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Home My WebLink AboutAPA2656FINAL REPORT JUNE 1985 DOCUMENT No.2656 "-..1997_,:l'1ll'l ,_. MMf(A DEPjOF ft...... IU'R~R4I• ............~99Il..,'" VOLUME 3"":APPENDIX D SUPPLEMENT AL MATERIAL INCLUDED IN RESPONSES SURVEY OF EXPERIENCE IN OPERATING HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS IN COLD REGIONS Alaska Power Authority --~,I ~&L%=~[IDffi\~©@ TNA JOINT VENTURE FEDERAL ENERGY·REGULATORY COMMISSION PROJECT No.7114 SUSITNA HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT - - - ".,. Document No.2656 Susitna File No.42.2.5 Tl"\ \'-\d.-S ,S~ y:-L.\+q-d- 1f10.alo~ SUSITNA HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT SURVEY OF EXPERIENCE IN OPERATING HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS IN COLD REGIONS VOLUME 3 -APPENDIX D SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL INCLUDED IN RESPONSES Prepared by Harza-Ebasco Susitna Joint Venture Prepared for Alaska Power Authority Final Report June 1985 ARLIS Alaska Resources Library &Information Services Anchorage,Alaska .... - 1. 2. APPENDIX D Table of Contents Strategic Hydro Power Operation at Freeze-up Reduces Ice Jamming,by L. Billfalk,Swedish State Power Board,published in International Associaton of Hydraulic Research Symposium in Hamburg,Germany. Referenced in letter frOm L.Billfalk from the Swedish State Power Board. An Estimate of Ice Drifted Sediments Based on the Mud Content of the Ice Cover at Montmagny,Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,by J.C.Dionne, Laval University,Quebec.Published in Marine Geology,Elsevier Science Publishers,1984. Referenced in letter from B.Michel of the Universite'Laval. 3.Habitat Suitability Information:Rainbow Trout,Coho Salmon,Brook Trout,by the u.S.Department of the Interior,Fish and wildlife Servic~. Referenced in letter from Wendel J.O'Conroy,Associate Director,u.S. Fish and wildlife Service. - .... 4.Classification of Surface Waters by Maine Department of Environmental Protection. Referenced in letter from Dana Paul Murch from the Maine Department of Environmental Protection • ARLIS Alaska Resources . tion SefVlcesLibrary&lnforma Anchorage.Alaska 42188531 850612 1 5.Pamphlet on German Association for Water Resources and Land Improvement. Referenced in letter from Dr.Ing.W.Dirksen of IeID National Committee Federal Republic of Germany. 6.Surges from Ice Jam Releases:A Case Study by S.Beltaos and B.G. Krishnappen published in the Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. Referenced in the letter from T.Milne Dick of the Canadian Center for Inland Waters. 7.Western Reservoir and Stream Habitat Improvement Handbook,prepared for U.S.Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. Referenced in the letter from J.Bathurst,Environment Canada,Water Planning and Management Branch. 8.Five articles on ice jams by S.Beltaos from various publications. Referenced in the letter from T.Milne Dick of the Canadian Center for Inland Waters. 9.Ice Management by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Referenced in the letter from R.A.Clark of the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 10.Five articles on Sourthern Indian Lake by R.Newbury,G.K.McCullough, R.Recky,R.Bodaly,K.Patalas and D.Rosenberg. Referenced in the letter from R.W.Newbury of the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 42188531 850612 2 ..... ,..,. 11.Wildlife Data Issues in the Routing of Energy Corridors by G.J.Doucet, J.R.Bider,P.Lamothe,D.T.Brown published in Facility Siting and Routing '84 Energy and Environment. Referenced in the letter from W.G.Morrison of Ontario Hydro. - - 12" 13 .. 14. 15. Ice Control Measures on the St.Lawrence River by C.J.R.Lawrie of the Canadian Coast Guard. Reference in letter from C.J.R.Lawrie of the Canadian Cost Guard. Excerpts from "Le Contro1e des G1aces dans 1e secteur de Montreal a Notre-Dame de Portneuf de 1966 a 1973"in French,no author given. Referenced in letter from C.J.R.Lawrie of the Canadian Coast Guard. Surface Water Quality Management Proposal by D.A.Williamson,Manitoba Department of Environment and Workplace Safety and Health. Referenced in letter from Carl Orcutt of Manitoba Environmental and Workplace Safety and Health. Flood Control,Red River F100dway,City of Winnipeg Dikes,by Manitoba Department of Mines,Resources,and Environmental Management. Referenced in letter from N.Mudry of Manitoba Department of Natural Resources. -- - 16.Micro Hydro Power by Ontario Ministry of Energy. Referenced in letter from 01yz Carmen of Otario Ministry of Energy. 42188531 85i0612 3 17.Influence De La Couverture De Glace Sur Les Echanges D'eau Salee Et D'eau Dans Estuaire De La Grande Riviere,Au Debut Du Remplissage Du Reservoir De LG2 by Richard Boivin,included in response from Jean-Claude Rassam,Division Chief of Hydro-Quebec. 18.De'tournement E.O.L.,Rapport De Synthe'se Des Caracteristiques Hydrologiques et Hydrauliques by Societe d'Energie de la Baie James Vice-Presidence Inginierie et Developement,included in response from Onil Faucher,Chief of Department,Environmental Studies,Societe d'Energie de la Baie James. 42188531 850612 4 - STRATEGIC HYDRO POWER OPERATION AT FREEZE-UP REDUCES ICE JPJt1ING - Lennart Billfalk ABSTRACT Swedish State Power Board Alvkarleby Laboratory Alvkarleby Sweden - - .... [n order to facilitate ice cover formation and thereby reduce ice jamming at freeze-up on the river reach downstream of Vittjarv hydro power station in northern Sweden.exstensive excavations have been undertaken. In spite of the work carried out.ice jamming still actured resulting in head-losses and inundations. As a measure against the ice jamming it was suggested to decrease the discharge when ice fanmation starts and keep it low until the river is satisfactorily ice covered.However.the problem is to reduce the flow ~n the lower part of the river and still be able to gen~rate electricity at high capacity in stations along the upper parts of the river.This requirement can partly be met by prelowering of a "mid-river"reservoir. Considering the planning needed for the operation of the whole river system it is extremely important that the right time for the low discharge period:is correctly predicted.The method worked out to cope with this problem includes monitoring of water temperatures ~nd water levels. weather fore-casting.ice surveys etc . ,...To speed up ice cover formation a specially designed ice boom has been tested.Also ice breaking and ice-sawing on reaches with rapid shore ice formation have been used.The paper present~details of the indicated --~--------_~hDd t'Ofip1"hpr with ~vear:s ..of practical field experience. INTRODUCTION Vittjarv hydro power plant is located in the lower part of Lule River.in the north of Sweden.See Figure 1.The station has a head of 6 m and a capacity of 690 m3 /s and it was taken in operation during the winter 19"14/15.Already the first year of operation serious ice jall111ing occurred during freeze-up.Downstream of the station ice jams caused a head-loss of more than 2 meters. o so 100 ....~t ...' II Figure 1.Overall map of Lule River. To facilitate ice cover formation and thereby reducing frazil production and ice jall111ing.extensive excavations have been undertaken in the river. These works were terminated 1978.The details regarding these works·as well as experienced ice problems are reported by Jensen (19Bl).A sketch of the river between Vittjarv and Boden power stations is shown of Figure 2. [n spite of the work carried out in the river,ice jamming stili occurred after 1978.These ice jams resulted not only in head-losses in Vittjarv power station but also in lnundations and inflow of water to pump stations and houses located on the banks of the river,Figure 3 shows water profiles between Vittjarv and Boden measured after the excavations were finished. The profiles refer to somewhat different discharges but clearly show that some years were much worse than others.For example,due to incomplete ice coverformati en--fn--the ~a rl y wi nt-e-r-8-}fB-2.-fl""oz-H--was-proGueea -a-1 ong the ice free reaches upstream the Tr!ngfors bridge.The ice deoosited into .- .!iliII\fI'I N I 0 1., ~ Figure 2.Sketch of the river reach between Vittjarv and Boden power stations.Excavations under- taken during 1976 to 1978 are indicated . ,.... - - - hanging dams and it was necessary to temporarily decrease the flow from 600 m~/s to 400 m3 /s in order to stop further rise of the water level. The water profile dated 811218 on Figure 3 shows the effect of the hanging dam created downstream of Tr4ngfors.The flow reduction lasted for 6 days and the extra cost for alternative power production was estimated to 4 million Swedish Crowns (about 0.5 million dollars). The experienced ice problems cause economk losses.More important, though,are the plans for winter-time peak power generation.Ice problems ~ight increase if strong peak power regulation is introduced (Bil1falk. 1982).It is therefor most important to find methods whereby also peak power operation can be handled without causing serious ice troubles.To meet this requirement further excavations as well as an increase oT the maximum permissi~le reservoir level at Boden power station are considered. To impPiOve the situation before such measures could be undertaken a procedure for strategic operation of the river during freeze-up has been worked out.This procedure will probably be required even as a complement to further excavations etc. HOH J)Mt~15,0 -790103 563 0-0 800208 5n .. -..81ot2Z 486 ~ 14.5 0-0 lS11218 61S .. e-6 830211 583 .. 0--0 Blo0208 523 .. 14,0 13.5 13,0 40 n VITTJARV 38 37 36 35 34 33 TRltlGF<J\S 3Z 31 30 IeH BODEN Figure 3.Measured water surface profiles for winters after 1978. PROPOSED METHOD After the difficulties experienced 1981/82.an investigation about the causes of the problems was undertaken.This investigation clearly indicated the role of the discharge rate.Low discharge at freeze-up results in rapid ice cover fornation and negligable ice janming while high discharges result in incomplete ice cover formation and ice jamming. As a measure against ice jamming it was therefor suggested to decrease the discharge when ice fonmation starts and keep it low until the river is satisfactorily ice covered.However.this simple principle can be hard to accomplish from a power production point of view. Upstream of Vittjarv a number of the ID0st important hydro power stations in the country are situated;see Figure 1.The problem is to reduce the flow,in the lower part of the river and stil I be able to generate electricity at high capacity in stations along the upper part of the river.This requirement can be met by pre-lowering one or two major reservoirs.where the surplus of water from the upper part of the river can be stored.while low discharge is maintained along the lower part. For example.running Letsi power station in the southern branch of the river adds'20um l-/Sto--Ole main river.Requiring"a-ffow rate'of 300 ml/s .- .-, .... .... ...... at Vittjarv means that most of the water coming from the stations in the upper part of the main river must be stored in the Messaure reservoir. By lowering the Messaure reservoir prior to such an operation the required discharge rate at Vittjarv can be kept for a couple of days . More extended periods with restricted flow may require reduced production even in the stations upstream of Messaure.This might be possible without economic losses if hydro power installations in other rivers are not fully util ized. Considering the planning needed for the management of the whole river system.it is extremely important that the appropriate time for the low discharge period is detennined with highest possible certainty.A second attempt with repeated lowering of the Messaure reservoir etc ••may probably not be possible.The method worked out to cope with this problem includes monitoring of water temperatures and water levels.weather fore-casting. ice surveys etc.Information gathered during the critical time period was discussed within a small management group.This group suggests when and how to decrease the flow and what extra measures should be taken.Before discussing practical field experience.these extra measures as well'as the data acquisition methods will be briefly presented . The most important parameter for the.prediction of the time when ice formation starts.is the water temperature.Water temperatures are measured every morning at most power stations along the river with mercury thermometers.accurate to whitin +0.01 °C.In addition a quartz.- thermometer has been installed in one of the inlet sumps at Vittjarv power station.Data from this instrument is transmitted to the.operation .center for Lule River.situated in VLlollerim. Upstream and downstream water levels are measur.'d continuously at both Vittjarv and Boden power stations.Just upstream of the TrAngfors bridge an extra water level gauge has been installed.Data from this gauge is also transmitted to Vuollerim.The purpose of these measurements is to detect the beginning and evolution of ice jalTll1ing downstream of TrAngfors. Observations of the evolution of shore ice and later on the formation of fragmented ice covers are made by the local hydrologic departement. -f'eSponSw.1-e-f~He+d--sur'leys---i-n--tM-.area.O'Jring the critical timQ period this department produces maps showing the extension of surface ice along the actual river reach. Before and during freeze-up.long term weather fore-casts (5 days)are ordered daily.These weather fore-casts.together with information about water temperatures and the actual surface ice situation,form the basis for a discussion within the management group responsible for the descission to reduce the flow-rate.This group consists of representatives from the local and the central operational departments.the local hydrologic survey department and from the Laboratory in ~lvkarleby.Up-to- date information is transmitted to the members of the group by means of Telefax.Discussions can be held daily through telephone meetings.which has proved very useful. The narrow section at the Tr4ngfors bridge (Tr4ngfors means "Narrow Rapids"in Swedish)is one of the key points to the experienced difficulties. Even at low discharges the progression of the ice cover.starting from Boden power station.is halted downstream of Tr4ngfors.In order to secure rapid ice cover formation upstream of Trlngfors an ice boom has earl ier been tested upstream of the bridgeo The boom proved effective in initiating an ice cover upstream of its locationo Downstream thereof. however.a long reach of the river maintained open water until late in .the winter.Ice production on this reach caused underhanging dams further downstream and the boom was therefor removed after a one year test (Jensen.1981). Trying to avoid the drawbacks with the old ice boom a new concept has been tested.The new boom is located at the previous location. See figure 1.The new idea is to keep a 100 m long section in the cen.raJ part of the boom open at the beginning of freeze-up.permitting drifting ice to pass so as to contribute to the build-Up of an ice cover from downstream.When the ice cover has reached close to the bridge the opening in the boom should be closed and an ice cover could start progressing from the boom leaving just a short reach with open water downstream of the bridge.At the left bank the boom wire is equipped with a force meter permitting continuous registration of the load. - ..... - ."... r- I LOADCELL RIVER LULE AtV o 100 200 300" Figure 4.Ice boom at Trangfors with a central gap that can be closed . .The time period with low discharge at freeze-up must for economical reasons be made as short as possible.It is therefor important that' cold weather.promoting rapid ice formation.prevails once the flow has been reduced.If natural production of drifting ice is low. ice-breaking from areas where shore ice has formed could attribute to the growth of the fragmented ice cover.This technique as well as ice-sawing has been tested.Experience from these works will be discussed in the following section. FIELD EXPERIENCE The described measures for achieving more complete ice cover formation were first tested during the winter 1982/83 (Billfa1k.1983).Early that winter the discharge·at Vittjarv was reduced to 300 m3 /s when conditions for ice formation seemed favourable.Ice covers then rapidly developed from Boden power station to section 32.5 (km)and also from the ice boom at Tr4ngfors to Mannbergsholmen.in spite of the opening in the boom (see Fig 2).Bridging obviously occurred at about section 35 at the low discharge and the boom opening never had to be closed that winter. The load on the boom did hardly increase during freeze-up compared to open water conditions. In order to speed up the ice cover formation from section 32.5 towards TrAngfors.breaking of shore ice from the wide sections between section 34.0 and 34.4 was started.The boat used for that purpose was a steel boat about 5 m long.which previously had been used in connection with timber floating.By running the boat towards the shore ice.long cracks could be created.thereby loosening floes sometimes on the order of 1000 m%. If cracks did not appear the boat could be run back and forth creating a track whereby a big floe could be loosened.provided the ice thickness was less than about 0.1 m.Although the boat was somewhat small for the job.about 70.000 m2 surface ice could be broken in less than 2 days. The ice front was thereby artificially moved about 500 m upstream. After initial ice cover formation the discharge was kept at 300 ml/s for about 1 week.The flow was then gradually increased to about 600 ml/s. The avarage flow during the rest of the winter was on the order of 450 ml/s. The autumn in 1983 was extremely rainy and all reservoirs were almost completely full at the beginning of the winter.It was therefor important not to reduce the flow unti 1 ft was absolutely necessary.Due to a very sudden cold spell.some trouble with frazil formation.which temporarily clogged the intakes at Vittjarv.occurred before the flow was reduced to 300 ml/s this winter.At the beginning of freeze-up drifting tee passed the opening in the ice boom and the ice cover progressed to section 33.0 in a couple of days.However.even this year ice cover formation occurred fairly early upstream of the ice boom in spite of the open gap.The load on the ice boom wire this year raised to about 70 kN during the ice formation process. Due to the high degree of reservoir filling the discharge was kept at 300 ml/s not more than 3 days.The flow was then gradually increased to about 550 mlls in 4 days. Even 1983 ice-breaking was used to reduce the open water area downstream of TrAngfors.Due to cold weather this work had to be stopped after a few days.The ice front had at that time reached section 33.5.leaving about 1 kilometer of open water downstream of Tr!ngfors.Downstream of Vittjarv power station it was open water down to Mannbergsholmen.Due to ..... ..... cold weather ice production on the open reaches was high and hanging dams started to develop downstream of these open reaches.In order to further reduce the open water area a specially designed ice saw was used (ice breaking with the boat was no longer possible).The ice saw is mounted on a sled and is driven by a 30 HP engine.By this machine the ice front downstream of Tr!ngfors was fed with large floes of shore ice.The front thereby moved to section 34.0 and the remaining 500-600 m open reach was considered acceptable. One experience of the two years of "controlled"ice cover fonnation is that the discharge might be kept somewhat higher than 300 m3 /s at freeze- up.Bridging might thereby be avoided upstream of the ice boom and the ice cover front may reach closer to the Tr!ngfors bridge without ice breaking or sawing.Once the ice front has reached there the gap in the boom should be closed • The open water area at Tr!ngfors after initial ice cover formation and complementary ice breaking and ice sawing is shown on Figure 5. \\\\NATURAl ICE FORMTiOIl '111111 ICE IlEAlCIIlli 11111 11 ICE SAIlING Figure 5.Open water area.at TrAngfors after initial ice cover formation as well as after breaking and sawing of shore ice. CONCLUSIONS Two years of experience of the method with reduced flow and superv1s1on of the early ice cover formation are now available for the river reach between Vittjarv and Boden power stations.This short time period does of course not permit any general conclusions.The following preliminary conclusions have been drawn,however: -Reduction of the flow at freeze-up permits rapid ice cover formation and the development of significant hanging dams is avoided.Considering head-losses caused by ice jamming the two latest years were as good as the best year experienced before.see Figure 3 (note that the profiles refer to different discharge rates). -Having a management group for descissons of how to handle various problems that -arize at freeze-up is of major importance.More or less daily contacts within this group during the critical time period have shown to be very useful. -People involved in the local operation of the river have shown great interest for the tested procedure.These people now have been able to get a theoretical background to their practical experience.This "educational effect"will probably be very favourable in the future. -The specially designed ice boom has so far been of minor use. However.the boom will probably be of vital importance when trying to achieve rapid ice cover formation at higher discharges than 300 ml/s. -Both breaking and sawing of shore ice have proved to be useful methods for building up fragmented ice covers.A boat may be used for ice breaking at the early freeze-up.When the shore ice has grown thicker only ice sawing is possible.It must be pointed out,though, that both It;thods are quite time consuming and that the applicability depends on local conditions. REFERENCES Billfa1k,L.t 1982.Ice Cover Formation and Break-up of Solid Ice Covers on Rivers.Bulletin No TRITA-VBI-113-Paper I.Hydraulics Laboratory.Royal Inst.of Tech .•Stockholm. /0 - ..- - .... - Bi11fa1k.L.•1983.Ice Cover Formation Vittjarv-Boden during winter 1982/83 -Evaluation of tested methods (in Swedish). Swedish State Power Board.A1vkarteby Laboratory. Jensen.M.•1981.Ice Problems at Vittjarv Power plant -Measures and Results.IAHR -Int.Symp.on Ice.Proc.Vo1.1.pp 238-251.Quebec . Ji l' ·.... - - Marine Geology,57 (1984)149-166 149 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam -Printed in The Netherlan~.D ;tnUT 198~ /.7 ? ..J '-,,' AN ESTIMATE OF ICE-DRIFTED SEDL\IENTS BASED ON THE MUD CONTENT OF THE ICE COVER AT MONTMAGNY,MIDDLE ST.LAWRENCE ESTUARY JEAN·CLAtlD'E DIONNE Department 01'Geography,UnilJersiti LalJtU,Quebec,Que.GIK 7P4 (Canada) (Accepted for publication October 20.1983). ABSTRACT Dionne,J.<:.,1984.An estimate of ice-drifted sediments based on the mud content of the ice cover at Montmagny,Middle St.Lawrence Estuary.Mar.Geo!.,57:149-166. Recent measurements made at Montmagny.a locality on the south shore of the Middle St.Lawrence Rstuary.70 km northeast of Quebec City (47°N),give an idea of the volume of fine-graine~1 sediments incorporated in the ice cover and allow an estimation of the annualload drifted by ice.At this locality,a mean thickness of 10 cm of mud was encoun- teredin the ice cover over an area of approximately 20 km '.Thus,the total load of fines may be as m\ilch as 4 X 10'tonnes (t).It is estimated that upon melting at break·up, about 15%of this load returns to the Montmagny tidal nat while the remaining volume is carried to thE'offshore zone.·Considering breakl1P characteristics,it is estimated that about 1.5-2 :<10't of fmes return to the turbidity zone while the remaining load is ice·drifted outside that zone.Since the shore area of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary covered by iCE'during the winter is approximately 60 km2 •it is calculated that a load of 5-6 X 10't of sediment incorporated in the ice cover could escape from the turbidity zone annually.To this load should be added another 4 X 10't of suspended matter which come from thl~freezing in situ of the turbid water in the offshore zone.An annual out- put by ice drijrting of lOX 1Q6 t of sediment is thus likely and is in great contrast to the output during the ice·free leason of approximately 1 X 10't.In the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,the a:!1nual output almost equals the input.Consequently the ledirnent budget is virtually in.a state of equilibrium,which helps to explain why there is very little per- manent mud deposition in the shore and offshore zones today.Itis concluded that ice processes largl~ly control the sedimentary budget of the turbidity zone of the·Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,a particular environment within a mid-latitude inner continental shelf which is partly dominated by ice. INTRODUCTION Although the St.Lawrence is one of the major estuaries in the world,rela- tively iittle~;known about the sedimentology of this large water body (Nota and Loring.1964;Loring and Nota,1973;Khalil and Arnac,1975;Cremer, 1979).A better knowledge of the sedimentary budget and of the processes in action in the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,i.e.the area between Quebec City and the Saguenay River (an area 180 km long and 2-24 km wide;Figs.1 and 2)is needed both to understand correctly the complexity of this dynamic environment and to provide a useful tool for planning the development and 0025-3227/84/503.00 e 1984 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. 150 ...co. 60· Study Area- ONTARIO UNITED ITAT!!I 4>. 'l!>. \ I I I i !, FigoL Location map of the study area showing the relationships with the eastern Canadian continental shelf and Atlantic Ocean. the preservation of the shore zones presently subjected to erosional processes (Dionne,1979)and to pollution (Serodes,1980). Recent studies related to sedimentation in the St.Lawrence Estuary deal both with the offshore zones (D'Anglejan et aI.,1973,1974,1981;Brisebois, 1975;CENTREAU,1975;Soucy et aI.,1976;O'Anglejan et Brisebois,1974, 1978;Kranck,1979;Silverberg and Sundby,1979;D'Anglejan,1981a; Couillard,1982),and the shore zones (Serodes,1980;Allard,1981; O'Anglejan.1981b;Drapeau and Morin,1981;Troade et aI.,1981;Dube, 1,982;Serodes et al.,1982).Even though particular attention has been given to ice action in the tidal zones (Dionne,1968a,b,C,1969a,b,1971a,b, 1972a,b,1973,1974a,b,1980;Allard and Champagne,1980),until recently only gross estimates have been made of the volume of sediment incorporated annually in the ice (Dionne,1981a.b).However,Nota.and Loring (1964, p.233)recognized sometime ago that ice should be considered as a prominent factor of erosion,transportation and deposition in the St.Lawrence Estuary and Gulf. ...... 151 o 20 k'"c:==== Ri \'iere·du·Loup ,- /, /, /, /, /, / /4~, /UNITED, /nATES, /, L 70 0 -<.Baie-.:l1~~~~+Saint·Paul E ..... ~ Turbidily lone Muimum turbidily zone ----------- ...... ...... Fig.2.Map of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary showing three major units:<a)maximum turbidity zone;(b)medium turbidity zone;and (c)turbidity.free or very low turbidity zone,accordjing to D'Anglejan etaJ.(1981).The study area is located within the maximum turbidity ZOJl,e. It is the purpose of this paper to report preliminary data on the volume of fine sedim4mt incorporated annually in the ice cover,particularly at Mont- magny,to discuss briefly the significance of ice rafting in the sedimentary budget of l~he Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,and to point out its importance to the evoilltion of some high·latitude continental shelves. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MONTMAGNY TIDAL FLAT - The Montmagny tidal flat is located on the south shore of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,approximately 70 km northeast of Quebec City (lat. 47"N).FrCllm a sedimentological point of view,this area can be considered as .... 152 a particular environment within the North Atlantic inner continental shelf (Fig.l).The tidal flat extends from Point St.Thomas to the west,to Cape St.Ignace in the east,a distance of approximately 15 km.The mean width of the flat is 1500 m,but locally it extends up to 3 km at lower low tide for an average area of 20 km2 (Fig.3).It is set in a large open embayment facing the Montmagny Archipelago.The depression which is cut into Cambro· Ordovician folded slate and sandstone formations 'of the Appalachian Prov. ince,is filled with fine.grained Quaternary deposits.Pleistocene marine clays (Goldthwait Sea)several meters in thickness underlie Holocene and Recent stratified silts and fine sands a few centimeters to a few decimeters in thick· ness,and locally up to one meter or more,along the major channels of the tidal flat. The Montmagny tidal flat is composed of two major units:a relatively wide marsh up to 500 m wide set at the higher level.and a broad muddy and sandy tidal flat extending from the marsh down to the lowest low tide level. Mean tides range from 4 to 5 In and large spring tides are up to 6 m.The area is considered as a macrotidal environment characterized by a broad tidal platform which slopes gently seaward with a gradient ranging from 1 to 5 m km-L •This tidal flat is entirely ice.covered for several months each winter. Freeze·up usually occurs in December and break-up in April.The ice cover is commonly 60...,.100 em thick,but locally thicknesses up to 125-150 em have been measured.The ice cover extends seaward as far as the -5 m iso· batn for about 2-3 months.Throughout the winter in the offshore zone, floes of various size move upstream and downstream according to wind direc· tion and tidal currents. The Montmagny tidal flat is located in the upper section of the Middle St,Lawrence Estuary,an area comprising a high turbidity zone extending from Quebec City to Cap aax Oies on the north shore and to La Pocatiere on the south shore (Fig.2).In this turbidity zone,the suspended matter values vary considerably from place to place.Generally,turbidity decreases downstream, shoreward and from the bottom to the surface.According to D'Anglejan et at (1973),Silverberg and Sundby (1979)and D'Anglejan (1981a),the sus- pended matter values in the turbidity zone vary from 10 to 450 mg 1-1 during the summer.No data are available on the turbidity during the ice season.The suspended particulate matter is mainly composed of silt and clay,with a vary· ing proportion of organic debris (Kranck.1979;Pocklington and Leonard, 1979).Illite and chlorite are the two main components (up to 94%)of the clay minerals of the suspended matter (D'Anglejan et al.~1973). MODERN DAY SEDIMENTATION Like most other flats of the Middle St.;Lawrence Estuary,deposition occurs year round on the Montmagny tidal flat.However,two main periods of mud and fine sand deposition do exist,one during the summer and the other during the winter.It is well known that deposition today is not perma· nent in the turbidity maximum zone.On the contrary,it is cyclic and 1 1 1 1 1 ... CI'I C" .. l' ~J=_.:...__~_'''''' •.F,o. 0\' ..,~..""•of> ---------..'"- ""~It c ,.""It II , t'i ~ .... .,""-. - Fig.a.Map of the Montmagny tidal nat and adjacent oFFshore areas. ./ 154 dynamic,and subject to several periods of erosion during the year (Serodes, 1980;Troude et al.,19S1;DUbe,1982). During the summer,mud deposition is largely concentrated in the lower marsh zone,the vegetation cover favoring the deposition of suspended matter from July to September.Although a few scattered patches of mud up to 45-50 em thick do occur in the marsh,most commonly the average thick- ness of the mud layer deposited in summer is 20 em and rarely exceeds 25- 30 em.Deposition on the bare tidal flat is less than in the marsh:5-15 em only.Generally at the end of September or the beginning of October,waves and tidal currents extensively rework the freshly deposited mud and return it to the offshore turbidity zone (Serodes,1980).Consequently,it is difficult to determine how much sediment deposited during the ice-free season is left over each year.Preliminary measurements at Cape Tourmente on the north shore of the St.Lawrence (the site which has the highest rate of summer deposition),indicate a mean increase of 5-S mm per year over the last 30 years (Troude et aI.,1981).These values compare well with the mean rate of sedimentation at Lee Bay,North Sea (Reineck,1980).However,if one considers that at Montmagny,the Holocene and Recent stratified silts and fine sands unit overlying the Pleistocene marine clay is particularly thin (commonly only a few decimeters only),the annual permanent deposition in the tidal flat is very small today. The other period of deposition is the winter.Although the tidal flat is entirely ice-covered during that period,sedimentary processes are still active under the ice cover,particularly in the bare mud flat.As the ice cover is not bound to the bottom,the fluctuating level of the water related to the tidal . cycles allows a daily rise and fall of the ice cover.Turbid water introduced under the ice cover at high tide allows mud and fine sand to sediment in this environment.Consequently,at the end of the winter,a soft and liquid mud layer,10-25 em thick,covers large areas of the bare tidal flat (Dionne,1980, 1981a,b).The situation differs considerably in the tidal marsh.because in that zone the ice cover which is usually adfrozen to the bottom does not allow penetration of turbid water,so that little or no deposition of mud occurs during the win~er.Of the winter deposition,little remains over long periods throughout the tidal flat.Commonly after a few storms,most of the liquid and fresh mud is swept away. INCORPORATION OF SEDIMENT INTO THE ICE COVER The deposition of fine-grained sediments under the ice cover is not the only noteworthy aspect of Montmagny tidal flat sedimentation during the winter.On the contrary,a large quantity of sediment is caught up within the ice cover in various ways.Three major processes of incorporating sediment into the ice are commonly observed in the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary: Ca)Freezing at the base of the ic~cover.~t low tide,when the ice rests directly on the bottom.In this way,thin laminae of mud are progressively incorporated into the ice sheet to form a sequence 10-25 em thick.This ..... ..... - _. 155 sequence can be observed easily,at break-up,directly in the ice cover itself and in the several ice floes which may have been left on the tidal flat at low tide (FigsA and 5). (b)Incorporation of fine-grained sediments can also be deposited on the surface of the ice cover when it is occasionally su bmerged during the highest spring tidE:S (Fig.6).Sediments are also introduced through the numerous tidal cracks and other openings in the ice cover.At high tide,hydrostatic pressure ulrlder the ice cover is such that turbid water flushes through the cracks leaving large volumes of mud at the surface of the ice sheet (Fig.7). (c)Freezing in situ of turbid water (Fig.B).This is a common process in the MiddlE!St.Lawrence Estuary and occurs throughout the cold season both in thl~shore and offshore zones.Preliminary observations indicate that a few million tonnes of suspended matter may drift seaward in this way annually.. These three major processes and possibly also other minor mechanisms incorporatl~a large volume of fine-grained sediment into the ice cover annually.The storage of sediment in the ice probably reduces significantly the turbidity values of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary during the winter. OBSERVATIONS ON SEDIMENT CONTENT IN 1981 The favorable conditions that prevailed in 1981 permitted the measure- ment and s.n estimate of the sediment content of the ice cover at Montmagny Fig.4.Fine·grained sediments incorporated into the ice cover at Montmagny;sediments are frozen to the base and also interstratified with ice (4.7.73). 156 ............-..~--......_--..-..,I. Fig.5.A view of an ice floe at Montmagny showing a sequence about 40 cm in thickness of thin layers of mud interstratified with ice and squeezed between two layers of clean ice (4.8.69). (Fig.9).During that winter,the ice sheet over the bare mud flat was only 60 to 75 em thick.However,in March most floes examined showed an average 10 em-thick sequence of layered fine sediments incorporated into the ice.In addition,natural windows in the ice cover,explained by the removal of ice fragments by hydrostatic:pressure.revealed the presence of several thin laminae of mud having a mean thickness of 10 em within the ice cover itself (Figs.l0 and 11). Assuming that the sediment content of the ice cover at Montmagny in 1981,as determined from several measurements.was on average 10 em thick, the 20 km2 of the area could contain approximately 4 X 1()6 t of sediment (wet weight). This quantity of fine sediment in the ice cover may appear surprisingly high to those who are not familiar with cold region tidal flats.However,it compares well with recent observations made in the Bay of Fundy (Gordon and Desplanque,1981).and also with some arctic environments (Campbell and Collin,1958;Barnes et al.,1982).It is not known yet if 1981 was an average or an exceptional year for mud content of the ice cover at Mont· magny.Should it be an average year.the sedimentological significance of that process would have major consequences;it implies that a large propor. tion of this load can escape the turbidity zone'by ice drifting.The numerous field observations made at breakup,each year since 1967.at many localities ,..--"- - ~-.....~~~&.-...-..a.-• _ •-- 157 Fig.6.The iCl~sheet at L'Islet is covered by a layer of fresh mud,a few em thick,due to submergence at high spring tide (4.7.74). Fig.7.A tidal crack in the ice cover at Montmagny through which mud is introduced at the surface (4.15.72). 158 Fig.B.Adose·up view olan ice floe made up of dirty ice cobbles,at Montmagny (12.4.71). Fig.9.A general view of the ice cover at Montmagny during the 1981 winter;note that the surface is largely covered by mud (2.22.81). r 159 .... ..... ..... .. " .~......:,r ~::".......~_.:..........- '9 - - Figs.10 and 11.Mud content of the ice cover at Montmagny in 1981 i numerous laminae of mud and ice are interstratified;the ice cover is about 60 cm thick (3.8.81). 160 in the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,suggest that 1981 was not an exceptional year as far as sediment concentration within the ice cover is concerned.Con- sequently,these preliminary data lead to the following discussion. DISCUSSION A major question to be answered is."what happens to the sediment incor- porated into the ice cover?"Do the 4 X 106 t calculated for the Montmagny tidal flat drift away at break-up?If so,where exactly do they go? As far as is known from observations made during the last 15 years,only a portion of the fine-grained sediment incorporated into the ice cover drifts ou~ side the area of the high turbidity zone of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary_ It was estimated (Dionne,1981d)that upon melting and washing by waves about 15%of the ice-bound sediment returns directly to the tidal flat during breakup,about 45%returns to the turbidity zone,while the remaining 40% drifts seaward.In other words,1-1.5 X 106 t of fine-grained sediment from the ice cover of the Montmagny area could escape the high turbidity zone annually. The Montmagny tidal flat is only one of the several tidal flats within the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary affected by the process of ice drifting.There are other large ice covers at La Pocatiere.l'lslet.Ile-aux-Oies,Petite-Riviere- St-Fran~ois.Baie-St-Paul,Cape Tourmente and along the North Channel near TIe d 'Orleans.A gross estimate gives a shore zone area of approximately 60 km'.Consequently,several million tonnes of sediment will also be caught up by this large ice cover,from which about 40%will drift seaward at break- up.Thus,an average sediment load of 5-6 X 106 t of fine-grained sediment is available from the ice cover of shore zones in the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary.To this load should be added the few million tonnes of sediment which come from the freezing in situ of the turbid waters in the offshore zone.This load possibly adds up to 4 X 106 t annually (wet weight).In sum- mary,it is likely that an average of 10 X 106 t of fine sediment would drift outside the turbidity zone annually in the way which has been described. The sediment budget The large volume of sediment involved in ice processes is of great impor- tance for understahding the sediment budget of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary.The problem can be briefly summarized as follows.According to most authors the annual input for the high turbidity zone greatly exceeds the output.Consequently,there should be a positive balance reflected by deposition of fines.Surprisingly,there is little permanent sedimentation today in the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary both in the offshore and shore zones.D'Anglejan and Brisebois (1978)have clearly shown that very little deposition of #ines occurs presently in the basins and channels of the middle estuary with bottom erosion occurring almost everywhere (Fig.12).This state- ment is also valid for the shore zone;on a long-term basis,ahnost everywhere ]1 1 I 1 1 i )I ]1 1 •t In. ~••_•••.::::::c ~'ill ~Sill •••1:1., ~::tE~C•••I....il II.C:flr ~~S,'..., p;~~~••••I.',,,.,1 ;:~~~~~~~ii~SII' '.::.'.",Sill,.... I I~nw~//I ..~.':;;',j"'"",,,",hU~',.'.~JO,.."u.-.:~_o"I__._._"""-.... r Fig.12.Distribution of surficial sediments in the upper section of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary,according to Brisebois (1975), O'Anglejan and Brisebois (1978),and Cremer (1979), I-' 0'> I-' --------------_. 162 very little sedimentation is obsezved on both shores of the St.Lawrence Estuary (Dionne,1979;Allard,1981;D'Anglejan et a1.,1981;Dube,1982), although a relatively important deposition of a temporary nature (summer and winter)occurs at some localities:Cape Tourmente,lIe aux Oies and Montmagny for example (Dionne,1980,1981b,Serodes,1980;Troude et a1.,1981).The deposition occurring in the navigation channel is mainly related to bedload and current action (Boucher,.1961).Consequently,it does not reduce significantly the volume of the suspended load. Data are still inadequate to determine precisely the sedimentary budget of the middle estuary.The output of suspended matter has been evaluated from measurements made in summer only.D'Anglejan et ale (1973,1974)calcu- lated that about 1 X 106 t of fines escape the turbidity zone during the ice- free season.The output is largely controlled by the complex.water circulation resulting from hydrodynamic processes.mainly tidal action.These authors underlined the possible action of ice but did not discuss it nor did they suggest any estimates of the volume of fines possibly involved in ice drifting. Although B.D'Anglejan (pers.commun.,1982)agreed that this preliminary estimate is much too low,no other figure for the output of the suspended load from the turbidity zone has been suggested yet. The input is also poorly documented.Four estimates are commonly referred to:(a)5 X 106 t yr-I (Frenette and Larinier.1973;Loring and Nota, 1973;CE!',TTREAU.1975);(b)8-10 X 106 t,from which 70%is introduced during April and May (Serodes.1980);(c)11 X 106 t (Cataliotti-Valdina and Long,1982);and (d)20 X 106 t (Cremer,1979).It is difficult to determine which one of these estimates is the most realistic. Considering the estimated output related to ice drifting,an input of only 5 X 106 t is much too low.This would give a sediment balance of only 4 X 106 t of fines for deposition in the various zones of the estuary and for ice drifting.In this case.severe erosion would certainly result.Although erosion does occur on the bottom and along shorelines.it is not considered nearly as important as that which would result from a very negative sediment budget (i.e.approximately 5-6 X 106 t yr-J ).The largest figure for the input load (at Quebec City)suggests 20 X 106 t yr-1 (Cremer,1979).If this figure is correct.it would mean that the sediment budget is significantly positive, since the summer and the winter output together are possibly less than 12 X 106 t.In this case,relatively important long-term deposition should occur at least at some localities.However,there is no evidence of this.Another possi- bility is that output explained by ice-drifting is indeed more important than has been suggested. The 8-10 and the 11 X 106 t figures for the annual input suggested re- spectively by S~hodes (1980),and Cataliotti-Valdina and Long (1982)fit better with the preliminary values obtained when ice drifting processes are taken into account.In this case,the annual output almost equals the input. Consequently the sediment budget is in near equilibrium,although it may be slightly positive or negative from year to year.This would explain why there is little or no fine sedimentation over long-term periods in the offshore and shore zones of the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary. - .- 163 According to Serodes (1980),most of the 3 X 106 t of fines deposited on tidal flats during the summer return to the turbidity zone in the autumn. Consequently most tidal flats are not reaJ.]~,prograding today;on the contrary, many are suffering erosion.. WhatevElr the suspended matter values for the annual input are,if the ice- free season output does not exceed 1 X 106 t (D'Anglejan et al.,1973),there should be a positive sediment budget in the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary. Since this positive balance has not been observed in the nearshore and off- shore zonl~S,it is suggested that ice drifting is the process by which several million tonnes of fine-grained sediments are evacuated annually from the turbidity 2:one.Thus,ice processes are playing a significant role in the evolu- tion of some ice-dominated shelf environments.Considering that the concen- tration of particulate matter in the Gulf of St.Lawrence is low (D'Anglejan, 1969;Couillard,1982),only a small percentage of the ice-drifting sediments from the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary reaches the deep ocean (Sundby, 1974). CONCLUSIONS The role,of ice in evacuating fine-grained sediments from the high turbidity zone of the St.Lawrence Estuary would appear to be of great significance.It offers a valid explanation for the very limited deposition which characterizes most offshore and shores zones.Because of ice action,the sediment budget in the Middle St.Lawrence Estuary is presently more or less in equilibrium (or perhaps with a slightly negative balance)over long term periods.Judging from the thickness of the recent deposits overlying the postglacial marine clays,this situation has existed for at least several centuries.Consequently. some shoI'1e zones are prograding very slowly,others are in equilibrium and some are degrading.Serious damage to the environment may result from such local degradations if adequate solutions are not proposed in the near future.Hi~:h·latitude inner continental shelves are commonly ice-dominated environmelilts.For various reasons,ice processes are often poorly documented although they are of great importance in areas such·as the St.Lawrence Estuary. ACKNOWLE:DGMENTS The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of the following col- leagues for data and helpful discussions:Georges Drapeau and Bernard Long, INRS-Oceanology (Rimouski),Jacques Lacombe and Jean-Baptiste Serodes, universite Laval,Quebec),and Bruno D'Anglejan,McGill University (Montreal),P.B.Clibbon,Universite Laval,has reviewed the English text. Isabelle Diaz,drew the figures and Therese Lambert typed the manuscript. This work was supported in part by a research grant from the Nat:~naI Sciences al'lld Engineering Research Council of Canada. I I 164 REFERENCES Allard,M.,1981.L'anse aux Canards,ne d'Orleans,Quebec,evolution holocene et dy- namique actuelle.Geogr.Phys.Quat.,35:133-154. Allard,M.and Champagne,P.,1980.Dynamique glacielle Ii la pointe d'Argentenay,ne d'Orleans,Quebec.Geogr.Phys.Quat.,34:159-174. 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FWS/OBS-82/10.60 January 1984 HABITAT SUITABILITY INFORMATION:RAINBOW TROUT by Robert F.Raleigh P.O.Box 625 Council,10 83612 Terry Hick.man Endangered Species Office U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service 1311 Federal BUilding 125 S.State Street Salt Lake City,UT 84138 R.Charles Solomon Habitat Evaluation Procec~res Group Western Energy and Land Use Team U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Drake Creekside Building One .2627 Redwing Road Fort Collins,CO 80526-2899 and Patrick C.Nelson Instream Flow and Aquatic Systems.Group Western Energy and Land Use Team U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Drake Creekside Building One 2627 Redwing Road Fort Collins,CO 80526-2899 Western Energy and Land Use Team Division of Biological Services Research and Development Fish and Wildlife Service U.S.Department of the Interior Washington,DC 20240 PREFACE The Habitat Suitability Index (HSI)models presented in this publication aid in identifying important habitat variables.Facts,ideas,and concepts obtained from the research literature and expert reviews are synthesized and presented in a format that can be used for impact assessment.The models are hypotheses of species-habitat relationships,and model users should recognize that the degree of veracity of the HSI model,SI graphs,and assumptions will vary according to geographical area and the extent of the data base for individual variables.After clear study objectives have been set,the HSI model bUilding techniques presented in U.S.'Fish and Wildlife Service (1981)1 and the general gUidelines for modifying HSI models and estimating model variables presented in Te'rrell et al.(1982)%may be useful for simplifying and applying the models to specific impact assessment problems.Simplified models should be tested with independent data sets if possible. A brief discussion of the appropriateness of using selected Suitability Index (SI)curves from HSl models as a component of the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM)is provided.Additional SI curves,developed specifically for analysis of rainbow trout habitat with IFIM,also are presented. The U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service encourages model users to comments,suggestions,and test results that may help us increase the and effectiveness of this habitat-based approach to impact assessment. send comments to: Habitat Evaluation Procedures Group or Instream Flow and Aquatic Systems Group Western Energy and Land Use Team U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service 2627 Redwing Road Ft.Collins,CO 80526-2899 provide ut il ity Please lU.S.Fish and Wildlife Service. habitat suitability index models. Ecol.Servo n.p. 1981.Standards for the development of 103 ESM.U.S.Fish Wildl.Serv.,Div. 2Terrell,J.W.,T.E.McMahon,P.D.Inskip,R.F.Raleigh,and K.L. Williamson.1982.Habitat suitability index models:Appendix A.Guidelines for riverine and lacustrine applications of fish HSI models with the Habitat Evaluation Procedures.U.S.Fish Wildl.Servo FWS/OBS-82110.A.54 pp. iii - CONTENTS Page PREFACE .........................................••.....................iii ',-FIGURES ..................................................•.............vi TAS LES .....•...................•.......••..............................vii AC KNOWLEDGMENITS ...•....•.........................•.•...................vii i ..... i,HABITAT USE INFORMATION .•........•.•...•...........•....•.............. ~,Genera 1 .•...............•...••••...........•...•....•...•...•..... Age.Grclwth t and Food ..•....................•..••.•...•..•..•..... Reproduc:tion .........•.•..•...•....•....•..•.•...............•.... An ad romy ......•..••.•.............................•.•.•...•....•.. _.Specific:Habitat Requirements .......•......•.....................• ,HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX (HSI)MODELS .........................•....... Mode lApp 1i cabi 1i ty .....•...............•......................... Model DI~scription .....................................•.....•..... Suitabi'lity Index (SI)Graphs for Model Variables ..........•..•..• Riverinl~Model ..•....•.............•.............................. Lacustr'ine Model s ......................•.......................... Interpreting Model Outputs .....•........................•........• ADDITIONAL HASITATMOOELS ................................•.......••..•. Model 1 . Mode 1 2 .........•...•..••...........•............................. Mo de 1 3 ..•...........••..........•..................•............. Model 4 .........•..................................•.............. INSTREAM FLO'W INCREMENTAL METHODOLOGY (IFIM). Suitability Index Graphs as Used in IFIM .........•................ Availability of Graphs for Use in IFIM . I'-REFERENCES ! - v 1 1 1 2 3 4 9 11 11 13 23 32 33 33 33 36 36 36 37 37 39 54 FIGURES Number 1 Diagram illustrating the relationship among model variables,components,and HSI .. 2 SI curves for rainbow trout spawning velocity,depth, substrate,and temperature . 3 SI curves for rainbow trout fry velocity,depth,substrate, and temperature . 4 5I curves for rainbow trout juvenile velocity,depth, substrate,and temperature . 5 SI curves for rainbow trout adult velocity,depth, substrate,and temperature . vi Page 10 41 45 49 52 - TABLES Number ......1 2 3 4 5 6.-, ~' .~ Matrix table for displaying suitability indices (SIts)for rainbow trout habitat variables 22 Literature sources"and assumptions for rainbow trout suit- ability indices..............................................24 Sample data sets using the nonanadromous riverine rainbow trout HSI model ".. . .. .. . . . . . . ... .. . . . .. . .34 Average va 1ue method 35 Average value,probability method 35 Availability of curves for IFIM analysis of rainbow trout habitat 40 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Robert Behnke,Colorado State University;Leo Lentsch,U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service;and Tom Weshe,University of Wyoming,provided comprehensive reviews and many helpful comments and suggestions for improving the manuscript and the model.The Oregon Cooper at i ve Fi shery Research Unit conducted the literature review for the report.Cathy Short and Tric1a Rosenthal conducted editorial reviews,and word processing was provided by Carolyn Gulzow and Dora Ibarra.The cover illustration was prepared.by Jennifer Shoemaker. viii I 1 - RAINBOW TROUI (Salmo gairdneri) HABITAT USE INFORMATION - ..1"'" Genelra 1---- Because of variations in their life history pattern and the habitat in which they spend the majority of their adult lives.rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)can be subdivided into three basic ecological forms:(1)anadromous steel head trout;(2)resident stream rainbow trout;and (3)lake or reservoir dwelling rainbow trout.It is important to recognize that there is a genetic or hereditary basis for each ecological form.For example,a "lake or reservoir"rainbow may react very differently to environmental stimuli assoiciated with survival.feeding.and growth if it belongs to a population that has been evolving and adapting to the particular lake for hundreds or thousands of years,when compared to hatchery rainbow trout that have just been released in the lake. Nonanadromous rainbow trout are native to.the Pacific Coast drainages inland as far as the Rockies and from the Rio del Presidio River in Mexico to the Kuskokwim River in Southwestern Alaska (Behnke 1979).They are also native to the Peace River drainage of British Columbia and the headwaters of the Athabaska River (of the McKenzie River basin)in Alberta (MacCrimmon 1971).Their present range extends from the Arctic Circle to 55°S latitude. They are perhaps the most widely introduced fish species;the only continent lacking rainbow trout is Antarctica (McAfee 1966;MacCrimmon 1971).Rainbow trout occur from 0 to 4,500 m above sea level (MacCrimmon 1971). Anadromous steel head trout are di stributed along the Pacifi c coast from the Santa Ynez Mountains,California.to the Alaska Peninsula (Jordan and Evermann 1902;Withler 1966).large rainbow trout on and north of the Alaska Peninsula appear to be nonanadromous . ..i.~Growth,and Food ~1-',. Female rainbow trout typically become sexually mature during their third year;males become sexually mature during their second or third year (Holton ..1953;lagler 1956;McAfee 1966).Life expectancy averages 3 to 5 years in most southern 1ake popul ati ons.but 1i fe expectancy of stee 1head and northern lake populations appears to be 4 to 8 years.Maximum size al so varies with population.area.and habitat.Steelhead may grow to 122 cm long and weigh 16 kg.The average angler's catch is 3.6 to 4 kg.Great Lakes rainbow grow to :?44 em,but seldom exceed 9 kg (Scott and Crossman 1973).Size in wild 1 rainbow trout appears to be a function of longevity~delayed age at maturity,~.. and length of ocean residence for steel head.~ Adult and juvenile rainbow trout are basically opportunistic feeders and consume a wide variety of foods.Availability of different foods depends on many factors,including water type,season,and size of the trout (McAfee 1966).The diet of rainbow trout consists mainly of aquatic insects (Allen 1969;Carlander 1969;Baxter and Simon 1970;Scott and Crossman 1973).although foods,such as zooplankton (McAfee 1966),terrestrial insects.and fish (Carlander 1969),are locally or seasonally important.The relative importance of aquatic and terrestrial insects to resident stream rainbow trout varies great ly among di fferent envi ronments ,seasonally and di e lly,and wi th the age of the trout (Bisson 1978).Forty to fifty percent or more of the summer food of trout in headwater streams may be composed of terrestri ali nsects (Hunt 1971).Adult stream rainbow trout occasionally consume significant quantities of vegetation,mostly algae (McAfee 1966).Stream trout have no mechanism to break down cell walls in vegetation and cannot obtain nutrients from it, therefore,vegetation is thought to be consumed because of the invertebrates attached to it (Behnke pers.comm.).Bottom fauna may comprise 83 to 94%of the winter diet of adult and juvenile lake rainbow trout (Crossman and Larkin 1959).Lake trout usually reach 30 cm in length before they actively prey on other fish species (Crossman 1959;Crossman and Larkin 1959;Johannes and Larkin 1961). Reproduction Rainbow trout spawn almost exclusively in streams.Some rainbow and rainbow-cutthroat trout hybrids have successfully reproduced in lakes without tributary streams (Behnke.pers.comm.).Spawning in certain river systems may occur in intermittent tributary streams (Everest 1973;Pri ce and Geary 1979).In one case,up to 47%of the stream rainbow trout population spawned in intermittent tributaries that dried up in midsummer and fall (Erman and Leidy 1975;Erman and Hawthorne 1976).Spawning normally occurs from January to July.depending on location.Hatchery selection has resulted in fall spawning strains,and spawning of hatchery fish may occur in almost any month of the year,depending on the strain (Behnke 1979).A few populations outside of the native range have modified their spawning times to avoid adverse environmental conditions (Van Vel son 1974;Kaya 1977).Viable eggs have resulted from December and January spawning at water temperatures of 0.3 to 2.00 C in a tributary of Lake Huron (Dodge and MacCrimmon 1970).However, eggs exposed to long periods of a to 4 0 C temperatures suffered high mortality and abnormalities. The female generally selects a redd site in gravel substrate at the head of a riffle or downstream edge of a pool (Greeley 1932;Orcutt et al.1968). The redd pit.constructed primarily by the female,is typically longer than the female and deeper than her greatest body depth (Greeley 1932).Average depth of egg deposition is 15 cm (Hooper 1973). Rainbow trout residing in lakes and reservoirs have a similar life history pattern to the steelhead trout,but generally lack a physiological smolt 2 stage.Juveniles m·;grate from natal streams to a freshwater lake rearing area»instead of to the ocean.Lake rainbow trout most commonly spend two summers ina stream and two summers ina lake before maturi ng (Greeley 1933). Spawning takes place during the growing season in an inlet or an outlet stream» with mlore than 90%of the trout returning to the stream of natal origin (Greele,y 1933;Lindsey et al.1959).Lakes with no inlet or outlet streams generally do not possess a reproducing population of rainbow trout.Whether spawning adults enter through an inlet or an outlet»they and their progeny will rf~turn to the lake (Lindsey et al.1959).These movements from natal sites to lake rearing areas appear to be directed by genetic/environmental interactions (Raleigh 1971). Spawning usually begins one month earlier in the outlet than in the inlet (lindsE!y et al~1959;Hartman et al.1962);the difference in time is apparently related to temperature differences (Lindsey et al.1959).In Bothwell Creek,a tributary of Lake Huron»65%of the spawning run were repeat spawner's (Dodge and MacCrimmon 1970).The typical survival rate of repeat spawner's is 10-30%,with extremes from 1%to more than 65%. .Average fecundity of rainbow trout is related to length,but is highly variable»ranging from 500 to 3»161 eggs per stream resident female (Carlander 1969).Fecundity of lake resident females ranges from 935 to 4»578 eggs per female>with an average of 2»028 eggs per female (Mann 1969). ,....Anadron~ Anadromous steel head spawn in freshwater streams.Steel head smo 1t and mi grat~!in late spring (Wagner 1968;Chri sp and Bjornn 1978).Photoperi od appears to be the dominant triggering mechanism for parr-smolt transformation, with tl~mperature affecting the rate of transformation (Wagner 1974).Smolts that helve not migrated by approximately the summer solstice revert to parr and attempt to migrate the following season (Zaugg and Wagner 1973).Juveniles reside in freshwater for 1 to 4 years before migrating to the sea as smolts. They m,iture after 1 to 4 years of ocean residence and return to freshwater rivers to spawn (Chapman 1958;Withler 1966).A large number of the steel head adults die after spawning,but some (3 to 53%)return to the ocean and spawn again {Bjornn 1960;Withler 1966;Fulton 1970).Steel head spawners tend to be larger and older in the northern portion of their range (Withler 1966). There are both winter and summer-run steel head.Summer-run adults enter freshwater rivers in the spring and early summer.Winter-run steel head enter freshwater rivers in the fall and winter.As many as 98.8%of the trout return to their natal stream (McAfee 1966).Both groups typically spawn in the spring and early summer months,March through early July (Withler 1966; Orcutt et al.1968),although spawning at other times of the year has been reportl~d.Summer-run and wi nter-run stee 1head are di sti ngui shed by di fferences in beh,ivior prior to spawning and»to a limited extent»by appearance (Withler 1966). 3 When fi sh mi grate from freshwater to sa ltwate.r,they are movi ng from a hypotonic medium to a hypertonic medium.Gill Na-K ATPase activity appears to be related to saltwater tolerance and smolting (Conte and Wagner 1965;Zaugg and Wagner 1973;Adams et al.1975).Water temperature affects Na-K-related ATPase activity.Juvenile steel head kept in water warmer than 13°C from March to June experienced reduced levels of smoltification and very low levels of ATPase activity (Zaugg and McLain 1972;Zaugg and Wagner 1973;Wagner 1974).Water temperatures of 10.5 to 13°C resul ted ina moderate ATPase response,and temperatures of 6.5 to 10°C resulted in the highest activity levels for the longest period of time (Adams et aL 1975).The effect of temperature on ATPase activity is reversible within a season (Zaugg and McLain 1972). Coefficient of condition is another indicator of"parr-smolt transforma- tion.Juvenile steelhead not undergoing a smolt transformation do not lose wei ght;whereas.steel head undergoi ng tran sformati on lose enough wei ght to result in a greatly reduced coefficient·of condition (Adams et al.1973; Wagner 1974). A fork length (i,e"anterior most extremity to the notch in the tail fin of fork-tailed fish or to the center of the tail fin when the tail is not forked)of 160 mm is the average length juvenile parr must reach before they undergo the physiological and morphological changes of smolting (Fessler and Wagner 1969;Chri sp and Bj ornn 1978).Hatchery-reared steel head typi ca lly reach critical size in one growing season,but native stream steelhead usually require two or more growing seasons (Chrisp and Bjornn 1978).Migrating smolts at the lower end of the minimum length"requirement stay in the ocean ~ longer than smolts that are larger in size when they migrate (Chapman 1958)." The freshwater habitat requirements of adult and juvenile steel head are assumed to be essentially the same as those for other rainbow trout.Excep- tions for steelhead are:(l)low temperature «13°C)requirements during the spring months for smoltification of juveniles;and (~)the presence of moderate temperatures (preferably S 20°C)and freshets (periodic high flows) during the upstream migration of adults. Specific Habitat Requirements Optimal rainbow trout riverine habitat is characterized by clear,cold water;a silt-free rocky substrate in riffle-run areas;an approximately 1:1 pool-to-riffle ratio,with areas of slow,deep water;well-vegetated stream banks;abundant instream cover;and relatively stable water flow,temperature regimes.and stream banks (Raleigh and Duff 1980). Optimal lacustrine habitat is characterized by clear,cold,deep lakes that are typically oligotrophic,but may vary in size and chemical quality, particularly in reservoir habitats.Rainbow trout are primarily stream spawners and generally require tributary streams with gravel substrate in riffle areas for reproduction to occur. 4 Ty'out production is typically greatest in streams with a pool-to-riffle ratio of approximately 1:1 (Fortune and Thompson 1969;Thompson and Fortune 1970).Pools are inhabited throughout the year by adult and juvenile stream rainbo,.~trout.Pools are important to trout as a refuge from adverse condi- tions during the.winter.Because pools differ in their ability to provide restin9 areas and cover,this model subdivides pools into three classes. Lewis (1969)found that streams with deep,low velocity pools containing extensive cover had the most stable trout populations. Available trout literature does not often clearly distinguish between feeding stations,escape cover,and winter cover requirements.Prime requisites for optimal feeding stations appear to be low water velocity and access to a plentiful food supply;i ,e"energy accretion at a low energy cost.Water depth is not clearly defined as a selection factor.and overhead cover is preferred but not essential,Escape cover,however,must be nearby. The feeding stations of dominant adult trout include overhead cover when available.The feeding stations of subdominant adults and juveniles,however, do not always include overhead cover.Antagonistic behavior occurs at feeding stations and hierarchies are established,but escape cover is often shared. Cover is recognized as one of the essential components of trout streams. Boussu (1954)was able to increase the number and weight of trout in stream secti,ons by adding artificial brush cover and to decrease numbers and weight of tr'out by removing brush cover and undercut banks.Lewis (1969)reported that the amount of cover was important in determining the number of trout in sections of a Montana stream.Stewart (1970)found that mean depth and under- water,overhanging bank cover were the most important variables in determining the density of brook and rainbow trout longer than 18 cm in a northcentral Colorado stream.Cover for adult trout consists of areas of obscured stream bottom in water ~15 cm deep with a velocity of $15 em/sec (Wesche 1980), Wesche (1980)reported that,in larger streams,the abundance of trout ~15 cm in length increased with water depth;most trout were at depths of at least 15 cm.Cover is provided by overhanging vegetation;submerged vegetation; undey'cut banks;instream objects,such as debris piles,logs,and large rocks; pool depth;and surface turbulence (Giger 1973).A cover area of ~25%of the tota'!stream area provides adequate cover for adult trout;a cover area of ~15%is adequate for juveniles.The main uses of summer cover are probably predator avoidance and resting. In some streams.the major factor limiting salmonid densities may be the amount of adequate overwi nteri ng habi tat,rather than the amount of summer rearing habitat (Bustard and Narver 1975a).Winter hiding behavior in sa1monids is triggered by low temperatures (Chapman and Bjornn 1969;Everest 1969;Bustard and Narver 1975a,b).Cutthroat trout were found under boulders, log jams,upturned roots,and debris when temperatures neared 4 to 8°C, depending on the water velocity (Bustard and Narver 1975a).Everest (1969) found juvenile.rainbow trout 15 to 30 cm deep in the substrate,which was ofte~n covered by 5 to 10 cm of anchor ice.Lewi s (1969)reported that,duri ng winter.adult rainbow trout tended to move into deeper water (first class pools).Bjornn (1971)indicated that downstream movement during or preceding winter did not occur if sufficient winter cover was available locally.Trout 5 move to winter cover to avoid physical damage from ice scouring (Hartman 1965; Chapman and Bjornn 1969)and to conserve energy (Chapman and Bjornn 1969; Everest 1969). Headwater trout streams are relatively unproductive.Most energy inputs to the stream are in the form of allochthonous materials,such as terrestrial vegetation and terrestrial insects (Idyll 1942;Chapman 1966;Hunt 1971). Aquatic invertebrates are most abundant and di verse i l'!riffl e areas wi th rubbl e substrate and on submerged aquatic vegetation (Hynes 1970).However, optimal substrate for maintenance of a diverse invertebrate population consists of a mosaic of mud,gravel,rubble,and boulders,with rubble dominant.A pool-to-riffle ratio of about 1:1 (approximately a 40 to 60%pool area)appears to provide an optimal mix of food producing and rearing areas for trout (Needham 1940).In riffle areas,the presence of fines (>10%)reduces the production of invertebrate fauna (based on Cordone and Kelly 1961;Crouse et a1.1981). Canopy cover is important in maintaining shade for stream temperature control and in providing allochthonous materials to the stream.Too much shade.however,can restrict primary productivity in a stream.Stream temper- atures can be increased or decreased by controll i ng the amount of shade. About 50 to 75%midday shade appears optimal for most small trout streams (adapted from Oregon/Washington Interagency Wildlife Conference 1979).Shading becomes less important as stream gradient and size increase.In addition,a well vegetated ri pari an area helps control watershed erosi on.In most cases, a buffer strip about 30 m wide,80%of which is either well vegetated or has stable rocky stream banks,provides adequate erosion control and maintains undercut stream banks characteristic of good trout habitat.The presence of fines in riffle-run areas can adversely affect embryo survival,food produc- tion,and cover for juveniles. There is a definite relationship between the annual flow regime and the quality of trout habitat.The most critical period is typically during base flow (lowest flows of late summer to winter).A base flow ~50%of the average annual daily flow is considered excellent for maintaining quality trout habitat,a base flow of 25 to 50%is considered fair,and a base flow of <25% is considered poor (adapted from Binns and Eiserman 1979;Wesche 1980). Adult.Dissolved oxygen requirements vary with species,age,prior acclimation temperature,water velocity,activity level,and concentration of substances in the water (McKee and Wolf 1963).As temperature increases,the dissolved oxygen saturation level in the water decreases,while the dissolved oxygen requirement for the fish increases.As a result,an increase in temperature resulting in a decrease in dissolved oxygen can be detrimental to the fish.Optimal oxygen levels for rainbow trout are not well documented, but appear to be ~7 mg/1 at temperatures s 15°C and ~9 mg/l at temperatures >15°C.Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)demonstrated that swimmi ng speed and growth rates for salmonids declined with decreasing dissolved oxygen levels. In the summer (~10°C).·cutthroat trout generally avoid water with di ssolved oxygen levels of less than 5 mg/1 (Trojnar 1972;Sekulich 1974). 6 - (" •',-.~c ""'"I I ,- -····1··~ ! The incipient lethal level of dissolved oxygen for adult and juvenile rainbow trout is approximately 3 mg/l or less,depending on environmental condi ti ons,especi ally temperature (Gutse 11 1929;Burdi ck et a 1.1954; Alabaster et al.1957;Downing and Merken 1957;DOl,ldoroff and Warren 1962). Although fish can survive at concentrations just above this level,they must make various physiological adaptations to low levels of dissolved oxygen that may jeopardize their health (Randall and Smith 1967;Kutty 1968;Hughes and Saunders 1970;Cameron 1971;Holeton 1971).For example,low levels of dissolved oxygen can result in reduced fecundity and even prevent spawning. Large fluctuations in dissolved oxygen may cause a reduction in food consump- tion and impaired growth (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970). The upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures for adult rainbow are 25°and 0°C,respectively (Black 1953;Lagler 1956;McAfee 1966;Bidgood and Berst 1969;Hokanson et al.1977).Zero growth rate occurred at 23°C for rainbow trout in the laboratory (Hokanson et ala 1977).Changes in the natural growth rate of rainbow trout are det.rimental to their development and survival. There'fore,25°C should 'be considered the upper 1 imit suitable for rainbow trout.and then only for short periods of time.Adult lake rainbow trout selec:t waters with temperatures between 7 to 18°C (Fast 1973;May 1973)and avoid permanent residence where temperatures are above 18°C (May 1973). Adult,stream rainbow trout select temperatures between 12.0 and 19.3°C (Garside and Tait 1958;Bell 1973;Cherry et ala 1977;McCauley et ala 1977). Dick~jon and Kramer (1971)reported that the greatest scope of rainbow trout activity occurred at 15 and 20°C when tested at 5°C temperature intervals. Stream rainbow trout select temperatures between 12 and 19°C;lake resident trou1~'avoid temperatures >18°C.Therefore,the optimal temperature range for rainbow trout is assumed to be 12 to 18°C. The depth distribution of adult lake rainbow trout is usually a function of dissolved oxygen,temperature,and food.Adult lake rainbow trout remain at depths s the 18°C isotherm and at di sso 1ved oxygen 1eve 1s >3 mg/l (May 1973;Hess 1974). Focal point velocities for adult cutthroat trout at territorial stations in Idaho streams were primari ly between 10 and 14 em/sec,with a maximum of 22 cmlsec (Griffith 1972).The focal point velocities for adult rainbow trout are assumed to be similar. Precise pH tolerance and optimal ranges are not well documented for rainbow trout.Most trout populations can probably tolerate a pH range of 5.5 to 9.0,with ,an optimal range of 6.5 to 8.0 (Hartman and Gill 1968;Behnke and Zarn 1976). Withler (1966)suggested that the correlation between the winter steel head run and increased water volume indicates that a freshet condition is required to initiate upstream movement of spawners.Everest (1973)stated that speed of migration of summer-run steel head in the Rogue River was inversely related to t~emperature and directly related to streamfloW's.Hanel (1971)observed that stee"lhead migration into the Iron Gate fish hatchery ceased when the water temperature dropped to 4°C and did not resume for several weeks until 7 the temperature increased.This suggests that water temperatures should be >4°C but S 18°C,and streamflow conditions should be above normal seasonal flows during upstream migrations of steel head adults. Embryo.Incubation time varies inversely with temperature.Eggs usually hatch within 28 to 40 days (Cope 1957),but may take as long as 49 days (Scott and Crossman 1973).The optimal temperature for embryo incubation is about 7 to 12°C.Calhoun (1966)reported increased mortalities of rainbow embryos at temperatures <7°C and normal development at temperatures ~7 but $12°C. The optimal water velocity above rainbow trout redds is between 30 and 70 cm/sec.Velocities less than 10 cmlsec or greater than 90 cmlsec are unsuitable (Delisle and Eliason 1961;Thompson 1972;Hooper 1973). The combined effects of temperature,dissolved oxygen,water velocity, and gravel permeability are important for successful incubation (Coble 1961). In a 30%sand and 70%gravel mixture,only 28%of implanted steel head embryos hatched;of the 28%that hatched,only 74%emerged (Bjornn 1969;Phillips et al.1975).Optimal spawning gravel conditions are assumed to include s 5%· fines;?;30%fines are assumed to result in low survival of embryos and emerging yolk-sac fry.Suitable incubation substrate is gravel that is 0.3 to 10.0 em in diameter (Delisle and Eliason 1961;Orcutt et al.1968;Hooper 1973;Duff 1980).Optimal substrate size depends on the size of the spawners, but is assumed to average 1.5 to 6.0 em in diameter for rainbows <50 em long and 1.5 to 10.0 em in diameter for spawners?;50 em long (Orcutt et al.1968). Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)reported that salmonids that incubated at low dissolved oxygen levels were weak and small with slower development and more abnormalities.Dissolved oxygen requirements for rainbow trout embryos are not well documented,but are assumed to be simi lar to the requirements for adults. Fry.Rainbow trout remain in the gravel for about 2 weeks after hatching (Scott and Crossman 1973)and emerge 45 to 75 days after egg fertilization, depending on water temperature (Calhoun 1944;Lea 1968).When moving from natal gravels to rearing areas,rainbow trout fry exhibit what appears to be three distinct genetically controlled movement patterns:(1)movement down- stream to a larger river,lake,or to the ocean;(2)movement upstream from an outlet river to a lake;or (3)local dispersion within a common spawning and rearing area to areas of low velocity and cover (Raleigh and Chapman 1971). Fry of 1ake resi dent fi sh may ei ther move into the 1ake from natal streams during the first growing season or overwinter in the spawning stream and move into the lake during subsequent growing seasons. Fry residing in streams prefer shallower water and slower velocities than do other 1i fe stages of stream trout (Mi 11 er 1957;Horner and Bjornn 1976). Fry utilize velocities less than 30 em/sec,but velocities less than 8 cmlsec are preferred (Griffith 1972;Horner and Bjornn 1976).Fry survival decreases with increased velocity after the optimal velocity has been reached (Bulkley and Benson 1962;Drummond and McKinney 1965).A pool area of 40%to 60%of the total stream area is assumed to provide optimal fry habitat.Cover in the form of aquatic vegetation,debris piles,and the interstices between rocks is critical.Griffith (1972)states that younger trout live in shallower water and stay closer to escape cover than do older trout.Few fry are found 8 ~•., ';f~ ;.{ :1 ~ ~iii t~, ;! more than 1 m from cover.As the young trout grow,they move to deeper, faster water.Everest (1969)suggested that one reason for this movement was the nE!ed for cover,which is provided by increased water depth,surface turbu- lence»and substrate that consists of large material. Stream resident trout fry usually overwinter in shallow areas of low velodty near the stream margin,with rubble being the principal cover (Bustard and Narver 1975a).Optimal size of substrate used as winter cover by rainbow fry and small juveniles ranges from 10 to 40 cm in diameter (Hartman 1965; Everest 1969).An area of substrate of this size class that is ~10%of the total habitat probably provides adequate cover for rainbow fry and small juven"iles.The use of small diameter rocks (gravel)for winter cover may result in increased mortality due to greater shifti ng of the substrate (Bustard and Narver 1975a).The presence of fines (~1O%)in the riffle-run areas reducl~s the value of the area as cover for fry and small juveniles.Mantelman (1958)reported a preferred temperature range of 13 to 19°C for fry.Because fry ClCCUpy habitats contiguous with adults,their temperature and oxygen requirements are assumed to be similar to those of adults . •Juvenile.Griffith (1972)reported focal point velocities for juvenile cutthiroat in Idaho of between 10 and 12 em/sec,with a maximum velocity of 22 em/sec.Metabolic rates are highest between 11 and 21°C,with an apparent optima.l temperature of between 15 and 20°C (Dickson and Kramer 1971).In steel head streams,temperatures should be <13 but>4°C (optimal 7 to 10°C) from March until June for normal smoltification to occur (Wagner 1974;Adams et al.1975). Common types of cover for juvenile trout are upturned roots,logs,debris piles,overhanging banks,riffles,and small boulders (Bustard and Narver 1975a).Young salmonids occupy different habitats in winter than in summer, with log jams and rubbl e important as wi nter cover.Wesche (1980)observed that larger cutthroat trout (>15 em l.ong)and juveniles (~15 em)tended to use 'instream substrate cover more often than they used streamside cover (undercut banks and overhangi ng vegetation).However,juvenil e brown trout preferred streamside cover.An area of cover ~15%of the total habitat area appears to provide adequate cover for juvenile trout. Because juvenile rainbow trout occupy habitats contiguous with adults, their temperature and oxygen requirements are aSsumed to be similar. HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX (HSI)MODELS Figure 1 illustrates the assumed relationships among model variables, components,and the HSI for the rainbow trout model. 9 Habitat variables Model components Ave.thalweg depth (V')~ %instream cover (ViA)~Adult ,~pool s (V I .)- Pool class rating (VIS) %instream cover (V iJ ) •pooh (V,,)~J""fl, Pool class rating (VIS) HSI -----=:::===~EmbryoAve.water velocity Ave.max.temp. Ave.min.D.O.(V.) Ave.gravel size in spawning areas (V,) %riffle fines (V I6A ) %substrate size class~ %pools (VlQ)----~--------~===...Fry ~__ %riffle fines (VIiS) Max.temperature (VI) Ave.min.D.O.(V.) pH (V 1 .)----'- Ave.base flow (V 1 _) Predominant substrate %streamside vegetation %riffle fines (V uS )-----./ %streamside vegetation %midday shade (VI,)b-------~ %Ave.daily flow (VI.)C------~ aVariables that affect all life stages. bOptional variables. CSteelhead variable. Figure 1.Diagram illustrating the relationship among model variables, components,and HSI. 10 ~( I - ;1 ,,'\ Model Applicability ~;eographic area.The following models are applicable over the entire North Ameri can range of the ra i nbow trout. Season .The model rates the year-round freshwater habitat of ra i nbow trout. Cover types.The model is applicable to freshwater riverine or lacustrine habit:ats. Minimum habitat area.Minimum habitat area is the minimum area of contin- uous habitat that is required for a species to live and reproduce.Because trout can move considerable distances to spawn or locate suitable summer or winter rearing habitat,no attempt has been made to define a minimum amount of habitat for the species. Verification level.An acceptable level of performance for this rainbow trout model is for it to produce an index between 0 and 1 that the authors and other biologists familiar with rainbow trout "ecology believe is positively correlated with long term carrying capacity of the habitat.Model verification consisted of testing the model outputs from sample data sets developed by the authors to simulate rainbow trout habitat of high,medium,and low quality and model review by rainbow trout experts. Model Description The HSI model consists of five components:Adult (C A);Juvenile (C J ); Fry i(C F);Embryo (C E);and Other (CO).Each 1 i fe stage component contains variclbles specifically related to that component.The component Co contains variables related to water quality and food supply that affect all life stages of rainbow trout. The model utilizes a modified limiting factor procedure.This procedure assumes that model variables and components with suitabil ity indices in the average to good range,>0.4 but <LO.can be compensated for by higher suitability indices of other related model variables and components.However, variables and components with suitabilities S 0.4 cannot be compensated for and,thus.become limiting factors for the habitat suitability. Adult component.Variable V,.percent instream cover,is included because standing crops of adult trout are assumed to be related to the amount of cover available based on stu,dies of brook.and cutthroat trout.Percent pools (VlQ) is included because pools prOVide cover and resting areas for adult trout. Variable Va also quantifies the amount of pool habitat that is needed. Variable V15 ,pool class rating,is included because pools differ in the amount and quality of escape cover.winter cover,and resting areas that they 11 provide.Average thalweg depth (V 4 )is included because average water depth affects the amount and quality of pools and instream cover available to adult trout and the migratory access to spawning and rearing areas. Juvenile component.Variables V"percent instream cover;Vu ,percent pools;and VlS ,pool class rating are included in the juvenile component for the same reasons listed above for the adult component.Juvenile rainbow trout use these essential stream features for escape cover,winter cover,and resting area s. Fry component.Variable Va,percent substrate size class,is included because trout fry utilize substrate as escape cover and winter cover.Variable VIO ,percent pools,is included because fry use the shallow,slow water areas of pools and backwaters as resting and feeding stations.Variable Vl6 ,percent riffle fines,is included-because the percent fines affects the ability of the fry to utilize the rubble substrate for cover. Embryo component.It is assumed that habitat suitability for trout embryos depends primari lyon average maximum water temperature,Vz ;average minimum dissolved oxygen,V3 ;average water velocity,Vs ;gravel size in spawning areas,V7 ;and percent riffle fines,V16 •Water velocity (V s ), gravel size (V 7 ),and percent fin~s (VI')are interrelated factors that effect the transport of dissolved oxygen to the embryo and the removal of metabolic waste products from the embryo.In addition,the presence of too many fines in the redds blocks movement of the fry from the incubating gravels to the stream. Other component.This component contains model variables for two subcom- ponents,water qual ity and food supply,that affect all life stages.The subcomponent water quality contains four variables:maximum temperature (VI); average minimum dissolved oxygen (V 3 );pH (V 13 );and average base flow (V 14 ). The waterflow of all streams fluctuates on a seasonal cycle.and a correlation exi sts between the average annual daily streamflow and the annual low base flow period.Average base flow (V 14 )is included to quantify the relationship between annual water flow fluctuations and trout habitat suitability.These four variables affect the growth and survival of all life stages except embryos,whose water quality requirements are included with the embryo component.The subcomponent food supply contains three vari abl es:domi nant substrate type (V g );percent streamside vegetation (V ll );and percent riffle fines (V 1 ,).Predominant substrate type (V g )is included because the abundance of aquatic insects,an important food item for rainbow trout,is correlated with substrate type.Variable Vu ,percent fines in riffle-run and spawning areas,is included because the presence of excessive fines in riffle-run areas 12 reduces the production of aquatic insects. allochthClnous materi a1s are an important productive trout streams. Variable VII is included because source of nutrients in cold,un- - .•~ Variables VIZ'VI7 ,and VII are optional variables to be used only when needed and appropriate.Streamside vegetation.VIZ'is an important means of controlling soil erosion,a major source of fines in streams,and for input of terrestrial insects.Variable VI7 ,percent midday shade,is included because the amount of shade can affect water temperature and photosynthesis in streams. Average daily flows.VII'are associated with rapid upstream migration of steel head adults.Variable~VIZ and V17 are used primarily for streams S 50 m wide where temperature,photosynthesi 5,or erosi on probl ems occur or when changes in the riparian vegetation are part of a potential project plan. Variabl,e V18 is used only for habitat evaluation for spawning migration of steelhead trout. Suitability Index (SI)Graphs for Model Variables This section contains suitability index graphs for the 18 model variables. Equations and instructions for combining groups of variable SI scores into component scores and component scores into rainbow trout HSI scores are i ncl udfad . The graphs were constructed by quantifying information on the effect of each habitat variable on the growth.survival,or biomass of rainbow trout. The cUlrves were built on the assumption that increments of growth,survival, or biomass plotted on the y-axis of the graph could be directly converted into an index of sUitability from 0.0 to l.O.for the species,with 0.0 indicating unsuitable conditions and l.0 indicating optimal conditions.Graph trend lines represent the authors'best estimate of suitability for the various levels of each variable.The graphs have been reviewed by biologists familiar with the ecology of the species,but some degree of 51 variability exists. Toe user is encouraged to modify the shape of the graphs when existing regional information indicates that the variable suitability relationship is different from that illustrated. The habitat measurements and the 51 graph construction are based on the premise that extreme,rather than average,values of a variable most often limit th~carrying capacity of a habitat.Thus.extreme conditions,such as maximum temperatures and minimum dissolved oxygen levels,are often used in the graphs to derive the 51 values for the model.The letters Rand L in the habit.at column identify variables used to evaluate riverine (R)or lacustrine (L)habitats. 13 14 -~ - i:·R,L V3 Average mlnlmum '1.0 dissolved oxygen (mg/l)during the 0.8lategrowingseasonx low water period and QJ -0 during embryo develop-e.....0.6 ment (adult,juvenile,>, fry,and embryo).~....0.4......... For lacustrine habitats,.J:1 10 use the dissolved oxygen ~0.2.... readings in temperature ~ VI ~-zones nearest to optimal 0.0wheredissolvedoxygen 3 6 9is>3 mg/l. mg/l-A =s 15°C B =>15°C ~ R V,.Average thalweg depth 1.0 (cm)during the late growing season low x 0.8waterperiod(adult).Q) -0e A=s 5 m stream width .....0.6 B =>5 m stream width t' ) .... ;:0.4 .J:1 to-~0.2 ~ VI 0.0 f"""0 15 30 45 60 em 1"""'" R Vs Average velocity 1.0 (cm/sec)over spawning .r-areas during embryo x 0.8development.Q) -0e .....0.6 ,->, ~.... :::0.4 .J:1 f""' rcl ~':;0.2 VI 0.0.,- 0 25 50 75 100 em/sec ·reI 15 ·R Percent instream cover during the late growing season low water period at depths ~15 cm and velocities <15 cm/see. J =juveniles A =adults x 0.8 CIJ -0 I::::.....0.6 >, oj-) ;::0.4or- ..c:::l ttl ;;:0.2 :::l Vl a 10 20 % 30 40 R V7 Average size of sub-1.0 strate (cm)in spawn- ing areas.preferably ~0,8duringthespawning -0period.c:..... A =size of >,0.6averageoj-) <50 ....spawner em =;::0.4B=average size of ..c:::l spawner ~50 ttlemoj-) ";0.2 To derive an average Vl value for use with graph 0.0V7,include areas eon-a taining the best spawning substrate sampled until all potential spawning sites are included or until.the sample contains an area equal to 5%of the total rainbow habitat being evaluated. 16 5 em 10 1.0 ~-~--r--"""'-+ x 0.8 Q.I -0 l: .....0.6 >, +oJ.... :;:0.4 .0 to ~0.2 ;:, V") Percent substrate size class (10 to 40 cm) used for winter and escape cover by fry and small juveniles. R 0.0 ...J-__.......__--.....,..--.........+ o 5 10 15 20 % - -. R Predominant (~50%) substrate type in riffle-run areas for food production. A)Rubble or small boulders (or aquatic vegeta- tion in spring areas)predom- inant;limited amounts of grave 1,1arge boulders,or bedrock. S)Rubble,gravel. boulders,and fines occur in approxi- mately equal amounts, or gravel is predom- inant.Aquatic vegetation mayor may not be present. C)Fi~es,bedrock,or large boulders are predominant.Rubble and gravel are insignificant ($25%). 1.0 ~0.8 -0 l: ......0.6 >, +oJ.... :;:0.4 .0 to +oJ.;0.2 V") 0.0 '" - .- . ABC Substrate type -~ r.,t,t _,. -17 R VlO Percent pools during 1.0 t)the late growing F' season low water x 0.8period. C1I "'C C .-0.6 >, +-'.,.. :;:0.4 .0 to ~0.2 ~ V1 0.0 0 25 50 75 100 % R Vll Average percent vege-Lo tational ground cover and canopy closure ~0.8(trees.shrubs,and "'Cgrasses-forbs)along l:: the streambank during -0.6 >,the summer for +J allochthonous input.'F" :;:0.4 (7:':"Vegetation Index =.c ••2(%shrubs)+1.5(%Itl +-'·,..0.2grasses)+(%trees).~ U') (For streams S 50 m wide)0.0 a 100 200 300 Vegetation index R V12 Average percent rooted 1.0 (Optional)vegetation and stable rocky ground cover along stream bank.x 0.8 OJ "0.s 0,6 >, +-' ;::0.4.,.... .0 to +-'.,....O.2 ='VI 0.0 0 25 50 75 100 % f 18 19 Pool class rating ~ -I- -~ -I- R VlS Pool class rating during 1.0 the late growing season low flow period.The ~0.8ratingisbasedonthe"0%of the area that con-e: tains pools of the three - a 6~. classes described below:+-'.... :'::0.4 A)~30%of the area ..CI ttliscomprisedof+-' 1st-class pools..;0.2 V') B)~10%but <30% of the area is 0.0 1st-class pools or ~50%is 2nd- class pools. C)<10%of the area is 1st-class pools and <50%is 2nd- class pools. A B c (See pool class des- criptions below) First-class pool:Large and deep.Pool depth and size are suffi- cient to provide a low velocity resting area for several adult trout.More than 30%of the pool bottom is obscured due to depth, surface turbul ence,or the presence of structures,such as 1095, debris piles,boulders,or overhanging banks and vegetation.Or, the greatest pool depth is ~1.5 m in streams sSm wide or ~2 m deep in streams>5 m wide. •Second-class pdol:Moderate size and depth.Pool depth and size are sufficient to provide a low velocity resting area for a few adult trout.From 5 to 30%of the bottom is obscured due to surface turbul ence,depth,or the presence of structures.Typi ca 1 second- class pools are large eddies behind boulders and low velocity, moderately deep areas beneath overhanging banks and vegetation. •Third-class pool:Small or shallow or bo·th.Pool depth and size are sufficient to provide a low velocity resting area for one to a very few adult trout.Cover,if present,is in the form of shade, surface turbulence,or very limited structures.Typical third-class pools are wide,shallow pool areas of streams or small eddies behind boulders.The entire bottom area of the pool is visible. 20 ,...... R V16 Percent fines «3 mm)1.0linriffle-run and '. I"-spawning areas during average summer flows.~0.8 "'0 I:-A =spawning ....0.6 t B =riffle-run >, +oJ..... =;::0.4 ..0 10 +oJ .;0.2 VJ r-0.0 a 15 30 45 60 r-% R V17 Per~ent of stream area 1.0 ~shaded between 1000 and(Optional)1400 hrs (for streams ~0.8:s 50 m wide).Do not "'0 r-use for cold «18 0 C I:.... max.temp.),unproduc->,0.6 tive streams.+"..... r- r-:0 0.4»10 +oJ.;0.2 VJ 0.0 a 25 50 75 100 ~% R V18 Percent average daily 1.0 (Optional)flow during the season of upstream migration of ><0.8 ~adult steel head.(1J "'0 I: ....0.6 >, +" t......,.. =;::0.4 ..0 10 +".;0.2 VJ 0.0.....25 50 75 100 125 % ~y 21 An HS1 based on the concept of a limiting factor can be obtained for a particular life stage of rainbow trout,or all life stages combined,by selecting the lowest suitability index (51)for the appropriate listed habitat variables as is done in Table 1. Alternate models and mathematical methods of aggregating 51's into life stage and speciesH51 1 s are presented in the following pages. Table 1.Matrix table for displaying suitability indices (SI 1 s)for rainbow trout habitat variables. 51's Variables Adult Embryo Fry Juvenil e Other V1 Maximum temper?ture X j V2 Maximum temperature (embryo)X i IFCC" V3 Minimum dissolved O2 X X I IV2AveragethalwegdepthX Vs Average velocity (spawning)X rc ! tVi%cover X X I (spawning)X t',IF V7 Substrate size ',• V.%substrate class X V,Substrate type (food)X VlD %pools X X X Vll %riparian vegetation X V12 %ground cover (erosion)a Vll Maximum-minimum pH X Vlit Average annual base flow X VlS Pool class X X Vu %fines X X X V17 %shade a VlI %da ily flow aaverage aOptional variables. 22 Data sources and the assu~ptions used to construct the suitability index graphs for rainbow trout HSI models are presented in Table 2. Riverine Model This model uses a life stage approach with five components:adult; juvenile;fry;embryo;and other . ..... 'I"""" ,I -t) - P- I -t'1-• i .,'~ Case 3:Steelhead (CAS) If V4 or (VIa X Vls )1/2 is s 0.4 in either equation t then CA =the lowest factor score. Case 1: Or,if any variable is S 0.4,CJ =the lowest variable score. 23 Table 2.Literature sources and assumptions for rainbow trout suitability indices. Variable and asource Assumptions Black 1953 Garside and Tait 1958 Dickson and Kramer 1971 Hanel 1971 May 1973 Cherry et al.1977 Snyder and Tanner 1960 Calhoun 1966 Zaugg and McLain 1972 Zaugg and Wagner 1973 Wagner 1974 Randall and Smith 1967 Doudoroff,and Shumway 1970 Trojnar 1972 Sekulich 1974 Delisle and Eliason 1961 Estimated by authors. Delisle and Eliason 1961 Thompson 1972 Hooper 1973 Silver et al.1963 Average maximal daily water tempera- tures have a greater effect on trout growth and survival than minimal temperatures.The temperature that supports the greatest scope of activity is optimal.In addition, the temperature range associated with rapid migration rates for adult steel- head is optimal. The average maximal daily water temper- ature during the embryo and smoltifica- tion development periods that is related to the highest survival of embryos and normal development of smolts is optimal. Temperatures that reduce survival or development of smolts are suboptimal. The average minimal daily dissolved oxygen level during embryo development and the late growing season that is related to the greatest growth and survival of rainbow trout and trout embryos is optimal.Dissolved oxygen concentrations that reduce survival and growth are suboptimal. Average thalweg depths that provide the best combination of pools, instream cover,and instream movement of adult trout are optimal. The average velocities over spawning areas affect habitat suitability because dissolved oxygen is carried to,and waste products are carried away from,the developing embryos. Average velocities that result in the highest survival of embryos are optimal.Velocities that result in reduced survival are suboptimal. 24 .' .... .- Variable and source a Table 2.(continued) Assumptions - -: Boussu 1954 Elser 1968 Lewis 1969 fwesche 1980 Orcutt et al.1968 Bjornn 1969 Phillips et al.1975 Duff 1980 Trout standing crops are correlated with the amount of usable cover. Usable cover is associated with water ~15 cm deep and velocities ~15 em/sec.These conditions are associated more with pool than with riffle conditions.The best ratio of habitat conditions is approximately 50%pool area to 50%riffle area.Not all of the area of a pool provides usable cover.Thus,it is assumed that optimal conditions exist when usable cover comprises <50%of the total stream area. The average size of spawning gravel that is correlated with the best water exchange rates,proper redd construct- ion,and highest fry survival is assumed to be optimal.The percent total spawn- ing area needed to support a good non- anadromous trout population was calculated from the following assumptions: 1.Excellent riverine trout habitat supports about 500 kg/ha. 2.Spawners comprise about 80%of the weight of the population. 500 kg x 80%=400 kg of spawners. 3.Rainbow adults average about 0.2 kg each. 400 kg _2,000 adult spawners 0.2 kg -per hectare 4.There are two adults per redd. 22°00 =1,000 pairs 25 Table 2.(continued) aVariableandsource Assumptions 5.Each redd covers ~0,5 m2 • 1,000 x 0.5 ~500 m2 /ha 6.There are 10,000 m2 per hectare. 105~~0 =5%of total area, Hartman 1965 Everest 1969 Bustard and Narver 1975a Pennak and Van Gerpen 1947 Hynes 1970 Binns and Eiserman 1979 Elser 1968 Fortune and Thompson 1969 Hunt 1971 Idyll 1942. Delisle and Eliason 1961 Chapman 1966 Hunt 1971 Oregon/Washington Interagency Wildlife Conference 1979 Raleigh and Duff 1980 Hartman and Gill 1968 Behnke and Zarn 1976 The substrate size range selected for escape and winter cover by trout fry and small juveniles is assumed to be optimal. The predominant substrate type contain- ing the greatest numbers of aquatic insects is assumed to be optimal for insect production. The percent pools during late summer low flows that is associated with the greatest trout abundance is optimal. The average percent vegetation along the streambank is related to the amount of allochthonous materials deposited annually in the stream. Shrubs are the best source of allochthonous materials,followed by grasses and forbs,and then trees. The vegetational index is a reasonable approximation of optimal and suboptimal conditions for most trout stream habitats. The average percent rooted vegetation· and rocky ground cover that provides adequate erosion control to the stream is optimal. The average annual maximal or minimal pH levels related to high survival of trout are optimal. 26 j"'~}/! !• ,....V16 Cordone and Kelly 1961 Bjornn 1969 Ph i 11 ips et a1.1975-Crouse et al.1981 V17 Sabean 1976,1977-Anonymous 1979 r-c I _. i Variable and source a V14 Duff and Cooper 1976 Binns 1979 V15 Lewi s 1969 V1B Withler 1966 Everest 1973 Table 2.(concluded) Assumptions Flow variations affect the amount and quality of pools,instream cover,and water qual ity.Average annual bas.e flows associated with the highest standing crops are optimal. Pool classes associated with the highest standing crops of trout are optimal. The percent fines associated with the highest standing crops of food organisms, embryos,and fry in each designated area are optimal. The percent of shaded stream area during midday that is associated with optimal water temperatures and photo- synthesis rates is optimal.b The above average daily flows (freshets) associated with rapid upstream migration~ of steelhead adults are optimal.Low flows associated with migration delays are suboptimal. \~ ~ i , aThe above references include data from studies on related salmonid species. This information has been selectively used to supplement~verify,or fill data gaps on the habitat requirements of rainbow trout. bShading is highly variable from site to site.Low elevations with warmer climates require abundant shading to maintain cool waters.At higher elevations with cooler climates.the absence of shading is beneficial because ·it results in higher photosynthetic rates and warming of water to a more optimal temperature. 27 Case 2:Steel head (C JS ) C (c V)1/2 JS =J x 2A Or,if VIO or (Va X V1 &)1/2 is S 0.4,CF =the lowest factor score. Steps in calculating CE: A.A potential spawning site is a ~0.5 m2 area of gravel,with an average diameter of 0.3 to 8.0 em,covered by flowing water ~15 cm deep.For steel head,increase the spawning site area from 0.5 to 2.0 m and the gravel size to 0.3 to 10.0 cm.At each spawning site sampled,record: 1.The average water velocity over the site; 2.The average size of all gravel 0.3 to 8.0 cm; 3.The percentage of fines <0.3 em in the gravel;and 4.The total area. 8.Derive a spawning site suitability index (V )for each site by combinings Vs ,V"and Vl &values for each site as follows. C.Derive a weighted average (V s )for all sites included in the sample. Select the best Vs scores until all sites are included or until a total spawning area equal to,but not exceeding,5%of the total trout habitat has been included,whichever comes first. n r A.Vs ,' . 1 ',=Vs =total habitat area 10.05 (output cannot exceed 1.0) 28 ..... I where Ai =the area of each spawning site in m2 ,but t Ai cannot exceed 5%of the total habitat =the individual 51's from the best spawning areas until all spawning sites have been included or until the SIls from an area equal to 5%of the total habitat being evaluated have been included,whichever occurs first. Disregard area restrictions for steel head.Because advanced juvenile and adult steelhead mature in the ocean,they can theoretically utilize a much greater spawning area than nonanadromous rainbows. D.Deri ve CE CE =the lowest score of V2 ,V3 ,or Vs Other (CO), 1/2(V 9 x VI;)+VII 2 1/2 where N =the number of variables within the brackets.Note that variables'V 1z and V17 are optional and,therefore,can be omitted (see page 13). - ""'", H51 determination.H5I scores can be derived for a single life stage,a combination of two or more life stages,or all life stages combined.In all cases,except for the embryo component (CEL an H51 is obta i ned by combi ni ng one or more life stage component scores with the Co component score. 1.Equal Component Value Method.The equal component value method assumes that each component exerts equal influence in determining the HSI.This method should be used to determine the HSI unless information exists that suggests that individual components should be weighted differently. Components~CA; CJ ;CF; CE;and Co 29 where N =the number of components in the equation 2. Or,if any component is ~0.4,the HSI =the lowest component value. Solve the equation for the number of components included in the evaluation.There will be a minimum of two;one or more life stage components and the component (CO),unless only the embryo life stage (C E)is being evaluated,in which case,the HSI =CEo Unequal Component Value Method.This method also uses a life stage approach with five components:adult (C A);juvenile (C J );fry (C F); embryo (C E);and other (CO),However,the Co component is divided into two sUbcompon~nts,food (C OF )and water quality (C OQ )'It is assumed that the COF subcomponent can either increase or decrease the suitability of the habitat by its effect on growth at each life stage,except embryo. The COQ subcomponent is assumed to exert an influence equal to the combined influence of all other model components in determining habitat suitability. This method also assumes that water quality is excellent;i.e.,COQ =1. When COQ is <1,the HSI is decreased.In addition,when a basis for weighting the individual components exists,model component and subcompo- nent weights can be increased by multiplying each index value by multiples >1.Model weighting procedures must be documented. Components and subcomponents:CA; CJ ;CF; CE; COF ;and COQ Steps: A.Calculate the subcomponents COF and COQ of Co (V,x VI6 )1/2 +VII COF =2 Or,if any variable is ~0.4,COQ =the value of the lowest variable. 30 B.Calculate the HSI by either the noncompensatory or the compensatory option. Noncompensatory option.This option assumes that degraded water quality conditions cannot be compensated for by good physical habitat conditions.This assumption is most likely to be true for small streams (s 5 m wide)and for persistently degraded water quality conditions. Or,if any component is s 0.4,the HSI =the lowest component value. where N =the number of components and subcomponents inside the parentheses or,if the model components or subcomponents are weighted,N =the summation of weights selected 'For steelhead,substitute CAS and CJS for CA and CJ . If only the embryo component is being evaluated,then HSI =CE x COQ ' Compensatory option.This method assumes that moderately degraded water quality conditions can be partially compensated for by good physical habitat conditions.This assumption is most useful for large rivers (~50 m wide)and for temporary poor water quality conditions. 1)HSI'=(C A x CJ x CF x CE x COF )l/N Or,if any component is s 0.4,the HSI '=the lowest component value. - where N =the number of components and subcomponents in the equation or,if the model components or subcomponents are weighted,N =the summation of the weights selected - ''''''.''~.!'.Y For steelhead,substitute CAS and CJS for CAand CJ . 2)If COQ is <HSI',then HSI =HSI 'x [1 -(HSI '-COQ)]; if COQ is ~HSI,then HSI =HSI'. 31 3) lacustrine Models If only the embryo component is being evaluated,substitute CE for H5I 1 and follow the procedure in Step 2. The following models are designed to evaluate rainbow trout lacustrine habitat.The lacustrine model contains two components,water quality (C WQ ) and reproduction (C R). Water Quality (C WQ )' Or,if the 51 scores for V1 or V3 are ~0.4,CWQ =the lowest 51 score for V!or V3 • Note:lacustrine rainbows require a tributary stream for spawning and embryo development.If the embryo life stage habitat is included in the evaluation,use the embryo component steps and equations in the riverine model above,except that the area of spawning gravel needed is only about 1%of the total surface area of the lacustrine habitat. n L A.Vsii=l 1Vs=total habitat area /0.01 (output cannot be >1.0) HSI If only the lacustrine habitat is evaluated,the HSI =CWQ ' 32 - - ..... Interpreting Model Outputs Model HSI scores for individual life stages,composite life stages,or for the species as a whole are a relative indicator of habitat suitability.The HSI models,in their present form,are not intended to predict standing crops of fii shes throughout the Un ited States.Standi ng crop 1 i mit i ng factors,such as interspecific competition,predation,disease,water nutrient levels,and length of growing season,are not included in the aquatic H5I models.The mode"ls contain physical habitat variables important in maintaining viable popu"'ations of rainbow trout.If the"model is correctly structured,a high HSI score for a habitat would indicate near optimal regional conditions for rainbow trout for those factors included in the model,intermediate HSI scores would indicate average habitat conditions,and low HSI scores would indicate poor habitat conditions.An HSI of 0 does not necessarily mean that the spec"j es is not present;it does mean that the habi tat is very poor and that the species is likely to be scarce or absent. Ra i nbow trout tend to occupy ri veri ne habi tats where few other fi sh species are present.Thus~factors such as disease,interspecific competition, and predation may have little affect on the model.When the rainbow trout model is applied to rainbow trout streams containing few other species and similar water quality and length of growing season conditions,it should be possible to calibrate the model output to reflect the size of standing crops within some reasonable confidence limits.This possibility,however,has not been tested with the present model. Sample data sets selected by the authors to represent high,intermediate, and low habitat suitabilities are in Table 3,along with the 51's and HSI's generated by the rainbow trout nonanadromous riverine model.The model outputs calculated from the sample data sets (Tables 4 and 5)reflect what the authors believe carrying capacity trends would be in riverine habitats with the listed characteristics;thus,the model meets the specified acceptance level. ADDITIONAL HABITAT MODELS Mode 1 1 Optimal riverine rainbow trout habitat is characterized by: 1.Clear,cold water with an average maximum summer temperature of <22°C; 2.Approximately a 1:1 pool-to-riffle ratio; 3.Well vegetated,stable stream banks; 4.Cover ~25%of the stream area; 5.Relatively stable water flOW regime with <50%of the annual fluctuation from the average annual daily flOW; 33 Table 3.Sample data sets using the nonanadromous riverine rainbow trout HS1 model. ft'Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3 .'J '5 Variable Data SI Data SI Data 51 Max.temperature (OC)VI 14 LO 15 La 16 1.0 Max.temperature (0e)Vz.12 1.0 15 0.66 17 0.4 Min.dissolved O2 (mg/l)V3 9 1.0 7 0.73 6 0.42 Ave.depth (em)V..25 0.9 18 0.6 18 0.6 Ave.velocity (cm/s)Vs 30 1.0.25 0.7 20 0.57 %cover V,20 A 0.95 10 A 0.65 10 A 0.65 J 1.0 J 0.92 J 0.92 Ave.gravel size (em)V7 4 1.0 3 1.0 2.5 1.0 Predom.substrate C)lsize(em)V.15 LO 7 0.7 7 0.7 Predom.substrate type Vg Class A 1.0 Class 8 0.6 Class 8 0.6 %pools VlD 55 1.0 15 0.65 10 0.46 %streamside vegetation Vll 225 LO 175 1.0 200 1.0 %bank vegetation V12 95 1.0 40 0.6 35 0.5 Max.pH Vl3 7.1 1.0 7.2 1.0 7.2 1.0 %average base flow Va 37 0.8 30 0.6 25 0.5 Pool class rating VIS Class A 1.0 Class 8 0.6 Class C 0.3 %fines (A)V16 5 1.0 20 0.5 20 0.5 %fines (8)VI'20 0.9 30 0.6 30 0.6 %midday shade V17 60 1.0 60 1.0 60 1.0 tl 1 ~.~., 34 t Table 4.Average value method. ,.... Suitabil ity index Variable Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3,- Component CA 0.95 0.62 0.37 CJ 1.00 0.72 0.30 CF 1.00 0.65 0.55 CE 1.00 0.66 0.40 Co 0.96 0.79 0.73 -SpE!ci es HSI 0.98 0.68 0.30 r- Table 5.Average value,probability method. ~Suitability index~i t.,V,ari able Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3•1. Component CA 0.95 0.62 .0.37 CJ 1.00 0.72 0.30 CF 1.00 0.65 0.55 CE 1.00 0.66 0.40 r- I COF 0.97 0.80 0.80 ,....COQ 0.95 0.81 0.68 Species HSI Noncompensatory 0.94 0.56 0.30 Compensatory 0.95 0.70 0.30 35 6.Relatively stable summer temperature regime,averaging about 13°C ±4°C;and 7.A relatively silt free rocky substrate in riffle-run areas. HSI =number of attributes present 7 Model 2 A riverine trout habitat model has been developed by Binns and Eiserman (1979)and Binns (1979).Transpose the model output of pounds per acre to an index as follows: HSI =mod~l output.of pounds per acre reglonal maXlmum pounds per acre Model 3 Optimal lacustrine rainbow trout habitat is characterized by: 1.Clear,cold water with an average summer midepilimnion temperature of <22°C; 2.Dissolved oxygen content of epilimnion of ~8 mg/l; 3.Access to riverine spawning tributaries; 4.A midepilimnion pH of 6.5-8.0;and 5.Abundance of aquatic invertebrates. HSI =number of attributes present 5 However,a high elevation lake with optimal habitat will have only a fraction of the trout production of a more eutrophic lake at a lower elevation, if no other fish species are present in either lake. Model 4 A low effort system for predicting habitat suitability of planned cool water and cold water reservoirs as habitat for individual fish species is also available (McConnell et al.1982). 36 INSTREAM FLOW INCREMENTAL METHODOLOGY (IFIM) The U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service's Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM),as outlined by Bovee 1982,is a set of ideas used to assess instream flow problems.The Physical Habitat Simulation System (PHABSIM),described by Milhous et al.1981,is one component of IFIM that can be used by investigators interested in determining the amount of available instream habitat for a fish species as a function of streamflow.The output generated by PHABSIM can be used for several IFIM habitat display and interpretation techniques,including: Habitat Time Series.Determination of the .impact of a project on habitat by imposing project operation curves over historical flow records and integrating the difference between the curves;and Optimization.Determination of monthly flows that minimize habitat reductions for species and life stages of interest; Effective Habitat Time Series.Calculation of the habitat require- ments of each llfe stage of a fish species at a given time by using habitat ratios (relative spatial requirements of various life stages). 1. -2. r-: 3. - Suitability Index Graphs as Used in IFIM PHABSIM utilizes Suitability Index graphs (51 curves)that describe the instream suitability of the habitat variables most closely related to stream hydraulics and channel structure (velocity,depth,substrate,temperature,and cover)for each major life stage of a given fish species (spawning,egg incuba- ticln,fry,juvenile,and adult).The specific curves required for a PHABSIM ancllysi s represent the hydraul i c-re 1ated parameters for whi ch a speci es or life stage demonstrates a strong preference (i.e.,a pelagic species that only shows preferences for velocity and temperature will have very broad curves for depth,substrate,and cover).Instream Flow Information Papers 11 (Milhous et al.1981)and 12 (Bovee 1982)should be reviewed carefully before using any curves for a PHABSIM analysis.51 curves used with the IFIM are quite similar to the 51 curves developed in many HSI models.These two types of SI curves may be interchangeable after conversion to the same units of measurement (English,metric,or codes).51 curve validity is dependent on the quality and quantity of information used to generate the curve.The curves used need to accurately reflect the conditions and assumptions inherent to the model(s) uSI~d to aggregate the curve-generated SI values into a measure of habitat su'itability.If the necessary curves are unavailable or if available curves arl~inadequate (i.e.,built on different assumptions),a new set of curves should be generated. -37 The~e are several ways to develop 51 curves.The method selected depends on the habitat model that will be used and the available database for the species.The transferability of the curve is not obvious and,therefore,the method by which the curve is generated and the extent of the database ·are very important.Care also must be taken to choose the habitat model most appro- priate for the specific study or evaluation;the choice of models will deter- mine the type of 51 curves that wi 11 be used. A system with standard terminology has been developed for classifying 51 curve sets and describing the database used to construct the curves in IFIM applications.There are four categories in the classification.A category one curve has a generalized description or summary of habitat preferences as its database.This type of curve is based on information concerning the upper and lower limits of a variable for a species (e.g.,juveniles are usually found at water depths of 0.3 to 1.0 m).Expert opinion can also be used to define the optimal or preferred condition within the limits of tolerance (e.g.,juveniles are found at water depths of 0.3 to LO m,but are most common at depths from 0.4 to 0.6 m). Utilization curves (category two)are based on frequency analyses of fish observations in the stream environment with the habitat variables measured at each sighting [see Instream Flow Information Paper 3 (Bovee and Cochnauer 1977)and 1nstream Flow Informat ion Paper 12 (Bovee 1982:173-196)].These curves are designated as utilization curves because they depict the habitat conditions a fish has been observed to use within a specific range of available conditions.If the data are correctly collected for utilization curves,the resulting function represents the probabil ity of occurrence of a particular environmental condition,given the presence of a fish of a particular species, P(EIF).However,due to sampling problems,a utilization curve cannot be assumed to reflect fish preference or optimal conditions.Also,utilization curves may not be transferable to streams that differ substantially in size or complexity from the streams where the data were obtained. A preference curve (category three)is a utilization curve that has been corrected for environmental bias.For example,if 50%of the fish are found in pools over 1.0 m deep,but only 10%of the stream has such pools,the fish are actively selecting that type of habitat.Preference curves approximate the function of the probabi 1 i ty of occurrence of a fi sh ina gi ven set of environmental conditions: P(FIE)-peEl F). -P(E) 38 ..... ..... r- i ...... - Only a limited number of experimental data sets hav~.been compiled into IFIM preference curves.The development of these curves should be the goal of all new curve development efforts for use in IFIM. An additional set of curves is still largely conceptual.One type of curve under consideration is a cover-conditioned,or season-conditioned, preference curve set.Such a curve set would consi st of different depth- velocity preference curves as a function or condition of the type of cover prese'nt or the time of year.No fourth category curves have been developed at this time.. The advantage of these last two sets of curves is the significant improve- ment in precision and confidence in the curves when applied to streams similar to the streams where the original data were obtained.The degree of increased accuracy and transferability obtainable when applying these curves to dis- similar streams is unknown.In theory,the curves should be widely transfer- able to any stream in which the range of environmental conditions is within the range of conditions found in the streams from which the curves were devel- oped" Avanability of Graphs for Use in IFIM Numerous curves are available for the IFIM analysis of rainbow trout habitat (Table 6).Investigators are asked to review the curves (Figs.2-5) and modify them,if necessary,before using them. Spawning.For IFIM analyses of rainbow trout spawning habitat.use curves for the time period during which spawning occurs (which is dependent on locale).-Spawning curves are broad and.if more accuracy is desired,inves- tigators are encouraged to develop their own curves which will specifically reflect habitat utilization at the selected site. Spawning velocity.Hartman and Galbraith (1970)measured water velocities 0.66 feet above 550 redds duri n9 April through June,1966 and 1967,in the Lardeau River,British Columbia,and found few redds constructed in areas where velocities were less than 1.0 feet per second (fps);most redds were associated with velocities ranging 1.6 to 3.0 fps (velocities from zero to greater than 4.0 fps were available).Smith (1973)determined that 95%of the redds (n =51)observed in the Deschutes River,Oregon,were in velocities ranging from 1.6 to 3.0 fps;Hooper (1973)measured velocities over redds (n =10)whi ch ranged from 1.4 to 2.7 fps in the South Fork of the Feather River.California;and Orcutt et al.(l968)found that average velocities 0.4 feet above redds (n =54 to 68)ranged from 2.3 to 2.5 fps in Idaho stre~ams.The SI curve for spawning velocity (Fig.2)assumes that velocities less,than 1.0 or greater than 3.0 fps are unsuitable for rainbow trout spawning. 39 ~a Table 6.Availability of curves for IFIM analysis of rainbow trout habitat. Velocitya Depth a 5ubstratea ,b Temperature a Cover a Spawning Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,No curve Fig.2.Fig.2.Fi g.2.Fig.2.necessary. Egg incubation Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve Use 51 curve No curve Fig.2.Fig.2.for V7B .for V2B .necessary. Fry Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,No curve Fig.3.Fig.3.Fig.3.Fig.3.available. Juvenile Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve,Use 51 curve.Use 51 curve.Use 51 curve Fig.4.Fig.4.Fi g.4.Fig.4.fol"V6. Adult Use 51 curve.Use 51 curve.Use SI curve,Use 51 curve.Use 51 curve Fig.5.Fig.5.Fi g.5.Fig.5.for V6. aWhen use of 51 curves is prescribed,refer to the appropriate curve in the H51 or IFIM section. bThe following categories must be used for IFIM analyses (see Bovee 1982): 1 =plant detritus/organic material 2 =mud/soft clay 3 =silt (particle size <0.062 mm) 4 =sand (particle size 0.062-2.000 mm) 5 =gravel (particle size 2.0-64.0 mm) 6 =cobble/rubble (particle size 64.0-250.0 mm) 7 =boulder (particle size 250.0-4000.0 mm) 8 =bedrock (solid rock) ,e ~..- Tl-J e "--",.., 5 . I l- . - -I- j 0.0 a 1 2 3 4 Velocity (ft/sec) Coordinates LO.... l x ..Ll0.0 0.0 x 0.8 0.9 0.0 QJ "'C~L6 La l::.....0.63.0 La >, 3.1 0.0 +-l .~ 100.0 0.0 .--0.4.... .c ltJ +-l .~0.2::::s """'"Vl 2 4 6 8 10 Depth (ft) . -r- -I- - -l- I0.0 a La x ..L0.0 0.0 x 0.80.6 0.0 QJ -=:J 0.7 l.0 s::-0.68.2 LO >, 8.3 0.0 +>.... 100 .0 0.0 ....0.4.~ .c ltJ+>....0.2::s Vl ff'''' i LaL. x ..L """0.0000 0.0 0.0005 0.0 x 0.8 QJ 0.0010 La "'C l:: 4.0000 La .....0.6' 4.1000 0.0 >, +>100.0000 0.0 ....0.4·........ ..0 ltJ +-l 0.2.... ::s Vl r-' I 0.0 ••I a 1 2 345 6 7 8 Substrate particle diameter (inches) I :-,. J'I,~ Figure 2.51 curves for rainbow trout spawning velocity, depth,substrate,and temperature. 41 e ... d 1m ~~ ~ן0- k, •T -r0.0 o 20 40 60 80 100 Temperature (OF) Coordinates 1.0 x .L 000 0.0 x 0.8 35.0 000 OJ "'C 3600 LO r=.....0.660.0 1.0 >, 6100 0.0 ~ ''- 100.0 0.0 .....0.4''-..c It> ~0.2..... ::l V'l Figure 2.(concluded) 42 , f !l - ..,.. Spawning Depth.Smith (1973")found 95%of rainbow trout redds in depths greater than 0.6 feet;Hooper (1973)found depths of redds ranged from 0.7 to 1.1 feet;Orcutt et al.found redds in depths from 0.7 to greater than 5.0 feet;Hartman and Galbraith (1970)found the majority of redds (n =550) in depths ranging from 1.6 to 8.2 feet,and the most intensive nest digging occurred in depths of 5.7 to 6.6 feet (maximum depths available ranged from 13 to 16 feet).Therefore,depths less than 0.6 and greater than 8.2 feet are assumed to be unsuitable for spawning (although 8.2 feet may not be the upper lim'it;Fig.2). Spawni n9 substrate.Hartman and Gal bra i th (1970)found that gravel composed of particle sizes ranging from 0.04 to 4.0 inches in diameter were utilized for spawning,two-thirds of which were from 0.5 to 3.0 inches in diameter (particle sizes to 18 inches in diameter were available).Hooper (1973)found that preferred spawning substrate consisted of particles from 0.5 to 1.5 inches in diameter,although particles from 0.25 to 3.0 inches were utilized;Orcutt et al.(1968)found that steelhead favored gravels from 0.5 to 4.0 inches in diameter;Coble (1961)stated that salmonids dug redds in substrates ranging from silt to 3-inch diameter cobble (particles up to 4 inches in diameter were available)in Lincoln County,Oregon.Therefore, substrates consisting of particle sizes ranging from silt «0.002 inches)to cobble·(4.0 inches)are considered suitable for spawning (though not neces- sarily suitable for egg incubation;Fig.2).The particle size range of spawning substrate selected may be dependent on the size of the spawner. "-Spawning cover.No information was foun.d in the literature concerning cover requirements for rainbow trout spawning.The author assumes that cover is not important,and it may be omitted from the FI5.HFIL (Milhous et al. 1981). Spawni ng temperature.Scott and Crossman (1973)stated that rainbow trout usually spawn at 50 to 60 0 F;Carlander (1969)stated that peak spawning near Finger Lakes,New York,occurred at 42 to 55°F;Hooper (1973)stated that temperatures ranging from 37 to 55 0 F are desirable for spawning;and Orcutt et al.(1981)found that spawning occurred at 36 to 47 0 F in Idaho streams.The author assumes that temperatures rangi ng from 36 to 60 0 Fare suitable for spawning (Fig.2),depending on locale. Egg incubation.For IFIM analyses of rainbow trout egg incubation habitat,curves should be used for the time period from the beginning of spawning to 30 to 100 days beyond the end of spawning,depending on locale and water temperatures (Carlander 1969).The recommended analysis of incubation with IFIM is the effective spawning program,which computes suitability of each stream cell based on both spawning and incubation criteria over a range of flows.This program is explained in a working paper available from IFG (Mil hous 1982). Egg incubation velocity.Evidence suggests that water velocity may not be important for embryo hatchi ng success if di ssol ved oxygen concentrati ons around embryos are greater than 2.6 ppm (Coble 1961;Silver et al.1963; Reiser and White 1981,1983).At low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, 43 however,apparent velocities must be sufficient to deliver oxygen to embryos, remove metabolic waste products,and keep the substrate free from silt. Silver et al.(1963)found that rates of development and lengths of fry upon hatching were greater at higher velocities and dissolved oxygen concentrations. Therefore,given suitable spawning velocities (Fig.2),it may be assumed that egg incubation velocities above redds which range from 1.0 to 3.0 fps (at adequate levels of dissolved oxygen and suitable substrate)will yield suitable apparent velocities among embryos.Another type of incubation velocity criteria is based on the shear velocities needed to prevent sediment of various sizes from settling out on the redds.This approach is documented in the effective spawning working paper mentioned above. Egg incubation depth.Depth may not be an important variable for egg incubation in many cases (Reiser and White 1981,1983)as long as eggs are kept moist during incubation and redds are submerged when fry begin to hatch and emerge.Therefore,the author assumes that the 51 curve for spawning depth (Fig.2)may also be used for egg incubation depth. Egg incubation substrate.Although rainbow trout utilize a wide range of substrate types for spawning (Coble 1961),the author assumes that particles must be at least 0.5 inches in diameter to permit adequate percolation for successful embryonic development,and the 51 curve for V7B (page 16)may be used. Egg incubation cover.The author assumes that cover is not important, and cover may,therefore,be omitted from FI5HFIL.The·egg incubation substrate curve should satisfy embryo cover requirements. Egg incubation temperature.Kwain (1975)found the highest survival rate for rainbow trout embryos at temperatues of 45 and 50°F;low survival (15 to 40%)at 59°F;and moderate survival at 37 and 41°F.According to Hooper (1973),the desirable temperature range for egg incubation of trout is 42 to 54°F,and the extremes are 35 and 61°F.Therefore,the 51 curve for V2B (page 14)may be used. Fry.Rainbow trout fry lose their yolk sacs at lengths of 1.4 to 1.6 inches,approximately 3-4 months after hatching (Carlander 1969).The author assumes that fry habitat is required from the end of the spawning period to 4 months beyond the end of the egg incubation period (from the time that fry emerge from the spawning gravel to when they become juveniles). Fry velocity.Moyle et al.(1983)observed fry (~2 inches in length)in Cherry and Eleanor Creeks (n=404),Putah Creek .(n=134),and Deer Creek (n=81), California.Maximum velocities available were 2 fps in Putah Creek and >3.44 fps in Cherry,Eleanor,and Deer Creeks.Weighted mean frequencies were calculated for each velocity and then normalized,with the highest frequency being set to 51 =1.0 (Fig.3). 44 1.0 , f"""r 1x....L-0.00.0.00 0.80.10 0.11 x QJ 0.82 1.00 "0c 1.64 1.00 -0.6 . 2.46 0.29 ~ -+..) 3.28 0.13 '''',...0.4 ~4.10 0.04 .~ .a 4.92 0.02 ltl -+..) 5.74 0.01 'r-0.2::::s 7.38 0.01 (/) 8.20 0.00 0.0 ,I100.00 0.00 0 2 4 6 8 10 Depth (ft) n =642 1.0x....L-0.0 0.00 0.81.0 0.00 x QJ 2.0 0.02 "0c 3.0 0.01 -0.6 4.0 0.17 ~ -+..) 5.0 0.13 ,...0.46.0 1.00 'r-.a 7.0 1.00 ltl -+..) 8.0 0.18 .,..0.2::::s 8.1 0.00 (/) 100.0 0.00 0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Substrate type (see code key,page 39) n =597 r).~. Figure 3.51 curves for rainbow trout fry ve1ocity.depth. substrate,and temperature. 45 Coordinates 1.0 x ..:L-D.D 0.00 0.832.0 0.00 x (JJ 37.4 0.08 "0c 50.0 D.80 -0.6>,56.8 1.00 ~ 66.2 1.00 .,..,....0.469.8 0.80 .,.., .0 77 .0 0.00 ttl -,fer'.~~ 100.0 0.00 .,...0.2 , ::I Vl 0.0 a 20 40 60 80 100 Temperature (0 F) Figure 3.(concluded) 46 Fl~y,depth.The 51 curve for fry depth was deve loped in the same manner as the velocity curve,using data from Deer Creek (n=103),Cherry and Eleanor Creeks (n=404),and Putah Creek (n=135)(Moyle et al.1983).Depths to 1.7 ft were available in Putah Creek;to 6.6 ft in Deer Creek;and to greater than 9.0 ft in Cherry and Eleanor Creeks.The final curve (Fig.3)was modified based on the assumption that SI =1.0 at depths ranging from 0.82 ft (as in Putah and Deer Creeks)to 1.64 ft (as in Cherry and Eleanor Creeks);and that 51 =0.0 at a depth of 0.0 ft and 51 =0.11 at a depth of 0.1 ft.For depths greatell"than 1.7 ft,Putah Creek was excl uded,and for depths greater than 6.6ft,Deer Creek was excluded from the analysis. F~ry sUbstrate.The 51 curve for fry substrate was generated in the same way as the curves for depth and velocity.Substrate available in Putah Creek (n=123)ranged from mud to bedrock;and in Deer Creek (n=70),Cherry Creek, and Eleanor Creek (n=404)it ranged from silt to bedrock.The curve (Fig.3) was modified based on the assumption that SI =1.0 for cobbles (as in Deer and Putah Creeks)and for boulders (as in Cherry and Eleanor Creeks).Bustard and Narver (1975)also found that age 0 steelhead associated with substrate consisting primarily of particles from 4 to 10 inches in diameter (cobble)in Carnation Creek,British Columbia,during the winter. Fry cover.Cover requirements of rainbow trout fry are unknown by IFASG at this time.The author assumes that substrate is used for cover,and thus cover may be omitted from FISHFIL;or a cover curve may be developed by the investigator. Fry temperature.Peterson et a 1.(1979),in 1ab experi ments,found that temperatures preferred by rainbow trout fry (between 1.1 and 1.8 inches in length)ranged from 56.8 to 58.6°,F (n=30).Kwain and McCauley (1978)found that age was a factor in temperatures preferred (selected)by rainbow trout, and fl"y at 1 month selected 66.2°F;at 2 months,65.3°F;at 3 months, 64.4°F;and at 5 months,59.7 to 63.7°F.Kwain (1975)found that the growth rate of fry at 50 F was ten times greater than at 37.4°F.Based on the information available for fry up to 1.8 inches in length and up to 4 months after hatching,the 51 curve for temperature (Fig.3)is assumed to be reason- ably accurate.It will be modified as new information becomes available. Juvenile.Juvenile rainbow trout range in length from approximately 1.8 to 7.~inches,or from 4 months of age to sexual maturity (usually age II or III;Carlander 1969).Juveniles are probably the most difficult life stage for which to develop criteria,because of the variability in size. ~uvenile velocity.Factors which may affectve 1ocity preferences of rainbow trout·include,water temperature,size and activity of the individual trout,stream flow,season,habitat availability,species interactions,and stream location (Logan 1963;Chapman and Bjornn 1969;Bjornn 1971;Everest and Chapmain 1972;Bustard and Narver 1975;Moyle et al.1983).Moyle et al. (1983)observed juvenile rainbow trout (from 2.0 to 4.7 inches in length)in Putah Creek (n=35),Deer Creek (n=108),Martis Creek (n=58),Cherry Creek,and Eleanor Creek (n=300),and in the Tuolumne River (n=45).The maximum velocity available in Putah Creek was 2.0 fps;in the Tuolumne River it was 2.5 fps;in Martis Creek it was 4.2 fps;and in Deer,Cherry,and Eleanor Creeks it was 47 greater than-3.4 fps.Data from all streams were used to generate the velocity curve (Fig.4).Weighted means were calculated for each velocity and then normalized,with the highest 51 being set to 1.0.The final curve is very similar to the results of Bustard and Narver (1975)who collected Age 0 (n=78) and Age 1+(n=122)juvenile steelhead trout in Carnation Creek,British Columbia,during the winter.They found that juveniles preferred velocities less than 0.5 fps,and almost no individuals were found in velocities greater than 1 fps at 45°F.Gosse (1982),however,found that velocities preferred by juvenile rainbow trout «9 inches in length)were partially dependent upon activity (random or stationary swimming),season,and flow.Gosse found that the average mean column velocities occupied by juveniles in low to high flows during random swimming ranged from 0.40 to 0.56 fps in the winter and from 0.43 to 0.75 fps in the summer.During stationary swimming,velocities ranged from 0.66 to 1.18 fps in the winter and from 1.05 to 2.00 fpsin the summer. Differences may be due in part to differences in the sizes of the juveniles observed (Chapman and Bjornn 1969). Juven il e depth.Factors wh i ch may affect depth preferences of juven il e rainbow trout are the same as those which affect velocity preferences.Obser- vations of Moyle et al.(1983)in Putah Creek (n=36,maximum depths of 1.7 ft), Martis Creek (n=58,depths to 4 ftL Deer Creek (n=126,depths to 6.6 ft), Tuloumne River (n=44,depths to greater than 9 ft).and Cherry and Eleanor Creeks (n=301,depths to greater than 9 ft),of juveniles (2.0 to 4.7 inches in length)indicated substantial variability in depth preferences from stream to stream,with most fish located in depths of 1 to 4 ft.Bustard and Narver (1975),however,found that Age 0 stee"lhead in Carnation Creek,British Columbia,preferred depths to 1.5 ft,while Age 1+steel head preferred depths greater than 3 ft.Also,Gosse (1982)found that the average water depths occupied by juvenile rainbow trout «9 to 10 inches in length)in the Green River below Flaming Gorge Dam,Colorado,ranged between 10'and 14 ft in the summer and between 18 and 20 ft in the winter (n=l11 to 291).Therefore,it is easy to see that juvenile rainbow trout may occupy a wide variety of depths, and it is recommended that investigators develop their own depth curves,or assume that 51 =1.0 for all depths ~2.0 feet (Fig.4). Juvenile substrate.Moyle et al.(1983)found most juvenile rainbow trout (2.0 to 4.7 inches in length)over gravel and cobble in Martis Creek (n=53),over cobble and boulders in Deer Creek (n=103),and over boulders in Cherry and El eanor Creeks (n=30 1).The compos ite wei ghted substrate curve (Fig.4)shows a preference for boulder substrate.In the Green River,Gosse (1982)found most juveniles «9 to 10 inches in length)over cobble and boulders during stationary swimming,but over silt and sand during random swimming.Bjornn (1971)found a correlation between'the movement (out migration)of juvenile trout and the lack of large cobble substrate in Idaho streams.Therefore,it may be assumed that cobble and boulders are suitable juvenile substrate,or curves may be developed that are specific to the area of interest. Juvenile cover.Cover requirements or preferences of juveniles are unknown.It may be assumed that substrate curve reflects cover requirements; cover curves may be developed by the investigator;cover may be omitted from FISHFIL;or,the curve for V6 may be used to represent juvenile rainbow trout cover requirements (page 16). 48 Coordinates x 0.0 32.0 50.0 72.0 84.0 100.0 J-000 000 La LD 000 000 ''-,.....0.4'r-.c I'CI +J ''-0.2::J V'l a.0 +--,--oL.-,---r---r'o-+o 20 40 60 80 100 Temperature (oF) Figure 4.(concluded) 50 J!""'<., t-~luveni1 e temperature.There has been a great deal of vari abil ity among ~results of studies undertaken to determine temperature preferences of juvenile rainbClw trout.Cherry et al.(1975)found that temperatures selected and avoidE~d were a function of acclimation temperature;that rainbow juveniles selected temperatures ranging from 53 to 72°F when acclimated to .3 to 58°F; and that the lowest avoidance temperature was 41°F and the highest avoidance temperature was 77°F at the given acclimation temperatures.Coutant (1977) listed preferred temperatures of 64 to 66°F and 72°f.and avoidance tempera- tures of 57 and 72°F.Lee and Rinne (1980)found the critical thermal maxima for juveniles to be 84°F.McCauley et al.(1977)stated that acclimation temperatures had no significant effect upon preferred temperatures of juvennes.which ranged from 50 to 55°F.Kwain and McCauley (1978)found that temperature preferences were a function of age.and that juvenile rainbow trout 12 months after hatching preferred a temperature of 55°F.No studies were found which addressed maximum growth rate/low mortality temperatures.A final curve was drawn based on the limited information available and profes- sional judgment (Fig.4). Adult.For the purposes of this model.rainbow trout are considered to be ad"ult when they are greater than 7.9 inches in length at age II or III.and sexually mature (Carlander 1969). :A.dult velocity.Moyle et al.(1983)collected rainbow trout adults (which they defined to be >4.7 inches in length)from Deer Creek (n=104; maximum velocity>3.4 fps).Cherry and Eleanor Creeks (n=360;maximum velocity >3.4 fps),and the Tuolumne River (n=93;maximum velocity =2.4 fps).The resulting weighted normalized curve suggests that preferred mean column veloc- ities are near 0.5 fps.Lewis (1969),however.found a positive correlation between rainbow trout density and water velocity of 1.65 fps.Gosse (1982) found that rainbow trout generally tended to reposition themselves in the water column as streamflow changed.and that fish nose velocity varied less than mean column velocity with changes in streamflow.Average fish nose velocities for stationary swimming during the winter ranged from 0.7 to 1.0 fps (n=640);during the summer they ranged from 0.9 to 1.1 fps (n=224);for random swimming during the winter they ranged from 0.5 to 0.7 fps (n=308);and during the summer they ranged from 0.4 to 0.6 fps.Average mean column velocities for stationary swimming during the winter ranged from 1.1 to 1.7 fps (n=606); during the summer they ranged from 1.5 to 2.0 fps (n=219);for random swimming during the winter they ranged from 0.6 to 0.8 fps (n=308);and during the summe~r they ranged from 0.6 to 0.7 fps (n=l71).Therefore.the final curve (Fig.5)reflects the range of mean water column velocities preferred by adult (>5 to 9 inch lengths)rainbow trout,although preferred fish nose velocities range!d from 0.5 to 1.1 fps.An investigator may choose to develop new curves specific to the area of interest. 51 Coordinates 1.0 x -L-..Ce·'"0000 0.81 x 0.8 eCll00501.00 '"Cc::::2.00 1.00 -2.46 0.02 >,0.6 ~2095 0.02 ..........3044 0.01 .....0.4.e3.50 0.00 to ~100.00 0.00 ..... ::l 0.2V') 0.0 0 1 2 Mean water column velocity (ft/sec) 1.0 .x ...L ,~C. 0.0 0.0 1.5 1.0 x 0.8Q) 10.0 1.0 "'0 l::100.0 1.0 ->,0.6 ~..........0.4·.....l-.e ~ ~.....0.2·::l V') 0.0 I •a 2 4 6 8 10 Depth (ft) 1.0x-L- 0.0 0.00 1.0 0.01 x 0.8 2.0 O.01 Q) '"C 3.0 0.75 c::::......0.65.0 0.75 >, 6.0 1.00 +0)..... 7.0 1.00 .....0.4..... 8.0 0.20 ..c to 8.1 0.00 +0)r;Y-10.2100.0 0.00 ::l V) 0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Substrate type (see code key,page 39) (.~- Figure 5.ST curves for rainbow trout adult velocity,depth, substrate,and temperature.e '"-'..~ 52 Coordinates...... , I- - xo.c; 32.0 55A 70.0 84.t~ 100.0 1-0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 Figure 5. x 0.8 QJ "'0s:: -0.6 ~........0.4.... ..c ItS ~.;0.2 Vl o 20 40 60 80 100 Temperature (OF) (concluded) 53 Adult depth.Depths most ptilized (n=361)in Cherry and Eleanor Creeks ranged between 1.5 and 2.5 ft,whereas depths most utilized in the Tuolumne River ranged between 2.5 and 4.1 ft (Moyle et al.1983).Adults in the Green River,however,primarily util ized depths ranging from 12 to 17 ft (Gosse 1982).Therefore,it may be assumed that the S1 =1.0 for all depths greater than 1.5 ft (Fig.5),or curves may be developed that are specific to the area of investigation. Adult substrate.Adults (>4.7 inches)in Deer Creek (n=96)primarily utilized cobble;in Cherry Creek and Eleanor Creek,and the Tuolumne River (n=448)they pri mari ly utili zed boul ders (Moyl e et a 1.1983).In the Green River,adults (>9 to 10 inches in length)utilized cobble and boulders during stationary swimming;and silt,sand,and boulders during random swimming (Gosse 1982).The final curve (Fig.5)is based on professional estimation. Adult cover.Sufficient information was not located for the development of a curve for adult trout cover requiremen~s.Lewis (1969)found a positive correlation between the amount of cover and adult density.Butler and Hawthorne (1968)found that rainbow trout had less affinity for cover than brook or brown trout.The investigator has several options when considering cover.Cover may be omitted as a model variable;cover curves may be developed independently;it may be assumed that cover is adequately addressed by substrate and depth;or the curve for V6 (page 16)may be used to represent adult cover requirements. Adul t temperature.Preferred temperatures of ra i nbow trout adul ts have been found to be 55.4,59.0,61.7,64.4,and 66.0 to 70.0°F (Coutant 1977; Spigarelli and Thommes 1979).Temperature selection may be a function of acclimation temperature,size of fish,and time of year.Lee and Rinne (1980) determined the critical thermal maxima at 84.2°F.The final curve (Fig.5) is based on this information. 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Ecology 28:42-48. 62 - - - r Peterson,R.H.,A.M.Sutterlin,and J.L.MetcaHe.1979.Temperature preference of several species of Salmo and Salvelinus and some of their hybrids.J.Fish.Res.Bd.Can.36:1137-1140. Phillips,R.W.,R.L.Lantz,E.W.Claire.and J.R.Moring.1975.Some effects of gravel mi xtures on emergence of coho salmon and steel head trout fry.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.104:461-466. Price,D.G.,and R.E.Geary.1979.An inventory of fishery resources in the Big Sulphur Creek drainage.Pacific Gas and Electric Co.,Dept.Eng. Res.49 pp.+Appendi x. Raleigh,R.F.1971.Innate control of migrations of salmon and trout fry from natal gravels to rearing areas.Ecology 52(2):291-297. Raleigh,R.F.,and D.W.Chapman.1971.Genetic control in lakeward migra- tions of cutthroat trout fry.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.100(1):33-40.I Raleigh,R.F.,and O.A.Duff.1980.Trout stream habitat improvement: ecology and management.Pages 67-77 in W.King,ed.Proc.of Wild Trout Symp.II.Yellowstone Park,WY.- Randall,D.J.,and J.C.Smith.1967.The regulation of cardiac activity in fish in a hypoxic environment.Physiologica Zool.40:104-113. Reiser,D.W.,and R.G.White.1981.Incubation of steelhead trout and spring chinook salmon eggs·in a moist environment.Prog.Fish-Cult. 43(3):131-134. 1983.Effects of complete redd dewatering on salmonid e~~g-hatching success and development of juveniles.Trans.Amer.Fish. Soc.112:532-540. Sabean,B.1976.The effects of shade removal on stream temperature in Nova Scotia.Nova Scotia Dept.Lands For.Cat.76-118-100.32 pp. 1977.The effects of shale removal on stream temperature in Nova ----~cotia.Nova Scotia Dept.Lands For.Cat.77-135~150.31 pp. Scott,W.B.,and E.J.Crossman.1973.Freshwater fishes of Canada.Fish. Res.Board Can.Bull.184.966 pp. r-Sekulich,P.T.1974.Role of the Snake River cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki ~ubsp)in fishery management.M.S.Thesis,Colorado State Univ.,Ft. Collins.102 pp. Silver,S.J.,C.E.Warren,and P.Doudoroff.1963.Dissolved oxygen requi rements of devel opi n9 steel head trout and chi nook salmon embryos at different water velocities.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.92:327-343. r"..63 Sm it h,A.K..1973 . depth criteri a 102(2):312-316. Development and application·of spawning velocity and for Oregon salmonids.Trans.Amer.Fish.Soc. Snyder,G.R.,and H.A.Tanner.1960.Cutthroat trout reproduction in the inlets to Trappers Lake.Colo.Fish Game Tech.Bull.7.85 pp. Spigarelli,S.A.,and M. M.Thommes.1979.Temperature selection and estimated thermal acclimation by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)in a thermal plume.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.36:366-376. Stewart,P.A.1970.Physical factors influencing trout density in a small stream.Ph.D.Thesis,Colorado State Univ.,Ft.Collins.78 pp. Thompson,K.1972.Determining stream flows for fish life.Pages 31-46 in Proc.Instream Flow Requirement Workshop,Pacific Northwest River Basins Comm.,Portland,OR. Thompson,K.E.,and J.D.Fortune.1970.Fish and wildlife resources of the Rogue Basin,Oregon and their water requirements.Oregon Game Comm., Fed.Aid Proj.F-69-RO-6,Job Compliance Rep.60 pp. Trojnar,J.R.1972.Ecological evaluation of two sympatric strains of cutthroat trout.M.S.Thesis,Colorado State Univ.,Ft.Collins.59 pp. Van Velson,R.C.1974.Self-sustaining rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) popul at ion in McConaughy Reservoi r,Nebraska.Trans.~Fi sh.Soc.... 103:59-65.~. Wagner,H.H. in Oregon. 1968.Effect of stocking time on survival of steel head trout, Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.97:374-379. 1974.Seawater adaptation independent of photoperiod in steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri).Can.J.Zool.52:805-812. Wesche,T.A.1980.The WRRI trout cover rating method:development and application.Water Res.Res.Inst.,Laramie,WY.Water Resour.Ser.78. 46 pp. Withler,1.L.1966.Variability in life history characteristics of steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri)along the Pacific Coast of North America.J. Fish.Res.Board Can.23(3):365-393. Zaugg,W.S.,and L.R.McLain.1972.Steelhead migration:potential temper- ature effects as indicated by gill ATPase activity.Science 176:415-416. Zaugg,W.S.,and H.H.Wagner.1973.Gill ATPase activity related to parr- smolt transformation and migration in steelhead trout (Salmo g~irdneri): influence of photoperiod and temperature.Compo Biochem.Physiol. 45B:955-965. 64 110 11.<::mmsc:uQ or G..Ilt(G)No. j CCl ICal 1 z.;REl'ORT COCUMENTAnON.1._"£PORT NO. PAGE :FWS/OB5-82/10.60 4.Title .na S"otlne Habitat Suitability Information:Rainbow trout 5027'2:°'01 ~1-'-A-~-a-~-~----------------------------!I.~~~~~~R.F.Raleigh,T.Hickman,R.C.Solomon.and P.C.Nelson--9.i"erlarmll'C OrpninCio""'.m••na Ad4ru.Habi ta t Eva 1ua ti on Procedures Group 10.t"Po'oct/T.._/Wa....Unit Nos. Western Energy and Land Use Team U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service 2627 Redwing Road Fort Collins.CO 80526-2899 120 S_"'"IO.......zatlOft "'ome aIla Ad."..~~estern I::.nergy ana Lana use I earn Division of Biological Services Research and Development Fish and Wildlife Service U.S.Department of the Interior UI.SUOO........,.,l'lOC..Washington.D.C.20240 A review and synthesis of existing information was used to develop riverine and lacustrine habitat models for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)a freshwater species. The models are scaled to produce indices of habitat suitability between 0 (unsuitable habitat)and 1 (optimally suitable habitat)for freshwater areas of the continental United States.Other habitat suitability models found in the literature are also included.Habitat suitability indices (HSI's)are designed for'use with Habitat Evaluation Procedures previously developed by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service. Also included are discussions of Suitabil ity Index (S1)curves as used in the Instream Flow Incremental f1ethodology (IFIM)and 51 curves available for an IFIM analysis of rainbow trout habitat. .- 17.OOQUr_A"oty1l..I.OncttClta" Milthematical models F'ishes Aquatic biology Ha.bi tabi 1i ty ).'''.illtffi_/OO_EtIa..,r ...... !Rainbow trout ~almo gairdneri Habitat Suitability :.COSATl Fi.'d/G",uo I !I........I.,Cility Stat....em 19.S......nw Cl,as (TlIi.i'l.CQ~1 21.No.at P.C" I Release unlimited Unclassified 64o~l :::0_._sec:--.;uU;.;.';.;.;C;.;.ll..;;:;..;;~..;;;:.;.i f.;.'·'.;.;·~;.;"d;.·_l __~~::'~~~".":,,,.~~~__~ ;s••"NSI-.z:!9.1ll1 S..'''..cruet,."••"R....".OPTlONAI.FORM Z7:!(~7n iForm."v ~r'S-351 :eo.l"t'P'I"l'lHtt ':If CO'l"Iu".re, tl U.S.GOVERNMENTPRINTINGOFFICE:1984-681-4681524 REGION NO.8 J ..... ,..... - FWS/OBS-82/10.49 September 1983 HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX MODELS:COHO SALMON by Thomas Eo McMahon Habitat Evaluation Procedures Group Western Energy and Land Use Team U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service 2627 Redwing Road Ft.Collins,CO 80526 Western Energy and Land Use Team Division of Biological Service Research and Development Fish and Wildlife Service U.S.Department of the Interior Washington,DC 20240 ...... -, - PREFACE The habitat use information and Habitat SUitability Index (HSI)models presented in this document are intended for use in impact assessment and habi- tat management activities.Literature concerning a species,habitat require- ments and preferences is reviewed and then synthesized into subjective HSI models,which are scaled to produce an index between 0 (unsuitable habitat) and],(optimal habitat).Assumptions used to transform habitat use informa- tion into these mathematical models are noted and guidelines for model applica- tion are described.Any models found in the literature which may also be used to ccllculate an HSI are cited.A section presenting Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM)will be included in this series in the near future.The IFIM section will include a discussion of Suitability Index (SI)curves,as are used in IFIM and a discussion of SI curves available for the IFIM analysis of coho salmon habitat • .Use of habitat information presented in this publication for impact assessment requires the setting of clear study objectives.Methods for modify- ing HSI models and recommended measurement techniques for model variables are pres€!nterl in Terrell et al.(1982).1 A discussion of HSI model building techniques is presented in U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service (1981).2 The HSI model presented herein is the combination of hypotheses of speci es-habitat rel ationshi ps,not statements of proven cause and effect re'lationships.Results of model performance tests,when available,are re"feY'enced;however,models that have demonstrated reliability in specific s i tualt ions may prove unre 11 ab 1e in others.For thi s reason,the U.S.Fi sh and Wildl:ife Service encourages model users to send comments and suggestions to help increase the utility and effectiveness of this habitat-based approach to incor'porate the coho salmon in fish and wildlife planning.Please send COmmE!nts to: Habitat Evaluation Procedures Group Western Energy and Land Use Team U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service 2627 Redwing Road Fort Collins,CO 80526 1Terlre11,J.W.,T.E.McMahon,P.D.Inskip,R.F.Raleigh,and K.L. Wi 11 'iamson.1982.Habitat suitability index models:Appendix A.Guidelines for riverine and lacustrine applications of fish HSI models with the Habitat Evaluation Procedures.U.S.Dept.Int.,Fish Wild].Servo FWS/OBS-82110.A. 54 PiP. 2U.S.Fi sh and Wil dli fe Servi ce. habitat suitability index models. Serv.,Div.Ecol.Servo n.p. 1981.Standards for the deve lopment of 103 ESM.U.S.Dept.·Int.,Fi sh Wildl. iii 0"', ~~ -CONTENTS PRE FACE ....•...•..'". AC KNOW LEDGMENT 5 . HABITAT USE INFORMATION . Genera 1 .....•..................................................... Age,Growth,and Food .............................•....••......... Reproduction ...•...•.............................................. Freshwater Residence ...•....•..................................... Smoltification . Specific Habitat Requirements ......•.......................•...... HABITAT SUITABI LITY INDEX (HSI)MODELS . Mode lApp 1i cabi 1i ty . Model Description .....•........................................... Suitabil ity Index (51)Graphs for Model Vari abl es . Interpret i n9 Mode 1 Outputs . ADDITIONAL HABITAT MODELS ..................•........................... iii vi 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 8 8 9 12 22 22 RE FERENCES .....•....•..................'.....,..........................22 v ----,,---------------------------------- - ,~- r ,.... ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T.Nickelson,Oregon Department of Fish and Game,Corvallis,B.Nelson, B.Persons,and especiallyG.Wedemeyer,U.S.National Fisheries Research Labora'tory,Seattle,and R.C.Solomon,U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service,Fort Collin:s,reviewed drafts of this document and offered many constructive sugges- tions.However,the reader should not construe this as an endorsement of the model contents.The present document is an independent synthesis and inter- pretation of the literature.A preliminary set of habitat evaluation criteria, develol:led by R.Stuber,U.S.Forest Service (formerly with the HEP Group),and H.li and C.Schreck of the Oregon Cooperative Fi shery Research Unit,was utilizl!d in development of this document.C.Short provided editorial assistance.Word processing was by C.J.Gulzow and D.E.Ibarra.J.R. Shoemal(.er drew the cover illustration.K.Twomey greatly assisted in final preparation of the manuscript. vi f)i ..... rt ~O, .... COHO SALMON (Oncorhynchus ki sutch) HABITAT USE INFORMATION Gener'a 1---- The coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)is native to the northern Pacific Ocean,spawning and rearing in streams from Monterey Bay,California,to Point Hope 11 Alaska,and southward along the Asiatic coast to Japan.Its center of abundance in North Ameri ca is from Oregon to Alaska (Bri ggs 1953;Godfrey 1965;;Hart 1973;Scott and Crossman 1973).Coho salmon have been successfully introduced into the Great Lakes and reservoirs and lakes throughout the United StatE!S to provide put-and-grow sport fi shing (Scott and Crossman 1973; Wigglesworth and Rawson 1974).No subspecies of coho salmon have been desctribed (Godfrey 1965). ~Growth,and Food Coho salmon typi ca lly return to spawn in freshwater at ages III or IV at lengths and weights ranging from 45 to 60 cm and 3.5 to 5.5 k.g,respectively (Shapovalov and Taft 1954;Godfrey 1965;Scott and Crossman 1973).Coho from Alaska tend to be older and larger at spawning than those further south due to a longer period of freshwater residence (Drucker 1972;Crone and Bond 1976). A significant percentage of spawning runs,particularly in the southern portion of the coho's range,may consist of precocious males (jacks)that mature and return to spawn after only 6 to 9 months in the ocean (Shapovalov and Taft 1954). Growth rate of coho duri ng freshwater reari ng is vari ab 1e both between ·and within streams (Drucker 1972;Crone and Bond 1976)and is probably deter- mined,to a large extent,by food availability and temperature.Size,as a function of growth,may play an important role in escapement and survival rate in coho populations;larger seaward migrant coho (smolts)have a higher prob- ability of returning as adults and are larger and more fecund than smaller individuals of a cohort (Crone and Bond 1976;Bilton 1978). Young coho feed mainly on drifting aquatic and terrestrial insects (Demory 1961;Mundie 1969;Scott and Crossman 1973).As they grow,coho become incr'easingly piscivorous,preying primarily on salmonid fry (Scott and Crossman 19731).In the ocean or in lakes and reservoirs,coho feed on fish and cru~itaceans (Grinols and Gill 1968;Hart 1973;Scott and Crossman 1973;Healey 1978).Coho do not feed during spawning migrations. 1 Reproduction Coho salmon return to natal streams to spawn from midsummer to winter, depending on latitude.In the southern part of the range,spawning occurs in December and January (Briggs 1953;Shapovalov and Taft 1954).In Alaska, spawning occurs in October (Drucker 1972;Crone and Bond 1976)and,in the Great Lakes,in early September -October (Scott and Crossman 1973).Coho in North America migrate upstream during a single fall run,unlike other salmon, which may migrate upstream in multiple runs throughout the year (Scott and Crossman 1973).Entry into freshwater often coincides with rises in stream- flow,particularly in streams with low summer flows (Shapovalov and Taft 1954). Spawning behavior of coho has been summarized by Morrow (1980).Spawning occurs primarily in moderate-sized coastal streams and tributaries of larger rivers.Coho do not utilize main channels of large rivers for spawning as heavily as do chinook (Q.tshawytscha)or intertidal reaches as heavily as do chum (Q.keta)and pink (Q.gorbuscha)salmon (Scott and Crossman 1973). Supplementation of declining runs of wild spawning stocks with hatchery fish is increasing in the Northwest (Fulton 1970;Korn 1977). Incubation period varies inversely with temperature and usually lasts 35 to 50 days (Shapovalov and Taft 1954).Fry emerge 20 to 25 days after hatching (Mason 1976a). Freshwater Residence Coho fry emerge from the gravel from early March to mid-May.Newly emerged fry aggregate along stream margins,in shallow pools,and in backwaters and eddies (Lister and Genae 1970;Stein et al.1972).Fry gradually move into deeper pools,where they become aggressive and territorial.Fry unable to hold a territory emigrate downstream into the ocean (Hartman et al.1982) or elsewhere in the stream system (Shapovalov and Taft 1954)because of intra- specif;"c compet it i on for food and space (Chapman 1966a).Coho that emi grate in their fi rst spri ng or summer of life as age 0 fi sh [usually <40 mm fork length (FL)]often constitute a major portion of the seaward migrants,but their probability of returning as adults is extremely low (Crone and Bond 1976;Hartman et al.1982).Otto (1971)demonstrated that age 0 coho are poorly equipped physiologically to survive and grow in the high salinities encountered in the ocean. Scales from returning adults indicate that the vast majority of coho res ide in freshwater for at 1 east 1 year pri or to seaward mi grat ion.In the southern part of the range,coho commonly remain in freshwater for 1 to 2 years (Shapovalov and Taft 1954;Godfrey 1965).In Alaska,freshwater residence lasts from 2 to 4 years (Drucker 1972;Crone and Bo~d 1976). Smoltification Myriad processes and factors initiate,control,and affect parr-smolt transformation (smoltification)in coho and other anadromous salmonids.An important requirement of hatchery or naturally produced coho juveniles is that 2 .... .... t the resulting smolts be fully able,behaviorally and physiologically,to migrate to the sea,grow,develop normally,and return to their native stream and successfully spawn.Among the environmental factors that influence smoltification,photoperiod,temperature,and flow are especially critical (Parlry 1960;Hoar 1965;Clarke et ale 1978;Clarke and She"lbourn 1980; Wedemeyer et a 1.1980). Smoltification and seaward migration in coho occurs in the spring (Shapovalov and Taft 1954;Drucker 1972;Crone and Bond 1976),with some exceptions (Chapman 1962).Migration often follows periods of rapid tem- perature warming (Shapovalov and Taft 1954).Coho smolts in California are repo:rted to migrate to sea in April -May (Shapovalov and Taft 1954);in southeast Alaska,migration peaked in mid-June (Crone and Bond 1976). Parr-smolt transformation is primarily a function of size,rather than of age.Minimum size for successful smolt1fication in coho is near 100 mm FL (Shapovalov and Taft 1954;Druck.er 1972;Crone and Bond 1976).This size corr1esponds closely to the 90 mm threshold size of coho for maximum sal inity tole'rance (Conte et ale 1966).Smaller coho may show signs of transformation to smolts (e.g.,silvery color,increased buoyancy,and salinity tolerance), but ,other critical aspects of the process are usually lacking (e.g.)migratory behavior),and they do not develop fully until the threshold size is attained (Wedemeyer et ale 1980). Due to the reduction in spawning habitat and spawning runs,natural reproduction of coho salmon is increasingly supplemented by release of hatchery-reared smolts.However,a perennial problem in the use of hatchery- produced juvenile salmonids is that ocean survival is often below estimated survival of naturally produced smolt,s.The failure to produce good quality smolts centers on the release of fish at a size,age,and time unsuitable for their ocean survival and on their exposure to environmental conditions that adversely affect growth and survival.Wedemeyer et al.(1980)have reviewed this problem in depth and propose guidelines for rearing and release of hatchery smolts to maximize the number returning as adults. Specific Habitat Requirements Coho salmon utilize a variety of freshwater habitats and tolerances and requi rements change wi th season and age.Although most developmental'changes and movements to different habitats are gradual,it is useful to delineate the freshwater life cycle into four diStinct life stages and to specify factors assumed to affect habi tat quality for each 1 i fe stage.These 1 ife stages are defined as follows: 1.Adult.Sexually mature coho migrating from the ocean to natal stream to spawn. 2.Spawning!embryo!alevin.From period of egg deposition to hatching and emergence of fry from redds (Alevins =yolk-sac fry). 3 -------_._------------------------------------- 3.Parr.Fry (age 0),and juvenile (age 1+)coho residing in rearing streams. 4.Smolt.Seaward migrant juveniles undergoing parr-smolt transforma- tion. Adult.Accessibility of the spawning stream and water quality appear to be the major factors affecting coho during upstream migrationo Dams may completely block upstream passage,and other physical features may become impossible to cross at low (e.g.,debris jams or waterfalls)or high (e.g., excessive velocities)flows (Reiser and Bjornn 1979).Thompson (1972) recommended a minimum depth of 0.18 m and a maximum velocity of 244 em/sec as criteria for successful upstream migration of adult coho. Water quality can affect upstream migration of coho through direct mortality,increasing the susceptibility of the coho to diseases,or adversely altering the timing of the migration and rate of maturation (Holt et al. 1975).Temperatures ~25.5°are lethal to migrating adults (Bell 1973). Sublethal temperatures may result in major prespawning mortalities through activation of latent infections (Wedemeyer 1970)0 Disease infection rates in coho increase markedly at temperatures above 12.7°C (Fryer and Pilcher 1974; Holt et ala 1975;Groberg et al.1978).Temperatures ~13°C have been recommended to minimize prespawning mortality of coho during upstream migration (Wedemeyer,pers.comm.). Dissolved oxygen (D.O.)levels>6.3 mg/l are recommended for successful ~, upstream migration of anadromous salmonids (Davis 1975).L~wer D.O.concentra-~ tions adversely affect upstream migration by reducing the swimming ability of migrants and by eliciting avoidance responses.Maximum sustained swimming speed of coho is sharply reduced at 0.0.levels <6.5 mg/l at all temperatures (Davis et al.1963).It is assumed that adult coho respond to low D.O.levels in a fashion similar to juveniles and avoid waters with D.O.concentrations <4.5 mg/l (Whitmore et al.1960). Spawning/embryo/alevin.Coho salmon construct redds in swift,shallow areas at the head of riffles (Burner 1951;Briggs 1953;Shapovalov and Taft 1954).Preferred redd construction sites in riffle areas have velocities of 21 to 70 cm/sec and minimum depths ~15 cm (Smith 1973).Gravel and small rubble substrate with low amounts of fine sediments is optimum for survival, growth,and development of embryos and alevins and for later emergence of fry (Platts et al.1979).Percent composition of various size classes of substrate resulting in high survival of embryos and alevins has not been established. Reiser and Bjornn (1979)estimated that redds with 1.3 to 10.2 cm diameter substrate sizes and a low percentage of fines result in high survival of embryos.An inverse relationship between percent fines <3.3 mm and emergence of fry has been well established in field (Koski 1966;Hall and Lantz 1969; Cloern 1976)and laboratory (Phillips et al.1975)experiments.In all studies,emergence of coho fry was high at <5%fines but dropped sharply at ~15%fines. 