HomeMy WebLinkAboutAPA2943UNIVERSITY
OF ALASKA
FAIRBANKS
ALASKA
UAG R No.298
)
GB
126
A4
G4
no.298
COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUMMARY
Gunter E.Weller,Carl S.Benson,Sue Ann Bowling,
Thomas A.Gosink,Takeshi Ohtake,and Glenn E.Shaw
Geophysical Institute,University of Alaska
and
Thomas E.Moyer
Department of Environmental Conservation,State of Alaska
December,1983
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COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUMMARY
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Prepared for the
COLD CLIMATE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH PROGRAM
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
by
Gunter E.Weller,Carl S.Benson,Sue Ann Bowling,
Thomas A.Gosink,Takeshi Ohtake and Glenn E.Shaw
Geophysical Institute
University of Alaska
and
Thomas E.Moyer
Department of Environmental Conservation
State of Alaska
December 1983 RECEIVED
JUL 6 1984
REGIONAC MANAGER,ALASKA OCS
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE
ANCHORAGE,ALASKA
Front Cover:An aerial photograph of shallow ice fog over Fairbanks on
3 January,1975 at the start of a severe ice fog episode.Later during
this episode the two lower exhaust plumes from power plants merged with
the ice fog.(photo by Carl S.Benson)
PREFACE
Through a series of workshops on cold-climate environmental research
priorities,conducted in 1982 by Battelle for the Environmental Protection
Agency and the Department of Energy,ai r poll uti on was i denti fi ed as the
topic of highest priority.The current state of knowledge on air pollution
in cold climates was considered to be incomplete,and available information
was believed to be widely scattered in the published and II grey ll scientific
1 iterature.One of the high priority projects of air pollution research
was therefore i denti fi ed to be the compil ati on of a bi bl i ography and
synthesis of what is known and what is not known about air pollution in
the cold regions.
This document is the result of that recommendation.It was prepared
by the Geophysical Institute of the University of Al aska under Subcontract
No.B-A3543-A-U to the Paci fi c Northwest Laboratory (PNL)of Battelle
r1emori al Insti tute.PNL manages the Col d Cl imate Envi ronmental Research
Program as an agent of the Department of Energy through DOE lsi nter-
agency agreement (No.OW 89930699-01-1)wi th the Corva 11 is Envi ronmenta1
Research Laboratory of the Envi ronmental Protecti on Agency.The II co l d
regions"'referred to in this document are defined as the arctic and
sub-arcti c areas roughly north of 60 0 N 1ati tude.Thi s i ncl udes most of
Alaska,northern Canada (particularly the Yukon and Northwest Territories),
northern Europe,Siberia and the Arctic Ocean.
The bibliography on air pollution compiled for these "co ld regions"
includes papers on the sources,species,concentrations,pathways and
effects of various kinds of air pollution,including phenomena such as ice
fog and arctic haze which are peculiar to the region.Most of the listed
references apply to Alaska;Fairbanks in particular is strongly repre-
i
sented in the literature on ice fog,carbon monoxide,automobile emissions
and other topics.The references on Arctic Haze,a phenomenon which per-
vades the entire Arctic Basin,are fairly extensive as are references from
northern Europe on haze,acid rain and other pollution problems.The
smallest number of papers comes from Northern Canada and the Soviet
Union.The considerable literature on pollution in Southern Canada
(Toronto,Ottawa,etc.,)was not included because it did not come under
our definition of "cold regions",Soviet literature,if it exists,
does not appear to be available in translation,as indicated by our
computer and other searches.
We would like to acknowledge the assistance of the following people in
providing help in compiling the bibliography:Richard Joy,Environmental
Services Division,North Star Borough;Barbara Sokolov,Arctic Information
and Data Center,Anchorage,and Judie Triplehorn,librarian of the
Geophysical Institute,who provided numerous references through extensive
computer searches of the 1i terature on the subject.Jim B.States of
Battelle Alaska Operations in Anchorage was the technical administrator
of the project and his help in all phases of the work is acknowledged
and appreciated.
i i
Availability of the Listed References
Many of the listed references are II grey 1iterature ll
,i.e.,they are
reports which have not been published or extensively distributed.
Mi crofi ch~s of these reports whi ch are otherwi se di ffi cul t to obtai n(marked(8)~n each reference)are at the following locations:
Library,Geophysical Institute,University of Alaska,
Fairbanks,AK 99701
Alaska Resources Library,Federal Building,701 C Street,
Box 36,Anchorage,AK 99513
Library,Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center,
707 A Street,Anchorage,AK 99501
Copi es of noncopyri ghted materi al may be obtai ned at the cost of re-
producing them at these location.
iii
PREFACE
I.SUMMARY:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
i
1
Characteristics of Cold Regions Air Pollution 2
The Chemical Nature of Cold Regions Air Pollution 7
Meteorological Factors in Cold Regions Air Pollution 11
Ice Fog:A Special Form of Cold Regions Air Pollution 19
Arctic Haze:Long-Range Transport of Industrial Pollutants 25
Automobile Emissions and their Control 31
Monitoring Cold Regions Air Pollution 36
Summary of Recommendations 41
II.BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chemistry of Cold Regions Air Pollution
Meteorology of Cold Regions Air Pollution
Special Forms of Cold Regions Air Pollution
Ice Fog
Arcti c Haze
Automobile Emissions and their Control
Other Forms of Air Pollution
Air Pollution Monitoring Efforts
Effects of Cold Regions Air Pollution
Control Measures and Plans
General Summaries and Overviews
(For a more detailed table of contents of the bibliography
look up the title page of each individual section)
INDEX OF FIRST AUTHORS
iv
44
45
57
72
72
101
132
156
160
170
179
195
201
I.SUMMARY
This section attempts to summarize and synthesize the available
information (contained in the bibliography of Section II of this report)
on the various aspects of air pollution in the cold regfons.Information
gaps are identified and recommendations on further research are made.It
should be stressed that the recommendations are intended to fill present
data and information gaps,regardless of the cost involved or the relation
of the recommended research to the mi ssi ons of EPA or DOE in reduci ng
poll uti on.Research pri ori ti es for these agenci es have recently been
established (J.B.States,1983,Assessment of Cold-Climate Environmental
Research Priorities,Battelle PNL-458l,50 pp.).
NOTE:Page numbers after references refer to pages in the bibliography
where the abstracts for the referenced papers can be found.
1
CHARACTERISTICS OF COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
Problems of air pollution in high latitudes,especially during winter,
have attracted ever increasi ng attenti on duri ng the past two decades,
(Benson,1965,p.74;Benson,Bowling and Weller,1983,p.196).Winter
air masses become very stable and tend to stagnate to the extent that air
quality problems exist throughout northern Canada,Siberia,Scandinavia,
and Alaska.
As seasonal temperature decreases in the northern citi es of these
regions the need for increased heat and power causes an increase in all
sources of pollution.Unfortunately,it is in these times that the stabil-
ity of the air mass becomes most extreme (Bilello,1966,p.59).Thus,
natural and man-made factors reinforce one another in ways which invari-
ably lead to intensification,never mitigation,of the air pollution
problem (Benson,1970,p.75).
In addition,during winter,water becomes a component of the air pol-
1uti on because it condenses into ti ny drop1 ets and/or crystal s even when
the quantity involved is quite small (air at +20°C can hold about 250 times
more water vapor than air at -40°C).At temperatures below -35°to -40°C
ice fog is produced which severely restricts visibility but also serves as
an-indicator that man-made pollutants are present (Benson,1970,p.75;
Ohtake,1970,p.92).
Air pollution problems in the North can be severe,as illustrated by
the ai r qual i ty of the Fai rbanks ai r shed,whi ch is uni que for several
interrelated reasons stemming from the extreme stability of the air mass
and its tendency to stagnate.Indeed,a special stability class IIPasquill
Gil was established to describe extreme cases like the Fairbanks air shed.
2
The air mass is so stable that the per capita air pollution is 10 to 100
times greater than in the Los Angeles area.This statement is based on
the observati on that 1evel s of carbon monoxi de,and total hydrocarbons
measured in Fairbanks (Jenkins,et al.,1975,p.166),are comparable to
val ues measured in Los Angel es,New York and Detri ot where popul ati ons
are much higher.The national ambient air quality standards for carbon
monoxide are,in fact,frequently exceeded in Fairbanks (see p.31).
The problems of air chemistry have generally been studied in temperate
latitudes and mostly at high temperatures.The Los Angeles problems quick-
ly come to mind as being at the opposite end of the spectrum from Fairbanks
problems (Table 1).The problems in Los Angeles stem from automobile
exhaust and industrial chemicals which are cooked in the intense sunlight
and form photochemi cal smog,characteri zed by products of oxi dati on (03,
etc.).To have this occur,high temperatures,lots of sunlight,water
vapor (for OH and 02H radicals)as well as plenty of hydrocarbon and NO x
sources are required.In Fairbanks,we have low temperatures,and almost
no sunlight (less than 6 hours per day for 70 days,and less than 4 hours
per day for 25 days).Therefore,even though significant hydrocarbon con-
centrations are present (Jenkins et al.,1975,p.166)we do not expect
photochemical reactions to be important in winter although this may become
a probl em in summer because of the many hours of sunl i ght.In wi nter a
different mix of pollutants become trapped in the surface inversion
layer.Because of the sno'l'cover,natural aerosols are at a minimum,
and only those from combusti on of coal,oil,natural gas and wood are
present;they interact with an abundant supply of ice crystals and super-
cooled water droplets (Benson,1970,p.75;Ohtake,1970,p.92).
