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DRAFT
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES MANUAL
LIQUID AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
ARLIS
Alaska Resources Library &Information Services
LiJ:!(al'-Vl3uilding,Suite III
'S2rf'Brovidence Drive
Anthbhl.gq,AK 99508-4614
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NOV 061984
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
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334 WEST 5th AVENUE·ANCHORAGE,ALASKA 99501
November 5,1984
Susitna File No.1.8.1/6.7.3.4
Mr.David R.Cline
National Audubon Society
308 G Street
Anchorage,Alaska 99501
Subject:Susitna Hydroelectric Project
Best Management Practices Manual
Liquid and Solid Waste Management
Dear Mr.Cline:
Phone:(907)277·7641
(907)276·0001
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Enclosed for your review is a draft of the third in a series of best
management practices manuals for the design,construction,operation,
and maintenance of Alaska Power Authority projects.
This draft manual addresses techniques of liquid and solid waste
management and reflects the comments of participants at scoping
meetings held in Anchorage August 22 and 24,1984.A companion manual
on hazardous materials management will address preventive measures and
will be submitted for your review shortly.
To enable us to meet our deadline for completion of the manuals,we are
requesting that your comments on the draft Liquid and Solid Waste
Management Manual reach us no later than December 6,1984.Please
address your comments to:
Mr.Jon S.Ferguson,Project Manager
Alaska Power Authority
334 West 5th Avenue
Anchorage,Alaska 99501
If comments have not been received by December 6,1984,we will assume
you have none.
We appreciate your participation in this cooperative effort and look
forward to receipt of your comments.
67681/10
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Mr.David R.Cline
November 5,1984
Page 2
Please do not hesitate to contact me or have your staff contact
Mr.Jon S.Ferguson if you have any questions.
Sin~-tt.?~
Larry D.Crawford
Executive Director
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Enc:as noted
cc:J.Ferguson,Power Authority
J.Drennan,PMS (DC)
J.Lowenfels,BHBP&A
W.Larson,HE
67681/10
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PREFACE
This manual is one of a series of "best management practices"manual to be used
in the design,construction,and maintenance of Alaska Power Authority projects.
It represents a coordinated effort involving federal,state and local government
agencies,and special interest groups.
The Alaska Power Authority intends that applicable guidelines and state-of-the-
art techniques contained in the manuals will be incorporated into the contractual
documents for projects constructed,maintained,or operated by or under the
direction of the Alaska Power Authority.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
2.4 DESIGN OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS 24
2.4.1 Characteristics by Type of Camp 24
2.4.1.1 Exploratory and Fly Camps 24
2.4.1.2 Small and Intermediate Camps 26
2.4.1.3 Intermediate and Large Camps 27
2.4.2 Collection Systems 29
2.4.2.1 Conventional Gravity Collection Lines 31
2.4.2.2 Pressure Sewage Collection Systems 36
2.4.2.3 Vacuum Sewage Collection Systems 39
2.4.2.4 Lift Stations 41
2.4.2.5 Force Mains 44
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PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 -INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2 -LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT
2.1 PROJECT PARAMETERS
2.2 LIQUID WASTE STREAM CONSTITUENTS
2.2.1 Classification
2.2.2 Wastewater Sources and Strengths
2.2.2 1 Water Treatment Backwash
2.2.2.2 Domestic Waste
2.2.2.3 Construction Wastewater
2.2.2.4 Maintenance and Operation
2.3 CONCEPTUAL CAMP LAYOUT,COLLECTION AND
TREATMENT SYSTEM
2.3.1 Water Supply Requirements
2.3.2 Wastewater Collection and Treatment
Facilities
2.5 DESIGN OF TREATMENT SYSTEM
2.5.1 Exploratory and Fly Camps
2.5.2 Small and Intermediate Camps
2.5.3 Intermediate and Large Camps
2.5.3.1 Pre-treatment
2.5.3.2 Temporary Wastewater Storage
2.5.J.3 Flow Equalization
2.5.3.4 Primary Treatment
2.5.3.5 Secondary Treatment
1
2
2
6
6
8
8
9
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22
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47
53
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56
57
58
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60
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2.5.3.6 Disinfection
2.5.3.7 Sludge Thickening
2.5.3.8 Sludge Digestion and Disposal
2.5.3.9 Effluent Disposal
CHAPTER 3 -SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
3.1 TYPES OF WASTES
3.2 TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
3.2.1 Incineration
3.2.2 Landfill
3.2.2.1 Site Selection and Design
3.2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
3.2.3 Reclamation for Reuse
3.2.4 Salvage
3.2.5 Special Treatment
.3.3 AT-SOURCE HANDLING
3.4 TRANSPORT OF SOLID WASTES
3.5 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
CHAPTER 4 -REGULATORY ANALYSIS
REFERENCES
78
79
79
80
83
84
87
89
90
90
110
110
111
113
114
114
116
117
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u 1
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LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Liquid Waste Treatment Variables 3
Camp Generated Contaminants 7
Typical Average Per Person Sewage Flow 11
Camp Water Use and Wastewater Characteristics 12
Typical Wastewater Design Parameters in
Canada and USA 13
Institutional Sanitary Facilities in Cold Climates 14
Domestic Sewage Sources 15
Army Field Bases 15
Estimated Sources of Sewage Pollutants 16
Raw Sewage Temperature at Treatment Facility 20
Characteristics of Wastewater Collection Systems 25
Types of Lift Stations 42
Comparison of Wastewater Treatment Systems for
Camps 45
Wastewater Disposal -ADEC Guidelines 50
Performance of Extended Aeration Plants
Treating Camp Wastewater 65
Suggested Design Criteria and Operating
Requirements for Extended Aeration Plants
Treating Camp Wastewater 66
Performance of RBC Plants Treating Concentrated
Wastewater 71
Tentative Design Criteria and Operating
Requirements for RBC Plants Treating
Camp Wastewater 72
Summary of Design Parameters for PIC Unit 75
Chemicals Used in Wastewater Treatment 77
Solid Waste Disposal Techniques 8~
Application of Soil Information -Daily
Cover for Landfill 96
Application of Soil Information -Sanitary
Landfill (Trench)97
Application of Soil Information -Sanitary
Landfill (Area)98
Daily and Final Cover Material Requirements 100
Permissible Velocities for Bare Earthen Channels 102
Roadway Soil Characteristics 105
Equipment Selection Guide for Multiple Unit Sites 109
Typical Data on Vehicles Used for the Collection
of Solid Wastes 115
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FIGURE
1
2
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4
5
6
7
8
9
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LIST OF FIGURES
Typical Sewer and Water Bedding Details
Sewer Wall Connection
Sewer Floor Connection
low Cost Treatment Systems
High Cost Treatment Systems
Schematic of Extended Aeration Process
Schematic of Rotating Biological Contractor
Schematic of PIC Treatment Plant
Permafrost in Alaska
Criteria for Waste Management Analysis
Typical landfill Disposal Site
Sanitary landfilling -Area Method
Sanitary landfilling -Ramp Method
Sanitary landfilling -Trench Method
Soils Suitable for Cover Material
Sectional View of a Sanitary landfill
Incinerator for Energy Recovery
PAGE
33
34
35
48
55
64
69
74
85
86
91
92
93
94
101
107
112
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CHAPTER 1 -INTRODUCTION
This manual has been prepared by the Alaska Power Authority as one of a series
of best management practices (BMP)manuals for projects constructed or operated
by the Power Authority in Alaska.The ultimate goal of this manual on liquid
and solid waste management is to minimize health hazards and environmental
impacts from wastes generated during project construction and operation.
This manual was prepared in recognition of the fact that waste management
techniques must relate to an infinite variation in environmental conditions.
Alaska is also unique from other states in that,to date,a limited number of
systems have been found to work re1 iab1y.The various combinations of camp
size ,weather,remoteness,and state and federal regulations have e1 imi nated
some systems from consideration.
This manual addresses liquid and solid wastes:what they are,how they are
collected,and how they are treated.Chapter 2 discusses liquid wastes and
Chapter 3 discusses solid wastes.Regulatory authorities and agencies are
listed in Chapter 4.While hazardous materials and hazardous wastes,as defined
by either EPA or Alaska regulations,are mentioned in this manual as possibly
used at or generated from a Power Authority project,discussion on the special
hand1 ing required for these materials is contained in a companion BMP manual
entitled "Fuel and Hazardous Materials Management".
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CHAPTER 2 -LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT
This chapter discusses liquid waste:what is it,how is it collected,and how
is it treated in a chronological and order of magnitude approach.Smaller
systems,such as those used at short-term exploratory or fly camps,are
discussed before larger systems used as long-term camps.The evolution of most
projects goes through a similar evolution of size and duration.
Some of the variables acting in a waste treatment design have .been grouped in
Table 1 to facilitate discussion in terms of phasing the design effort;identify-
ing levels of complexity;placing relative costs for system construction,
operation and maintenance;and evaluating the projected degree of treatment with
respect to the environmental needs of the area.
2.1 PROJECT PARAMETERS
On many occasions,a project is either a later phase or a repeat of a
similar effort in a new location.Even though it does not appear such at
the outset,there are sometimes enough dissimilar ingredients so that the
same application of technology does not yield success.
Design of treatment facilities for liquid wastes should not be an isolated
design procedure developed from data supplied by others.An environmental/
sanitary engineer should be an integral member of the project team from the
early stages.The following list presents typical projects tasks that
should have participation or review from an environmental/sanitary engine~r.
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TABLE 1
LIQUID WASTE TREATMENT VARIABLES
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CAMP SIZE &DURATION [
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Combination
truck &airplane
Limited trucking,
airplane or
barge likely.
Airplane or
barge.
Supply
Transport
~tem
TfUCl(
Truck
NOTE:Residents and
duration can be found in
numerous combinations.
Camp system
May require
haul in or
camp supply.
Variesato10
3 to 10
10 to 30
YEARS OF
DURATION
Camp system
May require
camp system
or haul out
NUMBER OF
RESIDENTS
3 to 50
3 to 50
50 to 300
300 to 4000
160 or more
160 or more
100 to 160
TYPE
t>CjiTOra to ry
Short Tem
Intennediate
Long Tenn
Remote
Wilderness
Remote Arctic
Wilderness
~LOCATION COMPLEXITY
(Assumes coal,gas or hydro power project)
Miles
Distant From
Alaska Major Supply &
Project Distribution Waste Water
Location Center Treatment Su~~
Orban 0 to 30 Publlc Pu lC
Surburban 30 to 100 Combination or Combination
camp'camp
Camp system Camp system
TYPE
COLLECTION SYSTEMS
DESCRIPTION c
Needs Additional StudX
surface appllcatlon of waste water
o spray irrigation
o surface injection into plowed furrows
aerated facultative lagoons
aerobic sludge digesters
anaerobic slUdge digesters
composting of sludge with shredded paper and garbage
utiliducts.above ground -
or below ground
piping in utilidors
above ground or in
ground
pump stations
honey buckets
pit toilets
tank trucks
sewers in ground
Field Tested
small camp
short duration
individual collection at residence
disposal site at out-house
collects from house storage tanks or buckets
where climate and soils pennit pipe in
trenches
cold climates require insulated pipe systems
arctic climates require pipe chases heated
and insulated
TREATMENT SYSTEMS
haul to dump station or connect to public system
land disposal (absorption field)
seepage pits
existing swamps,ponds or lakes (become lagoons)
man-made facultative lagoons
physical/chemical treatment
activated sludge (extended aeration)
rotating biological contactors
incineration of sludge
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TYPICAL PROJECT TASKS
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Exploratory survey
Exploratory core boring
Exploratory geology and soils sampling
Stream flow monitoring
Quality and quantity of water supply source
Identification,classification and quantification of flora and
fauna
Route selection of haul roads and material storage areas
Final siting of the structure (earth dam,concrete dam,coal
fired generator,gas fired generator,etc.)and appurtenances
Design of the structure
Siting of early stage and final support facilities (water supply
for camp,camp,waste treatment facility,shops,power and heat
sources,fuel and supply depots)
Design of support facilities
Permitting of support facilities
Operation and maintenance of support facilities
Construction of project structures
Removal of support facilities
Site cleanup,restoration and revegetation
Maintenance and operation of permanent or long-term facilities
Monitoring for the long term (defined in the permit)all land-
fills,waste dumps and lagoons for possible pollution after
covering
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The environmental/sanitary engineer should be familiar with conceptual
des i gn drawi ngs and how the project is to be si tuated on the premi ses ,
including such features as approximate limits of work,excavation,material
storage,sedimentation and erosion control.Comparing topographic features
with the 1imits of work and property 1ines will aid in determining what
areas are avail abl e for camp siting and,therefore,the pl acement of
adequate wastewater collection and treatment systems.Studying the
topography,geology,meteorology,surface and groundwater records of the
area will assist in making preliminary judgements as to the best location
and orientation of dwelling units,supply and collection lines,pump
stations,treatment and discharge locations.
The projected phases of development and related camp populations including
any provisions for overlapping of staff at shift change and vacation will
be needed to calculate peak loading.Early exploration may have as few as
\
5 to 10 men in a drilling operation moving nomadically through the project
area and never staying more than a few days at anyone location.First-
phase camp erection will see several more men and concentrations of mater-
ials and equipment stockpiled in various locations.large projects can
have upwards of 3000 men at peak work schedules,all of whom are housed(at
a single location.Treatment systems must be flexible to take the surges
and droughts which can and do occur.
The actual selection of distribution,collection,and treatment facilities
is extremely dependent upon how quickly they must be operational and how
soon they need to be unplugged and moved on.long-term facilities can be
built with an eye to efficient operation (low power consumption),durable
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semi-permanent materials,and efficient design based upon a more reliable
projection of demand.Short-term portable facilities are more controlled
by the results needed than the cost to get those results.Some parts of
the system such as pumps may be actually disposables.The challenge to the
design engineer is to obtain the correct mix of both while considering the
remoteness of the camp and difficulty of resupply.
An evaluation of total project cost is reasonable if one alternative is
compared to another.Actual treatment costs may be.incidental and of
little consequence due to environmental restraints and total project value.
A team effort,including input from federal and state agencies,will be
needed to establish reasonable limits of treatment.On-site population and
construction cost of the project are the primary factors needed to estimate
conceptual treatment costs and their percent of the total picture.
Comparison with similar projects and effluent requirements can be a guide
to the cost effectiveness of a given approach.
2.2 LIQUID WASTE STREAM CONSTITUENTS
2.2.1 Classification
The types of liquid substances or wastes anticipated at a Power Authority
project site are listed in Table 2.Those items which are also identified
as hazardous are addressed in a companion BMP manual on fuel and hazardous
materials management.Basically,the liquid and semi-liquid wastes which
are 1ikely to be found in camp situations can be separated into three
categories:
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TABLE 2
CAMP GENERATED CONTAMINANTS
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Wastewater related to domestic uses
Construction waste related to fabrication,erection,and finish-
ing of the project
Maintenance and operation wastes related to petroleum,oil,and
lubrication products as well as other hazardous materials.
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As practicable,the various materials will be separated at the point of
origin.Mixing of waste generally complicates the treatment process and in
certain instances prevents treatment.
2.2.2 Wastewater Sources and Strengths
2.2.2.1 Water Treatment Backwash
Most fly camps or short-duration exploratory operations will provide
required treatment as dictated by their raw water source.Generation of
water treatment by-products is limited.larger camps that obtain drinking
water from local sources will produce sludges from filter backwash contain-
ing algae,sediment,debri sand chemi ca 1 fl occul ants.The quantity of
waste produced is a function of the turbidity and chemical composition of
the raw water.Reverse osmosis can produce wastewater with high salinity.
So also do softeners using ion exchange and sodium chloride as the degene-
rate.Flocculants generally are aluminum sulfate,ferrous sulfate,ferric
sulfate,ferric chloride and coppers.Activated carbon is also used,and
unless recharged,becomes disposable.Lime and soda ash,if used as a
softener,will cause a precipitate to settle out in the contact tank and in
the filter bed.Every water treatment process except chlorination will
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produce a wastewater or sludge which may hinder or enhance a sewage
treatment process.It may be beneficial to operate the water and sewage
treatment systems independently until the steady-state parameters of each
are known before combining sludges.
2.2.2.2 Domestic Waste
The strength of waste and quantity generated are very closely tied to the
size of the operation and the availability of potable water.Fly camps may
use "honey buckets",priveys,incinolets,and pit toilets.Large 3,000-man
facilities with a 5-to 10-year life may have all of the modern
conveniences.The strength of workcamp wastewater is characteristically
higher than normal domestic wastewater,although per capita flow rates may
be only slightly less.BODS and suspended solids can typically average
-400 to 600 mg/l.While flow rates at Alyeska camps were calculated at
about 66 gal/cap/day (250 l/cap/day)in 1979,average water use in camps
today approximates 100 gal/cap/day (378 l/cap/day).Flow rates at the
lower 1evel may cause probl ems in meeting regul ations with secondary
treatment because of the higher strength (more solids)wastewater.The
more milligrams per liter of suspended solids and BODS in a wastewater,the
higher percent removal that is required to meet fixed criteria.
