacent areas, and in the erosional and
accretional conditions of the site and adjunct areas.
4-51
(2) The dredging of channels in areas of coastal littoral drift (net transport
of sediment along coast) can initiate erosional conditions downdrift of the channel. Areas
downdrift of the channel will continue to move material along the coast; however, the
continued supply of the source material will be cut off by a channel. Consequently,
erosional conditions may result.
(3) In addition to the effects identified in subparagraph (1), above,
deepened channels in estuaries can result in alterations in salinity and in the distribution of
free-swimming larvae stages.
(4) High concentrations of suspended sediment during dredging and
disposal can cause mechanical blockage of gills or other breathing structures, resulting in
suffocation to some species. If timing of downstream migration of juvenile anadromous fish
coincides with occurrences of high concentrations of suspended sediments caused by
dredging or disposal, substantially increased mortalities are predictable.
(5) Channelization in streams and rivers can result in shortened stream
length, alteration of normal runoff with increased peak flows and decreased low flows,
reduction of aquatic fish and wildlife habitat, lowering of groundwater levels, reduction in
wetlands, and downstream flooding. The specific effects and their magnitude are dependent
on site specific conditions.
(6) Dredged material (most often hydraulic spoil) is frequently placed on
wetlands and riparian habitats. For effects of this action, refer to Section IV. E,
Construction Filling in Water and Wetlands.
4-52
•
•
•
•
IMPACT ANALYSIS, DREDGING
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UNITS SEVERE MODERATE SEVERE MODERATE LOW stVERE MODERATE SEVERE MODERATE lOW
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4-53
0
:)
G. DRILLING FOR WATER
1. Introduction
Water is a renewable resource when the rate of withdrawal is less than the rate of
recharge. Surface water and groundwater are presently used for domestic and industrial
purposes in Alaska. The availability of groundwater varies throughout Alaska, depending on
the geologic conditions. The primary producing zones or aquifers are sand and gravel areas
situated between less permeable compacted layers of glacial till.
Most wells in the state have been drilled near Anchorage, and the city now
operates eight large-capacity wells with a flow of 700 to 1500 gpm (1 to 2 million gallons
per day). Fort Richardson and Elmendorf Air Force Base pump an average of 1.1 mill ion
gallons per day (mgd) from five wells, and the Central Alaska Utilities pumps an estimated
1.6 mgd from 22 weiis. The remaining Anchorage residents are served by approximately
4000 individual wells which pump from 2 to 10 gpm.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
Depending on the size and location of the well, the resources required for a
drilling operation are the driliing and support equipment. In remote locations, camp
facilities (crew quarters, communications, and cooking) and transportation access (land, sea,
or air) for servicing or initiating a drilling operation may be required. Fuel consumption
during water well drilling averages 1 gallon per foot and includes transportation to the site.
3. Permits and Regulations
A water rights permit may be issued by the State, but no State permit exists for
water well drilling. Individual municipalities may issue construction regulations and require
permits.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Cable and rotary drilling may be used for water wells. The rotary system is more
efficient, but is not economical when used for water. A description of the rotary drilling
method is included in the discussion on oil and gas drilling.
Cable drilling is accomplished as a drill bit attached to a cable strikes the ground
when the bit is lowered. Because of the elasticity of the cable, the drill bit turns a few
degrees on the downstroke and returns to its original position with release of tension on the
upstroke. This winding and unwinding action of the cable maintains the shape of the hole
and allows the well casing to be driven efficiently.
4-55
An open hole can be drilled in bedrock, but in unconsolidated fonnations casing
must be driven as drilling proceeds to prevent the hole from collapsing. The casing consists
of high-quality steel with coupled or welded joints which allow no water seepage. The
bottom of the casing is fitted with a heavy-walled steel drive shoe which serves as a cutting
edge while the casing is being driven.
During the initial stages of drilling, water is pumped into the hole to form a slurry
which cools the drill bit and allows the removal of drill cuttings. Once the well is in
water-bearing strata, injection of water is no longer necessary. To extract the drill cuttings,
the bit is raised and a sand pump is inserted to pump out the slurry, which is deposited in a
pit beside the well.
There are no set rules or standards for a drilling operation. As the well is drilled,
vibration may cause the walls to cave in. When the pressure on the casing becomes so great
that it is impossibie to drive it any further, a casing of a smaiier diameter is inserted and
drilling continues with a smaller bit. This may be done several times, depending on the
depth of the well. When the well reaches the proper depth, a screen is inserted at the bottom
and packed with gravel. Sand and silt are flushed from the screen, leaving only large pieces
of gravel. The top of the hole is then cemented or grouted, and a pump is installed.
Wells vary in size from 6 inches in diameter for a single dwelling to 24 inches for a
public utility. For a single-dwelling unit, a flow of 5 gpm is usually sufficient; for a public
utility unit, 1500 to 2000 gpm is required. Well depths may range from 50 to 500 feet {for
example, the average well in the Anchorage area is approximately 200 feet deep). Wells
drilled in permafrost areas pose additional problems, since water freezes in the well. To
prevent this, v,;ater can be circulated through the well and a heating element can be installed.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The equipment used in drilling operations is usually powered by diesel fuel.
The pollutants associated with this fuel combustion are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
particulates, and sulfur oxides, as shown previously in Table IV-V. The overall output of
pollutants is fairly small.
b. Noise
Noise levels associated with drilling are dependent on two primary factors:
the type of equipment used and the geologic type of material being drilled. Rock drills are
generally pneumatically powered, but there are also hydraulic and electric models. The
dominant sources of noise in the hydraulic tools are the high-pressure exhaust and the
4-56
:)
:)
)
impact of the tool bit against the material. Noise levels at 50 feet typically range from 80 to
97 dBA. An exhaust muffler on the compressed air exhaust can lower noise levels from the
exhaust by up to 10 dBA.
Once the well is drilled, stationary pumps are employed which generally run
continuously at a relatively constant power and speed. Pumps produce noise levels ranging
from about 65 to 73 dBA at 50 feet. However, because pumps operate continuously at a
fixed location, engine mufflers and enclosures can be used to reduce these levels by about
10 dBA. In cases where use of electrically powered pumps is feasible, the noise levels
generated at 3 feet range from 45 dBA to 93 dBA, depending on the size and operating
mode of the equipment.
c. Water Resources
Uncontrolled disposal
silt flushings from the completed well may cause local increases in the turbidity of receiving
waters, resulting in the effects discussed in Section II.C.1, Turbidity. In remote locations
where access and community facilities are required, the impacts may be similar to those of a
community development.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Barring any unforeseen complications such as subsidence and an extensive
drop in the water table, drilling for water may be expected to exhibit minimal detrimental
impacts on terrestrial plants and animals. On the drilling site, some destruction of plants and
animals will occur. The effects of the removal of vegetation and the extirpation of some
animals are discussed in Section li.D.2. Deposition of slurry from the operation will also
destroy some vegetation and additional animal species. In the surrounding area, compaction
and air pollution of heavy drilling equipment will also be injurious to the local flora and
fauna. Perhaps the greatest impact will result from noise and human activity on the site,
causing mobile animals to emigrate fror:n the area and other that normally would use the site
for food, shelter, or a migration route to avoid the area. In remote locations, where
equipment and camp facilities are constructed, human pollution and harassment may be an
important factor that will exhibit detrimental impacts to sensitive wildlife species.
e. Aquatic Biology
Drilling for water for a single well does not normally affect the aquatic
environment. However, activities conducted during rainstorms or without proper erosion
control could result in the impacts discussed in Section li.E.1. In remote locations, where
access and community facilities are required, impacts may be similar to those for a
community development.
4-57
f. Soils
Those impacts identified with clearing and grubbing are also applicable to
water drilling. However, the extent of vegetation removal is generally small. An additional
impact associated with water drilling is subsidence. Subsidence caused by the withdrawal of
groundwater has been documented in several areas in California, Texas, and Mexico.
Subsidence as great as 25 feet has been recorded in these areas, though generally subsidence
is much less. Subsidence has occurred where the hydrostatic pressure (artesian pressure)
within a confined aquifer was substantially reduced by heavy withdrawal of water (Polard
and Davis, 1971 ). One can expect subsidence to occur under similar conditions, particularly
when the aquifer is overlain by loosely consolidated clayey sediments of the tertiary and
quaternary age. Those sediments of volcanic provinces that contain montmorillonite as the
dominant clayey material are particularly prone to subsidence (Polard and Davis, 1971 ).
Subsidence can result in altered surface drainage and in damage to man-made structures.
g. Interactions
Deleterious impacts associated with water drilling are limited. Those
considered important are as follows:
(1) Subsidence -Subsidence in land surface due to intensive groundwater
withdrawal has been documented in several areas, including California, Texas, and Mexico
(Polard and Davis, 1972). Reduction in hydrostatic pressure within a contained aquifer due
to water drilling results in an increased grain-to-grain load on sediments. The sediments
compact in response to the added load and subsidence may follow. Damage due to
subsidence includes flooding in coastal areas; failures in water drainage within canals, drains,
and sewers; and structural failure in buildings, pipelines, railroads, and other engineering
structures.
(2) Lowering of Water Table -If water is withdrawn at a faster rate than
the groundwater reservoir is being recharged, the water table will drop. A drop in the water
table may reduce low flows of local streams, affect springs, and cause some shallow wells to
go dry. Extended withdrawal without adequate recharge will deplete the groundwater
reservoir. In development areas, the problem is further aggravated by the placing of
impervious surfaces over the aquifer recharge area.
4-58
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Q
•
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
B. NORTHWEST
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
D. TANANA
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
KUSKOKWIM OEL T A
I. COPPER RIVER
K.BftiSTOLBAY
L KOOIAK/SHELIKOF
cu
M. GULF OF ALASKA CU
cu
AIR QUALITY
SECTION II, PAGES 2·1 TO 2-20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
1 .......
MODERATE
2.b
3
2.b
3
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5.6
1,2,3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
1,2.3,4,5,6
2.3,4,5.6
1.2.3,4.5,6
4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
1.2.3.4.5,6
2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2.3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
4,5,6
2.3.4.5.6
2,3,4,5.6
2,3,4,5,6
1,2.3.4,5.6
2,3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5.6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6 1.b
1,2,3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
1,2.3,4,5,6
1.2.3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,8
1,2.3,4,5,6
....
2.3.4.6,6
4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5.6
IMPACT ANALYSIS, DRILLING FOR WATER
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II.PAGES2·20T02·36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
MODERATE
..... ,
3.a,b,.d
3.a,b,.d
3.a.b,d
3.a.b.d
3•.M
..... ,
3.a,b,d
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......
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..... ,
3..1.b.d
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3..1.b.d
l...l,b,d
.....
3..1,b,d
.... ,
..... ,
l...l,b,d
......
..... ..
.....
......
WATER RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2·36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-'6 TO 210
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
MOOERATE
1 ....,,
1
2.1<;6
1
2.k;6
2.11;6
1
2.11;6
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1
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2.1c6
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AO':'ATIC BIOLOGY
SECT10N ,I, PAGES 2-60 TO 2-66
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE
1.a.b,c.d,.l
1..11,b,C.d,e
l.a,b.c:,d,e
t.a,h_c,d,e
1..1,b,c,d.&
t .. .b.c.d.-
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SQil RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGESZ-66 TO 2·70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
.2.3.5
•••
2.3,5
2,3,5
2,3,5
, ..
SECTION II, PAGES 2·71 TO 2·76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
4-59
0
0
0
0
H. EXPLORATION FOR OIL AND GAS
1. Introduction
Exploration for oil and gas is the first step in recovering, processing, and
marketing the finished petroleum products. Exploration, which is the basic action
considered in this report, differs from recovery in that it is generally a less intense effort
spread over many sites, usually covering large areas. Thus, while exploration may cover an
area of thousands of square miles, actual production of the minerals may only occur at a
few localized sites. Exploration techniques may only indicate the presence of oil or gas, or
suggest quantities. Recovery operations require consideration of numerous major
development activities and are scheduled if commercial quantities are available to establish
production of the oil or gas. Recovery and development of oil and gas are not analyzed in
this report and would require an in-depth analysis should such actions occur.
2. Resources Required to Complete the Action
During exploration, temporary camp facilities are required to protect, store, and
maintain equipment and fuel. Housing must be constructed to shelter work parties. In
permafrost areas, gravel is necessary to support activities and maintain soil stability. Drilling
methods require drilling mud and water to wash crushed rock from the well.
3. Perm its and Regulations
The permits and regulations required for the development of mineral resources are
outlined in the Alaska Administrative Code, Title 2, Part 3. In addition, the State Division
of Lands requires an operation and well casing plan.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Initial exploration may utilize geochemical or geophysical techniques to
determine the presence of petroleum deposits. The soil-gas method is the best known
geochemical technique for oil explorations in the United States. Soil samples are gathered at
intervals over the study area and are analyzed for differences in hydrocarbon content. The
results are plotted on a map, which then may indicate the location of the source of oil or
gas. The most useful geophysical technique employs shock waves and is known as reflection
seismography. A shock wave is generated by exploding dynamite beneath the earth's surface
or by dropping heavy weights on the ground (vibroseis). The shock waves travel through the
earth and return to the surface after reflection from the subsurface features. Seismic
techniques are expensive and are used only for detailed analysis in areas which have been
explored with other methods. Recent seismic exploration on the North Slope (1975)
utilized detonations spaced at quarter-mile intervals.
4-61
-----·~-------·~-··-·-····· . ------------------~~ ---· --------------------------------------~--~---------
Following geophysical and geological exploration, the next phase of activity is
selection of a test site for exploratory drilling. A base camp may be established in remote
areas or in local communities to support the activities of remote camps conducting the
drilling operations. The base camp is typically on a 3-acre site, requires a runway for
aircraft, and is staffed by approximately 50 people. A remote camp is typically established
on a half-acre gravel pad for equipment and support facilities for approximately 20 people.
Rotary drilling is the most common method of drilling and uses a column
composed of sections of pipe screwed together (a drilling string) and suspended from a
derrick by a cable. A drill bit is screwed to the bottom pipe and the string is lowered,
forcing the bit to penetrate the rock as it turns. A stream of liquid, generally colloidal mud,
is pumped through the drill pipe to wash away the rock cuttings and bring them to the
surface. Coring and other tests are conducted to evaluate the oil-producing potential of the
geologic formation.
The recovery of large commercial quantities of oil and gas, such as at Prudhoe
Bay, requires specific well construction to prevent caving and to protect the hydrocarbons
from any contamination. Each well and mode of transporting oil and gas are site or region
specific. The well head site would require the construction of semi-permanent facilities to
protect equipment and house personnel, and would include gathering lines, long-distance
large-diameter pipelines, and pumping stations. A pipeline system is the common mode of
transporting either oil or gas quantities in Alaska. A pipeline system would require gathering·
lines, pump stations, camp sites for use during construction, airfields for use during both
construction and operation of the pipeline, a communication system, lateral access roads,
and material sites for construction materials. Prior to construction and placement of any
pipeline system, roadways are required for access and the movement of equipment,
materials, and personnel during pipeline construction activities. As previously stated, the
development and recovery of oil and gas and its transportation requirements are dependent
upon more parameters (e.g., routing, economics) than are discussed within the scope of this
action. Hence, each developed field should be the subject of an in-depth study and would
require site-specific evaluation for both recovery and movement. For further discussion of
development activities, refer to Sections IV.N (Community Development) and IV.P (Natural
Resource Development Complex).
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The exploration and recovery of oil and gas involve impacts associated with
most of the basic engineering actions previously discussed, but also include impacts
associated with the development of roads and, to a limited extent, community development.
4-62
The air quality impacts are discussed here in general terms under four categories: seismic
exploration, transportation, base camps, and operation considerations.
The use of explosives in seismic studies involves the ejection of particulates
(or water in underwater exploration) into the atmosphere. In general, most of the larger
particles fall out in the immediate area, but the smaller particles may be carried some
distance before they are removed or sufficiently dispersed by the atmosphere.
Transportation-related sources include the construction of roads and airports
and the movement of vehicles, including helicopters and airplanes as well as ground or
marine traffic, to bring people and materials to the sites. The impacts of these actions are
better discussed in the section on roads. Construction activities generate dust which may be
controlled by appropriate wetting techniques. The fuel burned in internal combustion
engines results in the emission of pollutants to the atmosphere. Table IV-V summarizes
emissions factors for heavy-duty diesel-powered equipment. Table IV-X summarizes
emissions factors for the landing and takeoff cycles of different types of aircraft. Gravel
roads are inevitably dusty, but standard control measures can be used at critical locations.
Many areas of Alaska have the requisite atmospheric conditions for the formation of ice -fog.
Most airports and roads associated with this kind of engineering action have very light
traffic, but each vehicle itself is a potential ice fog generator. Where these are located close
to other facilities such as pump stations, base camps, or production sites, the problems may
be more significant.
Base camps are a smaller version of what is discussed in community
development. The essential elements include construction activities (as discussed in the basic
engineering actions), vehicular traffic, power generation, heating of dwellings, and refuse
disposal or incineration. These last three involve the combustion of material which is most
often fossil fuels. Tables IV-XI and IV-XII give typical emissions factors for incineration and
industrial and commercial heating. The actual amounts of emission will depend on the size
of the operation and the temperatures and hours of darkness on the site.
Operation of oil and gas wells requires a series of facilities, all of which
involve pollution. Some of these facilities include the oil fields themselves or platforms,
pipelines, pump stations, transfer terminals, and refineries. Each of these facilities involves
evaporative losses of hydrocarbons from valves, seals and tanks, heat and power generation,
incineration of wastes, and emissions from upset conditions.
During the installation of these facilities, dust, exhaust, and crankcase
emissions from diesel and gasoline engines would be coincident with construction activities.
Emissions and dust are controllable to accepted standards, the former by mechanical means,
the latter by wetting down the working area with water. The impact would be only during
the time of construction and would end at completion of the activity.
4-63
TABLE IV-X. EMISSION FA.CTORS PER AIRCRAFT LANDING/TAKEOFF CYCLE
Aircraft Solid Particulates Sulfur Oxides Carbon Monoxide Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx as N02 )
(pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)
Jumbo jet 1.30 1.82 46.8 12.2 21.4
Long-range jet 1.21 1.56 47.4 41.2 7.9
Medium-range jet 0.41 1.01 17.0 4.9 10.2
Air carrier turboprop 1.1 0.40 6.6 2.9 2.5
Business jet 0.11 0.37 15.8 3.6 1.6
General aviation turboprop 0.20 0.18 3.1 1.1 1.2
General aviation piston 0.02 0.014 12.2 0.40 0.047
Piston transport 0.56 0.28 304.0 40.7 0.40
Helicopter
'
0.25 0.18 5.7 0.52 0.57
Military transport 1.1 0.41 5.7 2.7 2.2
Military jet 0.31 0.76 15.1 9.93 3.29
Military piston 0.28 0.14 152.0 20.4 0.20
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973
:)
0
0
TABLE IV-XI. EMISSION FACTORS FOR
REFUSE INCINERATORS WITHOUT CONTROLS
(pounds/ton)
Industrial/
Municipal Commercial
Particulates 14-30 7-15
· Sulfur oxides 2.5 2.5
Carbon monoxide 35.0 10-20
Hydrocarbons 1.5 3-15
Nitrogen oxides 3.0 3.0
* LoweL values are for incinerator with primary burner
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975
Flue-Fed
6-30
0.5
10-20
3-15
3-10
Domestic*
7-35
0.5
neg 300
2-100
1-2
4-65
TABLE IV-XII. COMPARISON OF EMITTED POLLUTANTS FOR
DIFFERENT FUELS FOR INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL HEATING
{in pounds/1 0 6 Btu)
Bituminous Residual Distillate
Coal 1 Fuel Oi1 2 Fuel Oil 3
Particulates 0.52 x% ash 0.15 0.11
Suifur dioxide 1.52 x% suifur i .05 x % suifur i .Oi x% suifur
Carbon monoxide 0.08 0.03 0.03
Hydrocarbons 0.04 0.02 0.02
Nitrogen oxides 5 0.60 0.53 0.57
1 10 to 100 million Btu/hour size spreader stoker, assuming Btu content of 25 x 106 Btu/ton
2 Assumes heat content of 6.3 x 106 Btu/barrel
3 Assumes heat content of 5.9 x 106 Btu/barrel
4 Assumes heat content of 1050 Btu/foot3
5 Horizontally fixed units
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975
4-66
Natural
Gas 4
0.01
O.OOi
0.02
0.01
0.11
)
)
)
J
)
J
In many cases, new industrial heaters and boilers would come under new
source performance review and would have to meet those emissions restrictions, as well as
the ambient air quality standards and nondegradation requirements. Vapor recovery systems
will be required for many of the storage tanks. Emissions of sulfur dioxide are of particular
concern because of their effect on lichens at concentration levels down to 0.05 ppm (0.14
ppm is the 24-hour primary standard for sulfur dioxide). In regions where caribou forage on
these lichens, natural gas may have to be considered as the fuel to be burned to keep ground
level concentrations low.
Ice fog may sometimes occur at larger facilities in interior Alaska, but its
effects outside the station compound would be small. An oil well blowout which results in a
fire would normally contribute a considerable amount of pollutants to the air. This is
generally considered an emergency situation and is not covered by appropriate standards.
b. Noise
Exploration and recovery of petroleum minerals have a variety of associated
noise problems. Reflection seismography could result in a short-term impact of significant
magnitude. Due to the fact that the explosion is detonated underground or under water, the
resulting vibration rather than the airborne noise may create the most harmful effects. Alpin
(1947) reported that underwater explosions for seismic exploration kill some fish that have
air bladders, especially if they are subjected to a broadside pressure wave. Fitch and Young
(1948) also reported fish kills while using explosives for seismic exploration. Deaths were
primarily due to rupture of the air bladders of these fish. On three occasions such explosions
killed California sea lions and diving birds (Fitch and Young, 1948).
Shock vibrations are also known to have detrimental effects upon the
embryological development of fish eggs. All salmonid eggs pass through a vibration-sensitive
period just after egg fertilization which lasts 30 to 40 days (Olson, 1974). Shock waves
originating on land and transported to adjacent water bodies could cause the loss of
fertilized eggs during this vibration-sensitive period.
The startle response of birds and terrestrial mammals to blasting is
frequently reported. With respect to bird populations, nest desertion of some species often
results in increased predation (Shaw, 1970; Graham, 1969; Macinnes and Mishra, 1972;
Gallop, et al, 1974). The short-and long-term effects of such disturbances on ecological
balance are still poorly understood; however, studies are currently in progress that may add
valuable insight on these effects.
Other noise-producing activities associated with this action include
exploratory drilling and pumping, and transport of material and labor. The noise levels
expected from these actions are more fully described in previous sections. (See Clearing and
4-67
Grubbing, Surface Excavation, and Drilling for Water.) Truck and aircraft transportation of
material and labor must also be considered. Heavy-duty diesel trucks create noise levels
ranging from a mean of 78 to 92 dBA at a distance of 50 feet. The overall impact of this
noise source is dependent on the number of vehicles over time using these access roads. The
federal government has responded to this as well as other noise sources through the Noise
Control Act of 1972 (86 Stat. 1234 Public Law 92-475). Pursuant to the authority
contained in Section 18 of this law, the Environmental Protection Agency has proposed
rules for transportation equipment noise emissions for medium-and heavy-duty trucks (40
CFR 205). The standards for vehicles in the category expected to operate at this type of
site, measured at 50 feet from the centerline of travel, are 86 dBA at speeds of 35 mph or
less and 90 dBA at over 35 mph. To determine the statistical distribution of noise over time,
worst-case, 1-hour volumes are required to model the expected roadway noise .
.A.s described in the aircraft noise model, the noise exposure forecast (NEF)
for aircraft operations at a given point is composed of the effective perceived noise levels
(EPNL's) produced by each aircraft class over a 24-hour time period. The effect of aircraft
and helicopter noise harrassment on human populations is discussed in Section 11.8.1.
The effect of aircraft noise on wildlife has been poorly documented.
However, Schwunburg (1974) found that waterfowl vary in their ability to adjust to aircraft
disturbance. In marshes and bays, where there was greater protection, they seemed to better
withstand sustained pressure. Gallop, et al (1974) reported that passerine birds are·
habitat-specific and will tolerate a degree of disturbance so long as the natural vegetation
remains intact. However, it was further found that during breeding there were measurable
detrimental effects on passerine reproductive success in disturbance areas. A study of coastal
breeding birds showed that human presence was the most potent form of disturbance
affecting the normal incubating behavior of all species studied (Gallop, et al, 1974a). It was
further noted that aircraft disturbance affected the normal incubating behavior of black
brant, glaucous gulls, and Arctic terns, but had little obvious effect on that of the common
eiders. With respect to the effects of aircraft disturbance on molting sea ducks, it has been
found that some species vacate traditional molting areas if subjected to human disturbance
(Sterling and Dzubin, 1967). According to a study by Gaiiop, Goldsberry, and Davis \i97-i-/,
passage of aircraft caused molting waterfowl to alter normal behavior and repeated exposure
would have a detrimental effect.
Habituation to aircraft disturbance is thought to have occurred in several
studies of ungulate populations, including reindeer (Thomson, 1972) and Dall sheep
(Reynolds, 1974). McCourt and Horofman (1974) found the reaction of barren-ground
caribou to aircraft varied with season and activity. The greatest reactivity was found to be
during post-calving and in winter, and the least reactivity during fall migration and summer
movement.
4-68
c. Water Resources
Geochemical exploration techniques have the potential for placing sediment
material into suspension, which causes an increase in local turbidity. The effects are
described in Section II.C.1, Turbidity. Exploratory drilling for either oil and gas or hard
rock minerals requires support facilities in which water quality degradation is probable from
the release of drilling mud and wash water into surface waters (Section II.C.1, Turbidity),
spillage of fuels (Section II.C.2, Toxic or Deleterious Substances), and discharge of sanitary
wastes into surface waters (Section II.C.7, Coliform Bacteria). Effects of borrow operations
for gravel as fill material were described in Sections IV.B and C, Excavation and
Construction Filling on Land.
d. Terrestrial Biology
The greatest impact from exploratory operations results from oil spillage at a
successful but uncapped well. Spilled oil will cause detrimental effects in both terrestrial and
aquatic habitats. Terrestrial oil spill studies at Barrow, Alaska (McCown, Benoit, and
Murrmann, 1970) indicated that plants that had been physically covered by oil were dead
after 60 days. This was especially noticeable on low-growing mosses and liverworts that had
been covered at least 5 liters/m 2 . Crude oil also reduced biomass and chlorophyll
production. These authors further concluded that (1) on drier soils oil penetrated to the
permafrost, whereas in wet sites characterized by a thick organic layer the oil did not·
penetrate below the vegetative level; (2) the organic mat, even when wet, had the capability
of absorbing large quantities of oil; (3) damage to plants can be expected at soil
_ hydrocarbon levels above 20 mg/g dry soil, and lethal levels of oil occur at approximately 40
mg oil/g dry soil; and (4i heavy oil treatment (12 iiters/m 2 ) produced, on the average, a
two-fold increase in soil respiration. In general oil from seeps or spills is toxic to plants
(phytotoxic) when it contacts the foliage.
Death of plants covered by oil in areas underlain by permafrost would result
in permafrost melting and degradation. Severe erosion would then become a possibility on
the spillage and surrounding site. Oil under pressure could spray for considerable distance, as
reported by Rickard and Deneke (1971 ). These authors indicated that, during one spill from
the Harnes-Fairbanks military pipeline, oil sprayed 100 feet in the air and saturated plants
downwind for 100 to 200 feet
To protect animals from coming in contact with oil-covered vegetation,
cleanup operations must involve the removal of oil~soaked vegetation including the organic
mat. Draining oil in temporary storage pits from which it may be pumped or shoveled is also
a possibility. However, the removal of oil would destroy the vegetation and the habitat that
the spill area normally provided for wildlife and destroy some wildlife habitat. Mud and
other drilling wastes will undoubtedly also cover some vegetation. The influence of oil
4-69
spillage on aquatic communities is described under the aquatic biology and interactions
sections for this action.
Detrimental impacts to terrestrial environments would also result from
landscape changes, vegetation removal, and the effects of organic and inorganic pollutants
produced by man and machinery. The specific and varied impacts from these three major
outcomes are described in Section II.D. Dominant impacts are expected from localized
destruction and pollution during construction and operation of the numerous exploratory
sites that are necessary to establish the location of economically minable oil resources.
Blasting and other equipment noise will affect animals, as discussed in Section IV.H.5.b,
Noise. Harassment of animals, especially predators, may increase and predators considered
especially threatening may be sought out and destroyed. Mammalian and avian predators are
especially sensitive to human disturbance and may be expected to emigrate from regions of
greatest and continual activity. In general, wildlife utilization of the area will be adversely
affected by the increase in vehicular traffic, aircraft, machinery, and human activity.
e. Aquatic Biology
Impacts on aquatic biology are expected to vary, depending upon the
exploratory technique used. Initial gravimetric and geochemical exploration could result in
stream sedimentation, depending on sampling location and transportation to the site.
Reflection seismography could affect aquatic life, as discussed in Section IV.H.5.b, Noise.·
Extensive exploration normally results in off-road travel, which could contribute to erosion
and sedimentation.