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TABl.E 1
SPECTRUM OF AIR POLLUTION SETTINGS
(showing the two end'members)
Falrbanl<s \'0 Winter
low Temperature
Ice fog I Pollution
los Angeles in Summcr
Smog
Temperature
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40°C
-fZ~$$0S$$7i9hSmz~2%$$~f--If--·----'--'I-----:I--YUDBBli1---
Temp Inversions
Hadiation
Saturation Vapor
P,'essure
Chemist,:"y
30 0 C/JOOm (Surface)
None dudng winter
('\,900 W m-2 at the summer solstice)
.tow (0.05 mil at -50°C)
Reducing atmosphere
No photochemical reacU~n
"Wet"air chemistry
(low absolute water conhmt"
but condensed form present)
10 0 C/100m (Above Ground)
-21-119h (>1000 W m )
Oxidizing atmosphere
Max.photochemical reaction
·!lDry"aIr chemls~ry
.(High absolute water contcnt
bur condensed form absent)
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The main questions to be answered deal with the nature and effects of
this interaction between ice crystals,or super-cooled water droplets and
combustion aerosols and gases.What is the physical state of the fog
particles,supercooled droplets or ice crystals,as a function of tempera-
ture and different pollutant levels?Do the pollutants cause more nuclea-
tion of smaller ice crystals and thicker ice fog?Are pollutants selectively
removed from the air by the fogs due to their physical and chemical inter-
action?Are the "inert"gases such as CO and C02 incorporated into the ice
crystals?How do the reactive gases S02,NO,NO x and 03 behave relative to
each other and is thei~conversion to S04='N0 3-and 02 enhanced ot decreased
by ice fog?Do ice crystals in the respireable size range trap contaminants
and actively transport them into the lungs?Are certain particle size ranges
removed preferentially by ice crystals,or are they responsible for the en-
hancement of ice fog?How will hydrocarbons affect the growth and dissipa-
tion of ice fogs;do they form hydrophobic layers on crystals?What
different effects are observed when power plant emissions are mixed down-
ward into the lower air mass,compared with the more normal case when they
remain aloft?
These questions need to be answered before we will have enough informa-
tion to begin to understand the implication of increased development in cold C'
climates.Several studies on the concentrations of specific pollutants have
been carried out in the Fairbanks area including:
(i)Winchester,et al.,(1967,p.56):lead and halogens
(ii)Kumai,(1964,p.83);Ohtake,(1970,p.92;1970,p.94):
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chemical composition of ice fog nuclei
(iii)Holty,(1973,p.199):lead,oxides of nitrogen,CO,S04='NH 4+,(
Cl-
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(iv)Jenkins,et al.,(1975,p.166):total hydrocarbons,CO,C02,
NO x
(v)Coutts,(1979,p.163):NO -N02 -03 interactions
(vi)Reichardt and Reidy,(1980,p.51):polycyclic aromatic
\-
hydrocarbons (PAH).
Information of this kind for other northern cities is much less com-
plete or totally absent (see also section on monitoring).With trends to-
wards accelerated exploitation of arctic resources it becomes increasingly
important to know the effects of growth on an area so that corrective steps
can be taken.Some of these correcti ve steps are di scussed in 1 ater
sections.
Recommendations for Further Research
Enough i nformati on has al ready been gathered to date to poi nt out
some broad problem areas.In very general terms,the most important
gaps in our knowledge will require research in the following areas:
1.A detailed study of low temperature air chemistry in the presence of
fogs consi sti ng of supercool ed water dropl ets and/or ice crystal s.
2.An integrated study of the structure,dynami cs and time hi story of
the very stabl e wi nter atmosphere and the di ffusi on processes whi ch
affect its atmospheric pollutants.
These recommendations will be discussed in greater detail in the
following sections.
6
THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
The chemistry of air pollution in cold climates is quite different
from that at lower 1ati tudes,as shown in the precedi ng secti on.The
photochemical smog typical of Los Angel~s does not exist in Fairbanks,but
there are reports (e.g.Schjoldager et al.,1978,p.'52)and Bottenheim
and Strausz,1980,p.46),that photochemi cal acti vi ty coul d occur in
the Arctic,particularly during the summer solstice.Schjoldager (1954,
p.54)indicates that local production of ozone occurs in Norway.
Peake and Sandhu (1983,p.50)have shown that another photochemical
product,PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate),is produced in winter in Alberta at
about 25%of the summer level.An interesting paper on photochemical
mechanism for high latitudes is the one by Bottenheim and Strausz.Other
photochemi cal papers are by Schj 01 dager et a1"(1978,p.52 and 1979 ~
p.52),(see also Monitoring section for more comments about ozone,p.39).
Moreexoti c poll uti on products may be present in 1arge quanti ti es
in northern ci ti es.Rei chardt and Rei dy (1980,p.51),for exampl e,
demonstrated that polycycl ic aromati c hydrocarbons (PAH)concentrati ons
in Fai rbanks under strong wi nter i nversi ons can be equal to those of
1arge urban areas of the worl d.Thi s study occurred before the recent
increased use of wood stoves.Daisey et al.,(1981,p.104)showed that
PAH material in remote areas of the Arctic are within an order of magnitude
of concentrations found in large urban areas.
There is a fairly large body of literature on various trace elements,
all pointing to long range transport of anthropogenic pollution from low
latitudes into the Arctic (see the section on Arctic haze,p.25).
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Rasmussen et al.,(1982,p.51),show that carbon monoxi de is en-
riched in snow as compared to methane;this finding is of greater interest
in long range research,however,than in urban poll uti on studi es (see
monitoring section for other remarks about CO,p.36).Cavanaugh et al.,
(1969,p.104),show startlingly high n-butanol concentrations in arctic
ai.r (.....0.1 ppm)whi ch do not appear to be an experimental arti fact.
The report by McCandless (1982,p.159),on Whitehorse urban air
problems confirms the growing evidence for the significant woodsmoke contri-
buti on to both TSP and PAH 1 eve1 s.Formal dehyde in ice fog samp1 es are
high (0.5 -1.16 llg m1-1 )presumably due to combustion,as reported by·
Grosjean and Wright (1983,p.48).Formate and acetate are found in pre-
cipitation (Galloway et a1.,1982,p.171)in Alaska in normal quantities.
The pH records of precipitation in A1aska 1 s remote areas tend to be
normal to slightly acid (.....6.3 down to 4.7;NADP,1983,p.167,Galloway
et a1 .,1982,p.171).The most unusual pH condi ti ons have been found
within the city of Fairbanks during winter.The pH of ice fog and snow on
the ground can go as high as 10.2 (presumably due to metal oxide ash fall-
out from woodstoves,and possibly from power plants;(Gosink,1981,1983,
p.47;Grosjean and Wright,1983,p.48).
A di scussi on of the concentrati ons of the more common chemi cal com-
pounds and elements present in the polluted air masses of northern lati-
tudes is contained in the section on monitoring (p.36).
Gaps in the Technical Literature
We have no data on indoor air pollution in the cold regions.This
aspect of air pollution studies is just beginning,so the gap is under-
8
standable.It is anticipated that the only unusual features may deal
with aspects of air exchange with the outside.Many homes are being
insulated more carefully and mad~airtight.
Photochemical data for ....JOoN are missing.The only papers avail-
able are for 60 0 N and farther south.
Power plant emission data are incomplete,but it is not certain that
there will be any unusual features in the cold regions as opposed to what
is already known about emissions at lower latitudes.
Air pollution data for the vast Soviet sector of the Arctic and Sub-
arctic are almost entirely missing.As noted in the preface,such papers,
if they exist,do not appear to be available in translation.An exception
is the paper by Morachevsky et ale (p.49).
Recommendations for Further Research
The foll owi ng topi cs need to be addressed in future studi es:
1.Indoor air pollution:
(a)possible trapping of pollutants inside by overly tight con-
struction and/or lack of ventilation,
(b)transfer of pollutants from polluted urban air to the inside.
(c)dependence of indoor pollution on height of inlet air vents
in tall bUildings.
2.Photochemistry at high latitudes:
(a)ultraviolet radiation,
(b)ozone and PAH data for clean and dirty sites at all times of
the year,
(c)i nformati on about hydroxy and peroxy free radi cal s.
(d)oxidation of NO,S02 etc.
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3.Particulate matter:
(a)the mass loading,numbers and size distribution of particulates,
(b)chemical information about possible selective partitioning of
pollutants on the different size ranges of pollutants,
(c)The scavenging efficiency of snow and ice fog.
4.A statistical study of health records for the months of January and
July for eye and respi ratory di sease.(Thi s shoul d di scrimi nate
between people living and working in polluted urban areas versus
people who spend part of their time in polluted areas and those who
remain outside the polluted urban centers).
5.More chemical and biological data about carcinogenic factors in
urban pollutants.
6.More chemical details about the pollutants trapped in snow and their
potential for pollution of streams during thaw.
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METEOROLOGY OF COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
High latitude air pollution is principally a cold-season phenomenon,
and is due directly to the extreme stability of the air at high latitudes
in winter (Bowling,1984,p.63).This stability is in turn a result of
the sol ar radi ati on regime.At 60 0 North,for instance,the true sol ar
elevation angle at noon at the winter solstice is only 60 33 1 and the
day is only 5 hours and 52 minutes long,which a]l.ows almost no solar
heating.(This noon solar elevation corresponds to a solar elevation of
"1ess than forty mi nutes after sunri se in Los Angel es.)At 68 0 N,the
sun no longer ri ses at all at the wi nter sol sti ce.The resul tis that
ni ghttime radi ati on condi ti ons extend throughout the part of the day
with maximum pollutant emissions.Mixing heights as low as 6 m have
been measured in downtown Fairbanks.
Inversions
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A typical hi gh-l ati tude i nversi on di ffers substanti ally from those
responsible for air pollution problems in locations such as Los Angeles C
(Benson,1970,p.75).In a Los Angeles-type (or elevated)inversion,
the temperature normally decreases with height for the first few hundred
meters above the ground,then increases rather sharply in a layer known c~
as a capping inversion.An inversion of this type may be due to warm
air overrunning cold air,to subsidence above a surface layer,or to
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limited heating from below of a stable air mass.Inversions of this type
may occur at high latitudes,but it is rare for them to be associated
with episodes of poor air quality (Bowling,1983,p.63).High pollutant
levels occur with surface-based inversions,i.e.,those in which the
temperature increases from the ground up.The maximum temperature in an
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A1 askan soundi ng is frequently as much as 2 km above the surface,and
ground temperatures may be only a few degrees higher than those
at the tropopause (Bowling,1967,p.60).