4 ".,.. I i~ ..... Survival and emergence of embryos and alevins·is greatly influenced by D.O.supply within the redd (Mason 1976a).D.O.concentrations ~8 mg/l are requi "ed for hi gh survi va 1 and emergence of fry.Embryo survival drops si gnif- icantlly at levels S 6.5 mg/l;concentrations <3 mg/1 are lethal (Coble 1961; ShumwclY et al.1964;Davis 1975).D.O.supply available to coho in redds is determined primarily by the interrelationship of gravel permeability,water veloclity,and D.O.concentration.When any of these factors,acting alone or in combination,reduces the intragravel 0 1 supply below saturation,hypoxial stress occurs,resulting in delayed hatching and emergence,smaller size of emerg'ing fry,and increased incidence of developmental abnormalities (Alderice et al.1958;Coble 1961;Silver et al.1963;Shumway et al.1964;Mason 1976a). D.O.concentrations at or near saturation,with temporary reductions no lower than!)mg/l,are recommended as criteria necessary for successful reproduction of anadromous salmonids (Rei~er and Bjornn 1979). Burner (1951)observed coho spawning in Oregon at temperatures of 2.5 to 12.00 C.Temperatures of 4.4 to 9.40 C are considered suitable for spawning (Bell 1973).Temperatures in the 4.4 to 13.3°C range are considered optimum for embryo i ncubat ion';survival decreases if these threshol ds are exceeded (Bell 1973;Reiser and Bjornn 1979). Parr.Coho parr require an abundance of food and cover to sustain fast growB1irates,avoid predation,and avoid premature displacement downstream to the ocean in order to successfully rear in freshwater and migrate to the sea as sm10lts (Mundie 1969).Mason and Chapman (1965)found that the number of coho parr remaining in stream channels is dependent on the amount of food and cover available;if food or cover is decreased,emigration from the area subsequently is increased.Mason (1976b)substantially increased summer carry'fng capacity of a coho stream by supplemental feeding;however,these gains were largely lost because numbers exceeded winter carrying capacity. Dill l!t al.(1981)found that territory size in coho is inversely related to the amount of available food.Low levels of food result in larger and fewer territories per unit area,increased emigration of resident fry,and slower growth rate of remaining fish.Small,slow growing parr may remain in fresh- water for longer periods (With an attendant high mortality rate)until threshold size for smolting is reached or may migrate to the sea at a time when chances for survival are slim (Chapman 1966a). Substrate composition,riffles,and riparian vegetation appear to be the most important factors influencing production of aquatic and terrestrial insects as food for coho (Mundie 1969;Giger 1973;Reiser and Bjornn 1979). Highest production of aquatic invertebrates is found in stream substrates comprised of gravel and rubble (Giger 1973;Reiser and Bjornn 1979).Pennak and Van Gerpen (1947)reported that the production of benthic invertebrates is greater in rubble>bedrock.>gravel >sand.Because substrate size is a function of water velocity,larger substrate sizes are associated with faster currents.Thus,food production is also high in riffles (Ruggles 1966;Waters 1969).Pearson et al.(1970)found that coho production per unit area in Oregon streams is higher in pools with larger riffles upstream.However, increased fines in riffles can reduce production of benthic food organisms (Phillips 1971).Crouse et al.(1981)reported that coho production is lowest in 1cLboratory stream channel s when embeddedness of the rubbl e substrate is 5 high (80 to 100%)and the percent (by volume)of fines (s 2.0 mm)exceeds 26%. Lastly,riparian vegetation along coho streams acts as habitat for terrestrial insects,as well as a source of leaf litter utilized by stream invertebrates as food (Chapman 1966b;Mundie 1969). Coho parr are most abundant in large,deep [generally>0.30 m (Nickelson, pers.comm.)]pools,where they congregate near instream and bank (overhead) cover of logs,roots,debris.undercut banks,and overhanging vegetation (Ruggles 1966;Lister and Genoe 1970;Mason 197Gb).Nickelson and Reisenbichler (1977)and Nickelson et al.(1979)found positive correlations between standing crop of age 0+coho and pool volume.Studies in Oregon by Nickelson (pers.comm.)suggest that pools of 10 to 80 m3 or 50 to 250 m2 in size with sufficient riparian canopy for shading are optimum for coho produc- tion.A pool to riffle ratio of 1:1 provides optimum food and cover conditions for coho parr.Ruggl es (1966)found that the greatest number of coho fry remained in stream channels consisting of 50%pools and 50%riffles;numbers of fry remaining in channels of either 100%pools or 100%riffles could be 39% and 20%lower,respectively. As water temperatures decrease below go C,coho fry become less active and seek.deep (~45 em),slow «15 em/sec)water ;n or very near «1 m) dense cover of roots,logs,and flooded brush (Hartman 1965;Bustard and Narver 1975a).Beaver ponds and qui et back.water areas,often some di stance from the main stream channel and dry during summer low flow periods,are also utilized as winter habitat (Narver 1978).Several studies indicate that the amount of suitable winter habitat may be a major factor limiting coho produc- tion (Chapman 1966a;Mason 1976b;Chapman and Knudsen 1980).SWimming ability of coho is decreased as the water temperature drops;therefore,winter cover is critical for protection from predation,freezing,and.especially,displace- ment by winter freshets (Bustard and Narver 1975b;Mason 1976b;Hartman et al. 1982).Chapman and Knudsen (1980)found a very low winter biomass of coho in channelized and grazed sections of streams in Washington,which they attributed to the reduced pool volumes and amount of instream and bank cover present in those areas. Several studies have shown a positive relationship between stream carrying capacity for coho and streamflow (McKernan et a 1.1950;Mathews and 01 son 1980;Scarnecchia 1981).Strong positive correlations have also been found between total stream area and measures of coho biomass (Pearson et al.1970; Burns 1971).Lowest returns of adult coho coincide with low summer flows coup 1ed with hi gh wi nter floods (McKernan et a 1.1950).Burns (1971)found that highest mortality of coho and other salmonids in the summer occurred during periods of lowest flows.Higher streamflows during rearing appear to provide more suitable habitat for growth and survival through increased produc- tion of stream invertebrates and availability of cover (Chapman 1966a;Giger 1973;Scarnecchia 1981).Stabilization of winter flows and increases in summer flows have led to increased production of coho (Lister and Walker 1966; Mundie 1969).Narver (1978)suggested that stream enhancement techniques aimed at reducing displacement downstream during winter floods and at providing deep pools during summer low flows could substantially increase stream rearing capacity for coho. 6 rt """' .... ,..... Growth rate and food conversion efficiency of,coho fry is optimum at D.O. concentrations above 5 mg/l.Below 4.5 mg/l,growth and food conversion rapidly decreases to the point where growth ceases or is negative (below 3 mg/l)(Herrmann et ale 1962;Brett and Blackburn 1981).Swimming speed decreases below the saturation level,especially below 6 mg/l (Dahlberg et ale 1968).D.O.concentrations <4.5 mg/l are avoided (Whitmore et ale 1960). Uppe'r i nci pi ent 1etha 1 temperatures for coho fry range from 22.9 to 25.0°C (acclimation temperatures of 5 to 23°C)(Brett 1952).Significantdecreases in swimming speed occur at temperatures>20°C (Griffiths and Alderice 1972), and growth ceases at temperatures above 20.3°C (Bell 1973).Stein et al. (197'2)found that the growth rate of coho fry was high in the 9 to 13°C temperature range,but slowed considerably at temperatures near 18°C.Brungs and Jones (1977)reported that growth of coho occurred from 5 to 17°C. Streamside vegetation plays an important role in regulating the tempera- ture!in rearing streams.Cooler winter water temperatures may occur if the stre!am canopy is absent or reduced,adversely affecting egg incubation (Chapman 1962~).Where streamside vegetation is intact but the surrounding watershed has been logged,warmer winter water temperatures may result,shifting the period of emergence of fry and downstream movement of smolts to earlier,and 1ess favorabl e,peri ods (Hartman et a 1.1982).In areas where the stream canopy has been reduced,the resultant warmer summer temperatures may make the habitat unsuitable if the temperature exceeds 20 0 C (Stein et ale 1972)or may increase the mortality of fry from disease (Hall and Lantz 1969).However, too much stream canopy can also reduce habitat suitability for coho fry.For example,Chapman and Knudsen (1980)found reduced coho biomass in,stream sections where the canopy was very dense.Pearson et ale (1970)reported that coho fry appear to avoid areas of dense shade;they suggested that stream canopy encl osi n9 >90%of the sky may exceed the optimum 1eve 1. In summary.optimum rearing habitat for coho parr consists of a mixture of pools and riffles,abundant instream and bank cover.water temperatures that average between 10 to 15°C in the summer,D.O.near the saturation level,and riffles with low amounts of fine sediment (Reiser and Bjornn 1979). Strl:amside vegetation is an important component of coho habitat because it pro1";des food,cover,temperature control,and bank stabilization (Narver 1978). Smolt.The radical physiological and behavioral changes that occur during smoltification make this stage particularly sensitive to environmental strlE!SS factors.Blockage and delay of migration by dams,unfavorable stream flows and temperatures.fluctuations in food supplies,predation,gas super- saturation below dams.activation of latent infections due to environmental str1ess,interference with saltwater adaptation in estuaries because of gi 11 infestations.and handling stress and descaling durin~transportation around dams are major sources of mortality and reduced ocean survivability of coho smolts (Wedemeyer et al.1980). El evated water temperatures can accelerate the onset of smoltifi cati on and shorten the smolting period and may result in seaward migration of smolts at a time when conditions are unfavorable (Wedemeyer et al.1980).Zaugg and McLain (1976)reported that the period of high gill ATPase activity (indicative 7 -----,---,--~ of high salinity tolerance and other adaptations neeessary for parr-smo1t ~.;.", transformation)in coho smo1ts held at 20°C occurred from mid-March to early ~ April;at 15°C,it occurred from mid-March to early May;and,at 10°C,a normal pattern resulted with a peak in ATPase activity from mid-March to early July.By shortening the duration of smo1ting and accelerating desmoltifica- tion,sublethal temperatures can lead to parr-reversion of coho smolts in estuaries where exposure to predation and risk of infection is high,thereby diminishing the number of coho smolts entering the ocean (Wedemeyer et al. 1980).Wedemeyer et al.(1980)recommend that temperatures follow a natural seasonal cycle as closely as ·possib1e to those present in the coho·s native range to ensure optimum conditions for smoltification and timing of seaward migration.Specifically,temperatures should not exceed 10°C in late winter to prevent accelerated smolting;temperatures should not exceed 12°C during smo1ting and seaward migration in the spring to prevent shortened duration of smolting and premature onset of desmo1tification and to reduce the risk of infection from pathogens (see Adult section). Exposure to pollutants can have a major deleterious impact on smo1tifica- tion and early marine survival of anadromous sa1monids (see review by Wedemeyer et a1.1980).For example,Lorz and McPherson (1976)found that.at very low levels of copper (20 to 30 pg/l).migratory behavior and gill ATPase activity in coho smolts was greatly suppressed and high mortalities resulted from exposure to saltwater.Low concentrations of herbicides have also been found to inhibit smo1t function and migratory behavior (Lorz et al.1978). The lethal threshold for gas supersaturation in coho smo1ts is 114.5%. No deaths were reported at 110%supersaturation,but the majority of fi sh exhibited symptoms of gas-bubble disease (Rucker and Kangas 1974;Nebeker and Brett 1976). Specific D.O.requirements for coho smo1ts are unknown,but are probably similar to those for parr. HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX (HSI)MODEL Model Applicability Geographic area.The model was developed from information gathered on habi tat requi rements of coho salmon throughout its nat;ve and introduced range.This general model is designed to be applicable to all the above areas but is limited to the freshwater stage of the life cycle:upstream migrant; embryo;parr;and smolt. Season.The model is structured to account for changes in seasonal as well as life stage requirements of coho salmon during those parts of the life cycle when they inhabit freshwater.Because rearing streams are utilized year-round,the model is developed to measure the suitability of a given habitat to support parr for the entire year and to support embryos during the spawning and incubation period. 8 , , I~ ..... Cover types.The model is oriented primarily to sm~ll coastal streams and tributaries of larger rivers,which are the major spawning and rearing areas of coho salmon.Habitat requirements of coho in large rivers,where some spawning and rearing occurs and which serve as IIhighways to the seal!for upstream and downstream migrant wild and hatchery-reared coho,are less well- known and are not adequately addressed in this model.Water quality variables are the only variables in this model that may be applicable when coho inhabit larg1e rivers.Variables that measure habitat suitability for adult coho in lakes,reservoirs,estuaries,or the ocean are not included in this model. Water quality.The model has limited utility in areas where water quality variables (e.g.,toxic substances and gas supersaturation)are major factors limiting coho populations.If toxic substances are being discharged into a river,Wedemeyer et al.(1980)should be consulted for information on the types of substances that can adversely affect survival of smolts. Verification level.The model represents the author's interpretation of how specific environmental factors combine to determine overall habitat suit- ability for coho salmon.The model has not been field tested. Model Description The HSI model that follows is an attempt to condense information on habitat requirements fo.r coho into a set of habitat evaluation criteria, stru,ctured to produce an index of overall habitat quality.A positive rela- tionship between HSI and carrying capacity of the habitat is assumed (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1981),but this relationship has not been tested. As a con sequence of thei r homi ng to natal streams to spawn,coho and other anadromous sa lmonids commonly form local races and stocks,exhibiting adaptations to the particular set of environmental conditions present in the spawning streams (larkin 1981;Maclean and Evans 1981).The generalized HSI model presented does not take into account the different stocks or subpopula- tions.The model was developed,and should be applied,with the following statement by Banks (1969:131)in mind:II•••the consequences of man-made changes (on anadromous salmonids)...can be predicted in general terms from the existing literature,but (due to the formation.of local stocks)each situation is unique ...and requires studies of the special needs of each river system as well as the flexible application of general principles". The model consists of those habitat variables that affect the growth, survival,abundance,distribution,behavior,or other measure of well-being of coho,and therefore can be expected to have an impact on the carrying capacity of a.habitat.Coho salmon habitat quality,in this model,is based on para- meters assumed to affect habitat suitabil ity for each of four 1ife stages of coho salmon during residence in freshwater (Fig.1).Variables affecting habitat suitability for parr are further delineated into the life requisite components of:water quality;food;and cover.It was assumed that the most limiting factor (i.e.,lowest S1 score)defines the carrying capacity for coho salmon;thus, HSI =minimum value for suitability indices VI to V15 • 9 Habitat variables Suitability indices Life stages ; V, fl'Food Vs VlO Vll V12 V13 V7 -----~'via ter Qua 1i ty ~-"7 Pa rr -----i HS I VI Vl==========-_-Adult V" Percent pools Temperature during parr- smolt transformation and seaward migration Percent cover D.O.during seaward migration Proportion of pools Vegetation composition of riparian zone Percent pools Percent canopy Substrate composition D.O.during rearing Substrate composition D.O.-incubation Temperature during rearing Temperature-incubation D.O.during upstream migration Temperature during up- stream migration 'Winter cover Figure 1.Diagram showing habitat variables included in the HS1 model for coho salmon and the aggregation of the corresponding suitability indices (Sl l s)into an HSI.HSI =the lowest of the fifteen suitability index ratings. 10 - Adult component.VI was i ncl uded in thi s c9mponent because temperature can result in direct mortality.can increase coho susceptibility to infectious diseases,or can alter the timing of migration and rate of maturation of coho salmon during migration from the ocean to the spawning stream.Because D.O. levels below saturation can elicit avoidance behavior and reduce the swimming ability in coho,D.O.(V 2 )also was included as a variable that affects habitat suitabil ity for upstream mi grants. No specific variables were included in this component as measures of the accessibility of the spawning stream.Nevertheless,physical features encoun- terl~d by coho while migrating upstream should be considered when evaluating habitat suitability.Features that impede or delay migrants from moving upstream (see Adult section)would make suitable habitat,as defined by the model,less useable. Spawning/embryo/alevin component.V3 was included in this component because embryo survival decreases when temperatures during incubation exceed the optimum temperature boundary of 13.3°C.V..was included because 0.0. levels below the saturation level induce hypoxial stress in embryos and alevins and lead to decreased quantity and quality of emerging fry.Vs was included because percent emergence of fry is related to substrate composition of spawning redds. Parr component.Water quality:V6 was included because temperature affects swimming speed,growth,and survival of coho parr.V7 was included because 0.0.concentration affects growth,food conversion,swimming speed, and avoidance behavi or of parr.VI was i ncl uded because coho numbers (or biomass)are related to the quantity of stream canopy cover. Food:Vs was included because it was assumed that the direct (terrestrial insects)and indirect (leaf litter as food for aquatic insects)production of food utilized by coho parr varies with the amount and type of riparian vegeta- tion present.VID was included because the production of aquatic insects,as well as coho parr,has been related to the amount of riffle areas present in a stream.Vs was included because the production potential of aquatic insects is related to the substrate composition. '1 Cover:VlD and Vll were included because the abundance of coho varies with the amount (V ID )and type (V ll )of pools present in a stream. was included because coho parr are commonly associated with instream and cover.V13 was included because the amount of suita.ble winter cover may major factor affecting coho production. 11 parr V12 bank be a Smo lt component.V14 was i ncl uded because temperature greatly affects the timing and duration of parr-smolt transformation,can alter the timing of seaward migration,and can affect the susceptibility of smolts to infection. Although specific data are lacking,V1S was included because D.O.concentration could potentially impact smolt migration through its effects on swimming ability,by eliciting avoidance behavior,or by resulting in the direct mortality of smolts. Suitability Index (51)Graphs for Model Variables All variables pertain to riverine (R)habitat.Table 1 lists the informa- tion sources and assumptions used in constructing each 51 graph. Habitat Variable /.;"'\,, ~~. f ! R Maximum temperature during upstream migration. R V2 Minimum dissolved 1.0 oxygen concentration during upstream ~0.8migration. "'Cc .....0.6 >, -l->.... =;:0.4 ..0 I'd -l->.;0.2 V'l 0.0 4 5 6 7 8 mg;l 0~.. 12 0.8 1.0 +---,.-......--.:----+ X QJ "'0 ..:;0.6 Maximum temperature from spaw~ing to emer- gence of fry. R r-:; 'r-0.4..... or- ..0m +J 0.2'r- :::l U') 0.0 ~0 10 20 °C .'..,··v o.0 +---~--r-----+ 1.0 +---L__,..._+ ..... ..0m ~0.2 :::l U') x 0.8 QJ "'0 ~ >-<0.6 :; :=0.4 Minimum dissolved oxygen concentration from spawn- ing to emergence of fry. R ~J- o 50 mg/l 100 - 13 R Vs Substrate composition ,1.0 O!!in riffl e/run areas. A.Percent of gravel 0.8 (10 to 60 mm)and x OJ rubble (61 to 250 mm)~0.6 present..... >,8.Percent fines «6 +' mm)or percent .....0.4 embeddedness of .,.., .Cl substrate.~0.2..... :::l 51 =A +B en where B -0/fines 0.02•-10 0 50 100 or %embeddedness,whichever is %gravel &rubble lower. 0 %embeddedness 100 1.0 0.8 x OJ -0 oS 0.6 >, .f-J ;::0.4 0)~,.;-"-.,.., .Clro:;:0.2 :::len 0.0 0 25 50 %fines R V,Maximum temperature 1.0 during rearing (parr). x 0.8 Q) -0 I:::.....0.6 ~ :::0.4..... .0 ttl ~0.2 ::Ien 0.0 4 8 12 16 20 24 °c G> 14 0.0 +--,....-"-r-...--,-......--r--+ 8 104 6 mg/l 2o 1.0 +-_......--._--l-_,.._.... x 0.8 Q) "0 .5 0.6 ~ ;::0.4 .r- ..0 to~0.2 ~ V) Minimum dissolved oxygen concentration during rearing (parr). V,R .... R Percent vegetative canopy over rearing stream. 1.0 +------...--...--+ 0.8 x (1) "0 c:0.6-~.~0.4 r- 'r- ..Q ItS~0.2.,.. ~ V) 0.0 -1-......---or-----__f_ a 50 %canopy 100 Vegetation Index =2 (%canopy cover of deciduous trees and shrubs)+(%canopy cover of grasses and forbs)+(% canopy cover of conifers). For measurement techniques,see Terrell et al.(1982),p.A.19 and A.37. R v,Vegetation index of riparian zone during summer. 1.0 +--......--.-~~........-.... 0.8 X QJ "0 .5 0.6 ~;=0.4..... ..c ItS~0.2.,.. ~ V) o.a -I'--..,.....-,......-......---,--+- o 50 100 150 200 250 Vegetation Index 15 R Vlfj Percent pools during 1.0 OJsummerlowflowperiod. 0.8x Q.I "0 l:0.6-~.+oJ ;'::0.4 .... ::s VI O. 0 50 100 %pools of pools l.R Vu Proportion during summer low flow period that are 10 to x 0.880m3or50to250m2 IV in size and have suffi--0 cient riparian canopy ..s 0.6 to provide shade.~ ;::0.4 (J)'f'" <',...;:W!;"'C'.c ~0.2.... :::Ien O..",..,."~ 0 50 1 00 %pool s with canopy 1-R V12 Percent instream and bank cover present during summer low flow x O. period.QJ "'0 l: --0.6 ~:::o...... .c rtl ~O. :::I V) O. 0 10 20 30 40 50 %cover 0) F'"~ 16 - R Percent of total area consisting of quiet backwaters and deep (~45 cm)pools with dense cover of roots t logs,debris jams t flooded brush,or deeply- undercut banks during winter. )(0.8 cu "C C -0.6 ~:=0.4.... .Q IU ~....0.2 ::li V') o.O+---,~--r--~~r---+o 10 20 30 40 50 %quiet area II"'"'R V14 Maximum temperature 1.0 during (A)winter (Nov.-March)in )(0.8rearingstreamsandG.I (B)spring-early summer "C (April-July)in streams ~0.6,where seaward migration ~ of smolt occurs..... r-0.4.... A.----..Q n:IB.~0.2 ::li V') 0.0 4 8 12 16 20 24 °C r-R Vu Minimum dissolved oxygen, concentration during 1.0 April-July in streams where seaward migration x 0.8occurs.G.I "C C -0.6 ~~.,... ;,::0.4 ..Q IU-~.,...0.2 ::li V') 0.0 a 2 4 6 8 10 (:)mg/1.- 17 I""" Table 1.Sources of information and assumptions used in construction ;~) of the suitability index graphs are listed below.IIExcellent ll habitat for coho salmon was assumed to correspond to an SI of 0.8 to 1.0,"good" habitat to an SI of 0.5 to 0.7,"fairll habitat to an SI of 0.2 to 0.4, arid II poor ll habitat to an SI of 0.0 to 0.1. Variable v.. Assumptions and sources Temperatures that are lethal or that correspond to high mortality rates in infected coho are poor (Bell 1973;Fryer and Pilcher 1974; Holt et al.1975).Temperatures where mortality of infected coho is moderate or where activation of latent infections begins to increase are fair (Fryer and Pilcher 1974;Groberg et al.1978). Temperatures that correspond to low disease mortality (Fryer and Pilcher 1974;Holt et al.1975)and that are recommended for minimizing prespawning mortality are excellent (Wedemeyer pers. comm.). D.O.levels that correspond to undiminished swimming ability (Davis et al.1963)and that are recommended for successful upstream migration (Davis 1975)are excellent.Levels where swimming speed is greatly reduced (Davis et al.1963)and avoidance is high (Whitmore et al.1960)are poor. Temperature ranges corresponding to those recommended as optimum for spawning and for incubation of embryos (Bell 1973)are excellent.Temperatures outside of this range are less suitable. 0.0.levels at or near the saturation level corresponded to the highest survival and emergence of fry and,therefore,are excellent.Levels that correspond to reduced emergence,delays in hatching or emergence,smaller size of fry,or increased incidences of developmental abnormalities (Alderice et al.1958; Cobel 1961;Silver et al.1963;Shumway et al.1964;Mason 1976a) are fair.D.O.levels below 5 mg/I (Reiser and Bjornn 1979)or that approach lethal conditions (3 mg/l)(Coble 1961;Shumway et al.1964;Davis 1975)are poor. 18 I""'!' I - - ..... Variable V7 V. v.,. Table L (continued). Assumptions and sources (Embryo)Substrate composition that corresponds to high embryo survival and high emergence of fry is excellent.Compositions that contribute to reduced emergence (high percentage of fines, high embeddedness)are good-poor depending on the severity of the impact on survival and emergence (Koski 1966;Hall and Lantz 1969;Phillips et al.1975;Cloern 1976;Pla~ts et al.1979; Reiser and Bjornn 1979). (Parr-Food)Gravel-rubble substrate composition corresponds to a high production of aquatic invertebrates (Giger 1973;Reiser and Bjornn 1979)and,therefore,is excellent in providing food for coho.Other substrates produce decreasing amounts of inver- tebrates in this order:rubble>bedrock>gravel>sand (Pennak and Van Gerpen 1947).It is assumed that the higher the percent- age fines or percent embeddedness,the lower the production of aquatic invertebrates (Phillips 1971;Crouse et al.1981). Temperatures that correspond to high growth (9 to 13°C)(Stein et al.1972)are excellent.Temperatures that correspond to r:educed growth (Stein et al.1972)are fatr.Temperatures that are lethal or where growth of parr ceases are poor. D.O.levels that correspond to the highest growth and food conversion rates (Herrmann et al.1962;Brett and Blackburn 1981)are excellent.Levels that correspond to greatly reduced swimming speed (Dahlberget at.1968),avoidance behavior (Whitmore et ~l.1960),and cessation of growth are poor. It is assumed that 50 to 75%canopy enclosure is excellent. Other percentages are less suitable because cooler winter and warmer summer temperatures,associated with low canopy cover, result in decreased survival of embryos and fry (Chapman 1962; Hall and Lantz 1969;Stein et al.1972).Lower biomass of coho corresponds to a high percent (>90%)of canopy closure (Pearson et al.1970;Chapman and Knudson 1980),so percentages ~90%are fair. Based on the work of Chapman (196Gb),deciduous trees and shrubs are excellent as habitat for terrestrial insects and in providing high amounts of leaf litter used as food for aquatic invertebrates. Grasses/forbs and conifers are less suitable.The equation was· formulated so that no riparian vegetation rates poor and so that ~75%deCiduous trees and shrubs rates excellent.It was based on the assumption that deciduous trees and shrubs provide twice the amount of terrestrial insects and leaf litter per unit area as do grasses/forbs and conifers. 19 Variable Table 1.(continued) Assumptions and sources (Food-Cover)A pool to riffle ratio of 1:1 in streams is ex- cellent in providing both food and cover for coho parr because: (1)food production is highest in riffles (Ruggles 1966;Waters 1969);(2)coho fry are most abundant in pools (Ruggles 1966; Lister and Genoe 1970;Mason 1976b);and (3)the highest number of coho fry remained in stream channels with a 1:1 ratio (Ruggles 1966).Higher or lower percentages of pools are less suitable because fewer coho fry remain in the stream channels (Ruggles 1966).This variable should be measured during summer low flow because this is the critical summer period for parr (Burns 1971). The graph is based on studies on Oregon streams by Nickelson and colleagues where:(1)positive correlations were found between standing crop of age 0+coho and pool volume (Nickelson and Reisenbichler 1977;Nickelson et al.1979);and (2)coho fry biomass was highest in pools 10 ta 80 m3 or SO to 250 m2 in size (Nickelson pers.comm.),It is assumed that a positive relation- ship exists between proportion of pools 10 to 80 m3 or 50 to 250 m2 in size and habitat suitability (=carrying capacity)for coho fry.If such pools are absent from the reach,it is assumed that some other pool habitat would exist but would be poor, capable of supporting parr in relatively small numbers (there- fore,51 =0.2 at 0%). Because there is a positive relationship between number of coho parr remaining in an area and amount of instream cover (Mason and Chapman 1965)and,because parr are most abundant near instream and bank cover (Ruggles 1966;Lister and Genae 1970;Mason 1976b),it is assumed that habitat suitability is proportional to the amount of instream or bank cover present in a reach.Zero percent cover is assigned an 51 of 0.2 because the stream may still be able to support coho parr,although at a greatly reduced 1eve 1. It is assumed that quiet backwaters and deep pools with dense cover are excellent winter habitat for coho parr because parr are most abundant in these areas during the winter (Hartman 1965; Bustard and Narver 1975a).Because several studies infer that the amount of suitable winter habitat may be a major factor limiting rearing capacity and smolt production (Chapman 1966a;Mason 197Gb; Chapman and Knudsen 1980),it is assumed that habitat SUitability ;s proportional to the amount of suitable winter habitat available. Zero percent winter cover has an 51 rating of 0.2 because it is assumed that other potential sites can still support some over- wintering parr.Thirty percent and above has an 51 of 1.0, because it is assumed that optimum values of this variable are obtainable in conjunction with optimum riffle-pool ratios (V 10 ). 20 ,~...•.~ -.i..•' f,:. I:'! A \I Variable Table 1.(concluded). Assumptions and sources Temperatures that correspond to a long and normal pattern of gill ATPase activity during smoltification (Zaugg and McLain 1976)are excellent,as are temperatures recommended for optimum smoltifi- cation and timing of seaward migration;i.e.,S 10°C during winter and S 12°C duri ng spri ng (Wedemeyer et a 1.1980;Wedemeyer pers. comm.).It is assumed that the shorter the duration of gill ATPase activity,the less suitable the temperature.Also,temperatures >12°C are considered fair-poor because the risk of infections from pathogens is assumed to be higher than at lower temperatures (Fryer and Pilcher 1974;Holt et al.1975). It is assumed that D.O.requirements for smolts are similar to those of parr,thus the same assumptions and sources used in developing the D.O.graph for parr (V 7 )were used in constructing the SIgraph for V1S ' 21 Interpreting Model Outputs The model described above is a generalized description of habitat require- ments for coho salmon and,as such,the output is not expected to discriminate among different habitats with a high resolution at this stage of development (see discussion in Terrell et alo 1982).Each model variable is considered to have some effect on habitat quality for coho,and the suitability index graphs depict what the measurable response is assumed to be.However,the graphs are derived from a series of untested assumptions,and it is unknown how accurately they depict habitat suitability for coho salmono The model assumes that each model variable alone can limit coho production,but this has not been testedo A major potential weakness in the model is that,while the model variables may be necessary in determining suitability of habitat for coho,they may not be sufficient.Species interactions and other factors not included in this model may determine carrying capacity to a greater degree than the variables included in this model 0 Data describing measurable responses for additional factors are,however,scarce or nonexistent and,therefore,the variables do not meet the standards for consideration as variables in HSI model development (UoSo Fish and Wildlife Service 1981). I recommend interpreting model outputs as indicators (or predictors)of excellent (008 to 1.0),good (0.5 to 0.7),fair (002 to 0.4),or poor (000 to 001)habitat for coho salmon.The output of the generalized model provided should be most useful as a tool in comparing different habitats.If two study areas have different HSI's,the one with the higher HSI is expected to have the potential to support more coho salmon.The model also should be useful as ~ a basic framework for formulating revised models that incorporate site specific ~ factors affecting habitat suitability for coho salmon and more detailed variable measurement techniques on a site-by-site basis. ADDITIONAL HABITAT MODELS No other habitat models that could be utilized in habitat evaluation for coho salmon were located in the literatureo The user is referred to Terrell et alo (1982)and U.So Fish and Wildlife Service (1981)for techniques to modify this model to meet project needs. REFERENCES Alderice,Do Jo,W.Po Wickett,and J.Ro Bretto 19580 Some effects of temporary exposure to low dissolved oxygen levels on Pacific salmon eggso J.Fisho Reso Board Can.15:229-2500 Banks,Jo W.1969.A review of the literature on the upstream migration of adult salmonids.Jo Fish.Biolo 1:85-1360 Bell,Mo Co 1973.Fisheries handbook of engineering requirements and biolog- ical criteriao Fish.Engo Res.Progo,UoSo Army Corpso Engo Divo, Portland,OR.nopo 22 A.·.-.".--V Bilton,H.T.1978.Returns of adult coho salmon in relation to mean size and time of release of juveniles.Can.Fish.Marine Servo Tech.Rept. 832.73 pp. Brett,J.R.1952.Temperature tolerance in young Pacific salmon"genus Oncorhynchus.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.9:265-309. Brett,J.R.,and J.M.Blackburn.1981.Oxygen requirements for growth of young coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch)and sockeye (O.nerka)salmon at 15°C. Can.J.Fish.Aquatic Sci.38:399-404.--- Briggs,J.C.1953.The behavior and reproduction of salmonid fishes in a small coastal stream.California Fish Game,Fish Bull.94.62 pp. Brungs,W.A.,and B.R.Jones.1977.Temperature criteria for freshwater fish:protocol and procedures.U.S.Environ.Protection Agency.Ecol. Res.Servo EPA-600/3-77,061.130 pp. Burner,C.J.1951.Characteristics of-spawning nests of Columbia River salmon.U.S.Fish Wildl.Servo Fish.Bull.52:97-110. Burns,J.W.1971.The carrying capacity for juvenile salmonids in some northern California streams.California Fish Game 57:24-57. BUJstard,D.R.,and D.W.Narver.1975a.Aspects of the winter ecology of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)and steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri).J.Fish.Res.Board Can.31:667-680. ,_---,-,::--_.,----,._---:--:-_--:-:,.....1975b.Preference of j uven i 1e (Oncorhynchus kisutch)and cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki) simulated alteration of winter habitat.~ish.Res. 32:681-687. coho salmon relative to Board Can. - - •() 1""1" Chapman,D.W.1962.Effects of 1oggi ng upon fi sh resources of the west coast.J.For.60:533-537. 1966a.Food and space as regulators of salmonid populations in streams.Am.Nat.100:345-357. 1966b.The relative contributions of aquatic and terrestrial primary producers to the trophic relations of stream organisms.Pages 116-130 in Organism-substrate relationships in streams.Pymatuning Lab. Ecol.,Univ.Pittsburgh.Spec.Publ.4. Chapman,D.W.,and E.Knudsen.1980.Channelization and livestock impacts on salmonid habitat and biomass in western Washington.Trans.Am.Fish. Soc.109:357-363. Clarke,W.C.,and J.E.Shelbourn.1980.Optimum conditions for smolting in underyearling coho salmon.Amer.Zool.20:873. 23 Clarke,W.C••J.E.Shelbourn,and J.R.Brett.1978.Growth and adaptation ~~." to sea water in lunderyea'rling l sockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka)and coho (0.J kisutch)salmon subjected to regimes of constant or changing temperature and day length.Can.J.Zool.56:2413-2421. Cloern,J.E.1976.The survival of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)eggs in two Wisconsin tributaries of Lake Michigan.Amero Midl.Nat. 96:451-561. Coble,D.W.1961.Influence of water exchange and dissolved oxygen in redds on survival of steel head trout embryos.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc. 90(4):469-474. Conte,F.P.,H.H.Wagner,J.Fessler,and C.Gnose. osmotic and ionic regulation in juvenile coho kisutch).Camp.Biochem.Physiol.18:1-15. 1966. salmon Development of (Oncorhynchus Crone,R.A.,and C.E.Bond.1976.Life history of coho salmon,Oncorhynchus kisutch,in Sashin Creek,Southeastern Alaska.Fish.Bull.74:897-923. Crouse j M.R.,C.A.Callahan,K.W.Malueg j and S.E.Dominguez.1981. Effects of fine sediments on growth of juvenile coho salmon in laboratory streams.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.110:281-286. Dahlberg,M.L.,D.L.Shumway,and P.Doudoroff.1968.Influence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide on swimming performance of largemouth bass and coho salmon.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.25:49-70. Davis,G.E.,Jo Foster j C.E.Warren,and P.Doudoroff.1963.The influence of oxygen concentration on the swimming performance of juvenile Pacific salmon at various temperatures.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.92:111-124. Davis,J.C.1975.Minimal dissolved oxygen requirements of aquatic life with emphasis on Canadian species:a review.J.Fish.Res.Board Can. 32:2295-2332. Demory.R.L.1961.Foods of juvenile coho salmon and two insect groups in the coho diet in three tributaries of the Alsea River,Oregon.M.S. Thesis,Oregon State University.Corvallis.68pp. Dill,L.M.,R.C.Ydenberg.and A.H.G.Fraser.1981.Food abundance and territory size in juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch).Can.J. Zool.59:1801-1809: Drucker.B.1972.Some life history characteristics of coho salmon of the Karluk Ri~er system,Kodiak Island.Alaska.Fish.Bull.70:79-94. Fryer,J.L.,and K.S.Pilcher.1974.Effects of temperature on diseases of salmonid fishes.Environ.Protection Agency.Ecol.Res.Ser. EPA-660/3-73-020.114 pp. 24 '0,"'".. - o.- Fulton,L.A.1970.Spawning areas and abundan~e of steel head trout and coho,sockeye,and chum salmon in the Columbia River Basin -past and present.U.S.Dept.Commerce,Nat.Mar.Fish.Serv.,Spec.Sci.Rept.- Fisheries 618.37 pp. Giger,R.D.1973.Streamflow requirements of salmonids.Oregon Wildl. Comm.,Anadromous Fish Proj.Final Rept.AFS-62-1.117 pp. Godfr'ey,H.1965.Salmon of the North Pacific Ocean.Part 9.Coho salmon in offshore waters.Int.North Pacific Fish.Comm.Bull.16:1-39. Griffiths,J.S.,and D.F.Alderice.1972.Effects of acclimation and acute temperature experience on the swimming speed of juvenile coho salmon.J. Fish.Res.Board Can.29:251-264. GrinClls,R.B.,and C.D.Gill.1968.Feeding behavior of three oceanic fishes,Oncorhynchus kisutch,Trachurus symmetricus,and Anoplopoma fimbria from the Northeast Pacific.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.25:825-827. GrobE!rg,W.J.,R.H.McCoy,K.S.Pilcher,and J.L.Fryer.1978.Relation of water temperature to infections of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), chinook salmon (Q.tshawytscha).and steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) with Aeromonas salmonicida and ~.hydrophila.J.Fish.Res.Board Can. 35:1-7. Hall"J.D.,and R.L.Lantz.1969.Effects of logging on the habitat of coho salmon and cutthroat trout in coastal streams.Pages 355-375 in T. G.Northcote (ed.)Symposium on salmon and trout in streams.H~R. 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Thesis,Oregon State University,Corvallis.84 pp. larkin,P.A.1981.A perspective on population genetics and salmon manage- ment.Can.J.Fish.Aquatic Sci.38:1469-1475. lister,D.B.,and H.S.Genae.1970.Stream habitat utilization by cohabit- at i ng underyearl i ngs of chi nook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)and coho (Q. kisutch)salmonids.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.27:1215-1224. lister,D.B.,and C.E.Walker.1966.The effect of flow control on fresh- water survival of chum,coho,and chinook salmon in the Big Qualicum River.Can.Fish.Cult.37:3-26. lorz,H.,and B.P.McPherson.1976.Effects of copper or zi nc i 1'1 fresh water on the adaptation to sea water and ATPase activity,and the effects of copper on migratory disposition of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). J.Fish.Res.Board Can.33:2023-2030. lorz,H.,S..Glenn,R.Williams,C.Kunkel,L.Norris,and B.Loper.1978. Effect of selected herbicides on smolting of coho salmon.U.S.Environ. Protection Agency,Grant Rep.R-804283.Corvallis,Oregon.n.p. Maclean,J.A.,and D.o.Evans.1981.The stock concept,discreteness of fish stocks,and fisheries management.·,Can.J.Fish.Aquatic Sci. 38:1889-1898. Mason,J.C.1976a.Some features of coho salmon,Oncorhynchus kisutch,fry emergi ng from simul ated redds and concurrent changes in photobehavi or. Fish.Bull.74:167-175. 197Gb.Response of underyearling coho salmon to supplemental feeding in a natural stream.J.Wildl.Manage.40:775-788. Mason,J.C.,and D.W.Chapman.1965.Significance of early emergence, environmental rearing capacity,and behavioral ecology of juvenile coho salmon stream channels.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.22:173-190. 26 o Ma thews.S.B.,and F.W.01 son.1980.Factors affect i n9 Puget Sound coho salmon (Oncorynchus kisutch)runs.Can'.J.Fish.Aquatic Sci".' 37(9):1373-1378. McKernan,D.L.,D.R.JohnsDn,and J.I.Hodges.1950.Some factors influencing trends of salmon populations in Oregon.Trans.North Am. Wildl.Conf.15:427-449. Morrow,J.E.1980.The freshwater fishes of Alaska.Alaska Northwest Publ. Co.,Anchorage.248 pp. Mundie,J.H.1969.Ecological implications of the diet of juvenile coho in streams.Pages 135-152 in 1.G.Northcote (ed.).Symposium Dn salmon and trout in streams.H:R.MacMillan Lectures on Fisheries.Univ. British CDlumbia,Vancouver.388 pp. Narver,D.W.1978.EcolDgy of juvenile coho salmon:can we use present knowledge for stream enhancement?Pages 38-42 in B.G.Shephard and R.M.J.Grinetz (eds.).PrDc.1977 NDrtheast Pacific chinook and cDhD salmon workshDp.Dept.Fish.Environ.,VancDuver.Canada Fish.Marine Servo Tech.Rep.759. Nebeker,A.V.,and J.R.Brett.1976.Effects of air-supersaturated water on survival of Pacific salmon and steelhead smo1ts.Trans.Am.Fish. SDC.105:338-342 . NickelsDn,T.E.,and R.R.Reisenbichler.1977.Streamflow requirements of salmonids.Oregon Dept.Fish Wild1.,Res.Sect.Ann.Progr.Rep.,PrDj. AFS-62.24 pp. - .Nickelson,T.E.1982.Personal communication. Res.Dev.Sect.,CDrvallis. OregDn Dept.Fish Wild1., ~ i Nickelson,T.E.,W.M.Beidler,and M.J.Willis.1979.Streamflow require- ments of salmonids.Oregon Dept.Fish Wildl.,Res.Sect.Final Rep., Proj.AFS-62.n.p. Otto,R.G.1971.Effects of salinity on the survival and grDwth Df pre-smolt salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch).J.Fish.Res.Board Can.28:343-349. Pa'rry,G.1960.The development of salinity tolerance in the salmon,Salmo salar (L.)and some related species.J.Exp.8io1.37:425-434.-- Pearson,L.S.,K.R.Conover,and R.E.Sams.1970.Factors affecting the natural rearing of juvenile coho salmon during the summer low flow season. Fish.CDmm.Oregon,Portland.Unpubl.Rep.64 pp. Pennak.R.W.,and E.D.Van Gerpen.1947.Bottom fauna production and physical nature Df the substrate in a northern ColDrado trout stream. Ecology 28:42-48. 27 Phill ips,R.W.1971.Effects of sediment on the gr.avel environment in fish .•.~ produet:ion.Pages 64-74.i.!!J.1.Krygier and J.D.Hall (eds.).Forest J land uses and stream environments.Continuing Education Publ.,Oregon State Univ.,Corvallis. Phillips,R.'N.,R.L.Lantz,E.W.Claire,and J.R.Moring.1975.Some effects of gravel mixtures on emergence of coho salmon and steel head trout fry.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.104:461-466. Platts.W.S.,M.A.Shirazi,and D.H.Lewis.1979.Sediment particle sizes used by salmon spawning with methods for evaluation.U.S.Environ. Protection Agency,EPA-600/3-79-043.32 pp. Reiser,D.W.,and 1.C.Bjornn.1979.Influence of forest and rangeland management of anadromous fi sh habitat in the western United States and Canada.1.Habitat requirements of anadromous salmonids.U.S.Dept. Agric.,For.Servo Gen.Tech.Rept.PNW-96.54 pp. Rucker,P.R.J and P.M.Kangas.1974.Effect of nitrogen supersaturated water on coho and chinook salmon.Prog.Fish-Cult.36:152-156. Ruggles,C.P.1966.Depth and velocity as a factor in stream rearing and production of juvenile coho salmon.Can.Fish.Cult.38:37-53. Scarnecchia,D.L.1981.Effects of streamflow and upwelling on yield of ~~~~71:04~~.salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch).Can.J.Fish.Aquatic Sci.0 Scott,W.B.,and E.J.Crossman.1973.Freshwater fishes of Canada.Fish. Res.Board Can.Bull.184.966 pp. Shapovalov,L.,and A.C.Taft.1954.The life histories of the steel head rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri gairdneri)and silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)with special reference to Waddell Creek,California,and recommendations regarding their management.California Dept.Fish Game, Fish Bull.98.375 pp. Shumway,D.L.,C.E.Warren.and P.Doudoroft.1964.Infl uence of oxygen concentration and water movement on the growth of steelhead trout and coho salmon embryos.Trans.Am.Fish~Soc.93:342-356. Silver,S.1.,C.E.Warren,and P.Doudoroff.1963.Dissolved oxygen requirements of developing steel head trout and chinook salmon embryos at different velocities.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.92:327-343. Smith,A.K.1973.Development and application of spawning velocity and depth criteria for Oregon salmonids.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.102:312-316. 28 1 .I !'""l' I 'i' : I ! !'i •I : I ,I ft' l I 1 Stein,R.A.,P.E.Reimers,and J.D.Hall.1972.Social interaction between juvElnile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch)and fafl chinook salmon (0. tshilwytscha)in Sixes River,Oregon.J.Fish.Res.Board Can. 29:1737-1748. Terrell,J.W.,1.E.McMahon,P.D.Inskip,R.F.Raleigh,and K.L. Wil'liamson.1982.Habitat suitability index models:Appendix A. Guidelines for riverine and lacustrine applications of fish HSI models with the Habitat Evaluation Procedures.U.S.Dept.Int.,Fish Wild1. 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WedemeYI~r,G.A.,R.L.Saunders,and W.C.Clarke.1980.Environmental factors affecting srnoltif1cation and early marine survival of anadromous salmonids.Marine Fish.Rev.42:1-14. Whitmore,C.M.,C.E.Warren,and P.Doudoroff.1960.Avoidance reactions of salrnonid and centrarchid fishes to low oxygen concentrations.Trans. Am.Fish.Soc.89:17-26. Wiggles'Worth,K.A.,and R. R.Rawson.1974.Exploitation,survival,growth, and cost of stocked silver salmon in Lake Berryessa,California. California Fish Game 60(1):36-43. 1 Zaugg,W.S.,and L.R.McLain.1976.Influence of water temperature on gill I sodium,potassium-stimulated ATPase activity in juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch).Compo Biochern.Physiol.54A:419-421. .... 29 J0212 "01 REPORT DOCUMENTATION -.1._REPORT NO. PAGE FWS/OBS-82/10.49 ...Title _IICI Sulltitle Habitat Suitability Index Models:Coho Salmon j2. i; IS."-It OaUl ,September 1983 t), .- 7.AWIot(s) T.E.McMahon Habitat Evaluation Procedures Group U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Western Energy and Land Use Team Creekside One Building 2627 Redwing Road Fort Collins.cn 805?6-?AQQ Western Energy and Land Use Team Division of Biological Services Research and Development Fish and Wildlife Service II c::nt"th~info"'...."... 110.......,....,-"".No. Washington,DC 20240 A review and synthesis of existing information were used to develop a riverine habitat model for Coho Salmon (Oncorhychus kitsutch)an anadromous species.The model is scaled to produce an index of habitat suitability between 0 (unsuitable habitat)and 1 (optimally suitable habitat)for riverine areas of the continental United States.Habitat suitability indices (HSI1s)are designed for use with Habitat Evaluation Procedures previously developed by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service. 17.Oocu,"_AnalySl._.0 __,. Mathematical models Fi shes Aquatic biology Habi tabil i ty Coho salmon Oncorhychus kitsutch Habitat suitability index :.COSAn F1.ld/G....ua ~U.S.Government Printing Office 1984 -681-463/519-Reg.8 L3904 29 0PT10N"'~FORM :7:i.:-;n 'Formerly ~TIS-lSl :~o.t"t"m~t ..,1 Com",.rc:., .3.S.....rltY C:....(Th,.~.ao ..u Unclassified ::0.SecUritY Class (Tlo"s ;081(•• Unclassified Release unlimited FWS/OBS-82/10.24 September 1982 HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX MODELS:BROOK TROUT by Rebert F.Raleigh U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Habitat Evaluation Procedures Group Western Energy and Land Use Team Drake Creekside BUilding One 2625 Redwing Road Fort Collins,CO 80526 Western Energy and Land Use Team Office of Biological Services Fish and Wildlife Service U.S.Department of the Interior Washington,DC 20240 l PREFACE 1 .I The habitat use information and Habitat Suitability Index (HSI)models presented in this document are an aid for impact assessment and habitat manage- ment activities.literature concerning a species'habitat requirements and preferences is reviewed and then synthesized into HSI models,which are scaled to produce an index between 0 (unsuitable habitat)and 1 (optimal habitat). Assumptions used to transform habitat use information into these mathematical models are noted,and guidelines for model application are described.Any models found in the literature which may also be used to calculate an HSI are cited,and simplified HSI models,based on what the authors believe to be the most important habitat characteristics for this species,are presented . The HSI models presented herein are complex hypotheses of species-habitat relationships,not statements of proven cause and effect relationships. Results of mode TPerformance tests.when avail ab 1e,are referenced;however, models that have demonstrated reliability in specific situations may prove tTerrell,J.W.,T.E.McMahon,P.D.Inskip,R.F.Raleigh,and K.W. Williamson (in press).Habitat suitability index models:Appendix A.Guide- lines for riverine and lacustrine applications of fish HSI models with the Habitat Evaluation Procedures.U.S.Dept.Int.,Fish Wi1d1.Servo FWS/OBS-82/10.A. Use of the models presented in this publication for impact assessment requires the setting of clear study objectives and may require modification of the models to meet those objectives.Methods for reducing model complexity and recommended measurement techniques for model variables are presented in Terrell et a1.(in press)l.A discussion of HSI model building techniques, including the component approach,is presented in U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service (1981).2 1981.Standards for the development of 103 ESM.U.S.Dept.Int.,Fish Wi1d1. 2U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service. Habitat Suitability Index models. Serv.,Div.Ecol.Servo n.p . 'i.I ....;)•...'. :"','.'..'" Hi unreliable in others.For this reason,the U.S.Fish and Wi1dlife Service encourages model users to send comments and suggestions that might help us increase the utility and effectiveness of this habitat-based approach to fish and wildlife planning.Please send comments to: Habitat Evaluation Procedures Western Energy and Land Use Team U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service 2625 Redwing Road Ft.Collins,CO 80526 1v Q CONTENTS I)REFACE iii ACKNOWLEDGf-1ENTS .•............•..........•....•.••.•....•.••...........•vi , HABITAT USE INFORMATION ...................••.•..•.•..•.•............... Genera 1 ". Age,Growth,and Food . Reproduction . Migratory and Anadromy . Specific Habitat Requirements '". HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX (HSI)MODELS .•.•.....•........••.........•... Model Applicability . Madel Description -Riverine . Suitability Index (S1)Graphs for Model Variables . Riverine Model . Lacust ri ne Model . Interpret i ng Model Outputs ..................................•..... ADDITIONAL HABITAT MODELS .....••.....•.•••.....•...•..••.•...•...•..... Modell ........................................................•... Mode 1 2 .........•................................................. Model 3 . REFERENCES v 1 1 2 2 2 3 8 10 10 12 24 28 29 30 30 34 34 34 .""'1' ! I ,I 1 I I M I CC I , I I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TClm Weshe,University of Wyoming;Robert Behnk.e,Colorado State Un;versiity;Allan Binns,Wyoming Game and Fish Department;and Fred Eiserman. ETSI Pipeline Project provided a comprehensive review and many helpful comments and suggestions on the manuscript.Charles Haines,Colorado Division of Wildlife,and Joan Trial,Maine Cooperative Fishery Unit,completed a litera- ture rE~view to develop the report.Charles Solomon also reviewed the manu- script 1l provided comments,and prepared the final manuscript for publication. Cathy Short conducted the editorial review,and word processing was provided by Dorii Ibarra and Carolyn Gulzow.The cover illustration is from Freshwater Fishes of Canada,Bulletin 184,Fisheries Research Board of Canada,by W.B.Scott and E.J.Crossman. vi n BROOK TROUT (Sa1ve1inus fontina1is) HABITAT USE INFORMATION Gl~nera 1 The native range of brook trout (Sa1velinus fontina1is Mitchill)orig- i l1a lly covered.the eastern two-fifths of Canada northward to the Arctic Ci rc1 e, tbe New England States,and southward through Pennsylvania,along the crest of the Appalachian Mountains to northeastern Georgia.Western limits included Mi:lnitoba southward through the Great Lake States.Reductions in the original range have resulted from environmental changes,such as polluti~n,siltation, and stream warmi ng due to deforestati on (MacCrimmon and Campbell 1969). ,. n ./I .~V Si nce the late 19th century,brook trout have been introduced into 20 additional States and have sustaining populations in 14 States (MacCrimmon and C,ampbe11 1969).Introductions have not been attempted in most of the central plains and the southern States. Brook trout can be separated into two basic ecological forms:a short- lived (3-4 years).small (200-250 mm)form,typical of small,cold stream and lake habitats and a long-lived (8-10 years),large (4-6 kg).predaceous form associated with large lakes,rivers,and estuaries.The smaller,short-lived form is typi ca 1ly found south of the Great Lakes regi on and south of northern New England.while the larger form is located in the northern portion of its native range (Behnke 1980).Although no subspecies designation has been recognized for these two forms,they respond as two different species to environmental interactions influencing life history (Flick and Webster 1976; Flick 1977).. Brook trout can be hybridized artificially with lake trout (to produce a fertile hybrid called splake trout)and with rainbow trout (Buss and Wright 1957).In rare cases,natural hybrids occur between brook trout and brown trout (Salmo trutta);the hybrid is termed tiger trout (Behnke 1980).Behnke (1980)also collected brook trout and bull trout (Salvelinus confluentis) hybrids in the upper Klamath Lake basin,Oregon.Brook trout appear to be sensitive to introductions of brown and rainbow trout and are usually displaced by the~.However,brook trout have displaced cutthroat trout and grayling in headwaters and tributaries of western streams (Webster 1975). 1 Age,Growth,and Food Brook trout appear to be opportunistic sight feeders,utilizing both bottom-dwelling and drifting aquatic macroinvertebrates and terrestrial insects (Needham 1930;Dineen 1951;Wiseman 1951;Benson 1953;Reed and Bear 1966). Such feeding habits make them particularly susceptible to even moderate tur- bidity levels,which can reduce their ability to locate food (Bachman 1958; Herbert et al.19610.,1961b;Tebo 1975).Drifting forms may be selected over benthic forms when they are available (Hunt 1966).The choice of particular drift organisms is apparently either a function of seasonal availabil ity and/or the overall availability of terrestrial forms in a particular situation. Between age groups,there may be a tendency for selection of food items based on size.In Idaho,age group 0 trout selected smaller drifting organisms (Diptera and Ephemeroptera)with less variation than did older trout,while age group I trout seemed to prefer larger Trichoptera larvae (Griffith 1974). Fish are an important food item in lake populations (Webster 1975). Reproduction Age at sexual maturity varies among populations,with males usually maturing before females (Mullen 1958).Male brook trout may mature as early as age 0+(Buss and McCreary 1960;Hunt 1966).In Wisconsin (Lawrence Creek), the smallest mature male was approximately 8.9 cm (3.5 inches)long (McFadden 1961). Spawning typically occurs in the fall and has been described by several authors (Greeley 1932;Hazzard 1932;Smith 1941;Brasch et al.1958,Needham 1961).Spawning may begin as early as late summer in the northern part of the range and early winter in the southern part of the range (Sigler and Miller 1963).The spawning behavior of brook trout is very similar to that of rainbow and cutthroat trout (Smith 1941).In streams and ponds,areas of ground water upwelling appear to be highly preferred (Webster and Eiriksdottier 1976; Carline and Brynildson 1977)and to override substrate size as a site selection factor (Mullen 1958;Everhart 1966).Brook trout can be highly successful spawners in lentic environments in upwelling areas of springs (Webster 1975). Spawning occurs at temperatures ranging from 4.5-10°C (White 1930;Hazzard 1932;McAfee 1966).The fertilized ova are deposited in redds excavated by the female in the stream gravels (Smith 1947).Spawning success is reduced as the amount of fine sediments is increased and the intergravel oxygen concentra- tion is diminished (McFadden 1961;Peters 1965;Harshbarger 1975). Migration and Anadromy With the exception of the sea-run New England populations,brook trout migrations are generally limited to movements into headwater streams or trib- utaries for spawning (Brasch et al.1958)or relatively short seasonal migra- tions to avoid temperature extremes (Powers 1929;Scott and Crossman 1973). Some brook trout may spend their entire lives,including spawning periods, within a restricted stream area,as opoosed t.O more migratory salmonids (McFadden et al.1967).However,some movement upstream or downstream may occur due to space-related aggressive behavior following emergence from the redd (Hunt 1965). 2 ,""'....V r;'- ,~~~._;....,......;,u:......;..__.J~.......:;.....:...',.-.:......~.l,;,H1Mie'etNil:iTi:."'rt1:*eft;.~~~.(·-li'·.....;'IlfiIllli;{Jli t".I.:uw ·_·.IIG!('Si.a'ar0'jf,-&!":~~:i'ii.'_:Wi%S':!Li_EL,lfftrJ?L..¥'!it,"_T'L·.~jW_.a._i\._:J._lt'!!$._'~.!-.._.".L '!.-o@'..":".'il"7"'i"'!'"." I~: n•i"", ....~ :4' "I i ...,. ! !""'I' I I i ..... -..~.:,;",;i! - .... Some coastal populations of brook trout may move into salt water from coasta 1 streams of eastern Canada and northeastern Uni ted States.Sea-run individuals caught in salt water may differ in appearance t form,and coloration from trout that have never or have not recently been in salt water (Smith and Saunders 1958).Not all brook.trout in the same stream will necessarily moye to sea.In a study by White (1940)t 79%of the brook trout going to sea were age 2,and the rest were age J.Smith and Saunders (1958)stated that age 1 brook trout also migrated to the sea. Smith and Saunders (1958)reported brook trout goi ng to sea on Pr;nce Edward Island during spring and early summer and during fall and early winter. Movement was observed in every month of the year,although very few fish were observed migrating during midwinter and midsummer.Smith and Saunders (1958) observed that approximately half of the brook.trout migrating to salt water returned to freshwater within a month.As temperatures decline in freshwater, brook trout tend to spend more time in saltwater,and some may overwi nter in saltwater (Smith and Saunders 1958). Specific Habitat Requirements Brook.trout are the most generalized and adaptable of all Salvelinus species.They inhabit small headwater streams,large rivers t ponds,and large lakes in inland and coastal areas.Typical brook trout habitat conditions are those associated with a cold temperate climate,cool spring-fed ground water, and moderate precipitation (MacCrimmon and Campbell 1969).Warm water temper- atures appear to be the single most important factor 1 imiting brook trout distribution and production (Creaser 1930;Mullen 1958;McCormick et al. 1972:).In a comparative distribution study between brook and brown .trout from headwater tributaries of the South Platte River,Colorado,Vincent and Miller (1969)found tbat,as the elevation increased and the streams became smaller and colder,brook trout became more abundant. Optimal brook.trout riverine habitat is characterized by clear,cold spring-fed water;a silt-free rocky substrate in riffle-run areas;an approx- imate 1:1 pool-riffle ratio with areas of slow,deep water;well vegetated strs!am banks;abundant instream cover;and relatively stable water flow, temperature regimes,and stream banks.Brook.trout south of Canada tend to occupy headwater stream areas,especi ally when rainbow and brown trout are present in the same river system (Webster 1975).They tend to inhabit large rivers in the northern portion of their native range (Behnk.e 1980). Optimal lacustrine habitat is characterized as clear t cold lakes and ponels that are typically oligotrophic.Brook trout are .typically stream spa...mers t but spawning commonly occurs in gravels surrounding spring upwelling areas of lakes and ponds. Cover is recognized as one of the basic and essential components of trout streams.Boussu (1954)was able to increase the number and weight of trout in strt!am sections by adding artificial brush cover and to decrease numbers and wei~Jht by removing brush cover and undercut banks.Lewi s (1969)found that the amount of cover present was important in determi ni n9 the number of trout in sections of a Montana stream.Cover for trout consists of areas of low 3 ','''''tM".t J · stream bottom visibility,suitable water depths (>15 em),and low current velocity «15 cm/s)(Wesche 1980).Cover can be provided by overhanging vegetation,submerged vegetation,undercut banks,instream objects (stumps, logs,'roots,and large rocks),rocky substrate.depth.and water surface turbulence (Giger 1973).In a study to determine the amount of shade utilized by brook,rainbow,and brown trout,Butler and Hawthorne (1968)reported that rainbow trout showed the lowest preference for shade produced by artificial surface cover.Brown trout showed the highest use of shade while brook trout were intermediate between brown and rainbow trout.Brook trout in two Michigan streams showed a strong preference for overhead cover along the stream margin (Enk 1977).The major limiting factor for brook trout in these streams was bank.cover. Canopy cover is important in rna i nta i ni ng shade for stream temperature control and in providing allochthonous materials to the stream.Too much shade,however,can restrict primary productivity in a stream.Stream temper- atures can be increased or decreased by controll ing the amount of shade. About 50-75%midday shade appears optimal for most small trout streams (Anonymous 1979).Shading becomes less important as stream gradient and size increases.In addition.a well vegetated riparian area helps to control watershed erosion.In most cases,a buffer strip about 30 m deep,80~~of which is either well vegetated or has stable rocky stream banks,will provide adequate erosion control and maintain undercut stream banks characteristic of good trout habitat.The presence of fines in riffle-run areas can adversely affect embryo.survival,food production,and cover for juveniles. There is a definite relationship between the annual flow regime and the quality of trout habitat.The most critical period is typically the base flow (lowest f10ws of late summer to winter).A base fl ow ~55%of the average annual daily flow is considered excellent,a base flow of 25 to 50%is consid- ered fair,and a base flow of <25~is considered poor for maintaining quality trout habitat (adapted from Wesche 1974;Binns and Eiserman 1979;Wesche 1980). Hunt (1976)listed average depth,water volume,average depth of pools, amount of pool area,and amount of overhanging bank.cover as the most important parameters relating to brook trout carrying capacity in Lawrence Creek, Wisconsin.The main use of summer cover is probably for predator avoidance and resting.Salmonids occupy different habitat areas in the winter than in the summer (Hartman 1965;Everest 1969;Bustard and Narver 1975a). I ,,,1 e .J, ,J In some streams,the major factor limiting salmonid densities may be the amount of adequate overwi nteri ng habi tat rather than summer reari ng habi tat (Bustard and Narver 1975a).Everest (l969)suggested that some sal moni d population levels were regulated by the availability of suitable overwintering areas.Winter hiding behavior in salmonids is triggered by low temperatures (Chapman and Bjornn 1969;Everest 1969;Bustard and Narver 1975a,b).Bustard and Narver (1975a)indicated that,as water temperatures dropped to 4-8 0 C, feeding was reduced in young salmonids and most were found within or near cover;few were more than 1 m from potential cover.Everest (1969)found " juveni 1e rainbows IS-3D cm deep in the'substrate,whi ch was often covered by 'tJ 5-10 em of anchor ice.Lewis (1969)reported that adult rainbow trout tended 4 ~ I I .., .I '""'!\ , I I ~ .I ..':\~---., to move into deeper water during winter.The major advantages in seeking winter cover are prevention of physical damage from ice scouring (Hartman 1965;Chapman and Bjornn 1969)and conservation of energy (Chapman and Bjornn 1969;Everest 1969).A cover area ~25'~for adults and 2:15%for juveniles of the entire stream habitat appears adequate for most brook trout populations. Optimum turbidity val ues for brook trout growth are approximately 0-30 ,JTU's.with a range of 0-130 JTU's (adapted from Syk.ora et al.1972).An accelerated rate of sediment deposition i,n streams may reduce local brook trout production because of the adverse effects on production of food organ- isms,smothering of eggs and embryos in the redd,and loss of escape and overwintering habitat. Brook trout appear to be more tolerant than other trout species to low pH (Dunson and Martin 1973;Webster 1975).Laboratory studies indicate that brook trout are tolerant of pH values of 3.5-9.S (Daye and Garside 1975). Brook trout fingerlings in Pennsylvania inhabited a bog stream with a pH less than 4.75 and occassionally dropping to 4.0-4.2 (Dunson and Martin 1973). Parsons (196S)reported brook trout inhabiting a stream in Mi ssouri with a pH 'of 4.1-4.2.Creaser (1930)believed that brook trout tolerated pH ranges greater than the range of most natural waters (4.1-9.5).Menendez (l976) demonstrated that continued exposure to a pH below 6.5 resulted in decreased hatching and growth in brook trout.The selection of spawning sites may be associated with the pH of upwelling water;neutral or alkaline waters (pH 6.7 and 8)were selected by brook trout held at pH levels of 4.0.4.5,and 5.0 (Menendez 1976).The optimal pH range for brook trout appears to be 6.5-S.0, with a tolerance range of.4.0-9.5. Brook trout occur in waters with a wide range of alkalinity and specific conductance,although high alkalinity and high specific conductance usually increase brook trout production (Cooper and Scherer 1967).Brook trout popu~ lations in the Smoky Mountains.North Carolina.are becoming increasingly restricted to low alkalinity headwater streams.apparently due to competition from introduced rainbow trout-(Salmo gairdneri).and are frequently in poor condition (Lennon 1967).The small size of the trout in the headwater areas has been attributed to the infertil ity of the water,which has been 1 inked to low total alkalinities (10 ppm or less)and TDS values less than 20 ppm.TDS values in the Smoky Mountains are lower than values from similar streams in Shenandoah National Park,Virginia.and the White Mountains National Forest, New Hampshire,where trout populations appear to be more robust. Headwater trout streams are relatively unproductive.Most energy inputs to the stream are in the form of allochthonous materials,such as terrestrial veg1etati on and terrestri ali nsects (Idyll 1942;Chapman 1971;Hunt 1975). Aqu,atic invertebrates are most abundant and diverse in riffle areas with rubbl e substrate and on submerged aqua tic vegetat ion (Hynes 1970).However, optimal substrate for maintenance of a'diverse invertebrate population consists of a mosaic of gravel,rubble,and boulders with rubble being dominant.The invertebrate fauna is much more abundant and diverse in riffles than in pools (HYlnes 1970),but a ratio of about 1:1 of pool to riffle area (about 40-60% pool area)appears to provide an optimum mix of trout food producing and 5 rearing areas (Needham 1940).In riffle areas,the presence of fines (>10~) reduces the production of invertebrate fauna (based on Cordone and Kelly 1961; Pl atts 1974). Adult.The reported upper and lOhcr temperature limits for adult brook trout vary;this may reflect local and regional population acclimation differ- ences.Bean (1909)reported that brook trout will not live and thrive in temperatures warmer than 20°C.McAfee (1966)indicated that brook trout usually do poorly in streams where water temperature exceeds 20°C for extended periods.Brasch et.al (1958)reported that brook trout exposed to tempera- tures of 25°C for more than a few hours di d not s:.Jrvi ve.Embody (1921) observed brook trout 1i vi ng in temperatures of 24-27°C for short durations and recommended 23.8°C as the maximum tolerable limit.Kendall (1924)agreed that 23.9°C represented the 1 imit of even temporary endurance,but stated that the optimum temperature should not exceed 15.6°C.Hynes (1970)stated that brook trout can withstand temperatures from 0-25.3°C,but acclimation is necessary.Th~upper tolerable limit is raised by approximately 1°for every 7°rise in acclimation temperature up to 18°C,where it levels off at the absolute limit of 25.3°C.Fish kept at 24°C and above cannot tolerate temperatures as low as 0°C.Seasonal temperature cycles from summer highs to winter lows provide the necessary acclimation period needed to tolerate annual temperature extremes.The overall temperature range of 0-24°C was observed by MacCrimmon and Campbell (1969. The above upper and lower tolerance 1 imits probably do not reflect the range of temperatures that"is most conducive to good growth.Baldwin (1951) cites an optimum growth rate at 14°C.He further contends that 11-16°C is best suited for overall welfare,while trout exist at a relative disadvantage in terms of activity and growth at higher and lower,albeit tolerable,tempera- tures.Mullen (1958)gave the optimum temperature range for activity and feeding for brook trout as between 12.8°C and 19°C.We assume that the tem- perature range for brook trout isO-24°C,wi th an optimal range for growth and survival of 11-16°C. Brook trout normally requi re hi gh oxygen concentrat ions wi th optimum conditions at dissolved oxygen concentrations near saturation and temperatures above 15°C.Local or temporal variations should not decrease to less than 5 mg/l (Mills 1971).Dissolved oxygen requirements vary with age of fish, water temperature,water velocity,activity level,and concentration of sub- stances in the water (McKee and Wolf 1963).As temperatures increase,the dissolved oxygen saturation level in the water decreases,while the dissolved oxygen requirements of the fish increases.As a result,an increase in temperature resulting in a decrease in dissolved oxygen can be detrimental to the fish.Optimum oxygen levels for brook trout are not well documented but appear to be ~7 mg/l at temperatures <15°C and ~9 mg/l at temperatures ~15°C.Doudoroff and Shumway (1970)demonstrated that swimmi ng speed and growth rates for salmonids declined with decreasing dissolved oxygell levels. In the summer (temperatures 2:10°C),cutthroat trout generally avoid water with dissolved oxygen levels of less than 5 mg/l (Trojnar 1972;Sekulich 1974).Fry (1951)stated that the lowest dissolved oxygen concentrations 6 ,I ,1 .... I I 1 1 I 1 I Ii, I ! wher'e brook trout can exist is 0.9 ppm at 10°C and 1.6-1.8 ppm at 20°C. Embody (1927)contends that the dissolved oxygen concentration should not be less than 3 cc per liter (4.3 ppm). El son (1939)reported that brook trout prefer moderate flows.Gri ffi th (l9n)reported that focal point velocities for adult brook trout in Idaho ran~red from 7-11 cm/sec,with a maximum of 25 cm/sec.In a Wyoming study,95~~ of all brook ttout observed were associated with point velocities of less than 15 em/sec (Wesche 1974). The carryi ng capac;ty of adul t brook trout ; n streams is dependent,at least in part,on cover provided by pools,undercut banks,submerged brush and logs,large rocks,and overhanging vegetation (Saunders and Smith 1955,1962; Elwood and Waters 1969;O'Connor and Power 1976).Enk (1977)reported that the biomass and number of brook trout ~150 mm in size were significantly corr-elated with bank cover in two Michigan streams.Wesche (1980)reported tha1~cover for adult trout should be located in stream areas with water depths ~IS em and velocities of <15 em/sec.We assume that an area ~25~il of the toteLl stream area occupi ed by brook trout will provide adequate cover. Embryo.Temperatures in the range of 4.5-11.5°C have been reported as optiimum for egg incubation (MacCrimmon and Campbell 1969).Length of egg incubation is about 45 days at 10°C,165 days at 2.8°C (Brasch et a1.1958), and 28 days at 14.8°C (Embody 1934).Brook trout eggs develop slightly faster than brown trout eggs at 2°C or colder,but the reverse is true at 3°C or above (Smith 1947).We assume that the range of acceptable tempera- turE!S for brook.trout embryos is similar to that for cutthroat trout (Salmo clal·ki)..-- Dissolved oxygen concentrations should not fall below 50%saturation in the redd for embryo development (Harshbarger 1975).We assume that oxygen requirements for embryos are similar to those of adults.Peters (1965)observ- ed high mortality rates when water velocity in the redd was reduced.Water vel()city is important in flushing out fines in the redds.Because brook trout can successfully spawn in spawni ng areas of 1akes,vel oci ty is not necessary for successful spawning as long as oxygen levels are high and the redd is free of silt.Spawning velocities for brook trout range from 1 cm/sec (Smith 1973) to 92 cm/sec (Thompson 1972;Hooper 1973).Spawning velocities measured for bro()k.trout in Wyomi ng ranged from 3-34 em/sec (Rei ser and Wesche 1977). Rei ser and Wesche (I97?)stated that optimum SUbstrate size for brook trout embryos ranges from 0.34-5.05 em.Duff (1980)reported a range of suitable spawning gravel size of 3-8 cm in diameter for trout.Most workers agr(:!e that both water velocity and dissolved oxygen in the intergravel environ- ment determine the adequacy of the substrate for the hatching and survival of salmonid embryos and fry.Increases in sediment that alter gravel permeabil- ity reduces velocities and intergravel dissolved oxygen availability to the embryo and results in smothering of eggs (Tebo 1975).In a California study, brook.trout survival was lower as the volume of materials less than 2.5 mm in diameter increased (Burns 1970).In a 30:3and and 70%gravel mixture,only 28%of implanted steelhead embryos hatched;of those that hatched,only 74~~ 7 -----------------------_.,------------ emerged (Bjornn 1971;Phillips et al.1975).We assume that suitable spawning gravel conditions include gravels 3-8 cm in size (depending on size of spawners)with S 5%fines. Fry.McCormick et al.(1972)cited temperature as an important limiting factor of growth and distribution of young brook trout.Fry emerge from gravel redds from January to April,depending on the local temperature regime (Brasch et al.1958).Temperatures from 9.8-15.4°C were considered suitable, with 12.4-15.4°C optimum;temperatures greater than 18°C were considered detrimental.The optimum temperature for brook 'trout fry,in a laboratory study,was between 8-12°C (Peterson et al.1979).Upper lethal temperatures are between 21 and 25.8°C(Brett 1940),possibly a reflection of different accl imat i zati on temperatures.Latta (1969)reported that upwe 11 i n9 ground water was an important consideration for the well-being of fry in streams; Carline and Brynildson (1977)reported the same situation for fry in spring ponds.Menendez (1976)found that fry survival increased as pH increased from .5 to 6.5.Griffith (1972)reported that focal point velocities for brook trout fry in Idaho ranged from 8-10 em/sec,with a .maximum of 16 em/sec. Because brook trout fry occupy the same stream reaches as adul ts.we assume that temperature and di sso 1ved oxygen requi rements for brook trout fry are similar to those for adults. Trout fry usually overwinter in shallow areas of low velocity,with rubble being the principal cover (Everest 1969;Bustard and Narver 1975a). Opt imum size of substrate used as wi nter cover by steel head fry and small juveniles ranges from 10-40 em in diameter.(Hartman 1965;Everest 1969).·A relatively silt-free area of substrate of this size class (10-40 em),~10%of the total habitat,will probably provide adequate cover for brook.trout fry and small juveniles.The use of smaller diameter rocks for winter cover may result in increased mortal i ty due to shifting of the substrate (Bustard and Narver 1975a). Juvenile.Davis (1961)stated that temperatures of 11-14°C are optimum for fingerling growth.Griffith (1972)reported focal point velocities for juvenile brook trout that ranged from 8.0-9.0 em/sec,with a maximum of 24 em/sec.We assume that temperature and dissolved oxygen requirements for juvenile brook trout are similar to those for adults. Wesche (1980)reported that brook trout fry and small juveniles <15 em long were associated more with instream cover objects (rubble substrate)than overhead stream bank cover.An area of cover ~15%of the total stream area appears adequate for juvenile brook trout. HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX (HSI)MODELS Figure 1 depicts the theoretical relationships among model variables, components,and HSI for the brook trout model. 8 t\\...~.~#. ["tJ Model components ----~:::::-.Other· Ave.%vegetation (V 11 ) Dominate substrate type Ave.annual Ave.min.DO (V J ) pH (V u )-----"""- %T'iffle fines (V 16S )--- ~6 midday shade (V 17 )-----' Ave.max.temperature %r'l ffl e fi nes Ave.substrate size Ave.water velocity Ave.max.temp.(V z ) Ave.min.DO (V 3 ) Average thalweg depth (V~) Habitat variables %streamside vegetation %i nstream cov'~e=r~(~V~6~A~)-====::::::::::::::::='"Adul t %po"ls (V u ) Pool class (V 15 ) %instream cover~(V'J). %pools (V 10 )Juvenile Pool class (V 1S ) %substrate .size (VI)~ %pools (V 10 )~FrY'----------~HSI %riffle fines (V 1 'B) 1 ~J 1 ! I 1 I i rr, I n t .i ~ I I,I !""f I I *Variables that affect all life stages. Figure 1.Diagram illustrating the relationships among model variables.components,and HSI. 9 Model Applicability Geographic area.The following model is applicable over the entire range of brook trout distribution.Where differences in habitat requirements have been identified for different races of brook trout.suitabil ity index graphs have been constructed to refl ect these differences.For thi s reason.care must be excercised in use of the individual graphs and equations. Season.The model rates the freshwater habitat of brook trout for all seasons of the year. Cover types.The model is applicable to freshwater riverine or lacustrine habitats. Minimum habitat area.Minimum habitat area is the mlnlmum area of contig- uous habi tat that is requi red for a speci es to li ve and reproduce.Because brook trout can move considerable distances to spawn or locate suitable summer or winter rearing habitat.no attempt has been made to define a minimum habitat size for the species. Verification level.An acceptable level of performance for this brook trout model is for it to produce an index between 0 and 1 that the authors and other biologists familiar with brook trout ecology believe is positively correlated with the carrying capacity of the habitat.Model verification consisted of testing the model outputs from sample data sets developed by the author to simulate high.medium.and low quality brook trout habitat and model review by biologists familiar with brook trout ecology. Model Description -Riverine The riverine HSI model consists of five compon~nts:Adult (C A);Juvenile (C J );Fry (C F);Embryo (e E);and Other (CO).Each life stage component con- tains variables specifically related to that component.The component Co contains variables related to water quality and food supply that affect all 1 ife stages of brook trout. The model utilizes a modified limiting factor procedure.This procedure assumes that model variables and components with suitability indices in the average to good range.>0.4 to <1.0,can be compensated for by higher suit- ability indices of other.related model variables and components.However. variables and components with suitabilities 5 0.4 cannot be compensated for and.thus,become limiting factors on habitat suitability. j J ,.1 Adult component.Variable Vit percent instream cover.is included because standing crops of adult trout have been shown to be correlated with the amount of cover available.Percent pools (V lD )is included because pools provide cover and resting areas for adult trout.Vari abl e V10 also Quant ifi es the amount of pool habitat that is needed.Variable VIS.pool class.is included() 10 l because pools differ in the amount and quality of escape cover,winter cover, and resting areas that they provide.Average thalweg depth (V~)is included bl~cause average water depth affects the amount and quality of pool sand instream cover available to adult trout and migratory access to spawning and rl~aring areas. Fl I l 1 Juvenile component.Variables V"percent instream cover;VlQ'percent pools;and VIS'pool class are included in the juvenile component for the same reasons listed above for the adult component.Juvenile brook trout use these essential stream features for escape cover,winter cover,and resting areas. Fry component.Variable Va,percent substrate size class,is included bE!cause trout fry utilize substrate as escape cover and winter cover.Variable V1,o,percent pools,is included because fry use the shallow,slow water areas of pools and backwaters as resting and feeding stations.Variable VIS'percent fii nes,is i ncl uded because the percent fi nes affects the abi1 i ty of the fry to utilize the rubble substrate for cover. Embryo component.It is assumed that habitat suitability for trout embryos depends primarily on water temperature,V2 ;dissolved oxygen content, Vl1 ;water velocity,Vs ;spawning gravel size,V7 ;and percent fines,V16 • Water velocity,Vs ;gravel size,V7 ;and percent fines,VI"are interrelated factors that affect the tran sport of di ssol ved oxygen to the embryo and the rE!mova1 of the waste products of metabolism from the embryo.These functions helve been shown to be vital to the survival of trout embryos.In addition, the presence of too many fi nes in the redds will b.l ock movement of the fry from the incubating gravels to the stream. Other component.This component contains model variables for two subcom- ponents,water quality and food supply,that affect all life stages.The subcomponent water quality contains four variables:maximum temperature (VI); minimum dissolved oxygen (V 1 );pH (V Il );and base flow (V 14 ).All four vari- ables affect the growth and survival of all life stages except embryo,whose walter quality requi rements are i ncl uded with the embryo component.The sub- component food supply contains three variables:substrate type (V s );percent vE!getation (V Il );and percent fines (V l6 ).Dominant substrate type (V s );s included because the abundance of aquatic insects,an important food item for brook trout,is correlated with substrate type.Variable V16 ,percent fines in riffle-run and spawning areas,is included because the presence of excessive fines in riffle-run areas reduces the production of aquatic insects.Variable Vu is included because allochthonous materials are an important source of nutrients to cold,unproductive trout streams.The waterflow of all streams fluctuate on an annual seasonal cycle.A correlation exists between the 11 average annual daily streamflow and the annual low base flow period in main- taining desirable stream habitat features for all life stages.Variable VII< is included to quantify the relationship between annual water flow fluctua- tions and trout habitat suitability. Variables Vll ,V12 ,and V17 are optional variables to be used only when needed and appropriate.Average percent vegetation for nutrient supply,VII' should be used only on small «50 m wide)streams with summer temperatures >10°C.Percent streamside vegetation,V12 ,is included because streamside vegetation is an important means of controlling soil erosion,a major source of fines in streams.Variable VI?percent midday shade,;s included because the amount of shade can affect water temperature and photosynthesis in streams. Variables Vll ,V12 ,and V17 are used primarily for streams $50 m wide with temperature,photosynthesis,or erosion problems or when changes in the riparian vegetation is part of a potential project plan. Suitability Index (51)Graphs for Model Variables This section contains suitability index graphs for 17 model variables. Equations and instructions for combining groups of variable 51 scores into component scores and component scores into brook trout H51 scores are included. The graphs were constructed by quantifying information on the effect of each habitat variable on the growth,survival,or biomass of brook trout"The curves were built on the assumption that increments of growth,survival,or biomass originally plotted on the y-axis of the graph could be directly con- verted into an index of suitability from 0.0 to 1.0 for the species;0.0 indi- cates unsuitable conditions and 1.0 indicates optimum conditions.Graph trend lines represent the author's best estimate of suitability for the various levels of each variable presented.The graphs have been reviewed by biologists famil i ar with the ecology of the speci es.but obvi ous ly some degree of 51 vari abi 1i ty exi sts.The user is encouraged to vary the shape of the graphs when existing regional information indicates a different variable suitability relationship. The habitat measurements and SI graph construction are based on the premise that extreme,rather than average,values of a variable most often limit the carrying capacity of a habitat.Thus,measurement of extreme condi- tions,e.g.,maximum temperatures and minimum dissolved oxygen levels,are often the data used with the graphs to derive the 51 values for the model. The letters Rand L in the habitat column identify variables used to evaluate riverine (R)or lacustrine (L)habitats. 12 ~~",~. ....~0.6 Suitability graph 0.4 ~ Vl 0.2 .... X OJ "'0 0.8s::- .- For lacustrine habitats,n use temperature strata ~ nearest optimum in dissolved oxygen zones of >3 mg/l. Average maximum water temperature (OC)during the warmest period of the year (adult. juvenile.and fry). Variable R.L. Habitat 10 20 30 R Average maximum water temperature (OC)during embryo development. 1.0 +--7"--......~---+ x ~0.8 s::-~0.6.... 0-......c 0.4ro -+oJ.... ~0.2Vl 20 R,t.Average mlnlmum dissolved oxygen (mg/l)during the late growing season low water period and during embryo development (adult,juvenile,fry, a nd embryo). For lacustrine habitats, use the dissolved oxygen readings in temperature zones nearest to optimum where dissolvec oxygen is ">3 mg/l. A =~15°C B =>15°C 1.0 x OJ 0.8"'0c::-~0.6..............c 0.4ro-+oJ..... ~0.2Vl 3 6 mg/l 13 R V..Average thalweg depth 1.0 (em)during the late xgrowingseasonlowOJ 0.8 ~)-0 ~c,,, water period.c::..... >,0.6A:=stream width S 5 m -!-l.....B :=stream width>5 m ..... .c 0.4 ttl +l..... ::::l 0.2Vl R Vs Average velocity 1.0 (em/sec)over spawning xareasduringembryoClJ 0.8\j development.s;;...... >,0.6+J..... ..... .0 0.4ttl +J ''- ::I Vl 0.2 15 25 30 em 50 em/sec 45 75 60 100 tt.J J R Vi Percent instream 1.0 cover during the late growi ng season x ClJ 0.8lowwaterperiod-0 at depths ~15 cm ~ and velocities >,0.6...<15 em/sec..,.. A =Juveniles ~ 'r-0.4B=Adults .0 <0 +l.,.. ::::l 0.2V'l 14 10 20 % 30 40 J l R V7 Average size of sub-1.0 I strate between 0.3-)( Q) 8 cm diameter in "C 0.8c: '1 spawning areas t - I preferably during the ~0.6spawningperiod......... n .... To derive .Q 0.4anaverage"' :I ~ value for use with graph .... ~V7t include areas con-V)0.2 taining the best spawning substrate sampled unti 1 all potential spawning 5 10 sites are included or the sample contains an em area equal to 5%of the total brook trout. habitat being evaluated. n'i R V.Percent substrate size 1.0 ")class (10-40 cm)used )( Q)for winter and escape ~0.8c:cover by fry and small -juvenil es.~0.6............ ~.Q 0.4"'oj,.).... ~ V)0.2 5 10 15 20 - % - .....15 ------- --~"""'--"""'---"'-"-'-"''''''''''-l', .J ,-.'< '~.':.'#'" i . .. R v,Dominant (~SO%) substrate type in riffle-run areas for food production. A)Rubble or small boulders or aquatic vegetation in spring areas dominant.with limited amounts of grave 1.1arge . boulders.or bedrock. B)-Rubble,gravel, boulders,and fines occur in approximately equal amounts or gravel is dominant.Aquatic vegetation mayor may not be present. C)Fines,bedrock,or large boulders are dominant.Rubble and gravel are insignificant ($25~). 1.0 x ~O.8 r=.... ~O.6 'po.... 'r-a 0.2 A B c I (iC_J 1t, R Percent pools during the late growing season low water period. 1.0 +-_.....L...o~......_~~_+ x~0.8 s:::.... ~O.6 'r-~0.4 ~ 'r-:::s V'l0.2 16 25 50 % 75 100 R Vll Average percent vege-1.0 Optional tation "(trees.shrubs.)( and graJses-f~rbs)Q)0.8-0 along the streambank c.... during the summer for ~.0.6allochthonousinput.'0- Vegetation Index =......... 2 (%shrubs)+1.5 ..c 0.4ro (%grasses)+(%trees)+oJ '0- +0 (%bareground).~0.2V'l (For streams ~50 m wide) ......... '0-..c 0.4ro ne +oJ.... :::J V'l 0.2 R Viz Optional Average percent rooted vegetation and stable )( rocky ground cover along ~0.8 the streambank during the ~ summer (erosion control).~6 +oJ O. 100 25 % 50 200 % 300 75 100 Annual maximal or minimal pH.Use the measurement with"the lowest 51 value. For lacustrine habitats. measure pH in the zone with the best combina- tion of dissolved oxygen and temperature. 17 1.0 4---l._-.L.-........_-r---l.--t- )( ~0.8 c..... ~0.6............. ~0.4 +J '0- ~ V'l 0.2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 pH --------------......;,..----------_:........_---------------- R Vu.Average annual base 1.0 flow regime during the x 0.8latesummerorwintercu-clowflowperiodasas=-percent of the ave~age ~0.6annualdailyflow..,.. r- 'F-0.4.aro 4J ::I 0.2V') R Vu Pool class rating during 1,0 the late growing season x low flow period (Aug-Oct).~0.8Theratingisbasedon~ the percent of the area :>,0.6containingpoolsof4J..... the three classes .......... described below..0 0.4ro +-l ~ , ~ .- A)~30%of the area is comprised of first-class pools. B)~10%but <30% first-class pools or ~50%second- class pools. C)<10%first-class POQ 1sand <50~~ second-class pools. (See pool class des- criptions below) ..... :::l V')0.2 A 25 50 % B 75 c 100 il':' I I i, , l~ ! t A)First-class pool:Large and deep.Pool depth and size are suffi- cient to provide a low velocity resting area for several adult trout.More than 30~of the pool bottom is obscured due to depth, surface turbul ence,or the presence of structures,e.g.,109s, debri s pil es 1 boulders 1 or overhangi ng banks and vegetation.Or, the greatest pool depth is ~1.5 m in streams ~5 m wide or ~2 m deep in streams>5 m wide. 18 nL:() n B)Second-class pool:Moderate size and depth.Pool depth and size are sufficient to provide a low velocity 'resting area for a few adult trout.From 5 to 30%of the bottom is obscured due to surface turbulence,depth,or the presence of structures.Typical second- class pools are large eddies behind boulders and low velocity, moderately deep areas beneath overhanging banks and vegetation. C)Third-class pool:Small or shallow or both.Pool depth and size are sufficient to provide a low velocity resting area for one to very few adult trout.Cover,if present,is in the form of shade, surface turbulence,or very limited structures.Typical third-class pools are wide,shallow pool areas of streams or small eddies behind boulders. '1 I 1 ne R Vl6 Percent fines «3 mm)1.0 in riffle-run and in ,spawning areas during x (1)0.8averagesummerflows."I:- A =Spawning ~0.6 8 =Riffl e-run ......-.... .0 0.410~.... ='0.2(,/) 15 30 % 45 60 l' ! R V17 Optional Percent of stream area shaded between 1000 and 1400 hrs (for streams $50 m wide).Do not use on cold «16°C max.temp.),unproduc- tive streams. 19 1.0 x Q}0.8"s:::::- ~0.6......- 'r-0.4.0 10~ 'r-::s 0.2(,/) 25 50 O{ 10 75 100 References to sources of data and the assumptions used to construct the above suitability index graphs for brook trout HSI models are presented in Table 1. Table 1.Data sources for brook trout suitability indices. Variable and source Bean 1909 Embody 1921 Kenda 11 1924 Baldwin 1951 Brasch et al.1958 Mullen 1958 Davis 1961 McAfee 1966 MacCrimmon &Campbell 1969 Hynes 1970 Embody 1934 Smith 1947 Brasch et al.1958 Macerimmon &Campbell 1969 Embody 1927 Fry 1951 Doudoroff &Shumway 1970 Mills 1971 Trojnav 1972 Sekulich 1974 Harshbarger 1975 Delisle and Eliason 1961 Estimated by authors Thompson 1972 Hooper 1973 Hunter 1973 Reiser and Wesche 1977 Assumption Average maximum daily temperatures have a greater effect on trout growth and survival than minimum temperature. The average maximum daily water temperature during embryo development related to the highest survival of embryos and normal development is optimum. The average minimum daily dissolved oxygen level during embryo development and the late growing season that is related to the greatest growth and survival of brook trout and trout embryos is optimum.Levels that reduce survival and growth are suboptimum. The average thalweg depths that provide the best combination of pools,instream cover,and instream movement of adult trout is optimum. The average velocity over the spawning areas affects the dissolved oxygen concentration and the manner in which waste products are removed from the developing embryos.Average velocities that result in the highest survival of embryos are optimum. Velocities that result in reduced survival are suboptimum. 20 ,,"v nl , I :1 n t n v, Variable and source Boussu 1954 El ser 1968 Lewis 1969 Bjornn 1971 Phillips et al.1975 Duff 1980 Table 1 (continued). Assumption Trout standing crops are correlated with the amount of usable cover present.Usable cover is associated with water ~15 em deep and velocities S 15 cm/sec.These conditions are associated more with pool than riffle conditions.The best ratio of habitat conditions is about 50%pool to 50% riffle areas.Not all of a poolls area provides usable cover.Thus,it is assumed that optimum cover conditions for trout streams are reached at <50% of the total area. The average size of spawning gravel that is correlated with the best water exchange rates,proper redd construct- ion,and highest fry survival is assumed to be optimum for average-sized brook trout.The percentage of total spawning area needed to support a good trout population was calculated from the following assumptions: 1.Excellent riverine trout habitat will support about 500 kg/hectare. 2.Spawners comprise about 80%of the weight of the population. 500 kg x so~=400 kg of spawners. 3.Brook trout adults average about 0.2 kg each 600 ~~=2,000 adult spawners.2 , 4.There are two adults per redd 2.000 =1 000 pairs2 5.Each redd covers ~0.5 m2 1,000 x 0.5 ~500 m2 21 Table 1 (continued). Variable and so~rce Assumption 6.There are 10,000 m2 per hectare 500 -5~f t 110000-~0 ota area, VB Hartman 1965 Everest 1969 Bustard and Narver 1975a Pennak and Van Gerpen 1947 Hynes 1970 Needham 1940 Elser 1968 Hunt 1971 Idyll 1942 Delisle"and Eliason 1961 Chapman 1971 Hunt 1975 Anonymous 1979 Raleigh and Duff 1981 Creaser 1930 Parsons 1968 Dunson &Martin 1973 Daye &Garside 1975 Webster 1975 Menendez 1976 The substrate size range selected for escape and winter cover by brook trout fry and small juveniles is assumed to be optimum. The dominantsubstrat~type containing the greatest numbers of aquatic insects is assumed to be optimum for insect production. The percent pools during late summer low flows that ;s associated with the greatest trout abundance is optimum. The average percent vegetation along the streambank is related to the amount of allochthanous materials deposited annually in the stream. Shrubs are the best source of allochthanous materials,followed by grasses and forbs,and then trees. The vegetational index is a reasonable approximation of optimum and suboptimum conditions for most trout stream habitats. The average percent rooted vegetation and rocky ground cover that provides adequate erosion control to the stream is optimum. The average annual maximum or minimum pH levels related to high survival of trout are optimum. 22 1 Table 1 (concluded). 1 I Variable and source Binns 1979 Adapted from Duff and Cooper 1976 Needham 1940 Lewis 1969 Hunt 1976 Cordone &Kelly 1961 Bjornn 1969 Sykora et al.1972 Platts 1974 Phillips et al.1975 VI7 Sabean 1976,1977 Anonymous 1979 Assumption Flow variations affect the amount and quality of pools,instream cover,and water quality.Average annual base flows associated with the highest standing crops are optimum. Pool classes associated with the highest standing crops of trout are optimum. The percent fines associated with the highest standing crops of food organisms, embryos,and fry in each designated area is optimum. The percent of stream area that is shaded that is associated with optimum water temperatures and photosynthesis rates is optimum. 1 I l f""" I - The above references include data from studies on related salmonid species. This information has been selectively used to supplement,verify,or complete data gaps on the habitat requirements of brook trout. The suitability curves are a compilation of published and unpublished information on brook trout.Information from other life stages or species or expert opinion was used to formulate curves when data for a particular habitat parameter or life stage were insufficient.Data are not sufficient at this time to refine the habitat suitability curves that accompany this narrative to refl ect subspecifi c or regional di fferences.Loca 1 knowl edge shoul d be used to regionalize the suitability curves if that information will yield a more precise suitability index score.Additional information on this species that can be used to improve and regionalize the suitability curves should be forwarded to the Habitat Evaluation Group,U.S.D.!.Fish and Wildlife Service, 2625 Redwing Road,Fort Collins,CO 80526. 23 Riverine Model This model uses a life stage approach with five components:adult; juvenile;fry;embryo;and other. Case 2: If V~or (VII x V1s )1/2 ;s S 0.4 in either equation,then CA =the lowest score. Or.if any variable is s 0.4.CJ =the lowest variable score. CF variables:VI;Vu;and V16 1/2Or.if VII or (VI x VI')is S 0.4,CF =the lowest factor score. 24 ..... Embryo (C E). StE!PS: A.A potential spawning site is an ~0.5 m2 area of gravel,0.3-8.0 cm ins i ze,covered by fl owi ng water ~15 cm deep.At each spawn i ng site sampled,record: 1.The average water velocity over the site; 2.The average size of all gravel between 0.3-8.0 cm; 3.The percent fines <0.3 cm in the gravel;and 4.The total area in m2 of each site. t B.Derive a spawning site suitability index (V s )for each site by combining Vs ,V7 ,and V1 &values follows: C.Derive a weighted average (V s)for all sites included in the sample. Select the best Vs scores until all sites are included,or until brook trout habitat has been included,whichever comes first. n t A.VSii=l 1 Vs =total habitat area /0.05 (output cannot>1.0) where Ai =the area of each spawning site in m2 (I A.cannot exceed5~of the total brook trout habitat).' =the individual SI scores from the best spawning areas until all spawning sites have been included or until 51 1 s from an area equal to 5%of the total brook trout habitat being evaluated has been included,whichever occurs first. rrI ',I II 0"Derive CE CE =the lowest score of V~,V],or Vs 25 Other (CO). C -a - [(V,x V,,~1/2 +v•• where N =the number of variables within the parentheses.Note that variables V11 ,V1Z and V17 ~re optional and, therefore,can be omitted. HSI determination.HSI scores can be derived for a single life stage,a combination of two or more life stages,or all life stages combined.In all cases,except for the embryo component (C E).an HSI is obtained by combining one or more life stage component scores with the other component (CO)score. 1.Equal Component Value Method.The equal cow.ponent value method assumes that each component exerts equal influence in determining the HSI.This method should be used to determine the HSI unless information exists that individual components should be weighted differently.Components:CA: CJ ;CF; CE;and CO' Or,if any component is ~0.4,the HSI =the lowest component value; if CA is <the equation value,the HSI =CA. where N =the number of components in the equation. 2. Solve the equation for the number of components included in the evalua- tion.There will be a minimum of two,one or more life stage components and the component (CO),unless only the embryo life stage (e E)is being evaluated,in which case the HSI =CEo Unequal Component Value Method.This method also uses a life stage approach with five components:adult (C A);juvenile (C J );fry (C F); embryo (C E);and other (CO),However.the Co component is divided into two subcomponents,food (C OF )and water quality (C OQ ).It is assumed that the COF subcomponent can either increa~e or decrease the suitability of the habitat by its effect on growth at each life stage except embryo. 26 The COQ subcomponent is assumed to exert an influence equal to the combin- ed influence of all 'other model components in determining habitat suit- ability.The method also assumes that water quality is excellent,COQ = 1.When COQ is <1.the HSI is decreased.In addition,when a basis for wei ght i ng ex.i sts,mode 1 component and subcomponent wei ghts can be increased by multiplying each index value by multipliers>1.Model weighting procedures must be documented. Components and subcomponents:CA;CJ ;CF;CE;COF ;and COQ Steps: where 1 I ~ .i (:I l t A. B. Calculate the subcomponents (C OF and COQ )of Co Or,if any variable is S 0.4,COQ =the value of the lowest variable. Calculate the HSI by either the noncompensatory or the compensatory option.. Noncompensatory option.Thi s option assumes that degraded water quality conditions cannot be compensated for by good physical habitat conditions.This assumption is most likely true for small streams (s 5 m wide)and for persistent degraded water quality conditions. N =the number of components and subcomponents inside the parentheses or,if the model components or subcomponents have unequal weights,N =r of weights selected. Or,if any component is s 0.4,HSI =the lowest component value x COQ ' If only the embryo component is being evaluated,HSI =CE x COQ ' 27 ----,------------------------------------------ Compensatory option.Thi s method assumes that moderately degraded water quality conditions can be partially compensated for by good physical habitat conditions.This assumption is useful for large rivers (~50 m wide)and for temporary,or short term,poor water quality conditions. ()) 1) where N =the number of components and subcomponents in the equation or,if the model components or subcompo- nents have unequal weights,N =i of weights selected. Or,if CA is S 0.4,.the HSI i =CA 2)If COQ is <HSI ',HSI =the HS1 1 x [1 -(HSI '-COQ )];if COQ 2:HSI I,the HS1 =HSI i • 3)If only the embryo component is being evaluated,follow the procedure in step 2,substituting CE for HSI 1 • Lacustrine Model The following model can be used to evaluate brook trout lacustrine habitat.The lacustrine model consists of two components:water quality and reproduction. Water Quality (C WQ ). Or,if the 51 scores for VI or V1 are S 0.4,CWQ =the lowest S1 score forV 1 orV 3 • Note:Lacustri ne brook trout can spawn in spri n9 upwe 11 i n9 areas of lacustrine habitats but will utilize tributary streams for spawning and embryo development wher.available and suitable.If the embryo life stage riverine habitat is included in the evaluation,use the embryo component steps and equations in the riverine model above,except that the area of spawning gravel needed is only about l~~of the total surface area of the lacustrine habitat. 28 n 1:A.Vsii=l 1 Vs =total habitat area /0.01 (output cannot>1.0) HSI determination. HSI - t If only the lacustrine habitat is evaluated,the HSI =CWQ . Interpreting Model Outputs Model HSI scores for individual life stages,composite life stages,or for the species are a relative indicator of hab·itat suitability.The HSI models, in their present form,are not intended to reliably predict standing crops of fishes throughout the United States.Standing crop limiting factors,such as interspecific competition,predation,disease,water nutrient levels,and length of growing season,are not included in the aquatic HSI models.The models contain phys;calhabitat variables important in maintaining viable populations of brook trout.If the model is correctly structured,a high HSI score for a habitat indicates near optimum regional conditions for brook trout for those factors included in the model,intermediate HSI scores indicate average habitat conditions,and low HSI scores indicate poor habitat condi- tions.An HSI of 0 does not necessarily mean that the species is not present; it does indicate that the habitat is very poor and that the species is likely to be scarce or absent. Brook trout tend to occupy riveri ne habitats where very few other fi sh species are present.They are usually competitively excluded by other salmonid species,except cutthroat.Thus,disease,interspecific competition,and predation usually have little affect on the model.When the brook trout model is applied to brook.trout streams with similar water quality and lengths of growing season,it should be possible to calibrate the model output to reflect size of standing crops within some reasonable confidence limits.This possi- bility,however,has not been tested with the present model. Sample data sets selected by the author to represent high,intermediate, and low habitat suitabilities are in Table 2,along with the SI1s and HSI's generated by the brook trout riverine model.The model outputs calculated from the sample data sets (Tables 3 and 4)reflect what I believe carrying capacity trends would be in riverine habitats with the listed characteristics. 29 The models also have been reviewed by biologists familiar with brook trout ecology;therefore,the model meets the previously specified acceptance level. ADDITIONAL HABITAT MODELS Modell Optimum riverine brook trout habitat is characterized by: 1.Clear,cold water with an average maximum summer temperature of < 22°C; 2.Approximately a 1:1 pool-riffle ratio; 3.Well vegetated,stable stream banks; 4.~25%of stream area providing cover; 5.Relatively stable water flow regime,<50%annual fluctuation from average annual daily flow; 6.Relatively stable summer temperature regime,averaging about 13°C ±4°C; 7.A relatively silt-free rocky substrate in riffle-run areas;and 8.Relatively good water quality (e.g.,DO and pH). HSI =number of attributes present 8 30 ~ 0 Table 2.Sample data sets using the riverine brook trout HS1 model. Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3 "';;.Vi!riable Data 51 Data 51 Data 51 Max.temperature (OC)VI 14 1.0 15 1.0 16 1.0 Mal(.temperature (OC)V2 12 1.0 15 0.6 16 0.4 Min.dissolved Oz 1'-(mg/l)VJ 9 1.0 5 0.7 6 0.4 Ave.depth (em)V..25 0.9 17 0.6 17 0.6 Ave.veloeity (em/s)VI 30 1.0 20 0.7 20 0.7_. %cover V.20 A 0.9 10 A 0.7 10 A 0.7 J 1.0 J O~9 J 0.9i,Ave.gravel size (cm)V,4 1.0 3 1.0 2.5 1.0 -%substrate- 10-40 cm in diameter V.15 1.0 6 0.7 6 0.7-Dom.substrate class V.A 1.0 B 0.6 B 0.6 ~%pools Vu 55 1.0 15 0.7 10 0.6 ~~Alloch. vegetation Vll 225 1.0 175 1.0 200 1.0 %bank vegetation V12 95 1.0 40 0.6 35 0.5.-M;!x.pH Vu 7.1 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.0 %ann.base flow VI"39 0.8 30 0.6 25 0.5 31 ,-. -"'~~~~._:;:n -.~~_ Table 2.(concl uded).0) Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3 Variable Data 51 Data S1 Data 51 Pool class V15 A 1.0 8 0.6 C 0.3 ~~fi nes (A)Vu 5 1.0 20 0.4 20 0.4 %fines (B)Va 20 0.9 35 0.6 .35 0.6 ~6 shade V 17 60 1.0 60 1.0 60 1.0 32 - Table 3.Equal component value method. ....Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3 Variable Data 51 Data 51 Data 51 ""'"Component CA 0.95 0.65 0.56 CJ 1.00 0.73 0.30 CF 0.97 0.67 0.62 CE 1.00 0.60 0.40 Co 0.97 0.79 0.74 ,--Sp1eci es HSI 0.98 0.68 0.50 ,-, .f ':~:.Table 4.Unequal component value method. -Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3 Variable Data 51 Data 51 Data 51 Component CA 0.95 0.65 0.56 CJ 1.0 0.73 0.30 CF 0.97 0.67 0.62 CE 1.00 0.60 0.40 COF 0.97 0.80 0.80..... COQ 1.00 0.81 0.40 Species HSI Noncompensatory 0.98 0.56 0.12 0 Compensatory 0.98 0.69 0.51,-. 33 -................_u ---_ Model 2 A riverine trout habitat model has been developed by Binns and Eiserman (1979)Transpose the model output of pounds per acre to an index of 0-1: HSI =model output of pounds per acre regional optimum pounds per acre Model 3 Optimum lacustrine brook trout habitat is characterized by: 1.Clear,cold water with an average summer midepil imnion temperature of <22°C; 2.A midepil imnion pH of 6.5 to 8.5; 3.Dissolved oxygen content of epilimnion of ~8 mg/1;and 4.Presence of spring upwelling areas or access to riverine spawning tributaries. 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Creaser,C.W.1930.Relative importance of hydrogen-ion concentration, temperature.dissolved oxygen,and carbon-dioxide tension,on habitat selection by brook trout.Ecology 11(2):246-262. Davis,H.S.1961.Culture and diseases of game fishes.Unlv.Calif.Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles,CA.332 pp. Daye,P.G.,and E.T.Garside.1975.Lethal levels of pH for brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis.Can.J.Zool.53(5):639-641.~ Delisle,G.E.,and B.E.Eliason.1961.Effects on fish and wildlife resources of proposed water development on Mi ddl e Fork Feather Ri ver. State of Calif.-Dept.of Fish and Game Water Projects Rep.19 pp. Dineen,C.F.1951.A comparative study of the food habits of Cottus .bairdi and associated species of Salmonidae.Am.Mid1.Nat.46:640-645. Doudoroff,P.,and D.L.Shumway.1970.Dissolved oxygen requirements of freshwater fishes.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,Rome.Fish.Tech.Paper 86.291 pp. Duff.D.A.1980.Livestock grazing impacts on aquatic habitat in Big Creek, Utah.Paper presented at Li vestockand Wi 1dl i fe Fi sheri es Workshop. May 3-5,1977.Reno,NV.U.S.D.I.,Bur.Land Manage.,Utah State Office. 36 pp. Duff,D.A.,and J.Cooper.1976.Techniques for conducting stream habitat surveys on National Resource Lands.U.S.D.!.,Bur.Land Manage.Tech. Note 283.72 pp. Dunson,W.A.,and R.R.Martin.1973.Survival of brook trout in a bog- derived acidity gradient.Ecology 54(6):1370-1376. El ser,A.A.1968. habi tat zones 97(4):389-397 Fish populations of a trout stream in relation to major and channel alterations.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc. 36 - .- - E1 son,P.F.1939.Effects of current on the movement of trout.J.Fi sh. Res.Board Can.4(5):491-499. Elwood,J.W.,and T.F.Waters.1969.Effects of floods on food consumption and'production rates of a stream brook trout population.Trans.Am. Fish.Soc.98(2):253-262 . Embody,G..C.1921.Concerning high water temperatures and trout.Trans. Am.Fish.Soc.51:58-64. 1927.An outline of stream study and the development of a stock- ing policy.Contrib.Agric.Lab.,Cornell Univ.54 pp. 1934.Relation of temperature to the incubation periods of eggs of four species of trout.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.64:281-291. Enlk,M.D.1977.Instream overhead bank cover and trout abundance in two Michigan streams.M.S.Thesis,Mich.State Univ.,E.Lansing.127 pp. EVI:!rest,F.H.1969.Habitat selection and spatial interaction of juvenile chinook salmon and stee1head trout in two Idaho streams.Ph.D.Diss., Univ.Idaho,Moscow.77 pp. EV1:!rhart,W.H.1966.Fishes of Maine ..3rd ed.Maine Dept.Inland Fish and Game.Augusta,ME.96 pp. Flick,W.A.1977.Some observations,age,growth,food habits and vulner- ability of large brook trout (Sa1ve1inus fontina1is)from four Canadian Lakes.Nature Canada 104(4):353-359. F1'ick,W.A.,and D.A.Webster.1976.Production of wild,domestic,and interstrain hybrids of brook trout (Sa1ve1inus fontina1is)in natural ponds.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.33(7):1525-1539. Fry,F.E.1951.Some envi ronme!1ta 1 re 1at ions of the (Sa1veinus fontina1is).Northeast Atlantic Fish Conf. (Mimeo.). speckled trout Proc.14 pp. Gatside,E.T.1966.Effects of oxygen in relation to temperature on the development of embryos of brook trout and rainbow trout.J.Fish.Res. Board Can.23(8):1121-1134. Giger,R.O.1973.Streamflow requirements of sa1monids.AFS-62-1.Oregon Wildlife Comm.,Portland.117 pp. Greeley,J.R.1932.The ~pawning habits of brook,brown,and rainbow trout, and the problem of egg predators.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.62:239-247. Griffith,J.S.1972.Comparative behavior and habitat utilization of brook trout (Sa1ve1inus fontina1is)and cutthroat trout (Sa1mo clarki)in small streams in Northern Idaho.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.29(3):265-273. 37 1974.Utilization of invertebrate drift by brook trout (Salvalinus fontinalis)and cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki)in small streams in Idaho. Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.103(3):440-4~ Harshbarger,T.J.1975.Factors affecting regional trout stream produc- tivity.Pages 11-27 in U.S.D.A.For.Servo Proc.Southeastern trout resource:eco logy and management sympos i urn.Southeastern Forest Exp. Stn.,Asheville,NC.145 pp. Hartman,G.F.1965.The role of behavior in the ecology and interaction'of underyearling Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)and steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri).J.Fish.Res.Board Can.22(4):1035-1081. Hazzard,A.S.1932.Some phases in the life history of the eastern brook trout,Salvelinus fontinalis,Mitchill.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.62:344~350. Herbert,D.W.M.,and J.C.Merkens.1961.The effect of suspended mineral solids on the survival of trout.Int.J.Air and Water Poll.5:46-55. Hooper,D.R. ecology. 97 pp. 1973.Evaluation of the effects of flow on trout stream Dept.Eng.Res.,Pacific Gas and Electric Co.Emeryville,CA. Hunt,R.L.1965.Dispersal of wild brook trout during their first summer of life.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.94(2):186-188._ 1966.Producti on and angl er harvest of wil d brook trout in Lawrence Creek,Wisconsin.Wise.Div.Conserv.,Madison.Tech.Bull.35. 52 pp. 1971.Responses of a brook trout population to habitat develop- ment in Lawrence Creek.Dept.Nat.Resourc.,Madi son,WI.Tech.Bull. 48.35 pp. 1976.In-stream improvement of trout habitat.Pages 26-31 in Stream management of Salmonids.Trout Magazine,Pub.by Trout Unlimite~ 4260 East Evans,Denver,CO.31 pp. Hunter,J.W.1973.A discussion of game fish in the State of washington as related to water requirements.Rep.from Fish Manage.Div.,Wash.State Dept.Game,to Wash.State Dept.Ecol.66 pp. Hynes,H.B.N.1970.The ecology of running waters.Univ.Toronto Press, Canada.555 pp. Kendall,W.C.1924.The status of fish culture in our inland public waters and the role of investigation in the maintenance of fish resources. Rooseve lt Wil d Li fe Bull.2(3):205-351 . 38 Latta,W.C.1969.Some factors affecting survival of young-of-the-year brook trout (Sa1ve1inus fontina1is,Mitchi11)in streams.Pages 229-240 in T.G.Northcoat,ed.The H.P.McMillon Lecture in Fisheries Senes. The Univ.Brit.Columbia Press.Vancouver,B.C.Feb.22-24,1968.388 pp. Lennon,R.E.1967.Brook trout of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Bur.Sport.Fish.and Wild1.Tech.Paper 15.18 pp. Le\lfis,S.L.1969.Physical factors influencing fish populations in pools of a trout stream.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.98(1):14-19. Mac:Crimmon,H.R.,and J.C.Campbell.1969.World distribution of brook trout,Sa1ve1inus fontina1is.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.26:1699-1725. McAfee,W.R.1966.Eastern brook trout.Pages 242-260 in A.Calhoun.ed. Inland fisheries management.Calif.Dept.Fish Game. McC:ormick,J.H.,K..E.F.Hokansen,and B.R.Jones.1972.Effects of temperature on growth and survival of young brook trout.Salvelinus fontinalis.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.29:1107-1112. ~ I McFadden,J.T.1961.A population study of the brook trout,Salvelinus fontina1is.Wi1dl.Monogr.7.73 pp. McFadden,J.T .•G.R.Alexander.and D.S.Shetter.1967.Numerical changes and population regulation in brook trout,Salvelinus fontinalis.J. Fish.Res.Board Can.24:1425-1459. McKee,J.E.,and H.W.Wolf.1963.Water quality criteria.State Water Control Board.Sacramento.CA.Pub.3A.548 pp. Menendez.R.1976.Chronic effects of reduced pH on brook trout (Salve1inus fontina1is).J.Fish.Res.Board Can.33(1)118-123. Mills,D.1971. management. Salmon and trout;a resource.its ecology.conservation and St.Martains Press.N.Y.351 pp. - Mullen,J.W.1958.A compendium of the life history and ecology of the eastern brook trout,Salve1inus fontinalis Mitchill.Mass.Div.Fish Game,Fish.Bull.23.37 pp. Needham,P.R.1930.Studies on the seasonal food of brook trout.Trans. Am.Fish.Soc.60:73-86. 1940.Trout streams.Comstock Pub 1.Co.,Ithaca.NY.233 pp. 1961.Observations on the natural spawning of eastern brook trout.California Fish Game 47(1):27-40. DIConnor.J.F.•and G.Power.1976.Production by brook trout in the Matamek watershed,Quebec.J.Fish Res.Board Can.33(1):118-123. 39 Parsons,J.D.1968.The effects of acid strip-mine effluents on the ecology of a stream.Arch.Hydrobio1.65:25-50. Pennak.R.W.,and E.D.VanGerpen.1947.Bottom fauna production and physical nature of the substrate in a northern Colorado trout stream. Ecology 28(1):42-48. Peters,J.C. survival. Education 275-279. 1965.The effects of stream sedi men tat i on on trout embryo Seminar on Bio1.Problems in Water Poll.U.S.Dept.Health. and Welfare,Public Health Service,Cincinnati,OH.1962.Pp. Peterson,R.H.,A.M.Sutterlin,and J.L.Metcalfe.1979.Temperature preference of several species of Sa1mo and Salvelinus and some of their hybrids.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.36:1137-1140. Phillips,R.W.,R.L.Lantz,E.W.Claire,and J.R.Moring.1975.Some effects of gravel mixtures on emergence of coho salmon and steel head trout fry.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.3:461=466. Platts,W.S.1974.Geomorphic and aquatic conditions influencing salmonids and stream classification with application to ecosystem classification. U.S.D.A.,For.Serv.,SEAM Publ.,Billings,MT.199 pp. Powers,E.B.1929.Fresh water studies 1..Ecology 10:97-111. Rabe,F.W.1967.The transplantation of brook trout in an alpine lak.e. Prog.Fish-Cult.29(1):53-55. Raleigh,R.F.,and D.A.Duff.(in press). ment:ecology and management.in W. Symposium II.Yellowstone Park,WY. Trout stream habitat improve- King,ed.Proc.Wild Trout Reed,E.B.,and G.Bear.1966.Benthic animals and foods eaten by brook. trout in Archuleta Creek,Colorado.Hydrobiol.27:227-237. Reiser,D.W••and T.A.Wesche.1977.Determination of physical and hydraulic preferences of brown and brook trout in the selection of spawn- ing locations.Water Resources Res.Inst.,Univ.Wyo.,Laramie.Water Res.Seri es 64.100 pp. Rupp,R.S.1953.The eastern brook trout,Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill) at Sunkhaze Stream,Maine.M.S.Thesis,Univ.Maine,Orono.96 pp. Sabean,B.1976.The effects of shade removal on stream temperature in Nova Sc~tia.Nova Scotia Dept.of Lands and Forests,Cat/76118/100.32 pp. Saunders,J.W.,and M.W.Smith.1955.Standing crop of trout in a small Prince Edward Island stream.Can.Fish Cult.17:32-39. 1962.Physical alterations of stream habitat to improve brook trout production.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.91(2):185-18&. 40 ..... - l~V Scott,W.B.,and E.J.Crossman.1973.Freshwater fishes of Canada.Fish. Res.Board Can.Bull.184.966 pp. Sekulich,P.T.1974.Role of the Snak.e River cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki subsp.)in ffshery management.M.S.Thesis,Colo.State Univ., Ft.Collins,CO.102 pp. Sigler,W.F.and R.R.Miller.1963.Fishes of Utah.Utah Dept.Fish Game, Salt Lake City.203 pp. Smith,A.K.1973~Development and application of spawning velocity and depth criteria for Oregon salmonids.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.2:312-316. Smith,M.W.,and J.W.Saunders.1958.Movements of brook trout,Salvelinus fontinalis between and within fresh and salt water.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.15(6):1403-1449. Smith,O.R.1941.The spawning habits of cutthroat and eastern brook trouts. J.Wildl.Manage.5(4):461-471. 1947.Returns from natural spawning of cutthroat trout and eastern brook trout.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.74:281-296. Sykora,J.,E.Smith,and M.Synak.1972.Effect of lime neutralized iron hYdroxide suspensions on juvenile brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis, Mitchill).Water Res.6:935-950. 1975.Review of selected parameters of trout stream quality. Pages 20-3~in Symposium on trout habitat research and management pro~ ceedings.U~.D.A.,For.Serv.,Southeastern For.Exp.Stn.,Asheville, NC.11 0 pp. Thompson,K.1972.Determining stream flows for fish life.Pages 31-50 in Proc.I n stream flow requi rement workshop,Pacifi c Northwest Ri ver Basin Commission,Vancouver,WA.Pp.31-50. ..-, Trojnar,J.R.1972. cutthroat trout . 59 pp. Ecological evaluation of two sympatric strains of M.S.Thesis,Colo.State Univ.,Ft.Collins,CO. Vincent,R.E.,and W.H.Miller.1969.Altitudinal distribution of brown trout and other fi shes ina headwater tri butary of the South Pl atte River,Colorado.Ecology 50(3):464-466. Webster,D.(Ed.)1975.Proceedings of brook trout seminar.Wisc.Dept. Nat.Resour.,Univ.Wise.16 pp. Webster,D.,and Eiriksdottier.1976.Upwelling water as a factor influ- encing choice of spawning sites by brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.75:257-266. 41 Wesche,T.Ao 1973.Parametic determination of minimum streamflow for trout. Water Resour.Series 37.Water Resouro Res.Inst.,Univ.of Wyarn., Laramie,WY.102 pp. ~ Wesche,To A.1974.Evaluation of t:~out cover in smaller streams.Proc. Western Assoc.Game and Fish Commissioners.54:286-294. 1980.The WRRI trout cover rating method:developments and application.Water Resour.Res.Inst.,Water Resour.Ser.78.46 pp. White,H.C.1930.Some observations on the eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)of Prince Edward Island.Trans.Am.Fish.Soc.60:101-108. ______~~.1940.Life history of sea-running brook trout (Salve1inus fontinalis)of Moser River,N.S.J.Fish.Res.Board Can.5(2):176-186. Wiseman,J.S;1951.A quantitative analysis of foods eaten by eastern brook trout.Wyo.Wildl.15:12-17. 42 50271 -101 lZo I i I 3.ReciDiellC's ~on MOo I I 50 "eool'!Oate!September 1982 : Brook Trout ...."tie ana Suotitle (,Habitat Sui tabi 1i ty Index Model s: 1----------..----------------1-'"----_7'Ftotre~¥F.Ra 1e i gh t a."'l"tormin.Orpnizatlan "e~No. Habitat Evaluatl0n Procedures Group j1G.PrajectlTask/Woril Unit MOo U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service f Western Energy and Land Use Team 1-1L.....~-mn.....-d-(Q.....o'-G-n-m-(-m-N-o-......----- Drake Creekside Building One '(Q 2625 Redwing Road I Fort Col 1i ns,CO 80526 !(li) Western Energy and Land Use Team i 13.TYIM of Reool'!&0 JOel'iad COvered Office of Biological Services ! Fish and Wildlife Service i~__ U.S.Department of the Interior i 14. WashinQton,DC 20240 ! 15.SuOOlemerrta"./'loin- .... Literature describing the habitat preferences of the brook trout (Sa1velinus fontinalis) is reviewed,and the relationships between habitat variables and life requisites are synthesized into a Habitat Suitability Index (HSI)model.HSI models are designed-II,for use with the Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP)in i,mpact assessment and habitat "management activities. ,.... - - -l'AOqc:u",.nt An.IYSIS a.0_"010"mmal behavior Aquatic biology Habi tabil i ty Habit Fishes Trout - -r:;:.:. :=1.~o.of FOlies ii -vi +42pp OI"T'O~AL FO"M :=:"'Z ;~ "ormer,y NTl5-3S1 13.Sec:urlty C:.!U (itt.s ~"OQt1) UNCLASSIFIED Habitat managementBro;bkl'trO'~..,·Ended '..rms Salvelinus fontina1is Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HE~) ~~Impact assessmentr·...~:.::OSATI ".'d/G'QUO II&."'~a<lao'I'ty Sta,.."'.rrtIRELEASEUNLIMITED I- -~. .... " ..- Classification of'Surface Waters':· • .. September 1979 Maine Revised Statutes Annotated .Title 38' Chapter 3 "'5···~.'...M ,4 Jill!!!! ',...~. "'\~l~,..;~,_·...__.._._...~.._,"•.. Standard Oass A B-1 B-2 C D Standard Standard Oass SA SB- SB- SC SD ·:'t~fk~~i~.:;,>< ..cUsui~ Androsc::< Little ·Main MinOl Uppe Aroostoc Main Tribu Kennebe Cam Cobb Main MeSSl Mino Sand: Main 5ebal KenJl Medt Mow Penobsci East 363~A. 364. Sec. 363. ..~' AUllusla,Mal...04333 2 OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONER Ray Bulldlnl:'· AUllusla Mfntal Hfllth hulitulfComplfli. BUREAU OF WATER QUAUTY CONTROL DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION· ',.;-......-.; i - ! . f i I .- r-- I - ..- - l"""1 1 .... Sec. INDEX··· 1TJ'LE 38 CHAPTER 3· CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE WATERS Page No. 3 c ' -~".'<II -.. ·_SD-·-'-:~~1:-'-~.,'.~·~·~';··~·~·~.~.",-.....~.-.~:...~_:;-.....~-.'.~~......-"--~'•••~.;..;:-... -''''"'''..;-,-'.~~.:.>'.~'~--.'-.:(;: 'f ~...-_,~,':_:"''1:.'-':/-". a8ssit1catimtof hIl3nd Waters . AndroscOggm .River &sin..... Utt1e Androscoggin ~dIainap'. MaiD Item.AndrosCoggin River •••'.••••••••••••••••. •••••••••••••• MlDor trlb~.'AndrOSCOggin lUver·. Vpper AndrolCogpD River dIainage ••••••••~:'.' Aroostook RiverBuiD:"'~};;r,··'.'. MaiD stem Aroostook Rift('·~·"•••••':.;~"'••.••••~••••••• Tributadel Aroostook RiYer ~•••••••••••••• Kennebec RiYWBaaIa. Carrabauet RiYer and tributaries ••••••~•.,•••••:••••.•••••••••••••••• Cobboueec:onteo stream and trlbutarlel •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• MaiD Item lCeDn.e'bec 'Ri'V'a.•. Messalonskee stream and trlbutadCll . Minor tdbutarles 1CmuIebec River below Wyman dam in Moscow •••;••••19 Sandy River aDd tributaries ••••••••••• ••• •• ••• ••• ••• •• •• . . •• •• •••20 Main stem Sebuticook River ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••.21 Sebasticook River tributariOl 21 lCmnebec River aDd tdbutaries above Wyman dam in Moscow •~••• . •••.22 Meduxnekeag River and tributarlel .'••~•••~.•;•••~••.•.•••• •••..23· Mousam River and tributaries Penobscot River BuiD·.:·..,}.'j,..'::,;::~~~,i;<",.i· Eas.t branch Penobscot River aDd tn"butllrles Standards of Oassific:ation of Inland Water;•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Cass A •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• B-l •••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••• B-2 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Ca.ss SA"----;··:,~~~..~·~~·:••'..-'~.•, -~~" -'••.••,._••-~'-".,~..~II.".,."II "":~~,. SB-l'•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..••. s~i--/,'.·~-."~,_..".•~'..~'~-~..~'.'.. SC <;.~".•.•...."~/;;~•.........;.~;; ,, S 6 6 ._ D <I.""'••••••••••••~.'~•.,;•.••.•••7 Standards of Oassification of Great Ponds ;•"7 Standards of Cassi6cation of 1idal WateIl! 363. - I"""' I - Mattawamkeag River and tributaries 25 Minor tributaries Penobscot River 0 ••••••••••0 26 Piscataquis River and tributaries 0 • • • • • • • • ••••••27 West branch Penobscot River and tributaries ....................•."28 Presumpscot River and tributaries . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .... . . ... ...29 Sace River and tributaries ......•...•....•.........•.................29 St.Croix River Basin . . . . . . . . . ... ... . • ... . •... . .... .... . ... . . . . ...30 St.John River Basin Allagash River and tributaries 30 Fish River and tributaries '"....•................, . . . . . . • . . . . ...31 Salmon Falls-Piscataqua River and tributaries ,32 369.Qassifications of Coastal Streams Cumberland County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . •• . . . . . . . . ...32 Hancock County ••.•.............•.•...••............•...........33 Knox County .•• • • . . • . . ..•..•.... ..•• . • . . . • . . • • . • . . . ... . . ..• . ...34 St.George River and tributaries . . . ... . • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . ... . . . . . ...34 lincoln County •.•..••..••..•......••....•..•...........••.•.....36 Damariscotta River and tributaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ...36 Medomak River and tributaries ,•.,.•....••.•.0 •••••••,••••••••••,36 Sheepscot River and tributaries ',0 •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • •••36 Sagadahoc County ..•....•....•...•...............................38 Waldo County ..•.••......•.......•,•..•.......•..•.•............38 Washington County •..•.••.•.......•••.....•...•...•......•.......39 YOlk County •...•• . . • • • . . . • • ..... ..•.•... •.. • ..• . . ....... . . .....40 370.Qassification of TIdal Waters Curnbelland County ..•....••.......•.....•..•.••.....•.•.........41 Hancock County •..•............•....•..........•................42 Knox County . . • . . • . . . . ...•.. ..• . . . •. . . ..... ... . ...•.. . . . . . .....46 lincoln County ....•........•..•..•...............•.....•.........47 Sagadahoc County ...•..•.....................•.....•.............48 Waldo County ....•..................•....•......................49 Washington County ,...................•.......••.0 50 York County .................................•..................53 371-A.Qassification of Great Ponds 55 REGULAnONS 581,Water Quality Evaluations ~(. 582.Temperature 0 • 0 ••~., 583.Nutrient Concentration ,0 ••••'~- 584.Water Quality Criteria ~, 590.Variances 0 ~.. 591.Exceptions ,0 ' • 4 §363.Standard:>c The board shall ha 1972,c.618. Oass A shall bl t recreational purposes dissolved oxygen cor occurs,and contai.{", 1977,c.373,~ These waters shal grease or scum.T~cY would impart col< waters,nor shall s ; of these waters or humans or which w o stance shall be pC" There shall be . no deposits of sucn I other other poilutar waters of this cla'''''' discharges will be tef,the discharge receiving waters.Pr; objectively demo~s,t: are no other reaso 1971,c.461,_ Oass B,the 2nd B-2. B·I.Waters shall be acceptaL. potable water supp! oxygen of such 'Il:',a million at any tin 1977,c.373,.- These waters Sf oils,grease or SO",,; which imparts c( classification nor tration of these wa' shall be no discha "pH"of these .[" any matter or S1 animals or squatl<.:, matter or substance centrations abov"''' being acceptable which alters the nature of bottom n There shall 1-' except those wt ~ including,but n these treated waStl shall such dispo~al for human cons;""; 1 I I J-l - - .- ..... ..... MAINE REVISED STATUTES ANNOTATED TITLE 38 §363.Standards of classification of fresh waters The board shall have 4 standards for the classification of fresh surface waters. 1972,c.618. Cass A shall be the highest classification and shall be of such quality that it can be used for recreational purposes,including bathing,and for public water supplies after disinfection.The dissolved oxygen content of such waters shall not be less than 75%saturation or as naturally occurs,and contain not more than 20 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters. 1977,c.373,§1. These waters shall be free from sludge deposits,solid refuse and floating solids such as oils, grease or scum.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance in these waters which would impart color,turbidity,taste or odor other than that which naturally occurs in said waters,nor shall such matter or substance alter the temperature or hydrogen·jon concentration of these waters or contain chemical constituents which would be harmful or offensive to humans ,or which would be harmful to animal or aquatic life.No radioactive matter or sub- stance shall be permitted in these waters other than that occurring from natural phenomena. There,shall be no discharge of sewage or other pollutants into water of this classification and no deposits of such material on the banks of these waters in any manner that transfer of sewage other other pollutants into the waters is likely,except that existing licensed discharges into waters of this classification will be allowed to continue until practical alternatives exist.New discharges will be permitted only if,in addition to satisfying all the requirements of this chap· ter,the discharged effluent will be equal to or better than the existing water quality of the receiving waters.Prior to issuing a discharge license,the board shall require the applicant to objectively demonstrate to the board's satisfaction that the discharge is necessary and that there are no other reasonable alternatives available. 1971,c.461,§2;1977,c.373,§2:1979,c.529. Oass B.the 2nd highest classification,shall be divided into 2 designated groups as B·l and B·2. B·1.Waters of this class shall be considered the higher quality of the Class B group and shall be acceptable lor recreational purpose;;.includinf:water contact recreation.for use as potable water supply after adequate treatment anJ lor a fish and wildlife habitat.The dissolved oxygen of such waters shall be not les~than 75~·of saturation,and not less than 5 parts per million at any time.The fecal coliform b3Cteri:l shall not exceed 60 per 100 milliliters. 1977,c.373,$03. Thesle waters shall be free from sludj!e deposits.solid refuse and floating solids such as oils,grease or scum.There shall be no dispos3l of any matter or substance in these waters which imparts color.turbidit)·.taste or odor which would impair the usages ascribed to this classificfLtion nor shall such m3lter or substance alter the temperature or hydrogen-ion concen- tration of these waters so as to render such waters harmful to fish or other aquatic life.There shall be no discharge to these waters which will cause the hydrogen-ion concentration or "pH"of these waters to fail outside of the 6.0 to 8.5 range.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans, animals or squatie life or which adversely affect any other water use in this class.No radioactive matter or substances shall be discharged to these waters which will raise the radio-nuclide con- centrations above the standards as established by the United States Public Health Service as being acceptable for drinking water.These waters shall be free of any matter or substance which alters the composition of bottom fauna,which adversely affects the physical or chemical nature of bottom material.or which interferes with the propagation of fish. There shall be no disposal of sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes in such waters, except those which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents includin,g,but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material.such that these treated wastes will not lower the standards or alter the uasges of this classification.nor shall sUlch disposal of sewage or waste be injurious to aquatic life or render such dangerous for human consumption. 5 B·2.Waters of this class shall be acceptable for recreational purposes including water contact recreation,for industrial and potable water supplies after adequate treatment,and for a fIsh and wildlife habitat.The dissolved oxygen of such waters shall not be less than 60%of saturation,and not less than 5 parts per million at any time.The fecal coliform bacteria is not to exceed 200 per 100 millilieters. 1977,c.373,§4. These waters shall be free from sludge deposits,solid refuse and floating solids such as oils,grease and scum.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance in these waters which imparts color,turbidity,taste or odor which would impair the usages ascribed to this classification,nor shall such matter or substance alter the temperature Or hydrogen-ion concentration of the waters so as to render such waters harmful to fish or other aquatic life. There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans,animal or aquatic life,or which adversely affect any other water use in this class.There shall be no discharge to these waters which will cause the hydrogen-ion concentration of "pH"of these waters to fall outside of the 6.0 to 8.5 range. No radioactive matter or substance shall be discharged to these waters which will raise the radio-nuelld con~tratioDs above the standards as established by the United States Public Health Service as being acceptable for drinking water.These waters shall be free of any matter or substance which alters the composition of bottom fauna,which adversely affects the physical or chemical nature of bottom material,or which interferes with the propagation of fish. There shall be no disposal of sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes in such waters except those which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including,but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material,such that these treated wastes will not lower the standards or alter the usages of this classification,nor shall such disposal of sewage or waste be injurious to aquatic life or render such dangerous for human consumption. Qass Co waters,The 3rd highest classification,shall be of such quality as to be satisfactory for recreational boating and fIShing,for a fish and wildlife habitat and for other uses except potable water supplies and water contact recreation,unless such waters are adequately treated. The dissolved oxygen content of such waters shall not be less than 5 parts per million, except in those cases where the board finds that the natural dissolved oxygen of any such body of water falls below 5 parts per million,in which case the board may grant a variance to this requirement.In no event shall the dissolved oxygen content of such waters be less than 4 parts per million.The fecal coliform bacteria is not to exceed 1,000 per 100 milliliters. 1973,c.423,§5;1977,c.373,§5. These waters shall be free from slUdge deposits,soUd refuse and floating solids such as oils,grease or scum,There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance in these waters which imparts color,turbidity,taste,or odor which would impair the usages ascribed to this classification,nor shall such matter or substance alter the temperature or hydrogen-ion content of the waters so as to render such waters harmful to fish or other aquatic life.There shall be no discharge to these waters which will cause the hydrogen-ion concentration or "pH"of these waters to fall outside of the 6.0 to 8.5 range.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans, animal or aquatic life or which adversely affect any other water use in this class.No radioactive material or substance shall be discharged to these waters which will raise the radio-nuclide concentration above the standards as established by the United States Public Health Service as being acceptable for drinking water. There shall be no disposal of sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes in such waters, except those which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including,but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material,such that these treated wastes will not lower the standards or alter the usages of this classification, nor sh:ill such disposal of sewage or waste be ilIjurious to aquatic life or render such dangerous for human consumption. Class D waters shall be assigned only where a higher water classifIcation cannot be :llt:uned after utilizing the best practicable treatment or control of sewage or other waste!>. 6 Waters of this class may be us" waters after adequate treatment Dissolved oxygen of these wa- numbers of coliform bacteria allow not,in the determination of til" health or impair any usages asCIi'. These waters shall be free fron oils,grease or scum.There shall,c"-': which imparts color,turbidity,t t classification,nor shall such m concentration of the waters to irr: disposal of any matter or substance humans or which adversely affer', substance shall be permitted "in ,: aquatic life and there shall be no ( radio-nuclide concentrations in ed dangerous for human consumptiC"p, There shall be no disposal c except those which have received t including,but not limited to,solid these treated wastes will not Idee: Treated wastes discharging to t1 ; ntle 11,Section 2802,by the ~. other nuisance conditions_ With respect to all classificatrr "' may be appropriate for the best tion is temporarily lowered due t( R.S.1954,c.79,§2;1955,c.' §1;1967,c.475,§4;1969,C.43J~ §363-A.Standards of classiflc: The board shall have 2 standa,_. Gass GP-A shall be the highest for recreational purposes.includ~w' plies after disinfection.Such wal meters or as naturally occurs.a milliliters.Total phosphorus conce phyll A concentration shall not near the surface of the water. These waters shall be free fro scum.No radioactive matter or ,u occurring from natural phenomena. There shall be no direct or indjc~ ful to water quality or aquatic lit tion 371-A and 413.No material ner that the same may fall or be w, therefrom may flow or leach into th 1979,~495.- Qass GP-B,the 2nd highest including water contact recreation and for a fish and wildlife habitat. 100 milliliters.The total phospl"c~, measured in samples taken at or r These waters shall be free frc.... grease or scum.There shall be no imparts color,turbidity,taste OIF.::>- tion nor shall such matter or sui these waters so as to render sue! ..- I r ..... Waters of this class may be used for power generation,navigation and industrial process waters after adequate treatment. Dissolved oxygen of these·waters shall not be less than 2.0 parts per million.The numbers of coliform bacteria allowed in these waters shall be only those amounts which will not,in the determination of the Commission,indicate a condition harmful to the public health or impair any usages ascribed to this classification. These waters shall be free from sludge deposits,solid refuse and floating solids such as oils,grease or scum.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance in these waters which implLIts color,turbidity,taste or odor which would impair the usages ascribed to this classification,nor shall such matter or substance alter the temperature or hydrogen-ion concenuatklD of the waters to impair the usages of this classificatitln.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans or which adversely affect any other water use in this class.No radioactive matter or substance shall be permitted in these waters which would be harmful to humans,animal or aquatic life and there shall be no disposal of any matter or substance which would result in radio-nuclide concentrations in edible fish or other aquatic life thereby :rendering them dangerous for human consumption. There s:ba.1l be no disposal of sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes in such waters, except tholle which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including,but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material,such that these treatlld wastes will not lower the standards or alter the usages of this classification. Treated wastes discharging to these waters shall not create a public nuisance as dermed in TItle 17,Section 2802,by the creation·of odor producing sludge banks and deposits or other nuisaillce conditions. With re:5pect to all classifications hereinbefore set forth,the board may take such actions as may be appropriate for the best interests of the public,when it fmds that any such classifica- tion is temporarily lowered due to abnormal conditions of temperature or stream flow. R.S.1954,c.79,§2;1955,c.425.§5;1959.c.295.§2;1961,c.305,§3;1963,c.274, §1;1967,.:.475.§4:1969,c.431,§§1,2;1972,c.618;1979.c.529. §363-A.Standards of classification of great ponds The board shall have 2 standards for the classification of great ponds. Qass GP-A shall be the highest classification and shall be of such quality that it can be used for recreational purposes.including bathing,fish and wildlife habitat and for public water sup- plies after disinfection.Such waters shall have a Secchi disk transparency of not less than 2.0 meters or as naturally occurs,and contain not more than 20 fecal c·oliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.Total phosphorus concentration shall not exceed 15 parts per billion,and chloro- phyll A concentration shall not exceed 8 parts per billion as measured in samples taken at or near the surface of the water. These waters shall be free from sludj!e deposits,solid refuse.floating solids,oils,grease and scum.No radioactive matter or substance shall be permitt.:d in these waters other than that occurring from natural phenomena. There shall be no direct or indirect discharge of sewage.pollutants or other substances harm- ful to water quality or aquatic life into waters of thiS classification except as provided in sec- tion 371-A and 413.No matcnals shall be placed on the shores or banks thereof in such a man- ner that th,e same may fall or be washe.1 into the waters or in such a manner that the drainage therefrom may flow or leach in:o those watcrs. 1979.c.495. Qass (iP-B,the 2nd highest classification.shall be acceptable for recreational purposes, including water contact recreation.for use as potable water supply after adequate treatment, and for a fish and wildlife habitat.The fecal coliform bacteria count is not to exceed 60 per 100 milliliters.The total phosphorus concentration shall not exceed 50 parts per billion as measured in samples taken at or near the surface of the water. These waters shall be free from sludge deposits,solid refuse and floating solids,such as oUs, grease or scum.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance in these waters which imparts color,turbidity,taste or odor which would impair the usages ascribed to this classifica- tion nor sllall such matter or substance alter the temperature or hydrogen-ion concentration of these waters so as to render such waters harmful to fish or other aquatic life.There shall be no 7 i' I I I I I discharge to these waters which will cause the "pH"of these waters to fall outside of the 5.5 to 8.5 range.There shall be no disposal of any substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans,animals or aquatic life or which adversely affect any other water use in this class.No radioactive matter or substances shall be discharged to these waters which will raise the radio-nuclide concentrations above the standards established by the United States Public Health Service as being acceptable for drinking water.These waters shall be free of any matter or substance which alters the composition of bottom fauna,which adversely affects the physical or chemical nature of bottom material,or which interferes with the propagation of fish. There shall be no disposal of sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes in such waters,except those which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents,including, but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor and toxic material,such that these treated wastes will not cause any violation of water quality standards or alter the usages of this classification,nor shall such disposal of sewage or waste be injurious to squatic life or cause it to be dangerous for human consumption.There shall be no additional discharge of phosphorus to waters of this classification,which discharge does not employ the best available technology for phosphorus removal. 1977,c.373,§6;1979,c.495,§§I,2. §363-B.Standuds of classification of ground water The board shall have 2 standards for the classification of ground water. Class GW-A shall be the highest classification and shall be of such quality that it can be used for public water supplies.These waters shall be free of radioactive matter or any matter that imparts color,turbidity,taste or odor which would impair usage of these waters,other than that occurring from natural phenomena. Class GW-B,the 2nd highest classification,shall be suitable for all usages other than public water supplies. 1979,c.472,§10. §364.Tidal or Marine Waters The board shall have 5 standards for classification of tidal waters. 1971,c_470,§2;1972,Co 618. Class SA,shall be suitable for all clean water usages,including water contact recreation,and fishing.Such waters shall be suitable for the harvesting and propagation of shellf'1Sh and for a fish and wildlife habitat.These waters shall contain not less than 6.0 parts per Inillion of dissolved oxygen at all times.The median numbers of coliform bacteria in any series of samples representative of waters in the shellfish _~owing (lJ~a or .!l9n-sbellfish gr~!,ng ,ar,ea shall not be in excess of 70 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 230 coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.The median numbers of fecal coliform bacteria in any series of samples representative of waters in the shellflSh growing area or non-shellfish growing area shall not be in excess of 14 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 43 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters. 1977,c.373,~7. There shall be no floating solids,settleable solids,oil or sludge deposits attributable to sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes and no deposit garbage,cinders,ashes,oils,sludge or other refuse.There shall be no discharge of sewage or other wastes,except those which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including,but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material,such that these treated "..:istes will not lower the standards or alter the usages of this classification,nor shall such disposal of sewage or waste be injurious to aquatic life or render such dangerous for human consumption. There shall be no toxic wastes,deleterious substances,colored or other waste or heated liquids discharged to waters of this classification either singly or in combinations with other substances or wastes in such amounts or at such temperatures as to be injurious to edible fISh or shellfISh or to the culture or propagation thereof,or which in any manner shall adversely affect the flavor,color,odor or sanitary condition thereof;and otherwise none in sufficient amounts to make the waters unsafe or unsuitable for bathing or impair the waters for any other best usage as determined for the specific waters assigned to this class.There stull be no discharge which will cause the hydrogen-ion concentration or "pH"of these wa teTS to fall outside of the 6.7 to 8.5 range. 8 I I I I There shall be no disp II constituents which are hannf t any other water use in this clas these waters would be harmful disposal of any matter or sFt edible fish or other aquatic r These waters shall be free 01 bottom faWla,which adversely af which interferes with the pro~ Qass SB·I shall be suital ation,and fishing.Such wat~.3 shellfISh,and for a fish and v. 6.0 parts per million of disso,Iy bacteria in any series of sar shall not be in excess of samples exceed 230 coliform b coliform bacteria in any serle growing area shall not be in t~:( samples exceed 43 fecal collior median numbers of coliform ba..,c exceed 240 per 100 milliliters,n bacteria per 100 milliliters.In,,,, form bacteria in a series of s~J= milliliters,nor shall more than ) milliliters. 1977,c.373,§8. There shall be no floatinf : sewage,industrial wastes or h sludge or other refuse.There sh:: which have received treatment fc not limited to,solids,color,r"t wastes will not lower the stu 1 disposal of sewage or waste be 11 consumption. There shall be no toxic wrc,~ liquids discharged to waters 0 1 substances or wastes in sllch il'l' fish or shellfISh or to the cultu adversely affect the flavor,cobc. sufficient amounts to make Ii for any other best usage as ( class.There shall be no waste die "pH"of these waters to fall 0(; matter or substance that cot"~ animal or aquatic life or wh radioactive matter or substance s to humans,animal or aquatic lifl which would result in radio-nw,l,,: rendering them dangerous for l or substance which alters thl : physical or chemical nature of b, fish or shellfish if indigenous ts;q; Qass SB·2 shall be suitable c Such waters shall be suitable , wildlife habitat,and suitable fo contain not less than 6.0 parts numbers of coliform bacteria ire'''''j growing area shall not be in e samples exceed 230 coliform be coliform bacteria in any series c ,r-: i There shall be no disposal of any matter or substances that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans,animal or aquatic life or which adversely affect any other water use in this class.No radioactive matter or substance shall be permitted in these waters would be harmful to humans,animal or aquatic life and there shall be no disposal (llf any matter or substance which would result in radio-nuclide concentrations in edible fish or other aquatic life thereby rendering them dangerous for human consumption. These waters shall be free of any matter or substance which alters the composition of bottom fauna,which adversely affects the physical or chemical nature of bottom material,or which inttlrf'eres with the propagation of fish or shellfish if indigenous to the area. Qass 58·1 shall be suitable for all clean water usages including water contact recre- ation,and fishing.Such waters shall be suitable for the harvesting and propagation of ShellfISh,and for a fish and wildlife habitat.These waters shall contain not less than 6.0 parts per million of dissolved oxygen at all times.The median numbers of coliform bacteria il~any series of samples representative of waters in the shellfish growing area shall not be in excess of 70 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 230 coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.The median numbers of fecal coliform bacteria in any series of samples representative of waters in the shelUish growing 31~ea shall not be in excess of 14 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples e~:ceed 43 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.In a non-shelltish growing area the median numbers of coliform bacteria in a series of samples representative of the waters shall not exceed 240 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the sampleS exceed SO coliform bacteria p1n 100 milliliters.In a non-shellfish growing area the median numbers of fecal coli- form bacteria in a series of samples representative of the waters shall not exceed SO per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 150 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters. 1977,C:.373,§8. There :shall be no floating solids,settleable solids,oil or sludge deposits attributable to sewage,irldustrial wastes or other wastes and no deposit of garbage,cinders,ashes,oils, sludge or other refuse.There shall be no discharge'of sewage or other wastes,except those which hav,e received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material,such that these treated wastes will not lower the standards or alter the usages of this classification,nor shall such disposal or sewage or waste be injurious to aquatic life or render such dangerous for human consumpti,on.. There llhall be no toxic wastes,deleterious substances,colored or other wastes or heated liquids discharged to waters of this classification,either singly or in combination with other substances or wastes in such amounts or at such temperatures as to be injurious to edible fish or shellilSh or to the culture or propagation thereof,or which in any manner shall adversely affect the flavor,color.odor or sanitary condition thereof;and otherwise none in sufficient .amounts to make the waters unsafe or unsuitable for bathing or impair the waters for .any other best usage as determined for the specific waters which are assigned to this class.There shall be no waste discharge which will cause the hydrogen-ion concentration or "plf'of these waters to fall outside the 6.7 to 8.5 range.There shall be no disposal of matter or substance that contains'chemical constituents which are harmful to humans. animal or aquatic life or which adversely affects any other water use in this class.No radioactive:matter or substance shall be permitted in these waters which would be harmful to humans.,animal or aquatic life and there shall be no disposal of any matter or substance which would result in radio-nuclide concentrations in edible fish or other aquatic life thereby rendering them dangerous for human consumption.These waters shall be free of any matter or substance which alters the composition of bottom'fauna,which adversely affects the physical or chemical nature of bottom material or which interferes with the prop:lgation of fish or shellfish if indigenous to the area. Class SB-2 shall be suitable for recreational usages,including water contact.and fishing. Such waters shall be suitable for the harvesting and propagation of shellfish,for a fish and wildlife habitat,and suitable for industrial cooling and process uses.These waters shall contain not less than 6.0 parts per million of dissolved oxygen at all times.The median numbers of coliform bacteria in any series of samples representative of waters in the shellfISh growing area shall not be in excess of 70 per 100 milliliters.nor shall more than 10%of the samples e:~ceed 230 coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.The median numbers of fecal coliform bacteria in any series of samples representative of waters in the shellfish growing 9 area shall not be in excess of 14 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 43 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.In a non-shellfish growing area the median numbers of coliform bacteria in a series of samples representative of the waters shall not exceed 500 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 1,000 coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.In a non-shellfish growing area the median numbers of fecal coliform bacteria in a series of samples representative of the waters shall not exceed 100 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 200 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.There shall be no floating solids,settleable solids,oil or sludge deposits attributable to sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes and no deposit of garbage,cinders,ashes,oils, sludge or other refuse.There shall be no discharge of sewage or other wastes.except those having received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material,such that these treated wastes will not lower the standards or alter the usages of this classification,nor shall such disposal of sewage or waste be injurious to aquatic life or render such dangerous for human consumption. 1977,c.373,§9. There shall be no toxic wastes,deleterious substances,colored or other wastes or heated liquids discharged to waters of this classification either singly or in combination with other substances or wastes in such amounts or at such temperatures as to be injurious to edible fish or shellfish or to the culture or propagation thereof,or which in any manner shall adversely affect the flavor,color,odor or sanitary condition thereof;and otherwise none in sufficient amounts to make the waters unsafe or unsuitable for bathing or impair the waters for any other best usage as determined for the specific waters assigned to this class.There shall be no waste discharge which will cause the hydrogen-ion concentration or "pH"of the receiving waters to fall outside of the 6.7 to 8.5 range.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans, animal or aquatic life or which adversely affects any other water use in this class.No radioactive matter or substance shall be permitted in.these waters which would be harmful to humans,animal or aquatic life and there shall be no disposal of any matter or substance which would result in radio-nuclide concentrations in edible fish or other aquatic life thereby rendering them dangerous for human consumption.These waters shall be free'of any matter or substance which alters the composition of bottom fauna,which adversely affects the physical or chemical nature of bottom material,or which interferes with the propagation of fish or shellfish if indigenous to this area. Qass Sc,the 4th highest classification,shall be of such quality as to be satisfactory for recreational boating,fishing and other similar uses except primary water contact.Such waters may be used for the propagation of indigenous shellfish to be harvested for depura- tion purposes,for a fish and wildlife habitat,and for industrial cooling and process uses.The . dissolved oxygen content of such waters shall not be less than 5 parts per million at any time.The median numbers of coliform bacteria in any series of samples representative of waters in the shellfish glowing area shall not be in excess of 700 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 2,300 coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.The median numbers of fecal coliform bacteria in any series of samples representative of waters in the shellfish growing area shall not be in excess of 150 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 500 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters.In a non-shellfish growing area the median number of coliform bacteria in a series of samples representative of the waters shall not exceed 1,500 per 100 milliliters nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 5,000 coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters. In a non-shellfish growing area the median numbers of fecal coliform bacteria in a series of samples representative of the waters shall not exceed 300 per 100 milliliters,nor shall more than 10%of the samples exceed 1,000 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters. There shall be no floating solids,settleable solidS,oil or sludge deposits attributable to sewage.industrial waste or other wastes,and no deposit of garbage,cinders,ashes,oils, slUdge or other refuse.There shall be no discharge of sewage or other wastes,except those which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including,but n("lt limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic materials,such that these treated "..;lstes ",ill not lower the standards or alter the usages of this classification,nor shall such .i:~poS;J1 of sewage or waste be injurious to aquatic life or render such dangerous for human 10 consumption. There shall be no toxic'~ liquids discharged to waters oi substances or wastes in such 2 fish or shellfish or to the e'''l adversely affect the flavor,( discharge ascribed to waters , will cause the hydrogen-ion cor: 6.7 to 8.5 range.There sh~ll chemical constituents whicl~~~ adversely affects any other \: be permitted in these waters wi": there shall be no disposal of a concentrations in edible fisher ~ human consumption. Class SD waters shall be a; attained after utilizing the best Waters of this class may be l'·C'. or cooling waters,and for m ( less than 3.0 parts per millk.. these waters shall be only those indicate a condition harmfulcA' classification. 1972,c.618. These waters shall be free fJ oils,grease or scum.There sl1,-"1, which imparts color,turbidit}t classification,nor shall such concentration of the waters so 3.'0 disposal of any matter or substar humans or which adversely a(W!. substance shall be permitted i aquatic life and there shall be n radio-nuclide concentr:l !ions in dangerous for human consump<'b, There shall be no disposal except those which have receivt:( inclUding,but not limited to,so these treated wastes will not ,.~~, Treated wastes discharged to Title 17,Section 2802,by the nuisance conditions. With respect to all classific<lji... as may be appropriate for th classification is temporarily 10- flow. 1963,c.274,§2;1967,c",' 476,§§2,3;1972,c.618. §368.Inland waters Lij L All segInents of the Uttle fied -aass B-L 1967,c.451,§L 2.Andrews Brook (Woodst(,~<. , i i I t II t,/"""'.! I It r ~ i I -! ,:' 1-~ ;. h,- ""'"1.; I""" I [ ".... ~~_. :"-~.- ,.,,>~i v:I Jot ~;.t " .... consumption. Th.ere shall be no toxic wastes,deleterious substances,colored or other wastes or heated liquids discharged to waters of this classification either singly or in combinations with other substances or wastes in such amounts or at such temperatures as to be injurious to edible fish or shellfish or to the culture or propagation thereof,or which in any manner shall adversely affect the navor,color,or odor thereof or impair the waters for any other discharge ascribed to waters of this classification.There shall be no waste discharge which will cause the hydrogen-ion concentration or "pH"of the receiving waters to fall outside the 6.7 to 8.5 range.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans,animal or aquatic life or which adversely affects any <lther water use in this class.No radioactive matter or substance shall be permitted in these waters which would be harmful to humans,animals or aquatic life and there shall be no disposal of any matter or substance which would result in radio-nuclide concer!trations in edible fish or other aquatic life thereby rendering them dangerous for human consumption. Class SD waters shall be assigned only where a higher water classification cannot be attained after utilizing the best practicable treatment or control of sewage or other wastes. Waters of this class may be used for power generation,navigation,industrial process waters or cooling waters,and for migration of fish.Dissolved oxygen of these waters shall not be . less than 3.0 parts per million .at any time.The numbers of coliform bacteria allowed in these waters shall be only those amounts which will not,in the determination of the board, indicate a condition harmful to the public health or impair any usages ascnbed to this classification.. 1972,c.618. Thllse waters shall be free from sludge depOsits,solid refuse and noating solids such as oils,grease or scum.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance in these waters which imparts color,turbidity,taste or odor which would impair the usages ascribed to this classification,nor shall such matter or substance alter the temperature or hydrogen-ion concentration of the waters so as to impair the usages of this classification.There shall be no disposal of any matter or substance that contains chemical constituents which are harmful to humans or which adversely affect any other water use in this class.No radioactive matter or Substallce shall be permitted in these waters which would be harmful to humans,animal or aquatil;life and there shall be no·disposal of any matter or substance which would result in radio-nuclide concentrations in edible fish or other aquatic life thereby rendering them dangerous for human consumption. Th.,re shall be no disposal of sewage,industrial wastes or other wastes in such waters, except those which have received treatment for the adequate removal of waste constituents including,but not limited to,solids,color,turbidity,taste,odor or toxic material,such that these treated wastes will not lower the standards or altar the usages of this classification. Treated wastes discharged to these waters shall not create a public nuisance as defined in Title 17,Section 2802,by the creation of odor-producing sludge banks and deposits or other nuisance conditions. With respect to all classifications hereinbefore set forth,the Board may take such actions as may be appropriate f0r the best interests of the public,when it fmds that any such classification is temporarily lowered due to abnormal conditions of temperature or stream flow. 1963,c.274,§2;1967.c.475,§5;1969,c.431,§3;1970.c.581,§2;1971,c. 476,§§2,3;1972,c.618. §368.Inland waters Androscoggin River Basin 1957,c.322,§1 Little Androscoggin River Drainage 1.All segments of the Little Androscoggin River drainage system not otherwise speci- fied -Class B-1. 