There are several explanations for the high strength of camp wastewater.
These include:
o Limited water supply
o High per capita food consumption and waste generation
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High grease content in kitchen wastewater
Entry of cl eaning compounds,used in camp maintenance,into the
sewage system
Lack of groundwater infiltration into the sewers.
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Flow Rates &Constituents
Per-person sewage flows are quite variable among camps and communities in
cold regions.Tables 3 through 5 are representative of the current
available data.In general,institutional facil ities such as mil itary
stations and construction camps,tend to have strong flow variations
because a large portion of the population responds to the same schedu]e.
The peak flow will usually occur in late afternoon when personnel are using
the bath and laundry.Two such peaks will occur at those installations
operating on a·continuous two-shift,24-hour cycle.The peak daily flow
rate for design purposes should be three times the average daily rate for
institutional facilities.In general,the average rate for camps will be
100 gal/cap/day.For non-resident day workers,an allowance of 15
gal/cap/day per 8-hour shift should be made.
Civilian communities and similar residential areas have less sharply
defined flow variations.In general,a single major peak,approximately at
mid-day,will occur.The time is dependent on transmission distance from
the homes to the treatment system.The daily peak flow rate of these
communities should be taken as two times the average daily rate.The U.S.
Public Health Service uses a factor of 3.5 people per residence for designs
in small communities.
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TABLE 3
TYPICAL AVERAGE PER PERSON SEWAGE FLOW 1)
Permanent Military Bases and Civilian Communities
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less than 1000 with conventional piped water and sewage:
greater than 1000 population with conventional piped water and
sewage:
with truck haul systems,low flush toilets:
with truck haul systems,conventional internal plumMng:
same as (e)above BUT with central bathhouse and laundry:
no household plumbing,water tanks and honeybucket toilet:
Remote Military with Limited Availability of Water
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Construction Camps
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
300 l/person/d
79 gal/cap/d
240 l/person/d
63 gal/cap/d
140 l/person/d
37 gal/cap/d
90 l/person/d
24 gal/cap/d
1.51/person/d
0.4 gal/cap/d
15 l/person/d
4 gal/cap/d
220 l/person/d
58 gal/cap/d
130 l/person/d
34 gal/cap/d
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1)Source:Smith,et al (1979).
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TABLE 4
'1 CAMP WATER USE &WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS 1)
~_-..1
n AVERAGE OF RESULTS
SUSPENDED
u CAMP LOCATION WATER CONSUMPTION BOD COD SOLIDS OTHER
(l/cap/day)(gal/cap/day)(mg~l )(mg/l)(mg/l)
R
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1.Five camps in Alaska 320 84 626 1790 1180
[2.Alyeska-Chandalan Camp
609
[3.Alyeska-Pump Station
No.1 541 395
0 4.Alyeska-Coldfoot Camp
280 74
5.BP-Prudhoe Bay
0 Drilling Camp 132 35 610 375
pH/7.3
6.BP-Prudhoe Bay 6.2-9.3
0 Base Camp 200 53 590 2057 670 Temp/28.0oC
16.5-36.9°C
7.Crazyhorse Camp 258 68 686 552
!8.Happy Horse Camp 509 357
0 9.Isabel Camp 490 316
10.Glennallen Cam2 622 894
0 11.Pump Station 4 770 712
12.Valdez Terminal Camp
G 931 512
13.Nine Pump Stations 240 63
C
Oil &
14.ADGO-F28,Mackenzie Bay,Greases
N.W.T.130 34 1900 2800 1100 416 mg/1
Oil &
0 15.Arctic Red River,Greases
N.W.T.SITE 1 110 29 3315 2048 386 mg/1
SITE 2 120 31 862 314 36 mg/l
B Oil &
16.30 construction Greases
camps in Alaska 265 70 456 1078 491 100-150mg/1
0 1)Source:Givens and Ellis (1979)
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TABLE 5
TYPICAL WASTEWATER DESIGN PARAMETERS IN CANADA &USA 1)
gal/liters/lb BOD/mg BOD/lb SS/mg 55/
CommunitI cap/day cap/day cap/day cap/day cap/day cap/day
Construction Camp 50 189 0.15 68,100
Average Subdivision 80 303 0.17 77,180
Hospitals 200 757 0.30 136,200
Major Cities 135 511 0.20 90,800 0.23 104,420
2)Values Most .
Frequently Quoted 100 378 0.17 77,180 0.20 90,800
1)Source:Grainge et al (1973)
2)These values yield a BODS concentration in raw sewage near
200 mg/l,and a suspended solids concentration of 230 mg/l.
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Minimum flow rates are important to the design of grit chambers,monitoring
devices,dosing equipment,etc.A minimum rate equal to 40 percent of the
average rate should be used for design purposes.
Table 6 summarizes the sanitary facilities provided at several
institutional installations.It should be noted that OSHA regulations will
determine the minimum number of fixtures for a system.
TABLE 6
INSTITUTIONAL SANITARY FACILITIES IN COLD CLIMATES 1)
(units per person)
Toilets Urinals Sinks Showers
Thule AFB,Greenland 1/10 1/27
P Mountain Radar,
Thule Greenland 1/15 1/45 1/8 1/14
50 Man Winter
Camp Tuto,Greenland 1/10 1/25 1/6 1/10
Wainwright,AK 2)1/47 0 1/94 1/47
1)Source:Smith et al (1979)
2)The grey water/black water concept is used at the
Wainwright,AK,central facility and should be considered
wherever water conservation is an issue.Black water is
considered to be that related to human wastes from toilets,
urinals,etc.Grey water (the remaining wastewater from
showers,sinks,laundries)is recycled for the toilets.
The percentages of daily flow from community sewage sources,as presented
in Table 7,has been averaged from numerous studies.Table 8 presents
similar data for military field bases.The percentage of daily flow at
army field bases for washracks (12 percent)is similar to flows at camps
for equipment washing.
-14-
-15-
TABLE 7
DOMESTIC SEWAGE SOURCES
(%of average daily flow)
TABLE 8
ARMY FIELD BASES (1000-6000 yOp)
(%of average daily flow
fats,crisco,butter,etc.down sink drains can plug up sewers.Skimming
devices may be required to reduce constant back-up and maintenance.
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6
16
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%
37
32
12
19
100
Category
Toilet,Urinal
Shower,Sinks
Kitchen
Laundry
Category
Photographic
Aircraft Washrack
Vehicle Washrack
Hospital
Toilets,Showers,Sinks
Kitchen
Laundry
The concentrations of wastewater constituents will vary with the amount of
water used and the type of facilities employed.However,the actual mass
loading of organics and related substances should be relatively constant on
a per person basis.Table 9 gives estimated mass values for the major
domestic wastewater sources.The values are based on a comparative analy-
sis of a number of data sources.The final item,"institutional garbage
grinders",reflects the common practice ~t military stations and many
construction camps of grinding most of the kitchen wastes for inclusion in
the wastewater stream.The treatment system must be designed specifically
for garbage if it is to be accepted.Di sposal of cooking oil s,animal
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TABLE 9
ESTIMATED SOURCES OF SEWAGE POLLUNTANTS
(per person per day)
"1
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9
Source BODS
Grams Pounds
SS Total Total
Nitrogen Phosphorus
Grams Pounds Grams Pounds Grams Pounds
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Toilet 60.8 0.13 85.2 0.19 14.7 .0323 1.67 0.0037
Bath/Shower 5.33 0.01 5.12 0.01 0.31 .0007 0.04 0.0001
Laundry 7.92 0.02 7.70 0.02 0.23 .0005 0.67 0.0015
Kitchen 16.8 0.04 10.0 0.02 0.49 .0011 0.49 0.0011
Subtotal 90.8 0.20 109 0.24 15.7 .0346 2.83 0.0064
Institutional
Garbage
Grinders 59.0 0.13 58.8 0.13 1.31 .0029 0.95 0.0021
Total 150 0.33 165 0.37 17.0 .0375 3.78 0.0085
-16-
-17-
Total Flow:220 x 200 =44,000 l/day.
N 3 400 t 44 =77 mg/l
P 755 t 44 =17 mg/l
Example 1:
200-man construction camp,all conventional facilities,central dining and
kitchen with garbage grinder.
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30 000 t 44 =680 mg/l
33 000 t 44 =750 mg/l
From Table 3:Assume flow =58 gal/person/day (220 l/person/day)
From Table 9:grams/person/day
BOD 5 55 N P
Totals include toilets,
baths,laundry,kitchen,
garbage grinders 150 165 17 3.8
x 200 people =30,000 33,000 3,400 755
Concentrations:BOD 5
55
All the values in Table 9 are independent of the amount of water used for a
particular activity and below the strengths of many camps.Combining these
values with data in Tables 2 and 6 or other sources will allow
determination of concentrations for a particular case.The following two
examples,based on 58 and 24 gal/cap/day (220 and 90 l/cap/day),
demonstrate systems that will require tertiary treatment.A flow rate of
100 gal/cap/day (378 l/cap/day)would be more realistic of current
conditions.
-18-
Temperature
Table 3:flow =24 gal/person/day (90 l/person/day)
Table 9:"grams/person/day
The energy level presented by moderate (50°F)to high incoming sewage
temperatures should be considered as a resource.The treatment system and
Total P
3
Total N
16
SS
109
BODS
91
Design concentrations:
mg/l =grams/person/day f l/person/day x 100 mg/g
BODS 1011 mg/l
SS 1211 mg/l
N 177 mg/l
P 33 mg/l
The temperature of the raw wastewater entering the sewage treatment plant
can strongly infl uence effi ciency of most unit operations and processes.
Temperature control is also necessary to prevent unwanted freezing either
in the system or at the point of final discharge.
Example 2:
Small community,truck haul,internal plumbing low volume flush toilets
(assume 100 people).
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its protective elements should be designed to take full advantage of this
available energy.For example,the municipal treatment plant in Fairbanks
extracts energy from the effluent via a heat pump and this is used to heat
the entire facility.
The seasonal temperature of the body of water which ultimately receives the
wastewater is an important factor depending upon its relative size and the
existing use of the water for fisheries,recreation,water supply,etc.
The temperature of raw wastewater is a function of the raw water
temperature,the use of electric heat trace and insulation on sewers,the
water and sewage system design and characteristics (utiliducts,utilidors,
transport distance),the use,number and plumbing (hot water)of buildings
serviced,and the ambient temperatures.Some values of raw wastewater
temperature are presented in Table 10.
2.2.2.3 Construction Wastewater
Drilling operations often make use of a drilling mud (bentonite and water)
slurry to assist in reducing the heat of the bit,seal sides of the hole,
and carry tailings to the top.Generally it is injected,recirculated at a
site,then abandoned in a pit or other approved disposal site,or with
small amounts,'scattered at the surface when the operation moves to a new
site.Exploratory drilling for projects recovers cores;any wastewater for
hard rock drilling is discharged for overland percolation or,if required,
to settling ponds prior to discharge.
-19-
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TABLE 10
RAW SEWAGE TEMPERATURES AT TREATMENT FACILITY (OF)1)
-20-
1)Source:Smith et al (1979)
Wintern
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Location
Fairbanks,AK
Fairbanks,AK
College,AK
Eielson AFB,AK
Juneau,AK
Kenai,AK
Homer,AK
Dillingham,AK
Craig,AK
Kake,AK
Soldotna,AK
Eagle River,AK
Eagle River,AK
Inuvik,NWT
Whitehorse,YT
Clinton Creek,YT
Emmonak,AK
Alaska
Hal River,NWT
o
53
66
70
36
46
37-41
37
63
Summer Notes
37 Individual wells
52 Water main at 59°C
65 Sewers in heated utilidor
69 Sewers in heated utilidor
48
50-57
48-50
37-39 April
41 January
39 December
46-48
41 Initial operation,few
services
48 After 4 years
73
37-59 Water main bleeders
72
82 Central facility,grey
water only
68-75 Construction camps
(Alyeska)
50-59 Airport facility
Wastewater generated during camp construction usually consists of pressure
testing'water (if used in lieu of air)and the chlorinated water resulting
from disinfection of the potable water system.
Another source of potential wastewater is surface runoff and associated
sediments from construction activities.Proper design or location of
control devices such as settling ponds is required to maintain state water
quality standards for the receiving waters.These control devices are
addressed in a companion BMP manual on erosion and sedimentation control.
Similarly,the batching of concrete can produce waste slurries that require
treatment and/or disposal.Batch plant operators and truckers haul ing
concrete will,usually require an area for disposal of their wastes and
"wash down"waters.These wastes,once solidified,require an approved
disposal area away from wetlands and waterways.
2.2.2.4 Maintenance and Operation
An operational camp requires support facil ities similar to those of the
construction camp.Maintenance activities require garages,washing and
steaming of equipment prior to repair,use of solvents,antifreeze,petro-
leum products,lubricants,incineration,etc.which quite often produce
wastes or use materials in the hazardous category.Care must be taken to
isolate these materials and prevent their entry into the domestic waste-
water stream or local environment.
-21-
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2.3 CONCEPTUAL CAMP LAYOUT,COLLECTION AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS
At this stage of the design process,preferences will be developed for
certain types of collection and treatment based on project data and field
reconnaissance.Liaison with state,federal,and local government
personnel whose jurisdiction covers wastewater treatment,plan review
and/or treatment requirements should be ongoing.
2.3.1 Water Supply Requirements
The quality and quantity of potable water should be verified by researching
project records on stream data,exploratory drilling,any well water draw-
down data,changes due to various seasons and weather conditions,etc.
Evaluation of the raw water source should consider that its chemical and
physical characteristics may add backwash water (more to treat)and/or
treatment residues (change of wastewater characteristics).
Alternative water sources should be considered should water ava;1abi 1ity
become a 1imiting factor in wastewater treatment feasibil ity.In many
instances,a dependable water source such as a well system or impoundment
is required to size a treatment facility which will effectively treat the
wastewater within the parameters of state or federal permits.
2.3.2 Wastewater Collection and Treatment
All siting of waste collection and treatment is a function of the location
of the water supply,minimization of length of collection and delivery
-22-
lines,location of ultimate receiving body,soils,ground water,surface
water,and terrain of the area.
Gently sloping high ground with free draining soils would be the optimum
site even if the location is less convenient than others to the work or
water supply.Core boring will be needed on large sites to verify subsoil
conditions and insure foundation stability as well as to identify the
presence of permafrost or bedrock which could interfere with installation
of sewers and other utilities.
Obviously,waste treatment facilities should not be located where they
cou1 d affect the potable water source,cause odor problems at camp,or
attract wildlife.
A minimum of three alternative systems should be considered for each
project site.These alternatives are a function of the following:
o Size -phases of camp size and development
o Duration -length of camp usefulness
o Location -variables of camp location
o Cost -relative construction operation and maintenance of
collection and treatment facilities.
Two systems are usually fairly easy to develop but the third may require a
more detailed investigation which often results in a better idea or
modification.Modular units that can be plugged in and out or multiplied
to obtain the ultimate treatment are desirable.Transportation and
-23-
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installation,which could take place in the most remote of locations and in
the most severe weather,are important considerations.Other aspects to
consider are the fl exibi1 ity or durabil ity in the system if the loading
rate is different or the time it is in service changes and the degree of
sophistication required for the training of wastewater treatment facilities
operators.Costs also need to be developed at this time in enough detail
to comparatively rank the possibilities.
2.4 DESIGN OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS
This section discusses the characteristics of collection systems by camp
and system characteristics.Table 11 summarizes the characteristics of
typical collection systems in remote camp areas.
2.4.1 Characteristics by Type of Camp
2.4.1.1 Exploratory and Fly Camps
With a collection system relying on the individual users to bring their
wastes to a disposal point,the important considerations are the types of
containers in which the waste is transported and the faci1 ities at the
point of discharge.
Containers used by individuals for transporting wastes will vary from
conventional oil drums to porta-can pails.The containers should be sized
for the way they will be transported and should be covered.
-24-
TABLE 11
CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER COLLECTION SYSTEMS 1)
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Source:Smith et al (1979)
icle-Haul Year-round roads
must be available.
TYPE
Ivity
:uum
,ssure
ividual-
aul
SOIL CONDITIONS
Non frost susceptible
or slightly frost
susceptible with
grRvel backfilling
material.