Camps developed for exploratory work could be expected to generate
impacts similar to, but less extensive than, those described in Section IV.N, Community
Development. Additional sedimentation could result from the release of drilling and waste
to surface waters.
f. Soils
Those impacts identified under Clearing and Grubbing, Foundation
Construction, and Road Construction are also applicable to this action. Other impacts are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
The action will result in removal and disturbance of vegetation and surface
organic mat on the site and adjacent to the site by people and by heavy machinery. Erosion,
sedimentation, subsidence, and mass wasting can result. The degree of damage to soils is
dependent on the type of soil disturbed, the local geology, the climate, and the operational
methods used, particularly revegetation and tim in g.
4-70
)
)
The action often entails moving heavy equipment over areas where roads do
not exist. Disturbance of this type has been documented to cause potentially severe erosion
in areas underlain by shallow permafrost of ice-rich fine-to medium-grained soils (Hok,
1969). Caterpillar-tracked overland vehicles have the most severe effect on these soils (Burt,
1970). Air-cushion vehicles minimize these adverse effects (Betchel, Inc., 1972). In addition,
winter operation, when the ground is frozen, can also reduce potential impacts. Overland
travel during thawed conditions or on steep slopes can aggravate these impacts.
g. Interactions
Major impacts associated with exploration and recovery of oil and gas on
interactions are as follows:
(1) Subsidence -The removal of oil and gas from beneath the land surface
can result in decreased hydrostatic pressure. Decreased hydrostatic pressure in confined
systems, such as oil and gas zones, results in increased grain-to-grain load on sediments. The
sediments compact in response to the added load and, consequently, the surface subsides
(Polard and Davis, 1972). Dam age caused by subsidence takes several forms. In coastal areas
flooding can result. Changing gradients can have serious effects on the ability of canals,
drains, and sewers to function properly and structural failures in buildings, pipelines,
railroads, and other engineered structures have been documented (Polard and Davis, 1972).
Major subsidence problems of oil fields which have been documented
include Goose Creek oil field in Texas; Wilmington oil field in the harbor area of Los
Angeles and Long Beach, California; and oil fields on the shore of Lake Maraeaibo in
Venezuela (Polard and Davis, 1972). Many smaller such subsidence occurrences have been
documented (Grant, 1944; Gilluly and Grant, 1949).
(2) Oil and Gas Spillage -Oil spills in areas of seasonal concentrations of
migratory species, particularly waterfowl, can have deleterious effects on regional,
statewide, and national populations. Water-associated birds that come into contact with
crude oil lose the insulation ability of their feathers and frequently die of body heat loss and
exposure. The combined effects of emulsifiers and crude oil are even more pronounced.
Secondary toxic effects of the crude oil may also, in part, be responsible for mortalities.
Key feeding areas (tide flat communities and eel grass communities) are prone to oil
contamination that may render them unusable to dependent migratory species.
The most prevalent accidental organic contaminant on a worldwide
basis is crude oil (Simmons, 1974). An estimated 1 billion gallons per year of crude oil are
lost in transport due to collisions, transfer leaks, and explosions. An additional unknown
quantity is lost through tank washing at sea and seepage from installations at transfer points
(Simmons, 1974). Since the majority of crude oil is transported by sea, oceans are a major
4-71
receptor for this pollutant. Oil spills in marine environments contribute to the global
aggregate of oil contamination of these environments. Little is known concerning the
long-term cumulative effect of oil fractions which have a long residence time in sea water.
Predictable adverse impacts are disruption of marine food chains, direct toxic effects
(particularly on juvenile species), and sublethal effects. Some oil fractions do concentrate in
food webs and are suspected carcinogenics. Small globs of resistant crude oil are often
encountered by diving sea birds and can cause mortality.
The presence of oil can also interfere with the migratory behavior of
anadromous fish by inhibiting homing and spawning behavior (Council of Environmental
Quality, 1974). Many aquatic species utilize low concentrations of chemicals (a few parts
per billion) as behavior signals for homing and reproduction. In some cases these chemical
signals closely resemble high-boiling, saturated hydrocarbons. Some authorities believe oil
contaminants can mimic natural stimuli, or saturate receptors, thereby interfering with the
behavior of species (Blumer, 1969).
Many pesticides are soluble in oils and fats. Oil slicks and sediment oil
have been documented to have pesticide concentrations 10,000 times greater than the
surrounding environment (Hartung and Klinger, 1970; Vagners, 1972). If incorporated into
food webs, their high concentrations of pesticides may be damaging to consumers near the
apex of food webs.
4-72
(
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PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNJTS
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
H. COOK INLET
I. COPPER RIVER
K. BRISTOL BAY
L KDDIAK/SHEL.IKOF
SM 0
M. GULF OF ALASKA Cl.l
cu
N. SOUTHEAST
SECTION U, PAGES 2·1 TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
1
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1.2.3,4.5,6
1.2.3.4.5.6
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IMPACT ANALYSIS, EXPLORATION FOR OIL AND GAS
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2·36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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WATER RESOURCES
SECTION U, PAGES 2-36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE
1;2.b
6;7.b
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6;7.b
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6;7.b
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-48 TO 2-60
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
AOUATIC BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-«1 TO 2..00
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
LOW SEVERE MODERATE
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SOIL RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2-06 TO 2-70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE
'·'
2.3,4,7
2.3.7
'·' ,,3
_2.3.7
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-71 TO 2·76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE ..
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4-73
0
Q
0
I. ROAD CONSTRUCTION
1. Introduction
The construction of roadways encompasses a variety of engineering activities
including clearing, excavating, and filling. The extent to which these actions are involved is a
function of the class of roadway and the terrain encountered throughout the course of the
route. The purposes of roadway construction in Alaska do not vary significantly from those
of the lower 48 states. Access to natural resources and between population centers and
transportation terminals are all basic services which road networks provide.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
Land easements for right-of-way corridors, suitable fill material, and roadway
surface material are the primary resources required for roadway construction. Secondary
resources include labor, equipment, fuel, and camp facilities. The State of Alaska Public
Land Order requires a minimum 300-foot right-of-way for a primary highway. This involves
a minimum of 36.3 acres per mile. The actual area of development and clearing will usually
require approximately 12.1 acres per mile. Cleared areas for operations, crushing plants,
batch plants, and construction camps are additional land requirements.
Labor requirements vary with the type and area of construction, but the short
five-month construction period (May through September) increases the demand on this
resource. Fuels are required for construction equipment, as well as for the transport of
materials to the site. In more remote areas requiring work camps, additional fuel demands
must be met. Approximateiy 90 percent of the fuel used is diesel; the other 10 percent is
gasoline to power pickup trucks, small generators, and compressors.
3. Permits and Regulations
Table IV-XIII indicates the permits which may be required for road construction
projects in Alaska. The application of specific permits and approvals is dependent upon the
agency or individual sponsoring the construction, the type and location of the roadway, and
the methods required to accomplish the action.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Selection of a route, the first step in roadway planning and development, is based
on a number of considerations in order to balance ecological, engineering, social, and cost
criteria. Permafrost, a significant consideration in route selection, can be avoided by routing
on south slopes and away from poorly drained low ground. Water bodies and natural
drainage systems and other geologic barriers should be avoided if possible. Aerial
4-75
TABLE IV-XIIII. ROADWAY CONSTRUCTION PERMITS
Permit
Surface oiling
Solid waste
management
Waste disposal
Pesticides
Water rights
application
Alteration of a water
course or water body
application
Material
Right-of-way
Airway /highway
clearance
Environmental
impact statement
Legislation*
AAC Title 18,
Chapter 75
AAC Title 18,
Chapter 60
AAC Title 46,
Chapter 3
AAC Title 18,
Chapter 90
AAC Title 11,
Chapter 72
AS16
AS 46.03
AS46.15
National
Environmental
Policy Act
AAC-Alaska Administrative Code
AS -Alaska Statute
Issuing Agency
Department of Environmental
Conservation
Department of Environmental
Conservation
Department of Environmental
Conservation
Department of Environmental
Conservation
Division of Lands
Departments of Environmental
Conservation, Fish and Game, and
Natural Resources (Division of Lands)
Division of Lands
Division of Lands
Federal Aviation Administration
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Application Purpose as Related to Roadways
The use of oil and petroleum products on
state lands
Control of pollutant discharge from incin-
erators burning solid waste generated by
construction and discharge from temporary
batch plants and generators (of 250 kilowatts
or more) in construction yards and camps
Discharge of solid wastes from construction-
related activities and camps into state waters
Control of pesticides related to construction
activities
For use of state waters in construction of
roads or use in construction camps
Required for the relocation or alteration of
a water body or water course
The use of state lands for such things as
stockpiling and construction camps
For construction of improvements needing
right-of-way on state lands
For roads developed within a mile of
airports
For federal, state, and local projects involv-
ing federal funding
3
photography and soil borings will identify foundation material opportunities and
limitations. Route selection is also influenced by fill availability.
Every new highway involves a considerable amount of earthwork in its
construction. The basic earthwork actions can be classified as clearing and grubbing,
excavation (for roadway, borrow, and structural operations), filling to form embankments
and slopes, and the finish grading and compacting actions. These actions were identified
individually in earlier discussions.
Clearing is initiated during surveying, when the route centerline is established.
Additional areas for staging and borrow sites will require clearing as well. An office plus two
or three trailers and a rock crusher will also be located on the site. A bulldozer is the
primary piece of machinery used in the majority of the clearing operation. Most vegetative
debris is burned, and noncombustible debris is removed to a waste site and buried. Clearing,
especially in areas of permafrost, should be minimized in order to maintain the vegetation's
insulating effect on the active layer and to retard uncontrolled erosion.
Grading establishes a smooth well-drained roadbed on which to apply surfacing
materials. Roadway construction requires excavation and disposal of undesirable and excess
material. Filling must be accomplished where suitable foundation material is lacking or
where elevations are not sufficient. Cut slopes through the undisturbed soils shouid
ordinarily remain stable· at 1:1; however, minimum 2:1 slopes should be maintained, and
3:1 are usually the rule when possible. Any solid rock encountered normally allows rock
excavation as steep as a 1/4:1 slope. The primary equipment employed in excavation
activities includes bulldozers, scrapers, loaders, and dump trucks.
Filling with sand and gravel mixed with clay and silt to provide a binding agent is
the most desirable. An unbalanced cut and fill operation, where the quality or quantity of
cut material is not adequate, requires borrowed material from other sites. The fill material is
placed in relatively thin layers and compacted.
Roadway construction may also require bridge construction and drainage for
stormwater runoff. The techniques employed attempt to minimize erosion and provide
minimal obstruction to water flow and waterborne debris. Bridge construction requires the
placement of rock and concrete abutments, foundations, pilings, and retaining walls.
Drainage culverts are placed during subgrade operations.
Upon completion of the major earthwork, roadbeds, and structural features,
action begins on the finish grading and compaction of the roadway. In many areas of
Alaska, the surface is compacted and finished with a gravel surface. Otherwise, hot asphalt
pavement mix is utilized as the final surface.
4-77
The revegetation of disturbed or altered rights-of-way is often required after
roadway completion to stabilize the soil surface for erosion control. Roads constructed over
permafrost and other unstable materials are developed with the intent of rebuilding
damaged sections over a five-to ten-year period. Major damage and hazards receive
immediate attention. A research proposal recently completed by the U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratories (1976) contains an extensive bibliography
on environmental protection in relation to economic development of permafrost regions,
including forecasting changes in geocryological conditions and restoration of damaged area.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
Road construction results in air quality degradation during three phases:
construction, operation, and the secondary impacts associated with facilities to provide
services to the persons using the road. In remote locations, these impacts should be small
but, by the nature of roads, the end points and intersections with other roads may be cause
for greater concern.
Construction results in st1rnng up of fugitive dust from clearing and
grubbing; fill; excavation; transport of wastes, fill, and supplies; and rock crushing. There are
also emissions from heavy-duty vehicles and, when camps are required, from power and heat
generation and refuse disposal. These impacts are more completely discussed in the sections
on basic engineering actions.
Use of the road will result in road dust, particularly from gravel-surfaced
roads, and exhaust emissions from the vehicles. The quantity of fugitive dust emissions from
an unpaved road per vehicle mile of travel may be estimated based on the speed of the
vehicles traveling over the road, the silt content of the road surface material, and the mean
number of days per year with more than 0.01 inch of rainfall. Approximately 60 percent of
the particulates are less than 30 micrometers in diameter and may be suspended in the
atmosphere indefinitely. Emissions from heavy-and light-duty vehicles are shown in Table
IV-XIV for two ambient temperatures. There are several computer models available for
predicting the impact of carbon monoxide emissions on the surrounding environment. Ice
fog forming from the exhaust of motor vehicles may cause local visibility problems in areas
where low winds and very cold temperatures prevail in winter.
The secondary impacts of road construction are often dismissed as
unimportant or someone else's responsibility, but they can be important. Some of these
impacts include service stations, restaurants, and other service facilities along the road;
campsites and recreational development; and continuing repair, maintenance, and refuse
disposal associated with keeping the road open and litter-free.
4-78
(
The potential for the development of an area's natural resources is greatly
increased with the availability of an access road. Some of these actions are really like the
establishment of communities, or at least permanent camps. Emissions involve pollutants
from power and heat generation, transportation related to supplying these centers, and
incineration of wastes. Campfires are the most significant source of pollutants at most
recreational areas.
TABLE IV-XIV. EMISSIONS FROM HEAVY-AND LIGHT-DUTY
VEHICLES FOR 1976 FOR TWO AMBIENT TEMPERATURES
Pollutant (arams/mile) ·-
Model Year
Carbon Monoxide Hydrocarbons
75°F
Light-duty vehicles pre-1968 97.0
1974 41.0
1975 9.9
Light-duty trucks pre-1968 125.0
1974 47.2
1975 28.5
Heavy-duty gasoline pre-1970 238.0
1974 169.0
1975 168.0
Heavy-duty diesel all 28.7
Motorcycles all 30.6
Inboard vessels underway
Steamship all 0.91
Motor all 545.0
*Engines generally completely warmed up so emissions should be
similar to amounts at higher temperature.
t Unknown
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973
32°F
149.7 9.1
63.3 3.8
32.8 1.2
192.5 17.0
72.7 4.4
94.5 3.0
* 35.4
* 13.3
* 13.2
* 4.6
t 8.1
t 90.8
t 409.0
NOX
3.34
3.5
3.2
4.2
4.8
4.6
6.8
12.6
12.6
20.9
0.2
2088
636
4-79
b. Noise
Road construction noise levels, as measured at 50 feet, are shown in Table
IV-XV. These levels reflect various phases of activity associated with the construction
program. Due to the shortened construction period in most of Alaska, roadway construction
often extends over a longer work day. In populated areas this practice could interfere with
normal sleeping activities, creating a more severe human impact.
I
TABLE IV-XV. CONSTRUCTION NOISE LEVELS FOR ROADWAYS*
Phase
I Clearing
II Excavation
Ill Compacting
IV Filling and paving
v Finish and cleanup
* 50 dBA ambient
All Pertinent
Equipment
Present at Site
84
8
88
7
88
8
79
9
84
7
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971a
Minimum Required
Equipment
Present at Site
84
8
78
3
88
8
78
11
84
8
Energy average, dBA
Standard deviation
Energy average, dBA
Standard deviation
Energy average, dBA
Standard deviation
Energy average, dBA
Standard deviation
Energy average, dBA
Standard deviation
The use of a roadway determines the long-term noise effects it will have on a
community. For this reason, it is essential that expected noise levels be projected prior to
construction, so that noise abatement measures can be incorporated in the planning stages.
Types of noise abatement normally employed include
4-80
• Shifts in alignment and grade of roadway
• Acquisition of property rights for buffer zones or for installation of
barriers along roadway
(
(
("
\
)
J
• Installation and construction of barriers
• Soundproofing of structures (not generally used)
• Use of quieter surfaces
• Use of quieter vehicles
• Noise zoning
Figures 4-1 and 4-2 show the noise plots of the L 50 (noise level exceeded 50
percent of the time} for autos and trucks as a function of volume flow and average speed.
The combined effects are then integrated in predicting the composite L 50 and further
adjustments are required to determine the L10 (level exceeded 10 percent of the time} or
peak level. As described in Section II, the composite noise levels are used to determine the
magnitude and extent of an impact, and thereby avoid future conflicts in land use.
c. Water Resources
Road construction requires a considerable amount of earthwork: clearing
and grubbing, borrowing, and placement of fill on land, in water, and in wetland areas.
These operations clearly have the potential of causing short-term increases in the turbidity
of surface waters. The effects of turbidity are described in Section II.C.1. The use of
crushed rock as construction fill has the potential of releasing metal ions and their salts from
freshly exposed surfaces in excess of natural occurring concentrations in surface waters. (See
(Section II.C.2, Toxic or Deleterious Substances.)
Water quality degradation may also occur from the spillage of fuel oils
during routine maintenance and construction activities (Section II.C.2, Toxic or Deleterious
Substances}, the discharge of organic matter and sanitary wastes into surface waters
(Sections II.C.3, Dissolved Oxygen, and II. C. 7, Coliform Bacteria) from the establishment of
temporary construction camps. A secondary effect of road construction is entrainment of
road oils, suspended solids, and toxic substances in stormwater runoff. The effects of these
contaminants are discussed in detail in Sections II.C.1 and 2.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Road construction is damaging to vegetation and wildlife in many respects.
The earthwork, including clearing and grubbing, borrowing, and the movement and
distribution of soil from cuts and fills, will destroy vegetation and wildlife habitat and result
in impacts as described in Sections II.D.1 and 2. Pollutants from heavy equipment and
accidental spillage during construction will also destroy or alter vegetation, making it
4-81
60
~
"'0
.E
"i 50 > • ,_J
"'0 c:
:I
0
II)
40
80 ~~ ~Vso_~
~ ~ t::: ~ ~~,/ 40
~ ~ ~I"' ,...Vv30
~ ~; v ~ io"" ~ v -1--
~ ~ 1-' 20 k::::::: ..,.. v: v ~ ~ Average Speed
~ ~ ~"" E:::: v ~~ v I.--"""""
SA-mph
b: ~--~--I.--
/. ~~
""" ""'
,.... ~ ~
~ e: ~ ~~
""'""'""'
v v
A ....... k ~ v
~ ~ v v ........ ~--
~ """ A ~ v
~ ~ ~ v
~ ~~
~ ~ ~ ~L.-v ~ ~ v i.o'L.-
i.o'
~ ~ v~
~ / ON = 100 FT I/
70
~ v
v 30
20 10 100 1000
Hourly Auto Volume, VA -vph
10,000
Source: Gordon, et al, 1971
Figure 4-1. Plot of L50 for Automobiles as a Function of Volume Flow and Average Speed
u
4:
oD
"'tl
.5
"j
II
...1
"'tl c:
j
~
u
100
90
80
70
60 Average Speed /
sr ~myy
50 ,____
r--
40
10
30
40
50
60
70
~ ~
~ /
'
v v
l/ v l/
/ ~
% ~ /
u
[ ............
""'~ ~~ t:::: ~ ~~
~ .... .... ~--~~ ~ ~
/
.,....,..... ~ r;: .... :;: ~~ -1' "" ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
'/ ~ ~
~~ :~ ~ ~ v
1.-' ~~ v 1,; v~-" ~~~ ON =
~ ~I-' ~~--II
100 1000
Hourly Truck Volume, Vy -vph
Co w Figure 4-2. Plot of L 50 for Trucks as a Function of Volume Flow and Average Speed
u u u
~~ ~
t...o ~ ~·
~ ~ ~ 1::: t:::~ ~~ ~
t::: ~~
~ r.,... :;. ~
~ ~ ~
100 FT
10,000
Source: Gordon, et al, 1971
unsuitable for wildlife use. The influence of several specific construction pollutants on
plants and animals is described in Section 11.0.3.
Once the road is completed, vehicular traffic may either prevent or
accelerate the distribution of plant and wildlife and may result in impacts also discussed in
Section 11.0.3. Additionally, grizzly and black bear, wolves, fox, moose, and other ungulates
frequently migrate along road corridors. When these animals cross roads, they are more
accessible to hunting pressure and prone to accidental death from motor vehicle/wildlife
collisions. On the other hand, animals such as caribou may alter their migration routes in
response to highway corridors (Klein, 1971) or may be limited in dispersal by them (e.g.,
small mammals). Heavy use of side roads, camp and picnic sites, restrooms, scenic turnouts,
and other highway facilities will also lead to vegetation loss and habitat alteration. Roadside
vegetation may be destroyed, leading to erosion and additional destruction of vegetation
over many years. Sand, dust, and other particulates 'v"Jhipped up by natw.Jral 'v"Jind or vehicular
traffic may further damage vegetation and be harmful to animals that use the vegetation
growing along the highways for food and/or shelter.
e. Aquatic Biology
Road construction may not directly affect the aquatic environment, but
rainstorms or improper erosion control may result in the impacts discussed in Section II.E.1,
Silt and Turbidity. The removal of gravel from streambeds for road preparation could also
affect salmon populations, since loose gravel is necessary for spawning and normal egg
development. Construction over water threatens aquatic life directly, and erosion and
sedimentation must be minimized. Spawning, feeding, overwintering, or other critical areas
may be destroyed during bridge or culvert construction. Migration patterns of anadromous
species may also be altered if migration routes are obstructed.
The long-term effects of road construction are generally caused by the
additional use of the area which the road generates. Stormwater runoff from highways
conducts combustion pollutants, including hydrocarbons and heavy metals, to waterways
where they may affect aquatic life, as described in Section II.E.2, Toxic Substances.
Pesticides used to eliminate vegetation along roadsides also flow to stream courses (Section
II.E.2, Toxic Substances). Increasing human activity along the transportation system usually
results in increased nutrient contribution (Section II.E.6) and increases in sport fishing may
require harvest limits to maintain existing populations.
f. Soils
Those impacts identified for clearing and grubbing, excavation, foundation
construction, and construction filling on land also apply to road construction. Other
impacts are discussed as follows:
4-84
c
(
(
)
:)
0
( 1) Erosion and Sedimentation -The effects of highway construction on
erosion are summarized by Scheidt ( 1967).
The control of sediment resulting from soil erosion at highway construction sites
causes considerable damage downstream, the correction of which requires careful
application of the measures called for in the directive of the Bureau of Public Roads
and the extension of similar measures to non-Federal highways and other
construction through appropriate action by state, county, and other local
government.
Although no data are available for Alaska, typical sediment generation for a divided highway
which requires soil exposure of 10 to 35 acres perm ile of road during construction is 3000
tons of sediment per mile (Wolman, 1964). In addition, once roads are built they alter
runoff and drainage patterns, with subsequent effects on erosion and sedimentation. Roads
add impervious surface to the landscape that increases volume of surface runoff. The
increased volume of surface runoff represents a greater ability for the water to erode and
move soils.
Drainage of highways on slopes can have serious erosional effects.
Generally, water is collected from a hillside by a ditch which concentrates the flow and
moves it parallel to the road, downhill. At some point, the water is moved across the road,
usually by a subterranean culvert, and the water is then discharged. The greatest probabiiity
of washout and erosion occurs at the point of discharge.
(2) Mass Wasting -Alaska contains many areas of steep topography,
perm-afrost, and geologic instability. These conditions make much of the state susceptible to
mass wasting. Road construction initiates mass wasting by disturbing slope stability and
altering drainage and loading through undercutting, and by concentrating surface and
subsurface flows through ditching, bench-cutting, and filling. Such changes in drainage can
supersaturate soils, increasing their weight and decreasing their cohesiveness. Obstruction of
drainage or culverts will increase the potential for mass wasting.
Filling and paving can also increase the downslope load (weight) which
can trigger mass wasting. Also, cutting of slopes reduces support for soils material upslope of
the cut, again increasing the probability of slope collapse. Site specific soils, precipitation,
shrink/swell properties, subsurface geology, slope, periodicity of freeze/thaw, and mitigating
measures taken during road construction all combine to establish the danger of mass wasting
at a specific site. Conditions of steep topography, heavy precipitation, unconsolidated soils
underlain by an impervious layer, or soils with severe shrink/swell properties are particularly
unstable. Seismic instability further magnifies the probability of severe mass wasting.
(3) Permafrost -In areas of permafrost, road construction can result in
severe mass wasting and erosion. Effects of road construction on erosion were previously
4-85
described. In addition, impeding surface and/or subsurface water flows can result in
permafrost degradation, as collected water has high specific heat and the ability to melt
permafrost. If the area is drained, erosion is characteristic; if undrained, subsidence can be
expected. Ice-rich fined-grained soils are particularly sensitive and unstable. If possible, these
areas should be avoided. Other mitigating measures include the following:
• Minimize disturbance of the vegetation and humus layer along the
proposed roadway.
• Insulate permafrost by placing an adequate insulator between the
roadway and permafrost {i.e., gravel, 2 to 5 feet, depending on the
depth of the active layer).
• Design and maintain culvert systems so that drainage is not
impeded.
In areas of discontinuous permafrost, complications are compounded
by differential frost heave of roadbed soils, causing buckling. If frost heave conditions
occur, possible mitigating measures include the following:
• Place routes on coarse soiis on south-facing siopes.
• Remove and replace frost-susceptible soils from the roadbed.
• Add sodium or calcium chlorides to frost-susceptible soil layers.
Treatment may require repeating in an estimated five years, and probably is less effective in
extremely cold climates.
Subsidence in permafrost areas as a result of road construction is
illustrated in Figure 4-3. Subsidence results due to changes in the thermal equilibrium by
altering the insulting effects of surface humus and vegetation through removal or
compaction. If the ice within the permafrost melts at a rate which is faster than the ability
of the soil to discharge the water {which is characteristic of ice-rich fine-grained soils), the
total soil mass can act like a liquid and move downhill on even moderate slopes of less than
3 degrees {U.S. Department of the Interior, 1975). Also, since permafrost is impervious and
generally follows slope contours, subsurface drainage tends to collect at the base of the
active layer where it acts as a lubricant, facilitating mass movement of the surface layer.
During spring thaw, when surface soils are saturated, the problem is critical. Therefore,
additional weight by loading or removal of support by undercutting can lead to mass
wasting.
4-86
_)
///////
/~//////////////// ---Gr~und Water Fl~ ~:
~ Ci~ ........___.... <GJZ~ PERMAFROST ~ . . c::z;:::;;:;
._,,, ... ·.~~-'········.··
B. IMMEDIATELY AFTER CONSTRUCTION
0
:)
C. TEN OR MORE YEARS AFTER CONSTRUCTION
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1975
0
0 Figure 4-3. Effects of Road Construction on Permafrost
4-87
(4} Subsidence -Effects of road construction on permafrost subsidence
were previously discussed. Road construction over organic soils can lead to compaction of
the soil and subsidence. Road construction on soils with shrink/swell properties, based on
either moisture or temperature, will not cause subsidence, but will be affected by
differential shrink/swell properties on adjacent soils. The effect will be manifested by
buckling and heaving of the roadway.
(5} Compaction -The road system can lead to compaction of the soil
beneath the road, which in turn can alter the permeability and drainage of the soil.
(6} Changes in Biological, Chemical, and Physical Properties of the Soil -
Road construction and the presence of the road after construction lead to several changes in
soil conditions. Soil pH can be altered immediately after surface pouring, due to leaching
from poured concrete which creates alkaline conditions. Disintegration of concrete
continues to develop alkaline soils and can substantially change the biotic community
present (Milleret, 1963}.
Road construction requires clearing and maintaining of a right-of-way
somewhat wider than the road. In forested areas, such a maintained clearing can raise soil
temperature, increasing microbial activity, humus breakdown, and nutrient release. If
nutrients are not immediately taken up by invading vegetation, they can be lost to the soil
system through leaching or runoff, resulting in a nutrient-deficient mineral soil. Fertilization
may be required in order to maintain vigorous roadside vegetation. Planting of vegetation
with nitrogen-fixing properties (e.g., legumes, alder, clover} can also restore the soil. Finally,
roadways cover soils with an impervious layer which removes the roadway from biological
production.
g. Interactions
Initial construction of roadways results in an increase in sediment transport
to aquatic systems from terrestrial systems (Scheidt, 1971}.
(1} Potential effects of increased sedimentation are a reduction in spawning
habitat, alteration in makeup of benthic communities, increased turbidity, increased
nutrient concentration, and increased oxygen demand.
(2} Some possibility of accidental spill of toxic substances, particularly
petrochemical products, may occur. Through incomplete combustion and engine drip, small
quantities can be expected to find their way to aquatic systems. Petroleum contaminants
have both immediately lethal and chronically toxic effects on biota. Secondary effects are
also deleterious (e.g., interference with gas exchange at water surface and matting of fur or
feathers, with subsequent loss in insulation and/or buoyancy}. Such risks are particularly
4-88
D
0
high due to hazards of highway accidents involving the spills of hazardous or toxic
substances transported by truck (Scheidt, 1971).
(3) Heavily traveled roadways which cross traditional migration routes can
impede normal migration patterns. Caribou are possibly most sensitive species to such
disturbance, although other species may also be affected (e.g., brown/grizzly bear and
moose). Disruption of traditional migration patterns can result in reduced carrying
capacities and depredation of range, with subsequent reduction in population.
(4) Road access to areas previously difficult to reach will result in increased
hunting and fishing pressure and increases in other disturbances caused by human presence.
Of particular consequence is the extended range which such access provides to off-road
vehicles (ORVs).
When misused, ORVs damage soil and destroy vegetation, disturb wiidiife, destroy
wildlife habitat, bring noise, litter, and vandalism to previously remote areas, and
seriously disrupt other types of recreation. [Council on Environmental Quality,
1974]
(5) Road right-of-way maintenance often requires the periodic application
of potentially toxic materials to melt ice and control roadside vegetation (e.g., salt and
herbicides). These materials can adversely affect adjacent vegetation and wildlife and are ·
easily transfered to aquatic systems where similar deleterious effects can result. The degree
of impact would be a function of the type of material, quantities used, and timing and
sensitivity of the area's ecology.