1967.c.451,§L 2.Andrews Brook (!\ioodstock and Paris)-Class B-2. 11 3.Bird Brook (Norway)-Class C. 4.Bog Brook,in Hebron,Mechanic Falls and Minot and tributaries not otherwise specified -Oass B-2. 5.Davis Brook (Poland)-Class C. 6.Hodgkins Brook (Auburn)tributary of Taylor Pond -Class B-2. 7.Indian Brook (Minot)-Class :8--2. 8.Lapham Brook (Auburn)tributary of Taylor Brook -Class B-2. 9.Little Androscoggin River,main stern,from a point 0.25 miles above the bridge at West Paris to the confluence with Andrews Brook -Class C. 10.Little Androscoggin River,main stern,from the Andrews Brook confluence to the Route 26 Bridge in South Paris -Class B-2. 11.Little Androscoggin River,main stern,from the Route 26 Bridge in South Paris to the confluence with the outlet of Thompson Lake in Oxford -Qass D. 12.Little Androscoggin River,main stem,from the confluence of the Thompson Lake Outlet (Oxford)to the confluence with the Androscoggin River in Auburn -Class C. 1967,c.451,§1- 13.Meadow Brook (Oxford and Poland)-Class B-2. 14.Minister Brook (Oxford)-Class B-2. 15.Moose Pond Outlet at Otisfie1d (does not include Greeley Brook)-Class B-2. 16.Morgan Brook (Minot)-Class B-2. 17.Outlet of Little Pennesseewassee Lake (Norway)-Class B-2. 18.Outlet of Thompson Lake (Oxford)-Qass C. 19.Pennesseewassee Lake Outlet (Norway)-Class C. 1967,c.304,§9. 20.Range Brook and its tributaries,Mechanic Falls and Poland -Class B·l. 21.Taylor Brook (Auburn)-Class B-2. 1969,c.88. 22.Unnamed Stream entering Bryant Pond,rising in the vicinity of Bucks Lodge and l10wing through Bryant Pond Village -Class B-2. 23.Unnamed Brook (Minot)the first stream entering the Little Androscoggin River on upstream of and on the same side of the river as Morgan Brook -Class B-2. 24.Unnamed .Brook in Auburn which enters the Little Androscoggin River from the north about 1.3 miles east of Minot Village -Class C. 25.West Branch of unnamed stream which enters north and Pennessewassee Lake from vicinity of Nobles Corner -Class B-2. 26.West Branch of Bog Brook and tributaries,Gardiner Brook and tributaries,and Brickwell Brook and tributaries,all in the Bog Brook drainage in the Mechanic Falls,Minot and Hebron -Class B-1. Main Stem,Androscomn River,that portion located below the most downstream crossing of the Maine-New Hampshire boundary to a line formed by the extension of the Urunswick-West Bath town line across Merrymeeting Bay in a northwesterly direction -Class C 1967.c.451,§2. Minor tributaries,Androscoggin River,those tributaries located below the most down- stream crossing of the /l.faine-New Hampshire boundary a line formed by the extension of the bruns",iek·West Bath town line across Merrymeeting Bay in a northwesterly direction. 12 1.All tributaries,direct and inc State of Maine,not otherwise sp~£"ifi A.No Name Brook (Lewisto 1969,c.120. Eo Logan Brook (Auburn)-Oa 1969,c.120. C.Penley Brook (Auburn)-II 1969,c.120. 2.All tributaries,direct anr;b-.i Hampshire boundary and the bri', B-1. 3.Alder River,Bethel,main st; scoggin River -Class :8--2. 1977,c.373,§10. 4.Alder River,main stem,fron: confluence with Kendall Brook -Cl~ 5.Austin Brook (or Abbott :l River -Qass C. 6.Bean Brook (or Swain Brook River to the dam at the rendering cc F'" 7.Chapman Brook and its i1 Bethel to Gilead on the north sid J 8.Childs Brook (Canton)and it 9.Ellis River from its cOnf'l'T East Andover including West I: Andover -fuss B-2. 10.Keith Brook (Livermore)-( 11.Lake Auburn Outflow (A,w'l 12.Mill Brook,Bethel.from Bridge near the Bethel Inn Golf Cour 1977,c.373,§10. 13.Nezinscot River,main s confluence with the Androscoggin i 14.Sabattus River (from Sabatt 15.Seven mile Stream (Jay)"F'fc: 1977,c.373,§10. 16.Spear Stream,Peru,from til 17.Swift River from point at \ Osgood Avenue to the Androscog"', 18.Unnamed Stream (one m 19.Webb River.Dixfield,from 20.Whitney Brook (Canton);',-\ 21.All tributaries,direct ani r nature by virtue of having portiOJ'~, Maine are classified as follows: A.Drainage systems of Wild f"" 1965,c.82,§1. B.Drainage systems of Lary Br ..... .... I i I ...,. , .... .- I I i i i r !.All tributaries,direct and indirect of the Androscoggin River,lying wholly within the State of Maine,not otherwise specified or classified -Qass B-!. A.No Name Brook (Lewiston)-Oass C 1969,c.120. B.Logan Brook (Auburn)-Qass C• 1969,c.120. C.Penley Brook (Auburn)-Oass C. 1969,c.120. 2.All tributaries,direct and indirect,of the Androscoggin River between the New Hampshire boundary and the bridge at West Peru not otherwise specified or classified -Oass B-1. 3.Alder River,Bethel,main stem,from the confluence of Kendall Brook to the Andro- scoggin River -Oass B-2- 1977,c.373,§10. 4.Alder River,main stern,from the outlet of South Pond at Lockes Mills Vtllage to the conflue,nce with Kendall Brook -Class B-2. 5.Austin Brook (or Abbott Brook),in Mexico,from Fourth Street to the Androscoggin River _.Oass C 6.Bean Brook (or Swain Brook),Rumford,from its confluence with the Androscoggin River to the dam at the rendering company -Qass C. 7.O1aprnan Brook and its tributaries above the bridge at the highway leading from Bethel to Gilead on the north side of the Androscoggin River -Qass A. 8.Childs Brook (Canton)and its tributaries -Oass B-2. 9.Ellis River from its confluence with the Androscoggin River to the sawmill dam at East ,Andover including West Branch of the Ellis River to the sawmill dam at Andov,er -Oass B-2. 10.Keith Brook (Livermore)-Qass B-2. 11.Lake Auburn Outflow (Auburn)-Class B-2. 12.Mill Brook,Bethel,from its confluence with the Androscoggin River to the Route 5 Bridge near the Bethel Inn Golf Course -OassB-2. 19'17,c.373,§10. 13.Nezinscot River,main stem,from its junction with the outlet of South Pond to its confluence with the Androscoggin River -Oass B-2. 14.Sabattus River (from Sabattus Lake to limits of Lisbon urban area)-Qass C. 15.Sevenmile Stream (Jay)-Qass B-2. 1977,c.373,§10. 16.Spear Stream,Peru,from the sawmill dam to the Androscoggin River -Qass C. 17.Swift River from point at which Mexico-Rumford town boundary leaves the river at Osgood Avenue to the Androscoggin River -Qass C. 18.Unnamed Stream (one mile below livermore Falls Bridge)-Class B-Z. 19.Webb River,Dixfield,from the White Bridge to the Androscoggin River -Class C. 20.Whitney Brook (Canton)and its tributaries -Qass C. 21.All tributaries,direct and indirect,of the Androscoggin River which are interstate in natuul by virtue of having portions of their drainage areas in New Hampshire and portions in Maine are classified as follows: A.Drainage systems of Wild River in the Township of Gilead -Class B-1. 1965,c.82,§L B.Drainage systems of Lary Brook and Ingalls Brook in the Townships of Gilead and 13 ".",~---------------- Riley -Class B-1. 1965,c.83,§1. Uppel Androscoggin Drainage,that portion lying above the most upstream crossing of the Maine-New Hampshire boundary. 1.All waters and segments thereof of the Androscoggin River Drainage System lying above the most upstream crossing of the Maine-New Hampshire boundary and wholly within the State of Maine,not otherwise specified or classified -Class B-!. 2.Cupsuptic Stream and its tributaries above its confluence with Cupsuptic Lake -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 3.Kennebago Stream and its tributaries above its confluence with Mooselookmeguntic Like -Qass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 4.The Magalloway River and its tributaries above the fint crossing of the Maine-New Hampshire state line -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 5.Mill Stream,Rangeley -Class B-2. 1977,c.373,§II. 6.All waters and segments thereof of the Androscoggin River Watershed which are interstate in nature by virture of having portions of their drainage area in New Hampshire and portions in Maine are classified as follows: A.Waters tributary to the Steams Brook (Milan &Success,New Hampshire)drainage in the Township of Riley -Class B-1. B.Waters tributarY'to the Chickwolnepy Stream (Milan,New Hampshire)drainage in the Township of Grafton -Class Bolo C Waters tributary to the Mollidgewock Stream,(Errol,New Hampshire,)drainage in the Township of Upton -Class B-!. D.Waters,not otherwise classified,tributary to the Umbagog Lake drainage in the Townships of Upton,Glafton,Andover,North Surplus,C-Surplus,Township C and Magalloway Plantation -Class Bo1. E.Waters not otherwise classified tributary to the Magalloway River drainage in the Townships of Magalloway Plantation,Lincoln Plantation,Parkertown,Lynchtown, Parrnachenee and Bowmantown -Class 13-1. 1965,c.83,§2. Aroostook River Basin 1957,c.322,§4 Aroostook.River,Main Stem 1,Aroostook River above the junction with St.Croix Stream -Gass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 2.Aroostook River from junction with St.Croix Stream to injunction with Machias River -Oass IH. 3.Aroostook River from Machias River confluence to the Castle Hill-Ashland Town line - Gass B-2. 1967,c.19,§1;1977,c.373,§12. 4.Aroostook River from the Ashland-Castle Hill town line to the Wade-Washburn town line -Class B-2. 5.Aroostook River [rom the Wade-Washburn town line to the crossing of the Aroostook Valley Railroad about 6 miles below Washburn -Class B-2. 1967,c.19,§1;1977,c.373,§12. 14 6.Aroostook River from J!t( below Washburn to the junctior Ii 1977,c.373,§13. 7.Aroostook River from th boundary,except for that POI"~"'I Caribou water supply and exten r 1967,c.19,§l. 8.Aroostook River from a p intake to a point 3 miles upstrei""'"\, 1.All tributaries,direct and i St.Croix Stream -Oass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 2.All tributaries,direct ana i; Croix Stream to its junction with fied -Cas!B-!. 3.All waters of the Aroosi II are wholly within the State of Mu...n 4.Amsden Brook below the sta 1967,c.19,§2. 5.Bryant Brook,Fort Fairi'-_J Qass B-2. 1967,Co 304,§10;1977,c.3r;:v~, 6.Butterfield Brook,Limest l( junction with limestone Stream -J 7.Butterfield Brook above Lom 8.Caribou Stream from con~' River -Class B-2. 1977,c.373,§15. 9.Dudley Brook.Castle tIi]!,- Stream -Gass B-1. 10.Four Comers Brook (lim 11.Goodrich Brook (also kno,\' the starch factory -Gass B-1. 1967,c.19,§2. 12.Hardwood Brook (Caribou C'- 13.Libby Brook above the M;j,!:'J' 14.Limestone Stream,from " Bridge -Class B-2. 1967,c.19,§2;1977,c.373,§1 14-A.limestone Stream from"-t 1977,c.373,§17. 15.little Machias River and its tI 1954,c.79,§15. 16.Little Madawaska River ar the Route 161 Highway Bridge in..)l 1954,c.79,§15. 17.Machias River and its t~':, line -Qass A. 1954,c.79,§15. .... - -, - - 6.Aroostook River from the crossing of the Aroostook Valley Railroad about 6 miles below Washburn to the junction with Presque Isle Stream -Class B-2. 1977,c.373,§13. 7.Aroostook River from the entrance of Presque Isle Stream to the international boundary,except for that portion beginning at a point 100 yards below the intake of the Caribou water supply and extending upstream a distance of 3 miles -Qass C. 19~;7.c.19,§l. 8.Aroostook River from a point 100 yards downstream of the Caribou water supply intake to a point 3 miles upstream from this starting point -Oass B-1. Tributaries 1.All tributaries,direct and indirect,of the Aroostook River above the junction with St.Crclix Stream -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 2.All tributaries,direct and indirect,of the Aroostook River from its junction with St. Croix Stream to its junction with the Machias River,unless otherwise specified or·classi- fied -Class B-1. 3.All waters of the Aroostook River Basin not otherwise specified or classified which are wholly within the State of Maine -Class B·2. 4.Amsden Brook below the starch factory dam (Fort Fairfield)-Cass B-l. 1967,c.19,§2. S.Bryant Brook.Fort Fairfield.from Fisher S4eet to the Aroostook River confluence - Oass B··2. 1967,c.304,§10;1977,c.373,§14. 6.Butterfield Brook,limestone,from the northern fence of Loring Air Force Base to its junCtiOl1l with llmestone Stream -Qass B-l. 7.Butterfield Brook above Loring Air Force Base -Cass B-l. 8.Caribou Stream from Colby Siding Road Bridge to its confluence with the Aroostook River -Cass B-2. 1977,c.373,§15. 9.Dudley Brook.Castle Hill,above confluence with North Branch of Presque Isle Stream -Class B-1. 10.Four Comers Brook (llmestone)-Oass B-l. 11.Goodrich Brook (also known as Colony Brook).Fort Fairfield,below the dam at the starch factory -Class B-1. 1967,c.19,§2. 12.Hardwood Brook (Caribou &.Presque hie)-Class B-1. 13.Libby Brook above the Mapleton-Washburn Road -Cass B-1. 14.Limestone Stream,from the Route 165 Bridge in Limestone Village to the Long Road Bridge .-Class B-2. 196'7,c.19,§2;1977,c.373,§16. 14-A.Limestone Stream from the Long ROJ.d Bridge to the Canadian border -Class C. 197'7,c.373,§17. 15.Little Machias River and its tributaries -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 16.Little Madawaska RiVe!and tributaries including Madawaska lake tributaries above the Route 161 Highway Bridge in Stockholm -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 17.Machias River and its tributaries above the Garfield Plantation-Ashland town line -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 15 18.Machias River,Ashland,from immediately upstream of the starch factoIY outfall to the Ashland-Garfield Plantation boundary -Qass B-I. 19.Machias River,Ashland,from a point immediately above the starch factory outfall to its junction with the Aroostook River -Qass B-I. 1967,c.19,§2. 20.Otter Brook (Caribou)-Qass B-1. 21.Pattee Brook at Fort Fairfield and its tributaries above the dam just upstream of the highway bridge on Route 167 -Gass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 22.Pattee Brook,Fort Fairfield,from dam at starch factory to confluence with Aroostook River -Class B-1. 1967,c.19,§2. 23.Presque Isle Stream and its tributaries above its confluence with,but not including, the North Branch of Presque Isle Stream -Qass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 24.Presque Isle Stream,from its confluence with the Aroostook River to the Bangor and Aroostook Railroad Bridge nearest Olapman and High Streets in Presque Isle -Qass &2. 1967,c.19,§2;1977,c.373,§16. 25.PresIDe Brook (Caribou)-Qass 11-1. 26.Rand Pond Outlet (Presque Isle)-Cass B-1. 27.St.Croix Stream and its tributaries above its confluence with the Aroostook River -Oass A. 28.Salmon Brook and tributaries upstream of the dam immediately upstream of Washburn Village -Cass ll-I. 29.Salmon Brook,Washburn,from the dam immediately above the village to its junction with the Aroostook River -Cass C. 1967,c.304,§10. 30.Silver Springs Brook -Gass B-1. 31.Small stream (unnamed)in Presque Isle near vining station on Wasbbum Road -Oass C. 32.Spring Brook,Mapleton,above confluence with North Branch of Presque Isle Stream -Cass B-1. 33.Squapan Stream and tributaries above the B.&A.Railroad Bridge -Oass A. Kennebec River Basin 1957,c.322,§2 Carrabassett River 1.Carrabasset River,all portions,tributaries and portions of tributaries not otherwise specifically described and otherwise classified -Oass B-I. 2.Carrabasset River and its tributaries above a point immediately downstream of its junction with the West Branch of the Carrabasset River in Kingfield -Oass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 3.Carrabasset River,main stem,from junction with West Branch at Kingfield to a point 1 mile above the railroad bridge in North Anson -Class B-2. 4.Carrabasset River,main stem,from point 1 mile above railroad bridge at North Anson to its junction with the Kennebec River -Class C. 5.Gilman Stream,main stem,from bridge at New Portland to confluence with the Carrabasset River -Qass C. 16 6.Harris Brook,New Port![ confluence with Gilman Stream - ( 7.Lemon Stream,main ~cT: confluence with Carrabasset Riv,- 8.Mill Stream,Anson,frm •• fluence with the Carrabasset River - 9.Stanley Stream,Kingfield'"' Cobbo , 1.All water and portions 0: specified or classified -Gass B-1 ,~_, 2.Carleton Pond Outlet an( Cass B-2. 1977,c.373,§18. 2-A.Cobbosseecontee Strea" the Dam atlatitude 448.1303',Ion 1967,c.304,§1. 3.Miniwah (Jock)Stream,Walt 1977,c.373,§18.=- 4.Outlet Lake Maranacook &2. 1977,c.373,§18. 5.Tributaries of Lake Anm specifically defined -Qass B-2. 6.Tributaries of Tacoma Lake Cobbosseecontee Stream -Oass If'S', 1977,c.373,§18. 7.Unnamed stream entering Co south of Manchester Village -Cass ( 8.Unnamed stream and its tributaries of Loon Pond -Cass r 9.Magotta Meadow Brook and Pond from the south -Cass B-L 1977,c.373,§18. 10.Unnamed stream and its Pleasant Pond -Qass B·2. 11.Unnamed brook and its Readfield across Route 17 -Class 12.Wilson Stream (Mud Mills .)( with the branch from Wilson Pond.i.n 1977,c.373,§18. 13.Wilson Stream (Monmou I with the branch of Wilson Stream \M Village below the tracks of the Maine 1967,c.304,§2;1977,c.373", 14.Wilson Stream (Monmou!, Stream (Mud Mills Stream),entering f the Maine Central Railroad to its entrz 1977,c.373,§18.'''' Kennebec River,Main Stem,an': the tide from Wyman Dam at Mosco, -i - L .... 6.Harris Brook,New Portland.below Route 16 in Village of North New Portland to its confluence with Gilman Stream -Qass C. 7.Lemon Stream,main stem,from outlet of Mill Pond in New Vineyard to its confluence with Canabasset River -Cass B-2. 8.Mill Stream,Anson,from the railroad bridge in North Anson Village to the con- fluence with the Carrabasset River -Cass C. 9.Stanley Stream,Kingfield -Class C. Cobbosseecontee Stream Drainage System 1.All water and portions of the Cobbosseecontee Drainage System not otherwise specified or classified -Cass B-1. 2.Carleton Pond Outlet and its tributaries from Carleton Pond to Upper Narrows Pond - Qass :B-2." 1977,c.373,§18. 2-A.Cobbosseecontee Stream,main stem,from its confluence with the Kennebec River to the Dam at latitude 448.13.3',longitude 69°47.2'(approximately)-Qass C. 1967,c.304,§1- 3.Miniwllh (Jock)Stream,Wales,and its tributaries -Class B-2. 1977,c.373,§18. 4.Outlet Lake Maranacook between Lake Maranacook and Lake Annabessacook -Cass 8-2. 1977,c.373,§18. 5.Tributuies of Lake Annabessacook with the exception of Wilson Stream and others specifically delined -Qass B-2. 6.Tributaries of Tacoma Lakes,direct and indirect,and the outlet of Tacoma Lakes to Cobbosseecon1tee Stream -Qass B-1. 1977,c.373,§18. 7.Unnamed stream entering Cobbosseecontee Lake through golf course from immediately south of Manchester Village -Class C. 8.Unnamed stream and its tributaries flowing from Loon Pond in Litchfield and the tributaries of l..oon Pond -Qass B-2. 9.Magotta Meadow Brook and its tributaries entering the southerly extremity of Pleasant Pond from the south -Class B-1... 1977,c.373,§18. 10.Unnamed stream and its tributaries entering the cove at the southwest extremity of Pleasant Pond -Qass B-2. 11.Unnamed brook and its tributaries entering northerly cove of Lake Maranacook at Readfield across Route 17 -Qass C. 12.Wilson Stream (Mud Mills Stream),southerly branch,and tributaries above its junction with the branch from Wilson Pond,including the outlet of Cochnewagan Pond -Class B-1. 1977,c.373,§18. 13.Wilson Stream (Monmouth),main stem.from outlet of Wilson Pond to the junction with the branch of Wilson Stream (Mud Mills Stream).entering from the vicinity of Monmouth Village below the tracks of the Maine Centr.al Railroad -Class B-2. 1967,c.304,§2;1977,c.373,§19. 14.Wilson Stream (Monmouth),main stem,from the junction with the branch of Wilson Stream (Mud Mills Stream),entering from the vicinity of Monmouth Village below the tracks of the Maine Central Railroad to its entrance to Annabessacook Lake -Cass B-2. 1977,c.373,§18. Kennebec River,Main Stem.and those portions of tributaries affected by the rise and fall of the tide from Wyman Dam at Moscow to a line drawn between the most easterly point of land 17 at the southerly end of Popham Beach in Phippsburg and the southernmost extension of Bay Point in Georgetown,not including the Androscoggin River and tributaries northwest of a line formed by the extension of the Brunswick-West Bath town line across Merrymeeting Bay in a northwesterly direction. 1.From Wyman Dam in Moscow to Fall Brook,Solon -Qass B-1. 1977,c.373,§20. I-A.From Fall Brook,Solon,to the head of the island immediately below Great Eddy in Skowhegan -Qass C. 1977,c.373,§21. 2.From the head of the island immediately below Great Eddy to the power company dam in Fairfield -Class B-2. 1961,c.300. 3.From the power company dam in Fairfield to a point 0.5 miles above the southerly boundary of the Towns of Fairfield and Benton -Qass C. 1961,c.332. 4.From a point 0.5 miles above the southerly boundary of Fairfield and Benton to a line across the Kennebec River Tidal Estuary drawn due west from the southerly extension of Green Point on the easterly shore of the Kennebec River across the channel east of Swan Island to the island,along the easterly shore of Swan Island to southernmost point of the island,thence due west to the westerly shore of the river -Qass C. 1967,c.304,§3. S.From a line drawn due west across the·Kennebec River Tidal Estuary from the southerly extension of Green Point on the easterly shore of the Kennebec River,across the channel east of Swan Island to the island,along the easterly shore of Swan Island to the southernmost point of the island,thence due west to the westerly shore of the river,to a line drawn across the Tidal Estuary of the Kennebec River,due east,from Abagadasset Point,and including tidal portions of tributaries not otherwise classified ~Class C. 6.From a line drawn across the tidal estuary of the Kennebec River,due east from Abagadasset Point,and bounded by a line across the southwesterly arm of Merrymeeting Bay formed by an extension of the Brunswick-West Bath town line across the bay in a northwesterly direction to the westerly shore of Merrymeeting Bay and to a line drawn from Chop Point in Woolwich to West O1op Point in Bath and including tidal portions of tributaries not otherwise classified -Qass B-2. 1963,c.274,§4. 7.From a line drawn from Chop Point to Woolwich to West Chop Point in Bath to a line across the Kennebec River bearing due west from Bluff Head in the Town of Arrowsic and including tidal portions of tributaries not otherwise classified -Qass SB-2. 1963.c.274,§4. 8.from a line extending due west from Bluff Head in the Town of Arrowsic to a line dmwn between the most easterly point of land at the southerly end of Popham Beach in Phippsburg and the southernmost extension of Bay Point in Georgetown and including tidal portions of tributaries not otherwise classified -Class SB-1. 1963,c.274,§4. 9.With respect to subsections I to 8,a municipality,sewer district,person,firm, corporation,the State or any subdivision thereof,or other legal entity shall not be deemed to be in violation of section 451 at any time or times prior to October 1,1976 with respect to any of said classifications if by such time or times he or it,with regard to a project designed to achieve compliance with the applicable classification,shall have completed all of the steps required to be then completed by the following schedule: A.Preliminary plans and engineers'estimates shall be completed and submitted to the Board of Environmental Protection on or before October 1,1964. 18 B.Arrangements for admin"'r October 1,1968.This period.r. including obtaining of state anat C.Detailed engineering and~r October I,1969.'0' D.Review of fmal plans witl 1 and construction commenced on E.Construction shall be COITl,pl~ 1961,c.330. Messalol 1.All waters and segments or classified -Qass B-t. 2.Oear Brook,between East P 3.Messalonskee Stream,tru'~•. Dam -Qass C. 1967,c.304,§4 .. 4.Messalonskee Stream,lf~li Waterville -Oass C. 5.Messalonskee Stream,fU<1h River ~Qass C. 1967,c.304,§4. 6.Tributaries of Messalons and its junction with the Kenneoe Minor Tribu \!",:K- 1.All tributaries,direct aJ specified,entering the Kennebe I is in no way intended to include tl 2.All waters of the Carra~~,s classified -Qass B-2. 3.Austin Stream and its Town of Bingham -Qass A. 1954,c.79,§IS. 4.Bog Brook,West Ather. B-2. S.Bond Brook and its tribuUlf of this route in 1955 -Qass C:'~' 1967,c.304,§S. 6.Cold Brook and its tributar. 7.Currier Brook,Skowhe.g~; Kennebec River -Oass C... 8.Fall Brook,Solon,frOJ confluence with the Kennebec Riv 9.Greeley Pond Brook,be.4:'~' to the confluence with Togus S :: 10.Kennedy Brook,AUgus_- 11.Mill Stream,in the villa village -Qass C.. ~ I - !""" I -r r B.lurangements for administration and financing shall be completed on cir before October 1,1968.rnis period,in the case of municipalitie:l,shall encompass all financing including obtaining of state and federal grants. C.Detailed engineering and final plan formulation shall be completed on or before October 1,1969. D.Review of final plans with the Board of Environmental Protection shall be completed and construction commenced on or before October I,1970. E.Construction shall be completed on or before October I,1976. 1961.c.330. Messalonskee Stream Drainage System 1.All waters and segments of the Messalonskee Drainage System not otherwise specified or classified -Cass B-1. 2.(lear Brook,between East Pond and North Pond -Class B-2. 3.Messalonskee Stream,main stem from outlet of Messalonskee Lake to Rice's Rips Dam -Oan C. 1967.c.304,§4. 4.Messalonskee Stream,main stem,from Rice's Rips Darn to Union Dam in WaterviUe -Class C. 5.Messalonskee Stream.main stem,from Union Dam to junction with Kennebec River -Oass C. 1967,c.304,§4. 6.Tributaries of Messalonskee Stream entering between the outlet of Messalonskee Lake and its junction with the Kennebec River -Qass C. Minor Tributaries below Wyman Dam in Moscow I.All tributaries,direct and indirect,or portions thereof,not otherwise classified or specified.entering the Kennebec River between Wyman Darn and Chop Point in Bath.(This i.~in no way intended to include the Androscoggin River)-Qass B-1. 2.All waters of the Carrabasset Stream System not specificaIly mentioned or otherwise classified -Class B-2. 3.Austin Stream and its tributaries above the highway bridge on Route 201 in the Town of Bingham -Qass A. 19541,c.79,§15. 4.Bog Brook,West Athens Vicinity,above confluence with Bradbury Stream -Oass B-2. 5.Bond Brook and its tributaries below the crossing of Route 11 prior to reconstruction of this route in 1955 -Oass C. 196'1',c.304,§5. 6.Cold Brook and its tributaries (Wesserunsett Drainage)-Oass B-2. 7.Currier Brook.Skowhegan,from Fairview Avenue to its confluence with the Kennebt~c River -Qass C. 8."Fall Brook,Solon,from the darn upstream of Route 201 in Solon Village to its confluence with the Kennebec River -Cass C. 9.Greeley Pond Brook.below the outfall of the V.A.Hospital sewage treatment plant tl>the confluence with Togus Stream -Oass B-l. 10.Kennedy Brook,Augusta -Class B-2. 11.Mill Stream,in the village of Norridgewock,below the upstream bridge in the village -Class C 19 12.Mill Stream,and tributaries,Norridgewock,above upstream bridge in Norridgewock Village -Class B-2. 13.Sevenmile Stream from the entrance of Webber Pond Outlet to the Kennebec River -Class B·2. 14.Togus Stream,from Greeley Pond Brook junction to the Kennebec River -Oass Bo2. 15.Twomile Brook,Augusta,from the entrance of the Cushnoc Housing Development sewer to the Kennebec River -Gass C. 16.Unnamed stream,in the village of Anson,below its upstream bridge to its con- fluence with the Kennebec River -Class B-2. 17.Unnamed stream and tributaries crossing Bangor Street in Augusta near Coca Cola bottling plant -Class C. 18.Unnamed tributary of Cathance River in Bowdoinham which enters the tidal portion of the West Branch of the Cathance River approximately 0.7 miles above the bridge in Bowdoinham from a northwesterly direction -Class C. 1967,c.304,§5. 19.Webber Pond Outlet.Vassalboro,from Webber Pond to the confluence with Sevenrnile Stream -Class B-1. 20.West Branch of Wesserunsett Stream,bewteen Wesserunsett Lake and Smith Pond; including Pain Brook,Kincaid Stream,Haley Stream and Longley Brook -Oass B-l. Sandy River 1.All tributaries,or portions thereof,of Sandy River not otherwise classified'or recommended for classifications -Class B-l- 2.Bean Brook,Strong,between its junction with Doctor Brook and with Valley Brook -Class C. 3.Cascade Brook,Farmington,between the Route 2 Bridge and Sandy River -Class B-l. 1977,c.373,§21. 4.Lemon Stream,Starks,from dam in Starks Vl1lage to its confluence with the Sandy River -Oass C. 5.Little Norridgewock Stream and trib~taries above confluence with Wtlson Stream -Class B·2. 6.Meadow Brook.Wl1ton,from Depot Street to its confluence with Wtlson Stream -Oass C. 7.Sandy River and its tributaries above Phillips at the highway bridge on Route 142 -Gass A. 1954.c.79,§15. 8.Sandy River,main stem,from the Route 142 Bridge in Phillips to Ruute 4 Bridge in Farmington -Gass Bol. 9.Sandy River,main stem,from Route 4 Bridge in Farmington to the entrance of Beales Brook -Class C. 1967,c.304,§6. 10.Sandy River,main stem,from the entrance of Beales Brook to its confluence with tile Kennebec River -Oass C. 11.Temple Stream,between tile bridge in the Vl1lage of Temple and Sandy River -Gass C. 12.Unnamed stream,Farmington,urban area vicinity of Middle Streat -Oass C. 13.Unnamed stream,below canning factory in New Sharon Village -Oass C. 1967,c.304,§6. 20 14.Valley Brook,Strong,betwl Sandy River -Gass C. 15.Wilson Stream,main st l crossing -Oass C. 1967,c.304,§6. 16.Wilson Stream,main stec", River -Class C. Sebasticook River,Man 1.All portions and segments ~! specified or classified above t Wms10w -Gass B-2. 2.East Branch from outlet of La Puffers Pond -Oass C. 1965,c.336. 3.East Branch from the jUIU __C Lake -Gass C. 4.East Branch from outlet of00 1965,c.336. S.East Branch from outlet of Se~ 1967,c.304,§7. 6.West Branch from outle Hartland -Oass C. 7.West Branch from Route 4: Branch -Class C. 1967,c.304,§7. 8.Main Stem from Eelweir Briug' 1967,c.304,§7. 9.Main Stem from a point O. mile above the highway bridge at :E 10.Main Stem below darn of th, 1967.c.304,§7. Tributaries of t L All portions and segments c otherwise specified or classified -Q"'5 1967,c.304,§8. 2.All tributaries on the west ~1Q dam of the Central Maine Power Com 3.Brackett Brook (Palmyra an;C--~ 1967,c.304,§8. 4.Carlton Stream and tributaries 5.China Lake Outlet,main st~t"1. road to junction with main stem Sf .. 1967,c.304,§8. 6.China Lake Outlet,main sterr and North Vassalboro to the Outler~'! 7.Farnham Brook below Rout l 1967,c.304,§8. ..- .- i 1 - r ,.... ! - - ,.... I i I \ J-', I - 14.Valley Brook,Strong,between the Route 145 Bridge and the main stem of the Sandy River -Class C 15.'''"ilion Stream,main stem,from outlet of WIlson Pond to the Route 133 crossing .-Class C 1967,c.304,§6. 16.W"ilion Stream,main stem,from Route 133 crossing to junction with SandY River -Class C Sebasticook River,Main Stem,including East and West Blanches. 1.All portions and .segments of the main stem of the Sebasticook River not otherwise specified or classified above the dam of the Central ¥aine Power Company at Winslow .-Class B-2. 2.East Branch from outlet of Lake Wassookeag to confluence of tributary entering from Puffen Pond -Class C. 1965,c.336. 3.East Branch from the junction of PuffetS Pond tributary to the outlet of Corundel Lake -aass C 4.East Branch from outlet of Corondel Lake to Sebasticook Lake -Cass C. 1965,c.336. 5.East Branch from outlet of Sebasticook Lake to Ee1weir Bridge -Class C. 1967,c.304,§7. 6.West Branch from outlet of Great Moose Lake to Route 43 Bridge in Hartland --Cass C 7.We:st Branch from Route 43 Bridge in Hartland to its junction with the East Branch -Class C. 1967,c.304.§7. 8.Maiin Stem from Eelweir Bridge to Pittsfield·Burnham town line -Qass C 1967,(:.304,§7. 9.Malin Stem from a point 0.5 mile above the highway bridge at Ointon to a point 1.0 mile above!the highway bridge at Benton Falls -Class C. 10.Main Stem below dam of the Central Maine Power Company at Winslow -Class C. 1967.t:.304,§7. Trlbutarie:s of the Sebasticook River Drainage System 1.All portions and segments of waterways of the Sebasticook River Drainage not otherwise !lpecified or classified -Oass B·2. 1967,C~304,§8. 2.All tributarle:s on the west side of the main stem of the Sebasticook River below the dam of the:Central Maine Power Company at Wmslow -Class B-2. 3.Bra(~kett Brook (Palmyra and Newport)-aass C. J.967,c.304,§8. 4.Carlton Stream and tributarle:s -aass c. S.Orilla Lake OUtlet.main stem,from crossing of East Vassalboro to North Vassalboro road to junction with main stem Sebasticook River.-Qass C. 1967,c"304,§8. 6.OJilla Lake Outlet,main stem,from crossing of highway between East Vassalboro and NOIthVassalboro to the Outlet of China Lake -Cass C. 7.Farl1ham Brook below Route 100 -aass c. 1967,c.304,§8. 21 8.Fifteenrnile Stream and trib'ltaries below its junction with Mill Stream near Albion -Cass C. 9.Higgins Brook.main stem,from crossing of Route 154 above Hannony to its outlet to Great Moose Lake -Cass C. 10.Joaquin Brook and its tributaries -Cass 8-1. 11.Meloon Brook and its direct and indirect tributaries -Class B-1. 12.Mill Stream from immediately above crossing of Albion-Benton Road to junction with Fifteenmile Stream -Cass C. 1967,c.304,§8. 13.Pratt Stream and its tributaries above its junction with Fifteenmile Stream -Gass B-1. 14.Puffers Pond tributary and all branches thereof -Qass B-1. 15.Sandy Stream,main stem,from its junction with Bacon Brook to a point ~mile from the entrance of Mussey Brook -Cass C. 1967,c.304,§8. 16.Sandy Stream,main stem,from outlet of Sandy Pond to its junction with Halfmoon Stream -Cass C. 1967,c.304,§8. 17.Small streams and tributaries,direct or indirect,not otherwise specified or classified, entering the Sebasticook River from the east between Twentyfivemile Stream and Fifteenmile Stream -Class C. 18.Small streams and their tributaries not otherwise specified entering the Sebasticook River from the east between the outlet of Fifteenrnile Stream and the point of discharge of Qrina Lake Outlet -Oass C. Upper Kennebec River Basin, that portion lying above Wyman Dam in Moscow. 1.All waters tributary to the flowage of Long Falls Dam on the Dead River with the exception of the North Branch of Dead River,the South Branch of Dead River and Stratton Brook -Class B-1. 1965,c.426.§2. 2.All waters tributary to the Dead River between wng Falls Darn and its junction with the Kennebec River at the Forks -Cass 8-1. 1955,c.426,§2. 3.Dead River,South Branch,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defined above the normal highwater mark of the reservoir created by the Long Falls Dam -Cass B-1. 1955,c.426,§2. 4.Kennebec River and tributaries below Moosehead lake (including East and West Outlets),the sections of Dead River (main stem)below wng Fails Dam,to Wyman Dam in Moscow -Cass B-lo 5.Moose River and its tributaries above the outlet of Big Wood Pond in Jackman -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 6.Moose River,all tributaries,main stern excluded,entering between the outlet of Wood Pond at Jackman and the mouth of Moose River at Moosehead lake in Rockwood -Class B-I. 7.Moose River,Jackman Plantation,between Big Wood Pond and Long Pond -Gass C. 8.Moose River,from entrance to Long Pond to entrance to Moosehead lake -Cass 8-1. 22 9.Moosehead lake,all tribt r River below First Roach Pond lJarr of Moosehead lake respectively thrc 1955,Co 426,§20 v;~,~ 10.North Branch of Dead I ' lake -Class A. 1955,c.426,§2. 11.Roach River,main stem,:: 1955,c.426,§2. 12.Stratton Brook and its trib 1955,c.426,§2. 13.Unnamed stream and it!I Greenville Village -Cass B-2. 1955,c.426,§2;1977,c.3nc.~ 14.Unnamed stream and it:r Greenville Junction -Class 8-2. 1955,c.426,§2;1977,c.313,~ 1.All segments and branches the international boundary -Claf~'·-l 2.All segments and tributari national boundary -Class C. 1965,c.42,§1;1967,c.18,~J 3.Big Brook tributary,main the outlet of the stream at the Me', 1977,c.373,§24. 4.Meduxnekeag River,main=-"f bridge at the road just upstream 01 l 5.Meduxnekeag River,main St( compact area in Houlton to the inten 1977,c.373,§24. 6.North Branch of the Med' boundary -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 7.North Branch of the Medl No.1 to the international boundar 1957,c.322,§2:1977,c.373,~ 8.Pearce Brook tributary in ,V" 1967,c.304,§11;1977,c.3, 9.Prestile Stream,main stem,f in the Town of Bridgewater -Qass C 1965,c.42,§1;1967,c.18,.'- 10.South Branch of the Met ( outlet into the main river -Qass B-2 1957,c.322,§2;1977,c.3730-S - ..... r -I 1 ~".,.' - 9.Moosehead Lake,all tributaries above normal highwater with the exception of Roach River below First Roach Pond Dam and the unnamed streams entering East and West Coves of MOCisehead Lake respectively through the Village of Greenville -Class B-1. 1955,c.426.§2. 10.North Branch of Dead River and its tributaries above its confluence with Flagstaff Lake -Cass A. 1955,c.426,§2. 11.Roach River.main stem,First Roach Pond Dam to outlet -Class B-2 . 1955.c.426,§2. 12.Stratton Brook and its tributaries above the Stratton-Kingfield highway -Cass H-1. 1955,c.426,§2. 13.Unnamed stream and its tributaries entering Moosehead Lake at East Cove through Greenv:ille Village -Class B-2. 1955,c.426.§2;1977,c.373,§23. 14.Unnamed stream and its tributaries entering Moosehead Lake at West Cove !hrough Greenv.ille JWlction -Class B-2. 1955.c.426,§2;1977,c.373,§14. Meduxnekeag River Basin 1955,c.426,§4 1.All segments and branches of the Meduxnekeag River.not otherwise dermed above the intlemational boundary -Class B-l.- 2.All segments and tributaries of Prestile Stream,not otherwise defined,above the inter- national bOWldary -Class C. 1965.c.42.§1;1967.Co 18,§1. 3.Big Brook tributary,main stem.from the bridge at the Bangor &Aroostook Railroad to the outlet of the stream at the Meduxnekeag River -Class B-2. 1977.c.373,§24. 4.Meduxnekeag River,main stem,from outlet of pond at New Limerick downstream to a bridge at the road just upstream of Houlton's compact area leading to gravel pits -Oass B-2. 5.Meduxnekeag River.main stem.from bridge at gravel pit entrance just upstream of the compa<,1 area in Houlton to the international bOWldary -Cass B-2. 1977,c.373,§24. 6.NQrth Branch of the Meduxnekeag River and its tributaries above the Monticello-TCR2 boundary -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 7.North Branch of the Meduxnekeag River,main stem,from the bridge at U.S.Highway No.1 to the international boundary -Cass B-2. 1957,c.322,§2;1977,c.373,§25. 8.Pearce Brook tributary in Houlton -Cass B-l. 1967,Co 304,§11;1977,c.373,§26. 9.Prestile Stream.main stem,from the bridge at Westfield to the international bOWldary In the Town of Bridgewater -Cass C. 1965,c.42,§1;1967,c.18,§1. 10.South Branch of the Meduxnekeag River,main stem,from the dam at Hodgdon to the outlet into the main river -Class B-2. 1957,c.322,§2;1977,c.373,§25. 23 -~~--'----------------------------_.__.,._... 11.Whitney Brook and its tributaries above the confluence with Prestile Stream -Class B-2. 1957,c.322,§2. Mousam River Basin 1957,c.322,§8 1.All portions of Mousam River drainage not otherwise specified or classified -Cass B-1. 2.Hay Brook -Cass C. 3.Mousam River,main stem,and tributaries,West Branch from dam at Emery's Mills to northerly boundary of compact area of Sanford about 0.5 mile above Mill Street in the Springvale section -Class B-2. 4.Mousam River,main stem,West Branch,from northerly boundary of compact area of Sanford about 0.5 mile above Mill Street in Springvale section to its junction with the East Branch -Cass C. 1971,c.106,§1. Time Schedule A.A municipality,sewer district,person,fum,corporation or other legal.entity shall not be deemed in violation of this subsection at any time or times prior to October I, 1974 with respect to those classifications if by such time or times he or it with respect to any project necessary to achieve compliance with applicable classification shall have completed all steps required to then be completed by the following schedule. (1)Preliminary plans and engineers estimates shall be completed and submitted to the Board of Environmental Protection on or before March 1,1972. (2)Anangt'iments for administration and financing shall be completed on or before March I,1912.'This period,in the case of municipalities,shall encompass all fmancing including obtaining of state and federal grants. (3)Detailed engineering and final plan formulation shall be completed on or before October 1,1972. (4)Review of fmal plans with the Board of Environmental Protection shall be completed and construction commenced on or before June 1,1973. (5)Construction shall be completed and in operation on or before October 1,1976. 1971,c.618. 'This reclassification shall not be deemed to exempt any municipality,sewer district, person,firm,corporation or other legal entity from complying with the water quality standards of the last previous classification,as such standards existed on December 31,1970, and enforcement action may be maintained or noncompliance therewith. 1971,c.106,§2. 5.Mousam River,main stem and tributaries entering from west from junction of East and West Branches to tidewater -Cass B-2. 6.Mousam River,Middle Branch,from bridge near Yeaton Hill to junction with West Branch -Class B-2. 1967,c.180,§3. 7.Mousam River,East Branch,main stem,through Waterboro Village and tributary entering at downstream edge of Waterboro Village -Cass C. Penobscot River Basin 1957,c.322,§3 East Branch Penobscot River Drainage System 24 1.East Branch of the PenoD Mattagarnon Lake -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 2.Penobscot River,East Branc] and the dam at Grand Lake lIIattagar 1955,c.420,§2. Main Stem,that portion of the 1'< Branches south to a line drawn due e L The main stem of the W"" Ferguson and Quakish Lakes in 1I the East and West Branches in Branch -Cass D. 2.The main stem of the Pe ~~t highway bridge in Medway to a,e Reed Brook in the Village of Hampd€ Whereas the segment of the Pena Branches thereof and Weldon r'~t bacterial cellular and other mate.I: that created by the fermentation Ul before this source of oxygen demar state regulatory agencies,if at thz,;\'~I to a value which could reasonablE if cumulative deposits and will be c'11 tion,with the added and special pi below 7.0 p.p.m.at the Old Town:Mi :3.The tidal estuary of the direction across the estuary froIT 1 Highlands to a line extended in a v Verona Island to the westerly bank.no of Verona Island to the easterly 1 L town boundary -Qass SC. 1965,c.179,§1. Mattaw L 1.All segments and tributaries defined,above its outlet to the Pen'-> 2.Baskahegan Stream,main s' narrows in Crooked Brook Flowa Danforth -Oass C. 3.Cold Brook,a tributary of Mills,the main stem thereof from t to the East Branch of the MattawaIIlK€ 4.Fish Stream,main stem only Mattawamkeag River to the entranc'~"': 5.FISh Stream,main stem onI point v..mile upstream of the Route 1 1967,c.304,§12. 6.Huntley Mill Pond in Merril t the confluence with Cold Brook - (s 7.Mattakeunk Stream,main stel Pond -Class C. - -f - f""" I 1.East Branch of the Penobscot River and its tributaries above the outlet of Mattagllmon Lake -Cass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 2.Penobscot River,East Branch,segments and tributaries thereof,between its outlet and th~,dam at Grand Lake Mattagamon -Qass B-1. 1955,c.420,§2. Main Stem,that portion of the Penobscot River between the confluence of East and West Branchl~south to a line drawn due east from Fort Point on Cape Jellison. 1.The main stem of the West Branch of the Penobscot River from the outlets of Ferguscln and Quakish Lakes in Millinocket to the highway bridge just above the junction of the ~,stand West Branches in Medway which carries Route 116 across the West Branch -Oass D.. 2.The main stem of the Penobscot River and the West Branch from the Route 116 highwa:r bridge in Medway to a line extended in an east-west direction from the outlet of Reed Brook in the Village of Hampden Highlands to the Penobscot River -Qass C. Whe,reas the segment of the Penobscot River between the junction of the East ind West Branchl~thereof and Weldon Dam is now heavily loacled with cumulative deposits of bacteml1 cellulu and other materials exerting a significant oxygen demand over and above that CIIi:ated by the fermentation of current daily loads and whereas some time will elapse before this SOUlce of oxygen demand is stabilized,no abatement action shall be taken by state r~,gulatory agencies,if at that time current daily upstream loadings have been reduced to a value which could reasonable be expected to result in conditions which will not foster cumulative deposits and will be compatible with the specifications or the segment classifica- tion,with the added and special provisions that the dissolved oxygen level shall not fall below '7.0 p.p.m.at the Old Town-Milford bridge or at the Stillwater bridge. 3.The.tidal estuary of the Penobscot River from a line extended in an east-west directicln across the estuary from the mouth of Reed Brook in the Village of Hampden Highla.nlds to a ·line extended in a westerly direction across from thesouthemmost tip of Verona Island to the westerly bank of the Penobscot Estuary and from the southernmost tip of Verllna Island to the easterly bank of the Penobscot Estuary at the Bucksport-Penobscot town bound3.ry -Oass SC. 1965,c.179,§1. Mattawamkeag River Drainage System 1955,c.426,§2 1..All segments and tributaries of the Mattawamkeag River Drainage,not otherwise defmed,above its outlet to the Penobscot -Qass B-1. 2.:Baskahegan Stream,main stem,from its outlet to the Mattawamkeag River to the narrows,in Crooked Brook Flowage approximately one mile above the village of Danfort.h -Qass C. 3.Cold Brook,a tributary of the Mattawamkeag River,East Branch.entering at Smyrna Mills,the main stem thereof from the confluence with Huntley Mill Pond Brook to its outlet to the lEast Branch of the Mattawamkeag River -Cass B-2. 4.Fish Stream,main stem only,from its confluence with the West Branch of the Mattawamkeag River to the entrance of the Crystal Brook tributary -Oass C. 5.FISh Stream,main stem only ,from its confluence with Crystal Streams tributary to a point %mile upstream of the Route 11 Bridge in Patten -Qass C. 196'7,c.304,§12. 6.Huntley Mill Pond in Merrill,the main stem from the outlet of Huntley Mill Pond to the confluence with Cold Brook -Qass Bo2. 7.Mattakeunk Stream,main stem,from the outlet of Dwinal Pond to Mattakeunk Pond -Cass C. 25 8.Mattawamkeag River,main stem,outlet to the junction of the East and West Branches in the Town of Haynesville -Class B-2. 9.Mattawamkeag River,East Branch,between the junction of the East and West Branches in Haynesville and the entrance of the Cold Brook tributary near Smyrna Mills Village -Class B-2. 10.Mattawamkeag River,West Branch,main stem,from the junction of the East and West Branches of the river to,and including,the thoroughfare between the upper and lower Mattawamkeag Lakes -Oass B-2. 11.Mattawamkeag River,West Branch,main stem,from its outlet to upper Mattawamkeag Lake to a point 100 feet upstream of the railroad bridge at Island Falls -Oass C. 1967,c.304,§12. 12.Molunkus Stream,main stem,from its outlet to the Mattawamkeag at Kingman to a point v..mile above the highway bridge at Sherman Mills -Oass B-2. 13.Webb Brook and its tributaries in the Town of Patten -Class Co 1967,c.304,§12 Penobscot River,Minor Tributaries,from the confluence of the East and West Branches to a line drawn due east from Fort Point in the Town of Stockton Springs,not including the Piscataquis and Mattawamkeag Rivers Drainage Systems. 1.All tributaries.direct and indirect,and segments thereof.of the Penobscot River from the confluence of the East and West Branches of the Penobscot.with the exception of the Piscataquis and Mattawamkeag Rivers Drainage Systems,to and including Pushaw Stream on the west shore of the Penobscot River and to and including Blackman Stream on the east shore of the Penobscot River.unless otherwise specified or classified -Oass B-l. 1971,c.273. 2.All minor tributaries on the west shore of the Penobscot River between Pushaw Stream and the Hampden-Winterport line,not otherwise designated -crass C. 3.All minor tributaries on east shore of the Penobscot River between Blackman Stream and the Orrington-Bucksport line,not otherwise designated -Class Co 4.All streams,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defmed,entering tide- water between the head of tide on Marsh Stream (Frankfort)and Fort Point (Stockton Springs)-Qass C. 5.All minor tributaries,segments,direct and indirect,not otherwise defmed,entering tidewater from the head of tide on the Orland River south to a line drawn due east from Fort Point (Stockton Springs)-Class B-1. 6.Cambolasee Stream,lincoln,from the Route 2 crossing to the Penobscot River -Class C. 7.Great Works Stream and its tributaries above the highway bridge on Route 178 in the Town of Bradley -Oass A. 8.Halfmoon Pond (Searsport),and its tributaries above the pond outlet -Class B-l, 9.Kenduskeag Stream and its tributaries above the Bullseye Bridge (Bangor)-Class B-2. 10.Kenduskeag Stream and tributaries below the Bullseye Bridge (Bangor)-Class C. 1967,c.304,§13. II.Marsh River (Prospect),segment and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defined, above tidewater -Class B-2. 12.Marsh Stream (Frankfort,etc.),segments and tributaries,not otherwise defined, above tidewater -Class B-2. 13.Marsh Stream,main stem,from a point 0.4 mile above the bridge at Brooks Village to the inlet of Basin Pond -Oass B-l. 1969,c.286. 14.Marsh Stream.main stem,from its junction with the North Branch of Marsh Stream to the bridge at West Winterport -Class B-l. 26 1969,c.286. 15.Marsh Stream,North ..l Monroe Village to the junctiot r :, 1969,c.286. 16.Marsh Stream and its tr bridge in Brooks Village -Clas"""'" 17.Mattanawcook Stream 1967,c.304,§13. 18.Olamon Stream and it~~t 19.Orland River and its t: 20.Orland River,segmen._ water -Class B-1. 21.Orland lliver or Narra'''c<.~ cemetery -Oass B-2. 22.Outlet of Silver lake <tU( 23.Passadumkeag River and 24.Sourdabscook 'Strearn,,,"c'l District at Hampden -Class A 25.Sourdabscook Stream Penobscot River -Qass C. 26.Sunkhaze Stream an River -Class A. 27.Unnamed stream and i Point,abo,:e the fust highwaY"hr 1.All waters,segments ~Dof Drainage System not otherwisl i 2.All tributaries of the F ; or classified between,not includ at Dover-Foxcroft -Oass B-2. y,'7'F 3.Carleton Stream,Sangt : 4.Carleton Stream and it~J 5.Davee Brook below Nort! below Grove Street in Dover-P"' 6.East and West Braner confluence near Blanchard -Cwo 1954,c.79,§15. 7.East and West Branch the confluence of these 2 sue:l 1954,c.79,§15. 8.Kingsbury Stream,Ab1;lc0" Route 15 in Abbott Village- 9.Phillip Brook,MonL.c. Stream -Oass C. 10.Piscataquis River bek·"· 11.Piscataquis River fr ~ around -Oass B-2. F""";I . I i I""" I --I \. - ..... -! 1969,c.286. 15.Marsh Stream,North Branch,main stem,from a point 0.25 mile upstream of Monroe Village to the junction of the North Branch with the main stem -Class B-Z. 1969,c.286. 16.Marsh Stream and it~tributaries upstream of a point 0.4 mile above the highway bridge in iBrooks Village -Oass B-I. 17.Mattanawcook Stream,Lincoln,below outlet of Mattanawcook Pond -Oass C. 1967,Ie.304,§13. 18.Olamon Stream and its tributaries above the bridge on Horseback Road -Class A. 19.Orland River and its tributaries above the outlet of Alamoosook Lake -Oass A. 20.Orland River,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defmed,above tide- water -OIass B-1. 21.Orland River or Narramissic River from tidewater to a point opposite the Oak Grove cemetery .-Class B-2. 22.Outlet of Silver Lake above the village limits of Bucksport -Oass B-I. 23.P'lLSsadumkeag River and its tributaries above Grand Falls -Class A. 24.SOUIdabscook 'Stream and its tributaries above the dam of the Hampden Water District at Hampden -Oass A. 25.Sourdabscook Stream from the dam of the Hampden Water District to the Pen.obscot River -Class C 26.Sunkhaze Stream and its tributaries above its confluence with the Penobscot River -Oass A. 27.UllIIIamed stream and its tributaries entering tidewater at Mill Cove near Sandy Point,above the fust highway bridge west of the Route 3 Highway Bridge -Class B-I. Piscataquis River Drainage System 1965,c.426,§2 1.All waters, segments and tributaries,direct and indirect,of the Piscataquis River Drainage System not otherwise specified or classified -Class B-I. 2.All tributaries of the Piscataquis River and segments thereof not otherwise designated or l:lassified between,not including.the Sebec River and the Maine Central Railroad Bridge at Dover-Foxcroft -Class Bo2... 3.Carleton Stream.Sangerville,from its mouth to the crossing of Route 23 -Oass C. 4.Quieton Stream and its tributaries above Route 23 -Qass B-2. 5.Da1/ee Brook below North Street,Dunham Brook below Forest Street and Fox Brook below Grove Street in Dover-Foxcroft -Oass C. 6.East and West Branches of the Piscataquis River and their tributaries above their confluence near Blanchard -Class A. 1954,I:.79,§15. 7.East and West Branches of the Pleasant River and their respective tributaries above the conflu,ence of these 2 streams above Brownville Jet.-Class A. 1954,I:.79,§15. 8.Kingsbury Stream,Abbott,from its.mouth to a point 100 yards above the bridge on Route 15 in Abbott Village -Class B-2. 9.PhiJllip Brook,Monson,from Lake Hebron to the junction with Monson Stream -(lass C. 10.Piscataquis River below the dam near the mouth of the river at Howland -Class C. 11.Pbcataquis River from the dam at Howland to the Penobscot River run- around -Class B-2. 27 12.Piscataquis River,main stem,from Abbot-Guilford town line to the junction with Pleasant River -Class Co 1967,c.304,§14,1979,c.495. 13.Repealed.1979,c.495,§4. 14.Piscataquis River.main stem,from junction with Pleasant River to Schoodic Stream confluence -Class B-2. 15.Piscataquis River,main stem,from Abbot-Guilford town line to mouth of Kingsbury Stream -Class B-2. 16.Pleasant River,main stem,from its mouth to the end of Maple Street in Brownville Junction -Class Co 17.Sebec River,main stem,from its mouth to the dam at Main Street in Milo -Class C. 18.Sebec River and its tributaries above the outlet of Monson Stream -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 19.Repealed.1979,c.495,§6. 1967.c.304,§15;1971,co 138,§l;1979,c.495,§§4 to 6. West Branch Penobscot River Drainage System 1955,Co 322,§2 1.All waters,tributaries and segments thereof of the Penobscot River Drainage System, not otherwise specified or classified,upstream of the outlets of Ferguson !.'ike and Ouakish Lake and North Twin Dam -Class B-L 2.Penobscot River and its tributaries above Seboomook Lake -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 3.That portion of the main stem of the Penobscot River (West Branch)between the outlet of Ferguson Lake and of Quakish Lake and North Twin Dam at the outlet of North Twin Lake or Elbow Lake,which would include the reservoirs known as Quakish Lake and Ferguson Lake -Oass B-2. 4.Tributaries,direct and indirect,and segments thereof,of the West Branch of the Penobscot River from the outlet of Quakish and Ferguson Lakes (Millinocket)to its confluence with the East Branch;with the exception of the segments of Millinocket Stream (Millinocket)between the railroad bridge and the West Branch of the Penobscot River -Class B-1. 5.Segments of Millinocket Stream (Millinocket)between the railroad bridge near the Millinocket-Indian Purchase town boundary and the Penobscot River -Class D. 1965,c.179,§2. Schedule of Completion Applicable to Certain Waters of the Penobscot River Basin 1965,c.179,§2 1.The classification set forth as follows shall become effective on October I,1965. A.Subsections I,2 and 3 under main stem; B.Subsection 5 under West Branch Penobscot River Drainage System. 2.A municipality,sewer district,person,fmn,corporation or other legal entity shall not be deemed in violation of these sections at any time or times prior to October 1,1976 with respect to those classifications if by such time or times he or it with respect to any project necessary to achieve compliance with applicable classification shall have completed all steps required to then be completed by the following schedule. 28 A.Preliminary plans and engi owned projects shall be co;"'e abatement steps by others u 1969. B.Arrangements for administ October 1,1971.In the c""": scheduling of grants-in-aid. C.Detailed plans and specific: Protection and construction beg' D.All requirements are to to,c 1965,c.179,§2;1967,c.'5 Presumpscot ~ye It L All waters,tributaries and specified or classified,with th~",~x upstream compact limits of Wes r, 2.Frank Brook,and Pleas t with tributaries thereof -Qass B-2, 3.little River.main stem""..\\' fluence with the Presumpscot R :r 4,Outflow from Panther Pl.••J S.Outlet of Tuttle Pond,Wine 6.Pleasant River,and bibr-'r Sebago Lake -Qass B-Z. 7.Presumpscot River,main Stl c. 1967,c.446. 7-A,Presumpscot River,rn 1 Dundee -Qass A. 1972.c,612. 8,Second westerly tributa~Ii 90 Stevens Brook,Bridgton - ( 1967,c,304,§16. 100 Tannery Brook,and its 110 Tributaries,direct and i 12.Tributaries of Papoose POI' 13.Tributaries of Coffeen!.: Lake -Class B-Z. 14.Unnamed stream,enterir,g 1.All portions of the mail1.~tf classified -Class B-L 20 Saco River,main stem,j r the Fryeburg-Lovell road -Oass E- _. :h ct os ~ • I A.Preliminary plans and engineers'estimates involving municipal and other publicly owned projects shall be completed on or before October 1,1968 and plans for required abatement steps by others shall be submitted and approved not later than·October 1, 1969. B.Arrangements for administration and financing shall be completed on or before October 1,1971.In the case of municipal projects this period is to include definite scheduling of grams-In-aid. e.Detailed plans and specifications shall be approved by the Board of Environmental Protection and construCtion begun prior to June I,1973. D.All requirements are to be completed and in operation on or before October I,1976. 1965,c.179,§2;1967,c.475,§7;1972,c.618. Presumpscot River Basin (Includes all dJainage area above the Presumpscot F aUs Dam) 1957,c.322,§6 1.lill waters,tributaries and segments of the Presumpscot River Basin,not otherwise specified or classified,with the exception of the Presumpscot River,main stem,below the upstreaIn compact limits of Westbrook -Cass B-1. 2.Frank Brook,and Pleasant River above its confluence with Frank Brook,together with tri'l>utaries thereof -Oass B-2. 3.tittle River,main stem,(Wmdham)from canning plant on Route 114 to its con- fluence with the Presumpscot River -Cass C. 4.Outflow from Panther Pond to Sebago Lake -Qass Bo2. 5.Outlet of Tuttle Pond,Windham -Qass B-2. 6.Pleasant River,and tributaries between Frank Brook (Gray)and its entrance to little Sebago Lake -Cass &2. '7 .P:resumpscot River,main stem,below Village of South Wmdham to tidewater -aass c. 1967,c.446. 7·A.Presumpscot Rivet,main stem,from the outlet of Sebago Lake to the dam at Dundee -Qass A. 1972,c.612. 8.Second westerly tributary of the North Branch of little River (\\'1ndham)-Cass B-2. 9.Stevens Brook,Bridgton -Qass C. 1967,c.304,§16. 10.Tannery Brook,and its tributaries,Gorham -Oass B-2. 11.Tributaries,direct and indirect,of Songo Pond (Albany vicinity)-Class B-2. 12,Tributaries of Papoose Pond(Waterford)-Oas5 B-2. 13.Tributaries of Coffee and Dumpling Ponds,casco,above inlet to Pleasant Lake·-Qass Bo2. 14.Unnamed stream,entering Sebago Lake at North Sebago Village -Class B-2. Saco River Basin 1957,c.322,§7 Main Stem,Saco River 1.All portions of the main stem,Saco River,above tidewater not otherwise specified or classified -Cass B-1. 2.Saco River,main stem,from Route 5 (Fryeburg'Lovell road)to a point %mile below the Fryeburg-Lovell road -Cass &2. 29 ----~'----_....Q~..lll:1ill7':4:t4 _ 3.Saco River,main stem,from junction with Ossipee River to the entrance of Quaker Brook -Class &1.. 1973,c.401. 4.Saco River,main stem,from entrance of Quaker Brook to the Central Maine Power Co.dams at Bar Mills -aass &1. 1967,c.180,§1;1973,c.401. 5.Saco River,main stem,from the Central Maine Power Co.dams at Bar Mills to the Route #4·A highway bridge at Salmon Falls village -Gass B-2. 1967,c.180,§1;1973,c.40L 6.Saco River,main stem,from Union Falls Dam to Thatcher Brook -Class &2. 1973,c.401. 7.Saco River,main stem,from TIllltcher Brook to tidewater -Class C. 1967,c.180,§1;1973,c.401. Tributaries,Saco River 1.All tributaries,direct and indirect,and segments thereof,of the Saco River Drainage, above tidewater,not otherwise specified or classified -Class &1. 2.Brown Brook,limerick,main stem,from outlet of Holland Pond to junction with little Ossipee River -Class C. 3.Goodwins Mills Brook,main stem,from 0.5 mile above crossing of Route 3S at Goodwins Mills to Saco River -Class &2. 4.Kimball Brook,vicinity North Fryeburg,from point 0.5 mile above Route 113 crossing to Charles Pond -Qass C. 5.little River,from crossing of Route 5 approximately 1.0 mile above Cornish Village to its outlet to the Ossipee River -Class C. 1967,c.180,§2. 6.Ossipee River.main stem,from 0.5 mile upstream of Route 25 bridge at Kezar Falls to the entrance of Wadsworth Brook -Qass C. 1967.c.180,§2. 7.Ossipee River,main stern,from entrance of Wadsworth Brook to junction with Saco· River -Class C. 8.Wards Brook (Ward Pond to outlet of brook)-Class C. S1.Croix River Basin 1.All tributaries of the St.Croix River upstream from the dam at Calais,the drainage areas of which are wholly within the State of Maine,and including the West Branch of the 51.Croix River and its tributaries which enter through Grand Lake Flowage -Class A. 1954,c.79,§15. 2.Waters of the St.Croix River Watershed,within the State of Maine,not otherwise classified.including those of the Main Stem of the St.Croix River and of Monument Brook on the Maine side of the international boundary above the Grand Falls Dam -Qass B-2. 1967,c.156;1977,c.373,§27. 3.Waters of the St.Croix River Watershed,within the State of Maine,not otherwise classified.including those of the Main Stem of the St.Croix River on the Maine side of the international boundary from the Grand Falls Dam to the head of tide -Class C. 1977,c.373,§27-A. St.John River Basin Allagash River Drainage Mel!-Class A 1954,c.79,§15 30 t.All waters,se=ents an< cified or classified -Class &2. 2.Fish River and its tribut3r: outlet of St.Froid Lake on Higl"'. 1954,c.79,§15. 3.Fish River from the bridge of St.Froid Lake -Class B-t. 4.Fish River main stem,f1 r River -Class C. 1967,c.304,§17. 1.St.John River,main stem,a: 2.51,John River,main 'i Frenchville-Madawaska town line 3. St.John River,main steI: Canadian border -Class C. L All waters of the St.John I receive drainage from lands entire,1;Y', 2.All tributaries direct and Maine,on the Maine side o. classified -Class &2. 3.All tributaries of the St.po·'l the State of Maine -Class A 4.All tributaries and branches ( tlIe drainage areas of which are whl the river above the St.John Pond""'c 5.All streams and tributarle;I John River in Fort Kent,Frenchn: Brook),Grand Isle,Van Buren,St.J 6.Martin Brook,Madawask'" Road -Class C. 7.Negro Brook,Allagash Plantar 8.Oq uisiquit Brook and its ce~r border -Class B-2. 9.Riviere des Chutes,Easton 10.Thibodeau Brook,Grand Isk 11.Violette Brook Van BIPe: Stream -Class C. 12.Violette Stream,Van Burt:n John River -Oass C. 13.Prestile Stream -Gass B-:"Y 1965,c.42,§2;1967,c.304,i - - - ..... Fish River Drainage Area 1955,c.322,§5 L All waters,segments and tributaries of the Fish River Drainage not otherwise spe- cified or cl:assified -Oass B-2. 2.Fish River and its tributaries above the highway bridge over the Fish River at the outlet of St.Froid lake on Highway Route 11-Qass A. 1954,c.79,§15. 3.FIsh River from the bridge at Fort Kent Mills to the Route 11 Bridge near the foot of St.Froid Lake -Oass B-I. 4.Fish River main stem,from bridge at Fort Kent Mills to confluence with St.John River -.CbISll C. 1967,c.304,§17. Main Stem,St.John River 1969,c.268. 1.St.John River,main stem,above the International Bridge Fort Kent -Qass B-1. 2.St.John River,main stem,from the International Bridge Fort Kent to the FrenchvillE~Madawaslcatown line -Class B-2. 3.St.John River,main stem,from the Frenchvill~Madawaska town line to the Canadian border -Class C. Tributaries,St.John River 1969,c.268 1.All waters of the St.John Drainage Basin not otherwise specified or classified which receive drainage from lands entirely within the United States -Oass B-L 2.All tributaries direct and indirect of the St.John River not wholly in the State of Maine,on the Maine side of the lntemational border not otherwise specified OJ classified·-Oass B-2. 3.AU tributaries of the St.Francis River,the drainage areas of which are wholly within the State of Maine -Qass A. 4.All tributaries and branches of the St.John River above the outlet of Allagash River, the drain~lge areas of which are wholly within the State of Maine,including that portion of the river above the St.John Pond Dam -Qass A. 5.All streams and tributaries,unless otherwise specified.or classified.,entering the St. John Rivier in Fort Kent,Frenchville,Madawaska (inclUding the upper portion of Martin Brook),Grand We,Van Buren.St.John Plantation and Hamlin Plantation -Cass B-2. 6.Mmtin Brook,Madawaska,downstream of ·the bridge on the Back Settlement Road -Ciass C. 7.NE~grO Brook,Allagash Plantation,and its tribUtaries -Class A. 8.O<luisiquit Brook and its tributaries,Mars Hill and Easton,above the Canadian border -Class B-2. 9.Rilviere des Chutes,Easton and Mars Hill,above the canadian border -Class B-L 10.lrhibodeau Brook,Grand Isle,from Route 1 to the St.John River -Qass C. U.Violette Brook Van Buren,below the railroad to confluence with Violette Stream -Qass C 12.Violette Stream,Van Buren,below Champlain Street to the junction with the St. John River -Oass C 13.Prestile Stream -Class B-2. 1965,.c.42,§2;1967,c.304,§18;1969,c.268;1977,c.373,§27-B. 31 -- Those waters draining directl;o'r exception of those tributary to 1 from Fort Point in Stockton Springs 1.All coastal streams,direct.ii: Hancock county,not otherwise to" to the Penobscot River Estuarv l Springs -Class B-1.• 2.Blue HilL A.Carleton Stream,main sterc"i 1977,Co 373,§28. B.Carleton Stream,main stem, OassC. 1977,c.373,§28. C.Unnamed stream at edge VL' Class C. 1967,Co 304,§20. D.Unnamed stream flowing f 1 1967,c.304,§20. E.Mill Brook Stream from a"p!l outlet at tidewater -Class B-l. 1977,c.373,§28. F.Unnamed Stream about 100 1967,c.304,§20. 3.Brooksville. A.Outlet of Walker Pond,frorr B.Shepardson Brook (or MiJJ, tidewater -Class C. 4.Ellsworth. A.Card Brook,main stem,fror No.1 to tidewater -Class B-2r'C 1963,c.23. B.Gilpatrick Brook,main sterr the Union River -Class B-2. C.Union River,main stem,('r at Ellsworth Falls -Class B-2. D.Union River,main stem,frc tidewater -Class C. E.Unnamed Stream south or 5.Franklin.Unnamed Streal Bay -Class C. 6.Gouldsboro.All coastal stF"I on the easterly mainland of Goule l 7.Lamoine.Spring Brook belv" 10.Yarmouth. A.Pratts Brook -Class B-1. B.Royal River,main stern,from i Street,Yarmouth -Class B-2. 1979,c.,495. Cumberland County 1959,c.133,§ 1 Those waters draining directly or indirectly into tidal waters of Cumberland County with the exception of the Presumpscot River Drainage Area·upstream from the Presumpscot Falls Dam and the Androscoggin River Basin Drainage Area. 1.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater of Cumberland County,not otherwise specified or classified -Oass C. 2.Brunswick.Unnamed Stream entering tidewater of New Meadows River at Middle Bay -Class A. 3.Cape Elizabeth.Alewife Brook -Class A. 4.Falmouth.Mill Creek and tributaries thereof -Class B-2. S.Falmouth and Portland.Unnamed Stream fanning a portion of the Portland- Falmouth town line and located on the southwesterly shore of the Presumpscot River estuary -C1ass D. 6.Freeport. A.Harvey Brook -Class B-1. B.Frost Gully Brook -Class A. C.~terrill Brook -Class B-2. D.Merrill Brook and tributaries below Maine CenUal Railroad crossing to confluence - Class B-1. E.Collins Brook and tributaries -Qass B-2. F.Mill Stream and tributaries -Class B-1. G..Kelsey Brook and tributaries -Qass C. H.Little River and tributaries -Class B-2. D-H added 1979,c.495. 6-A.Gray. A.Collier Brook -Class B-2. 1965.c.153. 7.Portland.Stroudwater River from its origin to its confluence with Indian Camp Brook Class B-2. 7-A.Pownal.Chandler Brook -Class B-2. 1967.c.17. 8.Scarboro. A.Finnard Brook -Class B-2. B.Phillips Brook -Class C. 1967,c.304,§19. C.Stuart Brook -Class B·2. 9.South Portland.Red Brook from the Rye Pond outlet darn to its origin and tributaries thereof -Class B-2. Salmon Fal!s-Piscataqua River Basin 1.Waters not previously classified of the main stem and direct and indirect tributaries of the Salmon Falls and Piscataqua Rivers,within the State of Maine,above tidewater -Class B-1. 1961,c.321,§1. R.S.1954,c.79,§15;1955,c.426,§§1,2,4;1957,c.322,§§1-8;c.412;1961,c. 330;1%3,c.274,§4. §369.Coastal streams 1971,c.470,§5. 32 Hancock County 1955,c.426,§§1-7 Those waten draining directly or indirectly into tidal waten of Hancock County with the exception of those tributary to the Penobscot River Estuary north of a line drawn due east from Fort Point in Stockton Springs. 1.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewatets of Hancock county,not otherwise specified or classified,with the exception of those tributary t'J !h,e Penobscot River Estuary north of a line drawn due east from Fort Point in Stockton Sprin,gs -Qass B·1. 2.BlueHiIL A.Carleton Stream,main stem,between First Pond and Second Pond -Class C 1977,Co 373,§28. B..Carleton Stream,main stem,from the outlet of First Pond to tidewater at Salt Pond - Class C. 1~!J77,c.373,§28. C~Unnamed stream at edge of ffiue Hill Village entering tidewater near "Big Rock"- Class C. 1967,c.304,§20. D.Unnamed stream flowing from near "Old Cemetery"to the Town Wharf--Qass C. 1967,c.304,§20. K Mill Brook Stream from a point just above the sewer of the consolidated school to its outlet at tidewater -Qass B-1. 1977,c.373,§28. I~.Unnamed Stream about 100 yards east of Mill Brook Stream -aass C. 1967,c.304,§20. 3.Brooksville. /\.Outlet of Walker Pond,from the dam at Lymeburner's Mill to tidewater -Class B-2. B.Shepardson Brook (or Mill Brook),main stem,from Route 176 to its outlet at lidewater -Qass C 4.Ellsworth. A.Card Brook,main stem,from the Farm Pond about 250 yards west of U.S.Highway No.I to tidewater -Qass B-2. 1963,c.23. B.Gilpatrick Brook,main stem.from bridge at U.S.Highway No.1 to its outlet into the Union River -Class B-2. C.Union River,main stem,from head of Graham Lake to bridge at U.S.Highway No.1 at Ellsworth Falls -Class B-2. D.Union River,main stem.from bridge at U.S.Highway No.1 at Ellsworth Falls to tidewater -Qass C. E.Unnamed Stream south of Laurel Street in Ellsworth -Oass C. 5.Franklin.Unnamed Stream flowing near railroad station in Franklin Village to Hop Bay -Qass C. 6.Gouldsboro.All coastal streams.direct and indirect segments,discharging to tidewater on the easterly mainland of Gouldsboro -Oass C. 7.Lamoine.Spring Brook below washer at Grindle's gravel pit -Qass C. 10.Yarmouth. A.Pratts Brook -Qass B·1. B.R.oyal River,main stem,from its origin to the head of tidewater (dam)above Main Street,Yarmouth -Qass B·2.. 1979,c.,495. - .... 33 '-'.-'---,~....----.----••------------•.-..-----~----------.~--------~---_.__••,,""'___..._~.....:o ...~,...............~'••_. 8.Penobscot. A.Oements Brook,main stem,from tidewater to a point 100 feet upstream of Route 166 -Oass B-2. B.Tributary of Winslow Stream entering from the south of South Penobscot Village from its confluence with Winslow Stream to the crossing of Route 177 -Class B-2. C.Winslow Stream,main stern,from tidewater to dam at the sawmill of S.C. Condon -Class C. 1967,c.304,§21. 9.Sedgwick. A.Sargent Brook at Sargentville Village,main stem,from tidewater to a point 300 feet upstream of the highway -Oass C. B.Three Unnamed Streams entering tidewater immediately north of Sedgwick Village -Class C. C.Unnamed Stream entering tidewater at the head of Salt Pond near North Sedgwick -Oass B-2. 10.Trenton.Stony Brook from Route 3 crossing to tidewater -Oass C. 11.Waltham.Webb Brook,main stem.from dam immediately downstream of bridge on Route 179 to its outlet to Graham Lake -Qass B-2. 12.Winter Harbor.Coastal streams between the southerly point of Schoodic Peninsula to the Winter Harbor-Gouldsboro town line -Qass C. Knox County 1955,c.426,§1 St.George River Drainage System 1.All segments and tributaries direct and indirect of the St.George River Drainage: System,above tidewater,not otherwise defined or classified -Class C. 2.All segments and tributaries direct and indirect of the St.George River above the outlet of St.George Lake in Liberty -Class B-!. 3.Castner Brook below Hillcrest Poultry Plant -Oass C. 4.Crawford Pond Outlet and Crawford Pond tributaries -Oass B-1. 5.Fuller Brook and its tributaries -Oass B-L 6.North and South Pond tributaries and outlet to the St.George River -Oass B-1. Other Coastal Stleams of Knox County L Camden. A.All coastal stream,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Camden,not otherwise specified or classified -Gass B-L B.Megunticook River,main stem,below a point 300 feet above the dam at the Mount Battie Mill -Class B-2. 1977,c.373,§29. 2.Cushing. A.All coastal stream,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Cushing -Class B-I. 3.Friendship. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Friendship unless otherwise specified or classified -Class B-1. B.Goose River,main stem,tidewater to dam at the Herbert Tibbetts'sawmill -Class C. C.Goose River,main stem,from Tibbetts'sawmill dam to the outlet of Havener Pond -Gass Bo2. 34 4.Owls Head. A.All coastal streams,direct Town of Owls Head -Class C. 5.Rockland, A.All coastal streams,dire City of Rockland -Class C. 6.Rockport. A.All coastal streams,dire Town of Rockport,unless 01 B.Goose River and its t Comers -Gass B-2. C.Goose River and its Comets -Oass B-L D lily Pond outlet ~Gass B-, 7.St.George. A.All coastal streams,dire Town of St.George,unless oth, B.Unnamed Stream and its northwesterly corner of Tent'-:, C.Unnamed Stream and it: of Long Cove -Class B-L 8.South Thomaston. A.All coastal streams,direl Town of South Thomaston -' 9.Thomaston. A.All coastal streams,dUet"·, Town of Thomaston,unless (I B.Mill River,main stem,from C.Oyster River,main stemkfr Mill -Gass C. D.Oyster River,main stem i junction with the tributary of w E.Tributary of Oyster Riv~,-, 17 bridge at West Rockport a l F.Unnamed Stream flowing _.' 10.Wanen. A.All coastal streams,direct", S1.George River Estuary unle B.Oyster River.See:Thomast C.Unnamed Stream and its t,~ boundary upstream of a pom"5 D.Unnamed Stream to St. between a point 500 feet aboveC~-, E.Unnamed Stream and its George River Y:.mile below the 11.Other coastal streams.Ai draining to the tidal waters of ,.,' Bol. 1973,c.423,§4. - ,.- ! - - 4.Owls Head. A.AIll coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Owls Head -Class C. S.Rockland. A.AU coastal streams,direct and indiIect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the City of Rockland -Cass C. 6.Ro,ckport. A.AU coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Rockport,unless otherwise described or classified -Class e. B.Go,ose River and its tributaries below the highway bridge near Simonton Comen -Class B-2. e.Goose River and its tributaries above the highway bridge near Simonton Corner.l -Class B-I. D.lily Pond outlet -Oass Bo2. 7.St.George. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of S1.George,unless otherwise described or classified -Class C. B.Unnamed Stream and its tributaries above tidewater,entering tidewater at the northwesterly corner of Tenant's Harbor -Class B-I. e.Unnamed Stream and its tributaries,above tidewater,entering tidewater at the head .of Lonl~Cove -Class B-I. 8.South Thomaston. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,drainage to tidewater in the Town tlf South Thomaston -Oass C. 9.Thc,maston. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereot'.draining to tidewater in the Town <llf Thomaston,unless otherwise described or classified -Class B-1. B.Mill River,main .stem,from tidewater to a point ~mile above tidewater -Class C. C.Oyster River,main stem,from tidewater to a point'200 feet upstream of Packard's Mill -Class C. D.~iter River,main stem,from a point 200 feet upstream of Packard's Mill to the junction with the tributary of which is the outlet of Rocky Pond -Class B-2. E.Tributary of Oyster River,main stem,coming from Rocky Pond between the Route 17 bridl~e at West Rockport and the junction with Oyster Rivet -Class B-2. F.Umlamed Stream flowing from Mace's Pond to Chickawaukee Pond -Oass B-2. 10.W~ltten. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewaters of the St.Geo:rge River Estuary unless otherwise specified or classified -Cass H-I. B.Oy:lter River.See:Thomaston above. C.Unnamed Stream and its tributaries to St.George River tidewater near Warren-Cushing boundary upstream of a point 500 feet above South Warren-North Cushing Road.Class B-2. D.Urmamed Stream to St.George River tidewater near Warren-CUshing boundary between a point 500 feet above the South Warren-North Cushing road to tidewater -Class Co E.Uru1amed Stream and its tributaries above tidewater which enters tidewater of the St. George River 1'2 mile below the South Warren bridge -Cass B-2. 11.Other coastal streams.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof, draining to the tidal waters of Knox County,not otherwise specified or classified -Cass 8-1- 1973,c.423,§4. 35 i, It " Lincoln County 1955,c.426,§1 Those waters draining directly or indirectly into tidal waters of Lincoln County. Damariscotta River Drainage 1.All segments and tributaries of the Damariscotta River,not otherwise defmed,above tidewater -Class B-1. 2.Damariscotta River,main stem,from the outlet of Damariscotta Lake to tidewater at Salt Bay -Oass Bo2. 3.Inlet of Damariscotta lake at Jefferson Village,from the outlet of the mill pond above Jefferson Village to the lake -Qass B-2. Medomak River Drainage 1.All segments and tributaries of the Medomak River Drainage,not otherwise defmed or classified,above tidewater -Oass B-2. 2.Repealed.1965,c.425,§22. 3.Tributaries of Little Medomak Brook,principally in the Town of Washington -Qass Bolo Sheepscot River Drainage L All segments and tributaries of the Sheepscot River Drainage above tidewater not othenvise defined or classified -Qass B-l. 2.Sheepscot River,main stem,from tidewater to junction of East and West Branches -Qass Bo2. 3.Sheepscot River,West Branch main stem,from outlet of Branch Pond to junction of the East and West Branches -Oass B-Z. 4.Turner Pond outlet in Somerville Plantation from Turner Pond to Long Pond -CLass B-2. Other Coastal Streams of Lincoln County 1.Alna. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Alna,not otherwise specified or classified,with the exception of the Sheepscot River Drainage above tidewater -CLass B-1. B.Ben Brook,main stem,downstream of the second road crossing above its mouth -Class B-2. C.Unnamed Stream and its tributaries entering tidewater of the Sheepscot River at a point approximately one mile due east of the Alna Cemetery -Oass B-2. D.Unnamed Stream at Head Tide Village entering the Sheepscot River about 0.15 mile below the Route 218 crossing -Class B-2. 2.Boothbay. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Boothbay,not otherwise specified or classified -Class B-2. B.Adams Pond -Qass B-l. 3.Boothbay Harbor. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Boothbay Harbor,not otherwise specified or classified -Qass B-2. B.Meadow Brook and its tributaries entering Lewis Cove -Qass B-L C.Unnamed Brook and its tributaries entering the most easterly cove of Campbell Pond - CLassB-l. 4.Bremen. A.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Bremen -Qass B-1. 36 --_._-_.-.._---_._-~------------- 5.Bristol. A.All coastal streams entet· the Bristol-South Bristol tow Ji B.All coastal streams entering the head of tide on the Pemaq\ ~W:7- C.All coastal streams ente:f River and the Bristol-Brernel ;; D.Pemaquid River,segments tidewater -Qass B-1. E.Pemaquid River,main st t. F.Pemaquid River,main S',_.t Boyd Pond -CLass C. G.Unnamed Stream enteric"' west of Pemaquid Village -l .t R Unnamed Stream,abu.c Bristol -Class B-2. 6.Damariscotta. A.All coastal streams enter ~ 7.Dresden.See:Section 368, 8.Edgecomb. A.All coastal streams,sel e Town of Edgecomb,not oth_." B.AIl coastal streams,segme: (not including)the outlet of~:l',i C.All coastal streams,seg l' the Edgecomb-Boothbay lint vI 9.Newcastle. ~"".-'C A.All coastal streams draiJ q Newcastle -Class B·l. B.All coastal streams draini: Town of Newcastle -Class ~1. 10.Nobleboro. A.All coastal streams dIall __I. Nobleboro -Class B-2. 11.Soutb BristoL A.All coastal streams and , Bristol,unless otherwise spc....f B.Unnamed Stream enterin Bristol-South Bristol bound" 12.Southport. A.All coastal streams and Southport -Qass E-!. 13.Waldoboro. A.All coastal streams at Waldoboro,except as otherw Medomak River and its triq,~~:c 1963,c.54,§2. B.Goose River.See:Kno_~. -I - - ..... 5.Bri:stoL A.AU coastal streams entering tidewater between the Bristol-Damariscotta town line and the Bristol-South Bristol town line -Class B-2. B.AU coastal streams entering tidewater between the Bristol-South Bristol town line and the he:ld of tide on the Pemaquid River,not otherwise specified or classified -Oass B-2. C.AU coastal streams entering tidewater between the head of tide on the Pemaquid River lind the B~tol-Bremen town line,not otherwise specified or classified -Class B-1. D.Pemaquid River,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defined,above tidewaiter -Class B-1. E.Pe:maquid River,main stem,entrance to Boyd Pond to tidewater -Class B-2. F.Pe:maquid River,main stem,from dam upstream of Bristol Village to the entrance of Boyd l~ond -Class C. G.Drummed Stream entering a cove in the tidewater of Pemaquid River immediately west o:(Pemaquid Village -Class B-1. H.UrllWlled Stream,above tidewater,entering Buck Cove in the Town of Bristol -Class B-2. 6.Damariscotta. A.All coastal streams entering tidewaters of the Damariscotta River -Class B-2. 7.Dnsden.See:Section 368.Kennebec River. 8.Edgecomb. A.All coastal streams,segments and tributaries thereof,draining to tidewater in the Town of Edgecomb,not otherwise specified or classified -Class B·L B.All coastal streams,segments and tributaries thereof,draining to tidewater between (not including)the outlet of Lily Pond to the Edgecomb-Boothbay town line -Class B-2. e.All coastal streams,segments and tributaries thereof,draining to tidewater between the Edgecomb-Boothbay line on the Damariscotta River and Bennett Neck -Class B-2. 9.Newcastle. A.All coastal streams draining to tidewaters of the Damariscotta River in the Town of Newcastle -Class B-1. B.All coastal streams draining to tidewaters of the Sheepscot River Estuary in the Town of Newcastle -Class B-1. 10.Nobleboro. A.All coastal streams draining to tidewaters of the Damariscotta River in the Town of Noblehoro -Oass B-2. 11.South BristoL A.All coastal streams and segments thereof draining to tidewaters in the Town of South Bristol,unless otherwise specified or classified -Class B-2. B.Unnamed Stream entering tidewaters about %mile above Prentiss Cove at the Bristol-South Bristol boundary -Class B-1. 12.Southport. A.AJI coastal streams and segments thereof draining to tidewaters in the Town of Southport -Class B-1. 13.Waldoboro. A.All coastal streams and segments thereof draining to tidewaters in the Town of Wald<)boro,except as otherwise specified or classified and with the exception of the- MedoIllllk River and its tributaries above head of tide -Class B-1. 1963"c.54,§2. B.Goose River.See:Knox County Coastal Streams. 37 14.Westport. A.All coastal streams and segments thereof draining to tidewaters in the town of Westport -Qass C. 1967,c.304,§22. 15.Wiscasset. A.All coastal streams and segments thereof draining to tidewaters in the Town of Wiscasset,not otherwise specified or classified -Qass B-lo B.Unnamed Stream and tributaries entering tidewater by way of O1ewonke Creek -Cass B-2. C.Unnamed Stream and tributaries in Wiscasset entering the tidal estuary which lies immediately west of Bailey Point -Cass B-2. D.Ward Brook and tributaries -Cass B-2. 16.Other coastal streams.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof, draining to the tidal waters of Lincoln County,not otherwise specified or classified -Cass B-t. 1973,c.423,§5. Sagadahoc County Those streams above tidewater which drain to tidal waters of Sagadahoc County,directly or indirectly,not including that portion of Merrymeeting Bay north and west of the O1ops at Bath or those streams draining to the Androscoggin River Estuary -Cass C. 1967,c.304,§23. Waldo County 1955,c.426,§§1-7 Those streams above tidewater which drain to tidal waters of Waldo County between the Waldo-Knox County line to Fort Point in Stockton Springs. 1.Coastal streams,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise described,above tidewater,entering tidewater between the Knox-Waldo County line and the head of tide on the Little River at the Northport-Belfast boundary -Class B·l. 2.Coastal streams,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defined,above tide- water,entering tidewater between the head of tide on Goose River and Fort Point in Stockton Springs -Cass C. 3.Duel,trap River,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise described,above tidewater -Qass B-1. 4.Goose River (Belfast),main stem,below the upstream crossing of Route 101 -Class c. 5.Goose River (Belfast),segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defined,above tidewater -Cass B-2. 6.little River,Northport-Belfast,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defmed,above tidewater -Qass B-1. 7.Mill Brook and its tributaries in Searsport upstream of a bridge site on an abandoned road about 1'!z miles northerly of the village at Searsport which includes McQures Pond and Cain Pond -Cass B-1. 8.Mixer Pond (Morrill and Knox)tributaries -Cass B-1. 9.Passagassawaukeag River,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defined, above tidewater -Qass B-2. 10.Passagassawaukeag River Drainage above the outlet of Ellis Pond,to include Ellis Pond,Halfmoon Pond,Passagassawaukeag Lake and their respective tributaries -Cass B-1. 38 11.Sanborn Pond and Dutton Por: 12.Shaw Brook and its tubuti""s 13.Unnamed Stream entering 1 e 14. Unnamed Stream and its trib Long Cove -Class B-l. 15.Wescott Stream,entering 1 ; otherwise defmed,above tidewater·=: 16.Other coastal streams of Wa segments thereof,draining to the ji.d~ classified -Qass B-l. 1973,c.423,§6. Wasl1';"~g 195 Those streams above tidewater \ directly or indirectly,including those 1.All coastal streams,segmen tidewater,entering the tidal wate ( County line to and including those to 2.Boyden Stream,main stem,f~(), below Boyden Pond -Class B-2.,.,- 3.O1andler River and its tribu1 i' 4.Dennys River and its tributarie of Dennysville -Class A. 5.Dennys River,main stem,j r Dennysville -Qass B-2. 6.Dyke Brook,East Branch,mall the Maine Central Railroad -Class p~ 7.East Machias River and 191 -Class A. 8.East Machias River,main stem, the dam of the Bangor Hydro-Elect!""- 9.Machias River and its tribut8 f 10.Machias River,main stem,frc the site of the low dam opposite Machias -Class B--2. 11.Machias River,main stem,t the ends of West Street and Hardwood 12.Middle River,main stem,bllt- tidewater -Class B-2.", 13.Narragaugus River,East an fluence of the 2 streams -Cass A. 14.Narraguagus River,main st.!'tT. Central Railroad -Cass B-2. 15.Orange River and its tributaJ ; 16.Orange River,main stem,be Highway No.1 in Whiting -Cass j3.,?,,, 17.Pennamaquan River,main s r Maine Central Railroad and tidewate;- 18.Pleasant River,main stem,f; water -Qass B-2. .... --...... - 11.Sanborn Pond and Dutton Pond tributaries in Monill and Brooks -Cass B-l. 12.Shaw Brook and its tributaries in Northport -Qass ~2. 13.Unnamed Stream entering tidewater at lincolnville Beach -Cass ~2. 14.Unnamed Stream and its tributaries entering tidewater at the northwest comer of Long COVE!-Cass B-1. 15.Wescott Stream,entering tidewater in Belfast,segments and tributaries thereof not otherwise defmed,above tidewater -Gass B·l. 16.Other coastal streams of Waldo County.All coastal streams,direct and indirect segments thereof,draining to the tidal ""'aters of Waldo County,not otherwise specified or classified -.Oass ~l. 1973,(:.423,§6• Washington County 1955,c.426,§7 Those streams above tidewater which drain to tidal waters of Washington County, directly Ole indirectly.including those which drain to the tidal waters of the St.~oix River. 1.All coastal streams,segments and tributaries thereof,not otherwise defined,above tidewater, entering the tidal waters of Washington County from the Washington-Hancock County liJ:le to and including those to the tidal waters of the St.Croix River -Cass B-l. 2.BO:l'den Stream,main stem,from the outlet of Boyden Pond to the f'lISt road crossing below BO~'den Pond -Class ~2. 3.ClulIldler River and its tributaries above the Highway Bridge on Route 1 -Class A. 4.Delmys River and its tributaries above the Highway Bridge on Route 1 in the Town of Dennysville -Qass A. S.Dellnys River,main stem,from tidewater to the ~ridge at U.S.Highway No.1 at Dennysvilll~-Qass &2. 6.Dyke Brook,East Branch,main stem in Columbia from tidewater to the crossing of the Maine Central Railroad -Qass C. 7.East Machias River and its tributaries above the Highway Bridge on Route 191 -Class A. 8.East Machias River,main stern,from head of tide to a point 2,000 feet upstream of the dam oj[the Bangor Hydro-Electric Co.-Class C. 9.Ma(:hias River and its tributaries above the mill pond at Whitneyville -aass A- lD.Machias River,main stem,from the dam creating the mill pond in Whitneyville to the site of the low dam opposite the ends of West Street and··Hardwood Street in .Machias -Qass &2. 11.Machias River,main stem,between the site of the low dam approximately opposite the ends of West Street and Hardwcod Street in Machias to the head of tide -Class C. 12.Middle River,main stem,between the 2nd upstream crossing .of Route 192 and tidewater -Class B-2. 13.N3.1rragaugus River,East and West Branches and their tributaries,above the con- fluence of the 2 streams -Cass A. 14.N3.1rraguagus River,main stem,between tidewater and the bridge of the Maine Central Railroad -aass B-l. 15.OIlLIlge River and its tributaries above the highway bridge on Route 1 -Oass A. 16.OIlLIlge River,main stem,between tidewater and the highway bridge at U.S. Highway N'J.1 in Whiting -Class B-2. 17.Pennamaquan River,main stern,between the crossing of the Eastport Branch of the ?thme Central Railroad and tidewater -Qass B-2. 18.Pleasant River,main stern,from tidewater to a point 1,000 feet above tide- ",-ater -Gass B-2. 39 19.Tributary of Tunk Stream,the outlet of Round Pond,from Round Pond to the confluence with the main stem of Tunk Stream -Qass B-2. 20.Tunk Stream,main stem,from the bridge at Unionville to tidewater -Class &2. .21.Unnamed Stream entering northerly end of Brooks Cove in Robbinston -Class C. 22.Unnamed Stream immediately north of Schoolhouse Lane in Robbinston -Class C. 23.Unnamed Stream at easterly edge of Columbia Falls Village from tidewater to Maine Central Railroad near Pleasant River Canning Company plant -Class C. 24.Unnamed Stream entering tidewater portion of St.Croix River at Calais crossing North Street between Beech and Union Streets -Class C. 1971,c.138,§2. 25.Unnamed Stream passing through Harrington Village,the segment thereof,between tidewat~and a point immediately upstream of the school sewer -Qass C. 26.Unnamed Stream flowing through Dennysville Village immediately west of school building -Class &2. 27.Whitten Parrin Stream in 17,S.D.and Steuben -Class C. 28.Wiggins Brook at South Trescott,main stem,between Route 191 and tide- water -Class C. York County 1957,c.322,§8. Those streams above tidewater which drain to tidal waters of York County with the exception of those streams draining to the inland waters of the Piscataqua-Salmon Falls River Drainage,the Presumpscot River Drainage,the Mousam River Drainage and the Saco River Drainage. 1.All coastal streams draining directly or indirectly to the tidal waters of the Salmon Fa1ls-Piscataqua River north of Sisters Point in Kittery -Class B-1. 2.All coastal streams above tidewater between Roaring Rock Point (York)and the head of tide on Branch River (Wells)except as otherwise specified or classified -Class C. 3.All coastal streams and their tributaries not otherwise specified between Walker Point (Kennebunkport)and Fletchers Neck in Biddeford -Class C. 4.All coastal streams above head of tide and tributaries thereof not otherwise lesignated or classified entering tidewater from Fletchers Neck,Biddeford,to the fork-Cumberland County line -Class &2. 5.Biddeford-Unnamed streams and tributaries,the main stem of which crosses Route 9 two-tenths of a mile southerly of the intersection of Route 9 and Guinea Road -Class C. '6.Branch River (Brook),Wells -Qass &1.Goosefare Brook (Saco),from its origin ot 7.Goosefare Brook (Saco),from its origin to head of tide -Class C. 8.Josias River Tributary and branches thereof,entering from the north approximately 2Y..miles above tidewater -Class &2. 9.Kennebunk River and tributaries not otherwise classified including streams entering tidewater portion of Kennebunk River -Qass &2. 10.Milliken Brook (Saco)-Class C. 11.Webhannet River and tributaries -Class B-2. 12.West Brook (Biddeford)and tributaries above head of tide -Class C. 13.Coastal streams and direct or indirect tributaries thereof above head of tide,not otherwise designated or classified,which enter the tidal waters of York County -Qass B-2. 1970,c.538,§1. R.S.1954,c.79,§15:1955,c.426,§§1-3,5,7;1957,c.322,§8;1959,c.183,§§1,2; 1963.c.23:c.54,§1;c.420,§2;1979,c.495,§§7,8. 40 §370.Tidal waters ,I 1 All tidal waters of Cumberland Cc the tidal estuary of the Androscoggi,e,'I 1.Brumwick. A.Tidal waters of the Town of estuary of the Androscoggin -Qas;, 2.Cape Elizabeth.,,'c A.All tidal waters of Cape Ew,C B.From a point where longitude Scarboro mainland to a point ",,\,~. mouth of the Spurwink River e."' Spurwink River estuary to head C.Waters surrounding Richmond; D.From the southernmost poi:=' of land on the Cape Elizabeth rr: E.From a point directly west u£ line -Class SC. 3.Cumberland. A.From Cumberland-Falmoutl' 5&2, B.Waters of Great Chebeague l~~ C.Waters of Great Chebeague latitude 43°-45'(approximately ~1 D.Waters of Great Chebeal!u 70"-07'-37"-Class SB-2.- E.Waters surrounding island designated -Class SA. 4.Falmouth. A.Presumpscot River estuary W~· 1967.c.447,§2. B.Presumpscot River estuary fror SC. C.From the Route 1 crossing one mile north of Mackworth Po D.Waters surrounding Mackwort!l E.All.other waters of FalmoutJ,·r"1 5.Freeport. Ao All waters in the Town of Freep( E.Harraseeket Harbor upstrealT).Jr Point to Moore Point,including 10 . below the Mast Landing Road -{ B added 1979,c.495. 6.Harpswell. A.All waters in the Town of Hal 7.Portland. A.All tidal waters within the City ( ;rr- - - §3170.Tidal waters Cumberland County 1963,c.274,§3 All tidal waters of Cumberland County with the exception of those in or bordering on the tidlU estuary of the Androscoggin River and Merrymeeting Bay. 1.Brullllwick. A.Tidal waters of the Town of Brunswick except those in or bordering on the tidal estuary of the Androscoggin -Oass SB-l. 2.ICape Elizabeth. A.All tidal waters of Cape Elizabeth not otherwise specified -Cass SB-2. B.From a point where longitude 70°.16'-40"(just north of Higgins Beach)crosses the Scarboro mainland to a point where longitude 70""16'-14"(about one mile south of the mouth of the Spurwink River estuary)crosses the Cape Elizabeth mainland,including the Spmrwink River estuary to head of tide and tidal tributaries thereof -Qass SC. C.Waters surrounding Richmond Island -Gass SB-l. D.From the southernmost point of land at Mackenney Point to the easternmost point of billd on the Cape Elizabeth mainland -Class SA. lEo From a point directly west of Chimney Rock to the Cape Elizabeth-South Portland line-Cass SC. 3.Cumberland. A.'From Cumberland-Falmouth town line to Cumberland-Yarmouth town line -Class 5:8-2. B.Waters of Great Chebeague Island not specifically designated -Oass SA. C.Waters of Great Chebeague Island from the northernmost point of land southeast to latitude 43"-45'(approximately %mile of shoreline)-Oass S8-I. D.Waters of Great Chebeague Island in Coleman Cove east of longitude 70",,(17'·37"-Oass SB-2. E.Waters surrounding islands in the Town of Cumberland not specifically, desi~~ted -Cass SA. 4.Falmouth. A.It'resumpscot River estuary from head of tide to Route 9 crossing -Oass SC. 1961',c.447,§2. B.lilresumpscot River estuary from the Route 9 crossing to the Route 1 Classing -aass sc. C.From the Route 1 Classing northeast to a point where longitude 70"-13'-40"(about one mile north of Mackworth Point)crosses the Falmouth mainland -Oass SC. D.Waters surrounding Mackworth Island -Oass sc. E.All other waters of Falmouth not otherwise designated -Class SB-2. 5.Freeport. A.All waters in the Town of Freeport unless otherwise specified -aass SB-l. E:.Harraseeket Harbor upstream from an imaginary easterly line drawn from Stockbridge P'oint to Moore Point,including Harraseeket River to the confluence with Frost Gully Brook below the Mast Landing Road -Class SB-2. B added 1979,c.495. 6.Harpswell. A.All waters in the Town of Harpswell -Class SB-l. 7.Portland• •-'1,.All tidal waters within the City of Portland not otherwise specified -Class SC. 41 B.All tidal waters east of longitude 70°·10'not otherwise specified -Class SA. C.Northerly shoreline of Fore River and Portland Harbor from the Vaughn Bridge crossing to the most easterly point of land on the Portland mainland -Class SC. 1967,c.447,§I. D.,All waters west of Grand Trunk Bridge which includes Back Cove -Class SC. 1967,c.447,§1. E.Presumpscot River estuary from head of tide to Route 9 bridge -Class SC. 1967,c.447,§1. F.Waters of Peaks Island from the most northerly point of land on the island to a point where latitude 43°.39',52"crosses the easterly shoreline (approximately one mile of shoreline)-Class SB·2. G.Waters of Peaks Island from a point where latitude 43°.39'-52"crosses the easterly shore line to the southernmost point of land on the island -Qass SB-l. H.Waters on the easterly shore of little Diamond Island from the southernmost point of land to the northernmost point of land on the island -Class 8B-2. I.From the most westerly point of land on Long Island to the most northerly land formation on the island -Class SB-2. J.From the most northerly land formation on long Island to the most westerly point of land on the island in a southeasterly direction with the exception of Harbor Grace north of latitude 43°-41'-21"-Class SB-1. K.Waters of Harbor Grace north of latitude 43°-41'.21"on Long Island -Class SB-2. L Waters on the easterly shore line of Cushing Island from the northernmost point of land to the southernmost point of land on the island -Class SB-2. 8.Scarboro. A.All tidal waters in the Town of Scarboro not otherwise designated -Cass SB-2. B.Nonesuch River estuary from head of tide to the B.&M.(Dover line)railroad crossing -Class SC. C.little River estuary from head of tide to its confluence with the Scarboro River and tidal tributaries thereof -Class SC. D.Dunstan River estuary from head of tide to its confluence with the Scarboro River and tidal tributaries thereof -Class SB-1. 1965,c.84. E.libby River estuary from head of tide to a point where longitude 70°-19'(about 1Vz miles below the Route 207 crossing)crosses the estuary,and tidal tributaries thereof -Class SB-1. F.From a point directly west of the most northerly point of land on Shooting Rock Island to a point on the mainland directly north of Cool Rock -Class SA. 1973,c.267. G.From a point where longitude 70°.16'-40"crosses the Scarboro mainland to a point where longitude 70°-16'-14"(a point about a mile south of the confluence of the Spurwick River estuary)crosses the Cape Elizabeth mainland including the Spurwink River estuary to head of tide and tidal tributaries thereof -Class SC. 8-A.South Portland. A.All tidal waters in the aty of South Portland -Class SC. 1965,c.425,§23. 9.Yarmouth. A.All tidal waters of the Town of Yarmouth not otherwise designated -Cass SB-2. B.Waters of little John Island from the northernmost point of land on the island southeast to a pomt where longitude 70°-07'-32"intersects the shore line -Cass SB-1. 42 1.Bar Harbor. A.TIdewater from a point 50 . Harbor town line,with the exceptio B.TIdewaters within the T,;c-·- described -Class SB-l. 1968,c.516,§1. 2.Blue Hill. A.TIdewater from Sand Point B.TIdewaters of Salt Pond -C Co TIdewater from the most so northerly and easterly includin,~, line -Class SB-I. D.TIdewater within the 1 described -Class SA. 3.Brooklin., A.Tidewaters of Herrick Bay latitude 44°.16'.18"-Class SB<. B.TIdewater from the tidal port latitude 44"-15.5'at Center Harr-T Co TIdewaters of Salt Bay -Cl, D.Tidewater within the Town or b 4.Brooks1iille. A.TIdewater from Blake p( Horseshoe Cove at latitude 44": 1968,c.516,§2. B.TIdewaters forming the es~,el and east of a point of land a \ Lord's Cove)-Gass SA. 1963,c.516,§2. C.Orcutt Harbor north of lat;,;, 1968,c.516,§2. D.Easterly shoreline of Bucks 68°-44.5'-Gass SB-2. r:'i0-' E.Westerly shoreline of Buc tude 68°-44.5'at Norembega - F.TIdewater of Bucks Harbor n 1968,c.516,§2. G.TIdewater along the shore l longitude 68"-43.25'-Gass SI _, 1968,c.516,§20 H.TIdewater from longitude "-'I town line -Class SB-l. L TIdewa ter within this town Sedgwick town line not previousl' J.Tidal waters from a poin'""-: 44°-24'by W.68°-46.3'on t Point -Class SB-L .- I ..- .- - Hancock County 1963.c,.320 1.Bu Harbor. A.TIdewater from a point 500 yards south of Bear Brook to the Mount Dessert-Bar Harbor town line,with the exception of Otter Cove north of latitude 44°-18.75'-Class SA. B.TIl1ewaters within the Town of Bar Harbor not specifically mentioned or described -Class SB-l. 1968,C:.516,§1. 2.Blue Hill. A.Tidewater from Sand Point and southerly a distance of 500 yards -Class 5B-2. B.Tidewaters of Salt Pond -Class 58-1. C.TIclewater from the most southerly bridge crossing at Salt Pond at the "Nub" northerly and easterly inclUding all bays and estuaries to the Blue Hill-Surry town line -Class SB-L D.TIdewater within the Town of Blue Hill not previously mentioned or describl~-Class SA. 3.BmokIin. A.Tidewaters of Herrick Bay north of a line drawn due east from a point of land at latitude 44°-16'-18"-Class SB-2. B.Tidewater from the tidal portion of the Benjamin River and including this river,to latitude 44°·15.5'at Center Harbor -Class SB-l. C.Tidewaters of Salt Bay -Class 5B-l. D.Tidewater within the Town of Brooklln not otherwise mentioned or described -Class SA. 4.Brocksville. A.TIciewater from Blake Point at longitude 68°-48'to a point of land south of Horsesitloe Cove at latitude 44°-19.25'-Class SB-l. 1968,.:.516,§2• B.Tidewaters forming the estuary known as Bagaduce River in the Town of Brooksville and east of a point of land at approximately N.44°-24'by W.68°46.3'(just south of Lord's Cove)-Class SA. 1963,I:.516,§2. C.OIl:utt Harbor north of latitude 44°-20.75'-Class 51H. 1968,C:.516,§2. D.Eat,terly shoreline of Bucks Harbor from latitude 44°.20"10"south of longitude 68°·44.:5'-Class SB-2. E.Weilterly shoreline of Bucks Harbor south of latitude 44°-20'·10"easterly to longi- tude 6S:°-44.5'at Norembega -Class SB·2. F.Tidewater of Bucks Harbor north of latitude 44°-20'-10"-Cass S8-I. 1968,c.516,§2. G.Tidewater along the shoreline at Norembega from longitude 68°-44.5'southeast to iongitudle 68°-43.25'-Class SB-l. 1968,c"516,§2. H.TId,~water from longitude 68°-42.25'near Henic1cs Village to Sedgwick-Brookville town line -Class SB·L 1.Tidewater within this town along its southerly shoreline from Blake Point to the Sed!,'Wick town line not previously mentioned or described -Class SA. J.Tidal waters from a point of land just south of Lord's Cove at approximately N. 440-24'by W.68°-46.3'on the Bagaduce Estuary around Cape Rosier to Blake's Point -Class SB-1.. 43 5.Castine. 1965,c.179,§3;1968,c.516,§2. A.Tidewaters in the Town of Castine between a point on Dice Head due south of the lighthouse to the point of land at approximately N.44°-24',W.68°-47'-Class 5B-2. 1963,c.274,§3. B.Tidewaters of the estuary known as Bagaduce River bordering on Castine east of a point of land at approximately N.44°-24'-Class SA. C.Tidal waters of Castine bordering the Penobscot River Estuary between the Penobscot- Castine boundary and a point on Dice Head due south of the lighthouse -Class SB-l. 1965,c.179,§4.Chapter revised 1979,c.495. 6.Deer Isle. A.Tidewater bordering the settled area of Eggemoggin between longitude 68°-44'and latitude 44°-18.25'-Class SB-l. B.Tidewater of Blastrow Cove in little Deer Isle -Class SB-2. 1969,c.121.§I. C.Tidewaters on the westerly shoreline south of latitude 44°.14.25'to the Deer Isle-Stonington town line,including Northwest Harbor,Pressey Cove and Sheephead Island -Class SB-l. D.Tidewater from the Stonington-Deer Isle town line at the Holt Pond outlet to the northeasterly point of land at latitude 44°-13.25'at Greenlaw Cove and including Stinson Neck -Class SB-1. E.Tidewaters of Town of Deer Isle not otherwise mentioned or described -Class SA. 7.Ellsworth, A,All tidal waters within the City of Ellsworth -Class SB-l. 1968,c.516,§3. 8.Franklin. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Franklin -Class SB-l. 9.Gouldsboro. A,All tidewaters within the Town of Gouldsboro -Class SB-l. 1968,c.516,§4. 10.Hancock. A.Tidewaters of Hancock north and westerly of a line drawn due west from Pecks Point in waters known as Kilkenney Cove,Skillins River and Youngs Bay -Class SB-2. 1967,c.153,§1. B.Tidewaters of the Town of Hancock not otherwise specified or described -Class SB-1. 1967,c.153,§1;1968,c.516,§5. 11.Lamoine. A.Tidewaters from the Hancock-Lamoine town line at Kilkenney Cove south to a line drawn due west from Pecks Point in the Town of Hancock -Class S£-2. 1967,c.153,§2. B.Tidewaters wtihin the Town of Lamoine not otherwise specified or classified -Class SB-1. 1967,c.153,§2. 12.Mount Desert. A.Tidewater from Otter Cove south of latitude 44°-18.75'to Ingraham Point -Class SA. B.Tidewaters within the Town of Mt.Desert not otherwise specified or classi- fied -Class SB-1. 44 1968,c.516,§6. 13.Penobscot. A,Tidewaters of the estual'l'J.} SA. B.Tidal waters of PenobscL.t 1965,c.179,§5. 14.Sedgwick. A.Tidewaters of the estua. SA, B.Remaining tidewaters ~tl classified -Class SB-l. IS.Sorrento. A,All tidewaters within the Tc 16.Southwest Harbor. A.All tidewaters within the 'c 1968,c,516,§7. 17.Stonington. A.Tidewater from the Me l Moose Island -Class SB-2. 1969,c,121,§2. B.Tidewaters within tt- classified -Oass SB-l. 1969,c.121,§2. 18.Sullivan, A.All tidal waters within 19.Suny. A.All tidal waters within the 20.Swans island. A,All tidal waters within t 1968,c.516,§8. 21.Tremont. A,All tidal waters within t 1968,c.516,§8. 22.Trenton. A.All tidal waters within f" 1968,c.516,§8. 23.Winter Harbor. A.All tidal waters within tb'3 1968,c.516,§8. 24.Cranberry Isles. A.All tidal waters within the 1967,c.475,§8;1968,c.; 25.Long Island Plantation. A.All tidal waters within La- 1968,c.516,§9. - - - - - - 1968,c.516,§6. 13.Penobscot. A.Tidewaters of the estuary known as Bagaduce River bordering on Penobscot -Class SA. B.Tidal waters of Penobscot bordering the Penobscot River estuary -Class SB-l. 1965,c.179,§5. 14.Sedgwick. A.TIdewaters of the estuary known as Bagaduce River bordering on Sedgwick -Class SA. B.Remaining tidewaters within the Town of Sedgwick not otherwise specified or classified -Class SB-l. 15.Souento. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Sorrento -Dass SB-L 16.Southwest Harbor. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Southwest Harbor -Qass S8-L 1968,c.516,§7. 17.Stonington. A.TIdewater from the Moose Island Bridge to Ames Pond outlet including waters of Mo,ose Island -Class SB-2. 1969,c.121,§2. B.Tidewaters within the Town of Stonington not otherwise specified or claWfied -Class SB·l. 1969,c.121,§2. 18.Sullivan. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Sullivan -Dass SB·l. 19.Surry. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Surry -Qass SB·l. 20.Swans Island. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Swans Island -C1ass SB-l. 1968,c.516,§8. 21.Tremont. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Tremont -Class SB-l. 1968,c.516,§8. 22.Trenton. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Trenton -Qass SB-I. 1968,c.516,§8. 2:!.Winter Harbor. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Winter Harbor -0355 58-I. 1'968.c.516,§8. 24.Cranberry Isles. A.AIl tidal waters within the Town of Cranberry Isles -Class S8-I. 1967,c.475,§8;1968,c.516,§9. 25.Long Island Plantation. A..All tidal waters within Long Island Plantation -Oass SB-I. 1968,c.516,§9. 45 26.Exceptions. A.A municipality,sewer district,person,firm,corporation or other legal entity shall not be deemed subject to penalty under this subchapter at any time prior to October 1, 1976 with respect to any of said classification in Hancock County if by such time he or it,with regard to facilities designed to achieve compliance with the applicable classifica- tion shall have completed all the steps required to be then completed by the following schedule: 1)Preliminary plans and engineer's estimates shall be completed and submitted to the Board of EnviIonmental Protection on or before October 1,1969. 2)Arrangements for administration and financing shall be completed on or before October 1.1971. 3)Detailed engineering and final plan formulation shall be completed on or before January 1,1972. 4)Detailed plans and specifications shall be approved by the Board of Environ- mental Protection and construction begun prior to June 1.1973. 5)Construction shall be completed and in operation on or before October 1,1976. 1968.c.516,§10;1972,c.618. Knox County 1963,c.274,§3 General classification -TIdewaters of Knox County not otherwise specifically desig- nated -Qass SA (includes:Cushing,Warren,Thomaston). 1.Camden. A.TIdewater bordering Camden from Northeast Point to Ogier Point except that assigned to Qass "C'-Class SB-1. B.TIdewater bordering Camden from Metcalf Point to Eaton Point -Class SC. 2.Cushing. A.Tidewaters bordering Cushing -Class SA. 3.Friendship. A.TIdewaters of Friendship Harbor north of a line drawn from the point of land opposite the northerly tip of Garrison Island to Jameson Point -Class SC. 4.North Haven. A.Shoreline of North Haven for liz mile east of the point of land on the eastern side of Brown's Cove -Class SB-2. S.Owls Head. A.TIdewaters from the point of land immediately southwest of Cresent Beach to the Owls Head-Rockland town line -Class SC. 6.Rockland. A.All tidewaters in the Gty of Rockland -Class SC. 7.Rockport. A.Rockport Harbor north of a line extended due east from end of Sea Street,near Harkness Brook -Qass SC. B.Tidewater from Rockland Town Une to the next point of land to the north -QassSc. C.Clam Cove in Rockport from Brewster Point to Pine Hill -Qass 88--2. D.Rockport Harbor north of a line due west of Beauchamp Point except that portion assigned to Class "C'-Qass SB-l. 8.St.George. A.Tidewaters between a point 100 yards south of the cannery at Port Clyde and the point of land west of Fish Cove -Qass SC. B.Tennants Harbor west of a North-South line at the harbor entrance (approximately longitude 69"-12'W.)-Qass Sc. 46 C Small Cove just northeast o·C point of land forming east side of c( D.Tidewaters between Marsh;JJJ "C'-Qass SB-1. 9.South Thomaston. A.Northerly cove of Seal Harbor r: B.Shoreline St.George River sc' C.Weskeag River north of a lint l 10.Thomaston. A.All tidal waters bordering Thpm 11.Vinalhaven. A.TIdewaters of Carvers Hatbc:,.; Sand Cove to the bridge to Lane lsI: 12.Warren. A.TIdewaters of Oyster River - B.TIdal waters of Warren not othe 1.Alna. A.All tidal waters within the T/~ 1963,c.-320. 2.Boothbay. A.All tidewaters within the T0'W1 3.Boothbay Harbor. A.TIdal waters bordering the -j u .... east from the point of land off Cor: B.TIdal waters not otherwise SB-1. 4.Bremen. A,All tidewaters within the Town ~F'- 5.Bristol. A.All tidewa ters not othen Bristol -Class SA. B.Pemaquid Harbor and New IiI'," a point 100 yards east of Gilbert' C.Tidewaters in the Town of Buo River,except that segment assigne closest points on north and south,-.., D.TIdewater of Long Cove no 1 extending southward on the east .__ 6.Damariscotta. A.All tidal waters not otherwist", B.Tidewaters from latitude 44°• 44"-1.6'(south of Day Cove)-Qas 1967,c.304,§24. 7.Edgecomb. - .... I - -f - -, I~ I C.Small Cove just northeast of Tenants Harbor,north of a line drawn due west from point of land forming east side of cove -Class SB-l. D.TIdewaters between Marshall Point and Hooper Point not assigned to Class "C'''-Class SB-l. 9.Sou.th Thomaston. A.NOJrtherly cove of Seal Harbor near Sprucehead -Class SB-l. B.Shmeline St.George River south of Hospital Point -Class SB-I. C.Weilkeag River north of a line due west from Hayden Point -Cass SB-l. 10.TIlomaston. A.All tidal waters bordering Thomaston -Class SA. 11.VinalhavelL A.TIdewaters of Carvers Harbor arid Sand CoYe from the point on the south side of Sand Gllve to the bridge to Lane Island -Class 8B-2. 12.W:men. A.TId.ewaters of Oyster River -Class SB-l. B.TId.a!waters of Warren not otherwise specified -Cass SA. Lincoln County 1963,c.274,§3 1.AlOia. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Alna -Class SB·l. 1963,t:.'320. 2.Bo()thbay. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Boothbay -Class SB-l. 3.Bo()thbay Harbor. A.TIdlal waters bordering the Town of Boothbay Harbor northerly of a line drawn due east from the point of land off Commercial Street nearest McFarland Island -Class SB-2. B.Tidlal waters not otherwise classified within the Town of Boothbay Harbor -Class SB-l. 4.BremeIL A.All tidewaters within the Town -of Bremen -Class SA. S.Bristol. A.All tidewaters not otherwise described or classified within the Town of Brbtol -Class SA. B.Pemaquid Harbor and New Harbor,including back cove in Bristol from Fish Point to a point 100 yards east of Gilbert's Wharf -Cass SC. C.TIdewaters in the Town of Bristol from Fish Point to the point of land east of Johns River,except that segment assigned to Class SC,and Round Pond Harbor inside the closest points on north and south -Cass SB-2. D.TIdewater of Long Cove north of a line drawn due west from the point of land extending southward on the east side of the cove -Class SB-l. 6.Damariscotta. A.All tidal waters not otherwise described or classified -Class SB-1. B.Tidewaters from latitude 44°-2.7'(near present Route #1 Bridge)south to latitude 44"1.6'(south of Day Cove)-Class SB-2. 1967.c.304,§2~. "7.Edgecomb. 47 -"'-_-.......-----,-__------...,..r------------.....------------------------------- 1":"'-. ~--~~~.--..---,•---__~..;..__-~_..,"~_..~__•.~__,~._._o·~._ A.All tidal waters bordering 1he easterly shoreline of Edgecomb -Cass SA. B.All tidal waters bordering the westerly shoreline of the Town of Edgecomb -Cass S8oI. 1963,c.320. 8.Newcastle. A.Tidal waters not otherwise classified or described within the Town of Newcastle on its easterly shoreline -Gass SA. B.Tidewater from head of tide at Damariscotta Mills in Newcastle south to the Railroad Bridge -Oass SB·2. 1967,c.304,§25. C.All tidal waters bordering the westerly shoreline of the Town of Newcastle -Class S8oI. 1963,c.320. D.Tidewaters from the Railroad Bridge at Damariscotta Mills south to a point at latitude 440.2.7'(near present Route #1 Bridge)-Cass SB-1. 1967,c.304,§25. E.Tidewaters from a point at latitude 440.2.7'(near present Route #1 Bridge)to a point of land at latitude 44 0.1.6'(about '(1 mile above Little Point)-Class SB-2. 1967,c.304,§25. F.Tidewaters of the Damariscotta River from a point of land at latitude 440-1.6'(about Y1 mile above little Point)south of little Point -Qass S8oI. 1967,c.304,§25. 9.Nobleboro. A.Head of tide at Damariscotta Mills in Nobleboro to Railroad Bridge -Class S802. 1967,c.304,§26. B.Tidewaters in Nobleboro not otherwise classified or described -Oass SB-I. 10.South Bristol. A.All tidewaters within the Town of South Bristol not otherwise classified or described -Class SA. B.TIdewaters south of a line drawn due east from Jones Point except waters around Inner Herron Island and lluumpcap Island -Class se. 11.Southport. A All tidal waters bordering on the Town of Southport -Qass S8oI. 1963,c.320. 12.Waldoboro. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Waldoboro not otherwise classified or described -Class SA. B.TIdewaters north of a line drawn from Hoffses Pt.to Waltz Pt.-Class S8-1. 13.Westport. A.All tidal waters within the Town of Westport -Class SB-l. 1963,c.320. 14.Wiscasset. A All tidal waters within the Town of Wiscasset -Gass S8-I. 1963.c.320. Sagadahoc County 1.General classification. 48 A.All tidal waters of Sagadah exception of Merrymeeting Ba, tidal estuary,from the Chops,sc easterly pont of land at the ;91 southernmost extension of Bay 1963,c.274,§3. 2.Other category. A.TIdal waters of the Sasan"w Kennebec River and Upper Hell 1961,c.273. B.TIdal waters bordering"the To Sasanoa River and the Kennebt~·· S802. 1961,c.273. 1.Belfast. A.Tidewaters from the:North;l-9.r S8oI. B.Tidewaters between "The city park -Cass SB-2. C.Tidewaters between a pain?"" mouth of Goose River,except 1967,c.155. D.The portion of the tidal estua of a bridge about one mile UPS!)"""'" E.Tidewaters between Goose 1 2.Frankfort. 3.Islesboro. A.Tidewaters within the Tc r fied -Cass SA B.TIdewaters from Marshall Pt.t C.Dark Harbor inside the tidar'···. D.Segment of coast between Cove -Qass SB-I. 4.Lincolnville. A.TIdewaters within the To fied -Class SA. B.TIdewater creek or estuary of C.TIdewatels between the ls1"" north of the tidewater creek at neal Carver's Corner except for _.( D.TIdewater of the mouth of approximately 1,000 feet southf"r. 5.Northport. A.All tidewaters within the Ie fled -Cass SA. -I - -- -I - A.All tidal waters of Sagadahoc County not otherwise classified or described,with the exception of Merrymeeting Bay north and west of the Chops and the Kennebec River, tidal estuary,from the Chops,so called,southerly to a line drawn between the most easterly pont of land at the southerly end of Popham Beach in Phippsburg and the southemmost extension of Bay Point in Georgetown -Class SB-1. 1963,c.274,§3. 2.Other category. A.TIdal waters of the Sasanoa River bordering the Town of Anowsic,between the Kennebec River and Upper Hell Gate -Oass S~2. 1961,c.273. B.TIdal waters bordering the Town of Woolwich between the junction of the scx:alled Sasanoa,River aI)d the Kennebec River and Upper Hell Gate on the Sasanoa River -Class SB-2. 1961,c.273. Waldo County 1963,c.274,§3 1.BeUast. A.Tidewaters from the Northport-Belfast town line to "The Battery"in Belfast -Class SB-1. B.TIcllewaters between "The Battery"and a point opposite the swimming pool at the city puk -Class SB-2. e.TIdewaters between a point opposite the swimming pool at Belfast city park and the mouth of Goose River,except for portions otherwise classified or described -Class SC. 1967,t:.155. D.lhe portion of the tidal estu;uy of the Passagassa~rnkeag River upstream at the site of ,a b~idge about one mile upstream of the Route #1 Bridge at Belfast -Class SB-2. E.TIdewaters between Goose River and the Searsport-Belfast town line -Class SB-I. 2.Frankfort. 3.Islesboro. A.TIdewaters within the Town of Islesboro not otherwise designated or classi- fied -Class SA. B.TItlewaters from Marshall Pt.to Coombs Pt.~-Class SB-I. C.Dark Harbor inside the tidal dam -Class SB-l. D.Segment of coast between Grindle Pt.and the point of land to the east of Broad Cove _.Oass SB-I. 4.lillcolnville. A.Tidewaters within the Town of lincolnville not otherwise described or classi- fIed -Class SA. B.Tidewater creek or estl13IY of small sueam which rises ne:u:Carver's Comer -Class se. c.Tidewaters between the Islesboro Ferry wharf,lincolnville,and a point 1,000 feet north of the tidewater creek at Lincolnville Beach,or estuary of small sueam,which rises near Carver's Corner except for the waters of this tidal creek -Class SB-2.. D.TIdewater of the mouth of Duckuap River from the head of tide to a point approltimately 1.000 feet southeasterly of Route 1 -Cass SB-I. 5.N<lIthport. ,\AJlI tidewaters within the Town of Northport not otherwise described or classi- lied -Qass SA. 49 B.Tidewaters between Saturday Cove and the Northport-Belfast town line -Class SB-l. 6.Searsport. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Searsport not otherwise described or classi- fied -Oass SA. B.Tidewater from Belfast-Searsport town line and the point of land in Searsport Harbor which is fonned by the landing or wharf at the end of Steamboat Avenue -Class SB-l. C.From the wharf at the end of Steamboat Avenue in Searsport to a point opposite the site of the Searsport Railioad Station -Qass SB-2. D.Tidewaters between a point opposite the site of the Searsport Railroad Station and a point 100 yards east of the wharf at Summers Fertilizer Company -Class SB-l. 7.Stockton Springs. A.Tidewater from Ft.Point westerly to the Stockton Springs-Searsport town line -Class SB-l. B.From a point on the westerly bank of the Penobscot River Estuary at a point where a line drawn in a westerly direction through the southernmost point of Verona Island intersects this bank southerly to Fort Point on Cape Jellison -Qass SB-l. 1965 c.179 §6. 80 Effective date. A.The classifications set forth in subsection 7 shall become effective on October 1, 1965,A municipality.sewer district,person.flIIl\,corporation or other legal entity shall not be deemed in violation of these sections at any time or times prior to October I, 1976 with respect to those classifications if by such time or times he or it with respect to any project necessary to achieve compliance with the applicable classification shall have completed all steps required to then be completed by the following schedule: (1)Preliminary plans and engineers'estimates involving municipal and other pUb- lically owned projects shall be completed on or before October 1,1968 and plans for required abatement steps by others shall be submitted and approved not later than October I,1969. (2)Arrangements for administration and fmancing shall be completed on or before October I,1971.In the case of municipal projects this period is to include defmite scheduling of grants-in-aids. (3)Detailed plans and specifications shall be approved by the Board of Environ- mental Protection and construction begun prior to June I,1973. (4)All requirements are to be completed and in operation on or before October 1,1916. 1965,c.179,§8;1967,c.475,§9;1972,c.618. Washington County 1963,c.214,§3 1.Addison. A.All tidewaters of Addison not otherwise described or classified -Cass SA. B.TIdewaters between a line extending due east from Whites Pt.to the east side shore and the Columbia Falls-Addison town boundary -Oass SB-l. C.TIdewaters in Addison north of a line across the estuary of Indian River 100 yards below the Route 187 Bridge at Indian River Village -Class SB·2. 2.Beals. A.Tidewaters of Beals not otherwise classified -Cass SA. B.Tidewaters around the northern end of Beals Island between Indian Pt.and the point of land on Beals Island nearest French House Island -Class SB-2. 3.Calais. A.Tidewaters from the Calais-Robbinston town line to a point of land immediately upstream of Devils Head in Calais -Class SB-2. 50 B.TIdewaters of the St.CclQi upstream of Devils Head in Ca ; 4.Cherryfield. A.TIdewaters of Narraguagus Ri 5.Columbia. A.Tidewaters of West Bra ary -Class SB-2. 6.Columbia Falls. A.Tidewater portions of th boWlilary -Cass Sc. 1.Cutler. A.Tidewaters within the To"£l'( B.Tidewaters of Cutler Hart approximately at N.44°-39.3'~.- C Tidewaters of Money Cove in Et Dennysville. Ii.TIdewaters within the Tovi Do TIdewaters of Dennys Bay an 9.East Machias. Ii.All tidewaters within the '; 10.Eastport. A.TIdewaters of Eastport not ~_TIdewaters of Bar Barbol ' ./Moose Island and Carlow Islal Island -Class SB-2. .£;:/TIdewaters of Carryingplali,!l approximately N.44°-55.3',. 44°-55.3',W.67°·01.7'-Oass D.TIdewaters of Prince Cove \ 'southerly extension of the .pc located -Class SB-2.' E.Tidal waters not otherwisl , near Dog Island in Eastport -CIa 11.Edmunds. A.Tidewaters of Edmunds nc B.Orange River estuary an~ northwesterly and southwesterly ary of Whiting -Oass SB-l. C.TIdewaters of Dennys Ri Hinckley Point in Dennysville -I D.Tidewater of Dennys River Hinckley Pt.in Dennysville =,~. 67°.11.7'-Class SB-l. 12.Harrington. A.All tidewaters of Harrington; !}:,r B.Tidewaters of Mill River Harrington -Cass SB-l. C.Tidewaters bordering Harring at a point 1,000 feet down-rive/.c - -1 ..-.~.- - B.TIdewaters of the St.Croix River estuary from the point of land immediately upstream of Devils Head in Calais to the head of tide also in Calais -Cass Sc. 4.Cherryfield. A.TI<dewaters of Narraguagus River estuary -Oass SC 5.Columbia. A.TI<dewaters of West Brook estuary above the Columbia-Addison town bound- ary -Class SB-2. 6.Columbia Falls. A.Tidewater portions of the Pleasant River above the Columbia Falls-Addison town boundary -Cass SC. 7.Cutler. A.TIdewaters within the Town of Cutler not otherwise classifIed -Qass SA. B.TIdewaters of Cutler Harbor inside a line running northeast from the point of land approximately at N.44°-39.3'and W.67°-12.4'-Cass SB·2. C.TIdewaters of Money Cove inside the tidal falls -Oass S8-L 8.Dennysville. A.Tidewaters within the Town of Dennysville not otherwise classified -Oass SB-L B.TIdewaters of Dennys Bay and River west of Hinckley Pt.-Cass SC. 9.East Machias. A.All tidewaters within the Town of East Machias -Class SC. 10.E:astport. A.TIdewaters of Eastport not otherwise classified or described -Oass SA. "'B:_TIdewaters of Bar Harbor in Eastport from the fill between northwesterly point of ~.Moose Island and Carlow Island and the old highway bridge from the mainland to Moose Island -Class S8-2. eo'TIdewaters of Carryingplace Cove,east of a line drawn from the point of land at approximately N.44°-55.3',W.67°-01.7'to the point of land at approximately N. 44°-55.3',W.67°-01.7'-Cass SB-l. D.Tidewaters of Prince Cove west of a line extending from Estes Head to the most southe:rly extension of the point of land on which Country Road,so called,is located -Qass SB-2. E.TIdal waters not otherwise classified between Shackford Head and the point of land near Dog Island in Eastport -Cass Sc. 11.Edmunds. A.TIdewaters of Edmunds not otherwise classified or described -Oass SA. B.Oirange River estuary and Whiting Bay from a line drawn across the bay in a northwesterly and southwesterly direction through WIlbur Pt.and the easterly bound- ary of Whiting -Qass SB-l. C.TIdewaters of Dennys River in Edmunds west of a line drawn due south from Hinckley Point in Dennysville -Class SC. D.TIdewater of Dennys River Estuary and Bay east of a line drawn due south from Hinckley Pt.in Dennysville to a point of land at approximately N.44°-54.5'W. 67°-11.7'-Cass SB-l. 12.Harrington. A.AJIl tidewaters of Harrington not otherwise described or classified -Class SA. B.TIdewaters of Mill River and Cole Creek Estuary northwesterly of Oak Pt.in H.'11'rington -Qass SB-L C.TIdewaters bordering Harrington west and south of a line across the Harrington River at a point 1.000 feet down-river of the canning factory in Harrington -Class SC. 51 ~.; D.Tidewaters west and north of a line across the Harrington River drawn due east from Oliver Lord Pt.,except those west and north of a line across the Harrington River at a point 1,000 feet downriver of the canning factory at Harrington -Qass SB-2. 13.Jonesboro. A.All tidewaters in Jonesboro not otherwise described or classified -Qass SA. B.Tidewaters of the Chandler River in Jonesboro upstream of a line drawn normal to the stream at a point 2/10 mile below the Route #1 Bridge at Jonesboro Village -Class SC. C.Tidewaters along the Chandler River in Jonesboro between a line normal to the stream at a point 2/10 mile below the Route #1 Bridge at Jonesboro Village and a line drawn from Carlton Point to Deep Hole Point -Class SB-l. 14.Jonesport. A.All tidewaters of Jonesport not otherwise described or classified -Qass SA. B.Tidewaters in Jonesport north of a line across the estuary of Indian River 100 yards below the Route 187 Bridge at Indian River Village -Qass SB-2. C,Tidewaters between Hopkins Pt.and Indian Pt.-Qass Sc, IS.Lubec. A.An tidewa ters of Lubec not otherwise described or classified -Qass SA. B.Tidewaters of Bailey's Mistake west of a line drawn due north from Balch Head in the Town of Trescott -Class SB-L C.Tidewaters between a point 1,000 yards westerly of Leadumey Pt and a point 100 yards south of the creek entering tidewater approximately 2/10 mile south of Woodward Pt.-Class SB-l. D.Tidewaters between Leadumey Pt.and a point 1,000 yards westerly along the shore -Oass SB-2. E.Tidewaters between Leadurney Pt.and a point of land approximately N.44°'51.2' and W.67°-00.3'-Class SC. E TidewateIS between the site of the North Lubec Ferry landing and a point of land at approximately 44°.51.2'and W.67°-00.3'-Cass SB-1. 16.Machias. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Machias not otherwise specified or classi- fied -Class SC. B.All tidewaters of Uttle Kennebec Bay -Cass SA. 17.Machiasport. A.All tidewaters not otherwise described or classified -Qass SA. B.Tidewaters of Machias and East Machias Rivers north of a line drawn from Ft. O'Brien Pt.to Randall Pt.in Machiasport -Oass SC. IS.Millbridge. A.All tidewaters of Millbridge not otherwise described or classified -Class SA. B.Tidewaters north and west of a line from Fish Pt.to the point of land approximately N.44°-31.S'by W.67°-52.5'-Qass SC C Tidewaters of Wyman Cove from Mitchell Pt.to a wharf location approximately 0.4 mile northerly from Mitchell Pt.-Class SB-2. D.Tidewaters north and west of a line from Timmy Pt.to Fickett Pt.,except those defined as Oass "SC"-Qass SB-1- E.Tidewaters of the Mill River and Cole Creek estuary southwesterly,westerly and northerly of B1asket Pt.-Qass SB-l. 19.Pembroke. A.Tidewaters of Pembroke not otherwise described or classified -Qass SA. B.TIdewater estuaries of Cobscook River and WJ1son Stream in Pembroke lying north 52 and west of a line drawn 67°-11.7'in Edmunds,due nor Dennysville described as lying SB-I.p,' C.Tidewaters of Pennama'I and west of a line drawn due 67°-10'-Class SC. D.All waters of Hersey Ccc- of a line drawn due south fJ Hersey Cove to Leighton Ne(;...' 20.Peny. A All tidewaters of Perry n B.Tidewaters of small con.,.1 Railroad,southwest of Pleasant Co Tidewaters of Little Riv,,'. 21.Robbinston. A"Tidewaters from liberty Pt. B.'TIdewaters from Liberty,:Ql;. 22.Roque Bluffs. A.All tidewaters within the H 23.Steuben. A.All tidewa ters wi thin the [ 24.Trescott. A.All tidewaters not othe: Trescott -Gass SA.,. B.Tidewaters of Bailey's II t north from Balch Head in Tn..••;, C.'TIdewaters of "''hiting Bay, southeasterly through Wllbu.r "'. 25.Whiting. A Tidewaters of Whiting not 0 B.Tidewaters southwesterly,pf C.'TIdewaters of Holmes factory -Gass 8B-2. 1.Biddeford. A.Tidewaters of Biddeford not B.Estuary of Utile River n:1',;;I, tributaries thereof -Class SC. C.From the southernmost }-~lT latitude 43°-25'-07"crosses the n D.From a point where 43l'c"': 43°-26'-05"crosses the mainla E.From a point where lati',..J north of the Coast Guard Station F.From the most easterly pF"'1 west of the most northerly p l Pool"-Qass 8B-1. - - - and.west of a line drawn from the point of land at approximately N.44°-54.5'W. 67·~Il.7'in Edmunds,due northeasterly to the Pembroke shore except those portions in Dennysville described as lying west of a line drawn due south from Hinckley Pt.-Class S&l. C.TIdewaters of Pennarnaquam River and Meadow Brook estuaries in Pembroke north and!west of a line drawn due east and west through a point of land at N.44°-56.5'.W. 67~·IO·-Class SC. D.All waters of Hersey Cove and tidewaters of the Pennarnaquam River north and west of :a line drawn due south from the headland forming the easterly side of the entrance to HeI:sey Cove to Leighton Neck -Cass S&l. 20.Perry. A.All tidewaters of Perry not otherwise described or classified -<lass SA. B.TIdewaters of small cove,the rust cove westerly of Eastport Branch of Maine Central Railroad,southwest of Pleasant Point school at Pleasant Pt.-Class SB-I. C.TIdewaters of Little River above the Route #1 Bridge -Class SB-2. 21.Robbinston. A.TIdewaters from Liberty Pt.north to Calais-Robbinston town line -Qass SB-2. B.TIdewaters from Liberty Pt.south to Robbinston-Perry town line -Class SB-I. 22.Roque Bluffs. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Roque Bluffs -Class SA. 23.Steuben. A.All tidewaters within the Town of Steuben -Class SA. 24.Trescott. A.All tidewaters not otherwise described or classified within·the Town of Trescott -Cass SA. B.TIdewaters of Bailey's Mistake in the Town of Trescott west of a line drawn due nOlth from Balch Head in Trescott -Cass SB-I. C.Tidewaters of Whiting Bay,between a line drawn across the bay northwesterly and southeasterly through Wilbur Pt.and the easterly boundary of Whiting -Class SB-I. 25.Whiting. A.TIdewaters of Whiting not otherwise described or classified -Class SA. B.TIdewaters southwesterly of the easterly boundary of Whiting -Class SB·2. C.TIdewaters of Holmes Bay for a distance of 100 yards around the canning fac:tory -Cass S&2. York County 1963,c.274,§3 1.Biddeford• .A.TIdewaters of Biddeford not otherwise defined or classified -Class S&2. B.Estuary of Little River north of latitude 43°-24'-()4"to head of tide.including tidal tributaries thereof -Class SC. C.From the southernmost point of land on the Biddeford mainland to a point where latitude 43°-25'.07"crosses the mainland -Class SA. D.From a point where 43°-25'-33"crosses the mainland to a point where latitude 43·~26'-o5"crosses the mainland -Class SB·I. E.From a point where latitude 43°.26'-05"crosses the mainland to a point directly north of the Coast Guard Station at F1etchers Neck -Class SA. F.From the most easterly point of land on the Biddeford mainland to a point directly wellt of the most northerly point of land on Basket Island,including tidewaters of "The Pool"-Class SB-I. 53 --------_.~._.-.-.-_.-.._..-.-...~--....- 1967,c.154,§l. G.TIdewaters from a point directly west of the most northerly point of land on Basket Island to head of tide on the Sac a River estuary -Gass SC. 1967,c.154,§1. 2.Eliot. A.TIdewaters within the Town of Eliot -Cass SIH. 3.Kennebunk. A.TIdal waters of Kennebunk not otherwise classified or described -Oass SB-2. B.Estuary of Mousam River from head of tide to Route 9 bridge crossing and tidal tributaries thereof -Oass Sc. C.Kennebunk River estuary from head of tide to the Route 9 crossing and tidal tributaries thereof -Oan Sc. 4.Kennebunkport. A.TIdewaters of Kennebunkport not otherwise classified or described -Cass 5&2. Eo Kennebunk River estuary from head of tide to the Route 9 crossing and tidal tributaries thereof -Cass Sc. C.TIdewater from a point where longitude 70°-27'.37"crosses the Kennebunkport mainland to a point where longitude 70°.26'48"crosses the mainland of Kllnnebunkport -Oass SA- D.Tidewater from a point directly west of the most northerly point of Vaughn Island to a point directly west of the most northerly point of land on Redin Island -Class SC. E.Estuaries of Smith Brook and Batson River north of latitude 43°.23'.22"and tidal tributaries thereof -Class SC. F.TIdewater from the mainland of Kennebunkport at latitude 43°-23'.22"north to a point where longitude 70°.24'-33"crosses the mainland -Class SB-I. G.TIdewater from a point where longitude 70°.24'-33"crosses the mainland north to a point where longitude 70°.24'-05"crosses the mainland ~Qass SA. H.Estl.laIY of Little River north of latitude 43°·24'-{)4"to head of tide,including tidal tributaries thereof -Cass SC. S.Kittery. A.TIdewaters of Kittery not otherwise specified or classified -Class SB-l. E.TIdewaters from Sister's Point to Kittery-York town boundary,with the exception of Brave Boat Harbor -Oass SA. 6.Old Orchard Beach. A.All tidewaters of Old Orchard Beach -Class SB-2. 7.Saco. A.Tidewaters of Saco not otherwise described or classified -Cass S&2. Eo Saco River estuary from head of tide to the Camp Ellis breakwater -Oass sc. 1967,c.154,§2. 8.South Berwick. A.All tidewaters of South Berwick -Class SB·1. 9.Wells. A.TIdewaters of Wells not otherwise described or classified -Cass S&2. B.From Wells-York town line to a point of land at longitude 70°-35'-35"and latitude 43°-14'44"-Oass SC. C.Tidew;ter from a point where latitude 43°-16'-15"crosses Moody Beach to a point where latitude 43°-19'-04"crosses Wells Beach -Class SA. 54 Do Estuary of Webhannet Ri r latitude 43°.17'48"-Class St.. Eo Estuary of Webhannet Riv 43°.18'-15"to its ocean conflre': F.Estuary of MerrlJ.and Ri ocean confluence at latitude 4J - 10.York. A.TIdewaters of York nota', B.TIdewaters from Kittery-Y i C.TIdal estuary of York Ri~ tidal tributaries thereof -0a.'h'1>; 1970,C.538,§2. D.TIdewaters from East Pt.t longitude 70°-36'-11"-Oass SE- E.Estuary of Cape Neddf' 70@·36'46"crOSses -Class SB 1970,c.538,§2. F.TIdewaters from Weare Xt,. mainland of York -Oass SE, G.TIdewater from a point York-Wells town line -Cass SAo RoS.1954,c.79,§15;1957,i §2;c.157;c.274,§3;cc.316,3: §371.Repealed. 1955,c.426,§8;1957,c.327 1973,co 29;1977,c.373,§30. §371.A.Classification of great po 1.Great ponds classified.Alk, not less than Class GP-A,except a tion by any interested person,rna. dure and if it shall fmd it is for th, thereof would be otherwise c1assifiel dure of this subchapter.Fe 2,Existing discharges.Exist allowed to continue until practical <: to Class GP-A gteat ponds after the 3.Exemption.Aquatic chen Protection shall be exempt from tr 1979,co 281 &495. 4.Class GP-B.The followin§,,'C" A.Annabessacook Lake.Mom B.Repealed.1979,c.281 &49 Co Cobbosseecontee Lake,Winth Kennebec County;,- D.Douglas Pond,Pittsfield To E.Estes Lake,Sanford and Alfre F.Repealed.1919,c.281 &,.-,c G.Little Cobbosseecontee Lak - .r-- .- ... D.Estuary of Webhannet River from head of tide to a point at longitude 70°-34'-32", latitude 43°.17'48"-Class SC. E.Estuary of Webhannet River from the most easterly bridge crossing at latitude 43°-18'-15"to its ocean confluence at latitude 43°-19'.14"-Class SB-1. F.Estuary of Merriland River and tidal tributaries thereof from head of tide to its ocean confluence at latitude 43°-20'.10"-Cass SC. 10.Y(lrk. A.TIdewaters of York not otherwise described or classified -Cass SB-2. B.TIdewaters from Kittery·Yark town line to point of land known as Argo Pt.-Class SA. C.TIdal estuary of York River from Route 1 crossing to head of tide,including tidal trIbutaries thereof -Class SB-2. 1970.c.538.§2- D.TIdewaters from East Pt.to the northernmost point of land at Concordville at longitude 70°.36'-11"-Class SB-I. E.Est1uary of Cape Neddick River from head of tide to point where longitude 70°-36'-46"crosses -Class SB-2. 1970,c.538,§2. F.TId,ewaters from Weare Pt.to a point where longitude 70°.36'46"crosses the ma.i:nland of York -Class SB-I. G.Tw!ewater from a point where longitude 70°-35'crosses the mainland of York to York-W,ells town line -Qass SA. R.S.19'54,c.79,§15;1957,c.322,§9;1959,c.183,§3;1961,cc.273.284;1963,c.54. §2:c.157;c.274,§3;cc.316,320;1979,c.495,§§9,10. §371.Repealed. 1955,(:.426,§8;1957,c.322,§§2,10;1963,c.420,§3;1967.c.342,§1;1971,c.335; 1973.c.29;1977,c.373,§30. §371-A.Cassification of great ponds 1.Great ponds cllWified.All great ponds within the State of Maine shall be classified as not less than Cass GP-A,except as otherwise provided in this section.The board,upon applica- tion blr any interested person.may hold a hearing in accordance with the classification proce- dure and if it shall find it is for the best interests of the public that such waters or any part lhereof wOiuld be otherwise classified,it shall do so in accordance with the classification proce- dure of this subchapter. 2.Existing discharges.Existing licensed discharges to Qass GP-A great ponds will be JlIowed to continue until practical alternatives exist,but no new discharges will be permitted to Class GP-A great ponds after the effective date of this section. 3.Eumption.Aquatic chemical applications approved by the Board of Environmental f'rotecrion shall be exempt from the "no discharge"provision. 1979,c.281 &495. 4.Cla:ss GP-B.The following great ponds shall be classified Oass GP-B: A.Amlabessacook Lake,Monmouth and Winthrop Townships,Kennebec County; B.Repealed.1979,c.281 &495. C.Cobbosseecontee Lake,Winthrop,Monmouth,West Gardiner and Litchfield Townships, Kennebec County; D.Douglas Pond,Pittsfield Township,Somerset County; E.Estl~s Lake,Sanford and Alfred Townships,Franklin County; F.Repealed.1979,c.281 &495. G.Little Cobbosseecontee Lake,Winthrop Township,Kennebec County; 55 ._.-------------------------_._--------- ., H.Lovejoy Pond,Albion Township,Kennebec County; H-I.Monson Pond,Fort Fairfield and Easton Townships,Aroostook County; H·I added 1979,c.281 &495. 1.Nubble Pond,Raymond Township,Cumberland County; J.Pattee Pond,Winslow Township,Kennebec County; K.Pleasant Pond,Litchfield and Gardiner Townships,Kennebec County; L.Repealed.1979,c.281 &495. M.Sabattus Pond,Sabattus,Green and Wales Townships,Androscoggin County; N.Salmon Lake,Belgrade and Oakland Townships,Kennebec County; O.Sebasticook Lake,Newport Township,Penobscot County; P.Spaulding Pond,Lebanon Township,York County; P-1.Togus Pond,Augusta Township,Kennebec County;and Q.Webber Pond,Vassalboro Township,Kennebec County. P-1 added 1979,c.281 &495. 1977,c.373,§31;1979,c.281,§2;1979,c.495,§§ll to 15. DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTEcrlON BUREAU OF WATER QUALITY CONTROL REGULATIONS These regulations are current as of the date printed on the cover of this booklet.There may have been changes after this booklet was printed.The reader is urged to contact the Bureau of Water Quality Control 207-289-2591 or the Citizens'Environmental Assistance Service 1-800452-1942 if there are any questions. 581·1 -581.7 WATER QUALITY EVALUATIONS EFFECTIVE DATE NOVEMBER 29,1973;AMENDED DATE MARCH 14,1977 581.1 Assimilative Capacity-Rivers and Streams For the purpose of computing whether a discharge will violate the classification of any river or stream,the assimilative capacity of such river or stream shall be computed using the minimum seven day low flow which occurs once in ten years.Waste discharges shall be appropriately reduced when flows fall below the seven day ten year low flow if the board determines that such reduction is necessary to maintain such applicable classification. 581.2 Minimum flOW-Regulated Rivers and Streams For regulated rivers and streams,the Department may establish a minimum flow necessary to maintain water quality standards.This flow will be based upon achieving the assigned classification,criteria and protection of the uses of the stream.The Department will cooperate with appropriate Federal,State and private interests in the development and maintenance of stream flow requirements. 581.3 Assimilative Capacity-Great Ponds The hydraulic residence time will be used to compute the assimilative capacity of great ponds.Hydraulic residence time will be computed by dividing lake volume by the product of watershed area and the precipitation runoff coefficient. 581.4 Reserved 581.5 Zone of Passage All discharges of pollutants shall,at a muumum,provide for a zone of passage for free-swimming and drifting organisms.Such zone of passage shall not be less than %of the clo~s·sec:ional area at any point in the receiving body of water.Such zone of passage may be 56 reduced whenever the applicant phenomena in the receiving ble"', such minimum zone of passag' water from substantial adverse 581.6 Great Ponds Trophic ~J,~ For the purposes of deter: index will be used. Zero on this scale indicates I The TSI is defined as 40 +3 ~() chlorophyll a and spring total p 581.7 StIeam Species Diversity The generic diversity of thep than 2.2 as measured by the Shoe. EFFI 582.1 Freshwater Thermal Disc No discharge of pollutants measured outside a mixing zan of any lake or pond.In no event body to exceed 84°F at any poi such discharge cause the temp'", salmon waters to exceed 68°F a 582.2-4 Reserved 582.5 Tidal Water Themla1 1: No discharge of pollutants temperatures in any tidal body ( more than 4°F nor more than discharge cause the temperatut'·· mixing zone established by the J 582.6-8 Reserved 583.1 - 5 EFFECTIVE DATE NOY' 583.1 Phosphorus There shall be no additional thereto which discharge does no';'--_ 583.2 Existing discharges of phospht October 1,1976,be treated to l\~' 583.3 Phosphorus ConcentIa Notwithstanding Sections 583 in all tributaries to Great Ponds _~4 reduced whenever the applicant for a discharge can demonstrate that (a)because of physical phenomena in the receiving body of water such minimum zone cannot be maintained and (b) such miJ:rimum zone of passage is not necessary to protect organisms in the rece~\ing'body of water fr()m substantial adverse effects...... 581.6 Great Ponds Trophic State Index (fSI) For the purposes of determining trophic state of great ponds the following trophic state index wiD be used. Zero on this scale indicates poor water quality and 100 indicates excellent water quality. The TSI is defined as 40 +33 (IOgIO minimum Secchi disk transparency in meters).Average chlorophyll a and spring total phosphorus may also be related to TSI. 581.7 Stream Species Diversity Index The generic diversity of the bottom fauna of waters classified B-1 and B-2 shall not be less than 2.2 as measured by the Shannon-Weiner diversity index. 582.1 -582.8 TEMPERATURE EFFECTIVE DATE NOVEMBER 29,1973 582.1 Freshwater Thermal Discharges No discharge of pollutants shall cause the ambient temperature of any freshwater body,as measure:d outside a mixing zone,to be raised more than 5°F or more than 3"F in the epilimnion of any llake or pond.In no event shall any discharge cause the temperature of any freshwater body tel exceed 84°F at any point outside a mixing zone established by the board,nor shall such diJ.charge cause the temperature of any waters which presently are designed as trout or salmon waters to exceed 68°F at any point outside a mixing zone established by the board.. 582.2-4 Reserved - -I 582..5 Tidal Water Thermal Discharges No discharge of pollutants shall cause the monthly mean of the daily maximum ambient tempellltures in any tidal body of water,as measured outside the mixing zone,to be raised more than 4"F nor more than 1.5°F from June I to September L In no event shall any discharge cause the temperature of any tidal waters to exceed 85"F at any point outside a mixing zone established by the board. 582.6-8 Reserved 583.1 -583.3 NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION IEFFECTIVE DATE NOVEMBER 29,1973;AMENDED DATE MARCH 14,1977 583.1 Phosphorus Theire shall be no additional discharge of phosphorus to any lake or pond or tributary thereto which discharge does not employ the best available technology for phosphorus removal. 583.2 Existing discharges of phosphorus to any lake,pond or tributary thereto shall.on or before OctobE~r I,1976,be treated to remove phosphorus to the maximum extent technically feasible. 583.3 Phosphorus Concentrations in Tributaries to Great Ponds NOltwithstanding Sections 583.1 and 583.2,the ambient concentration for total phosphorus in all tributaries to Great Ponds shall not exceed 50 micrograms per liter (50 ug/l). 57 --------------~----------------------, 584 -584.1 WATER QUALITY CRITERIA EFFECTIVE DATE MARCH 14,1977 584 Water Quality Criteria The criteria listed below will apply only to Seciton 363,standards of classification of fresh waters,class B-l and B-2.The numbers represent maximum acceptable concentration limits in the receiving waters.All numbers are expressed in micrograms per liter (ug/l). 584.1 Metals Metal A.Chromium Con centra rion 50 ug/l i, It i·r'! ! ;\ it i ! , t :l. l 590.1 -VARIANCES FROM VARIOUS REGULATIONS EFFECTIVE DATE NOVEMBER 29,1973;AMENDED DATE MARCH 14,1977 590.1 Variances The board may,in any license or Order issued by it,impose on any discharge limitations more stringent than those required by Regulations 580,581,582,583 and 584 whenever the physical or chemical properties or biological phenomena in the receiving body of water so require in order to maintain the statutory classification.The board may authorize a variance from any of the limits established hereby whenever the applicant demonstrates that (a)because of physical or natural conditions in the receiving body of water such limits cannot be attained and (b)maintenance of such limits are not necessary to protect organisms in the receiving water from substantial adverse effects and (c)the proposed discharge will assure the protection and propagation of a balanced and indigenous population of fish,shellfish and wildlife in and on the receiving body of water. 591.1 -EXCEPTIONS FOR VARIOUS REGULATIONS EFFECI'IVE DATE NOVEMBER 29,1973;AMENDED DATE MARCH 14,1977 591.1 No provision of Regulations 580,581,582,583,584 and 590 shall be deemed to change, alter,affect or supersede the terms or conditions of any Order or license heretofore issued by the Board of Environmental Protection. 58 ,. ..... -_....__J , -----,,--------------------------------_........- f -•I~""r f!(_r f;7~"r,!II=~~P \~."_"ljj \;'t._t.~j " •U~Lv n..H~rwlj .;.-h,/'\,\.,;/\~""l.~JL:,,:_l~")'I'W V"r:'''\-="i~'t.\"L \.:. German Association for Water Resources and Land Improvement GluckstmBe 2 .D·5300 Bonn 1 .Phone:0228/631446 STRUCTURE TAS~(S ACTrVITIES Table of Contents: - Members Tasks +Objectives Organi~:ation Technic:al Divisions Advanced Education and Training Publications Regiomil Groups Co lIaboration Chronology 2 3 4-5 6 7-15 15 16 17 18 19 (Bonn.January 1984) The German Association for Water Resources and Land Improvement (DVWK)is a technical-scientific or- ganization which promot~s w~ter resources .devel~p. ment and agricultural englneertng under consideration of all environmental aspects. Membership •is open to anyone who is prepared to support the DVWK objectives Members \ •are federal state and local authorities of the Federal Republic of Germany,as well as businesses and ?r- ganizations which apply the results of the Associa- tion's activities. Membership since 1978 DVWK Members •support the overall technical effort by voluntary par- ticipationin the committees and working groups •regularly receive the DVWK-Nachrichten (News- letter)and various information •receive in some instances extensive rebates for ad- vanced training programs and conferences sponsored by the Association •pay a lower subscription rate for the Association's periodicals WASSERWIRTSCHAFT (Water Re- sources)and WASSER UNO BODEN (Water and Soil) •establish valuable contacts with colleagues and technical institutions Finances The Association's work is supported and financed to a great extent by the Federal Government and the St~te Authorities.Their grants enable the transfer of working results to the professional public. Further funds are derived from membership fees, general income and special projects. Association's Finances 3 --11I..__-.;:"11.:-............-.... a~;1o_~ '.":/:.i !i11.;[ ....,.111i~i+' ~~..'" ~·-~_.'Oib' H,......~ - Interdisci~)linary exchange of thoughts and ex- periences enables the integration of experts from uni- versities,authorities,engineering firms and industry. The DVWI<considers itself to be a mediator between theory and practice,research and application.Its com- munityof experts is primarily active in the following areas: State of thie Art The DVWK evaluates the latest research results,com- bines them with the most recent practical experiences and provides application oriented suggestions. Recommell'ldations The Association publishes the "DVWK·Regeiwerk" (Technical Rules).Its "Regeln und Merkbllitter zur Was- serwirtschaft"(Standards and Guidelines for Water' Managemnnt),which contain recommended methods and procedures,are developed with the aid of the experts jn!~ide and outside the Association. Standardization The DVWK participates in the developement of standards by sending experts to the "Water Practice Standards Committee"(NAW)of the German Institute for Standar- dization (DIN).This involves hydrology,hydraulics,agri- cultural engineering and landscaping. Coliaboration The DVWK sets its experts'competence at the dispo- sal of other technical-scientific working groups and ex- pects the same of these organizations. International Activities The DVWK participates in the symposia and working groups of international organizations;seeks consulta- tion and technical contributions;gives organizational and financial support to German participants;spreads information on international technical activities and their results. , •Ir t I -4 -----,--- ;aSr\S +Objectives Research The DVWK initiates research projects resulting from its working groups'activities and establishes contacts with research foundations and lnstitutionso It has the right to recommend reviewers for projects sponsored by the German Research Society (DFG). Advanced Education The DVWK organizes application oriented seminars and short courses.It also offers a four semester ad· vanced study in Hydrology and Water Resources Man- agement. Meetings The OVWK supports and organizes technical meetings, symposia and workshops.Its biennial experts'meeting and its irrigation symposium are particularly renown. Publications The DVWK has six publication series which reflect the results of its working groupso The Association's activi- ties are reported bimonthly in the "DVWK·Nach· riehten"(Newsletter).The Association's periodicals are WASSER UNO BODEN (Water and Soil)and WAS- SERWIRTSCHAFT (Water Resources). Public Relations The DVWK presents a podium for public discussion of actual water resources problems,organizes press con- ferences and publishes press releases. Consulting The DVWK consults for authorities,members and professional colleagues,seeks qualified experts in var· ious disciplines and makes relevant informative ma- terial availableo 5 - _..,•1*tr 1'\••I\.)rqanIZa1l0n or ne r\SSOCicHlon ~ 6 .j ---_._--~_.- Working Groups The DVWK has established working groups (FA)in which appointed experts from administrative agencies, universities,associations and industry work together to achieve the goals set by the Executive Board.Each working group is composed of up to eight voluntary members who meet two to three times yearly at different locations for one or multiple day meetings.Here they discuss their drafts of technical-scientific opinions prepared during their free time and produce a final reo port following appropriate consultation and extensive evaluation. ___. .._0_-------------"----- Ii;"'!!....."t~. o? l:::hnica!.4ctivities Technical Divisions The working groups are each categorized into one of eight technical divisions (FG)representing a basic over- all discipline.These promote the exchange of ideas and collaboration in a particular technical field.Each DVWK member can declare In writing to the respective technical division chairman his membership to one or more technical divisions.The responsibilities of the Technical Division Board include both the coordination of working groups and the planning and undertaking of symposia.This board consists of the technical division chairman and the leaders of the associated working groups. Technical Technical Technical Technical Technical Technical Technical Technical Division 1 DIvision 2 Division 3 Division 4 Division 5 Division 8 Di.lsion7 Dl.isionll HydralDgy Hydramechanlcs Graundwatllf'Water ReSllUl'ce8 Hydraulic.Water end Sail Waler and Ganaral Tasks Planning Environment FA 1.1 FA 2.1 FA 3.1 FA4.B FA 5.1 FAB.1 FA 7.1 FA 8.1 Precipitation Pipe and Channel locating Planning of Regional River Dikes Site and Soli River Training Law and Taxes Hydraulics Groundwater Water Resource FA 1.2 Systems FA 5.2 FA 6.2 FA 7.2 FA 8.2 Snow Hydrology FA 2.2 FA 3.2 Reservoirs Drainage Use and Conser·Advanced Hydraulic Groundwater FA 4.7 vation of Agrl·Education and FA 1.3 Modelling and Use Operation Resaarch FA 5.3 FAB.3 cultural lands Training low Discharge Measurement for Water Weirs Soil Use and FA 3.3 Resource Systems Nutrient Washout FA 7.3 FA 8.3 FA 1.5 FA 2.3 Groundwater Lakes and Earth Publications and Runoff Models Dilution Hydraulics FA 4.8 FA 6.4 Embankments Public Relations Processes and Models Waler Resources Irrlgalion FA 1.6 Economics FA 7.4 FA 8.4 Water Level and FA 2.4 FA 3.4 FA6.S Contaminant International ·Discharge Forecast Groundwater Groundwater Soli Erosion Loads Collaboration Transport Biology FA 1.B Processes FA6.6 FA 7.5 FAB.S Forests and Water FA 3.5 Rural Roads Obtaining and Dala Processing FA 2.6 Groundwater Evaluating Water in Water FA 1.9 Sediment Chemistry Quality Data Resources Anthropogenetic Transport Influcences on FA3.B FA 7.6 Surface Discharges Groundwater Influence of Man Measurement on River Quality FA 1.10 Waler Resources Investigations in Semi-Arid Regions 7 - -~---.._--------_._-~-------------..~ - -1 Technical Activities ;.,. Division HYDRC)LOGY IrI~"':;;';;ig~*f";*~\1Alt*i~ttt;$jif#$l}##IiIiiM'ir_f!~~1tfilW_em;t""';:-]1 r-The underst:anding of the interactive processes within logy Division is primarily concerned with precipitation I the water (~ycle is a prerequisite for .n effective -runoff phenomena;parameters and boundary condi-Ii planning and implementation of water management lions which control these processes;short and long measures.Hydrological investigations are,therefore.term water levels and discharge forecasts;and the r integrally coupled with water management.The Hydro-consequences of anthropogenetic measures.I I - ..... Tasks: 41 Procedur'!ts for analysing precipitation data 41 Detennination of rainfall intensity distribution 41 Determination of runoff from snow covered catch- ment arelas 41 StatistiC211 techniques in the analysis of low dis- charges •Procedur,es for applying precipitation-runoff mod- els to small catchment areas 41 Transport of substances into forests by rainfall 41 The effects of human intervention on the runoff situation •Determination of hydrological design data in arid regions ::_:~=":·~·~~·.,·t;tif'··d;k~~;{1;mit;Z~Gt$.2g:;~•.i1l_4~~W_lW_1JI~.ia!!l~f)tJ'.il4~~i~wb1i!Bll$~1ir;)LI,lm!w: --~-----_._----------------------------------------- a -:~IfV'~~e Pl ;Jl fSall:1'~liG.m" ,2 ;_:"r-. :i r .', "J ...:!.tl:'1 :]' ~"!'";-.e.('.: "-4A;~1'e:I!:Il'V ~.~':; _..........,.,.1~_ ....1IJ2;1""WF" Division HYDROMECHANICS Hydromechanics provides a multi-sided tool for hy- draulic,water resources and agricultural engineering. The Hydromechanics Division deals with the applica- tion of theoretical models and experimental data,the use of hydraulic and numerical models and practical implementation of measurement techniques.The basic topics include the improvement and standardiza- tion of design criteria for hydraulic structures;the theory and simulation of transport processes;and the role of hydraulic modelling in engineering applications. Questions of water quality receive rising importance. Tasks: •Numerical hydrodynamic models •Application and limits of hydraulic models •Roughness coefficients for natural and artificial channels •Transport of heats and substances in waters Sedimentation in Reservoirs 9 .... --....--.bi ..__ 1J U!J IJ IUl,fW If!•1~~,, Technical Activities Division GROUNDWATER 10 Groundwater quality is influenced by physical,chern- icaland (micro)biological processes.The Groundwater Division is particularly concerned with the·anthropo- genetic threat to groundwater quality and the ne- cessary criteria for reasonable groundwater manage- ment.Of primary importance is the development of concepts for·improving groundwater quality and gui- delines for in part conflicting riparian rights and reo storation. Tasks: •Groundwater replenishment and availability •Reconnaissance of deep lying groundwater tables •Hydrochemical groundwater classification •Improvement of groundwater management •Transport and dilution of contaminants •Infiltration of contaminants into groundwater •Evaluation and removal of anthropogenetic groundwater pollution Groundwater Measurement Station t" ~ ....1:' ,. ,.1Ii1 ~Q~'; <.lI'",,";t~. ~I'"~,~_.!lf."'~; ~,~:;>.:o .. '~r~,"--.'(~~.l·~.::.:.':".. ".__:'~~•"'.;;l._~"-" Division WATER RESOURCES PLANNING The Water Resources Planning Division is responsible for revising the water resources planning and imple- mentation concepts developed during the past two de- cades,in such a manner,as to extremely simplify their application.Regional planning,economics and cy- bernetics are essential elements of this effort. Tasks: •Project evaluation in water resources management •Operation research and simulation techniques •System's operation and regulation •Structure of water resources regional planning Water Resources Regional Planning for the Isar (map extract BayLfU) 11 , r, ..., I .·~,;...c:'"F:.;i?li~.a<!i,,'~~ ,...~~:I;';'-!'.:l~~_..:.~ -.....-~,,'..,.~. Division HYDF~ULICS ~.,....:~~:..,."~~~~S~~~~:""·~':~-;:;'".-:-F.,a-;.'~".,..,··7~..~~,-,...---~~...-·~· ."i:..~--.:__;'-<,~.~:;.,.,.~i,.,,;.....:.~:;:..:.i.~:~-;;..L,...',..:.-."~~~~~.':......~__..:.....o.:...:~...;....~.~.........;......_.._..:..:.....---.~~._••'"',.....~,'~~'.''c':"__!._ The Hydraulics Division treats questions related to the design and construction of hydraulic structures.This also includes questions of structure safety,consider- ing as well the choice of appropriate measurement and control systems;the goal oriented implementation of relevant measures;analysis and evaluation tech-· niques. Tasks: •Planning,construction and inspection of river dikes •Documentation of reservoirs in the Federal Re- public of Germany •Measurement equipment and control structures for dams •Design of intake and discharge structures •Safetylrisks at weirs due to hydrodynamic pheno- mena •Modernization of old weirs Weir in Geisling 12 .--.---"-'~'~._---------__.._----_.---_--...'- Present land management measures cause long term and in part negative changes in soil quality and its water balance.Revision.of both land and water reo source management policies are necessary In order to restore land fertility and improve the groundwater Tasks: •Investigation on site to determine indicators tor soil improvement measures •Reduction of nutrient washout from farmland •Techniques for effective use on irrigation water •Recommendations for determining sprinkling rates •Influence of heavy rains on soil erosion •Guidelines for rural road construction Mud Formation Following Heavy Rains r~·"·l'T'-."'';'·-':··... ~~"~""'~"""""r' Division WATER AND SOIL ··"'-.";"'·-:",;,;;-,.7"'-~·"·:::""'?-~~.::.~;~~"~~.:;:-..~.·~·,g:f,~,,!,:"',~~~:-~,::':''fI';~~'·;·"".''''''·''''''':'7'·~~-'''~=---!·7'''·:~''"''1:J''"-'''-~·~ __',._.:-:..__',:'~'--i..~"':::.;!'_~_'...:":~...;:_..._<-',,.......,:.;;.:.....-;;:~~~~~~:...:..:.:~..:...,••.:~..';c:..~..:....:.....;.;......;"'''';~.,~;;;;....~, budget.The Water and Soil Division must,therefore, not only seek ways to guarantee agricultural productiv- ity but also address the problems of erosion and nut- rient washout 13 ""~;"~""::...,"~, ,!",;••,"c;:.:.~- --_._------------------------------------------_._- ~-:~'''''...:,.....!""~: -,,__~~i~~__.::"):,~ ~t ..~t •<••-"",t,11''"';"".........~:~~'..."'"'~~L ~"J ~L{7l ~i Division WATER AND ENVIRONMENT ,..... I ! I""" I .... Rivers and Lakes are one of the most strained and en· dangered (~omponents of our environment.Man gen· erates unsuitable contaminants,impurities and a dis- ruption of the natural ecological cycle.The Waters and Environment Division seeks solutions·for limiting the misuse of surface water,develops criteria for setting water quality goals for rivers and lakes;establishes ap- propriate techniques for collecting and evaluating water quality data;and defines ecological constraints to be considered for the development and maintenance of flowing lind stagnant surface water. Tasks: •Impact of land use on the water balance •Mapping surface water pollution •Statistical analysis of water quality data •River training under ecological aspects •Improvement and restoration of lakes •Decision aids related to data acquisition for water quality control Ecologically Trained River ..... - 14 ,_._,--.-..._--._-.~-.-.~..-_._-----------~ '*-a.. ~~-_._---_.-.~_._--~--,-----.-'-.__.-._-" Division GENERAL TASKS ...~---_.__.__..----..~._-~---- Advanced Education +Training The Association offers a wide range of possibilities for advanced education and training courses. The General Tasks Division is responsible for overall organization and coordination.The most important areas are consultation in legal matters;planning of ad- vanced professional training;the preparation of pub- lications;and activities related to international cooperation.The Working Group for Data Processing in Water Resources,established in 1983,is also part of this division.Its primary goal is the transfer of ex- perience and information relating to questions of electronic data processing.It provides interdiscip- linary support in this field for the DVWK Working Groups and Federal Government and State Institu- tions. Seminars (1-2 days) A limited number of participants are presented lec- tures and examples of practical problem solutions and are exposed to modern water resource and land man- agement techniques.Over 100 seminar topics have been offered as a response to requests from ministries, water resource agencies,DVWK regional groups and other associations. Short Courses (3-5 days) Short courses on the sUbjects technical hydraulics,hy- drology,groundwater,river training and irrigation are offered in cooperation with universities or federal and state authorities.They do not only afford an opportun- ity for the transfer of knowledge in a particular topic, but also serve as a podium for the exchange of ex- periences and information with experts familiar with the state of the art. Advanced Studies Established on October 1,1982,the 4-semester corres- pondence course Advanced Studies in Hydrology and Water Resources is oriented towards professionals w~o are put into the position to evaluate and solve ap- plied problems using the latest scientific information. 15 ..... - The DVWK"Regeln zur Wasserwirtschaft (Water Man- agement Standards)include technical procedures and measures which have been found to be of practical use and are c()nsidered by experts to·be indisputable technical slolutions."rhe DVWK recommends their ap- plication aSi generally accepted technical standards. Procedures and construction techniques as well as other technical aspects considered to be the state of the art are treated in the DVWK·Merkblattem zur Was· serwirtschslft (Water Management Guidelines).In· formation klund in DVWK guidelines can subsequently be issued as DVWK Regeln,if the guidelines have been proven in practice and been accepted by renown ex- perts in the field. The Working Groups'summary reports,background in- formation flor DVWK standards and guidelines,as well as presented papers are pUblished in the.DVWK· 5chritten (Journals). The annual report,membership lists and conference calendars are issued in the DVWK.Mitteilungen (Stan- dard Publications).Additionally,the working groups have a forum for reporting workshop or colloquia re- sults and publishing working or discussion papers which were prepared in a limited edition for a small professional group. Seminar notes and,when appropriate,lecture manu- scripts are published in the DVWK·Fortblldung (Ad- vanced Education)series.Advanced study material,as well as a course guide and correspondence notes for the study "Hydrology and Water Resources"are also issued in this series. The bimonthly DVWK·Nachrichten (Newsletter)is sent to members free of charge.Activities of the technical divisions and regional groups,as well as information on conferences,courses,and the Association's pub- lications are reported here. The DVWK-Bulletin is a foreign language series in .