Surface inversions are common world-wide on clear,calm nights,and
are often referred to as nocturnal inversions.These inversions,however,
are normally broken by sol ar heati ng duri ng the dayl i ght hours when
emissions are highest.In Fairbanks,more than 80%of all soundings (2
am and 2 pm)show surface inversions during December and January (Bilello,
1966).Furthermore,some of these inversions are extremelysteep--1apse
rates of -10 0 /1 OOm are common,and val ue as hi gh as -30 0 /100 have been
recorded over the first 30m (Wendler and Nicpon,1975,p.71;Bowling et
a1.,1968,p.61).The presence of such inversions is readily explained:
in the absence of solar heating,the thermal structure near the ground
is controlled entirely by long-wave radiation and mechanical turbulence.
Long-wave radi ati on tends to produce an isothermal near-ground 1apse
rate if dense clouds are present and a steep ground inversion
(gradually weakening with elevation)when skies are clear.In exposed
areas wi th substanti al pressure gradi ents,wi nd-i nduced turbul ence wi 11
push these radiative equilibrium states toward the adiabatic.Most
hi gh-1 ati tude sett1 ements,however,are located in she1 tered areas such
as river valleys where wind speeds are often low even 'with strong regional
winds.Furthermore,the clear skies which allow development of inversions
are often due to anti cyc1 oni c systems wi th 1i ght wi nds.The observed
high frequency of strong surface inversions is the inevitable result.
An elevated inversion allows for a substantial amount of vertical
mixing below the inversion "cap",but this is not true of a surface-based
12
inversion.In a rural area,vertical dispersion of pollutants is due
almost entirely to the heat and/or mechanical turbulence associated with
pollutant injection.This can be remarkably small:plumes from trucks
with exhaust pipes above the cab can frequently be seen to spread in a
well-defined layer just above the trailer height (unpublished observation,
Bowling).In a town of the size of Fairbanks (population ~50,000)there
is normally enough heat and traffi c-generated turbul ence to produce a
shallow mixed layer.Just how shallow is indicated by tethered balloon
measurements carried out in December 1981 (Bowling,1983,p.63).Rural
inversion strengths were on the order of 10°C/100m •.Downtown Fairbanks
had developed isothermal 1ayers varyi ng from 6 to 30m in depth.Some
additional mixing may have been occurring through updrafts along building
sides.Since neither inversion strengths nor CO concentrations were
extreme for the Fairbanks area,however,it seems unlikely that the true
mixing depth on the worst day of an average year would exceed 10m.(In
comparison,Los Angeles mixing depths are normally several hundred
meters,Benson,1970,p.75.)In addition to affecting the vertical
dispersion,the mixing layer is responsible for an intense heat island.
Downtown temperatures may be as much as 10°to 14°higher than those in
the surrounding rural area (Bowling and Benson,1978,p.62).
Ice fog (section 3)influences the radiative process directly,result-
ing in greatly weakened inversions or even normal lapse rates within the
ice fog,with a relatively steep inversion near the fog top (Benson,1970,
p.75;Bowling,1970,p.60).As this will improve vertical mixing,ice
fog may be indirectly responsible for reducing CO concentrations.CO
emissions may also be lower during ice fog due to diminished traffic and
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the almost universal use of preheaters at ice fog temperatures.This may
be partly offset,however,by the very 1 arge number of.unattended cars
left idling at -400 and colder.Regardless of the cause,it is an observed
fact that CO levels almost never reach violation levels (9ppm)when ice
fog is present (Bowling,1983,p.63).
Winds
Winds are important for air pollution both because they carry
po 11 utants away hori zonta lly and because they generate turbul ence whi ch
weakens the inversion and allows increased vertical dispersion.As
already mentioned,the strong ground inversions which are associated with
high pollutant levels at high latitudes are normally associated with
light winds.Local factors preventing strong winds vary.Anticyclonic
conditions are frequent in the Interior of Alaska,and Fairbanks is
located ina shel teri ng arc of hi 11 s openi ng southward into the Tanana
Valley.Anchorage is located just west of a sheltering mountain front.
The result is that the observed winds during pollution episodes are
normally locally generated and therefore 1i ght.
Local winds include those generated by cold air drainage,gravity
waves,and local-scale eddies,and the interactions of these with regional
winds (Benson and Weller,1970,p.59;Bowling and Benson,1978,p.62).
From a practi cal poi nt of vi ew,a more useful di vi si on is into wi nds
whi ch produce a net flow through the ci ty (thus removi ng poll utants)
and winds which recirculate pollutants within the city (thus acting to
enhance horizontal dispersion).In Fairbanks,the only Alaskan city in
which studies have been made of locally generated winds,local drainage
wind speeds are of the order of .5 m sec-I,with values up to 1 m sec-1
14
in well defined channels or on steep slopes.These winds continue through
the city under moderate inversion conditions,but under severe inversions
the hill slopes may be so much warmer than the vall ey bottom that the
local slope winds may flow out over the dense,cold air mass in the lowest
part of the ground inversion (Benson,1974,p.75).Winds measured in
the downtown area when CO 1evel s are hi gh may be as low as 10 to 20 cm
sec-1 (Bowling and Benson,1978,p.62).Gravity drainage winds down
major valleys such as the Tanana,Matanuska and Susitna may reach speeds
suffi ci ent to break the ground i nversi on,as has been observed several
times on satellite infrared images.Tanana Valley drainage winds at
times extend northward far enough to affect the southern part of
Fairbanks (including the Weather Service recording station located at the
Airport).This situation does not,however,appear to remove pollutants
from the downtown area--in fact it has been responsible for several severe
(over 15 ppm CO)pollution episodes (Bowling,1983,p.63).One observa-
tion has also been made of a long-period (4 hour)seiche oscillation
between Fairbanks and Eielson Air Force Base,50 km away (Bowling and
Benson,1978,p.62).This occurred with heavy ice fog and appeared
to shift the fog (and the coldest air)back and forth between the two
end points rather than actually removing polluted air.
Small er gravi ty waves (peri ods 5-20 mi nutes)and stati onary eddi es
(such as the one generated over the enti re ci ty by the Tanana drai nage
impinging on the ridge southwest of Fairbanks)produce major spatial and
temporal variations in the surface wind field.These are probably respon-
sible for a good deal of horizontal dispersion within the city,but have
little or no effect in removing pollutants from the area.
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Synoptic Situations Associated with High Latitude Air Pollution Episodes
In all of the high latitude air pollution cases examined so far,clear
skies (or very high,cold clouds)and low wind speeds are critical factors.
Ice fog in Fairbanks is known to be associated with northerly flow aloft
and a surface anticyclone.High CO levels in Fairbanks have not been
studied intensively from a synoptic point of view,but one situation well
known locally is "chinook"flow.This is not a classical chinook,as the
warm wi nds from the south over the A1 ask a Range are unabl e to penetrate
the ground i nversi on,but it is associ ated wi th cl ear skies and tempera-
tures aloft which may be above freezing,while surface temperatures
remain below _20 0 C.Warm air advection just above the surface inversion
has been a causative factor in several cases with alert (15 ppm)levels of
CO.In Anchorage,the critical factors are high pressure to the north and
low pressure well south in the Gu1 f of A1 aska,1 eadi ng to easterly surface
geostrophic flow.The factors determining whether this situation will
lead to strong surface winds or stagnation east of the Chugach Range are
not well understood at this time (Bowling,1983,p.63).
Modeling
Modeling the air pollution situation at high latitudes is a severe
probl em.Well-tested standard model s generally coupl e the hori zontal and
vertical dispersion in such a way that very poor vertical dispersion is
associated with very little variability in wind direction.Ground inver-
sions typically show the opposite relationship--Fairbanks winds at a point
may vary over 180 0 or more wi thi n hal f an hour in extreme cases.Further-
more,standard model s cannot handl e the great spati al vari ati on in wi nds
seen in both Fairbanks and Anchorage.Nevertheless,regulatory agencies
16
require that standard models be used for environmental impact statements.
This has led to environmental impact statements where modeling was carried
-out wi th 100 to 200m mi x-i ng hei ghts,whi 1e (as menti oned above)10m wou1 d
be more appropri ate.One mode1--ACOSP (Norton and Carl son 1976,p.68,
Carl eton and Fox,"976,p.64,Carl son and Hok,1980,p.64)--has been
developed for the Fai rbanks CO prob1 em,but it has not been adequately
tested,in part because meteorological input data were not available.In
this respect it is significant that ACOSP's best reproduction of observed
CO levels was obtained using a 10m mixing height--exact1y the height we
have si nce recommended on the basi s of tethered balloon measurements.
CO Forecasti ng
The Fairbanks North Star Borough produces a regular CO forecast during
the air pollution season (October -March).This forecast is based on a
modified persistance forecast (today's forecast maximum a-hour CO level =
yesterday's 8-hour maximum times the ratio of the most recent 8-hour level
available to that -for the same time the previous day)which is then
adjusted to account for.a di spersi on forecast issued by the Nati ona1
Weather Service.The resu1 ti ng forecast improves on persi stance,but
has rarely been successful in forecasting CO levels above 15 ppm.Pro-
vi si on of CO data to the Weather Servi ce has improved the di spersi on
forecasts gi ven to the Borough,but severe prob1 ems remai n,especi ally
in forecasts of surface winds in the downtown area (Bowling,1983,p.63).
Recommendations for Further Research
1.Probably the most press,i ng prob1 em in the meteorology of hi gh 1ati-
tude air pollution is the verification,to standards that EPA will
accept for envi ronmental impact statements,of a di spersi on model
capable of handling high latitude meteorology.Two obvious candidates
are ACOSP and a currently accepted Gaussian model with decoup1ed hori-
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lontal and vertical di spersi on.Veri ficati on woul d requi re several
periods with good meteorological measurements (in-town soundings
and/or tower measurements to at least 50 m,winds throughout the area)
and either CO sources and concentrations or a tracer release.