Most useful for frost
susceptible or bedrock
conditions,but can be
used with any soil
conditions.
Most useful for frost
susceptible or bedrock
conditions,but can be
used with any soil
conditions.
Used with any soil
conditions but
boardwalks are
necessary in extremely
swampy conditions.
TOPOGRAPHY
Gently sloping
to prevent deep
cuts and lift
station.
Level or gently
sloping.
Level,gently
sloping or
hi ny.
Level,gently
sloping or hilly.
Level,gently
sloping or hilly.
ECONOMICS
Initial construction
costs high but opera-
tional costs low
unless must go above
ground or use lift
stations.
Initial construction
cost moderately high.
Operational costs
moderate.
Initial construction
costs moderate.
Operational costs
moderately high.
Initial construction
cost low.Operational
costs very high.
Initial construction
cost and operational
costs very low.
OTHER
Low Maintenance.High health
and convenience improvements.
Must hold grades.Flushing
of low use lines may be
necessary.Large diameter
pipes necessary.
"Traps"every 300 feet.
Low water use.
High health and convenience
improvements.
Must have central holding
tank for each 30 to 50 ser-
vices with additional pumps
to pump waste to treatment
facil iti es.
Can separate gray and black
water.
Use small pipes.
No exfiltration.
Low water use if low water
use fixtures are installed.
High health and convenience
improvements.
No central facility necessary
-units are in individual
buildings.Number of
services are not limited.No
infiltration.Use small
pipes.
Low water use and moderate
health and convenience
improvements.
Operational costs must be
subsidized.
Low usage by inhabitants and
thus low health and
convenience improvements.
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2.4.1.2 Small and Intermediate Camps
Camp-haul sewage collection involves the collection of wastewater from each
point of generation and its transportation by a contractor-operated track
or wheel vehicle to a treatment and/or disposal facility.Facilities at
camp dwellings generally consist of holding tanks located on or beneath the
floors of buildings into which wastes from sinks,lavatories,toilets,and
kitchens drain by gravity.The tanks are then emptied into a collection
vehicle by pumping.With any haul system,low water use plumbing fixtures
are necessary to reduce water consumption and to minimize wastewater
generation.
The efficiency and operational costs of this type of collection system are
dependent partly on the sizing of the holding tanks.For most circum-
stances,tanks should be around 260 gallons,but at least 100 gallons
larger than the water storage tank provided.The size of the collection,
reliability of the service,and climatic conditions should be considered in
sizing wastewater storage tanks.It is also important to provide for the
structural support in any building required to carry this additional load.
The tank must be constructed with a large manhole with removable cover so
it can be cleaned and flushed out at least yearly.Fill alarms and volume
metering ports should be provided.It must be well insulated,kept within
the heated portion of the building and/or heat must be added using heating
coils or circulating hot water to prevent any ice formation.While holding
tanks have sometimes been buried in the ground beside or beneath
-26-
facilities,this should not be done in permafrost areas.The tanks must be
placed so they are emptied from the outside of buildings.
The hose connection should be of the quick-disconnect type and be a
different size and color than that of the water delivery hose,to eliminate
the possi~i1 ity of "a cross-connection.The pumpout connection at the
building must be sloped to drain back into the tank after pumping so sewage
does not drain outside or stand in the wind and freeze.The tanks must be
properly vented to provide adequate air exchange during filling and
emptying.
Two methods of emptying the holding tanks are in use in the north.With
one,a pressure tank is used on the vehicle.The tank is held under a
vacuum using a small compressor and a three-way valve.The contents of the
hol ding tank are withdrawn into the truck tank under vacuum.At the
disposal point the valve is turned to pressurize the tank,forcing the
wastewater out.The other method is similar except that sewage pumps are
used instead of a compressor and the vehicle tank does not have to be
pressure rated.
2.4.1.3 Intermediate and Large Camps
Large facilities are designed for the convenience and sanitation which
accompany piped sewage collection.Whenever the duration of the camp site
will exceed 5 years,a piped system deserves consideration.There are
several variations of piped sewage collection systems.Normally,a conven-
ti ona 1 gravity system has the lowest 1ife-cycl e cost and shaul d be used
-27-
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whenever feasible.However,the layout of the site and/or the soil
conditions may make a vacuum or pressure sewage coll ection system neces-
sary.An additional advantage of a gravity system is that a freezeup
seldom causes pipes to break.The freezeup is gradual and in layers,in
contrast to pressure lines which are full when freezing takes place.
When soil conditions do not allow burying collection lines,they must be
placed on or above the surface of the ground.In most locations,the
topography and building layout would dictate above-ground lines on pilings
(or gravel berms)to hold the grades necessary for gravity sewage flow.
Above-ground 1ines are undesi rab1 e because of transportation hinderance,
high heat losses,blocked drainage,vandalism,and the cluttered look they
create.It may be preferable to use a pressure or vacuum collection system
so that the lines can be placed on the ground surface to minimize the above
problems.
Sewage collection lines may be placed in uti1idors with other utilities,
depending on the local circumstances.Assuming the same design,heat
losses (and thus operation and maintenance costs)of above-ground
facilities are nearly three times as high as for the same line placed
below-ground because of the greater temperature differential between the
inside and outside of the line.
Sewage temperatures are also an important design consideration.In camps
or villages where the individual buildings have hot water heaters,sewage
temperatures usually range between 50°and 59°F.Where hot water heaters
are not used and any hot water must be obtained by heating water on a cook
-28-
stove,sewage temperatures range from 39°to 52°F.Heated utilidors,
utiliducts,and sewer lines can deliver sewage at temperatures upwards of
60°to 65°F.A greater percentage of this heat will be lost between the
users and the point of treatment with a gravity system (without heat
tracing)than with a utilidor,pressure or vacuum system because the sewage
is longer in transit and there is air circulation above the sewage in the
pipes.It is often necessary to use electric heat trace at the ends of
little-used laterals or throughout the collection piping in a gravity
system to eliminate freezing problems caused by the lines slowly icing up.
Also,a greater percentage of the heat will be lost if the lines are above
ground.Sewage heat losses will vary considerably from summer to winter
with buried lines,depending upon the presence of permafrost.The presence
of permafrost,however,requires an entirely different approach to the
design and placement of underground utilities.
2.4.2 Collection Systems
The following paragraphs discuss design considerations for three types of
systems used in remote,northern climates.Common to each system are the
following considerations:
o Storm water or melt water runoff should not be included in
sewers.The waters could lower wastewater temperature,overload
treatment facilities hydraulically,and deposit sand and grit
in collection lines.
-29-
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Insulated pipe should always be used in cold regions unless lines
can be buried well below the active layer and not in permafrost.
Flex couplings must be provided in facilities designed for use in
areas subjected to frost heaving or subsidence.
In providing wastewater and water 1 ines through the use of a
common util idor,extreme care must be taken to ensure that no
cross connections can occur or that the potable water line is
protected from any sewage in the util idor as in the case of a
sewer line break.
It is better to design the sewer system so there is at least one
large user near the end of each lateral to eliminate the need for
flushing.
All fixtures should be placed on inside walls which are warm on
both sides.If possible,the sink should be placed on the
opposite side of the bathroom plumbing wall to reduce the length
of drain lines.
All fixtures and lines should be installed so that they can be
drained or otherwise protected from freezing.Drainable P-traps
shoul d be used and the user shoul d be aware that antifreeze
solution should be added to the toilet and sewer line low spots
if there is a danger of freezing during non-use.
-30-
-31-
3 inch vents should be increased to 4 inches.
2.4.2.1 Conventional Gravity Collection Lines
o Vents should be constructed of low conductivity material and
should increase in size as they go into the unheated atmosphere.
One and one-half inch vents should be increased to 3 inches and
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0:6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.22
0.17
Minimum Slope
(,2ercent)
"6
8
10
12
14
15
Nominal
Pipe Size
Unches}
If soil stability is uncertain (i.e.,a small amount of settling or heaving
is likely),a minimum slope of 1 percent should be used for all collection
lines.They should be backfilled with non-frost susceptible sand or gravel
If lines can be buried and the layout of the site is sloping,a gravity
sewage collection system will have lower operation-and maintenance costs
than other types of systems.
The most important design consideration with gravity sewers is the minimum
grades necessary to ensure adequate velocities in the pipelines.Building
service lines should have a nominal pipe size of 4 to 6 inches and a
minimum slope of 1 percent.The following minimums for main coll ection
lines should be used with stable ground conditions (frost-susceptible and
permafrost areas have additional design controls):
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at least 12 inches at the bottom and sides of the pipe (Figure 1).The
4-inch service lines should be placed the same way with a 2 percent minimum
slope.Higher slopes than those above should be used if possible because
the longer the sewage is in the collection system,the more heat it will
lose.In small camps,minimum sewage collection line sizes could be 6
inches instead of the normal 8 inches.
Lines usually should be buried at least 2 feet to prevent damage from
surface loading •.less depth could be allowed in areas with no roads or
vehicular traffic.
In addition to the steeper slopes listed above,provisions should be made
to readjust the slope of aline if it traverses an area where movement is
likely.With lines on piling,blocks are placed between the piling and the
pipel ine and act as shims.They can be removed or added to readjust the
slope.A utilidor can be suspended with adjustable turnbuckles or placed
on adjustable yokes or supports.
Gravity sewer lines should be checked regularly and when the depth of flow
indicates sedimentation or blockage.All cleanouts should be inside of a
lift station.
Figures 2 and 3 show typical service line connections to a building for a
cold region gravity sewage collection system.They should slope at least
1 to 2 percent to the collection main,depending on soil stability.Of the
two examples shown,the method of going through the wall is preferable to
going through the floor.The former will allow for more movement of the
-32-
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Variable
Compacted Backfill ".
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.~.~0"--P'1Pipe••.•0_•...<it __"..•-•.&4"
Hand Tamped Backfill J.Ii!:.:
Bedding Gravel or Sand .._•
to Top of Pipe . ..,
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ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
TYPICAL SEWER AND
WATER BEDDING DETAILS
FIGURE 1
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Wood box with removable
lid screwed on with
wood screws
DETAIL
=>
Band~-J/
1
Filled with polystyrene ;J 4"r
or fiberglass insulation ~
Flexible rubber drain housing
Band
Approximate ground line
_._0.~
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/'
~:U ::,3~i1ding sewer
Building "ocr
...,_..../-?==ABoa~
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SEWER WALL CONNECTION
FIGURE 2
DETAIL-
~-:.o.o·::00·::·00".-0·..··0:...0 ••:••0 :••-;.\
Corrugated Metal Pipe " "...
(Filled-in or Smooth to
Reduce Frost Jacking)
To Sewer Main
,"')If Plug
.....C All-Temperature Grease
I.)900Floxible Rubber Hose
?75 PVC""7_,,;.__--100 x 75 Reducing Ball Coupling
~Band
!14 ~V~::o""::-;:.:"~:.~":":••••0 ••"."o"":"~"••"··0 ••
:.::D •~00 PVC
~:~:".:
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SEWER FLOOR CONNECTION
FIGURE 3
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building without damage to the sewer service 1ine.It al so permits all
plumbing to be kept above the building floor.
2.4.2.2 Pressure Sewage Collection Systems
If soil conditions and camp layout make a gravity collection system
impractical,a pressure system may be considered.A small pump-grinder
unit in or near each building provides the force for the pressure system.
While construction costs would probably be lower than either a gravity or
vacuum system,operation and maintenance costs would be greater than for a
gravity or vacuum system because of the pump-grinder units in each
building.
The largest advantage of this system is that it is not necessary to
maintain grades.Pipelines or utilidors do not have to be on piling or up
off the ground.They can be at the surface or buried.Small movements due
to frost heave or thawi ng will not affect operati on nor wi 11 there be
problems with infiltration of groundwater because the 1ines are under
pressure.A disadvantage is that pressure lines lay full which allows
sedimentation and freezing.
The collection 1ines must be sized to maintain a minimum of 1 foot per
second scour velocity.The minimum size collection line is Ii inch,which
would be the size for one unit.If more units are added than were
originally planned for,velocities will increase down the line.The effect
of this velocity increase is an increase in head loss.Pressures should be
held below 40 psi in the layout.The lines should be slightly undersized
-36-
(higher velocity)rather than oversized if the correct size (for 1 foot per
second)is not available.In the design of a pressure system,an assump-
tion that 33 percent of the pumps will be operating at once is recommended
for sizing pipes.
The collection lines should be designed to be safely drained if the system
has to be shut down during the winter for maintenance.Grades should not
undulate with the terrain as this would establish a need for air and vacuum
relief valves as well as dips which will freeze.The pressure collection
lines should be heated,if required,by heat tape,hot air in utiliducts,
circulating glycol,steam,etc.Air relief valves should be installed at
all high points in the line to allow filling and pressure testing at start-
up as well as for operation.
The pump-grinder units can be situated in each building or several
buil dings coul d drain into one unit by gravity.The units shoul d be
designed to pump against the design head in the main plus a 40 percent
overload (with 33 percent of them operating at once).Each unit should
have complete duplication of controls,sump pumps,and pumps or compressor,
for standby.The extra unit would take over if the primary unit is
inoperable and,at the same time,set off a warning device (audible and
visual)to alert the operator that repairs are required.Standby power
should be available in case of a power outage for units serving several
buildings.The pumping units should be well insulated and installed on a
stable foundation if they are placed outside or in the ground.As with
lift stations,they must be protected from frost jacking forces.
Double-check valves should be provided on inlets and outlets to prevent
-37-
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backflow.Weighted check valves have proven more satisfactory than spring-
loaded valves.
The pump-grinder units designed to serve individual buildings are equipped
with positive displacement pumps which have a nearly constant pumping rate
over a wide range of heads.The grinder unit reduces all foreign objects
to 0.26 inches before they go into the pump.The unit must be able to
handle unusual items flushed down the toilets such as rock,wash rags,
utensils,etc.Positive displacement pumps require a lower power input to
purge the system of any ai r pockets.The units must be small and 1i ght
enough that they can be easily removed from the sump and repaired while the
standby unit continues to operate.
The sump or tank from which the pump draws must be designed so that it is
cleaned by scouring as the pump operates.The outlet check valves should
be located in a horizontal run to prevent solids from settling in them when
the pump isn't running.Pressure sensors should be used to control pumps
and alarms (rags and grease tend to foul float switches).The sump should
be sized to provide sever~l days I storage in case of a temporary power
outage or other probl em.They shoul d be constructed of fibergl ass or
plastic for protection from corrosion.
The pressure system can also be modified by using conventional submersible
sewage pumps in holding tanks at each building.The tanks are similar to
septic tanks where the sol ids settle,biodegrade anaerobically,and are
pumped out by truck occasionally.The submersible pump pumps the relative-
ly clear effluent into the pressure sewer lines to a treatment facility.
-38-
Some of the advantages of this type of operation are:
o Problems with the grinder on the pump plugging up are eliminated.
o There are no solids to settle in the collection lines.
o The treatment facility is not as complicated as for conventional
sewage.
Pressure sewer lines should be tested as any pressure water line would be.
If using water or liquid,use Ii times the working pressures with an
allowable loss of 3 gallons in 24 hours.If using air,use Ii times the
working pressure with an allowable loss of 103 psi in 24 hours.Great care
must be exercised when using compressed air because of the possibility of
explosion.Air testing must be used at below freezing temperatures.
2.4.2.3 Vacuum Sewage Collection Systems
As with pressure systems,a vacuum sewage collection system should be
designed only if soil conditions and camp layout negate a gravity
collection system.Vacuum systems are not limited to holding grades,but
are limited to 15 to 20 feet in elevation differences because they are
operated at 8 to 10 psi vacuum.Vacuum systems are limited to 30 to 50
services on a given collection line.
Toilet wastes,with a small amount of water,are transported in the pipes
by the differential pressure between the atmosphere (air admitted to the
system with the flushing action)and a partial vacuum in the pipe created
by a central vacuum pump.The flow conditions are slug-type,but the
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friction in the pipe breaks down the water slug.To reform the slug flow,
transport pockets are required at intervals of about 200 to 300 feet.The
vacuum toilets only require 0.3 gallons of water to flush and the collec-
ti on 1ines are small (2 inches).The requi rement for transport pockets
(traps)is a disadvantage of the vacuum system.Because the traps will
have liquid standing in them for extended periods of time,they must be
inside a heated utilidor or be well insulat.ed.They should also be pro-
vided with drains.