-which the work of mainly German authors and the re- sults of intE~rnational conferences involving the DVWK are reported in English or French.Some editions are published in cooperation with international water re- sources and land management organizations. 16 - ------------.------------------------ Regional Groups The DVWK members have formed regional groups (LG) in the various states of the Federal Republic of Ger- many with the exception of Baden-WQrttemberg.There, the "Water Resources Association of Baden-WQrttem- berg"is acting on behalf of the DVWK for the DVWK members. The Regional Groups'responsibilities include: •Advising and informing members •Conducting conferences,assisting in the exchange of Information with practicing professionals •Visits and excursions,including foreign study trips •Aid in solving regional water resource and land management problems Each regional group usually conducts its membership meetings biennially.The regional groups of LG Bayern and LG Mitte publish their own membership news- letters. Regional Groups (Member States) 17 ---------- ..... .JIllll'Ill ,..., ) --r.t---~"'--fttajlli_-=:'1IliiU'!!!qnnn§~)~I~~i'§'§,J W:J L1;.,'i'~' ........s:........~,: W· •.......•.•_~_.~.~.--_.._.--_._-~--- --------------------------------------------------- - ..- ~-..1 =-f :II I i ·.OI'......·\O ...~tIOn'...Ji .leU.•I'I a . The DVWI<collaborates with numerous water re- sources associations and related societies on both the national and international levels.The German National Committee!of the International Commission on Irriga- tion and Drainage is Incorporated organizationally within the OVWK;its secretariat is located in the As- sociation's headquarters. Some of the organizations with which collaboration oc- curs are: National International IAH ICID IAHR ICOLD IWRA -Austrian Water Resources Association '-Swiss Association for Water Economy International Commission of Agricultural Engineering International Association of Hydrogeolo- gists International Association for Hydraulic Research International Association of Hydrological Sciences International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage International Commission on Large Dams International Water Resources Associa- tion UNESCO -United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization IAHS OWWV SWV CIGR German Association on Water Pollution Control German National Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering German Agricultural Society German Gas and Water Association Hydrology Division of the German . Geological Society Max-Eyth-Society Association of German Electric Utilities Association of German Engineers ATV DGEG DLG DVGW FHOGG MEG VDEW VOl - --------------------------------------------------- 18 ------------------------------~--------------I ----------_.__._._-------_.._--"-_..-._--._-.-_.----_.............._--.,-~~.--._......-.__. Chronoiogy Merger of the DVWW and KWK socletleslnlo .'::'--~~~;;{~-£;,~:~~~t~'~:':1 DIsbandment of the "German Irrlgatlon;~anagem8nt 19 -----------------~_._-- ...............'"""...."'..""....»...........«...-----~-_._--------------_.• ,..... Consulting Engineera for Energy'Water'Tranaport·Systems l"""Special fields:Watersyatems and enyironmental engineering mRIER Water reso~rces management. Hydrology Water supply Sewage engineering Sewerage systems,Water law Bio-engineering Consulting,Planning Site management INGENIEUR·DIENST NORD Dr.·lng.Gerd Lange -Dr.-Ing.Rolf Anselm ConSUlting Engineers 1111111 •Valves •Gates •Trahsrak Rakes •Segment Weirs •Clarification Plants •Control Technique You should contact us,if required.You will be advised by a team well acquainted with the hydraulic steel structure range.Our company offers the experience of more than 50 years,during which many hundreds of plants have been designed and supplied on tum-key-basis. Maschinenfabrik B.Maier GmbH &Co.KG Postfach 140640·D-4800 Bielefeld 14 Telefon (0521)*4471-1 •Telex 937319 Ind~striestraBe32 0-2806 Oyten Tel.(4207)8441845 Lyoner Strasse 22 •0-6000 Frankfurt/Main 71 Telephone (69)6677-0 .Telex 041347811d HYDROELECTRIC POWER FINANCES THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE MAIN·DANUBE WATERWAY \~DONAUKRAFTWERK JOCHENSTEIN AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT ::::::JOI:henstein border power plant M~~tipurposs installation for navigation and powsr production Installed capacity:132,000 kW Mean annual output:845 million kWh PrQCIuction of environmentally neutral hyclro powsr Ab"ndant supply ot electric power is a basic requirement for economic growth Improved safety of tile waterway '-----. "~M6LLER--~--;;;..ingIInIturgeIeIllCbett nlbH sewage'treatment Brunnenwl_nweg 19-21 plants D4l501 Kalchl8Ulh Sewerage systems Tel.(911)560484,560294 Power planta P1_ngsoeseUlCbett mbH Water supply Oroysenstr.'.1J.100D BelthI12 HydraUlic Tel.(30)3234978 engIneerIng 0',L5D ',LAHMEYER .IINTERNATIONAL ".,. ; - Donaukrattwerl<~adl The compa,ny Rheln-Maln-Donau AG and Its affiliated companies operate 53 power stations and 1 pump-feed power station.The profits from these power stations are used for financing the construction of the Main-Danube waterway.The Free State of Ba- varia and the Federal Republic of Germany have granted loans paid back from the profits made from generating electric power. AgricuUure.Natural Resources Surveys,Irrigation,Drainage,Regional Planning,Rural Development Water Management,Hydraulic Engineering,Processing Industries. Basic Studies.Evaluation of Resources.Prolect Planning.Feasibility Studies.Supervision of Works.Agricultural Extension, HUy5senallee 66-68,D4300 Essen1lFRGI.Tel..(2011201lH .Tx:8S7557ahtcl 21 r-.------------------~------- --------- - Stuttgart Civil Engineering Constructions Treatment Plants Pipelines Airports Roads and Railways Suoways KoblenzDuisburg WItII'R_rea 'linoint WIlli'lad Wasil Wltll Trelllllllll E....... EllI'irlllllllltlltl Stullies Compulin,lnd Pllltin,Smica Sitl Sa".,. LAND IMPROVEMENT ntelUlS iacreaR of agricultural yields which guarantees suppJ,of food •Equipment and procedures lor physical Storm Water Treatment. •Flow and level Controllers for sewerage systems. •Vortex Throttles and Vortex Valves for Fluids being diflicuh to handle. .~...~ OLTMANNS Z1EGEL UNO KUNSTSTOFFE GMBH worldwide well-knoWn producer and supplier of -corrugated flexible droinpipes (PVC and PEJ -wrop-around filter pipes (coconut,stoplefjbre.~) -un~and complete plants (mobile and stationery) YOUR PARTNER:OLTMANNS MASCHINENGMBH JEDOElOH 1•0-2905 EDEWECHT .W-GERMANY Ta.:(49)-4405-12.1 .TX:25 845 olije d UFT Umweft-und Fluid-Technik Dr.H.Brombach GmbH SteinstraBe 7 0-6990 Bad Mergentheim ] Duesseldorf Uerding$Str.58-62·D·4oo0 Duesseldor130 .Phone (211)45475-0 .Tx.8584620 cssd Traffic Investigations Road Construction Engineering Road Traffic Tethnology Rapid Transit and Subway Tectmlogy Railway Engineenng ALFRED KUNZ GmbH &Co •. Bavariaring 26 0·8000 MOnchen 2 Federal Republic of Germany Phone (89)51 46-0 Telex 523354 Telefax (89)5146216 forthe Hydro and Energy.Economy ~.-.,~ci-.<.- Measuring and ......Process Control Construction Enterprise - - - 23 -_.~---_.--------~-----------------._------------------_._--~---'-~--~------- ,"'"Reprinted from ....Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering.... :-Surges from ice jam releases:a case study S.BELTAOS AND B.G.KRISHNAPPAN Volume 9 •Number 2 •1982 Pages 276-284 .- Reimpression du Revue canadienne de genie civil r-1+ - National Research Conseil national Council Canada de recherches Canada -276 Surges from ice jam releases:a case study' S.BELTAOS AND B.G.KRISUNAPPAN Ellvirollmemal Hydraulics Section,Hydralilics Di\'isioll.Natiollal Water Research Insrillile. Callada Celllre for Inlalld Waters.P.O.Box 5050.Burlingtoll,Om ..Canada L7R 4A6 Received August 11.1981 Revised manuscript accepted January 12.1982 Accounts by wi1tnesses of spring ice breakup in rivers often mention violent icc runs with extreme water speeds and rapidly rising water levels.Such events are believed to follow the release of major icc jams.To gain preliminary understanding of this problem.an attempt is made to reconstruct a partially documented ice jam release reported recently by others.The equations of the icc-water flow that occurs after the release of an ice jam arc formulated.It is shown that the problem may be approximately treated as a one-dimensional.unsteady.water-only flow of total depth identical to that of the ice-water flow. F""and average velocity.The retarding effect of the frequently encountered intact ice cover below the jam is considered implicitly. that is.by adjustiIllg the friction factor so as to make the predicted and observed downstream stages equal.The effects of jam length are considered next by assuming longer jams of the same maximum water depth.The duration of the surging velocities increases with jam length and so does the peak stage.Less than 2 h after the jam release the surge was arrested and a new ,.....jam formed.causing further stage increases.Present capabilities of modelling the reformation process are discussed and the major unknowns identified. Can.J.Civ.IEng .•9.276-284 (\982) .... .... ..... Introduction Witnesses'accounts of spring ice breakup in rivers often mention violent ice runs with extreme water speeds and rapidly rising water levels.Gerard (1979) quoted several accounts of such events and suggested that they can only be explained by the action of surges caused by the release.and possibly the reformation.of major ice jams.This is plausible since an ice jam causes a significant local perturbation on the stage profile of a stream with very large gradients near its toe or down- stream end.Failure of the jam releases a large water wave that results in high speeds and rapid stage rises at downstream locations. There are several practical problems that are related to surges from ice jam releases.such as short and long ternl forecasting of peak water levels near a populated area located downstream of a major jamming site:pos- sihle bed scour and bank erosion due to relatively brief but intense icc runs:and peak stages during reformation of a released jam.Such dynamic aspects of ice jamming are poorly understood at present.especially in quan- titative terms.The writers are aware of only two perti- nent investigati.ons:an application of an open-water unsteady flow model to assess surge effects on bed scour (Mercer and Cooper 1977)and a·theoretical in- vestigation of surging and new jamming (Henderson and Gemrd 1981). The lack of understanding of ice jam dynamics is very likely due to the lack of pertinent quantitative data: indeed one can easily imagine the difficulties involved in obtaining adequate documentation of jam releases. First.the longitudinal water level profile along and downstream of an ice jam must be known shortly before its release;second,water level-time vanatlons at downstream locations are needed as a means of assess- ing the results of the surge:and third.channel geometry and flow conditions are necessary as input information prior to application of a mathematical model.Recently, a partially documented release case was reported by Doyle and Andres (1979):the 1979 breakup on the Athabasca River at Fort McMurray which was triggered by the release of a major ice jam upstream.Fortunately. it was possible to approximately determine the water level profile along this jam and to obtain the subsequent stage-time variation at a bridge site in Fort McMurray. River cross sections were surveyed later under open- water conditions.Though this information is far from complete.it does afford an opportunity for an ex- ploratory case study,principally intended to be a means of gaining preliminary understanding of the jam surge problem. In the following sections.it is attempted to formulate the governing differential equations of the ice-water surge phenomenon and utilize them to reconstruct the results reported by Doyle and Andres (1979). Unsteady ice-water flow In this section.the unsteady flow of water and ice that results from the release of an ice jam is considered. For mathematical simplicity the flow is assumed to be two-dimensional.such as occurs in a very wide.rectan- gular.prismatic channel.With proper adaptation some of the final equations can be shown to hold for flow in a.channel of arbitrary cross-sectional shape and plan VICW. 0315-1468/82/020276-09$01.00/0 ©1982 National Research Council of CanadalConseil national de recherches du Canada BELTAOS AND KRISHNAPPAN 277 'In reality.E is expected to vary.but only within a narrow range. FIG.1.Definition sketch. With reference to Fig.I.two flow layers can be distinguished:(i)the fragmented cover of thickness t, including the water contained in its voids:if the poros- ity,E.,of the cover remains the same for both the re- gions above and below the water surface and if the ice is floating,then the submerged thickness of the cover is equal to S;l with Sj =specific gravity of ice;(ii)the layer of thickness h that consists of water,between the bot- tom of the cover and the channel bed.Figure I shows the assumed velocity distribution across the two layers; the fragmented cover is assumed to act as a solid due to interlocking among the fragments and thence to have a uniformly distributed velocity.Uj. Continuity equations Assuming that the porosity E.of the cover is con- stant,l the mass conservation for ice results in (thermal effects are neglected): at aqj [I](I -E.)aT +ax =a in which T =time,x =longitudinal distance.and qj = ice discharge per unit width,given by: [2]qi =(I -e.)Uj t Substituting [2]in [I]gives: [3] ilt ii(u,tl aT +----ax =a Consideration of the mass conservation of water gives: [4] in which q ..=water discharge.given by [5]q...=q'+E.UiSj t with q'=water discharge in the second layer.i.e., [6]q'=rUdY =Vh o where V =average velocity in the layer.Substituting [5]in [4]and taking [3]into account,gives: ah aq' [7]aT +ax =a which may be viewed as the continuity equation for the second layer. To write the overall mass flux equation for the ice and water flow.multiply [I]by Pi (ice density)and [4] by Pw (water density)and add,to find: [8]aH +apwq =a Pw a T ax in which H =overall water depth,given by: [9]H =h +Sit and Pwq is the total mass flux,that is: [10]pwq =Piqi +p",qw It is noted that [8]is identical to the continuity equation for water flow of depth H and discharge q. Momentum equations The momentum equation for the water layer in a direction parallel to the channel bed is: (au au au)ap aT [II]Pw aT +u ax +U ay =PwgSo -ax +ay in which u,u =velocity components in the x and y directions respectively:g =:magnitude of the acceler- ation due to gravity =9.8 m/s~;So =channel bed slope:p =pressure,assumed approximately equal to the hydrostatic pressure:and ..=shear stress parallel to the x-axis.acting on a plane normal to the .v-axis.The differential equation of continuity reads: [12]au +a"=aaxay By virtue of [12].the bracketed term on the left-hand side of [II]may also be written as (aul an +(du 2I ax) +(au,,1 ay).Making this substitution and integrating both sides of [II]from y =0 to Y =h,gives: rp dy (J ah+(plio iJx -(T,+To) and [19]dlmj =p;(l -e)tdx +PwEs;tdx =Pws;tdx Substituting 1[18]and [19]in [17]and rearranging, gives: ( aUi OUi).[20]p"S,t 'a T +U,ax.=p"gs;tS"+Ti A similar form may be obtained for [15]if we make the one-dimensional flow approximation m'"'"V~h and use [7]to show that: (all av)[21]Pwlt a:r +V ax =PwglzS ....-(T;+To) Once the initially stationary cover accelerates to the full water speed.the one-dimensional approximation will indicate that Ui "'"V.In this case.addition of [20]and [21]will give: [22]p"lf ('~~V +v~V)=PwgHS",-TorJTdx which is the same as the momentum equation for flow in which To =bed shear stress and Tj =shear stress on the bottom of the cover.considered positive if it tends to retard the water layer and accelerate the cover.as sketched in Fiig.I.It is noted that (U)I,=Ui and p = p"g (H -y).To determine (ulJ"[12]may be integrated from y =0 to y =h;this gives: ah a fh[14](U)h =Uj:;--:;-u dy uX ux 0 Using [6J,[7].,[9],and [14],[13]may be simplified to: ( Oql am')[15J Pw aT +ax =PwghSw -(Ti +To) in which Sw ==slope of the water surface and [16]m'=ru2 dy '0 Consider next the momentum equation for an ele- ment of the cover of length dx.For simplicity.the equation is written in a direction parallel to the water surface so as to cancel the pressure forces;the cosines of small angles that would ordinarily appear in the equa- tion are assumed equal to unity.If dm;is the total (ice and water)malss of the element and aj is its acceleration (note that Qj ==duJdT =constant across the element), then: [17](dmi)aj =g(dmj)Sw +Ti dx But 278 [18] dUj au;aUi ai =dT =aT +Ui ax CAN.J.CIV.ENG.VOL.9.1982 FIG.2.Location map of study area (after Doyle and Andres (1979),with changes). of depth H and average velocity V.Further.with Ui = V,it can be shown that q (defined by [10])becomes equal to VH and [8]reduces to [23]aH +o(VN)=0aTax It follows that under the conditions of (i)the one- dimensional flow approximation and (ii)full devel- opment of the speed of the cover,the overall equations governing the motion of water and ice are identical to those of ordinary water flow with depth H and average velocity V.With proper boundary and initial condi- tions.the jam release problem could then be handled by means of existing unsteady flow models.It is noted that a more elaborate derivation for a channel of arbitrary cross-sectional shape and plan form gave the same cor- respondence between water-ice flow and water flow of the same overall depth and average velocity. To estimate the time required for full development of the ice cover speed,an order-of-magnitude analysis was performed assuming a constant water speed and thick- ness t.It was found that Uj becomes equal to 95%of the water speed within a few minutes.Since the acceler- ation time is quite small,it could.as a first approxi- mation.be neglected and the computation based on the open-water equations from the very beginning of the process (instant of release). Fort McMurray case study Figure 2 is a plan of the Athabasca River in the BELTAOS AND KRISHNAPPAN 279 260...----------.,.....----------.,.....-------------, open water-.......I.t----jammed ice -----,.114.-sheet ice cover with open •water sections il ~elevations determined by Doyle and Andres 1979 Clearwater River assumed 2m above mean annual stage assumed water level prior to jam release mean annual stage E I ,..".""","~for open water2conditions '", ~!I surveyed cross sections (B=average width) S 0 5km-- E ~ o II X E-'"CD M• 230l.------:!:0-----1,-1::0-.-----=2L.:0 -------::l31::-0 ---x --..,.a40=------s,J,0=--...J X=Downstream Distance (km) FIG.3.Initial flow conditions and channel geometry (T =0 is taken at 1950 h.April 28,1979). • ]250 c::o .~ W u .~ "8 (])240<.9 vicinity of the town of Fort McMurray (Alberta),a site notorious for troublesome ice jamming.The 1979 breakup at this site was documented by Doyle and Andres (1979)who reported that breakup at MacEwan Bridge was triggered by the release of an ice jam that had formed a few kilometres upstream.The longi- tudinal stage profile of this jam was determined shortly before its release and can be used to define the initial conditions.The passage of the surge was observed at MacEwan Bridge and a few stage readings and velocity estimates are available.Channel cross sections below MacEwan Bridge have been provided by Doyle and Andres (1979);additional cross sections for the reach above the bridge were kindly provided by M.Anderson of the Transportation and Surface Water Engineering Division of the Alberta Research Council. To solve the governing differential equations.a nu- merical algorithm was used that has been developed by Krishnappan and Snider (1977)for one-dimensional unsteady flow with variable channel width.Though this algorithm is capable of dealing with cross sections of arbitrary shape,it was deemed sufficient for the present purpose to assume rectangular 'sections,as follows. First.a cross section was approximated by a trapezoid of depth equal to the distance of the water surface from the average channel bed level.This trapezoid was then approximated by a rectangle of the same depth and of width equal to the average width of the trapezoid.The channel width and depth between successive surveyed cross sections were determined by linear interpolation. Initial conditions for the water surface and bed pro- files as well as for the flow discharge along the study reach must be known for the computation.For the jammed reach.it is assumed that flow through the voids of the jam is negligible.therefore the value of q is equal to q'which in tum is equal to the water discharge prior to release.Discharge was estimated as 900 m1 /s below the mouth of the Clearwater River (see Fig.2)and 700 m)/s above this site,based on Water Survey of Canada records. In addition to the initial conditions.Krishnappan and Snider's algorithm requires the depth or flow rate at the upstream and downstream boundaries of the study reach plus an estimate of the friction factor or of the ratio V IV*(V*=shear velocity).which is assumed indepen- dent of x and T.Note that VIV*=C/Vg with C being the Chezy resistance coefficient.The boundary condi- tions were specified simply by choosing the boundaries sufficiently far upstream of the jam and downstream of MacEwan Bridge to ensure that surge effects do not reach these locations during the computation period. The parameter V IV*was left free,i.e ..it was selected by trial and error so as to give optimum agreement between predicted and observed stages at McEwan Bridge.Though this parameter is known for open-water conditions (V IV*=16)and should probably apply to 280 CAN.J.CIV.ENG.VOL.9.19M2 248r----r--,...---r----,---r----,---r----,,...---""'T"""---.-.,.--, Stage reached during new jamming,0830,29 Apri~ •,~ 247 •observed stage • J Ice movement ceases.T-165 min FIG.4.Computed versus observed stage-time variations at MacEwan Bridge (T =0 is taken at 1950 h,April 28,1979; observed stages are approximate). - - - - - unimpeded ice-water flow,the same value may not be appropriate for the present case study;downstream of the ice jam,the river was not open but covered by I-m thick sheet iCl~with occasional open-water sections. What the frictiion factor should be in this reach is un- known and certainly it would be expected to change with rime and distance as the surge moves in and dis- lodges the sheet ice cover.Because this effect is too complex,it was considered reasonable to use an "average"constant value;clearly,this value should be less than the open-water value. Figure 3 shows the riverbed profile in the study reach along with the initial water surface profile as documen- ted by Doyle and Andres (1979).The actual data points of Doyle and Andres are also plotted so as to show the degree of smoothing that was applied for computational purposes.The time T =0 is fixed at 1950 h,April 28. 1979. Figure 4 shows stage-time variations as computed for different vallues of VIV*along with available obser- vations.The best agreement between computation and observation seems to be obtained when VIV*=9.0. Note that all computed curves have a peak and decline slowly afterwards.as might have been expected since the simulated surge resembles.to a degree.the dam break problem.However,the observations show the stage to remain fairly steady after T =50 min.This is probably due to new jamming that occurred somewhere downstream of MacEwan Bridge.According to Doyle and Andres.ice movement at the bridge ceased at T = 165 min (2135 h.April 28)and a major jam was ob- served in the morning of April 29 with its toe 14 km below.and head II km above,MacEwan Bridge.As- suming that the new jam was initiated at the location indicated above,~it was estimated that,with V IV*= 9.0,the time of initiation would have been T =70 min. For T >70 min,effects of the new jamming would be experienced at MacEwan Bridge. The downstream variation of the peak stage com- puted with VIV*=9.0 is shown in Fig.5.For x 2: 24 km,the peak stage exceeds the initial stage,whereas for x ::::;24 km,the peak stage coincides with the initial stage.Clearly,in the latter reach the water level drops continuously from the very start of the surge. Figure 6 shows the variation of V with time at Mac- Ewan Bridge as computed for VIV*=9.0.At T = 35 min the computed value of V is 2.2 m/s while the surface velocity was estimated by site observers to be between 2 and 3 m/s.Considering that surface veloci- ties are typically 15%larger than average values,the agreement between prediction and observation appears satisfactory.This finding provides a measure of con- fidence to the present approach since poor velocity esti- mates despite the matching of water stages would be a strong negative indication. Considering again Fig.3.it may be noticed that the stage profile of the ice jam does not include any section parallel to the normal river slope.This implies that the jam did not attain equilibrium in the sense adopted by Uzuner and Kennedy (1976)as a result of its limited length.Had the supply of ice been larger.an equi- librium section would have formed;this would have caused a longer jam than the one that actually formed, 2This is the farthest possible location from MacEwan Bridge:the jam might have been initiated upstream of this site and slowly moved during the night of April 28-19 by inter- mittent shoves. BELTAOS AND KRISHNAPPAN 281 Profile 01 actual tam.L.aO Assumed prolile 01 lam L wlth 10km long equilibrium reach----------------',,\ "", " 5io<:J-=-EO===~5 km f 'OO'lr Q ~-~~8ed elevallon extended LLJ I upstream a[a slope 01.g 250'00005 ~o r] 240'::;_1~0----*O-----;J1O"""-----,21n0----' x-Downstream Distance (km) MCEwan Bridge I ~ro ~~00 x-Downstream Distance Ikm) 260 1 , ]250~c L.2 ~~ w [.Il "ii 240~"0 al I~r 230 0 FIG.5.Downstream variation of peak surge stage as com- puted with VjV",=9. 248,------,-------,.-----, 10 20 ~ Le -Length 01 equilibrium reach (km) FIG.7.Illustration of initial hypothetical jam with an equi- librium reach. ] c.2 ~~247 .~ ~ ~ r-35 min. esl'd surl.vel.-2-3 m/s FIG.6.Computed velocity-time variation at MacEwan Bridge (VjV*=9). °O.!::-..J.......""'20!<-..J.......~40!<-..J.......-::!60!::-..J.......-::!80!::--'--.,.,!100 T-Time from releaselminl though not necessarily associated with greater overall water depth,H (see also Fig.1).Considering that such an occurrence is not inconceivable,it is of interest to examine the effects of a hypothetical jam with the same maximum H as that of the actual jam but with larger length.Figure 7 shows the assumed initial profile of the hypothetical jam:a constant water depth,equal to the maximum overall depth associated with the actual jam, is assumed to occur in a reach of length L..and a horizontal water surface transition is drawn between this reach and the uniform-flow,open-water reach up- stream.Figure 8 shows the resuhing peak stage at Mac- Ewan Bridge plotted versus L.using V IV*=9.0;for L c=25 km.this peak would have been 1.3 m higher than the one that actually occurred.The main effect of L c on V is associated with the duration of surging velocities. For L.=O.Fig.6 indicates a maximum of 2.3 mls for V,whereas velocities in excess of 2 mls lasted for about 45 min.For L c =25 km,the maximum value of V was calculated as 2.35 mls but velocities larger than 2 mjs persisted for 110 min. Discussion From the foregoing analysis,it appears tht a one- dimensional,unsteady,open-water flow model can be FIG.8.Effecl of jam length on peak surge stage at Mac- Ewan Bridge (computed with VjV*=9). applied to the ice-water flow that results from the re- lease of an ice jam using appropriate definitions of the mass and momentum fluxes.Realistic predictions can be made with this approach provided a suitable value is selected for the coefficient VjV*.At this time,it is not known how this coefficient is to be predicted because of complications arising from the frequent existence of solid ice sheets below an ice jam.For the present study, the best value of V IV*was found equal to 9,which is between the open-water value (=16)and the apparent value (5)for flow under a I-m-thick ice cover.The apparent value of V IV*is defined as the ratio of the apparent V(equal to qlH)to the apparent V*(equal to (gHSr)112);Sf =energy slope).The apparent VjV*ap- plies when the cover is stationary but has to increase when the cover is set in motion.Additional case studies would help to develop a method for predicting suitable values of VIV*" The possible effects of the jam length on downstream flow conditions were'investigated using VIV",=9.It was found that jams of the same maximum H,but longer than,the actual jam would have resulted in in- 282 CAN.J.CIV.ENG.VOL.9.19112 ,~ ~. - - creased peak stages and durations of surging velocities. The peak value of V at MacEwan Bridge was calcu- lated as 2.3 m/s.occurring at T =.23 min.At T == 35 min,the calculated V had dropped slightly to 2.2 m/s:this is in accord with an estimated surface velocity of 2-·3 mis,reported by site observers.It is of interest to note here that surface velocities of 5-6 mls occurred at this site during the 1977 breakup (Doyle 1977):this implies corresponding average velocities of 4.3-5.2 mls which are about twice those of 1979.The difference could be produced by one or more of several factors such as a jam located closer to the observation site than the 1979 jam:a steeper toe slope:and a higher initial discharge.Unfortunately,the origin of the 1977 surge is unknown but chances are that the released jam was located at:about the same distance above MacEwan Bridge as the 1979 jam.The 1977 discharge was about 1300 m 31s which may account for a part but not for all of the difference in surging velocities.It can be shown that.other things being equal.surge speeds are approx- imately proportional to the square root of the initial water surface slope at the jam toe.Figure 3 indicates an initial toe slope of about 10-3;hence,it is estimated that the toe slope of the jam responsible for the 1977 surge would be close to but not greater than 4 x 10-.1.This value is not uncommon for ice jams in the vicinity of Fort McMurray (see Doyle 1977;Doyle and Andres 1978.1979). It has been pointed out that predictions cannot be ex.pected to bf:realistic beyond T ==70 min,due to new jamming that occurred at a location no farther than 14 km below MacEwan Bridge.The toe of the new jam was observed at this location about 12 h after the surge; it is thus possible that jamming first occurred at a dis- tance less than 14 km from MacEwan Bridge and the toe advanced by shoves during the intervening time. The probability of this occurrence is enhanced if it is considered that in 1977 a much more violent ice run was arrested at Poplar Island (9 km from MacEwan Bridge, see Fig.2 and Doyle 1977).If this had also been the case in 1979.it is estimated that the predictions would only apply until T =40 min. Regardless of the actual timing and location of the new jam.pr,ediction of subsequent flow conditions above the new toe depends on several factors.as indi- cated below: (i)sUlrge characteristics: (ii)unsteady tlow equations under a stationary frag- mented ice cover (new ice jam); (iii)mechanisms of upstream propagation and verti- cal growth (thickening)of an ice jam; (ivl the downstream boundary condition.that is.dis- charge or depth variation with time at the jam toe; (v)stability of the jam toe. Item (i)can be dealt with using the approach presented herein and item (ii)has already been dis- cussed in an earlier section where continuity and mo- mentum equations were developed (see also similar equations derived by Uzuner and Kennedy (1976)for flow under a stationary cover).For a situation where an ice jam lengthens in the upstream direction.two flow models must be applied simultaneously:a model of ice-water flow for the region upstream of the jam head and a model for flow under a stationary cover for the region downstream of the jam head.The location of the boundary between these regions depends on time in a manner dictated partly by item (iii)and partly by the incoming ice discharge which is related to item (i).Item (iii)can be formulated so as to be consistent with gen- erally accepted theoretical developments to date (see for example Kennedy 1958;Pariset eta!.1966;Uzuner and Kennedy 1976).Some attempts to formulate mathe- matically the propagation and thickening of an ice jam have already been made (Uzuner and Kennedy 1976; Mercer and Cooper 1977)but the resulting models have not as yet been tested against laboratory or field data. Items (iv)and (v),that is,flow and stability condi- tions at the jam toe.are,to a large degree.unknown. For example,Uzuner and Kennedy (\976)did not at- tempt to solve their time-dependent equations largely because the downstream boundary conditions were un- known.On the other hand,Mercer and Cooper (1977) assumed a floating toe with equilibrium thickness which permits one to consider the water surface along the jam as an M2 curve.Though floating toes are ob- served frequently.grounded toes are not rare occur- rences (Beltaos 1980).Evidence for the latter situation can be either direct (water surface located farther below the top of the jam than one tenth of the available chan- nel depth)or indirect (mode of failure of an ice jam, locally very steep slope of water surface).For the sec- ondice jam at Fort McMurray in 1979.the results of Doyle and Andres indicate a toe slope of O.ooY over a distance of 500 m;this is 16 times the normal channel slope at the same location.To withstand the resulting forces (stream wise weight component plus bottom shear stress)an ice jam would have to be much thicker than the available flow depth. When a jam toe is grounded.the downstream bound- ary condition may be formulated in terms of a seepage type of equation which relates the discharge to the water depths upstream and downstream of the grounded por- tion.If it is assumed that.at the time of formation of the toe.the flow is stopped completely.i.e ..the discharge becomes zero momentarily.the upstream depth will subsequently increase and the downstream depth will 'Note that similar toe slopes for ice jams near Fort McMurray have also been reported regarding the 1977 and 1978 breakup periods (Doyle 1977:Doyle and Andres 1978). --------_._-_._---------------------------- BELTAOS AND KRISHNAPPAN 283 decrease:this will establish a hydraulic gradient which. in turn.will cause the discharge to increase.This con- cept could be formulated mathematically and incorpo- rated in an overall model of jam formation;however, there is an additional consideration that requires in- vestigation.As the hydraulic head across the jam toe increases.the seepage force also increases.whereas the ability of the jam to resist this force may decrease if increased water.stages cause partial flotation of the grounded ice.Therefore there must be a limit of sta- bility beyond which the jam would fail and move down- stream but it is not known how a pertinent criterion should be expressed quantitatively.It would thus ap- pear that research on the mechanics of grounded jams is necessary before a complete model of ice jam formation can be produced. Summary and conclusions The results of a preliminary investigation into the mechanics of surges due to ice jam releases have been reported in the previous sections.The investigation was prompted by a recent report (Doyle and Andres 1979) that includes a partially documented case of ice jam release. The differential equations forthe ice-water flow that occurs subsequent to the release of an ice jam were formulated and it was shown that.with plausible ap- proximations.the problem may be treated as one- dimensional.open-water flow of total depth H identical to that of the ice-water flow.and average velocity V. This applies to situations where the river is free of ice downstream of the released ice jam.Though this does occur in nature occasionally.the downstream reach is orren covered with an undisturbed or deteriorated ice sheet.Arrival of the surge lifts.breaks.and sets in morion this ice sheet:the phenomenon is too complex to model but its main effect is to retard the advance of the surge.For practical purposes.it was assumed that this effect may be handled by an increased friction factor or a reduced ratio VIV*. The data provided by Doyle and Andres pertaining to the release of an ice jam on the Athabasca River above fort l\kMurray were reprocessed to define the initial and boundary conditions necessary for the com- putation. Stream geometry was defined on the basis of several surveyed cross sections:each cross section was approximated by a rectangle of average width and depth for simplicity.The computation was carried out by means of an algorithm developed by Krishnappan and Snider (1977)for unsteady.one-dimensional.open- water flow.This algorithm uses a constant value of VIV*,which.in view of previous comments.appears to be the weakest assumption of the present study.The value VIV *=9 was found to adequately reproduce available stage and velocity estimates at a downstream location.This value is between the corresponding open- water value (16)and the apparent value (5)for flow under a solid ice sheet. Using V IV*=9.it was found furtherthat.if the jam had been associated with the same maximum water depth but was longer than the one that actually oc- curred.the peak surge stages and durations of surge velocities would increase. From the data of Doyle and Andres (1979)it appears that the surge was arrested at a location no more distant than 14 km below MacEwan Bridge and the present computation cannot be expected to be realistic for T > 70 min due to changed downstream conditions.Pre- liminary considerations of the mathematical modelling of jam reformation indicated that the major unknowns are the flow and stability conditions at the toe of an ice jam.especially in cases where the toe is grounded. Acknowledgments River cross sections upstream of MacEwan Bridge were provided by M.Anderson of the Transportation and Surface Water Engineering Division of the Alberta Research Council.Unpublished gauge data were made available to the authors by the Calgary office of the Water Survey of Canada.Review comments by T.M. Dick and Y.L Lau are appreciated. BELTAOS.S.1980.Case studies of river icc breakup.National Water Research Institute Hydraulics Division.unpublished report.Burlington.Ont..29 p.Submitted to the Inter- national Association for Hydraulic Research for inclusion in the book River and lake ice engineering (in preparation). DOYLE.P.F.1977.1977 breakup and subsequent ice jam at Fort McMurray.Report SWE-77-01.Transportation and Surface Water Engineering Division.Alberta Research Council.Edmonton.Alta.,25 p. DoYLE.P.F ..and ANDRES.D.D.1978.1978 breakUp in the vicinity of Fort McMurray and investigation of two Athabasca River ice jams.Report SWE-78-05.Trans- portation and Surface Water Engineering Division.Albcrta Research Council.Edmonton.Alta..44 p. ---1979.1979 spring breakup and ice jamming on the Athabasca Rivcr ncar Fort McMurray.Report SWE-79-05. Transportation and Surfaee Water Engineering Division. Alberta Research Council.Edmonton.Alta ..32 p. GERARD.R.1979.River ice in hydrotechnical engineering:A review of selected topics.Proceedings.Canadian Hydrolo- gy Symposium:79.National Research Council of Canada. Ottawa.Ont..pp.1-29. HENDERSON.F.M ..and GERARD.R.1981.Flood waves caused by ice jam formation and failure.Proceedings. International Association for Hydraulic Research.Inter- national Symposium on Ice.Quebec City.preprint pp. 209-219. KENNEDY.R.J.1958.Forces involved in pulpwood holding grounds -I.Transverse holding grounds with pien,.The Engineering Journal.41.pp.58-68. 284 CAN.J.elv.ENG.VOL.9.1981 .- - - - KRISHNAPPAN.B.G .•and SNIDER.N.1977.Mathematical modelling of sediment-laden flows in natura]streams.Sci- entific Series No.81.Inland Waters Directorate.Canada Centre for Inland Waters,Burlington.ant..48 p. MERCER.A.G .•and COOPER.R.H.1977.River bed scour related to the growth of a major ice jam.Proceedings.3rd National Hydrotechnical Conference.Quebec City.pp. 291-308 . PARISET.E ..HAUSSER.R..and GAGNON.A.1966.For- mation of ice covers and ice jams in rivers.ASCE journal of the Hydraulics Division.92(HY6l.pp.1-25. UZUNER.M.S .•and KENNEDY.J.F.1976.Theoretical model of river ice jams.ASCE journal of the Hydraulics Division. 102(HY9).pp.1365-1383. ~........--.--.".--.---!.~,"".----~:..__~-,_.-~"'~'~~::f .---..~"r FWSJOBS-78156 October 1978 ---I - r Western Reservoir and Stream Habitat Improvements Handbook Guide to the Perfonnance of Fish and Wildlife Habitat and Population Improvement Measures Accompanying Water Resource Development by .R.Wayne Nelson,Gerald_C.Horak,and James E.Olson Enviro Control,Incorporated _1520 East Mulberry Street Fort Collins,Colorado 80524 Contract No.14-16-0008-2151 FWS Western Water Allocation Project Lee S.Ischinger,Project Officer Western Energy and Land Use Team Drak~Creekside Building,2625 Redwing Road Fort Collins,Colorado 80526 Prepared for the Western Energy and Land Use Team Office of Biological Services Fish and Wildlife Service U.S.DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - ::E ;c,.:r.,e .':1: -'~ •C :E: U1•Q :E ~•C LLOYDMlNSTI 1201 Toronlo EClmonlon AS BIRCH HILL GA POBO.'5S WanhamAB T EABTCENTR... 3022Av"W Hanna AS TO. LACLABICHE POBO.l050 Lac La a,cne , COLUMBIA NA~ 720 t-:oolenay C:anbronlo Be I C G UTILITIES 5S09-455' POBo.600 L"Cluc AB T9E CH\NOOf(GAS POBox 690 Milk A.."r AB . 4V23NA TRIPLE W NATt PO 80.115 '/otrenrtlamAB ..NCOG...SCI POBo,'9O InnistreeA8 T LAMCO G...S C POBo"28 LamonI AB T( STE AHNE NAT PaBa.600 OnowayASTI NATURAL GAS PO eo.177 PrOVOSIAS TC ROCXYGASCI PaBa.697 t;OCky Mounta BOWRIVERGA PO Box 66 Vau.hall AB TI NORTHWESTE 10040 104lh: El1monlonA8 ...TCOLTD 1243 MCkn'l CaigaryAB CANADIAN WI 90911 Ave: Caigary AB' DOMEPETRC 3377 AveS, Calgary AS- DOME PETRO 3337 AveS • TOlNer POBo>200 Calgary AB' DOME P1PELII 3377 Av"S \ CalgaryAB 1 NOfITHCANA 6306 Av"S. Calgary AB T P...M-......ERTj sao 707 8Av Calgary AB T EYERGAEEHC P080x 1224 D<ayton Valle CHIEFTAIN DE 1201 ToronlO Twr EClmontonAE SIC 4922 SIC 4922 SIC 4922 SIC 491 I SARATOG...PROCESSING COMPANY' 1333 W G""rgla SI SIC 4922 Ora .."r460 vancouv"r AB TOI<OMO WEST COAST TRANSMISSION CO·L Ttl 1333 W Ge()lola SIC 4922 Vancouver Be V6E 3K9 TECUMSEH GAS STORAGE LIMITED 1~l Canaclan Pla\:f?:400 SiC 4922 PO no,"90 T.>'onto ON MoX IC~ PUBLIC UTILITIES COMSN KINGSTN 2 11 Counter 51 SIC 4911 49224941 PO 80d90 4111 Klngslon ON K7L 4X7 A G PlPE!.INE.C"'NAD'"LTD 16007347 Av"Sw Calga,y AB T2POZI "'LBERTA N"'TUR"'L GASCOLTtl 2.100425 \51 5 ..E To ..e·SIC 4922 1321 Calga.y AB T2P 318 . MAC UREN J ...MESINDUSTRIES INC Ma.-on PO JOH 2HO SIC 2621 26 I 1 2421 4911 "'LCAN SMELTERS"CHEMICALS' 1 PtVilleMalle27"meEI SIC 333928194911 1'0 Bo,6090 Menlle,,'PO H3B 4G4 HYDROELECTRIC CIIMSN WTRL WL WL 300 Northfield Df r:$1('.9" Walerlvo ON N2J 4A3 COMMISSION HYOROELECTIIIOUE QUE 750 Boul Dorenesler SIC 4911 POBo.Sl06 "Monlr"al PO H2Z lA4 CO-OPERAnVE RGHL ELC S ~BPT' 3113 Rue Pritlclpale SI-Jllan·bapli$le·ae-rouville PO JOLZBO 48Z2 N"'TURAL GAS TR...NSMISSION SOUTH FL4GST...FF GAS CO-OP L TO PO eo~57 SIC 4922 Alliance AB TOB OAO ANKERTON GAS CO-OP LTD Ba",'1 AS TOB OJO BATTLE .IIVER G...S CO-OP L TO PO Bo.129 SIC 4922 F'ellnlosh AB TOB 1MO BUCK MOUNTAIN G"'S CO-OP LTD POBo.209 SIC 4922 Wamurg AS TOC 2TO MARITIME ELECTRIC CO_ANY LTD 134 Ke.'SI SIC A911 POBo,1328 CnarlOl1elown PEC1A 7N2 CONSOLIDATED PIPE LINES CO 7177 AveS",=1300 Calga,y AB T2R IL9 FOOTHILLS PIPELINES YUKON LTD 2056 Ave 5 ..160080'"Vlt SIC 4922 1623 Calgary AB T2P 2V7 NOVA"'N "'LBERTA CORPDR...TION \lUI 7 Av"S..SIC 492297-'1 PO Box 2535 STN M . - . Calgary AB T2P 2NS YELLOWHE ...D GAS CO-OP LTD 49133rClA...SIC 4922 POBo.2010 1£<1,011 ABTOE OPO LOBSTICK G...S COoOf'LTD PO Bo.lS6 SIC 4922 (vansburg A8 TOE OTO NORTH PE ...CE GAS CO-OP LTD InCluslrla'subCllvision SIC 4922 POBo.1239 Fa"view AB TOH lLO 3123 SIC 4911 SIC 4911 SIC 49111081 TORONTO HYDRO-ELECTRIC SYSTEMS t J:Carao'":SI SIC 49l" loronIC,lON".4~"'k.~ RICHMOND HR.L HYDRO ELC CMMSSN 10 18A YOllge SI SIC 4911 POElox 416 R,Chmonll H"ON L4C AY6 ST LAWRENCE POWER CO LTD 130P'1I£' POBox 1149 Corn"''''1 QN K6H SV? PUBLIC UTILITIES COMSN KINGSTN 211 Coonle<SI SIC 4911 49224941 POBox 790 4111 Kln9"'on ON K1l AX7 MARKHAM HYDRO ELECTRIC COMMISS 60 Bullock Dr $IC 49" POBc.ISoo Maroh..""ON L3P 3P2 CAM...DIAN HI...G...RA POWER CO LTD 83 Queen SI.SIC 4911 POBo.118 FO'1 Elle ON L3A 1T7 HYDRO ELC COMM OF THE CTY SARN 160-cG"ntgeSt SIC 4911 Sa",.aON N7T 7VA &A_TON HYDRO ELECTRIC CMMSSN 50M,,,,,StS SIC 4911 Bramplon ON LSW 3P7 CORNWALL STREET RLWY LGT PWR C .1001 Sydlley5'SIC 4911 POSo.1179 Cornwa)i ON K6H SV3 BRASCAN UMITEO Commerce Cour~W PO So>4S Toronro ON M5L IB7 ONT ...RIO HYDRO CORPORATION 700 U1"1I\"e'~j1y A'rIe SIC 491' '-:J\'o,on,c ON M5G lX6 NYDRO ELECTRIC COM BORGH ETOBK 2 CiVIC Cenlre Cl SIC 4911 ErOlltCOkPON M9C 784 HYDRO EL,ECTRIC COMMSSHNEPEAN 1970M""va",RCl SIC 4911 Dna"'"ON K:'C 3G? PICKERING HYDRO ELE COMMISSION 1135f'.·'Y',·St SIC 4~11 P'Ckerll"'l ON I lW ;lG 7 PORT COLBORNE HYDRO ELEC COMM 360 FlmhulSI Bu.36 SIC 4911 POBo,36 Port Colborn"ON 1.3K !:IB1 NAP...NEE PBLC UT CMM OF TWN N..... I l~J,,"nSI SIC A911 Napan""ON K7R lRl HYDRO ELC CMN OF CITY OTT AWA 3025 AIb",n IICl SIC,4911 PO So.8700 OnawaONK1G354 GRE...T L....KES POWER LTD 122 Easl SI SIC 4911 Sault Sr~Malle ON P6A 3C6 HYDRO·EI.C COMM CTY SUDBURY 69 YouncSr SIC 4911 POBo.?50 Sollbury ON P3F'4Pl HYDRO-ELECTRIC COMM THUD BY TH 34 N CumO"r1anCl 51 SIC 491 I TOlunCle,Bay ON P7 A 41 4 JAMES BAY ENERGY CORPORAnON HYDRO ELECTRIC ClIMB en GLCSTR _-~8001£SoUl De Maisonneu,e SIC 4911 Hwy 3 I SIC 4911 "!onlreal PO H2L 41.18 POBo.9800 GIOUC"SI&r ON K IG 4C I GUELPH HYDRO 1040awsonRCl GuelPhONN1H2A7 HYDRO ELECTRIC COMMSN cn HMLN 55JohnSIN SIC 4911·t---------------- Hamilt<Jr'ON L8R 1H2 SIC A911 SIC 48 11 4899 41111 ELECTRIC SUVICES AGlI ...INOUSTRIES LIMITED ,2(:.J Cn To..""SIC 6711 89"1794 sa'~dluun::iK 571'TJ5 Z099 205b 4~99 BUSINESSES BY PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION _.--~:S~OT~~'P~:'ORAT~-N---I~ALLACEBURGHYDRO'ELE~TRICSYS hi '14B~.9 !Se;;t4 Hilrrln~rll'S1 !,i(~49'~\"600GJ.;liiOdSl SIC 49'~ ....PO Box ~,,,PG 8"1l:4f~8 ,~ialfla.N$8,3.1 ]1'10 Wallac"burg ON N6A 4X 1 GIlOUPE VIOEOTRONL TEE (LEI 31iJl:S,.c L0'("'SiC Sf''''l,oe'~~u J3Y ~Tb \IIClIfTHWEST TEL INC 3U I Lal1\Oel\51 WMetlorW YT 'I'IA 4'1'A POWER COMM THE CITY SAINT "OHM 239 CM.lulle 5r SIC 49'1 PO Be»850 Sa,nl John N6 E2l 4C7 BRmSHCOLUMBI...HYDROPW ...THY 970 BurrarCl 51 SIC 4'911492340 11 /'vanco"",,r BC V6Z 1'1'3 crn OF WPG HYDRO ELE SYS THE 1 ·510Ma,nSr w,,"lIpog ....SR3B Ie, 'c G UTILITIES L TO ;1/18m Flr-444 SI Marys SIC 61114911 4923 "1 Ave ~Wlnn,p"g MB R3T 2AA~MANITOBA HYDRO ELECTRIC BRD TH.a,820 Ta;lor Ave SIC 4911 ..L-~POBo,81S ~",-Wlnn;peg MB R3C 2PA '"1 NEW BRUNSWICK ELECTRIC PWR CMM 1.-..,5;;7 K,,'g St SIC 4911 -'Frl'<lellclon NB E3B I E7 CHUACHlLLF ...LLS L ...BRADOR CORP" _50 E,"ab..,"Av ..nue SIC 491 I !>31 I -et ~PO Bo.9200 sTN B 11 51 Johns NF AlA 2X9 rGULL ISLAND POWER CORPORATION' POlIlip P,ace SIC 491 I _POeo.91oo . .J 51 Johns NF A u.2X8 "LOWER CHURCHILL DVLPMNT CORP" POl,hp Plac"SIC 4911 ._,POSo.9100 ~..5,JonnsNFAIA2X6 ~NEWFOUNDLAND ~LA.HyD EL.CORPIP"",p Plac~Ehzabelh A\SIC 491 I ~-;;PO Bo,9100 I 51JonnsNFAIA2X8 NEWFOUNDLAND LIGHT ..PWR CO'• •55 Kenmounr Roaa Box 8910 SIC 49 j 1 I POBo,8910 ~.-51 jOhnS NF A IB3P6 _POWER DISTRIBUTION DS NF ..L"'B E"zaoem Ave Ph,"p Pic SIC 4~11 J FOao..91Qi) :._.'~:~:::L::~;:::ORPORAT'ON' !:IO E,,:abe'h Av"nuEo FOE SIC A911 •PO Bo.9200j51JaM'NF A1A2X9 J ~.::j )1;..i 'f ',:-ATCOLTD 1 -12'3 MC kn'9l't BlvCl Ne SIC 4911 49232452 Calgary A8 T2E 5T2 3448 1381 1389 t'RANSALT'"UTlUTIES CORP _._~~~~:E~~~:W2Ml SIC 49111211 ~RT"'POWERUMITED l00401041h51 SIC 4911-:;:::>EClmonton A8 T5J 2V6 CAIllADIAH UTlUTIES LIMITED I 10040-10451 SIC 4911 6711 .Edmonton AS T5S OZ3 IIOItTHI!RN C"'NADA POWER eM" ,7909-51 Ave SIC 4911+~POBo.S7QOSTNL 'J..'"Eamonton AB T6C 4J8 leG IITUJ11£S PLAINS WESTAN' 5509-4551 SIC 4923 4911 POBo>800 LeouC AB T9E 4N3 WEST KooTEN...Y POWER"LCNT CO- PO Bo.130 SIC 4911~Tra,IBCV1R4L"SIC 4899 :ATIONS .'o~) SIC 4899 !;jIC 4899 SIC F;71'4899 VICE!;LIMITED I"-"I SIC 4899 SIC 4899 IVICESLTD SIC 6111 48li9 c !'iC 4899 IlU.WAYS ~'JC 4U-1145',441' .:'1:,70114899 SIC 4899 SIC 4899 LIMITED :0':671148994832 7819 LIMITED EMS INC ~\oIo'Sj'C 67114899 IIM.ELTEE IJMPANYLTD SIC 6711 4899 1131 ;",T10NS LTD ~;_(/11 ~833 7922 4S99 73136512 ESEPTlLES" SIC 4899 ~-3:.~:O3:!4"~"" 48J3 ..- IITED srl'27 n 2721 4833 4frn514899 .- ICE LTD .....':D SIC 28344899 7394 3693501lS LE COMMUNTS LTO ,.-SIC 4899 'X'2 JNSLIMITED _SIC 7399 7394 46:39 ·1 <1 1 '1 ''I 1 'I I I I 1 I I Canadian . Electrical Association Environmental Guidelines Director-of Research and-Development CANADIAN ELECTRICAL ASSOCIATION Suite 580.One Westmount Square Mo~treal.Quebec H3Z 2P9 .... Construction Construction activities can be carried on in a way which minimizes damage to the environment.Before work begins,a plan to protect and manage the environment should be developed and conveyed to the construction forces. Erosion,Sedimentation,and Ice A reservoir presents a potential source of erosion and sedimenta- tion.To the degree it is economically and technically possible, siting and design should ensure stability of the banks,prevent land from sliding or breaking.avoid the silting of the reservoir. and achieve erosion protection in harmony with the natural sur- roundings.Similarly.the design of structures and remedial or pro- tective devices should take into account the behaviour of ice and frazil ice. ~C;\ew ......:!ies ;)~:Jd to ,ulre l"u"Jitio;l~.111 -Structures to provide access to habitats for migratory species. -Extension of the area available to certain species. -Promotion of certain species to the detriment of others. Water Quality -rhe major parameters defining vw'atar quality include temperatui6, turbidity,dissolved oxygen and nitrogen,and nutrients.Aquatic life depends on the inter-relationship of all these factors. To minimize the effects of a hydro-electric project on the physical, ctlemical,and biological quality of the environment,the planning and design of the structures should take into account: --Present and potential uses of the water upstream and down- stream. -Effects of water storage on dissolved'oxygen and water temperature,and repercussions on aquatic life. .Downstream effects on nitrogen saturation. Effects of organic matter and nutrients carried by flood waters to the reservoir,where sedimentation is accelerated. Ground Water Levels Adjacent land where the ground-water level may rise she .AId be studied to determine: -Effects of higher ground-water levels. -Present and future uses including potential with regard to forestry,agriculture,mining,tourism.wildlife and plant life. Reservoir Clearing Reservoirs can be clear cut,or partially cleared.Decisions on the degree of clearing should be consistent with environmental uses of the reservoir within the operating levels.Consider the follow- ing:. -Wildlife habitat,boating.fishing.swimming,water skiing.as well as sightseeing. -Proximity and accessibility of the reservoir to urban,industrial, agricUltural,and wilderness areas. -Fish and bird reproduction can be enhanced.in some instances. if portions of reservoirs are not cleared. -The salvage of as much wood material as is economically possible. -Waterway habitat improvement.including bank stabilization, control of wind and water erosion in the zone of fluctuation and replanting of mudflat areas with water adaptable species. 'i;' -1 ,'j .;,-,;.,;~,;,·",;·."j:;"~~l.ti!l!,~~;",·'·;i-·.\\'·h ' , '."jir,"iihj~~"i·j;;l'~l;'i.r~J;("I'~t'Jlii·'~~,::':':;::'!::~~';'~:;~;;i~~tt;:;::h~:~;':rh,~::l\;;l,iilN~;t 1 I .-t.; ,"':1".1,:;,; "'.: ,"11 :.."~ ,.,.~.} i t I D .., ~,. 'lxca, Borre •Chi the cor •Loc resl out slOI Operi Rese. Durin and ~ the rll Permi study The I shoull opera be co Consi -Stat tion -Pr01 tion -Mor tion -App -SUf\ -Prot cycl -Reci cam Rights The ri protec definel -Floa -Na~i -Drail and ~U·)ftti!lf~i"'!',;l.J':!~ltKj ,'~!'Iil'';,h,F. "!!H:. jW lii~Y~. 'Tit ..~ ;i 'I! nta- ble, fent 'oir, ,ur- )ro- and zes ect, ted ~;tft''JI~JH;;h.~·i)'IV,i,,,~;~,'r,,,,'(nlr.I'~\tWv-~t;}'''/''1 I,\:,'~.'i':'!!',:"{t·;,,--,,,:1,'--,,.1 A.l '~','.i. Excavation,Borrow Pits.and Quarry Areas Borrow pits,quarries and disposal areas are unsightly. •Choose disposal areas for surplus excavation with care so that the landscaping of these spoil areas,when abandoned,will be compatible with the natural surroundings. •Locate pits and quarry sites within the area of the future reservoir if possible.Landscape and stabilize exploited areas outside the limits of the reservoir on completion,including slopes and faces. Operation Reservoir During the 11';ing of the reservoir,protect the water and animal and plant life,taking into account the rights of other users of the river. Permissible reservoir fluctuations should be established by a study of the energy production and environmental requirements. The best solution that takes these two factors into account should be applied.It may be necessary to apply more severe operating restrictions during migration or spawning.They should be co-ordinated with fish and wildlife management authorities. Consider the following elements in the operation of a reservoir: -Stability of river or reservoir banks affected by sharp fluctua- tions in water level. -Protection of the rights or property owners by ensuring opera- tion within minimum and maximum operating flows and levels. -Monitoring variations in ground-water levels caused by opera- tion of a reservoir. -Appearance of areas affected by variations in levels. -Surveillance of water quality and sedimentation. -Protection of flora and fauna,taking into account reproductive cycles. -Recreational activities such as fishing,pleasure boating, camping and swimming. Rights of Other Users The rights of other users upstream and downstream should be protected during operation.Ciear operating limits should be defined for various conditions.Other user rights include: -Floating of logs ' -Navigation -Drainage,irrigation,industrial and residential water supply, and waste water discharges. 1 \.\_~~"':'~I~~':,1",;1,;,,_. -Appearance of the area -Water quality -Recreational uses,such as for fishing,swimming and camping -Commercial fishing De-Commissioning De-Commissioning of a hydro-electric plant involves taking it out pf service and transferring all rights to the water and land to others,and usually occurs when its useful life is completed and rehabilitation or redevelopment is not economically justified. The economic analysis should consider the environmental effect of de-commissioning,especially on the uses that have developed over the plant's lifetime.These may include recreation,irrigation. flood control,conservation,water supply,and fish farming. Returning a site to its original state should be considered. although it is seldom practical to restore levels and flows to their natural state when the ecology and human population have adapted to a changed regime. •Consider the visual quality of the de-commissioned structures and site in the economic analysis. ~ ,.... Canadian Journal of FisherieS arid Aquatic Sciences Journal canadien des sciences halieutiques et aquatiques --.,_:_------------------------------------- ..... Volume 41,No.4,April 1984 - Article!> Volume 41,nO 4,avril 1984 .~The Southern Indian Lake impoundment and Churchill River diversion •R.W.NE'wbury.G.K.McCullough.and R.E.Hecky 548-557 '1 Shoreline erOSH)n and restabilizationin the Southern Indian Lake reservoir R.W.Newbur\and G.K.McCullou~h 558-565 -""Effect of impoundment and diversion on the sediment budget and nearshore sedimentation 'of Southern Indian lake R.E.HE'd\'and G.K.McCullough 5&7-578 Thermal and oJttimal characteristics of Southern Indian Lake before,during.and after impoundment and Churchill River di"ersion R.E.Hecky 579-590 Primary productivity of Southern Indian Lalle before.during.and after impoundment altd Churchill River diversion R.E.Heck\'and S.I.Guildiord 591-60.f Comparison of phosphorus tUmoYt'r times in Northern Manitoba rt'Servoirs with lalit'S of the hperimenta'Lakes Area D.Planas and R.E.Heckv 605-612 -Effects of impoundment and diversion on the crustacean plankton of Southern Indian Lake K.Patalas and A.Saiki 613-&37 Effect of impoulndment and river divt'rsion on profundaI macrobenthos of Southern Indian Lake,Manitoba A.P.WiE'ns and D.M.Rosenberg 638-&48 Breakdown of conift'r needle debris in a new northern reservoir.Southern Indian Lake.Manitoba P.,.Cr,lwlOrd and D.M.Rosenber~&49-658 Descriptions of two new specit'S of Tanypldinae (Diplt'ra:Chironomidael from Southern Indian Lake.Canada B.Bilvi 659-&71 Cbironomidat'(Diptera)emerging from tht'lillora'zone of rt'Servoirs.with special reference to Southt'rn Indian Lake. Manitoba D.M.Rosenberg,B.Bilvi.and A.P.Wiens 672-"81 Increa5t'S in fISh mercury levels in lakes flooded by the Churchill River diversion.northern ManHoba R.A.Bodah-.R.E.Heck and R.J.P.Fudge 682-&91 Coilapst'of the'lake whitefish (Coregonus clupea/ormis)fishery in Southern Indian Lake.Manitoba,follow!ng,lak~ ill1poundmenll and river diversion R.A.Bodah.T.W.D.'o~nson,R.I.P.fud~e.and J.W.Clayton 692-700!""'"PoslimpoundmE~nt winter sedimentation and survival of lake whitefish ICoregonus clupea/orm;s)eggs in Southern Indian Lake,ManitobaR.J.P.Fud~t'and R.A.Bodaly '701-705 Response of a boreal northern pike (Eso.l/uc;us)population to lake impoundment:Wupaw Ba~·.Southern Indian Lake. Manitoba R.A.Bodal ....and L F.W.lesack 70&-714f"i'"Postimpoundfl1E!nt cbanse in financial performance of the Southern Indian Lake commt'rcial fishery M.W.Wagner 715-719 ......En"ironmentaUmpact prediction and asSt'ssment:the Southern Indian Lake experience R.£.Heckv.R.W.Newbur\'.R.A.Bodal\'.K.PataJas.and D.M.Rosenberg 720-732 800ks received I Livrt'S rec;us Coming nellt month!A paraitr\'Ie mois prochain -CI~SDX41i4J 54;--7'~4 q'm.; I~S!'.O;-(Jb-lJ'i.?X Cl.:Mmister oj ~uppl\'and ~t'rVlCE'~Lanada l'Hi4 .MinrSlrf'dl·...Anpre Iv,....onnt>mf>nl...PI ~t'rvl(t'~l .In.ul.l 1,*X4 --eTl~a~·Signed-b~ :).-::E~..l Cr~g;nar Sign':pal" 733 734 """NIIIIPEG HEAL TH AND WELFARE 95£ FEDERAL BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT BANK Winnipeg Branch 101 ·386 Broadway Ave R3C 3A6 ...944·9991 CQunseillng Aaslstanc:e 10 $maY Enterprises (CASE) 605 •386 Broadway Ave A3C 3R6 ..,949-6166 Prairie 6 Northern Region Office 3rd Floor·3 Lombard Place R38 OY4 _943·8581 St Boniface Branch 851 Laglmodiere Blvd R2J 3K4 233-6791 :It'llcer 949-3297 SmtDPly Officer.. . . . . . . . . ...949-3297 Imln Servtces 949-2912 i55istanr . . ....949-2912 ;ierl.•..................."949-6355 SUpennsor 949-3181 :::J~ks ..............•..•.949-3181 ~IC2I'lons Clerk.. . . . . . . . . ...949-2599 oc:esslOg Unit.949·2130 ~CentrA 949-2130 Iilll9 and Architecture '"_. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...949..4053 'f 949·5594 J-e1opment and Design a-tOl'.. . . . •• . . .........••.949·2958 l'<'"C9 Co-ord . . . . . . . . . . . . ...949·3744 .nee Systems Officer.• . . ...949·2158 -ecords Officer 949·2158 nt Officer ... ...... . . ...949·3164 Il€aflons &Electronics Otfr...949-3057 ,nefClf Engineering 949-3173 'ct:ntect Section ",.949·4967 ndC\iCape Architect.. . . . . . ...949-5581 pe Architect Design 949-2058 pe ArchItect.. . . ... . . . . . ...949·2058 :1.U"1it Designer . . . . . . . . . . ...949-3173 r'Sl1l't\·,949-3163 Ffaads Engineer.. . . . . . . ...949-3168 )fffcer . . . .... ...... . . . . ...949-3168 :Eoglneer ~~'"949-3165 EngIfleer tul<oo.~JWT).......•......949-3169 I~OHicer ..............•949-3164 ~YT.Co-ord 949·3162 OJT Design.. . . . . . .... . .949-2857 .)l"P Archttect , . . . . . ...949-2657 JtT Draftsperson "949·4917 'I,;;::rcrers . . .... . . ... .. ....949·2718 "l'\'Technologist 151+482·4367 )".Design TeChnologist OJ'ation Workshop .............151+482-4387 Assistant Aegional Manager . Supvr Office Services . Supvr,Loan Administration . Appraisal &Advisory Services Offr . Supvr,Loan Review.. . .... . Loan Aeview Officers . Supvr,Accounts . Loan Administration Officer •........ Fann Credit District Office 202·2989 Pembina Hwy R3T 2H5 District Supervisor . District Secretary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Credit Advisors .. 949·4035 949-4036 949-4038 949-4040 949-4046 949·6274 949-4033 949-3788 261-0611 261-0611 261·0611 District Clerk.. . . . . . . . . . ...... . ...949-406-1 Supervisor Field Operations , ...949·4068 Supervisor Technical Services 949-6092 Primary Products Inspectors Southern Manitoba.. ... . . . . . . . . ...949·4067 Winnipeg Station 222-8704 EXPERIMENTAL FISH HATCHERY Guntan,Manitoba ROC 1HO Petersfield 738·4613 .SMAll CRAFT HARBOURS BRANCH 190-167 Lombard Ave R3B OT4 Regional Manager 949-4061 Program Dvlp Officer.. . . . . . . .....949·6093 FRESHWATER FISH MARKETING CORPORATION 1199 Plessis Road A2C 3L4 SWITCHBOARD CONNECTING ALL DEPARTMENTS ..•..•.........949-6600 HEALTH AND WELFARE CANADA CANADA ASSISTANCE PLAN 270 OsbGrne St N R3C 1V7 INFORMATION.... . . . . . ....944-326€/2442 Field Representative.. .944-3206 Field Officer..... . . . . . . . .....944-2442 Clerk... . . . . . . ...944-3286 :XTERNAL AFFAIRS" CANADA FEDERAL COURT OF CANADA Woodsworth Bldg 2nd·405 Broadway Ava R3C 3L6 T OFFICE "'2'Bldg ve-R3C OP4 'r.-.:;tor .. :1'J'~-=-""__••.•...•••••. i5·;"'. 949·2184 94f'·2190 949·2190 District Administrator . Deputy District Administrator . Deputy Clerk of Process . 949·2509 949-2509 949-2509 INCOME SECURITY PROGRAMS BRAI'~CH CANADA PENSION PLAN FAMILY ALLOWANCES 01.0 AGE SECURITY 8estlands Bldg 191 Pioneer Ave R3C 3P4 INFORMATION ... Aegional Director . Administration Chief,Administration Services . EDP Services Supvr . Office Services Supvr ..,. Malerial Management Supvr . Benefit Control . 948-3640 ~49·2310 949-3623 949·2340 949·2343 949-2343 949-3623 Finance Chief,Financial Admin:949-2314 Financial 8.Pers Officer.. . . . . . . ...949-2314 949·6238 949·2585 Old Age Security Chief,OAS/GIS/SPA. OAS Sup"r,Work Stations ... Canada Pension Plan Chief.. . . . . ... . . . .....949-2177 Cpp Supvr,Section 1.. ..943·5551 Cpp Supvr.Section 2..949·6199 FISHERIES AND OCEANS 1- I\I'\~~\ ~'/(l'REGIONAL OFFICE FRESHWATER INSTITUTE 501 University Cras R3T 2N6 INFORMATION (SWiTCHBOARD)....949·5000.;~-5 Donald St R3L 2T4 CREDIT CORPORATION CANADA oN. 1agtgr 949·4039 949-4034 MANITOBA DISTRICT OFFICE Main Floor·153 lombard Ave R38 OT4 Manager.. . . .. . . ...949·4060 Family Allowances Chief... . . . .949·28..\7 FA Supvr,Work Stations 949-4159 ..... - - .... - ..... - ...., i - ..... ALBERTA DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Petrole"m Plaza South Tow€r 9915·~08th St. Edmon1Q/1 T!;I(2C9 It;l:Oql:AT10N CENTRE .427.359G TelE!COOler 4::7.2548 Tell',037·3676 BRITISH COLUMBIA MINISTRY OF ENERGY,MINES AND PETROLEUM RESOURCES Par:,amem 81dlgs Vlctorra.VBV ~X4 Gt'~eral l"'qUlflE!S 387·5111 MANITOBA MANITOBA ENERGY AND MINES 555-330 Grana""A'ifJ.. VV'~peg,R3C;4E3 NEW BRUNSWICK ENERGY SECRETARIAT 12451.Jann 51 FreC:..r'c~on Mailing Acoress' P.O 801'6000.FreoeflctOf".E3B 5H1 NEWF()UNDLAND. DEPARTMENT OF MINES AND ENERGY P.O.80x 4750,51.JaM's,A1C 5T7 Telex 016-4724 NOVA SCOTIA DEPARTMENT OF MINES.AND ENERGY Joseph Howe Blej,j PO Bm 10R1.Ha'"IT BJJ ?X1 ONTAFUO MINISTRY OF ENERGY ~,b ~'''t:Ue.-~;~y 5~~\'1(J1r.Fir 7or"",to M,'A 213: G~l1ern!1nqUtfl€:s QUEBEC MINISTERIE DE L'ENERGIE ET DES RESSOURCES 200.chemin Ste,·Foy.Quebec.G1R 4X7 ..643-8060 Rense,gnen,ent!!i generaux .... i SASKATCHE~!AN DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY AND MINES 1914 Hamrlton 51 ..Regrna,54P 4V4 Genera!j/lQu",es ...S65-2~21i ALBERTA TIlAHSlll.Til UTlt,n'IES CORP 110 121h Ave S.. PO Bo.1900 Cal.ary AS T2P 2l.l. AUlIRTIl POWER UMITED 10040 104ih SI Edmonton A6 TSJ 2V6 BRITISH COLUMBIA SASKATCHEWAN Saskatchewan Power Corporation 2025 V'CIO"'1 Ave .•Regma.S4P 051 Telex:071·2287 General InqUiries.566-2121 British Columbia Hydro &Power Authority/B.C.Hydro 970 BUffarrl SI V..ncnuver V6Z 1Y1 MANITOBA Manitoba Hydro POBox 815.WInnipeg.A3C 2P4 NEW BRUNSWICK British Columbia Utilities Commission 21()O-1177 W Hastings SI. V'lnr.o"v~r VF~2L7 New Brunswick Electric Power Commission SIS King SI.Frederrcton.E3B 4Xl Telex.014·46285 Twx:610-233-4453 General InQ'"'Y 453-4444 NEWFOUNDLAND Newfoundland and labrador Hydro Phlhp Place.Ehlatetn Ave. SI John~A!A :'xB NOVA SCOTIA Nova Scotia Power Corporation 9affl"~11on SI Tower.Scotia Sq .. PO.Bo.910.Halifax.B3J 2W5 Tele •.019·21736 T....610 27t·8960 ONTARIO Ontario Hydro 700 U,"vlw;dy Ave r"ro"to M5G I,,, r.'lx ,;1(j <1')1 -1<156 ~"'.fch~OrlH1 QUEBEC '-,-12-511' Hydro-Quebec International c 7:1,.Ma,~onneu·,e Blod E ..4th Fir _ ',1o".:r"al.H2L 4S8 Generallntormatlon ..(5t4)289-6822 Societe d'!mergie de la Baie James ,..,m~5 B~"t EI'ergy Corporation) ....)G tl,,,,I de MaIsonneuve esl. ~."'''"")''rr~<,11 H2L ·H",fB MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1.l5 51 r:la ..Av~-to T01rmr(}M':'lJ 1p~ Te!~x '.6-£34'jb (.e",~ral 'n'1'/I(,e5 'JI:15.;1,,. ALBERTA OEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONM,ENT Oxlmdge Place. 9820-10651..Edmonton,T5K 2J6 (unless otherw,se ,ndlcated) IntortT',allon .....427-2739 WATER RESOUI~CES MANAGEMENT SERVICES Asst.Deputy MiII,ister. P.G.Melnyehuk ..427·6252 Secretary.P Peat .. . ...427-6252 DeSign and Consllructlon D,vl5,on DIrector.J.W.Thl!l~sen.,..427·6t57 P1annrng O"J05,on Director.C.L.PrrrrlUS .427·2371 Technical Service,s DIvISIon DJrector.R.Deeprose....427·6276 Water AesourcesAdmlll!stra!lon Dlv,s,on Director.A.Strome,427-6168 Controller,V.Carlson ..427·6244 OperatIons and Maintenance D,v'slon D..ector.FG Pr""uS .422·1361 BRITISH COLUMBIA NOVA SCOTIA DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT Centennial Bldg .•6th Fir.. P.O.Box 2107.Halifax.B3J 387 ONTARIO QUEBEC ENVIRONNEMENT .,2360.chem,n Ste-Fay,. Ste-Fay,GIV 4HZ Rensetgne"'ents generaux .. SASKATCHEWAN .643-6071 MINISTRY elF ENVIRONMENT Pafha",e"~8"'95.V,ctorra.vav 1X5 ...565-6113 PLANNING ANOi RESOURCE MANAGEMENT DIVISION ','Viller Managemem Branch D..ecror P M Braljy '"'"'MANITOBA ....387·6989 OEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT 51h F.r 1855 V,clofla Ave., Reg.na.S~P jV5 T""ex aiT ·2~S5 T:.x lil0721.1210 General InQUirIeS DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT -.ANDWORKl'LACe SAFETY AND HEALTH 8ldg.2,139 Tuxedo Ave.. Winnipeg.R3N OHl5 NEW BRUNSWICK DePARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT PO Box 6000,F~e(]eflcton E38 5H I General InqUiry F NEWFOUNDLAND 453-J70U 737-2563 DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT E'lzabeth Towers.Eltzabelh Ave .. F""p 0 BiJx ·1150. Sf JohnS.AIC~Tl WATER RESOUR(:eS MANAGEMENT DIVISION r-Olfector.Dr.Wasl U'lah 565-6400 565-2506 566-9653 565-6141 ,.",565-2663 .566-9521 Saskatchewan Water Corporation 3rd Fir.2121 Sas~atchewan Dr Regina.S4P 4A7 Minisler responsible The Hon.Paul SChoenhals .. Presldenl.Raymond RIChards ... Vice-PreSident,S.A Blackwell . Vice-President,Waler Shed Management J.F Danylu~..... Vice-Presldenl,Resource Management D.l.Macleod .......,...........565-6220 Vice-PresIdei'll,Water Supply and UtIlity Managemenl • AS Pentland.,.... COmptroller,VC.Fowke .. SASKATCHE~/AN YUKON NORTHERN CANADA POWER COMMISSION Rm 301,Federal Bldg. Wh,tehorse.VIA 2C6 NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Northwest Territories Water Board .....0.Box 5000. Yellow~nlfe,XIA 2R3 Contact Jo MacQuarrie ,920-8191 Northwest Territories Public Utilities Board f'0 Box 697. YeUnwkn,je.XIA 2N5 C.Olllact Dale Thomson .,...873-7494,873-7495 I NEWFOUNDLAND Churchill Falls (Labrador) Corporation Limited P",hp Place.Eltzabell1 Ave, POBox 9200.SI.John·s.A1A 2)((1 GenerallnqullleS Newfoundland Commission of Public Utilities Pllnce Ct'a!l"s B,.~q po B"'Y'9~c;!J'''''<;A'A~"i QUEBEC Societe d.d_veloppement d.I.Baie James tSOBJ) 600 t,oul de Ma.sonneINe est. Monlleal.H2l "M6 Td:-:iustrial effluents,agricultural runoff,and aerosol 1:1icw aterCuality Guidelines f'sic guidelines on the concentration of TDS which 1Ve~been established relate to taste and palatability rather Fan'/""")detrimental health effects on man and aquatic cd TDS concentration less than 500 mg/L has been ~igRated as an objective level for drinking water (Depart- len~f National Health and Welfare,19691.It has been ~zed that concentrations of 1000 mg/L may still be :cefil'l:ctble for drinking providing none of the individual [sSll),!!.ed constituents exceed their particular guidelines Jep tment of National Health and Welfare,1969).If the ornel tration exceeds 2000 mg/L definite laxative effects I~ebeen observed in man. I-similar laxative.effect has been shown in livestock. or.(limals concentratilJns less than 3000 mg/L have'0"'_to be satisfactory in most circumstances (Environ- ren~Studies Board,197'3). I iustrial·users of waters usually prescribe TDS con- mtJiations to be'less than 1000 mg/L,but this is quite Ir.i~e among individual users and their particular require- ren~(U.S.Geological Survey,1970). ffeeuon Use !""" ,gh concentrations of TDS limit the suitability of a later as a drinking source.Industries are sensitive to boiler :aJi!!1\Of to accelerated corrosion associated with sub- laf1r(1 amounts of TDS in water.High TDS waters may ltl!'r.'..~.re with the clarity,colour,and taste of manufactured rorluets. I'- TUNGSTEN •ungsten is a transi,tion metal, chemically similar to hromium,.molybdenum and tantalum.Its physical and "....herl.:al properties mak,e it suitable for many commercial nct:rdustrial applications.Tungsten occurs naturally in i!veral tung.'ltate miner.lls and is obtained commercially r.oll'fhese ores by reducing tungstic oxide to the metal. ;nv~ronmental Range I""'ost freshwaters contain negligible concentrations of ung.en.Seawater typically exhibits concentrations of 1.0001 mg/l.tungsten. !""" ;OUL !S Tungsten occurs naturally in the minerals wolframite (FeI""'1n)W0 4 I,huebnerite (MnW0 4 L ferberite (FeW0 4 ), Ind!:heelite (CaW0 4 1.Tungsten is very insoluble in water. Tungsten and its alloys are used extensiveiy for filaments,electric lamps,electron and television tubes, electrical contact points for automobile distributors and for numerous high temperature applications.including space missiles.Tungsten carbide (W 2 C)is used in the metal- working,mining,and petroleum industries.Calcium and magnesium tungstates are used in fluorescent lighting;and other salts of tungsten are used in the chemical and tanning industries. Water Quality Guidelines No water quality guidelines have been formulated for tungsten. Turbidit/is a measure of the suspended particles such as silt,clay,organic matter,plankton,and microscopic organisms in water which are usually held in suspension by turbulent flow and Brownian movement.Turbidity is measured by comparing the optical interferences of sus- pended particles to the transmission of light in water in an instrument previously standardized with samples of standard turbidity units. Environmental Range It is impractical to assign a range of values to turbidity, however,non-detectable turbidity may be approximated by pure distilled water (0 Jackson Turbidity Units [JTUj). Values of 1000 JTU may be encounted in wastewaters; waters with very high natural turbidity may be in the range of several hundred JTU. Sources The amount of solid materials in suspension in water may result from natural erosion,runoff,and algal blooms, although man may contribute to the presence of such materials.The concentration and particle size of these suspended materials may cause significant variation of turbidity values.Turbidity is high during spring runoff. Water Quality Guidelines High turbidity reduces photosynthesis of submerged. rooted aquatic vegetation and algae;this reduced plant growth may in turn suppress fish productivity.Turbidity. therefore,can affect aquatic biological communities.Water quality guidelines suggest that discharges resulting from human activity should not alter ambient turbidity levels. Turbidity,unless related to asbestiform minerals,does not affect the safety of a drinking water,but does alter its consumer acceptability.Although water with a turbidity of 5 JTU or less is acceptable for drinking,a value of less than 61 THALLIUM Thallium is a trace metal with chemical properties similar to those of aluminum.Even though thallium has two valence states (Til +,TI)+j in aqueous solution the monovalent ion (TIl +)is the most stable. Environmental Range Freshwater concentrations of tin are minute and seawater contains only 0.0008 mg/L tin. Sources Environmental Range Thallium is present in only trace amounts in fresh water.Typical thallium concentrations in seawater are less than 0.000 01 mg/L (10 ng/Ll. Sources Thallium is present in pyrite (FeS2)and is recovered from the roasting of this ore in connection with the production of sulphuric acid.It is also obtained from the smelting of lead and zinc ores. Thallium forms alloys with other metals and readily amalgamates with mercury.It also forms a wide variety of compounds with varied uses:thallium sulphide is used in photocells,thallium bromide-iodide crystals are us~d as infrared detectors,thallium with sulphur or selenium and arsenic,and thallium oxide are used to produce special glasses;other thallium compounds are used as dyes, pigments in fireworks,and as depilatories.Since thallium sulphate is odourless and tasteless,giving no warning of its presence,and is an effective cumulative poison,it is used as a rodenticide and as an ant killer. Tin is released by the weathering of igneous rocks that contain the mineral cassiterite (Sn02).It is not usually transported in solution but is sorbed to clay minerals or remains as a resistate deposit. Tin is used principally to coat other metals in order to prevent corrosion or other chemical action;for example, the tin plating of steel is used in the production of containers (tin cans)for the food processing industry.This element is also used in alloys such as pewter.Tin is unsurpassed by any other metal in the multiplicity of its •organic applications.Organotin compounds are used as stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride,industrial catalysts,in· dustrial and agricultural biocides,and wood-preserving and anti-fouling agentso Thus,a variety of industries may discharge wastes containing tin into receiving waters. Water Quality Guidelines Tin itself is not toxic to man,but it has no known physiological function in the human body.Tin is not taken up by plants.Therefore,no water qual ity guidelines for tin have been established for drink ing waters;for agricultural uses;or for freshwater or marine aquatic environments. Table 8.Total Dissolved Solids -Salinity Relationships TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS Total Dissolved Solids (TDSI is an index of the amount of dissolved substances in a water.The presence of such solutes alters the physical and chemical properties of water. The range of dissolved solids is variable (Table 8}. Degree of Salinity Brackish Fresh;non-saline Sligh tly saline } Moderately saline Saline Brine Total Dissolved Solids mg/L o -1000 1001 -3000 3001 -10 000 10001 -100000 >100001 Water Quality Guidelines Thallium is a cumulative poison and has sublethal effects such as hair loss and high blood pressure,however, no drinking water or livestock water guidelines have been set. Although thallium has been shown to inhibit photo- synthesis and plant transpiration by interfering with stomatal function,no guidelines have been set for thallium levels in irrigation water.I Thallium acts as a neuro-poison in fish and aquatic invertebrates.Thallium concentrations of 0.1 mg/L constitute a hazard in the marine environment,whereas levels less than 0.05 mg/L present a minimal risk of deleterious effects (Environmental Studies Board,1973). No freshwater guidelines have been set. TIN Sources Tin,a minor constituent of the earth's crust,occurs only in minute quantities in natural water.Stannous hydroxide is soluble in water but can only be present in appreciable concentrations above the pH range of natural. water. The base flow of a waterway acquires mineral constit- uents in the form of dissolved salts in solution,such as sodium,chloride,magnesium,sulphate,etc.In periods of high surface runoff,overland flow contributes dissolved materials to waters.In addition,significant contributions to the TDS load are anthropogenic in the form of municipal 60 - ,.... -- ~. MARCH 1973 .. PPWB WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES TO BE USED FOR THE PURPOSES OF THE PPWB I 305 BRENT BUILDING 2505 11TH AVENUE REGINA,SASKATCHEWAN S4P OK6 CANADA ALBERTA SASKATCHEWAN MANITOBA SURFACE WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES These objectives represent water quality suitable for most uses either through direct use or prepared for use by an economically practical degree of treatment.They apply to surface waters except in areas of close proximity to out- falls. There are many instances where the na- tura I water qua Iity of a lake or river does not meet some of the suggested limits.In these 1.Bacteriology (Coliform Group) (a)In watel'$to be withdrawn for treat- ment and distributioo as a potable supply or used for outdoor recreation other than direct contact,at least 90 percent of the samples (not less than five samples in any consecutive 30-cIay period)should have a total coliform density of less than 5,000 per 100 ml and a fecal coliform density of Iess than 1,000 per 100 ml. (b)In water used For direct contact re- creation or vegetable crop irrigation the geometric mean of not less than five sam- ples taken over not more than a 30-day period should not exceed 1,000 per 100 ml total coliforms,nor 200 per 100 ml fecal coliforms,nor exceed these numbers in more than 20 percent of the samples examined during any month,nor exceed 2,400 per 100 ml total coliforms on any day. I 2.Dissolved Oxygen A minimum of five mg/I at any time. 3.Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dependent on the assimilative copacity of the receiving water,the BOD must not exceed a limit which would create a dis- solved oxygen content of less than five mg/I. cases,the limits obviously will not apply.It should be noted,however,that where the na- tural existing quality is inferior to desirable criteria,it would be unwise to permit further deterioration by un limited or uncontrol Jed in- troduction of pollutants.Natura lIy occurring circumstances are not taken into account in these objectives and due consideration must be given where appl icable (e.g.spring runoff effect on colour,odour,etc.). 4.Suspended Solids Not to be increased by more than 10 mgll over ba ckground va Iue • 5.pH To be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5 pH units but not altered by more than 0.5 pH 'units from background value. 6.Temperature Not to be increased by more than 3°C above ambient water temperature. 7.Odour The cold (20 0 C)threshold odour number not to exceed eight. 8.Colour Not to be increased more than 30 colour units above natural value. Not to exceed more than 25 Jackson units over natura I turb idity. ..- i I""': .... """,.. - - .... Second Printing Feb.1917 ". WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES January 1975 Water Pollution Control Branch Environment Saskatchewan 5t~Flmt;J855 Victoria Ave. Re\JIna,~!!_£r~3Tl .I There are many instances where the natural water qualit.\oj a lake or river does not meet some of the suggested limits.In these cases,the limits obviously will not apply.It should be noted. however,that where the natural existing quality is inferior to desirable objectives.it would be unwise to permit further deterioration by unlimited or uncontrolled introduction of pollutants.Naturally occurring circumstances are not taken into account in these "Objectives"and due consideration must be given where applicable (e.g.spring runoff effect on colour. odour,etc.) Table 1 SURFACE WATER QUAUTY OBJECTIVES These objectives have been prepared in co-operation with the Provinces of Alberta and Manitoba and represent water quality suitable for most uses either through direct use or prepared for use by an economically practical degree of treatment. ., 1 , J Parameter 1.Bacteriology (ColIform Group) 1.DI.......ed OllYleIIi 3.Biochemical OXYPIII DeJDUtd 4.Suspended Solids S.pH 6.Tempe~ 8.Colo.., (Apparent) (a)in waters to be withdrawn for treatment and distribution as a potable supply or used for outdoor recreation other than direct contact.at least 90 per cenl of the samples (not less than five samples in any consecutive 30·day period)should have a total coliform density of less than 5.000 per 100 ml and a fecal colifoml density of less than 1.000 per 100 ml.(The Maximum Permissible Limit of total coliform organisms in a single sample shall be determined by the Depal1ment based Of!the type and degree of pollution and other local conditions existing within the watershed.) ,b)In waters used for direct contact recreation or yegetable crop irrigation the geometric mean of not less Ihan five samples taken over nol more than a 30.day period should not exceed 1.000 per 100 ml total coliforms.nor 200 per 100 ml fecal colifonns.nor exceed these numbers in more than 20 per cent oCthe samples examined during any month.nor exceed 2.400 per 100 ml total coliforms on any day. A minimum of five mg/l at any time. Dependent on the assimilative capacity of the receiving water. The BOD must not exceed a limit which would create a dissolved oxygen content of less than five mg/1. Not to be increased by more than 10 mgtl over background yalue. To be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5 pH units but not altered by more than 0.5 pH units from background value. Not to be increased by more than 3°e above ambient water temperature. The cold (20°C)thrt:sholdodour number not to exceed eight. Not to be increased more than 30 colour units above natural value. Not to .xceed more than 25 turbidity units over natural turbidity. -6- ,•..... - - r-( \ SURFACE WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES \later Qua Ii ty Branch Standards and Approvals Division January.1977 TABLE 1 SURFACE WATER QUALITY OBJEC'IIVES ~see explanatory Dotes for definition of parameters) These objectives represent water quality suitable for most uses either through direct use or prepared for uae by an economically practical degree of treatment.They apply to surface vaters except 10 areas of elose proximity to outfalls. There are many instances where the natural vater quaUty of a lake or river does not meet aome of the suggested limitse In these cases.thcl!mits obviously vill Dot apply.It should be Doted.however. that where the natural existing quality is inferior to desirable criteria.it would be unwise to permit further deterioration by unlimited or uncontrolled introduction of pollutants.Naturally occurring circum- stances are not taken into account in these objectives and due considera- tion must be t!ven where applicable (e.g.spring runoff effect on colour. odour.etc.).) 4.Suspended Solids . { 1.Bacteriology (Coliform Group) (a)In vaters to be withdrawn for treatment and di5t~i bution as a potable supply or used for outdoor recrea- tion other than direct coutact.at least 90 per cent of the samples (not less than flve samples 111 any consecut~ve 30-day period)should have a total coliform density of less than S.OOO per 100 ml and a fecal ~oliform density of less than 1.000 per 100 ml. (b)In vater used for direct contact recreation or vege- table crop irrigation the geometrIc mean of not less than five sl:lmples taken over not more than a JO-day period should not"exceed 1.000 per 100 ml total coliforms.nor exceed these numbers in more than 20 per cent of the samples examined during any month.nor exceed 2.400 per 100 ml total coll- forms on any day. 2.Dissolved Oxygen It.m1n1mum of five mgll at any time. 3.Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dependent on the assimilative capa- city of the receiving vater,the BOD must not exceed a limit vhich would create a dissolved oxygen content of less than five mg/l. - s - I s. 7. 8. Rot to be increased by IDDre than 10 mg/l over background value. To be in the range of 6.S to 8.5 pH units but Dot altered by more than O.S pH unLts from back- Bround value. Temptn:at ut'e Not"to be increased by more than 30 e above ambient water temperature. Odour the cold (20°C)threshold odour number not to exceed eight. Colour Not to be increased more than 30 colour units above natural value. Not to exceed more than 2S Jackson units over natural turbidity. • • / SURFACE WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES _. There are many legitimate uses of water within the province. Some!of these uses have been mentIoned briefly earl ler.The range of accE~ptable water quality (as measured tnterms of "significant physical, chenlical and biological parameters)varies depending upon the particular requl rement.(6)The maryy uses may be rank~d accord i ng to the range of wate~r qual ity that can be tolerated for the parttcu~ar appl icat Ion. I Invollved in the ranking are other factors such as the ava flabiI ity of trea'tment technology,economic and social costs to Individuals,groups, ..Industry and to the province as a whole,relatIve water demand for a specific purpose and t~e susceptibility of fish and wildlife to minor or major changes.It has usually been agreed that water for public t"water supply,recreation Involving direct water contact,wildlife and aquatic life protection require the highest quality of water with the-ml n blum a llowab Ie variance. Alberta,In association with Saskatchewan and Manitoba,has established minimum water quality guidelines which would allow the most sensItive use.By doing so,all other demands Involving lesser quality or demands more tolerant to wider varIation would also be satisfied. The.surface water qual ity objectives for Alberta are presented in T.~ble 1.The numerical values established for the various parameters 1lste!d In Table I represent a goal which should be achieved or surpassed. - L I - In ce~rtaln regions of the province,natural conditions result in levels - 3 - I of certain metals,nutrients or other water quality parameters which exceed those presented as objectives.This does not mean that the objectives should be reyised to account for these particul~r situations. Rather,these Individual occurrences will be treated as special cases and reviewed accordingly.The surface water quality objectives apply to all surface waters tn Alberta. -4 - J J J 1 1 1 1 --1 ]1 1 I 1 Appendix D Annex 2 Page tv PARAMETEr. Sulfate (SO ..) Sulfide (H 2 S) Temperature Thallium (Tl) Threshold Odour Number Total Coliform Organisms SUMMARY TABLE -.&WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES,. UNITS I lA I lB I lC I ID 2A 2B 2C 3A 38 3C 4A 4B 1 4C mg/l 1250.I 2!0.I 250.I 250.250.400.I 500. -- mg/l 0.0021 0.0021 0.0021 I I 1 3.1 5. C·~O)O.S 1(0)1.0 1(0)2.0 mg/l 0.05 I .0.05 1 0.05 4.4...4.I 1 I 1 1 4. COtmtB /100 mil NEG.(Y)I 100.(Z)!lOOO.(B)ISOOO.(F)I 100.(D)I 500.(R)llOOO.(U)I 100.(Z)ISOOO.(F) 5 0.02 Total Dissolved Solids mg/l t 500.500.1000.500.700.1500.3000. Unspecified Toxic Substances r.:,,·ft':/:/';~""'~Ii>,"·'j ·':.""'c·'!.."j",VI il~S;;,:'I,N;.:r~':;~:J:J'~';"",~;:~.ty:'ic·:;'~:.~\;"'~~':~"';\'''''~-'4~~\:';f,t!.i';~.:~·....~:\1i-1·~;M~l1•••,,1,---"0,.,·••:l.o~:J,,,,,,,_,,U~:..".......\.!••~:."-'''''!_''~'~'_'',_~-"-,,,-.-I (BB) (CC) Uranium (U)mg/l (DD)(DO)(D») Vanadium (V) Zinc (Zn) mg/l _I mg/l I *See Notes Appendix D Annex 4 Pages v and vi II.2. Appendix D Page xvi Class 2A The quality of this class of the waters of the province shall be such as to permit the propagation and maintenance of warm and cold water sport or commercial fishes and be suitable for aquatic recreation of all kinds.including bathing.for which the waters may be usable. Limiting concentrations or ranges of substances or characteristics which should not be exceeded in the waters are given below. Substance or Characteristic Ammonia (N).unionized Cadmium Chlorides (Cl) Chlorine (C12) Chromium (as Cr +6) Colour value Copper (eu) Cyanides (CN) Dissolved oxygen Faecal Coliform Organisms Fluorides (F) Lead (Pb) Mercury (Hg) Nickel (Ni) pH value Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) Acceptable Limit or Range 0.02 miliigrams per liter 0.01 milligram per liter for waters.with hardness greater than 100 milligrams per liter (CaC03) 0.004 milligrams per liter for waters with hardness lower than 100 milligrams per liter (CaC03) 200 milligrams per liter 0.01 milligram per liter 0.1 milligram per liter 30 0.02 milligrams per liter or not greater than 1/10 the 96-hour LeSO value 0.005 milligrams per liter 60%or more saturation at·the ambient temperature The median (50 percen~ile) based on not less than 5 samples per month should be not greater than 20 MPN per 100 milliliters. 1.5 milligram per liter 0.03 milligrams per liter 0.0002 milligrams per liter 0.025 milligrams per liter 6.5 -8.5 0.000002 milligrams per liter Appendix D Page xv:Li Acceptable Limit or Range . Not to exceed the lowest concentrations permitted to be discharged to an uncontrolled environment as prescribed by the appropriate authority having control over their use • 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50 value 0.01 of the 96-hour LC50 value No change greater than 1.0 0 Celsius beyond.natural minimum and maximum temperatures. 'Acceptable Limit or Range 47%or more saturation at the ambient temperature The median (50 Percentile)based on not less than 5 samples per month should be not greater than 200 MPN per 100 milliliters 6.5 -9.0 Thallium (II) Total Coliform Organisms Zinc (Zn) FaeCC:Ll Coliform Organisms Substance or Characteristic Disse.lved Oxygen pH vllLlue Tempelrature The cluality of this class of the waters of the province shall be such as t()permit the propagation and maintenance of cool or warm water sport or commercial fishes and be suitable for aquatic recreation of all kinds,including bathing,for which the waters may be usable. The physical and chemical objectives quoted above for Class 2A shall also apply to these waters except as listed below. 0.002 milligrams per liter No change greater than 0.5 0 .Celsius beyond natural mini1llUDl and maximum temperatures ~ 0.05 milligrams per liter The median (50 percentile) based on not less than 5 samples per month should be not greater than 100 MPN per 100 milliliters. ~_""""'<_<;;_.Iftl!!!!.;;.!D!!l!_M!e!!.~.~.""""'~.-....,I Urmxlum (U)0.01 milligram per liter or .01 of the 96-hour LC50 value .01 of the 96-hour LC50 value .Selell1ium (Se) Silvler (Ag) Sulfides (H2S) 2.Substance or Characteristic Badioactive materials ",.. Appendix D Page xviii II.2.Substance or Characteristic Acceptable Limit or :Range Total Coliform Organisms The median (50 percentile) based on not less than 5 samples per month should be not greater than SOD MPN per 100 milliliters. _~:-g~"'~ia~"'r'~">:'-~-F~-jf~-~"~>.~=-~5=';:;·':rm._~_.,~.c'~>=c-,-~__l!'Iel:,_Z!l!"!J"""'S;......"':ul ,Class 2C The quality of this class of the waters of the province shall be such as to permit the propagation and maintenance of rough fish or species commonly inhabiting waters of the vicinity under natural conditions, and be suitable for boating and other forms of'aquatic recreation for which the waters may be usable.The physical and chemical objectives quoted above for Class 2A shall also apply to these waters except as listed below. Substance or Characteristic Colour value Dissolved Oxygen Faecal Coliform Organisms pH value Temperature Total Coliform Organisms I Acceptable Limit or :Range 100 35%or more saturation at the ambient temperature The median (50 percentile) based on not less than 5 samples per month should be not greater than 400 MPN per 100 milliliters. 5.0 -9.3 No change greater than 2.00 Celsius beyond natural minimum and maximum ' temperatures. The median (50 percentile) based on not less than 5 samples per month should be not greater than 1000 MPN per 100 milliliters. 3.INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION Class 3A The quality of this class of the waters of the province shall be such as to permit their use without chemical treatment,£0=most industrial purposes,except food processing and related uses,tor which a high I 1 }J I 1 t 1 ])J l'")--r HEA VY METALS The follo~ing metal Objectives (except for mercury)are based on the total concentration of an unfiltered water sample.It is recognized that metals may not be toxic in particulate or bound form.It is quite possible for the total concentration in a given sur- face water to exceed the Objective without damaging any aquatic life.However,in the absence of any standard technique to mea- sure the toxic components,it is assumed that all of the metal is in a toxic form unless specific data show otherwise.Further,an asterisk is placed before three parameters,namely arsenic,chromium and selenium,which have Objectives for aquatic life protection that are less stringent than the criteria for other beneficial uses. *Arsenic Concentrations of Arsenic in an unfiltered sample should not exceed 100 /lg/L to protect aquatic life.. Concentrations of total mercury in filtered water should not exceed 0.2 J1g/L nor should the concentrations of total mercury in wholl' fish exceed 0.5 /lg/g (See Table 2). Concentrations of nickel in an unfiltered sample should not exceed 25 /lg/L to protect aquatic life. Concentrations of Selenium in an unfiltered sample should not exceed 100 /lg/L to protect aquatic life. in an unfiltered sample of hardness less than 75 mg/L of CaC03 and not exceed 1100 J1g/L in an unfiltered sample of hardness greater than 75 mg/L of CaC03. Concentrations of cadmium in an unfiltered sample should not exceed 0.2 /lg/L to protect aquatic life. Concentrations of chromium in an unfiltered sample should not exceed 100 /lg/L to protecf aquatic life. Concentrations of copper in an,unfiltered sample should not exceed 5 /lg/L to protect aquatic life. Concentration of iron in an unfiltered sample should not exceed 300 /lg/L to protect aquat ic life. The toxicity of lead is highly dependent on the alkalinity of the water.The toxicity de- clines as the alkalinity increases.The totul lead concentration should not exceed the values given below: 5 10 20 25 Maximum lead Concentration /lg/L Up to 20 20 to 40 40 to 80 greater than 80 Alkalinity mg/L as CaC03 Nickel Mercury Lead "'Selenium ·Chromium Iron Copper Cadmium For the protection of aquatic life,concentra- tions of beryllium should not exceed II /lg/L tative control location plus to°C (18°F)or the allowed temperature difference,which- ever is the lesser temperature.These maxi- mum temperatures are to be measured on a mean daily basis from continuous records. (c)Taking and Discharging of Cooling Water Users of cooling water shall meet both the Objectives for temperature outlined above and the "Procedures for the Taking and Dis- charge of Cooling Water"as outlined in the Implementation Procedures for Policy 3 (page 15).' Dissolved Solids must not be added to increase the ambient concentrations by more than J /3 of the natural concentrations to protect aquat- ic life.The added solids should not signifi- cantly alter the overall ionic balance of the receiving wa ters. Suspended matter should not be added to sur- face water in concentrations that will change the natural Secchi disc reading by more than 10 percent. Beryllium Total Dissolved Solids 36 37 Table 3.(Confd) Sources and Objectives (a) Parameter PHYSICAL pH SeUleable substances Temperature Toxic growths units 7.0-9.2 Minimized Free of heavy algal growths <5%incident light at surface not to be exceeded on 1 consecu- tive days. 7.0-9.2 Minimized A void changes in natural freezing pallerns <10%change in' compensation point Australia 1914 1.0-9.2 U.S.EPA 1976 I.J.C.Great lakes 1974-76 Free (]l (8)Canada,t9'l1 -Guidelines for Water Quality Objectives and Standards.Dept.of Environment.Inland Waters Directorate,Ottawa,Ontario.Technical Bulletin 67. U.S.,NAS/NAE,1973 -Water Quality Criteria 1972.Environmental Protection Agency,WaShington,D.C.,Puh.lEPA·R3-7 3-.1J. Australia,1974 -A Co 'pilation of Australian Wat&,[Quality Criteria.Australian Waler Resources Council,Canberra.Australia,Tech.Bull.No.7. U.S.EPA,1976 -Quality Criteria for Water Environmental Protection Agency,Washinglon,D.C.Pub.EI'A-440/!I>.76-02J.• I.J.C.,Great Lakes,1974-76 -Appendices "A"to Great Lakes Water Qualily Board Reports 1974,1975 and 1976 to the International Joint Commission,100 Ouellette Avenue,Windsor,Ontario. (b)Substantially absent-meaning less than detection level5 as determined hy the best scienlific melhodolollY availahle, ?--I'e- 1 I J l I l J 1 'I 3'l }1 ] CRITERIA,STANDARDS,OBJECTIVES,AND GUIDELINESIi· I I~ Vol Vol PARAMETER ~ USE AND AGENCY RaJJ Water us Water Quality Criteria Warm water Cold water Canadian Federal Guidelines Objective: Michigan State Standard Minnesota State Standard Ontario Provincial Criteria Desirable: Permissible: D'l'inking Water us Drinking Water Standard Canadian Drinking Water Objectives Objective: Acceptable: Wisconsin State Standard Ontario Provincial Drinking Water Objec.tives Recl'eation Can~dian Fe&eral Guidelinea Objective: ..~~....""tl@"",!~~.)~h'"~,.,c"'''''~'·~,...I. ,,.~,i nnesota ard Ontario Provincial Criteria Associated' with waste inputs Warm water Cold water Lakes: Warm water Cold water or oligotrophic 50 Jackson units 10 Jackson units S Jackson units no quantity to cause injury 5 Jackson units absent absent Daily maximum • 1 unit <1 Jackson unit 5 Jackson units 1 Jackson unit 1 Jackson unit I''. <S JackElon units 50 Jackson units 10 Jack~on units not to exceed 50 Jackson units not to ~xceed 10 Jackson unita not to exceed 25 Jackson units not to exceed 10 Jackson units ., URANYL ION ,.'II!' RaIJ Water US Water Qualtiy Criteria Desirable: Permissible: Canadian Federal Guidelines Objective: Acceptable: absent 5 mg/l <1.0 mg/9. 5.0 mg/! .,'II I I II !',f "I.', Hung Tao Shen,Editor Proceedings of the Conference on lL(I Sponsored by the Hydraulics Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers in conjunction with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Boston Society of Civil Engineers Published by the American SocIety of CIvil Engineers 345 East 47th Street New York,New York 10017-2398 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge,Massachusetts August 9-12,1983 FRONTIERS IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING f". H'•J, l t I ! I j t r fl..I.ltt.." r ICE JAMS m Ice Jams S.Beltaos. Evolving and steady-state jams:Jams are essentially unsteady phenomena as witnessed by their transient nature,I.e.,Inltlat ion, fonnatton,release.However,under certain circumstances,a jam may attain a steady-state condition.A steady.floating jam may be long enough to contain an "equilibrium"reach,along which the jam thickness and flow depth are apprOXimately unl f01'1Tl.It can be shown that the flow depth is largest In the equilibrium reach. Behavior of Ice Jams tn which Vc •critical velocity such that a block of thickness tl submerges l'lhen the average upstream velocity exceeds Vc ;9 =acceler- ation of gravity;sl =speetflc gravity of block material;and Hu " upstream flow depth.If the blocks do not submerge,a jam comprising a stngle layer of blocks wOI be Initiated.If the blocks submerge,a multi-layered jam may form depending on the ability of the flow to transport the submerging blocks.Using the "no-spill"condition, Partset et al (12)predicted the thickness,t,of this type of jam, I.e.: In htIlch V ..average.flow velocity under the jam.A different theory, based on energy considerations,was advanced by Tatinclaux (15)and generally predicts larger tis than Eq.2.If the flow depth is COOlllar- able to the size of the submerging blocks,grounding may occur (10)hut little else Is known about this phenomenon. The foregoing mechanisms are principally founded on laboratory tests and Impllc!t1y assume that Ice Is unbreakabl e.In nature,how- ever.one often observes vi 0 I ent I ce runs arrlv I ng at I ce sheet edges where they eventually come to a halt after Intense local brealdn9 and pil Ing up.It is unltkely that such events can be successfully des- cribed In terms of the above mechanisms.. Evolution and equilibrium:Once a stable toe (downstreifll end of jam)lias formed,the jam lengthens upstream and the streamwi se forces (2) 0)t l 2 3(1 -'Ii) u t •y2/20-s1)g Initiation:COIlITIonly,jams are Initiated by the combined effects of a stationary fce sheet and one or more morphologtcal or man-made features,e'9"constrictions,bends,shallows,slope reductions, bridge piers (4).TI«I Initiation mechanisms have been studied so far: congestion,I.e ••the channel capacity to transport Ice fragments lT1iIy be exceeded depending on tce floe characteristics,tce discharge and local flow velocity and geometry (5,6,14);and Initiation by a trans· verse floating obstacle such as a stationary ice sheet or a cover formed by congestion.""en an Ice floe comes to rest against a float- Ing obstacle.It mayor may not submerge depending on its own charac- teristics and the pressure distribution on Its wetted .boundary. Ashton's simple theory gives good results under most conditions (see Ref.1 for a review of pertinent studies): Yc'~(l -sl )gt i •2(1·~)/~5 - Present Ice jam knowledge Is briefly reviewed and assessed In con- junction with practical needs.It Is shown that pnly upperobound esti- mates of fc@ jamming severity are possible at present.Major researchneedsareIdentified. Introduction A major consequence of Ice formation tn rtvers Is the jamming that occuts during the bre~t.up of the Ice cover and,leu fmportantly, during the freeze up period,Due to their large aggregate thickness and hydraulic resistance,jams can caUSe unusually high water stages with repercussions to flooding,damage to structures,channel erosion and Interference with navigation.Ice jams are extremely complex phen- omena.accurately described as (16)"...ehaot Ie disorderly unt idy affairs."To date.research has concentrated on the relatively Simple problem of floating equilibrium jams and a start has been made recently on jam dynamics.However.many aspects of Ice jams are either insuffi- ciently or not at all understood.e.g ••Intthtton,evolution and release mechanisms as wen as design criteria for control measures. Thts paper attemps to slJ11marlze the exist Ing knowl edge and Ident Ify gaps which seriously hamper progress. Types of Ice Jams An Ice jam has been defined (9)as "an accumulat Ion of ice at a gtven location which.In a river.restricts the flow of water."Thts definition encompasses several jam types of which the behavior and effects may differ.as outlined next. Freeze u~and breakup lams:The former tYpe ts subject to freez- Ing of wateretween Iceragments thus being better able to restst the applied forces.Because.In addition.breakup discharges are usu- ally much larger than freeze up ones,the breakup jam has a greater damage potential and is thus given emphasis In this paper. FJ oat 1ng and grounded jams:A jam may be grounded,if it extends to the river bed,or floating.If It permits unobstructed flow beneath Its lower boundary.Very little Is known about either grounded jams or seepage through fragmented Ice accumulations.The latter is invariably neg I ected l'lhen dealt ng with fI oat I ng jams. •Research Sclenttst,EnvIronmental Hydraulics Section,Hydraultcs Division.National Water Research Institute,PO Box 5050,Burlington,Ontario.Canada,l7R 4A6. .i, I. 230 232 fRONTIERS OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING .ICE JAMS ~.U o o •EOUIllllRtlH JAMS o t«;JN'EOUIlIBIIIUM JAMS --·0 \)lc1lf1ftk1,lin"""Ill'I post-bronk""...ldnrlCO __a ••.~"o llH--r------t---r ..,,-'Tnt....-·....-r--..l-'·IITllt ..·---r 10 20 30 50 70 100 200:100 500 100 toOO rooo :1000 ~.'q1IqSllyWS 2O-j ,.,.;_.... 30 200 50 300 700 ,---.--------'--~..-------500 .., ~IOO ?.70.,. Ffg.1.Dlmensfonless depth versus dimensionless discharge for floatfng breakUp jams. Practfcal Needs and Applfcatlons At this point,ft is of f nterest to cons fder pract I cal needs and how well the avaflable knowledge addresses them. Breaku~fnitiatlon:Thfs event fs not dfrectly related to jamming but fts stu y and forecastfng are fmportant because It heralds the ice jam perfod.Moreover,the factors whfch govern breakup initiation may be relevant to the severity of subsequent jamming (13). Severfty of breaku~:At a gfven site,this could be quantified by the magnitude and durat on of high water 1evels and speeds.In turn, these are related to the magnftude,number and persistence of nearby jams.Present knowledge can only help to fdentlfy potentfal jam sites; ft cannot assist fn predfctfng Whether,where and when jams will actu- ally fonn and release.Simflarly.only the potential magnitude of Ice jams can be est fmated by assuml ng that,for a gfven dfscharge,the maximum possible stage is that of an equilfbrfum floating jam (barring occurrence of severe grounded jams).The latter can be estimated using Fig.1 or by a more elaborate procedure descrfbed fn Ref.2.Wlether thf s potent lal stage wi 11 actually be real fzed durf ng anyone breakup 15 unknown and depends on many other factors,e.g ••proximity of jams ,that actually fonn to the sfte of Interest;degree of thermal Ice deterforatfon;and posslbflfty of overbank spreading of water and ICl'. Exampl es of appl yi ng the equl1 ibrl urn jam stage approach are gl Yen In Ref.2.¥laugh estimates of high velocities that'may occur during breakup can be made by application of a jam release model (3,8,11). To determine the equflfbrfum depth,H,of a floating jam.hydrau- 1fc resfstance consfderatfons for the flow under the jam can be com- bfned wfth efther Eq.2 o.3.For the more COlll1lOn."wfde"jam (Eq.3), thfs procedure gfves (2): II "H/NS •F(fo 'ff/fo'II;t)(4) fn whfch fo •composfte frfctfon factor of the flow under the jam • 0.5lff +fb);ff,fb •fce and bed frfc\ion f\ctors,respec- ttvely;and t •dfmensfonless dfscharge iii (q IgS)I/INS,with q • Q/N.Equation 4 neglects Cf whfch should be a fafr approxfmation for breakup jams (12).The mafn fndependent variable fn Eq.4 fs t.so that ffeld data can be plotted fn the form of II versus t to deffne the' functfon F.as shown fn Ffg.1.It fs seen that the equf1fbrfum jam data pofnts provfde a satfsfactory relatfonshfp whfle the non- equflfbrfum ones generally fall below thfs relationshfp,as expected. Thfs supports the granular mass theory of fee jams but dfrect conffrma- tfon,based on Eq.3.fs not possfble because the thfckness of breakup jams fs not measurable at present.For a detafled dfscussfon of the fmplicatfons of Ffg.1 and an alternative method of ffeld data fnter- pre~atfon,see Ref.2. Release:How.why and when jams release is unknown but ft fs suspected that toe condftfons and thermal fee deterforatfon play a role.A sudden jam release can result fn very hfgh speeds and rapfd stage rises.These car.be rouiihly predicted by ignoring the effects of the movfng fce and applyfng the unsteady,open-water equatfons of motfon (3,8,11). appl fed on ft fncrease.These forces give rtse to fnternal stresses whfch lfkewfse fncrease but only to a limftfng value,owfng to sfde frfctfon.If the fnternal stresses become large enough,the jam wfll collapse and thfcken so that ft fs just able to wfthstand the (adjus- ted)stresses.This phenomenon has been analyzed by consfderfng the jam a floatfng granular mass (12,16).Whfle thfs theory has had some success wfth steady jams (see later dfscussfon),predfctfon of tran- sfent jam parameters fs not possfble because the toe condftfons are unknown (6). Theforegofng suggests two possfbf1ftfes:(a)a jam formed by floe sUbmergence with a thfckness given by Eq.2 or a related theory, known as the "narrow-channel"jam (12);and (b)'a Jam formed by collapse,known as the "wfde-channel"jam.Under equflfbrium condf- tfons,the force balance fn a "wfde"jam fs expressed by U2,16): O.5h f +wf)W •eft +0.51.1 sfU -sf)pgt 2 (3) fn whfch W •channel wfdth;'tf •flow shear stress on jam undersfde; wf •streamwfse component of jam's ow~wefght per unft area • sfP9tS;S •channel slopei Cf •jam cohesfon;1.1 •dfmensfonless coefffcfent that depends on the fnternal frfction of the jam;and p • water densfty.Comparfson of Eqs.2 and 3 has shown that "narrow"jams should not occur fn a~but very small streams,at least durfng breakup (2). 1(t.t.-.~,lje L L,L t L't. I I I l······f t l I \ r- 234 fRONTiERS OF HYDRAULIC ENGiNlElEllUNG ICE JAMS ~,~ ReferencesStage-frequency relationships:The annual peak stage often occurs during breakup at relatively low~lscharge,hence flood-frequency esti- mates i11Jst take Into account the frequency of the maximum breakup stages.The latter can be determined from historical data (1)but such I nformat Ion is often unavail abl e.In such cases only an upper bound for the breakup stage-frequency rel atlonshl p can be est Imated,us I n9 breakup discharge frequencl es and the eqiill Ibrlum jam theory.1I0wever, this approach might seriously overestimate the desired frequencies. Ice ~am control:There are two main categories of control measures 4):(a)1ce modification,comprising Ice breaking;dusting to promote heat transfer to the Ice cover;and artificial increase of water temperature to weaken or suppress fonnat Ion of tee cover at critical areas.And (b)river modification,mainly consisting of channel izatlon to el Iml nate undes I rabl e geomorphic features and erec~ tlon of fee retention or diversion structures.The effectheness of these methods Is uncertain and depends heavily on experience. Major Unknowns A brief review of current Ice jam knowl edge has been presented along with a discussiOn of how well this knowledge can address practi- cal needs.It was found that only upper-bound estimates of Ice jamming severity are possible at present.Several serlolis gaps In lee jam understanding were fdentlfled and these are summarized below, Jam thickness measurement:The thickness of breakup jams cannot be measured at present.Direct access 15 hazardous and even ldIere It can be successfully attempted,only a few spot measurements are possible.Development of airborne,remote sensing fnstrumentatlon would gfve a very strong Impetus to Ice jam research. Breakabtl tty of the lee cover:This aspect has been largely Ignored despite Its relevance to breakup Initiation and Ice jan forma- tion and release.Thermal lee deterioration just before and during breakup Is pertinent In this regard. ~~..~.~.~..~W~•__>!w,..toes:These remain largely unknown even •L LL_u n ..--••_L .un ty and rel ease and have repercus s Ions to Control methods:In this area,experience fs lfkely to remafn our best tool for many years,In the meantime,It would be a good practice to systemat 1cally record this experi ence by monltorl ng and document I ng the performance of control measures that areoccaslonaly ImplemeQted at prob l8TI sites. Concl us I on s Present Ice jam knowledge Is less than satisfactory because It can only furnish upper-bound estimates of 1ce jamml ng severity and 1Ittl e guidance for pertfnent control methods.Major research needs fnclude development of jam thickness measurement techniques,stUdy of Ice breakabl1 ity and thermal deterioration effects,investigation of toe conditions and systematic recording of Ice jam control eKperience. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 • 15. 16. Ashton,G.D.,"River Ice,"Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol.10,1978,pp.369-392. Reltaos,S.,"River Ice Jams:Theory,Case Studies and Applica- tions,"Journal of the Hydraulics Division,ASCE (In press). DeHaos,S.and Krtshnappan,B.G.,"Surges from Ice Jam Releases: A Case Study,"Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,Vol.'I, No.2,1982,pp.276-284. Dohenga,S.J.,"River lee Jams,"U.S.lake Survey Research Report 5-5,Corps of Engineers,Oetrolt,Michigan,U.S.A.,1968. Calkins.O.J.and Ashton,G.O.,"Arching of Fragmentp.r1 Ice Covers:Canadian Journal of Clv11 Engineering.Vol.2,No.4, 1975,PP.392-399. Frankenstein,G.E.and Assur,A••"Israel River Ice Jam,"Proc. IAHR Symposium on Ice and Its Actn,"Gn H~draullc structures:"" leningrad,U.S.S.R.,vol.2,1972,pp.153-1,.- Gerard,R.and Karpuk,E.W.,"Probabll1ty Analysis of Historical Flood Data,"Journal of the Hydraulics Dlvis10n,Proc.flSCE, Vol.105,No,HY9.[979,pp.~15l=1165. Henderson,F.M.and Gerard,R.,"Flood Waves Caused by-Ice Jam FOY1liation and Fa11ure,"Proc.IAMR International Symposium on Ice, Quebec,Canada,Vol.I,1981,pp.277-287. IAHR Section on Ice Problems,"Mu1tlllngual Ice Terminology," Budapest,Hungary,1977. Mathfeu,B.and Michel,B.,"Formation of Dry Ice Jams,"Proc. 12th IAHR Congress,Ft.Collins,Colo.,U.S.A.,Vol.4,196T;" pp.283-287. Mercer,A.G.and Cooper,R.H.,"River Bed Scour Related to the Growth of a Major Ice Jam,"Proc.3rd Canadian Hydrotechnlcal Conference,Quebec,Canada,1977,pp.291-308. Parlset,Eo,Hausser,R.and Gagnon,A.,"Format Ion of Ice Covers and Ice Jams In Rivers,"Journal of the Hydraulics Oivlslon, Proc.ASCE,Vol.92,No.HV6,1966,pp.1-24. Shulyakovskil,L.G.(Ed.),"Manual of Forecasting Ice-Fonnatlon for Rivers and Inland lakes,"Israel Program for Scientific Trans- lations,Jerusalem,Israel,1966. Tatlnchux.J.C.ilnd lee,C.l.,"Initiation of Ice Jams -A labor· atory Study,"Canadian Journal of Clv11 Engineering,Vol.5, No.2,1978,pp.202-212. Tatlnclaux,J.C.,"Equilibrium Thickness of Ice Jams,"Journal of the H~draU1tCS Division,Proc.ASCE,Vol.103,No.HVq,1977, pp.9 9-974. Uzuner,M.S.and Kennedy,J.F.,"Theoretical Model of River Ice Jams,"Journal of the HrdraullCs Division,Proc.ASeE,Vol.102, No.HV9,1976,pp.1365-383. - ~ I - -, I ~~~-~.....,'------- Be 1tao s (l9 ) This manuscript has been submitted to the Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering for publ ication and the contents are subject to change This copy is to provide information prior to publication RIVER ICE BREAKUP by S.Beltaos Environmental Hydraulics Section Hydraulics Division National Water Research Institute Canada Centre for Inl and Waters Apri 1 1983 - - - - 2 - ABSTRACT A conceptual model of river ice breakup is formul ated and used to analyze and compare data from four ri ver gauge si tes. Emphasis is on development of generalized short-tenn forecasting methods which to date have been site-specific.The features to be forecast are the onset and flooding potential of breakup.These are related to the water surface width available for passage of 1arge sheets that fonn by transverse cracking of the ice cover. Thus it is possible to study the effects of such parameters as ice cover dimensions and channel geometry.Owing to a lack of pertinent data,other parameters such as ice mechanical properties and flow characteristics are only considered indirectly.Using recent observations,a possible mechanism of transverse crack formation is identified.Suggestions for future research and improvement of observational procedures are made and limitations of the model are discussed. KEYWORDS:breakup;cracks;field data;forecasting;gauge records;ice;ice-clearing;ice sheets;model;onset; river ice;rivers. -3 - ~~ RESUME On elabore un modele conceptuel de la debacle qui est utilise pour l l analyse et la comparaison des donnees provenant de quatre emplacements de j augeage.On ins i ste sur 1a mi se au po i nt de methodes generalise~s de prevision a court terme qui, jusqulici,ne s'appliquaient quia des emplacements particuliers. les caracteristiques ~prevoir sont le moment du declenchement de le debacle et les possibil ites de crues.Ces caracteristiques sont reliees ~la largeur en gueule disponible pour le passage de grandes nappes de 91 ace qui se forment par fragmentation transversale de la couverture glacielle.11 est ainsi possible d'etudier des parametres comme les dimensions de la cQuverture glacielle et la geometrie du chenal.En raison d'un manque de donnees pertinentes,d'autres parametres comme les proprietes mecaniques de la glace et les .caracteristiques de l l ecoulement ne sont considere qu I indirectemenL D'apris des observations recentes on propose un mecanisme possible de formation de fissures transversa 1es.On presente des suggest ions de recherches futures et d1amelioration des methodes d'observation en plus d'etudier les limites du modele. MOTS CLES:debacle,fissures,donnees de terrain,prevision(s}, donnees de jaugeage,gl aces,degagement des 91 aces, nappes de glace,modele,moment du declenchement, glace de riviere,rivieres. .... .... 1 ,..... I - - 4 - MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE The onset of river ice breakup in the spring and the forces and natural variables controlling it~is a phenomenon~ often observed but not understood.It is important that the controlling factors be understood and recognized because of increased management of rivers and the number of settlements close to rivers.This paper proposes and illustrates how some sense may be made from chaos.It illustrates the need for collaborations to ensure useful analysis from the collection of data.Environmental management now demands qualitative relationships rather than disruptions.This paper is an important signpost. T.Milne Dick,Chief Hydraulics Division May 30,1983 PERSPECTIVE GESTIONHELLE Le moment du declenchement de la debacle printaniere ainsi que les forces et les variables naturelles qui la comman- dent~sont un phenomene observe mais encore mal explique.11 est important que les fact~urs determinants soient compris et reconnus en raison de la regulation accrue des cours d1eau et par suite du nornbre des localites riveraines.Vauteur se propose d'illustrer le besoin de collaboration pour assurer l'execution d1analyses utiles a partir de la collection de donnees.La gestion du milieu exige maintenant des correlations qualitatives plutot que des incoherences.L1etude est un important signe avant-coureur. T.Milne Dick~chef Division de 1 I hydraul ique Le 30 rnai 1983 - 5 - INTRODUCTION A major consequence of ice cover formation in rivers ;s the jamming that occurs during the spring breakup of the cover and clearance of the ice from the river.Due to their large thickness and hydraulic resistance,jams can cause unusually high water stages.This has repercussions in many operational and design problems of which spring flooding is the most pressing.However, the present capability for engineering predictions related to breakup and jamming problems is very limited.Only crude estimates of jan stage are possible and only where it can be assumed that a floating equilibrium jam has formed nearby. Clearly,such information is hardly adequate for satisfactory consideration of practical questions such as short term forecast i ng of the onset and severity of breakup;assessment of flooding frequency;and flood risk mapping. A conceptual model of the breakup process is developed and discussed herein as a means of addressing short term forecasting problems. BACKGROUND INFORMATION Shulyakovskii (1963)and Deslauriers (l968)have given excellent qualitative descriptions of the breakup process in - 6 - rivers while the former author proposed the following functional relationship for the onset of breakup. [lJ tq =f(h.,h ,t,V,H ,HI,tq.) 1 SOl - - - - in which tq =total heat input per unit outer surface of the ice cover that is necessary to in it iate breakup;hi and hs =ice thickness and snow depth respectively,prior to the beginning of melting;t =(a set of)parameters describing stream morphology;V =average flow velocity;He =initial water stage;HI =rise in water stage above Ho ;and tqi =total heat input per unit inner surface of the cover.Equation 1 is useful as a compact statement of the problem,but involves too many parameters to permit empirical assessment.For practical purposes,Eq.1 is simplified by restricting attention to site-specific studies (Shulyakovski i 1963).Thi s approach provides useful results but can only be appl ied to sites with good historical records.Since pub 1i cat i on of Shu 1yakovsk iii s book (1963),the state of the art has not advanced appreciably (see,for example,Murakami 1972 and Galbraith 1981).The forecasting indices used are empirical and often change from site to site.Clearly,substantial improvement can only be achieved by development of a general conceptual model of the breakup process which would lead to the quantitative relationship envisaged in Eq.1. - 7 - .A possible starting point is the following quotation (Shulyakovskii 1963): "If the ice breakup develops during a rise in the water level,the stage "(HB)II at which the ice push occurs is determined by the highest position of the ice cover during the winter,i.e.,by the maximum winter stage"(HF) This suggestion will be discussed later and developed further. For the present,it is noted that use of HB as an index of breakup initiation in conjunction with HF'not only appeals to intuition but has also been found satisfactory by the writer on several occasions.The following quotation is also pertinent (Gerard,1979): ".•.the only quantitative indication of the circumstances required to cause breakup of a reasonab ly competent ice cover is an increase in water level to near that which existed just after freeze up the previous fall.Beyond this the moment of breakup is difficult to ant ici pate ..." In a later work,Shulyakovskii (1972)presented a theoretical model of breakup initiation which sheds more light to the significance of HB'as outlined next.The main force responsible for stresses in the ice cover is identified as the - - 8 - flow shea~stress on the cover's underside1 •The cover is assumed to be separated from the river banks by a distance dictated by the difference H -HF (H =prevail ing water stage,say gauge height; HF =maximum stable stage during the preceeding freeze up -see also later discussion).The river is assumeQ to consist of linear segments intersecting at known angles (Fig.1).Normal and bending stresses develop as illustrated in Fig.1.Breakup initiation is defined as the instant when the strength of the cover is exceeded and transverse cracks form.By a simple - structural analysis,confined to a plane parallel to the water surf~ce,it is shown that breakup starts when in which ai =repre~entative value of ice strength;HB =stage at breakup initiation;and fl =a function of which the mathematical fonn depends on channel geometry,flow velocity and -friction characteri stics.If o·1 and h·1 do not change - appreciably from year to year,Eq.2 reduces to 1 This should be increased by the streamwise component of the cover's own weight per unit area.Total driving force per unit area =T. -9 - whi ch is in agreement with earl i er fi nd i ngs of the same author (1963). A KlDEL a=RIVER ICE BREAKUP A conceptual model of breakup is developed in this section based on existing understanding while introducing a few new conditions. Significance of HF The significance of the maximum stable freeze up stage. HF'is illustrated in Fig.2.It is this stage at which the width of the cover forms and can thus be approximated by the corresponding channel wi dth,WF.To e1 imi nate very brief maxima for which there is little time for freezing,'HF is defined as a dai 1y average value.So long as H remains less than HF,the cover is supported by the channel banks.Under thi s boundary condition,the driving forces can be sho.....,to produce very small stresses,not suffi ci ent to break the cover.When warm weather and runoff start,a sufficiently high wave may travel downstream so that H>HF upstream of A (Fig.2c)and H<H F downstream. Upstream of A,the cover may be considered a beam canti levered at A.With the passage of time,A moves downstream and the stresses in the cover increase leading to formation of transverse cracks. ~~=-c-.~.~~-_.,.-~~.-•.~~-----.~~......~..~~---~....~._~_~.~__~ .... - - -- - ,~ -10 - The foregoi ng suggests that a stage in excess of HF is a necessary condition for breakup.This is valid so long as the cover remains competent in thickness,width and strength during the pre~breakup period.Though this occurs often in nature,there are instances of wann weather accompanied with insignificant runoff.The cover then deteriorates by thermal effects unti 1 it can either be broken by the available driving forces or slowly disintegrate in place.Deterioration may consist of'full or partial loss of strength;and reduction in ice thickness and width.This is the "o vermature"breakup type (DeslalAriers,1968), known to have 1itUe,if any,damage potenti al.Another compl ication is the commonly observed formation of side cracks, usually preceeding that of transverse ones.Side cracks are caused by uplift pressures which develop to accommodate the increased discharge.Side cracking is,to a degree,predictable and reduces the effective width of the cover.For simplicity, this effect will be temporarily ignored until certain basic relationships are demonstrated. Description of the breakup process Returning to the main discussion where it was seen how the first transverse cracks may be expected to form,it is noted that new cracks wi 11 appear as the flood wave advances. Eventually,a given river reach will be covered by large separate _____'__4 ----__........-.-----_ -11 - ice sheets.However,general breakup does not follow from this phase because the sheets may be too 1arge to advance for any significant distance;they may be simply re-aligned into a "loos e " but stable arrangement,as shown in Fig.3 (see also later discussion).As the stage continues to increase,the water surface width increases until some of the sheets can "clear"the bends or other obstacles and move for a substantial distance. These sheets pick up speed and impact with stationary ones or with the channel boundaries which causes fragmentation.Small jams begin to form,causing additional stage increases,new dis lodgement s and so on,unt i 1 the ent i re reach is cleared of ice.Based on this discussion,it is felt reasonable to define breakup initiation at a given site as the instant when a sustained movement of the cover takes place.This definition has the addit,ional advantage of deal ing with an easily observed event relative to transverse crack formation. As breakup progresses,the destruct i on of the ice cover is accelerated by an increasing number of impacts and by thermal effects.The reach of interest wi 11 be cl eared of ice when the sheet that holds the last ice jam is finally dislodged. Dimensional analysis The foregoing can be quantified as follows.Let 1i be a length representative of the longitudinal dimensions of the ..... -12 - separate ice sheets ill ustrated in Fig.3b.Breakup starts when the water surface width,WB'is such that it njust n permits a sufficient number of ice sheets to clear the various obstructions.(Clearly,.2.i will have a statistical distribution ina gi ven reach rather than be a constant.The concept may be made more precise by stipulating that We is such that a fixed, though unknown,percentage of ice sheets are able to move.Then R.i wi 11 be the length corresponding to t.hi s percentage).One caul d now write: in which Wi =ice cover width;and LK,en =lengths and angles that define river plan geometry.By dimensional reasoning, Eq.4 can be reduced to [5J =fit (.9../W .;•••LK/W.;•••e ), ,, n Figure 4 shows two examples for which Eq.5 can be quantified.A curved sheet of average radi us,R,and central angl e,e,wi 11 "clearn a straight reach when (Fig.4b) (6J = -13 - 1 +(~-1-)(1 -co s ~) W.2 21 It is noted that e =.ti/R and Eq.6 applies for 6<11'.The length .t i can be expressed as in which l'=driving force per unit area.Eq.7 imp 1i cit 1y assumes that the mechanism of transverse crack formation is as shown in Fig.1.If another mechanism is assumed (e.g.,approach of a steep water wave),some additional ice and water properties will be needed on the RHS of Eq.7,as will be di scussed 1ater. However,this consideration does not alter the essence of what follows.Equation 7 can be non-dimensionalized and substituted in Eq.5 to obtain [8J =f 6 (h'/W.,0./1';...LK/W.;...e)1 1 1 1 n Based on previous discussion,it can be assumed that Wi=W F , provided the cover has not been subjected to significant side cracking and melting.Because WF varies little from year to year (freeze up flows),the parameters LK/Wi could be -14 - considered river constants as a first approximation.Moreover,in most natural streams,Wvaries as a power of Y (=average depth)so that WB/Wi can be replaced by the mor~practical parameter YB/YF.With these assumptions,Eq.8 reduces to From the physical understanding described so far,it is reasonable to expect that the function f7 increases with both hi/WF and ai/T.The dimensionless river constants serve to account for the channel plan geometry.For example,the LKls may be used to identify such dimensions as meander length and amplitude,radii of curvature of bends,lengths and widths of islands,etc.,while the 8 n l S identify typical bend angles. The second major problem associ ated with breakup is how to forecast its severity which can be partly quantified by Hm, the maximum breakup stage.It was mentioned earlier that a reach will be cleared of ice when the ice sheet that is least amenable to dislodgement,is eventually lifted to a level at which it can one could write,as before F"'" I advance.Letting Yc be the average flow depth at this level, ..... [10]dimensionless river constants) -15 - The inequality symbol has been used because the last ice sheet to move will very likely be subjected to reductions in competence and dim~nsions during the breakup period.The depth,Yc 'can be expressed in terms of the correspondi ng di scharge intensity,qc' via a resistance formula and substituted in Eq.10 to obtain [llJ <1.59-r; f /3c in which 9 =acceleration of gravity;S =channel slope;si = specific gravity of ice;and f c =composite friction factor of the flow under the ice sheet.Equation 11 implies that there exists an nice clearing"discharge,of which the upper limit depends on HF'hi'O'i'!and on channel geomorphology.In all probability,the last ice sheet to move,will be holding back an ice jam whose potent i al stage can be estimated in terms of qc and channel _hydraul ics (Beltaos 1982a;Pariset et al 1966).This places an upper limit on Hm,independent of discharge but dictated by HF'hi'O'i'!as well as channel geomorphic characteri stics. To test the foregoing results,data from several sources have been used,as described next. "... - "'"" - .... -16 - DESCRIPTION OF DATA Apart from relatively few data obtained by direct observation,the major data sources have been Water Survey of Canada records at hydrometric gauge sites (see Table 1).These include stage records,discharge measurement notes and local observers'reports on ice conditions.Supplementary information consists of meteorological data and channel hydraulics obtained by hydrometric surveys in the gauged reaches.From these data, several parameters have been extracted,as described below. Maximum stable freeze up stage,HF:A typical,though not universal,configuration of the daily average stage hydrograph at the start of the ice season is sketched in Fig.5.While the effect i ve stage (=stage that waul d have occurred had the flow been unaffected by ice)decreases continuously,the actual stage is seen to first rise,reach a peak and then decrease again.The rise is caused by the upstreilTl advance of the ice cover,formed by j ammi ng of sl ush pancakes at some poi nt downstream of the gauge. Once the ice cover edge arrives at the gauge site,the stage begins to drop owing to decreasing discharge and thermal smoothing of the underside of the cover. nWinter"peaks:occasionally,a brief thaw may occur during the winter.resulting in a peak on the stage hydrograph. If this peak does not initiate a breakup,it can be considered a lower limit for HS at that time . -17 - Stage at initiation of breakup,HB:When a thaw does lead to breakup,the stage hydrograph shows irregularities that cannot be explained by discharge variations,as illustrated in Fig.6.A probable value for HB may be fixed at the first significant spike or slowdown in the rate of stage rise.(It may be recalled here that breakup initiation has been defined as the instant when a sustained movement of the ice cover begins.When a stat ionary ice sheet is set in mot ion,the stage would tend to drop as a result of reduced resistance to flow.This effect may be masked,however,by simultaneous rapid increases in discharge.) However,this definition is not always objective or meaningful. Only a probable range of HB can then be determined by considering (a)the latest time for which it can be confidently assumed that there still was continuous ice cover;and (b)the earliest time for which broken ice effects became evident. Simultaneous consideration of local observers'reports and familiarity with local conditions greatly increase the accuracy of HB determinations. Maximum breakup stage,Hm:Determination of Hm is straight forward (Fig.6). Discharge,Q:Daily average discharges are estimated by Water Survey of Canada,based on interpolations between measurements and on such evidence as upstream and tributary flows, runoff and weathel'conditions,etc.Such estimates may involve 1arge errors duri ng breakup,except where di scharge measurements .... -18 - .... .... --I have been performed.as is the case for most of the years of record at Hie Thames R.gauge.For the other gauges in Table 1• discharge values used herein must be viewed as.at best.crude. Ice thickness.hi:ice thickness can be approximately determi ned from di scharge measurement notes.subject to certai n 1imi tat ions (Beltaos and Lane 1982).For years without measure- ments.hi can be estimated from site-specific correlations between measured val ues and time since the date of HF.Such values of hi are designated herein as "es timated ll and involve errors of up to ±30%. MODEL TESTING -BASIC VARIABLES In this section.the dimensionless relationships derived earlier are tested in a preliminary manner.i.e.by ignoring the effects of oi'l'and side cracking which will be discussed in t he next sect ion.Fi gure 7 shows a trend for HB to increase The effect of hi is considered in Fig.8 where a "'""trend increase with h·1 is exhibited.Also shown in Fig.8 are data for the Smoky and Peace Rivers.plotted as ranges due to limited variability.The latter do not fit the Thames River relationship.Figure 9 shows the same data sets .... ,~ plotted in the dimensionless form suggested by Eq.9.Despite the scatter',the anticipated trend is confirmed.More importantly • -----------------......._---------------.------------------------ -19 - the Smoky and Peace Ri ver data are now much IOOre consi stent with the Thames Ri ver data than they were in Fig.8.The scatter in Fig.9 can be partly attributed to variations of ail.which, however,are unknown because neither 0i nor •values are available.It is also noted that the the present findings can explain the empirical results of Murakami (1972)(Beltaos 1982b). A similar analysis for two rivers in the United States resulted in a set of data points consistent with those shown in Fig.9 (D.Calkins,personal cOlTUllunication);the range of 100 hi/WF for this set was from 0.4 to 2.0. To test the predicted existence of the "ice clearing" di scharge,the maximum di scharge Gm,attained during the breakup period has been used.To determine the corresponding discharge intensity,em,the water surface width downstream of the last ice jam just prior to its release is needed.This is unknown for the present data but setting em =CJn,/W S is considered a fair approximation.For the Thames,Peace and Smoky Rivers,hi is small relative to Yc 'hence the second term on the LHS of Eq.11 has been neglected.With these assumptions,data for these three rivers are plotted in Fig.10,in the form suggested by Eq.11. The data points define an upper envelope that exhibits the anticipated dependency on hi/WF.From earlier discussion,it is reasonable to·expect that the funct i on fa in Eq.10 takes a value of 1.0 when hi/WF vanishes.Inspection of Eq.11 and Fig.10 suggests further that the intercept (=4.0)at -20 - hi/WF =0 should be equal to 1.59/fC 1/3.This gives f c =0.063 which is a plausible friction factor value for a channel covered with sheet ice at the time of breakup (corresponding Manning coefficient =0.032).Additional support for the ice-clearing discharge concept is provided by Figs.11 and 12 where Hm is seen to be influenced by both HF and hi in the ex.pected manner.The scatter is thought to be due to (a) whether or not the ice clearing discharge is realized in anyone breakup event;and (b)as yet unknown effects of thermal and mechanical deterioration.At a given site,a graph such as Fig. 10 could be utilized as follows:let qp =peak discharge intensity,forecast for a runoff event expected to cause breakup; and qc =value obtained from the upper envelope in Fig.10.If q~qc'then Hm should not exceed the potential jam stage for q =qp'However,if qp>Qc'Hm should not exceed the jam stage for q =Qc. MODEL-TESTIKG-OTHER EFFECTS A preliminary comparison of data with the present model has produced encouraging results.However,thereremai n several questions that need addressing.For example,what is the effect of si de cracks?Is the pre-breakup pattern postul ated in Fi g.3 realistic?What are the effects of 0i and.?Is the model a ~1RIlI '~_ -21 - general one or just one of several different break-up processes? These questions are considered in this section. Effects of side cracks A floating cover attached to the channel banks and subjected to upl ift pressures may be considered a beam on an elastic foundation (Billfalk 1981).Usi ng the appropri ate structural theory (Hetenyi 1946)it is possible to predict the uplift pressure head (~H)required to cause side cracking and the locations of the side cracks.Billfalk (1981)performed this calculation for infinitely wide channels and showed good agreement with measurements.The type of support assumed for the ice edges has a 1arge effect on t s (=di stance of side cracks from respective edges).For fixed ends,t s =O.For hinged ends,it was found that [12J At s =~/4 (infinitely wide channel) in which A is defined as [13]4.,1y/4£.1 1 with y =unit weight of water;Ei =elastic modulus of ice;and I =moment of inertia per unit cover width =h;3/12 . -22 - Billfalk's analysis has been extended to the finite width case (Beltaos and Wong,unpublished data)and the results are shown in Figs.13 and 14.For hinged ends,the two side cracks merge into a single central crack for ).W<3,while Eq.13 applies for ).W>6. Figure 13 affords a means of applying a correction to WF in order to determine Wi'Tu match observed with predicted .t s 's for the Thames Ri ver,a value of E·1 =1.4 GPa was found ""'"I ..... appropriate.This is considerably less than 6.8 GPa,representing gOOd-qual ity,freshwater ice (Gold 1971).The difference could be due to thermal deterioration and creep effects;it is much less pronounced when compari ng predicted (with 6.8 GPa)and observed .ts's because .t s varies as the fourth-root of Ei.As an illustration,let hi =0.5 m.Then).=0.113 m-1 and Fig.13 shows that,for W<26.5 m,there will only be one hinge crack.For W>53 m,t\\O hi nge cracks wi 11 form,each located 7.0 m from the respective ice edge (Eq.13).For the latter case,Fig.14 shows that Y6.H/o i ().h i )2 =1.03;with 0i =600 kPa,this gives 6.H =0.2 m.[Note:0i is now the flexural ice strength.] To illustrate the effect of the side crack correction, WB/WF and WB/Wi (Wi =corrected width)are respectively plotted versus.hi/WF and hi/Wi in Fig.15 (see Eq.8).A reduction in scatter seems to be effected by this correction. Figure 16,comprising the Nashwaak River data (see Table 1) provides a more striking illustration.Whereas the uncorrected width plot shows no trend (Fig.16a),the width correction effects ___-..mHll_;JiI;l_I:I.--......._,~_ -23 - a clear increasing trend (Fig.16b),similar to that found in Fig.15.At the same time,it may be observed that the Nashwaak River data exhibit more scatter and a smaller rate of increase with hi /W i than the Thames Ri ver data.These differences wi 11 be discussed later. Observed transverse crack patterns Because the possible significance of transverse cracks was only recently understood,only one documentation of their spacing and location can be furnished herein,as shown in Fig. 17.The centre of the reach shown in this figure is located some 25 km downstream of the Thamesvi11e gauge site.Crack locations are approximate because they were vi ewed from a hei ght of 400 m and drawn on a 1:50,000 map.Nevertheless,Fig.17 shows a fairly consistent crack spacing,reminiscent of the conditions postulated in Fig.3b. For the reach shown in Fig.17,it is estimated that w·=55 m and h·=0.35 m.Therefore,100 h ·/W·=0.64111 1 which,from Fig.15,gives WB/W i ~1.46.The photos of Fi g. 17 indi cate that the water surface to ice cover -wi dth ratio was less than 1.46 which agrees with the fact that breakup had not yet been initiated. A frequency ana1ysis2 indicated that the average ice 2 After transferrlng the observed crack locations to two-fold enlargements of 1:10,000 vertical air photos. -24 - sheet length in Fig.17 was 300 m while the 16-to 84-percentile values were 225 m and 415 m,respectively.Corresponding values of ii/Wi are 5.5;and 4.1 to 7.5.These can be shown to be comparable to what is implied by earlier findings,as follows. UsingEq.6 as .a rough guide and putting WB/Wi =1.46,one can solve for ii/Wi'provided R/W i is known.For the sheets of Fig.17,it was found that R/Wi ::6.2 (average);and 3.2 to 15.6 (16-to 84 -percentiles).With these values,Eq.6 gives .... ii/Wi ::5.0 {av~rage};and 3.8 to 7.7 (16-to 84 -percentiles). Mechanism of transverse crack formation Shulyakovskii's (1972)postulated mechanism has been illustrated in Fig.1 where it was assumed that the river comprises linear segments of unifonn width.A slight improvement that avoids this "linearization"resulted in (see Fig.I8) [14J M =2tW i ~ in which M =bending moment at C;and liM =area of segment ABC. A transvei'se cr'ack will form at C when 6M/h.W·2.becomes equal1 1 to 0i(=flexural ice strength). condition leads to By virtue of Eq.14,this [I5J ~.=a.h.W./12t-M 1 1 1 -25 - Equations 14 and 15 involve the following assumptions:(a)ice cover curvature effects on the stress distribution at Care negligible which is a good approximation for mild curvature (Flugge 1962);(b)the elementary force TWids (Fig.18)acts on the centrel ine of the cover which,too,is a good approximation for mild curvature;(c)contributions to the stresses at C by normal forces are negligible which is estimated to apply in most instances;and (d)moments caused by forces that may be transmitted between adjacent sheets,(e.g\at A in Fig.18)are ignored (see also later discussion). Equation 15 shows that aM and thence 1i must vary along a given reach owing to changing planform geometry and ever-present variations in 0'i 'hi 'w·1 and T.For the ice sheets shown in Fig.l?,the following average values have been estimated:Wi =55 m,hi=0.35 m,T =5.0 Pa and aM = 6400 m2.'Substituting these in Eq.15 gives 0i =20 kPa which is very low relative to 600 kPa,a common flexural strength value for good-quality ice as measured by the well-known cant i1 ever or simpl y supported beam tests (Frankenstei n 1961;Korzhavin 1971; Butyagin 1972).This large discrepancy is moderated by the following considerations: (a)The value of 0i has been found to decrease with specimen size.Using empirical results (Butyagin 1972), a reduction factor of at least three was estimated for the flexural strength of the entlre ice cover - ..- - ..... -26 - cross-section,relative to that obtained from beam tests.This would bring ai up to at least 60 kPa which is still low but close to the lower limit of the range of ails measured near the time of breakup (=100 kPa -Frankenstein 1961). (b)Equation 15 ignores stresses caused by forces that may be transferred at existing cracks.It is difficult to assess this effect because it depends on the (unknown) configuration of lateral restraints imposed by the channel boundaries on upstream ice sheets.It is estimated that,in the absence of restraints,this effect could cause a two-to three-fold increase of the calculated ai' (c)Creep effects that reduce the apparent ice strength have been ignored.The writer is not aware of creep data pertaining to the loading configuration at hand.For vertical loadings of the ice cover,creep reduces the apparent ice strength by 50%within a few hours of loading time (Assur 1961;Panfilov 1972). It thus appears that Shulyakovskii1s mechanism of transverse crack formation may apply but more data are needed for a definite conclusion on its validity.Another mechanism that can produce transverse cracks is the passage of water waves under the cover.Such waves can be caused by sudden releases of ice jams or rapid discharge increases.A first attempt to analyze -27 - this problem was made by Billfalk (l982)who assumed a linear water surface profi le and ignored dyn'amic effects based on an order-of-magnitude comparison with static ones.This theory predicts crack spacings that are far too small relative to observations (Fig.17)but the wave breaking theory needs further development before deciding on its applicability.For the present,it is noted that wave breaking would produce 1 i 'S that are largely independent of Wi and T but dependent on such additional parameters as initial water surface configuration,wave celerity,Ei and y. Effects of ice deterioration and driving forces Inspection of Figs.15 and 16 sl,Jggests the following empirical equation [l6]=1 +C(100h./W.), , According to Eq.8,C shol!~d depend on 0i/-r and dimensionless river constants.The former parameter was introduced via Shulyakovskii's (1972)mechanism of transverse crack formation. However,it was shown in the previous section that this mechanism cannot as yet be confidently accepted.Hence,0i/-r may be more appropriately replaced by several other dimensionless factors ....-28 - reflecting ice and flow properties.In general,C would be expec·ted to decrease with increasing degree of thermal ice deterioration and possibly with increasing T 3 • Few data on the mechani cal propert i es of ice at the time of breakup are available and the process of thermal deterioration is not we 11 understood at present (Frankenstein 1961;Korzhavin 1971; Butyagin 1972).Bulatov (1972)outlined a method for computing ice strength based on theoretical and experimental correlations with radiation effects;however,this paper is too general to permit ...... ..... -application of the proposed method by others.Thus,thermal effects can only be studied at present by introducing empirical indices intended to describe weather conditions.For the Nashwaak River data,preliminary analysis indicated that both accumulated degree -days of thaw and hours of sunshi ne i nfl uenced the onset of breakup.To reduce the number of thermal indices as well as - introduce the incoming solar radiation,a single index,tq,was also tried and showed equal effectiveness as that of the combi nat i on of degree-days and sunshi ne.tq is a calcul ated heat input per unit ice cover area,accumul ated to the time of breakup initiation (see Shulyakovskii 1963 and Beltaos and Lane 1982 for computational detai 1s).For the Nashwaak River data,it was 3 The wave breaking mechanism,for example,should be largely independent of T.At the same time,it is difficult to conceive instances where C would increase with increasing T. -29 - subsequently found that C decreases with increasing Eq,in accordance with expectation.Pertinent meteorological data were otltained from published records (Atmospheric Environment "Monthly Records")for a nearby station and are thus considered representati ve of local weather condit ions.II Premature"events had a value of 0.45 for Co (=C for I:q +0).Analysis of the Thames River data indicated a similar but not as well defined variation of C with I:q.However,there are no nearby sunshine recording stations so that I:q values are uncertain in this case. The value of Co was 0.85.For the Smoky and Peace River data, Co cannot be determi ned because no premature events have been observed;all that can be stated about Co is that it should not be less than 0.45 and 0.52 respectively.Inspection of Table 1 suggests a trend for Co to decrease with increasing river slope.This may be a hint for a similar dependency on T but the 1atter al so depends on other factors that are generally unknown for the present data. In concl usion,it may be stated that the present results show the expected stratification with thermal ice deterioration via empirical meteorological indices.While use of any such index can be criticised on the grounds of not adequately representing the physical processes involved,the Co values quoted earlier are not dependent on the type of index used.For the four ri ver sites cons1dered herein,Co is between 0.45 and 0.85.This is remarkably consistent,considering the associated large variation r I -.. I - - ...... -30 - in magnitude,hydraulics and latitude of the respective streams. The effects of driving forces and channel plan geometry remain unclear.Progress in this regat j requires additional case studies and conclusive identification of the mechanism of transverse crack formation. limitations The foregoing discussion suggests several conditions under which the present model may not apply,ie: (i)"Over mature ll breakup eventsduri ng whi ch the ice cover largely disintegrates by thermal effects rather than breaking by mechanical action. (ii)Reaches where the water level is strongly influenced by nearby cont ro 1s.An example is the Thames Ri ver near the mouth where the stage is controlled by that of Lake St.Clair.In this reach,the stage hardly rises prior to breakup initiation so that the transverse crack and loose ice sheet pattern may not occur.Breakup is usually initi ated by thermal deterioration and (iii) mechanical destruction effected by advancing ice jams. Channel types that are significantly different from the single,meandering channels considered herein,e.g., braided;multiple islands;straight channels,etc. -31 - DISCUSSION A conceptual model of river ice breakup has been developed and used as a framework for analyzing pertinent data from four gauge sites.The analysis resulted in some encouraging findings but at the same time identified several gaps in existing observational information.Improved knowledge is needed for the following aspects of breakup:Ice cover thickness;discharge hydrograph;mechanism of thermal ice deterioration;ice cracking patterns prior to breakup initiation;and accumulation of additional case studies over representative ranges of river morphology and climate. The present anal ys is focused on forecasting the onset and flooding potential of the breakup.Other things being equal, the breakup initiation stage increases with increasing freeze up stage,ice thickness and strength;and with decreasing channel width and slope.The flooding potential of breakup is lat'gely governed by discharge which dictates the potential stage of any ice jams that mi ght occur.The present model suggests that there should be an nice-clearing"discharge such that larger discharges will be associated with unstable,if any,jams.This places an additional limitation on the flooding pntential of breakup depending on freeze up stage,ice thickness and channel width and slope. - ..... - -32 - A major factor facilitating the onset and progress of breakup has been identified as the available water surface width in relation to the size of separate ice sheets that form by transverse cracking.In tjJrn,this can suggest possible means of breakup flood control in addition to commonly used methods,e.g., keeping freeze up levels low or placing dykes some distance off the channel banks. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The breakup model developed herein provides a framework for interpreting and generalizing data pertaining to breakup forecasting which to date has been site-specific.The main factor facilitating the onset and progress of breakup has been identified as the available water surface width relative to the size of separate ice sheets formed by transverse cracki ng.Thus,it has been possible to quantify the effects of such factors as ice cover dimensions and (partly)channel geometry.Owing to lack of data, other parameters (e.g.,mechanical properties of ice and driving forces)have only been considered indirectly to elucidate trends. The mechanism of transverse cracking was examined in the light of recent observat ions.Bendi ng on pl anes parallel to the water surface,caused by stream curvature ,could"account for the observed crack spacing but more evidence is needed for positive -I conclusions.The present model does not apply in cases of -33 - 1I0vermature"breakup events,proximity of stage controls and ri ver planforms significantly different from the single meandering channel type. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The work reported herein is mainly a part of a long-term research program on river ice jams and flooding,conducted by the Hydraulics Division,National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada.Valuable assistance in processing the Thames Ri ver records was provi ded by B.Poyser and H.McGarvey of Water Survey of Canada-Guelph.The Smoky and Peace River data were obtained by the writer as part of a IOOnitoring program conducted by Alberta Research Council in cooperation with Alberta Environment and Transportation.W.J.Moody and H.Ng assisted with data processing.Review comments by T.M.Dick and Y.L.Lau are apprec i ated . ,.,..-.34 - REFERENCES .Assur,A•.1961.Traffic over frozen or crusted surfaces. Proceedings,1st International Conference on the Mechanics of Soil-Vehicle Systems,Torino-Saint Vincent,pp.913-923. Beltaos,S.,1982a.River ice jams:theory,case studies and applications.National Water Research Institute Unpublished Report,in press,Journal of Hydraulics Division,ASCE. Beltaos,S.1982b.Initiation of river ice breakup.National Water Research Institute Unpublished Report,4th Northern Research Basin Symposium WOrkshop,Norway. Beltaos,S.and Lane,R.,1982.Ice breakup characteristics of the Nashwaak River at Durham Bridge,NB. Research Institute Unpublished Report. Nat i ona1 Water - Billfalk,L.,1981.Formation of shore cracks in ice covers due to changes in the water level.Proceedings,IAHR International Sympo si urn on Ice,Quebec,Can ad a,Vo 1.II,pp.650-660. Billfalk,L.,1982.Breakup of s·olid ice covers due to rapid water level variations.U.S.Army CRREL Report 82-3,Hanover, NH,U.S.A. Bulatov,S.N.,1972.Computation of the strength of the melting ice cover of rivers and reservoirs and forecasting of the time of its erosion.Proceedings IAHS Symposium on the Role of Snow and Ice in Hydrology,IAHS-AISH Publication No.107,Banff, Alberta,Canada,Vol.I,pp.575-581. -35 - Butyagi n,I.P.,1972.Strength of ice and ice cover (Nature Research on the Rivers of Siberia).U.S.Army CRREL Draft Translation 327,Hanover,NH,U.S.A. Deslauriers,C.E.,1968.Ice break up in rivers.Proceedings of a Conference on Ice Pressures Against Structures,NRC Technical Memorandum No.92,pp.217-229. Flugge,w.(editor-in-chief),1962.Handbook of Engineering Mechanics.McGraw-Hill Book Co.,New York,Toronto,London. Frankenstein,G.E.,1961.Strength data on lake ice.U.S.Army SIPRE Technical Report 80,Hanover,NH,U.S.A. Galbraith,P.W.,1981.On estimating the likelihood of.ice jams on the Saint John River using meteorological parameters. Proceedings 5th Canadian Hydrotechnical Conference, Fredericton,Canada,Vol.1,pp.219-237. Gerard,R.,1979.River ice in hydrotechnical engineering:a review of selected topics.Proceedings Canadian Hydrology Symposium 79,Vancouver,Canada,pp.1-29. Gold,L.W.,1971.Use of Ice Covers for Transportation.Canadian Geotechnical Journal,8,pp.170-181. Hetenyi,M.,1946.Beams on Elastic Foundation.Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press. Kellerhals,R.•Neill,C.R.and Bray,0.1.1972.Hydraulic and geomorphic characteristics of rivers in Alberta.Research Council of Alberta,River Engineering and Surface Hydrology Report 72-1,Edmonton,Alberta,Canada. - ..... -. -36 - Korzhavin,K.N.,1971.Action of ice on engineering Structures. U.S.Army CRREl,AD 723169,Hanover,NH,U.S.A. Murakami,M.,1972.Method of forecasting date of breakup of river ice.Proceedings of Symposia on The Role of Snow and Ice in Hydrology,held at Banff,Alberta,Canada,pp. 1231-1237. Panfilov,D.F.,1972.On the determination of the carrying capacity of an ice cover for loads of long duration.U.S.Army CRREL,Draft Translation 67. Pariset,E.,Hausser,R.and Gagnon,A.,1966.Formation of ice covers and ice jams in rivers.Journal of Hydraulics Divis;'on, Proceedings ASCE,Vol.92,No.HY6,pp.1-24. Shulyakovski i,L.G.(editor),1963.Manual of forecasting ice-formation for rivers and inland lakes.Translated from Russian,Israel Program for Scientific Translations,Jerusalem, 1966. Shulyakovskii,L.G.,1972.On a model of the breakup process. Soviet Hydrology:Selected Papers,Issue No.1,pp.21-27. -37 - Table 1.Summary of gauge site characteristics Site Description Type of Data Latitude Long-Term Mean Conditions(1) Slope Width Depth D;sc~arge (m/km)(m)(m)(m Is) Thames R at Gauge records,42°32'42"N 0.23 37 Thamesville 1960-79; Observat ions, 1980-82 Nashwaak R at Gauge records,46°07'33"N 0.73 58 Durham Bridge 1965-1981 Peace R at Observations,56°14 1 41"N 0.35 470 Peace River 1974-76,1979 Smoky R at Observations,5So42'56"N 0.52 225 Watino 1976-79 2.0 1.2 3.5 1.9 49 36 1800 370 Notes:(1)Width and depth values are for open-water conditions at the long-term mean discharge.For Peace and Smoky Rivers,data were obtained from Kellerhal s et al (1972). - .QlIlIilIlI; I FIGURES 1 -1 J 1 PLAN VIEW CROSS SECTION flow- (a)Early winter,maximum stable freeze up stage HI:____-&-l ~ ~ '"Wt=WF -I~ ice cover \t BENDING MOMENT AT A =F1 X 3 (b)Late winter,low stage Fi g.1.Shulyakovskii 's mechanism of transverse crack formation. open water H>HF (e)Pre-break~condition,advancing flood and increasing stage Fig.2.Significance of HF. f I r I~r f _c .•.('r (i f Flow- (a)H:S HF (a)straight sheet past circular bend (b)HF<H<HS (b)curved sheet past straight reach Fig.3.IILoose ll arrangement of large ice sheets. Fig.4.Illustration of ice sheet movement threshold. No Ice Effect Ice Effect -CDen ~ CD>re >0- re "'C- CDenre-C/) Actual stage ~Effective stage--~----Usually - 1 to 5 days Time Fig.5 Schematic illustration of daily stage variation with time during beginning of freeze up. Effect No IceIce Effect I I I Breakup Duration: a few days- CD .0 C.re ::J .0 ~e ~ Q..0 -Hm Sheet Ice 0 c Broken.2 Cover CD -IceEre--c-'"::Jo CDcre-cre-'"c CDenre-C/) - Time Fig.6 Schema,tic illustration of instantaneous stage variation with time during breakup. Fig.7.Effect on HF on HS;Thames R.at Thamesvil1e. 17 •FROM RECORDS ••_OBSERVED 16 • ~• 15 -. E I •14 •CD •:c ••-.13 • 12 11 11 12 13 14 H F {m) 5 ROM RECORDS I I 0 .• 4 •OBSERVED • S 0 3 •.I-iu..0:c 0 I l.2 I 0 PEACE R.CD 1 0 ..•SMOKY R.X W!fttmml0 -1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 hi (em) Fig.8.Effect of ice thickness on Hs -HF;data points are for Thames R.at Thamesville;open circles denote estimated hils. - - YB •-2 YF .I .. 0 0 0 0 • •0 0 • ~~Smoky R 1 RPeace ---I I I I I I 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 to t2 100 hi/WF Fi g.9.Test of Eq.9,YB/YF versus hi /WF;1egend same as for Fig.8. 20 o uncertain value of Q c •satisfactory value of 0c 0."est'd hi o o o ~.....--.- /'... A/ /d • /..0 /rfr'0 /1/1 Smoky R. Peace I R. 00·:-----::-L:'__--Ll__----II .L.'__--1.'__-.1['--_ Q2 04 06 08 1D 12 100 hi/WF !l'"" :1{! Fig.10 Dimensionless "ice-clearing"discharge versus dimensionless ice thickness. Fi g.11.Maximum breakup stage versus HF;Thames R.at Thamesvil1e. 1 I I ,I I•20 I--• l-••- 18 -•- •--•••••16 I-- .§•'-•- E ••:r:14 I-- •l-•- 12 -~i- I-- I I J I I 1 I1010111213 14 HF(m) "20 ".-" 18 "•"•••"16 -E ) E •••:r:14 .-•• 12 Fig.12.Maximum breakup stage versus hi; Thames R.at Thamesvil1e... .5 Hinged ends .4 /[1 s &0 for fixed endS] 3:.3 I Is/W Z7r!4'AW .......for 'AW>6 (/') ~.2 .1 00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 'Aw Fig.13.Location of side cracks. "'...._FIXED ENDS ~---------------------- HINGED ENDS o on-T-~2~--;33--4f---5~-~6-~7!::---....J.8 'Aw Fig.14.Dimensionless uplift pressure head required to cause side cracking. - ~'~).II I • (a)Uncorrected 1.4 0 t 00--1.2 0 CD 0 , ~ 1.0 ~i'l22 SMOKY R.I.t PEACE A.t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 ..., l 100 hi /WF 2.2 (b)Corrected 2.0 1.8 .~ ~1.6--.. co 3: 1.4 1.2 1.0 o Fig.15.Effect of side-crack correction;Thames,Peace and Smoky Rivers;legend same as for Fig.8. 1 ~~~-'-,,c~-l <~--l 1.2 I I J T J I J J ~~--~-J ~I -----. ~t l8J Uncorrected U if b I ........1.0 i Z i fa A J &&AJ'J'{co tQ(.t>.g I~tI'%• 0.8 1 I I I I 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 100 hi /WF I I ,,I i1.61- •Measured hi I (b)Corrected o Estimated hi 6~Abscissa larger than 0 .-"~~6 t'&l~~1.4 indicated by point b '-...~dJ Uncertain record if , I ffCO ~interpretation V'~t>•~•Z1.2 8 @ % ...:t - ~~ !f 1.0·I I I I I J I I 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 to 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 100 hi/Wi Fig.16.Effect of side-crack correction;Nashwaak R. - Creek o 2KM 1-1--..L..----11 SR )NO RECORD ow -Open water BR -Broken cover small floes Fig.17.Observed transverse crack pattern,Thames R. above Chatham,March 17,1982. r i (a)RIVER PLAN (b)ELEMENTARY FORCE (dF)AND BENDING MOMENT (dM) Fig.18.Derivation of Eq.14. 1 ~1 ')1 -1 I RIVER ICE JAMS:THEORY,CASE STUDIES,AND ApPLICAnONS By Spyridon Beltaos' ] ABSTRACT:The theory of river ice jams,as developed by several investigators over the past two decades,is reviewed and two methods for analyzing case studies are developed.The first method is based on a dimensionless equation that relates measurable ice jam characteristics.The second method compensates for the lack of measured thickness values for breakup jams by introducing a relationship between the hydraulic roughness and the thickness of a jam,based on data by others with respect to freeze up jams.These two methods of anal- ysis are subsequently applied to several case studies performed in recent years by the writer and others.The results support the theory and at the same time show satisfactory consistency in the respective values of various coefficients obtained by the two methods.Procedures for practical application of the pres- ent results are outlined and assessed by means of examples. INTRODUCTION A major consequence of ice cover formation on northern rivers is the jamming that occurs during the spring breakup of the cover and,to a lesser degree,during the freeze-up period.Due to their large aggregate thickness and hydraulic resistance relative to those of sheet ice,jams tend to cause unusually high water stages.This has repercussions in many operational and design problems such as overturning moment on river structures due to moving ice,forces on ice booms,spring flooding and associated stage-frequency relationships,river bed scour due to surges from released jams,to mention but a few. At present,complete mathematical simulation of water stages during breakup is only a hope for the future.There are simply too many un- knowns:It is not known whether,where,and when a jam will form. Even if it is assumed that a jam has been initiated at a specified location, it is not known exactly what occurs at the toe (downstream end)and thus it is not possible to formulate an appropriate boundary condition for the jam's subsequent evolution;and even if the configuration of an ice jam at a specified time is given or assumed,it is not known how, why,and when the jam will release. Faced with such difficulties,research has concentrated on the rela- tively simple problem of equilibrium jams,i.e.,jams that no longer evolve. This approach has considerable practical merit since it can be argued that,under certain circumstances,the highest water stages occur when a jam has attained equilibrium.Theoretical work has resulted in a model for floating jams in equilibrium that has been tested with some success versus experime!,tal results.Virtually nothing is known,however,about lResearch Scientist,Environmental Hydr.Section,Hydr.Div.,National Water Research Inst.,Canada Centre for Inland Waters,Burlington,Ontario;formerly Research Officer,Alberta Research Council,Edmonton,Canada. Note.-Discussion open until March 1,1984.To extend the closing date one month,a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Technical and Professional Publications.The manuscript for this paper was submitted for re- view and possible publication on February 26,1982.This paper is part of the JOllrnal of Hydraulic Engi1leeri1lg,Vol.109,No.10,October,1983.©ASCE,ISSN 0733-9429/83/0010-1338/$01.00.Paper No.18308. 1338 F I i grollnded (otherwise known as "dry")jams.Fig.1 gives a schematic il- lustration of an equilibrium jam.In Fig.1 it has been assumed that the jam was initiated at the edge of an undisturbed ice sheet and attained a steady-state condition.Typically,there are three regions within the length of such a jam: 1.Upstream transition:For a certain distance below the head of the jam,the thickness increases and approaches an asymptotic value.The flow under the jam is of the gradually varied type.As will be analyzed later,this should be the case for jams of the "wide channel"kind which represent a very common occurrence (see also pertinent measurements in Ref.4)."Narrow channel"jams may not exhibit an upstream tran- sition;from theoretical considerations it could be shown that for a pris- matic channel the thickness of a narrow jam should not change in the downstream direction. 2.Equilibrium thickness reach:The thickness of the jam is relatively uniform and approximately equal to the asymptotic value mentioned earlier.This value has been termed the equilibrium thickness (21,22). The flow under the jam is uniform and the water surface is equal to the channel bed slope,S.This concept applies to prismatic channels but may be extrapolated to natural streams by replacing 5 with the open-water surface slope,provided:(1)The reach under consideration is long enough to permit meaningful averaging of channel characteristics;and (2)the flow is free to assume a uniform condition,Le.,there are no significant control effects in the reach of interest. 3.Downstream transition:Below the equilibrium reach,the water sur- face profile steepens progressively to meet the relatively low water stage that prevails at the toe of the jam (e.g.,see Refs.6-8).The jam and flow configurations in this region are difficult to assess and could vary de- pending on local conditions and mode of jam initiation. It should be recognized that the type of jam depicted in Fig.1 occurs often but is by no means universal.If the jam is too short,the equilib- rium thickness region may not exist,while in reaches that are strongly influenced by controls (e.g.,river mouths)uniform flow may not occur under the jam. In the following sections,it will be attempted to review and assess the available theory and data on ice jams,present illustrative case studies I l I I _operlWa.le.:i~e ra~_ r=Cooltgurallonunknow" FIG.1.-Schematlc Illustration of EqUilibrium Jam 1339 Flow and Sediment Transport Processes,"Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Re- search Report No.218,The University of Iowa,Iowa City,Iowa,1979. 19.Tatinclaux,J.c.,"Equilibrium Thickness of Ice Jams,"JOllfllal of the Hydralll- ics Division,ASCE,Vol.103,No.HY9,Proc.'Paper 13179,Sept.,1977,pp. 959-974. 20.Tatinclaux,J.c.,and Cheng,S.T.,"Characteristics of River Ice Jams,"Pro- ceedings,International Association for Hydraulic Research Symposium on Ice Problems,Part 2,Lulea,Sweden,Aug.,1978,pp.461-475. 21.Uzuner,M.S.,and Kennedy,J.F.,"HydrauliCS and Mechanics of River Ice Jams,"Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research,Report No.161,The University of Iowa,Iowa City,Iowa,May,1974. 22.Uzuner,M.S.,and Kennedy,J.F.,"Theoretical Model of River Ice Jams," Journal of the Hydraulics Division,ASCE,Vol.102,No.HY9,Proc.Paper 12412, Sept.,1976,pp.1365-1383. 1 =~-"CI J and test the theory,and outline methods for practical application of the results. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Hydraulics of Flow under an Ice Jam.-A river cross section located in a reach where a floating jam has formed is sketched in Fig.2.In the following,flow through the voids of the jam will be neglected and the jam assumed to have an equilibrium thickness reach with uniform flow underneath.The longitudinal water surface slope is then equal to the river slope under open-water conditions.The velocity distribution in any one vertical will be as sketched in Fig.2 where the dashed line repre- sents the locus of the maximum velocity points;for a very wide channel, relative to its depth,the shear stress along this line is nearly zero.As a first approximation,the flows in the two subsections defined by the maximum velocity line are,respectively,controlled by the average shear stresses on the jam underside,T;,and on the river bed,Tb' Let Qi'Ai,Vi'and R;be the discharge,area,average velocity,and hydraulic radius for the ice-controlled subsection,respectively.Then Vi ==QJAi and Ri ==AJW (Fig.2);the Manning roughness coefficient,nj, and friction factor,Ii,for the jam underside are defined as ni ==ViI R?/3 5 1/2 (metric units),and Ii ==BTJp V?with Ti =pg R i5 and p =water den- sity,and g =acceleration of gravity.Similar relationships apply to quan- tities pertaining to the bed-controlled flow subsection;in the following, such quantities will be designated using the same symbols as in the pre- ceding,but with the suffix "b"in place of "i." For the overall,composite roughness flow under the jam (designated with the suffix "0"),the well-known Sabaneev equations may be used: 1 2/3 no =(n~2 ;n~/2)(In) It +Ib10=-2-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(Ib) ~:=(::r /2 •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••(2a) R;Ii - = -(2b)Rb Ib ] 1359 FIG.2.-Rlver Cross Section within Equilibrium Thickness Region of Floating Jam 1340 ,.,)"'1" in which equivalent relationships in terms of the friction factors instead of the Manning coefficients are numbered as Eg.1b,Eg.2b,etc.More- over,for wide channels: ( search Councit;F.Sampson,B.Tutt,M.Vanderkraan of B.C.Hydro; and W.Moody of Environment Canada.Review comments by T.M. Dick and Y.L.Lau are greatly appreciated. 1358 ApPENOIX.-REFERENCES 1.BeItaos,S.,"Field Investigations of River Ice Jams,"Proceedings,Interna- tional Association for Hydraulic Research,Symposium on Ice Problems,Lu- lea,Sweden,Part 2,1978,pp.357-371. 2.Beltaos,S.,"Flow Resistance of Fragmented Ice Covers (Ice Jams),"Pro- ceedings,Canadian Hydrology Symposium:79,Vancouver,May,1979,pp. 93-126. 3.Berdennikov,V.1'.,"Dynamic Conditions of Formation of lee Jams on Riv- ers,"Soviet Hydrology,Selected Papers,American Geophysical Union, Washington,D.C.,1964,pp.101-108. 4.Calkins,D.J.,"Physical Measurements of River Ice Jams,"Water Resources Research,Vol.4,No.4,Aug.,1978,pp.693-·695. 5.Calkins,D.J.,and Muller,A.,"Measurement of the Shear Stress on the Underside of Simulated lee Covers,"U.S.Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory Report 80-24,Hanover,N.H.,Oct.,1980. 6.Doyle,P.F.,"1977 Breakup and Subsequent Ice Jam at Fort McMurray," Illternal Report SWE-77-01,Transportation and Surface Water Engineering Di- vision,Alberta Research Council,Edmonton,Canada,1977. 7.Doyle,P.F.,and Andres,D.D.,"1978 Breakup in the Vicinity of Fort McMurray and Investigation of Two Athabasca River Ice Jams,"Inlernal Re- port SWE-78-05,Transportation and Surface Water Engineering Division,Al- berta Research Council,Edmonton,Canada,1978. 8.Doyle,P.F.,and Andres,D.D.,"1979 Spring Breakup and Ice Jamming on the Athabasca River Near Fort McMurray,"Interlllll Report SWE-79-05,Trans- portation and Surface Water Engineering Division,Alberta Research Council, Edmonton,Canada,1979. 9.Gerard,K,"Preliminary Observations of Spring Ice Jams in Alberta,"Pro- ceedings,International Association for Hy ....aulic Research Symposium on Ice Problems,Hanover,N.H.,1975,pp.261-276. 10.Kellerhals,R.,Neill,C.R.,and Bray,D.I.,"Hydraulic and Geomorphic Characteristics of Rivers in Alberta,"River Engineering and SllIface Hydrology Report 72·1,Alberta Research Council,Edmonton,Canada,1972. 11.Kennedy,R.J.,"Forces Involved in Pulpwood Holding Grounds-I.Trans- verse Holding Grounds with Piers,"The Engineering Journal,Engineering In- stitute of Canada,Vol.41,Jan.,1958,pp.58-68. 12.Lau,Y.L.,"Velocity Distributions Under Floating Covers,"Canadiall Journal of Civil Engirleerillg,Vol.9,No.1,March,1982,pp.76-83. 13.Limerinos,J.T.,"Determination of the Manning Coefficient from Measured Bed Roughness in Natural Channels,"USGS Water SUFply Paper 1898-B, Washington,D.C.,1970. 14.Merino,M.P.,"Internal Shear Strength of Floating,Fragmented Ice,"thesis presented to the University of Iowa,at Iowa City,Iowa,in 1974,in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. 15.Nezhikovskiy,K A.,"Coefficients of Roughness of Bottom Surface on Slush- Ice Cover,"Soviet Hydrology,American Geophysical Union,Washington,D.C., 1964,pp.127-150.• 16.Pariset,E.,and Hausser,R.,"Formation and Evolution of Ice Covers on Riv- ers,"Transactiolls of Ellgirleering Illstitute of Canada,Vol.5,No.1,1961,pp. 41-49. 17.Pariset,E.,Hausser,R.,and Gagnon,A.,"Formation of Ice Covers and Ice Jams in Rivers,"Journal of the Hydraulics Divisioll,ASCE,Vol.92,No.HY6, 1966,pp.1-24. 18.Sayre,W.W.,and Sang,G.B.,"Effects of Ice Covers on Alluvial Channel FIG.4.-Varlatlon of d i.M with t as De- duced from Nezhlkovskly's Results }lZ:=:1 q)1.2 3 l(m) 1.2 m wood,,jwatersurface pulpwood J3m ~' ~~Imeanunde.-surlace ----;2 3 nm) 00 § ~ R j +R b =2R a •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••(3) It can be shown that Eqs.1-2 are exact when Vi =Vb'For two-dimen- sional flow,this condition will be nearly satisfied if the shear velocities associated with the bed and jam,respectively,are either small compared to V j and Vb or not very different from each other (2).This expectation is supported by laboratory and theoretical data (12,18).For wide chan- nels of arbitrary cross-sectional shape,the condition Vi ==Vb can only be tested empirically.Examination of field data by the writer (unpublished) showed Vi and Vb to be within 10%of each other.However,the data used were for the relatively smooth sheet ice covers that occur in mid- winter,thus this finding may not apply to the very rough flows under ice jams.To a large degree then,use of Eqs.1-2 is justified by a lack of more reliable information. Hydraulic resistance characteristics of the river bed,I1b and fb'can be obtained from hydrometric surveys in the reach of interest during open- water conditions.Though jam stages are generally high,a large portion of the water depth is occupied by the jam itself and the flow part con- trolled by the jam underside (Fig.2);thus,usual values of Rb may rep- resent low open-water stages at which nb (or fb)is stage-dependent.The dependence Ofl1b on open-water depth is assumed to apply to flow un- der an ice jam by using Rb in place of the open-water depth.For a given reach,one may thus write I1b (or M =a function of Rb ......•................................(4) Resistance characteristics of the underside of an ice jam have not been documented widely to date.The few pertinent data known to the writer are analyzed briefly in the following. Kennedy (11)investigated the characteristics of log jams;the bottom roughness of a jam was found to increase with increasing jam thickness, based on field and laboratory measurements.The absolute roughness- thickness relationship suggested by Kennedy is shown in Fig.3.Intui- tively,one would expect that the curve of Fig.3 should have a horizontal asymptote,Le.,the roughness should not increase indefinitely but attain a constant value beyond a limiting value of thickness.The limiting thick- ness and the maximum roughness would probably depend on the di- FIG.3.-Kennedy's Roughness-ThIck- ness RelationshIp for log Jams (Note t'=Swtj s w =Specific Gravity of Wood) 1341 1 t 1 \,1 1 i 1 theory was tested with satisfactory outcome by plotting H/WS versus ~ using the available field data. Because the thickness of spring jams cannot be measured at present, the data do not permit direct estimates of the applicable roughness and internal friction characteristics.A method has been outlined for arriving at such estimates indirectly,based on existing hydraulic resistance data for winter jams (15)of whic:the thickness can be measured once freez- ing in place has occurred to allow safe access.This method was applied to 13 case studies with the following results: 1.The coefficient,f.I.,which depends on the internal friction of the jam was between 0.6 and 3.5.The lower limit of this range was obtained under conditions of considerable uncertainty with regard to both jam stage and applicable discharge.The upper limit was found for a rela- tively thin jam Gam thickness""2x sheet ice thickness)and thus might have been influenced by ice-bank friction.In the remaining 11 cases,J.L was between 0.8 and 1.3,which was considered encouraging in view of the crudeness of both the data and the analytical procedure.An average value of 1.2 was suggested for applications. 2.The composite friction factor,I.,varied between 0.09 and 0.67 and exhibited a tendency to decrease with increasing dimensionless dis- charge,~.The same tendency was suggested earlier when comparing the conventional theory with data on the relationship between H/WS and ~. 3.The ratio Uf.ranged between 0.6 and 1.6 but showed no tendency to vary with ~. Two methods of applying the present results were outlined:(1)A de- tailed method that makes use of the ice jam theory in conjunction with hydraulic resistance considerations;and (2)a simplified method that uses the "average"1']versus ~relationship as defined by the data.Examples indicated that the detailed method gives better results than the simpli- fied method. The major limitations of applying the theory to practical questions de- rive from the assumption of an equilibrium jam affecting fully the site of interest.This mayor may not be the case in any given year;thus the theory can only provide an upper bound of anticipated water level as a function of discharge.To account for special constraints that may be present at a given site (low flood plains,by-pass channels,etc.)careful field inspections are necessary. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A part of the work reported herein was performed under a field re- search program on ice jams that was carried out by the Transportation and Surface Water Engineering Department of Alberta Research Council in cooperation with Alberta Environment,Alberta Transportation,and University of Alberta.Permission by Environment Canada to prepare this paper is gratefully acknowledged.The field data reported herein have been obtained and processed with the assistance of M.Anderson, G.Childs,G.Putz,C.Ray,T.Ridgway,J.Thompson of Alberta Re- 1357 mensions and geometry of the fragments that compose the jam. Field data on ice jams in the Soviet Union have been reanalyzed by Nezhikhovskiy (15)for the period of freeze up.He found that the jam roughness,defined as the average deviation from the mean of numerous thickness measurements,increased with the average jam thickness,t, and thus proceeded to establish empirical relationships between ni and t.Three types of accumulations were identified,respectively,comprising loose slush,dense slush,and ice floes.The latter type is thought to be the most relevant to spring jams.The writer (2)noted that,for the very rough boundaries of ice jams,nj should depend on Rj as well as t,and attributed Nezhikhovskiy's findings to a restricted range of Ri values (approximately 1.0 m-1.S m).With this interpretation,it was possible to account for the effects of Rj and derive the following empirical equation (2): nj =0.072 Rio.23 ,0.4 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..•••••••(5a) () 0.8 Ii =0.4 ~i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••(5b) in which 0.5 s t/Ri S 3.0;and t s 3 m.Eqs.5a-5b are based on Ne- zhikhovskiy's suggestion that the jam roughness increases linearly with t. An alternative interpretation of Nezhikhovskiy's data can be obtained by assuming that the well-known logarithmic dependence of the friction factor on relative roughness (fully rough flow regime)applies to ice jams. Then,Rj may be taken as constant (""1.25 m)for Nezhikhovskiy's data, and the jam roughness can be calculated as a function of thickness.For the variation of Ii,an equation proposed by Limerinos (13)has been used,derived from natural stream data: 'f;=[1.16 +2 log C~J ]-2 (6) in which dj •84 =(by analogy with stream beds)the roughness value that exceeds 84%of the values in a representative set of individual roughness measurements.The writer (2)has found Limerinos'equation to apply in the range 0.4 s R/d84 s 150,using data of several other investigators. Using the identity n/R1/6 =0.113v],values of di•84 were computed to fit Nezhikhovskiy's nj-t relationship for ice floes and are shown plotted ver- sus t in Fig.4.The graph in Fig.4 is adequately represented by the empirical equation (metric units) di•84 =1.43{1 -exp [-0.734(t -0.15)]}(7) It is noteworthy that the curve of Fig.4 is similar to that of Fig.3 that applies to log jams. Eqs.Sa (or 5b)and 6 (with 7)give two different interpretations of Ne- zhikhovskiy's results,both designed to account for the effects of Rj ;at present,it is difficult to state which is more realistic,though the latter is more appealing to intuition.Finally,it is noted that laboratory data by Tatinclaux and Cheng (20)and Calkins and Muller (5)also showed Ii and ni to increase with t. Ice Jam Theories.-The earliest quantitative treatment of jams known 1342 I I to the writer has been reported by Kennedy (11)and deals with the forces exerted by log jams.For shores that develop friction,Kennedy based his analysis on "the analogy between pulpwood in a river and granular material contained between two parallel walls"and noted that "...it was subsequently discovered that Janssen had developed the same relation in connection with the design of grain elevators." Letting T =force per unit width with which the jam upstream is press- ing against the jam downstream in the direction of the current;Ti =the drag of the current on the undersurface of the jam per unit area (assumed constant along the stream);ko ==the coefficient of lateral thrust;and A ==the sliding coefficient of wood against wood,the force equilibrium for the jam is dT -W-+WTj -2k o AT =0 (8)dx in which W =streamwidth (assumed constant);and x=:streamwise dis- tance measured from the head (upstream end)of the jam.Integrating Eq.8 gives T=2::~[1-exp (-2k~X)](9) in which it has been assumed that T =0 at x =O.According to Eq.9, T <>:Te"==constant for xjW >3j2k o A,with WTjToo=:-(10) 2k o A Kennedy (11)reported that Eq.9 was adequate only when the log length was less than one-thirtieth of W.Otherwise,the percentage of force transmitted directly to the shore increased with the ratio of log length to stream width.From laboratory tests,the coefficient 2k.A was evalu- ated as 0.4. There are two shortcomings in this analysis,as has been pointed out in Ref.21:The streamwise component of the aggregate weight of the jam has been neglected,and it has been implicitly assumed that t is independent of x and that the flow depth under the jam is constant. Another debatable point is the assumed boundary condition,e.g.,T == o at x ==0,as will be analyzed later. An analysis similar to Kennedy's was presented later for ice jams by Berdennikov (3)who found an equivalent expression for T.From force measurements on ice booms,Berdennikov reported that T jT""was ad- equately described by Eq.9 with 2k.A =1.0,and the predicted values of T""ranged.from 75%to 137%of respective measured values. Pariset and others (16,17)developed a more comprehensive theory: The streamwise component of the jam weight was accounted for but the jam thickness was again assumed to be independent of x.The upstream boundary condition was generalized by putting T ==To oF 0 at x ==O.The resistance to shear at the sides of the jam was assumed to consist of a cohesive term as well as a frictional term.It should be noted here that cohesion is not likely to develop under spring breakup conditions but 1343 the jam released,either due to local blasting that was underway at that time or due to natural causes.Later,a new jam,some 10 km long,formed further downstream.Thl'head of this jam was about 15 km below the gage and the latter experienced a secondary peak about 1 m less than that plotted in Fig.9.It is estimated that,had the jam formed at the gage,it would have caused a stage of about 322 m which is fairly close to the prediction of the detailed method-alternative 2.(In reality,such a stage is improbable for the gage site where the crest of local flood protection dykes has an elevation of only 319.4 m.)The 1975 and 1976 breakups were mild with only minor and brief jamming.The 1979 breakup was caused by the surge of a jam that released a few kilometers up- stream of the gage site and resulted in a maximum rate of water level rise of 4.5 mjh.The peak stage was caused by brief downstream jam- ming during which the stage kept rising (1 mjh on release);thus,equi- librium was not attained. The 1976 peak at Watino (Fig.10)was estimated from a post-breakup survey of ice shear walls left on the river banks and is 0.6 m higher than the predicted value.A jam believed to have reached equilibrium is thought responsible for the 1977 peak which is 1 m less than the corresponding prediction.The 1979 peak was caused by a surge from a jam that re- leased some 14 km upstream of Watino. Fig.11 shows the best agreement between data and theory (detailed method).It is perhaps significant that gage malfunction due to ice dam- age,which is frequent at Peace River and Watino,is rare at Thamesville owing to relatively deep,tranquil flow and thin ice cover. Figs.9-11 suggest that alternative 2 of the detailed method gives the best results;at the same time,an increasing overprediction as the dis- charge increases is evident.This is plausible since the larger the dis- charge the lesser the probability that ice jams will form and attain equilibrium. Finally,it is noted that the freeze up peaks shown in Fig.11 appear to fit the general trend exhibited by the breakup peaks.The main dif- ference lies in the fact that freeze up flows are generally much less than breakup ones so that the freeze up points (')ccupy the lower left side of the graph. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The existing theory of floating ice jams in rivers has been examined in the light of field data accumulated in recent years.The theory de- veloped gradually since the late 1950s (11,16,17,3,21,22,19)and predicts the jam thickness so that the jam,considered a granular mass,can with- stand the applied forces.These forces are caused by the flow shear stress and by the streamwise component of the jam's own weight.Two types of jams have been identified:"wide"and "narrow"channel jams.It was shown herein that the former type should be far more common in nature since the latter type can only exist at very small aspect ratios.The theory was shown to give the dimensionless jam thickness,tjWS,and overall depth,HjWS,as increasing functions of the dimensionless discharge ~ (=:(q2jgS)I/3jWS).The internal friction of the jam along with the river bed and jam friction factors appear as parameters of these functions.The 1356 1 1 l 1 1 1 'I The data points in Figs.9-10 are peak stages during breakup as de- termined from the following sources:Water Survey of Canada gage rec- ords;Alberta Envrionment;British Columbia Hydro;and writer's own observations.The open-water rating curves are also shown for conven- ience in assessing the ice effect.The discharge values associated with the data points are generally !Ilere estimates since the gage rating curves do not apply during periods of ice effects.These estimates are provided by Water Survey of Canada based on such evidence as upstream in- flows,runoff conditions,and interpolations between times of discharge measurements.The applicable error limits are not known and would probably vary from site to site;the percent error should also depend on discharge and,at a given site,should decrease with increasing discharge. Fig.11 is based on a comprehensive analysis of gage records for Thamesville during the period 1959-79 (Beltaos and Poyser,unpub- lished data).The points af'r Jciated with breakup are of three kinds:(1) Maximum ice-influenced stage;(2)stage at maximum ice effect or "back- water";and (3)poinls applicable to discharge measurements that have been carried out during breakup.Items 1 and 2 do not generally coincide at this site because breakup usually occurs during a relatively steep rise in flow.The peak stage may be associated with unstable jams due to relatively high flow which results in relatively low backwaters.More sta- ble jams may form at lower flows and thus produce larger backwaters. Item 3 provides the most accurate information but the associated data points mayor may not represent peak stages or backwaters.Significant freezeup peaks are also shown in Fig.11. In general,ice conditions associated with the data points of Figs.9- 11 are unknown,i.e.,it is unknown whether a plotted peak was caused by an ice jam affecting fully or partly the gage site or by surges from released upstream jams.Where simultaneous visual observations are available,pertinent notes are made in Figs.9-11. Reach-average hydraulic parameters under open-water conditions were obtained from Kellerhals,et al.(10)for the Peace and Smoky Rivers, and from a hydrometric survey near Thamesville that was carried out in June 1980.For the Peace and Smoky Rivers,constant widths were as- sumed.For the Thames,however,it was necessary to account for the (significant)variation of W with stage in applying the detailed method. The ranges of the dimensionless discharge,~,for the breakup peaks of Figs.9-11 are 34-115 (Peace River),35-84 (Smoky River)and 900-2,900 (Thames River). Considering that,ideally,the theory should provide upper envelopes of the observed peaks,the largest discrepancy between theory and data occurs for Peace River (Fig.9).It is likely that significant equilibrium jams do not occur at or near this site and this coincides with the writer's experience during observations carried out in 1974, 1975, 1976,and 1979. The 1974 peak was caused by a 4.8 km long jam of which the head was 4.5 km below the gage.Allowing for the channel slope,it is estimated that a 1.6 m high stage would have been experienced had the jam head been located at the gage.Fig.9 shows that even this higher stage is low compared to the theoretical prediction.This may be attributed to the fact that the jam did not reach equilibrium:During the "life"of this jam the water level kept rising at the gage.The rate of rise was 0.2 m/h when 1355 may occur briefly during freeze up when the water is supercooled.Lim- iting the present analysis to breakup jams,cohesion may be neglected, and Pariset,et al.'s (17)prediction of Treads {[ W(Ti +Wi)]}[(2k o AX)]T =:To +2k o A -To 1 -exp -w-(11) in which A =:tan <1>;and <I>=:angle of internal friction of the jam.The asymptotic value of T is W(Ti +Wj)T",=:•••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••(12) 2k o A with Wi =:streamwise component of the weight of the jam per unit area: Wi =:PigSt (13) in which Pi =density of ice. Pariset,et al.(17)distinguished between "narrow"and "wide"chan- nels depending on the sign of T",-To: 1."Narrow"channels:T '"-To <O.The stress,T,will decrease with x and its maximum value is To;the thickness of the jam is governed by the "no spill"condition at the head,which leads to: V.=V2g(1 -Sj)t ••••••.....••.•..••••••..••••••.....•.......•(14) in which V.=average flow velocity under the jam;and Si =specific gravity of ice.The thickness of "narrow"channel jams has been inves- tigated recently by Tatinclaux (19)who presented a new theoretical for- mulation and laboratory data. 2."Wide"channels:T",-To >O.The stress,T,increases with x and the jam thickness is governed by structural considerations.The asymp- totic value of T is equal to the compressive strength of the jam.The latter is equal to k l Pi(1 -Sj)gt 2 /2 in which k l varies from 1.0 to the more probable value of tan2 (1r/4 +<1>/2),if it is assumed that the full passive resistance of the jam is mobilized.This requirement leads to flPj(1 -5,)gt 2 =W(T;+PigSt)(15) with fl =koHl =koA tan2 (~+~)(16) Eq.15 provides a means for predicting tifT,can be estimated.From data on the Beauharnois Canal,Pariset,et aI.,reported fl =1.28.Using this value and putting koA =0.5 as suggested by Berdennikov,Eq.16 can be solved for <I>to give <I>=26°.Then A =tan 26°=0.49 which implies k o =1.0;this is the upper limit of the range suggested for k o by Pariset,et al.(17).. A decade later,Uzuner and Kennedy (21,22)formulated the time-de- pendent differential equations describing the force equilibrium within, and the flow hydraulics beneath,the jam.These equations are too com- plex to permit general solution.It was shown,however,that after an evolutionary period the jam attains a quasi-steady condition.This con- 1344 _____...t _ '000 evo,...illg /e'79 '14 .. ~---~ m;r~~~mi'" •l~_ '15,,.. -----mba---~o-.._-~Jdoo Discharge Im3js} 31 3101 318 316'· --~~~~~~;'7---7'--.-~>~ ~~">'~:'O",<P'",,"';c...----...------~.f'/,F,::,..l'j~#~\W'/..... //oe''''q......~/ //./,.,.;,./ /;// /Y' 314~-,/ 322 .12' 3080 it dition is characterized by a steady upstream advance of the jam's head at a rate governed by the flux of incoming ice floes;an observer moving with the head of the jam perceives a steady condition.Over a certain distance below the head,the jam thickness increases to an equilibrium value,t,remaining constant thereafter.Uzuner and Kennedy's analysis is probably the most precise formulation of the problem so far and in- troduces the least number of assumptions;for this reason,it will be re- viewed here in some detail with a view to comparing it with previous theories. For an ice jam formed by internal collapse,the normal stress,IT"in the flow direction and the shear stress,Tf (equal to the strength),at the sides are I (19) FIG.9.:-Peak Breakup Stage versus Discharge;Peace River at Peace RIver (W =600 m,5 =0.00035) ---~----""---'~---~1//delaile~d1;1&1bc~;ncklc ....... simplilip.d;... /. /0 •I (}... /•Q £'6 ··e..4nw"c""ge 10./-- •Mm';stage breakup Q Mall;-backw"lt>r"!.D"C""9.me"'"'"'""'" .,'reete up . -260--------1-05---.--_·600---850--- Di.';crn.rge lmygl FIG.11.-Freeze Up and BreakUp Stages versus Discharges;Thames River at Thamesvllle (W =40-65 m;5 =0.00023) 201 2tio---~;n----000 --------800 Y06 Discharge (mys I ~Ij --~---------.--------- simplified ·_--~glde'ai'ed '79~orge ·76 •..4_---'77~ilibrium jal1"..-:; .78 minor jamming o,j- sired to account for variations of W with stage,the preceding procedure may be modified to carry out the computation as a trial-and-error process. Simplified Method.-This is based on direct use of Fig.7 by first drawing an "average"line through the data points.The computation steps are then as follows,for any given Q: 1.Compute ~by Eq.27 and use the "average"'Il-~line to determine 'Il. 2.Compute H ='Il W5;this should be close to the average water depth and by entering the open-water stage versus R,.graph,with H in place of R b ,the desired jam stage can be determined.Note that this procedure assumes that W does not change with stage.It would be an unnecessary elaboration to account for changes of width with stage when using the simplified method. Examples.-Figs.9-11 give the results of r lculations by the preceding methods for the following sites:(1)Peace River at the town of Peace River (Fig.9);(2)Smoky River at the town of Watino (Fig.10);and (3) Thames River at the town of Thamesville (Fig.11). 1354 FIG.10.-Peak Breakup Stage versus Discharge;Smoky River al Watlno (W =260 m,5 =0.0052) ]6 1 iI ,,~ 1345 Since T",must be less than To for "narrow"jams,the following condition must be satisfied (recall Eq.12): W(Ti +Wi)k l Pi(1 -Si)gt 2 2k o A <2 (20) IT,==k,u z ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••(17) Tf =Cou z +C j ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••(18) in which k"Co =dimensionless coefficients;uz =thickness-averaged normal stress in the direction perpendicular to the water surface =0.5 (1 -si)(1 -p)Pigt with p =porosity of the jam;and C j =cohesion of the jam.The parameters k x and Co were found to be strain rate depen- dent in laboratory tests and this was attributed to cohesion.According to Merino (14),cohesion between ice fragments develops when the water film surrounding the fragments freezes,thus forming a natural weld. This phenomenon is not expected to occur during breakup,as men- tioned earlier;thus it may be assumed C j =0 and k x =const.,Co = const. It can be shown (1)that Uzuner and Kennedy's equation expressing the balance of forces within the jam will coincide with that of Pariset, et aI.,for "wide"channels if fJ,is taken equal to Co (1 -p).This coin- cidence might have been expected since the former analysis assumes a jam formed by internal collapse which is also the underlying principle of the latter for "wide"jams. At this point it is of interest to consider further the distinction between "narrow"and "wide"channel jams.As indicated earlier,this distinction is based on the sign of T",-To,which in turn depends on the mag- nitude of To.Pariset,et a1.(17)suggested that To is "the hydrodynamic force of the current against the upstream limit of the cover."On the other hand,Uzuner and Kennedy (22)attributed To to the momentum of ice floes arriving at the head of the jam which implicitly neglects the hydrodynamic force.Evidently,the value of To depends on several fac- tors that cannot be easily included in a compact equation.There exists, however,an upper limit for To,imposed by the compressive strength of the jam: k I Pi(l-s,)gt 2 To :5 2 ,. r--'\;-'-'-1 -c_--1 -}---1 1 '1 1 "} Putting 1j =pgRjS,using Eqs.13, 14,and 16,and recalling earlier anal- ysis of the hydraulics of flow under a jam gives,after some algebra =~_1f3 5.75 [I 1/3 (f)]11 -WS -0.63fo ~+IL 1 +\j 1 +0.11 ILfo f.,~(26) in which q =Q/W.Recalling Eqo 15 and solving for t gives,after some algebra _WS { [(2fo)1/3 IL(1 _s;)(fi )G:Y / 3]1/2} t -1 +1 +-0000 ••0 (25) 2IL(1 -s;),Sj fo WS Multiplying Eg.25 by S;,adding to Eq.24 and working out the nu- merical coefficients (assume S j =0.92),gives W (2 IL S i)(t)(Sit)-<---1-- H fa H H [ f i Sit (f,i)](21) -+-1-- 2fo H 2fo in which H =overall water depth: H =h +Sjt •••••.••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••.•••••••••(22) with h =average flow depth under the jam.According to Pariset,et al. (17),the maximum possible value of t/H is 1/3 for a narrow jam.Using this value,and putting IL =1.3,S j =0.92,[./2 fo =1/2 (relatively "smooth" jam),Eq.21 shows that a "narrow"jam cannot form when the aspect ratio,W/H,exceeds the following limiting value: (~)max =°i:5 0 • 0 • 0 •••(23) Even with a relatively "smooth"jam for which fa is as small as 0.1,Eq. 23 gives (W/H)max =8.5;if t/H had been taken equal to 0.1,this value would have been reduced to 4.0.Clearly,"narrow"channel jams should be rare occurrences in nature. Calculation of Jam Stage.-For reasons explained in the previous sec- tion,the remaining analysis will be confined to "wide"channel jams. The overall water depth due to an ice jam,H,is given by Eq.22 and represents the most important dependent parameter of the jam.More- over,the present state of technology is such that only H can be observed directly;it is practically impossible to measure the thickness of a spring jam. The depth of flow,h,under the jam is (24)11 = [q ]2 / 3 ( 4 g S)1/2 ..0.0 ••••0 •••0 ••••••••••fo ....... It is noted that this approach assumes that W does not change with stage which is a fair approximation for most natural streams.It it is de- 1.Assume a value of t and compute R;from (see Eq.28) R;=t C3.~tWS -0.92)(29) Use IL =1.2 unless there exists evidence favoring a different value. 2.Compute fi;this may be done either by Eq.5b (alternative 1)or by Eqs.6-7 (alternative 2). 3.Determine fb and R 1•so as to satisfy both Eqs.2b and 4.This may be done conveniently by first preparing a graph of fb/Rb versus R b using the already known relationship between fb and R b;since Eg.2b requires that [./R j =MR b ,compute [./R;and enter the graph with this value to find R b and compute fb as (fJR;)R b · 4.Compute fv and 11 from Eqs.1b and 3,respectively (note h =2R o), and determine Q from Q =Wh ~(D gil 5 (30) 5.Enter the open-water stage versus Rb graph with h in place of R b , and find the stage corresponding to the bottom surface of the jam;add 0.92t to find the jam stage for the discharge value computed in the pre- vious step." 6.Repeat for a few other values of t and plot jam stage versus discharge. Clearly,no great confidence can be placed in predictions based on the existing theoretical knowledge.At the same time,such predictions may be useful in cases where there is little or no reliable information on breakup stages from other sources (e.g.,gage records,newspaper accounts,vis- ible high ice marks,etc.). With these qualifications,let it be assumed that a jam stage-discharge curve is to be generated for a reach about which the following infor- mation is given:channel slope;open-water rating curve (stage versus discharge);reach-average flow area and reach-average water surface width versus stage.From this information,the relationships R b (reach-average, open-water flow depth)versus stage and fb versus R b can be derived. From considerations outlined in the previous sections,two methods of calculation seem to be possible:a detailed method and a simplified method. Detailed Method.-After manipulation of the equations stated so far, the following procedure is suggested: of a jam's underside which has been evaluated on the basis of only one set of field data. 4.The theory does not take into account special constraints that may be present such as existence of low flood plains,by-pass channels,pos- sible effects of bridge piers on jamming frequency,etc.The possible ef- fects of such features require assessment by careful inspection of the site of interest. 1353 1346 in which METHODS OF PRACTICAL ApPLICATION Before considering methods of applying the preceding results to prac- tical problems,it is advisable to enumerate the limitations of the theory: 1.The theory assumes a very wide rectangular prismatic channel.Ap- plication to rivers implies that a natural stream may,for the purpose of ice jam calculations,be replaced by a rectangular prismatic channel of equivalent average dimensions. 2.The theory applies to floating jams in equilibrium and gives the jam stage assuming that a jam has formed,has reached equilibrium,and fully affects the location of interest.In reality,one or more of these conditions may not be satisfied during a given breakup period.'It follows that a theoretically derived jam stage-discharge relationship can only provide an upper en- velope of actual events,barring the occurrence of severe grounded jams about which no theory is available. 3.Theoretical prediction depends partly on the hydraulic resistance r \ the true inlernal friction of a granular ice mass.Nole that the Thames River jams,though only 0.7 m-0.9 m lhick,represent jam thickness to sheet ice thickness ratios of more than 3.5.Overall,Table 1 gives a mea- sure of support to the method of analysis used herein which is based on Nezhikhovskiy's (15)resistance data,because it shows that jJ.takes on consistent values and at the same time is close to the value of 1.3 that has been reported earlier by others. The parameters fo and Ufo that appear in Eq.26 are seen in Table 1 to range from 0.09 to 0.67 and from 0.63 to 1.64,respectively;correspond- ing average values are 0.37 and 1.25.There is no consistent variation of Ufo with ~,thus the average value of 1.25 could conveniently be sub- stituted in Eq.26 considering that Tj is insensitive to Ufo.At the same time,there is a trend for fo to decrease with increasing ~,as an earlier analysis concerning Fig.7 had indicated.This trend is shown in Fig.8. It should be understood at this point that no unique relationship be- tween fo and ~can be expected because fo should also depend on channel bed characteristics.This aspect is probably responsible for the large scat- ter of the data points in Fig.8. Table 2 summarizes additional but less comprehensive data for which the detailed analysis has net been performed.These data have also been used in Fig.7. 500 100050100 ~ , '" ... .. FIG.B.-Variation of t.with ~ 1352 .10 .50 .0510 '0 l (t)1/3 gS Yc~==WS =WS4/3'(27) with Yc =critical flow depth.Clearly,the dimensionless jam stage,Tj, depends primarily on the dimensionless discharge,t and on the inter- nal friction of the jam,and secondarily on the friction factors at the flow boundaries.The dimensionless parameters of Eq.26 have been chosen for convenience in interpreting the data. An interesting feature of Eq.26 is that Tj does not vanish when Q (and thus ~)are zero.This result is contrary to intuition and can be explained as follows.Firstly,it is noted that at ~=0,the flow depth vanishes but the (submerged)jam thickness becomes equal to 11.5 WS/,.,.,.Recalling Eq.15 shows that the jam thickens to withstand two types of force:the hydraulic friction and the streamwise component of the jam's own weight. When Q -'>0,the former vanishes but the latter docs not since 5 remains constant.Putting Tj =0 and Sj =0.92 in Eq.15 gives again 11.5 WS/,.,., for the submerged jam thickness.It is now obvious that this implausible result is due to the assumption that the flow through the jam is negli- gible.This assumption is realistic under normal circumstances;however, as Q flpproaches zero,an increasing fraction of Q will flow through the voids of the jam and even before Q becomes zero,the jam will ground. When this occurs,the jam need not be as thick as indicated by Eqs.15 and 25 because additional frictional resistance becomes available by con- tact with the river bed. 1347 COMPARISON WITH CASE STUDIES Description of Data.-Most of the ice jam case studies utilized herein derive from field research programs that have been described in Refs.1 and 9.A novelty of this program consists of documenting the "instan- taneous"water level profile along any observed jam as follows:from small aircraft or from ground access points,photos are taken of the jam stage against the river banks and used later for identification and survey. Examples are shown in Figs.5-6.When a jam profile has a section that is parallel to the open-water surface,the jam can be assumed to be in equilibrium.From cross-sectional measurements and slope surveys,reach- averaged values of H,W,and S can be determined.Unfortunately,it is not possible to determine directly hand t because there is no capability at present for measuring the thickness of a spring jam.Estimates of the average thickness of the jam in the equilibrium reach are possible only through an indirect analysis,as will be analyzed later.The discharge, Q,assigned to each jam is that which prevailed at the time the jam was observed.The actual value of Q responsible for the formation of the jam can be higher than the assumed Q but not lower.Thus,what is observed is a jam with possibly oversized thickness for the assigned Q.Letting H obs and Qobs be the "observed"values of Hand Q,as outlined previ- ously,and H.,Q.be the corresponding values at the time when the jam was formed,we have Q.~Qobs and H.~Hob,'The pair H.,Q. satisfies the conditions of ice jam formation,Le.,it satisfies Eq.26,if f TABLE 2.-Addltlonal Case Studies (Writer's Data) }1 1 1 -J 1 ~--'~~'~~~--...j "-....'------~!C~~'l'l~.. I I . I I I -~'l ke pile.111\left L"nl(ijtlt~r rt:hl,p.l~~fl W~,ia;)J<11ll J~m ~t"l~f~d&;lill~l bank;jail I mMr lluflttr'lg Cn:f:i,;JI<1W i!i.trom ritl!H 10 I~h ~ ~"~'~ T0<':.,(jiun j)\~,lr w...tlllU I I SUflVEYEO RIVER CROSS-SlCTIONS "WATER L.EVEl •1500 II,1,lPA 1911 •WATER L.EVEL,9AUG 1911 Toc 01 J.:llli UP$ICC;J'll ill a h",nj~lIl!ke dam;Hnw ii (rom Iclt l<l right .t~ot j",fJl nc~'HlJRling Creek; flow i~(ru,n leh to righl ~ i~JO~I ] § ~20 IeI.'!jam llCiU W.iIolin.:l;1,)o,lkin8 UpUrCdrll !.:;;.<:"."·!iii·'~i~,"111~1l\1fIIIt~ 1"i!fH~.. FIG.5.-Photographs of Lower Smoky River Jams,April 1977 Q,in S.in Probable cubic melers meters per W.in fl.in cOndition Location Date per second kilometer meters melers ~'I of jam (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(6) (9) Smoky R.below Hunting Creek Apr.7,1977 400 0.86 145 4.6 77.3 36.8 Evolving Smoky R.al Walino Apr.7,1977 456 0.52 250 4.1 66.7 31.5 Evolving Smoky R.near mouth Apr.30,1979 1,360 0.72 280 8.0 74.6 39.8 Evolving Smoky R.near mouth Apr.29,1979 1,270 0.72 286 9.2 68.8 44.9 Evolving Peace R.below Pei.1Ce Rivl"r May 1,1979 3,930 0.15 600 9.3 342 103 Equilibrium Hearl R.near mouth Apr.8-9,1977 1O.5~13.3 4.36 36 2.8 8.0-9.4 17.8 Equilibrium Thames R.nt:!ar Middl"miss lan.14,1980 100 0.05 45 4.8 1,766 584 Equilibrium Thames R.near Bothwell Jan.14,1980 165 0.26 56 4.4 1,002 296 Equilibrium Thames R.near Fairfield Moseum Mar.18,1980 130 0.81 44 4.2 290 118 Evolving /.I.=12.5 ?~(1 +o.:;J (28) up nor for breakup.Thus,use of this approach cannot be considered "satisfactory"but may be viewed as the "least objectionable,"for the present. The procedure of analysis is as follows.For an assumed value of t, plot the lower jam boundary (0.92 t below the water stage)on each river cross section and determine reach-averaged values of A,W,V(=Q/A), R o (=A/2W),and thus no (or f,,).Use Eqs.1-4 to determine the re- maining four unknowns,R b,R j ,and nb,nj (or Ib,j.).Repeat for a few additional values of t and plotni (or Ii)versus t.The intersection of this plot with Eq.5 (5b)or with Eq.6 (with 7)which can be evaluated from the data already generated,gives the value of t that satisfies all of the specified relationships and is,thus,the desired jam thickness.With this information,the coefficient /.I.may be computed from which is a rearranged version of Eq.15. Thirteen case studies,analyzed according to the aforementioned pro- cedure,are summarized in Table 1 where it may be noted that fairly wide ranges of stream width,slope,and discharge are represented.The coefficient fL has an average value of about 1.2 and,for most case stud- ies,individual fL'S are close to this average.The lowest /.I.(=0.6)was obtained for the jam on the Athabasca River near Pelican rapids.The data for this jam are,however,uncertain because it was documented using post-breakup evidence.The highest value of /.I.(=3.5)was ob- tained for the Smoky River near Hunting Creek and does not seem to fit the pattern of the other jams.The sheet ice thickness in that case was about 0.6 m,i.e.,one-half of the estimated jam thickness.It is possible that,as a jam approaches the configuration of a single layer of ice floes, /.I.will more and more reflect the effective ice-bank friction rather than RIVER DISTANCE UPSTREAM OF MOUTH ikml FIG.6.-Proflles of Lower Smoky River under Open-Water and BreakUp (Apr.19n) Conditions (38-56 km above Mouth) the theory is assumed valid.As Q decreases from Qa to Qobs,it is rea- sonable to assume further that the thickness of the jam does not change but that the flow depth under the jam decreases,as indicated by Eq.24. Thus,the pair Hob.,Qobs will not satisfy Eq.26;if H'is the value of H obtained from Eq.26 with Q =Qobs,then H':S Hubs'With plausible values of /.I.,h,10 (see later analysis),Eq.26 can be used as a rough guide to evaluate the relative error,(H obs -H')/H',inherent in the pair H obs , Qobs'Fortunately,it is found that even if Qa is as large as 2Qubs,this error does not exceed 7%.This is acceptable considering the errors in- herent in field data pertaining to ice jams. 1351 1348 :I~~:ri i~~::~}equilibrium jams •'rom Table '2 -evoMng jams I 500 100 'I 501 I ,I' ,0",.~o ,(J./EQ with ,';/'-'2 '''10-1.25•P.. , " II) ~~ "''<I"E:::.. Qla: Ii '"til0..o..~~~~6 ro 6 ro ro ro ro ro 0 6 0 6 -0 '1j -0 -0 .b .~.:::.~~~~~ <::..c I':..c".,".,.,g."!;1:t:1:1: ..0;:.......0;:'"'::l ::l ::l ::l.I9~E~tn Ul U)\I) QJo..QJo..QJCV~QJQJQ1Q)Q)g-.8 ~B ~.~g.·m ~.~~.~ Vi Vi Vi Vi <Ii Vi I ..c .,'"~_~~~~0..~ m m ro ro ro ro ~~~E~"2 ]~~~c~~u~~~~~~oro"6-~Q)~QJ Q)Q)~~:ott:1:e t:1:t:"~2~ro ::l ::l ::l ::l ::l ::l ~ro "~::'0 ttl l.1l tTl In U'l III ..0 E L.o 1-0 0 Q)2Q)~V~Q1~Q)~Q)~roQ)E~o..0..._0.......0..'-1 0..._p.......0.......-%J U ft!n:I 0 ~Ql~U)~~~~~\I)~Ql8'~'--- 1O~.tL..-,I,.•.! 5 10 50 ,O~ E 500 1000 ::I.MI~~<'l <'l 0- t..: <'l ~ ~ N t..: <'l :-'1 rl $ N 'OJ'::s r-...g r-... -0 <'l '"'0 II) N N II) r-...ry; <'l rlg ~o r-... N,....; 'f)....; ~ r-....,,; r-... <Xi 'f)r-...o ~ ~..... ~ 0- rl t-:'..... ...: 0..</I '"'ro '"~:g .0..c:~ ""'<::'"rorou..o~ro ., .£io... <I; ~ ~ N ..... 00 '" ~o rg ..... <Xi §:5: ~.-:..... 0-t'-. 0-..... g ...: 0..< 00o '"g ~ t..: o.,,; If) 'iF If) <'lo ~g: rl N ~< 5: § 0-o N l'ir-... ..... <Xi o.,,; If) "?o o ~ E ~ 0-..... ~ ...: 0..< ~ t..: <'l,....; ..... ..... 'f) ~ <'lo N r<i 8 rl ,....;- I:::: 0- rl ~ cO..... ...: 0..< o ..... '".,,; N <Xi ~ <'lo o ~ §: ~..... '"..... ~< "l..... r-...o ~.,,; <'l.....o ~..... '"'1l 'I:: ?:: r-... 8 ~ .....' ~ 0-.... o N '"'ro;::E "!..... <t:J ~ 0-o ~o r-....,,; ~ 11 'I:: ?:: ~..... ~..... ~..... '"o '" 0-o C?..... ~o 0- '" Ii ~ ... OJ--is ?:: 00o..... ~..... N..... '"~ o..... ..... r<i co iii No,....; '"'., '-is ~ ~..... ~ 0-..... N... ...: 0..< o ~ N,....; II) r<i <'l 00o ~ 0- iii ... ,~ ~ t--:' ...: 0.. <I; ~ 0-..... 0- -0 <'l o..... N -0 "? <'l ~o ~ '"'"'-is ~ ~ 0-..... o..... ,.; 0..< 1350 ~QJ~~~~~~~~~:EmQJoe ~c~~~VUQJe~~~~~~t<::<::<::<::0...'S:<::...::l• ,,~..,Ii",liro Ii ro;::EP:;.£iP:;£P:;~P:;-o",~",~"",.£i~u~::l~:;J~<::~I':"~"~~":;J!:::E~g~6o~~~eE~ElJ~606ro~~~~~~~O~~~lf)~~~~ ::I.~IO-..... II) ~~I~ GI I'"'~_1! :;JM'I::S~~ Ql I~10 N 1""-4 o~~ ...: 0..< <:o'w;::- 0- .3 ~s ~~~l;:;oc;$$~~~~g UJ ~~,....:~d ci a -.:-.:--..:....:-.:-=.....: E I ~~m ~~~~~~~~8 ~~~~~~0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'I :;:('?Io.s:!!0)~ l/I ..:~~'" ~II -g <:~:1....-OJ -1.0 (J):iQ;!:::-1Ii 5l E ---11 III ~o q,~0.11>(').!;;(I)CD _N :v)sa~do11>= .!!l E -'"II l/I II)~.~:u -t--.ex)("')f1)r-t ~\0 0 0 0c:;iw!!1~~~::l 'OJ'r-...;:l;g;g:;1 E II •~"O T-We W <:WO 10.-E 0 ~.......J _II>'<I"NmD'u II)~ 4::a Q; J-ao. FIG.7.-Test of Theory,Eq.26 Testing of Theory.-Eq.26 indicates that,according to the theory,the dimensionless jam stage,T],should depend on t with f;,fo,and I.L as parameters.Available data are plotted in the form of T]versus t in Fig. 7.The data are summarized in Tables 1-2 which will be analyzed later. In Fig.7,different symbols have been used to describe ice jams deemed to have been,respectively,in equilibrium and in evolution.Despite con- siderable scatter,the data points in Fig.7 show an unquestionable trend for T]to increase with t which qualitatively supports Eq.26.For a quan- titative test of Eq.26,I.L and Ufo were fixed at 1.2 and 1.25,respectively (average values found from a detailed analysis to be analyzed later),and T]was calculated for fo ""0.1 and 0.5.Comparison of the resulting curves with the data points indicates that the theory is basically sound while there seems to be a general trend for fo to decrease with increasing ~. The latter is_plausible because fo should decrease when fiR decreases and this can be shown to occur when ~increases.It is of interest to note in Fig.7 that the data points for evolving jams plot at or below the line defined by the points corresponding to equilibrium jams;this gives a measure of support to the expectation that the peak stage is attained at equilibri um. DETAILED ANALYSiS-INDIRECT METHODS Detailed analysis of the data available to date is hampered by a lack of means to measure ice jam thicknesses during breakUp.Typically,the measurable quantities are H,Q,W,5,a few representative river cross sections,and the relationship of Eq.4.It is desired to determine h,f, R;,R b,and n;,nb (or f;,fb),i.e.,a total of six unknowns.The available equations are five,Le.,Eqs.1-4,and the flotation relation,Eq.22.Clearly, the problem cannot be solved unless an additional relationship is intro- duced.Pariset,et al.(17)assumed nj ="b =no (Ii ""fb ""fo)'This as- sumption is arbitrary as there is no a priori reason why n;should be equal to nb for all jams in all rivers.The writer believes that use of Ne- zhikhovskiy's data (15),as interpreted in Eq.5 (or Eq.5b)or Eq.6 (with Eq.7),is preferable because these relationships have a basis on mea- surement.It is recognized that Nezhikhovskiy's data are subject to the usual inaccuracies one may expect for field observations of ice jams;in addition,these data have not been duplicated by other investigators (though indirectly corroborated in Refs.5,11,and 20)neither for freeze- 1349 Beltaos (23) This manuscript is submitted to the 3rd Workshop on Hydraulics of River Ice This copy is to provide information prior to publication STUDY OF RIVER ICE BREAKUP USING HYDROMETRIC STATION RECORDS by s.Beltaos Environmental Hydraulics Section Hydraulics Division National Water Research Institute Canada Centre for Inland Waters Burlington,Onta~io,Canada December 1983 - - - -( ..-, MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE River ice breakup may cause floods or costly delays to navigation.Breakup and water levels are a complex combination of meteorological conditions and physical characteristics of the site. Understanding and eventual control depends very much on using historical information which was not obtained to study ice jams.This report is a pilot study to establish the information pertinenent to understanding the phenomena and to providing useful guidance for planning and .management. This report shows that existing data in gauge records of the Water Survey of Canada may be used to obtain useful information which may help in forecasts of future flood lev~ls. However,before general conclusions can be drawn,other similar studies at sites throughout Canada will be useful if not necessary to obtain progress.It is notable that if the data gathering were to be minimally supplemented that much more could be done with future data records. T.Milne Dick Chief,Hydraulics Oivison i PERSPECTIVE DE GESTION Les d~b~c1es f1uvia1es peuvent causer des inondations ou retarder indument 1a navigation.Les d~bac1es et les fluctuations de niveau d1eau proviennent dlun ensemble complexe de conditions m~t~oro1ogiques et de caract~ristiques physiques du lieu.Leur compr~hension et leur contrOle ~ventue1 d~pendent ~traitement de donn~es historiques qui nlant pas ~t~recueil1ies lors dletudes d'embac1es.Le pr~sent rapport est une ~tude pilote visant ~~tab1ir quel1e information est pertinente ~1a compr~hension des ph~nom~nes et peut servir ~ p1anifier et ~g~rer. Le pr~sent rapport montre que 1es mesures de jaugeage des Re1ev~s hydrologiques du Canada peuvent serv;r ~obtenir de l'information utile pour pr~voir la hauteur des inondations futures. Or,avant de tirer des conclusions g~n~ra1es,i1 serait utile, voire n~cessaire,dleffectuer des ~tudes semblables dans divers endroits du Canada pour faire des progr~s.11 est ~noter qu1en recueillant un peu plus de donn~es,on pourrait tirer beaucoup plus d 1 information des mesures futures. 1.Mi 1ne Dick Division de l'hydrau1ique i i - 1 STUDY OF RIVER ICE BREAKUP USING HYDROMETRIC STATION RECORDS S.Beltaos L ABSTRACT The possibil ity of using hydrometric station records to extract information related to ice breakup forecasting is explored.Methods for interpretation of the records are outlined and utilized to study breakup characteristics of the Nashwaak River at Durham Bridge,N.B. The results are then compared with recent insitu observations of ice conditions.It is concluded that useful but incomplete information can be extracted from existing records and a need for a theoretical framework of breakup processes is demonstrated.The value of records would be enhanced by collection of additional data such as actual ice thickness;one or more discharge measurements during breakup;and wider utilization of local observers for descriptions of ice conditions. RtSUMt les auteurs se sont pench~s sur les possibiliti~s d'utiliser les relev~s de station hydrom~trique pour extraire des donn~es li~es a la pr~vision du d~glacement.11s d~crivent leurs m~thodes d'interpr~tation des relev~s et ils s'en servent pour ~tudier les caract~ristiques de la dt!b~cle de la Nashwaak a Durhan Bridge (N.-B.).Les r~sultats sont ensuite compar~s '0 de r~centes observations sur pl ace des condit ions glacielles.11s en concluent qu 1 une information utile mais incompl~te peut ~tre tir~e des relev~s disponibles et ils d~montrent qulil serait n~cessaire d'!laborer un cadre th~orique des processus de d~glacement. La valeur des relev~s serait augment~e par la collecte de donn~es suppl~mentaires comme celles qui ont trait a lt~paisseur de la glace, une ou plusieurs mesures du d~bit pendant la dislocation et finalement, un plus large recours aux observateurs locaux pour la description des conditions glacielles. !Environmental Hydraulics Section,Hydraulics Division,National Water Research Institute,Burlington,Ontario 2 INTRODUCTION Duri ng the summer 1980 meet i ng of the N.B.Subcommit tee on Ri ver Ice (formerl y:Ad Hoc Committee on Ice and Ice Jams),a quest ion arose as to whether existing hydrometric station records could be utilized to forecast the onset and severity of river ice breakup.To explore this possibility a joint (NWRI!WSC*)study was initiated for the hydrometric station located on the Nashwaak River at Durhan BrilJge in New Brunswick. The undertaking of this task was facilitated by the fact that a similar study had been initiated by the writer in late 1979 for Ontario rivers, in co-operation with the WSC Guelph office. Prel iminary results of the Nashwaak River study (Beltaos and Lane 1982)indicated that useful,though incomplete,information can be extracted from existing records.This finding prompted the writer to extend the study to include factors not previously considered and assess the resulting forecast methods using insitu ice observations that have since been performed under the auspices of the N.B.Subcommittee and N.B.Environment.The results to date are reported herein. RIVER ICE BREAKUP When an ice-covered river basin is subjected to mild weather,two processes generally begin:increased runoff due to rainfall or snowmelt or both;and heat input to the ice cover.The former process results in increased uplift and frictional forces applied on the ice cover;and in increased water stage which,in turn reduces the support provided to the ice cover by the channel banks and provides increased channel width for movement of the cover.Heat input to the ice cover results in reduced dimensions and strength.It follows that during the mild weather spell, the forces applied on the ice cover increase while the cover1s ability to resist these forces decreases.If the mild weather lasts for a sufficient time,the ice cover begins to break up which is often followed by formation of large ice jams,major ice runs and eventual clearance of the ice from the reach of interest.This general description of the breakup process includes two extreme cases,i.e.,the IIpremature ll and "overmaturell breakup (Desl auriers 1968).Premature breakup occurs under conditions of intense runoff with little,if any, deterioration of the ice cover.Clearly,this type of event has the greatest damage potential,other things being equal.On the other hand, conditions of slow or no runoff with intense ice deterioration lead to overmature breakup.This event is characterized by gradual ice disintegration and has minimal potential for damage. The first question a forecaster might ask would be how to predict whether and when breakup will be initiated.And once initiated,how *NWRI =National Water Research Institute WSC =Water Survey of Canada .. - 3 severe it is likely to be in terms of magnitude and duration of ice jam stages at various locations. Concerning breakup initiation,pertinent literature often advocates use of the corresponding water stage,HB (=height above an arbitrary datum,e.g.gauge height)as a convenient and meaningful index (Shulyakovskii,1963;Gerard,1979;Beltaos,1981,1982).From our earlier discussion,it would ap~ear that HB is indeed a desirable parameter because it reflects the ice driving forces as well as the water surface width available for ice movement.Moreover,the above noted literature suggests that,in a given reach,HB depends on:the thickness of the ice just prior to breakup,hi;the degree of ice strength reduction caused by thermal effects;and the stage during freeze up when a st ab 1e ice cover forms,HF'The 1at ter is an index of the width of the ice cover and,excepting mature breakup events,has to be exceeded before contact of the ice with channel boundaries is eliminated.As will be discussed later,approximate values of these parameters can be extracted·frOO1 gauge records.As for ice strength, there is no direct information.The best that can be done at present is to use a meteorological index intended to describe the effects of thermal deterioration. With regard to the severity of breakup,one ~uld ideally wish to predict the complete stage hydrograph during the breakup period at any given location.This appears to be too ambitious a task at present;it is thought more practical to limit the goal of the study to forecasts of the maximum stage during breakup,Hm.This stage can be easily identified on gauge recorder charts and is usually caused by a nearby ice jam.Theoretical considerations and field data (Pariset et al,1966 Beltaos,1983)have shown that the maximum stage that can be caused by an ice jam occurs when the jam has attained a condition of equilibrium and fully affects the site of interest.Thi s equi 1ibri um stage depends mainly on discharge,channel slope and width.During anyone breakup period,tim mayor may not reach the equilibrium jam stage owing to one or more of the following reasons.(a)Ice jam located far downstream of the gauge site.Even if this jam attains equilibrium,the gauge site wi 11 experience a fraction of the jam's effect on stage.(b)Ice jam is located far upstream of the gauge site.The gauge site wi 11 again experience a fraction of the jam's effect on stage owing to attenuation effects during the jam1s release.(c)Unstable jam that releases prior to attaining equilibrium.(d)Overbank flooding.Water and ice spread out onto the flood plain so that the jam's potential is dissipated. Thi s case coul d be vi ewed as apart icul ar instance of the unstable jam case.Considering that a major factor contributing to ice jam formation is the original ice cover itself,it is reasonable to expect that not only discharge but also competence of this cover may influence the value of Hm (see also later discussion). DESCRIPTION OF DATA The main data source has been the WSC record of gauge height versus time for the period 1965-81.Supplementary information consisted of 4 daily discharge data (WSC);meteorological data (Atmospheric Environment -"Monthly Records");channel hydraulics in the vicinity of the gauge (B.Burrell,N.B.Environment);and recent ice thickness measurements (P.Tang,N.B.Environment).From these tlraw"data,several parameters thought to be characteri st ic of the ice regime have been extracted as described below. Maximum Stable Freeze Up Stage (HF) A typical but not universal configuration of the daily average stage hydrograph near the start of the ice season is sketched in Figure 1.The solid line represents the actual stage whereas the broken 1 ine gives the tleffective"stage (=stage that would have occured had the flow been unaffected by ice).At a certain time which may be termed the beginning of freeze up,the actual stage starts to rise while the effective stage continues to drop.Eventually,the actual stage attains a peak and then declines.This sequence reflects the dynamic nature of ice cover formation in rivers.With the onset of cold weather,frazi1 ice forms and is initially transported freely.The effect of this moving ice on the water stage ;s small.As more and more frazil is produced,it begins to agglomerate into slush and pancakes.Eventually, the ice transport is impeded somewhere downstream of the gauge (due to border ice growth or other constricting feature)and an ice cover begins to propagate upstream.The presence of the ice cover causes a local stage increase which eventually begins to be "felt"at the gauge site. The gauge height then increases unti 1 the time when the edge of the ice cover arrives at the gauge site~Subsequently the gauge height decreases due to decreasing discharge and thermal smoothing of the underside of the cover.The peak stage (H F )during this period is considered an important factor influencing the succeeding breakup because it defines the stage at which the ice cover is formed;the width of the cover is approximately equal to the channel width at the stage HF.To eliminate brief peaks during which there is little time for freezing,HF is defined as a daily average value.It is recognized that this definition of HF only provides an index for the width of the stable ice cover and could,perhaps be improved by taking an average over a number of days after the peak.While this is a matter that should be investigated in the future,it was considered an unnecessary elaboration for the present exploratory study. Moreover,it should be kept in mind that the above described freeze up process occurs frequently but not always due to occasional presence of complicating factors,e.g.,severe flow and stage controls; incomplete ice cover;very rapid drop in discharge that suppresses occurrence of a peak on the stage hydrograph.Because of these and possibly other unforeseen difficulties,HF should be determined in conj unct ion with consultations of prevail i ng weather condit ions and (if available)local observers'reports*while keeping in mind its physical - - *At many gauge sites,local observers are temporarily employed by the operating agency to provide brief descriptions of ice cond it ions at a spec i fi ed frequency. ,..... - - 5 significance as outlined earlier.In the present study,interpretation of freeze up stage records presented 1itt1e difficulty except on a few occasions where HF determination was designated "uncertain". "Winter"Peaks. Occasionally,a brief thaw may occur during the winter period.If SUcil a thaw causes sufficient runoff,the gauge record will show a peak which mayor may not i nit iate breakup.In the 1atter case,the peak stage represents a lower limit for the stage required to initiate breakup at that time.The term Il winter"peak is used conventionally and includes any peak that does not initiate breakup.While such peaks usually occur in the winter,there are instances where "winter"peaks occur a few days before the spring breakup. Stage at Initiation of Breakup (H B). Usual1y,when a thaw does lead to breakup of the ice cover.the stage begins to rise from its fairly steady winter value and shortly after exhibits spikes and peaks that can only be caused by breaking or broken ice effects (Fig.2).A probable value of the stage at the initiation of breakup,HS'may be fixed at the first significant spike*.Unfortunately.this definition is not always objective or meaningful.Only a probable range of HS can then be determined.by considering:(a)the latest time for which it can be confidently assumed that there still was continuous ice cover;and (b)the earliest time for which broken ice effects became evident on the stage hydrograph.Difficulties may be experienced in cases of absence of spikes owing to very rapid stage increases caused by intense runoff or release of upstreevn ice jams;"mis1eading"spikes caused by discharge reductions due to upstream jam formation;or "overmature"breakup events where breakup can be initiated during constant or even decreaiing stage conditions. Because of such complications.HS determination should utilize all supplementary information.e.g ••prevailing weather conditions. local observers'reports and prior experience of local ice conditions. For the present study no overmature events were encountered.wi th the possible exception of the 1964-65 event which has been designated l un definab1e".This circumstance compensated somewhat for the lack of local observers'reports that have proved extremely helpful in other studies (Beltaos.Unpublished Data). *Initiation of breakup is defined herein as the instant when a sustained movement of the ice cover begins.When the cover is set in motion.the resistance to flow is reduced and the stage should tend to drop thus producing a spike on the stage hydrograph.Sometimes. however,the stage rise may be so steep as to suppress spike appearance.Only a slowdown in the rate of rise would then be evident. r P¥iJi9i"4+ib1' 6 Maximum Breakup Stage (H m) This is the maximLlIl stage reached during the breakup period and its determination is straightforward (Fig.2). Effective Stage and Maximum Ice Effect on Stage (~Hm) The ice effect on stage is the difference between the actual stage and the effective stage.The time of maximum ice effect can usually be determined by simple inspection (Fig.2)and does not necessarily coincide with the time of Hm. Daily average discharge values are estimated by WSC based on interpolations between discharge measurements as well as on such evidence as upstream and tributary flows,runoff and weather conditions, etc.Such estimates may involve considerable error.This has repercussions on the accuracy of the effective stage which is determined by joining daily values plotted at noon of each day.For the Nashwaak R.at Durham Bridge,very little confidence can be placed on discharge estimates during breakup conditions (Be1taos and Lane 1982). Ice Thickness (hi) Ice thickness can be estimated from WSC discharge measurement notes.Such notes give the distance from the water surface to the bottom of the ice which,under free flotation conditions,represents about 92%of the total ice thickness.However,this assumption mayor may not be valid depending on whether there is significant bank support of the ice or snow cover whi ch may cause the free water surface to ri se above the top of the ice.The presence of a sl ush deposit under the solid ice may render thickness values completely unreliable because the notes would then show the di stance from the water surface to the bottom of the sl ush.Another source of error may be (unreported)instances when "wa ter surface"has been used nominally,i.e.,substituted by a more conveni entdatum such as the top of a deep snow 1ayer. Usually,a few ice thickness values will be available during any one winter season.These can be plotted versus time and extrapolated to the start of the mild weather spell that led to breakup.Where the wirlter season involves highly variable weather conditions,it may be preferable to extrapolate using a more complex correlation,e.g.,hi versus accumulated degree-days of frost.Such procedures would generally give fair indications of hi at the time breakup starts but ignore thickness reductions that may occur during the pre-breakup period (onset of mild weather spell to onset of breakup).This assumption is considered adequate for the present in view of (a)the crudeness of the other data involved;and (b)the partial accounting of this effect by introducing a meteorological index of heat input to the ice cover. Meteorological Index of Ice Strength Few data on ice strength at the time of breakup are avail able and the manner of ice strength reduction by thermal effects is not well """" - p-. 7 understood at present (Frankenstein,1961;Korzhavin,1971;Butyagin, 1972).In general,it is reasonable to expect that ice strength will decrease with"increas i n9 anounts of heat absorbed by the ice cover but there is no consensus on the most appropriate index for the latter.A very simple and well known index is the accumulated degree-days of thaw, ST (see for example,Williams,1965;Bilello,1980).However,ST can only be satisfactory in cases where the time of year when breakup occurs and the number of "thawing"days do not vary appreciably. Otherwise,the important effect of solar radiation will not be considered.For example,a sunny day in April would be much more effective in weakening the ice than a cloudy day of the same average air temperature in January.To fully account for thermal effects on ice strength,several parameters are needed in add it ion to ai r temperature, e.g.,short wave radiation,cloudiness,wind speed,water temperature, snow cover,ice composition,etc. Unfortunately,not all of this information is usually available and even if it were,it would be impractical to attempt multiple correla- tions with so many parameters.Shulyakovskii (1963)suggested the use of a calculated value of heat input to the ice cover from the surface, thus ignoring heat transfer from the water since water temperature is, as a rule,unknown.A similar but somewhat simplified approach was suggested by Williams (1965).Bulatov (1972)outlined a method for computing ice strength based on theoretical and experimental correl a- tions with radiation effects.However,Bulatov's paper was too general to permit application of his method by others.Ashton's (1983)analysis is similar to Bulatov's and shows that the main agent of deterioration is the penetrating solar radiation,once the ice has been warmed to O°C. Additional radiation absorption causes melting at the grain boundaries with a resulting decrease in strength.However,Ashton's analysis cannot be applied to the data under consideration because information on snow cover,albedo and ice structure is lacking. Evidently,only empirical indices of ice strength can be employed at present.Some of the simpl est ones are accumul ated degree-days of thaw,hours of sunshine and sol ar radi ation but their simultaneous consideration would complicate the analysis.Shulyakovskii's (1963) single heat input parameter,Lq,has the advantage of simplicity as well as a background of practical usage and was thus utilized by Beltaos and Lane (1982).However,there is no theoretical evidence that this parameter adequately accounts for the qualitatively different effects on ice strength of the various heat components involved. ANALYSIS OF DATA Tab 1e 1 summari zes the data for the Nashwaak R.at Durham Bri dge (Fig.3).Of the 21 freeze up -breakup events that occurred during the peri od of record (1965 -81),one has proved imposs ib1e to interpret, while six presented serious difficulties.At the time of writing the report by Bel taos and Lane (1982),onl y a few ice thickness val ues were available and thus no attempt was made to consider hi in the analysis. Subsequently,additional ice thickness data were made available to the 8 writer by P.Tang of N.B.Environment which enabled determination of hi for many of the events under consideration.For events without any thickness measurements hi was estimated via a correlation between measured values and time from HF'This procedure involves errors as 1arge as 30%.~ater surface to bottom of ice di stances quoted by WSC have been divided by 0.92 to obtain hi though this is recognized to be a first approximation.Iq values quoted by Beltaos and Lane (1982)have been revised to account for daily variations of associated heat input coefficients but only in a few instances did this result in substantial changes. Initiation of Breakup. Seltaos and Lane's analysis (1982)followed Shulyakovskii (1963), after some initial verifications of the basic premises.First,HS was plotted versus HF where a trend for HS to increase wi th HF was indicated.However,there was considerable scatter suggesting additional effects.Next,the difference (HS - HF)was postulated to depend on hi and I q,the total amount of heat input to the ice cover per unit surface area.The latter is an accumulation of daily heat fluxes (q)during daylight hours until the time of breakup initiation;heat transfer from the water is ignored.Calculation of Lq involves many simplifying assumptions so that Iq must be viewed as a mere index of the true amount of absorbed heat (see Seltaos and Lane 1982 for details of the calculation).A plot of (H B -HF)versus Iq indicated the expected trend but exhibited considerable scatter.To explore the possible effects of hj'the following procedure was adopted.First,(HS - HF)was plotted versus hi by noting the value of Iq beside each data point.This indicated an increase of (HS - HF)with hi and a decrease with I q.The upper envelope of the data points,assumed representative of the case Iq =0,was then described by the straightline (HS - HF)=2.5 hi*'Next,the deviation of anyone data point from the upper envelope [=2.5 hi - (HS - HF)]was computed and plotted versus Iq,as shown in Fig.4. Data ranges in Fig.4 indicate instances where onl y ranges for HB could be identified;vertical ranges indicate cases where lower and upper limits of HB occurred within a short time period so that the corresponding Iq's were nearly equal.Data points with arrows denote winter peaks or otherwise known limits for HB;such points are occasionally of little value (e.g.,two uppermost points at Iq =0)but often give useful indications as to how a correlation line should be drawn. Fig.4 confirms the anticipated trends but with considerable scatter.The 1atter can be part ly attributed to the crudeness of HS determinations (no local observers'reports)and the empiricism introduced in the analysis (lack of a theoretical framework for breakup processes).A compensating feature is that even a large error in predicting HB usually transl ates to acceptable error in forecasting *Linear plots of this kind have also been found by the writer at other sites but with different numerical coefficients (Beltaos,unpublished d at a). - -. - 9 the time of HB because the prevailing temporal gradients of stage are usua 11 y 1arge. It may be noticed in Fig.4 that two data ranges are plotted for the 1979 event,designated (I)and (2).The former reflects the interpretation given by Beltaos and Lane (1982)and involves serious uncertainty;it plots far off the band of the other data.Later on,it was discovered (P.Tang,personal communication)that a site visit by WSC staff in March 1979 indicated the presence of intact ice cover which dictated the following revision.What was originally thought to have been breakup initiation was in fact a winter peak whereas breakup was initiated later in March.The event designated 1979(2)reflects the new "interpretation and plots at a much improved position.This result illustrates the importance of local observers'reports. Maximum Breakup Stage As discussed earlier,flow discharge is a major factor influencing Hm•However,discharge data for the Nashwaak River study are uncertain so that the plot of Fig.5,showing !-\n'(=H m -stage at zero discharge)versus prevailing discharge is of qualitative value.It is noted that some of the data points in Fig.5 represent conditions of maximum ice effect,6Hm,in instances where the latter did not occur at the same time as did !-\n •.Also plotted in Fig.5 is the theoretical relationship between equilibrium jam stage and discharge for comparison (Beltaos 1983).The 1atter is seen to provi de a sati sfactory upper envelope up to a certain discharge,but to consistently overpredict the stage beyond this discharge.This is a typical trend,reflecting the fact that increasi ng di scharge reduces the probabi 1ity of equi 1i bri urn jam formation (Beltaos 1983).For practical purposes,an upper envelope of the data points could be drawn ,and used to forecast potential ':1m values.Whether and how closely the potential rim is to be realized in .a gi ven season depends on the number and stabi 1ity of ice jams that form near the gauge site,as discussed earlier.In turn,such effects are controlled by channel and floodplain configuration as well as the competence of the ice cover during breakup.The former factor is diffi cult to assess at present because the behavi our of ice jams is unknown once the bankfull stage is exceeded (see also Calkins 1983).On the other hand,experience suggests that the competence of an ice cover should be an important factor influencing Hm and this possibility is considered next. Since the competence of an ice cover can be defined in terms of its strength,thickness and width,it may be of interest to explore Iq, hi'and HF (rough index of ice cover width)as possible factors influencing Hmo Fig.6 shows Hm plotted versus HF •The data points define an upper envelope that increases with HF'The deviation of the observed value of !-\n from the corresponding upper envelope value is plotted versus Iq in Figure 7.This results in another upper envelope that confirms the anticipated trend.It thus appears that HF and Iq define a potential or,an upper limit for,!-\n.Whether and how closely this potential will be realized in anyone breakup event, depends on a number of other factors,e.g.,discharge,local jamming 10 conditions,etc.One would expect that hi should also be relevant here but,owing to discharge uncertainties,this possibility has not been investigated herein,though hi effects on Hm have been discerned elsewhere (Beltaos,Unpublished Data).Moreover,it is noted that strictly speaking,l:q should be calculated to the time of ~' However,the value used in Fig.7 applies to the time of HB.This was thought sufficient given that the present study was exploratory. Frequency of Occurrence of Km A simple frequency analysis on tim values was also performed by Beltaos and Lane (1982).The fact that,occasionally,there have been t\\O breakup events in the same season was ignored and a 11 events were assumed to be independent so as to increase the effective length of record.This mayor may not be valid but more data are needed to cl arify thi s point.For the present study,it was found that the above approach resulted in a frequency curve that differed very 1itt le from the one obtained by use of only the highest breakup stage in anyone season. For convenience of plotting,use has been made of,rim!=rim - stage at zero discharge.In this manner,the event Hm l 2.0 has a probability of 1.After performing the frequency analysis,Hm'can be plotted versus probabil ity on various types of charts as a means of exploring the mathematical form of the ~I distribution.Gerard and Karpuk (1979)suggested that the log-normal distribution is a poss·ible candidate and found a 1 inear rel ationship after plotting their data on log-normal probability paper.Figure 8 shows that only in the range 0.1 <P <0.9 do the present data adhere to a linear relationship. Limit at ions Clearly,the results presented so far are site-specific and empirical.Therefore,extrapolation to other sites or hydrometeorologi- cal conditions different from those covered by the years of record is not justified.Accumulation and comparison of several case studies such as the present would facil it ate development of more general forecasting methods. COMPARISON WITH OBSERVATIONS Since 1981,ice conditions in the Nashwaak River near Durham Bridge are monitored under the auspices of the N.B.Subcommittee on River Ice and N.B.Environment.The results of the field observations are used in this section to assess the effectiveness of the relationships derived so far. 1981-82 Event Ice effects on stage commenced on Dec.26,1981,and a value of 2.18 m was chosen for HF on Dec.28.Breakup was initiated at about 1100 h on Apr.1,1981,with HB =2.50 m and ~=3.00 m occurri ng - ..... - - 11 at 1800 h on Apr.3.From measurements,hi was estimated as 0.61 m and Iq was calculated as 5784 J/cm2 •The quantity 2.5 hi -(H B - HF) is 1.21 m and inspection of Fig.4 indicates that the data point for this event would not fit the trend defined by the historical data.To explain this discrepancy,a close examination of the weather records was undertaken and revealed a highly atypical sequence of events:A warming trend began on Mar.11 and continued until Mar.20.Subsequently,the weather turned cold bll~q values remained positive,excepting the dates Mar.22,27,28 and 29.A total of 15 cm of snow fell during the period Mar.19-22.A continuous warm trend began on Mar.30 and led to breakup.Between Mar.11 and 29,a net of 34.3°C -days of frost was accumul ated.This sequence of events suggests that sustained thermal ice deterioration would have started on Mar.30 even though the value of Iq up to Mar.29 was 3789 J/cm 2 •This illustrates a shortcoming of Shulyakovskii's Iq calculation.The latter only accounts for heat exchange during daylight hours and would thus seriously underestimate recovery of ice strength during a cold spell that intervenes between two warm ones.If Iq were accumulated from Mar.30 on,a value of 1995 J/cm 2 would be obtained.This \\tIuld improve the plotting position of the 1981-82 event in Fig.4.However,such a correction involves a measure of arbitrari ness and the writer cannot see how to improve thi s situation without resort to a theoretical model of ice deterioration. Though some research has been done in this regard (Bulatov 1972;Ashton 1983),it has not advanced to the point where it can be applied in practice.For the present,it can only be hoped that the forecaster would recogni ze atypical events and make necessary allowances based on experience. With Iq ::5784,Fig.7 indicates that the quantity (Hm -1.22 - 1.18HF)should not exceed -0.68 m which gives t:Jm <3.11 m,as was the case (H m ::3.00 m).If Iq were taken as 1995 J/cm 2 ,Fig.7 would have given ~"(3.63 m.In cases where reliable discharge data are avail ab 1e,a plot such as Fig.5 caul d al so be used to improve forecast s of the potential Hm value.However,this is not possible in the present study owing to the serious uncertainties associated with breakup discharges. 1982-83 Events Ice effects on stage commenced on Dec.13,1982,whi le a val ue of 2.50 m was chosen for HF on Dec.19.A mild weather spell in January led to breakup with HB ::2.65 m at 0900 h on Jan.12 and fin,::3.83 m at 1500 h on Jan.12.The values of hi and Iq are estimated"as 0.24 m and 375 J/cml respectively.It follows that 2.5 hi -(H B ~HF):: 0.45 m and this would plot satisfactorily in Fig.4.Use of Fig.7 gives Hm <4.24 m,as was the case (H m ::3.83 m). The peak stage during the January event was caused by a local ice jam that did not release but froze in place as cold weather resumed.A new HF of 2.55 m occurred on Jan.16.Breakup was initiated at 1000 h on Mar.22 with HB ::3.30 m,Iq ::3669 J/cm 2 and Hm ::3.97 m at 1800 h on Mar.22.No ice thickness measurements are available for this event,hence hi can only be estimated,as follows.If other years' ---_......._--,~-....__.------•"I', 12 experience is used and the presence of the frozen jam is iqnored,hi would be estimated as 0.61 m.On the other hand,the thickness of the jam at the time it formed is estimated to have been about 1.2 m,(see for example,Beltaos 1983).Calkins (1979)has shown that ice qrowth is accelerated in the presence of a porous ice accumulation under the lower boundary of a solid ice cover.If,as a first approximation,hi is assumed to increase as the square-root of degree-days of frost,then a factur of Illp should be applied to the normally expected ice thickness (p =porosity).For p =0.4,this gives hi :!0.61//0.4 =0.96 m. With this,the value of 2.5 hi -(H B - HF)becomes 1.66 m which would plot satisfactorily in Fig.4.Use of Fig.7 gives lim <3.83 m. The observed Hm was 3.97 m,i.e.,0.14 m higher than wauro have been thought possible from the historical data.This is very likely due to the extremely thick ice cover caused by the freezing of the January jam. CONCLUSIONS The present results indicate that useful though incomplete informa- tion can be extracted from existing gauge records.This information can be uti"lized in forecasting the onset and potential severity of breakup, subject to the limitations outlined next. The present analysis is empirical and site-specific;hence,it cannot be extrapolated to other sites or to hydrometeorological conditions that are not covered by the years of record.While studies similar to the present can be used as an aid to forecasting,it was shown that some reliance on experience would be necessary for unusual events.The lack of a theoretical framework for breakup processes is considered a major obstacle to eliminating empiricism from pertinent forecasting methods.Accumulation and comparison of additional case studies would contribute toward this goal. As a by-product of this study,several instances were identified where moderate increases of the gauge operation effort would greatly increase the value of records for breakup-related studies.These include measurement of the true ice thickness and,where applicable, delineation between solid and slush ice layers;wider utilization of local observers and increase of reporting frequency during freezeup and breakup;and performing one or more discharge measurements during breakup events. REFERENCES ASHTON,GoD.,1983,First-Generation Model of Ice Deterioration,Proc., 'Conference on Frontiers in Hydraulic Engineering,ASCE,Cambridge, Mass.pp.273-278. BEL TAOS,S.,1981,Ice Freeze Up and Breakup in the Lower Thames Ri ver: 1979-80 Observations,National Water Research Institute,Unpublished Report. BElTAOS,S.,1982,Initiation of River Ice Breakup,Proc.,Fourth Northern Research Basin Symposium Workshop,Norway,pp.163-177. - - ..... - .~ ..... .... 13 BELTAOS,S.,1983,River Ice Jams:Theory,Case Studies and Applications,J.of Hydraulic Engineering,ASCE,Vol.109,No.10,pp. 1338-1359. BELTAOS,S,and LANE,R.,1982,Ice Breakup Characteristics of the Nashwaak River at Durham Bridge,N.B.,National Water Research Institute,Unpublished Report. BILELLO,M.A.,1980,Maximum Thickness and Subsequent Decay of Lake River and Fast Sea Ice in Canada and Alaska,U.S.Army CRREL Report 80-6.. BULATOV,S.N.,1972,Computation of the Strength of the Melting Ice Cover of Rivers and Reservoirs and Forecasting of the Time of Its Erosion,Proc.,IAHSSymposillll on the Role of Snow and Ice in Hydrology, Vol.1,Banff,IAHS-AISH Publication No.107,pp.575-581. BUTYAGIN,I.P.,1972,Strength of Ice and Ice Cover (Nature Research on the Rivers of Siberia),U.S.Army CRREL,Draft Translation 327. CALKINS,D.J.,1979,Accelerated Ice Growth in Rivers,U.S.Army CRREL Report 79-14. CALKINS,D.J.,1983,Ice Jams in Shallow Rivers with Floodpl ain Flow, Canadian J.of Civil Engineering,Vol.10,No.3,pp.538-548. DESLAURIERS,C.L,1968.Ice Breakup in Rivers,Proc.,Conference on Ice Pressures Against Structures,NRC Technical Memorandum No.92, pp.217-229. FRANKENSTEIN,G.E.,1961,Strength Data on Lake Ice,U.S.Army SIPRE Technical Report 80. GERARD,R.,1979,River Ice in Hydrotechnicl Engineering,A Review of Selected Topics,Proc.,Can.Hydrology Symposilll\79,Vancouver,NRCC No.17834,PP.1-29. GERARD,R.and KARPUK,E.W.,1979.Probability Analysis of Historical Flood Data,J.of the Hyd.Div.,ASCE,Vol.105,No.HY9,pp.1153-1165. KORZHAVIN,K.N.,1971.Action of Ice on Engineering Structures,U.S. Army CRREL AD 723 169. PARISET,E.,HAUSSER,R.,and GAGNON,A.,1966.Formation of Ice Covers and Ice Jams in Rivers,J.of the Hyd.Div.,ASCE,Vol.92,No.HY6, pp.1-24. SHULYAKOVSKII,L.G.(editor),1963,Manual of Forecasting Ice Formation for Rivers and Inland Lakes,Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusa1em 1966. WILLIAMS,G.P.,1965,Correlating Freeze Up and Breakup with Weather Conditions,Can.Geot.J.Vol.II,No.4,pp.313-326 • 14 Tab 1e 1.Summary of Breakup Characteristics hi (cm) From Esti- Season HF HB Hm Measure-mated Lq Remarks (m)(m)(m)ments ±30%(J/cm2 ) 1964-65 2.56 >2.20 NA 55 2125 Breakup unde- finable 1965-66 1.40 1.58 2.23 73 5420 1966-67 1.80 1.71 1.73 70 5944 1967-68 2.34 3.25 3.87 43 425 _11-3.35 >2.78 NA 52 3748 _11-3.35 2.71 3.40 52 6246 1968-69 2.25 >1.84 NA 38 0 _11-2.25 1.87 1.87 74 4240 HB uncertain 1969-70 3.44 1.98-5.31 5.31 41 511 HB uncertain 1969-70 2.29 1.43-1.80 2.05 37 4782 HB uncertain 1970-71 1.65 >2.07 NA 40 197 _11-1.65 >1.83 NA 64 2119 _11-1.65 0.90-1.31 NA 64 6819-7359 1971-72 1.19 >1.34 NA 18 251 _11-1.19 >1.43 NA 50 0 _11-1.19 >1.59 NA 60 1370 _11_l.19 >1.74 NA 79 0 _11_1.19 1.62-2.19 2.49 79 978-1467 1972-73 2.72 >2.79 NA 50 241 _11-2.72 >2.16 NA 60 3251 ..11-2.72 1.91-2.35 2.61 60 5294 1973-74 2.20 >2.22 NA 75 2900 _11-2.20 1.56-2.19 2.19 76 5353-7162 1974-75 2.19 >2.15 NA 70 2205 _11-2.19 1.48-1.68 1.68 70 4642-6267 HB uncertain 1975-76 2.44 >3.38 NA 59 338 _11-2.44 2.19 2.94 73 3933 1976-77 1.89 >2.69 NA 30 0 HF and HB uncertain _II _1.89 >1.91 NA 70 3897 HF =2.29 m _u_1.89 1.49-1.53 2.29 72 7442 might be better 1977-78 1.82 2.15-2.51 2.51 25 21 _11-2.74 1.42-1.54 1.76 64 8176 HF uncert ai n 1978-79 1.10 <1.93 2.57 30 293 _u_3.40 >3.26 NA 34 1074 _11-3.40 >3.12 NA 61 2650 _11-3.40 2.07-2.56 3.20 61 6234-6719 1979-80 2.25 2.71-3.01 3.03 55 658 1980-81 2.41 1.81-2.11 2.12 52 736-2542 .....No Ice Effect Ice Effect ~Effective stage --¥----Usually - 1 to 5 days (1). 0) ttl..... Cf)-I - Time Fig.1 Schematic illustration of daily stage variation with time during beginning of freeze up • ..- Effect No Ice Hm Ice Effect ,.."...- /' / / / / / / ,/// 1// __~Usual Breakup Duration: - a few days -c:::Sheet Ice 0 02 Broken Cover (1)-IceE«I.....-0c: ~Q,.0 ::J«I .::It..0 «IeQ) ~ Il..0 I"""fI'J ::Ja Q) c::: ttl-c::: ttl.....rnc:::- (1) C) «I-(/) Time .....Fig.2 Schematic illustration of instantaneous stage variation with time during breakup. sTM Me BEAN BROO K o 1 2km"'_-====::::i. Figo 30 Plan of Nashwaak River in the vicinity of Durham Bridge o I 1 1 J 1 1 .1 1 .J 4 :: • 0 or d •hi from measurements o hi estd ±30% 1979-13 ~.~~~~c{ Q ."~1-1 I t).I ~~ ~td 01'~.]f ~less than indicated by data pointJ.-if uncertain data -1 I I I I I I I Io2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 1:q (J/cm 2 ) I ..c L() C\J .-.. E '-"'"-I 2 I m I.......,. Fig.4.Variation of Z.Sh i -(HE - HF)with gq 10 I Theory,Equilibrium floating jam 5.5 ./ -7.0 Width ~67m;Slope _0.73x 10-3 ~7.s 6.0 5.0 ..5.0 /E (') !!'...../0 4.0 I 3.5 4.5 ':-,0/ 1:3.0 ..~q; .21 ,,0/Ql 2.5 ..".c.....,~~....4.0Ql.. Cl 2.0 ...... :J .. III ....~VCl..1.5 /3.5 ~......'-.-Open Water rI-"/• 1.0~./';;..•-3.0 E E ./•:t 25j /-.•0.5 I .c i •,•i ,iii ,,,•i , , 10 20 30 40 50 70 100 200 500 ••/•Discharge (m 3 /s)2.0 •••/•••15 Figo 5.Effect of discharge on breakup stage o 1.0 05 O~.i •iii I I , o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 0 3.5 4.0 HF (m) Fig.6.Haximum stage during breakup versus II F • J J J ..... ••.-.•.-.• °t···--·----U_p_pE.:.:.R.:....:::EN:\fJ~E::l~O~PE~~ E -.----1·•---- -i"•"--eX) ~ ';'"-2 C\I C\I..... I E -3 ::I: 8.0006,0004.000 Eq (Jjcm 2 ) 2.000 -4-t---r----r--.,------:r-----r---...------,---,------, o Fig o 70 Effect ofEq on Hm;legend same as for Fig o 4. P =PERCENT PROBABILITY OF STAGE BEING EQUALLED OR EXCEEDED IN ANY ONE YEAR r r I I 10.0 E ~ M 8.0- 0 - en 6.0- ":J Z ~4.0--en UJa::3.0- ~w :E z 2.0- UJ "~en 1.0 99.99 I 99.8 I I I 1 1 I 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 20 10 5 2 o I 1 Fig.80 Frequency curve of breakup peak stage o ..- Beltaos (25) This manuscript has been submitted to the Proceedings of the IAHR Ice Symposium 1984, Hamburg,W.Germany,August 1984 for publication and the contents are subject to change This copy is to provide information prior to publication RIVER ICE BREAKUP by S.Beltaos Environmental Hydraulics Section Hydraulics Division National Water Research Institute Canada Centre for Inland Waters Burlington,Ontario May 1984 ..... - I~ ~ S.Beltaos Research Scientist IAHR Ice Symposium 1984 Hamburg RIVER ICE BREAKUP National Water Research Institute Environment Canada Canada - - Ice breakup is an important event in the regime of northern rivers mainly due to ice jamming and associated problems,e.g.,flooding,forces on structures and erosion.Breakup is triggered by mild weather and the attendant increases in runoff and heat input to the ice.At present,the onset of breakup can only be forecast empi ri cally,usi ng site-speci fi c historical records.Recent work has produced partial understanding of the early phases of breakup (formation of hinge and transverse cracks,first movement of the ice)but more observational data are needed for a complete model of breakup initiation.When set in motion,the ice quickly breaks down into small fragments and ice jams begin to form.Subsequent develop- ments are highly disorderly owing to the multitude of factors that are at work,e.g.,hydrologic,geomorphic,structural.Present understanding af ice jam initiation and evolution is poor and theoretical jam models have to date focused on equilibrium conditions.Their practical utility is thus restricted to forecasting potential high water levels that mayor may not be realized during breakup.Progress in this regard requires consideration of the breakability of the ice cover and its effects on jam formation and release. 1 INTRODUCTION Ice breakup is a relatively brief but very important event in the regime of northern rivers.Annual peak stages often occur during breakup,owing to formation of major ice jams.The result i:;frequent flooding with the added inconvenience of ice on the flood plains (Fig.1).Moving ice during breakup can apply large loads on bridge piers and similar structures,or cause damaging piles on river banks and islands.Sudden releases of major ice jams can result in rapidly rising water levels and extreme water speeds with possible consequences to channel erosion.Avoidance of prema- ture breakup imposes seri ous constraints to hydropower producti on duri ng the wi nter.Man-i nduced changes in the hydrol ogi c regime of a ri ver can have significant environmental impact because of consequent changes in the ice regime and especially in breakup characteristics. ,'. Jam and flooding at mouth of Thames R.(Ont.)Feb.1981. Toe of a jam in Smoky R.(Alberta) Apr.1976.Note leads in intact ice cover. Remnants of jam on flood plain of Credit R.(Ont.)Mar.1980. Shear wall on bank of Smoky R. (Alberta),formed by release of a jam,Apr.1976.Est'd height::5 m Fig.1.Illustrations of ice jams and their effects 2 ..... I - - Despite its importance,river ice breakup remains largely intractable from the viewpoint of hydraulic engineering.There is little guidance,other than historical information and experience,with regard to:short-term forecasting and warning of the onset and severity of breakup or long-term forecasting of peak breakup water levels and flood risk assessments; evaluation of the impact of river structures;and design criteria to prevent or control some of the consequences of breakup.Thi s state of affai rs is partly due to tne mul ti tude of factors that i nfl uence breakup and to the complexities of ice jamming phenomena.At the same time,it must be admitted that the ice regime of rivers has received rel atively little attention even in regions where ice is present for significant portions of the year. A brief account of existing knowledge of breakup is given in this paper and an attempt is made to identify gaps that seriously hamper progress. DESCRIPTION OF BREAKUP PROCESSES When the basin of an ice-covered river is subjected to mild weather,two major processes begin:increased runoff due to snowmelt or rain,or both; and increased heat ,input to the cover.The former process results in increased discharge with consequent increases in the uplift and frictional forces applied on the cover.The water stage also increases and this reduces the contact areas between the ice cover and the channel boundaries and provides increased channel width for movement of the ice.Heat input to the cover results in reduced dimensions and strength.Thus,mild weather causes an increase in the forces that are appl ied on the cover while the latter's ability to resist these forces and remain stationary is reduced.Eventually,thi s process 1eads to movement and breakup of the cover which is often followed by large ice jams,major ice runs and eventual clearance of the ice. The following quotation from Shulyakovskii (1963)is a good,though not universally applicable,description of the early stages of breakup. "On partially freezing rivers the destruction of the ice cover when the water stage rises,begins with the formation of cracks and the separa- tion of the ice from the river banks or from the shore ice.Cracks in the ice cover form in this case not only along the banks,but also 3 across the river and at various angles to the banks.This is due to the nonuniform thi ckness and strength of the ice cover and to the nonuniform strength with which it is attached to the banks.As the water discharge further ;ncreases.the.ice cover conti nues to ri se and ice f1 anges form.At the same time the melting of the snow on the ice and of the ice cover itself continues.The strength of the ice decreases.mainly due to the penetration of solar radiation.The ice cover also melts and is washed out owi ng to the flow of water around it.If the ice on tributaries breaks up earlier.the integrity of the ice cover is often upset.When the rising water stage reaches a certain limit.correspond- ing to the nature of the river bed on the given stretch,to the thickness and state of the ice cover,an ice push occurs." Once large ice floes and sheets are set in motion.they quickly break down into small er fragments due to impacts wi th channel bounda ri es or other floes.Where the downstream movement of the fragments is impeded,jams begin to form.sometimes attaining very large dimensions.The water level ri ses to accommodate the submerged porti on of the jams I thi ckness and large hydraulic resistance of their underside.Continued thermal deterioration or increasing discharge may cause ice jams to release and surge-1 ike phenomena to occur.Such surges may tri gger breakup at down- stream 1ocati ons and,if arrested,new jams may form or joi n exi sti ng ones.Whil e such events are in progress.hydro-thermal processes i nten- sify by increasing water temperatures (due to increasing open water area).Eventually broken or ;ntact ice are so far downstream of a gi ven site that thei r effects on 1oca 1 stage become neg1 i gi b1e and breakup can be considered complete at this location. The preceding description implies the possibility of two extreme cases, the "premature"and "overmature"events (Des1 auriers,1968).Premature breakup occurs under conditions of intense runoff with little thermal ice deterioration and has the greatest damage potential,other things being equal.This type of breakup is common in moderately cold regions (e.g., S.Ontari 0)where bri ef "thaws"accompani ed by intense ra i nfa 11 s occur often during the winter.The ensuing breakups are brief but violent.In addition,it is possible that cold weather resumes while ice jams are still in place.This may lead to renewed freeze up and relatively thick ice formation in the sections where the jams had been;the damage 4 .,... """" ,~ ..... potential of the next breakup is thus enhanced.Overmature breakup occurs under conditions of slow or no runoff with intense thermal ice weakening • The ice cover disintegrates gradually and jamming is inconsequential.A common type of overmature breakup involves the (relatively)orderly advance of a breakup "front".This is a very short jam that forms upstream of stationary sheet ice.Thermal and mechanical action causes the stationary ice to develop open leads and cracks near the toe of the jam.Deterioration continues until the jam is able to move into the leads where it comes to a temporary halt and the process is repeated.A charac- teristic of this process is that the jam does not lengthen which im~lies that melting is one of the governing factors. The downstream motion of water introduces a similar bias in the direction of breakup advance but this must be understood to apply in a general and "average"sense.Orderly,downstream progression of breakup is the excep- tion rather than the rule.Local hydraulic and geomorphic conditions, tri butari es,weather patterns and freeze up condi t ions often combi ne·to eliminate any semblance of order in the progress of breakup. Based on the above di scussi on,the factors that affect breakup can be summarized as follows: -hydrologic (discharge hydrograph) hydraulic (flow velocities,depths,shear stresses) -geomorphic (channel width and plan geometry) -meteorological (weather conditions and heat transfer) -antecedent conditions (freeze up and winter). - Given the large number of pertinent factors,it is complexity and variability of breakup phenomena. differ from one site to another but it can change year at the same site. INITIATION OF BREAKUP easy to appreciate the Not only does breakup character from year to ..... ,A major practical requirement is to forecast the onset of breakup because this event usually heralds the period of ice jamming and the attendant problems.Breakup initiation is not necessarily an abrupt and well- defi ned event;often,it is a success i on of phases,1eadi ng from the 5 condition of intact and stationary ice cover to that of moving or jammed ice fragments.Moreover,it should be kept in mind that the breakup process can be arrested at any time if col d weather resumes and flow discharge begins to decrease.A convenient,though not always meaningful, definition of breakup initiation is the time when the first sustained movement of the ice cover takes place. Using this definition and confining discussion to nonovermature events, empirical work {Shulyakovskii,1963;Beltaos,1984a}suggests that breakup initiation can be roughly forecast in terms of the prevailing water stage, HB.At a given site,this stage depends primarily on HF (=stage at formation of a stable ice cover during freeze up);hi (=ice thickness); and competence of the ice cover.The latter parameter is difficult to quantify at present though theoreti cal work has shown it to be strongly dependent on the penetrating solar radiation and crystal structure of the ice (Bulatov,1972;Ashton,1983).Empirical,site-specific,correlations are useful where good historical records are available but cannot be extrapolated to sites with no records.An attempt to generalize empirical forecasti ng techni ques was presented by Margol in (l980)but thi s,too, requires historical (and not usually available)information. Lack of theoretical models of breakup processes is an obstacle to progress in forecasting the onset of breakup.In recent years,however,tangible advances in our understandi ng of the early stages of breakup have been made and are reviewed next,even though they are not sufficiently detailed, to allow complete description of the problem. Formation of longitUdinal cracks During the winter,when the discharge is fairly steady,the ice cover is, for the most part,-in a condition of free flotation.If a prismatic channel with unifonn flow and ice thickness is assumed for simplicity, then the longitudinal pressure gradient should be zero.The flow is ,driven by gravity,much as in an open channel.An increase in discharge while the ice cover remains firmly attached to the channel boundaries can only occur if a pressure gradient develops.The result is that an uplift pressure is applied on the underside of the cover in addition to that required to keep the cover floating.Structural considerations indicate that the cover may then be consi dered a pl ate supported by an el asti c 6 - foundation whose modulus is equal to y,the unit weight of water rHetenyi, 1946}.A further simplification can be made by assuming that the pressure gradient is small enough to allow a two-dimensional analysis,i.e.,to vi ew the ice cover not as a pl ate but as a seri es of beams of uni t wi dth that do not interfere with each other. Billfalk (1981)considered this problem for the case of an infinitely wid~ channel,assuming elastic response of the cover;measurements showed good agreement with predictions.The solution was extended to finite channel widths (Bel taos,1984b)and the results are depicted in Figs.2 and 3 (W = beam length =cover width;1s =distance of a crack from the respective edge;hi =ice cover thickness;O'i =flexural strength of ice;llH = uplift pressure head). -5 Hinged ends .4, /[..is·0 for fixed endS] I ~3r I fs/w -r./4>"W ........for >"W>6 !"'"til I ~2 L I I 1 to I 01 I I J !!,I I023456789 AW Fi g.2.Location of longitudinal crack s-! t=,-- HINGED ENDS ... "",FiXED ENDS~~---------------------- o O:------:!---2=---3=---4+---=-S-----!:;6-----=7,...-----!.a AW -Fig.3.Dimensionless uplift pressure head required to cause longitudinal cracking 7 The parameter A is defined by (1) with Ei =elastic modulus of ice;and I =moment of inertia per unit cover width =hi 3 {12 (note 111..has the dimension of length).The type of edge support assumed for the ice cover has a large effect on 1 s as shown in Fig.2 (1 s >°for hinged ends;1 s =°for fixed ends).In nature.longitudinal cracks are often observed some distance off the edges which suggests hinged end conditions.These cracks are commonly called "hinge"cracks.Figure 3 indicates that.for AW <3.only one central hinge crack develops whereas,for AW >6,the solution becomes independent of Wand coincides with Billfalk's results (1981)for the infinitely wide channel case. Formation of cracks permits the water to escape upwards and,with increas- i ng stage,to 1i ft and detach the mi ddl e porti on of the cover (i f two cracks form).The strips that are attached to the shore become submerged but they too may eventually detach owing to thermal effects. Formation of transverse cracks An ice cover that is no longer restrained by the channel boundaries becomes subject to substantial bending moments both on vertical and "horizontal II planes (the quotation marks indicate that this term is used -with some license -such planes are parallel to the water surface).As shown by Billfalk (1982).steep waves can cause transverse cracks by vertical bending while Shulyakovskii (l972)suggested that uhorizontal" bending caul d al so produce transverse cracks.Though such cracks are often observed and mentioned in the literature,(see for example MacKenzie River Basin Committee 1981)few attempts have been made to document their spacings and patterns.Beltaos (1984b)reported a fairly regular pattern observed in a S.Ontario stream (Thames R.)during the 1982 breakup.The median spacing was =300 m with hi and W =0.35 m and 55 m,respectively. During a secondary breakUp event in the same river (primary breakup in February 1984 and new ice cover formation in March),the median crack spacing was =130 m with hi =0.10 m and W =40 m (Fig.4).Such spacings 8 are far too large to have been caused by vertical bending (Billfalk 1982).Beltaos (l984b)considered "horizontal"bending as a possible cause but the outcome was inconcl usive.More data and theory are.thus needed to elucidate the causes of transverse cracks. - --I r Fig.4.Transverse cracks in Thames R.(Ontario) Other types of fracture Michel and Abdelnour (1976)presented the results of a laboratory study on the initial breakup of a solid ice cover,using a wax-based material to simulate the scaled-down ice properties.However,it is difficult to decide how applicable their results are to natural streams because (a)a rectangular straight flume was used as opposed to the meandering planform and outward sloping banks of natural streams;and (b)the failure mechanism involved submergence of the leading edge of the cover and subse- quent oscillations which suggests that,if this mechanism occurs in nature,it should be limited to the vicinities of leading edges. Another cracking pattern that has been observed involves the passage of a steep flood wave in a very wide stream (Mackenzie R.,Parkinson 1982).In this case both transverse and longitudinal cracks appeared first,fractur- ing the cover into large sheets with dimensions of the order of hundreds of meters.Wi th conti nued ri se of the water 1evel,some of these sheets moved until they wedged against the shore.This movement was accompanied by widespread breakage and crushing,resulting in formation of floes of the order of tens of meters.After these initial movements,the water level dropped and the ice remained stationary until "the rising discharge reached the point where it could lift the broken ice and carry it 9 _._--------_.---~---------.....,..---------------------- - -I Once the initial phase of breakup has been completed and the ice cover has been set in motion,subsequent developments become almost chaotic.Moving ice sheets impact on channel boundaries or on other sheets and break down tintosmal1 fragments.Ice jams begin to form and the water level profile becomes highly irregular and unsteady as it is now controlled by the back- water of the jams.With increasing discharge and thermal deterioration, some of the jams dislodge,move slowly or in surges and join other jams or cause further breakage of sections of ice cover that had remained intact. Considering the multitude of factors that are at work,the possible .~ downstream".The initial cracking pattern prior to ice movement suggests three-dimensionality in the shape of the flood wave. Initial movement of the ice cover Limi tati ons SEVERITY OF BREAKUP -ICE JAMS We have seen so far some of the mechanisms and patterns by which an intact ice cover can be fractured into large sheets and floes.Such large sheets mayor may not be set in 1lI0tion,depending on whether there exists suffi- cient room on the water surface.Using this notion and field observations in the Thames R.(S.Ontario),Beltaos (1984b)formulated a dimensionless criterion for the initial movement of the ice.The principal factor facilitating the movement was identified as the water surface width in relation to the dimensions of the sheets that form after the initial cracking of the cover.This concept led to some success in generalizing forecasts of breakup initiation but it was pointed out that many addi- tional factors remain to be accounted for. The preceding discussion focused on phenomena that result from the inter- action among the forces applied on the ice cover by the flow,the cover1s structural integrity and the boundary constraints imposed by channel geometry.Therm~l processes may greatly comp1 icate the picture because they interfere with the integrity of the ice in largely unpredictable ways,e.g.,formation of holes and open leads in the ice,reduction of thickness and width by melting,loss of strength and candling. 10 ,.... configurations of ice covered-open water sequences,and thence of the water level profile,are almost limitless.Despite its disorderly nature, this phase of breakup is the most important because it is associated with the va!"'ious problems caused by ice jams.Consequently,a large part of this section will be devoted to ice jamming. Initiation of ice jams In nature,the most common cause of breakup jams is competent,stationary ice cover that may be encountered by moving ice fragments.While thi s occurrence alone is often sufficient to cause jams,it can combine with morphologic or man-made features to enhance the likelihood of jamming, e.g.,constrictions,bends,shallows,slope reductions,bridge piers,etc. The stability of a floating ice block that has come to rest against a transverse obstacle (e.g.,ice cover)has been studied extensively. Depending on its own characteri sti cs and pressure di stri buti on on its wetted boundary,the block mayor may not submerge under the obstacle. Ashton's simple theory gives good results under most practical situations (see Ashton 1978 for details and a review of pertinent studies): .....(2) in which Vc ="critical"velocity such that a block of thickness hi submerges when the average upstream vel oci ty exceeds VC;g =accel era- tion of gravity;si =specific gravity of ice;and Hu =upstream flow depth.If the incoming blocks do not submerge,a jam comprising a single layer of blocks will be initiated.If the blocks submerge,a multi- 1ayered jam may form,dependi ng on the abi 1i ty of the flow to transport the submerging blocks under the obstacle.Using the well-known "no-spill" assumption,Pari set et al (1966)predicted the thickness,t,of this kind of jam as: -(3) in which V =average velocity under the jam.A different theory,based on energy consi derati ons,was advanced by Tati ncl aux (1977)and generally 11 gives larger tis than does Eq.3.If the flow depth under the obstacle is -comparable to the size of the submerging blocks,grounding may occur but little else is known about this phenomenon (Mathieu and Michel 1967). The above results are principally founded on laboratory tests and impli- citly assume that ice is unbreakable.In nature,howevers violent ice runs are often seen to arrive at ice cover edges where they eventually come to a halt after intense breaking and piling up.It is unlikely that the submergence criterion can alone describe such phenomena and thus research is needed with simulated breakable covers. A jam initiation mechanism that does not require the presence of an obstacle is congestion.This occurs when the channel capacity to trans- port ice fragments is exceeded by the ice di scharge (Frankenstei nand Assur,1972;Calkins and Ashton,1975;Tatinclaux and Lees 1978). Congestion is not a frequent occurrence during breakup but plays an important role during freeze up. Evolution and equilibrium Once a stable toe (downstream end of a jam)has formed,the jam lengthens upstream but it is not clear at present how thickness and length vary with -- time during this transient phase.Under certain circumstances a jam can attain a steady state and,if sufficiently long,it may have an equi- librium reach,as sketched in Fig.5. Transition E uilibrium Reach Transition t ...const~slope ...So HJam-max Intact Ice Sheet [--_I Q (steady) tan-So Fig.5.Profile of a jam with an equilibrium reach 12 The equilibrium reach is characterized by constant jam thickness and flow depth so that the slope of the water surface is equal to that of the channel bed.Moreover,it can be shown that the water depth attai ns a maximum value in the equilibrium reach.Unde!"these conditions,some theoretical reasoning has been possible (Pari set et a1 1966;Uzuner and Kennedy 1976).The jam is considered a granular mass and the internal stresses are calculated in terms of the applied forces.Pariset et al (1966)identified two different cases,i.e. (i)the IInarrowll channel jam in which the internal stresses decrease in the downstream direction and the thickness is governed by hydrodynamic constraints at the leading edge (Eq.3);and (in the "wide"channel jam in which the internal stresses increase in the downstream direction,reaching an asymptotic value within a few river widths from the leading edge.The equilibrium thickness,t,of the jam is just sufficient to withstand the applied forces and satisfies the equation (To +w.)W =2 Cot +~so (1 -s,0)pgt 2",,(4) in which W =channel width;Ti =flow shear stress on jam underside; wi =streamwise component of jam's own weight per unit area =sipgtS; S =channel slope;Ci =jam cohesion;\.I =dimensionless coefficient that depends on the internal friction of the jam;and p =water density. Comparison of Eqs.3 and 4 has shown that IInarrowll jams should not occur in any but very small streams (Beltaos,1983). There are many difficulties in testing Eq.4 with field data.Often the jam thickness cannot be measured owing to access and safety problems; assessment of Ti usually requires introduction of assumptions pertainin.g to the composite-resistance flow under the jam;and frequently flow discharge is unknown.Nevertheless,field measurements (Pari set et al, 1966;Calkins,1983;Beltaos,1983)seem to support the "wi del'jam theory and yield consistent values of about 1.3 for the coefficient \.I'For breakup jams cohesion seems to have a negligible effect in Eq.4. If the above mentioned assumptions are not made and jam thickness measure- ments are unavai 1abl e,as is usually the case wi th breakup jams,the theory can be tested indirectly in terms of the water depth in the 13 equilibrium reach,H.This depth can be measured by combining photographs of jam levels against identifiable features on the river banks with subsequent hydrometric surveys under open-water conditions,e.g.,see Beltaos (1983).Moreover,use of Eq.4 in conjunction with hydraulic resistance considerations for the flow under the jam results in a dimensionless relationship that has the form (Beltaos,1983): (5) in which f o =composite friction factor of the flow under the jam =0.5 (fi +f b);f i ,fb =ice and bed friction factors,respectively; and ~=dimensionless discharge :(q2/gS)1/3/wS with q =discharge inten- sity.Equation 5 neglects cohesion,as explained earlier.The main independent variable in Eq.5 is ~,so that field data can be plotted in the form of n versus ~as shown in Fig.6.The equilibrium jam data points define a satisfactory relationship while the non-equilibrium ones generally fall below this relationship,as expected.This result provides additional (though indirect)support for the theory.It is also noted that the graph of Fi g.6 and the formul ati on of Eq.5 are suitabl e for practical applications where q,Wand S are usually given and H is to be estimated.The implications of Fig.6 and an alternative,more detailed, method to compute H are discussed by Beltaos (1983). o •EQUILIBRIUM JAMS o NON·EQUILIBRIUM JAMS o - Uncertain,based on post- breakup evidence ---. •• •50 20 30 300 7oo..,..---------------------~ 500 200 20 30 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 ~:(Q:Y9S)l3/WS Fig.6.Dimensionless depth versus dimensionless discharge for breakup jams 10+----r---,-----r---,r--r---r-r-r-~--.__...___r_._"T"""T..,...,....._-___r____l 7 10 14 - .... - ...... Release of ice jams How,why and when jams release is generally unknown,but it is suspected that discharge,toe conditions and thermal effects playa role.Two common modes of release that have been observed by the writer are described below. (i)Jam held by long section of intact ice cover:in this instance,the intact ice cover is,at least,tens of river widths long.After formation of the jam,open water leads begin to develop in the ice cover,downstream of and close to the toe of the jam;occasionally,ice blocks from the jam move into these leads.Shortly before release,the water speed in one or more leads increases drastically;more ice moves in from the jam and enlarges the lead as it impacts at its downstream end.Often,the front of the lead is seen to advance even in the absence of ice blocks.Release of the jam occurs during this time and is preceded by movement of large amounts of ice blocks in the leads.Once a jam begins to move,it may gain enough momentum so as to completely "c l ear "the reach of obser- vation or it may be arrested again.In the latter case,new leads begin to develop and the jam may keep advancing in this manner for several days. (ii)Jam held by a short section of intact ice cover:in this case the ice sheet holding the jam has dimensions of the order of the river width ~nd is lodged against the channel boundaries (e.g.,constrictions,bends) or other obstacles (e.g.,bridge piers).While formation of leads may also occur in this case,the sheets often dislodge when increasing stage causes them to rise and "c l ear "the channel boundaries.In the case of bridge piers,sheets often break against the piers and move downstream followed by the jam. A sudden jam release and the ensuing ice run is one of the most spectacu- lar and violent events that occur during breakup.The stage rises very rapidly at downstream locations and water velocities far exceed even those .attained during extreme open-water floods (see Gerard,1979 for a few wi tness accounts).Sometimes the ice run encounters competent ice cover where it is arrested and a new jam begins to form.In such instances, rapid rise of the water levels upstream of the toe can again take place. 15 Such dynami c aspects of breakup are obvi ously very important but have received little attention.Work done to date (Mercer and Cooper,1977; Henderson and Gerard,1981;Joliffe and Gerard,1982;Bel taos and Kri shnappan,1982)tentati vely suggests that,apart from the fi rst few minutes of movement,the release can be modelled by ignoring the presence ·of ice.However,modelling ice jam formation due to the arrest of a surging ice run is not possible at present.The main difficulty here is the lack of knowledge regarding conditions at the toe of the jam. Forecasting At a given site.the severity of breakup could be quantified by the magni- tude and duration of high water level s and speeds.In turn.these are related to the magnitude.number and persistence of nearby jams.Present knowl edge can only hel p identify potenti al jam sites;it cannot predi ct whether,where and when jams will actually fonn and release.Similarly, the equilibrium "wide"jam theory has limited practical utility because it can only furnish a potential value for the maximum breakup stage.Hm (see for example.Beltaos 1983).Whether and how closely this potential will actually be realized is unknown and depends on many factors in addition to discharge.e.g ••stability of jams that actually form and proximity to the site of interest;competence of the ice cover and degree of thermal deteri orati on;and possi bil i ty of overbank spreadi ng of water and ice.While there is little theoretical guidance in this regard. empirical evidence suggests that ice thickness.width and strength influence the value of Hm by limiting the discharge up to which stable jams can form (Beltaos.1984a.1984b).An example is shown in Fig.7 where a partial dependency of Hm on hi is illustrated. Long-term forecast1ng and flood risk assessments require derivation of the peak breakup stage-frequency relationship because the annual flood peak often occurs during breakup at relatively low discharge.Use of historical data greatly facilitates this task (Gerard and Karpuk.1979;Beltaos. 1984a).Where historical information is unavailable,a limited degree of guidance can be obtained from the equilibrium jam theory.No effort has been made yet to develop correlations analogous to those obtained by regional analysis on open-water floods;this would enable transposition of data from sites with historical records to those without. 16 - - - 12 20 -- - 18 rn- ]16 E :I:14 •••• ••..• ••..••~.... •• • Fig.7.Effect of ice thick- ness on maximum breakup stage,Thames R.at Thames- ville,Ontario.(H m = water surface elevation above an arbitrary datum.Data points with strokes indicate that ice thickness was esti- mated -error up to 30%). .... CONTROL MEASURES An extensive review of control measures to alleviate breakup effects is given by Bolsenga (l968).In general,control methods can be subdivided into ice modification and river modification,as outlined below . Ice modification -Dusting:material of low albedo is spread on the ice surface to promote heat transfer.The effectiveness of dusting depends on weather condi- tions. -Thermal regime modification:the water temperature is altered to prevent formation of or weaken the ice cover at critical areas. -Ice breaking:ice breakers or other vessels are used to break the ice downstream of ice jams or at critical areas prior to breakup.Some- times,different equipment is used to cut open leads in the cover before breakup.Ice breaking is usually effective but costly. -Explosives:blasting and even bombing have been employed in the past to remove ice jams but their effectiveness is uncertain. 17 River modification This involves permanent measures resulting in alterations of the flow pattern and regime of the river.i.e.: -channelization,e.g.,elimination of morphological features conducive to jamming. erection of ice retention or diversion structures,e.g .•ice booms, dykes and dams. Because of the relative underdevelopment of the state of the art on breakup.the design of control measures depends largely on experience. Where feasible,field observations over one or more seasons are considered highly advisable. PHYSICAL MODELLING In many hydrotechnical applications related to breakup,a detailed under- standing of the processes involved is required along with their impact on proposed structures and vice-versa.As has al ready been shown.present capabilities for mathematical prediction are very limited and resort to physi cal model 1i ng is often the only sati sfactory al ternative.The rna;n difficulty in physical modelling is proper scaling down of ice properties which precludes the use of freshwater ice.Kotras et al (1977)and·Michel (1978)presented comprehensive discussions of scaling requirements and procedures.For applications at room temperature,commonly used materials are synthetic wax -or plaster of paris -based.Where cold room facili- ties are available,saline ice and doped ice can be used (Timco,1981; Hirayama,1983).Most of the physical modelling performed to date pertains to the interaction of ice with structures and ships.Applica- tions to river i·ce breakup are few (e.g.,see Michel et al,1973;Michel and Abdelnour,1976)and quantitative extrapolations of model results to prototype conditions should not be made without verification. SUMMARY Ice breakup is an important event in the regime of northern rivers and has serious repercussions to many aspects of hydrotechnical e.ngineering such 18 - ~I - ..- I ",... - -- as f1 oodi ng,forces on ri ver structures,erosi on,hydropower producti on and environmental impact assessments. Breakup is triggered by mild weather via increased runoff and heat input to the ice cover.Forecasti ng the onset of breakup has 1arge1y been an empirical endeavour that relies heavily on historical data.Recent work has produced partial insight for common occurrences during the early stages of breakup,i.e.,uplift pressures and formation of hinge cracks; lifting and detachment of the ice cover;formation of transverse cracks and breakdown of the cover into 1arge sheets;increased water stage and movement of ice sheets;subsequent break down into·sma 11 er fragments by impacts.However,this sequence is not necessarily a unique one and more observational evidence is needed to elucidate other mechanisms that could initiate breakup. After initiation,the development of breakup becomes almost chaotic owing to the multitude and unpredictability of the factors that are at work. Yet,this phase of breakup is the most important in hydrotechnical engi neeri ng because of the attendant ice jams and ice runs.The present knowledge of ice jam initiation and evolution is meagre:it can help identify potential ice jam sites but cannot predict whether,where and when jams will actually form and release.Lack of understanding with regard to the effects of ice breakability is considered a major gap.Only if it is assumed that a jam has formed,attained equilibrium and fully affects the site of interest can its stage and thickness be estimated, using the granular mass theory.In nature,however,the conditions assumed by the theory are not always ful fi 11 ed and thus only potent.i al hi gh water stages can be estimated.Actual breakup stages depend,in addition to the factors considered by the theory,on channel geometry and competence of the ice cover.In view of the magnitude of the complexities involved,physical modelling is an attractive alternative to mathematical modeling but has not yet achieved the same degree of advancement as modelling of open-water phenomena. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer's research studies are funded under regular research programs of the Hydraulics Division,National Water Research Institute. 19 REFERENCES model of river ice breakup.Canadian press). 1982.Surges from ice jam releases~a of Civil Engineering,Vol.9 (2), Ashton,G.D.,1978.River ice.Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol.10,p.369-392. Ashton,G.D.,1983.First generation model of ice deterioration. Proceedings of Conference on Frontiers in Hydraulic Engineering,ASC~, Cambridge,Mass.p.273-278. Beltaos.S.,1983.River ice jams:theory,case studies and applica- tions.Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,ASCE,Vol.109 (lO), p.1338-1359. Be1taos,S.,1984a.Study of river ice breakup using hydrometric station records.Proceedings of 3rd Workshop on Hydraulics of River Ice, Fredericton,Canada (in press). Bel taos,S.,1984b.A conceptual Journal of Civil Engineering (in Beltaos,S.and Krishnappan,B.G., case study.Canadian Journal p.276-284. Billfalk,L.,1981.Formation of shore cracks in ice covers due to changes in the water level.Proceedings,IAHR International Symposium on Ice,Quebec,Canada,Vol.II,p.650-660. Billfalk,L.,1982.Breakup of solid ice covers due to rapid water level variations.U.S.Army CRREL Report 82-3,Hanover,NH. Bo1 senga,S.J.,1968.River Ice Jams.u.S.Lake Survey Research Report 5-5,Corps of Engineers,Detroit,Michigan. Bulatov,S.N.,1972.Computation of the strength of the melting ice cover of ri vers and reservoi rs and forecasti ng of the time of its eros i on. Proceedings IAHS Symposium on the Role of Snow and Ice in Hydrology, IAHS-AISH Publication No.107,Banff,Alberta,Canada,Vol.I, p.575-581. Calkins,D.J.,1983.Ice jams in shallow rivers with flood plain flow. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,Vol.10 (3),p.538-548. Calkins,D.J.and Ashton,G.D.,1975.Arching of fragmented ice covers. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,Vol.2 (4),p.392-399. Deslauriers,C.E.,1968.Ice break up in rivers.Proceedings of a Conference on Ice Pressures Against Structures,NRC Technical Memorandum No.92,p.217-229. 20 engineering:a review of Hydrology Symposium 79, Flood waves caused by ice jam IAHR Symposium on Ice,Quebec, 1979.Probability analysis of historical Hydraulics Division,ASCE,Vol.105 ·(HY9), TheAnnArbor: Frankenstein,G.E.and Assur,A.,1972.Israel river ice jam.Proceed- ings IAHR Symposium on Ice and its Action on Hydraulic Structures, Leningrad,U.S.S.R.,Vol.2,p.153-157. Gerard,R.,1979.River ice in hydrotechnical sel ected topics.Proceedings Canadian Vancouver,Canada p.1-29. Gerard,R.and Karpuk,LW., flood data.Journal of the p.1153-1165. Henderson,F.M.and Gerard,R.,1981. formation and failure.Proceedings Canada,Vol.1,p.277-287. Hetenyi,M.,1946.Beams on Elastic Foundation. University of Michigan Press. Hi rayama,K.,1983.Experi ence wi th urea doped ice in the CRREL tes t basin.Proceedings 7th international symposium on port and ocean engineering under arctic conditions,Finland,Vol.2,p.788-801. Joliffe,I.and Gerard R.,1982.Surges released by ice jams.Proceed- ings of Workshop on Hydraulics of Ice-covered Rivers,Edmonton,Canada, p.253-259 •.... and forecasting 10,p.93-99. Kotras,T.,Lewis,J.and Etzel,R.,1977.Hydraulic modelling of ice- covered waters.Proceedi ngs,Conference on port and ocean engi neeri ng under actic conditions,St.John's,Canada,p.453-463. Mackenzie River Basin Committee,1981.Spring breakup.Mackenzie River Basin Study Report supplement 3,Ottawa,Canada. Margolin,L.M.,1980.A general scheme for calculating river breakup.Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya,No. Translated from Russian Allerton Press,Inc. Mathieu,B.and Michel,B.,1967.Formation des embacles sees.Proceed- ings,12th Congress of IAHR,Fort Collins,Colorado,U.S.A.,Vol.4, p.283-286. ..... Mercer,A.G.and Cooper,R.H.,1977.River bed scour related to the growth of a major ice jam.Proceedings,3rd Canadian Hydrotechnical Conference,Quebec,Canada,p.291-308. Michel,B.,1978.Ice mechanics.Les presses de '1 Universit~Laval, Quebec,Canada. 21 Michel,B.and Abdelnour,R.,1976.Stabilit~hydro-m~canique dlun couvert de glace encore solide.Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol.3 (1),p.1-10. Michel,B.,Llamas,J.and Vprrette,J.L.,1973.Modele de la riviere Becancour.Report GCT-73-0S-0,Civil Eng.Dept.,Laval University, Quebec,Canad~. Pariset,E.,Hausser,R.and Gagnon,A.,1966.Formation of ice covers and ice jams in rivers.Journal of the Hydraulics Division,ASCE, Vol.92 (HY6),p.1-24. Parkinson,F .E.,1982.Water temperature observations during breakup on the Li ard-Maekenzi e river system.Proceedings,Workshop on Hydraul i cs of Ice-covered Rivers,Edmonton,Canada,p.261-295.And pers.camm.1984. Shulyakovskii,L.G.(editor),1963.Manual of forecasting ice-formation for rivers and inland lakes.Translated from Russian,Israel Program for Scientific Translations,Jerusalem,1966. Shulyakovskii,loG.,1972.On a model of the breakup process.Soviet Hydrology:Selected Papers,Issue No.1,p.21-27. Tat;ncl aux,J .C.,1977.Equil ibrium thickness of ice jams.Journal of the Hydraulics Division,ASCE,Vol.103 (HY9),p.959-974. Tatinclaux,J.e.and Lee,C.L.,1978.Initiation of ice jams - a labora- tory study.Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,Vol.5 (2), p.202-212. Timco,G.W.,1981.A compari son of several chemi cally-doped types of model ice.Proceedings,IAHR Symposium on Ice,Quebec,Canada,Vol.11, p.489-502. Uzuner,M.S.and Kennedy,J.F.,1976.Theoretical model of river ice jams.Journal of the Hydraulics Division,ASCE Vol.102 (HY9), p.1365-1383. 22 I~ - ..... - Shoreline Erosion and Restabilization in the Southern Indian Lake Reservoir 1 R.W.Newbury and G.K.McCullough Department of Fisheries and Oceans,Freshwater Institute,501 University Crescent,Winnipeg,Man.R3 T 2 N6 Newbury,R.W.,and G.K.McCullough.1984.Shoreline erosion and restabilization in the Southern Indian lake reservoir.Can.j.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:558-566. Prior to a 3-m impoundment in 1976,bedrock comprised 76%of the shoreline of Southern Indian lake in northern Manitoba.This was reduced to only 14%of the shoreline as the water level rose above the wave- washed zone and flooded into the predominantly fine-grained,frozen overburden materials.Twenty monitoring sites were surveyed annually to determine rates of permafrost melting and solifluction and shoreline erosion.The sequence of shoreline erosion in permafrost materials was found to be cyclic, consisting of melting and undercutting of the backshore zone,massive faulting of the overhanging shoreline,and removal of the melting and fractured debris.Rates of shoreline erosion varied widely, depending on the exposure of the site to wave action and the composition of the backshore materials.At sites in fine-grained frozen silts and clays,representative of over three quarters of the postimpoundment shoreline,rates of retreat of up to 12 m'yr-1 were observed.The total volume of shoreline materials removed varied from less than 1 to over 23 mJ·m shoreline length-1·yr-1.Clearing of the forested back- shore prior to flooding did not affect the erosion rates.The index of erosion based on the hindcast wave energy component perpendicular to the shoreline was 0.00035 mJ+m wave energy-1 (0.036 mJ·Mj-1). The minimum period of restabilization of the shoreline based on the volume of backshore materials that must be eroded before bedrock conditions are reestablished was estimated to be 35 yr for three quarters of the shoreline surrounding the lake. Avantla retenue et I'elevation de 3m du niveau de I'eau en 1976,76 %de la ligne de rivage du lac Sud des Indiens,dans Ie nord du Manitoba,etaient constitues parla couche rocheuse.Ce pourcentage a diminue a seulement 14 %amesure que Ie niveau de j'eau s'eleva au-dessus de la zone balayee par les vagues et inonda la region formee de materiaux de surcharge congeles.Vingt sites de surveillance ont ete couverts annuellement en vue de determiner les taux de fonte et de solifluxion du pergelisol,et d'erosion de la Iigne de rivage.On a constate que la succession de cette erosion dans les materiaux du pergelisol etait de nature cyc1ique,comprenant la fonte et Ie sappement de la zone d'arriere-rivage,Ie faillage massif de la Iigne de rivage en surplomb et I'enlevement des debris degeles et fractures.les taux d'erosion de la ligne de rivage accusent de fortes variations,selon Ie degre d'exposition du site a I'action des vagues et la composition des materiaux de l'arriere-rivage.Aux sites d'argiles et de vases a grains fins congeles,repre- sentant plus des trois quarts de la tigne de rivage d'apres retenue des eaux,on a observe des taux de retrait allant jusqu'a 12 m par an nee.le volume total de materiaux enleves de la Iigne de rivage a varie de moins de 1 m J a plus de 23 mJ par metre de longueur de rivage par annee.le deboisement de I'arriere- rivage avant I'inondation n'a pas influence les taux d'erosion.l'indice d'erosion fonde sur la composante energetique des vagues perpendiculaires a la Iigne de rivage,obtenu par modele previsionnel a rebours, etait de 0,00035 mJ'm-t d'energie des vagues-1(0,036 mJ·Mj-1).la periode de restabilisation minimale de la ligne de rivage,fondee sur Ie volume de materiaux de I'arriere-rivage qui doit etre erode pour que les conditions de la couche dure soient retablies,a ete estimee a 35 ans pour les trois quarts de la ligne de rivage entourant Ie lac. Received August 17,1982 Accepted January 18,1984 The mean water level of Southern Indian Lake (latitude 57°N,longitude 99°W)was raised 3 m in 1976 to facilitate the southward diversion of the Churchill River to hydroelectric generating stations located on the lower Nelson River in northern Manitoba,Canada.The results of a field study of the rates of shoreline erosion in the permafrost materials at selected sites surrounding the lake have been reported previously (Newbury et al.1978;Newbury and McCullough 1983).In this paper,the observed rates have been lThis paper is one of a series on the effects of the Southern Indian Lake impoundment and Churchill River diversion. 558 Rer;u Ie 17 aout 1982 AccepM Ie 18 janvier 1984 projected over the entire lake shoreline to obtain an estimate of the total weight of mineral materials added to the lake annually and to predict ti'e total period of shoreline instability. The rate of shoreline erosion in open water bodies is dependent on the onshore wave energy,the resistance of the shoreline materials to the drag forces exerted by the waves and return flows,and the configuration of the shoreline and offshore zone.On most natural shorelines,erosion rates are low due to the development of an offshore bar and shallow foreshore shelf that acts as a barrier to incoming waves (Bruun 1962;Kondrat- jev 1966;Penner and Swedlo 1975).On many of the erosion- resistant bedrock shorelines of lakes in the Precambrian Shield. Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci..Vol.41,1984 ...... SHORELINE EROSION MONITORING SITE ANEMOMETER REGIONAL SUBDIVISlctI D •8M _,.20 .u;.4CI FIG.1.Shoreline erosion monitoring sites on Southern Indian Lake. wave erosion has removed overlying deposits,leaving a stable bedrock contact at the water's edge.In a newly created reservoir,or in an impounded lake w here the water level extends inland beyond the established shoreline zone,erosion of overlying unconsolidated deposits can occur rapidly,as there is no barrier or eroded shelf to dissipate the energy of incoming waves.The shoreline changes from its initial preimpoundment configuration to a wave-cut bank with growing offshore deposits.The erosion continues until an equilibrium profile is reestablished or the overburden is removed and the underlying bedrock is exposed.The length of time required to establish the long-term stable form depends on the erosion rate and the characteristics of the eroding materials. .Observations in several reservoirs in the central USSR suggest that an erosion index (k e )or "washout coefficient"can be derived for different backshore materials expressed as the volume eroded per unit of onshore wave energy.For silty-clays similar to those of the Southern Indian Lake region,Kachugin (1966)suggested an erosion index of 0.OO05m2 ·t-t of wave energy,which is equivalent to 0.051 m3 •Mr I.This figure was .-derived from observations gathered in new reservoirs south of the permafrost region.The previously reported (Newbury et al. Can.J.Fish.AquaE.Sci.,Vol.4/./984 1978)initial erosion index for shorelines at Southern Indian Lake in similar but permanently frozen materials was 0.00063 m2 ·C I •The longer term index comparable with Kachugin's (1966)estimate was 0.00035 m2 ·C 1 or 0.036 m3 •Mr t. Methods Prior to impoundment,38 cross-sections of the backshore, beach,and foreshore zones were surveyed using a theodolite, tape,stadia rod,and acoustic sounder at 20 erosion monitoring sites surrounding the lake (Fig.1).The sites were selected to represent a variety of erodible backshore materials with both high and low exposure to the main body of the lake.In 1974, 1975,and 1976,wind records were obtained using a type 458 recorder on a lO-m tower at Missi Falls on the northeast shore of the lake (Atmospheric'Environment Service,Environment Canada,unpubl.data).In 1975,a type 458 and a type U2A wind recorder were installed at the Department of Fisheries and Oceans camp near the village of South Indian Lake.After 1976, the Missi Falls tower was dismantled and only the South Indian records were available for wave hindcasting. Beginning in 1976,the 1st yr of impoundment,annual 559 Representative textures and ice contents of shoreline deposits at each monitoring site are given in Table I.The in situ deposits f!IIOi1 at site I are shown in Fig.2.The average depth to permafrost at the end of the summer season varied from 0.5 m in thick peats to 1.4 m in clay~till deposits with less than 5 cm of organic ground cover.Permafrost was not encountered in sand and gravel deposits. TABLE 1.Textural and ice content analyses of mineral ~materials at selected shoreline sites.ND,not determined; NP,not present. Textural analysis of parent materials (%) Ice content Site Sand Silt Clay (%of dry weight) I I 15 84 43 2 0 16 84 NO 3 I 34 65 NO 4 0 15 85 64 5 1 26 73 NO 6 1 34 65 64 7 0 49 51 NO 8 19 16 65 NO 9 1 17 82 NO 10 35 46 19 ND II 10 45 45 47 12 1 19 80 NO 13 8 39 53 56 14"2 36 62 92 15 98 0 2 NP 16"9 33 58 NO 17"4 37 59 43 18 b NO NO NO NP 19 1 34 65 NO 20 NO ND ND ND "Samples analyzed were of backshore lacustrine de- posits.To date.erosion at these sites has been predomin- antly of former sandy beach materials. bpredominantly fine to coarse sand with some silty beds. Can,J,Fish,Aquae.Sci"Vol.4/.1984 erosion surveys were conducted at each location.Topographic surveys and offshore soundings to a depth of 4 m at the preselected sites were plotted on the original cross-sections to obtain the annual volume of erosion and sedimentation. Low-level aerial photography was used to determine the average rate of shoreline retreat between each cross-section. Backshore and beach soil profiles were surveyed by cutting through the overlying moss layers to expose the overburden surface.Representative overburden samples from each site were analyzed for sand,silt,and clay content by standard sieve and settling-pipette techniques (McKeague 1976).Ice content in frozen materials was determined by weighing bulk samples before and after thawing and drying.Depth to permafrost was determined by hand-augering in late August or September. Offshore deposits were sampled with,an Ekman dredge and a 7.5 em x 3m coring tube. Wind data recorded over land for the periods between surveys were adjusted to overwater speeds in accordance with Richards and Philips (1970).The duration of winds was compiled in six speed classes from 0-8 to 41-48 km·h-I in 8-45°directional sectors.Onshore erosive wave energies were determined for each speed class,directional sector,and duration acting upon a particular monitoring site in accordance with the modified Sverdrup-Munk method of hindcasting the significant wave height,H S'For the convenient use of the USCE (1966)wave hindcasting charts,wind and wave data were compiled in f.p.s. units,producing wave energy estimates expressed as foot- pound per unit length of shoreline.For comparison with the erosion indices observed in USSR reservoirs by Kachugin (1966),the wave energy was converted to metric units: tonne-metres per unit length of shoreline.In this paper,the erosion index is also given in SI units as megajoules per unit length of shoreline.Estimates of the portion of the wave energy expended on a unit length of shoreline by approaching deep- water waves generated in the adjacent lake basin were based on the USCE (1966)approximate wave energy relationships for a unit length of wave crest.corrected for the angle of approach of the wave train in each directional sector: pgH/LkEt=16 cos 2 6(tIT) where kEt =perpendicular component of wave energy reaching the shore from each wind direction sector and speed class between erosion surveys (foot-pounds),He =equivalent wave height (0.71Hs ).a representative single wave having an energy equal to the sum of the energies of all waves in the spectrum hindcast for the average velocity in each wind speed class,directional sector,offshore depth,and offshore fetch (feet),L =wav.elength (feet),6 =angle between the midpoint of each wind directional sector acting on the shoreline and a line perpendicular to the shoreline segment (degrees),t =total duration of winds in each speed class and directional sector between erosion surveys (seconds),T =wave period (seconds), p =density of water (slugs per cubic foot),and g = acceleration of gravity (feet per square second). The net volume eroded between surveys was divided into the incident wave energy to obtain a gross erosion index for each site,K e (square metres per tonne),which expresses the erosion (cubic metres)per unit of wave energy (tonne-metres)(alterna- tively,cubic metres per megajoule in SI units).A mineral erosion index was determined by subtracting the peat,water, and ice content from the volume eroded between surveys. The total volume of eroded materials that was contributed to 560 each major basin of the lake was estimated for the years 1976-78.Eroding,noneroding,and newly exposed bedrock shorelines were located in a reconnaissance of the entire shoreline made by air and boat in 1978.Shoreline materials had been mapped before impoundment (Water Resources Branch 1974).The volume of shoreline materials contributed from eroding reaches was estimated using the onshore wave energy and mineral erosion index calculated from the rates observed at the monitoring sites. Results and Discussion Erosion and Deposition Processes An example of surveyed profiles showing annual erosion and nearshore deposition of frozen lacustrine clay at a relatively high wave energy site is shown in Fig.3.The erosion of frozen fine-grained materials on shorelines surrounding the larger basins of the lake was observed to proceed in a repeated sequence of melting,slumping,and removal.As the ice pockets and lenses melt,the bank materials become oversaturated with water and form a slurry-like mixture.The partially thawed materials flow out to form a silty-clay beach strewn with ... ..... - FIG.2.Erosion in frozen lacustrine clay at site 1. Bank material ElI'CJOed, PeriOO •AUG.1975-SEPT.1976 •SEPT.1976 -SEPT.1f117 SEPT.1977 -OCT.1978 OCT.1978 -SEPT.1979 •SEPT.1979 -SEPT.1980 Lake levels, ------=====-~~e:t.flUil!:~~~:!_l _~~g,1@7?~-. Pre-impoundment~..f!}§,!~~_ FIG.3.Consecutive annual shoreline profiles indicating the rate of erosion at a high wave energy site in frozen lacustrine clay,site 1.Note that some nearsnore deposition is occurring.. scattered frozen blocks.In regions of high wave energy the t-newly thawed shoreline materials are completely removed during storms.Where the backshore is covered by an insulating blanket of peat,melting occurs below and slightly above the water surface.In some cases,caverns or melt niches are formed that are up to 1m in height and extending 3 m into and under the frozen backshore materials (Fig.4).Depending on the thickness of the overlying materials,the cavern will deepen until the projecting block of shoreline materials splits away from the main land mass and falls onto the foreshore (Fig.5).The blanket of moss and roots overlying the block often remains intact as slippage occurs in the active layer.The former ground cover drapes over the backshore zone and is slowly broken up and carried offshore during subsequent storm periods.The form of the slumping and eroding shorelines does not change substan- tially as the backshore moves inland.If bedrock is encounterl -l.r at the eroding face,erosion at the water level ceases.In the wave-washed zone overlying the bedrock,erosion continues until a bedrock backshore zone is exposed up to the maximum l""".wave uprush elevation.I Observations of the flooded foreshore zone surrounding the I lake,made by sounding,coring,and diving,indicate that a large portion of the eroded materials are deposited within 300 m of the _shoreline.This evidence is supported by sediment budgetsIbasedonsamplesofthewatercolumntakenthroughoutthe Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.4/.1984 lake,which indicate that only a few percent of the eroded materials are carried into the main water mass in suspension (Hecky and McCullough 1984).Deposition of the fine-grained materials often occurs before they are completely broken down into silt and clay sizes.Beginning at the beach as frozen blocks up to 0.5 m in diameter,the aggregates of fine-grained materials are reduced in size as they are abraded and transported farther offshore (Fig.6).At site 1,for example,clay aggregates up to 6 rom in diameter were found 20 m offshore at a depth of 2 m.At 60 m offshore and 3 m depth,the aggregates were less than 0.5 rom in diameter.At 180 m offshore and 4:8 m depth,the maximum diameter of the freshly deposited materials was 0.1 mm.A sediment core at 20 m offshore indicated that 0.5 m of deposition had occurred on the previously bare bedrock surface in the first 5 yr of impoundment.Five 5-to 10-mm-thick bands of grey clay contained in the core were separated by thicker layers of dark brown agglomerates.suggesting that the depositional sequence corresponded to the five winters of under-ice deposition and six summers of open-water deposition that had occurred since the impoundment. Erosion and deposition processes observed at two monitoring sites (15 and 18)in coarse-grained unfrozen deposits of sands and gravels agreed with those reported by Bruun (1962)for similar unfrozen materials.The rates of erosion were of the same magnitude as those of the fine-grained materials.The 561 -----------,--~--------------...,a;:::q._-,.....;.----------------------- FIG.4.Melt niche under bank with 6-m boat. FIG.5.Collapsed frozenblock of backshore materials. rapid deposition of an offshore bar at site 18 suggests that ultimately a shoal will be formed on which incoming wave energy will be dissipated,allowing the shoreline to stabilize. Erosion Rates In Table 2 the total volume of annual erosion and the ratio of volume eroded to incident wave energy at each of the 20 monitoring sites surrounding the lake are compiled for 4 yr of impoundment.Where bedrock was not encountered,the mean of erosion indices for the perennially frozen shorelines was generally one half of that reported by Kachugin (1966)for similar materials in the unfrozen state.Although this suggests that permafrost conditions may retard erosion,there are no data supplied with the USSR observations,and the magnitude of the 562 erosion index (or "washout coefficient")may have been based < on different wave hindcasting techniques. There was a wider range of ratios of volume eroded to wave~ energy observed in the 1st yr of impoundment than in the.;;j following 3 yr.At sheltered sites exposed to low wave energies,..~ several open-water seasons were required to destroy the protective moss and root cover at the impounded water's edge.~ At more exposed sites,large volumes of peat were easily; removed from the flooded foreshore,producing high ratios in the 1st yr.Because of variability of early years,K e values wer~ calculated using 1978-80 erosion data only.Also excluded.; from the general K e determinations were erosion values at sites' after bedrock had been encountered at the eroding face (sites 6. 8,10,and 11).Based on the 16 shoreline sites that extend ove~ the range of materials and fetches encountered on Southern;: Can.J.Fish.Aquae.Sci.,Vol.41,1984 ~ - - FIG.6.Laminated clay exposed on the foreshore at a low lake level is shown in the upper phot{.:raph.The blocky structure evident in the dark f1iner bands abrades to pebble-shaped aggregates shown in the lower photograph.(The field book is 175 mm x 115 mm;the glass of the hand lens ,s 17 mm in diameter). Indian Lake,the K e value for the higher erosion sites was found r,y least squares analysis to be 0.00035 m2 'C 1 (,-2 =0.71,n = j.2)(Fig.7).The 95%confidence interval for the slope of the regression relationship was 0.00028-0.00043 m2 'C 1 (Neter ~nd Wasserman 1974).The volume of dry mineral material :1 :roded was calculated using an estimated average water content 1 Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol.41.1984 of the perennially frozen silty-clays of 58%dry weight and assuming a bulk dry density of 2600 kg'm-3 (Table 3).The relationship between eroded mineral volume and incident wave energy indicated a mineral erosion index (Kern)of approxi- mately 0.00012 m2 ·t-1 (r 2 =0.69,n =39)(Fig.8)with a 95% confidence interval of 0.00009-0.00014 m2 ·t-I .The volume 563 EO'"-! 5000~ --- 4000030000 rt~IIl.",."or_line -I, Y'.00012X -.06 (,2'0.69.n'39) ~OOO 20000 INCIDENT WAvE £NERGY ..J C..... %N:; ..., l!:o II<... '" • y •.00035X -.09 (,2.0.71,n'42) 0-f0""""........--10....00-0---.---20-0,....00--.--30-00..--0-...---4-00..,.0-0---.---5-0....,000 tNClDaNT WAVI![.N'[ROY (t-....1ft _tIIor.Ii,..-I) -!::!T.. :0~- E '"!<a ~ g '"..... FIG.7.Total volume of shoreline materials eroded vs.wave energy relationship with 95%confidence band limits,for the 3rd,4th,and 5th yr of impoundment (1978-80)on Southern Indian Lake. FIG.8.Volume of mineral materials eroded vs.wave energy witn . 95%confidence band limits for the 3rd,4th,and 5th yr of impoundment (1978-80)on Southern Indian Lake..-, TABLE 2.Total volumes of material eroded annually from monitored shoreline sites on Southern Indian Lake (m 3 'm shoreline-I).The ratio of volume eroded to calculated wave energy is shown in parentheses for each period (X 103 m2 ·t-l).Values for sites 13 and 16,1979,are cumulative for 1978 and 1979 erosion years.NS,not surveyed. Site 1977 1978 1979 1980 I 23.4 (0.77)15.7 (0.48)10.1 (0.61)15.3 (0.66) 2 1.8 (0.18)1.7(0.16)1.3 (0.27)0.8 (0.12) 3 8.9 (0.35)7.5 (0.29)3.0 (0.24)8.4 (0.50) 4 7.0 (0.67)4.3 (0.34)1.3 (0.15)2.9 (0.35) 5 0.9(0.71)0.6 (0.38)0.9 (0.74)0.5 (0.56) 6 21.0 (1.32)14.4 (0.90)1.6 (0.14)4.5 (0.28) 7 9.4 (0.48)4.4 (0.19)0.9 (0.04)5.1 (0.26) 8 1.9 (0.84)0.6 (0.26)0.2(0.13)0.4(0.17) 9 0.0 (0.00)1.2 (0.19)1.5 (0.38)3.1 (1.70) 10 0.0 (0.00)0.2(0.06)0.1 (0.07)0.5 (0.21) 11 17.4(0.54)4.3 (0:II)0.7 (0.03)NS 12 4.8 (0.98)2.1 (0.33)2.6 (0.51)NS 13 1.4 (0.35)NS 2.0 (0.14)NS 14 2.0 (0.34)3.5 (0.47)1.4 (0.27)3.5 (0.66) 15 0.0 (0.00)0.1 (0.56)0.2 (1.32)0.1 (0.51) 16 8.6 (0.94)NS 14.6 (0.32)NS 17 2.2 (1.35)2.7 (0.55)4.2 (0.42)NS 18 1.0 (0.16)1.5 (0.16)6.3 (0.40)4.3 (0.44) 19 2.1 (0.32)0.1 (0.03)0.1 (0.05)0.2 (0.08) 20 1.3 (0.29)0.4 (0.14)0.3 (0.22)0.4 (0.20) of the organic layer eroded at each site (excluding site 18)was also correlated with incident wave energy to obtain an organic erosion index of 0.OOO06m 2 ·C I (r =0.50,n =39)with a 95%COl ".dence interval of -0.OO006-0.000l9m2 ·C I .The low coefficient of detennination and wide confidence interval for the organic erosion index is due to the difference in thickness of the peat layer between sites. There is a greater variation in erosion rates when individual cross-sections are compared rather than average monitoring site values.The standard error of estimate for the prediction of the eroded volume at a single cross-section is 2.3 m 3 •m shore- line-I,giving a 95%confidence interval of ±4.6m3 ·m-1 (Moroney 1974).The wide confidence interval reflects the high 564 variability in shoreline erosion measured at each cross-section. The variability at a typical monitoring site (3)is illustr.ated i~ Fig.9,where two preimpoundment headlands have bee(:' rapidly removed by erosion.The high variability of erosioi: rates between individual cross-sections suggests that the predic- tion of eroded volumes using the wave energy index can b~i applied successfully only to estimate average rates over a read: of shoreline that is sufficiently long to include cusps ana' headlands as minor features. Total Annual Erosion In Table 4,estimates of the total dry weight of mineral materials eroded in the years 1976,1977,and 1978 an~ TABLE 3.Volumes of mineral material eroded annually from monitored shoreline sites on Southern Indian Lake (m 3 •m shore- line-I).Volumes for sites 13 and 16,1979, are cumulative for 1978 and 1979 erosion years.Sites 15 and 18 are without perma- frost and are not corrected for water content. NS,not surveyed. Site 1978 1979 1980 - 1 5.4 3.0 5.5 2 0.5 0.5 0.2 3 2.7 1.1 2.7 4 l.l 0.5 0.8 5 0.2 0.4 0.1 7 1.5 0.3 1.9 9 0.3 0.2 0.7 12 0.3 0.7 NS 13 NS 0.8 NS 14 1.1 0.5 1.2 15 0.0 0.2 0.1 16 NS 4.3 NS 17 0.6 1.8 NS 18 1.5 6.2 4.2 19 0.0 0.0 0.0 20 0.1 0.1 0.1 Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.41.1984- Approximate site of pre impoundment shoreline as indicated by flood ed willows Site of shoreline,Sept.----------250 1 metres150 1 100 1 Block Sprue e forest Area cleared·before impoundment 50 ~ ~,.CI'.&:{";··f ~"'.\''''~''-.(~·...1'u't)h'(.~:I(.f.conJ....'...... o 1977 J}1 -r""-- r ......,· ~ I 1 (') '"?' ~ ~:--:.. ""'"~ ~ ~ ~:--..... ~ FIG.9.Local variability in Ihe rate of erosion is illustrated in this aerial photograph at site 3.The photograph was taken in September 1977,I yr after impoundment.The preimpoundment shoreline is approximately .elinealed by flooded willows.The area was cleared before impoundment to the estimated 850-ft (259.1 m)MSL contour.Since impoundment,the shoreline has retreated into the uncleared foresl in several places.Headlands and irregularities along the shoreline have been reduced as well. Uoe: TABLE 4.Estimated total dry weight of mineral materials erOded from the shorelines of the major basins of Southern Indian Lake for the period 1976-78 (106 kg). summarized for each basin of the lake.The estimates are based on hindcast wave energies derived from wind records and 331 generalized shoreline reaches surrounding the lake.The average length of reach was 6.4 km.Mineral erosion in- dices of 0.OOO043m2 ·C 'in 1976 during impoundment and 0.000 12 m2 •C 1 in 1977 and 1978 at the full impoundment level were assumed.The total erosion estimates were not extended beyond 1978,as that was the last year in which a survey was undertaken to determine the portions of the total shoreline in overburden and bedrock materials. Period of Shoreline Restabilization Estimating the period required to restore the reservoir shorelines to their preimpoundment condition is a perplexing problem.A study of smaller reservoirs in the region developed for local mines and hydroelectric projects found that standing and fallen trees in the foreshore zone remained in place for periods of at least 40 yr,the age of the oldest reservoir surveyed (R.W.Newbury,G.K.McCullough,S.McLeod,and R.V. Oleson,University of Manitoba,Winnipeg,Man.,unpub!. data). In the first 5 yr of impoundment on Southern Indian Lake, restabilization has occurred only on shorelines where bedrock underlying the backshore zone was exposed at the water's edge by solifluction and erosion.Where bedrock was not encoun- tered,there has been no change in the melting,slumping,and eroding sequence of shoreline migration.The annual erosion indices at monitoring sites in fine-grained materials have shown no diminishing trend following the 1st yr of impoundment.The clearing of shorelines up to the impoundment level did not affect erosion rates. The period of recovery for most of the permafrost shorelines depends on when bedrock is encountered by the retreating erosion face.Thus,the position of the bedrock surface at the water level underlying the backshore zone must be established to discover the total volume of material to be removed before an estimate of the period of restabilization can be determined. Exploratory drilling of the backshore zone surrounding the lake is a prohibitively large project.Contemporary seismic tech- niques for indirectly determining the depth of the bedrock were found to be inaccurate in fine-grained,dense permafrost materials. Region o 1 2 3 4 5 6 Whole lake 1976 122 528 238 478 1594 207 190 3357 1977 177 672 311 668 2099 275 273 4475 1978 166 615 290 608 1916 229 247 4071 Without further bedrock information,only a general estimate of the minimum period of shoreline restabilization can be made, if the monitoring sites scattered throughout the lake are lMl considered to be a representative sample of all shoreline; conditions.Eighteen of the monitoring sites occur in fine- grained materials that are representative of three quarters (2841 kID)of the postimpoundment shoreline.In the initial 4 yr!'ll!'/!. of impoundment,four high wave energy sites have encountered /0 bedrock in the retreating backshore.Assuming that the rate of bedrock encounters is representative of the early years of restabilization and that the rate will decay geometrically as bedrock is exposed at more protected sites,4/18 of the remaining eroding shoreline will strike bedrock every 4 yr until the preimpoundment condition is restored. Prior to impoundment,76%of the shoreline was bedrock controlled.Following impoundment,bedrock was ex.posed on only 14%of the shoreline.At the recovery rate of the sample shorelines,it would take at least 35 yr to restore 90%of the fine-grained shorelines to their pre impoundment condition.The minimum period of recovery for shorelines in nonpermafrost granular deposits (4%of the flooded shoreline length)is approximately 20 yr,based on the erosion rates observed at site 18 and the volume of deposition required toform a protective offshore shoal similar to that proposed by Bruun (1962).It is apparent that the instability of the Southern Indian Lake_ shoreline environment and the high rates of sediment input to .... the lake waters will continue for several decades. References BRUUN,P.1962.Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion.J.Waterways Harbors Div.Proc.Am.Soc.Civ.Eng.88:117-130. HECKY,R.E.,AND G.K.McCUU,OUGH ..1984.Effect of impoundment and diversion on the sediment budget and nearshore sedimentation of Southern Indian Lake.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:567-578. KACHUGIN,E.G.1966.The destructive action of waves on the water reservoir banks.lASH Symp.Garda I:511-517. KONDRATJEV,N.E.1966 ..Bank formation of newly established reselVoirs. lASH Symp.Garda 2:804-811. McKEAGUE,J.A.[ED.]1976.Manual on soil sampling and methods of analysis.2nd ed.Soil Research Institute,Agriculture Canada,Ottawa, Ont.212 p. MORONEY,M.J.1974.Facts from figures.Penguin Books Ltd.,Harmonds- worth,England.472 p.. NETER,J.,AND W.WASSERMAN.1974.Applied linear statistical models. Richard D.Irwin,Inc.,Homewood,IL.842 p. NEWBURY,R.W.,K.G.BEATY,AND G.K.MCCULlOUGH.1978.Initial shoreline erosion in a permafrost affected reselVoir.Southern Indian Lake. Canada,p.833-839.Proc.IIllnt.ConL on Permafrost. NEWBURY,R.W.,AND G.K.MCCULLOUGH.1983.Shoreline erosion and restabilizationir a permafrost-affected impoundment,p.918-923.Proc. IV Int.ConL on Permafrost. PENNER,F.,AND A.SWEDLO.1975.Lake Winnipeg shoreline erosion.sand movement and ice effects study.Lake Winnipeg.Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board.Tech.Rep.Append.2,Vol.IB:1-110. RICHARDS,T.L.,AND D.W.PHILIPS.1970.Svnthesized winds and wave heights for the Great Lakes.Canada Ministry ~fTranspon.Climatological Studies 17:53 p. USCE.1966.Shore protection,planning,and design.U.S.Army Coastal Engineering Research Center Tech.Rep.4(3 ed.):580 p. WATER RESOURCES BRANCH,MANITOBA DEPARTMENT OF MINES.RESOURCES. AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT.1974.Physical impact study.Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board.Tech.Rep.Append. 2,Vol.IA:1-386. 566 Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol.4/.1984 Ice Management Manual ®M 'lnistry of Hon.Alan W.Pope Minister~Natural John R.Sloan...V"",Resou rces Deputy Minister Ontario \ \ '. vLt "I ~", I ". . 1.••..>~.:i··'·.I.~~ ,j.';.' Table of Contents 1 1 -,---------- Page 3 3:J 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 ~ 8 l,;~ 10 10 10' 10 11 13~~l 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 -------..