Fairbanks is the obvious site for initial verification,but once
meteorological measurements are available from other areas (such as
Anchorage)it might be possible to apply the model there as well.
Another area in which meteorological knowledge is seriously deficient
is the variation of winds,temperatures,and lapse rates through the
Anchorage area (needed for any detailed modeling there).~
One problem for which no references were found for the bibliography
is plume rise under stable conditions with significant winds and wind
shears at some or all levels below the height to which the plume rises.
The general probl em i nvol ves both the fate of el evated pl urnes in
interior Alaska and the behavior of plumes on the North Slope.In the
Interior,a plume may rise through several layers with opposing wind
di recti ons before 1evel i ng off.Understandi ng of pl ume behavi or is
needed to evaluate the impact of such a plume on elevated terrain.On
the North Slope,existing models may not be doing an adequate job of
stimul ati ng the ri se of hot,hi gh-vol ume pl urnes from short stacks,
which may be associated with buildings on pilings.The combination of
stability with high wind speed on the North Slope has scarcely been
looked at.
Study of the synoptic situations most often responsible for high CO
levels in Fairbanks.The goal here would be improvement of the
existing CO forecasting scheme in Fairbanks.
The effect of wind shears on vertical dispersion.This is an extreme-
ly complicated micrometeorological problem which will be difficult and
expensive to execute.
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ICE FOG:A SPECIAL FORM OF COLO REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
The most startling,visible manifestation of urban winter pollution
in the cold regions is ice fog.Although ice fog may occur in pristine
areas,for example near hot springs,at very low temperatures,it is pri-
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marily an anthropogenic substance produced by the combustion of fuel in C
houses,power plants and automobiles.This combustion,whether of gaso-
line,fuel oil,coal,wood or other materials,produces water vapor which
condenses into very small dropl ets and freezes at temperatures below about C
-30°C,on occasi on reduci ng vi si bi 1i ty in the ci ty to as low as a fe\'i
meters.
In combusti on processes the primary exhaust products are H20 and C
C02.As an example,consider an ideal combustion equation for gasoline:
~~ol ecul ar
weight
of fuels
Molecular
weight ratios
H20/fuel C02/fuel c
burned with
C8H18 }-8 C02 +9 H20
excess 02
114 1.42
Avg 1.38
3.08
3.10
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This type of equation has been used to calculate the amount of water re-
leased in burning various types of fuels (Benson,1965,p.74;1970,
p.75).Although they yield order of magnitude values for the amounts of
H20 and C02 they are incorrect,especially at low temperatures and during
"cold starts"of automobile engines.Cold starts produced large amounts
of CO (Leonard,1975,p.144,1977,p.145),this fact and the presence
of unburned hydrocarbons (Jenkins et al.,1975,p.166),indicate that
combustion is incomplete.The degree to which combustion is complete
increases as the eng;ne or burner warms up.The presence of hi gh CO
concentrations,the predominance of NO over N02,the lack of 03 and the
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fact that the water whi ch compri ses ice fog is basic (pH as hi gh as
10)indicates a reducing atmosphere;this is an important aspect of low
temperature air pollution,as already shown in a previous section.
Even with the above qualifications,it is clear that H20 and C02
are the most abundant products of combusti on.However,other sources
than combustion roughly double the amount of H20 added to the atmosphere.
The largest of these other sources are the open water surfaces maintained
by dumping of cooling waters from power plants (Benson,1965,p.74;1970,
p.75;Ohtake,1970,p.92 and McFadden,1976,p.87).The rate of
evaporation from warm water in cool i ng ponds is about 8 kg m-2 day-l.
The Effect of Freezing on Fog Formation
When cooling occurs the air rapidly tends toward saturation (with
respect to water).The cooling also stimulates increased input of
water into the air from man-made sources.When the air is saturated,
water vapor will be condensed in it as the temperature continues to de-
crease;at -35°C the rate of condensati on wi"be 0.027 g m-3 °C-l.
Freezi ng of supercool ed water dropl ets occurs at temperatures of about
-35°C.This has the -effect of reducing the saturation vapor density in
the air because the vapor pressure must now be reckoned with respect to
ice;at -35°C the difference between water vapor density relative to ice
and water is 0.083 g m-3 .Thus,the effect of freezi ng of -35°C wi 11
force condensati on of three times the amount of water forced by 1°C of
cooling at -35°C.
The volume of air involved in the Fairbanks area is on the order of
2 x 10 9 m3 so the freezing alone adds 160 metri c tons of water to the
air in a few hours as the cooling proceeds.For comparison,this is
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about the same as the daily output of water vapor from the University of
Alaska heating plant.Yet,this rapid addition is spread throughout the
the entire area.The net result of rapid cooling,saturation of the air C
mass,freezing of drop 1ets and continued -or accelerated -man-made
input of water to the atmosphere,is an explosively rapid spread of
thick ice fog at temperatures of _35 0 or below (Benson,1965,p.74;C
1970,p.75).
Mass Balance
The first attempt to estimate the mass balance of ice fog in the C
Fairbanks area was made by Benson (l965,p.74;1970,p.75)..The growth
of Fai rbanks si nce ·then has made it necessary to re-eval uate the mass
balance.A preliminary attempt to do this during the winters of 1981-82
and 1982-83 indicated that the total rate of input of water to the
Fairbanks air mass in winter is between 10,000 and 12,000 metric tons
per day.Precipitation rates of ice fog particles have been measured to
be as hi gh as 80 g m-2 day-1 in the ci ty center and 20 g m-2 day-l
in the out1 yi ng areas.If the core a rea is taken as 50 km 2 wi th an
outer regi on of 100 km 2 and an outermost regi on of 100 km 2 we can
calculate the total precipitation rate as follows:
Area Preciptation Rate Total Precipitation
km 2 g m-2 day-l Rate{tons per day)
50 80 4000
100 50 5000
100 20 2000
Total 11 ,000
Refi nements are obvi ous1y in order because these val ues are based on
very few measurements,but the agreement between total fallout and
total input is close enough to i ndi cate that we have the correct order
of magnitUdes (Benson,unpublished data).
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The characteristics of ice fog are briefly summarized below:
Size Spectrum
The size spectrum of ice fog was studied intensively by Ohtake
(1970,p.92).He found that the mean diameter decreased with decreasing
temperature,from 33 llm at -30°C to 3 llm at -47°C'.The source of water
vapor was also a factor,probably due in large part to the temperature of
the exhaust gases.Automobile traffic produced the smallest crystals and
was accompanied by high concentrations of crystals smaller than 2.5 j..l/I1.
Residence Time
To cal cu1 ate resi dence time we need the average verti cal component
of the settling speed for a wide spectrum of particle sizes.This can
be obtained by dividing the precipitation rate by the solid water content
of the atmosphere.First estimates (Benson,unpublished data)yield a
range of 0.1 to 1.0 em sec-l for the range of verti ca 1 fa 11 i ng speeds.
When considering that the thickness of ice fog ranges from 10 to 150 m
we obtain residence times ranging from 1 to 14 hours.
Optical Effects
The small crystals in ice fog are often nearly spherical and always
irregular in shape.They lack the well defined plate or needle shape of
crystals which form in a gradually cooling air mass.The small sizes and
i rregu1 ar shapes expl ai n the compl ete 1ack of refl ecti on and refracti on
features in ice fog =indeed,its optical characteristics are more like
a water droplet fog than a display of ice crystals (Benson,1970,p.75;
Bowing,1970,p.60).
Thermal Effects
The cool i ng and crystall i zati on of 12000 .tons of water vapor per
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day will add energy to the air at a rate of about 3.4 x 10 10 k J day-l.
This is on the order of 4 x 10 8 watts or about 2 Wm-2 in the Fairbanks
area.An exceptionally strong heat island results over the city (see
also p.13)but the effects of ice fog are to reduce the heat island for
reasons whi ch are not yet fully understand.The total heat output in
the Fairbanks area during winter was calculated to-be 10 kW per person
(Bowl i ng and Benson,1978,p.62)or about 19 W m-2 (Benson,Bowl i ng
and Weller,1983,p.196).
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Removal of other Pollutants by Precipitation of Ice Fog
The effect of precipitation in general is to clean the air.There
is some quest;on about the abi 1i ty of small ice fog crystal s to remove
pollutant particles which are larger than the ice crystals.Ohtake is
currently investigating this.There are two facets to the problem:
first the adhesion of particles to ice crystals and second the adsorption
of gases on the ice crystals.The specific surface area of ice crystals
in ice fog is on the order of 10,000 to 20,000 cm 2 per gram of ice.It
seems reasonable that this large surface area would interact with other C
materi al s,parti cul ate and gaseous,in the ai r.Furthermore,the ice
fog residue which precipitates on clean surfaces is very dirty.It
contains 0.5 -1%of matter other than ice,has a foul odor and basic
pH values,up to pH =10.
Recommendations for Further Research
The ice fog represents the visible part of a concentrated air
pollution setting which requires further study.So far,attention to
ice fog has concentrated on visibility aspects of the problem.Because
it is visible,ice fog serves as a tracer that indicates the presence of
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other exhaust products.It must be remembered that water is a hi ghly
reactive substance which has complex physical,chemical and thermal
effects on other components of the ai r mass,all of whi ch need to be
better understood.
1.The mass balance of ice fog needs reassessment in light of the
.greatly increased popul ati on and fuel consumpti on of Fai rbanks and
other northern cities where ice fog occurs.
2.The residence time of ice fog particles needs to be investigated
under a variety of different meteorological regimes.
3.The likely physical-chemical reactions between ice fog,supercooled
water droplets and other pollutants present must be better known,for
example,does ammonia and HeN from motor vehicles with catalysts
produce the high pH values of ice fog?Do ice dogs contain cyanide
in Fai rbanks and how much?How do sol vents from dry cl ~ani ng estab-
lishments react with ice fog etc?