The collection line sizes will depend on the number of fixtures on a line
and the estimated number that will be operating simultaneously.Usually 2-
to 2i-inch lines are used with the traps dipping at least one and one-half
pipe diameters.Tests have shown that head losses increase about 1 inch of
mercury for each 984 feet of collection 1ine velocities of 15 feet per
second or less.Because the lines carry a combination of air and water,
head losses are nearly impossible to compute.However,when going uphill,
the increase in head loss is only about 20 percent of the actual elevation
increase.Most fixtures will not flush if there is less than 6 to 7 psi
vacuum in the collection lines.Thus,if several are flushing
simultaneously and the vacuum drops to 6 to 7 psi,additional fixtures will
not flush until the vacuum builds back up.Grey water (sink,shower and
tub wastes)can be separated from black water (toilet wastes)for treatment
purposes cir water reuse,by having the toilets on a different collection
line than the gray water fixtures.In low use lines where it is not
desirable to have sewage stand in the traps for extended periods,an
automatic or timed valve can be installed to bleed air into the end of the
line and keep the wastewater moving.Full opening ball valves should be
-40-
installed approximately every 200 feet s6 that sections of the lines can be
isolated to check for leaks or plugs.
A collection tank is located at the end of the collection lines.The tank
is held under a vacuum at all times by liquid-ring vacuum pumps which must
be sized to evacuate the air and liquid admitted to the system by the users
with a safety factor of two.(In Noorvik,Alaska,the design figures used
.were six fl ushes per person per day for the toil ets and 30 gall ons per
person per day for sinks and showers.For 50 houses,pumps were selected
which were capable of evacuating 64 cubic feet per minute at a vacuum of 16
inches of mercury.)The collected wastes are pumped out of the tank to the
treatment facility using conventional centrifugal pumps.They must be
designed to pump with a negative suction head equal to the maximum vacuum
under which the tank must operate.The collection tank is sized similar to
the pressure tank in a hydro-pneumatic system.One-half of the tank
capacity is used for liquid storage and the other half is space (vacuum)
serving as a buffer for the vacuum pumps.Several alarms should be in-
cluded in the tank to give warning of high levels of sewage in the holding
tanks,low incoming sewage temperature,and low vacuum in the system.
2.4.2.4 Lift Stations
Sewage 1ift stations are used mainly with gravity collection systems but
could be used with pressure sewage collection systems,and even vacuum
systems (to pump the waste from the collection tank to the treatment
facil ity).The advantages and disadvantages of several types of 1ift
stations are shown on Table 12.
-41-
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TABLE 12
TYPES OF LIFT STATIONS
TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
l.Submersible Low initial cost;low Difficult to make field
maintenance requirements;repair of pump,requires
does not require installa-specialized lifting
tion of appurtenances such equipment to remove pump.
as heaters,dehumidifers,
sump pump,etc.;station
can easily be expanded and
increased in capacity;
available for wide range of
capacities.Little of the
structure is above ground
so heat losses are greatly
reduced.
2.Dry Well Pumping equipment located High initial costs;
away from wet well;low requires larger
cost per gallon capacity;construction site.
good reliability;high
efficiency;desirable for
large installations;
easily maintained.
3.Wet Well Low initial cost;high Requires explosion proof
efficiency;wide range electrical motors and
of capacity available.connections;difficult
to maintain pump.
4.Suction Lift Good reliability;avail-Suction lift limited to
able for wide range of 15 feet;decrease in
capacity.priming efficiency as
pump ages.
5.Pneumatic For low capacity (40 gpm)Somewhat more complex
Ejector low head,short distances;than other types of
generally nonclogging;stations;high mainten-
100 gpm maximum usually.ances;low efficiency.
-42-
The outside of the station should be insulated with at least 3 inches of
urethane or styrofoam with an outer protective covering to protect the
insulation from moisture.Insulation should be placed underneath the
station to prevent settling due to the thaw of frozen ground.Visqueen
(plastic)or some other bond breaker should always be used to reduce frost
jacking in the active layer.If thawing and settling under the station is
anticipated,pile foundations extending well into the permafrost are
recommended •All stati ons must be attached to concrete sl abs to provi de
sufficient weight to overcome the buoyancy of the station itself if it were
compl etely submerged in water.Pressure coupl ing (fl exible)type
connections are recommended at the inlet and outlet of the stations to
prevent differential movement from breaking the lines.
Alarms are an absolute necessity in any lift station.All critical
components,such as pumps and compressors,should be dupl icated in each
station.The controls should allow the operator to specify operation of
the pump or compressor,with the identical standby unit taking over if one
or the other does not start.An alarm (both visual from the surface and
audible)would then warn the operator that one unit is malfunctioning.The
alarms can also be set for the temperature and water level in the station.
These alarms should be tied back into a central alarm panel in the
pumphouse or to the treatment plant.Standby electrical power should be
provided for each major lift station.
Inlet screens must be provided to remove items that would clog pumps or
check valves.Each lift station should be checked by the operator and the
inlet screen cleaned daily.Submersible types or those without a heated
-43-
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dry well in which to work should be housed in a heated surface structure
with the electrical controls and alarms.Any lift station entrances or
building entrances must be kept locked and exits kept free of snow for ease
of access.
2.4.2.5 Force Mains
Force mains are pressure 1ines into which the pumps in the 1ift station
discharge.They should be designed to have scour velocities during pumping
(21 to 3 feet per second)and to drain between pumping cycles.The line
should be placed in a heated utilidor or heat traced in some way should
climatic conditions dictate.Another option would be to time the pumping
cycle so the sewage stays in the line for a calculated period,and to size
the holding tank at the lift station to hold at least the volume of the
force main.The mains should be pressure tested and meet all the criteria
of pressure water transmission pipelines.
2.5 DESIGN OF TREATMENT SYSTEM
The selection of the best wastewater treatment and disposal alternatives
depends upon many factors,as shown on Table 13.Some of the most
important factors include:
o Wastewater characteristics and flows
o Degree of treatment required
o Receiving water
o Operators
-44-
TABLE 13
COt-',PARISON OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS FOR CAMPS
TREATHENT SYSTEM
&APPLICATION ADVANTACES 01 SADVANT ACES
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Septic t.llnk with titl.ll field .lind/or I.Na di rect di schlllrg.to surhce I.Use limited to non-perlllAfrost areAS.
leAch pit .."ater.Aho,potenthl freezing problelll during
cold "eather.
Non'"'pef'lUfrost .IIreas lind -..11 cMps 2.No openti ng requi r~ts except 2.Potentf...,ground ..ater conu-iNtfon
......r.suibble soil conditions exht for septic bnk puIIIp out and probl.-_
for inftltrnfon of septic effluent.sludge disposal lit cc.pletion of
Septfc tank IIfght also be us"ahead project.3.Probably not luibble for hrge aMPs.
of seconchlry tre.~plant..Suggested _xilil~she of 5,000 gaUday..
3.Low operatfng cost_
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I.Very simpl.and depend"ble.I.
2.Operator requir4!llleftt lllini ...1 if 2.
properly designed and constructed.
3.Separate sludge handlfng,treAt..3.
!'I'nt lind disposal syst8lllS not
required.
~.
~.Law capital operating:cost••
Oper"tor requi rement .inilM1 If
properly designed and constructed.,.
Very silllple,dependable,and 1.
flexibl.if sfzed iltdequately.
Dfschuge clln be timed to protect
the receiving:strelllll:during
critical periods.Z.
Short retention lagoon ..
Areas where prill\llry effluent Ny be
dfschollrged .iUt no rhk to public
and wiUt negligible envirOrBet\tal
impact.
Long retention 111goon -1.
Arb where large relatfvely flat
land space is AVollihble,winter
retention II desirable and impervious
soils exist.
2.
3.
Instant start-up.3.
Potential severe odor problftls.
Potenti.'groundwater contamination
prOblems ..
Strf ater requirenterlts for effluent
dfschollrge_
Require regular effluent sampling and
aplysis -.here effluent Is dhchllrged
directly to •rec.iving .ater bO!1y ness
f~uent samp1tng c.fght be pe",ittecl
where .ffluent is discharged indirectly.
"-Yo require 2-ye.r or longer holding
periOd to "chie'"second"..,level of
tre.tllIent.
Potential odOr-prOblems.
Potential ground "liter contltftlinatfon
prOblems.
urge land requirelllent.
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1.Quick reco¥ery fre.orvanfc and 1.Start-up time could be lon9,pllrtlcular-
hydraulic overlOAdS.ly if todc ch..icals in w""te.
5.Low capita'cost if geotechnfca'6.
conditions favorable.Low oper-
ting cost,low energy cost.
,.Separate sludge handling:,treat-5.
llleftt "nes di spouI systellls not
required.
I.Prowen technology.I.8ulki"9 sludge,hydrllulic surges,poor
operating contrOl,etc.,could resyl t
2.Can prOduce a highly nftrified fn high effluent suspended sotfdr.
effluent..level.
3.Excellent results if ..11 2•Laflg start-up tiN,therefore,spechl
de..igMd (e.g.,flOlr equalization,step.IIlUlt be Uk"n (e.g.,ned plant
adequate ..ration capacity II with sludge,recycle unsatisfactory
p"ral1el units)lind ...11 operated.effluent).
~.Low quantity of slUdge generated.3.ReQuire skil1ec1 operator (bialogical
SoMe in-s)'StN sludqe storage and -.chanical trainingl.
capacity,l eli_iMting need for
~sludge .lIsting,o.Operating coat lJreat:er than for B8C (but
treetlllent end di spa..l.I.ss than for PIC plantl.
5.c..pital cost Io-r than for R8C
lind PIC plants.u
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Require regular latIlD1fng "nd an"lysis if
effluent is dlschar9e4 dire¢1y to
receiving water.
Hfgher capit.I and operating costs th"n
for IIIOst long retention lagoons.
Potenti.lll problert "ith clOlJging of 1;.....
bubble IIfr diffuse,..••intAined.
Raauire suitable 9eo~echnical conditions
preferably non-pef"lftafrost "nd ;mpe:rvious
solh and low "ater table.
und reelaNition fIt.y be del"yed until
.fter project cOlllPletion.
3.ReQuire continuous slUdge "asting and/or
disposal.
2.Require skt11ed operator (mechanical)
for associated processes.
3.
2.
3.Separate sludl]e'handling,tre.t-
-ent and dispOSAl systems not
reQuired.
2.Onl)'routine ..intenAnce required.
6.£llmiNt_need for regular
effluent toIIfIlPling and ....alysi.
except when dischllrging.
,.Less land IIrea requi r ...nt than
for long retention 1.900n.
1.Simpl_to operate.1.
Rotating biologiclil aontllCtor ..
Non-pe......frost and pe",lIfrost regiona
......re continuous surface ."ter dis-%.Rat process control is simple.
charge is pemitted and where ft'IOcIerate
power generation capacity is ...u-3.Low ener9Y requiretrtent COlllpollred
able.to extended Aerlltion.
Extended qratlon ..
probably IfIOre applicable to long-
te,..construction colll'ftPs but could
b_used instead of long retention
"'goon where hnd area Is lhllt;ng
or where continuous dhctulrqe is
accepUble.
Aer.ted lagoon ..
Non-peNltfrost Alnd penutfrost
regiona whcIre continuous surface
Clfter dhcha'rge is pe,..IUed and
......r."equate power generation
cap.cfty is avafhbl••
,.High continuous sludge "asting and/or
dlspaul.
5.Poor trelltlflent when overloaded,even for
short time periOds.c
1.Proven technolaqy (.,fter
extensive lIladificatlonsJ.
1.Extremely complex.PhysiClil/ChefIlical •
Pennafrost and non·pe,.,.frost regfons
where highly ..rfable wllstewater 2.
characterhtics are expected,where
htghly trained operato,..are "vatt-
abl.lind.highly quality effluent is
required.In pllrtlcular,could be
dOllnstreAlll frc.a biological treatlllent 3.
plant to produce a very hi gh
quality effluent.
Not IIffected by tOJlic constitu-
ents such as cle"ning solvents
nor significantly affected by
temperature extremes.
Instant start up.
7.
3.
o.
Require hfCJhly sUlled operator and
High capital lind 0 &M costs.
urCJe Quantities of chemical slUdge
generated,requiring additional
handl i ng and di SPOSIt I •
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o Duration,size and location of operation
o Cl imate
o Geotechnical considerations
Capital and operating costs for a camp system do not command as much
attention as they might in a permanent facility due to many other variables
such as location,unit size,receiving stream,effluent requirements,
limited time to set up and move on.
It is reasonable to anticipate that no less than secondary treatment will
be required at all camp sites.The major requirements (18 AAC 72)which
need to be met to achieve secondary treatment are as follows.
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BODS--The arithmetic mean for 30 consecutive days shall not
exceed 30 mg/l or 85 percent removal,whichever results in the
lesser effluent concentration.The arithmetic mean for 7
consecutive days shall not exceed 45 mg/1.
Suspended Sol ids--The arithmetic mean for 30 consecutive days
shall not exceed 30 mg/l or 85 percent removal,whichever results
in the lesser effluent concentration.The arithmetic mean for 7
consecutive days shall not exceed 45 mg/1.
Suspended Solids -Lagoons--The arithmetic mean for 30
consecutive days shall not exceed 70 mg/l effluent concentration.
-46-
o ~--The effl uent val ues for pH shall remain within the range of
6.0 to 9.0.
o pH -Lagoons--The effluent values for pH shall remain within the
range of 6.0 to 9.0 unless variations are due to natural causes.
o Fecal Coliform--Based on a minimum of five samples taken during a
period of 30 days,mean shall not exceed 200 FC/100 ml,nor shall
10 percent of samples during any 30-day period exceed 400 FC/IOO
ml.
2.5.1 Exploratory and Fly Camps
Small operations will normally use porta-can pails or other similar con-
tainers to receive and transport waste.The disposal point for such
containers must be designed for easy access;otherwise the wastes may not
be deposited according to facility design.The disposal point could be a
landfill site,a facultative lagoon or pond,a wastewater treatment plant,
or a hol ding tank where the waste is then transported to a treatment
facility by tank truck.Figure 4 illustrates four low-cost treatment
systems.
Where container wastes are dumped at a landfill site approved by the Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC),they must be covered
daily.If the wastes are deposited in a lagoon or pond,the dumping point
should be designed to prevent erosion of the lagoon dikes and yet allow for
easy access so the waste is deposited in the lagoon and not on the dikes.
-47-
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SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL:
SEEPAGE PIT '\!Underground
~
Containers ~Truck Haul Seepage Pit ....
}"-t
SEPTIC TANK &FIELD
~~Underground ~~
Collection Distribution !Septic Tank Box or
System ~Dosing t tChamber "
~~~~•..
LAGOONS:t
NATURAL DEPRESSION (A row area,swamp or lake)
Collection Natural Clarification Land Disposal or
System Depression Disinfection Receiving Water
MANMADE
Collection Primary ~Secondary ~Clarification Land Disposal or
System Lagoon Lagoon Disinfection Receiving Water
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
LOW COST TREATMENT
SYSTEMS (SIMPLE)
FIGURE 4
Waste disposal pits are constructed by cribbing a hole in the ground and
covering it with a platform containing a disposal hole covered with a
fly-tight,hinged lid.When the pit is full,the platform is removed and
the bunker is covered with the material excavated from a new pit.As with
privies,waste pits are not a desirable form of waste disposal if the soil
is frozen,in areas of fine-grained silts,or when there is a high ground-
water table.
The most satisfactory disposal for container wastes would be at a central
facility where the wastes are a small part of the total waste load to the
facility.A fly-tight closeable box,which is convenient to use,should be
provided on the outside of the building.It must be vandal proof and cap-
able of being thoroughly washed down and cleaned daily.Above all,it must
be aesthetically acceptable and easy to use.
The type of waste dumped at a disposal point could be an important
consideration in treatment plan design even though the quantity (by
comparison to the facil ity waste)may be small.The waste quite often
contains a high concentration of deodorizers such as formaldehyde and
phenols,which could affect biological treatment processes.It also may
contain plastic bags and other solid wastes and will be very high in BOD
(up to 1000 mg/l)and low in hydraulic loading.
The break even point when the loading or facility requires more
sophisticated treatment is summarized in Table 14.
-49-
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TABLE 14
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL
ADEC GUIDELINES
.......-.J
n Man Day Per Site (MD/S)-Nonrecurring Use §J
-50-
b.There is no drainage to water courses or standing water.
Footnotes:1/LAND DISPOSAL -Land disposal of greywater is permitted as
-shown subject to the following conditions:
a.Discharges must be at least 100 feet,measured horizontally,
from any natural or man-made lake,river,slough,stream or
coastal water of the state.
c.No puddling ocurs on the surface after 15 minutes.
d.Discharges should,to the extent possible,be limited to
already disturbed and/or gravel areas.