-__19 19 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 Title PrefaceAcknowledgements ---'-_ Introduction _ Historical Patterns and Changing Trends Conditions Causing Ice-Jam Floods -------_ Two baslc causesvelocity _ Type of IceUkelysltes _ Land de\ielopmentDamremoval-_ freezing from the bottom up FactOf'S Leading to Flooding Outing FreezEHlp Temperature and wlnd-<:hill FrazilAnchorlce _ Pancakes _ Snowfall velocityConclusion _ Break-up Factors and Predictive Techniques Number at accumulated degree-days of melting _ Precipitation likely to cause break-Up Rate of rise in 'NOter levels due to Increased IIow Number at places where velocities exceed 1 m/sec Partial break-ups and local jams _ Summary at predictive techniques OCto Collection and Monitoring of Ice Jam Floods _ Potential benefits ---_ Determining thesolutlon _ 'Heather information _ Hydraulic information _ On-site observations Summary of monitoring Appraisal of Preventive and Remedial Measures ~_ 'Neckening and/or breaking DustingIce-breaking by blasting --:_ Ice-breaking by boat Combination of blasting and breaklng by boatAlr-<:ushlon vehicle --_ ControlControl dams _ Ice booms ---..,_ 'HeirsIceislands _ Ice storage lee removal os 0 preventlve measure Remediol ice removal Construction equipment Blasting under a lam Principles of Ice Control $elected References _ Key to abbreviations in succeeding perc'"~ohs 2 ':)5 _ Case stUdies of chronic problem rivers ir eJntario How and when ice jams form and collacse _ _ _ During treeze-up _ During break·up EIYects of ice jams on 'NOter IeYels ___ Remedial r;;eosures _ Section 1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.3 6 6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1A 6.1.5 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 7 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.4 8.5 9 r- I List of Figures _Number Title Page 1 Trend In 'Mnter Tempetatures ,--5 2 RIdeau RNer at Manottck -Hydrogrophs durtng Ice Break Ups 10 3 Typical Water LeYel DIscharge CUIYeS 11 i"""4a Depth and Break-up Veloctly Curve 11 4b VIews of Control 5ecllons 12 5 Depth and Break-up Row Curve 12 6 Depth and Break-up Row Curve tor a 1lM'1etre 'Mdfh sectton 12 7 Depth and Break-up Row Curve tor a 2Q.mehe 'Mdth sectton 13 Lk)()f Plates Number Trt1e Page 1 Frczil parllcles sttcldng together -______________________7 2 Heavy surtoce ridging caused by lee pressures accumulottng from Ice generation In the rapids upstream.on the right of the photograph _ 3a '-3b 4 Rideau Falls discharging Into Ottowa RNer _ Looking downstream from Rideau foils over the Ottowa RNer Ice jam _ Ice boom holding bock ~rious types Of ice _ <1984 Government ot Ontario Printed in Ontario.Canada 15 16 18 r I j if""" I I I Current publications of the Ontario Ministry ot Natural Resources,and price lists.are obtainable through the Ministry ot Natural Resources Public Service Centre,Rooom 1640. Whitney Block..99 Wellesley St.'Nest.Toronto.Ontario M7A 1W3 (personal shopping and mail orders). And: Personal shopping:Ontario Govemment Bookstore.Main Roor.880 Boy St.Toronto. Mail orders:MGS Publications Services Section.5th Roor,880 Bay St., Toronto.Ontario M7A 1N8.Telepnone 965-6015.Toll tree long distance 1-800-268·7540, in Area Code 807 dial o-Zenith 67200. Cheques or money orders should be madepoyable to the Treasurer of Ontario,and payment must accompany order. Preface Acting on numerous requests for guidance and procedures for dealing with chronic ice problems in Ontario,the Conservation Authorities and Water Management Branch initiated an ice jam program in 1980.The prime objective of the program was to prepare a manual that would include guidelines and procedures for monitoring,predicting and acting on ice break-up and jamming on rivers in Ontario where the history of ice jams is frequent and well-known. The Branch initiated co-operative projects with the Grand River,Ganaraska Region and Credit Valley Conservation Authorities for the purposes of identifying factors affecting ice jams and collecting other pertinent data such as ice cover.air tempera- lure and streamflow data.In addition,special investigations on specific ice jam problem areas in northern Omario such as the Goulais River and Town Creek in Timmins were carried out.It was intended that data and information obtained from Lhese activities would be used in the preparation of this manual. The program also reviewed and documented the history of ice jam problems and remedial measures in Lhe Province,including Lhe documenta- tion of the causes and extent of the events in February,1981. This manual is the product of all activities and studies that have been undertaken under Lhis program since 1980.It is hoped Lhat the information provided will be useful in preventing and dealing with the many ice jam related problems that are encountered in the Province. Acknowtedgements This manual was prepared by Derek M.Foulds. with editorial assistance provided by Anne Wright. Supervision was provided by john Ding.with overall direction by Robert Chang. The photographs reproduced in this manual were obtained from various sources including the Grand River Conservation Authority.Peter Cry- niewski,Tom Wigle and the author. - - November,1984 ffifJ;aJ1f: M.R.Garrett.Director Conservation Authorities and Water Management Branch ..... - Introduction ....When rivers become jammed with broken.thawing ice which flows faster than the channel can carry it away,flooding occurs.Ontario's history of ice jams is well known;but the frequency and severity of the problem is increasing.Ice jams caused serious and widespread flooding in Ontario in February,1981. Dover Township and Port Hope are specific examples of areas that suffered from disastrous flooding also in 1979 and 1980. There are two sets of problems:the first may occur during freeze-up,when the amount and type """of ice forming might impede the flow of water, ..which then backs up and overflows.The second trouble occurs when ice begins to break up in Ontario's waterways -not only during the annual spring thaw,but also during extreme and pro- longed temperature fluctuations earlier in the winter.Tlwse abnormal fluctuations,together with a recent trend towards significantly colder winters, have exacerbated the problems associated with ice jams.An increasing number of requests for guidance and procedures to deal with these ......problems -not only chronic but often now acute problems -resulted in an Ice Jam Program, initiated in 1980 by the MinistrY of Natural Resources'Omservation Authorities and Water :\lanagement Branch and the Conservation Authorities .. This manual is the result of the program's prime objective:to provide preliminary infonnation .....and guidelines which can be used to determine the proper procedures for predicting,preventing,and dealing with ice-related flooding. There are a number of factors generally common to all ice jam situations.and there are many similarities to be found in the conditions prevailing just prior to the jams,wherever they may occur.The studies of these factors and conditions. based on experience since 1960,have provided much of the infonnation for this manuaL Other up-to-date information since 1980 has also been obtained through the Ice Jam Program. Each situation and location is,however,differ- ent;each area will have a unique combination of variables in its particular equation.Each area must, therefore,carry out its own data-eollection program, which is necessary for determining the correct method of dealing with its own particular problem, as well as estimating the relative costs and benefits involved..It is essential to understand that.without this data (some of which can be collected from existing records.but much of which can only be determined by a monitoring program),the preven- tion of recurring problems is virtually impossible. The only alternatives are attempts to improve the situation after it has occurred.which are usually unsatisfactory. Section 1 of this manual outlines briefly the historical patterns and changing trends relating to ice-jam floods in Ontario. Section 2 summariz~the conditions causing ice-jam floods. Section3 gives detailed descriptions of the factors involved in freeze-ups and the different kinds of ice formation that generally lead to problems. Section 4 explains the causes of and techniques for predicting break-ups. Section 5 lists the essential data to be collected through monitoring programs.. Section 6 assesses the success of remedial measures that have been practiced to date. Section 7.summarizes the overall principles of ice control,and is followed,finally,by references and a bibliography (Section 8). 1 Historical Patterns and Changing Trends Figure 1 Newspapers are the main source of historical records from which me frequency of recurring ice-related floods has been detennined.This source has been useful in providing flood dates which can men be compared with weather reports from Emironment Canada for the same periods.In this way,it has ~possible to detennine whether the problems were brought on by a sudden freeze or a sudden thaw. There was a general decline in me frequency of ice-related floods in me 1950s.This coincided with a considerably warmer trend in winters during mat decade.See Figure 1. - Since men,however,the warming trend has reversed markedly,and mere is evidence lhal lhis trend lowards colder winters will cominue for some time.The winter of 1979 and mose since have been colder man average during the months of December,January,and February by almOSl one whole degTee Celsius (Figure 1).During lhese coldesl months,however.lhere have also been occasional and rapid lhaws,which continued for several days. The data show mal ice-jam floods have been immedialely preceded by rapid changes in weamer and by colder man average winters.This trend is expected 10 contribule 10 continuing and increas- ingly frequent ice-relaled floods in lhe next len years.Several improved ice management lechniques do exisl,however.and lhis manual indicales how mey may be applied successfully 10 me situations in Ontario. ,,, 'AN.,'FEI. 1"1)I.e 1\ ('~ /.----~-- -..__MEAN DE!:.,.t /\..... \J -5 -6 u.-,...... til ..... 1M .:0 a::::I ......::l u ......:lI.ca::,- w ...~Go 0 .. 2 z~w..."z..... a::JI .. C •TEN YEAIl WailING AIIEIlAGES (19~1 ,••9110 plo'..d ...19!1O") TREND IN WINTER TEMPERATURES •."Alt_"Ilifer-.li.".1 .1...,.,.,,.P', CDvrt ••,If T.J.~. r 11 ·1 ...... ~~-._" .'.~:-......' 2 Conditions Causing Ice-Jam Floods 2.1 Two Basic Ca uses 2.5 Ice jams are the result of two basic causes:(i)the freezing up of rivers,and (ii)the break-up of ice during sudden·and prolonged changes in weather conditions.[n order to predict and prevent floods, an undemanding is required of the climatic 2.6 conditions and the hydraulic factors which can either assist in forming a protective cover or which can cause problems during freeze-up and break-up periods. 2.2 Velocity [ce jams are caused by the accumulation of too 2.7 much ice,carried by too much water,and in too short a time.Wherever the rate of supply of ice and water together exceeds the capacity of the river channel to transport it,a jam is imminent. 2.3 Type of Ice The quality of the ice affects its ability to jam. Hard,blue ice is far more prone to jam than other softer forms,such as slush ice or frazit,which cause freeze-up problems.Slush ice in vast quantities is produced by snow falling and trying to freeze in open water.It has the consistency of wet cotton- batting;it is extremely difficult to handle and may cause severe restrictions of water flow.Frazil isa mass of frozen water particles which stick to each other and everything they touch (Plate I).Frazil develops when water with no ice cover becomes super-cooled -that is to say.when it cools to below freezing (about -O.05C),but where there is at the same time sufficienl air and water movement w:(i) prevent a solid ice cover from fanning;and (ii) create an ice-partid~blizzard.These particles can build up very rapidly indeed,especially on a rocky bottom,turning into what is called anchor ice. When this happens,the water-carrying capacity of the river can be reduced by 30 per cent within a period of three or four hours,as observed on the Niagara Ri vel. 2A Ukely Sites Ice jams are most liable w occur when there are: sudden reductions in the KJ.[er wlo..-i[\'caused by a widening or deepening or the river channel; sudden changes in the direction of the Dow; consuicLions in the river where it narrows,such as at bridges and their approaches. 7 Land Development Urban development,land drainage.and deCorestA.- tion all accelerate the rate of run-off - a situation which increases the probable frequency of ice jams. Dam Removal Many streams in conservation areas once had mill ponds.They were formed by dams.which helped control ice jams.Today,however.many of lhese aids have been removed.filled in or have failed because of poor ioitial design. Freezing from the Bottom Up Where velocities,flows.and temperatures are all very low,a stream (such as Town Creek in . Timmins,for example)will tend to freeze from the bottom up.The channel becomes full of ice. and incoming water flowing over its surface freezes rapidly on top.Given a sudden and prolonged thaw.the increased amount of water from the melting ice has nowhere to go,and floods.As the water softens and erodes the ice.some of it will float and cause jams at constrictions in the river. adding funher to the flooding problem. Plate I Fralil panicle'S slickin~[~~lh~r. - v IFactors Leading to Flooding ;-During Freeze-up r-- ,~ All rivers in Ontario try to form an ice cover each 3.2 winter,and this is a goo.:l feature.insulating the ,:",water from the air.The ability of a river to form an ice co\'er is dependent on the climate,however, which may fluctuate erratically within a period o{ _only a few days,except in the more northerly rivers where the climate is more constantly cold. These erratic weather patterns confuse an understanding of the measures required {or manag- iF"ing ice jams.For example,twO solutions used in the St.Lawrence (International Section)and Nia- gara Rivers appear,at first sight,to be contradic- tory.In the St.Lawrence,where a cover oncerformedwillremainallwinter,velocities are controlled to make the Cover form as quickly as possible.In the Niagara,however,where the _climate and storms on Lake Erie may cause frequent break-ups,velocities are controlled to j prevent ice-cover formation A strong,smooth ice cover extending from ij-shore to shore is the most desirable.But it is seldom attained because,while the cover is trying to form, a number of factors can influence the process- such as temperature and wind chill.frazil,anchor 3.3 rice.velocity,and snowfall.The significance of each is now examined. 3,1.~Temperature and Wind-chill .Water temperatures drop more slowly than those of the air,In bays and quiet water areas where velocity is 0.1 metres per second (m/sec)or less.a surface cover will form first This is important to bear in mind when choosing flood-preo.'entive measures.as 3A the first to freeze is the last to thaw,because of the greater thickness o{ice. Water is also subjected to progressive chilling as it proceeds dO~"11stream.Being warmest at the source.flowing waters can.therefore,be several degrees warmer than at the mouth. With average temperatures of -6C and normal winds of 16 kmihr.river temperatures will drop O.3C per day.Wind-chill factors,however.can affect these averages markedly,where the water tempera- ture will drop as much as 2C in one day when severe wind-chilling of -30C or more occurs.This combination is reached with the following conditions: -18 C air temperature and winds of 19 km/hr (12 mph) -12C air temperature and winds of 32 kmihr (20 mph) -lOC air temperature and winds of 56 kmihr (35 mph) Frazil Once the flowing water at the source has dropped to about OC.however,wind-chill combinations of -18C or colder will be sufficient to produce super-cooling -and hence fTalil.as follows: -6C and \,,'inds of 28 km/hr (17 mph) -!OC and winds of 16 km/hr (10 mph) -HC and winds of 9 km.hr (5 mph) Once super-cooling staTtS,\\'ith these wind-chill combinations,the open water area will create about O.lH cubic metres of ice per square metre per day (7).·During a 50-day period of such weather,one square metre of open water would produce two cubic metres of ice. When an ice cover forms over flowing water, however,its thickness normally reaches 0.5 metres and.by insulating the water from the air,reduces ice production to only 25 per cent of the amount of open water. ·.Vumbns in parmth~sn r~fn 10 papns in S~Cliol'l 8 01'1 S"luud R~f~rmas, Anchor Ice Anchor ice begins forming on the bottom of rivers as soon as super-cooling begins.The increased volume of ice and the roughness of its surface raise the water level and impede its flow (frictional resistance).This decreases the flow by as much as 30 per cent in a few hours,which could choke the river and cause severe back-up problems. Pancakes Both anchor ice and frazil may.however.come to the surface and form 'floes',which freeze together to form a ·pancake'.If the velocity is 0,7 misec or less, th~pancakes will continue to grow in width and thickness to 100 m or more in diameter.and 40 mm thick in the space of eight hours when there are wind-chills of -18C (7).Eventually,the pancakes will come to rest against an island,bridge-opening or where the current may be slow enough for an ice cover to form.More pancakes following may slide either under or over the first.until they also come· to a halt and,if the speed of the current is low enough.they will form the desired ice cover which extends rapidly upstream. -----,-----------"..,.,--.._"i"""'----------"""""ee....--"'II,-.,.r--·---··......----------------------- 3.5 If,on the other hand.there is a long series of rapids upstream,the open water does not form a smooth,strong ice cover but cominuously manufac- tures chunky,uneven ice that does not remain on the surface.This can create hanging dams which cause huge water-level increases.(Plate 2).In the St. LalloTence River.for example,the ice generated in the Long Sault Rapids in the past caused the water level to rise about 15 metres,sometimes flooding the main street of Cornwall.This was prior to the building of the Power Project,which was designed to form an ice cover and eliminate the ice-fonning capability of the Rapids. Snowfall FaIling directly or blowing into flowing water, snow will accelerate the water's chilling rate, forming masses of slush ice,which tends to cause jamming.. Also,snow falling on top of a layer of insufficiently thick or strong ice will insulate it from the air and may stop further ice growth entirely.This will prevent the formation of a strong ice cover.A weak ice cover will tend to break easily and cause jamming. 3.6 3.7 Velocity The slope of the river affects the velocity and the extent to which sub-freezing air mixes with the water.In other words,the steeper the slope,the greater the increase in chilling rate -and,therefore, ,the quantities of fzazil and anchor ice formed. Conclusion The period when ice is trying to form a cover is a critical one.It should be observed carefully as soon as the water temperature reaches 2C,and watched continuously until the ice extends solidly from shore to shore.Problems will develop with severe wind-chilling conditions and may be compounded by heary snow.It is possible to have severa]cycles of freezing and thawing in the watersheds south of Barrie due to the cyclical variations in the weather. Techniques for predicting -and therefore preveming -ice break-up and jams due ~o these cyclical variations in the weather follow 10 Sectlon 4. .,-H~\'Y surface."ridging caused by i~prl"Ssurl"S accumulating from ,ice ~erall:"d in Iht'rapids on Iht'righl of the pholograph. t!.. _Break-up Factors and _Predictive Techniques Rate of Rise in Water Levels Due to Increased Row Rate of rise is obtained from the rate of increase in flow.This will vary from one watershed to another, but the (actors which cause rising levels are the same and the results similar. RIDEAU RIVER AT MANOTICK HYOROGRAPHS DURING ICE BREAX-UPS Precipitation Likely to Cause Break-up Precipitation generally in Ontario was less than 25 mm over the week prior to ice jams in February, 1981 (except in the Rideau area where it was 27 mm,and in the Moira and Ganaraska regions, where it was 54 mm).Depending on how much melting occurred before the rain.and depending on the water content of any snow already on the ground.the effects will vary.The worst combina- tion is ten degree-days or more of melting.followed by 12 mm or more of rain in a 24-hour period falling on frozen ground or on snow of above- average wa ter content. Weather data are provided by the Streamflow Forecast Centre,together with a flood advisory, followed by a flood warning if events are likely to be worse than described.Weather forecasting is. however.generally inadequate for more than three days.which gives very little time to prepare for severe changes in weather. Figure 2 10 1980 Z 34517.I CAYS -f- I 1981 /, / I -I..It • /•...2 -.../... 'I I ~-- I...- I ~'"1'''' V "I,-~/---o 100 zoo 300 400 ¥•...e 4.2 4.3 4.1 _Number of Accumulated Degree-days of Melting One 'degree-day of melting'occurs when the mean of the maximum and minimum air temperatures is ~'+IC.In 1981.an accumulation within a four-day period of sixteen to twenty-three degree-days was enough to cause problems in most watersheds.In others.twenty-four to thirty-two degree-days occurred within a six-day period.which caused problems in all Ontario streams south of a line between Parry Sound and Ottawa (15).The melting rate was four to five degree-days each day.This rate of thawing continued unabated without any more periods of sub-zero weather which nonnally re- occur in spring. Ice-jam flooding can be prevented only by first F'"'knowing how to predict when break-up is going to occur.Predictive techniques and preventive mea- sures can only be employed.however,if the causes of ice break-ups are understood first. .-As Stated in Section 2.2,ice jams are caused by the accumulation of too much ice.carried by too much water.in too short a time.But how much is _too much,and how short is too short? .Ideally,during the onset of longer days just before the spring equinox.the snow starts melting slowly,gradually increasing the water supply to the _river.The increased flow causes the level to rise. increasing velocity;those portions of the river that froze last will lose their ice cover first.If this period continues over a period of several weeks,the main ~channel of the river opens.ieaving a strip of shore 'ice on either side.which is also eroding and weakening.Because it was thicker to begin with. _however,the shore ice takes longer to melt.As the river level rises,some of the shore ice will become detached each day,moying downstream.If the quantity of ice and water mixture is moderate.there -will be no problems,even though the river mouths may still be frozen.Two or three weeks of such a weather pattern is enough time bOlh to melt some of the ice and soften the rest.The slowly increasing r-flow will not.in this way.supply tOO much ice and water to any constricted sections at one time. There have been a number of recent break-ups, _on the'other hand,where the entire process was compressed into several days only.Numerous jams and floods resulted (15).The causes were deter- mined by studying the following factors during a r"0ne-week period prior to and a one-..week period following the jam. /0 TYPICAL WATER lML DISCHARGE CURVES ~I N FROUDE ' BRE ...·Ul'vtlJlCrTY QCCUR~."E'" FROUOE NU"I£R •0·21' I i i/I I I A 1 I i /1 iI I 1,1:I iIVI,I I I I :/, /1 I.I i I /:i I ; ./I i i I, I V V ,I I I .I i Number of Places where Velocities Exceed 1.m/sec Predicting the locations where break-up will begin depends on the relationship between depth and the velocity required to cause break-up.Thus the key prevention is knowing the highest velocity that can occur without causing the main sheet ice to break up.As shown in Figure 4(a),the limiting velocity for prevention is about 1.0 m'sec.which will occur at a depth of 1.3 metres.As velocities usually exceed this value downstream of hydraulic control secuons -generally narrow,fast water sections. weirs.or constrictions such as bridge piers -these will begin to break up first. Figure 4a DEPTH AND BREAK-UP VELOCITY CuRVE "a 001 "0-4 001 QIo.1-0 1·1 I".l·t I""0 IrUAK·UJI VELOCITY M./.ec.. Based on the 1980 increase in flow to 386 cu. m/see in one day.and referring to Figure 3 again, it can be seen that the water level at a twenty-metre- wide section would rise 2.53 metres;0.87 metres at a }()4)-metre width,In this case,most of the ice in the river would move freely and break up also if velocities were high enough. 4A 400-100 Figure 3 '-0 Q =C •L ." ....'-0 1M.C'H"7 ;L·IOm.:20 .. !-roo .. c '-0 :l ~ c 1-0.. \ojz Figure 3 shows the effects of increasing flows on water levels for various river widths.It is evident from these curves that constrictions tend to cause the grea'test change in level. The flow increased in 1981 from 140 to 242 cu m/sec in a single day.As seen in Figure 3,the water level would rise about !.IS metres at a twenty-metre-wide seetion.whereas it would rise only 0.40 metres at a section 100 metres wide.On the basis of the increase in flow to 344 cu.m.sec in two days,the corresp:mding rises would be 2.15 and 0.74 metres respectively -probably enough to cause a number of problems. A one-metre rise is usuall y sufficient to pry the ice cover l<Xlse from the river banks in spring;but it .--would not necessarily move downstream or break up.That actior'f''depends'on the velocities created or the topography of the river,together with such _..restraints as islands,bends or ice bo;)ms.Such a rate gf t:i:x=lilUOil'ld li.k;!¥'@ipse RWbl"ToPs ;9 gagO'u In the Rideau system.as an example.there have been two recent violenl break-ups -in 1980 and 1981.On bOlh occasions.the flow had been increasing gTadually over 3-6 days to aboUl 140 cubic metres per second (Figure 2).Following this gTadual increase,however,an increase of 246 cu. m/sec occurred in only one day in 1980;and in 1981.an increase of 2(H cu.mlsec in two days. What must be determined is the lowest rate of increase in flow that has caused break-up.This figure can then be used as the threshold level signalling possible break-up.At this point,the effects on water levels should be examined. ~I Figure 5 ~V ,/ V / V ./ / V / V / I{ Water approaching a control section,where the river is wider and deeper,normally moves much ,-more slowly than the break·up velocity,but accelerates as it enters the control section<If both the depth and width of a river upstream were,for .....example,twice that of the control section,this i cross-sectional area would be four times greater than at the control section<(Figure -!b)Therefore, the flows can also be four times greater in volume before reaching critical velocity in the approaches. There .....ill normally be some break-up at the entrance to the control,and the main centre slab of ice will tend to float up with the rising water levelr(caused by the constriction,as discussed wi th reference to Figure 3).If the ice is raised one metre or more.it will try to move downstream.Unless the _ice cover is retrained by an island.an ice boom,a pier,or the shores,the downstream edge may move into the break·up velocity zone< J ••.....e II: o o II:4 5 I 7 • UNIT FLOW CORRESPONDING TO BREAK-UP VELOCITY C:u<m lsec:.per metre of wid til PLAN VIEW ~LA~t\ ~COWntoL UCTIO. CROSS SECTION VIEW / ~~:l:;~~~ DEPTH AND BREAK-UP FLOW CURVE Figure 6 shows the depth-to-break-up flow relationship for a ten-metre-wide section<Shown simultaneously is the head-discharge relationship for a broad-crested weir control section (as in Figure 3).Similar relationships are shown for a 20-metre width in Figure 7< Figure 6 it o.H B'......I1,...w occ.,....."..".,. .,0:-0 H 8'"11 4 '"wiN oec. d.........,....of ~OfIfrvt DEPTH AND BREAK-UP FLOW CURVE FOR A 10 METRE WIDTH SECTION oo _., II /)'10' •J/ // •~/ --i/ '~f • .........t_ DI"d.,...IMI ·~•• cc... % THE,..,••...1 EFFECTS OF CONTROL SECTION Break-up may also begin at the upstream end of an ice cover if other combinations of depth and velocity shown in Figure 4(a)exist.If the depth is 'f'"three metres or less and the velocity reaches 1.5 m/sec or more,for example,the water tends to flow over the ice cover,causing pieces to break off and be forced underneath.Nothing can prevent break-r up once this happens. !In Figure 5,the depth-to-break-up velocity relationship has been convened for convenience to a "....depth-to-break-up flow relationship (5)<Based on a !one-metre-wide section,the break-up flow becomes 'I~I 1..3 cu_ffi;'seC. - Figure 7 ......... IWDledIoIr,.t") Referring to Figure 6.the flow causing break-up would be 13 cu.m/sec for a 10 m section. It would take place initially at,or downstream from,the control section because the same depth on the control section would indicate a now of 25 cu. m'sec.As nows increase,however,the velocity at the enU'ance lO the constriction may rise above the break-up value;some ice will break off,and the ice cover will try to move downstream,assisted by the rising levels.As flows continue lO increase,there will always be some rate of rise in level and some flow quantity that will cause general disintegration of large portions of the ice cover. ··Flood 11'1'f'ls basf'd on IIlf'I·m·/oa yf'aT flood flo ..'"""nail\' do nol ta!<f'IC"Jams mlo account.Thus,duf'tu Ia lams.(!lnf' 1,."..15 may /if'f'quailf'd DT "xCf'f'df'd by a If'sJn flo ..'I Sn S"Clion 7.9). Summary of Predictive Techniques (a)Problems can be expected if there is an uninterrupted thaw of approximately twenty degrf't'-days of melting during a very shan period of time - 3 to 5 days. (b)Problems are likely in the event of precipitation of 12 mm or more in 24 hours.especially if [his follows several days of melting.or if the ground is still frozen,or if lhe watersht>d has a large urbdn area. (c)Rising waler le\'els and incrt'asing velocities cause break-up - a prt'liminary indication of p:Jssi· blc trouble.:\rist'of one metre in 24 hours Ofltn causes break-up,and will always cause break-up where velocitits are greater than 1,0 m St'C (d)There is a Slx'cificbreak-up flo\\'for t\cry ri\'cr, where large portions of the ice cover disintegrate gt:>nerally.From limited information.it aplx'ars til;)! the break-up [Jaw is about 60 per cent of tilt' lOO-year flood now.··Due to variatiol15 in in' quality and weather sequencts,this rt'rn'lllage mal vary from 50 to 70 per cent. (e)Partial break-ups and local jams m;)v occur dut, to broken pieces accumulating in fronl of.and or underneath,an ice cover,causing it to break bv bending. (0 The worst combination for bn'ak-up is a suddm thaw extending ovcr four days.with rain,The rt'Sulling jams,howt'HT,will dqX'l1d on ho\\'cold the ,,'inter has \:.t't'n.whctlll'r the in'is hanl or soft. thick or thin.111 the final analysis.it is tht' St'quelKe of weather tyel1b thal is critical. repeated a number of times before the ice reaches the river's mouth.The time requirt'd to complete bre-dk-up is extended and there is less se\ert'j.Wl- ming in anyone area. A likely area for encountering these problems may be selected by following the prcKedures in Section 5.2.3 on On-site Observations. 4.6 10 LlO 1&0 .zoo "LOW =,-Y."".c. DEPTH AND B~EAK.tJP FLOW CURVE FOR A 20 METRE WIDTH SECTION .V j..-".../...... ..... / .......... •........ v ---I .... ./ ./ I //0VI~ o o Q•... " "~..... Q .... I Partial Break-ups and local Jams Rising water levels and increasing velocities cause break-up lO begin.Generally,this process takes two to lhrf't'wf't'ks,and the concentration of ice and water is not sufficient to cause jamming.However, if the proct:>ss is compressro iIllO a few days,a gen- eral disintegration will take place.Between these two extremes,partial break-ups may occur and cause local jams, Whert'ver ice pieces accumulate in front of, and 'or undt'r,an ict'cover,a bending forct'is cn'ated \\'hich causes il to bil.Dqx'nding on the thickness and quality of the ice,a_substalHial local jam may resull without causing ageneral disinte- gration of the entin'cover.When this jam breaks. its piect'S moving downstream 10 the next icp-cover may caus_e a new·local jam.and tnis proceSs may be •=:I.'t .•...;"i·-:~...:( 4.5 v -Data Col !ection and rV1onitoring of Ice Jam Floods Before a cost-benefit analysis of remedial measures can be made,certain data need to be gathered.Some information may be obtained from Conservation Authority records;past dates and weather records can often be gathered through newspaper file searches and Environment Canada records. Often,however,such past records will not,in themselves.provide sufficient information for mak· ing a satisfactory cost·benefit analysis.and it will be necessary to implement a monitoring program to gather information for the future.The most important basic piece of data comes from knowing the date the flood began, 5:Potential Benefits Key benefits obviously come from reducing flood damage.The extent of past damage is assessed through answering the following questions: (a)How many properties were affected.and what were their values? (b)What was the cost of a clean-up? (c)How long did the problem last? (d)How frequent have the problems been? ·5.:Determining the Solution Effective management techniques vary from one watershed to another-sometimes even within a single watershed.In every case.however,the information required is the same.Before any appropriate and reasonable solutions can be deter· fl'""mined,the following information is required: 5 .1 Weather Intormotion The crucial two-week period for which information is required spans the week preceding and the week following the date the flood began.nuring those two weeks: (a)What were the maximum.minimum,and daily average temperatures? (b)What was the daily precipitation?Specify snow or rain,and the snow's water equh·alent. _(c)How many degree-days of thaw preceded and i'followed the jam? 5.2.2 fiydrculic Informotlon Data on the rate of change of inflow and the consequent changes in water level and velocity are particularly important to obtain.In the same two-week period: (a)What was the variation in the flows and levels in the vicinity of the jam?A graph of these factors must be ploued against time;readings must be taken at least daily,and preferably every six hours. (b)What was the maximum water level?This will be influenced greatly by river bank height,river width,and ice quality. 5.2,3 On-site Obser.'atlons Some of the most useful information of all is simple eye-witness observation of what happened, .answering the following questions: (a)Where did the ice in the jam come from?Was it.for example,a local condition,or did it come from several kilometres upstream? (b)How thick was the ice? (c)What kind of ice was it?Hard and blue,soft and white,frazil or slush? (d)Were there any large lumps,thicker than one metre?These may come from the downstream end of fast"water areas;they are important clues for detecting the solutions. (e)What was the surface velocity approaching the jam,and how far upstream was it-1.0 msec or less?(Timing the ice pieces over a known distance of.say,30 metres is quite adequate). (f)Are there any suitable storage locations for ice or water,or both.upstream of the jam? (g)Observation should be repeated at these locations. (h)How did the jam dissipate? 5.3 Summary of Monitoring There are two periods when monitoring should be done: (a)When the river is trying to form an ice co\'er (set out in Section 3). (b)During the week prior to the flood date and the week following -as set out in Section 4.1. The answers to questions posed in Section 5.1, (a)to (d),will indicate the benefits to be derived from any preventive and remedial techniques. .The cost of these,however,will depend on the solution chosen.based on the on-site observations made and answers given to questions in 5.2.1 to 5.2.3 inclusive. It is a specialized task selecting the management plan most likely to succeed in any given situation and within any given budget.Success is dependent on accurate information from a good monitoring program. 6 Appraisal of Preventive and Remedial rVleasures 6.1 Prevention of ice jams is more effective than any remedial measures taken after the fact.For cases where the costs of prevention outweight the benefits,or where extraordinary weather conditions overload the system,removal of ice jams is required and the methods are outlined at the end of this section. There are two basic types of measures for preventing jams: (a)Weakening and breaking the ice cover into pieces small enough to flow freely. (b)Controlling the flow of ice and water. Weakening and/or Breaking Before undertaking these activities.it is most important to know where the ice will go when it breaks.There needs to be a safe storage area.such as a lake.swamp or waterfall.Don't JUSt move the problem downstream.This happened in 1982 on the Rideau River.where the Ottawa River normally provides enough storage for its ice.(Plates 3a and 3b).In 1982,however,the Ottawa itself was so ice covered thai the Rideau's ice had nowhere to go and tried to flood back over the falls. Plate 3a Stan at the downstream end (nonnally Ihe mouth),and work upstream so as 10 prm'ide safety for workers and space for the broken ice to move into.away from the work area. 6.1.1 Dusting To make the ice easier to break up into small pieces of one or twO metres in diameter.it may be weakened first by dusting it with a dark substance like coal.cinders.or sand.Darker substances increase the rate of melting by about 10 mm/day in Ontario (11). Cost for one application;covering one km of a 30 m wide river.and applied from Ihe air by crop-dusting equipment,is estimated at $1.250 (1 i). The effects of dusting may.however,be cancelled out by snowfall.in which case it has 10 be repeated.Oflen.also.there is insufficient time for the melting process to be completed sufficiently 10 break the ice up small enough to flow freely. #,( - - Plate 3b L.ooking downstream {rom Rideau Falls o~er the Ouawa River ice jam. 6.1'J""!Ice Breaking by Blasting Two essential prerequisites for this job are a properly uained crew and enough time.The time required for ice blasting is one eight-hour day per 1.6 km of ice cover (17). To produce the desired results,the charge MUST be placed UNDER the ice at the correct depth which will depend on the charge weight (18). For example: Dis13nce below Weight DC Diameue oC hole Ice charge created 1.2 metres 3.6 kg 2.7 metres 1.5 metres 7.3 kg 5.8 metres 1.B metres 12.3 kg 8.8 metres Best results are obtained by using ten to twemy charges.spaced one hole-diameter apart,detonated sim ul ta neousl y. The explosive used in the example cited was ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate in Fuel Oil).Its low detonation velocity (3.660 m/sec)works better than higher-speed explosives because it causes a wave- action to bend the ice,which is more effective at breaking than is a shattering action (18). Where streams are more than 15 metres wide. -two parallel lines of charges may be necessary in order to break the ice into pieces of one to two metres in diameter.Generally,the smaller the pieces,the more readily the ice will move through constrictions. Success of blasting is limited by its inherent dangers,the possible lack of a suitable place to store the broken ice,and the fact that it may take too long. 6.1.3 IcErBreo king by Boat Normal ice-breakers press down on the cover to break it.and this works well as long as the cover is floating.A fairly recent experiment used a special plow on the from of a tug which forced the ice up and broke it by bending.Neither system works too well.though.if the ice is thick enough to hit bottom -although a regular ice-breaker can at least tum around and back through the ice stem first. provided it has twin screws.Then.the propellers can 'eat'a channel through the jam.The plow variety.however.tends to become a submarine if the ice is grounded. Most commercial vessels are not satisfactory because they need three metres of depth for safe operation.~nd even that is not always sufficient.for the bow riding up on the ice drives the stem down. and boats v..ith a two-metre nominal draft may then have problems in a depth of three metres.But small armored tugs specially designed for ice-breaking, which have only a one-metre nominal draft.have been used successfully in the Niagara River since 1964 (12). An appreciable current to clear the ice from.the work area is desirable.as is a safe place for the lee to flm,'into.of course.Then all that is required initially is to use the ice-breaker to create a narrow channel-or a 'lead'-wide enough for working in the deepest pan of the river.Ol!ce this is established.the boat's wake widens the channel quite efficiently.It is not essential to clear the area completely,provided the pieces of ice are not larger t.t'lan two metres in diameter. Speed is of the essence.readiness is crucial. Often there is a period of only two to four days in which to prevent disastt'r.The boat should. therefore,be on-site,ready to operate within 24 hours or less.This is achieved by way of a retainer f~[or stand-by periods.plus an operatioml charge for actual use.A captain experienced in ice- breaking is essential too. lce-breaking by boat will not be feasible, hm,'ever.where the river is too shallow,if special vessels are not available.and if there are insufficient overhead clearances at bridges;it may not be feasible either where there is grounded ice. 6.1 A Combination at Blasting and Breaking by Boat The City of Ottawa (3)has carried out an effective program for many years,using the [allowing system: (a)Cut twO slots,each 0.3 metres wide.parallel to each other,and generally parallel to the shore. along the edges of the normally-flowing sections of the river. (b)BlaSI the slab between the slots -except of course,near bridges or utility crossings.In these Dlaces.small outboard-motor boaLS,wiLh st~l protected hulls.provide the necessary wave action (described in Section 6.1.2). (c)Timing,again.is crucial here.The f10w has to be sufficient to push the ice from the Rideau out imo the Ottawa River.but not so rapid as to get it all moving at once. The disadvantage of this methcd is that several weeks of preparation are required.Occasional!) also.the rate of change in ".:eather is so fast that there is insufficient lime to dispose of the ice cover. 6.1.5 Alr-Cushion Vehicle (20) Where the ice cover is hard,but not more than OJ metres thick.rapid progress can be made using air-cushion vehicles .....hich create a pressure wave causing the ice to break by bending. The costs,however,are high;so far onh'large craft exists.with no evidence of any designs being made for smaller vehicles suitable for Ontario's rivers.Other drawbacks:air-cushion whicks cannot break grounded ice covers;their effectiveness decrea5eS as the ice becomes softer;their free movement is inhibited by obstacles such as ice ridges and overhead bridges with limited clearance. because they need sloping ramps on the river banks to ascend.circumvent the obstacles.and descend into the river again. 62 Control Controlling the excessive flow of ice and water to prevent fIcxxiing is achieved by constructing dams, .ice booms,and weirs;or by providing ice-storage areas. 62.1 Control Dams Although costly,control dams are the ultimatt' solution.By controlling the rate of change in level through controlling flows,the period of time over which break-up occurs can be lengthenC'd.Thus, the amount of ice and waler mixture can be controlled. Conuol dams in the str~ln,rather than in the headwaters,are used mainly for controlling ice movement and some of the flow.The mechanism required here it to hold most of the ice coming from upstream.and release only controiled amounts of ice and water as and ""hen the downstream area can accommodate them. Conuol dams are exoensivc'but reliable.as evidenced by the Sl.l.....3\\:rence Seaway and Power Project through 2-1 winters of operation.The sYStem was designed to form an ice cover at velocitie-;of up to 0.7 msec over most of Lake St.La "'Tence.whEfe the flow can be ad]usttd to compens<:He for uncooperative weather conditions.:'o.Iost of the ice tht'n formed will SlaY on the surface rather than forming a hanging dam. ..... - 62.2 Ice Booms "'"Installed across a river,ice Ixx>ms restrict the quantity and prolong the release of ice into potential jamming areas.(plate 4).They work best when placed at right angles to the direction of the P"flow,and where velocities are equal to or less than one m/sec-the lower the better. Ice booms can also accelerate the rate of ice-eover formation as well as helping retain it in the spring so more of the ice will melt in place rather than breaking up. An ice boom should be designed to float up "'"wilh the rising water level..,and to submerge also, so that it does not break if the force of the ice becomes too great for it to hold.Some ice will then pass over it;bu t,as the ice load decreases,the f"'"boom's buoyancy will return it to the surface and into effective action again. Plate 4 ....Ice boom holdin~balk \·arious lypt'S of ice. 62.3 Weirs These help to form ice covers,but are useful only where some form of restraint is provided,such as an ice boom.Without restraint,weirs are liable to spill their entire cover during break-up. 6.2A Ice Islands Man-made or natural,islands provide something for the ice cover to push against after rising levels have removed the restraint formerly provided by the shore.They are not as flexible in their capabilities as ice booms,but have worked well in some instances. 62.5 Ice Storage The Minesing Swamp on the Notl.3wasaga River and some of the disused channels on the Goulais River are gcxxl examples of ice storage areas. Disused channels (oxbows)are often located on the outside of sharp river bends.As ice tends to go straight ahead rather than following river bends,ice will fill these channels,which then act as safety valvt's for storing a gcxxl deal of broken ice. 62.6 Ice Removel as a PreventNe Measure Construction equipment can be used as a preventive measure to physically remove at least some of the potentially problem-causing ice.(For more on construction e'quipmem for ice removal,see Section 6.3.1 following). 6.3 Remedial Ice Removal In some cases,the cost of preventive measure's may be too great to .....·arrant the e~pendi[ure;in Other si tllations,.....-here prevention works well most of the urnI',an extraordinary sequence of weather events may,on occasion,still overload the system and cause a jam.Follo\\'ing are measures that may be effective after the jam has already occurred. 6.3.1 Construction Equiprn-ent Ice can be removed physicallY with bulldozers, back-hoes and clraglines.These have all been used successfully on the Ganaraska,Credit and Saugeen Rivers -both in prevention of and removal of jams.They are relatively cheap,but are effecllve only in locations where the ice cannot affect their operation and where they can actually reach the jam -which is often nOl fXJssible.\,\'hile these types of equipment may be effective on small streams and rivers,this is not usually the case in larger waterways. 6.32 Blasting Under a Jam This works best by starting at tht'dO\,'nstream end of the jam and working upsueam.Placing the charges may be dangerous,and the results will depend on whethe'r the liberated jam has a safe place lO go_Ideallv,the jam should be released slowly -Of else it may ft'SUIt in anotht'r jam downstream. Bombing.ho\\'itzer she'lls,or bazookas are' subject to thE same drawbacks,and are nor likElY to work unless they can be detonated under the ice, - '"'" ...,. - t_ J 1 .... I Principles of Ice Control 1-'1., i i I l I ~.3 Some of the principles of ice conrrol may be summarized as follows: Ice cover protects the water from super-cooling, decreases the total volume of ice produced and prevents the formation of slush ice from snow in the open water,therefore: CREATE ICE COVER AS SOON AS POSSIBLE OYER AS ~1l'CH OF THE RIVER SVRFACE AS POSSIBLE Ice cover breaks up because of a rapid rale of change in waler level and due to increases in velocity,therefore: CO:"TROL ICE :\IOVE:'.IE:"IT BY CONTROLLING FLOW AND HENCE VELOCITY. Ice jams normally last a few days only,therefore: BY SLOWI:-.rG THE RATE OF RISE IN LEVELS, A~D HE:"ICE THE I~CREASE IN VELOCITY,THE A:\IOl':-.;'T OF ICE BROKE:-.;'PER UNIT LEiIlGTH OF RIVER CA:-.r BE REDL'CED.THERE lS THEN LESS ICE A:"D LESS WATER COMPETI:,\G FOR SPACE lN THE CO;-.;STR1CTED SECTIONS AND. THEREFORE,LESS FLOOm:-.;'G. 7.7 1.8 1,9 Ice covers brea~most readily by bending and,once broken,the smaller the piece size the better. Therefore: WAVE ACTIO~,EITHER BY BOAT OR AIR CUSHION VEHICLE,WORKS BEST. As spring approaches and the days get longer.there is an increase in water supply,a rise in water levels, and an increase in velocity.Therefore: THE PORTIONS OF THE RIVER WHICH FROZE OVER LAST WILL LOSE THEIR ICE COVER FIRST. WHEREVER SURFACE VELOCITIES EQUAL OR EXCEED 1 :'.1/SEC.SOME BREAK·VP IS TO BE EXPECTED. Every watershed has a critical flow which will cause a major break-up.Based on preliminary data.it appears that: THE CRITICAL FLOW IS ABOUT 60%OF THE OPEN WATER IOO·YEAR FLOW,WITH VARIA- TIONS OF BETWEEN 50%ASD 70%BEI:"G LIKELY DUE TO ICE QUALITY AND WEATHER SEQUENCES. 7A When flows cannOl be conrrolled, PROVIDE ICE MOVEMENT CONTROL SUCH AS ICE BOO~IS OR ICE STORAGE AREAS. 7.5 Ice jam floods can be costly and dangerous to break.Therefore: PREVENTION OF jA:'.IS IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN ANY OF THE CURES. 7.6 Solving an ice problem in one municipality may merely move it downstream to become someone else's problem.Therefore: MAKE SURE THE jAM:\IED ICE CAN BE RELEASED TO A LAKE OR OTHER LARGE STORAGE AREA. WHEREVER POSSIBLE.ICE BREAKING SHOULD BEGIN AT THE RIVER MOUTH AND WORK UPSTREAM. 20 I f s - 8.1 There are l112ny papers relating to design problems 82 and research projt'Cts but few met the criteria for this manual,which were that: (a)They must be relevant to the c1ilT'.atic conditions of Ontario; (b)They must have similar topographical condi- tions to those in Ontario; (c)They must have direct application to opera- tional ice problems for use by Resource Managers. Relevant references are arranged by subject. Key to Abbreviations in Succeeding Paragraphs 2 to 5 I.M.S.P. Ice Management Seminar Proceedings- January 30,1980 -Produced by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources,Southwestern Region,London \'I'.H.R.R.l. Proceedings of the Workshop on Hydraulic Resistance of River Ice -September,1980 Produced by the National Water Research Institute (formerly c.c.I.W.),Burlington, Onr.ario-edited by G.Tsang and S.Belraos N.R.C National Research Council,Canada. l.A.HR. International Association of Hydraulic Research Ice Symposia -Iceland,1970;Hanover,New Hamoshire, 1975;• -Sweden,1978;Quebec,1981 CCR.E.L Cold Regions Research and Engineering Labora- lOry,Hanover,New Hampshire C].of CE. Can.adian Joumal of Civil Engineers A.5.C.E American Society of Civil Engineers LED.-W.MO. IrHernatioml Hydrologic D't"C3de combinect WiL~ Lt~e 'r~i arId lVfE'te-orologlC31 ?.ss.oc::'3.(ion,Banff, 1972 Case Studies of Chronic Problem Rivers in Ontario REFERE:\CE I\Ti>.IBER THAMES RIVER FLOOD -MARCH.1979. I.M.S.P., by B.Bennt>ll.LOWER TH:\\fES \'ALLEY C:\ History of major ice-jam rela[t'C!n<XXis in 1951.1965,1968 and 1979 in detail.Comments on the use of dynamite and an ice-breaking tug.Solutions required upstream of Chatham. MOIRA Rl\'ER -BELLEVILLE.I.M.5.P.2 by K.Lathem.Crysler and Lathem Ltd. Chronic problems in Belleville.Large quanti- ties of sheet ice move into lower velocity areas where "hanging dam"conditions prevail,i.e., the supply of ice and water is much faster than ch.annels can dis.charge it into the Bay of Quinte.Ice storage works constructed in 1977-78 for about $2.5 million.Preliminary results are mostly satisfactory,but evaluation is still lacking. "RIDEAl:RIVER"-OTTA\VA 3 by '\V.Frietag,City of Ottawa The City of Otta'A'a undertakes an annual ice-breaking program to alleviate Ocx::>ding on th~Rideau River at a cost of approximately $125,000. Keys are cut in the ice at bridges and other Iccations where blasting is prohibite-cl.Broken ice is flushed downstream by increased flows from an upstream reservoir.Mechanical saws, dynamite.boats and up to 30 men are involved and careful planmng is essential. 1 1 REFERENCE NUMBER 8"MECHANICS OF ICE JAMS"I.M.S.P. by D.B.Hodgins.j.F.MacLaren Ltd. This is a gO<Xi summary paper of the state of the art and contains an extensive bibliography (57 pages).some of which may be misleading. Unresolved problems relate to the strength of unconsolidated ice jams.their thickness and roughness. "BREAK·VP AND CONTROL OF RIVER ICE", I.A.H.R.11 by G.P.Williams-N.R.C. Good paper for the Ontario scene.Cites the importance of variable weather sequences.the added problems of northward flowing streams. Information on "dusting"to accelerate break- up. "NIAGARA RIVER ICE MANUAL". Ontario Hydro.1964 12 by D.M.Foulds.Unpublished. Historical summary of ice problems and the weather sequences which caused them.Worst problems caused by weather variability from cold to warm and back again with the attendant storms being the most significant.. Operating instructions for monitoring ice movements in order to recognize major problems developing,preventative and reme- dial measures. "RIVER ICE JA~tS".THEORY,CASE STl'DlES AND APPLICATIONS-January,1982 10 by S.Bel taos.NATIONAL WATER RESEARCH INSTITUTE A "State-of-the-art"summary of what can be done to predict flood stages at this time.The limitations are clearly set out and it seems unlikely that these will be resolved in the near future. "FROUDE CRITERION FOR ICE BLOCK STABILITY"9 GLAOOLOGY JOURNAL.VOL.Ij,No.68, 19H by G.D.Ashton -CCREL Stability analysis on floating ice blocks are well set out here.and it is really an extension and improvement on the work of U zuner and Kennedy. 8.3.2 During Break-up STUDIES OF RIVER AND LAKE ICE. Volumes 2.3 and 4 7 ONTARIO HYDRO.Unpublished-I.H.D.Data Three years of weather and ice data are available for the Niagara River between Fort Erie and the Falls.Extensive information is provided on frazil formation.anchor ice and ice volumes.but there are few conclusions. How and Where Ice Jams Form and Collapse During FreeZEHJP REFERENCE NUMBER Wl:\rTER REGIME OF RIVERS AND LAKES.4 CCREL.APRIL.1971 MO:-;OGRAPH III -Bla by B.~Iichel-Laval D ..St.'pt.1980 This is the most comprehensive publication for understanding ice formation processes in their various forms and the behaviour of rivers and lakes during freeze-up and break-up. RIVER ICE HYDRACLICS,W.H.R.RJ.5 A discussion of resistance of ice covers.ice jams at break-up and ice cover formation.An important missing element was cited as "lack of ice jam thickness measurements".Of particular value is Figure 3 on Page 189, which shows the "universal stability diagram" for ice covers during freeze-up.break-up (jam) and break-up (solid cover). ST.L-\\\'RENCE POWER PROjEcr ICE MANL'AL 6 O~TARIO HYDRO-1968,UNPUBLISHED DOCUMENT by D.M.Foulds Design criteria and operating performance are compared for a period of about 20 years.In general, the O.i m/sec average velocity for ice cover formation has worked well.Some years the ice cover was smoother than expected and in a few years the opposite.depending on weather conditions at the time of formation.Operating instructions are given for recognizing likely jamming conditions.r 8.3 if"'" I, REFERE::-iCE 8.5 Remedial Measures NUi\1BER REFERE:\'CE l\U;\1BER "1\IAGARA RIVER ICE CO:'o:TROL",13 EASTER1\'SNOW C01\'fERE?\'CE.February 196i. by D.M.Foulds. Operating experiences during some horrend- ous storms.ice removal by ice breakers and by manipulation of river levels and velocity, success of ice boom. DY:\A:-'ilCS OF ICE FOR:-'IATI01\IN THE UPPER NIAGARA R1\'ER 14 LH.D.-W.M.O.,Banff 1972. by R.S.Arden and TE.'''I'igle Results of part of the studies referred to in reference i aoove.Excellent pictures of frazil and a good description of the difficulties in ice research.especially in relation to trouble- free operation of instruments.Recording water temperature thermometer and net radiometer instruments give good estimation of onset of frazil foonation and anchor ice. "SOCTHERN 01\TARlO ICE JAM STlJDIES", OM.N,R.,C.A.W.M.B.15 by D,M,Foulds Repon on the very unseasonal break-Up of SouLt:tern Ontario SLH'3.mS in February,1981. Caution is advised in reading the literature and in trying to apply results from one area to another. There is a great variation in effects,depending on such variables as L'Ie sJoj:>e of the water surface.L~e steepness and heigh of the river b;mks,the suppl y of ice and the prevailing climate ami its variability. For eX3mple,\V,L Knowles s;:eaks of rises of !(02 metres on u"le Th2mes,w'hereas D..\L Foulds at ;'\iagara speaks of 20 me:ses (13). "METHODS OF RDIo\'I:'-:G ICE JA:-'IS", LMSP. by S.L.Denhartog,C.CR.E.L. A good summary paper on the appropriate limes for trying to remove ice jams,as w'ell as the possible consequences.Methcxis for remo- val are given together with some costs for using machinery,dusting,ice breaking,ships and blasting,Advantages and disadvantages are discussed. "CSE OF EXPLOSl\'ES I1\'RDIo\'I:'-iG ICE JAMS C.CR.E.L.M.P.10~1.19iO by G.E.Frankenstein Excellent practiQI information on how to blast ice covers for maximum cracking, Optimum depths for and sizt:'of charges, speed of explosive (low)and resulting hole sizes.Break-up of alxJUl 1.6 km crew day IS maXlmum. "BL\STING SHEET ICE A:'o:D ICE ].-'\,\IS", LYLS,P. by D.Mairs,Cl.L.,Toronto Methods of blasting,advantages of various- types of explosives and derof13tion,proper .handling and safety techniques, ."AIR CL'SHIO;-';\'EH1CLES"(.-'I.C\,),J:'LSP by R.Wade,Canadi:m Coast Guard "Rates G~25 km/hr break-up of I metre'thick ice were obtained with a SO-tonne vehicle 20 m long by 10 m ...:ide";i,e.,gcxx:l for big rivers but not small one'S.Current m.ocitls 2.Jc too larg~3nd t()Q ex;.-::-ens!\'t'(0 build and 0rxrate un!53 (hcy car-:t~u5c.J for other purposes throughout the ye3I. li 18 19 20 .... ;IEF:rECT5 OF RIVER IC£O~'.;ST.'\GE··,L\LS.P. by \,\-',L.~:noyvles,J.r.~lacLu-en Ltd. In nveTS '\....'~L~\/er;'rnild gsdiE:1ts,ice 2ccumulatlon 35 faI 3.S 5 LO 10 mi!~s l •_,..• ~~:::~~~C:c-~ti~::elfl~5e~~~~;~~e~r~ge ented for Dresden,Th:a.rne-sville and Cha:h3.m. LTtili.z..ation .qf frequency d.2w for pre~,.jcting l-in~I01J yea{stage lc"ie1s or delineating L.~e l·in·-fOO yea;flood.",,,,,m""t re-c~;""c:ar ..fu 1."~e......~]l.~i~io/~~~~~:..'""",~n·J-,..1.,.4 ,"..-.....;... 15 (3 by D.Jones GcoJ propoS3.1 for smailer vehicles,Jur non::' avail3ble or in DroCuctlon. ··L'SE OF ICE B?,f.\KI,'-.'C 3 ().-\.TS··, by D.:'.!.F:Jldds l;sed on L~t Ni3gara IZi '/fr and al2>o used in the LO\h'er ThaIT'ieS for !;13ny yeJ..fs. - - ...... - ..... I The Southern Indian Lake Impoundment and Churchill River Diversion 1 R.W.Newbury,G.K.McCullough,and R.E.Hecky Department of Fisheries and Oceans,Freshwater Institute,501 University Crescent,Winnipeg,Man.R3T 2N6 Newbury,R.W.,G.K.McCullough,and R.E.Hecky.1984.The Southern Indian lake impoundment and Churchill River diversion.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:548-557. The 242000-km2 Churchill River basin extends across the northern half of Alberta,Saskatchewan,and Manitoba.In 1976,hydraulic control structures were completed to divert 75%of the natural river flow of 958 mJ ·s-1 across the drainage divide separating the Churchill and Nelson river basins in northern Manitoba.The diversion flows follow 300 km of tributary valleys southward to the Nelson River channel where a 30-yr,10000MW hydroelectric scheme is being developed.The diversion was accomplished by damming the northern outlet of Southern Indian lake,a 19n-km2 riverine lake on the Churchill channel (latitude 57"N,longitude 99"W).The dam caused a 3-m impoundment above the historical lake levels, which flooded 414 km 2 of the backshore zone.Permafrost,or permanently frozen ground,iswidespread in the uplands surrounding the lake.As bedrock occurred on only 14%of the postimpoundment shoreline, severe erosion of the frozen backshore deposits is now underway.A long period of instability is anticipated on lake-shorelines and in river valleys affected by the altered h'fdraulic regime.Although the whole-lake water exchange time was increased by only 41%by the impoundment,the circulation patterns and exchange times in individual basins of the lake were changed dramatically when the Churchill waters were diverted at the southern end of the lake.The effects of the changing regimes on the aquatic habitats and fisheries of Southern Indian lake have been investigated in pre-and post-impoundment studies undertaken by the Freshwater Institute of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. le bassin de la riviere Churchill,d'une superficie de 242000 km 2 ,traverse la moitie septentrionale de l'Alberta,de la Saskatchewan et du Manitoba.En 1976,etaient terminees les installations de controle hydraulique pour detourner 75 %du debit naturel de 958m3 ·s-1 de cette riviere a travers la ligne de separation des eaux des bassins de la riviere Churchill et du fleuve Nelson,dans Ie nord-du Manitoba. les eaux ainsi detournees sulvent 300 km de vallees tributaires vel's Ie sud en direction du chenal du fleuve Nelson,ou I'on amis en (Euvre un programme hydroelectrique de 30 ans,d'une production de 10 000 MW. la derivation a ete realisee a I'aide d'un barrage bloquant I'emissaire nord du lac Sud des Indiens,un lac fluvial du chenal de la riviere Churchill (57"de latitude N et 99°de longitude 0).le barrage a cause une elevation du niveau de I'eau de 3 m au-dessus des niveaux historiques du lac,avec inondation de 414 km 2 de la zone d'arriere-plage.le pergelisol,ou terrain gele en permanence,est etendu dans les terres hautes entourant Ie lac.Comme la couche rocheuse n'est presente qUE~sur 14 %seulement de la Iigne de rivage apres retenue des eaux,iI se produit actuetlement une importante erosion des depots de I'arriere-plage congeles.On s'attend a une longue periode d'instabilite sur res rives du lac et dans les vallees ftuviaJes affectees par un regime hydraulique modifie.Bien que Ie temps d'echange de I'eau de tout Ie lac n'ait augmente que de 41 %a la suite de la retenue,les caracteristiques de la circulation et les temps d'echange dans les baSSinS individuels du lac subirent des changements dramatiques quand les eaux de la riviere Churchill furent detournees a j'extremite sud du lac.les effets de regimes changeants sur les habitats aquatiques et les peches du lac Sud des Indiens ont ete etudiE!s avant et apres la retenue des eaux par I'lnstitut des eaux douces du Ministere des Peches et des Oceans. Received December 13,1983 Accepted December 28,1983 Southern Indian Lake lies in a shallow bedrock basin on the Churchill River in northern Manitoba (latitude 57°N, longitude 99°W,Fig.I).In 1976,a dam built across the lake outlet raised the lake level 3 m to facilitate the diver- sion of the Churchill River southward to hydroelectric generat- ing stations on the Nelson River.Preliminary studies of the effects of the impoundment and diversion were previously undertaken by the University of Manitoba (unpubl.data),by IThis paper is one of a series on the effects of the Southern Indian Lake impoundment and Churchill River diversion. 548 Rec;u Ie 13 dtkembre 1983 Accepte Ie 28 decembre 1983 private consultants (Van Ginkel and Associates,Winnipeg, Man.,unpubl.data;Underwood-McLellan and Associates, Winnipeg,Man.,unpubl.data),and several components of the federal~provincial Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Riv- ers Study Board (L WCNR 1975).The Freshwater Institute (FWI)of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans was the lead agency for the fisheries and limnology impact assessment under the LWCNR (1975).In 1976,the FWI began a long-tenn study of tbe SOlllthern Indian Lake impoundment to assess the current predictivl:capability as expressed in the L WCNR and to generate new predictive capability that would increase quanti- Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.4I./984 - LEGEND D AREA OF GLACIO- LACUSTRINE SEDIMENTATION [2J PRECAMBRIAN SHIELD _SOUTHERN LIMIT OF PERMAFROST --- ............ "... - .,~ FIG.1.Geographical setting of Southern Indian Lake and the Churchill River Diversion. -ative precision of future reservoir and diversion assessments. neckyet al.(1984)summarized how well the follow-up studies have fulfilled these purposes to date.r A brief summary of the hydroelectric development,geogra- l }hy of the Southern Indian Lake region,and changes in the hydraulic regime of the Churchill River and Southern Indian ,...lake is presented in this paper as background to the FWI !,tudies.. The Churchill-Nelson Hydroelectric Development,,- The steep granitic and gneissic bedrock river channels of the "Precambrian Shield in central Canada provide many attractive ~tes for'hydroelectric development.Over three quarters of 1 :anada's hydroelectric energy is produced on the Shield in ~.Jenerating stations with a total installed capacity of 41 000 MW (Government of Canada 1980).The Churchill-Nelson generat- ~.g stations are located on the western arm of the Shield in f iorthem Manitoba (Fig.1).The Churchill and Nelson rivers i oather water from over 1.4 million km2 of the interior plains of western North America before flowing northeasterly to Hudson r-,ay through a heavily glaciated trough that lies along the 1,IJundary of the Churchill and Superior bedrock provinces of the cShield.The Nelson River falls from elevation'218m (MSL)at rJ.;ake Winnipeg,dissipating 5406 MW of hydraulic power over :80 km of channel with a mean discharge of 2480 m3 •s-I.Prior :)diversion the portion of the Churchill River involved in the Manitoba development fell 255 m between Southern Indian Lake and Hudson Bay,dissipating 2702 MW of power over 460km of channel with a mean discharge of lOll m3 's-t (LWCNR 1975). The first generating station on the Nelson River was com- pleted in 1961 to supply power to the isolated International Nickel Company mine and refinery at Thompson,Manitoba.In 1964,federal-provincial studies were initiated to examine the feasibility of d,~veloping further generating stations on the Nelson and Churchill rivers for markets in southern Canada and the northern United States with the assistance of a 927-km direct-current transmission line Ilponsored by the Government of Canada.In 1966,nine dam sites were identified on the Nelson River,including the Jenpeg site below Lake Winnipeg,to regulate levels of this 24 400-km2 lake for dependable midwin- ter flows (Fig.2).Generating stations on the Churchill River were not recommended.Instead,several diversion schemes were proposed that would combine the Churchill and Nelson River systems to increase flows through the Nelson River dams. Power demand projections by Manitoba Hydro predicted that the Nelson plants with the Churchill diversion would be fully developed by the earl y 1990's.The decision to proceed with the transmission facilities and full Nelson development was an- nounced in 1966 in conjunction with a public campaign to stimulate electrical consumption and develop power exports to the United States. In 1976,the mean level of Southern Indian Lake was raised ~an.J,Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol.41,1984 549 NORTHWEST TERRITORIES MANITOBA 100·98- 250 MEAN ANNUAL FLOW (m~S·I) km LEGEND _GEr>lERATING STATION o PROPOSED GENERATIr>lG STATION .~CONTROL STRUCTURE /'RAIL ROAD _.J'MAJOR HIGHWAY 100SO r 3000 o MESTON!(POSTPONED DURINO CONSTRUCTION ~ FIG.2.Churchill and Nelson rivers hydroelectric development,indicating the altered flow regime of the rivers.Dark tone indicates relatiH !;! magnitude of lower Churchill River discharge remaining after diversion;mid-tone indicates portion of Churchill River discharge diverted ''dt' Southern Indian Lake;light tone indicates Nelson River discharge.-, 3 m,diverting 75%of the Churchill River flows southward into the lower Nelson River valley (Fig.2 and 3).The Jenpeg power and regulation dam was completed in 1977,and generating stations were constructed above and below the second crossing of the Hudson Bay railway line at Kettle Rapids (1272 MW)and 530 :.,i}: at Long Spruce Rapids (980 MW).A third partially constructJa§ Nelson River dam at Limestone Rapids was abandoned in 1979 because the predicted growth in electrical consumption ar~ power exports did not occur.In 1980,the Nelson Riv,j construction program was suspended indefinitely. Can.J.Fish.Aquae.Sci ..Vol.41. 91° LEGEND FIG.3.Lakes and communities affected by the Churchill River diversion. eo 56 ~ T km50 .,GENERATING STATION ~CONTROL STRUCTURE LAKE NAMES IN PARENTHESES IDENTIFY FORMER INDIVIDUAL LAKES 0510 20 30-= 98" 98°, 51" 56° - i"'", r Ie Southern Indian Lake Region ,-The Southern Indian Lake region is underlain by the rugged ~'.1rock surface of the Precambrian Shield.Innumerable lakes t..j wetlands connected by small meandering streams cover approximately one third of the land surface.Southern Indian ~ke is composed of several irregularly shaped basins separated ~!narrow channels and islands.For the FWI studies,the basins Have been designated as regions 0-7 (Fig.4). Massive granitic and g.~issic rocks extend generally through-cr·the Southern Indian Lake region,with narrow belts of ri ta-volcanic rocks rich in sulphides on the western shore of regions I and 3.Several small outcrops of meta-sedimentary q~ks occur along the western shore of region 4,the southern 51:Ire of region 6,and at isolated sites in regions I and 2. ~"..neralized zones associated with pyrrhotite and pyrite miner- als occur infrequently throughout the lake (Davies et al.1962; ij""';hlinger 1972). .)uring the most recent period of continental glaciation,the Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci .•Vol.4/,/984r Southern Indian Lake region was covered by ice which ad- vanced southward from the Keewatin center west of Hudson Bay,A thin layer «10 m)of dense basaltills was deposited in isolated pockets of the heavily glaciated bedrock surface surrounding the lake.After several periods of re-advance and withdrawal,the tinal retreat from the lake basins occurred between 8000 and 10 000 yr ago.During the retreat,extensive areas of glacio-fluvial sands and gravels were deposited on the uplands surrounding region 5 and the northern half of region 4. The granular deposits form a ribbed and rolling upland of kames and eskers.Varved silty clays up to 20 m thick fill depressions and cover much of the uplands surrounding the basins of the southern two thirds of the lake.The clays were deposited under a northern arm of glacial Lake Agassiz that extended down the Churchill valley into region 4.The local relief is greater in the southern areas where knolls and ridges of bare bedrock outcrop are separated by poorly drained wetlands that formed on the flat glacio-lacustrine deposits.Forest and Sphagnum moss peat deposits up to 3 m in depth have accumulated since deglaciation. 551 --+iP '*"'""'i¥ LEAF RAPIDS LEGEND ~••GIONAL SUBOI.,SION STATION 30 km 4020 BAY 10100--- TERRESTRIAL AREA FLOODED BY DIVERSION AND IMPOUNDMENT BEHIND NOTIG 1 DAM FIG.4.Regional divisions of Southern Indian Lake. The climate of the region is continental,consisting of long cold winters and short cool summers.In wint.er,severely cold waves of polar continental air move southeastward across the region.In summer,the weather pattern is characterized by frequent cool periods following eastward-moving cyclones. The mean annual temperature at the community of South Indian Lake is -5°C.Average monthly temperatures vary from -26.5°C in January to +16°C in July.The annual precipitation of 430 mm is generally associated with frontal weather systems. One third of the precipitation occurs as snow during the average 200-d mid-October to late May snow cover period.The average accumulated depth of snow is 60 em.The period of ice cover on Southern Indian Lake lasts from early November to late May. 552 An ice cover up to 1.5 m in thickness develops in areas removE:ii~ from the Churchill River flow that are blown clear of snow.t'fj~ The Southern Indian Lake region lies in the wide band of boreal fores~or taiga that crosses midlatitude 2anada.Blal1 spruce (Picea mariana)is the predominant tree species in mo:;}~ areas.It forms pure,closed stands of 10-toI5-m-tall trees on the sloping uplands,and open to sparse stands of stunted 3-~ 6-m-tall tree.s on the poorly drained lacustrine deposits.Pu ~ stands of tamarack (Larix laricina)occur in most wetlandt~ Jackpine (Pinus banksiana)is abundant on the well-drained granular deposits in the northern third of the basin.Areas 1"iJi deciduous species are interspersed in the conifer forests,parti~ ularly where recent fires have occurred.Common species are" Can.J.Fish.Aquar.Sci"Vol.41. -'-DIVERSION ROUTE AT SOUTH BAY f\ ........CHURCHILL RIVER AT MISSI FALLS :i i ~., I IIII .......1 .r--"'-r...~~J'\.T I ~1""-1 :-w ~i ~~,I I I I "~,~I "1 f"""-t., RECORDED'HIGH LAK~LEVEL II,i PRE-1974 I I!W ~r-"I~~i I I RECORDED :LOW LAKEI LEVEL I I i I !I: 255 ...I 258 1Il <t 257e ~256 >W ...I 254 WATER LEVEL SOUTHERN INDIAN LAKE 1800-r---,.----,----r----r---,---,-----,-----,r----,-------,-----, 1600-r-----t-----t--,J"""",.,.r....+--.;:-.,.-r----;--f.~-+----f--r-+---+---+------1 7..1400+--t::'\-----t-----+--F-...;"'i:-+.·-~"':-I---;At~[-.:,.;.'t:;-.-t-\+----t----I---+----+-----1.Ii,f'\"f Y···./."1:\f\"'e 1200 ....I \'....:-" '.....~.<\'•I .'.•.\'..1000'.-:.:.ro.,'i . ,: ::.r.'..r-J ~800+-----t-------+-----::--..,=-+-~-~r--.-f_.-f"""=-;-:-t""..~;---p,""':".;p',.;;"H-';,-",,,-·p,,,,",'·ri'f"'[-~""~-:-r"""',/r.7'"<b-=f"?".'",,'·.--+--A~-~9 600+-__+__--j!L~O~N!!iG-'!T~ER~M'r:JME~A~N_:_'F:.bL~0rt_/f1·---i\:-!-:_+-··.::.··:____f~+_4:,\~:f:A!.~~'_i'r••'_d_---==~...~:~~·,~....:.~:::::.J~.~.~.~~::.::...~-'~.~\..~~,-!'L'~~' I&.400+-__--t--__-+A"-'T'----"L...E~AF~R!!:!A!!:.Pl!'='DS2.--+--·,(.;"~i.---±_~-+t__..::~::..:i~,-:~=-:-h-';'-':~.-I_--,.."",i:,-+---"-'-1--'--'--~J-___1 200+-__-+-__--++-__-+----t;;....·~_..._·,J'_+·.:::--;·.-.i-----'+---+~.."'".....:_i....\-.,.d-.,.,:..;.......----=..\"'/-.00;-----::::+------;----1 o+--c==---+----:=-+--=-+--"...,....--+----'--=-+-_=."....-t--.,---+----"..,··-...;·..·-j·._..._••_.,__-+_._.......;..."'......;...._..'1'+-.._......;..."-.....""•...'---....--1... 1972 1973 1974'1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 FLOWS: -CHURCHILL RIVER AT LEAF RAPIDS 259 FIG.5.Southern Indian Lake levels,Churchill River flows,and diversion flows from 1972 to 1982. aspen (Populus tremuloides),balsam poplar (Populus balsam- .ifera),paper birch (Betula papyrifera),willow (Salix spp.),and ':"""alder (Alnus spp.).A mixed deciduous~coniferous ecotone ~.commonly occurred along the preimpoundment shorelines. Permafrost is widespread in all terrain types surrounding the lake,with the exception of the glacio-fluvial deposits in the /;'""northern half of region 4 and region 5.The depth of permafrost i.exceeds 10m in upland areals (Brown 1978)but it does not exist under the main lake basins or under the narrow valleys of majorr-tributaries because of the thermal influence of the water bodies. I The temperature of the permafrost ranges from -0.2 to ;-0.8°C.The thickness of the active layer varies from 0.5 to 2 m,depending on local terrain conditions.Landforms associ- f""'ated with permafrost conditions that occur in the regions of [glacio·.lacustrine deposits include palsas and collapse scars, I raised peat plateaux,alnd black spruce islands in lowland bogs. ~There is evidence of a major movement of people into the ,1 region about A.D.700 who were probably early representatives ,ofthe presentpopulation of Swampy Cree,one of the Algonkian tribes that occupy the boreal forest zone of the Precambrian f""Shield.Archaleological investigators of isolated campsites in !I regions 4 and 5 and on the diversion route south of region 6 have reported artifacts that date from before 4000 B.C.(LWCNR 1975).The Danish expedition led by lens Munck overwintered rin the Churchill estuary in 1619-20,leading the Swampy Cree r to name the river "Mantawesepe"or the "river of strangers" C (Faries and Watkins 1938).In 1686,fur traders of the Hudson's Bay Company renamed the river the "Churchill"in honor of the fOuke of Marlborough,a senior officer of the Company.The !,present community of South Indian Lake is located on the eastern shore of the narrow channel leading fro ....region 2 to ,r-region 6.Many of the local people moved to Southern Indian ),'Lake from the Nelson House Reserve on the Rat River early in l this century.Previously,the lake had been used only seasonally as part of the traditional hunting and gathering region of the .~elson House Band.In 1922,a trading post on the lake was 1 established by the Hudson's Bay Company.In 1942,a I commercial fishery and registered trapline system were organ- _ized.For many years prior to the impoundment,the lake was the Ii largest producer of export-grade lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeajormis)in northern Manitoba,with annual catches in excess of 1 mmion pounds (Bodaly et al.1984b).Following the announcement of the Churchill River diversion scheme,the 6OO-member community was relocated to the eastern shore of the South Indialn narrows near a newly constructed airstrip.A road between the mining town of Leaf Rapids and the now- abandoned construction camp at the diversion channel on the south shoreline of region 6 was built in 1974. The Southern Indian Lake Impoundment The 3-m impoundment of Southern Indian Lake was accom- plished by blocking its main outlet channel at Missi Falls,in region 4,with a rock-fill dam and constructing a concrete spillway on a smaller nearby outlet channel.Water may be released into the lower Churchill River during periods of high inflow,which would otherwise cause the lake to exceed the licensed regulation limit of258.17 m (MSL)while the diversion is operating at a licensed maximum capacity of 850 m3 •s-I. Minimum releases to the lower Churchill River are 14.2 m3 .S-l during the ope:n-water season and 42.5 m3 ·s-\during the ice-cover period. Lake Levels before and after Impoundment Lake levels,Churchill River flows,and diversion flows for the period 1972-82 during which the diversion and impound- ment occurred are summarized in Fig.5.The recording of open-water lake levels began in 1956 but there are.several ensuing years in which incomplete records were obtained.The maximum and minimum daily Jake levels based on the 1956-76 period record were 256.08m (MSL)and 254.31 m (MSL). Simulated monthly lake levels based on flow records for the 1912-67 period using the natural elevation-discharge relation- ship at Missi Falls indicate that the long-term mean level has been 254.93 m (MSL)and with maximum and minimum levels of 256.79 m (MSL)and 253.82 m (MSL)(LWCNR 1975). The Missi Falls dam and the outlet control structure were built during the 1973·-76 period.Initially the smaller southern outlet channel was blocked to de water the control structure site, Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci .•Vol.41.1984 553 TABLE 1.Preimpoundment and postimpoundment areas (kIn2)and volumes (109 m3)of regions of Southern Indian Lake (after McCullough 1981). Region 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Postimpoundment area 92 521 279 252 741 307 139 60 2391 Preimpoundment area 77 475 223 200 625 211 120 46 1977 Postimpoundment volume 0.63 5.27 2.45 2.42 9.64 1.81 0.81 0.35 23.38 Preimpoundment volume 0.38 3.78 1.70 1.74 7.59 1.04 0.42 0.19 16.84 ~ 800600 Pre floodi ng surface ------- Region I. 2 34.-X-It- 5 -0-0- 6 200 E o O+------r----l..-.....".·-o·o.,...·_-::7"r----.l...----...-·:;r---.l...---_-,,--=>i,,"'.--' ~-----_._-----------_.;~~~_._----------~~-~---_.__._------./-/•••0""···/'./..",.....·,,0 ...."".""..,./ • 0 ~~,/"/.'-.,.10 .."p •.•••.........,.,./.6 ....,.,.,/ //-~/.,. 0.·,.'./-" (.'".~.""",.,.,.+ o ./_'10 ~20 I ./.,....,.........,. fu .,...".,...", o .,...'" rX 30 I 40 FIG.6.Hypsometric relations of the major basins of Southern Indian Lake. TABLE 3.Volumes,depths,and exchange times of Southern Indian Lake regions before and after impoundment and river .diversion.Preimpoundment mean elevation of the lake is 255 m (MSL),and postimpoundment mean elevation is 258 m (MSL).Exchange times for regions are based on the net interbasin transfers necessary to balance the water budget of the f""lake and do not allow for wind-driven circulation (McCullough 1981). Region Whole lake 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 Volume (kID 3) Pre 16.84 0.38 3.78 1.70 1.74 7.59 1.04 0.42 0.19 Post 23.38 0.63 5.27 2.45 2.42 9.64 1.81 0.81 0.35 %39 66 39 44 39 27 74 93 84 Mean depth (m) Pre 8.5 4.9 8.0 7.6 8.7 12.1 4.9 3.5 4.1 Post 9.8 6.8 10.1 8.8 9.6 13.0 5.9 5.8 5.8 %15 39 26 16 10 7 20 66 41 Exchange time (yr) Pre 0.51 0.012 0.12 0.053 0.05:5 0.23 1.5 4.2 0.39 Post 0.72 0.021 0.17 0.078 0.40 1.4 2.8 0.031 0.73 %41 67 42 47 730 610 190 -99.3 87 In regions 0,3,4,and 5 the length increased,but in regions 1,2, 6,and 7 the length decreased,as the highly crenulatedshoreline and islands w~:re submerged.Raising the lake level above the natural wave-washed zone caused a marked change in the type of materials at the eroding face of the shoreline.Prior to flooding,88%of the shoreline was bedrock controlled.Immedi- ately following impoundment,bedrock outcrops occurred on only 14%of the shoreline (Table 2). Effects of Flooding and Diversion on Water Exchange Times Water budg1ets for the Southern Indian Lake basins for pre- and post-impoundment and diversion conditions showed that TABLE 4.Lake elevations,areas,mean depths,and water renewal times of major lakes in the lower Churchill River valley before and after Churchill River diversion.Mean pre-and post-diversion flows of Churchill River are estimated at 1011 and 25 m3 •s -',respec- tively (LWCNR 1975). Partridge Northern Breast Indian Fidler Lake Lake Lake Elevation (m MSL) Pre 245.0 236.0 232.6 Post 242.0 232.8 229.0 Annual level fluctuation (m) Pre 1.0 1.3 1.0 Post 2.8 2.7 2.2 Area (km2) Pre 23.8 144.7 38.8 Post 14.5 87.8 9.3 V 'ume (kID 3 ) Pre 0.151 0.818 0.115 Post 0.107 0.415 0.034 Mean depth (m) Pre 6.3 5.7 3.0 Post 7.4 4.7 3.7 Water renewal time (d) Pre 1.7 9.0 1.3 Post 4.8 16.4 1.3 555Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol.4],]984 ~ - TABLE 5.Lake elevations,areas,volumes,mean depths,and water renewal times under mean diversion flow conditions of major lakes in the Rat River valley amalgamated by impoundment at Notigi Lake (Bodaly et al.1984a;LWCNR 1975;Underwood-McLellan and Associates, Winnipeg,Man.,unpubL data).NA,data not available. Central West Karsakawigimak Pemichigamau Mynarski Mynarski Notigi Issett Lake Lake Lake Lake Lake Rat Lake Notigi Lake Reservoir Elevation (m MSL) Preimpoundment 250.6 248.1 247.8 251.1 249.0 247.8 242.0 Postimpoundment 258.0 258.0 258.0 258.0 258.0 257.9 257.2 Change 7.4 9.9 10.2 6.9 9.0 10.1 15.2 Predevelopment Postdiversion Area (km2 )3.7 18.8 19.3 \l.5 6.2 78.4 15.1 584 Volume (km3 )NA 0.038 0.042 0.291 0.031 0.010 0.080 4.1 Mean depth (m)NA 2.0 2.2 3.7 2.7 \.7 5.3 7.8 Water renewal time (d)NA 37 39 136 213 60 30 62 TABLE 6.Changes in the power distribution of the Churchill and Nelson rivers following hydroelectric development,based on mean annual flows and average open"water conditions (L WCNR 1975).Post- development distributions are subdivided between energy dissipated at hydraulic structures and energy dissipated throughout channels and shorelines in the affected systems. Postdiversion power (MW) Predi version power (MW) Concentrated Spread throughout at dams system Change in power Rat River Burntwood River Lower Churchill River Lower Nelson River Southern Indian Lake Total hydraulic power 2 85 2702 .3969 0.2 6758.2 109" o 8 1730" 6815.5 d 12 697 686 b 3552 b 21.5 c 6x 8x 108x ·Wave power on the Notigi and Nelson River reservoirs was not included. bPower remaining in stable lower Churchill or Nelson River channels. cDisruptive power on Southern Indian Lake is estimated as the product of average annual wave power on the lake multiplied by the proportion of shorelines.in erodible backshore materials. dNet increase in power of 57.3 MW is due to the 3-m impoundment on Southern Indian Lake and the net increase in water levels in the system. the water exchange time forthe whole lake increased from 0.51 to 0.72 yr under average flow conditions because of the increased volume of the lake (Table 3)(McCullough 1981).In regions 0,1,2,5,and 7 the exchange times were affected by the impoundment only.In regions 3 and 4 the exchange times were increased 7.3 and 6.1 times,respectively,as the major portion of the Churchill River waters no longer flowed through these basins.The major portion of the flow of the Churchill River now passes through region 6,decreasing the exchange time from 4.2 to 0.03 yr. Downstream Effects of the ChurchiJI River Diversion Before entering Southern Indian Lake,the Churchill River receives water from 242000 km 2 of the western interior of Canada.Local tributary streams directly tributary to the lake drain an additional 14000 km 2•In combination,the drainage areas produce a long-term potential outflow from the lake of 1010.7 m3 's-1 (LWCNR 1975).With the diversion operating, the mean outflow at Missi Falls was estimated to be 251 m3 .S-1 556 (LWCNR 1975),a reduction to 25%of the natural condition. Approximately 75%of the flow,or 760 m3 •s-1,is diverted into the small Rat River and Burntwood River valleys enroute to the lower Nelson River (Fig.3).- The effects of the reduced flows on lakes of the lower Churchill River valley are summarized in Table 4.Under the minimum postdiversion discharge conditions,the lake levels are lowered because of the reduced depths of flow at the lake ~ outlets.An increased range of lake elevations is anticipated aSci periodic flood flows are released at Missi Falls. Diversion flows to the Nelson River are controlled by a dam~ and gated regulation structure installed at the outle~of Notigi .) Lake in the Rat River valley.The elevation of Notigi Lake was raised 15.2 m by storing Rat River discharges over a 3-yr period prior to the diversion.By June 1976,the lake was impounded to the level of Southern Indian Lake,creating the 584-km2 Notigi reservoir in the upper Rat River valley contiguous with Southern Indian Lake.The predevelopment morphometric characteristics of the upper Rat River valley lakes incorporated in the Notigi reservoir are summarized in Table 5. Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol.41.1984 -)-.«"-J _······1 .."1 <-'-'1 ---I .·····1 FIG.7.Landsat satellite images of Southern Indian Lake taken on (A)29 July 1973 before impoundment and (8)24 June 1978 after impoundment.Lighter blue tones in Fig.78 indicate higher reflectivity from the water surface because of the increased turbidity of the lake water.The turbidity increased in regions 0,I,2,3,4,and 6 because of the erosion of flooded fine-grained shoreline materials.The turbidity of waters in regions 5 and 7 was not affected by the impoundment because the flooded shoreline materials were coarse-grained or bedrock.A decrease in turbidity afler impoundment occurred in shallow bays (e.g.Wupaw Bay and the east end of region 6)because the bollom sediments were no longer resuspended by wave action.The change in Southern Indian Lake from a sediment trap to a sediment source after impoundment is apparent by comparing the turbidity of the inftowing and outflowing waters of the Churchill River. -i Effects of Diversion on the Hydraulic Regime of the Churchill and Nelson Rivers Impoundment and diversion of the Churchill River was a sudden and drastic .relocation of hydraulic forces in the established landscape.The magnitude of the relocation is summarized in Table 6 by comparing the hydraulic power (megawatts)expended on the landscape before and after the impoundment and diversion under average river flow and wave conditions,The degree of change or instability brought about by impoundment and diversion depends on the landforms encounc tered by the redirected forces of the new configuration.For example,the repositioning of wave energy by flooding a stable bedrock cliff caused no instability because the landform encountered before and after the project was unaffected.In contrast,flooding into backshore zones composed of frozen unconsolidated materials created shorelines that can remain unstable for decades.Most of the 21.5 MW of wave energy of Southern Indian Lake is being expended in eroding new shorelines in the flooded periphery of the lake during the open-water season.The eroded materials have increased the turbidity of the lake waters dramatically.as shown in the satellite images of Southern Indian Lake taken before and after impoundment in Fig.7,Similarly,the 8 times greater power of the diverted·flows has begun to fonn a new "lower Churchill River"in the Rat and Burntwood valleys wherever erodible materials fonn the riverbanks. The natural forces redirected by the Churchill River diversion scheme are generallytoo large and too dispersed to be mitigated by further construction.As a result,the instabilities created in the environment are essentially beyond control.Subsequent papers in this issue document the effects of this disruptive power and instability on the physical,chemical,and biological components of the constantly changing aquatic ecosystems of Southern Indian Lake. Acknowledgments Studies at Southern Indian Lake are now entering their eleventh year. The longevity of research on the lake,and the contents of this issue, attest to the farsighted judgment of those individuals involved with the original formulation of the problem and the study design.Many originators have moved on to other tasks.In particular,Gordon Koshinsky and Andrew Hamilton were responsible for the formulation Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.4/,/984 'ifili'\ .and executio~1 of the ?rigi?al design of the LWCNR (1975)study, aspects of which are still bemg pursued today.Without their foresight, and the continilled support of Paul Campbell,manager of the fish habitat research group,the scientific opportunity presented by the Churchill- Nelson develc)pment would have been lost.Studies funded by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans began under the directorship of G.H.Lawler and have continued under his overview as Director- General of the Western Region.Without his continuing support and the support of the administrative services of the Freshwater Institute,the long-term SOIJIthem Indian Lake studies reported in this volume would not have beel1l possible.Finally,all the contributors to this series of papers must thank Dr Winston Billingsley,Special Editor,for greatly improving each manuscript as well as ensuring the overall coherence of the series. References BODALY,R.A.,R.E.HECKY,AND R.J.P.FUDGE.1984a.Increases in fish mercury levels in lakes l100ded by the Churchill River divelliion,northern Manitoba.Can.J.Fish.Aqua!.Sci.41:682-691. BODALY,R.A..,T.w.D.JOHNSON,R.J.P.FUDGE,AND J.W.CLAYTON. 1984b.Collapse of the lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeajormis)fishery in Soulhem Indian Lake,Manitoba,following lake impoundment and river diversion.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:692-700. BROWN,R.I.l~.1978.Guidebook,ThirdIntemational Conference on Perma- frost.NatilWlll!Research Council ofCanada,Onawa,Onto DAVIES,J.R.,B.B.BANNATYNE,G.S.BARRY,AND H.R.McCABE.1962. Geology and mineral resources of Manitoba.Queen's Printer.Winnipeg, Man.l90p. FARIES,R.,AND E.A.WATKINS.1938.A Dictionary of the Cree Language. Anglican Book Centre.Toronto,Onl.530 p. FROHLlNGER,T.G;1972.Geology oflhe Soulhern Indian Lake area,central portion.Manitoba Department of Mines,Resources and Environmental ManageDII:nt,Mines Branch Publication 71-21.Queen's Printer,Win- nipeg,Man.91 p. GOVERNMENT OF CANADA.1980.Electric power in Canada,1979.Department of Energy"Mines and Resources,Ottawa,Ont.88 p. HECICY,R.E.,R.W.NEWBURY,R.A.BODALY,K.PATALAS.AND D.M. ROSENBEll.G.1984.Enviionmentalimpact prediction and assessment:the Southern Indian Lake experience.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:720-732. LWCNR.1975 ..Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board. Technical Report.Queens Printer,Winnipeg,Man.398 p.plus 8 appendices. McCULLOUGH,G.K.1981.Waler budgets for Southern Indian Lake,before and afterimpoundment and Churchill River diversion.1972-79.Can.MS Rep.Fish.Aquat.Sci.1620:22 p. NEWBURY,R.W.,G.K.MCCULLOUGH,S.McLEOD,ANOR.OLESON.1973. Characteristics of Nelson-Churchill River shorelines:physical impact study.Technical Report.Department of Civil Engineering,University of Manitoba.Winnipeg,Man.156 p. 557 ..... - Effect of Impoundment and Diversion on the Sediment Budget and Nearshore Sedimentation of Southern Indian Lake 1 R.E.Hecky and G.K.McCullough Western Region,Department of Fisheries and Oceans,Winnipeg,Man.R3T 2N6 Hecky,R.E.,and G.K.McCullough.1984.Effect of impoundment and diversion on the sediment budget and nearshore sedimentation of Southern Indian Lake.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:567-578. Shoreline erosion added an annual average of 4 x 10b t of mineral sediment per year to Southern Indian Lake (postimpoundment area,2391 km 2)during the first 3 yr of impoundment.This erosion increased sedimentary input to the lake by a factor of 20.The lake retained 90%of this eroded material within its basin,and 80-90%of the retained material was deposited nearshore.Despite the production of extremely fine constituent particle sizes,eroding shorelines generated predominantly large day aggregates,initially transported offshore as bed load.During bed load transport,abrasion of clay aggregates produced fine particles that became suspended.Over 80%of the suspended load is lost to outflows from the lake because the suspended load is primarily fine silt and clay-sized particles,most of which do not settle even under winter ice cover.The extensive nearshore clay aggregate deposits are temporary,and net deposition in these areas will change to net erosion when input of sediment from eroding shorelines ceases.The effects of shoreline erosion on the lake's sediment regime·will persist for decades. L'erosion de la ligne de rivage,pendant les trois premieres annees de retenue des eaux,ajouta en mo~enne 4 x 10b t·a-1 de sediments minerauxdans Ie lac Sud des Indiens (superficie apres retenue de 2391 km ).les apports de sediment dans Ie lac augmenterent,du fait de cette erosion,d'un facteur de 20.le lac a retenu dans son bassin 90 %de ce materiel d'erosion,et 80-90 %du materiel retenu a ete depose pres du rivage. En depit de la taille extremement fine des particules produites,I'erosion de ~a Iigne de rivage donna naissance en grande partie a de gros agregats d'argile,initialement transportes vers Ie large comme charge de fond.Au cours du transport de cette charge,il se produisit,par abrasion des agregats d'argile,de fines particules qui devinrent en suspension.Plus de 80 %de cette charge en suspension disparait dans les emissaires du lac,car les particu]es sont surtout de la vase fine et de I'argile,la plupart demeurant en suspension meme sous la couverture de glace en hiver.les abondants depots d'agregats d'argile a proxi- mite du rivage sont temporaires et,quand cesseront les apports de sediment des rives soumises a I'erosion, .la deposition nette dans ces zones se transformera en erosion nette.les effets de I'erosion de la ligne de rivage sur Ie regime sedimentaire du lac persisteront pendant plusieurs decennies. ..... Received May 27,1983 Accepted January 79,1984 I n the summer of 1976,Southern Indian Lake (SIL)was raised 3m above its natural mean level initiating extensive shoreline erosion (Newbury and McCullough 1984).We have examined the sediment budgets of the lake and its constituent basins,before and after impoundment,to detennine how changes in basin configuration,water flows,shoreline typology,and sediment-generating erosional processes affected concentrations of suspended solids and depositional patterns. SIL is a large,shallow,multi basin lake on the Churchill River in northern Manitoba,which was impounded as part of the Churchill-Nelson rivers hydroelectric development (Newbury et al.1984).A dam was built at Missi Falls,the natural outlet of SIL (Fig.1),to raise the lake and effect gravity-flow diversion of water from SIL through an excavated channel at South Bay (region 6,Fig.1).Diversion into the Nelson River basin began in June 1976 but did not exceed 400 m3 •s -1 until August 1977. Since September 1977 the diversion flow has averaged 75%of IThis paper is one of a series on the effects of the Southern Indian Lake impoundment and Churchill River diversion. Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.41.1984 Rec;u Ie 27 mai 1983 Accepte Ie 79 janvier 7984 the natural outflow from SIL (Newbury et al.1984).Impound- ment increased the surface area of the lake by 21 %to 2391 km2 . With flooding,SIL underwent a major change in the nature of the land-water contact.Prior to flooding,80%of the lake's perimeter was stable,bedrock-controlled shoreline,but after flooding,86%was unconsolidated overburden that was gener- ally pennafrost affected (Newbury et al.1984). Before the flooding of SIL,the Churchill River was the main source of sedimentary material entering the lake,transporting 2 x 105 t'yr-1 (termed "external loading").After flooding,an additional 4 x 10 6 t of mineral sediment (Newbury and McCullough 1984)was added annually to the lake from surrounding shorelines (tenned "internal loading").Internal loading of material from flooded areas is a prominent feature of new reservoirs,and the distribution of newly added material, within and downstream from a new reservoir,will detennine the nature,degree,and distribution of dependent ecological effects. Large changes in the internal loading of sedimentary material can be demonstrated both by measurements of shoreline erosion (Newbury and McCullough 1984)and by the use of pre-and 567 Region @ Regional Boundary _ Erosion Monitoring ". Site 1 Lake Monitoring * Station 10 0---10 20 30 ....... .... - FlG.1.Location of erosion-monitoring sites referred to in text and lake stations contributing to con- struction of the sediment budgets for regions of SIL. post-impoundment and diversion sediment mass balance bud- gets,which use the continuity equation (1)I +E =0 +D +M where I is inflowing sedimentary mass from tributaries (external loading),E is mass input by erosion (internal loading),0 is outflowing mass in effluents,D is mass deposited on the lake bottom,and M is change in mass stored in the water of the lake. SIL poses some complexities for analysis of its sedimentary regime.Previous studies of sedimentation in reservoirs have focussed largely on retention of externally loaded sediments, i.e.E in equation 1 is assumed to be zero or negligible (Rice and Simons 1982;Cyberski 1973).Retention of externally loaded sediment can be empirically predicted from data on water retention period,flow velocity,and sediment particle-size distribution (Churchill 1948).In SIL,internal loading of sediments eroded from flooded shorelines overwhelmed exter- nal loading after impoundment.Other reservoir studies have emphasized the fonnation of new,stable banks and shoals and their effects on reservoir morphometry (e.g.Everdingen 1968); however,stable shoal fonnation is the exception in SIL. 568 Therefore,the major objectives of this study have been to determine not only the gross retention of eroded sediment but also to provide a first approximation as to where the retained material is sedimented.To do this,sediment budgets have been constructed for SIL and its individual regions from 1975 before full impoundmentthrough 1978 after full diversion.Investiga- tions of nearshore sedimentation and some physical characteris- tics of suspended sediments were conducted over the period 1977-82 to confinn independently some of the results of the sediment budget analyses. Methods Suspended Solids Measurements Filterable suspended solids (FSS)are those that are retained by a Whatman GFC filter using the method of Stainton et a1. (1977).The nominal pore size of these filters is 1 f.l.m.Total suspended solids (TSS)were operationally defined.as those recovered by centrifugation using a Sorvall RC2-B centrifuge with a GS 3 rotor (angle head accepting 500-mL polyethylene Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol.41,1984 ""'" FIG.2.Effect on absorbance of filterable (high'slope line~Ab.= 0.029W -0.048,r 2 =0.94)and nonfilterable (low slope line;Ab.= 0.OO25W +0.02,r 2 =0.27)suspended material,where W is the dry ,....weight of the sediment.Nominal diameter for filterable solids is 1 f.l.m. bottles)run at 8000 rpm for 2h at temperatures of 20-28°C. ,....This centrifugation should theoretically settle alI particles greater than 0.06 J.Lm nominal diameter.Duplicate water sam- pIes,1-1.4 L in total volume,were centrifuged in successive 350-to 400-mL portions,and the collected pellets were thenroven-dried at 105°C and weighed.The difference between TSS i and FSS,determined on paired samples,was considered to be nonfilterable suspended solids. ·FSS were found to be highly correlated with several light measurements.Absorbance measurements at 543 nm (in the middle of the visible spectrum)were made on water samples in a lO-cm cell on a Bausch &Lomb Spectronic 70 spectrophoto- meter before and after filtration and centrifugation.Absorbance at 543 nm was strongly correlated with FSS but was weakly correlated with nonfilterable suspended sediment concentration (Fig.2).Most imRortantly,absorbance was 10 times as -sensitive to an increase in FSS concentration as it was to an equivalent increase in nonfilterable suspended material.KulIen- berg (1974)also found that particles >1 J.Lm in diameter are ,.....much more effective in scattering light than smaller particles. The scattering coefficient (Sso based on vertical extinction and backscattering of incident surface light),the horizontal beam attenuation coefficient (0.),and the logarithm of the inverse of Sec chi disk depth were all strongly correlated with FSS (Table 1).These measurements were routinely made in SIL by Hecky (1984)and provided a means of rapidly estimating FSS in the field.They also offered the advantages of integrating over a significant portion of the upper water column (1-5 m)in the case of the scattering coefficient and Secchi disk measurement or of yielding detailed profiles of the whole water column in the case of the horizontal beam transmissometer.During the open-water season,measurements with the transmissometer indicated that the water column was nearly always uniform in 0. (Hecky et a1.1979).Consequently,S,was used to estimate FSS r because of the greater number of measurements of S,during :1 open-water seasons.Horizontal beam attenuation was used fJ during ice cover to estimate FSS concentrations.Hecky et al. (1979)reported the estimated FSS concentrations for all SIL stations from 1974through 1978.Observation of concentrations was at least monthly during the ice-free period,June through g·m-'suspended sedimenl ./ / /. / / / / / / / .1./ / / .1 y /'---.l:_--l~__!J.ZI_-"""'i'- -;-I(X ;((21 r Range (mg'L -1) 0.93 1-30 0.94 1-20 0.89 1-30 n 18 16 27 Relation TABLE 1.Linear regression relationships between filterable sus- pended sediments (FSS)and scattering coefficient (5,),horizontal beam attenuation coefficient (0:),and Secchi disk depth (SD).The number of samples (n),correlation coefficient (r),and range of FSS values included are also given. October,but less frequent,2-3 times,during the ice-covered period. Sediment Budgets Sediment budgets from SIL were analyzed in two stages. Because FSS could be related with greater confidence than TSS to available light measurements,FSS budgets were constructed in the initial stage.Budgets for FSS were constructed using only inflow,outflow,and lake concentration data.These budgets have a net flux term (see below)that sums erosional input and depositional output (E and D,equation 1).In the second stage of budget analysis,total sediment budgets were derived from the FSS budgets,and the net flux term was separated into its erosional and.depositional components. Budgets for Filterable Solids FSS budgets were calculated for the individual regions of the lake (Fig.1)except that regions 0 and 1 and regions 3 and 4 were combined and treated as single regions.Budgets were calcu- lated for the period of January 1975 through December 1978. The continuity equation (2)1f =Of+Sf+M f , where If =mass of FSS entering the lake or region from all inflows,Of =mass of FSS leaving the lake or region in all outflows,Sf =mass of filterable material entering or leaving suspension within the lake or region,and Mf =change in total mass of FSS in the lake or region in a given time period (i.e. change in storage),was solved for each region on a monthly basis for Sf.This term,Sf'represents the balance between measured gains and losses of FSS.Water fluxes and storage were from the water budget of McCullough (1981).Linear interpolation was used between FSS observations.Month-end FSS concentrations were multiplied by month-end regional volumes to calculate Mf. Because Churchill River FSS concentrations were found to be discharge related (r =0.69,n =20,flow range 870- 1630 m3 .s-1),a linear regression equation was used to estimate FSS concentrations in the inflowing river.'Mean FSS concentra- tions for local inflowing streams and rivers were assumed to be the mean concentrationfor the Churchill River,3.2 g'm-3 .The Churchill River is 20 times larger than the next largest inflowing river and accounts for 90%of total inflows into SIL.The assumed mean concentration in local inflows is likely somewhat high for these small inflows;however,even using this estimate, sedimentary mass contributed by local inflows is only 5%of the Churchill River contribution.FSS concentrations in outflowing water from the basins were taken to be those measured at the central basin station in regions 4 and 6.Mean monthly FSS concentrations were multiplied by outflow volumes to calculate Of· FSS =7.7(8,)+0.5 FSS =0.9(0:)-0.1 FSS =9.8(ln USD)+7.6 .0.010 0.' 0.4 Ec: ""¢ If)0.' C Q) l>c: C o..0~is'".0 <l: ~0.1 l> Q) Q. <Il 0.0 0 Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.41.1984 569 - TABLE 2.Flushing rates (mo -I)for various basins of SIL during ice-covered '(IC)and ice-free (IF)seasons (from McCullough 1981). Region Season 0-1 2 3-4 6 5 1975-76 (IC)0.56 1.3 0.27 0.02 0.07 1976 (IF)0.58 1.4 0.15 1.3 0.01 1976-77 (IC)0.51 1.2 0.20 0.84 0.03 1977 (IF)0.70 1.1 0.23 1.8 0.05 1977-78 (IC)0.44 1.1 0.06 2.4 0.02 1978 (IF)0.54 1.3 0.13 2.5 0.14 Total Sediment Budgets The calculation of a total sediment budget (equation l) required correction of several terms of the FSS budget to account for nonfilterable suspended solids.Filtration of sus- pended solids samples throughout the lake and covering a large range of concentrations (from 9-47 mg'L -(TSS)removed 56%of the TSS on average (range 38-89%,SD =15%,n = 11).This yields a mean weight ratio of 1.8 for TSS:FSS. Churchill River TSS was 53%FSS. The mean factor of 1.8 for TSS:FSS was applied to the quantities 1fand Of (equation 2)to estimate 1 and 0 (equation 1).The quantity oftotal material entering orleaving suspension was calculated as S =1.8Sf for negative values of Sf (material entering suspension from within the basin;equation 2)and S = Sf for positive values (material leaving suspension within the basin).Negative values for Sf were corrected for the submicro- metre fraction because filterable material entering suspension would be accompanied by submicrometre particles.Positive values of Sf were not corrected for a submicrometre fraction,as the subrnicrometre fraction is not likely to sediment within SIL even under ice.Six months are required to clear a lO-m still-water column of I-fJ-m particles (Tanner and Jackson 1947).Only regions 3-4 and 5 were flushed slowly enough (Table 2)for submicrometre particles to settle in substantial amounts;and even there,observed sediment profiles,under ice cover when turbulence is lowest,were unchanged from mid- January through the end of March (see Results below).Values of E are from Newbury and McCullough (1984),and the depositional flux (D)is calculated as D =S +E. Shoreline Erosion and Nearshore Deposits Annual surveys to determine rates of shoreline erosion were done by Newbury and McCullough (1984).Twenty shoreline sites were chosen to represent a range of erodible backshore materials with high and low exposures to the lake.The developing offshore profiles at these sites were monitored by annual depth soundings with a survey rod along profiles perpendicular to the shoreline.Additional investigation of the proportion of eroded materials that was deposited near to eroding shorelines was begun in 1982 by scuba diving.Cores of the bottom sediments were taken using 73-mm-diameter plastic tubes along transects perpendicular to the shore at erosion monitoring sites 1 and 11 (Fig.1).Both sites chosen had been preimpoundment sand beaches;hence,newly deposited fine mineral and organic sediments were easily discriminated from preimpoundment coarse deposits or rocky bottom.Mechanical analysis of sand,silt,and clay fractions of shoreline overburden samples was reported by Newbury and McCullough (984). 570 Samples of recently deposited nearshore bottom sediments were also analyzed for sand,silt,and clay content by standard mechanical analysis (McKeague 1976),which included drying,~ pulverizing with a mortar and pestle,and dispersing with sodium hexametaphosphate.Duplicate subsamples were mech- anically analyzed without preparatory pulverization and disper- sion to determine the natural size distribution of the silt and rounded aggregates of clay that formed the sediments.Suspen- sions of wet,unpulverized bottom sediment were sedimented into a suspended pan,and the accumulated weight was recorded using a Cahn RG electrobalance and chart recorder. Results Shoreline Material The inorganic shoreline materials of southern regions of the lake are predominantly permafrost-affected glacio-lacustrine deposits with greater than 80%clay and 0-5%sand.Discontin- uous,thin deposits of clayey till (19-65%clay,10-35%sand) commonly lie on the bedrock surface under the glacio-lacustrine deposits.The till is most extensive in region 4 and much less common in regions 0,1,and 6.Region 5 shorelines are predominantly composed of coarse-grained glacio-fluvial and pro-glacial deltaic deposits.Sand,silt,and clay content of selected samples of shoreline materials were reported by Newbury and McCullough (1984). Concentrations of Filterable Solids The effect of impoundment on the concentrations of FSS varied from region to region (Fig .3).Most of the impoundment of SIL was accomplished in 1976 with the raising of the lake level by 0.3,0.8,0.7,and 0.3 m in June,July,August,and September,respectively (Newbury et at.1984).During 1976, the June and early July concentrations in the three southern regions I,2,and 6 were similar to those in 1974 and 1975. However,in 1976,by the end of July in region 6 and the end of August in regions 1 and 2,FSS concentrations were clearly greater than in thepreimpoundment years.In 1977 and 1978 these three southern regions all had concentrations higher than before impoundment,but concentrations of FSS did not increase from 1977 to 1978.The exceptionally high values observed in October 1976 in regions 1 and 6 did not recur.Mid- to late-summer and fall concentrations in 1975 were somewhat . higher than in 1974 because of shoreline erosion due to high water levels.However,the range of concentrations observed in these southern regions prior to impoundment was small com- pared with the postimpoundment changes. Prior to impoundment,the two northern regions 4 and 5 had similar,low concentrations ofFSS.After impoundment,region 5 did not change significantly,but region 4 showed the marked increase in FSS observed in southern basins in August 1976. FSS concentrations increased in each subsequent year,espe- cially in the June~July period.The relative difference ..1 FSS between region 4 and the more southerly basins of SIL was substantially reduced after impoundment. Under ice cover the FSS concentrations of the rapidly flushed southern regions (0-1,2,6,Table 2)declined substantially from open-water values.In the more slowly flushed region 4, winter reductions were less marked.For example,the winter profile of a.(the coefficient of horizontal light attenuation)in region 2 showed a substantial decline (60%)from October to January and a continuing reduction through March (Fig.4)to Can.J.Fish.Aqual.Sci ..Vol.41.1984 o ALPHA (m-I) IS o ~ 10 REGION 4 REGION 2 C-o ? <D..... CD .\D...... CD ICE 0 0 Z 4 6 8 E 10 £IZ a. CI) 14Cl 16 18 ZO zz 0 4 6 8 10 E 12 .s=a.14 CI) Cl 16 18 ZO 2Z 24 FIG.4.Depth profiles of a in regions 2 and 4 for October 12.1977, January 13,1978,and March 23,1978,from Hecky et aL (1979). to the more rapid flushing during this winter period as compared with region 4 (Table 2).Rapid flushing allowed the southern regions to come quickly to a balance between the inputs and outputs of sediment.For example,the seasonal concentrations during 1977 and ]978 were similar within these regions.In contrast,region 4 had not achieved a new steady state,and sediment concentrations in all seasons continued to rise through 1978 (Fig.3). Sediment Budgets Filterable suspended sediment budget Impoundment and diversion changed SIL from a basin of deposition for FSS (positive Sf)to a basin of export (negative Sf)(Table 3).Export ofFSS at outflows increased by a factor of 4-5 after impoundment and diversion.Substantial changes in FSS concentrations,especially in regions 1 and 6 (Fig.3)in 1976,resulted in a large storage tenn for that year,but much of that initial flush of sediment was lost the following winter (1977).Subsequent changes in storage (1978)have been smaller but positive as FSS concentrations in the largest region, 3-4,have continued to increase.These changes in output and storage of FSS occurred because eroded input increased the internal loading of FSS. •28.8 58 •-A"-<_~~~-~.---~•0'-r1__-6--.tr-4-.....-~ 2E 6C 3 2 I0+------------------------1 5 0 -.---.--=:~-.-L~ --"~A=-~"'<6--~A-"'-- 0-+--------------------1 15 15 0-/-------------------\ 10 10 20%of the October value.In region 4 the upper water column became somewhat clearer (30%decline)by January as sedi- ments accumulated at greater depths.However,there was a negligible change from January to March (Fig.4).If the vertical water column at the station in region 4 was assumed to be a closed system,all the material that was to settle from the water column had done so by mid-January.The more rapid decline in a in region 2 and the continuing decline after January were due 48 5 0 20 IA •28.0 15 IF'"10 5 ~, <>....u-..J:........-&:/ 0 r FIG.3.Concentrations ofFSS at index stations in the various regions during the open-water seasons of 1974 (-),1975 (6),1976 (0), 1977 (e),and 1978 (_).Plotted data are from Hecky et at.(1979). l"""Cfl J ~ w 20 ~ !"MOO.W Cfl ow r-0 10,Z i W:CL Cfl ::> Cfl W -l CD« 0:::: W ~ lJ... Can.J.Fish.Aquae.Sci.,Vol.41./984 571 TABLE 3.Calendar year filterable sediment budgets (l06kg)for SIL.Mass fluxes are riverine input (1f), riverine output (Of)'lake suspended sediment storage (Mf ),and the material entering (negative)or leaving (positive)suspension from within the lake (5f ). Total sediment budget The negative Sf values in the filterable suspended sediment budget (Table 3)after impoundment do not represent the total amount of material actually removed from shorelines because eroded material can sediment nearshore and be effectively invisible to a budget based on FSS concentrations at centrally located stations within a region.Total sediment budgets were constructed to allow comparison of suspended sediment fluxes with the erosion inputs calculated by Newbury and McCullough (1984),as their estimates were based on total sedimentary material eroded.Preimpoundment shoreline mapping indicated that less than 1%of the shore was characterized by significant shoreline erosion (Water Resources Branch 1974).From the evidence of Landsat satellite imagery (Reeky and McCullough 1984)and from observations recorded from the first shoreline erosion survey in August 1975 (R.W.Newbury,Department of Fisheries and Oceans,pers.comm.),it is apparent that some minor shoreline erosion,especially in regions 0-I,2,and 6 (E >a in Table 4),occurred when the lake level was temporarily raised above its historic high level by preliminary construction work in the summer of 1975.Annual erosion surveys begun in August I 975 documented greatly increased extent and rate of erosion after impoundment (Newbury and McCullough 1984). Seasonal total sediment budgets incorporating the eroded influxes (E)from shorelines are given in Table 4.E was subdivided seasonally by assuming that shoreline erosion that is wind energy dependent (Newbury and McCullough 1984)did not occur under ice cover (Le.E =0.0).Also in Table 4 are estimates of seasonal depositional fluxes for each region. Region 3-4 had the largest erosional and depositional fluxes because of its long,actively eroding shorelines and long fetches.Even when the depositional flux is expressed per unit area (Table 5),this largest region had the highest sedimentation rates after impoundment. Total sediment export at outflows from SIL increased after impoundment (4-5 times)but not nearly in proportion to the increase in sediment input (l +E),as the lake retained at least 90%of the eroded input (Table 6).After impoundment,E and D were highly seasonal (Table 4),as shoreline erosion occurred by wave action during the open-water period.The relative losses of suspended solids to outflow and deposition are best compared during the ice-covered period,when generation of suspended solids from shoreline erosion ceases.The relative losses were, in part,a function of water flushing (Fig.5).All the regions, except 3-4,follow a common trend before and after impound- ment,including region 6,which changed from a very slow flushing rate to a very high rate.Above a flushing rate of 0.5·mo-1 the ratio of loss by outflow to total loss was nearly constant at 0.8.The aberrant behavior of region 3-4 may mean 572 Can.J.Fish.Aqu.at.Sci ..Vol.41./984 -, - D 0.5 0.8 206 3 275 0.6 227 11 14 254 27 330 17 228 >0 2.2 122 7 261 9 205 >0 8 186 50 701 4 459 21 33 1944 7 2805 -12 2498 5 0.5 0.8 -1.0 3 -0.4 0.6 1.8 -0.2 1.1 -68 7 -12 9 -42 11 14 16 27 19 17 -62 21 33 -128 7 38 -12 -26 -100 8 -464 50 -148 4 -322 1.0 0.8 0.4 0.8 1.4 0.6 2.8 o 0.8 0.8 104 72 168 110 238 180 108 352 218 308 106 322 o o 207 o 275 o 229 E >0 o 190 o 273 o 247 >0 140 o 102 238 256 o 208 311 238 o 110 290 352 >0 o 650 o 849 o 781 o 54 o 68 2072 92 o 282 2767 174 o 46 2524 130 I 0.6 0.2 72 62 156 142 204 2.8 1.6 6.2 2.2 2.8 1.6 5.0 180 108 352 220 308 106 324 142 104 184 210 240 54 132 132 80 112 132 180 90 84 (IF) (IC) (IF) (IC) (IF) (IC) (IF) Region and season Region 0-1 1975 (IF) 1975-76 (IC) 1976 (IF) 1976-77 (IC) 1977 (IF) 1977-78 (IC) 1978 (IF) Region 2 1975 (IF) 1975-76 (IC) 1976 (IF) 1976-77 (IC) 1977 (IF) 1977-78 (IC) 1978 (IF) Region 3-4 1975 (IF) 1975-76 (IC) 1976 (IF) 1976-77 (IC) 1977 (IF) 1977-78 (IC) 1978 (IF) Region 6 1975 1975-76 1976 1976-77 1977 1977-78 1978 that this large region was not uniformly mixed by the end of the open-water season,as was assumed in the budget. If 0 is assumed to bear the s:-ome relation to total losses (0 + D)during the open-water season as during the ice-covered season,then offshore sedimentation (loss of material from suspension)can be estimated for the open,water season.Using the approximation 0/(0 +D)=0.8 (or D =0.25(0)after rearranging terms)for suspended solids losses in rapidly flushed basins observed during ice cover,offshore sedimentation of suspended material (D 0)during open water can be estimated as Do =0.25(0)in regions 0-1,2,and 6.This off- shore sedimentation of material transported in suspension was· Region 5 1975 (IF) 1975-76 (IC) 1976 (IF) 1976-77 (lC) 1977 (IF) 1977-78 (IC) 1978 (IF) TABLE 4.Fluxes in seasonal total se-diment budgets (10 6 kg)for ice- free (IF)(June I-Oct.31)and ice-covered (IC)(I Nov.-31 May) periods for individual basins of SIL during years of observation.Mass fluxes are riverine input (1),erosional input.(E),riverine output (0), mass entering (negative)or leaving (positive)suspension within region (5),and 5 +E =depositional flux (D).Quantitative estimates of E are from Newbury and McCullough (1984).Estimates of E are not available for the open-water period of 1975,but values for E were observed to be negligible in regions 2,3-4,and 5. ~---------------------- 61 -200 -59 -199 2 112 -91 21 60 201 297 278 123 113 147 100 1975 1976 1977 1978 0 77-78 1.0 \ 0 76-77 (3 \+g A..... 0 \/ / o.~o ~'76 I / ~ -x -..-------•x xl I 2.01.51.00.5 o-h...........-r......,....,....,.......,....-------...,..-------,-------,------, o Flushing Rate (fro -I) FIG.5.Relative losses of suspended solids to outflow as a proportion of total losses compared with flushing rates during the ice-covered period for the various regions of SIL.Broken line is drawn by eye. Aberrant behaviour of region 3-4 is shown for successive years after impoundment.0,region 0-1; e,region 2;0,region 3-4;.6.,region 5;x.region 6. TABLE 6.Comparison of natural riverine sedi- ment loading (lOli kg)(I),erosive inputs (E),and export (0)from SIL.Percentage of eroded input retained (R)is calculated assuming the fraction of I retained in each year is the same as in 1975. beds overlain by 1-to 2-m-thick clay and silty clay beds.Most of the fine materials were brought into suspension and carried farther offshore.The eroding sand was deposited in accordance with a model originally proposed by Bruun (1962).The deposited sand created a new offshore profile parallel to the preimpoundment profile but separated by a thickness of new deposits similar to the change in mean lake level. At erosion monitoring site 1 in South Bay.in thick glacio- lacustrine clay,50 000 kg of mineral sediments was eroded per metre of shoreline between August 1975 andAugust 1982.Over the same period approximately 37000 kg of mineral sediments, 75%of the weight eroded from the banks,was deposited within 300 m of the water's edge at depths of 2-7 m.Profiles of the bank surveyed in 1975 and 1982 are superimposed in Fig.7. At erosion-monitoring site II and region 4,measurements indicated that nearshore deposits comprising such a high proportion of the eroded material were diminished after bedrock was encountered on the eroding shoreline.Between September 1975 and July 1982,17 000 kg of mineral sediments per metre of shoreline was excavated and a new bedrock shoreline was TABLE 5.Regional sedimentation rates (g'm-2.mo -1)for SIL dur- ing ice-free (IF)and ice-covered (IC)periods determined by dividing the depositional flux (D)by water area of the region. Region Season 0-1 2 3-4 6 5 1975 (IF)>0 10 5.I >0 0.5 1975-76 (IC)2.1 9 5.7 .2.6 0.5 1976 (IF)64 200 428 188 159 1976-77 (IC)12 15 1.0 7.2 1.4.....1977 (IF)196 262 565 376 179 1977-78 (IC)0.9 10 -"9.3 0.3 1978 (IF)150 181 503 295 148 "Negative value of D rate not calculated. between 6 and 25%of total sedimentation,D (Table 7),during the open-water period.On average,87%of D occurred F"nearshore in these rapidly flushed regions.Even higher propor- tions of nearshore deposition were likely occurring in region 5, where eroded mineral material was overwhelmingly sand and !"""where new stable beaches and offshore shoals were forming. I'The proportion of nearshore deposition may have been lower in region 3-4,which had higher mean fetch (Table 8)and more energetic shoreline conditions.Movement of material off shorelines and concurrent abrasion·of eroding clay materials may have been more rapid under these high-energy conditions. Nearshore sedimentary deposits Between July 1977 and September 1980,I3m3 'm shore- line -1 was eroded from the sand deposits at site 18 (Fig.6).In the same period.11 m 3 .m -1,or 85%of the eroded volume,was deposited at the edge of the nearshore shoal.The eroding bank consists of a 12-m height of fine to coarse sand and silty sand 1975 1976 1977 1978 I 246 226 294 200 Flux E >0 3357 4475 4071 o 120 402 594 556 R 100 91 90 89 Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol.41,1984 573 - EROSION MONITORING SITE 18 Eslimaled pre-impoundment profile Profile surveyed 5 Jul1e 1977 PrQftle 'Sur ....!:yed 1 September 1980 1 '..'H 'J Maferlal eroded,~'.:.:~:\:.":',.'June 1977 to September 1980 ~Malenal deposited, ~June 1977 te September [980 September 1980 Lake Leyel, FIG.6.Shoreline cross.section at site 18,where a sand bank is being eroded. EROSION MONITORING SITE 1 ~ 295 305 M- -I-----!-~ 190 200 Z50 250120 rPre-tmpoundmer,t Mean L.ake Le~_~~_~_ 100 :r~~I:LlS~urr;t;' ;r~~::1I~9nd ..1..ocollon of samphl cor. 808040 ----------;'-,.A"~."-s-t-,-;,9:-::a:="2-L-••-•...,L-••-••-------------------- 20o o ~-Z+--+--I--f----=''- E FIG.7.Shoreline cross-section at site I,where a fine-grained,laminated clay bank is being eroded. attained.However,only 3300 kg,less than 20%of the eroded material,remained as deposits in the nearshore zone in 1982. Approximately 90%of these newly deposited sediments was igneous sand washed out of till deposits in the eroded banks.A few millimetres of loose clay coated cobbles and boulders in a TABLE 7.Offshore deposition (Do =0.25(0»and total deposition (D)(l06 kg)and proportion of offshore to total sedimentation during open-water seasons for regions 0-1, 2,and 6 after impoundment. Region Season Do D Do:D 0-1 1976 44 186 0.24 1977 39 601 0.06 1978 40 459 0.09 2 1976 32 254 0.13 1977 30 330 0.09 1978 44 228 0.19 6 1976 13 122 0.11 1977 21 261 0.08 1978 30 205 0.15 574 wide zone beyond 90 m offshore in 3-to 5-m water depth.Most of the material eroded at site 11 had been carried beyond this cobble zone. In the summer of 1983,nearshore bottom sediments were measured at an additional 28 sites.Initial inspection of this data indicates that while high deposition rates,such as at site I,are common,there is a wide range in the fraction of eroding bank material that is deposited in the nearshore zone. TABLE 8.Regional mean fetches (km)per- pendicular to shorelines in open areas (fetches >I km)(F0)of the regions and for the whole region (including fetches <I km)(FT)'Also Jiven are maximum fetches within each region (Fmax). Region F o F T F max 0-1 3.7 2.4 12 2 3.4 2.3 10 3-4 8.6 6.4 35 6 3.7 3.1 11 5 5.1 2.5 20 Can.J.Fish.Aqua/.Sci ..Vol.4/.1984 ~~c,~~ol ~ '"~..., ~ "CO~"""'.C1 :.. ~ ~ 1? ~......... ..... ~ 20 METRES OFFSHORE 60 METRES OFFSHORE 180 METRES OFfSHORE o 1 2 mi 11 imetres 3 I ,', Flo.8.Clay aggregates along a perpendicular transect from site I.Note sorting with distance and depth.Water depths at 20,60,and 180 m offshore are 2,3,and 4.8 m.These clay aggregates are the coarsest in their respective samples,as finer particles have been removed by decantation. u. -.lu. 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.001 -"'4"',\,\,\,\,~,,, \ ~, r:........ 'l:l 0.2 0.1 0.050.52 100 90 80 .E 100 w ~ 60>-~.. III 50c:--40c: III U.. III 30Q.. 20 10 0 10 5 Grain size (diameter)in millimetres FIG.9.Grain size distributions offshore of site 1.The size distribution of clay aggregates (closed symbols)is substantially coarser than their dispersed constituent grains (open symbols).20 m offshore: e,unaltered size distribution;0,ground and dispersed with Calgon;100 m offshore:.,unaltered size distribution;1::.,ground and dispersed with Calgon. Visual inspection of beach (fig.6 in Newbury and McCul- lough 1984)and nearshore bottom materials showed that clay fragments are rolled in the surf to form rounded,pebble-like aggregates.These continue to abrade to smaller sizes as they are carried offshore as bed load.A series of clay aggregates from samples of the bottom sediments at 20,60,and 180 m from the water's edge is shown in Fig.8.The aggregates are deposited in a matrix of very fine sediment that has been removed by gentle swirling and decantation from the samples illustrated.The sample at 20 m offshore has a mean diameter of the clay aggregates of 70 fJ..m,whereas the mean particle diameter of the material after dispersion is 6 !-Lm.Similarly,the aggreiates farther offshore are smaller than nearshore,but they are still much larger than their constituent grains (Fig.9). Discussion Erosion,transportation,and deposition are the primary processes affecting the concentration and distribution of sedi- ments in a lake.The predominance of anyone of these processes in space or time is largely determined by the distribution of mechanical energy within the lake and the nature of the land-water interface.This energy distribution iSI ''1nifested in water circulation and turbulence (Hakanson 1977;Sly 1978). Zones of sediment erosion,transport,and accumulation occur in all lakes of substantial size,and the distribution of these zones reflects the available energy at the sediment-water interface on a lake's bottom.Hakanson (1977),although recognizing the complexities of energy distribution within the lake,found that two factors,effective fetch and water depth,detennined to a large extent the distribution of sediments within the lakes he examined.Sly (1978)similarly emphasizes these factors. 576 Effective fetch at any'site sets a physical limit to the transfer of energy from wind to waves,and water depth dissipates the energy before it is transferred to the bottom. The impoundment of SIL altered the morphometry of the lake's regions in a relatively minor way compared with many new reservoirs.Although the areal increases were on the order of 10-50%(Newbury et al.1984)for the different regions, much of the increase in area occurred along bays and inlets.The open-water fetches were negligibly changed by impoundment. The mean depth of the lake increased by 15%(Newbury et a1. 1984),so there was more water through which to dissipate the wave energy.Diversion did markedly increase the flushing rate of region 6 (Table I),reducing the time available for sedimenta- tion of suspended particles,but flushing rates declined or were relatively unchanged in all other regions.The changes in depth and flushing rate could have led to an increase in the areas of sediment accumulation,making SIL a better sediment trap after impoundment,as has occurred in many other reservoirs (Baxter and Glaude 1980).However,impoundment changed the nature of the land-water interface around the lake.After impound- ment,wave energy could be expended in excavating the highly erodible overburden instead of being dispersed on resistant bedrock shorelines.lntemalloading by erosion grossly altered the reservoir's sediment input (Table 4),but there were relatively minor changes in the processes affecting transp('lft and deposition of sediment within the reservoirs. Erosion Before impoundment,80%of the shoreline of SIL was characterized by wave-washed bedrock and sand or pebble beaches.Relatively unstable shoreline fonns had persisted over Can.1.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.41,1984 the 70oo-yr life span of the lake only in sheltered positions or where glacio-lacustrine deposits fronting the shore were unusually extensive,as in a few areas in region 6 (Newbury and I""lMcCullough 1984).Outlet constriction due to the construction of the Missi Falls control structure in the summers of 1974 and 1975 caused unusually high lake levels.Shoreline profiles and _observations from the summer of 1975 indicate that the !maximum water level overtopped established beaches in regions of low to moderate fetch but did not reach tops of beaches in regions of high fetch.Although some erosion did occur under rhigh water levels in 1975 prior to full impoundment,it was ]limited to the southern regions of the lake,and even there it was !minor compared with changes following full impoundment. Using 1975 as a base year in the sediment budget analysisrnonethelessunderestimatesthechangefromthenaturalcondi-i tion in regions I,2,and 6. ~With full impoundment in the summer of 1976 the lake level was raised above established beaches and bedrock outcrops intortheunconsolidatedoverburdenthatcomprised86%of the new ~.shoreline.High rates of shoreline erosion occurred in all regions of moderate to high fetch.Shoreline rates of erosion were found I"""to be largely energy dependent (Newbury and McCullough !1984).Negligible material was removed from shorelines in protected bays with low fetches «1 km).Rather,new shoreline profiles in such areas were the product of permafrost melting !"""'and subsequent slumping.The erosion estimates of Newbury and McCullough (1984)and E in Table 4 specifically exclude these areas.Maximum eroded input occurred in region 3-4 _(Table 4),which has the largest mean fetches and extensive ,actively receding shorelines. Although numerous studies have found cohesive clays to be less erodible than sands under flowing water conditions (e.g. I"""Hjulstrom 1939;Terwindtet al.1968),in SIL,unfrozen sand !banks and clay banks with permafrost eroded at similar rates !under similar energy regimes.The excavation process on SIL shorelines produced clay aggregates of a wide size range.r Subaerial exposure of undercut collapsing clay blocks produced I a highly fractured appearance in the laminated clay.The fracture lines may have followed planes of dehydration created by permafrost and surface drying.On disturbance,these blocks crumbled along fracture planes into chunks of a variety of sizes. Fractionation of the blocks was further assisted by preferential erosion of the silty laminae (fig.6 in Newbury and McCullough 1984).Clay aggregates could also have been detached from submerged clay layers under turbulent pressure variations (Terwindt et al.1968)caused by breaking waves.Although some suspended material entered the lake directly as a slurry ;-where permafrost melting was widespread,the great bulk of ,material entered as aggregates of various sizes. Transport Upon submersion of eroded shoreline material,bed load transport initially predominated.Sorting of the blocky aggre- gates excavated from shorelines began as smaller sized blocks were transported to greater depths than large blocks.Transport along the bottom caused rounding of the blocks to typical beach pebble shapes (Fig.8).Because the clay aggregates were easily abraded,they were worn smaller each time they were entrained and continually moved to lower energy regimes farther offshore. Deposition I"- ,It was estimated that 90%of eroded material was deposited Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.41.1984 r within SlL by analysis of the suspended sediment budgets for the first 3 yr of impoundment.Of this deposited material, 70-80%,depending on the region,was deposited nearshore. The observed portion of nearshore accumulation off an eroding sand shoreline (site 18)was 85%.Similarly,at an energetic clay shoreline (site 1)with a maximum fetch of 11 km,75%of eroded material was deposited within 300 m of the shoreline. The agreement of observed and expected deposition at these sites supports the general conclusions of the sediment budget. The exceptional situation at site II,where 'most of the eroded material was removed from the nearshore zone,may be typical of the ultimate fate of all the nearshore deposits after the shoreline has stabilized on bedrock,and there is no supply of new sediment.At site 11 the high wave energy from a 22-km fetch had partly reexposed the bedrock foreshore by 1979. Nearshore deposition rates were initially rapid off eroding clay shorelines (up to lOcm'yr-1 at site 1).Rapid nearshore deposition is frequently observed in new reservoirs (e.g. Everdingen 1968)where sediments are resistant to abrasion and these deposits persist through time.However,in SIL these nearshore clay deposits will be unstable in the long term. Entrainment of clay aggregates leads to particle abrasion, particle size reduction,and particle movement farther offshore. At site 1 even the largest aggregates observed at offshore sites were substantially smaller than those that could be moved by waves generated by winds whose high strengths are not infrequent (Table 9).Deposits at site 1 have accumulated nearshore because rates of sediment input have greatly exceeded rates of offshore transport.When new stable shorelines occur, sediment input will decrease (Newbury and McCullough 1984) and the nearshore deposits will eventually be removed by storm waves. The comparative stability of sand and clay beaches is evident in the cross-sections of the deposits.At the sand site (Fig.6) where well-sorted proglacial sands were eroding,a discrete sand wedge accumulated.The surface of the new deposit was parallel to,but 3 m higher than,the preimpoundment offshore profile.In contrast,the new deposit off the clay shoreline was thickest at 2 m water depth and diminished slowly over several hundred metres (Fig.7)as aggregate sizes diminished and the total mass of material loss to suspended transport increased.At site 11 where bedrock had been exposed by shoreline erosion, only 20%of the eroded volume remained nearshore and of this, over 90%was igneous sand,which will likely be a stable deposit at this site.Any clay sediments that may have been deposited immediately after impoundment had been transported farther offshore by 1982. If it were assumed that the whole eroded mineral volume entered the lake as bed load and that the 20-30%annual loss to suspended sediment transport,suggested by the sediment budget analysis,was generated by abrasion of bed load,a mean annual erosion constant ,of 0.25 'yr-1 might be applied to the nearshore clay deposits in SIL.A logarithmic time decay model applied to erosion of these nearshore clay deposits,like that applied by Newbury and McCullough (1984)for stabilization of bank erosion,would estimate that 10 yr would be required for 90%removal of these clay deposits to offshore waters and outflow.However,significant net erosion of these deposits would not occur until the input of material from shorelines decreased substantially.Consequently,the high turbidities in SIL (Hecky 1984)caused by impoundment will continue for significant lengths of time after shoreline excavation ceases. Newbury and McCullough (1984)estimated that 35 yr may be 577 TABLE 9.Comparison of maximum grain diameter observed along a nearshore depth profile at site 1 and the size of particle that could be entrained by a strong wind (sustained wind of45 km'h-1,0.9-m wave with 3.8-s period;for method see Komar and Miller 1973).Wind speeds >45 krn·h -I were sustained for an average of 30 h in each open-water season from 1977 to 1979. Max.grain Max.grain Distance offshore Depth diameter observed diameter entrained (m)(m)(mm)(mm) 20 2 6 30 60 3 0.5 9 180 4.8 0.1 2 required for 90%of the fine-grained shorelines to return to their preimpoundrnent condition.Erosion of unstable nearshore deposits may require an additional decade before suspended sediment concentrations return to preimpoundment levels and the Churchill River is once again the major sediment source for SIL. Uncertainty is attached to our estimates for subaqueous erosion of nearshore clay deposits.Rates of abrasion for any particular site must be related to eroding particle size and shape, hydrodynamic energy,and perhaps sand content of the deposits before a better model can be developed.Future research on this process should emphasize the generation of suspended sediment from abrading clay aggregates. Impact Only basins whose postimpoundment shorelines were largely bedrock (region 7 of Newbury et aI.1984)or sand (region 5) suffered little effect on their suspended sediment budgets and offshore suspended sediment concentrations (Hecky 1984; Patalas and SaIki 1984).The immediate effects of bank erosion are most dramatic nearshore where high turbidities and high net sedimentation rates occur.This deposition is unstable and is occurring in areas that before impoundment had bedrock, cobble,gravel,and sand bottoms.Substantial changes in the utilization of these areas by biological communities have occurred (Fudge and Bodaly 1984;D.Rosenberg,Department of Fisheries and Oceans,pers.comm.).In the long term,these deposits will be removed;but,in the process of removal,the offshore effects of suspended sediments on light transmission (Hecky 1984)and planktonic communities (Hecky and Guild- ford 1984;PataIas and SaIki 1984)will persist even after shorelines have stabilized.As the nearshore deposits are eroded,most of the suspended sediment will be removed at the outflow in the rapidly flushed regions 0-I,2,and 6.Even in the large and slowly flushed region 3-4,loss at outflow can still predominate because much of the suspended material is fine grained «I IJ.m nominal diameter).Although in this region material may be removed from shorelines and nearshore deposits more rapidly than from the other regions because of its greater fetches,its loss raL~of suspended material is lower because of its slow flushing rate.The return of region 3-4 to a preimpoundment state with respect to suspended sediment con- centration may be as slow as the basins that have smaller fetches and lower wave energies. References BAXTER,R.M.,AND P.GLAUDE.1980.Environmental effects of dams and 578 impoundments in Canada:experience and prospects.Can.Bull.Fish. Aquat.Sci.205:34 p."""" BRUUN,P.1962.Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion.J.Waterway'!.'i Harbors Div.?roc.Am.Soc.Civ.Eng:88:117-130.,] CHURCHILL.M.A.1948.Analysis and use of reservoir sedimentation data.p. 139-140.Proceedings of the federal interagency sedimentation confer- ence.U.S.Bureau of Reclamation,Denver.CO.- CYBERSKI,J.1973.Accumulation of debris in water storage reservoirs in centra).: Europe,p.359-363.In W.C.Ackennann,G.F.White,and E.Bi Worthington [ed.}Man-made lakes:their problems and environmental effects.Geophysical Monograph 17.American Geophysical Union,_ Washington,DC.• EVERDINGEN,R.O.VAN.1968.Diefenbaker Lake:effects of bank erosion on! storage capacity.Environment Canada,Inland Waters Branch.Tech.Bull. 10:21 p. FUDGE,R.J.P.,AND R.A.BODALY.1984.Postimpoundment winter"" sedimentation and survival of lake whitefish (Coregonus clupea!ormis)l eggs in Southern Indian Lake,Manitoba.Can.J.Fish.Aqua!.Sci.41: 701-705. HAKANSON.L.1977.The influence of wind,fetch,and water depth on distribution of sediments in Lake Vanern.Sweden.Can.J.Earth Sci.14: 397-412. HECKY,R.E.1984.Thermal and optical characteristics of Southern Indian Lake before,during,and after impoundment and Churchill River diver- sion.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:579-590. HECKY,R.E.,J.ALDER,C.ANEMA,K.BURRIDGE.AND S.1.GUILDFORD. 1979.Physical data on Southern Indian Lake,1974 through 1978,before' and after impoundment and Churchill River diversion.(1n two parts).Can. Fish.Mar.Servo Data Rep.158:iv +523 p. HECKY,R.E.,AND S.J.GUILDFORD.1984.Primary productivity of SO'!thern Indian Lake before,during,and after impoundment and Churchill River diversion.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:591-604. HECKY,R.E.,AND G.K.MCCULLOUGH.1984.The Landsat imagery of Southern Indian Lake:a remote perspective on impoundment and~ diversion.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.Tech.Rep.(1n press). HJULSTROM,F.1939.Transportation of detritus by moving water,p.5-31.[1/ P.D.Trask [ed.]Recent marine sediments.American Association of Petroleum Geologists,Tulsa,OK. KOMAR,P.D.,AND M.C.MILLER.1973.The threshold of water movement under oscillatory water waves.J.Sediment.Petrol.43:1101-1110.. KULLENBERG,G.1974.Observed and computed sca[[ering functions,p. 25-49.In N.G.Jerlov and E.Steemann-Nielsen [ed.]Optical aspects of oceanography. Academic Press,New York,NY.~ MCCULLOUGH,G.K.1981.Water budgets for Southern Indian Lake,'..-. Manitoba,before and after impoundment and Churchill River diversion, 1972-1979.Can.MS Rep.Fish.Aquat.Sci.1620:iv +22 p. MCKEAGUE.1.A.[ED.]1976.Manual on soil sampling and methods of analysis.2nd ed.Soil Research Institute.Agriculture Canada.Ottawa. Onto 212 p. NEWBURY,R.W.,AND G.K.MCCULLOUGH.1984.Shoreline erosion and restabiJization in the Southern Indian Lake reservoir.Can.J.Fish.Aquat. Sci.41:558-566. NEWBURY,R.W.,G.K.MCCULLOUGH,AND R.E.HECKY.1984.The Southern Indian Lake impoundment and Churchill River diversion.Can.J. Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:548-557. PATALAS,K .•AND A.SALK!.1984.Effects of impoundment and diversion on the crustacean plankton of Southern Indian Lake.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci. 41:613-637. RiCE.T.L.,AND D.B.SIMONS.1982.Sediment deposition model for reservoirs based on the dominant physical processes.Can.Water Resour. J.7:45-60. SLY,P.G.1978.Sedimentary processes in lakes.p.65-89.[n A.Lerman [ed.] Lakes:chemistry.geology and physics.Springer-Verlag,New York.NY. STAINTON,M.P.,M.J.CAPEL,ANDF.A.J.ARMSTRONG.1977.The chemical analysis of fresh water.2nd ed.Fish.Res.Board Can.Misc.Spec.Publ. 25:180 p. TANNER,C.B.,AND M.L.JACKSON.1947.Nonnographs of sedimentation times for soil particles under gravity or centrifugal acceleration.Proc.Soil Sci.Soc.Am.12:60.!!II\!! TERWINDT,J.H.J .•H.N.C.BREUSERS,AND J.N.SV ....SEK.1968. Experimental investigations on the erosion-,ensitivity of a sand-clay lamination.Sedimentology 11:105-114. WATER RESOURCES BRANCH,MANITOBA DEP"'RTME:-<T OF MINES.RESOCRCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT.1974.Physical impact stUdy.Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board.Tech.Rep.Append. 2,Vol.IA:386 p.-Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,VQ/.4/.1984 r - Environmental Impact Prediction and Assessment: the Southern I ndian Lake Experience 1 R.E.Hecky,R.W.Newbury,R.A.Bodaly,K.Patalas,and D.M.Rosenberg Department of Fisheries and Oceans,Freshwater Institute,501 University Crescent,Winnipeg,Man.R3T 2N6 Hecky,R.E.,R.W.Newbury,R.A.Bodaly,K.Patalas,and D.M.Rosenberg.1984.Environmental impact prediction and assessment:the Southern Indian lake experience.Can.].Fish.Aquat.Sci.41: 720-732. The impoundment of Southern Indian lake (Sll)and diversion from the lake of the Churchill River in northern Manitoba,Canada,were the subjects of two independent environmental impact statements. Subsequently,a case study measured change in the Iimnological and biological characteristics of the lake after development.Comparison of pre-and post-impoundment observations allows an assessment of the predictive capability that was applied to the lake by the preimpact statements.Predictions related to the physical environment,e.g.increased shoreline erosion,littoral sedimentation,higher turbidity,and decreased light penetration and visibility,were qualitatively correct;however,an un predicted decrease in water temperature also occurred.Increased phosphorus availability and light limitation of primary production were also correctly forecasted in a qualitative manner.These aspects will be quantitatively predictable in future reservoirs because of studies at Sil and elsewhere.Biological re'sponses above the primary trophiC level were mostly not predicted or predicted incorrectly.Unpredicted changes that were especially significant to the fishery were rapid declines in the quantity and quality of whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis)catch,increases in mercury concentrations in fish,and the need for extensive compensation programs to keep the fishery economically viable.Testable hypotheses to explain all unpredicted events have been formulated but require experimental verification.The paradigm of reservoir ecosystem development that is present in the literature requires reformulation if future environmental impact analyses of reservoirs are to be improved. la retenue des eaux du lac Sud des Indiens et a derivation de la riviere Churchill,dans Ie Manitoba septentrional (Canada),ont ete "objet de deux evaluations environnementales.Dans une etude de cas subsequente,les changements de caracteristiques limnologiques et biologiques du lac apres la montee des eaux ont ete mesures.Une comparaison des observations d'avant et d'apres retenue permet d'evaluer la capacite previsionnelle,qui a ete appliquee au lac a I'aide des evaluations environnementales d'avant la retenue.les predictions touchant I'environnement physique,p.ex.erosion accrue de la ligne de rivage, sedimentation du littoral,turbidite plus forte et penetration de la lumiere et visibilite reduites,ont ete qualitativementexactes;cependant,iI s'est produit une diminution non predite de la temperature de l'eau.Uneplus grande accessibilite du phosphore et la limitation parla lumiere de la production primaire ont ete egalement correctement predites de maniere qualitative.Grace aux etudes menees au lac Sud des Indiens et ailleurs,iI sera possible de predire ces aspects quantitativement dans de futurs reservoirs.les reactions biologiques au-dela du niveau trophique primaire ont ete pour (a plupart non predites,ou encore predites incorrectement.Parmi des changements non predits,et particulierement importants pour la peche,on note de rapides declins de la quantite et de la qualite des prises de grand coregone (Coregonus c1upeaformis),des augmentations de concentration de mercure dans les poissons et Ie besoin de pro- grammes compensatoires intensifs aftn de maintenir la rentabilite de la peche.Nous avons formule des hypotheses verifiables pour expliquer tous les evenements non predits,mais ces hypotheses devront etre verifiees experimentalement.II faudra formuler de nouveau Ie paradigme de devel0ppement des ecosystemes des reservoirs contenu dans les travaux publies,si I'on veut ameliorer les analyses d'evalua- tion environnementale des reservoirs. r Received December 13,1983 Accepted January 19,1984 Any major industrial or resource development today will likely be required to undergo an environmental impact assessment,Le.consideration and evaluation before development of probable effects,either by law,regu- lation or public demand.Impact assessments have become so ubiquitous and bureaucratized that it is easy to forget that they lThis paper is one of a series on the effects of the Southern Indian Lake impoundment and Churchill River diversion. 720 Rec;u Ie 13 decembre 1983 Accepte Ie 19 janvier 1984 are recent phenomena.Public awareness of environmental problems grew rapidly through the 1960's (Parlour and Schat- zow 1978;Beanlands and Duinker 1983),and many govern- ments responded by institutionalizing environmental impact assessments in the early 1~nu's.Although environmental impact assessments are now commonplace.strong misgivings have been registered about their purpose,structure,conduct, utility,and effectiveness (e.g.Schindler 1976;Rosenberg et al. 1981;Beanlands and Duinker 1983).This is as true of reservoir CUll.J.Fi~h.Aquul.Sci ..l'oJ.~J.JYI5~ Water Power Surveys [JJ 2 c 0 .~ ..-'" Hydroelectric Studies IT]8El I ~IOperation 0 r-Environmental Studies ~171 8 I 9 I I I I I I I It I YEAR 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 FIG.I.Time frame of Churchill River Development.Sources:I,Denis and Challies (1916);2,Ramsay (1947)and Godfrey (1957):3.Lake Winnipeg and Manitoba Board (1958);4,Nelson River Programming Board (1967);5,Gibb,Underwood-McLellan and Associates Ltd.(1968); 6,University of Manitoba (unpubl.manuscr.);7,Underwood-McLellan and Associates Ltd.(1970d);8,Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson I"'"'Rivers Study Board (1975);9,Freshwater Institute Studies (in this issue).Arrow marks signing of Northern Flood Agreement,which has a i mechanism for handling compensation claims. developments as of other developments (Rosenberg et a1.1981) even though man's experience with reservoirs began with the earliest organized civilizations (Wittfogel 1957). The long association between man and reservoirs might lead one to think that all the effects of reservoir formation would be ~well known.This opinion has been recently expressed through statements such as "it seems unlikely that subsequent impound- ~ments in the temperate regions will give rise to any large-scale surprises"(Baxter 1977,p.277).Others such as Efford (1975, p.197)have stressed the opposite view that "Our ability to measure the impact of hydro-dams on biological systems is not well developed."This apparent divergence of opinion is .....understandable when the paucity of postimpact environmental data for reservoirs is considered (Geen 1974).In a review of environmental impact assessment (Rosenberg et a1.1981), postdevelopment monitoring and analysis were identified as the most frequent deficiencies of the six necessary components of an "ideal"scientific impact assessment.The scientific method requires both the posing of testable hypotheses (environmental prediction)and hypothesis testing (postdevelopmentanalysis). r-Any evaluation of the utility of environmental impact assess- 'd ments must consider the predictive capability of environmental science and consequently the comparison of prediction and. results.The objective of this paper is to examine these two aspects of environmental impact assessment using the impound- ment of Southern Indian Lake (SIL)and accompanying·diver- sion of the Churchill River as an example. Historical Background Federal water power surveys in the early 1900's (l,Fig.1) identified the hydroelectric potential of the Churchill River in northern Manitoba,Canada.Extensive provincial surveys beginning in the 1940's (2,Fig.1)confirmed this potential, and hydroelectric feasibility studies commenced.By the mid- 1950's (3,Fig.1)the possibility for diversion of the Churchill River flow into the Nelson basin had been discovered.In the 1960's feasibility studies by Manitot,Hydro (4 and 5,Fig.1)r-indicated that a high-level impoundment of SIL (i.e.increasing !its level by 10 m to 265 m ASL)and diversion of water from the I Churchill River into the Nelson River would optimize electric _generation benefits relative to all other possible system con- I figurations (Dickson 1975).There was public resistance to this I scheme primarily because the feasibility studies had not considered the effect of such a development on the existing and r-future utilization of natural resources in northern Manitoba.As often happens in such developments,natural resource impacts Can.J.Fish.AqUa!.Sci ..Vol.41.1984 were addressed late in the planning process (6,Fig.1).In response to public concern,Manitoba Hydro retained a consult- ing engineering firm to assess the impact of various diversion configurations on natural resource utilization (Underwood- McLellan and Associates Ltd.1970a).This was the first published predevelopment impact assessment (7,Fig.1). Subsequently,Manitoba Hydro opted for a low-level impound- ment and diversion scheme that would flood SIL by 3m to a maximum elevation of 258 m ASL.Continuing public concern about the effects of this option led to the establishment of a second predevelopment assessment (8,Fig.1),a Federal- Provincial study to examine the environmental effects of a low-level impoundment (Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board 1975)0 This study proceeded concurrently with construction of the development.The Freshwater Institute of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans subsequently conducted a program of research on SIL,which continued after impoundment and diversion (9,Figo 1)0 These follow-up studies can be used to assess the predictions made by the preimpound- ment impact analyses. Strategy In this paper the impoundment of SIL and the diversion of the Churchill River is treated as a large-scale experiment conducted to test hypotheses made by predevelopment impact assess- ments,in order to evaluate the predictive capability of scientific theory being applied to new reservoirs during the"early 1970's when the SIL assessments were done.We will then discuss how the theory might be modified based on the SIL experiment to achieve better predictability,especially in a quantitative sense, in future reservoir developments.In so doing,we will enumer- ate several new'or revised hypotheses generated by considera- tion of the SIL experiment and suggest how they might be tested. Methods Sources of Predictions The Underwood-McLellan and Associates Ltd.(U-M)study (1970a)and the Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Rivers (L WCNR)study (1975)each had different terms of reference, purposes,and time frames for assessing systems with slightly different project configurations.To understand how we derived testable predictions from these studies,it is necessary to briefly review the objectives and methodologies of each. 721 The V -M study It had"...the overall objective ...to determine the costs and benefits of various schemes of diversion of the Churchill River" (Underwood-McLellan and Associates Ltd.1970a,p.8).The study was primarily an office study based on natural resource information already available.Virtually no new data were collected from the study area ..Consequently,predictions were based on experiences in other reservoirs as derived from the scientific literature.The study (Underwood-Mclellan and Associates Ltd.1970b)did not have a defined operating regime for any of the various diversion configurations considered,but it specifically gave predictions for a high-level diversion from SIL (maximum elevation 265 m ASL)and a low-level diversion (maximum elevation 256 m ASL)with several possible ranges of drawdown.The minimum range of drawdown considered was 1.5 m.In the configuration eventually developed (Newbury et aI.1984 and below),the maximum elevation has not exceeded 258 m.The annual drawdown is less than 2 m,which is similar to the pre impoundment annual range of water levels. Consequently,predictions from U-M based on drawdown effects have been eliminated from our analysis.We consider that if the U-M study had specifically made predictions for a 258-m elevation it would have interpolated between the severity of its expected effects at 256 and 265 m. The LWCNR study This study began after Manitoba Hydro had fixed the configuration,operating regime,and timing of construction. Churchill River water was to be diverted at up to 875 mJ •S-1 from SIL into the Nelson River basin.Diversion would be by gravity flow,and the lake was not to be raised above 259 m ASL.Drawdown on SIL was to be similar to the natural range of water level fluctuation.Construction of control works and the diversion channel proceeded contemporaneously with the study.The objective of the study was,therefore,limited to making "...recommendations for enhancing the overall benefits with due consideration for the protection of the environment" (LWCNR 1975,p.61).Specifically,the terms of reference directed that the study .....must be adapted to provide reliable data on present natural conditions and the anticipated and actual conditions arising from the operation of the controls as designed and constructed"(LWCNR 1975,p.61).Field studies were conducted on SIL in 1972 and 1973;thus,predictions were based on a large amount of descriptive data.The natural state of SIL and predicted changes were summarized in Hecky and Ayles (1974). Source of Results An emphatic recommendation of the LWCNR study was that a long-term ecological monitoring and research program be conducted to establish the impact of the development.Sub- sequently,the Freshwater Institute initiated a case study of the SIL reservoir;studies funded by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans began in 1974 and have continued to the present. The operational regime for SIL over the period of postimpound- ment studies has differed only slightly from that considered by the LWCNR study,i.e.although elevation of the lake has not exceeded 258 m ASL,diversion flows have exceeded 875 mJ ·S-1 from time to time during hydraulic capacity studies of the diversion channel undertaken by Manitoba Hydro (Newbury et al.1984).The results of this case study are published as a series of 17 papers in this issue of the Canadian Journal ofFisheries and Aquatic Sciences.The major results of 722 these studies are briefly reviewed here to characterize the natura. state and to establish observed changes that occurred with impoundment and diversion. Summary of Impacts During the summer of 1976 the level of SIL was raised to 3 above its long-term mean elevation.The lake was impounde, by a control dam on the natural outlet at Missi Falls (Fig.2) causing the water of the Churchill River to flow by gravity int~ the Nelson River basin via an excavated channel at South Ba\ (region 6,Fig.2).Since September 1977,the diverted fio~) from the Churchill River has averaged 75%of the river's long-term mean flow of 1011 m3 .s -lout of SIL (Newbury et 1984).Impoundment increased the area of the lake by 21 %t( 2391 km2 •Preimpoundment assessment of the multibasin lake recognized eight regions defined by channel constrictions (Fig~ 2;Newbury et al.1984).These regions,in their natural state'j differed in their flushing rates and water chemistry (Cleugl . 1974),primary productivity (Hecky and Guildford 1984), biological communities (Hecky 1975;Patalas and SaIki 1984~ Wiens and Rosenberg 1984),and commercial fishing effol (BodaIy et a1.1984b).The impounded lake also had regionaL" differences in extent of flooded area,change in mean depth,and nature of flooded banks (Newbury et al.1984).The quantitativw effects of impoundment on selected limnological variables iii': four major regions of the lake are summarized in Table 1. Physical Changes After impoundment,SIL was deeper and cooler,and .these effects were apparent in all major regions (Table I).Heck,,,,,, (1984)concluded that the greater mean depth of all the regions in the unstratified lake had the effect of diluting incoming heat:'" Increased back-scattering of solar irradiance in regions of the lake with higher suspended sediments added to the genera~ cooling effect as well.In regions north of the diversion poin (regions 4 and 5 in Table 1),decreased riverine heat input in the' spring delayed ice-out (Hecky 1984).Delayed ice-out reduce~ the length of the heating season and lowered the maximun; temperatures achieved relative to the regions upstream of diversion.Patalas and Saiki (1984)found that the temperature ,decreases in the upper 5 m (2-3°C)were even greater than thGli"!' declines in whole water mass temperatures given in Table I Region 6 (South Bay),which before impoundment was a warm, shallow,isolated bay off the main axis of Churchill River flow, was cooled bv the introduction of relatively cool diverted watel~ from the deeper region to the north (Hecky 1984).Thf postdiversion flushing rate for this bay was too rapid to allow significant warming of the diverted water._ The postimpoundment water surface intersected glacial am organic deposits on 86%of the new shoreline (Newbury et a1: 1984).Onshore waves initiated substantial erosion on all shorelines exposed to more than 1 km of offshore fetc~ (Newbury and McCullough 1984).In regions 1,4,and 6 the predominant backshore material was permafrost-affected:' glacio-lacustrine clays and fine-grained tills.The shoreline erosion introduced large volumes of these materials to the lak~0' (Table 1).As much as 80%of this eroded material was initialI) deposited nearshore (Hecky and McCullough 1984).The remainder went into suspension and significantly increased th .. offshore sediment concentrations by 2-5 times (Table I).If'. region 5,the shoreline was composed of sandy eskers,kames,!; Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.,Vol,41,1984_ - FIG.2.Southern Indian Lake location map.Numerals are assigned to regions as defined in Newbury et al.(1984). ~nd organic deposits.Most of the sediment was deposited iinearshore,and there was less effect on offshore sediment u concentrations.In general,increased sediment concentrations offshore reduced Secchi disk transparency and light penetra- I""'tion.The mean water columD light intensity,i (Table 1),was Ii further reduced because of the.greater mean depths of these Ii well-mixed regions (Hecky 1984).After impoundment,SIL was,on average,a darker,less transparent lake than before. r- ;1 1 !Biological Changes Primary productivity after impoundmenteither was increase(.rn the relatively well-illuminated regions of the lake,e.g.region l 5 (Table 1),or was unchanged in regions where i declined below 5.0mE·m-2 ·d-1 (Hecky and Guildford 1984).In the p-latter regions,postimpoundment light limitation replaced pre- i!mpoundment phosphorus limitation with no significant change "in integral production.Seasonal mean chlorophyll concentra- tions rose in all regions of the lake in response to less light and ~nore nutrients from shorelines.Phosphorus deficiency was ,:elieved in all regions of the lake except in small,shallow bays Can.J.Fish.Aquae.Sci .•Vol.4l,1984 ""'" where i remained high enough to cause utilization of all available nutrients (Hecky and Guildford 1984;Planas and Hecky 1984).Such bays had significantly increased integral primary production. The zooplankton and zoobenthic communities responded in opposite ways to impoundment.Zooplankton biomasses decreased by 30-40%in the major regions of the lake. Cladocerans and small cyclbpoid copepod species accounted for most of the declines in biomass (Patalas and SaIki 1984). Calanoidcopepods were less affected,with some larger species actually being more abundant and more widespread after impoundment.Mysis relieta increased from being very rare to being common.Patalas and SaIki (1984)attributed these changes in the zooplankton community to a combination of lower temperatures and reduced predation because of poorer transparency.The density of zoobenthos generally increased in SIL,and no significant changes in community composition occurred (Wiens and Rosenberg 1984).The magnitude of regional responses in zoobenthos (Table I)could be explained in terms of nutrient and organic inputs from flooded shorelines, phytoplankton primary production,and concentrations of sus- 723 TABLE 1.Comparison of morphometric,hydrologic,limnological,and biological factors for four SIL regions before and after impoundment.Inundation ratio (Wiens and Rosenberg 1984)is the proportion of flooded land to postimpoundment water area. Mean depth and flushing rate are from Newbury et al.(1984).Temperature change is based on mean water mass temperature at maximum heat content (Hecky 1984).Seasonal mean suspended sediment concentrations were calculated by Wiens and Rosenberg (1984)from data of Hecky et aL (1979)for years 1974 and 1977.1is the mean water column light intensity during the day for 2 yr before and 2yr after impoundment (Hecky and Guildford 1984).Secchi values are from Hecky (1984).Erosive inputs are the means for the first three postimpoundment years;erosive inputs were negligible before impoundment (Hecky and McCullough 1984).Primary production and chlorophyll data are from Hecky and Guildford (1984).Zooplankton biomass estimates compare the postimpoundment mean with 1972 (Patalas and Salki 1984),and zoo benthos density compares 1977 with 1972 (Wiens and Rosenberg 1984).Underlined pairs of data were considered not significantly different statistically by the authors.Suspended sediment,1,Secchi disk,primary production,chlorophyll,and zoobenthos density values for region 6 are for the western subregion (Hecky 1984),which accounts for 62%of the area and 72%of the volume of region 6.All other parameters are calculated for the whole region. Region 4 5 6 Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Inundation ratio 0 0.09 0 0.16 0 0.31 0 0.08 Mean depth (m)8.0 10.1 12.1 13.0 4.9 5.9 3.5 5.8 Flushing time (yr)0.12 0.17 0.23 1.4 1.5 2.8 4.2 0.03 Temperature change Cc)0 -0.8 0 -1.3 0 -1.4 0 -1.3 Suspended sediment (mg-L-I)3.2 8.1 1.2 6.3 1.7 4.l 3.0 11.0 1(mE-m-2 'min-l )6.2 4.0 10.0 4.9 15.9 9.8 13.9 5.5 Secchi disk (m)1.4 0.9 2.9 1.3 3.0 2.3 1.6 0.7 Erosive input (g'm-2 'yr-l )=0 1390 0 3312 0 770 =0 1700 Primary production (mg'm-2 'd-l )530 460 570 560 400 720 220 290 Chlorophyll (mg-m-3)4.6 5.0 2.9 4.0 2.4 4.4 1.9 3.6 Zooplankton biomass (mg'm-3)905 707 930 625 1855 957 1486 933 Zoobenthos density (no.'m-2)6200 5500 3800 8300 2800 6100 1000 1500 pended sediments.In some areas,high suspended sediment concentrations apparently negated the increased input of organic substrate.Crawford and Rosenberg (1984)showed that one major source of organic substrate,black spruce (Picea mariana) needles,was quickly colonized and broken down mainly by chironomids.This study suggested that such flooded vegetation would be rapidly utilized.Within 3 yr after impoundment there was evidence that the zoobenthic densities were returning to preimpoundment levels in some regions (Wiens and Rosenberg 1984). Fisheries The catch per unit effort (CUE)of whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis)on the traditional fishing grounds declined after impoundment (Bodaly et al.1984b).This decline caused a redistribution of commercial fishing effort from region 4 to region 5 in order to exploit lower quality (darker color,higher Triaenophorus crassus cyst counts)stocks that were fonnerly avoided.The lower CUE was attributed to redistribution of whitefish stocks,which may have been due to reduced visibility either affecting feeding success,which in tum caused move- ment to more favorable conditions,or affecting schooling behavior (Bodaly et al.1984b).Total whitefish catch was maintained for 5 yr after flooding by increased total fishing effort,but then,effort slowed and total catch declined.Patalas and SaIki (1984)noted that the increases in Mysis and other large calanoid copepod abundances concurred with the apparent decline in whitefish abundance,suggesting reduced whitefish predation on food resources.Reduced predation by adult whitefish may also have contributed to the general increase in zoobenthos as welL In situ experimental incubations showed that high sedimentation of silts and clays negatively affected 724 whitefish egg survival (Fudge and Bodaly 1984),creatin~ concern for the long-tenn abundance of whitefish in SIL Impoundment produced a very strong year-class of northern" pike (Esox lucius)in 1977,the 1st yr of high spring water level, but young pike were much less abundant in subsequent year' (Bodaly and Lesack 1984).Adult pike showed no effect 0 .. impoundment on growth,mortality,or condition.The lack of response in adult pike populations was attributed to the 10\~ degree of flooding in the chosen study area on SIL (Bodaly ant; Lesack 1984).Mercury concentrations in muscle increased iI,! all commercial fish species after flooding (Bodaly et al.1984a). Northern pike and walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreu~ exceeded the Canadian marketing limits for mercury concentra;;l tion in flesh and in some cases exceeded the marketing limit for export.These increases in fish mercury concentration also threatened an important domestic food source."'!!. Compensation The Northern Flood Agreement,among the federal an~ provincial governments,Manitoba Hydro,and five India;': reserves affected by the Churchill-Nelson River hydro develop- ment,was signed in 1977 (Fig.I),and it included a mechanism for arbitration of compensation claims.The South Indian L....;:~ community was not signatory to this agreement and may not b.j covered by it.However,as the local economy was quite· dependent on the fishery,a series of annual compensatio~ packages were negotiated between Manitoba Hydro and th .