4.The possible scavenging of pollutants by ice fog particles,includ-
ing selective chemical and physical interactions needs further
investigations.
24
ARCTI C HAZE:LONG-RANGE TRANSPORT OF INDUSTRAL POLLUTANTS
('
Except for isolated areas of air pollution centered on inhabited
communities dotting the Arctic,it has always seemed reasonable to sup-
pose that Arctic ai r masses must possess extraordi nary chemi cal puri ty.
It wasn I t until the 1 ate 1950's and early 60's,-however,that seri ous
analyti cal ai r chemi stry was begun in the Arcti c,mai nly by Professor
Junge in Germany.The fi rst measurements i ndi cated,to no one I s sur-
prise,that Arctic air and snow were very clean,but by employing
sensitive analytical methods chemists identified the presence of
trace poll uti on preserved in the snows of remote areas 1 ike northern
Greenland (Herron et al.,1977,p.110).The contaminated ice extended
to depths in the Greenland ice sheet corresponding to about the beginning
of the industrial revolution.Thus,even though quantities were miniscule,
traces of man's activity could be found preserved in the polar snows.
Most of the pioneering chemical work in the Arctic was carried out
during summer expeditions,(e.g.Flyger,et al.,1976,p.107),but with
the wisdom of hindsight this was a mistake:in summer,the air is about
as clean as one can find any-where on the planet,but in winter the Arctic
air becomes infiltrated with air pollution.
In the early to mid seventies for example,routine investigations
near Barrow,Alaska indicated that fairly substantial quantities of
aerosol were present in the lowest 1 or 2 kilometers of the atmosphere
duri ng the 1 ate wi nter and early spri ng months,(Rahn and Hei dam,1981,
p.125),a surprising finding since the mass loading of aerosols seemed
to be greatest when wi nds came from the North!It was diffi cul t to
understand why the ai r appeared hazy when the number concentrati on of
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suspended aerosol s duri ng haze epi sodes remai ned qui te small,changi ng
hardly at all from non-haze times.It is now real ized that the ambi gui ty
arose because the Arctic pollution aerosol has a size distribution differ-
i ng from that encountered in urban si tuati ons:the Arcti c aerosol does
not have as many small particles (Shaw,1983,p.130)•
.Because the aerosol associated with Arctic air masses lowers visi-
bility,the phenomenon is termed IIArctic Hazen.It is believed to be
synonymous wi th the unexpl ai ned haze reported by observers who f1 ew on
the U.S.Air Force Ptarmigan Weather Reconnaissance missions out of
Alaska in the middle 1950·s (see Mitchell,1957,p.116,for historical
accounts and Raatz,1983,p.120,for a more recent analysis of the
Ptarmigan data).
The chemistry of IIArcticHaze"was investigated in the mid-1970·s
in Alaska,and in the Scandinavian (attar,1981,p.116)and Canadian
Arctic.Rahn (1981,p.123)started a systematic program collecting air
samples at Barrow,Alaska.The sensitive neutron activation method was
used to determine the chemistry of the haze particles.It rapidly became
apparent that the haze at Barrow had an anthropogeni c IIfi ngerpri nt ll and
could therefore be considered to be a form of air pollution.Similar
findings were made in Canada and Scandinavia (Barrie et al.,1981,
p.102).
Efforts have been underway si nce the di scovery of Arctic Haze to
clarify the source regions and transport pathways of the pollution,but
the work has been fraught with difficulty (Rahn and Shaw,1982,p.125).
Speaking of Arctic Haze in Alaska,one can easily eliminate eastern Asia
as a major source of Arctic aerosol:air from the Pacific pathway is the
26
cleanest observed due to the extensive storminess along the route.
Li kely source regi ons were suspected to be eastern North Ameri ca and
Europe (i ncl udi ng the western USSR).Attempts to be more speci fi c by
constructi ng back trajectori es along the di recti on of the wi nds were
not entirely successful (Miller,1981,p.115),one reason being that
trajectori es cal cul ated for the Arcti care 1ess rel i abl e than for other
locations,and another being that small systematic errors pile up and
limit what one can deduce about polluted air masses that have trave11~d
for more than about three days.
Two significant advances in the origin and pathways of Arctic Haze
were made in the early 1980's.Raatz (1983,p.119)analyzed synoptic
weather patterns occurring during and before episodes of Arctic Haze at
Barrow.By using an iterative IIclosurell approach,he was able to demon-
strate that most strong episodes of haze in the Alaskan Arctic are pre-
ceded by surges of northward flowing air over polluted areas in eastern
North Ameri ca,Europe and the Sovi et Union.The poll uti on-laden ai r
travels in characteristic large scale anticyclonic air circulation
patterns.
Rahn (1979,p.122 and Rahn and Lowenthal,1984,p.125)took another
approach:they investigated chemical signatures in air samples collected
in the Arctic.Characteristic signatures of certain trace elements
present in Arctic Haze seem to relate to specific,albeit large,geo-
graphical regions in which the pollution aerosol was injected initially
into the atmosphere.An example is the ratio of masses of pOllution-
deri ved manganese to vanadi urn (Rahn,1981,p.124).Thi s rat;0 vari es
for pollution by-products in source regions in the eastern United States,
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in Europe,Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.Part of the reason for
the variation in relative quantities of certain compounds pertains to
the abundances of elements present in fuel which are burned.Another
factor may be sociological in nature,reflecting variations in air
pollution control strategies in the different countries,the relative
amount of coal to oi 1 burned,the number of automobil es per capi ta,etc.
The central region of the Soviet Union,for instance,is a coal-based
society with a heavy steel-processing industry,and apparently is bothered
by considerable air pollution.The region is a heavy producer,relatively
speaking,of submicron particles containing Mn,whereas the element
vanadium is a common submicron aerosol found in effluents from industrial
sources burni ng fuel oi 1 s.Si nce the Uni ted States is an oi l-based
soci ety,the ~1n/V rati 0 is :1 arger in poll uti on by-products from the
Sovi et Uni on than it is from the Uni ted States.The exampl e shows the
principle on which characteristic chemical patterns can be used to deduce
relative strengths and source .regions of inf10wing pollution to the
Arctic.
Rahn and Raatz I s deductions about the source regions for the
Alaskan-sector Arctic Haze agree with each other rather well.Both in-
vestigators deduce that central Eurasia is the primary source region
for Arcti c Haze in Al aska duri ng mi d-wi nter,whereas European sources
become more predominant in the spring.North American sources seem to
be minor,contributing perhaps one-fifth of the Arctic Haze in Al aska
(Shaw,1982,p.130,and Raatz and Shaw,1984,p.120).The same general
pi cture seems to hol d for the Canadian Arcti c (Barri e et al.,1981,
p.102).
In spring,1983,Arctic Haze was explored with airborne sensors on
fl i ghts conducted by the Uni ted States,West Germany and Norway.One
28
U.S.experiment involved a WP-3D Orion research aircraft owned by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,which flew out of
Anchorage,Thule and Bod~,Norway (Hileman,1983,p.110A).The
flights were made during late March and early April,because the Arctic
Haze is thickest at that time of year.A research aircraft owned by the
University of Washington also conducted flights at about the same time
of year out of Point Barrow,Alaska.Preliminary reports on some of the
airborne experiments were presented and discussed at a meeting arranged
by the Max Planck Institute in West Germany in September,1983.An
upcoming issue of Geophysical Research Letters will report on results
of the U.S.airborne experiments.
Thus far,the effects of Arctic Haze on the environment are virtually
unknown.Preliminary calculations imply that the haze absorbs a sub-
stantial amount of incoming solar radiation in the spring months,thereby
causing heating of the atmosphere (Rosen et al.,1981,p.126;Shaw and
Stamnes,1980,p.128 and Heintzenberg,1982,p.109).But so far very
few quantitative measurements have b~en made and little numerical model-
ing has been carried out to estimate the climatic impact of Arctic Haze.
It is expected that a great deal of new and important information
pertai ni ng to Arcti c Haze wi 11 be reported at the Thi rd Symposi urn on
Arctic Air-Chemistry scheduled to be held at Toronto in May,1984.
Recommendations for Further Research
The complex phenomenon of Arctic Haze is becoming of increasing
importance because of the 1arge potenti al impact it may have on cl imate
and polar ecology.It is all the more urgent that the problem be put in
correct sci entifi c perspecti ve because of the 1arge geographi c scal es
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involved and because we are speaking of a multinational,even mu1ti-
continental,sort of problem in which different countries are polluting
each other's territory.
1.In the immediate future,there is a need for continued and even
upgraded monitoring of the chemical composition of the haze at a
variety of surface locations around the Arctic Basin.The chemical
tracers should include elements that provide source-specific
signatures (see the recent paper by Rahn and Lowenthal,1984,
p.125)and possible source-specific organic gases.
2.There is a vital need to understand better than we do now the physics
of gas-to-particle nucleation and,more generally speaking,the
physics of aerosol and gas evolution in the well aged polluted
Arctic air masses.
3.There is a need to know the relative amounts of light absorbed and
scattered by Arctic Haze and its microphysical and macrophysica1
properti es.These data are needed for numeri cal model s to estimate
the climatic influence of the haze.
4.Further work is desirable to assess the possible ecological effects
caused by acidic precipitation in the Arctic.
30
AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONS AND THEIR CONTROL
Motor vehicle emissions are primary contributors of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbon and ni trogen oxi des in urban areas.The hi gh 1eve1s of
carbon monoxi de found in the two mai n urban areas of Al aska,Anchorage
and Fairbanks,often exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
They are almost exclusively due to motor vehicles operating during
wintertime conditions of subfreezing temperatures and persistent ground
based inversions (Hoyles,1980,p.141).