2/CAT-HOLE -Cat-holes are for individual one-time use and should
-be located in remote areas at least 100 feet from any streams or
Plan Review 5/
Plan Review 5/
Plan Review 5/
Burial 4/
Alternate
Plan Review 5/
Disposal l /
Buria1 3/ 4
Alternate /
Plan Review 5/Plan Review 5/
Land 1/
Disposal_
Land 1/
Disposal_
2/Cat-Hole-4/
Alternate
Land 1/
Disposal_
Approved
Wastewater
Dump Station.
Burial and
Land Disposal
Prohibited.
Land 1/
Disposal_
Non-
pressurized
Nonwaterborne
Pressurized
GREYWATER
SEWAGE
Waterborne
Chemically
Treated
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water bodies and well away from campsites or other areas
frequented by people.All fecal material and tissues should be
buried in a small hole,covered with soil and packed down.The
vegetation,sod,tundra mat,etc.,should then be replaced and
the area left as if no one had used it.
3/BURIAL -Slit trenches,latrines,straddle trenches,pit privies,
-etc.,are permitted where site-specific and seasonal conditions
allow.The type and size should meet the anticipated use.Use
of these facilities is subject to the following conditions:
a.Located at least 100 feet,measured horizontally,from any
natural orman-made lake,river,slough,stream or coastal
water.
b.Constructed so that surface water drainage is away from the
pit or trench.
c.Vertical separation between the bottom of the trench or pir
and the highest water table elevation is 4 feet.
d.May not be constructed within 75 feet of the top,measured
horizontally,of a cut or fill bank exceeding 6 feet in
height.
e.Pits and trenches should be located,where possible,in
already disturbed areas.
f.Pits or trenches filled with wastes to a point 1 foot from
the surface must be closed out.
g.All pits or trenches must be disinfected with lime (or
equivalent)prior to close out.
h.Close out requires filling to ground level with successive
layers of earth packing each layer down before adding the
next one.The filled pit should then be mounded over with
at least 1 foot of dirt.
i.Pits and trenches not needed for overwinter use must be
closed out prior to freeze-up.
4/ALTERNATE -Alternate disposal methods not requiring permits or
-approvals include:
a.Backhauling in holding tanks or suitable containers to
approved camp'stations or wastewater treatment systems.
Examples:Vault toilets;porta-johns;camper holding tanks;
chemical toilets.
b.Incinerator type toilets.Electric or propane.
c.Use of existing approved wastewater systems.
-51-
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5/PLAN REVIEW -As indicated on the chart,this is the 1evel at
-which plans for wastewater disposal must be submitted to the
department and reviewed on a case-by-case basis.This includes,
but is not limited to,subsurface and surface discharge system,
septic tanks,infiltration systems,french drains,lagoons,
soakage pits,stack injection,etc.
6/NONRECURRING USE -Permanent facil ities or repeated use of the
-same site requires plan review by ADEC.
-52-
2.5.2 Small and Intermediate Camps
Small and intermediate camp wastewater disposal systems generally range
from truck-haul,lagoon-disposal systems to more complex piped-collection
and treatment plant facilities.The majority of the discussion on
treatment system options follows in Section 2.5.3.This section addresses
primarily disposal of truck-hauled wastewater.
The disposal point for truck hauled waste should be in a heated building
with a "drive through"design to make the unloading time as short as
possible.The building should also provide heated storage for the vehicles
while not in use or for repairs.Where the disposal point is at a landfill
or lagoon,a ramp or splash pad should be provided to prevent erosion and
still allow the vehicle to deposit the wastes well within the lagoon or
landfill.Any plastic bags used to contain wastes should go through a
slitter to empty the contents.The contents then flow to a wet well where
they can be pumped to a 1agoon or to a treatment pl ant.The bags can
be incinerated or land filled depending upon state approval.
The building in which the vehicles are stored and/or emptied should also be
equipped with water for fl ushing and cl eaning the tanks.The washwater
should drain to the wet well where it can proceed to treatment.Extreme
care must be taken to prevent a cross-connection with the water system.
2.5.3 Intermediate and large Camps
The following sections discusse the various components {illustrated on
-53-
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Figure 5)necessary to complete the treatment process for intermediate and
large camps and end up with a safe effluent.Units will be presented from
the raw water end to the polishing end.Changing the order of placement of
some units will affect the treatment efficiency and dictate design
modifications accordingly.For instance,it may be preferrable to aerate a
flow equalization tank prior to comminution so that less settling will take
place.Or,screening prior to equalization may eliminate a greater amount
of solids prior to treatment.Or,comminition followed by aeration in the
equalization tank may enhance an activited sludge process.Use of a lagoon
for treatment may eliminate the need for any pre-treatment.The selected
procedure will depend upon the appearance of the wastewater as it enters
the plant,its relative elevation,the extremes of flow variation and need
for process pumping.
Elevation differences due to natural topography should be maximized in
order to minimize the need for pumping.Extreme care must be taken during
the design process to stabilize flows and not overdesign pumps for peak
situations.It may be preferrable to use several equivalent pumps in
parallel rather than to use one or two very large pumps.Several pumps are
more fl exi b1e,provi de backup duri ng maintenance,and are more cheaply
replaced or repaired.
The system should be designed to prevent the worst from happening.The
necessary equipment and bypasses should be incorporated to continue
operation after it does.Redundancy in pumping,treatment and storage are
essential.
-54-
Clarification&.
7 DI.ln'.cllonTr••tm.nt
S.condaryPrlm.ry
Tr ••tm.nt
Flow
Equ.llzatlon
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8
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TREATMENT
OPTIONS
*Scr••nl
Bar Recke
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Commlnutor
Aer.tlon
Mixing
A.ratlon
Phy.lc.I/Ch.mlc.1 Chlorln.
Actlvat.d Siudg.*Ozon.
Ext.nd.d A.ratlon
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L.nd Dllpol.1
DI.charg.to
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Grit R.moval T.nk D.c.nt Aerobic
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*N ••dl Study 'or C.mp Appllc.tlon
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
HIGH-COST TREATMENT
SYSTEMS (COMPLEX)
FIGURE 5
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2.5.3.1 Pre-treatment
Pre-treatment is considered to be any method of treating or conditioning
raw wastewater in order to improve its treatability or to protect
equipment.Pre-treatment processes applicable to camps include grease
removal,screening,comminution and pre-aeration.The required types of
pre-treatment faci1 ities are determined by the requirements of the main
treatment facility.For example,lagoons may not require any type of
pre-treatment,whereas physical/chemical plants may require grease removal
and screening.
Grease removal facilities.are particularly important for efficient
operation of mechanical treatment plants.Grease traps,septic tanks
and/or air flotation tanks are necessary,since large quantities of grease
can seriously overload downstream treatment facilities as well as
contribute to breakdowns of mechanical equipment.
The first unit operation encountered in wastewater treatment plants,
assuming grit chambers,grease traps and oil skimmers are in pl ace up-
stream,is the filtering operation or screening.Coarse screening devices
in sewage treatment consist mainly of bar racks,which are used to protect
pumps,valves,pipelines,and other appurtenances from damage or clogging
by rags and large objects.
Suspended particles greater than i inch can be removed more economically by
screening than by other unit operations.Fine screens of the disk or drum
type are generally used.The high content of oil,grease,cooking fats,
-56-
etc.at camps frequently interferes with the success of fine screening
devices.They may warrant additional consideration,depending upon camp
influent quality,since they are simple devices and low energy users.
Sufficient elevation difference may allow gravity straining or sieving
before any pumping is required.The minimum rotary screening opening
should not be so small as to clog quickly and require frequent maintenance.
Screen openings of 2 mm appear to be desirable.Al ternatively,a screen
with automatic cleaning (perhaps backwash)could be considered.
Comminution is another alternative.With comminution,larger solids are
ground into smaller pieces which remain in the treatment system but are
small enough so as not to adversely affect downstream equipment.Comminu-
tion is commonly used with extended aeration plants.
Pre-aeration is a process which may be used to make septic or high strength
wastes more amenable to subsequent treatment by reducing the initial high
oxygen uptake rate of the wastes.Aerated flow equalization tanks can
serve this purpose.Pre-aeration is not required for physical/chemical
systems.
2.5.3.2 Temporary Wastewater Storage
Provisions for emergency storage for mechanical treatment plants may be
required by regulation for the following reasons:
o To retain satisfactory wastewater effluent during periods of
plant malfunction.This effluent can be recycled to the plant at
-57-
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a controlled rate once the cause of malfunction has been
rectified.
To receive the entire raw wastewater flow if,for some reason,
the plant is not functioning.
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o To further assist with the smooth operation of a biological
treatment plant during start-up by permitting recycle of organics
to the plant.
A minimum holding period of 5 days is recommended for emergency holding
ponds.Longer than 5 days may be desirable in some cases after
consideration of a number of factors such as geotechnical conditions,
season(s)of operation,dependability of the operator and treatment
process,length of operating time,and the condition and downstream uses of
the receiving water.
2.5.3.3 Flow Equalization
One of the most important design considerations for any mechanical treat-
ment pl ant is flow equal ization.Because treatment plants function best
over given flow ranges,it is desirable to dampen peak hydraulic loadings
which commonly occur in the morning and evening and at such other times as
may be characteristic of a particular camp.It is suggested that flow
equalization tanks should provide 12 hours retention at the average daily
flow;however,this could vary depending on the expected diurnal flow
variations.The tanks must be aerated to prevent solids deposition and to
-58-
keep the contents homogeneous and aerobic.Transfer of the liquid from the
flow equalization tank to the downstream treatment units should be accom-
plished at a uniform rate (set at average daily flow or,for phys~
ical/chemical plants,at the plant capacity).Many sewage pumps provide
flows much in excess of the average flows expected at camps.If special
precautions,such as a progressive cavity pump with variable speed drive or
an air 1ift pump in a constant head tank,are not taken,the purpose of
flow equalization will be undermined.
2.5.3.4 Primary Treatment
Primary treatment removes solids from wastewater by such means as flotation
and settling.Flotation is used primarily in the treatment of wastewater
containing large quantities of industrial wastes that carry heavy loads of
finely divided suspended solids and grease.For camp wastewater,the
degree of solids reduction achievable by primary treatment is not well
documented.Typically,normal domestic wastewater would be reduced 50 to
65 percent in suspended sol ids and 25 to 40 percent in BODS by primary
settling.It is expected that BODS reductions for camp wastewater might be
at the lower end of this range because of the higher-than-normal soluble
BODS fraction in camp wastewater.
Primary treatment as the only level of treatment is generally not accept-
able in Alaska.A permit variance would have to be requested.The permit
application would need considerable documentation as to the ability of the
receiving water or land mass to assimilate all of'the waste in an
environmentally acceptable fashion.
-59-
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The simplest primary treatment facility is the short retention lagoon,with
a retention time ranging from 3 to 30 days,and depth varying from 10 to 20
feet.The liquid and accumulated sludge in this type of lagoon undergo
anaerobic decomposition and consequently can be malodorous at times.
Particularly obnoxious odors can occur when the water supply has a high
su1 fate content resu1 ti ng in reducti on of su1 fates to hydrogen su1 fi de
under anaerobic conditions.Consequently,it is usually advisable to site
short retention ponds in the prevailing downwind direction and as far as
practicable (at least 100 feet)from the serviced population.
2.5.3.5 Secondary Treatment
Secondary treatment refers to treatment systems which achieve 85 percent
removal of BOD 5 or produce an effluent containing 30 mg/1 suspended solids
and 30 mg/1 BOD 5 for an arithmetic mean for 30 consecutive days.Secondary
treatment can be accomplished by means of long retention lagoons,aerated
lagoons or by various types of mechanical treatment plants.Mechanical
treatment plants discussed in this manual are limited to extended aeration,
rotating biological contractors (RBC)and physical/chemical (P/C)processes.
Lagoons
Wastewater lagoons can provide one of the simplest,most cost-effective
methods of wastewater treatment.The capital cost of constructing a lagoon
is low provided that geotechnical conditions are suitable.The operating
cost is low since specially trained personnel are not required,little time
is required for operational control,and power requirements are very low or
-60-
nil (except for aerated lagoons).
Lagoons must be water-tight unless the effect of seepage can be shown not
to adversely affect any ground water or nearby waterbodies.Furthermore,
water-tightness is desirable for protection of inlet appurtenances against
freezing due to low water levels during cold weather.The interior of the
lagoon should be lined with in situ clay,or compacted mixed (off site)
bentonite,or an impervious membrane.
There are two basic types of secondary lagoons applicable to workcamps:
long retention and aerated.The long retention lagoons are also often
termed facultative lagoons or oxidation ponds.Since the ponds are covered
by ice and are anaerobic for such a long period of time,the term "long
retention"more accurately describes such lagoons.
The following design suggestions should be considered for long retention
lagoons treating camps wastewater:
o A separate,short primary retention pond,preceding the long
retention lagoon,would improve the overall performance by
removing readily settleable and f1 oatab1 e organic sol ids.
Suggested holding time for the primary cell is 5 days.
o Minimum of two long retention cells would be preferred.
o In terms of BOD,a loading of 0.5 pounds per day per 1000 square
feet should not be exceeded.
-61-
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o Complete winter retention plus at least 3 months or longer
operation of the long retention cells under aerobic conditions
are necessary to produce a secondary quality effluent.The ponds
must have full sunlight throughout the day to promote effective
treatment.
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o Long retention lagoons should be over-sized by as much as 50
percent to ensure that complete winter retention is provided in
case of flow under-estimation.
o Maximum cell depth shoul~be 7 to 10 feet considering ice cover,
freeboard and liquid operating depth.
o The lagoon should be sited as far away from human habitation as
possible,preferably at least 1000 feet downwind because of
potential odor problems.
o Provisions for flow measurements should be provided.
There appears to be no precedent for this type of lagoon system treating
camp wastes.However,there are a great many Canadian villages,large and
small,that have demonstrated good low-cost results.A lagoon system is
less subject to fluctuations in flow but toxins can still cause upset to
the biological stability.
Aerated lagoons are another type of secondary lagoon.Winter conditions in
Alaska at the remote camp sites could create such difficult conditions that
-62-
treatment by normal lagoon process may not lag far behind the more expensive
aeration system in producing acceptable quality effluent.It is suggested
that a minimum of two cells with a total of 30-40 days retention time,
followed by a polishing pond,are required.The aeration system for the
lagoon must be selected carefully to handle the maximum oxygen demand,
which usually occurs in the springtime when water temperatures warm up and
accumulation of undigested winter sludge exert an internal oxygen demand in
addition to the applied demand.
Extended Aeration
Extended aeration is a modification of the activated sludge treatment
process.It has been used extensively in treating workcamp wastewater
because of its high degree of stability for a wide variation in
wastewater flow rate and strength."This biological process requires a
trained operator or close supervision to avoid upset.A schematic diagram
of a package extended aeration plant is shown on Figure 6.
Package extended aeration plants have been used at a number of construction
camps in Canada and the U.S.A.Performance data on some of these are
summarized in Table 15.Suggested design criteria and operating
requirements for extended aeration plants are outlined in Table 16.
It should be noted that the recommended aeration tank loadings in Table 16
would result in an average retentlon time of 60 hours.The much less
conservative approach taken at camps in Alaska (tanks provided 24 hours
retention at the design average daily flow rate)is not recommended.
-63-
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Sludge
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Note:Dolled Hnes indicate optional processes
• •Required if incineralion is used for sludge disposal
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ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SCHEMATIC OF EXTENDED
AERATION PROCESS
FIGURE 6
I'tKtUKMlIl'll.t Ut tl\I lNUtu AtKA I lUll t'LAN I ~I KtA I INti l.AMt'WA~I tWA I tK
Plant
Design Number
Camp Capacity of Removal
Location gal/d .Samples Parameter Influent Effluent %Problems and Comments
(mg/1 )(mg/1 )
14ackenzie 2500 18 influent BODS 1900 400 79 1.Clarifier required frequent scraping
Bay,N.W.T.11 effluent COD 2790 1095 61 each day to avoid anaerobic sludge.SS '1095 315 71 2.Plant organically overloaded.
3.Some scum and floating grease balls.
4.Skimmer plugged once.
Mackenzie 2500 -----1.Plants were located on a barge and
Bay,N.~1.T.inaccessible for proper maintenance.
(2 plants)2.Skimmers plugged.
Oeadhorse,2500 -BODS -696
Alaska SS -291
Gal braith,19,000 1 BODS 800 33 96 1.Grab sample of influent from mixed
Alaska COD 3600 --surge tank.
Happy 24,000 -'COD -324
Valley,SS -147
Al aska
Prudhoe,15,000 1 BODS 733 153 79 1.Grab sample of influent from mixed
Alaska COD 2510 371 85 surge tank.
SS 1547 106 93 2.Long retention lagoon following plant
resulted in further substantial improve
ments in effluent quality.