•.. South Indian Lake Fishermen's Association over the penaL; 1978-82.These compensation plans differed in size and intent from year to year and ranged in total value from approximatel~ $40000 to $600000.They included,at various times,prov; sions for bonus payments paid on aper pound basis,replacemertc" Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.4/./98~ ,of lost or damaged nets and motors,fish grade sorters, assistance for fishing nearby lakes unaffected by flooding,and -payments to individual fishermen based on historic production. In early 1983,a final settlement of $2.5 million was agreed upon,which would compensate for all present and future damages to the fishery.Wagner (1984)found that the postim- !""'"pound.ment commercial fishery would not be economically viable without the compensation payments that were being made for value losses attributed to the impoundment,and he I"""concluded that fishermen were undercompensated because the .'extra effort required to recover a marketable catch was not i recognized as an increased cost. -Results and Discussion Reservoir Theory r-The paradigm The U-M study surveyed the reservoir literature to establish a general catalogue of responses by aquatic ecosystems to impoundment.The literature available at the time demonstrated [that many new reservoir ecosystems had a similar developmen- tal sequence.Although the majority of reports was based on Russian experience (summarized in column 1 of Table 2),the -developmental sequence was reinforced by the smaller number i of experiences from the tropics and North America,and similar c characterizations can be found in numerous reviews (e.g.Frey 1967,Lowe-McConnell 1973;Baxter 1977).We will refer to !"""the developmental sequence in column 1 of Table 2 as the ."reservoir paradigm."A scientific paIllldigm,sensu Kuhn (1970),is a widely accepted model or pattern for a phenom- enon,the correctness of which is not seriously questioned by rpracticing scientists beyond minor modifications in articulation. :The reservoir paradigm makes the general prediction of an initial trophic upsurge during which all biotic communities have ~igher standing crops and productivities.Much of the experi- ;.ence on which the paradigm was based was biased towards valley reservoirs where new bodies of water were created from initially riverine conditions. The U -M study SIL was already a lake that would undergo marginal flooding, ~o the U-M study modified the existing paradigm (Table 2, ~olumn 2).It was recognized that shoreline erosion would be the major physical impact.Erosion was a concern in SIL because of long,open fetches available for wind-generated waves to form, l""".which would dissipate on the widespread,erodible,fine-grained ~Iacio-lacustrine deposits in the permafrost-affected backshore. Appreciation of the potential for erosion,in turn,modified ~xpected littoral productivity in the vicinity of actively eroding :',horelines and led to a prediction of decreased zoobenthic ti t'roductivity in offshore areas because of increased sedimenta- tion (Table 2,column 2).Positive trophic responses leading to !"""ncreased food availability for fish were only expected in Jrotected nearshore areas of low erosion,so only the littoral dwelling pike (of the commercially important fish species) were predicted to increase in productivity after impoundment. 0pawning problems were predicted for the most important 1 .~ommercially fished species,whitefish and walleye,and these problems were projected to lead to falling production for these ,..Jipecies after impoundment with a slow return to preimpound- I nent levels as new spawning habitat evolved.The prediction of I 3nly marginal increases in fish production after impoundment r-Can.J.Fish.Aqual.Sci.,Vol.41,1984 resulted from an integration of food chain effects and spawning effects and was a significant departure from the paradigm. The L WCNR study A year of field study and a more defined operating regime allowed refinement of some of the U-M study predictions, elimination of others,and generation of one significant new prediction concerning decline in CUE in the commercial fishery (Table 2,column 3).Predictions about thermal stratification and deoxygenation were more definitive.The prediction that shore- line erosion would be substantial was modified by stating that most of the eroded material would be deposited nearshore. Offshore turbidity increases were expected to reduce drastically light availability to phytoplankton and nullify the effect of nutrient increases on algal growth after impoundment.Conse- quently,it was predicted that offshore primary production over most of the lake would not increase after impoundment.The LWCNR suggested that offshore effects on zoobenthos would not be as negative as was anticipated in the U-M study; however,no specific prediction on benthic prOductivity in the immediate,postimpoundment period was offered because of uncertainty concerning the interaction among nutrients,sedi- mentation,and loobenthos.Most of the predictions concerning fish ecology made by U-M were adopted by LWCNR.In the commercial fishery no increalse in production was expected, and a decline in the CUE was predicted by L WCNR for the immediate postimpoundment period because of stock move- ments in response to the changed environmental regime.The LWCNR study had clearly abandoned the reservoir paradigm as not applicable to SIL (Table 2,cf.columns 1 and 3). Comparison of Predictions and Observations Although many"ofthe predictions that were made and that can be presently assessed were qualitatively correct (Table 2, column 4),some predictions were wrong (Table 2,column 5). For example,pike spawning success became poor after being very successful in the 1st yr after impoundment.Also,growth and survival of pike were not detectably enhanced by impound- ment.It had been feared that lake whitefish required shallow water over rocky bottoms for spawning and would not find such suitable substratum immediately after impoundment,but they continued to spawn on their original sites at greater depths. A number of significant and totally un predicted impacts occurred (Table 2,column6).The decline in whitefish market quality contributed to the economic decline of the SIL commer- cial fishery (Wagner 1984).The contamination of fish by mercury threatened a major domestic food source and the marketability of the piscivorous walleye and pike:Other oversights by both LWCNR and U-M included significant changes in zooplankton and zoobenthic standing crops and a general cooling of the impounded lake. The corre~t predictions of U-M and LWCNR were highly modified from the reservoir paradigm.The U-M study had decided that the gene·al trophic upsurge expected from the reservoir paradigm would be limited to a few components of the food chain and/or to restricted portions of the reservoir and it anticipated only marginal increases in fish production.The LWCNR study predicted that there would be no increase in the production of important commercial stocks,and it forecasted a decline in CUE in the fishery.The U-M "office"study was nearly as effective in its predictions of aquatic impacts as the LWCNR study was after a year of field studies on SIL.The year of field studies allowed the L WCNR study to better define some 725 -_._--------------------------------------------------- .....~TABLE 2.Comparison of pre impoundment predictions with postimpoundment observations.Predictions were made with increasing familiarity with the system from left to right,reservoir paradigm,through Underwood-Mclellan (U-M),to the Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study (LWCNR).Observations arc grouped as to whether they were correctly predicted, incorrectly predicted,or unpredicted.Page numbers in parentheses for individual entries refer to the reference at the top of the column.Predictions and observations are identified with num- bers and lellers,e.g.la,to facilitate comparison down and across the table. Predictions U-M Observations The reservoir paradigm (Underwood-Mclellan and LWCNR (USSR,Rzoska 1966)Associates Ltd.1970b)(Hecky and Ayles 1974)Corrrectly predicted Incorrectly predicted Unpredicted I.Physical factors (la)Thermal stratificalion may (la)Thermal stralification may (I a)No thermal stratification (I)a No thermal stratification (I a)Mean lake temperatures and appear appear (p.16)(Hecky 1984)surface water temperatures (lb)Deoxygenalion may occur (I b)Deoxygenation in shallow (lb)Deoxygenation only in (lb)No significant deoxygena-decreased (Hecky 1984; in hypolimnion bays with eXlensive flooding immediate vicinity of tion in SIL (Bodaly et aI.Patalas and Saiki 1984) flooded soils (p.19)I984c) (I c)Intensive shoreline erosion (lc)EXlensive shoreline erosion (I c)Shoreline erosion extensive and increased turbidity will .increase sedimentation (Newbury and McCUllough (p.82,85)rates,especially nearshore,1984) and turbidity will increase Nearshore sedimentation (p.19)rates high (Hecky and McCullough 1984) Turbidity increased (Hecky 1984) II.Nutrienl factors (2a)Increased nutrients due to (2a)Increased nutrients due 10 (2a)Increased nutrients due to (2a)Phosphate concentrations leaching from flooded soils leaching from flooded soils active shoreline erosion and increased (C.Anema,un- (p.84)decay of vegetal ion (p.18)pubI.data);phosphorus deficiency in algae eliminated (Hecky and Guildford 1984) Spruce needles are signifi- cant carbon input and are rapidly degraded by benthos (Crawford and Rosenberg 1984) m.Algae (3a)Initially higher phyto-(3a)Higher offshore primary (3a)No increase in offshore (3a)No significant increase in plankton productivity production for firsl 3-5 yr primary production over primary productivity in tur- (p.84)mosl of lake;probably lower bid regions of lake.Regions ~primary production near-with high transparency " shore in exposed areas of showed increased produc- ....high wind fetch (p.19).In tion (Hecky and Gui/dfoed .."prolected areas with high 1984) 1:;'transparency,production :0-will increase in shon term~ -<::>IV.Zooplankton=: ~(4a)Decrease in number of No spccific predictions No shon-Ierm prediclions (4a)No decline in number of~species species ~(4b)Higher biomasses.(4b)Decline in numbers and especially in Crustacea biomass of zooplankton...(Patalas and Saiki 1984):-.... '0 00 I :I ]I I',I ••J I I J .J TABLE 2.(Concluded) Prediclions -- U·M The reservoir paradigm (Underwood-McLellan and LWCNR (USSR,Rzoska 1966)Associales Lid.1970b)(Hecky and Ayles 1974)Corrrecily predicled V.Zoobenlhos (5a)EXlensive development in (5a)EXlensive developmenl in No short-Ieoo predictions (5a)Extensive development of nearshore areas,especially prolecled Rooded areas chironomid populalions in chironomids flooded vegetalion (D.M. (5b)Usually increased biomass (5b)Decrease near eroding Rosenberg and A.P.Wiens, in profundal in firsl few shorelines and offshore unpubI.dala) years (p.83,85) VI.Fish (6a)Higher growth rates initially (6a)Forage fish do well in pro-(6a)Increase in pike production because of abundant food lecled Ilooded areas (p.83)(because of increased (6b)Some spawning problems and pike habilat increased spawning habirat,growth, may occur (p.83,87)and survival)but no short- (6b)Reduced spawning success leoo increase in commer- of whilefish and walleye cially important species, (p.87)I.e.whilefish and walleye (6b)Spawning problems may occur for walleye and while- fish in short term (p.19),as old spawning grounds would be drowned and subjeci 10 sedimentation VII.Commercial fishery (7a)Significantly increased (7a)Marginal increases in fish (7a)No short-term increase in (7a)No sbon-term increases in fish yields production initially productivily (p.21,22)fish yield (7b)Decline in CUE in commer-(7b)CUE of commercial fishery cial fishery in shon lerm declined (Bodaly el al. because of sloek movemellls I 984b) (p.21,22) Incorrectly predicled Unpredicled (6a)Poor pike spawning;no increase in survival or growlh of pike (Bodaly and Lesack 1984) (6b)Whilefish spawning on old grounds,but there may be problems of egg survival (Fudge and Bodaly 1984) I-1 (5b)Increase in profundal benthos immedialely fol- lowing impoundmenl and condnuing 10 presenl (Wiens and Rosenberg 1984 and unpubI.) (7c)Quality of whilefish catch declined (Bodaly el aL 1984b) Od)Increased mercury concen- Iralions in fish Ihreaiened markeling of predalory species and poses health hazard 10 domestic con- sumplion (Bodaly ei aI. 1984a) (7e)Fishery requires compensa- tion for survival (Wagner 1984) } Observalions _1J-1 ~ -l:>...... ..... '-0~ ~Jf;'l ::. :-- ~ :l> l ~ -.l N -.l Pr.·impo""dment C~eor.d Zone Eroded VohJ,ml 1976 -1982 '-,,-,-,,"1 ,9lI(l,;1979 '~......"....~ii ...-":'-.....~1918 \....1971 .........1976 /AU9U"1982 Lake LlVel-,-----r--',.,--r-:.-.....__.,._;_~'::'-- ,/Pre-tmpoyndm'.nt Meon La".L.".II I I I I ------------------.------------------------I I I I I I !I I I I I I I I I I I I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I 2 rh 0 ~-2 ~-4 ::i:-6 -10 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 - Metres FIG.3.Cross-section of an eroding shoreline on Southern Indian Lake that was cleared of timber before flooding.Material removed . succeeding years is indicated by broken line on bank cross-section.Material deposited nearshore is indicated by broken line under the new wati level.Note that the shoreline zone cleared of timber was eroded away within I yr of flooding. of the U-M predictions and to modify significantly a few others although much of this improvement resulted from having better defined project configuration.The most important contribution of the L WCNR study,a requirement of its terms of reference, was to define baseline conditions so that subsequent impacts could be evaluated. The utility of both assessments,however,was marginal for two principal reasons.First,there were a number of highly significant impacts that were not predicted.Second,even correct predictions were usually qualitative,Le.either they were not based on direct numerical estimates or they were quantified incorrectly.This second aspect is significant because decisions for major resource development are generally based on quantitative benefit/cost data.A qualitative statement alone, even if correct,often cannot directly enter such benefit/cost analyses.We will now review the attempts at quantification made in predevelopment studies in order to suggest how im- provements might be made in the future. Quantification of Predictions The U-M study The reservoir paradigm supplied to the U-M study a series of qualitative predictions about new reservoirs.but it did not offer a set of quantitative relationships for estimating changes in ecosystem parameters.However,quantification of resource impact was forced upon the U-M study by its tenns of reference, which required the monetary assessment of costs and benefits of various diversion and impoundment options.The impacts identified by U-M were scaled against depth of flooding or extent of drawdown depending on which was recognized as causing the impact.For example,nutrient and organic loading from flooded terrain to the new reservoir was assumed to increasp in proportion to the depth of flooding.In tum,primary production was assumed to be nutrient dependent and would thus increase with nutrient loading.This scalar approach to impact assessment was directly analogous to the linear program- ming model used by hydraulic engineers to optimize the choice of hydraulic structures where hydraulic head,flow,and usable or "live"storage detennine power benefits.The creation of a numerical scale for the impact on biological systems allowed the generation of a similarly scaled,quantitative estimate of impact on the fishery resource based on the current market value of the resource.The assessment had to be stated in monetary tenns to integrate it with the power benefits of various project configurations. The U-M scalar approach to impact prediction allowed quantitative predictions to be made,but they were not derived from confinned relationships in the reserVoir literature.This approach created an idealized SIL lake-reservoir about which 728 predictions could be made.Unfortunately,the idealized reseJ voir was an illusion,and it led to erroneous conclusions.For example,consider this statement offered without substantiatio~ "Fish populations in an artificial impoundment will be sign if:... cantly affected if water levels are increased more than 10 fet) and if drawdown exceeds five feet"(Underwood-McLellan and Associates Ltd.1970c.p.73).By implication,an impoundmeJ~ created within this configuration would not have significar:; effects on fish populations.In fact,SIL was impounded ana' operated within a lO-ft (3.1 m)elevation change and a 3-ft (0.9 m)drawdown,but there have been significant effects q-, fish populations (Table 2).What went wrong?..~ On SIL,a significant change in the lake occurred as soon as .the natural range of lake levels was exceeded.Shoreline erosi~ of the previously stable,forested backshore began introducin'! large quantities of organic debris,clay,and sand into the lakt..;: Suspended sediment concentrations increased dramatically as did sedimentation,particularly in the lake's littoral zone o~ eroding shorelines.At exposed shorelines with high way energies,erosion rapidly cut into banks and removed material well beyond the initial water contact (Fig.3).At protected shoreline sites,the rates of shoreline recession were lower,bl' materials were still added in excess of the initial zone of floodin _:; as pennafrost-affected banks melted and settling of the back- shore zone occurred.II"!'fI Erosion proceeds at any given water level until a bedroc surface is contacted (Newbury and McCullough 1984);there.- fore,impoundment levels higher than 3 m would have produced only minor modifications to the longevity and extent shoreline restabilization.The U-M study using a scalar approac underestimated the effect that shoreline erosion would have on the whole lake at low levels of flooding.Consequently,the study erred in accepting an apparently minor change in lak"" level as insignificant for fisheries because impacts on SIL di not increase in a linear manner with depth of flooding'.Rather, the ecosystem endured a discrete change with the first wat~ level increase over the natural range at which shorelines ha become stable over several thousand years. After the decision was made to proceed with the low-level flooding,the ,"Toneous scalar analysis was manifested by ~ extensive timber clearing program for soon-to-be-floode forested areas in various parts of the lake.The western half ot" South Bay (region 6,Fig.2)was cleared to the 259-m (850 f~ ASL elevation (l m above regulated water level)at a COSt C'.! several million dollars.The folly of this clearing prograrr . either for aesthetic purposes or to retard debris generation.is obvious from Fig.3.Over most of South Bay,the cleared zo~ was entirely eroded in the 1st yr of impoundment,and tr . present lakeshore in western South Bay is advancing inland as·..;t Can.J.Fish.AqUa!.Sci ..Vol.41.19f""",", steep vertical face draped with hanging terrestrial debris and ringed with fallen trees (Newbury and McCullough 1984).The only effective clearing done on SIL was on bedrock shorelines -and on protected shorelines without permafrost. The LWCNR study There was no need in this study for quantitative prediction of .r-resource impact as input to evaluating project alternatives because construction of the diversion was completed nearly simultaneously with the study (Fig.1).The only quantitative prediction in the LWCNR study concerned the long-term (i.e. after shoreline stabilization)effects of river diversion on the •productivity of the northern regions of SIL.Using nutrient loading theory available at the time (Vollenweider 1968), LWCNR (1975)forecasted a 30%decline in primary production and fish production in those regions because a large proportion of a crucial nutrient,phosphorus,supplied by the Churchill River would be diverted with the river.The scientists involved with the study recognized the lack of quantitative theory for .relating flooding and erosion to water quality and biology,and it was this lack that prompted the continued study of SIL and research into processes linking flooded terrain with water .;--.quality and biological communities. Deficiencies of the ParadigmrSuccessinpredictionisthe only valid criterion for choosing (between scientific paradigms or theories.By this standard,the existing reservoir paradigm was unsatisfactory forSIL because I"""manyexpectations from the paradigm were qualitatively incor- crect or,if correct,they were not quantifiable.In the SIL t .reservoir,only the zoobenthos densities and nutrient release behaved,after flooding,as expected from the paradigm.The "...U-M study and LWCNR study made extensive modifications of the paradigm (Table 2).The fundamental modification of these studies was to recognize that the nature of the land to be flooded could determine the ecosystem response of the reservoir.In rSIL,highly erodible permafrost-affected glacio-lacustrine and t fine-grained tills were the predominant backshore material,and in regions with this material,high turbidity and high sedimenta- ~tion rates occurred and modified the generally expected ecosys- tem response.But both studies and the paradigm overlooked a tisecond important aspect,the dynamic heat balance of the lake reservoir that led to a general cooling of the lake afterrimpoundment. Both of these aspects were unappreciated in the :1 reservoir paradigm because the paradigm was based primarily I on in-reservoir biological studies of relatively deep riverine impoundments.In such impoundments,changes in depth are rgenerally large,leading to thermal stratification and a warming lof the surface-mixed layer,and wind fetches are often limited so that erosion rates are relatively low even if erodible shoreline I"""material is present.Reservoir studies that contributed to the !paradigm emphasized in-reservoir biological responses to im- i poundment rather than transfer processes (heat input,erosion, leaching),so the paradigm did not include an appreciation of the r-effect of different kinds of thermal structure,vegetation,and I'soils on water quality and ecosystem productivity.Consequent- ly,the experience and knowledge gained from existing reser- voirs was not easily transferable to a new reservoir situation. -Successful use of the existing reservoir paradigm requires finding a well-studied,analogous reservoir that has a similar climatic regime,morphometry,terrain,extent of flooding, ,-biological community,etc.In fact,choosing an analogue is difficult given the nonrandom distribution of critical factors. Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.41.1984 Proponents and opponents of various water development schemes can choose reservoirs that they feel match the proposed situation but that may have evolved quite differently after impoundment.A reservoir frequently mentioned by proponents as an analogue:to SIL at the time of the preimpoundment assessments was Reindeer Lake in northern Saskatchewan.This naturally large lake was impounded in 1942.The latitude, increase in wate:r level,surface area,operating regime,climate, bedrock geology,and preimpoundment fishery were all similar to those of SIL,but Reindeer Lake suffered only marginal effects on its fishery after impoundment (Atton 1975).The critical difference between SIL and Reindeer Lake was the distribution of erodible,fine-grained shorelines in their basins. In SIL,extensive bank erosion has altered the sedimentation regime and water quality of the lake.Similar deposits were extremely sparse at Reindeer Lake and erosion was minimal. Thus,even if agreement can be reached that only one charac- teristic of the proposed analogues is different,without a predic- tive model for the effect of that characteristic,antagonists can still disagree on what effect that one difference will have on the overall development of the new reservoir. A New Paradigm A new paradigm is required for future reservOir Impact studies.The act of prediction assumes that the future,in some way.,already exists in the present (Schumacher 1973)and that it only needs to be seen.For objective prediction making,the future must be observable by everyone and not just special "seers."For reservoirs,the observable facets before impound- ment include reservoir surface area and geological characteris- tics of land to be flooded,proposed water depth,proposed operational regimes,meteorological conditions,river flows, biological communities,resource utilization,and resource valuation.Although quantitative prediction can only be gener- ated for parameters that can be related to such observable quantities before impoundment (see Nielson 1967),the number of quantitative relationships established between preimpound- ment parameters and postimpoundment water quality and biological responses remains small.The reservoir modeling attempts of Ostrofsky and Duthie (1978),deBroissia et al. (1981),'and Grimard and Jones (1982)are examples of input-output models (Vollenweider 1975)that are specifically designed for new reservoirs and that relate water quality effects to measurable preimpoundment parameters.These models have focussed on reservoir primary productivity and its presumed dependence on phosphorus as they attempt to predict the internal loading of phosphorus from flooded terrain.These models require transfer coefficients,for the input of phosphorus per unit of flooded area,that are analogous to phosphorus export coefficients for watersheds (Dillon and Kirchner 1975).The validity of these reservoir models that predict internal loading of phosphorus remains largely undetermined.Grimard and Jones (1982)pointed out that there were insufficient data on phos- phorus in any new reservoir to allow a definitive test of their model.Although these modeling efforts are still in their infancy,they represent the best avenue for improving our predictive capability concerning nutrients in new reservoirs. The new paradigm requires transfer coefficients applicable to observable preimpoundment parameters to model the fluxes of mass and energy into a new reservoir.In SIL,internal loading of sediments from eroding shorelines had effects throughout the ecosystem and was a focus for our studies.The empirical rela- tion between e:nergy and erosion developed by Newbury and 729 McCullough (1984) allows eroded volumes to be predicted in new reservoirs based on preimpoundment shoreline mapping and meteorological records.The sedimentological fate of the eroded inorganic material,particularly its high retention near- shore,may also be predictable if the behavior of this material during transport,described by Hecky and McCullough (1984), can be shown to apply to other reservoirs.In concert,these studies demonstrate how suspended sediment concentrations might be predicted.In addition,Hecky (1984)found that light extinction in SIL was a linear function of suspended sediments, and Hecky and Guildford (1984)showed that algal populations in SIL became light-limited as the mean water column light intensity fell below 5 mE'm-2 .min -1.The effects of these physical changes in the environment on the primary trophic level were qualitatively predicted by the L WCNR study,and they are now amenable to quantitative analysis. Predictability of Higher Trophic Level Effects The qualitative responses of the biological communities above the primary trophic level in SIL to reservoir formation were,in general,poorly predicted by the reservoir paradigm, U-M,and LWCNR.In fact,the number of completely unpredicted significant responses tended to increase with trophic leveL The reservoir paradigm has the general expecta- tion of an increase in production and biomass at all trophic levels;but in SIL,whole communities as well as constituent species responded differently to the new physical,chemical, and biological regime.For example,algal productivity was largely unchanged (Hecky and Guildford 1984).profundal zoobenthos abundance increased (Wiens and Rosenberg 1984), and zooplankton abundance decreased (Patalas and SaIki 1984) after impoundment.Patalas and Saiki (1984)offered several examples of densities of individual zooplankton species increas- ing or declining with impoundment and diversion.Perhaps the most difficult response of all to predict was that of the fish community,which can be sensitive,not only to changes in abundance of prey species and thereby,ecosystem energy flow, but also to direct physical effects on behavior,feeding success, and spawning habitat.The major biological responses in SIL unpredicted by both U-M and LWCNR studies were (I)the increase in zoobenthos densities,(2)the decrease in zooplank- ton biomass,(3)the increase in mercury concentrations in fish flesh,and (4)the decline in market quality of the whitefish catch.Does present ecological theory imply that these biologi- cal responses are likely to remain '.'unpredictable"(sensu Rigler 1982),or are there testable hypotheses to explain their occur- rence in SIL? The responses in the zoo benthos and zooplankton communi- ties involved primarily increased or decreased abundances of the species extant before impoundment,i.e.there were no major shifts in the communities due to extinction or immigration. Rigler (1982)argued persuasively that long-term responses of individual species may well be "unpredictable"at present or forever because under current ecological and evolt'·ionary theory species are expected to change through time,out he maintained that nonevolving state variables such as biomass of zooplankton or zoobenthos are subject to at least empirical prediction.The observed increase in profundal zoobenthos in SIL,although typical of many new reservoirs (Table 2.column 1),was not expected by the U-M or LWCNR studies.The U-M study had forecasted a decline in zoobenthic biomass because of increased sedimentation rates,while the LWCNR study had foregone a specific prediction because of uncertainty over the 730 !I1iIj significance of increased sedimentation to the zoo benthos .. Wiens and Rosenberg (1984)concluded that the pattern of responses in SIL was dependent on the balance between organiQ!!ll!l loading and inorganic sedimentation.These factors and the .... zoobenthos response are susceptible to experimental manipula- tion in mesocosms (Grice and Reeve 1982),as well as to confirmation in new reservoirs,and therefore their hypothesis i~ testable.The observed decline in zooplankton standing cropf was not predicted but likely could have been,in principle,if the lowered mean water temperatures as well as postimpoundmen~ turbidity levels had been quantitatively predicted (Patalas anc .! SaIki 1984).These hypotheses concerning the zooplankton :1 decline are also testable.Improved predictability for zooben- thos and zooplankton abundance in new reservoirs requires ( accurate forecasts of energy budgets and internal loading anq concentrations of organic material and sediment and (2) quantification of the relationships between these environmental factors and these communities. In the clear light of hindsight,it is possible to state that the problems that the fishery encountered in quality (Bodaly et al. 1984b)and in mercury contamination (Bodaly et al.1984a~ should have been considered by the preimpoundment assess; ment;but they were not considered because they were not pan of the existing paradigm (Table 2).The rapid change in white- fish quality in SIL is explained by a shift in exploitation to lowe~ quality stocks already in the lake at impoundment (Bodaly et al~j; 1984b).The presence of lower quality stocks in SIL was' historically known,and certain regions of the lake were avoided to ensure that the catch was of high quality.The LWCNR study' predicted stock movements and lower CUE,so it could havEiJ identified a potential quality problem if it had considered the historic fishing patterns on the lake.Such a prediction would noli-, have been quantitative,but it would have been a useful warning ..! Dispersal of lake whitefish may explain the reduced CUE and quality change after flooding,but causes for the dispersal are still unknown.Reduced underwater light intensity and visibilitY""l) were probably the most significant environmental changes in SIL (Hecky 1984),yet data on critical light levels for feeding; schooling,and other aspects of fish behavior are poorly known or unknown for the whitefish (Bodaly et al.1984b).Better~ predictability for higher trophic levels,particularly the fish community,will require much more knowledge of species biology than is presently available. The federal government inspection program for mercury in commercial fish shipments did not begin until 1970,but by [he time of the LWCNR study in 1972 there was a growing appreciation that fisheries not associated with industrial pollu~ tion occasionally did have high mercury concentrations.In view) of the severe effect mercury contamination can have on domestic consumption and commercial marketability (Bodaly et al.1984a),concern about the effect of impoundment on thtj' natural mercury cycle could have b~en identified.However.no more than a warning could have been given in the LWCNR (1975)study,as the first hypothesis associating fish mercury~ contamination and impoundments did not appear until later (Abernathy and Cumbie 1977). In fact.SIL was the first reservoir where an increase in mercury concentrations in fish after impoundment was observed,not just inferred.We ar~ currently testing the hypothesis (Bodaly et al.1984a)that . flooding caused the increase in mercury concentrations in fish at! SIL in mesocosm experiments using a radioisotope of inorganic mercury to follow its transformation to methylmercury anJj accumulation in fish. Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci ..Vol.41./984-. Elevated mercury levels in predatory species and reduced whitefish marketability are quality issues for the commercial fishery,and as such,they are somewhat distinct from producti'v- ;-ity issues.Both U-M and LWCNR studies considered produc: tivity issues in great detail,but they underemphasized quality concerns.In terms of economic impact in the short term,the f"""quality issues proved to be more damaging (Wagner 1984)than declines in productivity,although concerns for productivity may be well-founded in the long term.Both of these issues have led to monetary compensation programs for fisheries losses or claims for compensation,the need for which was not predicted by preimpoundment assessments.Institution of compensation has been retrospective and contentious,and lack of a compre- hensive compensatiun scheme so far has penalized the SIL fishermen more than the developer (Wagner 1984).It would have been preferable to recognize before the event that compensation for fisheries losses would be necessary,and the principles of compensation agreed upon before the reservoir was developed.Futureassessments must recognize the possibil- ity of compensation by continuing pre impoundment baseline studies that emphasize resource production,quality,and utiliza- r""tion into the postdevelopment period to document change in the ,resource and its utilization. I"""Conclusion Pre-and post-impoundment studies will allow testing of I"""predictions and make the environmental impact assessment procedure scientific and self-improving (Rosenberg et al. 1981).Unfortunately,we concur with Beanlands and Duinker (1983,p.23)that "Until now,environmental assessment has -largely been a pre-development activity."Perhaps the major lesson from SIL is that this current approach to assessment is incomplete and unacceptable.The number of unexpected and poorly quantified impacts at SIL indicates that significant -improvement remains to be made in the impact assessment of ,.new reservoirs and river diversions.Prediction making must not become an end in itself because .....predictions are easily made; ,....it is accuracy in a prediction which is difficult"(Neilson 1967, .p.166).Predevelopment predictions alone are not adequate to protect the habitat or the resource users.Such predictions should be recognized as planning aids that require testing in the postdevelopment period to establish their veracity and complete the environmental assessment process. 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W.1947.Report on power possibilities of the Churchill River at Granville FaIls or Devil Rapids.Water Resources Branch,Department of Mines and Natural Resources,Province of Manitoba,Winnipeg,Man. 24 p .. RIGLER,F.H.1982.Recognition of the possible:an advantage of empiricism in ecology.Can.1.Fish.Aquat.Sci.39:1323-1331. ROSENBERG,D.M.,V.H.RESH,S.S.BALLING,M.A.BARNBY,J.N. 732 COLLINS,D.V.DURBIN,T.S.FLYNN,D.D.HART,G.A.LAMBERTI,E. P.McELRAVY,J.R.WOOD,T.E.BLANK,D.M.SCHULTZ,D.L MARRIN,AND D.G.PRICE.1981.Recent trends in environmental impacl~ assessment.Can.1.Fish.Aquat.Sci.38:591-624.. RZOSKA,J.1966.The biology of reservoirs in the U.S.S.R.,p.149-154.In R.H.Lowe-McConnell [ed.]Man-made lakes.Academic Press Inc.,New York,NY. SCHINDLER,D.W.1976.The impact statement boondoggle.Science (Wash., DC)192:509. SCHUMACHER,E.F.1973.Small is beautifuL Abacus,London,England.255 p. UNDERWOOD·McLELLAN .1970a.Manitoba Hydro Churchill River diversion: study of alternative diversions.Underwood-McLellan and Associates~ Ltd.,Winnipeg,Man.124p.. 1970b.Predictions of reservoir and river water quality,p.35-50.Tn' Manitoba Hydro ChurchiIl River diversion:study of alternative diversions. Append.B,Vol.1,Sec!.2.~ 197Oc.Fisheries.ManilObaHydro Churchill River diversion:study of, alternative diversions.Append.B,VoL 2,Sect.4.120 p." 1970d.Manitoba Hydro Churchill River diversion:study of alterna- tive diversions.Append.B.Resource investigations (in 3 volumes). Underwood-McLellan and Associates Ltd.,Winnipeg,Man. VOLLENWEIDER,R.A.1968.Recherches sur I'amenagement de l'eau.Les bases scientifiques de I'eutrophisation des lacs et des eaux courantes sous l'upect partiCUlar du phosphore et de r azote comme facteurs d'eutrophisa- tion.Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,Paris,__ France.DAS/CSI/68.27.182 p.; 1975.Input-output models with special reference to the phosphorus' loading concept in limnology.Schweiz.Z.Hydro!.37:53-84. WAGNER,M.W.1984.Postimpoundment change in financial performance of the Southern Indian Lake commercial fishery.Can.1.Fish.Aqua!.Sci. 715-719. WIENS,A.P.,ANDD.M.ROSES BERG.[984.Effect of impoundment and river diversion on profundal macrobenthos of Southern Indian Lake.Manitoba.. Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.41:638-648. WITTFOGEL,K.A.1957.Oriental despotism:a comparative study of total power.Yale University Press,New Haven.CT.556 p. - Can.J.Fish.Aqual.Sci ..Vol.41.1984 ~ Reprinted from: Permafrost:Fourth International <7onference,Proceedings ISBN 0-309-03435-3 National Academy Press Washington,D.C.1983 SHORELINE EROSION AND RESTABILIZATION IN A PERMAFROST-AFFECTED IMPOUNDMENT R.W.Newbury and G.K.McCullough Government of Canada,Fisheries and Oceans,Freshwater Institute 501 University Crescent,Winnipeg,Manitoba R3T 2N6 Canada 3In1976,an 850 m Is river diversion was constructed through 300 km of permafrost- affected landscape in northern Manitoba.The diversion was accomplished by rais- ing the level of a 1,977 km 2 riverine lake on the Churchill River (Southern Indian Lake)until the water spilled across a terrestrial drainage divide into a series of small valleys tributary to the Nelson River.Over 400 km 2 of permafrost- affected backshore area surrounding the lake were flooded.The mean annual temp- erature in the Southern Indian Lake region is -SoC.Three repeated phases of shore- line erosion in permafrost materials were observed;melting and undercutting of the backshore zone,massive faulting of the overhanging shoreline,and removal of the melting and slumping debris.At erosion monitoring sites in fine-grained frozen silts and clays,representative of over three-quarters of the postimpoundment shore- line,rates of retreat of up to 12 m/yr were measured.The index of erosion based on the wave energy fmpinging on the shoreline was 0.00035 m2 /tonne.After 5 years of erosion,restabilization of the shoreline has occurred only where bedrock has been encountered on the retreating backshore.Clearing of the forested backshore prior to flooding did not affect the erosion rates.The rapidly eroding shore- lines have increased the suspended sediment concentration in Southern Indian Lake water and have triggered degradation of the commercial fishery. -, i r l .... INTRODUCTION Southern Indian Lake lies in shallow irregular Precambrian bedrock depressions on the Churchill River in northern Manitoba (latitude 57 0 N,long- itude 99 0 W)(Figure 1).The climate of the region is continental,with long cold winters and short, cool summers.Average mean monthly temperatures vary from -26.50 C in January to +16°C in July. FIGURE 1 The 2,391 km 2 Southern Indian Lake re- servoir is located on the Precambrian Shield in the discontinuous permafrost zone of central Canada. The lake lies on the northern boundary of the glacio-lacustrine deposits of Lake Agassiz. The mean annual temperature is -SoC.One third of the annual precipitation of 430 mm occurs as snow- 918 fall during the average 200-day mid-October to.late ~~y snow cover period.The average accumulated depth of snow is 60 cm.Black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.)B.S.P.),jackpine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.),and tamarack (Larix laric~DuRoi~ Koch)are the principal tree species of the boreal forest that covers the upland surrounding the lake. A layer of decaying mosses and lichens varying in thickness from a few cm to 5 m has accumulated since the final glacial retreat from the region 7,000 to 9,000 BP.During the.deglaciation period, eskers,kames.and other proglacial landforms were deposited on the bedrock surface in the northern third of the region surrounding the lake.The deposits form a rolling upland with a local relief seldom exceeding 20 m.The uplands in the southern two-thirds of the basin lay within the area covered by glacial Lake Agassiz.a large proglacial lake that extended southward to the northern United States.Deposits of laminated silty clays up to 20 m thick occur throughout the region.In the southern region.the upland relief is greater and more abrupt,with exposed knolls and ridges of bed- rock separated by poorly drained wetlands. Permafrost is widespread in all terrain types surrounding the lake with the exception of the pro- glacial deposits in the northern region.The depth of the active layer varies from 0.5 to 2 m. depending upon local topography and the thickness of peat deposits.The temperature of the perma- frost ranges from -0.20 to -O.SoC.Landforms associated with permafrost such as palsas,collapse scars,and peat plateaus occur frequently in the southern glacio-lacustrine region.Although the permafrost exceeds 10 m in depth in the upland areas (Brown 1973).it does not exist under the lake or under the narrow valleys of major tribu- taries. 919 In 1966,a program of hydroelectric development began in northern Manitoba to supply electrical energy to southern Manitoba and the central United States.A 927 km direct-current transmission line was constructed from southern Uanitoba to hydro- electric dams at Kettle Rapids (1,272 llW capacity) and Long Spruce Rapids (980 llW capacity)on the lo~er Nelson River,200 km southeast of Southern Indian Lake.Rather than extending the trans- mission line to potential dam sites on the Chur- chill River,a license was granted to Manitoba Hydro to divert 850 m3 /s (about 85%)of the Chur- chill River ~aters southwards across a drainage divide,through a long series of small channels and lake basins in the Rat and Burntwood River valleys tributary to the Nelson River above the power dams.In June 1976,a dam was completed across th~natural outlet of Southern Indian Lake at Hissi Falls,and the mean lake level was raised 3 m to divert the flow across the drainage divide at the southern end of the basin (Figure 2).The area of the lake was increased from 1,977 to 2,391 km 2 .Flooding extended beyond the sub-lake thawed ~one into the permafrost-affected upland. "SHORELtNE ~ROSION MONITORING SITE ®'NEMONE:TrR!!r REGIONAL SUBDIVISl(Ji FIGURE 2 Southern Indian Lake is a series of bed- rock-controlled,riverine basins on the Churchill River.The basins have been numbered to facili- tate limnological studies.Erosion monitoring sta- tions in granular deposits and fine-grained perma- frost materials are located at 20 sit,~of varying exposure throughout the lake. Pre impoundment studies of the effects of flood- ieg on shoreline stability predicted qualitatively that erosion and solifluction of the shoreline materials would occur (Underwood-McLellan 1970, Lake Winnipeg Crurchill Nelson Rivers Study Board 1975).Quantitative estimates of the rates and extent of shor~line erosion were not made,as analogous conditions had not occurred or had not been reported for such a large impoundments in permafrost. METHODS The study reported in this paper began in 1975, I year prior to the impoundment.Erosion monitor- ing sites were selected and surveyed at 20 locat- ions having different exposures to wave conditions. The rates of erosion in the initial year of impound- ment and the relative resistance to erosion of the permafrost materials have been previously reported (Newbury et al.1978).The resistance to erosion was based on an index of erosion reported by Kachugin (1966)as a "washout coefficient,Ke ," which expressed the volume of backshore material eroded per unit of wave energy dissipated on the shoreline.Kachugin's units of the washout co- efficient of m2 /tonne are derived from the ,\uotient of cubic meters of eroded materials per meter of shoreline length divided by the perpendicular com- ponent of the wave energy acting on the backshore expressed as tonne-meters per meter of shoreline length (m 3 /m)/(tonne-m!m).Eroded volumes have been surveyed annually since impoundment at erosion monitoring sites.Wave energies have been hindcast from wind speeds and directions recorded at 2 sites adjacent to the lake (Figure 2)using the modified Sverdrup-Munk procedure (U.S.Army Coastal Engineer- ing Research Center 1966). The lake was divided into eight sub-basins (Figure 2),for which the contribution of shoreline materials to the lake after impoundment was estimat- ed.The washout coefficients determined from the monitoring sites were combined with the hindcast wave energies acting on 331 reaches of shoreline to determine the total erosion in each basin.The actively eroding shoreline reaches were mapped by aerial and boat reconnaissance of the whole lake in 1976 and 1978. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Erosion Processes Representative textures and ice contents of shoreline deposits at the monitoring sites are given in Table 1.An example of surveyed profiles showing annual erosion and nearshore deposition of lacustrine clay at a relatively high wave energy site is shown in Figure 3.The erosion of fro~en fine-grained materials on shorelines surrounding the larger basins of the lake was observed to pro- ceed in a repeated sequence of melting,slumpirrg and removal phases.In the initial phase,melting occurs below and slightly above the water surface. In the second phase,the partially thawed materials flow out to form a silty-clay beach strewn with scattered frozen blocks.In some cases,caverns or melt niches are formed that are up to 1 m in height and extend up to 3 m into and under the frozen backshore materials (Figure 4).In this situation, the overlying cantilevered black splits away from the main land mass and falls orrto the foreshore (Figure 5).In the final phase,wave erosion re- - aSamples analyzed were of backshore lacustrine deposits.To date,erosion at these sites has been predominantly of former sandy beach materials. bpredominantly fine to coarse sand with some silty beds. TABLE 1 Texture and Ice Content of ials at Shoreline Monitoring Sites. dicate samples were not analysed.) Textural analysis of parent materials (%) Site Sand Silt Clay 1 1 15 84. 2 0 16 84 3 1 34 65 ,~ 4 0 15 85 5 1 26 73 6 1 34 65 7 0 49 51 8 19 16 65 9 1 17 82 10 35 46 19 11 10 45 45 12 1 19 80 13 8 39 53 14 a 2 36 62 15 98 0 2 16a 9 33 58 17 a 4 37 59 18 b 19 34 65 20 Mineral Mater- (Dashes in- Ice content (%of dry weight) 43 64 64 47 56 92 43 920 moves the fallen debris and the \Warm lake water is again brought in contact with frozen backshore materials.In the silty-clay glacio-lacustrine materials,the form of the slumping and eroding shorelines does not change substantially as the backshore retreats inland.If bedrock or coarse granular materials are encountered at the eroding face,the inland movement at the water level ceases but erosion of the backshore continues until a wave- washed bedrock zone or a stable beach is established. At non-permafrost sites in coarse granular de- posits (Sites 15 and 18),erosion and deposition processes agreed with those reported by Bruun (1962)for similar materials. Erosion Rates at Monitoring Sites The total volume of annual erosion and the wash- out coefficient,Ke ,at each of the 20 monitoring sites surrounding the lake are summarized for 4 years of impoundment in Table 2.Where bedrock was not encountered,the mean washout coefficieJ.:for the permafrost materials was generally one-half of that reported by Kachugin (1966)for similar mat- erials in the unfrozen state.Although this suggests that permafrost conditions may retard erosion,no data are supplied with the Soviet Union observations,and the magnitude of the washout co- efficient may have been based on a different method of determining an index of the wave energy. There was a wider range of Ke values observed during the first year of impoundment than in the following 3 years.At sheltered sites exposed to low wave energies,several open water seasons were required to destroy the protective moss and root cover at the water's edge.At exposed sites,large volumes of peat were quickly removed from the flood- ed foreshore,producing high Ke values in the first year.Because of the variability of early years, general Ke values were calculated using 1978-1980 data only.Also excluded from the general Ke deter- minations were values at sites after bedrock had been encountered at the eroding face (Sites 6,8, 10,and 11).Based on the 16 shoreline sites which extend over the range of materials and fetches en- countered on Southern Indian Lake,the general Ke value found by linear regression was 0.00035 m2 j tonne (r 2 =0.71,n =42,Figure 6). Ban< material..-d,-.. AUG.1975"SEPT.1976 CJ SEPT,1976-SEPT,1977 ~ SEPT,1977 -OCT.1978 IIIocr.1978 -SEPT,1979 .. SEpr.•979 -SEPT 1980 .- I " FIGURE 3 A typical consecutive annual sequence of eroding shoreline profiles at Site 1 (Figure 2).Slumped material from the initial 1975-76 period was removed in the following year. FIGURE 4 The sequence of erosion in permafrost materials begins ~ith the thawing and re~oval of backshore materials at the reservoir water level. Deep niches and caverns may be formed under the backshore zone as shown here at an island in region 4.The portion of the survey boat protrud- ing into the cavern is 5 m in length. 921 FIGURE 5 As the thawing and eroding niche proceeds under the backshore zone,the length of the can- tilevered block of frozen materials overhead in- creases until the entire backshore zone splits and tumbles onto the foreshore.The block is then thawed and removed by waves,and the formation of a new niche commences under the freshly exposed frozen bank. - TABLE 2 Total Volumes of Material Eroded Annually From Monitored Shoreline Sites on Southern Indian Lake (m3 per m of shoreline). Site 1977 1978 1979 1980 1 23.4 (0.77)15.7 (0.48)10.1 (0.61)15.3 (0.66) 2 1.8 (0.18)1.7 (0.16)1.3 (0.27)0.8 (0.12) 3 8.9 (0.35)7.5 (0.29)3.0 (0.24)8.4 (0.50) 4 7.0 (0.67)4.3 (0.34)1.3 (0.15)2.9 (0.35)~ 5 0.9 (0.71)0.6 (0.38)0.9 (0.74 )0.5 (0.56) 6 21.0 (1.32)14.4 (0.90)1.6 (0.14 )4.5 (0.28) 7 9.4 (0.48)4.4 (0.19)0.9 (0.04)5.1 (0.26) 8 1.9 (0.84)0.6 (0.26)0.2 (0.13)0.4 (0.17) 9 0.0 (0.00)1.2 (0.19)1.5 (0.38)3.1 (1.70) 10 0.0 (0.00)0.2 (0.06)0.1 (0.07)0.5 (0.21) 11 17.4 (0.54)4.3 (0.11)0.7 (0.03)not surveyed 12 4.8 (0.98)2.1 (0.33)2.6 (0.51)" 13 1.4 (0.35)2.0 (0.14)" 14 2.0 (0.34)3.5 (0.47)1.4 (0.27)3.5 (0.66) 15 0.0 (0.00)0.1 (0.56)0.2 (1.32)0.1 (0.51) 16 8.6 (0.94)14.6 (0.32)not surveyed 17 2.2 (1.35)2.7 (0.55)4.2 (0.42)" " 18 1.0 (0.16)1.5 (0.16)6.3 (0.40)4.3 (0.44) 19 2.1 (9·32)0.1 (0.03)0.1 (0.05)0.2 (0.08) 20 1.3 (0.29)0.4 (0.14)0.3 (0.22)0.4 (0.20)-The erosion index,Ke ,is shown in parentheses for each period (x 10-3 mZ/tonne).Arrows indicate cumula- tive erosion at shorelines not surveyed in 1978.- 922 FIGURE 6 The linear relationship between eroded materials and wave energy for the 1978-1980 period on Southern Indian Lake is similar to that proposed by Kachugin (1966)for reservoirs in the Soviet Union.The scattered data points and wide con- fidence limits (95%)at high erosion and high en- ergy sites suggest that the relationship may be curvilinear. Region 1976 1977 1978 0 122 177 166 1 528 672 615 2 238 311 290 3 478 668 608 4 1594 2099 1916 5 207 275 229 6 190 273 247 Whole Lake 3357 4475 4071 aThe volume of dry mineral material eroded was cal- culated using an average water content of the per- ennially frozen silty-clays of 58%dry weight and assuming a bulk dry density of 2600 kg/m3 . bAftel:Becky and McCullough (1983). TABLE J Estimated Total Dry Weight a of Mineral !1ateriails Eroded From the Shorelines of the Major Basins of Southern Indian Lake for the Period 1976- 1978 (l06 kg)b y •.0003SX -.09 ('%-0.71,n-4Z1 !!! ... :t ..~>.. ;!N o.. i.. !to r' I r i I""" i I"""" I Sediment Contributed by Shoreline Erosion The total dry weight of mineral materials eroded in the years 1976,1977,and 1978 for each basin excluding the limited exposure shorelines of region 7 of the lake,is summarized in Table 3.Estimates were not extended beyond 1978,as that was the last year in which a reconnaissance survey was under- taken to determine the portions of the total shore- line in overburden and bedrock materials.Post- impoundment bank erosion dramatically increased the turbidity of the lake (Hecky and McCullough 1983).The long-term ~eimpoundment sediment in- put to the whole lake,estimated from Churchill River inflows,is 200 x 106 kg/yr.The sediment input from eroding shorelines following impound- ment exceeds 4,000 x 106 kg/yr. Time Required for Shoreline Restabilization In the first 5 years of impoundment on Southern Indian Lake,restabi1ization in permafrost-affected fine-grained materials has occurred only on shore- lines where bedrock underlying the backshore zone was exposed at the water's edge.Where bedrock was not encountered,there has been no change in the melting,slumping and eroding sequence of shoreline migration.The annual erosion indices at monitor- ing sites in fine-grained materials have shown no diminishing trend following the first year of im- poundment (Table 2).The clearing of shorelines up to the impoundment level did not affect erosion rates. Because sub-surface exploration of the bedrock topography surrounding the lake is prohibitively expensive,the time required for shoreline re- stabilization can be estimated only from the fre- quency of occurren~e of bedrock at the monitoring sites scattered throughout the lake.Eighteen of the monitoring sites occur in fine-grained materials which aire representative of over three quarters (2,841 km)of the postimpoundment shoreline.In the initial 4 years of impoundment,bedrock was encountered.in the retreating backshore of the 4 most exposed monitoring sites.Assuming that the bedrock distribution is similar at less exposed sites,the rate of bedrock encounters should de- crease,because more time will be required to re- move the overburden.If the rate decays geo- metrically,4/18 of the remaining eroding shore- line will strike bedrock every 4 years until the preimpoundment condition is restored. Prior to impoundment,76;;of the shoreline was bedrock controlled.Following impoundment,bed- rock was exposed on only 14%of the shoreline.Be- cause the wave energy distribution on the lake and the bedrock topography were not changed by the impoundment,the sarr.e proportion of shoreline will ultimately be bedrock controlled.At the assumed geometric recovery rate of the sample shorelines, it would take 35 years to restore 90%of the fine- grained permafrost shorelines to their pre impound- ment condition.Although this is an approximate estimate,it is likely that the instabi.:ty of the Southern Indian Lake shoreline will not change for several decades.The discharge of bank sediment into the lake will continue to disrupt the fishery resources upon which the local residents are depend- ent (Bodaly et al.1983a,b). ACKNOWLEDGMENT For over 20 years,the late R.J.E.Brown of the National Research Council of Canada undertook permafrost research in Manitoba and throughout northern Canada.In 1~78,following the Third International Conference on Permafrost,he conduct- ed a memorable tour of the Freshwater Institute project on Southern Indian Lake.which focused international attention on hazards of extensive flooding in permafrost terrain.The research staff of the Southern Indian Lake project wish to acknow- ledge his support,encouragement,and significant contribution to the understanding of permafrost phenomena. REFERENCES Bodaly,R.A.,Hecky,R.E.,and Fudge,R.J.P. 1983a,Increases in fish mercury levels in lakes flooded by the Churchill River hydro- electric diversion,northern Manitoba,Ottawa: Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (in press). Bodaly,R.A.,Johnson,T.W.D.,and Fudge,R.J. P.,1983b,Post-impoundment declines in the grade of commercial whitefish catch from South- ern Indian Lake,northern Manitoba,Ottawa: Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (in press). Brown,R.J.E.,1973,Influence of climatic and terrain factors on ground temperatures at three locations in the permafrost region of Canada in Proceedings of the lInd International Confer- ence on Permafrost,North American Contribution: Washington,D.C.,National Academy of Sciences. 923 Bruun,P.,1962,Sea level rise as a cause of shoreline erosion:Journal of the Waterways and Harbours Division,American Society of Civil Engineers,88. Hecky,R.E.,and McCullough,G.K.,1983,The effects of impoundment and river diversion on the sedimentary regime of Southern Indian Lake, Ottawa:Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aqua- tic Sciences (in press). Kachugin,E.G.,1~66,The destructive action of waves on the water reservoir banks,in Proceed- ings of the International Association-of Scientific Hydrology Symposium Garda 1:Brussels. Lake Winnipeg,Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board,1975,Summary report:Winnipeg,Queens Printer. Newbury,R.W.,Beaty,K.G.,and McCullough,G.K., 1978,Initial shoreline erosion in a permafrost- affected reservoir,Southern Indian Lake,Canada, in Proceedings of the IIIrd International Con- ference on Permafrost,v.1:Ottawa,National Research Council of Canada. Underwood-McLellan,1970,Manitoba Hydro Churchill River diversion:Study of alternative diversions: Winnipeg,Underwood-McLellan and Assoc.Ltd. U.S.Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1966,Shore protection,planning and design, Technical Report No.4,3rd ed.:Washington, D.C.,U.S.Government Printing Office. 1+Environment .Environnement Canada Canada Environmental Protection de Protection -I'environnement It..JOHANSEN /tB'd V'/Z.-./d/..:t- ONTf.\RlO HYDRa ENVIRONMENTAL STW~;:3 [:.~ ASSESSMENTS DEPARTi~;GH I ·1""" ,' Facility Siting and Routing '84 Energy and Environment April 15-18,1984, Banff,Alberta . Proceedings VOLUME 2 C d,·g·ana ·a ·. -491 - WILDLIFE DATA iSSUES IN THE ROUiING OF ENERGY CORRIDORS Dept.Renewable Resour~es!Macdonald College,McGill University,Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue,Quebec.H9X leO J.Reger Bider,Dept.Renewable Resources,Macdonald College,M~Gill University,Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue,Quebec.H9X leO 11111111111111-.Ecelogie biophysique,Vice-presidente Environnement, Hydre-Qu~bec,Les Atrillms!870 boul.de Maisonneuve,Montr~al, Quebec.H2L 458 David T.Brown,Dept.Renewable Resources,Macdonald College,McGill University,Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue,Quebec.H9X leO AESTRACT In the past,wl1dlife was largelv ignored by utillt1es when selecting routes for energy transport facilities.This ~ttitude h~~~h~n~~d drastically during the last 20 ye~rs and the Qutcome has been to focus 01 species with nigh socioeconomIC v~lues in CGrrldor selection studies.Tne objective of thiS overVlew paper 1S to discuss selected dat3-relatedaspecti of the wildlife issue IF'1 routinq ,:r1HQY corridors.The first sedion of the piper Will disC1SS selected Impact;createo on ~ildllfe oy energy corridors and the role of corridors in sl'ja;l1"O ,;(11:1111;r:oem l)r11tiI?S.fh!?':E'CO;Hi part of the paper will adoreR;the wlldll'~Ja~1 Issue thr00Q~the fallowing tOPiCS: criti~al habit.t.ke~~pecle~.l~!s of ~ild11fe by !m~lI intre~ent and enperi~ent~l vs descripti¥e aopro~ches.The thIrd sectIon o~the paper will ,focus on the dllf1cultles of githering proper data ta make predictions concerning wl1allfe and the role of management in route selection and right- of-way malnten~nc~.Flnali~,cc~cJuSIQn5 wil.l be formulated concerning the importance of wildlife issues in retltio"to other biophysical constraints in selecting routes for energy corrIdors. INTRCiiUCT 1Or~. En~(gy and transportatlun corridors have affected wildlife since the earlv settle~ent of ~orth-Amerlca and yet,hlstoricaLly ~lldlife iss~es have not played an Impqrtant role in the planning of these facilities.Matthiessen (1 '16 4 !9 i v e sa.vi \'i d ...c ce".!n t I)f the r cd e t h i.':t Ii e con s t nH:t ion.0 f t h i?fir s t ~ain transcontinental raIl lInes clayed i~the demise D~the bu;~al0 !~}§9Q ~i!Qnl.It is enl;durin;thE last :0 years thlt inc~eased attentIon has been pald to wlldlife 1n cqrridcr ana route 5elEctI~n Etudles ~nd the v~st majorIty of these studies iOCU5Sd on ~reCIes with hig n socIoeconomic ~aiu9s such as ungul~t~s!furhear~rs,Nal~rf0wl ~nd e"d~nge~~~s~eCle5. ~__,_,~_.-e","~~_iiillll'l_'_~s_.....l......,_....!!!1...~.....,·mp..........~""...b*"""".....__......--------------- The integration oi wildlife issu~s in the planning process was difficult for twa main r~aSDns.The first W&s tha~the scientific literature was net co~clusive on the ben~fIts and disadvantages of rights-of-way (ROWs) on wlldlif~specles or animal communities.Tn2 second Has that wildlife was perceived very differentl.by various people.publiC agencies or di~Ciplines ~nd thus wildiife Has often arbltrarll(gi.en a very different level of lm~ortance from one rDute s~lection study to another. The objective ~~this o.erVlew paper is to discuss selected data- related aspects of the Wildlife lS$Ue in the selection of energi corridors and ultimately the routlng of the ~OWs therns~l¥~5.The discussion WIll address the follOWing Issues;1i ~epertuS51QnS of ROWs on wildlife and animal communlties,concepts 1 ffiEthodclogles and a~proaches used to conduct the wlldlife ~n~ly5is in route 5election,:J tne rale of managegent.~nd finally 31 the importance of wlldllfe issues 1n the selactior of cQrrid~rs and routes for energy transportation. REPERCUSSIuNS ANQ CONTRAINiS Rights-of-way and theIr assocIated structures ca~affect ~lld animals directly through collislons or IndIrectly through hab1tat modification.A priori on~would expect thot the greatest Impacts on wildlife would result from large scale habit~t l~odlflcatlQnS especially those which lnvolve the clearing of ~OWs through the forested envlronment.From a data pOint or view it Ls easier to collect and !nanipulat2 habitat d~ta th·il1 it is animal data therefore it has been more common to anaiyze th€wildlife issue from the habItat standpOInt.Direct repercussions on animals an the other hano ~re more difficult to forecast but they have been shown to be numerous In retrospective studies and thus greater efforts are needed towa~d collecting the proper data to make valid predictions.The 'follOWing are a s~lection of demonstrated impacts which show the difflculty of choosing the suitable data base for the impact assessment of riOWs on WIldlife. Dense aggregrations of animals or migratlng populations can be extremely vulnerable to serIOUS losses due to traffIC or structures.Klein (1971)reported high mortalIty of reIndeer (B~Q~~!~C ~~C~QQ~§I on roads and raIlroads,especiall~in winter.Allen and McCullough (1976)and PugliSI ~t !!11974)respectively reported heavy whlte-t~iled deer (Q~8S2!h~~! Yi[gini!Q~!)mortality on Michigan and Pennsylvania highways,while Grenier (1974)estimated U,e highway moose (8t~~!~l£g~)kill at 15-20 per cent of the adjacent population in a Quebec p~rk.uovis (1940)reoorted on the highway- related mortality of medium-sized mammals 1n Texas.Massive roadkills of amphibians on wet warm spring or early fall ev~nIngs are difficult to document in the literature (yan Gelder 1973;Moore 1954;Carpenter and Delzell 1951), but occasionally anecdotal information can be revealing.For instance Bidar (unpub.datal has observed a kill of 500 leopard frogs (B~~~~~a~~Q!1 d~ring a 3-hour migration on 1 km of farm road adjacent to a river hibernaculum in southern Quebec.In SWltzerland,some mountain roads are temporarily tioied .;". ·.. -493 - during amphiblan mIgratIon.Under certain conditions (e.g.Da~tial darkness, fog)I po~erllne ~tructures such as tQwers,conductors and ground wires can inflict appreciable losses to bird populations (Anderson 1978;Blokpoel and Haich 1176;Stout and Cornwell 1~76;8o~ker a~d Ni(kerson 1975:Scott ~~!~ 1972;Siegfried 197:;Cornwell and Hochbaum 1971;Ogllvie 1967:Stoddard and Norris 1967). Rights-ai-way structures are sometimes used to advantage by wildlife.Sridge~,towers and poles are often used QY wildlIfe for nestIng sites (Bridges and McConnon 1981;Gilmer and Wiehe 1977;Stahlecv.er and Griese 1979;Prevost !t ~l 19781.Some highway interchange overpasses nave been shown to harbour densities of woodchucks (~~C~Qi~mQn2~)which were severai fold higher than tnose found in adjacent agricultural areas (Doucet !~21 1,74).Rail~oad and highway ROWs can be condUCIve to waterfowl nesting (voorhees and Cassel 1980;Oetting and Cassel 1971;Page and Cassell 1971). Changes in the structure of animal communities following the development or maintenance of ROWs ha~e been discussed in same studies. Douce!and Blder (1982)showed that most forest species except amphIbians reduced their activity In a newly developed ROWand Bramwell and Bider t1981l reported the same phenomenon follOWing a defoliation experiment in a ROW.As the early stages of vegetatlon develop l~powerline ROWs,pioneer small mammal communities develop (Adams and GelS 1981;Schretber ~!el 1976>'As the brush community develops,bird species rtchness increases in ROWs (Bramble and Byrnes 1984;Chaska and Gates 1982;~lE'YH'S and Provost 1951). The Increased productIvity and higher avalldbility of preys in ROws cculd result in greater predation intensity.Ladino (1980)reported higher activity for mammalian and reptillan predators in powerline ROWs.Several studies have reported greater animal activity at the forest edge [Wegner and Merrian 1979;Doucet 1975;Bider 1968).ROWs constitute long double ecotones and Gates and Lyzel (1978)have shewn that this concentrates nests,producing an ecological trap where eggs and youngs are extremely vulnerable to predators. Complete isolatIon of populatIons by the implantation of a ROW has never been demonstrated.Doucet!~~l (19811,Lamothe and Dupuy (1982)and Willey and Marion i19801 hav~all repofted deer crossing powerline ROWs in winter.Doucet and Brown \1983),Adams and GelS (1991)Schreiber and Graves (19i71 and Schrieber ~~~~{1976)observed small mammals crossing ROWs in winter and summer.However,Joyal~!~l (1983)and Doucet ~i ~l (1961)have respectively shown that under given conditions 1 -moose and deer crossings were reducECI in ROWs du'ring winter.Oxley ~~!!!(1974)have shown that white- footed mice (E~(g~~~S~§1~~S2e~!i ana chipmunks (I~~l~~!tCt~~~§1 failed to cross a 90 m Hi.de roadway.Finaliy,Doucet and Brown (1983)found marked differences in hare (6~Q~~~~~~i£~Q~~)activity,during a population peak,in the adjac&nt woods on each side of a 30 m wide ROW. fIlom!.,. - ..... I I I I I-I -494 - Dispersal of plants and animals ha~e been facilitated by ROWs.Huey (1941)was one of the first to report such a range extension for pocket gopers (!hQ!g~~~)in Arizona.Get:~~~!~197S)showed that field voles (~isrQ~~~ Q!Q~§~!~!~iSY~)~sed roadways as dispersal routes.The presence of field voles in cleared ROWs in forested areas and the presence of grassland bird species (Chasko and Gates,1983>indicate that animals have th~pctantial to dlsperse in ROWs.This potential for dispersal brings uP.two important points.Cne,the biogeographical concept Ot saltatorial dispersal from one habitat patch to another could well be a phenomenon taking place in a cleared. ROW.The second point was discussed by Schrieber ~t !i (l976i and is related to the spread of diseases by animals such as rodents e~panding their range through dispersal in established transport and energy ROWs. The last group of impacts are those that are long termed or resulting indirectly from the implantatIon of a ROW.The Newfoundland railroad was completed at the turn of the century aod it ran through the migration route of the main cariboU herd.Hunters Quickly adjusted to hunt the carIbou as they crossed the ROWand by 1925 this schemg h~d largely contributed to the dell'dse of the 40 000 CU!OOU herd (Bergerud 1983).Deer and moose declines in Quebec in the 60's have been correlated to eKcessive huntIng in areas where access was faCIlit~ted by the develop~ent of n~w highways (Bider and Pimlott 1973).The forecasting of long-term and/or Indirectly induced changes in ~ildllfe populations 15 an issue which deserves serious considerations in route and corridor olannlng. CONCEPTS,CRITERIA AND APPROACHES Wildlife species need a habitat mosaic which enables them to feed, breed,raise young and rest.It is recognized however that some habitat components are more important than others in time and spa~e.This has facilitated the adoption of the concept of critical habitat in route selection studies.Critical habitat remaln;an Ill-defined concept;it has been variously interpreted as habitat which:li haro~urs a high d1verslty of life forms (e.g.marshlands),2>fulfills a specific seasonal need for a given species (e.g.winter yaros for white-tailed deeri,31 provides a fragile and/or limited refuge'to a rare or endangered species,and 4)fulfills some lntermediary function in the biology of a given species (e.g.migration routes of ,:aribou). Despite some shortcomings,the concept of critlcal habitat remaIns valid but it needs clarification and refinement.The central problem 1S the fact that It is diffIcult to recognlze cntical.habitat without p"oper informatlon.Habltit evaluation and mapped results have been lagging ~t scales appropriate for planners~The mdps produced by ARDA for example were often in~dequate planning tools because of poor resalutlon.lack of co~erage or Incomplete wildlife information.This waS demonstrated durIng the recent ... ....-----~----""'z--I>IflIII_•... -495 - routing of high voltage transmission lines in Quebec where several existing deer yards.failed to appear on the ARDA maps for ungulate potential.Yet,in some areas l the ARDA analysis remains the best overall mapped information available.The next step is to seek information fro~the regional level;a slow process under the best circumstances,especially if it requires additional field surveys.There are efforts underway which should improve this situation.For instance the Canadian Committee on Ec~lo9ical Land Classification ha.s a wildlife working group which is developing appropriate methodologies and format for habitat mapping (Taylor 19i9).Hounsell ana Risley (1982)have developed a habitat classification system to predict the effects of powerline ROWs on wildlife.In Quebec!the Ministry of Leisure! Fish and Game has been concerned about wildlife h~bitat and it is striving to give legal status and protection to defined and identified critical habitats (SarraZin 1963}.Results of the~e efforts should improve the planning process in relation to wildlife habitats because planners will have access to organized information and guidelines (e.g.maps,lawsl concerning valued wildlife habitat.However it appears that planners will be left with certain decisions concerning priority critical habitats in conflicting situations. 1n the majority of planning stUdies,the wildlife analysis is often limited to a few so-called socioeconomically important or key spec1es.This approach raises two important concerns.The fIrst cne is that key species means d1fferent things to dIfferent people.For instance it could be an endangered species or a species that plays a dominant role in the evolution of the structure of the anImal community.There is no reason why wolves, besvers!robins or bullfrogs cannot qualify under give~circumstances.But the question remains as to who and what criteria should decide which are the key species in a given route selection study.The second concern is tnat the soundness of determining a priori that some specIes are more important than oth~r5 in the ecosystem 1S a hIghly questionable practice,whatever the scale of values used.Elton (1927)conSIdered arctic copepods as key industry animals and Pianka (1983'and Paine 119661 defined ~eY5tone predators. Although these studies suggested that some species are dominant in shaping the structu~e of animal communities,in general few ecological studies have supported the concept that some organisms a~e more important than others In ecosystems.Indeed the hollstic aporoach embraced by most ecologists makes such distinctions of importance highly dublOUS. By defJnitions.ROWs are narrow strips and this has promoted the belief that site-specific impacts were of little consequence (with a few e~ceptlons:e.g.pipeline spill risks and caribou migration oisruption in the north).Thus the planning proc~ss after considers that only a small fraction of a given habltat le.g.marSh,roost,deer yard)is lost when biSEcted by a ROWand that most animals can relocate outs1de the disturbed zone.Although this ~nalysis can withstand reguIat1V€and pUblic scrutiny in successive P(oj~cts,small Increm~ntal loss~s could 1n th~lang run jeopdrdi~e the resource ~s a whole through dIrect or IndlPert repercussions such as those - - -496 - discusse~earller. The same concept can be ~pplled tc wilderness.~ilderness has SEvEral def1nit1ons;it can represent vast areas of untouched land or lnnaccessible areas sometimes in a park or reserve and ~om~wl!d~rness area; are protected by legal status.WE orten attach the attribute pristine t~ wlldernes.and an acceptable deflnltion of pr1~tine IS that WhiCh is unspoiled by modern tendenc1Es.If we subscribe to tn~concept that 50m;~llderness should remain free of large scale intervent1ons,it follows that the routing of a ROW through suchan area under the a;suffiotion that only a s~all fraction of the unit is lost should be o~po$ed for two reasons.First,it destroys the ver1 concept of a pristine area,if not wrlderness itself.The second reason is related to losses by small increment.If a ROW can be routed through a WIlderness area under the assumptIon that only a small fraction of habitat is touched,the same assumpt10n c~n be carr1ed out to successive route proposals in tMe Sime or different wilderness are?and thus all w1id~rne5s areas could b~encroached and J~opardized. It 1S unrealistic to attempt tu Qevelop a complete und~r3tandlng of all ~cosY5tem5 or animal communities in order to route an energy transport lin~dr fatl1ity through the rurdl or for~sted enVIronment.However,in crder to consider the wildlife 1ssue,it is imperat1~e to hay~at l~a;t j preliminarl und.rstanding of the ~colugical relation~hl~s which vdrious wlldlife sp~cies maintain with each other ~nd wlth thetr habitat.To predIct the repercuss10ns of ROWs on wildlife a cholee usvally has to be m~de betwe~n a d~scriptive approach and an experlmEntal approach.ihe descrIptlv~aaprc~ch lS o~te~ speculative and fails to yield the data required to determine tMp. repercussions concerning reproduction,feeding,behaviour,predatlor., dispersal and ultimate fate of wildlife populations under considerat1on.On the other hand,the use of experimentation and scientific methods has been slow and at times inconclusive in producing lnformation helpful to plann~rs. Let us examine this weakness in relation to white-taIleo deer,a "hot species" in many ROW planning studies 1n the northeast.The WIldlife literature (Hall~ 1978;Dasmann 1971 and Hosley 19561 suggests the creation of forest clearlngs to produce plon~er vegetat1cn and provide winter browse for deer.Bramble and Byrnes (1974,198~)observed increases in deer browse 1n powerline RaWs In Pennsylvani~.These results,~lthough useful In route selection 1n deer ~ange at large,be~ome of .dubious value in norther~de~~y~rds ~here co~er is so critical.A five ye~r study (Doucet ~t !!1~811 In such a yard showed that deer were less actiYe in a 30 m wide pQwerlin~~OW than in the ~dj~cent forest in the H1nter and the authors suggested that oeer yards sho~ld b~3vaided by energy transportation ROWs.However,a recent study (Doucet and Brown 1983) conducted in the same yard showed that deer spent conSiderable time browsing in the ROW during winter.Thus after 10 years of research th&results are still inconclUSive concerning the trade-off between the loss of cover and the gain in food production in relation to ROWs in northern deer yards.The magnitude of this trade-off is also likely to change for each yard ~ependlng upon winter sev~rity and dnnual population levels w1th1n a yard.This one- species scenario shows thdt there are cases where conclus1ons based on .~. r. ," ,e' -497 - research ~dta ire of lImited a~s!stance to the corridor and route selection ~r[;(l:i's!O" Seyer~l iuthcr5 ~Bednl.nd5 and Dui~~e(1983;~Gm~SDerg lq81:SrQe~ 1979;ana ward 1t7&;h~ye aeplored th~llmlteo USE Ot sClentl~lC ~ethods in en vir Co n men tal 5 h;d :;,e::;•.,h !:'5 e ....1 t h ()r 5 ~(10 WI:'.'P r ~;1 0 i n t !?d C L;t t h ~ci d ti nil 1.1 ;:s 0;conductIng cantr~l-tr~ltment stUQ1SS dur:nq the greIlmlnafi iffiP3Ct a5s~~5m~nt5 oi d Drcpo$~d proJect.Be~nland~and DUlnker 119931 h~:e suggested th~use Qi an ecologicai perspEctiy~to the blologacal compunents of 1mpact StUdl~S.TMIS apprDa~h ~culd need to us~some unIfYIng eccloglcal processes Euch as eutropnlCatlOn ,or nutrl~r,t cycling as a negotIable cun'ency.In general ,;t,:.:Olf'!::on ;,'hole animal c.omm'.<nltie:s ~"e Cidficlllt to conduct because of multl-te~nnlqu~samplIng probtems.5tudlas by Bramwell ~nd 81ae:r il9Bl',Lddino \198 i )1 ap<J DQu":f:t c'lnd Bider i,19821 llslng !:iand tr..:nsects as a techn1que ana animal actl'lt.as a curr~ncv Mdye shown the short-term effects of cleared pcwerline ROWs on terrestrIal an1mal commu"itie~but tne iong term effects remain largely unknown. We firmly believe that ~Kperimental research on representative problems would e.aluate the iegltlmacy of several concerns related to wildlife and ROWs ~nd tne outcome would Increase the effIciency af the planning prOCESS.~ltncugh the impract.bility at conducting many large scale treatment-control studies is recugnlzed,it seems that a potentIal solutIon to this dlfficult~is to 1mplement «few representatlve long-term studies and to est~blish monitoring for a numOer of tYPlc~1 projects iBeanlands and Duinker 1983)..This approach would ~ventual iy generate a data base from which to make predictions and suggest mitlgations. Another approach 15 to create experImental reaches of energy and transportation ROWs for the ~peciflc purpose of InvestigatIng repercussions on wildlife.These special SEctIons cculd be submitted to .treatment-control Experlments and CQuld cor.trlb~te to ecological SCIence and improve the ~ccuracy of predIctions for corrIdor planning. Results of long-term studies may turn out to be the necessary information for e~ficiint planning in relation to wlldlife and ROWs.How long should those stud.es be 1S a d1fflcult question to answer but in order to obtain adequate data to make pr~dictjons posslble concernIng wildlife populations and related processes,study specifications should consider for instance the cyclical nature of several wildlife popolatlons and ROW maintenance ~yclEs. DATA REOUIREMENTS There are several types of data r~quired in order to integrate WIldlife issues in the ro~te seiec~lan process.Two specific types of data are:I}those related to impacts or constraints associated to routing and ROW implantation,and 2)those data required to determine the effects of RaW maintenance acti~lties on wildlife (e.g.timing of work ,types of machinery, labour force,phytocides,fire,etc.).The app~oach has been that baseline - -498 - data wl1l provide sufficient ecological understanding to permit the formulation of predictions.Although this sounds logical,the problem lies in the fact that the expression baseline data is much toa vague in time,space and scope.The interpretation of this concept by environmental specialists in a per~it procurement system has been to collect a minimum of data to satisfy the guidelines.Many of these data collections were of limited use in successive route selection studies mainly because very few of these studies included systematic long-term monitoring (8eanlands ~nd Duinker lQ83).In addltion,very few of these analyses concerned themselv~s with indirect imp~cts.Consequently there is a paucity of good representative studies which could serve as backbone in new route selection studles.The post- construction monitoring often presents a.non-expansive and practical way of producing before and after type data (Beanlands and Ouinker 1983).Certainly this approach should provide pertinent wildlife data and conclusions applicable to future routings of linear energy facilities. As stated earlier,an improvem~nt in approach would be attained through rigorous experimental studies on specliic wildlife problems related to ROW implantation or maintenance.Such stUdies,uSlng scientific methods, would consider topics like habitat manage~ent,edge effect j olant an1 animal communities,animal actlvity,predatlon,competItion,d1sp2rsal and safety hazards,in order to develop the necessary data to mak:pr~dictions concerning impacts of ROWs on wilolife.Efforts in that dlr~ction ~ave produced useful prellminary results concernlng animal actiVity (Chaska and G~tes 1982.Bramwell ilnd Lilder 1981;DO~lcet ~~~l 1981.,Ladlno !'Y80i,but research must be contlnued to determine the t~ue impact mosaic of RO~s O~ Wildlife.Finally,at some point 1n tlme,r~searcM will have to ?-ddre;s the complex problem of indirect lmpacts. ~IANAGEr1ENT Most wlldlife management ventures to date in energy transportatlon ROWs were directed at habitat modiflcations.It is Quite amazing how management efforts get the go ahead despite flagrant lack of d~ta concerning' the wildlife issue.The routing of ROWs creates a =patio-temporal trade-off where some species benefit while others are ~;tressed and unless we understand the magnitUde of this trade-off,It remains Extremely difficult to make enlighted m~nagement cecisions concerning wildlife.Inere is considerable general and somewhat technical loformatlon on the management of ROWs for fish and wildlife le.g.Leedy and Adams 1982;Galvin ~~!!1Q 79,and Meyers and Provost 1981).Although these reports and several others are more concerned WIth habitat "grooming"than habitat management they indicate that at times, and through positi.e management decislons!a c~rtain compatibility can be achieved between wildlife requisites and the routing of ROWs.CertaInly,to date,there is avaliable knowledge on some ~peclflc wlldllf?concern~which can be integrated Hl the rdannlng process in order to addr-ess some specific Wildlife issues and reduce the Impact and sometimes possibly·i~orcve the fate of som~wildlife species.In the northeast fer e~ample,few s02cies arouse ,". -, >';1 ·.,... -499 - public concerns as much as white-tailed deer.These ungulates congregate in traditional winter yards which repre~ent critical habitat for the survival of the deer populations.Under these circumstances,one would consider yards to be major constralnts to corridor routing.However a deer yard can be broken into two major components which are cover and food;and while the clearing of coniferous cover to route an energy facility should not be considered, decidUOUS stands on the other hand can present a viable alternative under specifiC circumstances.Te~tbooks on yard management {e,g.uasmann 19711 suggest to rejuvenate climax deciduous stands to produce deer browse,thus t~e routing of energy transportatl0n ROWs in such mature deciduous stands within a deer yard appears feasible.Once this concept is accepted it becomes possible to formulate objectively and lntegrate the details of a management plan Into a project (e.g.clearing-by-small-blocks rotation).A successful case has been reported (Lamothe and Dupuy 19S2)in Quebec,where a tWIn 735 kV Ilne was routed through an active deer yard.By locating the elevated towers in clearings practiced in deCIduous and mixed stands and raising the conductors to spare ccniferous stands,the 1055 of cover was minimized and deer were prDvided with quantities 0+browse from the slash of the orig1nal clearing Nhieh was carried out in the winter and browse produced by the new growth 1n successive years.Overall,it is possible that the project may have benefited deer.Unfortunately the long term monltoring of this project was not geared to determine the cover-browse trade-off and it r~main5 difficult to determ~n~ the eifect of the m~intenance schedule on brow~e production and availability. It is most important to emphasi~e that we can only proceed on a case by case basis and that all deer yards are not systematically suited for the routing of an energf transportation ROW.In ~ddition,the routing of a ROW in a deer yard eliminate5 the wilderness characteristics which are sometimes attached to such habitats.Finally on a comparative scale,deer are certainly much better off to have a Ilnear e~ergy transport facility encroach their yards than a houslng development.This kind of cMolce is not usually left to wildlif~rs and/or planners alone. Habitat management should not be cong1dered the cure-all for the various probl~ms ~hat ROWs preser.t rcr wildlife populations.The management of ROWs for ~ildllf~as a complex lS5ue (Me~ers a~d provost 19811,The be effective,habitat managem~"t must be carried according to a set of objectlwes,otherwise the effects CQuid ~mount to w~ll-intent10ned h~bitat "grooming".From a ~lidllfe pOlnt of view,linear energy transportation facilities present three different sets of problems Which are those associated with:1>plal'!!iing,:J cQnstrl.lctior;and.3)operation and mal"ltenanc:e.The planning phase not only d@termlnes the route but it IS also responsible for the formuldtion of guidellnes aGd terms of references fer the construction and operation phases.Thus communIcation 15 ~s5e~tial between these phaSES if ~anagement IS tG be successfvl.SIr,C~plannIng.construction ~~d operation are carried out bv dlff~r2nt agenCies or dlvislons within an agency, com~unlcatlon breakdOwns start during the constructlon phase ~nd often become compl~te during t~e operat1on and m~intenanCE phise. "egit,mwm =mo •• .- - -, .,-. I r r 1, r I \ -500 - Certa~nli d~clslcns made concerfllng t~~routi1g and tonstructiom i5pects can be called management aeclsion but tne deCISIons concerning thi rperatlon and maintenanCE of a ROW,In practice,are generally left to th prDpon~nt.The plannIng phase shQula con51der the malntenance aspects of ~GW v~ry seriously In relatlon to wIldlifE durlng a route sel~ctlon study.' This approach reqljlrr=s three i,nport.ant reqUISItes.One.the terms at' ref ere nee s for ROW h it bit",t III ill n ten an c emu s t rem ai n ext rem ely s imp Ie.';, Secondl/,follow-up or monltorlng programs must be put in place;such prograMS: could be integrated In the uyerall ROW inspectlon program.Finally! communications must be assured between the master plan responsibilit~level~j and the field maintenance levels.Breakdown~at thiS latter stage are as eas~ to find as bulldozer operators. ROLE OF WILDLIFE DATA IN CQRRIDGR SELECTION The route selection process must conSIder w\l·dllfe Within an of other biophysical constrdints olong with social values.costs and technical constraints.The importance of Wildlife in such multIdisciplinary approaches ~as be~n ~'aracterized by a roller coaster approach where Wildlife Issues played a very different role in various stuoles.P~rhaos one re~son for this is the willingness of th@ publIC to abandon their rIghts or Interest in wildlife (Schoenfeld ana Hendee 1978).~hen there IS a conflict with other Issues i~.g.forestry,agriculture)In a route selection study,often one can expect wildlife issues to playa secondary roI~under a lack of sustained pUbl}c interest.On the other h~no,several puelic groups are often "most eager to add weight to ather issues SUCh as agriculture,forestry and recreation.Perhaps one reason for these issues gaining mo~entum during a study is the fact thAt they lend themsel~es to dependabie predIctIons and forecast.For example,it is easier to determine that 200 ha versus 600 ha of agricultural land will be lost depending on the outcome of a route selection study where two alternatives are considered.WildlIfe issues are usually no~ as clearly presented and perhaps th~lack of adequate data,at time~,can contribute to the ultimate demise of WIldlife concerns In the corridor and route selection process.There are very few well informed voices which speak for wildlife in route selectIon studies and unless a species or habItat is legally protected,the level 0+constraInt of the wildlife issue is greatly' reduced.If the importance of wildif~lssues is to be established from social values and national heritage points of view,this can only be achieved th~cugh better knowledge of the impacts of ROWs on wildlife communities. CONCLUSION Wildlife populations can be affected in many ways by linear energy transport faCIlities.These impacts can be short-or long-termed,direct or indirect,trivial or of great significanc~.An essentIal component of the planning and impact assessment processes IS to make predictions.Unless you have a definite idea of:1)which populations are present and at what time of the year they are most vulnerable to habitat modifIcatIon,and 2)which ecological processes (e.g.predation)will be affected by a ROW,it becomes r 1 .... (,.;~~. ·.'',;-' -501 - ........ ';~ extremely difficult to make aCturate predlctions ccncerning the ~ate of these ~opulatlons!their oehaviour,dIspersal and community structure,especially in a long-term perspective.The rDle of energy corridors In shaping animal communities represents a recent Interest in the sci~ntific communIty.It IS obvious that some specl~s witl benefit while others will be disadvantaged and the trade-off present~d hi energy ROWs remains difficult to predict from the evidence a.aildble.Scientiflc r~search in thiS fIeld IS badly needed tc provide the proper aata to make accurate predictions concerning w1ldilf~and rGute selection. The role of wildlife Issues in cD~ridor selection will be enh~nced and simplified through mare intenSive research In that speclfic field of _ildlife biology.Better overall evaluation and mapping of wlldlife habitat (e.g.through improved resolutIon 1n remote sensing}will en~ble planners to recogni=e proolems early in the corridor and route selection process.The s~turing of the above conSIderatIons can only taxe place if planners and wildlif~specialists maintain an open dIalogue to ensure a realistic and favor~ble inclusion of wlldl~fe issues 1n the route selectIon process.In the long run,this will make the route selection ~rocess easier,more ·conflict free and mor~efficient. ,: ,': for on soutnern Sci.Amer. framework -for Resource Deer-ca~accidents in1976. 40:317-375. Roads and roaOSloe habitat in relation to and abundance.Proc.2nd Symp.Environ. !·lanagement.EPRI WS-78"14L pp.54:1-17. Waterfowl coll1510n5 with power lines at a coal-fired Wildl.Soc.Bull.6:77-83. J.R.1968.Animal activ1ty In uncontrolled terrestrial com~unlties loW.,and A.G.GelS.1981. small mammal dIstrIbution Concerns in Rlghts~of-Way Research co~ce~n.ng hdbltat management in ~5t2blished ROWs could constralnts from the route selection process ana at the same tIme the Tdte OfWildllfe populations occupyIng nacltats which become by energy transport linear faCllitles.The failure to adopt thiS action will rEsult in d slate of stagnation where each ~oute will produce ~arlOUS quant1ties af descrlptl~e Wildlife data which of I1mlt~d use to th~route selection proc~ss and to management Sider, Ada;ms, iHlen,R.E.,and D.R.McCullough. Michigan.J.Wildl.ManagE. UTERAfURE CITED Anderson,IIl.L.1978. power plant. B~rgerud,A.T.1983.Prey switchIng 1n a simple ecosystem. 249 (6J:131)-141. reduCt:' illprove lin sectee course of sel ec t i on ",Hi be efforts. &eanlands,G.E.,a.nd P.N.tluinker.1983.An ecological environmental impact aSiessment in Canada.lnst. Env.Studies,DalhOUSIe Univ.and FEARO.132 pp. ...,~~"••~~.rJ!!!,l.••!'f~1!*'Wi·t'I1~r..;;:;~~~--;"·"··'·. ';"'(--::".~,";;:"(;:~'.':,:'~;';;~" r o 0_.!!!?__1.' r l -502 - r as determined by a s~nd transe~t te~~nlque. 30B .~ Ecol.Monog~.38:269- J.R.,and D.H.Pimlott.1973. urban centres and blg game K1ils and WorKshop.pp.59-aO. I r ~r, Bider, B1 o~'poe 1,H.,and D.R.M.Ha i c h . crash into power ilnes. Boeker,E.L.,and P.R.Nickerson. Bull..3:79-81. ~cce5s to hunting areas from major In QueoS'c.9th N.Am.tioase Coni. 1176.Snow geese,disturbed by aircraf~, Can.field-Nat.90:195. 1975..;Ril~tor ~lectroCl.!tions.Wild!.Soc. Carpenter,C.C.,and D.E.Delzell.1951.Road records as indicator of differential spring migratIon of amphiblans.Herpetoloqica 7:63- 64. Bramble,W,C'!and N.R.Byrnes.1982.Deve!lopt1lent of wildlife food and cover on ~n electric transmiSSIon ri9nt-of-w~y maintaIned by herbicides:a 30-year report.Purdue Agrlc.E>:p.Stn.,Res.Bull.974.24 pp. Bramble,W.C~,and W.R.Byrnes.1974.Imcact of herbIcides upon game food and cover on a utility r1ght-of-way.Purdue Agric.Exp.Stn.Bull. 918.1b pp. Bridges,J.H.,and D.McConnon.li8l.NestIng platforms for use with transmission or dIstribution structure.Prot.2nd Symp.Environ. Concerns in Rights-af-Way Manage.Ann Arbor,Mich.WS-78-141. 61:1-6. The bIrd population of by MerOicides.J. Bramble,W.C.,W.R.Byrnes,and M.D.Schuler.1184. a transmlssion right-of-way maIntaIned Arborlculture 10:13-20. BramwElll,R.N.,and J.R.Bider.1961.A method foi"monitoring the terrestrial animal community of a powerline right-of-~ay.Proc.2nd Symp.on Environ.Con~erns 1n Rights-of-Way Manage.EPRI W5-78-141. pp.4S~I-17. rt r r r rt r r r r Chaska,G.G.,and "J.E.Gates.1982.Jhian habitat suitabliity along a transmission-line corridor in an oak-hickory forest region.Wildl. Monogr.82.42 pp. Cornwell,G"and H.A.Hochbaum.1971,CClllisions with wires -a source of anatid mortality.Wilson Bull.83:305-306. Davis,w.e.1940.Mor~ality of wildlife on a Texas highway. Manage.4:90-91 • rt Dasmann,W. Pa. 1971. 128 pp. If dee~are to survive.Stackpole Books,Ha~risburg, J.Wildl. .~. ~lton,C.S.1927.Animal ecology.Sidgwick and Jackson,London.209 pp. ~renier,P.1974.Anlmaux tu~s sur la route dans Ie Parc des Laurentides, Qu~bec,de 1962 a 1972.Nat.Can.101:737-754. ~osley,N.W.1956.Management of the white-tailed deer in its environment. In Taylor,W.P.(ed.).The Deer of North America.Stackpole Books, for highway Field- methods 257 pp. Use of Can. Management of transmission USD!,Biological Services 4 in Schmidt,J,L.,D.L, America,Stackpole Books, Chap. North design and statistical John Wiley ~Sons,Toronto. R.H.1979.Sampling environmental biologists. -503 - I'LT.,K.D.Hoover,and M.L.Avery.1979. line rights-ot-way for fish and wildlife. Program,Vol.I,FWSiCBS-79/Z2.168 pp. a.J.,and J.R.Bider.1982.Changes in animal actlvity immediately following the experimental clearing of a forested right-of-way. Proc.3rd.Symp.on Environ.Concerns in Rights-of-Way Manage.San Diego,Cal.Feb.1982 ..(In press). G.J.,R.W.Stewart,and LA.Morrison.1981.The effect of a utility right-of-way on wnite-tailed.deer in a northern deer yard. Prot.2nd Symp.on Environ.Concerns in Rights-of-Way Manage.EPRI WS-78-141.pp.59:1-9. G.J.,J.P.R.Sarrazin,and J ..R.Bider.1974. overpass embankments by the woodchuck ~!~~Q~!~g~!~. Nat.Be:187-190. G.J.1975.Effect of habitat manipulation on the activity of an animal community.Unpubl.Ph.D.Thesis,McGill Univ.,Mon,treal,Que. 259 pp. L.K.1978.White-tailed deer, Gilbert (eds.l.Big Game of Harrisburg,Pa.pp.43-65. a.J.,and D.T.Brown.1983.Etude sur Ie cerf de Virginie dans l'emprise a 120 kV traversant Ie ravage de Rigaud.Servo Ecologie Biophysique,Vice-pr~sidence Environment,Hydro-Quebec,Montreal. 120 pp. Rail s, ~Jucet, ~JUC et, ~JLtcet, bllmer,D.S.,and J.N.wieke.1977.Nesting by ferruginous hawks and other raptors on high voltage powerline towers.Prairie Naturalist 9:1- 10. -. ~etz,L.L.,F.R.Cole,and D.L.Gates.1978.Interstate roadsides as dispersal routes for ~i~tg~~~e!~Q~Yl~~QiS~~'J.Namm.59:208-212. Cates,J.E.,and L.W.Gysel.1978.Avian nest dispersion and fledging success in field-forest ecotones.Ecology 59:871-883. Calvin, l :lucet I poucet t 'reen, -~." ._.~-.__._-_._--_.---..__..Ja...OIIi_c:==m==-......~-"'"'''............••_.-..._............"""~,.........~".,.,..,.....~- -504 - Harrisburg,Pa.pp.187-2&0. Hounsell,S.W.,and C.J.Risley.1982. the fbrested regions of southern the effects of forest alternation Use and Env.Planning Dept.Rep. Wildlife-habitat relationships in OntarIO - a progra~for predicting on ~ildllfe.OntarlO HYdro,Land No.82529.74 pp. Huey,L.M.1941.Mammalian InvaSIon along the hIghway.J.Mamm.22:383-385. Joyal,R.,F.Lamothe,and R.FournIer.1963.L'utllisation des emprises de lignes de transport d'enl!rgie ehctrique par l'orignal (~!~!~~!S!~J en hiver.Can.J.Zool.62:260-266. Klein,D.R.1971.ReactIons of reindeer to obstructions and disturbances. Science 173:393-398. Ladino,A.G.1980.Animal actIVIty patterns in transmission-line corridor and adjacent habitats.M.S.Thesis,Frostburg State College, Frostburg,Md.66 pp. Lamothe,P.,and P.Dupuy.1982.Special considerations for implanting two 735 kV lines in the Hill Head deer yard:near Montreal.Proc.3rd Symp.Environ.Concerns in Rights-of-Way Manage.,San Diego,Cal. Feb.1982.(1n press). Leedy,D.L,and LW.Adams.1982. managing highway corridors. FHWA-TS-82-212.93 pp. Wildlife considerations in planning and USDT Federal Highway Adm.,Report No. - Matthiessen,P.1964.Wildlife in America.The Viking Press,N.Y.304 pp. Meyers,J.M.,and E.E.Provost.1981.Bird population responses to a forest-grassland and shrub ecotone on a transmission line corridor. Proc.2nd Symp.on Environ.Concerns in Rights-of-Way Manage.EPRI WS-7S-141.pp.60:1-13. Moore,H.J.1954.Some observations on the migration of the toad l~~fg ~~fg ~l:!i!2)'Brit.J.Herpet.1:194-224. Oetting,R.B.,and J:F.Cassel.1971.Waterfowl nesting on interstate highway right-of-way in North Dakota.J.Wildl.Manage.35:774- 781. Ogilvie,M.A.1967.Population changes and mortality of the mute s~an in Britain.Wildfowl Trust 18:64-73. Page,R.D.,and J.F.Cassel.1971.Waterfowl nesting on a railroad right-of- way in North Dakota.J.Wildl.Manage.35:544-549. Paine,R.T.1966.Food web complexity and species diversity. Naturalist 100:65-75 . Am. .'t • ·'.""c" Prevost,V.A"R.P.Bancroft,and N.R.Seymour.1978.Status of the Osprey in Antigonish County,Nova Scotia.Can.Field-Nat.92:294-297. Puglisi,M.J.,J.S.Lindzey,and EnD.Bellis.1974. highway mortality of white-tailed deer.J. B07. Pianka.,E.R.1963. New York. -505 - Evolutionary ecology.3rd.ed. 416 pp. Harper ~KOW,Pub.Inc., Factors associated with Wildl.Manage.38:799- RomeSburg,H.C.1981.Wildlife science:gaining reliable knowledge. Wildl.Manage.45:293-313. J. SarraZIn,R.(ed.l.1983.La protection des habitats fauniques au Quebec. Min.Loisir,Chasse at Pache,Oir.Gen.de la Fauna.256 pp. Schoenfeld,C.A.,and J.e.Hendee.1978.Wildlife management in wilderness, The Boxwood Press,Pacific Grove,Cal.172 pp. Schreiber,R.K.,w.e.Johnson,J.D.Story,C.Wenal,and J.T.Kitchings. 1976.Effects of powerllne rights-of-way on small,nongame mammal community structure.Proc.1st Symp.on Environ.Concerns in Rights-of-Way Management.Univ.Mississippi.pp.263-273. Schreiber,R.K.,and J.H.Graves.1977.Powerline corridors as barriers to the movements of small mammals.Amer.Mid. 504-508. possible Nat,97: -Scott,R.E ••L.J.Roberts.and C.J.Cadbury.1972.Birds deaths from power lines at Dungeness.British Birds 65:273-286. Siegfried,W.R.1972. 486-487. Ruddy ducks colliding with wires.Wilson Bull.84: Stahlecker,D.W.,and H.J.Griese.1979,Raptor use of nest boxes and platforms on transmission towers.Wildl.Soc.Bull.7:59-62. Stoddard,H.L.,Sr.,and R.A.Norris.1967.Bird casulties at a Leon County,Florida TV tower:an eleven-yGar study.Bull.TaLl Timbers Res.Stn.8.104 pp" Stout.I.J.,and S.W.Cornwell.1976.Nonhunting mortality of fledged North American waterfowl.J.Wildt.Manage.40:681-693. ~an Gelder,J.J.1973.A quantitative approach to the mortality resulting from traffic in a population of ~~fg £~fe L.Oecologia 13:93-95, Taylor,0.6.(ed.>.1979.Land/Wildlife Classification Series,No.11. Canada.160 pp. Integration.Ecological Land Lands Directorate,Environment ,f '. ~.,,".., -506 - Voorhees,L.D.,and J.F.Cassel.1980.Hqlhwav :-lglit-of-witY:'llcwing versus succession as related to duck nesting.J.Wild!.M<in ..ge.44:155- 1630 Ward,D.V.1978. methods. Biological environmental impact studies: Acadeiilic F'ress Inc.New YQ,rk.157 pp. theory and Wegner",J.F.,and G.Merriam.1979.Move.llents o~·turds and smali mammals between a wood and adjOining farmlanc habitats.J.Applied Ecol. 10:349-357. - -, Willey,C.H.,and L.F.Marion. for white-tailed deer. 103. .... 1980. Trans. I; I:-ansm\ssior.line corridor crossings Northeast Sect.Wildl.Soc.37:91- , t·· "ft l>- t:c - ..... ."..., ..... ICE CONTROL MEASURES ON THE ST.LAWRENCE RIVER Presented at: EASTERN SNOW CONFERENCE OSWEGO,N.Y.,FEBRUARY 1972 By:C.J.R.Lawrie,P.Eng. Waterway Development Canadian Marine Transportation Administration Administration du Transport Maritime du Canada ICE CONTROL MEASURES ON THE ST.LAWRENCE RIVER Introduction Within the 160 mile reach of the lower St.Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City (see Fig.1)flooding of low lying areas and damage to shore property used to always be hazards associated with winter.The primary reason for such flooding lay in the fact that the ice still had a firm grip on the river at the time of the spring freshet.Flooding also occurred curing the early and mid-winter months due to ice jams caused by shoving and telescoping of the ice cover before final consolidation.Marks on buildings along the Montreal waterfront attest to the heights to which the most disastrous of these floods reached;the worst being that of 1886 when Notre Dame Street virtually became a river.The municipalities around and downstream shared with Montreal the distress associated with the annual spring run-off and ice break-up in the St.Lawrence.It is recorded,for example, that 50 people lost their lives during the spring flood of 1865,and that in the Sorel-Berthierville region miles of low-lying areas were innundated. From earliest times,a particularly vexatious pro- blem has been the formation of an ice bridge at Cap Rouge, some five miles west of Quebec City.Here,at the site of the impressive Quebec Bridge,the St.Lawrence is about 175 feet deep,but its width is reduced to less than half a mile. Under conditions of extremely cold weather and a heavy run of drift and sh~et ice,this narrow passage was often spanned by a bridge of ice during slack water at high tide.If this bridge was not dislodged by the following ebb tide,a solid barrier would form and generally remain in place until spring. Not only did this lead to considerable flooding upstream,but when the bridge finally let go,the effects in Quebec Harbour were often disastrous.The break-up of the Cap Rouge ice bridge on May 9,1874 is reported to have resulted in water- front damage,including sunken ships,to the extent of one million dollars. •••2 -" - - - .-, - 2 - The first organized attempt at ice control was made in 1906 when two federal government icebreakers made their presence felt on the St.Lawrence.In the early spring of that year the brand new Lady Grey*and Montcalm,working together, successfully broke up the ice bridge at Cap Rouge before flood dangers developed.Although this was a modest beginn1ng,it was literally a "breakthrough 11.The Lady Grey is shown at work in Fig.2. It soon became evident that the formation of an ice bridge could be prevented by continual icebreaker patrol throughout the winter,and with this barrier removed,it was a re1ati.ve1y easy matter to maintain an open channel as far upstream as Trois-Rivi~res.With the addition to the ice- breaker fleet of the Saure1 in 1929 and the N.B.McLean a year later,it was generally possible to open a channel to Montreal in time to provide an escape route for the heavy run of ice and freshet waters in the spring.There still remained,how- ever,the problem of early and mid-winter floods.It was not until the acquisition of more powerful and modern icebreakers in the early 1950's and the inauguration of continuous ice- breaking operations through the winter that the situation was controlled and the incidence of flooding drastically reduced. Due to this flood prevention progra.m,improved icebreaking techniques,and recently installed control works,the disasters of former years are now all but forgotten.Although we must accept the fact that we are as yet unable to prevent the formation of ice jams,they are now·removed by the icebreakers long before the!e is danger of flooding.As a matter of interest,the maximum level at Montreal last winter occurred on February 5,when an ice jam at Montreal East raised the water level to about 13 feet above normal for a short period, as compared with levels 25 feet above normal which frequently occurred in the past . *The Lady Grey sank dramatically after a collision while assisting the Quebec ferry in 19S5. •••3 - 3 - Problem Areas As already mentioned,a major problem area is the Quebec Narrows section at Cap Rouge.The tidal range at Quebec is in the order of twenty feet and effective icebreaking oper- ations can only be carried out on the ebb tide which flushes the broken ice downstream.These operations may have to be curtailed or even suspended under conditions of poor visibility. During critical periods of winter,at least one icebreaker is on standby at Quebec to prevent the formation of jams.The winter of 1967-68 is illustrative of the very serious condi- tions which can arise in this section.During the extremely cold weather in the first two weeks of January 1968,the ice bridged over in the Quebec Narrows and with continuing extreme temperatures a very severe ice jam quickly formed upriver as far as Trois-Rivieres.It took the combined efforts of nine Coast Guard icebreakers (including the three "heavies")about three weeks to finally clear the channel to Montreal.The conditions which faced the icebreakers are well.illustrated in Fig.3. Between Quebec and Trois-Rivieres tidal action and icebreaker patrol generally keep the channel open throughout the winter.From Trois-Rivieres to Montreal,however,the situation is much more complex,and in this reach there are two key areas for controlling the ice problem -the Lake St.Peter-Lanoraie Section and the LaPrairie Basin. Ice Cover Formation -Trois-Rivieres to Montreal The ice cover in the St.Lawrence River from Trois- Rivieres to the foot of the Lachine Rapids develops in much the same way every year.With the advent of cold weather, water temperature~adually falls to the freezing point,drift ice begins to appear over the surface,and sheet ice forms in the bays and in areas of slack water.This newly formed ice tends to break off under the action of wind and waves and together with a mixture of "frazil"and slush,drifts down- •••4 - - - ""'" ..... - 4 - stream into Lake St.Peter where the average current velocity is less than 1.5 feet per second,and at times of strong northeasterly winds there may be no surface movement at all. This condition allows border ice to form and bridge across the narrow outlet of the lake.Thie mass of drifting ice accumulates against the bridS~and a cover soon forms.This usually happens toward the end of Dlecember.Thereafter,the ice cover packs upstream to Montreal at a rate dependen~on the meteorological conditions and in a manner governed by the hydraulic characteristics of the river. The mechanics of ice cover growth by packing are not yet fully understood.In the past,the process was based on simple current velocity criteria,with the limiting velo- city for advance of the cover by packing being taken as 2.25 feet per second.It is now generally accepted that progres- sion of an ice cover is related to ·theFroude number,the value of which determines whether ice floes ~V'ill pack against the leading edge of the advancing cover,or be drawn under it. The actual value of this number for a particular section is probably dependent on various factors,including the hydraulic conditions and the characteristics of the ice at the section. From observations made by Kivisild l ,it appears that the average critical Froude number is about: ..- where V =-D = g = .... F =V/(gD)~=0.08 veloci ty of thie current at the section mean depth of water at the section acceleration due to gravity ..- I According to Kivisild,whien the Froude number is less than 0.08,ice accumulates against the edge of the cover and the pack grows upstream,becoming more massive as the Froude number approaches the critical value.At higher Froude numbers ice is drawn under the cover and is deposited on the underside to form a "hanging dam"a't sections where the shear stress against the cover is below a certain value.This process .••5 .. - 5 - creates a backwater effect upstream and makes hydraulic condi- tions favourable for ice to accumulate against the cover,thus allowing the pack to continue its growth upstream.This is the manner in which the ice cover advances from Lake St.Peter to Montreal.A typical ice cover formation is illustrated in Figs.4 and 5.If the weather remains very cold the ice cover will be relatively strong.A period of mild weather,however, can weaken the cover sufficiently that it cannot withstand the thrust on it.At this point the cover may buckle or telescope and compress to form a heavy ice jam,with subsequent sharp increases in upstream water levels.Serious jamming frequently occurs in the narrows at the head of Lake St.Peter,in the Lanoraie section and in Montreal Harbour. A key factor governing the ice problem at Montreal and downstream is the continuous generation of ice throughout the winter in the seven mile open water reach of the Lachine Rapids and lower end of Lake St.Louis.The vast quantities of ice generated in this section continue to flow downstream until the increase in water levels in upper Montreal Harbour caused by the advancing ice cover is sufficient to reduce current velocities and permit an ice cover to form in LaPrairie Basin up to the foot of the rapids.Thereafter,with continuing cold weather,the cover in the basin consolidates and the bulk of the ice generated in the rapids area is stored under it. This marks the end of a critical stage in the winter's opera- tions and normally there is little further trouble.A typical ice cover in Montreal Harbour during the fifties is shown in Fig.6. In Lake St.Peter a further complication arises after the channel has been opened by the icebreakers in early winter.The lake is some 8 miles wide and 20 miles long with an average depth of about 10 feet.The Ship Channel,which passes through the middle of the lake,is 800 feet wide and dredged to a depth of 35 feet.The problem here is that from time to time large pieces of the cover break off through the action of wind and the waves of passing ships.These large masses move into the shipping lane and effectively block it . • • . 6 - - - 6 - One of the most troublesome areas is the northeast section of the lake,and an example of what can happen is illustrated in Fig.7. Icebreaking and Winter Navigation Until a few years ago icebreaking between Montreal and Quebec City was traditionally carried out only for flood control,and the maintenance of an ice-free track for ferry crossings at Quebec,Trois-Rivieres and Sorel.Officially no direct assistance was given to ships naviyating in this reach of the river except in emergencies.During the last decade, however,there has been a growing trend of ships taking advan- tage of these icebreaking operations to reach Montreal in the winter months.The closed season,i.e.the time between last departures and first arrivals at Montreal has been progres- sively shortened from about five months at the beginning of the century until today the port is virtually open to year- round navigation.Most of the ships sailing to Montreal in winter have specially reinforced hulls to combat ice condi- tions in the Gulf and the St.Lawrence River.Fig.8 shows the trend and growth in the number of vessels sailing to Montreal during the winter months,January through March. Although the major role of the icebreakers in this reach of the St.Lawrence is still flood control,they have now taken on the additional responsibility of maintaining an open channel in support of the developing winter traffic through the area.The annual cost of icebreaking between Quebec and Mont~eal is at present about $750,000 with the following ships of the Coast Guard fleet usually assigned to these operations: N.M.Rogers N.B.McLean Hontcalm Ernest Lapointe 13,000 Horsepower 6,500 Horsepower 4,000 Horsepower 2,000 Horsepower •.•7 - 7 - An important factor in icebreaking operations is the width of channel opened.The aim is to open a lane wide enough to permit safe navigation and adequate ice evacuation. This policy leads to less ice being produced in the system, and the slightly higher velocities in the restricted channel favour better ice evacuation.Fig.9 shows an historic repre- sentation of the ice cover formation and icebreaking operations between Quebec and Montreal for the winter of 1967-68.The influence of these operations on water levels in Montreal Harbour is further illustrated in Fig.10. At times bad weather can reduce visibility and ser- iously hinder the work of maintaining an open channel.The Ministry of Transport,recognizing the need to get the most effective use of its icebreaking fleet,is actively evaluating and experimenting with a number of accurate vessel location systems which would allow the icebreakers to work under con- ditions of extremely poor visibility.One Radar Positioning System now under extensive testing on the Norman McLeod Rogers has indicated that an accuracy of about 1 meter can be obtained in vessel location.When this equipment has been fully proved and becomes operational,downtime due to poor visibility should be practically zero. Ice Control Structures To enhance its ice control program to meet the dual challenge of reducing the danger of flooding and of assisting winter navigation,the Ministry has also installed a number of additional features in this reach of the river. The construction of EXPO '67 involved the narrowing of St.Lawrence River channels in the Montreal area,resulting in a potential danger of more severe jams from a run of ice out of LaPrairie Basin,and hence possible flooding of not only EXPO itself,but of the low lying areas along the Montreal waterfront.To minimize this danger,_a permanent ice control structure was constructed across the river at the lower end of the basin.The location and details of the structure are ....8 - - ,.... - 8 - shown in Figs.11,12 and 13.Built in 1964-65 at a cost of $18,000,000,the LaPrairie Basin ice control structure was taken over by Transport in October of 1966 and carne into full operation during the subsequent wint:er. The structure,which is essentially an elaborate system of floating stoplogs set bet~~een piers,was designed to help form a stable ice cover on t.he basin earlier than would normally be the case.Once formed,this cover provides a large storage area for the ice continually generated in the Lachine Rapids section upstream.Thus,the large volume of ice which normally flows out of the basin in early winter is arrested and prevented from causing severe ice jams and con- sequent flooding in the Montreal area. Successful operation of the control structure is dependent upon an increase in water level at the structure due to backwater effects of the ice cover advancing upstream into Montreal Harbour.Development of recommended operating procedures was based on extensive model studies.The two main factors investigated were the 'water levels at which the stoplogs should be placed to promote an ice cover,and the capacity of LaPrairie Basin to store ice under the cover thus formed.It was established from the model tests that if oper~ ated under certain stage discharge relationships created by ice jams downstream,the structure would initiate an ice cover on the basin.The operation is illustrated schematically in Fig.14. One method of estimating the volume of ice formed from a given area of water exposed to the cooling action of air is by establishing the rate of heat loss as the water is cooled to the freezing point and applying the rate found to later exposures.MacLachlin 2 determined this rate to be about 95 British Thermal Units transferred per day per square foot per degree difference between air and water temperatures, and went onto establish the equation: •••9 v =95.T.A 144 x 57.4 - 9 - (Simpli fied to V =T.A) 87 where V =Vol.of ice formed per day in cu.ft. T =Av.Diff.between air and water temp. in 0p. A =Area of open water in ft.2 This relationship was used to establish for various mean temperatures the cumulative production of ice in the open reach of the Lachine Rapids and Lake St.Louis,the area of which was taken to be 270 x 10 6 square feet.The storage cap- acity of the basin related to water elevation and rate of ice production in the Lachine Rapids-,as obtained from model tests, is shown in the composite diagram in Fig.15. Because of the success icebreakers have had in recent years in maintaining an open channel,the high water conditions necessary for operation of the structure as described no longer occur,and usually the ice covers only about two-thirds of the width of the basin.Experimental work is now in hand to improve the efficiency of the ice retention capacity of the structure by converting some stoplogs to booms and floating them down- stream.Tests are also being made with a boom made out of large diameter nylon rope. Another feature of the Ministry's ice control program is the installation of a system of floating ice booms.Estab- lished initially on an experimental basis,the ice booms are now considered to be an integral part of the control works of the Ship Channel.The booms,which are constructed in 500 feet sections,consist of B.C.fir timbers 14 inches by 22 inches in section and 30 feet long,linked together with 2 inch dia- meter galvanized steel cable.A typical arrangement is illus- trated in Pig.16. The booms in the Ship Channel have been designed and located to: ~ I - (a)Porm a stable ice cover outside the shipping lanes as early as possible,thereby closing large areas of ice producing open water. ...10 - -10 - (b)Control the movement of this ice cover during its formation and retain it throughout the winter. .... (c)Minimize erosion of the ice field caused by waves from passing ships and thus reduce the number of floes breaking off into the channel, presenting a hazard to shipping and creating serious ice jams. - The first booms were insta.lled in Lake St.Peter five winters ago in the location shown on Fig.17.This installation consists of four booms,each 2,000 feet in length.In the light of experience gained during the firs;t two winters certain design modifications have been carried out to strengthen the booms and improve 1:heir performance.This installation has proved to be extremely efficient in preventing the ice cover from breaking up and has considerably eased the workload of the icebreakers in this area. In conjunction with these booms artificial islands were created in Lake St.Peter to assist in control of ice. These islands (see Fig.17),constructed of glacial till from dredging operations and topped with rock,measure 40 feet by 40 feet at the top (8 feet above low water datum),and were completed in 1968. Ice booms have also been i.nstalled at two other loca- tions,viz at Lavaltrie,near the lower end of the Vercheres Islands and at Ile St.Ours,a little further downstream (see Fig.17).This -is the second winter of operation for the Lavaltrie boom which has been very successful in controlling the ice in the channel north of the Vercheres Islands.The boom at St.Ours was installed this winter and its performance is being carefully observed. Ice Studies Complementary to,and in conjunction with the ice control measures described,an extensive program of research and development is continuing into all aspects of ice problems ...11 -11 - related to the St.Lawrence River.The work includes aerial photography,collection of data,field measurements,labora- tory analyses,hydraulic model studies and icebreaker design. References 1.Kivisild,H.R.-"Hanging Ice Dams" -IAHR 8th Congress,Montreal,1959. 2.Report of Joint Board of Engineers -1926 liSt.Lawrence Waterway Project l1 APPENDIX E -"Ice Formation on the St.Lawrence and Other Rivers". "'ll, 1 J 1 1 1 1 -)1 1 1 1 1 1 :!! G> Z !=> i ST.LAWRENCE RIVER MONTREAL TO QUEBEC SCALE 1"=25 MILES II 0::"""'l lJJ> 0:: I.LJ ,a-UztI.LJ 0:: ~ -I ~ tf) lJJ ~t- f.,Z,0 ~ 0:: 0 3: !;i =>I.LJ 0:: j C) >0 <t -I.. I.LJ ~t- ., i \, , 'f" ~f J ~---- '-:III •, .\ FIG.No.2 .' ". f"·f .• ..•.•..-.~...•.i".,.:...·..t..~.'7' , / .~ .~. .~ .~ ex> CO 0) Z ~ J C-~ (J). ~ 0 0: a: oct Z U LIJ m IJ.I :::> 0 :2 CJ) :E <t-, W U >-><t IJJ :I: (.!) Z-..J..... ..... ..~:.~m CJ) 0:w ::::c:: <t IJJ a::: m wu FIG.No.3 )-z C) J- Z UJ Q. UJa: o t- -J <t LLJa: J-zo ::E (I)a: ;:)o i-= (I) LLJ -J ~ )-z C) t- Z LLJ Q. LLJa::: FI G.No.4 0:: lIJ>ou lIJ U ...J <t U-a.>-.- - .... r - ..... en 0u a::z We:t >c:: lJJ La.0 ~ t-=U e:t 0 CJ) e:t I-W ~ c::U lJJ 0\ a.. ..J .....J~ 0 <t -I- lJJ (J- (I) ::::!: 0.. c:: ~>- ::> 0 e:t .-t-= ::::!: CJ) lJJ I.LJ ..J ::! FIG.No.6 PACKED ICE COVER MONTREAL HARBOUR WINTER 1956 a:: lJJ ~ lJJ Q.. ~en LaJ ~ <t ....J Z LL LLo I ~ <t LaJ CC CD LaJ (.) FIG.No.7 IN MILLIONS 250 - 10500 -1.000 MONTREAL 69 FIGoNoo 8 •••-TOTAL CARGO TONNAGE - - -TOTAL VESSELS 686766 I.JANUARY TO I.APRIL 65 OF VESSELS ARRIVING IN 64 RECORD 1963 ... :::-COASTAL VESSELS ~-OCEAN GOING VESSELS 50 TOTAL CARGO TONNAGE 150 100 NUMBER OF VESSELS 200 ~~VCt-~MPLAI~BR OGE -.r--~/~"'........r-..-- \ ~ I ~...KING EOWAR o PIER /' I 'v-'"""".,..-r-- 311020 MAR. 29311020 FEB. WATER E LEV. 31 10 20 JAN. DAILY MEAN 10 20 DEC. 60 r__---,,----r----r---.,.....----y-----y---..,...--...----r---r---.,---"'"'J"'l""'I 40 f---+A-~f't'\_--t---+----R:=__--xt_Ptr-_+--_t_-_I::~___;lIIIi:_--ror:.-*-f-____:i 20 r--I~~r_J:-.+-~_+I_~--+-".er+Hr=_t_+_~of_lt_'~czt-_f+-+-r_-z1+V_~"'"Ilt-___If---+-4ct_--t o r--~---+--~lLft-.l.A_~*I-......,r;-H""""'""...._+_--t-----JIri-~~-FJI"'_'"-I---=--.:..-t--=--+----1 -20 r---+---+----+---T:tF----t-..;..-.--t----+---+---+-..;..-.-t---+----1 -30 '---~1O~--:!20i::----='3i.:-1--~,0~-~2"='0---=-3':'"'1·----:1~0--~ZO~-~29~--:'10'=--~20~--::!31 DEC.JAN.FEB.MAR. AIR TEMPERATURE DORVAL MAXIMUM -MINIMUM - - - C/)100 1&1 -' i 110 MONTR EAL H "RBOUR ,--------C:HAN EL 0 EN M NTREAI !'"TO QUEBEC, ;, FRONT pF ICE I I ---ICEaR AKER OPER TlONS COVER ....,,I, -',/SOREL w ~I c I %I ............u ~I;r----. I -'11.I MONTH LV MEANTROISRIVIERI="S ~ II.LAKE ONTAR 10 OUTFLOW CD DEC.231,000 C.F.S. ::JAN.243,000 C.F.S. >FEB.249,000 C·F.S·0-MAR.238,000 C.F.S.... u-, G:: ;: 0u...u ~-~ CD ."".,,-MAJOF ICE J ~M FOI 6 MI r-ES AB pVE Qli EBEC QUEBE~BRIOG ..J C I&J G::-.-z 0 ~ •0 ..J I&J CD ~ o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 120 130 140 150 160 110 20 DEC. 31 10 20 JAN. 31 10 20 FEB. 29 10 20 MAR. 31 HISTORIC RECORD OF ICE COVER FORMATION AND ICEBREAKING ST.LAW R EN CE RIVE R 19 67 -68 FIG.No.9 - FIG.No.IO 5 10 15 20 25 APRIL. 5 10 15 20 25 MARCH 5 10 15 20 25 FEBRUARY 5 10 15 20 25 JANUARY INFLUENCE OF ICEBREAKER OPERATION ON WATER LEVELS IN MONTREAL HARBOUR 5 10 15 20 25 DECEMBER ~ l\It 11\~IN ER IS29 3C lA ,., )I ~....1\ I'1\,..,I'\.J,..,I~II ~A IV ~~ \J I -"'h1\1.~ IV IP ]\ ~II~,. ,.1 1 ,~1aI'..1 1 WI NT R 19 70 -71 I ~ I'I ~"i I i,,, I•I , I!I WI 'II,.,~~I ,'",,'....,"\1 I I \""1_,0 ,\.....".,1\~"""r""" I .It.:~i\I"'"""",~, I r iJ 'iJ"'j",J ... "·1·... i"'..rr I/'V 0 0 016. 46.0 ..:, Q 38.0 ..J C) 40.0 18. 42.0 22.0 20. 44.0 28.00:: UJ Cl. o 26.0 0::; o L&.I 24, C) Z ::.: 1 36.0 Zo... ~34.0 UJ ..J L&.I Z 32.0 C( L&.I ~ >30.0 ..J C(o .- r LAKE ST.LOUIS MONTREAL LACHINE i : ! CAUGHNAWAGA BRIDGE LOCATION OF ICE CONTROL STRUCTURE 5T.LAMBERT FIG.No.lr W 0: :J ~ U :Ja:: t-oo ..J Ozcr:_ t--Cf) Z<1: Oal U Ww-uQ:; -<1: LLa::O~ ..J 3=w-> ..J <1:-a::w <1: - FIG.No.12 LAPRAIRIE BASIN BRIDGE SEAWA Y CHANNEL DIKE SEE DETAIL'A CHAMPLAIN LOCATION PLAN \ NUN'S ISLAND _1.~J~J-~_..+l_3_@_r_7_5~_O_·~~_9_0_~~~~_~__~_ 6688'-8"•••• PLAN (WITHOUT BRIDGE) ..... ELEVATION I , DETAIL A FLOATING STOPLOG r-=--:::;l I I I II.-.-_-_-J 'LAPRAIRIE BASIN ICE CONTROL STRUCTUREL .---.J L:-+.._---l GENERAL DETAILS ELEVATION PLAN TYPICAL PIE R FIG.No.13 ..., RECOMMENDED CRITERIA FOR OPERATING STRUCTURE WATER ELEV DISCHARGE (I.G.L.D.1955)(c.F.S.1 37.0 200,000 38.0 I.IJ 250,000 40.0 It:300,000:J I-·u It: ~:J :J ~It:0 ~~....ן-mII)(/)It:t:)it 'q;et-..J ltl ~::I:'ll[ K ~".a 0 ...J I.IJ (f)a:I- ~it I-et ~....z w (/)....~0 It:~u I-0 "l;{II z Q. -..J 'q;'q;W 0 )(...,.....u ::I w EL.-17.0 GRADE NAV.CHANNEL ~MW~ EL.33·0 _____M:~.~..:.....EL 0.00 _ .........::::.......~~-"-....'t 'l...'-..;"C~'-~'-....- ...........-•••:--:::."-PACKED ICE EL.18.0 .....~~,-~....COVER <:'-~,,-.........'""-- WINTER CONDITIONS (Q::230!000 C.F.S.) OPEN WATER CON DITIONS (Q::230,000 C.F.S.) FLOATING STOP lOG ICE STORED UNDER COVER El.6S.S 9~3~~':;' ." G) z o .t> LAPRAIRIE BASIN ICE CONTROL STRUCTURE DIAGRAM SHOWING TYPICAL WATER SURFACE PROFILES IN THE ST.LAWRENCE RIVER AT MONTREAL FOR OPEN WATER AND WINTER CON DITIONS -INDICATING EFFECT OF ICE COVER DOWNSTREAM ON WATER LEVELS AT THE STRUCTURE. j. ~..T< t }l 1 -)~-l , 800;.================--------------,1----,11 ---,'1---'1--;,?7"'11---i' o ~ ~o ~5001 I I I I I I.,.'1 1 NOTE: M ICE PRODUCTION CURVES OBTAINED FROM .,:700 McLACHLAN FORMULA IL V=!..! ~87 u 600 WHERE V =VOL.OF ICE PRODUCED PER DAY (CU.FT.) A =AREA OF OPEN WATER (FT.t } T =DIFF.BETWEEN WATER AND AIR TEMP (-F) cz ~ 400 -L I 1----.......o "'"I ===-.......I 1 ~u ..........L .....I :;w < ::l I I Ig3001-=I I 0:I""I :=:::4-lL _""V"!"'"I ""os;:......I&J I"1 \;7"1 !:!200 I I A _I I I ...I I I o -er=I ·34"I \ I =-=LLI I "/j~100 I .,.> :l -Jo > po. o o .,.--10 20 30 40 50 sO 70 8~90 Ibo "'0 I~O ELAPSED TIME SINCE FORMATION OF ICE COVER ON LAPRAIRIE BASIN (DAYS) "1l ozo 01 MAXIMUM STORAGE CAPACITY OF LAPRAIRIE BASIN AT VARIOUS WATER ELEVATIONS RELATED TO ICE PRODUCTION IN LACHINE RAPIDS. FROM:HYDRAULIC MODEL STUDIES BY LASALLE HYDRAULIC LABORATORY =---= ==. -~"""------ -.,--~~~---~---'......;l~iiB ~.s-__ --------<:::..._-~ -----........_-- TYPICAL ICE BOOM ARRANGEMENT FIG.No.16 I 1 1 "~~""'<4 ./I'~._~..... ICt:CONTROl STRUCTURt: -1 Rt:Pt:NTI.NY• I " ~l'..' .,~ .,Ii' .l ··1 BERTHIERVILLE o 1 / Lake St.Peter Artificial Islands lake St.Peter ICE BOOMS ] :!! G) z !:::l ~ MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT Sl:LAWRENCE RIVER LOCATION OF ICE BOOMS LAVALTRIE AND LAKE 51:PETER AND ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS LAKE ST.PETER APPROX.SCALE 1"=10 MILES ( 1 INTRODUCTION Le fleuve Saint-Laurent~une des grandes arteres co~erciales de l'Amerique du Nord,est affronte a un probleme serieux auquel sont liees de graves incidences economiques et que lIon a Iongteops cru insurmonta- bles~c'est-a-dire Ia presence de glace durant plusieurs mois et a des degres divers. En janvier 1966~Ie Ministere des transports~par I'entremise de sa division du Chenal maritime du Saint-Laurent,entrcprit un vaste programme de contrale des glaces~dans Ie but principal dfeliminer les inondations et par Ie meme occasion promouvoir Ie navigation d'hiver sur Ie Saint-Laurent jusqu'a Montreal,tout en gardant Ia priorite absolue sur les fonctions de recherches et de sauvetage. Le premier geste pose dans ce sens fut de mettre sur pied une section qui se specialiserait dans ce do~ine et dont les responsabilites majeures seraient les suivantes: I -Les operations de degla~age Diriger et coordonner les operations de degla~age entre Montreal et Notre-Dame de Portneuf. II -Les ouvrages de retenue deS glaces a)Garer et administrer Ie R~gulateur des glaces du Bassin de Laprairie qui entrait en operation fal'hiver 1965-66 b)Planifier l'installation de nouvea~~ouvrages de retenue des glaces)en diriger les operations et en assurer l'entretien. III -Les recherches et etudes de glace Planifier et coordonner les travaux d'etudes et de recherches sur la gla~e. - ..... 2 Nous allons tenter d'~~pliquer iei en quoi consiste chacune des responsabilites precitees. I -Leg operations de degla~age Secteur MOntreal a Notre-Dame de Portneuf Voie maritime du Saint-Laurent (ouverture printaniere Entree de la Voie maritime,Port de tiontreal,au Lac St-Franc;ois) Objectifs Origine 1 2 Eliminer 1es inondations Promouvoir la navigation d'hiver - -, Les operations de degla~age sur Ie Saint-Laurent en amont de Trlois-Rivieres debuterent en 1928 alors qu 'une inondation parti- culierement desastreuse a }IDntreal amena Ie Gouvernement federal a implanter des methodes pour 1e controle des inondations.Des brise-glace furent as- signes pour ouvrir un chenal en partant de Trois-Rivieres et en remontant 1e fleuve durant Ie mois de fevrier.Le but etait d'arriver a Montreal avant 1a debacle pri~taniere,ouvrant ainsi une voie d'echappement au sur- plus d'eau. Cause Laisse a lui-meme.Ie fleuve avait ten dance a elever son niveau jusqu'au point d'inondc.r les basses terres ldveraines de certaines regions. Ceci se produisait des la formation de glace et du mouvement des gla~ons a la surface de l'eau et se poursuivait durant tous les mots d'hiver de meme qu'au moment de la crus printaniere. 4. 3 Lorsque viennent les te~peratures fro ides de lfhiver, generalement dans les premiers jours de decembre,la glace commence a se former dans les baies et les petites rivieres qui se jettent dans Ie fleuve.Cette glace nouvellement formee tend a se briser sous l'action du vent et des vagues et derive ensuite dans Ie regime du fleuve.Avec la baisse constante des-temperatures d'air,elle s'e- paiss~t graduellement et c'est ainsi que se forcent les gla~ons. L'amorce du premier champ de glace complet sur le fleuve se faisait lorsque les gla~ons atteignaient la sortie du Lac St-Pierre, qui,a cause de son retrecissement en forme d'entonnoir,provoquait l'arret de ceux-ci lorsqu'ilsarrivaient en quantite suffisante. L'entassement combine a l'effet du froid resultait en la fusion de tous ces gla~ons.11 se formait alors ce que l'on appelle un pont de glace a partir duquel Ie champ se formait en progressant vers l'amont. Ajoute a l'effet de l'entonnoir du Lac St-Pierre,il faut souligner la faible velocite du courant.Dans Ie port de Montreal,les vitesses varient generalement entre trois et sept no~uds;dans la region de Sorel elles sont d'environ deux noeuds tandis que sur Ie Lac St-Pierre elles sont d'un noeud au moins et parfois,avec lfeffet de vents provenant de l'est et du nord-est,le courant de surface peut s'arreter totalement et meme remonter. Lorsque Ie champ de glace etait completement forme sur la partie avale du Lac St-Pierre et que Ie mouvament des gla~ons derivant a la surface etait arrete,il progressait vers l'amont jusqu'a ce que Ie lac soit completement couvert et puis continuait de progresser jusqu'a ce que Ie fleuve en entier soit couvert jusqu'a }bntreal.Lors d'un hiver normal ce processus prenait environ dix jours mais dans des conditions rigoureuses il pouvait etre complete en quatre jours ou moins. L'effet que produisait ce champ de glace en eau peu profonde est qu'il reduisait la surface dfecoule~ent par laquelle le meme volume - .- 4 d'eau devait se frayer un chemin et que le niveau normal du fleuve en hiver tendait a etre plus eleva qu'cn ete. En outre,ce champ de glace n'etait pas d'une epaisseur regu- liere puisque la glace flottantg pouvait etre transportee sous la sur- face glacee par le courant puis a son tour voir son mouvenent arrete et ainsi s'empiler sous le champ de glace jusqu'a former une soree de barrage.De plus,le mouvement de la glace a cause de la pression de la glace elle-meme au a cause du vent au du courant provoquait un empile- ment de glace qui pouvait s'elever jusqu'a vingt pieds au meme plus au-dessus de la surface glacee.Ces accumulations de glace etaient aggravees par la neige epaisse qui,melangee a la glace,agissait tel un ciment,et par Ie frasil,consistant en de millions de lamelles cris- tallisees,qui se forme dans les nappes d'eau peu profonde,au le cour- rant est trap rapide pour permettre la formation de glace solide.Ce frasil etant entraine par Ie courant aide a la fusion des gla~ons entre eux. La combinaison de ces deux phenomenes produit cette situation que la surface permettant l'ecoulement de l'eau est si restreinte que Ie niveau du fleuve peut s'elever tres rapidement et ainsi sortir de son lit,s'il est laisse a lui-meme,causant ainsi de desastreuses inondations. Endroits menaces d'inondation Les endroits en amont du Lac St-Pierre qui sont particuliere- ment susceptibles d'etre inondes sont Ie port de Montreal,Repentigny, Lanoraie et les rivieres se jetant dans Ie Lac St-Pierre.Avant que ne soit entrepris ie controle des inondations par la methode du degla~age, il y a une longue liste d'inondations survenues dens ces localites. Principe d'operation pour enrayer les inondations employe jadis Le mode d'operation de degla~age employe jadis etait que les brise-glace commence~a decouper un chenal en remontant Ie fleuve jusqu'a Montreal aussitot que le champ de glace etait forme et suffisamment ancre aux rives et haut-fond pour que Ie deglacrage au mouvement des navires ne ,.., 5 puisse degager la couche de glace couvr~nt Ie Lac St-Pierre et ainsi permettre la formation d'un embacle a sa sortie.La but de cette raethode etait de creer et maintenir un chenal dans Ie centre du fleuve qui per- mettrait l'evacuation des norceaux de glace vers l'aval sans bloquer et former des embacles qui arreteraient l'ecoulement de l'eaua Principe d'operation employe aujourd'hui Aujourd'hui,les operations de degla~age en plus de tenter d'eli- miner les inondations ont pour objectif 1a promotion de la navigation d'hiver. Avec 1a construction de plusieurs ouvrages de retenue des glaces, Ie mode d'operation a ete ameliore mame si fondamentalement il est demeure Ie merne.Ainsi,la saison operationnelle commence habituellement a la mi-decembre et se termine a 1a mi-avril.En moyenne,trois brise-glace sont assignes a 1a region. Le port d'attache de ces navires est Trois-Rivieres,a cause de sa proximite en aval du Lac St-Pierre.Toutes les patrouilles quotidiennes et operations de degla~age pour la saison sont effectuees de ce port et dictees par les rigueurs du climat et les conditions de glace dans la voie navigable. Le principe d'operation en cas d'embacle est de briser l'amoncellement de glace par l'ava1,de fa~on a ce que les morceaux de glace puissent etre evacues par Ie courant au fur et a mesure qu'ils sont detaches.Des brise-glace qui attaqueraient l'embacle par sa partie amont seraient complete~ent inefficaces et ne serviraient qu'a empiler davantage la glace.II est a noter que de forts vents a contre-courant pendant une longue periode de temps peuvent entraver serieusement l'evacuation de 1a glace cassee et meme parfois faire remonter cette glace.Dans ces conditions Ie travail des brise-glace devient extremement hardu.Encore la,13 construction d'ouvrages de retenue des glaces et des ameliorations apportees au chenal navigable ont grandement aide a diminuer CeS inconvenicnts. - - - r- I ..... - - ,- 6 La procedure norma Ie e~ployee pour briser un embacle est que Ie plus puissant des brise-glace en operation brise l'amoncelle- ment de glace tandis que les de~~autres,a l'arriere,degagent les voies moins congestionnees,brisent les trop grands morceaux et main- tiennent un deblaiement rapide.Quand l'evacuation de la glace en aval de l'embacle ne pose aucun problem,e,une autre methode tres efficace est souvent e~ployee:dellA brise-glace situes parallelement, ll.'1.de chaque cote du chenal,travaillent simultanement,attaquant Pem- bacle tout a.tour et degageant ainsi Ie glace qu'il y a entre eux • Plusieurs fois durant la saison,et quand les conditions Ie permettent,un brise-glace est envoye dans Ie port de Montreal pour y degager certains bassins au quais,auss:i.des entailles sont ordinairement effectuees au milieu de l'hiver ou tot au printenps dans Ie champ de glace de l'entree de 1a Voie maritimedu Saint-Laurent pour en faciliter l'ouverture eventuelle.Cette ouverture printaniere est effectuee par les plus legers des brise-glace des que les condi- tions meteorologiques Ie permettent et que 1a situation en aval est favorable. Effectifs Les brise-glace qui travaillent aux operations de degla~age font partie de la Garde cotiere canadieIU"1.e,un service exploite par Ie llinistere federal des transports,qui defraie tautes les depenses encourues par 1es travaux de deglaliage"L'on estime Ie caut annuel des operations de deg1ac;age a environ ~;850)000. Les brise-glace qui sont assignes au secteur de Nontr~al a Notre-Dame de Portneuf sont generalement choisis parmi ceux qui apparaissent dans Ie tableau suiv~nt. ..... ~tJ - 8 II -Les ouvrages de retenue des glaces Objectifs Les euvrages de retenue des glaces que la section Centrale r des glaces operent et entretiennent sur Ie fleuve Saint-Laurent furent construits dans Ie but d'atteindre les objectifs suivants: 1)Former un champ de glace beaucoup plus tot que ne le ferait normalement la nature. 2)Retenir ce champ de glace dU1rant toute la saisen d'hiver malgre les vents a contre-courant~les vagues de meme que les vagues creees par les navires. 3)Diminuer la superficie des regions a l'eau libre reduisant par le fait meme Ie production continuelle de nouvelle glace. 4)Arreter la glace flettante sous un couvert de glace forme~afin de l'empecher de penetrer dans Ie regime du fleuve. 5)Accelerer les vitesses du courant dans Ie chenal navi- gable~facilitant ainsi une evacuation rapide de la glace flottante et apportant une aide considerable aux operations de degla~age. Ces ouvrages de retenue des glaces peuvent se diviser en trois categories: A)Struc~ures permanentes 1.Le Regulateur des glaces. B)Estacades f10ttantes 1.Estacades du Lac St-Pierre 2.Estacade de Lava1trie 3.Estacade de l'Ile St-Ours C)lIes artificie1les 1.Les i1es artificielles du Lac St-Pierre , .'"CC-~'l"-"'·, , EMPLACEMENT DES ESTACADES FLOTTANTES ET DES ILES ARTIFICIElLES SUR LE LAC ST-PIERRE 6- -3 e 10 .....6 14 I) 2 .,'4 22 Xl"'. .' .' ..,' ~.., ~., ~..' "'.". 9 14 9 to ~.~.'":-- J ::- C): ~::- 13 0=-..--N;- "... Z1 " Il ......--. 4 7 lot 4 S j.' :t: G S.il e II. ,8 10 10 II 4 -4/<• .1 '9 7 .6.' ;,./" .. 4 .7.' ...... .., e 14 I!> '" :6'.' .-......... ~ .4 10 ..... 7 3 9 I B,! I) M 8 7 9 'So II 9 10 8 14 .'7 :.... .~ l1li G .....4·...·······:i'"..}3 .(G."" :.~./8 ~ ... II 15 il···c "s''9.' .' .'.10 5 . .., ; 6 :20 3.•... ~..y ....~ II 14 10 10 10 • ..... 13 16 III! II ...... 8 . 1 14 -'5.'!,··....t.:::::·:::/, 7rr II 14 -,..... 13 '0 10 10,.. II 14 II 12 II.. ......:.. I~ t2 .~ 9 4 • 14 ~.. 9w 12 13 " 10 II .......... " II,.. II 11'6, -/ 9 e 12 ..'"'" G II 10,.. 10 ..... J " 13 10 ....- -4-..'....... J II '2 It 9 9 " 8 1 ~'.. .IIglijilf\ilt1lfll ()l'I"! ·__·.1-,_1-'--1"r ---~r TTI11Tl!-'-'-'-.' l~II Estacades f10ttantes 13. 10 .6 If '/04 It 9 9 .-- .... 7 9 9 ~ 9 II .-'\ 3 10 II II . no.4.h 1 '".\1 12 a 4 e ..!> 9 to... II) 8 12 _ /Ono.l.I, .10 It ~ 8 7 8 8· o,'., -,..,,, I ;..... .' 's. '0 10 " !i F. >., .., ~ 7 6; .- ll.' q !:l 9 9 .b '0 'G M ~,8 ..../...... II <It- 9 4 II s,.. !! "~ !l i\ ~l 1 '-«'t ~Il . II 4 <I •... 4 7 M ~ !! .. p, lies artificielles .Ie'1(> no.2.,•tl . .r'6.' ,.:\11 ./ '.L'/~~::.,/.........,""~;/.,",..~...~",/.~,,,,/' (,,;'~,~.~... .'/7 ..."/..,t...-.,..~,-lo\O-... .J a Ii .' I{) 4 ... ~'. ,0) ..... .Fc_._.._,.__•_ 7.5 .. ~; /j " .. .. s g 4 "'" ,lo. ~.. ~. f. .. '(J 7 6 " \... 6 ;.. I 9 " i I,. I ., (; ~ t: ... ., -j\:'j .,\1 - '1 •'.'V, ;\.t~I ..1'_, •"..'to:-:. 1':\'" i.·:., r "I \ ..I .il .. .. 'I .. 8... .. .... .... ..' :> .' b '" .. ,.!..;...<?~.'l"'1-0 . . ..,/I .;.Jf;"'1 .'....-".~.~1,'"~(."i>--:-~..~.•~I:",1'~..,...~... .'~II ...,.)(~..."',~"'."6 .... .4 t ;r~----.-.T f.( I ill'" I" I fIT ·r FlGr.::J 'I.i.•,.,,:.1 •..,.,:! ENFOUIE !J COUVERT DE GLACE ~_.J .-- .J _....._-L..._ /.,r_. • (>.00 --.- D'ACIER 211 DIA. -------_.----------.---._.-.~. --'--- POUTRES FLOTTANTES L ....::>..-- _..__.~-_.------- ..~~~._.~~.~_.~..~~__=_.._::~~~__._.=_.'-...:=;.;=_~~...~...~>..-:-::--=-.2:.. ._.•'__.___L.._/'--7__.~_._~~~._-~=:~.y~~=,~,(-~~==_~.:.~(..o o /'. _____-=--w.J-.~I '.i·I~--~:::-\../~.d "~'I I '\r I'f /" / ....---._-.-._-.-_..~--_._._-_..- CROQUIS O'UNE SECTION DiESTACADE FLOTTANTE :a -:II,111 'I..11--']t I ..Ji-:;/>i~0'{.1§.~-t'3~i '(":'_-4:;,.,_,_.,,<S :~:..<".::~..._,.".......--.:.~..._..._."-..-","':;:~1i1 j:L<-·.:,"~_.tL::-.+C"::;\'_:'::·iJ" ---_.-_.•_.... -----------~._. - ,.... .- ...,. ".,.. - ..... ..... - ~ !..~. 17 B-2)L 'Estacade de I ..avaltrie A la suite des succes rempo:rtes par les estacades flottantes du lac Saint-Pierre,une autre region,soit Ie chenal de Repentigny au "Chena!du Nord",qui s 'etend entre L.avaltrie et l'Ile Ste-Therese,a fait l'objet d'etudes en vue delrins"tallation d'une estacade flottante. 11 etait depuis longtemps reconnu que cette surface d'environ 200mdllions de pieds carres etait une grande productrice de nouvelle glace:(1,200 pi.cu./sec.a _200 F )qui derivait vers Ie Lac St-Pierre pour~ven1r Ie congestionner.Aussi lorsqu'un champ de glace reussissait finalement a se former dans cette reg:ion,souvent tard dans l'hiver, i1 etait frequemment arrache par gros morceaux qui allaient ensuite . causer des embacles en aval. La section Controle des,glaces fit donc construire,en 1969, une estacade qui allait former un champ de glace dans cette region des Ie debut de l'hiver et Ie maintenir en place jusqu'a la debacle printaniere •. Cette estacade entra en operation des Ie debut de l'hiver 1969-70. Emplacement L'estacade est situee sur Ie fleuve St-Laurent,environ 2 milles en amant de Lavaltrie,sur une ligne perpendiculaire au "chana!du"nord"et s'etendant entre l'extremite amont de 1'I1.e ~fuusseau et Ie deblai a l'extremite aval de l'Ile Bouchard. La profondeur de l'eau a cet endroit varie generalement entre 12 pieds et 30 pieds et ~es vitesses de courant sont de 2.5 pieds par seconde.Le lit du fleuve se compose generalement d'ar- gile grise de grande plasticite avec quelques bandes etroites de sable vaseux. .-,; 18 Description· L'estacade flottante de Lavaltrie est du meme type que ""celles insta1lees sur Ie Lac St-Pierre.Le fleuve,a cet endroit~ etantd'environ 5,000 pieds de large,il fut decide de limiter la longueur de l'estacade a 3,200 pieds en prenant pour acquis que Ie champ de glace se formerait naturellement sur les sections laissees ouvertes entre les extremites de l'estacade et Ie rivage. Resultats obtenus Encore iei les resultats sant fantastiques.Le champ de "_glace,.qui auparavant etait tras lent a se former dans ce ehenal,"est _en place maintenant des Ie debut de 1 'hiver pour y demeurer jusqu'a - ._la 4ebacle printaniere.Les figures 20,21 at 22 illustrent bien le:~.:. travail effectue par cette estacade.·L --. "- - - - ...]~r"'.....]1 '·'1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ) ( r:-"'".'."'....:::....:".';'.~C .:'"",•."-:rtr=!~"'~;:""--""""'7:-""'-'-';"':~::n...~3:a:~~::r;:~,.,,_.,,~.JL ..~ •.~v~~•"',,?.,,"'p~r't l'$1'..~!.• ~-l<I'&)~h. 7 ~ ..,00 310 .,•..,I ,.:,.1 •••.1. .\"'"11 '11 /,,, '{t- > "\..'~ '0'" ? :j if " 19 B-3)L'Estacade de l'Ile St-Ours Afin de completer l'excellent travail effectue par l'esta- cade de Lavaltrie sur Ie ·Chenal du Nord M une autre estacade du m~~e type fut construite et installee en 1971 en vue d'arreter la pro- .0 duction de nou~lle glace (1,200 pi.cu./sec.a -20 'JF7.sur Ie secteur compris entre l'extremite.aval de l'lle St-Ours et l'estacade de Lavaltrie.La surface affectee par l'estacade serait d'environ 180 millions de pieds carres. Emplacement L'estacade est situee sur Ie fleuve St-Laurent environ 1 mille 1/2 en amont de Lanoraie sur une ligne perpendiculaire au "Chenal du Nord"et s'etend entre llextremite aval de l'Ile St-Ours et llextremi.te aval dlune batture au nord du "Chenal du Nord". La profondeur de 1 1 eau'a cet endroit varie generalement entre 4 pieds et 30 pieds et les vitesses de courant sont de 2.5 pieds par seconde.Le lit du fleuve se compose generalement d'argile grise d~grande plasticite avec quelques bandes etroites de sable vaseux. Description Llestacadeflottante de l'lle St-Ours est du m.eme type que celles installees sur le Lac St-Pierre et a Laval trie.Le fleuve a cet endroit a une largeur de 4,600 pieds.Une estacade de.3,200 pieds de longueur fut choisie,c'est-a.-dire 8 sections de 500 pieds chacune. Resultats obtenus On ne peut que repeter ce qui a ete dit pour les estacades du meme type installees sur Ie Lac St-Pierre ee a Lavaltrie,1'estacade de et j ustifie certainement l'ope- Les figures 20,2i et'22 ne ..... - - 20 .1.'"I~e .~~~Our~..~.~ai.t.~aR~r;.!~~ble sur Ie tqtal des efforts entrepr~s 'pour controler 'la glace~ ration annuelle de cette estacade~ peuvent queprouver les succes remportes par ce genre d'installation. Halgre.t:out,l'addition d'une section supplementaire du ..cote "nord d'e··l'·estacade'serait"·souh8:it"able pu"isque'cette surface."'·::·:: '-...._.."'oU:vert:~'ii pres·ente des "difficulteiJ"i"·geler lors"dfi'la deuX1eme annie" d'operation~ ,(---/ UJc« 'J<tt-en L&J -l (/') 0: ::>o•.....en IJJ -l Lr l L L L l ,-. - 21 .C)Les iles artificielles du Lac St-Pierre Les 4 iles artificielles du Lac St-Pierre furent construites a titre experimental a l'automne de 1967 et 1968,dans Ie but d'etudier les possibilites dle~?lois de telles structures pour con- troler 1a glace sur 1e fleuve St-Laurent. Elles furent integrees a l'etude entreprise pour trouver des,moyens de retenir Ie champ de glace du cote nord du Lac St-Pierre. El1es ont donc ete disposees de fa~on a completer Ie travail des estacades flottantes. Emplacement Les·iles ·sont s:i:tuees·sur Ie ,cote nord du chenal maritime du St-Laurent.Trois de ces iles sont a environ 1,700 pieds de la - bande nord du chenal navigable.L'autrle sur 1aque1le fut construit un phare servant d'aide a la navigation a ete construite a seulem~nt 500 pieds de cette bande.L'ile 1a plus en aval (i1e t~o 4)est a environ 6 milles 1/2 de Pointe du Lac.LIne suivante (i1e No 1) est a.1,500 pieds en amant et 11 autre,,C!ui suit (ile No 2),est a.un autre 4,500 pieds en amont.L lile qui sert d'aide a la naviga- tion (iie No 3)est situee en face de l'ancrage de Yamachiche. Description Les i1es furent construites a partir de materiel drague dans Ie chenal maritime du St-Laurent et furent par la suite rec:ou- vertes avec de la pierre de carriere. Les iles 1,2 et 4 ont una ele-"ation de 19 pi.(IGLD)et leur surface superieure est de 34 ?i.x 34 pi.tandis que leur .surface -1nferieure est de 140 pi.x 140 pi. 22 L'tle 3 a une elevation de 25 pi~·"(IGLD)•Sa surface .superieure est de 24 pi.x 24 pi.et sa surface inferieure est de 244 pi.x 244 pi. Resultats obtenus - L'on peut maintenant affi~er hors de tout doute que les iles artificielles ont grandewent contribue~en compagnie des estacades flottantes.i la formation et la retenue du champ de glace du cOte nord du Lac St-Pierre.Las figures 16 (avant la cons- truction)et 17 (apres 1a construction)nous prouventque les objectifs vises par la construction de ces iles sont maintenant atteints. SURFACE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROPOSAL .- Vol u m e 1:Surface Water Quality Objectives D,A.Williamson Environmental Officer Water Standards and Studies Section EnvirlJnmental Management Di vi s ion Department of Environment and Workplace Safety and Health ,.... ..... Water Standards and Studies Report 83-2 - i - SUMMARY The surface waters of Manitoba are used for numerous purposes including domestic consumption,industrial uses and agricultural purposes such as -I irrigation and livestock watering.In addi t ion,many surface waters are used for recreational pursuits such as swimming,water ski ing,boating and the enjoyment of pleasant scenery.Host waters are also inhabited by fish life,amphibians (frogs),reptiles (turtles),aquatic insects and algae. Large forms of wildlife,small furbearing mammals.water fowl and some birds of prey rely upon surface waters for drinking purposes.habitat and sources - of food supplies. The quality of surface water has the potential to become degraded through many other uses such as the disposal of industrial and municipal effluents, development of hydroelectrical generating sites and land use practices such as agriculture and forestry. In order to achieve harmony between the various uses,surface water quality objectives were developed which define minimum levels of quality for each of the uses that requires protection.The objectives,when not exceeded,will protect an organism,a community of organisms,a prescribed water use,or a designated multiple purpose water use with an adequate degree of safety. Specific objectives have been developed for over eighty substances. These objectives affect all Manitobans,since if they are under protective, surface water quality may become degraded,or if they are over protective, an unnecessary burden may be imposed an taxpayers and industry in order to pay for additional waste treatment facilities. ...... .... I I i -ii - Surface water quality objectives are primarily used by government agencies, such as the Environmental Management Division and the Clean Environment Commission,in order to assist in developing effluent discharge restrictions for industrial and municipal waste disl~harges.In addition,other government agencies may use the objectives to control land use practices that may have effects on water quality,such ;as cottage development. The objectives are also used by the Environmental Management Division,in combination wi th environmental monitoring,programs,to determine if pollution control measures are successful in preventing water pollution. For example.the objectives may be used to determine if the waste treatment provided by a municipal sewage lagoon is successful in preventing water pollution of a fish spawning stream. The objectives are also used by other govelt"nment agencies to determine if certain waters are suitable for uses such as irrigation. If the objectives are exceeded,there is no direct legal recourse to the source of the pollution.However,the Envirc)nmental Management Divis ion may conduct the necessary studies in order to determine the cause of the pollution.Should the cause be waste effluents,Clean Environment Commission Orders may be reviewed and revised in order to provide the necessary protection. Occasionally,water quality parameters may exceed these objectives due to natural conditions.In these cases,the objectives do not apply.It is the intent that these objectives are applicable to conditions in the water that are caused by man's act i vi ties.However,if a certain parameter exceeds the objectives due to natural conditions,it would be unwise to further increase that parameter by man-made activities. -iii - It is important to realize that scientific information is limited on all the possible effects of a pollutant in the environment.New information, however,is continually being reported.Thus,the objectives must be revised periodically in order to include the most recent scientific knowledge.Based upon the available information,these objectives are designed to afford adequate protection without an unreasonable amount of over protection or under protection. Thousands of substances could potenti ally pollute Mani toba's surface waters.These include,for example.agricultural chemicals,or hazardous goods that may be transported through Manitoba.Objectives have not been developed for all possible substances that could affect water quality. However,given reasonable information that such substances are present, objectives will be developed using the best available scientific information. Because specific numerical objectives cannot reasonably be developed for every possible chemical,physical or biological parameter,general statements concerning environmental quali ty are also used to protect water quality.These requirements,although written in general terms.are nevertheless water quality objectives.For example,these may be used to establish effluent limits even though there may be no specific numerical objectives applicable in the receiving water.General statements have been developed for colour,odour,taste,turbidity,deposits,floating materials, flow,litter,nutrients,oil and grease and toxic substances. Ideally.objectives should be maintained at all times.It is however, generally accepted that to require objective maintenance at all times is unreasonable.Thus,a specific low flow level has been chosen below which the objectives do not have to be met.This flow,for large streams and rivers,is the lowest flow which,on a statistical basis,would occur for a seven consecutive day period once every ten years.For small intermi ttent streams this minimum flow is O.003m3 /s.The objectives should be maintained at all times in lakes. -iv - Mixing zones are areas adjacent,for examp14~,to a discharge,where the stream or lake may not meet all the water quality objectives .This is allowed for pract ical reasons,since for most contaminants,it would be unreasonable to expect the objectives to be met at the end of the discharge pipe.Mixing zones are therefore recognized as areas subject t.o a loss of value.but nevertheless.certain guidelines should be followed to ensure that the loss is kept as small as possible.These include.for example, ensuring that the entire width of rivers are not completely influenced by a discharge in such a manner that fish movement is prohibited or that bathing areas are not included in mixing zones. certain pristine waters support important major uses,such as recreation on surface waters within Provincial Parks.These!waters may be given a "High Quali ty"designation.It is the intent that discharges or other acti vi ties that may affect the water quality of these areas should be very strictly controlled.Thus.development wi thin "High Qual i ty"surface water areas will likely be more costly that in ot.her areas of t.he Province,since all available measures should be used to control environmental disturbances. Some pristine waters of the Province may be pre!served in their natural state for the future.These waters will be given an "Exceptional Value" des ignation.Development of any type that ma;y'affect water quali ty should be discouraged from these areas. Objectives have been developed for each of the general surface water uses within Manitoba that requires protection.These are designated as classes and include domestic consumption.aquatic life and wildlife,indust.rial consumption.agricultural consumption,recreation and other uses.Where possible.these general classes are furt.her divided into categories to provide protection,for example,to the different types of recreation. - v - CLASS 1:DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION will ensure the protection of waters that are suitable for human consumption after treatment.since all surface waters of Manitoba are susceptible to uncontrolled microbiolo~ical contamination,for example,by wildlife,minimum treatment consistin~of disinfection is required for all surface waters prior to consumption.Objectives are included for substances that may have harmful health effects,such as pesticides.toxic metals and radioactive materials and for substances that may present a nuisance to the consumer,such as excessive hardness and iron. CLASS 2:AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE will ensure the protection of waters that are suitable for aquatic life such as fish,amphibians (frogs). reptiles (turtles)and other forms of life including aquatic insects and al~ae.By ensuring protection of the aquatic communities, protection is indirectly offered to those forms of wildlife that rely upon surface waters for habitat and for food supplies.These include ducks,~eese,furbearing mammals such as the muskrat and birds of prey such as the eagle and osprey.Protection is also provided to those animals that use these waters for drinking purposes. Objectives are included for numerous parameters including di ssolved oxygen,toxic metals and pesticides.The presence of dissolved oxygen in water is essential for aquatic life,and the type of aquatic community is dependent to a large extent on the amount of dissolved oxygen present.Toxic metals,such as zinc and cadmium, in small concentrations,can have harmful effects on ~rowth and reproduction,and in large concentrations,can be lethal.Others. such as mercury and PCB's,even though present in small quantities, can slowly bio-accumulate in the tissue of organisms.until higher harmful levels are reached. - - - .... - -vi - Some metals,such as cadmium,are more or less toxic depending upon the hardness of the wate~.For this ~eason,a mathematical equation is used to establish an objective based upon the relationship between toxicity and hardness. The existence and composition of an a,quatic community also depends upon tempe~atu~e characte~istics.An excess i ve increase in tempe~ature can be harmful by interfering with fish spawning cycles, causing changes in growth and respiration,and causing more heat tolerant species to replace heat sensitive ones.Heat related winter fish kills can occur when a heated discharge is suddenly stopped.Fish that have been attra.cted to a heated area are suddenly exposed to the cold ambient temperature. Developing site-specific temperature objectives is complicated and time consuming.Therefore,a method is included by which temperature objectives will be developed for specific discharges. CLASS 2:AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE is subdhrided into two categories in order to provide specific protection to different general groups of aquatic life in Manitoba. CATEGORY A:COLD WATER AQUATIC LIFE,COOL WATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE will provide protection to all types of aquatic life inhabiting the surface 11lraters of Manitoba,includin~ the protection of wildlife. CATEGORY B:COOL WATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE will provide protection to cool water aquatic life such as walleye, sauger and pike,including the protection of wildlife. This category,however,~,ill not provide adequate protection to cold water aquatic life such as trout and whitefish. -vii - CLASS 3:INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION will ensure the protection of waters that are used for industrial purposes.However,objectives will not be developed at present due to the large number of present and potential industrial users.each with different quality requirements for water. CLASS 4:AGRICULTURAL CONSUMPTION will provide protection to waters used by the market garden and farming industry for irrigation and livestock watering purposes.Objectives are included for parameters.such as sodium,that will protect various textured soils.Other objectives, such as boron,will protect sensitive plants.In addition,others, for example,fecal coliform bacteria are included that are intended to protect humans following consumption of raw vegetables irrigated with waters of this class. This class is subdivided into four categories in order to provide protection to three different general irrigation pra.ctices plus to provide protection for livestock watering. CATEGORY A:IRRIGATION will provide protection to waters that are used by the greenhouse industry where such water is the only source of moisture for the greenhouse plants. CATEGORY B:IRRIGATION will provide protection to waters that are used to irrigate field crops.where such water is used to supplement natural rainfall. CATEGORY C:IRRIGATION will provide protection to waters that are used to irrigate field crops,where such water is used to supplement natural rainfall.These waters,however,may damage certain soil types if used for long periods of time. - - -vii i - CATEGORY D:LIVESTOCK will provide protection to waters that are used by livestock. CLASS 5:RECREATION will ensure that surface waters may be safely used for swimming and boating purposes and llL1so may provide for the enjoyment of pleasant scenery.These waters provide outdoor recreational opportunities for both Manitoba residents and for tourists. This class is further subdivided into two categories in order to provide protection to the different types of water related recreation depending upon the extent of contact with the water. CATEGORY A:PRIMARY RECREATION will ensure the protection of waters that may be used for purposes such as swimming and water skiing.where (:ontact wi th the water is an important aspect of the activity. CATEGORY B:SECONDARY RECREATION will ensure the protection of waters that may be used for purposes such as fishing and boating,where contact ~fith the water is only incidental to the activity. Manitoba's surface waters may be used for other purposes that do not require protection through the establishment of objectives.These include,for example,the disposal of wastes or the generation of hydroe1ectrical power. Because of social oOr economic reasons.certain waters may be used only for these uses.Such waters may be given a CLASS 6:OTHER USES classification. -ix - PREAMBLE In 1976,the Environmental Management Division prepared a proposal outlining a system of surface water qual ity objectives and watershed classif ications for the Province of Manitoba that would form the basis of a surface water quali ty management program.Thi s proposal was cd tically reviewed by the Clean Environment Commission through public hearings held in 1977.under Section 13.1 of the Clean Environment Act.It was subsequently implemented with several revisions resulting from the public hearings. Volume I,Surface Water Quality Objectives,herein,contains revised objectives which reflect current scientific knowledge and which delineate numerous changes in the water use classes and categories in order to better reflect the surface water use within Manitoba.Specific problem areas encountered in the original objectives have been further defined. Volume 2,Watershed Classifications,under separate cover,contains a revised procedure for the application of surface water quality objectives. The surface water quality objectives will be appended for each of the nineteen watersheds within Manitoba as they become available.This document also contains a procedure for utilizing the surface water quality objectives,on an interim basis for watersheds that have not been classified. The attached documents have been prepared by the Water Standards and Studies section of the Environmental Management Divis ion and have been reviewed by the Water Pollution Control Section of the Environmental Management Division,the Manitoba Departments of Agriculture,Municipal Affairs, Health,Urban Affairs,Economic Development and Tourism,Ener~y and Mines and the Parks,Wildlife,Resource Allocation,Fisheries and Water Resources Branches of the Manitoba Department of Natural Resources. - ,.... -x - ~FOR FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE SURFACE WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES OR WATERSHED CLASSIFICATIONS,PLEASE CONTACT: - - - D.A.WILLIAMSON ENVIRONMENTAL OFFICER WATER STANDARDS AND STUDIES SECTION ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DIVISION DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND WORKPLACE SAFETY AND HEALTH BOX 7,BLDG.2.139 TUXEDO AVENUE WINNIPEG,MANITOBA R3N OH6 (204)944-7030 -xi - TAB L E o F CON TEN T S PAGE 33 33 21 22 28 28 29 29 29 29 31 21 21 19 20 17 18 16 5 6 7 7 9 11 11 12 14 14 15 15 16 i ix xi xiii 1 3 4 Class 2.3.1 Class 2.4.1 2.4 2.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.1 1.8 Summary . Preamble . . . . . Table of Contents. Li st of Figures.. 1.Introduction . 1.1 Application of Surface Water Quality Objectives 1.2 Natural Characteristics Outside the Objectives. 1.3 Limitations and Interpretation of Surface Water Quality Objectives . High Quality Waters . Exceptional Value Waters Development of Specific Surface Water Quality Objectives General Requirements Minimum and Maximum Flows and Levels 1.8,1 Rivers and Streams .. 1.8.2 Intermittent streams . 1.8.3 Lakes,Bays and Impoundments 1.9 Mixing Zones . 2.Beneficial Uses . 2.1 Class 1:Domestic Consumption 2.1.1 Specific Requirements .. 2.1.1.1 Recommended Limits for Physical Characteristics . 2.1.1.2 Recommended Limits for Chemical Substances Related to Health . 2.1.1.3 Recommended Limits for Pesticides 2.1.1.4 Recommended Limits for Substances Related to Aesthetic and other Considerations . 2.1.1.5 Recommended Limits for Radionuclides .. 2.1.1.6 Recommended Limits for Microbiological CharacterIstics.. . .. 2.2 Class 2:Aquatic Life and wildlife.. .. 2.2.1 Category A:Cold Water Aquatic Life,Cool Water Aquatic Life and Wildlife . . . . . . . . 2.2.1.1 Specific Requirements . 2.2.2 Category B:Cool Water Aquatic Life and Wildlife 2.2.2.1 Specific Requirements 3:Industrial Consumption . . . Specific Requirements ..... 4:Agricultural Consumption .. Category A:Irrigation (Sale Source of Water). 2.4.1.1 Specific Requirements. 2.4.2 Category B:Irrigation (Supplemental Source of Water). 2.4.2.1 Specific Requirements. cont'd/... TAB L E o F -xii - CON TENT S CON T •D. PAGE - - 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.5 Class 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.6 Class 3.References Appendix 1 category C:Irrigation (Qualified Use of 2.4.3.1 Specific Requirements Category D:Livestock.. . . . 2.4.4.1 Specific Requirements 5:Recreation . Category A:Primary Recreation. 2.5.1.1 Specific Requirements. Category B:Secondary Recreation. 2.5.2.1 Specific Requirements 6:Other Uses. Water).34 34 36 36 37 37 38 38 40 40 41 Table 1:General and specific surface water quality objectives for the Province of Manitoba ABBREVIATIONS (a)Bq/L =Becquerels per liter (b)\Jg/L =micrograms per liter .-(c)mg/L =milligrams per liter (d)pS/cm =microsiemens per centimeter (e)SAR =Sodium Adsorption Ratio """ -xii i - Figure LIS T o F FIG U RES - Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Pisew Falls,located on.the Grass River,is one of Manitoba's many picturesque water-related sites. This tributary to the Shell River flows for only a short period of time each year,thus is considered an intermittent stream . Water for domestic consumption should be safe, palatable and aesthetically pleasing . These various species of algae form an important link in the food chain of higher organisms,such as fish.However.given the necessary enriched conditions,algae may proliferate until nuisance conditions are reached . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manitoba's surface waters abound with species of fish such as this pearl dace.Larger forage fish. such as walleye.rely upon these plus many other species as a source of food supply . . . . . .0 • Amphibians such as this leopard frog,rely upon surface waters for habitat and for sources of food supplies.. .. Canada geese are often seen in association with Manitoba's lakes and marshes ..... The La Salle River is used as a source of irrigation water for vegetable crops . 2 13 13 24 24 27 27 30 Figure 9:Many streams,such as the Shell River,are used for watering livestock.It is however,considered environmentally unacceptable to allow livestock direct access to the river . . . . . . . . .0 • • Figure 10:Manitoba's surface waters provide an aesthetically pleasing setting for the enjoyment of secondary recreational pursuits,such as angling .. Figure 11:The assimilative capacity of streams,such as the Winnipeg River,is used to dispose of liquid waste effluents . . . . . . . . . . 