4-89
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON!
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
G. UPPER KUSKOKWIM IL
H. COOK INLET
L KODIAKISHELIKOF
SECTION II, PAGES z.t TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
J
I
IMPACT ANALYSIS, ROAD CONSTRUCTION)
i
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2-36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
WATER RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2·36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-46 TO 2.&:1
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
~OUATIC BIOLOGY
SECTiqN II, PAGES 2-60 TO 2-66
REFE~ENCEO PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE MODERATE MODERATE SEVERE MODERATE
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4-91
J. DAM CONSTRUCTION
1. Introduction
Dams are normally constructed from concrete or earth and rock and serve to
direct water from a river, raise the water level of a river for navigation, or store water for
municipal and industrial use, irrigation, flood control, river regulation, recreation, or power
production. Engineering activities include clearing the reservoir areas, construction of the
dam, power facilities, roads, electrical distribution systems, recreation facilities, and
employee accommodations.
Prior to construction, a site must be selected on the basis of hydrology, geology,
topography, reservoir storage capacity, accessibility, land cost, and impacts on human,
wildlife, and vegetative communities. The availability of suitable construction materials also
must be considered. For a diversion dam, the site must be considered relative to the location
and elevation of the outlet canal. Site selection for navigation dams involves factors such as
desired navigable depth, channel dredging approach, and locations of other dams in the
system.
Important topographic considerations include width of the floodplain, shape and
height of valley walls, existence of natural spillways, and ability of the reservoir to retain
impounded water. The controlling geologic conditions include the depth and engineering
properties of soils and bedrock at the dam site, and the occurrence of sinks, faults, and
major landslides at the dam site. The elevation of the groundwater table is also significant,
because it will influence the construction operation and the suitability of borrow materials.
The method of constructing a dam depends on the topography, foundation
conditions, and accessibility of construction materials and equipment. Generally, a hard
rock foundation is most desirable because of its ability to support any type of dam,
provided there is no danger of movement in existing faults and foundation underseepage can
be controlled at a reasonable cost. Rock foundations of high quality are desired for
arch-type dams. These dams are designed to distribute the full weight of the water to both
the structure and canyon walls. An earth dam may be built on almost any kind of
foundation, if proper design and construction techniques are used.
Availability of suitable construction materials frequently determines the most
economical type of dam. A concrete dam requires adequate quantitites of suitable gravel
and reasonable availability of cement The earth dam requires sufficient quantities of both
pervious and impervious earth materials.
The height of the dam must provide temporary storage for flood waters exceeding
the normal full pool elevation, as well as sufficient freeboard height above the maximum
4-93
surcharge elevation to assure an acceptable degree of safety against possible overtopping.
The physical characteristics of the dam and reservoir site or the existing developments
within the reservoir area may impose upper limits in selecting the normal full pool elevation.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
An adequate river system is the first resource required to complete the action.
Specific requirements include sufficient flow, a construction site for the dam, availability of
construction materials (previously described), and compatibility with other uses of the river.
3. Permits and Regulations
Numerous federal and state permits and regulations are applicable. These permits
and regulations are administered by the Federal Power Commission (Title 18 and Order Nos.
50i and 5i 8j and the U.S. Corps of Engineers (Perm its, Sections i 0 and 404). State of
Alaska regulatory agencies include the Department of Fish and Game (Anadromous Fish
Act) and the Department of Environmental Cons~rvation (water quality standards).
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Dam construction begins with the development of an access iOad between the
dam site and the supply center for manpower, equipment, and materials. Construction
camps are then built to provide temporary living quarters and maintenance and office
facilities. Borrow areas are prepared and rock crushers, a batch plant, and sorting and
stockpiling facilities are constructed. Clearing and grubbing operations for the dam
foundation are then initiated and unsuitable materia! (consisting of vegetation, organic silt,
ice, and other debris) is removed and disposed. Clearing activities are also required upstream
from the dam in the area to be flooded. Additional roads and conveyor systems are
constructed for material movement, as well as to provide access to excavation, disposal, and
stockpile areas.
After clearing, grubbing, and excavation to the foundation level, a cutoff wall
(consisting of sheet piling or other impervious material) is placed beneath the toe of the dam
structure to restrict water seepage. The river is then diverted through tunnels or temporary
coffer dams around the foundation construction site and back to the riverbed downstream
from the site. The foundation is then constructed of concrete, rock, or earth fill with
impervious cores or faces for erosion protection. During the placement of the foundation,
outlet works such as spillways, tunnels, or penstocks are also constructed. Powerhouse
facilities are constructed within or adjacent to the dam structure and require the
construction of switch yards, transmission line corridors, and access roads.
4-94.
)
C)
Upon completion of the lower foundation walls and outlet works, flooding is
initiated and the reservoir is filled to the design elevation. The reservoir may require several
years to reach the full pool stage and limited operation may occur during this process. The
depth, width, and upstream reach of the reservoir depend on the topography of the river
basin and are factors considered in the design and construction of the structure.
Following completion of the dam, temporary construction camps are eliminated
or replaced with limited permanent facilities as required for operation and maintenance
procedures. Additional construction is generally limited to recreational developments or
irrigation systems for agricultural or industrial purposes.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The air quality impacts related to dam construction are associated with
construction activities on the site; construction of roads, camps, and transmission corridors;
and the operation of the dam once it is built. The construction activities on the site involve
emissions to the atmosphere from clearing and grubbing activities that also involve burning
debris. These emissions include particulates from open burning, fugitive dust, and some
gaseous emissions from vehicies, which are discussed in Section iV.A, Clearing and
Grubbing. Blasting during excavation also ejects particulates into the atmosphere.
The construction materials used for the dam itself may involve materials
which must be extracted and transported to the site or on-site sand, gravel, or stone
processing. Primary crushing operations may add 0.1 pound per ton of suspsndad
particulates to the atmosphere, depending on the moisture content of the material. The use
of moist sand and gravel may result in lower values. Secondary and tertiary crushing and
screening result in emissions of 0.616 and 3.6 pounds per ton, respectively. Storage and
movement of these materials also result in emissions. The quantity of suspended dust
emissions from aggregate storage piles, per ton of aggregate placed in storage, may be
estimated using the following empirical expression:
E 0.33 =
(PE/1 00)2
where
E = Emission factor (pounds per ton placed in storage)
PE = Thornthwaite's precipitation/evaporation index
4-95
Particulate emissions during concrete batching operations consist primarily
of cement dust, but some sand and aggregate gravel dust emissions also occur. There is also a
potential for dust emissions during the unloading and conveying of concrete and aggregates
at these plants and during the loading of dry-batched concrete mix. Another source of dust
emissions is the traffic of heavy equipment over unpaved or dusty surfaces in and around
the concrete batching plant. Control techniques include the enclosure of dumping and
loading areas, the enclosure of conveyors and elevators, filters on storage bin vents, and the
use of water sprays. Table IV-XVI presents emission factors for concrete batch plants.
TABLE IV-XVI. PARTICULATE EMISSION
FACTORS FOR CONCRETE BATCH lNG*
(EMISSION FACTOR RATING: C)
Emission
Concrete Batching
lb/yd3 of concrete kg/m 3 of concrete
Uncontrolled 0.2 0.12
Good controi 0.02 0.012
* One cubic yard of concrete weighs 4000 pounds (1 m 3 = 2400 kg). The
cement content varies with the type of concrete mixed, but 735 pounds
of cement per yard (436 kg/m 3 ) may be used as a typical value.
Source: U.S. Environmentai Protection Agency, 1973
Emissions may also occur during the construction of roads and transmission
corridors, and during the supply, maintenance, and operation of construction camps. These
effects are described in Section IV.I. Particulates from fugitive dust sources and open
burning are the most significant, while gaseous emissions during fuel combustion from
vehicles, power generation, and heating may be important locally. Emissions resulting from
the operation of the dam are primarily gaseous as a result of fuel combustion where
personnel are housed and from machinery associated with opening and closing the dam.
Most artificial lakes produced by dams have had negligible effects on the
general climate, and even on the shower activity downwind from them. This has occurred
because the lakes have been created in otherwise quite dry areas. The interaction of lakes in
the coldest areas of Alaska in winter could result in fogging if there are open stretches of
water. For a very large artificial lake, modifications in seasonal temperatures could be
affected because of the heat capacity of water.
4-96
b. Noise
Noise impacts from construction and operation of a dam project are
discussed separately due to the differences in the activities involved.
(1) Construction Noise -As in most types of construction, combinations
of equipment are associated with various phases of activity. Table IV-XVII shows the typical
noise levels, measured at 50 feet, which could be expected for such activities. In some cases,
construction activities could extend over a period of years and would constitute a long-term
impact. Noise levels of the type and duration expected would result in the disturbance of
most wildlife species within the immediate area. Workers exposed to such levels are
protected by the Occupation Safety and Health Act (OSHA) and in many cases would be
expected to wear hearing protection devices during periods of exposure.
(2) Operation Noise -The primary sources of noise associated with
operation and maintenance of dams consist of
• Power plant noise
• Transmission line noise
• Traffic along access roads
• Project-related maintenance activities
• Recreation activities
Power plant noise levels fluctuate, depending on the generator capacity; differences in
terrain, vegetation, temperature, and wind; and presence of other extraneous noises. A great
deal of common power plant equipment generates noise levels in excess of 90 dBA, unless
noise abatement precautions are exercised. Presently, the noise control of each new
electrical generating facility must be individually designed and evaluated because state noise
pollution control regulations are not uniform, local community noise climates are unique,
and equipment sound emission levels are variable.
Transmission line noise from high-voltage power lines may require
special attention during the siting of the lines. Investigations have shown that the audible
sound generated by electric power transmission lines increases when these lines are subjected
to adverse environmental conditions such as fog, rain, or snow (Teplitzky, 1974).
Transmission line noise emissions are characterized by discrete frequency tones
corresponding to the even harmonics of the main frequency and broadband noise which is
generated by a random sequence of electrical discharges in the air at the surface of the
conductor, a phenomenon called "corona discharge." The tonal sound components are
generated by the movement of space charges surrounding the conductor, which causes a
reversal of the surrounding air pressure twice every half cycle. The relative sound level of the
tones and broadband noise depends on factors such as voltage gradient, weather conditions,
4-97
TABLE IV-XVII. NOISE LEVELS ASSOCIATED WITH DAM CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES*
Type of Activity
Phase Construction Public Works Dam Construction
Camp and Utilities and Industrial
Facilities
I Ground clearing 83 84 84
8 7 9
II Excavation 88 89 89
8 6 6
Ill Foundations 81 78 77
10 3 4
IV Erection 81 87 84
10 6 9
v Finishing 88 89 89
7 7 7
* Assumes an ambient level of 50 dBA and all pertinent equipment present at site
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971 a
Roads
and Trenches
84 Energy average, dBA
8 Standard deviation
88 Energy average, d BA
7 Standard deviation
88 Energy average, dBA
8 Standard deviation
79 Energy average, dBA
9 Standard deviation
84 Energy average, dBA
7
subconductor diameter, point of maximum gradient, and conductor surface conditions.
Sound emission levels, as measured at 50 feet from the outer phase at midspan of a
three-phase, 30.4-mm-diameter subconductor, EHV test facility are shown in Table
IV-XVIII.
TABLE IV-XVIII. CLIMATE EFFECTS FOR A THREE-PHASE
FOUR-SUBCONDUCTOR BUNDLE TEST, 765-KV TRANSMISSION LINE
Sound Level in dBA at 50 Feet
Weather Condition
Lgo L5o L,o
Fair 36.5 40.0 44.0
Fog 36.5 51.5 58.5
Rain 54.0 57.5 59.0
Source: Teplitzky, 1974
Traffic noise is discussed in more detail in Section II.B, Noise, and
Section IV .I, Road Construction. Opening of previously unused areas through construction
of access roads generally stimulates their use for unrelated activities, thereby increasing
human disturbance as well as traffic noises. Dam projects frequently become tourist
attractions and recreation areas. In a study of traffic increases during periods of recreation
area operation at one dam, traffic volumes were from 16 to 118 percent higher (John
Graham, 1974). Corresponding noise level increases due to these volumes would range from
1 to 3.5 dB.
The use of dam reservoirs by power boat operators during summer
months makes this a potential noise source. Power boat noise levels are influenced by engine
noise, conducted noise radiating from the hull, and bow-wake splash. In addition, water and
wind conditions, operating speed, and engine and boat size can influence the measured
levels. The typical range of noise levels produced by pleasure boats is 64 to 98 dBA. In
development of recreation areas which include boat launches, consideration should be given
to potential noise problems. Maintenance of speed limits and prohibition of power boating
in certain areas will serve to control intrusion of boat noise in noise-sensitive areas. Other
recreation-related noise sources are discussed in Section IV.O, Recreational Development.
4-99
c. Water Resources
Construction operations can be expected to introduce suspended solids,
including organic debris, into the water body. This will result in an increase in turbidity
(Section II.C.1} and a reduction in the dissolved oxygen concentration of the water (Section
II.C.3}. Water quality degradation may also occur from the spillage of fuel oils during
routine maintenance and construction activities (Section II.C.2} and the discharge of organic
matter and sanitary wastes into surface water (Sections II.C.3 and II. C. 7} from the
establishment of a temporary construction camp. For a discussion of impacts due to change
in flows upstream and downstream, refer to Section IV.J.5.g, Interactions.
The reservoir or lake created by the damming of a stream can be expected to
alter the water quality regime in comparison to the original stream and will act as both a
sink for upstream sources of water quality characteristics and a source for downstream
water quaiity. As a sink, dissoived oxygen and temperatures can be expected to change
seasonally and at the same time with depth. As a source, outflow from near the surface, at
intermediate levels, or near the reservoir bottom can discharge water of a different
temperature or turbidity than that of the normal downstream waters. Additionally, a
reservoir acts as a sink for dissolved materials, enabling increases in concentrations of
nutrients (Section II.C.6} such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and simple carbohydrates, both
within the water and in bottom deposits. Potential consequences include increased
productivity at the reservoir and decreased productivity downstream.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Dam construction may be described as several distinct engineering activities
that occur chronologically over several years. Individually, and in combination, each activity
exhibits a specific impact on the terrestrial ecology of the dam site and also on its
surrounding watershed. The main activities, in their approximate chronological order, and
ensuing impacts on the terrestrial biota include the following:
(1} Development of Access Roads and Conveyor Systems for Transporting
Workers and Equipment to the Construction Site -The effects of road construction on
plants and wildlife have been described in Section IV. I, Road Construction.
(2} Construction and Maintenance of Living Facilities for Construction
Workers, Geologists, Engineers, and Other Personnel -The impacts of small and temporary
camp communities on the biota of a site are clarified in Section IV.N, Community
Development. However, the effects are short-term, differing only in the time frame of their
existence.
4-100
3
:J.
(3) Preparation of Borrow Areas and Excavation of Rock, Gravel, and
Other Raw Materials Required for Dam Construction-The general impacts of these actions
on terrestrial communities have been discussed in Sections IV.B (Excavation), IV.C
(Construction Filling on Land), and IV.D (Foundation Construction). However, effects are
apt to be more severe because borrow areas may be extensive and the locations are likely to
be in sensitive riparian habitats.
(4) Clearing and Grubbing at the Dam Site -In addition to a limited
amount of clearing and grubbing that may occur upstream from the dam, clearing and
grubbing at the dam site will affect terrestrial plant and animal communities, as described in
Section IV.A, Clearing and Grubbing. Again, effects would be more severe due to the extent
of the activities and their proximity to rivers.
(5) Construction of Accompanying Facilities Adjacent to the Dam -In
most cases, facilities such as tunnels, powerhouses, and transmission corridors will require
clearing and grubbing, excavation, some filling on land, and road and foundation
construction. The influence each of these Level I or Level II activities has on plants and
animals has previously been described. The amount and influence of powerhouse and
transmission line noise, including its effect on wildlife, is described in Section IV.J.5.b,
Noise.
Once constructed, power line corridors may influence the ecology of·
the region for many years. Upkeep for access usually requires the continual control of
weeds, trees, and other colonizing vegetation. The most economical and frequently used
method is to cut and remove large woody tree species and spray the remaining vegetation
with herbicides such as 2-4-D, 2-4-5-T, 2-4-T, and dicamba. The aeriai distribution of these
nonselective herbicides approximately every five years destroys all vegetation (with the
exception of "grasses") within the corridor.
Power line rights-of-way are frequently cut through large areas of
uniform climax habitats and develop into early successional sera! stages which provide
vegetation that is heavily browsed by small mammal and ungulate species. High small
mammal densities, however, attract populations of raptors who are sometimes killed from
alighting on the hot line or flying into cables when diving for prey (Manwal and Bradley,
University of Washington, personal communication). Distributional and genetic implications
of power line corridors have been discussed in Section II.C.1.
(6) Flooding of Plant and Animal Habitat -Depending on location
(specifically, width and topography), many acres of habitat may be inundated, thus
destroying vegetation and wildlife. Frequently, critical wildlife winter range occurs in those
low-elevation stream and lake habitats that will be flooded by damming. Dams, once
constructed, may continue to influence plant and animal communities through secondary
4-101
effects. Large bodies of water behind the dam may influence the local microclimate of the
region, which in turn may influence the distribution and abundance of plants and animals,
especially in the vicinity of the waterline. The artificially controlled and often sudden water
flows may be detrimental to wildlife, both below and above the dam site. Perhaps the most
important impact of dams is their detrimental impact on anadromous fish species, as
described in Aquatic Biology, below. The importance of a continuous and abundant supply
of salmon to terrestrial animals, especially brown/grizzly bear, is well known and decreased
salmon runs may substantially affect bear populations. Recreational use of lakes resulting
from dam construction also may have detrimental impacts on wildlife and on vegetation
near the lake.
e. Aquatic Biology
Short-term effects of dam construction occur as the river is diverted from its
oiiginal couise. Upstieam migiation of adult fish Oi dovvnstieam juvenile movement may be
hindered, resulting in decreased spawning or successful development of young fish. The
diversion will also result in additional erosion and stream sedimentation, with the effects
discussed in Section II.E.1. Explosives detonated during construction may also affect
aquatic life, as discussed in Section IV.H, Exploration for Oil and Gas.
The !eng-term effects of dam construction and operation may result in many
changes in the aquatic system. Since the river is obstructed, upstream spawning migrations
of salmon will be stopped unless facilities are provided which allow fish to bypass the dam
and power-generating facilities. Even when fish ladders are provided, salmon runs decrease,
since many fish become disoriented or refuse to use them. When downstream juvenile
migration coincides with high water periods and water is spilled over the dam, gas bubble
disease (as discussed in Section II.E.3.b) may cause extensive mortalities. Fish may also be
harmed as they pass through the turbines in the power plant.
The creation of a reservoir upstream from the dam distinctly changes the
characteristics of the aquatic environment. In general, the new habitat is not useful for some
salmonid reproduction because the flow and dissolved oxygen are decreased, turbidity is
increased, and critical spawning areas are deeply submerged. The temperature of the stored
water also increases and the reservoir concentrates nutrients washed from the surrounding
watershed.
The aquatic environment downstream from the dam also is affected by dam
construction and operation. Downstream flows may be changed and salmon spawning areas
may be destroyed. Irregular flows from the dam could also affect the timing of the
downstream migration of juvenile salmon. In either case, the original environment is altered
to such an extent that new aquatic communities may result which supplant existing species.
4-102
)
)
)
J
)
)
Reservoirs may establish favorable fish environments where none previously
existed or create changes in initial aquatic characteristics that prove favorable to additional
and/or different fish species. For example, a depauperate, shallow lake greatly influenced by
climatic extremes conceivably may form the basis for a deeper, larger, benign and more
productive reservoir which is able to support year-round fish populations. Similarly, aquatic
environments which support silver, Chinook, and other anadromous fish, upon being
changed to a reservoir, may support nonm igrating grayling, Arctic char, and lake and
rainbow trout.
f. Soils
Those impacts described under Sections IV.A (Clearing and Grubbing), IV.D
(Foundation Construction), and IV.I (Road Construction) are applicable to damming.
Additional impacts are identified as follows.
(1) Mass Wasting -Higher water tables in the vicinity of reservoirs can
decrease frictional resistance of material at the base of slopes and can increase the buoyancy
of these materials, thereby initiating mass movement. This effect was in part responsible for
the 1963 Vaiont Canyon slide which flooded the reservoir and resulted in the death of 3000
people (Bloom, 1969).
(2) Inundation -Inundation moves soils from terrestrial to aquatic
systems, drastically altering their makeup. Characteristically, in reservoirs there is an initial
pulse of nutrients released shortly after inundation, as flooded vegetation and humus is
decomposed. After several years, the production in the reservoir is typically reduced.
g. Interactions
Impacts associated with dam construction on interactions are as follows:
{1) Dams upstream of estuaries modify historic patterns of freshwater river
flow into estuaries. Typically, spring flows are reduced and summer flows increased. Total
annual flows can be expected to decrease if consumption uses are established (i.e.,
community water supply, irrigation). The changing flow regime would alter physical
circulation, nutrient availability, and biotic assemblages (Cronin, 1971 ).
(2) Dams physically block passage of anadromous fish attempting to
migrate (Hynes, 1960; Mansueti, 1961) unless fishways are included. Even with fishways,
reductions in quantities of adult fish successfully passing the barrier can be expected, and
loss of juveniles through spillways and turbines can also be expected. Such barriers can
eliminate important commercial, recreation, and subsistence species. The importance of
anadromous fish to Alaska residents for commercial, recreation, and subsistence uses is
extremely high, as is their importance to the Alaskan ecology.
4-103
(3) Spillways of dams mix atmospheric gases with water conditions of high
pressure. The result is supersaturation of atmospheric gases (an increase in the amounts of
dissolved gas) in the waters immediately below spillways. As fish breathe the supersaturated
water, they incorporate large amounts of the dissolved gases. Under normal pressure and
temperature conditions, the gases begin to leave the supersaturated state and form
undissolved bubbles of gas, predominantly nitrogen. These bubbles, when released within
the circulatory system or body cavities of fish, result in tissue damage and can result in
death. Juveniles are particularly sensitive, and in the Columbia drainage have suffered
mortalities as high as 70 percent on their downstream migration.
(4) Dams alter the nutrient output to marine receiving waters. In some
areas such nutrient reductions have resulted in collapse of important fisheries (George,
1972). The effect of reduced nutrient transfer to Alaskan receiving waters is dependent on
the makeup of the nutrient budgets in the area affected. At present nutrient budgets are
iargeiy unknown for most of Aiaska's receiving waters.
(5) Dams commonly result in reduction of sediment drift downstream of
the dam due to sediment capture within the dam basin. Consequently, river deltas in other
parts of the world have undergone bank erosion due to the reduction of sediment impact
from their respective rivers ( Kassas, 1972) caused by dams. Also, erosional conditions in
adjunct coastai areas can occur as rates of source material for iittorai drift are reduced
(Bascom, 1964).
(6) Dams can reduce the frequency and magnitude of floods downstream.
Periodic flooding is necessary for the maintenance of extensive wetlands on floodplains and
delta!>, which are of critical importance to shorebirds and migratory waterfowl. Also, the
reduction of silt-bearing floodwaters can result in loss of floodplain soil fertility. Seasonal
and periodic flooding often replenish soils with nutrient-rich silts. The termination of
replenishment may result in long-term losses in fertility of soils. In other parts of the world,
increased use of fertilizers has become necessary to compensate loss of periodic enrichment
of soils by floodwaters (Sterling, 1972).
(7) Flooding of river valleys by reservoirs could possibly interfere with
normal migration patterns of caribou and inundate important wintering habitat for moose,
feeding areas for grizzly bear, and breeding habitat for waterfowl.
4-104
•
•
•
•
•
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
SM
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON!
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
SM
G. UPPER KUSKOKWIM
SM
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cu
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L KOOIAK/SHELIKOF cu
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M. GULF OF ALASKA CL/
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NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2-36
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-36 TO 2-45
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SECTION II,PAGESZ-46 TO 2-611
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-60 TO 2-66
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SECTION II, PAGES Z-66 TO 2·70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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SECTION II, PAGESZ-71 TOZ-76
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4-105
I
K. EXPLORATION AND RECOVERY OF HARD ROCK MINERALS
1. Introduction
Mining techniques are defined depending on whether the activity occurs on the
surface or underground, but exploration, recovery, and separation procedures are common
to each area of activity. Recovery of the minerals by surface methods is preferred if the
overburden is not too thick. Surface operations generally offer safer working conditions, are
able to more completely recover the mineral, and have the lowest dollar cost per unit of
mineral produced. The primary drawback to this type of operation is that large areas of the
surface are disturbed and reclamation must occur before the site is returned to its original
state, which may offset the cost savings of operation. In the United States, approximately
80 percent of the ore and fuel is recovered utilizing surface techniques, and 66 percent of
the total disturbed land is a result of coal, sand, and gravel recovery. The separation of a
mineral from the ore-bearing rocks does not generally occur as part of the mining operation.
However, a partial separation and concentration process, called ore dressing, may be carried
out at the site to concentrate the mineral so it is more economical to transport for further
processing.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
In addition to labor and equipment, site access and water are the primary
requirements for any mining activity. Access development operations are described in earlier
discussions on excavation {Section IV.B) and construction filling on land {Section IV.C).
The mine operation requires the resources identified in drilling for water {Section IV.G) and
road and dam construction {Sections IV. I and IV.J).
3. Permits and Regulations
State and federal agencies regulate the exploration and development of mining
operations. The Environmental Protection Agency has regulations for effluent discharge
from tailings ponds, sanitary waste facilities, and cooling water. The Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation regulates wastewater disposal, solid waste disposal, and air
emissions. Perm its are also needed from the Bureau of Land Management for rights-of-way
for roads and road alignments. Further interested agencies outside of the permit system are
the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and the Bureau of Mines. Lease agreements may
stipulate further restraints for construction and operation.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Initial exploration may utilize gravimetric, geochemical, or geophysical techniques
to determine the presence of mineral deposits. A gravity meter may be used to detect dense
4-107
rocks buried within lighter rocks and thus indicate mineral-bearing formations. Geochemical
prospecting involves systematically collecting hundreds or thousands of samples of rocks,
soil, stream sediments, and other elements. These samples are then analyzed to detect
differences in mineral concentrations which may indicate the location of hard mineral
strata. Direct physical exploration, including trenching or stripping, may be required to
remove the overburden and examine the mineral deposit. Mineral recovery requires surface
or underground operations in which three common processes occur: rock breaking, mucking
(loading), and transporting (hauling and hoisting). The methods by which these three
processes are carried out depend upon the type of recovery involved.
Surface recovery normally occurs with an open pit excavation or alluvial
techniques. Open pit mining may consist of a quarry or gravel pit, or may entail area or
contour stripping of the overburden. Before mining activity begins, the site is cleared, access
roads are provided, and a disposal site is prepared for the overburden and waste rock. The
requirements for these site preparation actions have been described as basic engineering
actions. Area strip mining is practiced on relatively flat terrain. A trench is cut through the
overburden, and the spoil is dumped on unmined land adjacent to the cut. After the ore is
removed, a second cut is made parallel to the first, and the overburden from this excavation
is deposited in the first cut. Shovels with capacities up to 160 cubic yards and
220-cubic-yard draglines are often used to remove the overburden, but spoil and ore
characteristics and topography all determine the type of equipment used.
Contour stripping is practiced on rolling hills or steep terrain and consists of
removing the overburden from the mineral seam, starting at the outcrop and proceeding
around the hillside. This type of mining creates a shelf or bench along the side of the hill
which is bordered on the inside by the high wall (unmined material) and on the outer side
by the high ridge of spoil material. This type of excavation has greater pollution potential
than area stripping because the high walls and spoil piles are subject to severe erosion.
Alluvial mining occurs when water is used during the recovery process and is used
most frequently at placer sites where minerals have been transported and deposited near the
earth's surface by wind, water, or soil activity. This technique can be as simple as "panning"
for gold or conducting crushed ore through a sluice box to separate minerals by specific
gravity. Dredging operations utilize a suction apparatus or mechanical device to recover
materials from river bottoms. Floating dredges have been used extensively in placer gold
mining, but are also popular for removing sand and gravel from streambeds or low-lying
areas. Spoil piles from gold dredging operations are similar in configuration to those
described above for area and contour strip mining.
Hydraulic mining utilizes powerful jets of water to erode a bank of earth or
gravel. The ore-bearing material is then fed through sluices or other concentrating devices
where the minerals separate by differences in specific gravity. Hydraulic mining was used
4-108
extensively in the past for gold and other precious metal production, but is only practiced
on a limited scale today. Both dredging and hydraulic mining create severe sedimentation
problems in streams, and their use is strictly regulated by the State.
For surface mining, in addition to the basic steps of site preparation, overburden
removal, ore recovery, and transport, the reclamation of the disturbed land must be
considered. Experience has shown that reclamation can be conducted more effectively and
economically when it is integrated into the planning and operational stages of the mining
activity. Much of the machinery used in the mining operation can be used to reduce spoil
piles, segregate toxic materials, and control drainage from the site.