Crazyhorse,10,000 7 BODS -27 93 1.Mixed liquor:Temp =22°C,
Alaska SS -39 82 SS =5000 mg/l,DO =0.6 mg/l
2.Hydraulic loading averaged 50%greater
than design loading (average 16 reten-
tion in aeration tank).
3.About 530 gal.sludge wasted every
2 weeks.
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TABLE 16
SUGGESTED DESIGN CRITERIA AND OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
FOR EXTENDED AERATION PLANTS TREATING CAMP WASTEWATER
DESIGN
Measure mixed liquor dissolved oxygen,settleability and note color daily.
Adjust air flowrates as required.
Scrape hopper-type clarifier daily to ensure solids do not hang-up on the
walls.
Waste sludge as required to maintain mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)
in the 3000 -6000 mg/l range,approximately.
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Aeration tank loading -
(dual units)
Flow equalization
Oxygen requirement for
Oxygen transfer efficiency
Mixing requirement
Clarifier surface loading rate
Positive sludge return
Sludge handling facilities
OPERATION
0.24 kg BOD s/m 3 daily average @ 20°C
0.48 kg BOD s/m 3 daily maximum @ 20°C
Separate or in-system flow equalization
2 kg O2 transferred/kg BODS applied
3-5%depending on air diffusers,tank
geometry,etc.
Sufficient air or energy must be sup-
plied for aeration tank mixing.
16 m3/m 2 daily average
29 m3/m 2 hourly peak
20 -200%of average daily influent
flowrate (normally set at 100%)
O.S kg suspended solids per kg
BODS removed
A characteristic problem with extended aeration plants is their long
start-up time,which is usually 30 days before an adequate biological mass
is built up in the aeration tank.This problem can be minimized or
circumvented by applying one or a combination of the following procedures:
o Operate the aeration tank with no.aeration for 1 week or as long as
generated odors remain bearable.Biological solids will settle out
and be effectively retained in the system.Aeration tends to break
solids up,producing a pin-point,hard-to-settle floc when mixed
liquid suspended solids (MlSS)concentration is low.By accumulating
solids in the aeration tank before the aeration system is turned on,
better flocculation of solids is promoted and start-up time is de-
creased.
o Design a variable capacity unit or dual units sized to keep the
food-to-microorganism ratio in a favorable range for start-up.
o Di scha rge poor qual i ty effl uent to the emergency ho 1di ng pond and
recycle settled solids to the head of the plant.
o Import activated sludge solids from a mature treatment plant.
o Add an artificial substrate to build-up the bacterial popul'ation
faster.
Through prudent start-up procedures,it should be possible to achieve 80
percent BODS reduction after a I-week operating period and 90 percent after
-67-
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a 2-week period.
Rotating Biological Contactor
Rotating biological contactors (RBC's)usually consist of plastic discs
mounted on a horizontal shaft across a tank.The discs are slowly rotated
with approximately 40 percent of their surface area submerged in wastewater
in the tank.Biomass adheres to the discs,grows in the presence of oxygen
and metabolizes organic matter in the wastewater.When the attached
biomass on the discs becomes thick,portions of it slough off the discs
into the wastewater.The wastewater effluent from the RBC tank is
clarified to remove the sloughed biological solids.These solids must be
removed regularly as sludge and treated and/or disposed of separately.A
schematic diagram for an RBC and auxil iary components is presented on
Figure 7.RBC systems have not been used extensively at campsites.
Additional study is needed to take advantage of the concept I s simpl icity
and low energy demand.
Pretreatment of the raw wastewater before addition to the RBC is essential
to remove grease which could coat the discs and decrease performance;to
remove larger solids which could clog the discs;and to remove smaller,but
settleable,solids which are not efficiently removed by the discs
themselves.
RBC plants,excluding auxiliary equipment,are simpler and more economical
to operate than extended aeration plants.However,they usually have
higher capital costs than the equivalent extended aeration plants and
-68-
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auxil iary equipment requirements may be more extensive than for extended
aeration.
As shown from the limited data on Table 17,experience with RBC's in
treating camp wastewater is limited.Tentative design criteria for RBC
plants treating camp wastewater are presented in Table 18.Typical RBC
problems are attributed to:
o Organic overloading due to a higher-than-expected camp popu-
lation.
o Cleaning compounds in the raw sewage.
o Grease content of the wastewater can be considerably higher than
200 mg/l (causes coating of discs with excessive grease).
Possible remedial action that can be taken during design includes:
o Provisions for recycling some of the effluent.
o Provisions for adding influent to both the first and second
stages to reduce the shock of high BOD loading.
o Pre-aeration in an aerated flow equalization tank to reduce
oxygen demand.
-70-
TABLE 17
PERFORMANCE OF RBC PLANTS TREATING CONCENTRATED WASTEWATER
Disc Disc Pe rfonnance Total Total
Type of Disc Tot~l Rota-Number Influ-Efflu-Removal Organic HydrauHc
Type of Pre-tre~t-Type of Ciam Ar¥~tion of Par,,-ent ent Loa~ing Lo,,~;ng
W"ste ment Ev~lu"tion (ml (m I (rpml Stages meter (mgl1l (mgl1l (\1 g/m Id 11m Id
Workcllmp Hydro-On-site 2.0 790 1.5 4 COD 3315a 956 72 39b 12
Screen plant SS 2048"422 79
VSS 1748a 276 84
on &386"16 96
Grease
1.5 4 COD 862"291 66
"
b 13
SS 314a 71 77
VSS 222a 51 77
Oil &36a 10 72
Grease
Workcamp BODS 643-1080 2S-86 92-97
COD 1271-1753 66-256 92-96
SS 252-600 32-114 55-94
VSS 2S2-560 32-114 55-93.
a Influent strength before pre-treatment
b Actual loading on discs would be less because effect of pre-treatment not included
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Must ensure that excess grease or cleaning compounds do not enter plant.
TABLE 18
TENTATIVE DESIGN CRITERIA AND OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
FOR RBC PLANTS TREATING CAMP WASTEWATER
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DESIGN
Heated enclosure
Flotation tank for grease removal
Primary settling (or equivalent)
Intermediate clarification
RBC hydraulic loading
RBC organic loading
Intermediate clarifier overflow rate
Final clarifier overflow rate
Number of stages
-essential
-consider
-essential
-desirable .
2'-40 11m hourly peak
-20 11m2 daily average
(for 600 mg/1 waste)
-24 g BOD 1m 2 hourly peak
-12 g BOD/m 2 daily average
3 2-40 -80 m 1m Iday
-24 m3/m 2 daily average
-32 m3/m 2 hourly peak
- 4 minimum
Physical/Chemical Plants
Physical/chemical (P/C)treatment plants,as the name implies,rely on
physical and chemical processes to achieve organic reductions.PIC plants
include various combinations of the following processes:comminution,
screening,clarification,flocculation,coagulation,filtration,carbon
adsorption and pH adjustment.PIC plants require large quantities of
chemicals and produce large quantities of chemical sludges requiring
further treatment and disposal.The main advantage of PIC units is their
ability to handle a wide range of wastewater characteristics without plant
upsets,provided that chemical additions and reaction times are sufficient.
Toxic chemicals have little or no effects.
Considerable experience has been gained with PIC treatment plants,but they
require continuous operator attention.Figure 8 illustrates one design for
removal of organics with a packaged treatment plant.Table 19 summarizes
the design parameters for the unit.
An essential part of any chemical or chemically aided precipitation system
is stirring or agitation to increase the opportunity for particle contact
(flocculation)after the chemicals have been added.If the agitation is too
vigorous,the shear forces that are set up will break up the floc into
smaller particles.
Chemical precipitation in wastewater treatment involves the addition of
chemi ca 1 s for the expressed purposes of improving pl ant performance and
removing specific components contained in the wastewater.In the past,
-73-
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ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SCHEMATIC OF PIC
TREATMENT PLANT
[jL FIGURE 8
TABLE 19
SUMr~RY OF DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR PIC UNIT
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OPERATION
Gross Solids Reduction
and/or Removal
Aerated Equalization Tank
-Blower Capacity
-Minimum Detention Time
Rapid Mix Chamber
Flocculator
First Stage Clarifier
Second Stage Clarifier
Multi-Media Filter
-Filtration Rate
-Backwash Rate
Chlorine Contact/Backwash
-Storage Tank Detention
Time
-Sludge Dewatering Device
Sludge Incinerator
DES IGN PARAr:ETERS
Comminutor or Rotary Screen
100 1/m3/min.
5 hours
Air-agitated with 6-second
detention time
Two units in series each
containing a variable speed
vertical shaft paddle mixer -
ZO minute detention time
Overflow rate thro~gh 60°tube
settlers of 94 lIm /min
Overflow rate thro~gh 7io
settlers of 61 lIm /min
zoo l/m~/min
770 lIm /min
30 minutes
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withzsurface loading rate of 69.3
kg/m /day and with a sludge
blanket detention time of 8 hours.
Pathological Burner
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chemical precipitation was used to enhance the degree of suspended solids
and BOD removal (1)where there were seasonal variations in the
concentration of the sewage,(2)where an intermediate degree of treatment
was required,and (3)as an aid to the sedimentation process.
More recently,interest in chemical precipitation has been renewed because
(1)it can be used effectively for the removal of phosphorus,and (2)it
can be combined with activated-carbon adsorption to provide complete
wastewater treatment,bypassing the need for biological treatment and,at
the same time,providing more effective removal of the organics in
wastewater that are resistant to biological treatment.For example,the
residual COD after chemical precipitation and carbon adsorption is about 10
to 20 mg/liter,whereas the residual COD after biological treatment is
about 100 to 300 mg/liter.
Many different substances have been used as precipitants.The most common
ones are listed on Table 20.The degree of clarification obtained depends
on the quantity of chemicals used and the care with which the process is
controlled.It is possible by chemical precipitation to obtain a clear
effluent,substantially free from matter in suspension or in the colloidal
state.
The chemicals added to sewage in chemical precipitation react with
substances that are either normally present in the sewage or are added for
this purpose.
Many reactions with other substances in sewage may take place.Each site-
-76-
A12(S04)3·18H20 *Alum 666.7
Ferrous sulfate (copperas).FeS0 4 ·7H 2O 278.0
Lime Ca(OH)2 56 as CaO
Sulfuric acid H2SO 4 98
Sulfur dioxide S02 64
Ferric chloride FeC1 3 162.1
Ferric sulfate Fe 2(S04)3 400
-77-
*Number of bound water molecules will vary from 13 to 18.
TABLE 20
CHEMICALS USED IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
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specific wastewater will have its own characteristic anomalies.Once they
are identified,remedial action can be taken.The repeating indicators
wi 11 gi ve adequate notice of upcomi ng problems.
2.5.3.6 Disinfection
The final stage in treatment prior to releasing the effluent is disin-
fection,the selective destruction of disease-causing organisms.All of
the organisms are not destroyed during the process.This differentiates
disinfection from sterilization,which is the destruction of all organisms.
In the field of wastewater treatment,disinfection most commonly is accom-
plished through the use of (1)chemical agents,(2)physical agents,(3)
mechanical means,and (4)radiation.
An ideal disinfectant would have to possess a wide range of characteris-
tics.It is also important that the disinfectant be safe to handle and
apply,and that its strength or concentration in treated waters be
measurable so that the presence of a residual can be determined.
Chemical agents that have been used as disinfectants include phenol and
phenolic compounds,alcohols,iodine,chlorine and its compounds,bromine,
ozone,heavy metals and related compounds,dyes,soaps and synthetic
detergents,quaternary ammonium compounds,hydrogen peroxide,and various
alkalies and acids.
Chlorine ;s the most commonly used disinfectant throughout the world.In
-78-
dry powdered compounds (HTH)it can be mixed with water for use at camp
sites.Liquid chlorine gas,although efficient,could be too hazardous to
transport and store at remote locations.
2.5.3.7 Sludge Thickening
Depending .upon the treatment process,it may be necessary to dewater the
sludge to some cost-effective level.Decanting,which merely amounts to
letting the sludge settle quietly in its own tank until the water rises and
then drawing off the mixed liquor suspended solids and sludge separately,
is the most economical beginning point.Other alternatives to review are
vacuum filtration,filter press,and centrifuge.
2.5.3.8 Sludge Digestion and Disposal
Continued aeration of the sludge in an activated sludge process will digest
it to relatively safe condition.The by-product water generated can be
recirculated and portions of the sludge may be needed to maintain
biological reactions in the system during low camp population periods.
Anaerobic digestion of sludge has not been investigated in field
situations.Perhaps the advantages of further volume reduction,stable
solids and methane gas production do not offset its space requirements and
need for heat.The inert products of anaerobic di gestion coul d possibly
provide a nutrient rich revegetation material.
Standard practice finds most sludges,greases,residues,etc.burned in the
camp incinerator with the ash disposed of at a landfill.
-79-
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2.5.3.9 Effluent Disposal
Several methods of wastewater disposal into soil are or have been prac-
ticed,including absorption field disposal of septic tank or aerobic
treatment effluents,direct burial in.pits,disposal in ice crypts or snow
sumps,and dumping and covering in a landfill.The presence of,and depth
and thickness of,permafrost,the type of soil and its percolation rates,
and the frost penetration depth will influence the possibility of land
application of effluent.
Land application of wastewater requires maintenance of the soil permeabil-
ity.In some cold climate areas this may be possible through special
design.However,many areas are unsuitable.The presence of permafrost
will limit vertical movement of the wastewater,and winter freezeback of
the active layer may prevent horizontal movement.It may be possible to
design a suitable system in areas of thawed zones which do not completely
freeze.Thermal protection for an absorption field should be designed for
the worst winter conditions,minimum or no snow,and low temperatures.
Another approach warranting consideration is the use of a retention-land
disposal system,making use of land disposal during the warmer parts of the
year and retention through the winter.In general,land disposal is
similar and subject to the same constraints as land treatment.The major
difference is that land disposal systems are mainly concerned with getting
the effluent into the ground and away from the site.The major concern is
that the effluent moves in an acceptable direction and does not present a
hazard to public health.
-80-
The type of receiving waterbodies and the effluent standards which pertain
to each specific operation are important factors in the type of outfall
structure designed.Ponds are generally shallow,with depths up to 7 feet.
Surface areas range from a few 1,000 to a few 10,000 square feet,and
retention times are often extremely long,1 to 6 months.Freeze depths may
vary from 2 to 5 feet.Ice thickness can be estimated mathematically by
assuming worst conditions of no snow cover and minimum heat input.
The use of a pond to receive treated wastewater would effectively convert
it to a polishing lagoon.Fencing and posting to that effect is required.
Regulatory agencies must be consulted before this approach is pursued.
lakes may have the abil ity to absorb a greater vol ume of wastewater.
Important considerations include surface area,depth,volume-inflow
relationships,nutrients,flora and fauna,and benthic populations.
Effluent quality,especially with regard to microorganisms,must be high if
there is a potential for fishery or recreational use of the lake.
Northern streams and rivers are the most common receiving waters for
wastewater.Flow,ice depth and movement are the most important factors to
be considered.Dissolved oxygen conditions through the winter and down-
stream uses are of particular importance in selection of the type of
outfall structure to be used.
The use of natural swamps for treating or polishing wastewater has received
considerable attention in recent years.Swamp discharge has been practiced
in several places in the North;however,detailed studies have been lim-
-81-
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ited.It is important to design the outfall diffuser for maximum disper-
sion into the swamp.
Where possible,ocean discharge is desirable.Normally,the ability to
absorb quality variations is very great.If initial dispersion by outfall
design and tidal movement is not obtained,however,wastewater will concen-
trate on the surface,because fresh water and sewage are 1ess dense than
salt water.The result is a visible slick.The major advantage of sea
disposal is dilution.The design of the outfall must consider ice movement
due to tidal action,currents,nearby rivers and wind action.
-82-
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CHAPTER 3 -SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid wastes generated during the construction of Power Authority projects will
vary from domestic refuse to large bulky items such as discarded equipment
parts.Early planning for the management of solid wastes,including handling,
storage,and disposal,is essential to minimize health hazards and adverse
environmental impacts.
The basic objectives of the solid waste management program for a project include:
o Preventing or minimizing the environmental impacts associated with the
management and disposal of solid wastes (land,water and air pollu-
tion,worker health and safety,aesthetics,etc.)
o Resource conservation (reclamation,reuse,minimization of land
requirements,etc.)
o Sound engineering practices
o Compliance with governing regulations
o Response to public attitudes
o Achieving these objectives in the most economical manner for a given
situation.