30 39 39 i·~ - 1 - 1.INTRODUCTION There are many diverse uses of surface waters wi thin Manitoba,such as domestic,industrial and agricultural consumption,propagation and maintenance of aquatic life,wildlife,waterfowl,shorebirds and furbearing animals and recreation.'these often require waters of differin&physical, chemical and biological quality.'these uses,plus others such as the disposal of wastes,generation of hydroelectric power,removal of excess precipitation.hydraulic alterations to natural watercourses and land use practises compete for the quality resources of provincial surface waters. The acceptability of water is directly related to the needs of the user. Water containing a certain combination of constituents may be suitable for one use but may be totally unsuitable for another use. 'the Environmental Management Division is std ving to maintain,enhance and protect the chemical.physical and biological integrity of all surface waters within the Province of Manitoba.Achievement of this goal will ensure that the present and potential surfac:e water uses are maintained in concordance with the social and economic dEivelopment of the Province.To this end.surface water quality objectives were formulated which define minimum levels of qU~lity required for the various uses.Provincial waters des ignated "High Quality"will be afforded greater protection and waters designated "Exceptional Value"will be maintained in their natural or non-degraded state. If the objectives ace under protective,surface water quality may become degraded,or if they are over protective.an unnecessary burden may be imposed on taxpayers and industry in ordl~r to pay for additional waste treatment facilities.'these objectives,therefore,impact all Manitobans, since they may affect the operation of industries,municipalities and certain aspects of a&riculture. Figure 1:Pisew Falls,located on the Grass River,is one of Manitoba's many picturesque water-related sites. \'.) ,I ,i'~' -3 - Surface water quali ty objectives are designated concentrations of The obje:ctives are used in conjunction- constituents that.when not exceeded,will protect an organism.a community of organisms,a prescribed water use.or a dlesignated multiple purpose water use with an adequate degree of safety. Where water quality characteristics could nl)t be defined in scientifically defensible quantitative terms,general narrl:l.tive statements were developed that reflected the necessary and desirable quality. 1.1 APPLICATION OF SURFACE WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES Surface water quality objectives are used as a management tool suited to protecting surface water quality. with ambient monitoring data: (a)to develop effluent discharge limitations for the protection of specific uses,through determining the capability of a receiving water course to assimilate waste contaminants.The ass imilati ve capaci ty is usually the difference between objective levels and ambient levels, where the ambient levels are lower. (b)to develop rational policies to guide those agencies having legislative authority.in eo-operation with the Emrironmental Management Division, for projects involving resource apportionment,such as hydrological alterations and land use practises that may contribute to water quality deterioration.Such projects include,but are not limited to: - - (i)water flow ,augmentation, (ii )lake level regulation, (i ii)water flow regulation, (iv)inter-basin water transfer, (v)extraction and apportionment of water for agriculture, municipal and industrial purposes, (vi)construction activities. (vii)resource harvesting or extraction operations (timber harvest, wild rice harvest,mineral exploration,minin~,etc.), {viii}apportionment of crown,municipal,or private lands for recreational or other purposes through lease,sale, subdivision,etc. - 4 - (c)to develop best management practises to control non-point or diffuse sources of pollution, (d)to assess the effectiveness of pollution control measures in protecting beneficial uses,and (e)to identify if the ambient water can sustain specific uses. Paramount among the above applications,is the utilization of the objectives for consideration by the Clean Environment Commission,in order to develop effluent discharge limitations necessary to make discharges compatible with specific surface water uses.The water quality objectives should not be construed as permitting any waste amenable to treatment or control to be discharged in any surface waters wi thout treatment or control that could reasonably be expected. If the water quality objectives are not met,there is no direct legal implication to the source of the contamination.Such a situation however, would indicate that administrative action is required to determine the cause and if remedial action is required.For example,remedial action may involve the review and revision of Clean Environment Commission orders,if point source discharges are the causative agents. utilization of surface water quality objectives is but one integral facet of surface water quality protection.Water quality objectives are used in conjunction with other provincial and federal guidelines and regulations on quanti ties,rates and concentrations of chemical,phys ical,biological and other constituents to which dischargers are subject. 1.2 NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OUTSIDE THE OBJECTIVES Waters may have,on occasion,natural characteristics outside the objectives in which case the objectives do not apply.The objectives contained herein apply to man-induced alterations.Wi thdrawal and subsequent discharge of such waters without alteration of the physical,chemical or biological characteristics into the same or similiar water body wiD not constitute violation of these objectives.The reduction in water quantity following - 1""1 I I I i - 5 - withdrawal but prior to discharge however,should not cause exceedences of the general or specific surface water qualit:y objectives such that other riparian uses may be adversely affected. It should be noted that where the assimilative capacity is utilized by inferior natural quality,further deterioration by the introduction of contaminants should not be allowed,unless such additions will not jeopardise any beneficial use as shown through site specific investigations. 1.3 LIMITATIONS AND INTERPRETATION OF SURFACE ~'ATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES The surface water quality objectives contained herein are based upon current scientific knowledge.Thus,they must be reviewed and revised regularly to ensure that they reflect new information on criteria and limitat ions and that existing or potential uses are accurately identified. There is a great deal of uncertainty of specific cause effect relationships between all concentrations of contaminants and all environmental variables. In addition,information is scarce on the antagonistic,synergistic and additive effects of combinations of contaminants. The objectives necessary to protect aquatic H fe,for example,were adopted from criteria that were developed utilizing an array of data from organisms, both plant and animal,occupying various trophic levels.Others were adopted after the application of safety factors to a limited data base. These objectives then,are designed to protect most aquatic organisms most of the time,but not necessarily all organisms all of the time. Similarly,water used for domesti c consumpt ion which contai ns substances at concentrations less than the maximum acceptable objectives should be suitable for lifelong consumption.These objectives were developed in consideration of other exposure routes,such as dietary intake. These objectives are designed to afford adequate protection,without an unreasonable amount of over protection or under protection.Hence,adve~se effects may be discernible should exceedences of the objectives be prolonged. - 6 - The object i ves are expressed in terms of total concentrations of constituents in whole unfiltered water,except where otherwise specified and as maximum acceptable concentrations.Maximum acceptable concentrations should be construed to mean instantaneous maximum (or minimum)concentrations not to be exceeded at any time in any place.It should be noted that certain objectives are below the present technical detection capabilities of analyt- ical instruments.This is justifiable,however,since these objectives are useful in calculating waste load limitations. 1.4 HIGH QUALITY WATERS Waters designated as "High QuaIi ty"should have biological,chemical and physical quality better than the established objectives.Such waters should support a high quality beneficial use.The designation "High Quality"will be used in conjunction with the respective beneficial use class or category that is determined to be of high quality.Waters suitable for inclusion are as follows: (a)waters that flow through or that are bounded by Provincial or National Parks, (b)waters within relatively undisturbed watersheds. (c)waters possessing outstanding quality characteristics, (d)waters that support a diverse or unique flora and fauna which are sensitive to man-induced water quality alterations. Measurable or calculable degradation should not occur as a result of human activity,that will jeopardize the designated high quality use unless: (a)the proposed new,addition-al or increased discharge or discharges of pollutants is justified, (b)such proposed discharges will not preclude any use presently possible in such waters and downstream from such waters,and will not result in exceedences of the water quality objectives,and !; po , - 7 ~ (c)any project or development which will ['esult in new.additional or increased discharges of pollutants into such waters should be required to utilize the best available combination of treatment,land disposal, re-use and discharge technologies to control such wastes.including the use of best management practises to curb soil erosion. 1.5 EXCEPTIONAL VALUE WATERS Any water whose quality is better than the established objectives and whose value as a resource for the support of a cOl1l\bination of aquatic life and wildlife and recreat ional uses is such that the waters are of exceptional recreational and ecological value will be given an "Exceptional Value" designation.Waters suitable for inclusion are as follows: (a)wild and scenic rivers or lakes. (b)waters or watersheds providing habitat for rare or endangered flora and fauna, (c)waters considered sensitive such that irreversible harm will result following human impact. (d)waters whose exceptional quality and value ns a future resource precludes the assignment of present uses. The above waters will be given a single "Exceptional Value"designation. This designation will be used to replace all other possible beneficial use designations.Water courses designated as such should not receive any alterations that result in measurable,calculable or perceived water quality degradation or degradation of other values deemed exceptional. 1.6 DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC SURFACE WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES The list of specific water quality objectives does not include all possible substances that could affect water quality.Technology however.exists for the.development of analytical procedures and for water quali ty obj ecti yes for all possible contaminants. i I - 8 - For example,over 600 substances are regi stered by Agriculture Canada as acti ve ingredients wi thin pest control products.These products are used for various purposes including wood preservatives,insecticides.herbicides, fungic ides,materials .preservati ves,plant growth regulators.etc..and are available for use in Manitoba.In addition.thousands of other substances are recognized by the Environmental Management Division as hazardous goods, and are subject to manufacture,use,storage or transport within Manitoba. These products therefore,have the potential to contaminate surface waters. Analytical techniques and objectives will be developed given reasonable information that such substances are present. For substances not listed,the general requirement from Section L 7 that these should not be present in concentrations or combinations that injure. be toxic to.or produce adverse physiological or behavioral responses in humans.aquatic,semi-aquatic and terrestrial life should apply. Specific numerical water quality objectives will be developed utilizing the best available scientific information.Objectives will be developed as follows for the protection of aquatic life: 1.Objectives will be developed utilizing the minimum data base concept published by the united States Environmental Protection Agency in the Federal Register.Vol.45.No.231.Friday,November 28,1980,or subsequent similiar methods. 2.In those cases where it has been determined that there is insufficient available data to establish a safe concentration for a pollutant,the safe concentration value should be determined by applying the appropriate application factor to the 96 hr LC SO value.The 96 hr LC SO is defined as that concentration of a toxic material or materials which kil1s fifty percent of bioassay t.est organisms in ninety-six hours.If an experimentally derived application factor does not exist for a pollutant.the followin~values should be used in the determination of safe concentration values: - - -i - 9 - (a)concentrations should not exceed 0.2 of the lowest chronic dose level at which subtle and deleterilous effects were noted. (b)concentrations of pollutants that are non-persistent or have r- non-cumulative effects should not exceed 0.05 of the 96 hr Le SO ' (c)concentrations of pollutants that are persistent or have accumulative effects should not exceed 0.01 of the 96 hr LC SO ' (d)concentrations of pollutants with known synergistic or antagonistic effects with pollutants in the effluent or receiving water will be established on a ,case-by-case basis utilizing the best available scientific data. Objecti ves for other uses will be developed utilizing the best available scientific information on exposure-respon:se data.ingestion rates.risk extrapolat ion techniques.exposure from sources other than surface water. and appropriate application factors dependent upon the quantity and quality of data. 1.7 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Because specific numerical objectives cannot reasonably be developed for every possible chemical.phys ical or biological parameter,the following general statements are also used to protect water quality.These statements,although written in general terms,are nevertheless water quality objectives.For example,these may be used to establish effluent limits even though there may be no specific numerical objectives applicable in the receiving water. All waters of the Province of Manitoba should be free of constituents attributable to sewage.industrial,agricultural and other land use - - practices.or other man-induced point or non-point source discharges such that the following general objectives are met as minimum conditions at all times and in all places: Parameter,Substance,or Condition Colour,odour,taste,turbidity -10 - Objectives Free from materials that produce colour,odour,taste,turbidity or other conditions in such a degree as to be objectionable or to impair any beneficial use. Deposits None that formation otherwise deposits. will cause the of putrescent or obj ectionable sludge Floating materials Flow Litter Nutrients Free from floating debris,oil, scum,and other floating materi als in sufficient amounts to be unsightly or deleterious. Water quantities (flows and lake levels)should not be altered to a degree which will cause exceedences of the general or specific surface water quality objectives such that beneficial uses may be adversely affected. Free from materials such as garbage,rubbish,trash,cans, bottles,or any unwanted or discarded solid material. Ni trogen,phosphorus,carbon and contributing trace elements should be 1 imi ted to the exten t necessary to prevent the nuisance growth and reproducti.on of aquatic rooted,attached and float ing plants,fung i or bacteria or to otherwise render the water unsuitable for other beneficial uses. For general guidance,unless it can be demonstrated that total phosphorus is not a limiting factor,considering the morphological,physical, chemical or other characteristics of the water body,total phosphorus should - - -11 - not exceed 0.025 mg/L in any reservoir,lake.pond,or in a tributary at the point where it enters such bodies of water.In addi tion.total phosphorus should not exceed 0.05 mg/L in any stream except those identified in the inunediately preceding statement.It should be noted that maintenance of such concentrations may not guarantee that eutrophication problems will not develop. :!,I I Oil and grease Toxic substances 1.8 MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM FLOWS AND LEVELS Free from oil and grease residues which causes a visible film or sheen upon the waters or any discolouration of the surface of adjoining shorelines or causes a sludge or emulsion to be depos i ted beneath the surface of the water or upon the adjoining shorelines. Free from substances in concentrations or in combinations that lnJure.be toxic to.or produce adverse physiological or behavioral responses in humans,aquat ie, semi-aquatic and terrestrial life. Ideally,objectives should be maintained at all times.It is however, generally accepted that to require objec:tive maintenance at all times is unreasonable.Thus,specific low flow levels have been chosen below which the objectives do not have to be met. 1.8.1 RIVERS AND STREAMS The sped fie numerical water qual ity objectives should apply at all times except during periods when flows are less than the average minimum seven day - flow which occurs once in ten years (Q~7-10)'Should the average minimum -12 -.~ seven day flow with a recurrence interval of once in ten years be 3 ~O.003m /s or less,then the criteria from the following Section 1.8.2, INTERMITTENT STREAMS should-apply.In cases where the stream flow is highly regulated it may not be possible to calculate the average minimum seven day flow with a recurrence interval of once in ten years.In such instances the specific numerical objectives should apply for all periods above the minimum ."""!I. daily discharge for the period of record after the stream flow was altered. The specific numerical objectives should,however,apply at all times if the beneficial uses are supported because of pooling of water during periods of low natural flows.The general requirements from the preceding Section 1.7 should apply at all times regardless of the amount of flow.Minimum and maximum stream flow criteria may be developed on a site specific basis should fluctuating stream flows influence water quality such that beneficial uses will be jeopardized. 1.8.2 INTERMITTENT STREAMS Intermittent stre~s and natural or man-made drainage channels receive water from precipitation from small watersheds (usually less than 1 km 2 in area),and from ground water sources,hence usually flow during short periods.Such streams however,are an integral part of the surface water resources of the Province of Manitoba.The specific numerical water quality objectives should apply to all such streams when the flow is O.003m3 /s or greater.When the intermittent stream does not contain this flow,the objectives to be maintained should be those pertaining to the water body to which the intermittent stream is tributary.The specific numerical objectives should however,apply at all times if the beneficial uses are supported because of pooling during periods of low natural flows.The general requirements from the preceding Section 1.7 should apply at all times regardless of the amount of flow.Minimum and maximum stream flow criteria may be developed on a site specific basis should fluctuating stream flows influence water quality such that beneficial uses will be jeopardized. 1 Fe-1 l 1 C}1 1 e)J ] Figure 2:This tributary to the Shell River flows for only a short period of time each year,thus,is considered an intermittent stream. Figure 3:Water for domestic consumption should be safe.palatable and aesthetically pleasing. ..... W •.14 - 1.8.3 LAKES.BAYS AND IMPOUNDMENTS The surface water quali ty objectives should apply at all times to lakes. bays and impoundments.Site specific water quality management strategies may be developed,delineating maximum and minimum levels.when natural or man--made lake level fluctuat ions cause water quali ty deterioration such that beneficial uses are jeopardized. 1.9 MIXING ZONES Mixing zones are areas adjacent to a discharge or to an activity that may affect water quality where a receiving water may not meet all the water quality objectives.This is allowed for practical reasons.since for most contaminants.it would be unreasonable to expect the objectives to be met at the end of the discharge pipe.Wastes and water are given an area to mix such that the water quality objectives are met at the boundaries of the mixing zone.Mixing zones are recognized as areas subject to loss of value, however they should not be construed as a substi lute for waste discharge treatment. Mixing zones should be determined on a case-by-case basis utilizing a thorough knowledge of local conditions.Normally,geometric size The following guidelines should apply to mixing constraints will not be assigned due to the complex nature of the mixing properties of liquids. zones where applicable: (a)the mixing zone should be as small as practicable and should not be of such size or shape-as to cause or contribute to the impairment of water uses. (b)the mixing zone should contain not more than 25~of the cross-sectional area/volume of flow at any transect in the receiving water during all flow regimes when the specific water quality objectives are applicable, (c)the mixing zone should be designed to allow an adequate zone of passage for the movement or drift of all stages of aquatic life, - -15 - (d)mixing zones should not interfere with the migratory routes,natural movements,survival,reproduct ion,grc)wth or increase the vulnerab i lity to predation of any representative aquatic species, (e)mixing zones should not interfere with spawning and nursery areas, (f)when two or more mixing zones are in close proximity,they should be so defined that a continuous passageway for aquatic life is available, (g)in lakes and other surface impoundmElOts,the volume of mixing zones should not exceed 1010 of the volume of that portion of the receiving waters available for mixing, (h)mixing zones should not cause an irreversible organism response, (i)mixing zones should not intersect the mouths'of rivers, (j)the 96 hr LC SO for indigenous fish species should not be exceeded at any point in the mixing zones, (k)mixing zones should not contaminate ns,tural sediments so as to cause or contribute to exceedences of the watler quality objectives outside the mixing zone, (l)mixing zones should not intersect domestic water supply intakes or bathing areas, (m)the general requirements from the preceding Section 1.7 should apply at all points within the mixing zones. 2.BENEFICIAL USES The following sections are separated into classes that represent general surface water uses wi thi n Manitoba.The'se include domestic consumption, aquatic life and wildlife,industrial consumption,agricultural consumption, recreation and otner uses.Where possible,these general classes are further divided into categories to provide protection,for example,to t.he different types of recreation. 2.1 CLASS 1:DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION This class will ensure the protection of waters that are suitable for human consumption,culinary or food processing purposes,and other household purposes after treatment in order that the treated water will not exceed the -16 - maximum acceptable concentrations of the "Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality,"1978,published by Health and Welfare Canada,and any revisions,a~mendments or supplements,thereto. The specific requirements listed hereunder are a combination of maximum acceptable concentrations and objective concentrat ions as set forth in the above mentioned guidelines and guidelines utilized by the Province of Hanitoba.Inherent in these requirements is the necessity to disinfect all raw surface water supplies as minimum treatment prior to consumption,since all surface waters of Manitoba are suscepti ble to uncontrolled microbiological contamination,for example,by wildlife. Some surface waters of the Province of Manitoba normally exceed several of these requirements due to natural or background occurences.Partial, complete or a combination of conventional and unit processes then become necessary in order to produce potable water from such raw water supplies. Specific requirements will not be developed for every possible combination of existing or available treatment processes. Rather,it is the intent that man--induced water quali ty alterations not cause an unacceptable increased risk to public health or an unacceptable increased treatment cost to the water user or supplier.The following maximum acceptable objectives should be used,on a site specific basis,to assist in determining when increased health risks or increased treatment costs may be expected,in conjunction with information concerning: (a)the chemical,physical or biological quality of the proposed discharge or alteration being ~onsidered, (b)ambient or background surface water quality, (c)design of downstream water treatment facilities, (d)other pertinent information. 2.1.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS 2.1.1.1 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Parameter Colour Odour pH -17 - Maximum Acceptable 15 True Colour Units Inoffensive 6.5 -8.5 pH units Taste Inoffensive Turbidity 5 NE!phelometric Turbidity Units 2.1.1.2 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES RELATED TO HEALTH ...... 1Substance Inorganic Maximum Acceptable --18 - Silver 0.05 mg/L Sodium 400.mg/L Sulphate 500.mg/L Uranium 0.02 mg/L Organic Nitrilotriacetic Acid (NTA) Pesticides (Total)3 Trihalomethanes (Total potential)4 0.05 0.1 0.35 mg/L mg/L mg/L 1.Unless otherwise stated the limits refer to the sum of all forms present. 2.Where both nitrate and ni tri te are present,the total nitrate, plus nitrite-nitrogen should not exceed 10 mg/L. 3.For maximum acceptable concentrations of individual pesticides see section 2.1.1.3. 4.Comprise chloroform,bromodichloromethane,chlorodibromomethane and bromoform. ,2.1.1.3 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR PESTICIDES Pesticide l Maximum Acceptable Aldrin and Dieldrin Carbaryl Chlordane (Total Isomers) 0.0007 0.07 0.007 mg/L mg/L mg/L ~ -19 - DDT (Total Isomers)0.03 ~/L Diazinon O.OlA :;/L-,Endrin 0.0002 :;/L Heptachlor and Heptachlor Epoxide 0.003 ~/L- Lindane 0.00"~/L Methoxychlor 0.1 ~/L Methyl Parathion 0.007 ::;/L Parathion 0.035 ::;/L Toxaphene 0.005 ~/L,,- 2,4-D 0.1 :;/L 2,4,5 -TP 0.01 :;/L Total Pesticides 2 0.1 :;/L,... l.The limi ts for each pest icide rlefer t::Je sum of all forms-present. 2.The "Total Pestic ides"limit applies to ~r in which more than one of the above pesticides is present,:-.nich case,the sum of their concentrations should not exceed 0.:::.L. 2.1.1.4 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR SUBSTANCES RELATEr ~-STHETIC AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Contaminant Maximum AC:~-'le Chloride 250.%: Copper 1.0 ~- Hardness (as CaC0 3 )200...... !"""Hydrogen Sulfide (as H2S)0.05 _. 2.1.1.5 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR RADIONUCLIDES Where ci'c2'ci are the observed concentrations.and Cl ,C2'Ci are the maximum acceptable concentrations for each contributing radionuclide. Where two or more radionuclides affecting the same organ or tissue are found to be present,the followin!relationship,based on the International Commission on Radiological Protection publication 26,should be satisfied: ..::::.I Maximum Acceptable C·1 c·1 -20 ~ 0.3 mg/L 0.05 mg/L 0.002 mg/L 500.mg/L 5.0 mg/L ++ Cesium -137 SO Bq/L Iodine -131 10 Bq/L Radium -226 1 Bq/L Strontium -90 10 Bq/L Tritium 40000 Bq/L Manganese Zinc Phenols Total Dissolved Solids Iron Radionuclides -21 - 2.1.1.6 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS Indicator Organism Fecal coliform bacteria Total coliform bacteria- ,....2.2 CLASS 2:AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE Maximum Acceptable 90 percentile:10 organisms/lOOmL 90 perceintile:100 organisms/lOOmL 2.2.1 CATEGORY A:COLD WATER AQUATIC LIFE.COOL WATER AQUATIC LIFE AND - - - WILDLIFE This category will ensure the passage,maintenance and propagation of fish species including the family Salmonidae (char,trout,whitefish,grayling) and additional flora and fauna which are indigenous to a cold water habitat.This category will also ensure the passage,maintenance and propagation of fish species and additional flora and fauna which are indigenous to a cool water habitat (mooneye,goldeye,pike,perch,walleye, sauger).Additional flora and fauna includes (lther aquatic organisms but not limited to bacteria,fungi,algae,aquatic insects,other aquatic invertebrates,reptiles,amphibians and fishes. By ensuring protection of the aquatic communi tie's ,protection is indirectly offered to those forms of wildlife that rely upon surface waters for habi tat and for food supplies. This category will therefore ensure the protection of streams,lakes, marshes,swamps,lowlands,etc.which are satisfactory as habitat for aquatic and semi-aquatic wild animals,such as waterfowl,shorebirds, furbearing mammals and other water oriented wildlife including the necessary aquatic organisms in their food chain.Protection of waters suitable for watering wild animals will be provided. -22 - Objectives are included for numerous parameters including dissolved oxygen, toxic metals and pesticides.The presence of dissolved oxygen in water is essential for aquatic life,and the type of aquatic community is dependent to a large extent on the amount of dissolved oxygen present.Toxic metals, such as zinc and cadmium.in small concentrations.can have harmful effects on growth and reproduction,and in large concentrations,can be lethal. Others,such as mercury and PCB's,even though present in small quantities, can slowly bio-accumulate in the tissue of organisms,until higher harmful levels are reached. Some metals,such as cadmium,are more or less toxic depending upon the hardness of the water.For this reason,a mathematical equation is used to establish an objective based upon the relationship between toxicity and hardness. The existence and composition of an aquatic community also depends upon temperature characteristics.An excessive increase in temperature can be harmful by interfering with fish spawning cycles,causing changes in growth and respirat ion,and caus ing more heat tolerant species to replace heat - sensi tive ones.Heat related winter fish kills can occur when a heated discharge is suddenly stopped.Fish that have been attracted to a heated area are suddenly exposed to the cold ambient temperature. Developing site-specific temperature objectives is complicated and time consuming.Therefore,a method is included by which temperature objectives will be developed for specific discharges. 2.2.1.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Parameter Ammonia (un-ionized,NH3) Maximum Acceptable Concentration 0.02:/1:mg/L Reference EPA (1976) :/I:the percent un-ionized ammonia can be calculated for any temperature and pH by using - - -23 - the following formula taken from Thurs:ton, R.V.,et aI,1974.Aqueous ammonia equilibrium calculations.Technical report number 74-1, Fisheries Bioassay Laboratory, Montana state University, Bozeman,Montana,18 pages. f 10 1 (pKa -pH) +1 x 100 - where: f =the percent of the total ammonisL in the un-ionized state, pKa (dissociation constant for ammonisL)= 0.0901821 +2729.92 T T =temperature in degrees Kelvin (273.16°Kelvin =0°Celsius) Arsenic (Total) Cadmi urn (Total> 0.05 mg/L Environment Canada (1979) e(1.05 (In (hardness»-8.53)EPA (1980) where hardness is expt~essed in mg/L as CaC03 (eg)50 mg/L CaC03 ==0.012 llg/L 100 mg/L CaC03 ==Oo02S llg/L 200 mg/L caC03 ==0.051 pg/L Chlordane Chlorine (Total residual) Chromium (Total hexavalent) Copper (Total) 0.0043 pg/L 0.002 mg/L 0.29 )Jg/L 5.6 pg/L EPA (1980) EPA (1976) EPA (1980) EPA (1980) Cyanide,Free 3.5 pg/L (sum of HCN and CN-, expressed as CN) DDT and metabolites 0.0010 )Jg/L EPA (1980) EPA (1980) Dieldrin Dissolved oxygen 0.0019 llg/L 60""saturation (instantaneous minimwn) EPA (1.980) Davis (1975) -24 - Figure 4:These various species of algae form an important link in the food chain of higher organisms,such as fish. However,given the necessary enriched conditions,algae may proliferate until nuisance conditions are reached. Figure 5:Manitoba's surface fish such as this pearl dace. walleye,rely upon these plus of food supply. waters abound with species of Larger forage fish.such as many other species as a source Endosulfan Endrin Heptachlor Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBO) Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2 8) Iron (Total) -25 - 0.056 pg/L 0.0023 pg/L 0.0038 pg/L 0.1 pg/L 0.002 mg/L 1.0 mg/L EPA (1980) EPA (1980) EPA (1980) Environment Canada (1983) EPA (1976) EPA (1976) Lead (Total) Lindane Mercury (Total) Nickel (Total) e(2.35 (In (hardness»-9.48) where hardness is expressed in mg/L as CaC03 (eg)50 mg/L CaC03 =0.75 pg/L 100 mg/L CaC03 _3.8 pg/L 200 mg/L CaC03 ==20.0 pglI.. 0.080 pg/L 0.00057 pg/L e(0.76 (In(hardness))+1.06) where hardness is expressed in mg/L as CaC03 (eg)50 mg/L CaC03 =56 pg/L 100 mg/L CaC03 ~96 pg/L 200 mg/L CaC03 =160 pg/L EPA (1980) EPA (1980) EPA (1980) EPA (1980) ,.,... Non-filterable residue pH Phenols Phthalic acid esters (i)Oibutylphthalate (OBP) (ii)Oi-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (OEHP) (iii)other phthalates Polychlorinated biphenyls 25 mg/L 6.5 -9.0 pH units 1.0 pg/L 4.0 pg/L 0.6 pg/L 0.2 pg/I. 0.014 pg/L Alabaster &Lloyd (1982) Alabaster &Lloyd (1982) EPA (1976) Environment Canada (1983) Environment Canada (1983) Environment Canada (1983) EPA (1980) Selenium (Total selenite) Silver (Total) -26 - 35 pg/L 0.1 pg/L EPA (1980) Environment Canada (1979) - Temperature Site specific objectives will be developed considering the following: 1.Thermal additions should be such that thermal stratification and subsequent turnover dates are not altered from those existing prior to the addition of heat from artificial origin. EPA (1976) 2.One limit which consists of a maximum weekly average temperature that: (a.)In the warmer months is determined by adding to the physiological optimum temperature (usually for growth)a factor ~alculated as one-third of the difference between the ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature and the optimum temperature for the most sensitive important species (and appropriate life stages)that normally is found at that location and time. (b)in the colder months is an elevated temperature that would still ensure that important species would survive if the temperature suddenly dropped to the normal ambient tem- perature,or (c)during reproduction seasons meets specific site requirements for success- ful migration,spawning,egg incubation, and other reproductive functions of important species,or (d)at a specific site is found necessary to preserve normal species diversity or prevent undesirable growths of nuisance organisms. 3.A second limit which is the time- dependent maximum temperature for short exposures. ..- I - - - - - -27 - Figure 6:Amphibians,such as this leopard frog,rely upon surface waters for habitat and for sources of food supplies. Figure 7:Canada geese are often seen in association with Manitoba's lakes and marshes. -28 - 4.Maximum limits may be specified for incremental temperature fluctuations necessary to protect aquatic life from sudden temperature changes, - - Toxaphene Zinc (Total) 0.013 l1g/L 47 l1g/L EPA (1980) EPA (l980) 2.2.2 CATEGORY B:COOL WATER AQUATIC LIFE AND WILDLIFE This category will ensure the passage.maintenance and propagation of fish species and additional flora and fauna which are indigenous to a cool water also includes other aquatic organisms but not limited to bacteria.fungi. algae,aquatic insects,other aquatic invertebrates,reptiles.amphibians and fishes that are indigenous to a cool water habitat. habitat (mooneye.goldeye.pike,perch,walleye,sauger).Thi s category - This category will also ensure the protection of streams,lakes.marshes. swamps.lowlands.etc.which are satisfactory as habitat for aquatic and semi-aquatic wild animals,such as waterfowl,shorebirds,furbearing mammals and other water oriented wildlife including the necessary aquatic organisms in their food chain. animals is provided. Protection of waters suitable for watering wild I""'!\ I 2.2.2.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS All parameters and limitations from Section 2.2.1.1 should apply except as follows: Parameter Chlorine (Total residual) Dissolved oxygen Maximum Acceptable Concentration 47~saturation (instantaneous minimum) Reference EPA (1976) Davis (1975) -29 - 2.3 CLASS 3:INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION This class will ensure the protection of all waters which are or may be used as a source of supply for industrial processes or cool ing water,or any other industrial or commercial purposes and for which quality control is or may be necessary. Discharges or alterations to waters classified as CLASS 3:INDUSTRIAL - ..... CONSUMPTION,should not be permitted such that downstream present or potential industrial users will incur unacceptable additional treatment costs. 2.3.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Selective limits will be imposed for any specific water as required. Objectives will not be formulated at present due to the large number of present and potential industrial water users,each with varying requirements for quality control of water. 2.4 CLASS 4:AGRICULTURAL CONSUMPTION 2.4.1 CATEGORY A:IRRIGATION (Sole Source of Water) This category will ensure the long term protection of fine,medium and coarse textured soils from the accumulat i.on of substances that may be harmful or cause a reduction in fertility;,will ensure the protection of sensitive,semi-tolerant and tolerant species of plants;and will ensure the protection of humans from the harmful effecics caused by the accumulation of substances on marketable produce that may not be processed prior to consumption.This category will provide protection for intensive .-, horticultural crop production,where irrigation is used as the only source of water . -30 - Figure 8:The La Salle River is used as a source of irrigation water for vegetable crops. Figure 9:Many streams,such as the Shell River,are used for watering livestock.It is however,considered environmentally unacceptable to allow livestock direct access to the river. .... ""'II --31 - Objectives are included for parameters such as sodium.that will protect sensitive plants.In addition.,others,for exampll~,fecal coliform bacteria are included that are intended to pr·otect humans following consumption of raw vegetables irrigated with water of this class. - various textured soils.other objectives,such as boron,will protect 2.4.1.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Reference NAS/NAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) NAS /NAE (1973) Best professional, judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) - - .... Cadmium (Total) Chloride (Soluble) Chromium (Total) Cobalt (Total) Conductivity Copper (Total) Fecal coliform bacteria 0.01 mg/L 68 mg/L 0.1 mg/L 0.05 mg/L 1000 }JS/cm 0.2 mg/L (a)geometric mean:1000 organisms /100 mL (b)individual maximum: 2000 organisms/100 mL (sufficient samples should be collected in order to permit valid interpretation). Environment Canada (1979 ) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) Environment Canada (1979) NAS/NAE (1973) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) Environment Canada (1979) NAS/NAE (1973)· -32 - Should contact with the irrigation water by field staff be probable. the fecal coliform bacteria characteristics from the following section 2.5.CLASS 5:RECREATION. CAT~GORY A:PRIMARY RECREATION should apply. Filterable residue Fluoride (Total) 700 mg/L 1.0 mg/L Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) NAS/NAE (1973) Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Iron (Total) Lead (Total) Li thium (Total) Manganese (Total) Molybdenum (Total) Nickel (Total) pH 3.0 mg/L 5.0 mg/L 5.0 mg/L 2.5 mg/L 0.2 mg/L 0.01 mglL 0.2 mg/L 6.0-8.5 pH units Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) NAS/NAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) Radionuc lides Selenium (Total) Sodium The limits from the preceding Section 2.1.1.5,RECOMM~NDED LIMITS FOR RADIONUCLIDES should apply. 0.02 rng/L (a)20 mg/L (b)4.0 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) Health and Welfare Canada (1978) Environment Canada (1979) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) NAS/NAE (1973) - -33 - .043 Na+ SAR = ~25 Ca+++.04 Mg++ ,.... I, Sulfates Vanadium (Total) Zinc (Total) expressed in mg/L 250 mg/L 0.1.m"g/L 2.0 mg/L Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS INAE (1973) I'" I 2.4.2 CATEGORY B:IRRIGATION (Supplemental Source of Water) This category will ensure the long term protE!ction of fine,medium and ""'"coarse textured soils from the accumulat ion of substances that may be harmful or cause a reduction in fertility;will ensure the protection of _sensitive,semi-tolerant and tolerant species of plants;and will ensure the protection of humans from harmful effects cau~;ed by the accumulat ion of substances on marketable produce that may not be processed prior to This category will provide protection for field cropconsumption. production where irrigation water is used to supplement natural precipitation.This category may be applicable only during the irrigation season. 2.4.2.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS The maximum acceptable concentrations for parameters listed in the preceding Section 2.4.2.1 should apply with the following e~xcept ions: ..""'"I I !~I ~., Parameter Boron (Total) Chloride (Soluble) Maximum Acceptable ConcentrsLtion 1.0 mglT.. 150 mg/L Reference Best professional jUdgement (Manitoba Agriculture) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) ----------------------------r.,..,..----.---,-------------------_ Conductivi ty Filterable residue pH Sodium -34 - 1,500 }.IS/cm 1,050 mg/L 5.0-9.0 pH units 6.0 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) .043 Na+ SAR = Ca+++.04 Hg++ expressed in mgJL Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agri cuI t ure) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) NAS/NAE (1973) 2.4.3 CATEGORY C:IRRIGATION (Qualified Use of Water) The maximum acceptable concentrations for parameters listed in the preceding Section 2.4.2.1 should apply with the following exceptions: This category will ensure the long term protection of coarse soils, protection up to twenty years of medium to fine textured soils.and short term protection of fine textured soils from the accumulation of substances that may be harmful or cause a reduction in fertility;will ensure the protection of sensitive,semi-tolerant and tolerant species of plants.and will ensure the protection of humans from harmful effects caused by the accumulat ion of substances on marketable produce that may not be processed prior to consumption.This category will provide protection for permanent irrigation installations on coarse soils and for temporary irrigation installations on medium to fine soils where irrigation water is used t.o supplement natural precipitation. during the irrigation season. 2.4.3.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS This category may be applicable only '- Parameter Aluminum (iotal) Arsenic (Total) Beryllium (Total) Boron (Total) Chromium {Total) Cobalt (Total) Conductivity Copper (Total> Filterable residue Fluoride (Total) Iron (iotal) Lead (Total) Manganese (Total) Nickel (Total) Selenium (Total) Sodium Vanadium (Total) Zinc (Total) -35 - Maximum Acceptable Concentration 20.0 mg/L 2.0 mg/L 0.5 mg/L 2.0 mg/L 1.0 mg/L 5.0 mg/L 2000 pS/cm 5.0 mg/L 1400 mg/L 15.0 mg/L 20.0 mg/L 10.0 mg/L 10.0 mg/L 2.0 mg/L 0.05 mg/I. 8.0 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) .043 Na+ expressed in mg/L 1.0 mg/L 10.0 mg/L Reference NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/MAE (1973) Best professional jUdgement (Manitoba Agriculture) Environment Canada (1979) Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) NAS/NAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) Environment Canada (1979) NAS I NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS/NAE (1973) -36 - 2.4.4 CATEGORY D:LIVESTOCK This category will ensure the protection of all classes and ages of Ii vestock and poultry from i nhi bitory effects following water consumption. Adjustment problems,such as mild and temporary diarrhea,may result when the livestock are introduced to the water,but should not affect their contaminated with wastes of fecal origin in order to provide a suitable supply for ingestion by monogastric animals (poultry,swine,horses). health or performance.Disinfection may be required for waters heavily -- 2.4.4.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Parameter Alkalinity (Total, as CaC03)I Aluminum (Total) Arsenic (Total) Boron (Total) Cadmium (Total) Chromium (Total) Cobalt (Total) Conductivity Copper (Total) Dissolved oxygen Filterable residue Fluoride (Total) Lead (Total) Maximum Acceptable Concentration 1000 mg/L 5.0 mg/L 0.5 mg/L 5.0 mglL 0.02 mg/L 1.0 mg/L 1.0 mg/L 4300 llS/cm 1.0 mg/L maintain aerobic conditions 3000 mg/L 2.0 mg/L 0.5 mg/L Reference Manitoba Agriculture NAS/NAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) NAS/NAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) Environment Canada (1979) NAS/NAE (1973) Manitoba Agriculture Environment Canada (1979) NAS/NAE (1973) NAS /NAE (1973) NAS/MAE (1973) Environment Canada (1979) -31 - Mercury (Total)0.003 mglL Environment Canada (1919) ~J, Nickel (Total)5.0 mg/L Environment Canada (1919) Nitrate -Nitrite (N03 -N02 ) 10.0 mg/L Best professional judgement (Manitoba Agriculture) pH Radionuclides 5.5-9.0 pH units The limits from the preceding Section 2.1.1.5,RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR RADIONUCLIDES. should apply. Manitoba Agriculture Health and Welfare Canada (1978) Selenium (Total)0.05 mg/L Environment Canada (1919) 1000 mg/L Manitoba Agriculture 2.5 CLASS 5:RECREATION Surface waters provide outdoor recreational opportunities for both Manitoba safely used for swimming and boating purpol;es and also may provide for the enjoyment of pleasant scenery. Environment Canada (1919) NAS/NAE (1913) Manitoba Agriculture 50.0 mg/L 0.1 mg/L This class will ensure that such waters may be Waters bearing heavy growths of blue green algae should be avoided. 1.Alkalinity (Total,as CaC03)plus Sulfate (304)should not exceed 1000 mg/L (Best professional judgement,Manitoba Agriculture). residents and tourists. Vanadium (Total) Zinc (Total) Toxic algae 2.5.1 CATEGORY A:PRIMARY RECREATION ,.... - This category will ensure the protection of waters which are suitable for primary recreational uses where the human body may come in direct contact -38 - with the water,to the point that water may be ingested accidently or water may contact certain sensitive organs such as the eyes,ears and nose. Examples could include wading and dabbling,swimming,diving,water skiing, surfing and intimate contact with water directly associated with shoreline activities.Due to climatic conditions in Manitoba,primary recreation is usually restricted to the period from May 1 to September 30 of the same year. .. 2.5.1.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Parameter Maximum Acceptable Concentration Clarity (Secchi disc visibility) Dissolved oxygen Fecal coliform bacteria pH Turbidity 1.2 meters (minimum) maintain aerobic condi tions .(a)geometric mean:200 organisms /100 mL (b)individual maximum: 400 organisms/lOa mL (sufficient samples should be collected in order to permit valid interpre- tation) 6.5-8.5 pH units 50 Jackson Turbidity units ~ Reference Health and Welfare Canada (1983) Best professional judgement (Environmental .~ Management Division) Health and Welfare Canada (1983) ; t; ~. ~ ! Health and Welfare l 111"!11 Canada (1983)( 1 Health and Welfare ll'I!!'! Canada <1983 ) 2.5.2 CATEGORY B:SECONDARY RECREATION This category will provide protection to waters which are suitable for boating,fishing and other water related activities other than immersion recreation,including navigation and aesthetic enjoyment of scenery.This category includes activities in which water use is incidental,accidental or sensory,and includes fishing,boating,camping,hunting and hiking. ,~ - ~.~ ~.i 1 I, -- -39 - Figure 10:Manitoba's surface waters provide an aesthetically pleasing setting for the enjoyment of secondary recreational pursuits,such as angling. Figure 11:The assimilative capacity bf streams,such as the Winnipeg River,is used to dispose of liquid waste effluents. -40 - The uses to be protected in this class may be under other jurisdictions and in other areas to which the waters of the Province are tributary and may include any or all of the uses listed in the preceding categories,plus any other possible beneficial uses.The Environmental Management Division, therefore,reserves the right to designate any objective necessary for the protection of this class,consistent with legal limitations. The Environmental Management Division is also cognizant of the fact that other uses of streams,rivers or lakes may also include the removal of excess precipitation,production of hydroelectric power or disposal of wastes.These are beneficial uses,however,they do not require protection through the designation of objectives.These uses,however may be chosen on the basis of social or economic conditions to take precedence over the other preceding designated beneficial uses. t t 1 IIIo;!:; ! ! i !~ t it i t ""',1 •t I• I P.!iI< i Reference EPA (1976) Best professional judgement (Environ- mental Management Division) Best professional jUdgement (Environ- mental Management Division) Best professional judgement (Environ- mental Management Division) maintain aerobic conditions Maximum Acceptable Concentration There should be no temperature changes that interfere with the natural freezing patterns or dates that pose a threat to navigation. There should be no unmarked sub- mergent or emergent obstructions that pose a threat to navigation. (a)geometric mean:1000 organisms /100 mL (b)individual maximum: 2000 organisms/lOO mL (sufficient samples should be collected in order to permit valid inter- pretation). 2.6 CLASS 6:OTHER USES 2.5.2.1 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Dissolved oxygen Fecal coliform bacteria Navigational hazards Temperature ..Parameter Alabaster,J.S;Lloyd.R.1982:Water Qualit.y criteria for Freshwater Fish. Second Edition.Food and Agriculture Organization of the united Nations,Butterworths.361 pages. r I l ' ,.... l t : 3.REFERENCES -41 - r r l. r, ,.... !, L Davis,J.C.1975:Waterborne Dissolved Oxygen Requirements and Criteria with Particular Emphasis on the Canadian Environment.National Research Council of Canada.NRC Ass~ociate Committee on Scientific Criteria for Environmental Quality.Report No.13,Environmental Secretariat Publication No.NRCC 14100.Ottawa.Canada.111 pages. Environment Canada.1979:Guidelines for Surface Water Quality.Vol.I, Inorganic Chemical Substances.Inland Waters Directorate,Water Quality Branch.Ottawa,Canada. Environment Canada,1983:Guidelines for Surface Water Quality.Vol.2, Organic Chemical Substances.Inland Waters Directorate,Water Quality Branch,Ottawa,Canada. Environmental Protection Agency.1976:Quality Criteria for Water,United states Environmental Protection Agency.Washington.D.C.20460. Environmental Protection Agency,1980:Water Quality Criteria Documents Availability,Federal Register Vol.451.No.231.Friday,November 28, 1980 (FRL1623-3)79318-79379. Health and Welfare,Canada.1978:Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quali ty.Federal-Provincial Working Group on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health.76 pages. Health and Welfare,Canada,1983:Guidelines for Canadian Recreational Water Quality.Federal-Provincial Working Group on Recreational Water Quality of the Federal-Provincial Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health.75 pages Manitoba Department of Agriculture:Manitoba Agriculture Farm Facts, Li vestock Water Quali ty.Agdex 716/13--00. National Academy of Sciences/National Academy of Engineering.1973:Water Quality Criteria.1972.EPA.R3.73.033.March,1973.594 pages. -42 - APPENDIX 1 - - Red River Floodway City of Winnipeg Dykes FLOOD COnTROL Portage Diversion Shellmouth ReseNoir Fairford River Assiniboine River Dykes l7 'l.-O (~ ---_._-_....•.._._---------_.----_.---------------- i l I 1 I 1 1 I l Flood Control Manitoba lies in a gigantic drainage system which extends east to Ontario,west to Alberta and south to the headwaters of the Mississippi River.This huge area is drained by several major rivers including the Winnipeg,Red,Assiniboine and the Saskatchewan which all flow through Manitoba into Lake Winnipeg.The Lake Manitoba-Lake Winnipegosis system also drains into Lake Winnipeg through the Dauphin River.In the spring,runoff from melting snow frequently causes flooding of the land bordering these rivers and tributaries.Flooding in the mildly sloping Red River Valley exemplifies this type of problem.When the Red River overflows its banks a large area is subject to flooding.In 1950 the floodwaters extended over 15 miles in width,flooding an area of approximately 500 square miles. Floods have been a tremendous economic burden to Manitobans.It is estimated that the average annual flood damage in Manitoba was $14 million before the major flood control works were built. The Water Resources Division of the Manitoba Department of Mines,Resources and Environmental Management has overall responsibility for major flood control works and for the co-ordination of flood fighting activities in the Province. This is done on the basis of flood forecasting which allows the Division to evaluate the possibility of spring flooding. The total amount of rain and snow is measured and,in the spring,information is gathered about runoff conditions on a number of streams and rivers including the tributaries of the Red and Assiniboine rivers.This information is analyzed and estimates'of peak river flows are determined.Action taken in operating permanent flood control works and evaluation of the need for emergency measures depends on these forecasts. - - - - :1 1 Red River Floodway The first thing that comes to mind when we think of flood control in Manitoba,is the Red River Floodway This is Manitoba's largest flood pro- tection project.It is also the most costly,ana it provides the most ob- vious benefit by protecting Winnipeg from damaging floods.As over 80 per cent of the water that passes through Winnipeg during the spring runoff comes from the Red River, control of this river is the key to Winnipeg flood protection. There were alternatives to building the Floodway.The Red River could have been deepened through the City;or a reservoir could have been ..-II!'!..'!!!'I.~'l!!!!!&!S§f:lIlr.!. ~ 7974 Flood -~,"/ater is r..i/vt.'rred frorr,tht .·Pier..f Rivf::at the flood~"13i/.IfU(J~5[;u:;rur~1. S~.fv·orberc bypassing Vr"inni02p. Floodway outlet to Red River at Lockporr. during 1974 flood conditions. --------~.~--------- ------------------- - built south of Winnipeg to hold ex· cess spring runoff,for slow release during the summe~,These were not practical alternatives,however,as dredging the channel would have cost twice as much as a floodway, and a dam built south of Winnipeg creating a flood storage reservoir, would result in heavy flooding to farmland during flood conditions. The Red River Floodway allows all the water in the Red River to flow through Winnipeg during normal summer,fali and winter months. But in the spring,when the discharge is greater than 30,000 cubic feet per second (cfs),the water flow divides between the Red River and the Floodway. The amount of water diverted into the Floodway is regulated by a con- trol structure.This structure main- tains the Red River's natural level upstream of the Floodway but .allows up to 60,000 cfs of flood water to enter the Floodway and bypass the City of Winnipeg. The project was completed in 1968 at a total cost of $62.7 million which was shared between the Province of Manitoba and the Federal Govern- ment. - - - Shellmouth Reservoir The Shellmouth Reservoir was de- signed to fill a need for the control of the Assiniboine River and its tributaries.The dam controls·the Assiniboine River which used to flood,on average,once every ten years causing damage to a great deal of residential,agricultural and indus- trial property.Protection is provided to rural areas along the Assiniboine Valley and to urban centres such as Brandon.In addition,the reservoir stores water which,under natural conditions,would raise flood levels in Winnipeg. Several sites for flood control reser- voirs were studied on the Assiniboine The reservoir stretches back 35 miles from this dam.Spring runoff is stored and re- leased slowly throughout the year. Galeci outlet com/wt controls normal river fiow. The concrete spillwav,provides for flows in excess of reservoir capacity. RiVE mor RiVE tribl The tion rive lon~ stre. the full of 3 whi for The gate ~~'l!':"7","':.....~~~ River and its tributaries.It was found more effective to build a dam on the River rather than try to control the tributaries. The dam which was built at the junc- tion of the Shell and Assiniboine . rivers is 70 feet high and 4,200 feet long.The reservoir stretches up- stream for 35 miles,extending into the Province of Saskatchewan.At full supply level,a storage capacity of 390,000 acre-feet is provided of which 225,000 acre-feet are allocated for the storage of flood waters. The structure is equipped with a gated conduit which controls the amou nt of water released through- out the year.These releases make it possible to maintain a minimum flow of 300 cfs.at Brandon as compared to the recorded natural minimum flow on the Assiniboine River of 7 cfs.This ensures that users along the Assiniboine River,particularly in urban centres such as Brandon and Portage fa Prairie,will have more dependable supplies of water. This Federal-Provincial project was completed in 1972.The total share- able cost of $10.8 million was divided equally between the two governments. I r - -, ..... ----~-_._----'--- ...... - .- PortQge Diversion Flooding of the Assiniboine River between Winnipeg and Portage la Prairie can be extremely severe as the surrounding land slopes away from the River.This unusual land formation results in widespread flooding and makes it difficult for water to drain back into the River followiAg a flood crest.The water eventually drains back through other drainage systems but,in the process, delays crop planting for weeks. To alleviate this situation and to reduce flooding in Winnipeg,a channel known as the Portage Diver- sion was constructed from Portage la Prairie due north to Lake Manitoba. Concrete drop strllr:tures con troi erosion as tl,le Divers/on C"hanne/[frons /}etvVijen ,PO(riJfle '0 Prairie and Lake /t1anirofJD Dam in foreground perrnirs contro!of river levels.Gates in har:kprounc;permi, diversion of t!J9 ,.!~ssin;fJotne ,q,ivcr tn~() - Diversion of water into the channel is accomplished by two control struc- tures:a dam and spillway on the Assiniboine River,and a gated struc- ture at the inlet to the diversion channel. The control structure on the River creates an impoundment controlled at a summer water level 869 feet above mean sea level,by operation of the bascule spillway gates.Normal flows are released through a conduit in the structure.Whenever flood con- ditions exist downstream of Portage la Prairie or at Winnipeg,the diver- sion inlet control structure is opened to permit discharge of the flood waters to Lake Manitoba.The diver- sion can carry up to 25,000 cfs. The Portage Diversion is primarily a flood control project,however,the impoundment reservoir,with water levels higher than the natural river stages,cou Id be used as an essential component of a system for del ivery of water supplies to south central Manitoba. The Federal Government contributed $9.3 million of the $20.5 million total cost of the project,which was completed in 1970. _.._---..__._------_._------------- !: I I I I ! I, I I } l .! "...., - i: I I I Fairford River Control Under natural conditions Lake Manitoba water levels have fluctu- ated greatly from year to year. Levels,measured in feet above mean sea level,have varied from a low of 809.3 in 1942 to a high of 816.3 in 1955.These extremes have had disastrou'S effects on farm land and recreation property in the immediate vicinity of the Lake. When Lake Manitoba was low, cottage owners complained of un- attractive beaches and farmers com- plained because there was not enough water within reasonable distance for their cattle.But when the water level was high large tracts of land were Th?Fairiord River control IS at the outlet of Lake Manitoba.This control srrw;rure /if}rf.':irs effective regulation of i....ake The Falrtord ,cliver cnannel was wlc!eneu ,0 nrovhte greater discnarge cauaClrv· ) \ ~.•.-....... •.....to __.•• ",'_.'.I"~~...'I'-f~. .•..:'.-"~".;},,,,}~,,<-',,.-,>, - flooded,with meadows and pasture land reverting to marsh.This created a considerable loss to farmers.Cot- tage owners were flooded out and trappers and fishermen also suffered losses. After public hearings and engineering investigations,the Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba Board recommended that Lake Manitoba be maintained between elevations 811 and 813,by controlling the outflow from Lake Manitoba at Fairford. A control structure was already in operation but it and the outlet channel from Lake Manitoba were -.--._---_._._-----._-- too small for regulation purposes. Additional discharge capacity was obtained by building a new structure and digging a new channel one and one-half miles long with a base vary- ing in width between 200 and 300 feet.The project was completed in 1961 at a cost of approximately $600,000 which was shared by the Federal and Provincial governments. roadways throughout the city.In addition,31 pumping stations were built.During floods these are used if necessary,to pump storm water into the rivers.The dyking system is now a vital and integral part of the flood control works protecting Winnipeg. Between Winnipeg and Portage la Prairie the Federal Government has spent approximately $2.0 million constructing many miles of dykes along the Assiniboine River.Despite this,extensive flooding continued until the Portage Diversion was com- pleted in 1970.Further upstream in Brandon,14 miles of dykes were bu ift after the 1955 Flood. Dykes ._-_._---_._-------- Following the disastrous 1950 Flood, the Greater Winnipeg Dyking Board was formed on July 10,1950,by agreement between the Federal and Provincial governments.The Board established a permanent system of dykes.The Federal Government con- tributed 75 per cent of the total cost of $4.6 million.The remainder was shared between the Provincial and Municipai governments. The dykes were built along both sides of the Red River and the Assiniboine River to an elevation two feet above the 1948 Flood and four feet below the 1950 peak level.In most cases the dykes were designed as paved i 1-,!-; ._------------- ,., I Morris is surrOllnde(!hV ii dVke to provide protection to the fiu/lt III!area In the Citv,i:1I1dsciJping can turn a river dvke into an attractive feature of rile vroperty. 7974 Flood ..Morris,farmland outside me {Jrotective ring dyke lies under warer.-.. - Large areas in the Red River Valley are subject to periodic flooding but, for economical and physical reasons, it is not possible to provide complete protection by dyking along the Red River.Instead,protection has been provided,under a program financed by the Federal and Provincial govern- ments,by construction of r:ing dykes around the communities of Emerson, Letellier,Dominion City,St.Jean Baptiste,Morris,Rosenort and St. Adolphe.Total cost of the program completed in 1972 was $2.7 million. Brunkild had been protected pre- viously by dyking constructed by the Province. There is an inherent risk to residents within a dyking system because dykes could fail or be overtopped under severe flood conditions.Legislation has been passed wh ich authorizes the evacuation of dyked areas,if neces- sary I for reasons of health or safety of the residents. Project Statistics .... ..- - - " SHELLMOUTH DAM Height Length Storage Capacity Reservoir Length FAIRFORD Length Stop Log Bays Discharge Capacity Regulation Range PORTAGE DIVERSION Diversion Length Capacity Inlet Gates Control Dam Height Length Gates Reservoir Storage RED RIVER FLOODWAY Length Average Depth Base Width Design Capacity Control Gates 70 feet 4,200 feet 390;000 acre feet 35 miles 237 feet 11 '10,000 cfs B10.87 -812.87 18 miles ~!5.000 cfs 4 -14.5'x 40' 35 feet 1,400 feet 2!-13'x 75' 14,600 acre feet 29.4 miles 30 feet 380 -540 feet 60,000 cis 2 -34.8 x 112.5 '\ S;, R~ LE CC 0' <-._---_._...._----, BIfUIU.ILOe l ;'1"...ID:r 0~t'!:"z'"...,.2 ~I 1 ) i ~. J MANITOBA .R!!,.£~__--------------------------------------------- NORTH DAKOTA LEGEND K. COMMUNITY DY.ING DYKES 1\ • ---------------- -•••••_......I.,••.._."•••__._~•.__....._.~_ MAJOR FLOODS IN THE RED RIVER VALLEY Height at Winnipeg Peak Probable-Flood Flooded ,Year Above Datum Discharge Frequency Acreage (feed (cis)(Yearst ¥ 1948 23.1 69,000 12 67,400 ilEAC..3 1950 30.3 103,000 36 316,500..-1852 35.2 165,000 150 523,000 1826 37.3 225,000 460 616,000 ~ IlEACll Z ftEACH I RHII - FLOOC 1948 ~ 1950 ~ r852 11 1826 WI .- --------------_._------------------------.--- SCALE IN MUS N sE HANOVER TA FRANKLIN Ts 4 DET Sl....... Nu _z RHINELAND Fl.OOIlED AREAS :1l!!l2 --1825 jt,948 ~ i ISS).f§~I¥l,J -- -- .- MICRO-H POWER 'his report,prepared for the Ministry of Energy for Ontario,is published as a public ervice for the information of the public.The Ministry does not,however,warrant the ccuracy of its contents and cannot guarantee or assume any liability for the ffectiveness or economic benefits of the devices and processes described in the ~port.The list of suppliers are those known to the Ministry at time of printing. 'he assistance of Ontario Hydro in supplying much of the research and data ontained herein,is acknowledged and appreciated. iN 0-774HI28G-4 Mf3-83/095 COVER:This is one of the many small dams now in use in Ontario that could be considered suitable for micro-hydro power. ( / COr\lTENTS Minister's Foreword What Is a Micro·H~ldro System? Considerations for a Micro·Hydro System 1.Hydro-Site Potential 2.Power Requirements 3.Environmental Impact and Approvals 4.Equipment Options Turbines Water Wheels 5.Alternative Layouts 6.Estimating the Costs 7.Evaluating tile Economics Sample Economic Analyses Conclusion Bibliography Appendices Appendix 1 -Glossary Appendix 2 -Determining Flow and Head and estimating efficiency. Appendix 3 - A sample computation analysis for economic analysis. Appendix 4 -Cautions and suggestions for do-it-your- seifers. Appendix 5 -Manufacturers Appendix 6 -List of Ministry of Natural Resources district ....f.Fiooc This is an artist's conception of one of the earliest methods of obtaining water power,with its origins going back to Roman times.Completely mechanical,the principle has changed little over the centuries. ©Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Ontario, as represented by the Ministry of Energy, March 1981,Toronto. First Printing March 1981 Second Printing March 1982 Third Printing March 1983 Reproduction of any portion of this booklet lor commercial purposes without permis- sion is forbidden.However,reproduction of any portion 01 this booklet for educational purposes is permitted,on condition that the source of the material is ar..knowledned - -. i \~ !1~~' I! i ! \,;;,.:", MINISTER'S MESSAGE With the price of energy climbing,there is a growing interest throughout much of the world in micro-hydrQ systems -the generation of electrical power from small rivers,streams and waterfalls -to serve homes,farms,shops and even small communities 01 up to 2fl homes. Ontario has thousands of small sites where water power can be used to do just that. Where environmental and community concerns can be met, such projects can be a useful supplemental source of energy for the province. The OntarioMinistryof Energy plans to install demonstration micro-hydro generating stations at various sites throughout Ontario,to assess the technology currently available and to provide visible examples as a guide to others. Water power,after all,was the original "fuel"for Ontario's electricity system.Even now,with oil,coal and nuclear power being used,it still provides about 36 per cent of the province's electrical power. And it will continue to play an important role in Ontario's energy future.It is an indigenous and renewable energy source that can be tapped by proven technology.Further- more,in many cases water power is environmentally benign and can replace the burning of fossil fuels for electrical generation. While Ontario's untapped hydraulic potential,even if fully developed,is not sufficient to meet more than a portion of our growing electrical demand,the energy contribution from both large and small sites is welcome. (ii) This booklet sets out the steps to follow in developing very small sites. And while it is a practical "how-to"guide,applicable to installing almost any micro·hydro system,it is also a guide to where such projects are feasible. The booklet shows how to evaluate the power potential of a particular site and how to determine residential and farm power requirements.To be attractive,a potential site should be capable of meeting both peak and average energy requirements. It also includes information about typical micro-hydro components and power site layouts.Some details about alternative equipment and systems are also presented,along with general cost information and comments on the effects of various siting factors.Environmental considerations are also discussed,and there is a summary of the governmental approval process. It is important to remember,however,that this booklet is general in nature and does not provide details of design, costs,and installation.Such information is available from other sources,some of which are listed in the bibliography,or from an appropriate hydroelectric equipment supplier or engineering consultant. I wish the very best to all who invest their money,time,and effort in installing and operating a successful micro-hydro unit. Yours sincerely, ~~u/~ Han.Robert Welch, Minister of Energy WI~IJ\·r IS A MICRO·I-IYDRO SYS;TEM? ~l Throughout this booklet,the term micro-hydro refers to an installation with a capacity of 100 kW or less. The term system implies all of the components required to convert the potential energy in a stream into electrical energy at the user's location. Installations with a capacity of 100 kW to 10 MW (10,000 kW) are referred to as smail hydro.While much of the information in this booklet is also applicable to small hydro,these larger installations are more complex than micro-hydro systems. The type of micro-hydro plant best suited to a given site will depend upon many factors,including the head -vertical distance through which the water falls -the available flow of water,and the general topography of the area. A concentrated·fall hydroelectric development,(Figure 1),is one in which the powerhouse is located near the dam,thus requiring a minimum length of pipeline.In such installations, which are common for low-head developments,the power· house may be located at one end of the dam or directly down· stream from it. Installations beyond 10 MW are known as medium and large hydraulic plants.This booklet is not useful for planning such installations.They require teams of specialists for feasibility studies and for engineering and planning. No two hydroelectric developments are exactly alike.Each involves a unique set of considerations in design and construction.The heart of a micro-hydro system is the gen- erating equipment -the turbine,generator,and control mechanisms -all of which are generally housed together. To deliver water to the turbine,a dam to divert the stream flow and a pipeline -also known as a penstock -are typically required. Depending on the site,other requirements may include a ~canal or forebay;trash racks to filter debris and prevent it from being drawn into the turbine at the pipeline entrance, and a pipeline gate or valve.A tailrace,or waterway back to the stream,must be provided if the powerhouse is not situ- ated to permit discharge directly into the stream.The micro- hydro system must also include electrical lines to deliver the power to its destination. Figure 1 illustrates a typical micro-hydro installation. In a divided-fall development,(Figure 2),the powerhouse is loacted a considerable distance from the dam,and water is delivered lIhrough a pipeline or canal.With favourable topography this type of development can make it possible to realize a high head despite a low dam. -, ~ I , I I Seven factors must be addressed in deciding if micro·hydro would work at a specific site.- 1.Hydro-Site Potential 2.Power Requirements 3.Environmental Impact and Approvals 4.Equipment Options 5.Alternative Layouts 6.Costs 7.Economics Following are suggestions for assessing each of the seven: 1.Hydro-Site Potential To determine the hydraulic potential of the water flowing in your stream,you must know both the water's flow rate and the head through which it can be made to fall. The flow rate is the quantity of water moving past a point in a given time.The head is the vertical height from the ~eadwater in the case of a dam.Where no dam exists,the head is the vertical height from the level where the water enters the intake pipe to the level where the water leaves the turbine housing. Appendix 2 gives a detailed account of determining flow rate and head. The technology for harnessing hydroelectric energy is more than 100 years old.In basic terms,the amount of energy that can be generated in a powerplant at a given site depends upon the following three factors: Flow (0)-the quantity of water available Head (H)-the vertical distance through which the water falls Efficiency (e)-the ability of the powerplant to utilize the available head and flow.Normally,powerplant efficiency is about 70 per cent to 90 per cent. The capacity of the powerplant in kilowatts (P),in Imperial units,may be expressed as: P=OxHxe--- 709 where: o =the usable flow rate of water through the turbine in cubic feet per minute. NOTE:Work the equation first with mean annual flow,then with minimum flow to learn the site's true potential. Figure3i;'~,':',.;,, Nomograph todetennlnetypical output power from a micro-hydro system. HEAD (FT.l 500 400 300 200 150 100 90ao 70 60 -- H =The available head,in feet e =the overall powerplantefficiency 709 = a derived constant The graph presented in Figure 3 can also be used to deter- mine the power output of a micro-hydro system.This type of graph is called a nomograph.It is designed so that a straightedge,positioned at the figures corresponding to the head and flow of the potential site,allows reading the power output available in the middle column.In the example shown,a flow of 400 cubic feet per minute and a net head of 35 feet gives an estimated output of 10 kW. ~_,2 NOTE:In metric units,the capacity may be expressed as: P=OxHxe------- 102 where:o =the usable flow rate of water through the turbine,in Iitres per second H =The available head,in metres e =the overall powerplant efficiency 102 =a derived constant --COr'dSIDERATIONS FOR A MICRO-HYDRO SYSTE~J1 2.Power Requirements Early in any assessment,power needs and the characteristics of those needs should be carefully examined.This entails two separate but related determinations: •ENERGY:The total number of kilowatt hours (kWh)used in a given period of time - a month or a year •PEAK POWER CONSUMPTION:The maximum amount of electricity which will be needed at anyone moment Accuracy is essential.Inaccurate estimations will result in too expensive a system or one that does not meet the power needs. If the existing power supply is from a utility company,refer to past billings to determine total consumption. ~ I ~. ~. ,. 400 500 '1,100 60 100 ,50 125 1,250, '80, 50 6,000 7,200 '300 '360 ,100 ,115 '30 250 1,000 1,000 460 1,150 250 350 700 1,200 2,000 ' 3,000 ,460 750 1 ,6 :4 1 ' 5 30 44, 8 "107 179 " 286 20 8 power consumption because a situation may arise in which the system could meet one need but not the other. In most micro-hydro systems -as with larger systems -the peak requirement is more likely to cause problems than the total requirement. Note:House'hold consumption usually varies over a year.It is wise to study at least one complete year's bills, For another way to estimate energy requirements,see Table 1,which lists the energy use9 by typical household appliances. To estimate your monthly energy requirements,s'Jiect all the Any hydroelectric system _micro or macro -that has to appliances you use and add the corresponding numbers from serve an occasional peak load will be less efficient and more the energy required column.To estimate peak power require-costly to install and run than a system serving a more uniform ment,add the figures from the power column for all demand for energy. appliances that could conceivably be used simultaneously.So,when analysing a proposed micro-hydro system,ask To determine if a micro-hydro facility can supply all the yourself if you can make some adjustments in the way,or ~1~~trir~1 nn~~rn~Arlprl ~t~nri~~VnL~rQ\uillino~~\J~owlt~~~Q~?~tt~o~rn~''an~'~."bb~:o~h~,~,o_,~,~,,~-~c~Q~!QQ~c~'-~:_~·~+,~C~~·~e~-~b_._m~~~~~~~ ______.,_.,......_0=<__• _'lI:I 1lI!I".G-......"..IB m ~EO .................-~.........._....' a"e{~ge \)OWef derllilnl.l rUlcl1l.)' "" A typical pattern of peak load and the resulting average load is illustrated in Figure 4. ,- that will allow the project to proceed.For example,if interruption of fish migration is a problem,provision could be made for a fishway. The following outline of the required applications and approvals and of the federal and provincial legislation involved may appear daunting.But many of the approvals can be obtained concurrently.In this connection,a good working relationship with the staff at a district office of the Ministry of Natural Resources will be invaluable.With their assistance the approval process will be much smoother. A district office of the Ministry of Natural Resources,a regional office of the Ministry of the Environment,and officials of the local municipality and/or conservation authority should be contacted while the project is still in the design stage.They will be able to provide guidance for the assessment,and outline what is required for their approval. For assistance in contacting the appropriate officials call the Ministry of Energy,Electric Power Section at (416)965·9603, or write to them at 56 Wellesley S1.W.,Toronto,ant.M7 A 287. Most of the approvals required can be handled by a district office of the Ministry of Natural Resources.The district manager and his staff can also help with a general assess· ment of the proposed site if called in at an early stage.For a complete list of district offices,turn to Appendix 6 on page 22. The following legislation may apply: The first step is to determine whether the water course proposed for development is considered to be navigable.In general,a stream is considered to be navigable if,at average flow,it is suitable for commercial or recreational boating.In most cases,the district Ministry office will be able to advise whether a particular stream is considered navigable. The Navigable Waters Protection Act A hydroelectric project on a navigable watercourse requires the approval of the federal Department of Transport to ensure that the project will not interfere with navigation.An application form for approval under Section 5 of The Navigable Waters Protection Act (R.S.C.1970)may be obtained from Transport Canada.It must be submitted to the Chief,Navigable Waters Prolectiol1 Act,Programs Division, Canadian Coast Guard,Transport Canada,6th floor,Tower A, Place de Ville,Ottawa,K1A ON? The Beds of Navigable Waters Act and The Public lands Act If a stream is considered to be unnavigable,the bed belongs to the owner,or owners,of the banks of the stream. However,under The Beds of Navigable Waters Act (R.S.O. 1970 c.41)the beds of all navigable waters belong to the Crown unless expressly granted in the original letters patent. If the Crown owns the bed of the stream,the water may not be used to generate electricity without a Water Power Lease under Sections 4 and 4a of The Public Lands Act (R.S,O.2970 c.380).Such a lease currently costs approximately $2,50 per average kilowatt output per year ($3.50 per average horse· power per year),and may be obtained by applying to the local district office of the Ministry of Natural Resources.There is no charge for installations of less than 100 hp,or approxi· mately 75 kilowatts. 12 , Midnlghr 3.Environmental Impact and Approvals The approval process cannot begin until an environmental impact review has been made of a proposed micro·hydro system.A district office of the Ministry of Natural Resources will provide more details,but some of the major areas of concern are: .".~.,'.;':,:. .';'~~':<.;/L>~:.".',.~.'~.~:.::;~,,,,.'.",".':;' .~,'4:':';'!:-:'/'-);,':~i'>'''''.;,.,.;'::,\ Figure4 •........"\;,;;ts.'(..;'",j:'•...,"'!'j.,\/.. A generalized residential patterri of pow'erdemand illustrating the difference between peak and average power demand.:. . peak po....e' demilnd,., d",.8 ....... •The effect of ponding on fish and other aquatic life. •Interference with fish movements,especially the migration of pickerel,suckers,and sallTionids. •Making sure fish can't be sucked or dragged through the turbine. •Physical and chemical consequences of changing the stream's flow. •Maintenance of adequate stream flow downstream from the project. Explore this possibility before deciding that you must provide for a high peak consumption. If the initial assessment shows unacceptable environmental impacl,it may be possible to change the plan or take steps 4 .-COr~SIDERATIONS FOR A MICRO-HYDRO SYSTEM ~, ~. .,..... I ; The Lakes and Rivers Improvement Act If the project will require either construction of a new dam or material alteration of an existing dam -regardless of whether the landowner owns the bed of the stream or if it is navigable -the project must be approved by the Ministry of Natural Resources,under The Lakes and Rivers Improve- ment Act (R.S.O.1970,c.233). If a new dam is required,the owner must first apply,under Section 10,to a district office of the Ministry of Natural Resources for approval of the location of the dam.If the location is approved,or if the only requirement is alteration of an existing dam,a separate application must then be made to the district office of the Ministry of Natural Resources for approval of the detailed plans and specifications for a new dam (Section 10)or for a modified dam (Section 12). The Minister of Natural Resources may require that a fishway be installed around any new dam.If the Minister intends to refuse to approve a new dam,or modifications to an existing one,he must give the applicant 15 days'notice of his intention (Section Ba).At the applicant's request,the Minister will appoint someone to hold a public inquiry regarding the proposed undertaking and report back to him. The Minister will then consider the report and decide whether to approve the application (Section Bb).The Minister's decision may be appealed to the Lieutenant Governor-in- Council (the Cabinet)(Section Bc). The Canada Fisheries Act New dams,modifications to existing dams and the intake to the turbine are also subject to The Canada Fisheries Act (R.S.C.1970,Chapter F·14). A project may be prohibited if it will result in harmful altera- tion,disruption,or destruction of fish habitat unless special permission is granted by the federal Minister of Fisheries (Section 31).If the project is permitted,that Minister may still require that a fishway be installed around any dam or other obstruction.He may also require that a minimum flow of water be maintained over the dam (Section 20).The Minister may also require a fishguard to be installed on the turbine's water intake or similar measures designed to protect the fish (Section 2B). In Ontario,this Act is administered by the Ministry of Natural Resources.The requirements of the Act may be considered in conjunction with the review under The Lakes and Rivers Improvement Act. Conservation Authority Approval If the proposed site lies within the boundaries of a conservation authority,its review of the project normally proceeds in parallel with the MNR's under The Lakes and Rivers Improvement Act. Documents submitted to a district Ministry office will be forwarded to the conservation authority involved at your request.However,separate approval may be required,so the applicant should approach the authority early in the approval process.A conservation authority's main concern is usually the effect the project would have on flooding. The Ontario Water Resources Act Another Ministry of Environment approval is required if a project requires a dam and will use more than 1.1 cubic feet of water per minute (10,000 gallons per day).A water-taking permit,under Section 37 of The Ontario Water Resources Act (R.S.O.1970,Chapter 332)may be obtained by applying to the Chief,Water Resources Assessment,at a regional office of the M of the Environment.The district office of the The Power Corporation Act - Electrical Safety Code Installation of the generator,and other related equipment,is subject to the Electrical Safety Code,a set of regulations administened by Ontario Hydro under The Power Corporation Act (R.S.O.1970,Chapter 354).As with most installations,the electrical part of a hydraulic generating station must be approved by an electrical inspector before use. A municipality may require permit applications for parts of the project.Discuss your plans with the proper officials early in the approval process to determine the requirements. Figure 5 illustrates steps to follow in the approval process. FigumS',, Micro.HydroDevelopment,,::t,,:,. '~,$.ul'pm~ryJl.fAIJP!Ov;1Js.;:··:,:· >'",'~""~''''-~••·:j?3~;~~,.1!:~-'~f:-~·~"'~"~'~'t~.t,:,·>~'~~~~-~ .:,;,~~::ill-----IS-T-H-SR-'Y-S-R-NA-Y-IG-AB-L-S?--- ~<i':r ~~.:;·.~~::t:;,.~.~_.:',:;»-vJs . /".APPlY TO TRANSPORTCANAOA FOR APPROYAL :::.';;UNOSf'l THS.NAVIGABLE.!NIlTERS PROTSCTION .,..ACT.":'"....: \"VI"~I ur:::n,.,IIVI"~run 1"\Ivnvnv"".I I un\J '"I fItJ·I I_IV" 4.Equipment Options Turbines The mechanical energy developed by the turbi ne is converted into electricity by a generator similar to the one in your car. The electricity can be either direct current (DC)or alternating current (AC).Since most household appliances run on AC - 110 volts,60 cycles -it will be the most practical type of electricity to produce. If you intend to be completely independent of Ontario Hydro's power grid,a synchronous generator which pro- duces a steady and dependable 60-cycle current should be used. North American AC systems operate at a frequency of 60 cycles per second and any variation from that will affect the accuracy of clocks,turntables and other appliances.In order to generate power at this frequency,the speed of the synchronous generator must be constant.A governor is used to control water flow which determines the turbine's speed.A governor is a device that regulates turbine speed through water flow in synchronous generators.Available from numerous sources, they are reliable and accurate,but they do mean more cost and maintenance. The'classic approach to hydroelectric development may be described as follows: Water is held back by a dam,which provides a steady water flow into the turbine as power is produced.As power is consumed,a governor-actuated feedback system regulates the amount of power produced in order to maintain a balance. Because power demands must be met immediately by the generator,all components must be able to meet peak,rather than average,output.Such an installation requires a big enough turbine and generator,and enough water,to handle peak loads.This is a problem that plagues all utilities.Peak- load capacity,plus a little margin,costs far more than average-load capacity.In addition,the cost of sophisticated governing equipment and flow-rate control mechanisms may render a scheme unattractive. One way of simplifying the problem is to provide constant generation at a level equivalent to the peak demand.Such generating units usually dump excess energy as heat which can sometimes be used for supplementary space heating or water heating. When the demand begins to approach the system's capacity, such non-essential uses are automatically cut off so critical needs may be met.No throttling gates or valves are required to limit the flow of water during low-demand periods.This technique is attractive where there is an abundant supply of water,because of the relative simplicity of the control mechanisms required. Another option is to generate direct current and either use it as is or convert it to AC,when needed,by means of an "inverter"of a "Gemini converter:'Inverters are relatively expensive,power is lost in the conversion process,and some of them are limited in their ability to handle the kind of surge demand that occurs when many common appliances start up.The Gemini converter must be connected to an electrical utility. A DC-to-AC system has several advantages,especially in very small systems (less than 5 kW).The excess power generated by a DC system can be stored in batteries,thereby extending the system's peak capacity.DC generators are not speed-sensitive and no governor is needed.So,a small DC system will usually cost less and serve better than a 6 comparable AC system because a small AC unit otten cannot meet peak needs. Battery storage systems generally work better in hydraulic units than in wind-power units because the hydraulic generator is nearly always putting some power back into the batteries.This means that a "deep-discharge"condition, common with wind systems,is very rare. Deep discharge is a common cause of battery failure.The storage component limits the size of a DC system,as bat- teries become unwieldy and very costly in systems over 6 kW. For those seeking the lowest cost,the conversion of DC to AC could be eliminated and 12-volt DC lights and appliances would be used. There are two main types of hydraulic turbines:impulse and reaction. Nohati Tampelia tubular turbine:Head range up to 20 m;discharge range up to 60mJ is. Impulse Turbines Impulse turbines have generally been used for very high heads,although modern,efficient units exist for low-head applications,down to about 20 feet. Advantages of impulse turbines include high reliability and low maintenance cost because of their mechanical simpli- city and a minimum number of parts exposed to wear. Impulse turbine efficiencies often exceed 90 per cent. Impulse turbines use a high-velocity stream of water that strikes buckets mounted around the rim of a rotating turbine wheel,or runner,which in turn is attached to and rotates an electric generator. Balber Vertical Tubular Turbine:Head range up 10 15 m,discharge range up to 1.2 mJis. ~"'COf\JSIDERAtIONS FORA MICIFtO·I-IYDRO SYSTEM The crossflow turbine is a modern adaptation of the impulse, turbine and is used in the head range from 6 to 600 feet.This type of turbine utilizes a movable guide vane at its inlet and maintains turbine efficiencies of up to 85 per cent over a wide range of flows.The physical size of crossflow turbines is limited by design constraints.The largest runner has a 4-foot diameter. Reaction Turbines Reaction turbines,while doing the same job as impulse turbines,utilize a different principle.They use pressure as well as velocity to rotate the runner.The runner is submerged in water during operation and power is developed by water flowing over the blades,rather than striking individual buckets. By using a gradually enlarging draft or discharge tube between the turbine's runner discharge and the tail water, reaction turbines take advantage of the total head available to the tail water level,whereas impulse turbines utilize only the head that is available to the centre of the runner.This enhances the value of feaction turbines in low-head installa- tions where it may be critical to develop the total head. Reaction turbines are widely used in large hydraulic plants, and several manufacturers produce small turbines of this type. The blades of some propeller turbines are adjustable,and when this is the case the turbine is called a Kaplan turbine. The propeller turbine has good efficiency at an optimum flow point,but its efficiency drops off rapidly at higher and lower flows. The Kaplan turbine has a relatively high efficiency over a wide rangE~of flows. Another variation of the propeller turbine is the axial-flow turbine.Generally,these units have either a horizontal or a slightly inclined shaft,and they may have either fixed or adjustable runner blades.. Three types of turbines fall into this category.These are the rim-type,in which the generator is on the periphery of the turbine rUl1ner,the tube-type,in which the generator is located outside the water passage,and the bulb-type,in which the glenerator is housed in a bulb submerged within the water passage. Water'VVheels Water wheels are the traditional means of obtaining useful energy from falling water.Their advantages over turbines include theiir relatively simple construction,their low cost if home-built,and their relative insensitivity to variations in flow. In addition,debris in the water that can clog a turbine or its protective trashrack can normally pass by a water wheel. Unfortunately water wheels are much less efficient than turbines,and icing can be a problem.Details of water wheels are given in several of the references in the bibliography. <~...; Nohab TainpeUa Fr~~CiS turbine:Head :;.range up tq JOO ,m;di~!:harg~range up 10 :.'-:~~{~~!';:~!§~~~~~~1·~::·,~~~~:~~f;~{:;~:~;.~:;}.:}~,:~;·:, Francis turbines generally operate under higher heads than propeller turbines,although they are in use at some tow-head installations.A Francis turbine has a runner with fixed blades.Water enters the turbine in a radial direction,with respect to the shaft,and is discharged axially. Two types of reaction turbines exist,commonly known as "Francis"and "propeller~' "'1 i I ~ I The principal components include the runner,a water-supply casing,wicket gates to control the quantity of water admitted,and a draft tube to return the water to the river.The wtcket gate assembly,in conjunction with a governor,also regulates unit load and speed and shuts down the unit.The regulating system can be actuated either hydraulically or electrically. Propeller turbines are generally used for lower heads than Francis turbines.The normal range is from 10 to 120 feet, Typically,a propeller turbine has a vertical shaft,a spiral casing and wicket gates to distribute flow,a draft tube,and fixed runner bladjils. 5.Alte!rnative Layouts As mentioned earlier,there are two basic types of develop- ment:concentrated-fall and divided-fall. The first is more common with low-head development,but generally requires a dam to impound and divert water to the turbine.Since the dam required is often as high as the head being devei!oped,it can be very expensive.However,the length of the pipeline required is generally short,resulting in small head losses and lower costs.Dams must also be designed and operated to pass flood flows,which can also .add 10 the l~ost __•__•__.......•_.__e,.',__••"'""'"""'"".e""'.''> Environmental considerations may also be a significant factor in such developments.A dam may restrict fish movement and impoundment may alter natural flow patterns,particularly if a pond is used to store water for peak power generation. With divided-fall installations,development may be practical with only minimal damming and impoundment,and in some instances with no dam at all.Therefore,dam cost may be .greatly reduced,but pipeline costs will increase significantly. Major civil structures must,of course,be properly founded and designed.Hiring an experienced engineering consultant is advisable. Power lines are a further consideration and they too may add to the cost of the system.If the micro-hydro unit is some distance from the demand,power lines are obviously required. Bear in mind that the greater the distance,the heavier the wires rl'!quired if unreasonable power losses are to be avoided.This is especially true of DC systems which require very large conductors to avoid excessive losses.An increase in line voltage also reduces power loss.This should be considered if the line will be much more than 200 feet in length. 6.Estimat:ing the Costs The cost of a micro-hydro system depends on a number qf factors.They include topography,availability of suitable equipment,and the ability of the individual as a do-it- yourselfer.In general,the cost will range upwards from $500 per kilowatt.This low cost implies a do-it-yourself job at a favourable site with an existing dam or one requiring no dam at all. Here are some general guidelines: Topography usually dictates the type and extent of work required.Also,at higher heads,lower flows are required to produce equivalent output;this influences the cost because lower flows permit the use of smaller water passages.So,for an installation with a relatively high head,equipment and all structures -including intake,pipeline,head race,and tailrace -can be smaller than those needed for lower head installation of equal output. Under even the best conditions,construction costs at a concentrated-fall site where a dam does not have to be built are usually about equal to generating equipment costs. Additional construction such as a dam,a lengthy penstock, and headrace and tailrace excavations add to both initial and operating costs. The distance from the powerhouse to the load can also add to the cost.The greater the distance,the larger the conductor must be,or the higher the transmission voltage required. The price 01 new generating equipment ranges upwards from $500 per kilowatt.The cost per kilowatt is usually higher for smaller-capacity and for lower-head developments. New equipment costs may range as high as $5,000 per kilowatt lor lOW-head,small-capacity installations. Used equipment is considerably less expensive than new equipment,but will usually require more maintenance and have a shorter uselul life. 8 Finally,by doing it yourself,you can save a great deal in construction and equipment installation. 7.Evaluating the Economics Before you can decide if a micro-hydro system will be economical,you have to determine exactly how much it will cost to install.The calculation must take into account the cost 01 the turbine and generator as well as any pipe,cable, buildings,dam,civil engineering work,permits,legal work- and so on -that will be required.You should also consider the other available sources of electric power and determine their costs. An important consideration which might inlluence the economics 01 a micro-hydro system is the other uses that can be made of the water resource,such as fire suppression and irrigation.There is olten very little extra cost involved in developing these uses along with a hydro system. A characteristic of many renewable energy resources is that, white their "front-end"costs are high,their lile-cycle costs may be competitive with conventional energy sources.Micro- hydro,for example,is fairly expensive to install,but,except lor small maintenance costs,the system should provide "free"energy for 20 years or long'er.The economic analysis of any micro·hydro project should take the lile-cycle costs into account. Proximity to existing Ontario Hydro power lines must also be taken into consideration. Ontario Hydro currently extends its lines based on minimum density requirements to justify the capital expenditure and future operating expenses_For example,for a year-round residence,Ontario Hydro will extend its line approximately 1,200 feet along a township road at no charge. If further line is needed,the customer can either contract with Ontario Hydro to supply up to an additional 1200 feet at an annual charge 01 approximately $0.40 per foot or pay the cost of the line,which might be approximately $4.50 per loot. It would be advisable to contact the local Ontario Hydro office to find out the costs of extending the line to your site. ~{'CONSIDERATIONS FOFl'A MICRO-HYDRO SYSTEM - - So,the Further one is from an existing power line,themore attractive the micro-hydro option becomes,all else being equal. If you have easy access to conventional power,and you have no other uses for the available water,it may be difficult to justify a micro-hydro unit on economic grounds.There are a great many factors that witl affect your analysis.Here are some questions likely to arise:. •Should your calculations be based on the life of the micro- hydro unit,which may be 20 years or more,or on some shorter period? One realistic way to analyse your electric power options is to calculate the total cost of each option over a certain period of Ome and then compute the costs in current dollars.The fol- lowing example shows how an installation might be evaluated. The figures presented below reflect the cost of each option in current dollars,commonly known as present worth (PW).The actual numbers reflect the investment needed today,to cover the total cost over the 15-year period.It may be helpful to view the differences calculated as "profit"or "loss"resulting from having selected the micro-hydro option over the utility supply option. Thesample computations use a 10%interest rate (the rate at which you could alternatively invest your money).A summary onlvis presented below;details of the computation are given in Appendix 2. Example •The hydro system is a 6 kW,DC-to·AC battery storage unit. •The total cost of the system is $10,000. •The $10,000 is borrowed at '12%.. •Total maintenance is $1,358 ($50 per year with 8 per cent annual cost increases). •The location where the power is to be used is near existing power lines dnd no charge will be made to connect the power lines. •Utility power average cost for 1000 kilowatt hours per month is 4.6 cents per kilowatt hour and increases by 10 per cent per year. •Average monthly consumption is 1000 kilowatt hours. •The economic study period is 15 years.. •The value of the micro-hydro unit at the end of the 15-year period is $2,000 (20 per cent of purchase price). •No tax deductions or credits are used. To Determine the Present Worth of the Micro-Hydro Plant Option Step 1 -The installation cost assumed is $10,000.The total cost of the loan at 12 per cent interest is $22,005.30,and, assuming a repayment plan with equal annual payments of $1,467,03,the present worth of the loan is $12,274.06. Step 2 -To this must be added the present worth of the annual charges.In this example,only maintenance is involved;however,such charges could include taxes,the cost of back·up power,and so on.In this example,the present worth of annual maintenance costs is $661.66. Step 3 -Deduct the present worth of the salvage value of the plant,which is $478.80. •Are you faced with additional costs to obtain service from the power company? •How long do you expect to remain at this residence and will the micro-hydro system have market value when you want to sell? •How much of the installation and maintenance work can you do yourself? •Is there 8l possibility of installing a unit larger than your needs and selling the surplus power back to the power company? Step 4 -The resull is the present worth of the micro-hydro plant:$12,456.92. To Determine the Present Worth of the Utility Line Supply Option Step 1 -The cost of purchasing the required energy for each of the 15 years (1,000 kWh/month x 12 months x $0.046/kWh for the first year,and escalated by 10 per cent per year for subsequent years)is $17,561.00. Step 2 -Total the present worth of each yearly value to determine the present worth of the utility line supply.This value is $8,280.00. To Detelrmine Which is the More Attractive Option Subtract the present worth of the utility line supply from the present worth of the micro-hydro plant.A positive number indicates that the utility line supply is the more economically attractive option whereas a negative number indicates that the micro-hydro plant is more attractive. In this example,the difference is $4,176.92,indicating that the micro-hydro option will be somewhat more expensive over the 15-year period,assuming all of the conditions men- tioned above.A change in any of the assumptions can signi- ficantly affect the ecomonics one way or the other. If,for instance,the household was one mile from the existing power line,and assuming the person was planning to pay for the cost of the line beyond the extension allowance given by Ontario Hydlro,the cost of utility power would increase by approximatElly $18,500.Working through the above calcu· lations,and adding this to the cost of line supply,the dif- ference in plresent worth between the two options would be .-$18,530.03,the micro-hydro system would be the more economically attractive option in this case. The example shows that micro-hydro can be a viable option; the economics depend heavily on individual conditions. There is also the question of how highly you value indepen- dence from traditional energy sources.For some,economic conditions permitting,the option of unplugging from the power grid may be worth a small additional cost. """...--.--..~_.,,.._.---Purchase of Surplus Power by the Power Company Ontario Hydro is in the process of determining what price it would pay to buy power from customers who generate elec- tricity and would like to sell it to the utility.This would include not only micro-hydro sites but also large industrial cogeneration operations with potential loads of more than 5000 kW, A set of interim rates has been developed reflecting the cost savings to Ontario Hydro of such purchases.The rates have been based on the assumption that the seller would contract to deliver a firm amount of capacity with a guaranteed minimum availability during system peak periods.However, "at will"energy can also be sold.Here,excess energy is sold on an "as available"basis.The maximum output and/or the timing of delivery may vary for "at will"energy sales. Accordingly,the purchase price would be lower than for the guaranteed availability option. The cost of the special metering equipment necessary and the additional administrative expense indicates that it is not economic to provide for the guaranteed availability option unless 50-100 kW of power are produced.The "at-will"sale ot energy is possible for even the smallest producers of power. The appropriate rate could be obtained from the local Ontario Hydro office, CONCLUSION - - ,".,i"~'-".',','JMicro-h;d'~·ls;a"~~~:;$;riIj'lri~;~t~~rit!:"lt':rri.y be expensive to i;,stana~d'it will take patience to obtain ';~ approval for a project.However~once the micro-hydro unit is installed and running,the owner can expect to : obtain many years of power afa steadY,largely inflatlon·proof annual cosl';'.'" .',','.-_-,::_,,:;,~.-:'~<'__'.t,','.,~:::-,<:,:>~·~··:~:t ";.:~~\;-~~t "~'~~:';,'~:",..,2"(,;:(;:~,~',i'';(·-h<c.:_~::~:;~·i:f.:~/:<'.'~':"i~;'.',-~-"-,,-.-,_'I 'l :'J ~OJ,:,;,::',:~':.i,:~::.~~".'/~~"' This eiectric'pow~iisvaiuabie~6oth'tdjh~:'lndi"idual and to the proviI1Ce.t"j;:~'i.... ::.".~...';~:,,,).¢?)~;~;/::~t~~,~{i;;~t~~":~~·~':'?t:.,:.~:,~~:;~~~;,"~.~,~~}·,~·t~%~~~~~ff~~(~t:i;J~~~:ft;:$~~:;!J$.~:,:~>:,T-·:~rx:,,;,,,:~,~,:,;~:'~:".,,',',:i;·-;:,)',~i~if':,::'::;\:.:::,,::.;.:;,:'':;;.:<~'::~:i,::,;'.',:;<; The Individual 'may eventually obfalnelectncitYmore cheaply than he could from a utility. Th~"pro~lri~~"~i~t,:i~~'~~fft:i6~~:li~~~;j(~~~,;~,~~~~;:~iWiih~v~to be gen~;~t~~i~b'n1f,linported fossil fuels.··rhe combustion of these fossil fuels creates both environmental and economic costs for the province. ':.,."..,'-i,~~~::'-"·'..,::·.",~:,:<·,;'rrl"':;t~,~i,;~~,:~~~;S{:~j,ii:)lk!:~,(·£.lil::~:,t~."~~I;·;~!~;:~:l.;:t:~;;_ii)4:;i;~·':,,~~:~;~:'~,::';.:~~~;..':?~<.},;;,;,,~,':~":~);;:~'"".,:"".~,'"",:,,:~·,/;I-t ;;:,>:c'.;.':">::.":,:.-~;::.:~':-f~:~.",;,f.::".", ;Applicatlon'ofm(cro.hyCfrofecfiriolOgYiii ammate location where electricity currently'is provided by diesel generators Isaspeclalcase.Here"ithere Is an opportunity for direct replacement of a premium fuel by a ....,,~~7~,~:~;';~;.~~~;\i~:~~;~j:;,i~~i:;J '...""'·'::,8;::~:~:~~iJi,'.:::.-'}{}t,;...,".3 :':t:;;::~;:fi;~c'h:;),"""'::";:;;('t'{::~;;..' Mlcro-hydro<ls ,practlcal'anC::l,'.,e:economlc~The MInistry of Energy encourages IndiViduals across :',Ontarioto take up the challengeof:hamessing water power.Demonstration installations of micro-hydro .iunits8re plannedfarbothnorthem<&andsouthem Ontario starting In,1981.These demonstrations should ."prove the technical feasibility of very'small units under hard Ontario winter conditions.They also will provide an opportunity for.lnterestedmernbers.of the public to examine an 'operating micro-hydro unit. .,,:..,:.,:,:',,:)"::.''"',,<l't:,-,,:::::':·,~;~~;f'!'J;·l,;:A1~·:·:i~i~',:':~~?:,,::';:~~~:i<i~~~~:~~t:i~~~r:~~t~~::~<~;;~t:~~,,:,,'<;.~;";".;,,:.,:."""",,.".",.:.:>..::.:..:;"~;"~.,.',"., If you still haveunanswerecfquesfions'abouf micro-hydro power,we would be happy to help.Please contact the Ontario Ministry of Energy,Electric Power Section,56 Wellesley 51.West,Toronto,Ontario M7A 287. Telephone (416)965·9603.... 10 ...., I '~ - - - - BI13ll0GRAPHY Some books listed here are currently out of print.Copies may be available at your library. Cloudburst:A Handbook of Rural Skills and Technology (1973) Edited by Vic Marks Cloudburst Press,Ltd. P.O.Box 90 Mayne Island, British Columbia,VON 2JO $6.45 It contains a 30-page section on micro-hydro development; gives the standard techniques of measuring head and flow; describes do-it-yourself dam building;tells how to build an overshot water wheel and a crossflow turbine and also deals with water wheel design. A Design Manual for Water Wheels A VITA publication VITA 3706 Rhode Island Avenue Mt.Rainier,Md.20822 $4.95 (U.S.) A do-it-yourself booklet intended for developing countries.it has obvious application in North America as well.Deals with design and construction of an overshot water wheel for mechanical power. Design of Small Dams (1973) Prepared by the U.S.Department of the Interior Available from: Superintendent of Documents U.S.Government Printing Office Washington.D.C.20402 Stock Number 024-003-0019·8 $15.00 (U.S.) In 816 pages it describes medium-sized and large earth fill dams,site selection,soil sampling,design considerations, construction techniques and environment impacts. A Handbook of Homemade Power (1974) By the staff of "Mother Earth News" Bantam Books 666 Fifth Ave. N.Y.,N.Y.10019 $2.95 (U.S.) Available in most book stores,it includes a brief section on hydro power and plans for a small water wheel. Harnessing Water Power for Home Energy (1978) By Dermot McGuigan Garden Way Publishing Co. Charlotte,Vermont 05445 $4.95 (U.S.) Describes many aspects of small and micro-scale hydro, gives a number of examples of installations of various types of water wheels and turbines in the United Kingdom and the United States.Manufacturers are listed along with their products and outputs.Equipment costs are often included.It contains a good bibliography. Harnes:sing the Turbulence: Harrowsmilh Magazine (Issue fIIo.29) Harrowsmith Magazine Queen Victoria Rd. Camden East,Ont.KOK 1JO $1.75 There are several micro·hydro articles in this issue. List of Water Powers of the Province of Ontario Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Room 5620 Whitney Block Queen's Park Toronto,Ont.M7A 1W3 Under revision. Low·Cost Development of Small Water·Power Sites (1967) A VITA publication VITA 3706 Rhode Island Avenue Mt.Rainer,Maryland 20822 $2.95 (U,.S.) A 43-page booklet with information on every step in the process of developing small-scale hydro power sites. Descriptions cover water wheels,a small 12"diameter crossflow turbine and the Pelton Wheel.Small earth dam construction is also covered. Micro-Hydro Power:Reviewing an Old Concept Prepared by: Technical Research Staff The National Center for Appropriate Technology P.O.8m(3838 Butte,Montana 59702 January 1979 Prepared for:U.S.Department of Energy $1.30 (U.S.) A comprehensive study,but geared to the U.S. Other Homes and Garbage: Designs for Self-Sufficient Living (1975) By J.Leckie,G.Masters,H.Whitehouse,and L.Young Sierra C,lub Books 530 Bush St. San Francisco,Ca.94108 $9.95 (U.S.) Has a 12-page section on micro-hydro;describes techniques for measuring water flow,simple dam construction,and the basic types of water wheels and turbines. Producing Your Own Power:How To Make Nature's Own Energy Sources Work For You Edited by Carol H.Stoner Rodale Press,Inc. 33 E.Minor St. Emmaus,Pa.18049 $3.95 (U.S.) Deals with a variety of renewable energy systems.Includes sections on water power;measuring head and flow; calculating power avai lable;a five-page piece on determining channel,pipe,and othe~head losses;small earth and rock dams;water wheels and turbines and the VITA hydraulic ram. UIU ...."~1 ."".I I I Reference Index:Hydrometric Map Supplement Inland Waters Directorate Environment Canada Water Resources Branch Water Survey of Canada Ottawa,Ont K1A OE? FREE Contains flows tor rivers across Canada. Site Owner's Manual for Small Scale Hydropower Development (1980) Prepared by: Polytechnic Institute of New York Prepared for:New State Energy Research and Development Authority Order from: National Technical Information Service U.S.Department of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Rd. Springfield,Va.22161 Report No.79-3 $11.00 (U.S.) Small and Micro Hydroelectric Power Plants- Technology and Feasibility:(1980) Edited by J.Paul Noyes.Da ta Corporat ion 118 Mill Road Park Ridge,N.J.07656 $42.00 (U.S.) One of the most comprehensive reports available on the subject. , Use of Weirs and Flumes in Stream Gauging: Technical Note No.117 Unipub 345 Park Ave.S. New York,New York 10010 Order No.W93 $10 plus $1 shipping (U.S.) Describes techniques tor making an accurate assessment ot stream water flow rates. Water Measurement Manual Prepared by: Department of the Interior Available from: Superintendent of Documents U.S.Govt.Printing Offices Washington,D.C.20402 Stock No.024-003-00148-1 Under revision. - - ~,APPENDICES _Appendix 1 Page17 Glossary Appendix 2 Page17 Determining Flow and Head and estimating efficiency. Appendix 3 Page 22 A sample computation analysis for economic analysis. Appendix 4 Page 23 Cautions and suggestions for do-it-yourselfers. APPENDIX 1 ~Glossary ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR: r-Similar to the synchronous generator except that it must be hooked up to an independent power grid to produce usable power.(See GENERATOR and SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR). AXIAL FLOW TURBINE: A reaction turbine through which the direction of flow is primarily parallel to the turbine shaft. CAVITATION: A phenomenon associated with liquids in motion past solid surfaces in which vapor bubbles form in areas of low ,,-pressure and then collapse suddenly in areas of higher pressure,resulting in shock waves which can damage solid surfaces. -CROSS FLOW TURBINE: A drum-shaped hydroelectric turbine with vanes around its circumference which permit the water to enter from one side, cross through the hollow centre,and exit from the other side. FOREBAY; See HEADRACE FRANCIS TURBINE: A mechanical device used to convert revolving mechanical energy into electrical energy.(See ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS and SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS). GOVERNOR: A mechanical or electronic device for automatically control- ling the speed of the turbine by regulating the supply of I""'"water. HEAD POND: The pond im.mediately upstream from the hydro plant from which additional flow may be taken for peak generation and which can refill during periods of lower electrical demand. HEADRACE: _A channel through which water passes to reach the hydro plant intake. KAPLAN TURBINE: A propeller turbine on which the pitch of the blades is adjustable to allow efficient use of the available water. AppendixS Page 24 Manufacturers. Appendix 6 Page 28 list of Ministry of Natural Resources district offices. NOTE:Appendices 2,4 and 5 are adapted from: National Center for Appropriate Technology,1979- "Micro-Hydro Power,Reviewing an Old Concept:' DOE/ET/01752-1:60 pp. MICRO·HYDRO SYSTEM: A hydroelectric installation with a capacity of 100 kW or less, including all components required to convert the potential energy in a stream or river to electrical energy at the user's location. PELTON WHEEL: A type of impulse turbine with buckets mounted on the rim of the wheel wlhich are struck by a high-velocity jet of water to rotate the wlheel. PENSTOCK: A pipeline used for carrying water to a water wheel. RUNNER: The rotating element of the turbine which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. SLUICE: An artificial channel or passage for water with a gate or valve at its head to regulate flow. SPILLWAY: A passageway or channel to carry off excess water around a dam. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR: A machine which converts rotating mechanical energy into usable AC electrical power independent of a power grid.(See GENERATOR and ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR). TAILRACE: A channel through which the water flows out of a hydro plant. TRASHRACIKS: A screen on the hydro plant intake that blocks debris from entering the turbine. TURBINE: A mechanical device used to convert the potential energy of falling water into electrical energy. WICKET GATE: Flow control gates located in a circle around a turbine and normally controlled by a governor. APPENDIX 2 flow and Head Efficiency Flow is the quantity of water available,and it is rarely constant.Most rivers,even when they have large reservoirs, are subject to periods of drought as well as periods of heavy rain and resultant flood flows.These natural characteristics are a major consideration when selecting hydroelectric equipment,and are as important as is the available head. Heavy rain,which causes flood runoff,may result in the head at a site being reduced to almost nothing.Conversely, periods of drought may reduce the water supply to unac· ceptable levels. Because of the great variability in natural stream-flo';"'s,a hydrologic record going back as far as possible is desirable as a basis for analysing the potential energy output of a site. However,if no stream·flow records exist for a particular site, then an estimate of flow can be made using one of the methods described. Low flow is critical to power plant capacity.Measurements of stream-flow should be made during the summer when high rates of evaporation reduce stream·flow to a minimum. Storm runoff should be avoided by taking measurements seven days after a storm. How to Determine Flow Stream·flow records are maintained for many Ontario rivers. Although the actual stream gauging stations are operated by various agencies,a complete record is maintained by the Inrand Waters Branch of Environment Canada in Guelph. Your local library may have their publication,"Reference Index;Hydrometric Map Supplement".Your district office of U'!eMihistry of Natural Resources may be able to provide you wiUluseful stream·flow figures. Although records of 15 to 20 years are desirable,many existing gauging stations have not been operating that long. Nevertheless,any stream·flow record at or near a proposed hydroelectric development provides a more accurate esti· mate of flows than either of the techniques described below. However,if no stream-flow gauging data are available,then one of the following methods,applied during the low-flow period,should prOVide a reasonable estimate of the flow available for hydroelectric development. Flow Measurement In order to adequately assess the minimum continuous power output to be expected from your hydro unit,the minimum quantity of water that will pass through the system must be determined.So,it is important to know both the minimum flow rate of your stream and what portion of this flow can be used for power generation. The percentage of the minimum flow that may be temporarily diverted for power generation is defined during the government approval process. Measurement of Flow in a Stream Area·Velocity Method To estimate the flow in an ungauged stream the following procedure may be used.First,both the cross·sectional area of the stream and the velocity of flow in the stream must be determined. To measure the cross,sectional area of the stream the following procedure (Figure A)may be used. 14 Step 1 -Select an easily measured section of the stream with fairly uniform depth and width. Step 2 -Measure the width of the stream. Step 3 -Measure and record the depth at equal intervals across the channel. Step 4 -Compute the average depth by adding the measurements taken in Step 3 and dividing by the number of measurements taken. Step 5 -Calculate the cross·sectional area by multiplying the average depth by width. NOTE:If all measurements are in feet,the cross-sectional area will be in square feet. To determine the stream·flow velocity,use the same uniform section of the stream and follow the steps outlined below; Step 1 -Insert stakes at two points along the stream and measure the distance between them:25 feet is a reasonable distance. Step 2 -One person should drop a float (a bottle partially filled with stones or an orange,make good floats)in the centre of the stream opposite the upstream point and a second person should carefully time the seconds required for the float to pass the downstream point.Repeat several times to obtain an average time. Step 3-Compute the stream surface velocity by dividing the distance established in Step 1 by the period of time measured in Step 2. Note:If the distance established is in feet and the time period is in minutes,the computed velocity will be in feet per minute. Step 4 -The average velocity of flow throughout the stream section is less than the centre-line surface velocity because of friction losses due to channel roughness.To allow for this, the stream surface velocity computed in Step 3 should be multiplied by 0.8 to determine the average stream velocity. Now,to calulate the stream-flow,multiply the average cross- sectional area,determined above,by the average velocity of flow.In mathematical terms this is: Q =AV where: Q =flow A =cross-sectional area of the stream V =average velocity of flow Once again,it should be noted that these measurements of flow are best taken during the dry season,since the flow during this season may limit the capacity of the proposed hydroelectric installation.Furthermore,government approval may not be possible for a power plant thaI utilizes the entire flow,even during low-flow periods,and this may further reduce the capacity that may be instal led. - - .' -- APPENDICES Example To determine the cross-sectional area (A)of a stream, mulliply the channel width (w)-in this example,10 feet-by the average depth (d)of the stream.The calculations to determine the average depth are below:: (d)=dl +d2 +d3 +d4 +dS 5 =1.2 +2.5 +3.3 +2.2 +0.8 _ 2 f t5-ee A =w xd =10 x 2 =20 square feet To determine the average velocity of stream-flow: Say ttlC distance marked off is 25 feet,and it takes 12 seconds,or 0.2 minutes,for the float to travel this distance, then: With: Surface velocity expressed as Vs Average velocity expressed as V fpm =feet per minute 0.8 as a variable factor based on the resistance to the water's flow caused by the characteristics of the stream bed and shoreline.By mulliplying it by the surface velocity (V s)you will arrive at the average velocity (V). (V s)=distance (feet)=25 =125fpm =V =125xO.8 time (minutes)0.2 =100 To determine stream-flow: Q =A x V =20 x 100 =2,000 cubic feet per minute Weir Method This is an alternative method for determining stream-flow.It is accurate and can be used to measure the flow rate of any stream.It is particularly advantageous for flow measure- ments in shallow streams where a weighted float would have difficulty floating freely.However,it is also a more compli· cated technique for measuring flow. Essentiailly,a temporary dam structure is built across the stream pe!rpendicular to the flow,with a rectangular notch or spillway of controlled proportions in the centre section.This notch has to be large enough to take the maximum flow of the stream during the period of measurement,so make some rough estimate of the stream-flow 'prior to building the weir. The notch width should be at least three times its height and the lower edge should be perfectly level.The lower edge and the vertical sides of the notch should be bevelled with the sharp edgle upstream.The whole structure can best be built out of timber with all edges and the bottom sealed with clay, earth,and sandbags to prevent leakage.A typical weir is illustrated in Figure B. In order to measure the flow of water over the weir,you have to set up a simple depth gauge.This is done by driving a stake in the stream bed at least five feet upstream from the weir, until a pm-set mark on the stake is precisely level with the bottom edge of the notch.The depth of water on this slake, above the pre-set mark,will indicate the flow rate of water over the weir.Refer to a ~'weir table"in order to determine this flow rate. A typical weir table is included at the end of this appendix. To use the table,determine the deplh of water in inches over the pre-set stake mark.Find the flow rale in cubic feet per minute per inch of notch width in the table.Multiply this volume flow rate by the width,in inches,of your weir notch. This will give you the stream-flow rate in cubic feet per minute. For example: Suppose your weir has a notch width of 30 inches.The depth of the water on the stake above the pre-set mark is 6.25 inches.On the weir table,read opposite 6.25 inches to the flow rate of 6.28 cubic feet per minute per inch of notch width. The flow rate of the total stream is then 6.28 cubic feet per minute x 30 inches or 188.4 cubic feet per minute. When you have the weir in place,you can take readings at your convenience.If you are going to use the weir for an extended period of time,it is important to frequently check the watertightness of the sides and bottom, Head The head,once again,is the vertical distance the water falls at the site.The greater the distance,or head,the more eotential power there is. The gross head is the difference between the water levels both upstream and downstream,and is fairly easy to measure. The net head of the power plant is equal to the gross head minus head losses due to friction and other disturbances in water passage to and from the turbine. Keeping these head tosses to a minimum will enhance potential power plant output.As a rule of thumb,if upstream and downstream water levels are relatively constant,net head should be assumed as equal to gross head minus 5 per cent for conduit head loss.If water levels vary a great deal, more detailed studies are required to determine the net or effective head. illustrated in Figure C. Step 1 -Set the level on the stand;make sure it is level and that its upper edge is eltherat the same elevalion as the water source or a known vertical dislance above lhe water surface. Step 2 -Sight along the upper edge of the level to a spot on a nearby tree,rock or building that is farther down the hill and can be reached for measuring.Note this precise spot on the object and mark it (Point A in the diagram). Step 3 -Move your level and stand down the hill slope and set It up again so the upper edge of the lellel is below Point A How to Measure Head Any good surveyor can be hired to determine the head.Ask him,or her,for the vertical distance between the water source,or proposed intake location,and the proposed location of the power plant. If you,know how to use standard surveying equipment such as a transit or a surveyor's level and levelling rod,borrow or rent what you need and get a friend to help do your own measurements. Another do-It-yourself technique requires a carpenter's level, some sort of stand to raise the level a few feet off the ground, and a tape measure.The method is described below and A Do·il-yourself method ot measuring head usinga Level FigureC, Measuring HEAD MEASURING ROD.OR SOME _--,,-,--.,.....MEASURABLE OBJECT ~----- WEIR TABLE 1'7.26 17.78 18.32 18.87 19.42 19.97 20.52 21.09 ,21.65 22.22 22.70 . 23.38 ,23.97 .24.56 25.16 ;25.76 26.36 26.97 27.58 28.20 28.82 _.29.45 30.08 30.70 31.34 31.98 32.68 33.29 33.94 34.60 35.27 35.94 36.60 38.28 37.96 38.65 39.34 ' 40.04 40.73 41.43 42.13 42.84 43.56 44.28 45.00 45.71 46.42 47.18 Cubic feet per minute per inch of notch width 19.5 19.75 20 ' 20.25 20.5 20.75 ' 21 21.25'. 21.5 21.75 22 22.25 22.5 22.75 ' 23 23.25 23.5 23.75 24 14.5 14.75 15 15.25 15.5 . 15.75 16 16.25. .16.5 16.75"17 . 17.25 17.5 17.75 18 18.25 '18.5 " 18.75" 19 Depth on stake (inches), Cubic feet per minute per Inch of notch -widthDepthonstake(Inches) 16 APPENDICES By multiplying the efficiencies of the various components in the system,the overall efficiency can be estimated. 25-45 35-65 40-60 60-75 80-90 80-95 60-85 90·95 95-98 90-98 90·95 80-90 85-95 85-95 70-80 Efficiency Range -Undershot -Breast -Poncelet -Overshot -Reaction -Impulse -Crossflow -Synchronous -Induction -Direct Current -GearBox -Belt Drive Turbines Speed-Increasers Generators Inverters Gemini Converters Batteries Typical Efficiency Ranges for Micro-Hydro Equipment Component (%) Water Wheels _.Step 4 -Repeat this procedure until you end up at the same elevation as the proposed power plant site. You now have the total head. Step 5 -If more than one set-up was required, add all the .-vertical distances A-B.lf your first set-up was above the water surface,subtract the vertical distance between the water surface and the upper edge of the level from the sum of the vertical distances. I"-Efficiency Power-plant efficiency will vary according to the efficiency of the component parts.Typical efficiencies of major components in a micro-hydro system are listed below.More precise figures are generally available from the m'.nu- facturers.It is worth noting that turbines are much more efficient than water wheels. on the first object,as in the drawing.Mark this point Band ,....measure and record the vertical distance from A to B.Now sight along the upper edge of the level in the opposite direction to another object that is farther down the hill. -APPENDIX 3 Econornic Analysis Assumptions: Comparison of a6 kW micro-hydro installation against utility power line supply. r-1.The micro-hydro system has a 6 kW capacity and is a DC- to-AC battery storage system. 2.The cost of the micro-hydro system is $10,000 (This cost is -realistic for a system using new equipment but requiring little new construction).' 3.The hydro plant is financed by a 15-year 12 per cent loan. 4.Total maintenance cost is $1,358 over 15 years ($50 per year with 8 per cent annual cost increase). 5.The location the power is to be used is near existing power lines and no additional costs are required to connect to the utility lines. 6.Average monthly consumption is 1000 kilowatt hours. 7.Utility power average costs start at 4.6 cents per kilowatt hour and increase by 10 per cent annually. 8.The hydro unit is worth $2,000 (20 per cent of the purchase price)at the end of the 15-year period. 9.No tax deduction or credits are used. FJP and AfP are taken from standard compound interest tables.To determine the annual payments for larger or smaller loans just substitute the actual loan for the $10,000 used in the Elxample,providing that interest and period are 12%and 15 years respectively.Otherwise interest tables should be used to determine the correct factors. Step 1 Present Worth of the Micro-Hydro Plant Installation cost is $10,000 and the loan at 12 per cent interest for 15 years requires equal annual payments of: ~ A =$10,000 x (FfP.12%,15)x (AfP,12%.15) =$10,000 x 5.474 x 0.0268 =$1,467.03 1.Present worth (PW)of loan repayment at 10 per cent rate of return (rate at whiich funds could alternatively be invested)is as follows: .....•_.w ....."'.."" Step 2 Present worth of annual maintenance charges is as follows: PW .' ($) 50.00 49.09 48.20 47.32 46.46 45.62 . 44.79 43.98 43.17 42.39 41.61 ,40.86, '.•40.11, .j,,~,~:,..~,'~;'.~::~~ ..J':: 661.66 Step 3 Present worth of salvage value of plant 2,000 X (PIF,10%,15):2,000 X 0.2394 =$478.80. Step 4 Present worth of hydro plant =12274.06 +661.66 -478.80 =$12,456.92. StepS Present worth of purchase of energy from utility .552.00', ,552.00' '552.00 552.00 552.00 552.00 "552.00' ,552.00 : 552.00 ' 552.00 552.00 552.00 " .J,', J.~J " - - Step 6 Subtracting the present worth of line supply from micro- hydro supply =$12,456.92 -$8,280.00 =$4,176.92 In this example,the micro-hydro option would be somewhat more expensive over a 15-year period,assuming all of the conditions mentioned beforehand.A change in any of the assumptions can significantly affect the economics one way or the other.For example,if the location is one mile from an existing power line,an additional charge of approximately $18,500 (4,100 feet over extension allowance x $4.50 per foot) would be required before power could be obtained from the utility. This added loan of $18,500 at 12%for 15 years requires equal annual payments of A =18,500 x 5.474 x .0268 =$2,714.00. 1a The present worth of the loan repayment is calculated in the same manner as shown previously and equals $22,706.95. Adding this to the cost of line supply,above.the present worth of the utility supply would be: $8,280.00 +$22,706.95 =$30,986.95. Now,subtracting the present worth of line supply from micro- hydro supply: $12,456.92 -$30,986.95 =-$18,530.03. Clearly,with the inclusion of the additional charge in this example,the micro·hydro option is the more attractive one. A similar technique can be used for all economic comparison of any two energy supply alternatives. -APPENDICES -APPENDIX4 Cautions and Suggestions -The following list is presented to make installation easier .and help you al/oid future troubles. In the final design stage,be sure to: 1.Consider your stream bed loading conditions.Silt and rocks coming down the stream,particularly during periods of high runoff,can cause intake clogging or even destruction of the intake pipes. 2.Size the pipe so that it is capable of handling the volume flow rate that you require.Any responsible pipe supplier r-can provide the correct size for the expected flow conditions. 3.Route the pipeline,from intake to the turbine,so that it contains the minimum number of bends.Do not use elbows of 45 degrees (or greater)in the pipeline. Otherwise,there will be too much strain on the pipe and excessive friction losses. 4.Keep adownhill slope in the pipe at all times(except forthe initial siphon intake,if used)to avoid air locks and silt deposit. r-5.Do not let the water velocity in PVC pipe get much above 5 feet per second.Above this line velocity other design considerations come into play that the do-it-yourselfer is not usually prepared to deal with. 9.Plan to install the system in warmer weather,or at least not under freezing conditions if at all possible. When obtaining your equipment,take these factors into account: 1.Deal with a reputable supplier.There is some poor equipment around.Buyer beware! 2.Expect delays in getting quotes and deliveries from equipment suppliers,since none of them is currently very big and are usually quite busy. 3.Obtain pipe with a suitable pressure rating;don't bUy seconds. 4.Obtain a good trash control system for the intake.A screen mesh should be used that has openings smaller than the minimum nozzle diameter that leads into the turbine.This way,the only solid particles that can come down the pipe will be small enough to pass through the nozzle without clogging it. During installation: 1.Be sure to follow the manufacturer's or supplier's instruc- tions and suggestions. 2.Watch for rocks,and place them carefully when burying PVC pipe. 7.Consider installing a water by-pass above the turbine in -case the water is needed for fire contro1. 6.Size the pipe in order to maintain about 5 feet per second line velocity to avoid excessive ice build-up in the pipe.If the line velocity is much less than this and the system is to be installed in an area where winters are severe,consider insulating or burying the pipe. -8.Locate the DC turbine and generator adjacent to the point of use.This is important in order to keep electrical transmission lines as short as possible so that the line losses are kept to a minimum. 3.Use gate valves wherever valving is necessary.Other kinds of valving allow the water to be turned off too quickly,causing potentially dangerous water hammer or "banging pipes"effects. 4.Use standard house wiring procedures with the electrical hook-Up.Go to your local bookstore and pick up an appropriate do-it-yourself book or hire a local electrician. Once the system is operational,when you have to close valves,be sure to do so slowly.Closing a valve too quickly can cause a shock wave (a high pressure wave)that can damage the pipe. ~APPENDIX 5 Manufacturers and Suppliers Canadian Robert Lee Waterwheel Erectors Ltd. P.O.Box 246 I!"""Weiland,Ontario L385P4 (416)735-5122 -Claude Aleire Dominion Bridge Sulzer Inc. 555 Notre Dame SI. Lachine,Quebec r-Has 281 (514)634-3551 Mike Wilson Barber Hydraulic Turbine Barber Point,P.O.Box 340 Port Colborne,Ontario L3K 5W1 F.W.E.Stapenhorst 285 Labrosse Ave. Point Claire,Quebec H9R 1A3 (514)695-8230 Alvin Beeler L &S Power Company Ltd. Box 90 Whitney,Ontario KOJ 2MO (705)637-5534 J.S.McAulay Allis-Chalmers 3625 Duffer;n Street Downsview,Ontario M3K1Z2 (416)789-5337 1\...,...,I:.N U 1'-.;1:.:::» Manufacturers and Suppliers B.Tripp Highlands Energy Systems Ltd. R.R.#5 Orangeville,Ontario L9W 2Z2 (519)941-5041 Dependable Turbine Ltd. 1244 Boundary Road Vancouver,B.C. V5K 4T6 (604)461-3121 Small Hydro Electrics Canada Ltd. Box 54 Silverton,B.C. VOG 2BO (604)358-2406 A.Nicholl Solace Energy Centre Inc. 2425 Main Street Vancouver,B.C. V5T 3E1 (604)879-5258 David Buchanan Ingersoll-Rand Canada 255 Lesmill Road Toronto,Ontario M3B 2V1 (416)445-4470 Leroy Somer Canada Ltd. 337 Deslauriers Ville St.Laurent Quebec H4N 1W5 (514)378-0151 Hayward Tyler 1 Vulcan Street Rexdale,Ontario M9W 1L3 (416)243-1400 Dave de Montmorency Galt Energy Systems Ltd. 57 Victoria Avenue P.O.Box 1354 Cambridge,Ontario N1 R 3BO (519)653-2531 International Independent Power Developers Route 3,Box 285 Sandpoint,Idaho 83864 The James Leffel Company Springfield,Ohio 45501 Gilbert.Gilkes &Gordon Ltd. Westmoreland,England LA97B7 Small Hydro Electric Systems P.O.Box 124 Custer,Washington 98240 Ossberger Turbinenfabrik Weissenberg Pastfach 425 Bayern,West Germany Barata Metal Works &Engineering PT Mgagel (109) Surabaya,Indonesia Jyoti Ltd. Industrial Area P.O.Chemical Industries R.C.Dutt Road Baroda 390 003,India Westward Mouldings Ltd. Greenhill Works Delaware Road Gunnislake,Cornwall,England Campbell Water Wheel Company 420 South 42nd Street Philadelphia,Pennsylvania 19104 Maschinenfabrik Kossler GMBH A-3151 St.Polten St.Georgen,Austria Karlstads Mekaniska Weskstad Fack S-681 01 Kristinehamn,Sweden Elektro GMBH St.Gallerstrasse 27 Winterthur,Switzerland 8400 Canyon Industries 5346 Mosquito Lake Road Deming,Washington 98244 Briau SA BP43 37009 Tours Cedex,France Northern Water Power Co. P.O.Box 49 Harrisville,New Hampshire 03450 Land &Leisure Services Priority Land St.Thomas,Launceston Cornwall,England Alaska Wind and Power P.O.Box G Chigiak,Alaska 99567 Pumps,Pipes and Power Kingston Village Austin,Nevada 89310 - P'"Manufacturers and Suppliers Bell Hydroelectric J.leatherstocking Street Cooperstown.New York 13326 Balaju Yuantra Shala (PI Ltd. Balaju,Katmandu,Nepal ~ Maine Hydroelectric Development Groups Goose River,Maine Miscellaneous Equipment Suppliers Tom Adair !""""Westburn Electric Supply R.R.#1 Kearney.Ontario POA lMO Zenith 48240 Douglas Fleming Reliance Electric ltd. ......678 Eric Street S~ratford,Ontario t519)271-3630 :-H.M.Barnett Canadian General Electric 1900 Eglinton Avenue East Scarborough,Ontario :.....,M1L 2M1 (416)751-3220 Westinghouse Canada Inc. 55 Goldthorne .Toronto,Ontario (416)445-0550- An Ontario manufactured micro·hydrounit. Source:'"7i'.,' Skelch Courtesy of GaltEnergy Systems,",:C~l1Jbridge.Onl. James Smith Canbar Products Ltd. Waterloo,Ontario N2J 4A7 (519)886-2880 Windworks Box 329,Route 3 Mukwonago,Wisconsin 53149 Lima Electric Company Inc. 200 East Chapman Road Box 918 Lima,Ohio 45802 Woodward Governor Company 5001 N.2nd Street Rockford,Illinois 61101 Natural Power,Inc. New Boston,New Hampshire 03070 ---_._--_._.._-~-----~~----.,.---------....-----,-----'----_......-------------- AJ-IIJI:N UIGI::S APPENDIX 6 Ministry of Natural Resources District Office Address Telephone District Office Address Telephone Algonquin Park Box 219 (705)637-2780 Gogama Box 129 (705)894-2000 Whitney,Ontario Gogama,Ontario KOJ 2MO POM 1WO AHkokan 108 Saturn Avenue (807)597-6971 Hearst Box 670 Atikokan,Ontario 631 Front Street (705)362-4346 POT 1CO Hearst,Ontario Aylmer 353 Talbot Street West (519)773-9241 POL 1NO Aylmer,Ontario Huronia Midhurst,Ontario (705)728-2900N5H2S8lOl1XO Bancroft Box 500 (613)332-3940 IgnaceBancroft,Ontario Box 448 (807)934-2233 KOL 1CO Ignace,Ontario POT no Blind River Box 190 (705)356-2234 Kapuskasing 6 Government Road62QueenStreet (705)335-6191 Blind River,Ontario Kapuskasing,Ontario POR 1BO P5N2W4 Bracebridge Box 1138 (705)645-5244 Kirkland Lake Box 129 (705)642-3222 Bracebridge,Ontario Swastika,Ontario POB 1CO POK no Brockville 101 Water Street West (613)342-8524 Kenora Box 5080 (80n 468-9841 Brockville,Ontario 808 Robertson Street K6V 5Y8 Kenora,Ontario P9N 3X9 Cambridge Box 2186 (519)658-9355 lanark Box 239Cambridge,Ontario (613)259-2942 N3C2W1 Lanark,Ontario KOG 1KO Chatham Box 1168 (519)354-7340 435 Grand Avenue West Lindsay 322 Kent Street West (705)324-6121 Chatham,Ontario Lindsay,Ontario N7M 5L8 K9V 4T7 Chapleau 34 Birch Street (705)864-1710 Maple Maple,Ontario (416)832-2761 Chapleau,Ontario LOJ 1EO POM 1 KO Minden Minden,Ontario (7051286-1521 Cochrane Box 730 (705)272-4365 KOM 2KO -2 Third Avenue Cochrane,Ontario Moosonee Box 190 (705)336-2987 POL 1CO Moosonee,Ontario POl1YO Cornwall Box 1759 (613)933-1774 113 Amelia Street Napanee 1 Richmond Blvd.(613)354-2173 Cornwall,Ontario Napanee,Ontario K6H 5V7 K7R 3S3 Dryden Ontario Government Bldg.(807)223-3341 Niagara Box 1070 (416)892-2656 Box 3000 Hwy.20 Dryden,Ontario Fonthill,Ontario P8N 3B3 LOS 1EO Espanola Box 1340 (705)869-1330 Nipigon Box 970 (807)887-2120 148 Fleming Street Nipigon,Ontario Espanola,Ontario POT 2JO POP 1CO North Bay Box 3070 (705)474-5550 Fort Francis 922 Scott Street (807)274-5337 North Bay,Ontario Fort Frances,Ontario P1B8K7 P9A 1J4 Ottawa Ramsayville,Ontario (613)822-2525 Geraldton Box 640 (807)854-1030 KOA 2YO Geraldton,Ontario POT 1MO Copies availalJle ...(at $2.00.prepayment requested)...from the Ontario Government Bookstore,880 Bay St.,Toronto for personal shopping.Out-ol-town customers write to Publications Services Section,5th Flloor,880 Bay St.,Toronto,Ontario M7 A 1N8.Telephone 965-6015.Toll Iree long distance 1-800-268-7540,in Northwestern. Ontario O-Zenith 67200. 1 '. .. ----J --J ~=--~~II =__;11 ,:_--;u 11~._.~•••-j'._I_-EF 7--...---"- 'Pr-oe.LI-~I ~L)t.~I.J?.,.'1"""'f~~LU--) (Q U-l'~L~\'\e \,AlHl<-. INFLUENCE DE L~COUVERTURE DE GL~CE SUR LES ECHANGES D'EAU SALEE ET D'EAU DOUCE DANS UN ESTUAIRE A MAREE: LE CAS DE L'ESTUAIRE DE LA GRANDE RIVIERE,AU DEBUT DU REMPLISSAGE DU RESERVOIR DE LG 2 Richard Boivin,ing~nieur en chef,Laboratoire d'Hydraulique Lasalle,Montr~al. Octave Caron,ing~nieur hydraulicien,Soci~t~d'~nergie de la Baie James,Montr~al. Marc Drouin,chef du service hydraulique,Soci~t~d'~nergie de la Baie James, Hontr~al. RESUf1£ La coupure du d~bit de La Grande Rivi~re 3 LG 2,si elle Hait intervenue, en p~riode d'eau libre,,aurait entrain~en moins de trois semaines I'invasion saline de son estuaire d'une longueur de 37 km.Afin d'y sauvegarder les populations de poissons d'eau douce (especes dul~aquicoles et semi-anadromes),la Soci~t~d'~nergie de la Baie James (SEBJ)prit la d~cision de retarder cette coupure de la mi-octobre au 27 novembre 1978,jusqu'3 la prise complete des glaces dans ce tron~on de la riviere.Cette d~cision ~tait conforme aux enseignements de 1 '~tude sur modele r~dlIit qui d~montrait quela p~nHration de l'eau sal~e: (a)en pr~sence de la couverture de glace,n'atteindrait que le point kilom~trique 20 environ (b)apr~s la d~bacle,en eau libre,pourrait ensuite etre contenue entre des limites acceptables,grace a un debit d'appoint provenant de l'~vacuateur de crues. Men~e en parallele avec une campagne d'observations biologiques (portant sur la qualite.de l'eau et les deplacements des poissons),une campagne de mesures hydrographiques a permis d'acqu~rir une information tres dHilill~e,.au cours de l'hiver 1978-79 et de l'et~1979,sur l'~volution r~elle du pMnomene salin et ses parametres.Cette communication a pour but d'en degager les principaux resultats et de les comparer avec les previsions des etudes ant~rieures sur modele math~matique (r~gime d'eau libre)et sur modele physique (regimes d'eau libre et de glaces). 211 2.1 Position du front salin 1.CONDITIONS AU MOMENT DE LA COUPURE JOIJRS DEPUIS LA COllPURt DE LA RIVIERE iI LG 2 o 3 34 6~93 124 1~4 185 21~246 276 307 337 N....., I I , I I ,,I , I I , I ... Zo 10 lL 40 LGI ~~blles (mesures ponctuelles de la salinit~)permettant de rep~rer Ie front salin. ~t d'appareils A poste fixe (courantographes Aanderra)donnant des enregistrements continus,en fonction du temps et a diff~rentes profondeurs,de la salinit~.des courants et de la temp~rature de 1 'eau. 213 La figure 2 donne,en fonction du nombre de jours N depuis la fermeture de la galerie,Ie point kilom~trique atteint par Ie front salin (d~fini par une ,~leur de la salinit~S •0,5 %0). Ainsi done (fig.2),1 'ordre de grandeur des pr~visions des ~tudes ant~rieures est confirm~concernanl: BAlE JAMES 0 ·NOV.'DEC.'JAN.'Ftv.'MAR.'AVR.'MAI '.AJIN'.AJIL:AOO.SEP.OCT.NOV. AN NEE 1978 -79 ESTUAIRE DE LA GRANDE RIVIERE :MOUVEMENTS DU FRONT SALIN LORS DU REMPLI SSAGE DU RESERVOIR DE LG 2 FIGURE 2 On neut voir,superpos~es en pointill~e,les pr~visions des ~tudes ~nt~rieures [1,2].Ces ~tudes,dont on connaissait mal Ie degre de pr~cision avant les contrOles "in situ",sont dans 1 'ensemble assez bien recoup~es par les Observations,si l'on tient compte des facteurs qui compliquent l'lnterpr~tation (les points mod~les r~sultent soit d'un essai en regime variable. auquel cas ils sont fonctions de 1'hypothese faite sur la d~croissance du d~bit en fonction du temps,soit d'essa1s en regime ~tabli,i.e.essais avec mar~e et d~bit constants;les calculs reposent ~galement sur 1 'hypothese d'un r~gime ~tabli; or un tel r~gime n'a generalement pas Ie temps de se r~aliser en nature ...). LEGENDE RELEvts NATuRE --@ ETUOE SUR MODELE REOlJlT EN REGIME NON PERMANENT (SOUS GUICE)~'iOJ"'I.~0"8,~""I.,M.I.%m,SO(),~%o 0 30 "-@ ETUDE SUR MODELE REOUIT EN ii: REGIME ETABll (SOUS GLAC~).:;; 0-:2,8 m5/5;M:I,46m;5:0.,roo 2- g 20 ;;."~tTuDE SUfi MODELE REDUIT EN RtGIME [TABll (CONDITION D'EAU LIBRE) 0·110"'.....I M'I,%",;S'O,~%o ..-®ETuDE THEORIDUE EN REGIME hABll /CONDITION O'EAU LIBRE) Qt 110 m]/s i M=1.46mi s=0,0 °/00 LEGENOE POINT KILOMETRIQUE COURANTOGRAAlE ..Aondl''''''. MAREGRAPHE J , \ .PK -SA AloiA cl ESTUAIRE DE LA GRANDE RIVIERE FIGURE'I Position en fonction du temps Les mouvements salins ont ~t@ Hablis Ala fois A l'aide d'apparei1s J C' La fermeture de la d~rivation provisoire de LG 2 a H~complH~e Ie 27 novembre 1978,a llh.30,sous un d~bit de 1 640 m'/s et une temp~rature de -18 0 C.La coupure du d~bit ~tait ainsi r~alis@e apr~s la formation compl~te de la couverture de 9lace dans l'estuaire de La Grande Rivi~re entre la baie James et Ie point kilom~trique (P.K.)35.Mentionnons que l'a~nagement de LG 2 est situ@ aux environs du P.K.120 de La Grande Rivi@re. ~ A partir du 13 novembre 1978,des survols p@riodiques de la ·rivi~re ont permis de suivre la prise des glaces.Le bord frontal de la CDuverture ~tait d~jI A la hauteu~du P.K.15 Ie 21 novembre et atteignait Ie P.K.35 Ie 25 novembre; parall~lement,les enregistrements mar@graphiques accu·saient la pr~sence des glace, (par exemple,la valeur moyenne du marnage A la station MA-l,8 ~tait tomb~e en dessous de 0,90 m au cours des 4 jDurs pr~c~dant la coupure,alors qu'elle ~taft de l'Drdre de 1,40 m au cours de 1a premi ~re sema i ne de novembre).La.couverture de glace ~tait done tout a fait prDpice A la coupure au moment ou fut prise la d@cision de la r~aliser. 2.OBSERVATIONS RECUEILLIES AU COURS DES MOIS SUIVANTS 2.1.1 212 'I i ,-.~-'~1 ......,.--,,....,...,--,~-,-.~'~=:J ~:J '"I r"J ~J f"'-':]"~1 "'"__J a)l'~volution des cinquante premiers jours,l~gerement d~favorab1e au mod~le r~duit.L'~cart observ~entre 1a courbe ®et 1es mesures en nature s'expl ique comme l'indique 1a figure 3 par .une diminution trop rapide du d~bit en fonction du temps.au cours de 1'essai. Au-de111 de ces recoupements d'ordre quantitatif,1a figure 2 peut ~tre eApliquee comme suit: d)1a fin de 1a courbe ®pointl11ee,qui laissait pr~voir que 1e front sal in tendralt,sous couverture de gl ace, vers uneposition d'~qull ibre proche du P.K.19,6 ne s'est pas mat~ria1is~e en nature parce qu'e11e ~tait intimement 1i~e II 1a 10i de d~croissance du d~bit admise au cours de l'essai en r~gime non permanent.Cette 10i correspondaitll une variation de d~bit tendant vers une valeur minimum constante,~ga1e II 8,5 m3 /s (fig.3).El1e a ~t~prise en d~faut car 1e d~bit,II 1a fin de l'hiver, etait compris entre 3 et 6 m 3 /s,apr~s ~tre tomb~ accidente11ement II 1,5 m3 /s au debut de fevrier en raison de travaux en rivi~re II LG 1.Ceci devait permettre 1a remont~e des eaUl!sa1~es jusqu'auP.K.31.4. e)apr~s avoir attefnt cette limite superieure en presence d'une couverture de glace,1es eaux sal~es ont ~t~soumises II un mouvement de va-et-vient que l'on pourrait r~sumer COJl11le suit: •une r~gression importante so us couverture de glace, jusqu'au P.K.6 environ,a d'abord ~t~observee au moment de 1a crue de printemps du bassin versant r~sidue1 d'une superficie de 2 135 km 2 ,suivie d'une progression en eau 1ibre jusqu'au P.K.22,S,amorc~e par 1e d~part des glaces et accentuee par 1a d~croissance dJ.:.~~it cIe la Cf1Ille.~s le 21(1;jlliOilll 1'l1~.1e lIT,hul~t~ r~servoir de LG 2 atteignait une cote suffisante pour permettre une faib1e evacuation. -1es mouvements successifs de recu1 et d'avance,qui ont ~t~ana1ys~s en detail dans un rapport d'~tude [3], s'exp1iquen,dans 1 'ensellDlepar 1'effet conjugue du debit evacue II LG 2 et des pr~cipitations observees, quoique l'on re1~ve dans 1es enregistrements conti nus de 1a sa1inite en fonction du temps des pies de sa1inite ind~pendants du d~bit fluvial,lies aux paraml'!tres suivants:mar~es.niveau moyen de 1a mer,vent (effet direct de frottement sur 1a surface de l'eau ou effet indirect sur 1es niveaux d'eau .•.). 1.1.2 Correlation avec 1e debit On a porte,sur 1a figure 4,1es 1imites superieures en pr~sence des IltceS et en eau 1i bre.en fonc tion des d~bits correspondants ti r~s de 1a fi gure I.les d~bits indiques sont des va1eurs moyennes,pour 1es periodes consid~rees, .'sont cel1es oQ l'equilibre etait "a priori"le mieu~realise. 1001 I I I _tCOULEMENT EN ~5001_--EAU UBRE..------._" ! ~'lO0 'Ii ~500 aD,, , I , I I I b)1a limite sup~rieureatteinte sous couverture de glace; vers 1e 125i~me jour (i1 ne peut y avoir,dans ce cas, de comparaison rigoureuse,car 1a 1imite ®modl'!le est tir~e d'un essai en regime ~tabli,i.e.mar~e et d~bit constants;le recoupement est ma1gre tout des plus satisfaisants ••.). c)la limite sup~rieure en r~gime d'eau 1ibre,vers 1e 225il'!me jour (meme remarque qu'en b,en ce qui touche 1e r~gime etab1i,pour les 1imites mod~le et th~orique ©et @ ;on peut noter ~ga1ement que la limite th~orique est dHinie par S •0,00/00 au 1ieu de S 0,5 0/00,ce qui contribue un peu II 1a deporter vers 1e haut). 5.., i -~1151-+-\-+-+-1 I I, ~ S'~1J ...;ESTIMt I iii 10 •' " ..tJL.J r I I I I .~O/<~:,I NOlI DEC..wt Ftv.IWlAYR.MAl MAl JUIN JUIL.AOUT SEPr OCT.NOV. LA ellANDt IIMtll£I OtllTS JOURNALIEII'A L.O I (P.K.)7)LOllS OU REMPLISSAGE OU RESERVOIR OE LG 1 II....I DU TIIAVAUl!EN II.VltIIE A L.O I ONT MODI Fit LA RtCESSION DES DEBITS O'HIVE,,) ~ 214 215 '-7-~n{-'~~~,,,,~-"- ... 10000 14.101 L/Ho 1210'.8642o 2 \V-(79.~.26) I A'1610 J (SOUS couvERT ,7 A'3930 I DE GLACE).....(REGIME D'EAU ueRE) I II A[7 ~/1/ I I \711.(11.101 R."DE I "/ ) 0 e ~.v"'~--+----I-----1f-------i :~~.....• 200 100 2000 1000 vc/vo ,ODOO ESTUAIRES DE LA GRANDE RIVIERE ET DE LA GRANDE RIVIERE DE LA BALEINE LOI DE REMONTEE DE L'EAU SALEE (L/Hol=A log(Vc/1ll1 FIGURE'5 LEGENDE ~...T5 DES ESSAIS SUR MODtLES REDIJITS GIlANDE RIVltRE,MAREE MOYENNE .,GRANDE RIVltRE,MARtE MAXIMUM •;,RANDE RIVltRE ~LA BALEINE, liAREE MOYENNE ·GRANDE RIVltRE DE LA BALEINE, YAREE MAXIMUM .:IE' :';\_CE ~OINT DEVRAlT EN RfAUTt ETREYPliJsPRESDELACOURBE;'L S'EN tLOJGNE POUR L'I RAISON ,NDIQUEE SUR LA FLtCHE I PR£SENCE D'UN RAPIDE LIMITAI)IT LA.PROGRESSION,VALEuR DE S PLUS ELEVEE) POINTS 0'OBSERVATION"In ,llu " 'GIlANDE RIVlERE(79.04,26el19.01.IO I •(;/lANOE RIVIERE DE LA BALEINE 176.07.291 ooTE: -fROllT SALIN DEFINI PAR S ~0,5%0 35 40 EN FONCTION OU 60 POINTS"'-tOOELE"ESSAIS EN I REGI'-tE PERMANENT I I t---t--"-POINTS"NATURE "-I---+-----!'----l '<> :~~~Z REGIME D'EAULIBRE ~~ ~'-...... ,""<EGIME DE GLACE :'--..i'Q.. "'-,,- ........"",.. '-... 20 10 200 100 2000 1000 I o 5 ~~W 8 ~ POINT KILOMErRIQlJE ESTUAIRE DE LA GRANDE RIVIERE'LIMITE DES EAUX SALEES DEBIT D'EAU DOUCE A LG I (P.K.31I FIGURE '4 9 t: ID·w " ,.. E ,," Ces points s'int~grent assez bien dans l'ensemble de points exp~rimentaux des essais en r~gime permanent,ce qui fournit dinsi "a posteriori' une validation int~ressante, (.):Va =l~glfa >au 9 eat Z'aaaelel'atian de Za peaanteul'et p Za maas" apeaifique du fZuide Ze mains dense. Va •QIBHo>au Q eat Ze debit d'eau douae et B Za Zal'geul'de Za aec~i Cette corr~lation,plus g~n~rale,est d~montr~e par 1a figure 5 qui .'1 le fruit d'~tudes,au mod~1e r~duit et en nature,sur 1 '~quilibre salin dans l~: estuaires de deux rivi~res nordiques:La Grande Rivi~re (Soci~t~d'~nergie de I, Baie James)et La Grande Rivi~re de 1a Baleine (Hydro-Qu~bec). On remarque qu'i1 y a une bonne corr~lation entre 1es deux quantit~s, ,~ur des va1eurs 2<Vc/Vo<225 en rl!gime d'eau 1ibre et 14<Vc/Vo<6 600 sous ~;"verture de glace.Cette corr~lation confirme 1'importance du nombre xnsi~trique de Froude Fo •l/(V c/V o )'introduit par Keu1egan (1952)dans i'Hude des pMnom~nes de remontl!e de l'eau sa1~e dans 1es estuaires. Jusqu'a pr~sent,1a relation reposait sur des points e,xp~rimentaux ;tenus a l'aide d'essais sur mod~les rl!duits,sauf pour une observation "in situ" ~ns 1'estuaire de La Grande Rivi~re de 1a Ba1eine,en date du 29 juil1et 1976.En ;.rtant da.ns 1e di a gramme 1es 1i mites sup~ri eures de 1a remont~e sal i ne observ~es ,.cours de 1a campagne de mesures sur La Grande Rivi~re en r~gime de glace (25 Ioril 1979)et en r~gime d'eau 1ibre (10 juillet 1979),on constate que:(a)en ce ;Ji concerne 1e r~gime de glaces,1e point ajout~confirme remarquab1ement 1a relation mod~le,tout en ~largissant consid~rab1ement 1e domaine des va1eurs 1,/Vo couvert par 1es essais (la valeur maxima1e passe de 720 a 6 600)et (b) ~ce qui concerne 1e r~gime d'eau 1ibre,1e nouveau point se situeen de~a de :1 droite modele,peut-l!tre par d~faut d'~quil ibre en nature (la remont~e des tlYX sal~es n'ayant pas eu 1e temps d'arriver a terme,pour une situation donn~e :J d~bit de La Grande Rivi~re).Quoi qu'il en soit,ce point,s'il Hait vraiment l~de~a de'la droite mod~le,comme d'autres du reste,tendrait a d~montrer que Corr~lation entre L/H o etVc/Vo2.1.3 Ce diagramme en grandeurs adimensionnel1es,qui permet de d~terminer rapidement en fonction du d~bit d'eau douce la limite sup~rieure des eaux sal~.: dans ces deux estuaires,a ~t~~tabli en portant les param~tres L/H o en absci~~. et log Vc/V~en ordonn~e (L ~tant la longueur de p~n~tration de 1 'eau sa1~e,Ho et Vo 1es profondeur et vitesse moyennes a 1'embouchure et Vc la vitesse crit"" qui empecherait la p~n~tration du coin sa1~a 1 'embouchure)'). 216 217 -l..''n'l\!II ,~j ..,............rti'F_""e,,"=,"It""il',0",'"i'RtC~'ij'rlld 'I ""II '7:r 2"",; ,.~J ,,"..1 =~=--']"'::]'---':],,,"'']-:J ___J '._.'.1 ]J .1 j 2.1.4 cetle droite.qui est pratiquement 1'enveloppe des rl!suHats dans les deux estuai res.offre un bon coefficient tie sl'curitl!. On ne peut malgrl!tout affirmer que 'la corrl!lation mise en l!vidence dans la figure 5 serait valable dans un domaine excl!dant largement celui des observations,par exemple pour des estuaireS dont la morphologie et le rl!gime hydraulique seraient tr~s diffl!rents de ceux qui sont a la base de la relation. Cependant.les recoupements obtenus (donnl!es "in situ"ou indications par d'autres methodes de calcul)permettent d'en proposer l'utilisation.en premi~r" analyse,a des estuaires de meme famille.que l'on pourrait caract~riser a la fois par: leur g~oml!trie:loi de d~croissance de la section-en-travers. de la largeur ou de la profondeur d'aval en amant. leur r~gime hydraulique:volume d'eau sous le niveau d'l!tale de basse mer,volume de la marl!e.volume d'eau douce qui p~netre dans l'estuaire pendant un cycle de maree. Incidence favorable de la couverture de glace La protection intl!ressante qu'offre la presence d'une couverture de glace contre l'invasion saline est explicite,dans la figure 5,ou l'on conslatt que,toutes choses l!gales par ailleurs,la longueur de pl!nl!tration de l'eau salt. L/H o ne correspond,sous couverture de gl ace,qu'a envi ron 40%de 1a longueur ".1 serait atteinte en regime d'eau libre. On peut a cet egard avancer diverses explications:affaiblissement d. marnage dans 1 'estuaire et du volume de la maree,modification du rapport entrr le frottement a 1'interface et le frottement aux parois.altl!ration des repartitions verticales des vitesses. 2.2 Variation de la salinitl!en fonction du temps Les enregistrements conti nuS de la salinite dUX diffl!rentes station~~ mesures concordent pour situer vers le ler avril 1979 (N =125 jours)le point culminant de la remontee saline sous couverture de glace.Au-dela de cette d41<. les salinitl!s decroissent d'autant plus rapidement que la station est loin a l'interieur de l'estuaire et est plus sensible au recul du front. L'int~r~t de ces enregistrements ne se limite pas aux salinites maximales et aux variations sur plusieurs mois.Ils enseignent tout autant 5.r les variations de salinite dans le cours d'une maree (qui int~ressent au plus 218 haut degrl!les biologistes)que sur celles observees d'une journee.d'une sen~ine ou d'un mois a l'autre ... 2.3 Variation de la salinitl!dans le profil-en-long Cet aspect deborde le cadre de cette communication;precisons cependant que les mesures "in situ"et l'tHude sur roodele rl!duit offrent la encore un recoupement des plus satisfaisants [3]• 2.4 Profils de la salinitl!sur des verticales (incidence de la couverture de glace) Dans 1 'ensemble,les repartitions verticales refletent de forts taux de melange.Cela etait previsible,vu le tres faible rapport existant entre Ie volume d'eau douce entrant par cycle de maree et le volume de la maree (paramHre de Simmons [4])et d'autres parametres proposl!s par diff~rents auteurs pour caract~riser le degre de melange ou de stratification (ml!thode de Ippen et Had eman,methode de Hansen et Ila ttray (1,5]). Deux facteurs diminuent l'uniformit~de cette rl!partition verticale f3 ),a savoi r: la proximite du front salin la couverture de glace,dont la presence tend a diminuer la salinite dans les couches superficielles,sousjacentes a ce11~-ci,comme l'avaient mis en,~vidence les essais sur modele (2]. J.CONCLUSIONS Pour l'essentiel,ces observations "in situ"confirment les conclusions Ges etudes pr~alables et notamment la protection interessante qu'offre la presence a'une couverture de glace vis-a-vis des remont~es salines,dont elle limite notablement l'ampl itude. L'ensemble des mesures recueillies ne concerne pas que la position du front saumatre.11 offre une bonne description des phl!nomenes physiques ,.ariation de la salinite en fonction du temps,variation dans le profil-en-long ,I variation sur des verticales ...)et permet de cerner liinfluence des facteurs j..~inants tels que le debit fluvial,les marl!es.les niveaux d'eau,le vent... Cr,endant,l'interpretation,de dl!tail est souvent compliqu~e par le caractere transitoire des ph~nomenes,qui se modifient sous l'influence des facteurs );.,inants avant d'avoir atteint un etat d'~quilibre. 219 - --------------------------------------------.--.-------------------------------------,----------------- ;....I miWWSrl,tS5r:t' Enfin.il est important de souligner que les pr~cautions prises pour limiter les remont~es salines dans 1 'estuaire de La Grande Rivi~re ont effectivement permis de sauvegarder les populations de poissons vis~es par lei mesures adopt~es [6]. REFERENCES ... 3 :Soci~t~d'~nergie de la Baie James. "Invasion saline dans Ie bief d'aval de LG 1.au d~but du remplissage du r~servoir LG 2 -Observations "in ~itu"-Analyse et comparaison avec les enseignements des ~tudes th~orique et sur mod~le r~duit,rapport LHL-774, ~cembre 1979.par Richard Boivin. 2 4 Soci~t~d'~nergie de la Baie JameS. "La modification de l'~qull ibre sal in dans l'estuaire de La Grande".D~cembre 1976,par C.Marche.T.T.Quach et P.Desroches. Soci~t~d'~nergie de la Baie James. "Mod~le r~duit de l'estuaire de La Grande Rivi~re: Risques d'intrusion saline au d~but du remplissage de la retenue de LG 2",rapport LHL-715, Janvier 197B.par Richard Boivin. "Some Effects of Upland Discharge on Estuarine Hydraulics",September 1955,by Henry B.Sill1TIons, ASCE Proceedings Paper 792.'.~ " 220 5 :"Estuaries:A Physical Introduction".K.P.Dyer (John Wiley &Sons.1972),pp.14-20. 6 :Soci~t~d'energie de la Baie James. "Coupure de La Grande Rivi~re:P~riode critique pour la faune aquatique en aval du barrage de LG 2". par Octave Caron et Dominique Roy -Eau du Qu~bec. Vol.13,No 1.pp.23-2B. J J i,_J I J I J .1 Sociefed'energie de la Baie James VICE-PRESIDENCE INGENIERIE ET DEVELOPPEMENT ---- ---".._._~--_•.•._.,»- DETOURNEMENT E.O.L-• .RAPPORT·DE SYNTHESE ff (I r I r n n II DES CARACTERISTIGlUES H~'DROLOC3IGlUES ET HVDRAULIGlUES MARS ~9S~ -c:=-I 6.4.3 -Conditions d'Acou1ement avec glace Le modele r~duit a ~galement At~utilis~pour comp1~ter 1es nombreuses ~tudes th~oriques effectu~es pour connaTtre le rAgime d'~coulement avec glace entre l'ouvrage r~gulateur et le lac Boyd.Les conditions d'hiver sont caractArisfes: •••• II •••••• ~. • d • ~. d • II , A ouvertures partie1les ~galement,le d~bit est peu sensible au norn- bre de vannes en op~ration.11 peut !tre estim~avec une erreur ne d~passant ~3%en uti1isant un coefficient de d~bit,dans la formule du paragraphe 6.2.2,~ga1 a 0,67. -d'une part,par des exhaussements de niveau au lac Boyd qui seront dAcrits dans la seconde partie de ce rapport~ ~d.'autre part,la formation d'une accumulation de glace a 1Iextr~mi t~amont du lac Boyd,au dAbouche de la vallfe conduisant les eaux du dAtournement vers 1e lac.En effet,la tempfrature de l'eau a l'ouvrage rfgulateur est assez froide pour que le tronc;on de 4 200 pieds de longueur entre la structure et le lac Boyd puisse gAnArer un grand volume de glace qui vient se dfposer dans le lac. Toutes ces ftudesont et~effectufes pour vfrifier que le fonctionne- ment de l'ouvrage rfgulateurne serait.pas.inf1uencA par .les remontfes de niveau et pour dfterminer,le cas ~chfant,1es mesures correctrices a prendre. Contrairement au cas des grands r~servoirs 00 1es apportsd'eau froi- de sont faib1es par rapport aux volumes d1emmagasinement,le r~servoir Opinaca se distingue par la situation inverse.En effet,le volume moyen des apports d'hiver,de novembre a avril,repr~sente environ 75%du volume total de ce rfservoir au niveau moyen (703').11 en r~su1te unabaissement gradue1 de 1a temp~rature de 1 1 eau a la sortie 41 '1" :i\~,. 1, ,1 It .1:. 1 1, 1 1 r """"I ...... ! -42 de ce r~servoir~abaissement par ailleurs acc~l!r!par la pr!sence de passes !troites dans le r~servoir (voir parag.7.1)oQ peuvent subsister des zones non-gel~es. Quelles que soient les hypoth!ses retenues pour l'exploitat;on du r!servoir Opinaca et pour 1es divers param!tres intervenant dans le bilan thermique (temp~rature de l!air,distribution initiale de 1a temp!rature de l'eau du reservoir,coefficients de perte de cha- leur •.•h 1es ca1cu.1s montrent que la temp~rature de l'eau a l'ouvra- ge r~gulateur sera toujours trls froide:elle s'abaissera graduelle- ment de 32,SoF environ en novembre a 32 0 F en avril.Ainsi par exemple,pour deux cas d'exp10itation tr!s diff!rents,l'!vo1ution de la temp!rature de l'eau a l'ouvrage r~gulateur est la suivante: TEMPERATURE DE L I £AU A L I OUVRAGE REGULATEUR CAS NO 1 CASN02 . Niveau initial du (Qconstant.22 000 pi 3/s) r~servoir (pi.)703 70S Novembre 32,3SoF (Q.30 000 p;3/s )32,SoF D!cembre .32,16 (30 000 )32,4 Janvier 32,02 (20 000 )32,29. F~vrier 32,02 (15 000 )32,23 Mars 32,02 (lS 000 )32,09 Avril 32 (10 000 )32,02 R~sultats obtenus sur modele---------------------------- Le gain de chaleur a l'ouvrage r~gulateur est minims (O,02 oF).Le tron~on entre la structure et le lac Boyd,00 la superficie a d!cou- vert peut atteindre 4 x 10 6 pi 2 ,g~n!re un vol ume de glace non n~91 i- geable qui vient se d!poser dans le lac Boyd,principalement dans une fosse d'une quinzaine de pieds de profondeur situAe au d~bouch~de la val1~e. Ia • IE •••••••• • I: •• II II I I I,- •• II II 11 JI II tI I I I :1 I I I I "II II JI Les essais ont AtA rAalis~s I "aide de granules de po1yethy1tne de 1/8 de pouce correspondant I des gla~ons d'environ un pied de catA. Pour 1es niveaux du lac Boyd correspondant aux conditions ~;Ecoule ment en hiver,le couvert de glace peut se former dans les deux Etangs et 1es remontfes de niveau I l'ava1 du canal de fuite ne dEpassent pas 0,5 pied. Afin de s'assurer que le tron~on entre 1a structure et le lac Boyd ne prAsente vAritab1ement aucun probleme et qu'aucune excavation n'y est nEcessaire,un.e sErie d'essais a fte entreprise en fixant le niveau initial au lac Boyd Aga1 a celui des conditions en eau libre.On as- siste alors I "Apaississement du couvert de glace et I "augmenta- tion des niveaux dleau dans le lac Boyd jusqu'au moment OU 1e couvert franchit "ftranglement entre le lac Boyd et "ftang aval.Un couvert mince peut alors ~e former dans les deux Etangs.L'~volution des ni- o .' veaux d'eau est donnAe au tableau 8,ainsi que le niveau maximum atteint lors dlune dAb!cle simu1fe I un debit de 40 OOOPi 3/s. Les niveaux obtenus dans ces conditions ne depassent pas les niveaux prevus au lac Boyden hiver et la remontAe des niveaux I la dAb!c1e est inferieure I 5 pieds. Le fonctionnement de "ouvrage regulateur nlest pas affectf par ces remont!es de niveau et aucune mesure correctrice dans le tron~on .1.i consider!n'a ft!jugee nfcessaire.~. 6.5 -Chauffage des vannes 6.5.1 -Ouvrage regulateur Les diverses rtg1es d'exploitation du reservoir Opinaca montrent que les debits qui transiteront I travers l'ouvrage r!gu1ateur au cours de l'hiver peuvent @tre contr5les avec deux vannes seu1ement.Pour disposer d'une vanne chauffee en rAserve et faci1iter 1 'exploitation