Underground mining occurs when surface methods are impractical or
uneconomical. Underground mines have been classified by the method of ore removal but,
since techniques vary with each situation, any classification scheme is controversial. The
basic system involves the excavation of tunnels or shafts (many names are employed,
depending upon function and direction) and stopes (areas from which the ore materials are
being removed). Site preparation is not as extensive as for surface excavation because
smaller areas are required for support facilities. Access roads must also be supplied, but spoil
disposal may occur underground in abandoned shafts. Where shafts are not available, surface
dumping of spoil material would be required.
The rock-breaking phase of ore recovery occurs either through stoping methods or
caving methods. Stoping consists of breaking the rock overhead in a stope by blasting or
drilling by hand or with specialized machinery. Machine stoping is limited to soft rock
minerals where ripping machines and augers can break the rock without blasting. Caving
methods are preferred for very large ore bodies since they do not require reinforced stopes.
Caving methods utilize blasting and drilling techniques to essentially undermine a large mass
of rock, causing it to cave in and break upon itself.
After stoping or caving methods have been used to break the rock, it must be
loaded and transported to the surface. If ore dressing or further processing is required to
concentrate the desired mineral, the rock is first crushed and ground. Then it is sorted and
sized, and the separation process is accomplished either by hand or by utilizing physical
properties of the mineral, such as magnetism, specific gravity, flotation, and hardness.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
Air quality impacts associated with exploration for minerals and mining are
mainly due to particulates. The access road construction, base camp and airport facilities,
and transportation-related emissions are similar to impacts discussed in other engineering
4-109
actions of this level and include particulates as well as gaseous emissions. Exploration itself
involves some drilling and blasting and may give rise to relatively small pollution loads from
clearing and mechanical equipment.
Surface mining techniques, including open pit and placer mining, involve
either quarrying or dredging activities. Large amounts of material are moved to get at the
valuable minerals, and waste piles or dredge spoils are left vulnerable to the action of the
atmosphere, at least temporarily. Wind erosion of these piles is an important factor. The
only effective mitigating measure involves a rapid reclamation project progressing at the
same time as the mining to restore as quickly as possible a stabilizing layer of vegetative
cover. Movement of material into and out of storage piles, vehicular traffic, and wind
erosion contribute an estimated 27, 40, and 33 percent of the pollutants, respectively. The
quantity of suspended dust emissions in pounds per ton may be estimated by the following
expression:
where
Emissions Factor = 0.33
(PE/1 00}2
PE = Thornthwaite's precipitation/evaporation index
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975}
Underground mining operations also generate dust. In most cases, the
volumes of material moved in comparison to the amount of ore taken are less. Dust and
noxious gases from blasting are serious health hazards in mines. Modern mines include
ventilation systems to replace the air with relatively cleaner air. Conditions within an
underground mine are governed by OSHA and industry regulations. These regulate the
exposure levels to various pollutants.
Once the ore is removed from the ground it is often "dressed" before being
transported to the processers, smelters, or refiners that go about removing the waste
material and concentrating the purity of the mineral. The impacts of these industries are
significant, but are most often removed from the mining site. These industry-related impacts
are discussed in Section IV.P, Natural Resource Development Complex.
b. Noise
The overall noise impact associated with mining depends on whether surface
or underground techniques are employed. As stated in the introduction, surface techniques
account for about 80 percent of the hard rock recovery activities and would invariably
4-110
)
create the greatest community noise impacts. In addition to site preparation and excavation,
sorting and crushing of the rock material is often used in gravel pit operations prior to
transporting of the material. Site noise levels from mining will vary with the level of activity
and size of operation. The noisiest types of equipment employed are generally the rock drill
(98 dBA as measured at 50 feet) and the truck (91 dBA as measured at 50 feet). In one
study, noise levels from drills operating in two mines were measured at the listener's
(operator's) ear and levels of 114 to 124dB recorded (Spiechowics, 1971). Such high levels
are not only hazardous to the worker's ear, but also the nervous system. The overall
excavation activities will create noise levels ranging from about 75 to 95 dBA at a distance
of 50 feet over the operating life of the project.
Crushing, sorting, and drying of materials are frequently employed at rock
quarries, gravel pits, and mines. Noise level measurements from such equipment are shown
in Table IV-XIX. These measurements are based on limited data samples; however, the levels
indicate that such equipment emits noise levels far in excess of those considered to be
harmful to human health.
TABLE IV-XIX. NOISE LEVELS OF SOME MINING EQUIPMENT
Type of Equipment
Rock crusher (diesel)
Rock crusher (electric)
Sorter
Dryer
Noise Level at 50 Feet
94 to 95 dBA
86 to 88 dBA
94 to 95 dBA
100 dBA
Source of Measurement
John Graham Company, 1976
Washington State Department
of Ecology, 1974
John Graham Company, 1976
John Graham Company, 1976
Transporting of the mined material is generally accomplished by trucks, rail,
or ship. Traffic noise impacts are defined by statistical distribution of noise over time, and
an estimate of the worst-case 1-hour volumes would be required to model the roadway noise
levels expected and the associated impact expected from truck transport due to mining
activity.
4-111
c. Water Resources
Exploration may result in impacts similar to those discussed for oil and gas
exploration. The primary effects of mineral recovery operations on surface· waters are
caused by erosion of unstable soil surfaces, overburden disposal areas, and gravel areas, and
by leachates from rock wastes and tailings from ore dressing. The potential for water quality
degradation is greater for surface mining techniques than with underground operations.
Erosion increases surface water turbidity and stream sedimentation. The
effects are discussed in Section II.C.1. Leachates have the potential for depressing stream
water pH and increasing concentrations of mineral elements (Section II.C.2). Sulfur-bearing
minerals such as coal, when exposed to air and water, may oxidize to form sulfuric acid.
Soluble acid salts formed on exposed spoil surfaces may dissolve into water during periods
of storm\Nater runoff. Salts of metals such as zinc, lead, arsenic, copper, and aluminum may
also be placed into solution and surface waters from stormwater runoff. Leachates can cause
long-term (years) toxic effects. The effects on water quality of site preparation were
discussed In the Level I basic engineering actions such as clearing and grubbing and
excavation (Sections IV.A and IV .B) and Level II actions such as road construction (Section
IV.I).
d. Terrestrial Biology
Exploration and recovery of hard rock minerals initially will have similar
effects as those described for clearing and grubbing (Section IV.A), excavation (Section
IV.B), road construction (Section IV.I), and community development (Section IV.N).
Impacts specifically uniqueto mining are the extensive surface area disturbed during open
pit surface mining (including both the mineral-rich mine and the disposal site on which the
overburden and waste rock are dumped), the additional destruction of landscape which can
occur from erosion on and surrounding the site because of unstable soil surfaces, and the
contamination of surrounding terrestrial environments by toxic leachates from wastes and
mineral tailings. Although underground mines are generally not as damaging to surface
vegetation because of smaller land areas required for the removal and recovery of minerals,
extensive site preparation, waste disposal, and toxic leachates still may pose serious
problems to terrestrial vegetation and to important wildlife water supplies.
Critical factors that must be considered before mining ensues are (1) the
degree to which the removal of vegetation will influence the region as a whole (Section
11.0.2); (2) the extent to which vegetation on the site provides food and shelter to wildlife
species; (3) the importance of the site to migrating wildlife; (4) the short-and long-range
impacts that sulfuric acid and other toxic leachates will have on vegetation, wildlife, and
soil; and (5) potential detrimental effects of significant quantities of heavy metals on plants
and wildlife if ingested.
4-112
)
e. Aquatic Biology
The impacts of mineral exploration are similar to those discussed for oil and
gas exploration (Section IV.H), since the prospecting techniques for both resources are
similar. The impacts of mineral recovery on aquatic I ife resu It from changes in water quality,
as discussed under water resources in this section. Erosion from excavation and spoil
accumulations may result in increased stream sediment loads and the impacts described in
Section II.E.1. Contaminated sediment is particularly important near mining operations,
since mine wastes often contain significant amounts of heavy metals or other harmful
substances which are easily carried to streams in storm runoff. These toxic substances may
result in the effects described in Section II.E.2. Coal mining wastes are noted for the
production of sulfuric acid, formed when pyrite in the ore is chemically changed in the
presence of air and water. The addition of this acid to natural water systems may result in
the impacts discussed in Section II.E.4.
Loss of vegetation from land clearing or erosion could increase stream
temperatures and affect aquatic life, as described in Section II.E.5. The establishment of
camp facilities results in impacts similar to those discussed in Section IV.N, Community
Development. Increased human activity generally results in the addition of nutrients to
water systems (Section li.E.6). Fuel spills or waste disposal may contribute toxic substances
to aquatic systems, with the results indicated in Section II.E.2.
f. Soils
Those impacts described under clearing and grubbing, excavation, and road
construction (Sections IV.A, IV.B, and IV.I) are applicable to mining. Additional impacts
are as follows.
(1) Erosion and Sedimentation -Although erosion and sedimentation are
discussed under clearing and grubbing (Section IV.A), mining has particularly severe erosion
and sedimentation potential, due to the degree of disturbance of the land surface and the
difficulty in revegetating spoil materials (Curtis, 1969; Hill, 1972). Mine spoils are often
acidic, droughty, and excessively stoney, which makes them difficult to revegetate. In turn,
the bare earth materials remain highly erodible. Research in Kentucky has estimated
sediment yield from mined areas to be as much as 1000 times greater than that of
undisturbed areas. During a 4-year period, the average sediment yield from undisturbed
forested areas was 25 tons per square mile, while the yield from mining spoil banks was
27,000 tons per square mile (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1967).
(2) Mass Wasting -Mass wasting precipitated by mmmg has been
documented in several instances (Morton and Streitz, 1971; U.S. Department of the
Interior, 1967). In Elm, Switzerland, slate quarrying is cited as the cause for a massive
4-113
landslide that had a volume of approximately 10 million cubic yards. An even greater
landslide at Frank, Alberta, of 34 to 40 million cubic yards is thought to have been caused
in part by coal mining. Surface and subsurface mining can initiate mass wasting in a number
of ways such as altering drainage, loading of slopes with spoil materials, reducing slope
stability by undercutting, reducing subground structural strength, and melting permafrost.
Mass wasting potential for a given site must be developed with regard to
site-specific geology, slope, soils, precipitation, permafrost, mining operation, and seismic
stability. Conditions which can make an area susceptible to mass wasting include seismic
instability, steep slopes, heavy precipitation, permafrost, low strength minerals (e.g.,
kaolinite), and conditions of perfect cleavage and parallel diagonal orientation of planar
elements, as well as young, shallow, unconsolidated porous soils underlain by sloped
impervious material.
(3) Subsidence -Subsidence due to subsurface coal mining has been well
documented (Scot, et al, 1971; Vandale, 1971). Underground mining can alter the structural
stability of the overburden and result in extensive subsidence or subsidence in structurally
weak areas. Sink holes and the general instability of these areas often preclude their use for
most man-made structures, due to insufficient support for foundations and structural
elements.
(4) Changes in Biological, Chern ical, and Physical Properties of the Soil - ·
The earth material that remains following surface mining has little resemblance to soil.
There are no soil horizons, the material has no soil structure, the flora and fauna of the soil
have been largely eliminated, and the pH is usually drastically altered. Crowl and Sawyer
(197i) state that
On a mined area, the land is an unorganized mass of parent material (rock, slate and
shale) combined with whatever soil that covered it in the undisturbed state. Given
enough years to weather, these parent materials may form a completely new type
of soil.
On an estimated 20 percent of all spoil sites, vegetation is extremely difficult to establish
due to excessive stoniness and/or toxic conditions (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1967);
consequently, soil formation can be very slow on some spoil materials.
g. Interactions
Those impacts identified in Excavation and Road Construction (Sections
IV.B and IV. I) are also applicable to mining activities. Additional impacts are listed below.
(1) Random samples of spoil material throughout the United States
indicate that in 20 of the sites sampled revegetation was hampered due to rapid runoff,
4-114
:)
::)
stoney soil conditions, or toxic conditions {U.S. Department of the Interior, 1967). Due to
the extreme climatic conditions in many parts of Alaska, revegetation in this state is perhaps
even more of a problem. Slow primary succession will probably be required on sites used for
excavation of rocky material.
{2) Quarry and open pit mmmg, dredge mmmg, and hydraulic mmmg
impose a serious potential for erosion. In a random sun/ey {U.S. Geologic Survey, 1967)
estimated that 10 percent of the sites sampled had gullies in excess of 1-foot depth.
Sediment deposits were found in 56 percent of the ponds and 52 percent of the streams on
or adjacent to the sample site. Secondary impacts of such sedimentation include reduction
in spawning habitat for anadromous fish, alteration in makeup of benthic communities,
decreased light penetration, and increased nutrient concentrations. Suspended sediments in
aquatic environments during downstream migration of juvenile anadromous fish can cause
some mortality.
{3) Sampling of nationwide spoil bank materials indicated 1 percent had a
pH of less than 3 and 47 percent had a pH range of 3 to 5. Most plants cannot tolerate soil
pH of 4 or less. Consequently, reestablishment of vegetation in these spoils may be retarded.
In 20 percent of the sites examined, revegetation was extremely difficult due to excessive
stoniness or low inhibiting pH conditions {U.S. Geologic Survey, 1967). Free acid is
typically leached in 3 to 5 years, allowing revegetation. However, erosion which exposes
additional sulfuric minerals will reestablish acidic conditions.
{4) Sulfur-bearing minerals are frequently associated with coal. When these
minerals are exposed to air, they oxidize to form sulfuric acid. The acid is transferred to
aquatic systems in two ways. Soluble acid salts enter into solution during periods of surface
runoff, and groundwater may be altered chemically while moving through spoil {U.S.
Geologic Survey, 1967). The extent of potential pollution is exemplified by data gathered in
the Appalachians where, in 1965, 194 of 318 sampling stations were measurably influenced
by acid mine drainage. In addition, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife estimates
5800 miles of stream and 29,000 surface acres of impoundments have been seriously
affected by surface coal mining operations within the continental United States.
{5) Milling wastes from mines producing zinc, lead, and cadmium can
release salts of heavy metals that can be lethal to plants, animals, and humans {Pettyjohn,
1972). Heavy metals are selectively absorbed by plants from polluted soils. For example,
rice growing in soils containing an average of 6 parts per million {ppm) of cadmium had
concentrations of 1250 ppm in roots and 125 ppm in rice {J. Kobayashi, 1969). Herbivores,
including man, can rapidly concentrate these lethal heavy metals. Acidic conditions
frequently associated with mine spoils further complicate toxic conditions by making heavy
metal salts more soluble and facilitating their movement and transfer to adjacent
environments {Hill, 1972). Although heavy metals are moved by water, they concentrate in
4-115
riverbed sediments and in living food chains (Pettyjohn, 1972). Drainage from
non-heavy-metal mines also have heavy metals (e.g., aluminum, sodium, and manganese).
Concentrations of these metals in mine drainage vary considerably from mine to mine and
region to region (Hill, 1972).
4-116
···--------------~-------
REGIONS
A. ARCTIC
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
D. TANANA
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
G. UPPER KUSKOKWIM
K.BRJSTOLBAV
L KODIAK/SHELIKOF
M. GULF OF ALASKA
N. SOUTHEAST
IMPACT ANALYSIS, EXPLORATION AND RECOVERY OF HARD ROCK MINERALS
SECTION II, PAGES 2·1 T02-20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2·36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
2.a,c,d;3
1;2.a,c
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3,6
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1;2.b
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WATER RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAG£52-36 T02-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
MODERATE
5,,
5,7
5,7
5,7
5,7
5,7
5,7
5,7
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3.4.&.8
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2.416 TO 2-60
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
AQUATIC BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-60 TO 2-66
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE SEVERE MODERATE
l.a,b
'-'
1.a,b
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1.a,b
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6
SOIL RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2-66 TO 2·70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
MODERATE
2.3.5,7
2,3,4,7
2,3,7
2,3,5,7
2.3,4,7
'·'
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SECTION II, PAGES 2·71 TV 2-76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
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4-117
L. COMMERCIAL LOGGING
1. Introduction
Southeast Alaska contains the most productive forestland in the state. The forest
in this region is typical of the temperate rain forest lying along the west coast from northern
California to Cook Inlet. Most of the growth is old and undisturbed by man. Species are
western hemlock (74 percent), Sitka spruce (12 percent), western red cedar (5 percent),
Alaska cedar (5 percent), and mountain hemlock and other softwoods (4 percent). The two
most common commercial species are western hemlock and Sitka spruce.
Logging also occurs in other regions of Alaska, but not to the same extent as in
the southeast. Much of the timber cut in these sections is for local construction and use.
Interior taiga or boreal forests of spruce hardwoods extend north from the Kenai Peninsula
to the Brooks Range, stretching in a broad band across the continent. Typically, the spruce
hardwood forest consists of white spruce, black spruce, birch, aspen, and balsam poplar.
These forests cover 32 percent of the land or about 106 mill ion acres, but only one fifth (21
mill ion acres) are classified as commercial forestlands. In spite of the greater acreage, there is
less yield in these regions than in the southeast due to harsher climatic conditions.
Commercial logging operations utilize several silvicuiturai practices, foremost
among which are clear-cutting, selective cutting, and seed tree and shelterwood cutting. In
many cases, cutting practices selected are influenced by (a) silvicultural characteristics of the
trees, such as light, water, nutrients, and growing space requirements; (b) physical and
biological characteristics of the environment that affect regeneration and growth; (c)
management objectives; (d) economic objectives; (e) environmental incompatibilities
including cutting where erosion is detrimental to existing conditions (e.g., streamside alluvial
terraces, shorelines, steep slopes); and (f) human use incompatibilities (e.g., areas of
improved forest stands exhibiting camping and other recreational values, aesthetic values).
There are disadvantages to each cutting method and these may be especially severe if logging
practices are unregulated and proper mitigating procedures are not maintained.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
Timber must be available in commercial quality and quantity. Species and size are
determining factors. In an unprocessed state, timber is unmarketable, except for firewood or
Christmas trees, and a sawmill or pulpmill is required to process the resource into useful
materials. Living facilities, a water supply, and a waste disposal system are required for
logging operations in remote areas. Energy demands vary according to the size of the
operation, but fuel must be provided for equipment, and a generator usually produces
power for camp facilities. Space heating can be by wood, coal, electricity, or natural gas.
4-119
Equipment can be barged, flown, trucked, or hauled by rail to the timber sale
area. Personnel are usually flown. Roads must be maintained and constructed to allow
accessibility of equipment to forested areas for cutting. A means of transport is also
required for removal of logs from the cutting site to the mill (typically by boat, raft, haul
truck, or rail).
Construction materials can be divided into two categories: native or indigenous
and fabricated. Logs, gravel, and fill are classified as native or indigenous materials.
Fabricated materials include prefabricated buildings, trailers, guardrails for bridges, concrete
and asphalt, plumbing and electrical fixtures, furniture, and foundation materials.
Typical logging equipment includes chain saws, logging shears, bulldozers, trucks,
choker chains and grapples, blocks and cables, skidders, tractors, cable systems, heelboom
loaders, front end loaders, tugs, and A-frame swings. Hardware includes corner blocks,
buiibiocks, rigger blocks, skyline knock-out pin shackles, guyline sleeves, and cable clamps.
Other necessary equipment might include climbing spurs, belts, and ropes, splicing ropes and
hammers, rigger mauls and bar axes, saw wedges and hoists, and pass chairs.
3. Permits and Regulations
State regulations are given in Alaska Statute Title 38, Public Lands; Chapter 95,
Alaska Land Act; Article 4, Disposal of Timber and Materials; and are administered by the
Division of Lands. The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation may attach
stipulations concerning water quality, and the Department of Fish and Game may attach
stipulations concerning fish and wildlife habitats.
The U.S. Corps of Engineers requires permit application and approval for
construction in navigable waterways (Section 1 0) and dredging and filling (Section 404).
The U.S. Forest Service administers perm its and regulations regarding specific conditions
(Section AT), standard provisions (Section BT), and special provisions (Section CT) for
timber sale contracts.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Operations described here characterize silvicultural techniques and associated
logging practices which are conventionally used in southeast Alaska to perpetuate the forests
on a sustained-yield basis. The operations described are based upon the biological
requirements of each tree species and are designed to maximize wood production.
Silvicultural techniques range from clear-cutting to selective cutting, each affecting forest
regeneration differently. Because clear-cutting is the most commonly practiced logging
technique, this action and commonly used equipment will be emphasized.
4-120
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J
Clear-cutting is designed to achieve maximum regeneration and growth of new
stands of selected tree species. Clear-cutting results in extensive regeneration and implies the
establishment at one time of numerous evenly distributed seedlings, resulting in even-aged
mature stands. This method essentially removes all merchantable trees in a given area. In
Alaska, clear-cuts are limited to 160 acres on federal lands. The location and actual size of
the clear-cut unit is further determined by terrain, seed dispersal, erosion, and the disposal
of litter into nearby streams. Clear-cutting appears to be the silvicultural system that most
nearly meets biological and economic objectives according to commercial interests. For
spruce regeneration, this practice offers more light and available nutrients, which this species
requires. However, in southeast Alaska shade and windbreaks are necessary and in even-aged
stands, where serious brush competition develops, this practice should be avoided and
replaced by the shelterwood system.
The seed tree method is another cutting practice. A unit is clear-cut with the
exception of a small number of seed-bearing trees left either singly or in groups to provide
seed for regeneration. The seed tree method also achieves concentrated regeneration over
the cut area. However, it may be an impractical method for southeast Alaska because of
wind damage to remaining trees and because seed dispersal is usually adequate from adjacent
noncut areas.
The shelterwood method removes the overstory in stages, and the remaining trees
provide seed and shelter for regeneration. The overstory is removed in two or more
successive cuttings. The shelterwood method prepares the way for the establishment of
seedlings, with a final cut to release them once they are established. Again, the cutting
results in concentrated regeneration and an even-aged mature stand. The shelterwood
method is not used commerciaiiy in Alaska, although it has been used experimentally to
protect hemlock and spruce seedlings from brush competition (Ruth, 1967; Williamson,
1966).
The selection method is the periodic cutting of selected trees from a large area.
Mature trees are cut to allow for growth of smaller trees and because of their higher
commercial value. This method is not used extensively in Alaska, although it is used
somewhat in the interior regions where growth is slow and a number of trees are of little
commercial value. This method results in diffuse regeneration and uneven-aged stands.
Clear-cutting has been the most common logging practice in Alaska. Much of the
forest in the southeast is in climax or near-climax successional condition. Clear-cutting has a
rejuvenating effect on these old-aged stands, allowing the establishment of new seedlings.
These new seedlings display increased growth, vigor, and yield. With clear-cutting in the cut
area, less road construction for access is required. Windthrow damage is decreased by
exposing less timber edge per unit area of cutover land. Clear-cutting effectively removes
decayed and diseased growth. A major drawback of clear-cutting is aesthetic, particularly in
4-121
scenic or recreational areas. Other drawbacks of clear-cutting include a reduction in
protection from erosion, landslides, and rapid water runoff; undesirable species claiming the
site; loss of exposed trees in adjacent stands; loss of wildlife habitat; and loss of scenic and
recreational areas. Large clear-cuts greater than 200 acres have had detrimental effects on
environmental qualities, as have massive landslides initiated by clear-cutting and poor road
construction methods.
During a normal logging operation in an uncut tract, initial timber removed is
used in camp and road construction. Logs are felled, landed along the road, or yarded.
Roads are constructed and surfaced with gravel. Landing and decking areas (temporary
placement sites for logs before they are loaded onto trucks) are prepared through excavation
and filling.
The actual logging operation, shown in Figures 4-4 and 4-5, utilizes a high-lead
cable system foi both uphill and do'v·vnhil! yarding. Because the terrain is steep {35 to 70
percent slopes), long-line and short-line cable systems constitute 90 percent of the systems
in Alaska. On flatter terrain, rubber-tired skidders and tractors are used for yarding. The
churning of treads or tires and ground dragging have been shown to be especially damaging
to the soil layer. There is a decreasing trend in tractor logging because of its proven damage
to the site (Harris and Farr, 1974).
The cable system consists of a mobile tower, a four-drum yarder mounted on a
truck chassis, a tailspur, a slack-pulling skidder carriage, cables, and wires. This skidder
system uses a five-man crew and handles 200 to 250 logs per day. The unit can yard logs
effectively to distances of up to 1500 feet. Often considerable embankment and excavation
is required for safe and well-stabilized placement of the cable system. Guy wires and
stabilizing lines must be attached to secure points around the tower to hold the system in
place.
Timber is usually cut by a single faller using a gasoline-powered chain saw. A
skilled faller can cut 50,000 board feet per day. The stump height must not exceed the
diameter of the tree, but timber is often cut much lower to the ground, which conserves
wood and reduces the number of unsightly stumps. The trees are limbed and cut, and the
slash, or waste wood, is evenly distributed over the cut area. Usually two or three cut logs
are attached to the slack-pulling skidder carriage and yarded to landing areas. The cable
system lifts the logs entirely off the ground during transport. Environmentally, this is much
more advantageous than tractor yarding. Tractors tend to churn up the soil with their tires.
This method also involves more dragging of logs and a more extensive road system. Balloon
yarding (where large air-filled balloons carry logs downhill) has also been used, resulting in
less soil disturbance and requiring less extensive road systems.
4-122
(
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MOBILE TOWER
SHAY SWIVEL
SLACKPULLING LINE
TIGHTENING THE SLACKPULLING LINE RAISES
AND ROTATES THE TONGLINE SHEAVES, MAKING
CONTACT WITH THE IDLER SHEAVES, RESULTING
IN A VISE LIKE GRIP ON THE TONGLINE. APPLY-
ING A LOAD TO THE TONG UNE.RELEASES THE ------. -· ----~ ·----------
GRIP
HAULBACK UNE
SKYLINE
HAULBACK LINE
..._____ TONGLINE SHEAV!=
----TONGL/NE
Figure 4-4. Skidder System for Commercial Logging
4-123
CONTINUOUS LANDING
. ····-·········. . ... ·······''·"'··>-·•.;,. .... -.-...•
:SAFE GUY ANGLE
SKIDROADS
TRUCK
~
CENTRALIZED LANDING
TOWER MOVEMENT ._..__,_,.
_INCREASES WITH GUY LENGTH WHICH
TENDS TO WORK OUT ANCHORS
Figure 4-5. Landing Location for Commercial Logging
4-124
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After the logs are landed, they are moved to decking areas to await further
transport to the mill. Logs may be transported by water in large raft-like formations which
release bark and fiber into the water. At completion of the logging activities, cleanup work
is started to restore the site and minimize the effects of the camp development.
Streambanks are restored to minimize the flow of sediment into the waterways, and the
existing roads are graded and regraveled to meet minimum secondary road standards. The
clear-cut units will be left to reforest naturally.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
Commercial logging results in air quality impacts from construction of access
roads, transportation, establishment of base camps, the use of heavy equipment which burns
diesel fuel or gasoline, refuse burning to clear the land, and those processes that convert the
wood to usable products. The particulate and gaseous emissions resulting from road
construction and establishment of base camps are described in the section on road
construction (Section IV.I). The use of heavy-duty equipment will result in gaseous
emissions, as shown previously in Table IV-V.
The open burning often practiced as the final process in clear-cutting before
replanting (if any) is a most significant source of pollutants. Table IV-I shows some of the
emission rates for various pollutants from open burning. The burning of forests and forest
wastes appears to be a major contributor to airborne particles. Estimates of national totals
of airborne particles are shown in Table IV-XX. The actual cutting of the trees and dragging
to the trucks stirs up fugitive dust as well, but contributes much less to the potential impact.
The processing of the wood represents a major source of emissions, although
this does not take place on the logging site. Wood pulping, pulp board manufacture, and
plywood veneer and layout operations are included in these processes. The particulates,
sulfur dioxide, and odors emitted are significant, but are considered under the section on
natural resource development complex (Section IV.P).
b. Noise
In most commercial logging operations the most common noise sources are
skidders and chain saws. In a study by Myles, et al (1971), noise level readings from these
operations were taken at the operator's ear at 15 and 50 feet. Table IV-XX I shows the
results of these measurements. In this study, the maximum distances at which noise from
logging operations were audible were determined. In the average situation, chain saw noise
could be heard to a distance of 1.43 miles and skidder noise to a distance of 1.45 miles.
Depending on terrain, wind speed and direction, density of vegetation, and other
environmental factors, these distances could vary markedly.
4-125
TABLE IV-XX. SELECTED SOURCES OF
AIRBORNE PARTICLES BASED ON INPUTS
{million metric tons per year)
Sources
Agriculture and forestry burning
Forest
Crop wastes and ranges
Forest cleaning
Grain processing
Mining
Waste incineration
* NAPCA, 1970
U.S. Total Particles of All Sizes *
6.09
2.18
{no reliable data)
0.73
1.45
1.0
TABLE IV-XXI. AVERAGE NOISE LEVELS OF LOGGING
EQUIPMENT AT VARIOUS MEASUREMENT DISTANCES
Type of Equipment
Distance
Skidders Chain Saws
At operator's ear 104 dBA 106 dBA
At 15 feet 89 dBA 94dBA
At 50 feet 83 dBA 86dBA
Source: Myles, et al, 1971
4-126
0
:::_)
0
In a second study on propagation of sound waves from logging equipment in
forests (Myles, et al, 1971b), it was found that, in addition to divergence decrease due to
distance, sound propagation through extensive forests has a reasonable attenuation of 2 dB
per 100 feet. This value fluctuates due to wind and other factors, so it is not constantly
accurate. The authors conclude that, in order to prevent intrusiveness of noise to campers,
logging operations should not be permitted closer than 1 mile from camping locations. In
areas where such use conflicts might be expected, reductions at the noise source would also
help reduce the distance that the noise would travel. For example, a 6-dB reduction can be
obtained by muffling, which would reduce by 40 percent the distance at which the noise
could be heard.