Since the inception of the Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program
(FMVCP),auto manufacturers have been mandated to gradually reduce
emi ssi ons 90%from a 1970 basel i ne.To veri fy these reducti ons,the
Envi ronmental Protecti on Agency performs a Federal Test Procedure (FTP)
designed to simulate lItypicalll urban driving conditions on a dynamometer.
Fuel economy is al so measured.These tests are performed at 20-30°C
(68-86°F).Researchers noted that emissions were greatest when the
engine was at its lowest temperatures,i.e.,the initial startup when
choking action is typical (ADEC,1979,p.133).
Subsequently,studies done at temperatures lower than 20-30°C
(68-86°F)showed even more dramatic increases in emissions at the startup
and conti nui ng until choki ng acti on dimi ni shed and steady state engi ne
operati ng temperature was reached.Fuel economy al so suffered (Austi n
et a 1"1983,p.134).
The State of Alaska has a particular interest in the lI co ld start
phenomenon ll because of its extended winters.Most low temperature tests
were conducted at 20°F (~-8°C),but the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation undertook testing at OaF (~-18°C)in an
attempt to be more representati ve of Al askan condi ti ons.Insi gni fi cant
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incremental increases were noticed between 20°F and OaF and the cost and
effort of sustaining acceptable equipment operation and satisfactory
vehicle response prec1ud~d further testing at OaF.Therefore,all work
done at 20°F is included in this section and is considered appropriate
for arctic and subarctic conditions (Coutts,1983,p.138).Furthermore,
in Fairbanks 35-40%of vehicle operators utilize engine preheaters at
-10°F or lower temperatures,mitigating the cold start effect (Gilmore,
1978,p.140).
As manufacturers introduced new emission control technology to reach
statutory 1 imits,researchers found that some devices performed better
than others in reducing emissions at temperatures below 68-86°F.How-
ever,it is important to note that there is no requirement that emissions
be reduced by 90%or any amount,outside of the FTP temperature range.
Areas suffering from the effects of such lack of regulation are forced
to examine other strategies that may reduce cold start CO emissions.
Methods such as a1 ternate fuel s,retrofi t devi ces,preheaters and
low temperature tune-ups were i nvesti gated in A1 aska and e1 sewhere to
determi ne thei reffecti veness.All show some potenti a1,but only emi ssi on
inspection and maintenance of vehicles is being pursued as a workable
strategy by both Anchorage and Fairbanks.This should be considered as an
addition to preheaters which are already in widespread use.Fuel injected
vehicles generally have lower cold start emissions (Austin et a1.,1983,
p.134).
The Environmental Protection Agency has developed numerous analyti-
cal tool s to assi st non-attai nment areas (of poll uti on standards)in
characterizing their future ambient CO levels due to auto emissions.
3Z
Both the data base and the computer model,Mobile 2.5,had to be modi-
fied for use in Alaska (Verelli and Moyer,1982,p.155).Data were
culled from all of the sUbfreezing testing programs,to form a data set
known as lIlow temperature emission factors ll
,i.e.,actual emissions
measured from in-use vehicles in grams per mile.A modified version of
the model,called AKMOBILE2.5,was developed that allowed use of local
mileage accumulation rates,the disablement of certain temperature
correction factors,and an internal restructuring of the model that
allowed more accurate input of the emission factors (Austin et al.,1983,
p.134).AKMOBILE2.5 predicted that attainment of the 8 hour CO standard
would not be reached by the year 2000 without control strategies over and
above the Federal Motor Vehi cl e Control Program,such as i nspecti onl
maintenance and a check for tampering with emission control devices.
This provided a significantly more realistic but bleaker prediction than
the unmodified model.
Researchers also further refined the process by splitting the
emission factors into stationary and mobile portions to represent emis-
sions from a vehicle that is idling for long times while warming up,as
is typical in Alaska,and emissions from the vehicle while in motion and
warmed up.It was found that this modification was only significant when
the typical commuter trip length was greater than approximately 3.5 miles
(Hoyles,1980,p.141).Most trips in Fairbanks are not significantly
in excess of that distance.
Recommendations for Further Research
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1.Emission Control Devices
The low temperature performance of future emissions control technology c
that may be under development is not known because the manufacturers
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are not required to test prototypes (or production)vehicles at low
temperatures and even if they did,they are not required to divulge
the results.This hinders planning and prediction efforts.Existing
devices need to be comprehensively examined to determine which devices
mal perform or perform less efficiently at low temperatures.Devices
or procedures such as fail ed rubberi zed components,ai r pump bypass
valves,and catalyst light-off time are examples.
2.Tune-up Deterioration Rates
After a tune-up,emi ssi ons are reduced,then gradually over time~
emissions increase until they reach or exceed the levels immediately
before the tune-up.This is known as the deterioration rate and is
measured by EPA on an annual basi s.Only very 1imited measurements
have been made of thi s effect under low temperature condi ti ons.It is
currently assumed that deteri oration is unaffected by ambi ent tempera-
ture.
3.Diesels
While low CO emitters,diesels emit particulates,nitrogen oxides,and
unregulated pollutants such as formaldehydes and other aromatics.If
di esel sal es conti nueto increase,the effect on ambi ent ai r qual i ty
in Alaska needs to be assessed.The performance of diesel engines in
arctic and sub-arctic climates also needs more documentation.
4.Alternate Fuels
The emissions and fuel economy performance of gaseous fuels and
alcohol fuels,other than gasohol,have not been adequately evaluated
at low temperatures.More extensive studies need to be done,assess-
i ng the stattabi 1i ty,driveabil i ty and ice fog producti on of vehi cl es
using such fuels.
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5.Tampering,Fuel Switching and Contamination
Anchorage and Fairbanks experience a rate of tampering with emission
control systems and contamination of unleaded fuel and improper
nozz1 es that exceeds the nati onal average.It is suspected that
misfue1ing rates are also higher.Tampering with emission controls
and using leaded instead of unleaded fuel causes increases in
emissions.It is not known if this effect is exacerbated at low
temperatures.
6.Engine Size Effects
A1 though a data base exi sts now,analyses need to be done to deter-
mi ne the effects on the amount of col d start emi ssi ons by engi ne
displacement.It is theorized that smaller size engines contribute
less cold start emissions and that the trend in recent years towards
sma 11 er engi nes shou1 d have contri buted to lower ambi ent CO 1eve1 s.
Changes to the Clean Air Act and/or EPA Regulations
A statutory change is needed to set standards for motor vehicles at
low temperatures in order to faci 1i tate attai nment of the ambi ent CO
standard in Alaska.At the very least,the 3.4 g/mi standard should not
be rescinded as proposed,since the standard forces the use of emission
control technology that happens to also reduce low temperature emissions.
Another approach to pursue wou1 d be an admi ni strati ve one whereby EPA
could allow manufacturers to make certain calibration changes that may
also result in reduction at low temperatures without having to undergo
extensive prototype testing and durability runs.
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MONITORING COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
Long-term monitoring of air pollution and its effects occurs at
several locations north of 60 o N.Routine monitoring of precipitation
chemistry,for example,takes place at least at five locations in northern
Canada and one location in Alaska (APCD,1979,p.161;NADP,1983,p.167;
Shewchuck,1983,p.177A).Other studies add some additional precipita-
tion data,e.g.,Galloway et al.,(1982,p.171)for central Alaska.Most
of the data from those stations show normal clean backgrounds.There is,
however,some clear evidence for acid precipitation,the effects of which
are not well understood at high latitudes.
Perhaps the 1argest number of arti cl es pertai ni ng to moni tori ng
discuss the vari ous trace elements deri ved from long range transport of
particulate pollution (see Arctic Haze section,p.25).
In moni tori ng urban ai r poll uti on one or more of seven chemi cal
parameters are usually considered.Those parameters are,carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons,sulfur dioxide,particulates,nitrogen oxides,lead and
ozone.Each of these parameters will be reviewed in the following para-
graphs based on what is available in the literature on cold climat'es.
Carbon Monoxide.One of the largest bodies of literature on pollutants
in col d regi ons deal s wi th carbon monoxi de in urban areas.There are
two unique problems in cold regions which cause many (not all)urban
areas to have frequent carbon monoxide violations.First is the frequent
occurrence of stable inversions (see Meteorology section,p.11).Second
is that col d starts of automobile engi nes produce si gni fi cantly hi gher
CO levels than in more temperate latitudes.Federal regulations do not
36
mandate a low temperature standard (see Automobil e Secti on,p.31)for
arctic and subarctic regions.Recent increased use of wood stoves also
exacerbate the problem.
Areas such as the Prudhoe Bay oil fi el ds al so have i nversi ons,but
wind dispersion is so much greater that there is no indication of
excessive carbon monoxide concentrations.
Hydrocarbons are not routi nely moni tored in northern urban areas
si nce ozone standards are not exceeded.The few hydrocarbon tests in
the past do not show any unusual concentrati ons •Non-methane hydrocarbons
in the air of the Prudhoe Bay oil fields are also well below Class II
limitations (Crow et al.,1981,p.163).
Sulfur Dioxide does not appear to pose a problem in the urban
areas of Alaska because of the relatively low sulfur content of coal
used,and because the power plant emissions are usually above the steep
inversions.One occasionally comes across titles of articles such as
II Hi gh wi nter concentrati ons.of S02'"II for arcti c and subarcti c regi ons
(Rahn et al.,1980,p.175).The term IIhigh ll is relative,however,
since the peak values (~5 ~g m-3 or ~0.002 ppm)are well below
permissible levels.Part of the reason for finding these IIhigh ll values
so far from sources is the significantly longer life time of species at
low temperature and low 1i ght 1 evel s (e.g.,Bottenhei nand Strausz,
1980,p.46,and Rahn et al .,1980,p.175).The recent Canadi an report
by Shewchuck (1983,p.177A)shows that less than one percent of S02 in
Canada is generated in the Northern Arctic provinces.