Factors to be considered during the planning phase for project waste management
include:
o Types of wastes
o Volumes of wastes
-83-
o Method of treatment and disposal
-Incineration
-Landfill
-Storage for salvage
-Reuse on site
-Public solid waste facilities
o Soil type
o Climatology
o Permafrost conditions (Figure 9)
o Size and life of the facility
o Economics of alternative waste management systems
o Environmental concerns or constraints
o Geographic location
o Regulatory constraints
To implement a solid waste management plan,an organizational structure will be
developed that will define the individuals and their delegated responsibilities
to ensure that the project will be in compliance with applicable permits,codes,
and regulations.
3.1 TYPES OF WASTES
The sources of solid wastes generated during exploration,construction,or
operation of a project are readily identifiable during the planning phase
of the activities.Figure 10 displays one method of delineating types of
waste products.Special note should be made of the project location when
determining waste types since activities at a remote,controlled-access
-84-
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NOT-TO-SCALE
.:.:::::::?~(::::::~::::::..::::::.::
........Southern limit of continuous permafrost
-_Southern limit of discontinuous permafrost
Mean annual air isotherm COC)
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
PERMAFROST IN ALASKA
FIGURE 9
Waste Generation
Grout
Spo I15
Equ I pment Parts
55-gal Drums
Strapping
Concrete
Abandoned Vehicles
Ash
Residences
Kitchens
Garage/Service Shops
Construction Sites
Paper
Trees and Slash'
Putrescibles
Cans/Cartons
Plasti
~lastewater for Treatment
Camp ~la s tewa ter
Sedimentation Ponds
Equipment Uashwater
I
-ITRAIISPORTI
Service/Garage wastes
Sludges
So lvents
Greases
ruel Cleanup Haterials
Radioactive Materials
Refer to Project
ruel &lIazardou$
Materials Mgt.Manual
'(ASH (IfICIIIERATION
I
I I Refer to Project Fuel
.:&lIazardous Haterial~
:->LANDFILL ~...---__~Management Manual
I DISPOSAL ---- ----- - - - - - - - ---18II,I I I
'-- - - - - - - -~RECLAMATION/RECYCLE <-- -til '
8 . I I I I
I I I III'If v:'V•>'SPECIAL HANDLING IIITH~-_Land or Water Incineration Reclamation/t OISPOSAl AT AN APPROVED SITE oJ.R"y'""
Ash Reuse
I
*Regulated Through Agency Codes
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
CRITERIA FOR WASTE
MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS
FIGURE 10
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-87-
3.2 TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation uses a camp-generated
solid waste rate of 7.9 lbs/person/day for design review purposes.Camp
wastes can be furt~er classified as 86 percent combustible and ·14 percent
non-combustible.
There are four general practices for solid waste treatment and disposal in
Alaska:incineration,landfill,reclamation for reuse,and salvage (haul
back).Table 21 shows waste products with recommended storage and disposal
techniques.
Municipal type (paper,cardboard,food and
beverage cans,bottles,etc.)
Food scraps and cooking wastes
Garage,warehousing and repair wastes (equipment
repair metals,pallets,strapping,form lumb~r,
etc.)
1200-1500 lb/day
200-500 lb/day
2000-4000 lb/day
project will differ from those where workers have access to public ser-
vices.Wastes for personnel support are usually institutional wastes
generated by controlled use of products and commissary services.A 500 to
700-man camp at a remote site in Alaska will generate 2 to 3 tons per day
of diverse waste products (not including clearing debris or overburden/spill
materials).The typical physical composition for these wastes is as
follows:
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Storage
Sl -Animal proof container
S2 -Open container
S3 -Covered container
S4 -Leak proof container (area)
S5 -Drums
TABLE 21
SOLID WASTE
DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES
SOLID WASTE CATEGORY STORAGE DISPOSAL ALTERNATIVES
Paper C3 S3 02
Plastics C3 S3 01,2
Cardboard C3 S3 01,2
Wood C3 S2 D1,2
Food Bottles &Cans C4 Sl 02
Food Packaging C4 Sl 02
Food Wastes C4 Sl D2
Tires C2 S2 01,3,5
Batteries C2,5 S4 05,8
Equipment Parts C1 S2 03,5
Oil Drums C2,5 S4 03,4,5,8
Incinerator Ash C1 S3 01
PVC Pipe C2 S2 D1
Oil Filters C3,5 S4 02,8
Trees &Slash C3 S2 01,6,7
Solvents &Paints C3,5 S4 02,8
Greases C2 S4,5 01,3,5
Used Oils C3,5 S4,5 02,3,5,8
X-ray Wastes C3,5 S4,5 04,8
Categories
Cl -Non-combustible
C2 -Non-burnable (regulated by codes)
C3 -Combustible
C4 -Putrescib1e
C5 -Toxic/hazardous (as defined by
either federal or state regulations)
Disposal
01 -Landfill
02 -Incineration
03 -Storage at landfill
04 -Return to vendor
05 -Salvage,reuse
06 -Open burn
07 -Chip
08 -Special regulations
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3.2.1 Incineration
Incineration is the acceptable method of treating putrescible wastes at
remote sites to prevent food products from attracting wildlife.The
objective of the incineration process is to control combustion of the waste
to produce a residue which is not degradable and contains no combustible
material.The residue (ash)then requires disposal.Advantages and
disadvantages associated with this disposal technique are as follows:
Advantages:
o Proven acceptable method in Alaska
o Provides an inert,environmentally-acceptable,end product for
disposal
o Treats wastes as generated --less storage space required
o Eliminates leachate of organics at sites
o Waste reduction (70 to 75 percent reduction of camp wastes)
o Reduces animal and bird scavenging
Disadvantages:
o Most expensive of processing systems in tenns of capital and
operating costs
o Labor intensive
o Requires trained operators
o High energy demand
o May contribute to air quality degradation
o Hazardous due to combustion of unknown solid wastes
o Heated building required in areas of extreme low temperatures
and/or adverse climatic conditions
-89-
a Segregation of wastes required
o Incinerator ashes require special handling,hauling,etc.
3.2.2 landfill
Figure 11 depicts a typical site design for a landfill and Figures 12
through 14 illustrate three common operational plans for the placement of
solid wastes.The area method (Figure 12)is used when trenches cannot be
excavated.Wastes are spread in long,narrow strips on the surface of the
1and ina seri es of 1ayers that vary in depth from 16 to 30 inches.An
earthen levee or berm is constructed against which wastes are compacted.
The ramp method (Figure 13)is employed when cover material is scarce.
Additional soil cover must be hauled in for both the area and ramp methods.
The trench method (Figure 14)is suited to areas where an adequate depth of
cover material is readily available.Cover material is obtained by
excavating an adjacent trench.
3.2.2.1 Site Selection and Design
Preliminary screening and ultimate selection of a landfill site should be
based on the results of a site(s)survey(s),results of engineering design
and cost studies,and an environmental assessment.The selection team
should be comprised of the design engineer,biologist,hydrologist,geolo-
gist,sanitary engineer,and regulatory personnel.Factors that must be
considered include:
-90-
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><
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{~~~FILL {\
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FIGURE 11
DRAINAGE DITCH
TYPICAL LANDFILL
DISPOSAL SITE
(-ELEV.)1/
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second lift
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SANITARY LANDFILLING
AREA METHOD
FIGURE 12
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orking face
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SANITARY LANDFILLING
RAMP METHOD,
FIGURE 13
Fence
Work i ng f ac e ~·::·':::"':::;:~:~;j~~~1~Lj;j}1~~ll;~1~;l~i~~~f.!i!~t!11~i~iii~!~i~I~L\l,f.~~~~~~~~~~~
.....Daily cover
·:\i·;·!iii!;i!!!~i!!!!!ii;i!~Ii!i~~;iii!J{~}:__
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SANITARY LANDFILLING
TRENCH METHOD
FIGURE 14
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Land Availability--The use of the land area around a project site
may be affected by zoning restrictions,public resistance or
project boundaries.Usually landfill sites are located on lands
designated by a project for use as a borrow site,material
storage area,etc.to permit the maximum use of an area without
expanding demands on the land.
Haul Distance--The shorter the haul the more economical the solid
waste transport costs.Although minimal haul distances are
desirable,project policies to use previously disturbed sites may
negate this cost-effectiveness criterion.
Soil Conditions--The soil at the site is the most important
single aspect for judging site suitability because of its role as
the interface between the waste and the groundwater.The soil's
characteristics and availability as cover material must also be
considered.
There is usually information on file with a local resource agency
on soils in an area.However this data may be scarce or not
available in Alaska.Soil borings can provide data prior to
design.This data can be reviewed using soil interpretation
sheets such as found in Tables 22 through 24 from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture,Soil Conservation Service.
-95-
TABLE 22
APPLICATION OF SOIL INFORMATION
DAILY COVER FOR LANDFILL
LIMITS RESTRICTIVE
PROPERTY GOOD FAIR POOR FEATURE
1.USDA TEXTURE ------ICE PERl4AFROST
2.DEPTH TO BEDROCK (IN)60 40-60 40 DEPTH TO ROCK
3.DEPTH TO CEMENTED PAN (IN)60 40-60 40 CEMENTED PAN
4.l)UNIFIED ------SP,SW SEEPAGE
SP-SM,
SW-SM,
GP,GW,
GP-GM,
GW-GM
5.1),2),3)USDA TEXTURE ---CL,SICL,SIC,C TOO CLAYEY
SC
6.l)USDA TEXTURE ---LCOS,LS,S,FS,TOO SANDY
LFS,COS,SG
VFS
7.1),2)UNIFIED ------OL,OH,HARD TO PACK
I~CH,MH
8.1),4)COARSE FRAGMENTS (PCT)25 25-50 50 SMALL STONES
9.1),4)FRACTION 3 IN
(WT PCT)25 25-50 50 LARGE STONES
10.SLOPE (PCT)8 8-15 15 SLOPE
11.DEPTH TO HIGH WATER TABLE
(FT)------+PONDING
3.5 1.5-3.5 1.5 WETNESS
12.l)UNIFIED ------PT EXCESS HUMUS
13.LAYER THICKNESS (IN)60 40-60 40 THIN LAYER
14.l)SOIL REACTION (pH)------3.6 TOO ACID
15.2)SALINITY ------16 EXCESS SALT
(MMHOS/CM)
(0-60")
16.1),2)SODIUM
ADSORBTION RATIO ------12 EXCESS SODIUM
OR GREAT GROUP OR PHASE (HALIC,
NATRIC,
ALKALI
PHASES)
17.CARBONATES ------5)EXCESS LINE
-
l~Thickest layer between 10 and 60 inches.
2 Disregard (1)in all Aridisols except Salorthids and Aquic subgroups,(2)all
Aridic subgroups,and (3)all Torri great groups of Entisols except Aquic
)subgroups.
:)If in kaolinitic family,rate one class better if experience confirms.
Sum (100-%passing No.10 sieve)and fraction less than 3 in.Use dominant
condition for restrictive feature.
5)If amount of carbonate s so high that is restricts the growth of plants,rate
"POOR-EXCESS LII1E".
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TABLE 23
APPLICATION OF SOIL INFORMATION
SANITARY LANDFILL (TRENCH)
LIMITS RESTRICTIVE
PROPERTY GOOD FAIR POOR FEATURE
1.USDA TEXTURE ------ICE PERMAFROST
2.FLOODING NONE RARE Cor~MON FLOODING
3.DEPTH TO BEDROCK (IN)------72 DEPTH TO ROCK
4.DEPTH TO CEMENTED
PAN (IN)CEMENTED PAN
THICK ------72
THIN ---72
5.l)PERMEABILITY ------2.0 SEEPAGE
(IN/HR)
(BOTIOM LAYER)
6.DEPTH TO HIGH WATER
TABLE (FT):------+PONDING
APPARENT ------6 WETNESS
PERCHED 4 2-4 2 WETNESS
7.SLOPE (PCT)8 8-15 15 SLOPE
8.1).2).3)USDA TEXTURE ---CL.SC.SIC,C TOO CLAYEYSICL.
9.3)USDA TEXTURE ---LCOS,LS,COS,S TOO SANDY
LFS.PS,VPS,
LVSF SG
10.3)UNIFIED --- ---
OL.OH.PT EXCESS HUMUS
11.4)FRACTION 3 IN (WT PCT)20 20-35 35 LARGE STONES
12.l)SODIUM ADSORPTION
RATIO (0-40")OR ------12 EXCESS SODIUM
GREAT GROUP OR (HALIC,
NATRIC.
ALKALI
PHASES)
13.SOIL REACTION (pH)------3.6 TOO ACID
(ANY DEPTH)
14.SALINITY (MMHOS/CM)------16 EXCESS SALT
(ANY DEPTH)
15.DOWNSLOPE MOVEMENT ------5)SLIPPAGE
16.DIFFERENTIAL SETILING ------6)UNSTABLE FILL
l)Disregard (1)in all Aridisols except Salorthids and Aquic subgroups,(2)all
Aridic subgroups,and (3)all Torri great groups of Entisols except Aquic
)subgroups.~)If in kaolinitic family,rate one class better if experience confirms.
4)Thickest layer between 10 and 60 inches.
5)Weighted average to 60 inches.
If the soil is susceptible to movement downslope when loaded,excavated.or
5 wet,rate "SEVERE-SLIPPAGE".
)If the soil is susceptible to differential settling,rate "SEVERE-UNSTABLE
FILL".
..
TABLE 24
APPLICATION OF SOIL INFORMATION
SANITARY LANDFILL (AREA)
LIMITS RESTRICTIVE
PROPERTY GOOD FAIR POOR FEATURE
l.USDA TEXTURE ------ICE PERr4AFROST
2.FLOODING NONE RARE COMMON FLOODING
3.l)DEPTH TO BEDROCK (IN)60 40-60 40 DEPTH TO ROCK
4.l)DEPTH TO CEMENTED
PAN (IN)60 40-60 40 CEMENTED PAN
5.1)PERMEABILITY ------2.0 SEEPAGE
(IN/HR)(20-40")
6.DEPTH TO HIGH WATER
TABLE (FT):------+PONDING
APPARENT 5 3.5-5 3.5 WETNESS
PERCHED 3 1.5-3 1.5 WETNESS
7.SLOPE (PCT)8 8-15 15 SLOPE
8.DOWNSLOPE MOVEMENT ------2)SLIPPAGE
9.FOR~tATION OF PITS ------3)PInING
10.DIFFERENTIAL SETILING ------4)UNSTABLE FILL
l)Disregard (1)in all Aridisols except Sa10rthids and Aquic subgroups,(2)all
Aridic subgroups,and (3)all Torri great groups of Entiso1s except Aquic
)subgroups.
2 If the soil is susceptible to movement downslope when loaded,excavated,or
)wet,rate "SEVERE-SLIPPAGE".
3 If the soil is susceptible to the formation of pits caused by the melting of
)ground ice when the ground cover is removed,rate "SEVERE-PInING".
4 If the soil is susceptible to differential settling,rate "SEVERE-UNSTABLE
FILL".
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Approximately 1 cubic yard of cover material will be required for
every 4 to 6 cubic yards of solid wastes.Table 25 provides a
guide for cover material requirements.The cover material should
be less permeable than the soil under the landfill (Figure 15).
C1imate--Winds,rainfall and snow cover must be known to ade-
quately assess a landfill site with respect to area requirements,
design parameters and physical layout.
Ground and Surface Water Data--The control of site drainage and
the protection of surface/ground water is important in the
selection process.Prospective sites must be appraised for the
ability to control drainage to and from the area and to maintain
all-weather access roads.The site must be designed to prevent
the washout of cover wastes.
In regions of above-average precipitation,as experienced in many
areas of Alaska,special attention is required to divert drainage.
Should interface soil conditions warrant,two indirect methods
for control of site drainage can be assessed:impermeable barrier
or drainage way.The peak rate of flow which needs to be diverted
is a function of rainfall,land treatment,soil type,slope,and
antecedent moisture conditions.Drainage channels most commonly
used are earthen swales and split corrugated metal pipe.Recom-
mendations for permissible velocities for bare earthen channels
are found in Table 26.Final earthen swales can be grassed or a
stone center ditch can be added to protect against erosion.