Other noise sources associated with logging, including camp construction and
transport of workers and equipment, are discussed in previous sections of this report. Noise
levels associated with other types of logging equipment (bulldozers, trucks, tractors, and
loaders) are discussed in Section II.B.
c. Water Resources
Soil disturbance by forest roads crossing steep slopes and unstable soils can
increase the potential of soil erosion and stream sedimentation from precipitation and
stormwater runoff. Similar disturbances may occur in harvest areas; however, the magnitude
may be lessened because forest litter dissipates the impact of rainfall intensity. The effects·
of increased turbidity in surface waters are described in Section II.C.1.
When streamside vegetation is removed, water temperatures may increase
several degrees. The magnitude of the increase, however, depends on such factors as volume
of stream flow, groundwater influences, length of channel exposed to solar radiation, and
general climalic conditions. Although drastic changes are observed in !>mall streams, small
lakes and estuaries are most seriously affected. An increase in temperature could contribute
to a decrease in dissolved oxygen concentrations, described in Section li.C.3.
The storage and transportation of logs may also cause water quality
degradation. Bark and other debris knocked off logs at dumping sites and in raft storage
areas may settle to the bottom and create a dissolved oxygen demand during biodegradation
(Section II.C.3). Leachates also are released when logs are stored or transported in water.
Leachate concentrations can be toxic, cause changes in pH from tannins, and create an
oxygen demand. These effects are described in Sections II.C.2, II.C.3, and II.C.4.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Commercial logging in Alaska will exhibit many of the impacts previously
described in Section II.D. Specific references to these impacts are outlined below.
4-127
• Drastic changes in the plant community (Section II.D.1.a)
• Dislocation of mobile birds and mammals and death to small localized
populations of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals (Sections II. D.1.b
and II.D.2.j)
• Reduction of primary energy and productivity of a site (Section
II.D.2.a)
• Changes in the soil/water balance and other soil characteristics (Section
II. D.2.b,d,e)
• Sudden and frequently severe impacts on perimeter species (Section
II.D.2.f)
• Landscape fractionalization (Section II.D.2.k)
• Increased fire, insect, and fungal outbreaks (Section II.D.2.g,h,i)
• Local air, solid waste, and noise pollution (Sections II.D.3.a, II.D.5, and
II. D. 7)
In every logging operation, prompt and adequate restocking of cutover land
is the prime concern; and it is the speed with which these objectives are met that will
determine the severity of impact to the terrestrial environment. Forest managers can control
the size, pattern and timing, amount of fire control, slash disposal, amount of scarification,
fertilization, drainage, and seeding, and it is these factors in each logging operation that will
determine specific short-and long-range impacts on future regeneration and colonization by
plants and animals. Clear-cuts in general are valuable to wildlife because they are colonized
by herbaceous, shrubby, and broadleaf tree species. However, in large clear-cuts these food
species may be unavailable because of deep winter snow, so it is small protected clear-cuts
that provide most of the winter forage. Generally, the faster the cover grows and the longer
it remains open, the more productive it will be for wildlife. For this reason, open stands of
widely spaced trees are most beneficial to most animal species.
In Alaska commercial logging will remove older forest stands that are the
preferred or exclusive habitat for some animal species (e.g. marten, flying squirrels,
woodpeckers, spotted owls, bald eagles). Under current management practices, young
developing stands will eventually be cut before they develop into old growth forests, so
habitat for many of these species will be permanently reduced.
4-128
The general influence of herbicides and fertilizers on terrestrial ecosystems is
described in Section 11.0.4, and specifically described in this section under Interactions
(Section IV. L.5.g}.
e. Aquatic Biology
Impacts associated with logging normally occur as a result of increased
stream sedimentation which affects aquatic life, as discussed in Section II.E.1. The
construction of logging roads removes vegetation and increases susceptibility to erosion.
Tree removal also stimulates erosion by removing the vegetation which stabilizes the upper
layers of soil. Shallow streams may be forded by trucks, resulting in further streambed and
bank erosion and in gravel compaction, which may prevent salmonid spawning. Vegetation
removal increases surface runoff which carries nutrients to waters flowing from the area.
These nutrients, normally available to terrestrial vegetation, enter the aquatic system where
they may increase plant growth, as described in Section II.E.6.
Nutrients are also introduced when fertilizer is used to stimulate revegetation
of logged areas. These nutrients may be introduced to the aquatic system through direct
application or in stormwater runoff. The removal of vegetation near streambanks also may
increase the sunlight reaching the stream, and thus may increase the water temperature. The
effects of this change are discussed in Section II.E.5.
Temporary storage of logs in water may result in decreases in pH and
dissolved oxygen. Tannins and other organic acids are slowly leached from logs and can
--contribute to localized acidity in a poorly circulating body of water. This pH change may
affect aquatic life, as discussed in Section II.E.4. Bark and other debris from log storage
areas which accumulate on the lake or stream bottom are degraded anaerobically and may
lower dissolved oxygen levels in some areas (Section II. E.3). Considerable deposits of
organic debris may build up and when suspended may cause a rapid decrease in the amount
of oxygen available for aquatic life.
f. Soils
Those impacts described in the sections on clearing and grubbing (Section
IV.A) and road construction (Section IV.I) are generally applicable to commercial logging.
However, commercial logging repeatedly removes nutrients due to repeated removal of
timber and losses through leaching and erosion at each cutting cycle. If these losses are
greater than the nutrient inputs to the site between cuttings (e.g., subsoil mineralization,
fertilization, nitrogen fixation, and precipitive inputs), the nutrient capital of the soil can be
depleted and the soil may become unproductive. Soils vary greatly in their nutrient content
and in their ability to withstand leaching. Forest timber also varies greatly in its nutrient
makeup (Simmons, 1974). Consequently, predicting soil depletion requires site-specific
4-129
information. Fertilization, immediate revegetation, and leaving the nutrient-rich tree crowns
on site are mitigating measures which can reduce nutrient losses to the soil, but conversely
may increase fire hazards.
g. Interactions
Clearing and grubbing and road building are engineering actions required for
commercial logging operations. Consequently, impacts associated with these actions are
applicable to commercial logging. Additional impacts specific to this resource extraction
activity are identified as follows:
(1) Pesticides - A number of pesticides are frequently used in forest
management: insecticides to control insect infestation, herbicides to control "weed" trees or
other competitive vegetation, fungicides to control infestation, and animal repellents to
reduce browsing on desired tree species. Other potentially toxic substances are used for seed
coating to reduce seed predation, and some toxins are used to remove or reduce undesirable
species (e.g., deer mice) from a site. In Alaska there has been only a limited application of
such pesticides to date. However, hand application of insecticides in the vicinity of
campgrounds has been reported. Also, moderate use of the herbicide 2,4-D has occurred
along roadways and by aerial application to a few areas.
The long-term consequences of herbicides are simply not known
(Evans, 1974). The use of these chemicals has not resulted in any immediate or significant
deleterious effect to nontarget species or communities (Meehan, 1974). Application of DDT
(0.28 kg/hectare) on Prince of Wales Island between 1961 and 1964 to control black-headed
budworm did occur. In a subsequent study of the area, Reed (1966) reported that no direct
short-term mortality occurred to fish species, although aquatic insect populations were
drastically reduced which would, presumably, have significant effects on rearing species of
salmonids (e.g., coho, Chinook, sockeye, rainbow, and Dolly Varden). In addition, organic
chlorines have been strongly linked to reproductive failures of raptorial birds (e.g., bald
eagles and peregrine falcons).
(2) Fertilizers -The use of fertilizers in forest within the conterminous
United States is extensive. However, fertilization in Alaska has been limited but will
probably increase in the future. Area fertilizers have been traditionally used at a rate of 200
pounds of nitrogen per acre. Ammonia nitrogen is a toxic derivitive of the urea fertilizer
which, in most conditions, is quickly removed through nitrification. However, nitrification
in northern areas of Alaska is limited and urea applications in these areas may result in
potential hazardous levels of toxic ammonia nitrogen. In some cases nitrogen will be
transferred to aquatic systems, although the amounts transferred· are generally thought not
to affect aquatic productivity (Meehan, 1974; Norris and Moore, 1971).
4-130
)
)
)
)
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)
)
)
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(3} Soil Temperature -Clear-cutting results in increases in soil
temperature. Consequently, as shown in Table IV-XXII, nutrient release from organic
detrital material is increased due to increased microbial action. Increased nutrient transfers
to aquatic systems cause increases of algae and slime bacteria in the receiving waters. These
increases occur particularly in streams with low gradient and obstructed flows, and in small
lakes and ponds (Schmeeje, et al, 1974}. This effect may be more pronounced in the interior
of Alaska where the soils have large amounts of accrued organic materials.
4-131
TABLE IV-XXII. NUTRIENT CONTENT OF SOILS AND
SURFACE WATER BEFORE AND AFTER TIMBER HARVEST1
(in milligrams per liter)
Soil Water
Surface Water (creeks)
Nutrient Tokeen Soils Wadleigh Soils
(well drained)
Timbered Clear··Cut Timbered Clear-Cut
Nitrate 0.062 0.094* 0.055 0.116"
Phosphate 0.86 1.04 1.02 0.914
Iron 0.07 0.15* 0.1 0.07
Calcium 1.72 1.45 1.30 2.23*
Magnesium 0.185 0.24 0.16 0.34*
Potassium 0.52 0.85* 0.35 0.70*
Sodium 1.12 1.16 1.60 2.26*
Organic carbon 4.8 6.3 7.0 12.5
*Indicates that differences between samples from clear-cut and timbered areas are probably real,
judging by the magnitude of difference and variation between duplicate samples. Analysis by
the Federal Water Quality Laboratory, Fairbanks, Alaska.
1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Environmental Statement, Ketchikan Pulp
Company Timber Sale 1974-1979 Operating Period. On file, U.S. Forest Service, Juneau, Alaska.
(somewhat poorly drained)
Timbered Clear-Cut
0.067 0.195*
0.76 0.915
0.1 1.30*
1.38 2.35*
0.20 0.17
1.68 2.65*
1.15 1.15
7.0 30.0*
REGIONS
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E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
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L KODIAK/SHELIKOF
M.GUlFOFALASKA CU
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4-133
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M. AGRICULTURE
1. Introduction
Agriculture concerns the production and harvest of plants and animals for food
and other products. Alaska, although the largest state in the Union, exhibits the smallest
acreage devoted to agriculture. Three areas in Alaska produce nearly all of Alaska's
agricultural crops. These are Matanuska Valley, Tanana Valley, and the Kenai Peninsula
(listed in order of relative importance). The major crops presently grown are small grains,
forages, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, and ornamentals. Each crop involves a different method
of agriculture. Amounts of fertilizer, acreage, irrigation, and pesticides and herbicides vary
with each crop. Following is a brief description of each of these crops. The activities
discussion involves an in-depth study of methods involved in a potato and vegetable farm in
the Matanuska Valley.
Small grains grown in Alaska are all of the spring-sown type. The later
summer-sown (winter) type of small grains are either insufficiently winter-hardy or too late
in maturity for dependable use in Alaska. Barley is important for cattle feed and the
hardiest and most widely grown of the grain crops. The dominant variety is Edda,
introduced from Sweden. Oats are another major grain crop grown in Alaska. Oats mature
later than barley and are less frequently grown. Oats are used for grain to some extent, but
their major use is for forage. Grain production involves the largest acreage per farm. An
average grain farm is 1000 to 2000 acres in size.
The potato is a particularly hardy food plant and well suited to production from
sea level to 1000 feet above sea level along the coast and in the major river valleys south of
the Brooks Range. The two most common varieties are the Alaskan russet and the Alaskan
frostless, both adaptable to long periods of sunlight and cool climates. Two thirds of the
potatoes are grown on small farms (50 to 100 acres) in the Matanuska Valley, one third of
the harvest is from the Tanana Valley, and a few are grown in the Kenai Peninsula.
Cool season vegetables such as radishes, turnips, cabbages, cauliflower, broccoli,
brussel sprouts, peas, carrots, onions, leaf lettuce, head lettuce, and rhubarb grow well in
Alaska. Most vegetables grown are for home use or are sold at roadside stands and local
retail outlets. Development of a vegetable processing plant in Alaska could encourage the
production of these vegetables.
In Alaska, 16 native plant species produce fruits of economic importance. These
include blueberry, bearberry, cloudberry, high-bush cranberry, crowberry, red currant, black
currant, elderberry, gooseberry, lingonberry, nagoonberry, raspberry, strawberry,
serviceberry, and mountain ash. Hybridization of native fruits with similar lower latitude
species could possibly produce winter-hardy commercial crops. Successful experiments have
4-135
been carried out with strawberries, but they have not been produced commercially.
Research in the Cook Inlet has shown that Descue, an apple/crabapple variety, is
winter-hardy and produces attractive edible apples.
Ornamentals are plants used for landscape and interior design. The local bedding
plant and nursery industry is expanding and providing adapted hardy species for these
purposes.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
The most agriculturally productive soil in Alaska is silt loam, a loess overlying a
gravelly or sandy base. This premium soil is situtated on gentle slopes of generally less than
12 percent grade. When the soil is approximately 15 to 20 inches deep, it usually remains
moist enough to require little irrigation during a year of normal precipitation. However,
precipitation in some areas is very limited and irrigation may be required to maintain
productivity. Water for irrigation is available in quantities far beyond present demands in all
of the agricultural portions of the state. However, cold water temperatures may require that
settling ponds and spraying be employed prior to using such water. A scant percentage of
the surface runoff is utilized, and groundwater potential is many times that of current
development.
Applications of fertilizer increase the yield of most Alaskan soils, because much
of the available nutrients remain in the organic matter which is removed by clearing.
Additions of potassium have reduced leaf necrosis on potatoes grown in the Matanuska
Valley, and the addition of phosphorous and lime to soil in the Kenai Peninsula area has
dramatically improved the yield of barley. Generally, many Alaskan soils are deficient in
nitrogen, potassium, and sometimes phosphorous; therefore, commercial fertilizers
combining these three elements are the most useful. Strongly acidic soils must be limed
heavily to produce favorable plant growth.
Most of the seed used in Alaska is obtained from Alaskan crops, since many of the
varieties of vegetation grown are adapted to northern latitude agriculture and are not used
elsewhere. Usually the first year's crop produces enough seed for the next season's planting.
Maximum yields are generally obtained in four or five years after the initial planting with
seed put aside each year for the following season.
Farm production in Alaska is as mechanized as anywhere in the United States.
Due to the short planting season, seed must be put into the ground as quickly as possible to
ensure maximum yields. Experiments have shown that missed planting days in the spring
result in noticeably lower yields, and harvesting must be accomplished with equal rapidity
to ensure minimum damage by early frost. Late frost can also affect crop success in some
areas of the state.
4-136
)
)
)
Fuel for the operation of farm machinery is another resource requirement.
Quantities needed depend upon the location and size of the operation and the agricultural
crops grown.
3. Permits and Regulations
Pesticide use perm its are the only perm its required for agriculture in Alaska. Rules
and regulations for the use of pesticides may be found in the Federal Register, Volume 39,
Number 85, "Pesticides and Pesticide Containers." In addition, pesticide use must be
approved by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
The first phase of activities in a farming operation requires the removal of the
natural vegetation, which entails extensive clearing and excavation. The trees are stacked in
berm piles on the edge of the cleared land and burned. Oftentimes, two or three burnings
are required to totally reduce the wood to ash, due to the high moisture content of the
green wood. This has been known to cause a forest fire hazard. After the intital clearing,
extensive plowing is required to incorporate the remaining organic material into the soil.
Roots, limbs, and forest humus must be broken down by repeated plowing to achieve a
relatively uniform soil consistency.
In recent years, a new method of clearing has been initiated in which a bulldozer
pulls a rotary plow which shreds the organic growth. This method entails less plowing and
reintroduces more of the organic material back into the soil. Much of the initial clearing is
done in the winter, and in the following summer the field is plowed and allowed to lie
fallow. It is not until the following spring that crops are introduced.
Irrigation is required to increase yield and improve crop quality during dry
periods. Irrigation also extends the growing season by forcing earlier seed germination and
protecting crops from early frost damage. Two areas in Alaska which would benefit most
from supplemental irrigation are the Yukon region, particularly around Fairbanks, and the
Tanana River Basin and Matanuska River Valley in the south central region. Research on
crop water requirements indicates that oats and potatoes require 13.7 and 11.8 inches per
growing season, respectively, with peak requirements during maturation, which occurs in
mid to late summer. The peak water requirements for hay and pasture have been established
as 0.12 inch per day in the Matanuska Valley. This amount is a total of 15 inches for the
entire 100-day growth season, and irrigation is required to ensure maximum crop
production in years when precipitation is below this level.
There are four basic types of irrigation: gravity flow (including furrow and border
irrigation), sprinkler, subirrigation, and drip. Sprinkler irrigation is by far the best method of
4-137
water control, and most systems in Alaska are a combination of the solid-set and hand-move
lateral systems. If the setup is left in place for the season, cost per acre increases for
investment, but the labor costs are kept low. The water can be obtained from either
groundwater or surface runoff.
Insect pests are not a severe problem in Alaska because most insects are controlled
by natural predators and cold temperatures. Crop rotation and destruction of crop residue
by burning after harvesting are also effective means of controlling pests. Cutworms have
cyclic population increases and can cause extensive damage to cabbage crops. Restrictions
on the use of chlorinated hydrocarbons have made control of these pests more difficult, but
nonpersistent chemicals such as diazinin and trichlorfon (dylex} usually are successful.
Diazinin must be worked into the soil, which is difficult during the growing season.
Trichlorfon is easier to apply, but requires more frequent application. Other pests which can
be controlled by the use of diazinin and malathion include the turnip maggot, aphids, and
red beetle. Herbicides, primarily 2,4-D, are commonly used in Alaska for weed control.
They are normally applied before planting to kill forb and weed species which establish
themselves in disturbed habitats.
Most soils in Alaska require fertilization, since most nutrients are contained in the
organic growth which is removed during clearing. Ashes from the burned vegetation may be
spread over the cleared area to alleviate this problem. The rotary plow method of clearing,
which shreds organic growth and reintroduces it into the soil, is another way to recycle
these nutrients. However, these two methods cannot overcome the natural deficiency of
some soils with respect to certain nutrients.
Well-balanced commercial fertilizers contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium. Strongly acid soils must be limed to secure a favorable environment for plant
growth. Lime (calcium carbonate} reduces soil acidity, supplies calcium, and makes soluble
iron and aluminum less toxic. Minor elements, such as boron and molybdenum, are also
required in special cases. Liming often results in a boron deficiency which is eliminated by
adding 0.5 to 1 pound of boron per acre. Allowing a field to lie fallow for a season also
increases the nutrients in the soil.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
Emissions to the atmosphere related to agricultural processes come from the
clearing of the land, filling, fertilizer production, and product processing after harvest. All of
these involve transport, and hence the use of heavy-duty vehicles, with their emissions. The
initial clearing of the land involves the basic clearing and grubbing actions and results
primarily in emissions of fugitive dust and emissions from burning. The quantity of dust
4-138
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)
)
)
)
em1ss1ons from agricultural tilling, in pounds per acre of land tilled, may be estimated
(within plus 20 percent) using the following empirical expression:
where
Emissions Factor = 1.4 s
(PE/50)2
s = Silt content of surface soil (percent)
PE = Thornthwaite's precipitation/evaporation index
This equation, which was derived from field measurements, excludes dust which settles out
within 20 to 30 feet (6 to 9 m) of the tillage path. For agricultural tilling, about 80 percent
of the emissions predicted by the equation above are likely to remain suspended
indefinitely.
In general, control methods are not applied to reduce emissions from
agricultural tilling. Irrigation of fields prior to plowing will reduce emissions, but in many
cases this practice would make the soil unworkable and adversely affect the plowed soii's
characteristics. Control methods for agricultural activities are aimed primarily at reduction
of emissions from wind erosion through such practices as continuous cropping, stubble
mulching, strip cropping, limited irrigation of fallow fields, windbreaks, and use of chemical
stabilizers. Agricultural field burning is a common means of disposing of field stubble and
peats. It also represents a major source of emissions to the atmosphere. These emissions are
summarized in Table IV-XXIII.
The agricultural industry involves the use of fertilizers, herbicides, and
pesticides to increase yields. The manufacture of fertilizers causes pollutants to be emitted
to the atmosphere. Nitrogen fertilizer manufacture causes particulates, nitrogen oxides
(N03 ), and ammonia to be emitted. Phosphate fertilizer manufacture emits particulates and
fluorides as well as those pollutants associated with the mining of phosphate rock.
Herbicides and pesticides result in different problems. Depending on the method of
application (often airborne seeding), the volatility of the chemicals or the particle size, and
the meteorological conditions, these chemicals may be transported to areas beyond those
intended for application. Since some crops are sensitive to herbicides, care must be taken as
to the occurrence of the crops, even 100 miles downwind of application.
Grain elevators are primarily transfer and storage units and are classified as
either the smaller, more numerous country elevators or the larger terminal elevators. At
grain elevator locations the following operations can occur: receiving, transfer and storage,
4-139
TABLE IV-XXIII. EMISSION FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING
(in pounds per ton)
,~,gricultural Landscape Refuse
Pollutant Field Burning and Pruning Wood Refuse
Particulates 17 17 17
Sulfur oxides neg neg neg
Carbon monoxide 100 60 50
Hydrocarbons (CH 4 ) 20 20 4
Nitrogen oxides 2 2 2
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973
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)
)
)
)
)
cleaning, drying, and milling or grinding. Many of the large term ina I elevators also process
grain at the same location. The grain processing may include wet and dry milling (cereals),
flour milling, and distilling. Feed manufacturing involves the receiving, conditioning (drying,
sizing, cleaning), blending, and pelleting of the grains, and their subsequent bagging or bulk
loading. Typical particulate emissions from these processes are shown in Table IV-XXIV.
The effects of agriculture on climate are generally small. Irrigation may
moderate summer temperature and relative humidities to some extent. The change from
grass to crops has very little effect on albedo and other surface features. Change from forest
to crops increases the albedo (particularly when snow-covered), decreases the water available
to the atmosphere (unless irrigated), and decreases the roughness.
b. Noise
The major noise sources associated with development of agricultural crops
are from the initial clearing activities and from plowing and harvesting equipment. Clearing
generally creates a short-term noise impact on the site which ranges from 83 to 87 dBA at
50 feet. Heavy equipment used for plowing and harvesting is not unlike that currently used
in the construction industry. Similarly, the goal with agricultural machinery should be to
reduce the noise levels so as to prevent hearing loss to the machine operator (Yoerger,
1971). Noise levels from heavy-duty farming equipment range from 73 to 96 dBA at 50
feet. At the worker's ear (approximately 3 to 6 feet) these levels can reach as high as 114 to
115 dBA with no abatement technology employed. These levels are far in excess of those
known to cause hearing loss in a majority of the population and also far greater than those
levels set by OSHA for hearing conservation.
c. Water Resources
The removal of natural vegetation to provide cropland for agricultural
purposes exposes surfaces which increase the potential for soil erosion and stream
sedimentation from precipitation and stormwater runoff to surface waters. The effects of
increased turbidity in surface waters are described in Section II.C.1.
However, irrigation return flows are the major factor in influencing the
overall water quality of surface waters. These water quality changes consist primarily of an
increase in temperature (Section II.C.5) and turbidity (Section II.C.1 ). Pesticides,
herbicides, and fertilizers are also carried into surface waters by overirrigation or the
application of pesticides and fertilizers in excess of crop requirements. The effects of the
latter are described in Sections II.C.2 and II.C.6. The magnitude of the impacts depends
upon the volume of return flow and other drainage entering an irrigation canal, its length,
and whether it is lined or unlined.
4-141
4-142
TABLE IV-XXIV. PARTICULATE EMISSION
FACTORS FOR GRAIN HANDLING AND PROCESSING
Type of Source
Terminal elevators
Shipping or receiving
Transferring, conveying, etc.
Screening and cleaning
Drying
Country elevators
Shipping or receiving
Transferring, conveying, etc.
Screening and cleaning
Drying
Grain processing
Corn meal
Soybean processing
Barley or wheat cleaner
Milo cleaner
Barley flour milling
Feed manufacturing
Barley
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973
Emissions
(pounds/ton)
1
2
5
6
5
3
8
7
5
7
0.2
0.4
3
3
J
)
)
)
)
)
Leaching and ion exchange are also mechanisms by which concentrations of
chemical constituents can be increased several times greater than in the applied water. The
method of water application, type of crops, and fertilizers and pesticides applied have no
marked effect on return flow water quality unless there is overirrigation or application in
excess of crop requirements. Irrigation has the effect of raising the natural groundwater
table and altering the groundwater quality.
d. Terrestrial Biology
The agricultural use of land will remove the natural vegetation, thereby
influencing the animal communities endemic to the site (Sections 11.0.1 and 11.0.2). The
effects of substantive vegetation removal are described in Section 11.0.2. Particularly
important are the effects of vegetation removal on primary production and energy flow, soil
characteristics, native perimeter species, and landscape characteristics (Section II. 0.2).
Chern icals, pesticides, and fertilizers influence nontarget plants and animals, as described in
detail in Section 11.0.4 and in the subsequent sections on soils and interactions.
The characteristics and ecological effects of monocultures within ecosystems
have been described in Section 11.0.7 and may have great importance in Alaska because of
the severe environmental constraints. Specifically, there are fewer agricultural crops that
may be grown in Alaska (e.g., only two varieties of potatoes and a few grains), which means
less diversity, and therefore less stability and greater loss in the event of unseasonably poor
weather or insect and disease outbreak. The short growing season means that crop
phenology will be highly synchronized. Therefore, an insect and disease attack will be able
to spread rapidly, especially since all crop species will be at identical development stages. In
the event of a successful attack, replanting will not be possible because of the short and
rapidly changing growing season. If a crop fails, an entire year must be bypassed before a
second attempt can be made.
e. Aquatic Biology
Agriculture may result in increased sedimentation of streams due to input
from irrigation return waters which contain suspended sediment. Brush and tree removal
and overgrazing reduce organic materials which stabilize the ground surface and may result
in erosion, which affects aquatic life, as described in Section II.E.1. Pesticides and herbicides
are transported to watercourses in runoff and may impact aquatic life, as discussed in
Section II. E.2. Fertilizer runoff to water bodies may also result in the effects described in
Section II.E.6. Feedlot operations, in which large numbers of animals are concentrated and
fed before slaughter, have resulted in water quality problems in the lower 48 states. Since
the wastes from the animals are concentrated, stormwater runoff from the confined area
carries them to streams where they act as nutrients for the lower forms of aquatic life.
4-143
f. Soils
Those impacts described under clearing and grubbing and road building are
generally applicable to agriculture. Additional impacts are as follows:
(1) Erosion -Agricultural activities often require annual removal and
turning over of vegetation (harvest, tillage) on the farmed land. Consequently, at least once
a year bare earth becomes susceptible to erosion by air and water. In addition, farmed areas
leave a variable amount of the surface unvegetated (e.g., space between row crops), which is
kept weeded and remains susceptible to erosion. Albrecht (1971) states
Continuously cultivated soils, when plowed and mechanically put under granular
form by tillage machinery, are quickly hammered by the rainfall into surface slush.
This seals the pores and prevents rapid infiltration of water. Water that would be
beneficial were it stored in the soil is compelled to run off and represents not only
loss of water but also a source for serious erosion of the surface ....
The use of hedge rows, contour plowing, cover crops, and terracing can mitigate erosion
losses. However, even with these measures, some erosion is unavoidable.
(2) Changes in Biological, Chern ical, and Physical Properties of the Soil -
As was described in Section iV.A, Clearing and Grubbing, agricultural practices tend to
increase soil temperatures and temperature extremes. However, in the case of agriculture
this change in soil condition remains over a long period of time as an effect of the continued
agricultural activity. Also, as discussed in Section IV.A, soil pH increases in disturbed taiga
soils.· Farmers often manage the soil pH by adding lime. Consequently, a higher soil pH can
be expected to be maintained in soils used for agriculture.
Plowing and disturbing the soil surface result in increased soil
temperatures, which increases microbial activity and decomposition of organic material
within the soil. Consequently, nutrients are released at an accelerated rate until the humus
of the soil is decomposed. Concurrently, nutrients are removed from the soil by crop
removal. Different soils have differing amounts of nutrient capital and have differing rates at
which they gain or lose nutrients. If the removal of nutrients through crop removal and
other losses exceeds the nutrient input of the soil, the soil becomes exhausted of its
nutrients. Depletion of soil nutrients (nitrogen) caused by continuous cropping is illustrated
in Figure 4-6. Adding various fertilizers can compensate for some nutrient losses. However,
most commercial fertilizers are not complete and, though they may maintain growth and
production, the quality of the foodstuffs produced is apt to be reduced.
g. Interactions
The effects of agricultural development on interactions are listed as follows:
4-144
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J
0
-J -Q
\I)
~
~
~
(/)
~ ~ ~ .....