Particulates Depending on one's point of view,particulate load-
ing of the air in arctic and subarctic environments is either normal to
astonishingly high.Within urban areas TSP (total suspended particulates)
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loading of filters is normally very low.There are occasions where high
values are encountered in the summer (at or above the secondary standard
standard of 150 ~g m-3 in Al aska,but below the primary standard of
260 ~g m-3 ).The high values in summer are usually attributed to high
winds picking up road andri ver bank dust.Recently,however,winter
TSP,mai nly fi ne parti cl es,have been observed to be approach"j ng the
primary standard limit in Anchorage and Fairbanks,probably due to smoke
from wood-burni ng stoves.The Mendenhall Vall ey in Juneau has exceeded
primary standards,due entirely to woodsmoke (Cooper et al.,1983,p.158)
and Whitehorse has exceeded national guidelines (McCandless,1982,
p.159).
Observations of particulate organic matter (POM)and graphitic
carboni n remote arcti c 1ocati ons have shown that the loadi ng of these
materials is comparable to large metropolitan areas for some periods of
the winter (Daisey et al.,1981,p.104;Reichart and Reidy,1980,p.51).
Usua lly,however,they are a factor of 3 to 10 lower.
Nitrogen Oxides are not found in substantial quantities in cold
regions except during some periods of inversion trapping in urban areas,
when they can exceed 1 ppm in any given hour (limit is 0.05 ppm)on an
annual basis (Coutts,1979,p.163;Holty,1973,p.199).The unique
aspect of nitrogen oxides in the cold regions is that the nitric oxide
(NO)level equals and frequently exceeds the nitrogen dioxide (N02)
concentra ti on (Coutts,1979,p.163).Thi sis due to the low photo-
chemi cal acti vi ty and vi rtual absence of ozone wi thi n the ci ty.There
are no standards for NO and the only known test of its toxicity on mice
was inconclusive.
Lead concentrati ons in urban envi ronments have been decreasi ng in
38
the col d regi ons due to the shi ft towards unl eaded gasol i ne.Some vi 0-
lations ()1.5 ug m-3)occur irregularly during periods of strong
inversion trapping (Winchester et al.,1967,p.56;Gosink,1983,p.47).
Its presence in aerosols in remote regions,along with other trace elements
such as vanadi urn,is used as an i ndi cator of long range transport of
pollutants from lower latitudes.The argument about background concentra-
ti ons of 1ead in the envi ronment is not yet resol ved (Patterson and
Jaworowski et al.,1983,p.50).
Ozone is one of several compounds used to indicate the occurrence
of photochemical activity.No violations of the suggested 120 ppb limit
have been reported in cold regions.However,summer highs approach this
level.There are no concomitant hydrocarbon and NO x data.Concentrations
of 03 in the Prudhoe Bay oil production area are slightly higher in winter
than in summer (the wi nter hi gh is only about hal f of the recommended
limit)(Crow et al,1981,p.163).Winter ozone concentrations decrease
to zero inside the pollution zone of urban areas (see comments in Chemistry
section about photochemical activity,p.7),but outside the urban area of
Fairbanks they have been observed in the range of 60-80 ppb,probably due
to stratospheric subsidence.
Gaps in the Technical Literature
Several large gaps,reflecting absence of information,are apparent.
For exampl e,there are no reports on any heal th monitori n9 act;vi ti es to
see if there are unique problems with air pollution in cold regions.A
full sui te of up-to-date poll uti on moni tori n9 data for metropol i tan and
urban areas does not exi st.No data are avail abl e for the vast Sovi et
sector of the arctic and subarctic regions.
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Whi 1e the number of reports on trace el ements in ai r parti cul ates
in the Arcti cis 1a rge,the number of elements covered is 1i mi ted.
Information about organic matter in the air in cold regions is also very
limited.Acetate and formate data at least should become a part of the
aci d preci pi tati on moni tori ng program.Maps of soi 1sin Al ask a showi ng
their sensitivity to acid precipitation are not available as they are
for a 1arge portion of the lower 48 and recently for the Northwest
Territories of Canada (Shewchuck,1983,p.177A).
Recommendations for Further Research
1.With regard to precipitation chemistry,trace element data for rain
versus snow are needed.The information should also distinguish
between wet and dry fallout and between soluble and insoluable
forms of the elements.
2.Data on the size distribution,and composition of atmospheric
pollutants (organic and inorganic compounds)in urban,rural and
remote atmospheres are required.
3.The fate of elements and organics deposited on the surface needs to
be known,and the quantity of organic matter re-emitted to the air in
the same or modified form needs to be determined.
4.Deposition velocities on various surfaces,including plants,snow,
ice and water etc.,must be known.
5.The collection efficiency and best locations of wet and dry deposition
collectors need to be determined.Furthermore,devices that will
operate in cold environments need to be developed.
6.Oxidation rates (e.g.,of NO and S02)under low light and low
temperature conditions must be investigated.
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SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Additional or new studies are required in the following areas,
roughly 1i sted under the vari ous sub-headi ngs in an order of pri ori ty
whi ch ranks the severi ty of present data and i nformati on gaps.Thi s
list is compiled regardless of the cost of the research involved or the
relation of the recommended research to the missions of EPA or DOE in
reducing pollution.Research priorities with such considerations in mind
have been establ i shed only recently for EPA and DOE (States,1983,see
Preface)•
Sources and Characteristics of Major Air Pollution Types
1.Full-year monitoring of the concentrations of the seven EPA priority
pollutants in northern urban areas (pages 36-39).
2.Chemical composition of Arctic Haze (including source-specific chemi-
cal signatures).
3.Mass balance and physical-chemical characteristics of ice fog.
Chemical Processes and Conversions
1.Interactive processes between ice crystals,supercooled water droplets
and other combustion products and pollutants.
a)alkalinity of ice fog (ammonia,fly ash,acetate,formate)
b)scavenging of pollutants such as PAH
2.Photochemistry at high latitude:
a)ozone and PAN data for clean and dirty sites throughout the year
b)data on hydroxy and peroxy free radicals
c)oxidation rates (e.g.,of NO and S02)under low light and low
temperatures
3.Particulate matter:
a)chemical fingerprinting (multivariate analysis)to determine
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SOUt~ces •41
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b)rates of gas to particle nucleation (especially in dark
atmospheres)
c)effects of selective partitioning on size ranges (relevant to
respiration and health)
4.Precipitation chemistry:
a)rates and composition of wet and dry deposition (including
snow andice fog)
b)fate of materials deposited on surface (including re-emission
of organic matter to atmosphere).
Dispersion and Transport of Pollutants
1.Dispersion model:
a)development and verification of a cold regions dispersion model.
b)data on wi nds,temperatures and 1apse rates for input into
model (particularly needed for Anchorage).
2.Vertical dispersion:
a)pl ume ri se under stable condi ti ons and effects of wi nd shears
b)scavenging efficiency of snow and ice fog
3.Meteorology of CO episodes:
synoptic situations responsible for such episodes.
4.Indoor air pollution:
transfer of pollution from the outside,trapping inside
Health and Other Effects
1.Eye and respiratory disease:
Statistical comparison between people in urban and rural areas
42
effects of Arctic Haze on radiative transfer and climate
4.Carcinogenic factors:
chemical and biological data of urban pollutants
5.Melt water pollution:
chemical details of pollutants trapped in snow
Mitigative Measures and Controls
1.Automobil e emi ss ions and effecti veness of vari ous control measures:
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II.BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Chemistry of Cold Regions Air Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics:
Pollution species and concentrations present in cold regions
In the air
In snow
Photochemical conversions
Other chemical processes
Bottenhein,Jan W.,and Otto P.Strausz,Gas-Phase Chemistry of Clean Air at 55 0
N Latitude,Environmental Science and Technology,Vol.14,No.6,pp.709-
718,June 1980.
ABSTRACT
This study was primarily undertaken in order to obtain insiqht into the
clean air chemistry at northerly regions as a function of diurnal and seasonal
variations,with potential future pollution effects in mind.Several assumptions
had to be made due to lack of data reQuired to define a standard model.Within
thi s framework,di urnal and annual vari ati;ons of NO x and other N-contai ni ng
species were discussed,and comparisons with polluted air chemistry were made.
It was pointed out that the so-called photostationary state equation leads to a
poor prediction of ozone in clean air,but the empirical rule implying hiqh ozone
levels when NMHC/NO x ~10 should apply,provided hydrocarbon reactivity is taken
into account.The model sugqest that non(photo)chemical processes are larqely
responsible for background ozone levels in the winter,while NO x levels must be
at a level well below 1 ppb in the summer.The role of free-radical chemistry
was also delineated,and it was shown that the effective HO radical mixing ratio
is relatively invariant with the season,in contrast with the effective peroxy
radical mixing ration.The effects of highly reactive natural hydrocarbons in
summer were studied using trans-2-butene as a model compound.It was argued that
early morning haze formation over wooded areas might well be due to radical-olefin
reactions rather than 03-o1efin reactions.The chemistry of NH 3 , H2S,and S02
was also briefly discussed.
Duce,R.A.,J.W.Winchester and T.W.VanNahl,Iodine,Bromide and Chlorine
in Winter Aerosols and Snow from Barrow,Alaska,Tellus,V.18,238-248,
1966.
ABSTRACT
__~~_dJnE!•..__bt:Emine.and Chlo,..i n e kave been dete"mlned in
a tinosp k H'C ~-e;;;-~i'~-;;~d·-f~·~~~-~-~~i i;;~i;d--f;B~'~~~;;;A i~';;k-;;---_...
--1.1,I!:.L....~_.,la"~!.-J.2.t;..?_L.bJL!"'!.~.!!..Lo_U~vt.,.0.L.!l:.1.l!'.!.!-.~_l!..!!.~!~~!~.~.
Ae.osol~cOllected uSing both an al,.cpa,t co11ectO,.by impactiOn
_~nd a g,.ovnd-based l'Omic,.on T~p~EA M'11ipo,..e rilte,.