-99-
Final Cover Material Reguirements
TABLE 25
DAILY AND FINAL COVER MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
Daily Cover Material Requirements
(Based on 6 inch daily cover)
Total Area Total Daily Volume
In Place of Daily Cell of Cover Material
Volume (yards 2)(yards 3)
Refuse Intake @ 1000 lbs
(Long Tons per yds 3 Cell Depth in Feet Cell Depth in Feet
per day)(yards 3)6 ft 8 ft 10ft 6 ft 8 ft 10 ft
25 56 28 21 17 5 4 3
50 112 56 42 34 9 7 6
100 224 112 84 67 19 14 11
200 448 224 168 134 37 28 22
500 1120 560 420 335 94 70 56
750 1680 840 629 502 140 105 84
1000 2240 1120 839 671 187 140 112
Acreage
25
50
100
150
200
250
300
Final Cover Material
Required (yards 3)
80,700
161,400
322,800
484,200
645,600
807,000
968,500
-100-
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1~~II~ACCEPTABLE SOILS
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
SOILS SUITABLE FOR
COVER MATERIAL
FIGURE 15
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PERCENT SAND
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TABLE 26
PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES FOR BARE EARTHEN CHANNELS
Soil Texture
Sandy and sandy loam (non-colloidal)
Silt loam (also high lime clay)
Sandy clay loam
Clay loam
Stiff clay,fine gravel,
graded loam to gravel
Graded silt to cobbles (colloidal)
Shale,hardpan and coarse gravel
Source:Soil Conservation Service (1970).
-102-
Maximum
Velocity
ft/sec
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
5.5
6.0
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Permafrost or Frost Susceptible Soils--landfills in or on perma-
frost soils must be designed and operated so the waste becomes a
fixed and integral part of the permafrost.Septage and sewage
sludges must be incinerated,disinfected or otherwise treated as
approved by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation.
Sites with ice-rich permafrost conditions are not recommended for
trench method landfills.Cover material sources other than
permafrost soils must be available.
Environmental Constraints or Considerations--Project construction
and operation in Alaska require an evaluation of existing environ-
mental conditions prior to initiation to respond to the many
environmental concerns unique to the "pristine"state.Environ-
I
mental issues are enhanced due to the lack of previous development
activities at remote locations.Proximity to eagles··nests,
anadromous fish waterways,wildlife habitat and migration routes,
parks,etc.may preclude solid waste activities.
In accordance with State of Alaska Solid Waste Regulations
(18 AAC 60)and to minimize adverse contacts between people and
scavenging animals (particularly bears),landfills should be
surrounded with animal-resistant fencing.The design and con-
structi on techni ques used shoul d be developed in consultati on
with applicable regulatory agencies.
Final Use of the Site after Completion--A determination,during
the planning phase of a p·roject,of the ultimate use of a com-
-103-
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pleted solid waste site will result in a more effective design.
In many instances,the landowner/manager may dictate how the site
will be rehabilitated or how permanent slopes and drainage
patterns will be constructed.Effective liaison with project
planners will result in cost-effective site design to eliminate
labor-intensive requirements to mold the area to fit designated
needs after completion of the project.
Access Roads--The chief goal in designing access to the site
should be to minimize interference between solid waste vehicular
traffic and other project activities.The roads,which should
have a trouble-free surface (Table 27),shoul d be des i gned to
direct trucks to the working face and out as quickly as possible.
Because haul roads at the landfill location (working face)are
constantly being built and buried,fill for dressing and repair
must be available.Public access to the site must be controlled
to minimize health and safety hazards.On projects adjacent to
publ ic thoroughfares,gates should be placed across the access
road to regulate site use.
Cell Design and Construction--To estimate the amount of land area
required for preliminary planning purposes,the following example
is provided:
Solid waste generation =7.9 lbs/person/day*
Compacted density @ landfill =800 lb/yd3
Average depth of compacted solid wastes =8ft.
-104-
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Generation rate =3300 people x 8.0 lb/person/day
2000 lb/ton=13.2 tons/day
Volume required/day =13.2 tons/day x 2000 lb/ton
3 800 lb/yd3
=33 yd /day
Area required =(33 yd 3/day)(365 days/yr)(27 ft3/yd 3)
(10 ft)(43,560 ft 2/acre)=.74 acres/yr
*Not allowing for incineration/volume reductions.
The actual site requirements will be greater (varies 20 to 40
percent)than the value computed because additional land is
required for site preparation,access roads,etc.
Once volumes have been estimated and site capacities have been
determined,the sequence for filling must be selected.Figure 16
shows a typical filling sequence using compacted solid wastes
with an earth cover.
Equipment Requirements--The design of the landfill can only be
realized using the right equipment and personnel.Equipment
should be chosen to fit the plan.Equipment is required for
spreading and compaction of solid wastes as well as for excavat-
ing and hauling cover materials.On a small site,the operation
will probably use one piece of equipment (crawler or rubber-tired
tractor with the following accessories:a dozer blade,1 to 2
yard front-end loader,and trash blade)for the landfill operation
with an occasional "assist"from an additional piece of equipment
-106-
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2:1 or 3:1 typical slop~
2 ft final ~...rth·
cover on slop~face
I--
.::::{:?::!:!:ii"·if~~;~;·~:~·~~~··~~;·i·d··
6 in intermediate
earth cover
=I~~.~
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...J OJ.t:
i I------..~2 ft final earth cover
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D SECTIONAL VIEW OF
A SANITARY LANDFILL
lJ FIGURE 16
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to procure and stockpil e cover materi a1•Tab 1e 28 provi des a
guide to the general capabilities of major items of landfill
equipment.
Fire Fighting Technique--Proper cell construction will prevent
underground fires from spreading.When fires occur,the tech-
nique most frequently consists of digging out the area and
rolling out the smouldering contents.Appropriate fire ex-
tinguishers should be carried on equipment at all times.
Litter Control--The use of covered vehicl es for transport of
solid wastes such as paper,cardboard,ashes,etc.is a most
effective control of litter •.Movable litter fences are required
at the site when landfills are subject to high winds.The fence,
positioned downwind of the working face,will catch airborne
trash resulting from the off-loading operation from the open
working face prior to cover.Because winds are variable,3 or 4
fences should be provided.
Unloading Area--To control dumping,the width of the unloading
area should be 1imited to twice the width of the compaction
vehicle,or 16 feet.The fill area should be controlled to keep
vehicles in safe areas and,where possible,working at the base
of the loading face.
-108-
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TABLE 28
EQUIPMENT SELECTION GUIDE FOR MULTIPLE UNIT SITES
Rubber
Tired
Tractor
Track Drawn Motor
Purpose Loader Dozer Compactor Scraper Scraper Dragline Backhoe Truck Grader
Solid Waste Spreading A A A 0 0 0 0 0 0
Handling Compaction A A A 0 0 0 0 0 0
Coveral Material Excavate Cover A A 0 A*A*A A 0 0
Handling Spreading A A A B B 0 0 0 B
Compaction A A A 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shaping B B B B B 0 0 0 A
Hauling
300'or less A A B A 0 C C C 0
300'-1000'0 0 0 A B C C C 0
More than 1000'0 0 0 0 A C C C 0
A =Excellent Choice
B =Secondary Choice
C ="In-Combination Only"Choice
o =Not Applicable or Poor Choice
*=Scrapers may require loading assistance in tough soils and adverse weather conditions.
Source:Eldredge (1975).
3.2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages and disadvantages of landfill disposal are as follows:
Disadvantages:
o Site selection limited due to pristine land areas,permafrost
conditions,drainage patterns,cover materials,etc.
o Slow biodegradation of putrescibles and organics in Alaska
o Waste segregation control difficult--attracts birds and animals
o Impacts land resources
o Cover materials of effective quality may not be available
o Requires daily maintenance covering
o Landfill settling requires periodic maintenance
3.2.3 Reclamation for Reuse
Many of the constituents of refuse,particularly metals and paper,can be
recycl ed.However,because of the heterogeneous composition of wastes,
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sorting processes are complex.For many components,the cost of separation
and return to market exceeds their value.Power Authority projects,with
ancillary camp support,do not lend themselves to mechanical sorting due to
the nature of the refuse.However,reuseable wastes could be segregated at
the source of generation.Reuse,reclamation and salvage markets must be
available for this alternative.Generally,storage and bulk transport of
materials in large volumes may offset the high costs of long hauls and make
the products more attractive to a buyer.
One option that should be assessed during the development of any incinera-
tion plan is energy recovery for heating buildings or water for camp use.
Figure 17 depicts a typical schematic for an incinerator with a heat
exchanger.In evaluating this alternative,consideration should include
the high initial costs along with any associated energy savings.The
desi gn engineer must al so consider that the incinerator will have IIdown
time"and that auxillary sources of energy for any heat recovery use
systems must be provided.
3.2.4 Salvage
Salvage materials require additional space for storage either on the solid
waste disposal site or at a specially designated site designed for adequate
control and access.Salvageable materials known to accumulate at project
sites in Alaska are off-road equipment parts,tires,batteries,oil drums,
scrap metals and vehicles.
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FIGURE 17
INCINERATOR FOR ENERGY
RECOVERY
ALASKA POWER AUTHORITY
Flue Gas
~Heat Exchanger
Steam~
'Hot Water
III rC ..~
Boiler
Return Water--..'---'
Grate Condensate
Refuse ~
Residue
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3.2.5 Special Treatment
Construction-related solid wastes are classified as "rubbish".They may
include spoil materials,lumber,plumbing and electrical parts,equipment
parts,etc.The use of specially designated areas of a landfill operation
or special landfills for non-processed wastes is required since the wastes
cannot be processed through an incinerator nor shou1 d they be mixed with
the regular landfill wastes due to their bulk,physical characteristics,
etc;which cause voids and improper compaction in a landfill.
On-land disposal is not recommended for hazardous materials (as defined by
either federal or state regulations),chlorinated hydrocarbons,mineral
oils and greases,acid or "alkaline materials,and explosive wastes
resulting from blasting activities.State and federal regulations control
the disposal of hazardous wastes and to date there are no authorized
disposal sites in the State of Alaska.Incineration of these products
requires special approval from EPA and ADEC.It is recommended that these
solid wastes be stockpiled for recycling,returned to the manufacturer,or
transported to an EPA-approved treatment and disposal site in accordance
with state and federal regulations.
Special attention must be given to the design of the storage areas for
hazardous wastes such as oil drums,batteries,x-ray wastes,and solvents
to protect the environment and workers from any contamination.(Informa-
tion on design of these storage areas and special handling required by
state and federal regulations is contained in a companion BMP manual on
fuel and hazardous materials management.)Such areas should be enclosed to
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control access and be posted for workers'safety.All solid waste
personnel assigned to these areas must receive proper training in the
handling a~d transporting of these wastes.
3.3 AT-SOURCE HANDLING
Provisions for handling solid wastes at the source before collection should
be included in the design criteria.For large-scale projects,grinding,
sorting and compaction will reduce the storage requirements.The types and
capacities of the containers used depends on the characteristics of the
solid wastes to be collected,and the space available for the placement of
containers.Debris boxes,compaction containers,and garbage cans must be
located in areas with direct collection truck access.Special considera-
tions for storage areas should be made for sites where heavy snow loads
preclude effective transfer of wastes without adequate cover over contain-
ers.Putrescible wastes,if stored for collection outside of buildings,
must be stored in animal-proof containers.Pressurized cans must be
separated from other refuse that will be treated by incineration.
3.4 TRANSPORT OF SOLID WASTES
Collection and transport of wastes can be by covered garbage trucks to
prevent the spread of fly-away debris,satellite vehicles for easy mobility
and access,open dump trucks for discarded equipment and timber,or hauled
container systems.Table 29 provides typical data for vehicle selection
for large collection systems.Design of the facility must include adequate
space allowance for solid waste transport.
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TABLE 29
TYPICAL DATA ON VEHICLES USED FOR THE COLLECTION OF SOLID WASTES
COLLECTION VEHICLE TYPICAL OVERALL COLLECTION VEHICLE DIMENSIONS
Available
container or truck Number With indictlted
body ca~acities of container or truc~Width Height Length
Type (yd )axles body capacity (yd )(i n)(i n)(in)Unloading method
Hauled container systems
Hoist truck 6-12 2 10 94 80-100 110-150 Gravity,bottom opening
Tilt-frilme 12-60 3 30 96 80-90 220-300 Gravity,inclined tipping
Truck-tractor trash-trailer 12-50 3 40 96 90-150 220-450 Gravity,inclined tipping
Stationilry conttliner system
Compactor (mechanictllly loaded)
Front lotlding 20-45 3 30 96 140-150 240-290 Hydraulic ejector panel
Side loading 10-36 3 30 96 132-150 220-260 Hydraulic ejector panel
Rear loading 10-30 2 20 96 125-135 210-230 Hydraulic ejector panel
Compilctor (manuall y loaded)
Side lotlding 10-37 3 37 96 132-150 240-300 Hydraulic ejector panel
Rear loading 10-30 2 20 96 125-135 210-230 Hydraulic ejector panel
3.5 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
The design of waste treatment facilities should ensure,as far as is
practicable,the health and safety of facility operators and project
personnel.In addition,a program of worker training must be initiated
prior to waste facility operations to provide information and instruction
on the waste management plans per design specifications.The training must
incl ude information on waste characteristics with parti cul ar emphasis on
any toxic or hazardous wastes pertinent to the operation.Procedures must
be implemented to protect workers from dust or fumes inhalation;corro-
sive/dermatitis hazards;physical hazards such as noise,fires,etc.;and
mechanical hazards (i.e.vehicle accidents).
The training program should include maintenance requirements,personal
hygiene and protection,materials handling,waste monitoring,operational
procedures,and record keeping.
The waste management organizational responsibilities,including each
worker's role,must be well-defined for effective waste management.
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CHAPTER 4 -REGULATORY ANALYSIS
government control.The following agencies are delegated responsibility:
Solid waste management has become increasingly more controlled as public health
OSHA,NIOSH
Department of Defense (COE)
Department of Health Education &
Welfare
Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Interior
Environmental Protection Agency~
Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Transportation
Liquid &Solid Waste Regulations:Dept.of Environmental Conservation
18 AAC 60 Solid Waste Management
18 AAC 15 Administrative Procedures
18 AAC 50 Air Quality Control
18 AAC 70 Water Quality Standards
18 AAC 72 Wastewater Disposal
18 AAC 74 Water and Wastewater Operator Certification and Training
18 AAC 75 Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Control
AS 46.04.030 Oil Discharge Contingency Plans
Occupational Safety and Health:Department of Labor
8 ACC 61 Occupational Safety and Health
River and Harbor Act of 1899
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965
Clean Water Act,Section 404
Resources Recovery Act of 1970
Resource Conservation &Recovery Act
of 1976
("Cradle to the grave"regulatory
requirements and documentation)
o Toxic Substance Control Act
o Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act
o Occupational Safety &
Health Act
agencies,conservationists,and concerned citizens have pressed for more
Federal
State
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REFERENCES
Alter,A.J.,1969.Sewerage and sewage disposal in cold regions.CRREL.
Bastian,R.K.,1980.Utilization of municipal wastewater and sludge for
land reclamation and biomass production.
Bridguater,A.V.and C.J.Mumford,1979.Waste recycling and pollution control
handbook.
Cheremisioroff,P.N.and F.Ellerbusch,1979.Resource conservation and
recovery act.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology,1976.Application of
sewage sludge to cropland.
Davis,E.(ed.),1974.International symposium on wastewater treatment in
cold climates.
Eldredge,R.W.,1975.The selection of sanitary landfill equipment.Waste Age,
Jan./Feb.
Environmental Protection Services,1979.Proceedings:second symposium on
utilities delivery in northern regions.Environment Canada.
EPEC Consulting Western Ltd.,1981.Community water and sanitation
services,Northwest Territories.
Given,P.W.and D.L.S.Ellis,1979.Waste management alternatives for
Alaska Highway gas pipeline.
Grainge,J.W.,R.Edwards,K.R.Heuchert and J.W.Shaw,1973.Management
of waste from arctic and sub-arctic work camps.
James,R.W.,1972.Sewage sludge treatment.Noyes Data Corp.
Noble,G.,1976.Sanitary landfill design handbook.
QUADRA Engineering,Inc.,1982.Onsite wastewater disposal study.ADEC.
Reed,S.S.1976.Alternatives for upgrading U.S.Air Force wastewater
lagoons in Alaska.CRREL.
Reid,L.C.,Jr.,1975.Design and operation of aerated lagoons for the
arctic and subarctic.
Rindge,S.D.,D.A.Gaskin and A.J.Palazza,1979.Utilization of sewage
sludge for terrain stabilization in cold regions.CRREL.
Smith,D.W.et al,1979.Cold climate utilities delivery design manual.
Environmental Protection Service,Environment Canada.
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Soil Conservation Service~1970.SCS engineering field manual for conservation.
Tchobanoglous~G.~H.Theisen and R.Eliassen~1977.Solid wastes
engineering principles and management issues.McGraw-Hill.
u.S.Environmental Protection Agency~1973.Upgrading lagoons •
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency~1974.Physical-chemical nitrogen
removal~wastewater treatment.
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency~1977.Municipal sludge management:
environmental factors.
ARLIS
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Library &Information Services
Anchorage,AK