~
1000~----------~~--------~~----------~=-----------~~--------~. 1888 I~ /918 193te
Source: Albrecht, 1971
Figure 4-6. Declines in Total Nitrogen of the Soil During
Fifty Years of Continuous Cropping with and without Manure
4-145
(1) Agricultural development can be expected to increase erosion and
subsequent transfer of nutrients and sediment from terrestrial to aquatic systems. Potential
secondary effects are reduction in spawning habitat, alteration in makeup of benthic
communities, decreased light penetration, increased nutrient concentrations, and loss of soil
fertility potential. The extent of erosion is suggested by information presented by Pyrde
(1972). In the USSR, 30 to 35 million acres of tilled lands are affected by water erosion, 20
to 25 mill ion hectares of croplands are affected by wind erosion, and 1.8 percent of
agricultural lands are heavily eroded.
(2) Agricultural activities require the use of a number of pesticides for the
control of nuisance species. However, secondary undesired impacts have resulted from the
use of fungicides, insecticides, and pesticides. Although they are directed at a single or a few
pest species, pesticides do affect ecosystems. Appraisal of the effects of pesticides on
nontarget populations must remain tentative due to the general lack of information on
popuiation dynamics, toxicity, and feeding habits. A number of pesticides are nonspecific in
their action, and their effects are density-independent. Different pesticides vary greatly in
their toxicity, persistence, and solubility.
Responses to particular pesticides vary greatly among species, age
groups, and individuals. Effects are synergistic and are often dependent on additional
environmental factors such as pH, temperature, or the presence of other stresses (Moore,
1971 ). Significant sublethal effects on reproduction and/or behavior have been documented
(Ratcliffe, 1967; Wurster, 1969). Persistent fat-soluble organochlorines have become widely
dispersed and concentrated in food chains. Pesticides are apt to be most severely felt by
predators, particularly in the case of the fat-soluble organochlorines. Pesticides affect
freshwater aquatic systems more than terrestrial systems. Due to natural selection, resistant
strains of pests can develop, causing a qualitative change in the species (Moore, 1971 ).
(3) Potential effects of agricultural development on wildlife populations are
demonstrated by the sequence of events which followed such development in Europe and
North America. By following this historical sequence, it is possible to predict potential
effects of agricultural development in Alaska. The following impacts are given as typical,
although in some cases mitigating measures may be possible.
As the land is opened and cleared for crops and pasture, forest species
are reduced due to elimination of suitable habitat and increased predation. Large species,
which potentially compete with man by preying on domestic animals or crops, are most
severely affected (e.g., grizzly bears, wolves, wolverine). Smaller forest species are more
slowly reduced in numbers as suitable habitat is altered to farmland. Similarly, as forests are
cleared, forest edge species initially increase. Opening forests but still leaving suitable
sections of cover establishes optimal conditions for species such as coyote, deer, and fox.
However, as lands are further cleared and available cover is reduced, these species also begin
4-146
J
to decline and are typically replaced by species which have very limited cover requirements
(rodents), are highly mobile (crows), or are burrowers (gophers). Such species are apt to
compete with man for crops and often become "pests." Figure 4-7 illustrates the effects of
agricultural development on wildlife.
Wetlands in areas of developing agriculture have historically been
reduced by draining, diking, or filling and then used as cropland or pasture, or have been left
with little shore cover. Wetland fauna, both resident species (such as muskrat, mink, and
beaver) and transient species (such as waterfowl and reed-dwelling species), have been
reduced due to the reduced quantity and quality of wetlands. Species able to use large
bodies of water and fly long distances to agricultural areas for feeding (e.g., mallards and
Canadian geese) seem to do well under altered wetland conditions.
4-147
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<(
w u..
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$
t
I
0
PRISTINE SPECIES
... ._
~
WOLVES ~
GRIZZLY BEAR
CARIBOU '
'
' ' ' ' ' ' '
AMOUNT OF AGRICULTURAL LAND
EDGE SPECIES
COYOTE
FOX
DEER
Figure 4-7. Effects of Developing Agriculture on Wildlife
4-148
RODENTS
CROWS
100%
Source: Taber (undated)
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON(
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
G. UPPER KUSKOKWIM
L KOOIAK/SHELIKOF
M.GULF OF ALASKA CL/
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SECTION II, PAGESZ-1 TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
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SECTION II, PAGES 2·35 TO 245
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SECTION II, PAGES 2.46 TO 2·60
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SECTION II, PAGES 2·60 TO 2·66
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SECTION II, PAGES 2·66 TO 2·70
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-71 TO 2·76
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4-149
N. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
1. Introduction
New communities may develop as Alaska's timber, mineral, coal, oil, and gas
resources are exploited. These communities will either provide facilities for the production
of resources or will become service centers associated with the network required to
transport products in their raw or refined states. Villages subject to periodic destruction
from seasonal flooding and beach migration may also seek new town sites at less hazardous
locations instead of relying on costly preventive maintenance programs. A three-or
four-year construction period could be expected for the development of a new community
of 200 housing units; approval by state and federal agencies could add an additional one to
two years to development. Construction in each community will provide housing, storage,
school and recreation facilities, and community facilities including an airport and water and
electric utility systems. The sizes of some typical Alaskan communities are given in Table
IV-XXV.
Types of community settlement activity likely to occur in Alaska include
movement of small communities due to flood or erosion hazards, or the establishment of
new communities to support extraction complexes. Typical activities would include
constr...:ction of 60 housing units and 70 storage units, p!us community facilities to serve
small (circa 300) populations covering a few acres. New communities to support resource
extraction complexes may require housing and other community facilities (e.g., schools,
parks, shopping, banks) for a population of 1000 or more people and may require 75 acres
of land or more.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
In addition to labor and equipment, a suitable site, access, and water supply are
primary requirements for the development of a new community. Resources related
primarily to site development, access, and water supply are described in earlier discussions
on clearing and grubbing, excavation, construction filling, foundation construction, and
drilling for water. Other resources required for a community can be viewed as systems.
a. Housing
The first system, and possibly the most important, is housing or shelter.
There are four principal types of housing structures: wood frame, modular, trailer, and
combination. The term "combination" refers to structures serving a dual function. For
example, a school may also serve as housing, or a house may also provide warehousing space.
Generally, 500 to 750 square feet is a minimal space requirement for a family of three in
rural Alaska (Shishmaref Relocation Effort, August 1974). Most structures consisting of
more than 750 square feet are combination or storage buildings.
4-151
TABLE IV-XXV. COMMUNITY HOUSING STATISTICS
Place Population Housing Units
Anchorage 124,542 16,152
Barrow 2,104 395
Bethel 2,104 717
Fairbanks 45,864 5,231
Juneau 13,556 2,273
Homer 1,083 368
King Salmon 202 70
Kotzebue 1,696 420
Metlakatla 1,050 230
Nome 2,488 833
Palmer 1,140 379
Seward 1,587 591
Unalakleet 450 120
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Statistics, 1972
4-152
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b. Public Utilities
Public utilities are another system needed to retain a community's viability.
Systems such as water supply and distribution, sewage collection and treatment, and
electrical generation and distribution are needed. In some cases, these systems in rural
Alaska may not conform to conventional public utility systems.
(1) Water -There are three principal water resources available for rural
communities: water from nearby rivers, groundwater, and deep wells. For a community of
200 homes, 100,000 gallons of water per day can be anticipated for domestic use only. This
is about 150 gallons per person per day, with an average flow of approximately 300 gallons
per minute. Combining fire protection and domestic uses, about 250,000 gallons per day
may be required for a community of 200 homes. A closed-loop system could be employed
to distribute the water. This system consists of a central pumping station and pipes running
to all homes, then returning to the central pumping house. A gray water system may also be
employed. This system utilizes two circulating systems from the pumphouse instead of one.
One system circulates water for washing, drinking, and domestic use, and the other system is
used for sewage.
(2) Sewage - A critical factor in sustaining a community is collection and
disposal of raw sewage. Several methods are available to communities. First, there are
chemical toilets or "honey buckets," with pickup and dumping provided by the local
community. Incineration is a second method employed in sewage disposal, and a third
method employs the use of sewage lagoons and consists simply of dumping the sewage into
a hole and then filling the hole. Perhaps the best of all disposal systems for a community of
200 homes, given suitable geologic and soil conditions, is primary sewage treatment using
individual septic tanks. The advantage of this system over the gray water system is its
nondependency on a central pumping house. Further, septic tank sewa~e is broken down by
bacteria, and the by-product can be used for fuel or fertilizer.
(3) Solid Waste -The Alaska Public Health Service requires the collection
and disposal of solid waste refuse. Either the local municipality or some other individual or
group within the community is responsible for pickup and disposal. Disposal is usually in a
landfill.
(4) Stormwater-Storm drains may be needed. Rural communities seldom
include street paving in their initial planning stages. However, this does not negate the
necessity for the eventual employment of a storm drainage system.
(5) Telephone -Telephone services within the community may be
provided. The primary company supplying this service is General Telephone Company, a
private utility with headquarters in Seattle.
4·153
(6) Power -Electrical generation is an important system within a
community, providing convenience and comfort in an inhospitable environment. It should
be mentioned that electrical facilities are not required for homes. All Alaskan communities
with more than 1500 people have electric utility systems. Many smaller communities also
have electric power systems, but there are still communities that do not have electricity.
There are approximately 30 utilities serving the rural communities of Alaska. The highest
kilowatt-hour (kw-hr) generation is 250, and the lowest is 27 (in Kodiak). Generally,
communities with large populations, access to year-round water or land transportation
systems, and interconnections with large electric power distribution networks or established
hydroelectric generating facilities have the lowest power rates. In terms of a community of
200 homes, the rates might be very high unless the community system was connected with a
large distribution network.
c. Transportation
Transportation systems are another component of a community. The
prevailing systems are local roads, waterways, and air transportation. Some communities
rely heavily on riverboats and snowmobiles for local transportation rather than on
automobiles.
(1) Roads -Not all rural communities are required to provide traffic
rights-of-way. Local roadways are generally provided for in community development, but
may not be designed for heavy automobile usage. Generally, most small Alaskan
communities have very few automobiles.
(2j Airstrips -Air transportation may be essential to the well being of the
community and its residents. In such cases, an airstrip would be needed to accommodate
aircraft. The airstrip's width and length depend u~-'on the size of the aircraft serving the
community. For a community located near the water, aircraft equipped with floats may be
used and the community would not need an airstrip on land. To accommodate the largest
planes equipped with floats, a water area of 3000 feet would be necessary.
d. Community Services
An educational system is generally a minimal necessity in most rural
locations and is used to provide traditional schooling and sometimes vocational training for
the inhabitants of a community. Other community services such as police protection, fire
protection, medical services, social services, and recreation may or may not be included in
the development of a new community. The location of a community and the purposes to be
served by its development would dictate the amount and extent of services required.
4-154
)
e. Land
The land requirement for a community of 200 homes depends upon the type
of structures contemplated and the number and extent of other facilities which must be
provided. The Alaska Remote Housing Program recommends a lot size of approximately
3000 square feet per home. The acreage needed for development of a community including
200 homes would be approximately 75 to 100 acres.
In summary, the resources or systems required for establishing and maintaining a
community are
• Housing
• Public Utilities -Water supply and distribution, sewage collection and
disposal, telephones, refuse collection and disposal, and electrical generation
J and distribution
• Transportation -Waterways, airports, and local roads
• Community Services-Education, safety, health, and recreation
• Land
3. Permits and Regulations
Coordination with state and federal agencies would be required for the
construction of a new community. The Bureau of Land Management may require permits
-for rights-of-way for roadways, airstrips, and communication sites. Permits are required
from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for disposal of solid and sanitary wastes.
Air and water quality permits are required from the State of Alaska, Department of
Environmental Conservation. Plan approval or permits may be required from, or at least
given consideration by, the State of Alaska, Departments of Highways, Public Works,
Education, Economic Development, Health and Social Services, Natural Resources, and
Commerce and, if appropriate, federal agencies such as the Corps of Engineers, Soil
Conservation Service, Public Health Service, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Basic engineering actions and equipment used are described in earlier sections on
clearing and grubbing (Section IV.A), excavation (Section IV.B), construction filling on land
(Section IV.C), foundation construction (Section IV.D), drilling for water (Section IV.G),
and road construction (Section IV.I). The construction of an airport runway generally
4-155
employs a modification of roadway construction techniques. The size of operation and the
duration of the project, however, can be expected to cover several acres and require a
construction time of three to four years. Other considerations in community development
and general actions undertaken in carrying out the construction activities are discussed
below.
issues:
a. Site Selection
The location of the new community should minimally consider the following
• Is the site available? An investigation into who owns the land is
required.
• is the site seiectea 1arge enough to accommoaare 200 homes?
Consideration should be given not only to present needs, but also to
future expansion.
• Is adequate water available? Does the site have a source of fresh water?
Is the water safe to drink? What is the distance between the site and the
source of water?
• Is the site subject to natural hazards or conditions affecting safety? Will
the site be continually and adversely affected by flooding, storms,
erosion, or other natural geologic occurrences?
• Will development of the site require use of special building techniques
or site development procedures? Does the site drain well? Is there
permafrost?
• Will development of the site have a significant and unavoidable adverse
effect on the natural and physical environment of the area (i.e., air,
water, terrestrial, and aquatic resources}?
Detailed investigation into such areas as soil and subsurface conditions,
climate, erosion, accretion, faults, floods, vegetation and wildlife and, when appropriate, the
subsistence harvest availability should be inititated. In addition, building materials and their
distance from the site should be considered. Finally, the cost of establishing the community
should be a major consideration.
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)
J
b. Design and Construction
The construction methods currently used for rural housing in Alaska are
based primarily on use of wood materials from rough logs to plywood. However, modular
housing units and trailer homes may be used and would be transported to the site after
fabrication. In addition to the foundation requirements for dwelling units, on-site
development generally consists of the use of plywood for flooring, ceilings, and interior
walls. For exterior use, plywood surfaces are also very frequently employed.
Permafrost conditions, earthquake intensity, and climatic elements have a
considerable effect on the performance of buildings, and the diversity of their occurrence in
Alaska would be reflected in the use of variable design techniques, based on local
conditions. Design considerations which affect building performance include
• Continuous and discontinuous permafrost
• Frost heave
• Earthquake intensity
• Landslide potential
• Flooding
• Wildfire
• Winter temperatures
• Heating degree days
• Rainfall intensity and amount
• Snow loads
• Wind loads
Permafrost protection may be obtained by lifting the building about 2 feet
above the ground level for needed cold air passage. Posts, pilings, skids, planks, and blocks
are utilized to lift structures. In some cases, insulation pads of gravel and other materials are
used to protect permafrost. Other methods which prevent permafrost damage include
building in areas with well-drained coarse soils (close to rivers) or on well-drained coarse
south-facing slopes where there is less chance of permafrost occurring. Avoiding permafrost
areas is recommended in areas of discontinuous permafrost.
Earthquake protection is obtained by use of carefully braced walls and piling
foundations. The walls are braced either with diagonal braces, diagonal shiplap, or plywood
used as sheathing or siding. Lateral stability is further obtained by compacting earth around
the footings on the foundation posts. Joints between different size structures built together
should be especially developed for horizontal motion. In general, development sites should
be selected so risks from landslides or other natural geologic hazard are minimized.
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There is generally no protection against flooding other than location outside
of a flood-prone area or the establishment of flood control dams upstream of a development
area. Flooding of the floor level of houses for some weeks every year is considered by many
residents to be the price paid for living close to rivers; however, new housing developments
are generally located in areas not subject to flooding. Floating houses or houses on stilts are
not used because of ice hazards.
Of the many climatic factors which influence building design, cold winter
temperatures are perhaps the most critical consideration in most areas of Alaska.
Minimization of heat loss may require protection of building entrances, insulation of all
exterior surfaces, use of thermal windows (double-paned), and siting so that the greatest
length of the building follows the direction of the prevailing winds.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The air quality impacts related to community development result mainly
from area and line source emissions at an intermediate height near the surface. The pollution
distribution will affect larger areas than recreational development (Section IV.O) because of
the areal extent of the source and the higher effective emission height. Impacts should be
more localized, however, than impacts from stack emissions which generally characterize
emissions from industries associated with natural resource development complexes (Section
IV.P). The air quality in any community is a result of the intensity and spatial distribution
of human activity within the area and the extent to which regional meteorology and
topography enhance or inhibit pollutant dispersion. Regional meteorological characteristics
(wind speed and direction, atmospheric turbulence, mixing layer height, and solar radiation)
and topographical characteristics, including the character of the artificial topography
created by man-made structures, influence the transport and dispersion of pollutant
emissions and the ultimate air quality.
Simulation models have been developed to describe the transport and
dispersion of pollutants. The models use meteorological conditions and pollutant emissions
as input and yield as output estimates of pollutant concentrations. Much of the research,
proposed or in progress, into the relationships between proposed community spatial
structure and air quality centers around such models. The primary problem in using these
models for planning is in the development of a reasonable and complete inventory of
emissions (Roberts, et al, 1975).
Community development involves housing, streets, schools, government
buildings, airports, utilities, commercial and service facilities, and recreation and community
facilities, but communities generally are intimately related to the source of work for people.
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)
This employment source is most often related to natural resource development: oil or
mineral extraction or refining, food processing, fishing, or wood processing. Other centers of
employment include transportation, government, military, education, or the tourist
industry. The particular "industry" that forms the central reason for community
development may also contribute significantly to the pollution emissions.
The estimation of emissions is a function of the fuels used; spatial
distribution of the housing requirements which determine insulation used; environmental
factors which determine the power consumption (such as temperature, hours of darkness,
and type of industrial development); and the planning aims, goals, and regulations for
enforcing energy conservation and pollution control. Important considerations in
community development that would minimize both energy consumption and air quality
impact include the use of centralized heating (perhaps using the waste heat from power
generation), minimizing surface area to minimize heat loss, use of adequate noise and
thermal insulation, and minimizing transportation requirements in winter. Planning choices
based on energy conservation and air quality can make a significant difference, as shown in
the estimated emissions from different housing patterns given in Table IV-XXVI, based on
natural gas use and midlatitude heating requirements. Extrapolated to Alaska conditions,
the savings are even more dramatic.
In spite of the difficulties in g1vmg numencal estimates of emissions, the
major sources of emissions can be identified for community development. Space heating·
represents one of the most widespread sources of emissions since most existing communities
are set up so that each house or building has its own source of heat (wood stove, coal, oil or
gas furnace, or electric heaters, in decreasing order of pollution emissions). The pollutants
emitted include particulates, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen
oxides. The effective height of emission is generally above the rooftops, so that there is
some transport away from the source. For those sources that emit particulates, discoloration
of snow may be important, and sulfur dioxide emissions may be of critical importance in
areas where lichens are prevalent.
Power plants represent one of the largest emission sources in a community.
They provide electricity for lighting, telephones, communications, and often heating. They
burn coal, residual or distillate oil, and occasionally diesel oil and gasoline. Their pollutants
are generally released from a tall stack, which means that the primary impact area is usually
some distance downwind. If the site is well chosen with respect to meteorological variables,
the impact on the community itself may be minimized. Power plants may also put out waste
heat if they require cooling ponds, which often release heat and water vapor to the
atmosphere and river systems.
Solid waste disposal in a community contributes as much as 9. 7 percent of
the total air pollution by mass. The practice of incineration is most commonly used, but
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TABLE IV-XXVI. NEIGHBORHOOD COST ANALYSIS, AIR POLLUTION
Housing Pattern (1000 Units)
A 8 c D
Single-Family Single-Family Townhouse Walk-up
Convention Clustered Clustered Apartment
Pollutants from Residential Natural
Gas Consumption (pounds per day)*
Particulates 14.27 14.27 9.56 7.42
sox 0.48 0.48 0.32 0.25
co 0.32 0.32 0.21 0.16
HC 31.72 31.72 21.24 113.48
NOX 95.16 95.16 63.72 4!3.44
*Assumes 67% of dwelling units use natural gas for heating, water heating, cooking, and clothes drying; 33% use
no natural gas. No pollution effects of electricity use are calculated, as the location of the power plant is
assumed to be external to the neighborhood.
Source: Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974
E
High-Rise
Apartment
6.48
0.22
0.14
14.40
43.20
F
Housing Mix (20%
each A thru E)
10.40
0.35
0.23
23.11
69.34
)
)
)
)
)
)
new sanitary landfill techniques and disposal/recovery technologies have been developed
that reduce the atmospheric emissions. Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulates
are the primary pollutants emitted, but sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides may be
sufficiently plentiful to provide problems to sensitive organisms.
Transportation represents an important source of pollution, particularly in
Alaska. Carbon monoxide and ice fog are two pollutants that are directly related to
transportation sources. Emission rates for cars, trucks, and other vehicles were shown in
Table IV-XIV, and emissions from airplanes were given in Table IV-X. Where meteorological
conditions are favorable, carbon monoxide levels can build up, which currently occurs in
Fairbanks, with fewer cars than in larger cities.
The industrial development that is generally the motivating force for the
community development will itself put out air contaminants. Since these industries may
vary and since the emissions are widely dissimilar, they are only indicated here as a major
problem and are discussed in more detail in the section on natural resource development
complex (Section IV.P).
Construction of the community will result in atmospheric emissions. These
are discussed in the basic engineering actions and in complex actions such as road
construction. The emissions include fugitive dust and gaseous emissions from the equipment
used, and emissions associated with any base camps that are necessary for the workers.
b. Noise
Primary noise sources associated with the described community deveiopment
include short-term construction-related impacts and long-term traffic and aircraft impacts.
Construction noise levels for various types of structures and facilities are shown in Table
IV-XXVII, as measured at 50 feet. Construction noise which occurs within a community
after it is inhabited can create greater impacts due to the increased number of people
exposed.
Traffic noise and noise from aircraft operations represent the most prevalent
long-term sources of intrusion in most small communities. In addition, planning for
placement of other potential noise sources (industrial or commercial facilities) can protect
the community from land use conflicts. Many communities have adopted regulatory
measures governing the intensity of land use, control lim its on sound producing devices, and
sound reduction engineering and architectural design requirements for transportation
facilities and certain other forms of land use.
People generally have little or no knowledge of the possible effects that
various types of installations can have on their environment until the conditions are
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Phase
Ground
Clearing
Excavation
Foundations
Erection
Finishing
* 50 dBA ambient
TABLE IV-XXVII. TYPICAL AVERAGE NOISE LEVELS AT
CONSTRUCTION SITES ASSOCIATED WITH COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT*
Levels in dBA for
Housing Offices, Schools, Recreation Facilities Roads, Airfields,
and Public Works and Service Stations and Sewers
All Minimum All Minimum All Minimum All Minimum
Pertinent Required Pertinent Required Pertinent Required Pertinent Required
Equipment Equipment E:quipment Equipment Equipment Equipment Equipment Equipment
Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present
at Site at Site at Site at Site at Site at Site at Site at Site
83 83 84 84 84 83 84 84
88 75 89 79 89 71 88 78
81 81 78 78 77 77 88 88
81 65 87 75 84 72 79 78
88 72 89 75 89 74 84 84
Source: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, 1971a
.)
0
0
experienced, and then it is often too late. Therefore, it is important that the planning
profession be sufficiently informed on all environmental considerations, so that these are
taken into account prior to development. Land use controls, density controls, public
property acquisition, and building code requirements for construction in undeveloped areas
near highways and airports can be employed as defensive measures against noise intrusion.
Preventive measures, however unpopular, are far less costly and difficult than corrective
actions.
In response to noise problems, the enactment of city noise ordinances
increased 23 percent between 1974 and 1975 (Bragdon, 1976). In Alaska, both Anchorage
and Juneau have enacted legislation setting quantitative noise emission limits. Land use
regulation through the zoning process is the largest single category of noise control. Table
IV-XXVIII shows typical noise limits currently used in such land use regulations.
TABLE IV-XXVIII. TYPICAL COMMUNITY NOISE
LEVELS ESTABLISHED BY ZONING ORDINANCE
Permissible Noise Levels (in dBA)
Land Use Category Day Night
7:00am to 10:00 pm 10:00 pm to 7:00am
Residential 55 40-45
Commercial 60 50-55
Industrial 70 60-70
Source: Bragdon, 1973
I
The noise levels which result from nonstationary sources (transportation)
must be determined by use of such models as discussed in the section on general impacts of
noise (Section II.B). Motor vehicle noise limits for autos and trucks can also be used to
prevent operation of excessively noisy equipment. Such limits already have been established
by the Environmental Protection Agency for motor carriers engaged in interstate commerce
and many states and mun,icipalities have adopted similar limits for motor vehicles. Aircraft
noise levels are governed by the Federal Aviation Administration; however, the composite
noise levels around communities can best be handled by planning and placement of airport
facilities to avoid use conflicts.
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c. Water Resources
Water quality is vulnerable to degradation from the massive construction
effort, the greatest problem being from surface runoff by suspended silts, clays, and organic
materials. Local water bodies would show increases in turbidity, sediment deposition,
biochemical oxygen demand, and other contaminants to varying degrees as a result of
clearing and grubbing, excavation, filling, spoil disposal, and road construction. Water
quality degradation can be expected to continue following construction of the community
and its support facilities, with contaminants from sewage treatment plant discharges, despite
adherence to current Environmental Protection Agency discharge requirements. Long-term
turbidity increases would be expected in surface waters from surface runoff from adjoining
developments and storm sewer discharges. Short-term discharges of toxic or other
deleterious substances such pesticides, heavy metals, fuel, and lubricants will also degrade
present water quality. These substances would have adverse effects on the fishery resources
present in the water bodies, which would also be adversely affected by increased human
activity. (See Aquatic Biology for impacts of community development.) Increased soil
imperviousness from structures and streets has the effect of increasing flood peaks during
storm periods and decreasing low flows between storms.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Initial community development requires varied and extensive engineering
actions, each resulting in specific impacts to the terrestrial ecosystem. These engineering
actions include clearing and grubbing (Section IV.A), excavation (Section IV.B),
construction filling on land (Section IV.C), foundation construction (Section IV.O), road
construction (Section iV.i), and in many cases agriculture (Section IV.M). The impacts of
each of these engineering actions on terrestrial communities have been described under their
respective sections.
Additional impacts of considerable importance on terrestrial communities
are those stemming from high human population concentrations and include atmospheric,
solid waste, and noise pollution. The general effect that these factors have on plants and
animals has been described in Sections 11.0.3, 11.0.5, and 11.0.6. Changes in the quality and
quantity of water (see discussion on stormwater runoff and sewerage, Section IV.N.5.g), soil
(see discussion on erosion and sedimentation, mass wasting, subsidence, and permafrost,
Section IV.N.5. f), and noise (see Table IV-XXVIII) may be expected. Substantial increases
in all of these factors will reduce the total plant and animal species within the community
and in the surrounding area. Increasing human population intensifies the impact upon the
ecological systems which form the landscape. Man/wildlife interaction will increase directly
through hunting and indirectly through competition for habitat and food. Man's interaction
is exemplified by the common brown/grizzly bear/hunter interactions at streams and in
campgrounds, and the moose/human interactions at community fringes. In both cases,
wildlife suffers.
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The introduction of nonnative animals (e.g., rats, mice, dogs, cats) and plant
species (e.g., numerous weeds) frequently results in detrimental effects to native species.
The impacts of some of these have been discussed in Natural Hazards in the Alaska
Environment: Processes and Effects, Chapter VIII (1975), and in this document in Section
11.0.1.
e. Aquatic Biology
The impacts for the basic engineering actions required for site development
have been discussed earlier. The primary additional impacts are due to human use of the
developed area. Depending on the sewage treatment system, various amounts of nutrients
may be contributed to nearby aquatic systems and may affect them, as described in Section
11.1:.6. Paved streets or other surfaced areas (like roads) accumulate pollutants such as
metals, petroleum combustion products, suspended sediment, and coliform bacteria, which
are conducted to water systems in stormwater runoff. These materials may lower
productivity in lakes or streams, as discussed in Sections II.E.2, II.E.6, and II.E.7.
Additional human activity also could result in increases in subsistence, commercial, and
sport fishing, which would require additional harvest limitations to ensure an adequate
escapement for reproduction.
f. Soils
Those impacts described under clearing and grubbing, road construction,
foundation construction, excavation, and drilling for water also apply to community
development. Additional impacts are as follows.
(1) Erosion and Sedimentation -Community development, particularly
during construction phases, has been documented to be highly susceptible to erosion and
subsequent sedimentation. The amount of sediment and erosion resulting is greater than
that resulting from any of the basic engineering actions, or the sum of the separate actions.
Quantities and effects of this increased erosion and sediment are discussed more fully in
Section IV. N. 5. g, Interactions.
(2) Mass Wasting -Mass wasting hazards have been identified under the
basic engineering actions. In addition, community development on unstable slopes can add
structural weight to the slope, which can further increase mass wasting potential. Surface
runoff from areas where development occurs tends to be moved to adjacent areas due to
imperviousness of the surface. The additional volumes of water in adjacent areas may be a
factor in initiating mass wasting.
(3) Subsidence -Structures placed on unsuitable soils, particularly high
bulk organic soils, will lead to subsidence. Structures placed on fills over such soils can also
4-165
initiate or aggravate subsidence. Soils having shrink/swell properties related to temperature
or moisture contract and expand periodically, and are apt to cause structural damage.
Structures placed on soils susceptible to frost heave contract and expand seasonally and can
also cause structural damage. Typical mitigating measures include replacement of
frost-sensitive soil, chemical treatment of soil, placing of structures on pilings, or avoiding
such soils by siting on well-drained coarse soils on southern exposures. Subsidence in
permafrost areas is discussed in the following paragraph.
(4) Permafrost -Community development in areas of permafrost,
particularly in fine-grained ice-rich soils, will result in subsidence. Engineering procedures
such as insulating with gravel or placing structures on pillars can mitigate the effects and the
occurrence of subsidence, but it will be very difficult for the residents of a 200-unit
community to not disturb the vegetation of areas adjacent to the site; consequently,
subsidence and erosion in these areas may occur. The degree of subsidence and erosion will
depend on the care the individuals of the community display in not disturbing the thermal
equilibrium of the area, and on the site-specific types of soils, depth to permafrost, and
slopes in the vicinity.
(5) Covering of Soil with Impervious Material -Community development
will result in covering of from 50 to 75 percent of the soils of the site with impervious
material, essentially removing these soiis from active participation in the area's ecosystem.
The soils so covered are no longer biologically productive.
g. Interactions
Those interaction impacts described for all the basic engineering actions,
including road building, are applicable to community development. Impacts specific to
community development are discussed below.
(1) Sedimentation -Although sediment transfer has been discussed earlier
for the basic engineering actions, the amount of sediment generated in community
development is greater than any single action or the sum of the separate actions. Typical
quantities of sediment transferred from the site of construction during development years
were reported by the Real Estate Research Corporation ( 1972) and are shown in Table
IV-XXIX. The amount of erosion (sediment transfer) depends on runoff, soil type, slope,
mitigating measures taken during the construction period, and the type of development.
However, the table provides an indication of sediment quantities characteristic of various
residential units. Erosion and subsequent sediment transfer may cause reduction of
spawning habitat, increased oxygen demand, alteration in benthic community, increased
turbidity, increased nutrients in aquatic environments, and decreased soil resources and
productivity in terrestrial environments.
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0
TABLE IV-XXIX. ESTIMATED SEDIMENT
GENERATION FROM DIFFERING HOUSING PATTERNS*
Single-family, conventional
Single-family, clustered
Townhouse, clustered
\AJal k-up apartments
High-rise apartments
Housing mix (20 percent each of above}
* Extrapolated from data based on 1000 units. Real Estate
Research Corporation, 1974, p. 72.
Annual Average Volume During
Development Period (tons/year}
119.5
85.34
56.4
40.8
23.2
65.1
(2} Stormwater Runoff -Community development may impose various
amounts of impervious surface on the area developed. These impervious surfaces can reduce
the infiltration capacity of the developed area and result in increased discharge of
stormwater from the site. In addition, the water quality makeup of the stormwater runoff
differs markedly from that of the site prior to development. Typically, stormwater runoff
has much higher concentrations of biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand,
nitrogen compounds, phosphorous compounds, suspended sediments, and fecal coliform
bacteria, as indicated in Table IV-XXX. One should note these are "average" concentrations
that can vary markedly, depending on precipitation and other factors. Table IV-XXXI
presents characteristic volumes of runoff in liters per year from five different development
types, given 40 inches of precipitation. Stormwater discharge will vary considerably,
depending on porosity of the soil, slope, depth to impervious layer, mitigating measures, and
degree of soil saturation.
The constituents identified as characteristic of stormwater runoff can
have deleterious effects on aquatic systems. The biological and chemical oxygen demands
can deplete dissolved oxygen in the receiving waters to an undesirable level. Nutrients
4-167
TABLE IV-XXX. TYPICAL CONSTITUENTS
CHARACTERISTIC OF STORMWATER RUNOFF IN URBAN AREAS
Constituents
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorous (P)
Suspended sediment (SS)
Fecal coliform bacteria ( FCB)
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1970
Quantity
0.0233 gram per liter
0.0630 gram per liter
0.0027 gram per liter
0.0008 gram per liter
1.0000 gram per liter
1216.0 number of bacteria per liter
TABLE IV-XXXI. STORMWATER RUNOFF VOLUME
FROM VARIOUS TYPES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT*
Single-family, conventional
Single-family, clustered
Townhouse, clustered
Walk-up apartment
High-rise apartment
Housing mix (20 percent each of above)
* Extrapolated from data presented for 1000 units.
Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974, p. 72.
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Total Volume, Liters/Year
163,797,000
121,305,000
91,836,000
67,849,000
34,267,000
95,262,000
)
,
(nitrogen and phosphorous) can change the trophic structure and community composition
of the receiving waters, which may or may not be desirable. Fecal coliform bacteria are an
index to fecal contamination and their presence in receiving waters can be an indication of
pathogens, which make the waters unusable as a water supply and unsafe for contact use
(swimming).
Although stormwater runoff volume does increase in developed areas,
the temporal pattern of discharge may be of more concern. Two aspects in the alteration of
the discharge characteristics are presented in Figures 4-8 and 4-9. Figure 4-8 indicates the
shorter lag time and the higher peaks of stream flow from an urbanized land surface
condition than from a more pristine situation. Stream flooding and scouring are likely
impacts of this pattern change.
Another change in the stream flow patterns in urban watersheds is
illustrated by Figure 4-9. As can be seen, the curves associated with higher amounts of
impervious surface (urbanized condition) are considerably steeper than the curve in the
unurbanized area, indicating higher frequency of high flows and a greater variability of
discharge. Also, the previously frequent low flows are decreased in number in an urbanized
situation because low flows are not sustained by groundwater discharge as in an unurbanized
basin.
These changes in temporal patterns can cause flooding, instability of
the streambed due to scouring and bank erosion, loss of suitable spawning habitat, and the
possibility of seasonal loss of stream habitat by lower flows. In addition, higher
temperatures with deleterious consequences on the biota of the aquatic systems can result
from reduced flows.
(3) Sewerage -People generate an estimated 100 gallons (378.5 liters) of
sewerage per person per day (Seelye, 1968). The effluent is comprised of 99.9 percent water
and 0.02 to 0.04 percent solids. Of the solids, 40 to 50 percent are proteins, 40 to 50
percent are carbohydrates, and 5 to 10 percent are fats. This sewerage can be deposited
untreated at a local convenient environment (e.g., septic tanks, and raw effluent into
receiving waters), or the sewerage can be collected and receive some degree of treatment
prior to introduction into local environments. The effluent releases nutrients, toxicants, and
unstable organic and inorganic materials to local environments. The concentration of
pollutants depends on treatment as indicated by Table IV-XXXII. Even with tertiary
treatment, considerable amounts of these constituents remain as indicated in Table
IV-XXX Ill and can have deleterious effects on receiving waters. The effects of sewerage vary
according to disposal method. Three modes of disposal are discussed below, together with
the associated impacts.
4-169
c z
0
C.J w
(I)
a: w
Q.
1-w w u.
(I) C.J
w iii 5 ::l 2: C.J
z 2:
... r a
...I a:
<( <(
u. J: z C.J
-(I) <( -a: c
c z
0
C.J w
(I)
a: w
Q.
1-w w u.
(I)~ w a!
J: ::l ~ C.J z z -. u.i
...I Cl
...I a:
<( <(
u. J: z C.J
-(I) <( -a: c
BEFORE URBANIZATION
.LAG TIME
-----HYDROGRAPH
OF STREAM FLOW
-
CENTER OF MASS OF·
---~----RUNOFF AND OF
---------~~-----RAINFALL
STREAM FLOW INCREASED
AFTER URBANIZATION
~--LAG TIME.REDUCED
AFTER URBANIZATION
RAINFALL
TIME, IN HOURS
• AFTER URBANIZATION
TIME, IN HOURS
Source: Leopold, 1972
Figure 4-8. Hypothetical Unit Hydrographs Relating Stream Runoff to Rainfall
4-170
0
AVERAGE NUMBER OF FLOWS IN A 10-YEAR PERIOD
20 10 5 2 1
300
PERCENTAGE IMPERVIOUS
250
0
2 200 0 / (.J
w en ~ a: w Clot;)/ Q.
1-w w 150 u..
(.J
co
:::>
(.J
2
~<;_Q w
C!l 100 ~~~\ a: 'U~'U~ <(
:I:
(.J en
0
0
0.2 0.5 1.0 2 2.3 5 10
RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS
Source: Leopold, 1972
Figure 4-9. Flood-Frequency Curves Characteristic of a
One-Square-Mile Basin in Various States of Ur-banization
4-171
TABLE IV-XXXII. PURIFICATION OF
RAW SEWAGE BY TREATMENT PROCESSES
Approximate Percentage of Reduction
Process
Plain sedimentation
Septic tank
Chemical precipitation
Sedimentation +contact beds
Sedimentatio~ +trickling filters (low-rate)
Sedimentation +activated sludge
Sedimentation +intermittent slow sand filters
Oxidation ponds
* Even higher reductions are sometimes attained.
** BOD after filtration.
Five-Day
BOD
30-40
25-65
60-75
50-75
80-90*
85-95*
90-95*
75-95**
***Suspended solids may be high because of presence of algae.
Source: Klein, 1966
Suspended Bacteria
Solids
40-75 25-76
40-75 40-75
70-90 40-80
70-80 50-80
80-90* 90-95
85-95* 90-98
85-95* 95-98
*** >99.9
TABLE IV-XXXIII. CONSTITUENTQUANTITIES
FROM SEWERAGE EFFLUENT WITH TERTIARY TREATMENT,
LIME CLARIFICATION, AND MULTIMEDIA FILTRATION
Constituent
Biochemical oxygen demand {BOD)
Chemical oxygen demand {COD}
Nitrogen {N}
Phosphorous {P}
Suspended sediment (SS}
Fecal coliform bacteria {FCB)
Source: Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974
4-172
Quantity
0.005 gram per liter
0.042 gram per liter
0.017 gram per liter
0.001 gram per liter
0.002 gram per liter
1 00% removal
)
(a) Septic Tanks -Soils have an intrinsic suitability for the harboring
of septic tanks. Of particular significance is the porosity of the soil, slope, depth to
groundwater, depth to bedrock or the impervious layer, and annual soil freeze. Even suitable
soils have a saturation point and can only absorb a limited density of septic tanks. Septic
tank densities beyond this level will result in a transfer of their constituents to surrounding
environments, particularly surface waters and groundwater. Small lakes, wetlands, and areas
with high groundwater table are particularly prone to contamination. Impact of such
contamination may be the introduction of pathogens into a water supply, unpleasant odors
in the local environment, and an increase in nutrient transfer to adjacent waters, possibly
resulting in eutrophication and changes in trophic structure and community composition.
(b) Raw Sewerage -The effects of releasing raw sewerage to receiving
waters depend on a number of factors reflected in the assimilative capacity of the receiving
waters and the amount of sewerage released. Small shallow lakes are least able to receive
waste material without drastic changes in water quality and structure of the biotic
community. Large deep rivers and marine areas with strong tidal influence are more able to
receive effluent without drastic undesirable changes in their character. Ice cover reduces the
assimilative capacity of the receiving waters by interfering with atmospheric gaseous
exchange. Consequently, anaerobic conditions can result.
The effects of releasing BOD and COD under surface ice
conditions would be more severe and be felt further downriver than in similar receiving ·
waters without surface ice. The length of the "septic zone" would be seasonally increased.
Fecal constituents of raw sewerage can introduce pathogens into receiving waters. Sewerage
contamination of water supply has led to epidemics in cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. The
occurrence of fecal contamination of water is measured by the presence of Escherichia coii,
a harm less coliform bacteria which is easily cultured and used as an indicator.
(c) Treated Effluent -The effects of treated effluent are similar to
those identified for raw sewerage, only less severe. Table IV-XXXII indicated to what degree
different treatment processes remove waste. In addition, treatment usually removes
pathogens from the effluent.
{4) Solid Waste -An estimated 2555 pounds per person of solid waste is
generated annually (Fiawn, et al, 1972). The composition of this material is shown in Figure
4-10. If one assumes 3.5 persons per housing unit, the amount generated for 200 units is
nearly 900 tons per annum. Although technology is available for energy recovery from solid
waste and for material recycling, the relatively small amounts generated by a 200-unit
development would not support the establishment of an energy recovery system or recycling
system. Given current costs and technology, the most probable solid waste disposal system
would be sanitary landfill.
4-173
PERCENT BY WEIGHT
!!! I I
1-C cno ~~ GARBAGE. FATS
•W :i!:..J
Cal u-GLASS AND zlii
O:=J METALS CERAMICS ASHES
Zal
RAGS,
HOUSE
MATE-STREET DIRT,
LEAVES, GRASS, BRUSH, WOOD RIALS REFUSE ETC.
J:
~
Ill
Ill PAPER :=l
" (
\
Source: McHale, 1969
Figure 4-10. Average Composition of Municipal Refuse
4-174
)
)
)
)
)
)
The environmental impacts of a sanitary landfill depend on the
hydrology, geology, and soils of the site; composition of the disposal material; and
operation of the fill. A satisfactory site would have the following conditions:
• The site should be well above water table or zone of saturation.
• The permeability of the soil should be low enough to retard
movement of contaminants such that contaminants produced
would be unable to reach any groundwater reservoir, or would be
reduced to an acceptable level prior to entering such a reservoir.
• The site should be positioned such that groundwater flow and
leachate from the site are made acceptable prior to entering
surface water bodies.
• The site should be selected in areas of geologic stability where
fissures or fractures do not occur which may allow free
accessibility of contaminants to groundwater reservoirs.
In most cases, sanitary landfills remain unstable in that they are subject to future subsidence
and further decomposition. Therefore, they are generally unsuitable as sites for structures.
Cold temperatures characteristic of Alaska lim it decomposition rates of
the solid waste. Consequently leachate contaminants can be generated for essential periods
of time and instability of the fill material may prevail indefinitely. Another problem
peculiar to Alaska is Lhe attraction of biack bears and the more dangerous biOwn/giizzly
bears to fill sites, which may endanger local inhabitants. Removal of nuisance bears or
bearproofing disposal sites may be necessary. In addition, a sanitary landfill, if operated
improperly, can attract and harbor rodents and insects which are potential reservoirs for
disease vectors.
Sanitary landfill over permafrost areas could have particularly severe
consequences. Removal of vegetation and the surface organic layer and replacement by
compacted waste material will probably alter the heat budget of the site and result in an
increase in the depth of the active layer and consequent subsidence. In turn, subsidence may
be followed by the forming of a shallow anaerobic water body at the site.
(5) Synergistic Effects of Development -Environmental impacts tend to
be synergistically interdependent. Frequently, the aggregate of several impacts is more
severe than the sum of each impact considered separately. For example, a decrease in the pH
of water increases the solubility of heavy metal salts in water. If acidic water interacts with
soils containing heavy metal salts, the result is an increase in the heavy metals in the aquatic
4-175
system. Together the two factors of low pH and heavy metal ions can establish conditions
more deleterious to biotic systems than each effect considered separately. This synergism is
well documented in regards to water chemistry and toxicity, and is believed to apply to
environmental impacts in general.
In another example, increased hunting pressure near human population
centers may not result in reduction of local wildlife populations. However, increased
hunting pressure, in conjunction with harrassment by pets, indiscriminate use of off-road
vehicles, and increased mortalities due to road kills, may establish conditions which make an
area unable to support a particular wildlife species. The total synergistic effect of replacing a
predominantly natural system with human-oriented development may be impossible to
project. However, such changes tend to be long-term in duration and are generally
irreversible in nature.
4-176
("
\(_
(
(
'
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON/KOYUKUK
F. YUKON/
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
G. UPPER KUSKOKWIM
H. COOK INLET
L KOOIAK/SHEliKOF
"'·
M.GULF OF ALASKA CU
cu
SM 2
SECTION II, PAGES2·1 TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
' 2.a,c,d
3,4.5,6
3,4,5,6
3,4,5.6
3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
,.
3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
1,3,4,6,6
1,3,4,5,6
3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
2.b,d
3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
1.3,4,5,6
1.2,3,4,5,6
3,4,5,6
..
1,2,3,4,5
1,2,3,4,5
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6 1.b
1.2.3.4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
1,2,3,4,5,6
IMPACT ANALYSIS, COMMUNITY DEVELOPM~NT
i
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2·36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
MODERATE
1.c:,d
3.•.b.c:,d,e,f
1.c,d
3.i,b,c,d,e,f
l.c,d
3.a.b.c,d,e,f
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1.c:,d
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1.c,d
3.b.c.d.e,f
1.c,d
3.b.c,d,e,f
1.c,d
3.b,c:,d,e,f
1.c,d
3.b,c,d,e,f
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3.b,c,d,e,f
1.c,d
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3.b,c.d,e,f
1.c,d
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1.c,d
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1.c,d
3.b,c,d,e,f
1.c,d
3-b,c,d,e,f
1.c,d
3-b,c,d,e,f
'·"" 3.b,c:,d,e,f
1.c,d
3.b,c,d,e,f
,....,
3.b,c,d,e,f
WATER RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2·36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
1.2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,6.6,7
1.2,3,5,6,7
1.2.3.5.6.7
1.2.3.5.6.7
1.2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1.2.3.5.6,7
1.2,3,5,6,7
1.2,3,5,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1.2.3.5.6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
1.2.3.5,6,7
1,2.3.5.6,7
1,2,3,6,6,7
1,2,3,5,6,7
..
..
4,8
4,6 ..
.. .. .. ..
4,8
•• 8
..
4,8
4,8 ..
4,8
1.2,3,5,6,7 4.8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4.8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4.8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4,8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4,8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4.8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4,8
1.2.3.4
5,6,7.8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4,8
1.2.3.4
5,6,7,8
1,2,3,4
5,6,7.8
1,2,3,5,6,7 4.8
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-46 TO 2-60
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
1.a,b,c:2..-e, 5,7 3,4
j,k;6
1.b,c.;Z..., 3.4
j,k;5;6;7
t,b,c;Z...... 3.4
Lk:5:6:7
1.bA:~. 3,4
j.k;5;6;7
t.b,c;2.a-e,. 3,4
j.k;5;6;7
1.a,b,c;~. 5,7 3,4
j,k;6
1.b,c;~. 3,4
i.k;5;6;7
1.b,c:;2 ....
i.k:5;6;7
1.a,b,c;2_.., 6,7 3,4
i.k;6
t.b,c;:z....e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c:;2.....e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
i.k;5;6;7
1.a,b.c;2.il-<t, 5,7
j,k;6
1.b,c;2_.., 3,4
i.k:5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-it, 3,4
j,k;5;7
1.b,_c:2 .... 3.4
i.k;6;6:7
1.b,c;2.H, 3,4
j.k;5;6;7
1.a,b,c;2 .... 5,7
j,k;6
1.b.c;2.H, 3,4
j,k;6;6;7
1.b,c:;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
Lk:5:6:7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
Lk;S;6;7
1.b.c;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;7
1.a,b,c;2.a-e, 5,7 3,4
j,k;6
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
j.k;5;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
l.k;5;6:7
1.b,c;2..a-e, 3,4
f,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2..a-e, 3,4
j,k;5;6;7
1.b,c;2.a-e, 3,4
.Lk;5;6;7
A0uAT1CBIOLOGY
SECTIO~II,PAGES 2-60 T02-66
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE
1,2,5,6,7 ,.
2,5,6,7 ,.
1,2,5,6
3.o
1.2.5.6
3.o
1.2.5.6
2,5,6 ...
2,5.6 ...
2,5..6,7
3.o
,.
6 ...
6
1,2,5,6 ...
1.2,5,6 ..
1,2,5,6 ..
1,2.5.6 ,.
1.2,5.6
1.2.5.6
1,2,5,6
1,2,5.6
2
'•
2
'•
•. 7
•• 7
5,7
5,6,7
1,2,5,7
1,2,5.7
,.
5,6,7
1,2,5,6 1 3.a
1,2,5,6
7
,.
7
..
6,7 ..
5,6,7
5,7
1,5,7
5,7
5,7
1,4,7
•• 7
4,5,6,7
4,5,6,7
1,4,6
1,4,5,6,7
..
4,6
4,5 ..
1,4,6
'·'
,.
4,6
•• 6 ..
4,6
4,6
4,5,6
SOIL RESOURCES
SECTION II, PAGES 2-66 TO 2·70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2,3,5,7,8
2,3,5,7,8
2.3,5.7.8
2,3,4,7.8
2,3,4,7,8
5,7,8
2,3,4,8
2,3,7
2,3.5,7.9
2,3.4,7
2,3,4,7
2,3,4,7
2,3,4,7
5,7.8
2,3,4,7,8
2,3,4,7,8
2,3,5.9
2,3,4,7
2,3,5,9
2.3.9
"'·'
2,3,5,9
4,8
•• 8
2,3,5,9
..
2>
2,3,4.8
2>
2,3,4.8
2,3,4.8
SECTION II, PAGES 2·71 TO 2-76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
4.a;6.b
4.a;6.b
2•
6.>
2•
4•
3
6>
3
6.>
' 4•
3 ,.
' 4•
2•
3:S.a,c
2.il;3
4.a;5.a,c
..
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2•
'
2.a;3
5-ii,C
2.a;3
4.a;5.a,c
2.a;3
4.a:5.c
2.a;3
4..a;5.a.c:
2..a;3
4.a;5.a.c:
2-il;3
4.a;5.a,c
2..a;3
4.a;5..a.c
2.a:3
4.a;6.a,c
2.8;3
4.a;5.a,c:
5.a,c
5.a,c
S.a,c
4-177
)
)
0. RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Introduction
Recreational facilities are constructed to provide views of outstanding natural
attractions; an opportunity for relaxed appreciation of nature; food, shelter, or other
services to visitors; and a focal point for the pursuit of such recreational activities as
hunting, fishing, hiking, canoeing, camping, etc. Each facility can be expected to be
provided access by aircraft, passenger boat, roadways, or a combination of each.
The areas served by these recreational facilities are usually selected on the basis of
their environmental sensitivity, since each may be utilized for intensive recreation,
low-density recreation, or wilderness. Areas intended for intensive recreation include access
facilities, campgrounds, interpretive centers, picnic grounds, lodges, boating facilities, and
other areas which generate high activity or participation ieveis. Low-density recreation areas
are often buffers to the wilderness areas and are intended for lower participation levels and
recreation pursuits of a passive nature. Opportunities often provided within this
classification are hiking and cross-country skiing, isolated fishing, occasional camping,
hike-in camping, and nature study. Wilderness areas are characterized by limited access and a
lack of development in order to maintain natural settings and habitats.
Alaska's tourism is increasing at a rate of 15 percent annually and is one of the·
state's three major industries. The demand for recreational facilities, though not in direct
proportion to tourism, can also be expected to increase. It can also be expected that tourism
will be encouraged by private and public interests to support recreational use of areas and
counteract political and economic interests hostile to restricted land use.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
In addition to labor and equipment, access and water supply are the primary
requirements for the construction of recreational facilities, including lodges, motels, hotels,
offices, warehouses, maintenance facilities, employee housing, campgrounds, picnic areas,
shelters, and interpretive centers. Resources for site development, access, and water supply
are described in discussions on clearing and grubbing, excavation, construction filling on
land, foundation and road construction, and drilling for water. Resource requirements for
airports are similar to those for road construction, and access by passenger boats may
require resources described under the dredging discussion.
3. Permits and Regulations
Coordination with state and federal agencies is required for the construction of a
new recreation facility. The Bureau of Land Management may require permits for
4-179
rights-of-way for road construction, airstrips, and communication sites. Perm its are also
required from the Environmental Protection Agency for disposal of solid and sanitary
wastes. Air and water quality permits are required from the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation. Plan approval or permits may be required from, or at least
given consideration by, the Alaska Departments of Highways, Public Works, Education,
Economic Development, Health and Social Services, Natural Resources, and Commerce and,
if appropriate, federal agencies such as the Corps of Engineers, Soil Conservation Service,
Public Health Service, and Bureau of Indian Affairs.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
Description of actions and equipment used are addressed in earlier discussions on
clearing and grubbing, excavation, construction filling on land, foundation construction,
dredging, drilling for water, and road construction. The construction of an airport is a
modification of roadway construction techniques.
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The air quality impacts associated with recreational development are for the
most part local impacts. Increases in pollution concentrations are generally limited to the
immediate areas around camping areas or lodges, or from various vehicles used in the pursuit
of recreation. The impacts depend on the intensity of development and the seasonal
distribution of the use of the areas. In most cases, recreational development will take place
in areas that have extremely clean air. Tota! air quality impacts wi!! have to be assessed
based on the more stringent regulations provided to prevent significant deterioration of
these areas.
The construction of recreational facilities may involve many of the basic
engineering actions, particularly clearing and grubbing, and some more complex actions such
as road building. All of these activities will result in fugitive dust emissions and gaseous
emissions from vehicles used and pollution from open burning. An important source of
emissions is the gaseous and particulate emissions from cars, trucks, all-terrain vehicles,
snowmobiles, aircraft, and motorboats. These emissions are discussed in other sections of
this report, but are most important because of the dust generated and the carbon monoxide
and lead emitted into the atmosphere.
In general, most of the recreational use will be concentrated in the summer
months when dispersion conditions are usually good but evaporation occurs rapidly, which
can make dust a problem. The emission contributions of motorbikes and snowmobiles are
becoming an increasing problem as people come to recreation centers and then use
4-180
(
(
(
(
'
)
motorized transport to carry them around scenic areas. In most cases, the pollutants are
quickly dispersed and concentrations do not build up. During the winter, wind speeds in
sheltered valleys and thick forests are significantly lower, dispersion times are long, and
pollution may not disperse adequately. The only potential problem seems to be when
persons using motorized transport use the same trails as persons who are hiking, skiing,
backpacking, etc. Since these persons are often carrying packs and doing moderately
strenuous exercise, the exposure to carbon monoxide can be a potential health problem at
concentrations significantly less than the ambient standards.
Burning fuel for heat and cooking is another important source of emissions.
Gampfires and-fireplaces-generate-pollutants similar to open-burning, as discussed-under-
clearing and grubbing (Section IV.A), but in much smaller quantities. Smoke from campfires
and chimneys of lodges or cabins is often seen hanging in the air below the treetops in the
early morning before warming by the sun breaks up the nocturnal temperature inversions.
The quantity of pollutants emitted depends on the characteristics of the fuel (wood)
burned. For example, green or moist wood gives out more smoke (particulates) and carbon
monoxide because of the lower efficiency of combustion. Campers and trailers, which are
becoming popular, use heaters and generators that burn kerosene, white gas, or gasoline and
so may result in emissions more similar to the idling emissions of cars (13 to 16 grams of
carbon monoxide perm inute), depending on the size of the generator and the length of time
it is used.
At more intensely developed areas, power generation is required to provide
electricity, heat, or power for facilities such as ski tows, lighting, hot water, heat for cabins,
staff housing, lodges, visitor centers, etc. There will be atmospheric pollutants emitted from
such a faciiity. Waste disposai presents an ever-increasing probiem, particuiariy as
recreational use of areas increases. Before passage of recent laws and regulations, litter even
from recreational uses was often encountered in wilderness areas. Current practice
emphasizes packing out waste, burning in campfires, or burying the nonburnable materials.
Where burning of waste is carried out, pollutants are emitted.
The most serious air pollution problem which may increase due to
recreational development and use is the potential for man-caused wildfires. For this reason,
the analysis of impacts from this type of development may be determined in part from
information regarding climatic conditions and fire hazard potential. Emission factors for
open burning are summarized in Table IV-XX Ill. Fire hazard potential is discussed in more
detail in Natural Hazards in the Alaska Environment: Processes and Effects (John Graham
Company/Boeing Computer Services, Inc., 1975).
b. Noise
Noise levels associated with recreation facilities vary widely, depending on
the intensity of the developed areas and the purpose to be served by the facility.
4-181
Low-density recreation areas generally exhibit a degree of solitude, free from intrusion and
disruption, while high-density recreation areas often attract noise-producing activities and
vehicles. The ambient noise environment of the area, expected recreational use of the area,
and resulting noise levels associated with such uses must be considered in planning for
recreation site development.
The typical ambient noise levels associated with various outdoor settings for
use as recreation sites are shown in Table IV-XXXIV. Generally, the quieter the background
level against which an intrusive noise is projected, the greater the distance over which the
noise can be heard. Some typical activities associated with recreation areas and the average
noise levels expected are shown in Table IV-XXXV.
Wilderness is legally defined, in part, as providing "outstanding opportunities
for solitude" (U.S. Congress, 1964). A number of studies on wilderness use and users have
demonstrated the importance of solitude (minimal contact bet'vAJeen camping parties} as part
of the wilderness experience. In a survey of 500 visitors to four wilderness areas, Stankey
(1973) reported that "most visitors consider low intensities of use, involving only few
encounters, as an important dimension of the wilderness experience." Hendee, et al (1968),
Lucas (1973), and Burch and Wenger (1967) all found that a strong preference for solitude
was expressed by ''wilderness purists," in contrast to other park users.
High-intensity recreation areas require facilities which tend to encourage ·
noisy activity such as boating and roadways or trails for motor vehicles. Recreation vehicles
include pleasure boats, snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, and motorcycles. There has been a
remarkable growth in the number of these vehicles in the last 20 years. The noise output of
leisure vehicles, although dependent on speed, is primarily a function of the way they are
operated. Though many off-road vehicles are capable of speeds of 80 to 100 miles per hour,
they are often operated in the lower gears at medium to high engine output and near their
maximum noise output. The levels of noise for recreation vehicles, as shown in Table
IV-XXXV, are extremely high and equipment operators exposed to such high levels over
time could suffer temporary or permanent hearing loss.
Few definitive studies have been conducted regarding the effects of
intermittent high noise on wildlife. During environmentally stressful periods (e.g., molting,
wintering, nesting), noise generated by off-road vehicles could be extremely disruptive and
cause increased mortality and decreased reproduction. By contrast, in areas having a
relatively continuous noise source (e.g., pumping stations, highways) wildlife may become
accustomed to the disturbance and would not be as seriously affected. However, sporadic
use of off-road vehicles would be considered disruptive, and most species would not become
accustomed to such disturbance.
4-182
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TABLE IV-XXXIV. TYPICAL AMBIENT NOISE
LEVELS OF VARIOUS POTENTIAL RECREATION SITES
Setting
Meadow
Woods
Lake and woods
Meadow with barrier
Stream and woods
Woods with barrier
Source: Dailey and Redman, 1975
Noise Level (in dBA}
10
20
20
10
30
20
TABLE IV-XXXV. NOISE LEVELS OF
TYPICAL RECREATION ACTIVITIES
Noise Source
Traiibike motor
Safety whistle
Gunshot (30.06 rifle}
Chopping wood
Pounding tent stakes
Conversation (four people}
Singing (four people}
Outboard motor, 6 to 10 horsepower
Outboard motor, 10 to 50 horsepower
Outboard motor, 50+ horsepower
Snowmobiles (current production}
Snowmobiles (unmuffled}
Dune buggies and off-road vehicles
Sources: Dailey and Redman, 1975; Wyle, 1971
Noise Level at 50 Feet
(in dBA}
74
76
136 (dBC}
64
66
48
60
70
78
80-100
77-86
90-95
96
4-183
c. Water Resources
The chemical characteristics of surface waters for recreational use vary with
location and utilization of the site. Low-density recreational facilities can be expected to
increase the levels of coliform bacteria, as discussed in Section II. C. 7, and the
concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen in the vicinity, as discussed in Section II.C.6.
These effects can result from effluent of the common pit toilet leaching into surface waters
near campsites. Shoreline activities at the sites, such as swimming, washing dishes, cleaning
fish, boat launching, and seaplane use, are other probable causes.
In more intensive use areas, visitors can be expected to contribute to the
natural nutrient budget of surface waters by addition of sanitary wastes, outboard motor
wastes, detergents, and solid wastes. In addition, heavy campsite use may accelerate soil
erosion through deterioration of vegetation and compaction {discussed in Section II.C.1)
and can result in an increase in both nutrient contributions and suspended sediment. The
effects created by the construction of recreational facilities, such as lodges, offices,
warehouses, staff and maintenance facilities, providing water supply and access are discussed
in earlier sections of the report and include clearing and grubbing, excavation, construction
filling on land, foundation construction, drilling for water, and road construction.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Short-and long-range influences on the terrestrial environment result from
recreational development. Clearing and grubbing, excavation, and road construction result in
immediate short-range influences. These detrimental effects on terrestrial communities have
been described in Sections IV.A, IV.B, and IV.I. Construction of recreational facilities,
employee housing, campgrounds, picnic areas, shelters, interpretive centers, and access
facilities {including airports and docks) will remove or alter vegetative communities and
thereby influence the distribution and abundance of many wildlife species. Animals that
have the ability to emigrate will leave the area, at least during actual construction. Small
mammals, amphibians, and reptiles that are not mobile will succumb.
The long-range effects of recreational development are among the most
serious with respect to adverse impacts on plant and animal communities. Intensive use areas
will be sources of noise, air, solid waste, and some pesticide pollution. The effects of these
influences on terrestrial organisms are discussed in Sections 11.0.6, 11.0.3, 11.0.5, and 11.0.4,
respectively.
Human/wildlife interactions will increase. In fact, many recreation areas are
the focal locations from which hunting activities take place. Game species composition and
numbers will therefore vary with distance from the recreational site. Likewise, in those
recreational areas where hunting is prohibited, a certain animal species may occur in higher
4-184
t
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concentrations (e.g., bear, rodents) because of the ready availability of food. Feeding by
humans and indirect supplements from discarded food and other wastes result in wildlife
populations that are pests and have to be destroyed. Clearly, it is the type of recreational
facility, and its location, usage, and upkeep, that will determine the long-range impacts of
the facility on plants and wildlife.
e. Aquatic Biology
Impacts of recreational development on aquatic life will vary, depending on
the intensity of development. Wilderness areas are the least developed for recreational
activities and impacts are minimal. Some nutrients from human waste would be contributed
to local water systems and in heavily used areas could result in some short-term impacts, as
described in Section II.E.6. As the intensity of development increases, erosion from
campsites and parking areas would be expected to introduce impacts associated with silt and
turbidity, as discussed in Section ii.E.1. in areas of heaviest use, increased fishing pressure
could impact fish populations, as discussed in Section II.E.7, and the effects of nutrient
input to water systems (Section li.E.6) would increase. Insecticides and herbicides used to
control pest species could affect aquatic species, as described in Section li.E.2.
f. Soils
Those impacts previously identified as resulting from clearing and grubbing,·
foundation construction, and possibly road construction are applicable to recreational
development. In addition, recreational developments can concentrate people in areas where
previous use was extremely light. Heavy use in these remote areas can result in destruction
of fragile vegetation through trampling. Trail systems, if ill designed, can channel surface
water and cause gully erosion. Poorly drained steep slopes, areas of permafrost, and soils in
alpine environments tend to be particularly sensitive. Excessive use of an area destroys
vegetation, compacts soil, and frequently leads to erosion and further habitat destruction.
This damage is especially noticable in areas that receive heavy use from all-terrain vehicles.
Similar impacts may occur in fragile wilderness areas (e.g., alpine meadows) that receive
heavy horse and backpacking use. Destruction of plant communities and subsequent erosion
and deterioration of sites are again the result.
g. Interactions
Recreational development imposes impacts identified previously under
clearing and grubbing, excavation, foundation construction, and road construction (Sections
IV.A, IV.D, and IV.I). Some of the impacts identified under community development
(Section IV.N) may also be applicable to recreational development. However, these impacts
are expected to be less severe. Recreational developments, by their nature, may increase use
in areas previously lightly used, thereby increasing wildlife/people encounters. The effect of
4-185
human activity on wildlife is a function of both species and season; however, the animals
will have to behaviorly adjust or emigrate from the area. Moose, for example, can adapt to
the presence of humans, whereas bear (black and brown/grizzly) can be aggressive (Erickson,
1965).
4-186
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REGIO~S
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
8. NORTHWEST
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IMPACT ANALYSIS, RECREATIONAL DEVELO~MENT
I
AIR QUALITY
SECTION II, PAGES2-t TO 2·20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGES 2·20 TO 2-36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
MODERATE SEVERE MODERATE LOW
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REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
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TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
S£CTION II, PAG£S 2-46 TO 2~
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
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4-187
P. NATURAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT COMPLEX
1. Introduction
A natural resource development complex is constructed to process timber into
lumber or pulp, recover and concentrate hard rock minerals, or recover petroleum products.
Timber processing and mineral recovery are labor-intensive industries which require service
facilities for employees of the complex. These support facilities include housing, recreation,
education, and community facilities and utilities for water supply, power, communication,
and waste disposal. The recovery of petroleum products is a capital-intensive industry which
requires a minimum number of employees and less support facilities. Each industry,
however, requires a distribution and marketing network for raw, finished, or intermediate
products. The transportation facilities can include a marine terminal, railroad, pipeline, or
highway. In Alaska, all these methods can be expected to be utilized. At a minimum, service
roadways and airports are needed to supply each development.
2. Resources Required to Complete Action
The development of a natural resource complex requires the resources identified
earlier for clearing and grubbing, excavation, construction filling on land, drilling for water,
foundation construction, road construction, community development, and recreational
development, and may require dredging, construction filling in water and wetlands, or dam
construction for power production. In addition, at least one of the categories of hard rock
minerals, oil or gas, commercial logging, or agriculture must be available.
3. Permits and Regulations
Since the construction of a natural resource development complex is a composite
of the engineering activities previously discussed, the agencies responsible for perm its and
plan approvals have been identified. Additional sources of air quality degradation and
wastewater will require U.S. Environmental Protection Agency approval, as well as that of
the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation.
4. Description of Action and Equipment
The actions and equipment used are addressed in the earlier discussions of Section
IV. The construction of an airport is a modification of roadway construction techniques.
The size of the operation and the duration of .the development phase could require a
construction period of three to five years after project approval; maintenance and operation
of the complex is long-term {greater than 15 to 20 years).
4-189
5. Impacts
a. Air Quality
The air quality impacts due to natural resource development are
distinguished from those of community and recreation development in that the amounts of
pollutants released per unit area of development are higher, more power and heat are
required, noxious and more harmful pollutants (besides those generally discussed above) are
released, and the height of emission is higher in the atmosphere. The exhaust from a stack is
often much hotter than the surrounding environment of air, so buoyancy forces propel it
still further up into the atmosphere until the cooling of expansion and entrainment causes
equilibrium to be reached. The wind acts on the exhaust plume, forcing its trajectory to
become more and more horizontal. Dispersion is acting on the plume also, so that it spreads
out in the vertical and horizontal as it gets further from the stack. Because the winds are
stronger higher up in the atmosphere, the pollutants may be transported a significant
distance downwind before they are removed from the atmosphere.
Stacks are often referred to as "point sources" because of the characteristic
way that the concentrations are dispersed downwind. Several models are available for
determining the "plume rise" or trajectory of the gases as they come from the stack and
when they have been bent over by the wind and are moving horizontally. Other models take
this information and calculate the dispersion of the gases and the concentrations that would·
be measured at ground level for various averaging times. For most industries, several stacks
are involved so that the source is best described by several point sources. Figure 4-11 shows
the relationship between atmospheric stability, effective height of emission, and the distance
and concentrations to be expected for the maximum impact downwind for short-term
averaging times.
New source performance standards set by the Environmental Protection
Agency apply for several different types of sources, limiting the emission rates allowable for
particulates and for some sources, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfuric acid,
hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. These sources include fossil-fuel-fired generators with
greater than 250,000,000 Btu per hour of heat input (coal, residual oil, and natural gas
burning plants), municipal incinerators, portland cement plants, nitric acid plants, sulfuric
acid plants, asphalt concrete plants, fluid catalytic cracking units and storage in oil
refineries, secondary lead smelters, secondary brass and bronze ingot plants, iron and steel
plants, and sewage treatment plants. These industries must meet at least the new source
emissions rates and may have to do even better to also satisfy national ambient air quality
standards and significant deterioration lim its.
The types of pollutants emitted depend on the industry. The amounts
depend on the type of facility, size, types of processes employed, and extent of control
4-190
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E
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u u u u u
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0 . I u..J...u..J.Ju..I.UJ.W.LWJ.
Jo-'
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Figure 4-11. Distance of Maximum Concentra1tion and Maximum xu/0 as a Function of
Atmospheric Stability (curves) and Effective Height of Emission (numbers repre:!ient meters)
u u
Source: Turner, 1969
X = Concentration in gm/m 3
u Wind speed in m/sec
0 = Emission rate in gm/sec
achieved with pollution control devices. The development of a natural resource extraction
complex is often intimately related to community development, since housing for workers,
services, transportation, and maintenance and supply of the facility involve many more
people than are actually employed on the industrial site. Construction of the facility
involves clearing and grubbing and many of the other basic engineering actions. Fugitive
dust, particulates, and gaseous em iss ions from the use of heavy-duty equipment, emissions
from base camps, and pollutants from open burning are the most important aspects of the
air quality impacts of construction. Community development impacts which are associated
with industrial development are discussed in the section on community development
(Section IV.N).
The emissions from industrial processes are closely related to the contents of
the materials being processed; physical and chemical changes involved in processing the
materials; fuel consumed in heaters, boilers, and incinerators; and transfer of the primary
materials and products. Table IV-XXXVI shows an evaluation of the relative emissions of
different pollutants by different industrial categories. The sizes and types of plants vary so
much that each should be considered in detail prior to construction.
Besides the major pollutants emitted to the atmosphere, there are often
significant amounts of hazardous pollutants emitted from industrial processes. These often
result in not only vegetation damage and health problems for industrial workers, but
contamination of river systems and locally grown food. Some of the effects of excesses of ·
metals on plants are shown in Table IV-XXXVII. Asbestos mining and milling produce the
greatest amounts of these pollutants. The manufacture of friction materials, asbestos cement
products, and textiles, paper, and floor tile contributes 10 percent of total emissions. The
use of asbestos in construction, insulation, fireproofmg, and brake linings also results in
emissions to the atmosphere (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973).
Mercury is particularly toxic; important sources include mercury processing;
copper, zinc, and lead smelting; paint use and manufacture; use of mercury power cells
containing electrolytic chlorine; combustion of coal in power plants; and some from
incineration and other disposal (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973). Mercury has
been used in the pulp and paper industry but, as use has declined, the importance of this
source has declined. Agricultural uses of mercury include fungicides and bacteriocides for
control of diseases of fruits, vegetables, and grains, and result in some emissions due to
spraying (Davis, 1971d).
The primary sources of em tsstons of arsenic to the atmosphere include
copper, zinc, and lead smelters. These emissions result from the processing of ore that
contains arsenic. Agricultural uses of arsenic include the manufacture of pesticides including
defoliants, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Glass manufacture and coal combustion
also result in arsenic emissions (Davis, 1971a).
4-192
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TABLE IV-XXXVI. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF
DIFFERENT POLLUTANTS IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL CATEGORIES
Pollutants
Industry Particulates sox co
Wood Processing A A c
Paper, pulp, plywood
Chemical Process Industry A c B
Nitric acid, sulfuric acid,
printing, ammonia, etc.
Metallurgical Industry B A B
Primary and secondary smelters,
iron and steel mills
Mineral Products Industry A B c
Asphalt, portland concrete,
batching, phosphate rock
processing, quarrying
Petroleum Industry A A A
Refining, storage
Food and Agriculture A B c
Feed and grain mills, fish
processing, fertilizers
Key: A= Significant Source B = Important Source C = Not Significant
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973
u u
HC NOX
B A
A B
c B
c B
A A
c B
TABLE IV-XXXVII. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL
CHANGES (MUTABILITY) IN PLANTS THAT MAY BE CAUSED
BY TOXIC QUANTITIES (EXCESSES) OF METALS
Element
Aluminum (AI)
Boron (B)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)'
Molybdenum (Mol
Nickel (Nil
Zinc (Zn)
Uranium (U)
Molybdenum, Copper (Mo, Cu)
Lead, Zinc (Pb, Zn)
Coal (bitumen)
Source: Siegel, 1974
4-194
Effect
Short and stubby roots; leaf scorch, mottling
Dark foliage; marginal scorch of older leaves of high concentra-
tions; shortened internodes; deformed; incomplete development;
creeping forms; heavy (slow) pubescence; increased gall produc-
tion
Yellow leaves with green veins
White dead patches on leaves
Dead patches on lower leaves from tips; purple stems; chlorotic
leaves with green veins; poorly developed (stunted) roots; creep-
ing sterile forms in some species
Incompletely developed (stunted) tops; thin or sometimes stubby
roots; cell division disturbed in algae, resulting cells greatly
enlarged
Chlorotic leaves; reddish coloration and lesions of stem and
petiole; curling and dead areas on leaf margins; distortion of
laminae
Incomplete development (stunting); yellow-orange coloration
White dead patches on leaves; chlorosis; apetalous sterile forms;
abnormal forms
Chlorotic leaves with green veins; white dwarfed forms; dead
areas on leaf tips; roots stunted or poorly developed
Abnormal number of chromosomes in nuclei; unusually shaped
fruits; sterile apetalous forms; stalked-leaf rosette
Unusual development of black bands on the petals of
Eschscholtzia sp. (black cross)
Development of different forms with the "double flower" in the
Eschscholtzia sp.
Gigantism and deformity; abnormal repeated flowering
)
)
)
Vanadium compounds are major constituents in some crude oils, so
important sources of vanadium emissions include the combustion of oil and coal (Davis,
1971 e). Manganese sources include processing of manganese alloys, iron and steel
manufacture, and coal combustion (Davis, 1971c). Beryllium emissions come primarily from
coal and oil combustion and manufacture of alloys (Davis, 1971b).
The main sources of cadmium emissions to the environment include wind
losses from tailing piles; smelting; use in electroplating, pigments and plastics; and from the
combustion of fossil fuels. Cadmium is also emitted to the atmosphere due to the wear of
rubber tires (Rossano and Lillis, 1974). The major sources of lead air pollution include
gasoline combustion (93 percent), incineration of solid wastes, coal combustion, and
secondary smelting (Rossano and McCiannan, 1974).
Odors are often more noticeable as pollution than more harmful gases.
Among the more noxious compounds are hydrogen sulfide ("rotten eggs'') which is
converted to sulfur dioxide, methyl mercaptans, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and
aldehydes. Pulp and paper industries and the combustion of diesel fuels are important
sources of these noxious gases.
b. Noise
Noise from construction of a natural resource development complex would
create a short-term impact similar in scope and magnitude to that discussed in the section on
dam construction (Section IV.J). Long-term impacts would be associated with the noise
levels created by the industrial complex itself, transportation of labor and materials, and
community activities. The major sources of noise from industrial processing facilities can
generally be divided into two major categories by usage: (1) continuous sources and (2)
intermittent sources. Table IV-XXXV Ill shows some of the basic types of equipment within
these two categories, together with the primary mode of use.
In order to assure that all health and safety requirements are met by the
operation of the industry, all bid specifications to supply vendors should require submission
of octave band sound pressure levels for all operating equipment, to be measured at 3 feet
under full-capacity operations. The express purpose of such specifications is to ensure
compliance with the provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). Of
equal benefit is the ability of the design engineers to form a simulated composite of the
total equipment noise levels which can be expected during plant operation. The composite
can then be used to determine if any significant noise problems would be created within the
plant or surrounding community and appropriate remedial action could be taken to
eliminate the problems. In any case, siting of industrial facilities should be done so that no
perceptible interference occurs at the nearest noise-sensitive property (houses, hospitals,
schools, etc.). For adjacent industrial property, an acceptable noise level may be 65 to 70
4-195
Category /Usage
Continuous Sources
Intermittent Sources
TABLE IV-XXXVIII. TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL NOISE SOURCES
Equipment Type
Reciprocating Machinery
Rotating Machinery
Control Valves
Air Blowers
Fired Burners
F I are System
Relief Valves
Signals
Pneumatic Tools
Reciprocating Compressors
Centrifugal Compressors
Air Blowers
Electrical Motors
Tower Fans
Various Systems
Fin-Fan Coolers
Process Heaters
Boilers
Relief Valve
Steam System
Fire/P1ant Whistle
Source: Robert Brown Associates/John Graham Company, 1974
Uses
Operations
Operations
Operations
Operations
Operations
Emergency
Emergency and
Periodic Testing
Emergency
Maintenance
dBA; for adjacent commercial or residential property, the required noise level at the
property line may be 55 to 60 dBA.
Transportation noise must also be considered in the siting and development
of large industrial facilities. Expected volumes for auto and truck traffic, rail transport, and
aircraft use should be assessed and the impact of each source on the community should be
modeled to determine if the resulting levels will create significant impacts. A guide to
determining the impact of transportation noise on the community is contained in the
general discussion of noise impact, Section II.B.
c. Water Resources
The construction of a natural resource development complex is a composite
of the engineering activities previously discussed. The development can be expected to cause
similar effects identified for each engineering activity over a period of 3 to 4 years.
Following construction of the complex, water quality degradation can be expected to
continue from sewage effluents, stormwater runoff, leachates from spoil disposal sites and
waste materials, sanitary landfills, etc., for a period greater than 15 to 20 years.
The Clean Water Act, officially known as the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act of 1972 {PL 92-500), established a national permit program, defined in Section
402 of the Act as the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). It is now·
mandatory that a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit be obtained to
discharge any type of pollutant into the nation's waters. The permit regulates what may be
discharged by a facility as well as how much. Specific lim its on the effluent from each
source have been established. New facilities (new sources) are hence committed to comply
with all applicable provisions of the law. The State of Alaska does not yet have the
authority (June 23, 1975) to issue these perm its; however, perm its are issued through
Region X of the Environmental Protection Agency.
d. Terrestrial Biology
Construction of a natural resource development complex is a composite of
many of the engineering actions previously described. However, since many of these actions
occur simultaneously and over long periods of time, the total impacts on the terrestrial
communities would be more severe than the "sum" of the individual actions. Impacts on
terrestrial vegetation and wildlife will be unique for the specific resource complex
anticipated. For example, air pollution first appeared as a problem in southeast Alaska with
development of gold mining on Douglas Island. Sulfide and chloride fumes produced in the
gold recovery process killed trees on several hundred acres {Laurent, 1974). It was only after
the closure of the last mine in 1924 that the air pollution was eliminated and affected areas
have been restocked with forest vegetation.
4-197
Proposed iron ore processing plants at Klukwan, Port Snettisham, Union
Bay, and on the Kasaan Peninsula could cause similar air pollution problems. However,
equipment now available can hold emissions to nontoxic levels and therefore detrimental
impacts may be avoided. Pulp mills may also cause air pollution problems. With the
completion of the Ketchikan pulp mill in 1954 and the Sitka pulp mill in 1959, sulfur
dioxide emissions from the mills have injured and killed Sitka spruce, western hemlock,
western red cedar and Alaska cedar. The effluents from the Sitka pulp mill have destroyed
approximately 400 acres of trees (Laurent, 1974). In general, sulfur dioxide from pulp mills,
fluorides from aluminum and phosphate plants, and hydrocarbons from the production and
refining of petroleum products and evaporation of solvents are especially damaging to the
native vegetation. Their distinctive effects on plants are described in Section 11.0.3. Animals
are also influenced by the pollutants; however, most are mobile and may emigrate from the
locality if they can find an area which is suitable and unoccupied.
Communities are usually built within the vicinity of a resource development
complex. This means that man/animal interactions (intentional, such as hunting, and
unintentional, such as vehicular accidents) will increase and animals will have to behaviorally
adjust or emigrate from the region. However, wildlife species that adjust are frequently
considered pests and are hunted or destroyed.
e. Aquatic Biology
Since natural resource development incorporates the engineering actions
described previously, the impacts on aquatic life have been described with regard to the
separate activities. The greatest impacts are expected to occur from increases in human
activity and are reflected in the discussion of community development impacts in Section
IV.N. Impacts to the natural environment will vary with the type of resource developed.
Impacts from this engineering action would be the same as for cumulative smaller actions
(discussed in Sections li.E.1 through II.E.7), but would result in chronic detrimental
changes to aquatic life. Effects of pollutants from resource extracting activities (e.g., acid
mine drainage, siltation) and in combination with pollutants generated by the associated
required housing and road construction (e.g., stormwater runoff, sewerage) result in
cumulative impacts greater than actions considered separately or simply added. In other
words, as combinations of actions increase arithmetically, the deleterious impacts increase
geometrically. Since deleterious effects of water pollutants are generally synergistic, impacts
of a resource extraction complex generating several potential pollutants can be very severe.
f. Soils
Impacts from both Level I and Level II engineering actions are expected to
occur with this type of development; however, the cumulative effect of the impacts
identified may be greater than their effects separately. In general, site-specific soils studies
4-198
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
are conducted prior to initiation of any major development activity. Such studies take into
account the major characteristics of the surface and subsurface soils and geology, the load
bearing strength, the depth to groundwater, and the seismic character of the site and area.
These findings are then used in the facility's design and the foundation is constructed
according to detailed specifications. Depending on these site-specific findings, the impacts
will vary due to the use of various construction requirements.
g. Interactions
Those impacts described under exploration for oil and gas (Section IV.H)
and exploration and recovery of hard rock minerals (Section IV.K) are applicable to the
natural resource development complex. Impacts identified for community development
(Section IV.N) are also applicable, but are less severe. Initial development in remote areas
will result in increased wildlife/human encounters. Again, the cumulative effects of
industrial development are expected to have a far broader effect on the environment due to
greater space requirements, increased human population, and greater amounts of pollutants
generated.
4-199
(
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
PHYSIOGRAPHIC
UNITS
C. UPPER YUKON/
PORCUPINE
E. YUKON{KOYUKUK
F. YUKON!
KUSKOKWIM DELTA
K. BRISTOL BAY
IMPACT ANALYSIS, NATURAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT COMPLEX
NOISE EXPOSURE
SECTION II, PAGESZ-1 TOZ-20
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SECTION 11. PAGES 2-20 TO 2·36
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
3,4,5,6
1,3,4.5,6
1:2.a.o:.d
3,4.5,6
1,3,4.5,6
1,3,4,5,6
1;2..a,c
3,4,5,6
1,3,4.5,6
MODERATE
3.~.5.6
3,4.5,6
3,4.5.6
1.3,4,5.6
1,3,4,5,6
1,3,4,6,6
1,3,4.5,6
1,3,4.5.6
1,3,4,5,6
3,4,5,6
1,3,4,5,6
sEVERE MODERATE ,,
..
3..a.b,cl.-
1.2,3.4.5.6 1.b .........
1.2,3.4,5,6 t.b .........
1.2,3.4,5,6 1.b
l.lo,b,d_e
1.2,3.4.5.6 1.b
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1.2,3,4,5.6 1.b ........
1.2,3,4.5,6 1)>
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1.2,3.4,5,6 T.b
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SECTION II, PAGES 2-36 TO 2-45
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE
1.2.3.4
5.6,7
1.2.3.4
5,6,7
1.2.3.4
5,6,7
1,2.3,4
5,6,7
1.2.3.4
5,6,7
1.2,3.4
5,6,7
1,2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
6.6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3.4
5,6,7
1.2,3.4
6,6,7
,...,.
5.6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1,2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3.4
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5.6.7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1,2.:;,4
5,6,7
,..., .
5,6.7
1.2,3.4
5,6.7
1.2,3,4
5.6.7 ,...,.
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5.6.7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
SECTION II, PAGES 2-46 TO 2-60
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
t.a,b
Z.c:,d,e.i,k
'~' 2.c.d.ej,k
...
2.cAe.j,k
1 .. ,b,c
t.._b,c
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5.6
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3 .•
3 ••
3 .•
3.<
3 ••
3 ••
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2.c.d.e,g.i,.k 3,4
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1.b;5;6 1.c
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3,4
1.b;5;6 1.c
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3,4
2.c,d.e,g,j.k 3,4
'·'
1.b;5:6 1.c
2.c,d,e,g,i,k 3,4
1.b;5;6 1.c
2.c,d,e,g,Lk 3,4
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3,4
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1.b;5;6 1,c
2.c,d,t,g,j,k 3,4
t.b;5;6 1.c
2.c,d.e,g,j,k 3,4
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t.b:5:6 t.c
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3,4
1.b;5;6
2.c,d,t,g,l.k 3,4
1.b;5;6
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3.4
1.b;5;6
2.c,d,e,g,Lk 3,4
1.b;5;6 1.c
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3,4
1.b;5;6 1.c
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3,4
1.b;5;6 t.c
2.c,d,e,g,j,k 3,4
1.b;5;6 t.c
2.c,d.e,g,j,k 3,4
t.b;6;6 t.c
2.c,d,t,g,Lk 3,4
t.b;5;6 t.c
2.c,d,e,gj,k 3.4
1.b;5;6 1.c
2.c,d,e,gj,k 3,4
AQUATIC BIOLOGY
SECTION II, PAGES 2-Sl TO 2-66
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
SEVERE MODERATE
1,2,3,4
5,6,7
2.3.4,5,6,7
1.2.3,4
5,6,7
1.,2.3,4
5,6,7
1.2.3.4
5,6,7
2,3,4,5,6,7
2.3.4.5,6,7
2.3.4.5,6,7
2.3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
1.2,3,4,5,6
2.3.4,5,6,7
1.2.3,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6,7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
1,2,3,4
5,6,7
2,3,4.5,6
1,2.3,4
5,6.7
1.2,3,4
5,6,7
2.3.4,5,6
2.3.4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
2,3.4,5,6 I 1
2,3.4.5.6 I 1.7
2,3,4,5,6 ,: 1.7
1,2,3.4 T
5,6,7
5,6,7
'·'
SECTION II, PAGES 2-66 TO 2·70
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2,3,5,7.9
2,3,5,7,9
2,3.5,7,9
2,3,4,5,6
'·'
2,3.4.5
'~
'·'
2,3.4,7
2.3
5.7.9
2,3,4,5,7
2.3.4.5.7
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2.3,8,9
5.6
2.3.5.7.8,9
2.3,5,7
2,3,4,7.8
2.3.4.5.7.8
4,7.8
2,3.8
... 2.3.7
2.3.4.5,8,9
2.3.5.9
2,3,4,8
2.3,8,9
2,3,4.8
2.3.5.9
2.3,4,8,9
2.3,8
2,3,5,9
2,3.8
SECTION II, PAGES 2·71 TO 2·76
REFERENCED PARAGRAPHS
2.a;3
4.a;6.b
2-a;3
..
3
2.a;3
4.a;6.b ..
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3
..
3
..
3
2.a;3
6.h ..
3 ..
3 ..
3 ..
3
..
3
3 ,_,
..
3
2.3.8
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cu
3,4.5,6
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1,2.3,4,5.6
3,4,5,6
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....
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3.f
....
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1.2.3.4
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1.2,3,4
5,6,7.8
,...,.
5,6.7.8
1.b;5;6 t.c;l.g
2.c,d,eJ,k 3,4
1.b;5;6 t.c
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1.b;5;6
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1.b;5;15
Z.c,d,eJ,k
t.c.:Z.t
3 ••
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2.3.4.5.6.7! 1
2,3,4.5,6,7! 1
I
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2,3.4.5,6 '·'
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3
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4-201"
)
)
)
)
J
)
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