--co 1-i.-"'ct~,."show''co-~-;;-~nt.-;at iOn-5-~ici 't.o-be~~;;h;;;;,.-e ~a~';bii -t-k';-~-----
__eJ:tk,e,._EI.~__~,._.IL_an'L I IS!".1'0 i 'It sol uste,..at 0.1-0.2!'l II !!Ie,.
r 0 ,.the rt 1 t e,.sa m1'1 <t s ~--C1 'v a~'j e;;i ,.0·""-i &Ii s·than'0 ~lJ 2 to ~',,-,'----.,-
_,!,!-c_r:,ogr:a_'!'~-'_<;_~lI_~,_~.!.~__~~"r I He,.sa ..p 1 es.and the a i ,..c,.ar t
conce"t,..at'OtIS ag,.ee wI tk tkOs ..1.-;;k~-n'b·~--r-i1t--;;;--;;;-t~e-·s~;';-;;--'d·~~-;-.----.
...Li_tt_~-!:..ll...!:_.i~__!"::_~(J .n51_~".!.~u_..'!!2Je.an<!_.,I is O.3-1 0
ng,l/cu m STP.;and the ,.atlos l/Cl a"da;7c"l fnc;.-;;a-;;----------·-----·-·-
._ska':."_l!;i__~~~_~_dec:!_l!~s_~!'_5l._c:1.~~no.,w_SamP les"f,.o,""theg,.0und havee,.1 C1 somewhat g,.ea t e ,.than in se ....';a-t.";;--a1 t.'~OUg ~-an.,a i 0-;';-;;-------..,.
__~~~ations d ..c:~as~wi~k Inc,.easing distance r"om the sea UP to
10 km.ASSuming a mlxt~of'undlrie".n"tiated"S...sal-t llnd a mo,..e
_~e,:,~_~n!"_~_"':~~O~~!"_~__£O~~~~~!.__!~~~'-rn_ate ro,.the"atmospke,.i c
Compone"t in tke S"OW lIB,.about 0.2.Sea ~ate~-~·-;...-a"iC~.-and--.-------,--
--:~..!.~~.!~,_.!!.~rn-'"1,~!i___"'..t!.':.e_~!:'~1 !:lzed!and I I C1 !tqu a 1s 0.00000'1 g 1/ge 1 .
Is "O,.ma 1 rOI"sea wa toe,.•·....ltJ\O~~k '-B;Jicl;';q~~i~·0 ~00'3 A".g6,./;,C i------------
Is a little k,gh.
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Gosink,T.A.,Trace Elements in the Aerosols Collected in Fairbanks and North Pole
Alaska During 1980,Geophysical Institute Report,December 1981.
ABSTRACT
Most of the analyses presented in this report were done by means of
proton induced x-ray emission (PIXE)a few samples (ice fog)were done by
means of atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
Aside from the tables in the executive summary section the data is
presented in three formats (see tabs).The first section presents the
data in micrograms of the element per cubic meter of air as a func~ion of
time.The ice fog data is not included in any of these tables.
Gosink,T.A.,A Report to the Fairbanks North Star Borough,Pollution Research
Activities 1982-1983,Trace elements in the local aerosols and the
identification of pollution sources,September 1983.
ABSTRACT
Measurements of the enrichment of several trace elements in Fairbanks and
determination of a chemical signature of wood smoke against a background of other
fuel pollutants.
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Grosjean,Daniel and Barbara Wright,Carbonyls in Urban Fog,Ice Fog,
Cloudwater and Rainwater,Accepted Atmospheric Environment,April
1983.
ABSTRACT
Formaldehyde,acetaldehyde,propanal,acetone +acrolein,n-butanal,
2-butanone,n-pentanal,n-hexanal and benzaldehyde have been identified
in fog,ice fog,mist,cloudwater and rainwater samples colle~ted at
urban locations in California (Los Angeles)and Alaska (Fairbanks).
Formaldehyde concentrations,up to ~2 mg t-1 ,were highest in urban fog
and ice fog samples.Concentrations of other carbonyls occasionally
approached or exceeded that of formaldehyde.The results are briefly
discussed in terms of scavenging of gas-phase atmospheric carbonyls.
48
MacKenzie,K.W.and R.E.Arnold,The seasonal and spatial distribution of two
atmospheric pollutants around a sub-arctic city,Fairbanks North Star
Borough Report No.73-001,August 1973.
ABSTRACT
Around the city of Fairbanks,Alaska (UTMG 06-00465000-7190000.
pop.18.304)a condition of extremely stable air is produced during the winter
months (November through March)by the effect of atmospheric temperature
inversions,a ring of hills around three sides of the city area.and low
wind speeds (avg."Km per hour).Because this atmospheric stability inhibits
the dispersal of man-made gaseous pollutants,and because men have concentrated
a large number of motor vehicles (about 20.000)within the area.atmospheric
concentrations of carbon monoxide are found in winter time Fairbanks as high
and as persistent as those measured anywhere else in the United States.
Morachevsky,V.G.,E.Golovina,A.Tsvetkova,The Conditions of Non-photochemical
Smog Formation,Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute.(undated short
manuscript,translated by U.S.Dept.of Commerce)
ABSTRACT
The princ.ipal aim of my short report is to call attention to one of the
possible meteorological aspects of the role of such active condensation
nuclei as atmospheric organic pollution -*complicated hydrocarbons,surface
active materials,SAM,and the products of their non-photochemical trans-
formations in the atmosphere •.We determine non-photochemical smog (NPCS)
as fog in lower atmospheric layers,formed at relative humidities signi-
ficantly below 100 %,which leads to decrease of Visibility to values
below 1 km.It means that NPCS differs great~y from PCS as well as common
fog.Bulgarian academician Krystanov and later we in Leningrad Hydrome-
teorological Institute have considered the problem of capillaric activity
of surface inactive particles (particles of dust).It was shown that
such activity leads to formation of smog on coal particles when weight con~
centrations of these particles exceeds values P .=0.1 mg/m 3 .Measuring
weight concentration of pollutions in industria~~gities we never observed
such high concentrations.That is why we suggested that smogs in industrial
regions may be related to the condensation activity of organic particles.
49
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Patterson,C.C.,and Jaworowski,Z.et al.,Criticism of Flow of metals into the
global atmosphere,and Reply.Geochem.et Cosmochim Acta,47,1163-1175,1983.
ABSTRACT
There are serious disagreements (an order of magnitude)between various authors
on the concentration of lead around the world,including glacier ice (some from
Alaska and Spitsbergen).The latest round of arguments in print are to be found
in these two references.
Peake,E.and H.S.Sandhu,The formation of ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
in the urban atmospheres of Alberta,Can.J.Chern.61,000,1983.
ABSTRACT
Atmospheric temperature inversions frequently trap poliU~lS in the urbanacmospheres of Alberta leading to photochemical
air pollution.Peroxyacetyl nitrate.(PAN)was monitored.for the first time in Alberta.from November 1980 to August 1981
at the University of Calgary using electron c:Jpture gas chromatography.Measurements were m:Jde at one-half-hour intervals
from July.1981 to Febnwy,1982 at a downtown location.Maximum PAN concentrations were recorded at the University
and downtown sites on August 14 at 1400 h.1981 and the values were 2.4 and 6.6 ppb.respectively.In each case the maximum
PAN peak coincided with the afternoon pe:1k in ozone concentrations.79 ppb at the University and 59 ppb at the downtown
site.Surprisingly,a high value 0£2.3 ppb PAN was recorded at the University during January of 1981 giving rise to questions
regarding the influence of low temperatures and solar radiation on the photochemical formation of PAN.C1iculations
employing a simple photochemical model for PAN and ozone formation have been carried out and comparisons made between
the observed and the computed values.
50
Rasmussen,R.A.,M.A.K.Khalik and S.O.Hoyt,Methane and Carbon
Monoxide in Snow,Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
Vol.32,No.2,February 1982.
ABSTRACT
Freshly fallen snow,gathered at Mt.Hood (Oregon),was found to
contain a lot of carbon monoxide (CO)but no methane (CH4).This result
will be established in the paper and used to show that the atmospheric
concentration of methane many hundreds of years ago was less than half
what it is today.
Reichart,P.,and Susan K.Reidy,Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarhons:
An Aspect of Air Pollution in Fairbanks,Alaska,Arctic,Vol.33,No.2,
p.316-325,June 1980.
ABSTRACT
Quantitative analysis of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(P AH)in Fairbanks,Alaska revealed significant levels of representative components.A
fairly constant PAH pattern was observed throughout the winter of 1976-77,and the
absolutePAH level correlated with air stagnation.Consideration of relative levels of
individual PAH components reveals vehicular emissions as the major source but also
provides evidence for contributions from power plant emissions.Fairbanks'PAH
levels approach those of major cities ill,.more_mQQerate climates,anatIiiS-sttmition
emphasizes the importance'ofiUf<iiiiIlty problems in development of the Arctic.
51
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Schjo1dager,J.,B.Sivertsen and J.E.Hanssen,On the Occurrence of
Photochemical Oxidants at High Latitudes,Atmospheric Environment,
Vol.12,.pp.2461-2467,1978.
ABSTRACT
Results from an ozone monitoring programme during the summers of 1975 and 1976 in the lower
Telemark area (ca.59°N)in Norway shows that elevated ozone concentrations (up to 120ppb)occurred,
mainly during prevailing high pressure situations.Wind trajectory analyses indicate that the elevated ozone
concentrations in pan seem to be generated from locally emitted precursors,and in ·pan are associated with
long range transpon in north-western Europe.
Schjoldager,Jorgen,Observations of High Ozone Concentrations in Oslo,
Norway,during the Summer of 1977,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.
13,pp.1689-1696,June 1979.
ABSTRACT
._Results from au ozone monitoring programme in Oslo (60 0 N)show that high ozone
concentrations,up to 218 JIg m-3 (109 ppb)occurred,mainly during high-pressure situations.An assessment
of the local meteorological conditions together with air trajectory analyses seems to indicate that the local
and mesoscale formation and transpon were more important than transpon from distant sources.
52
Schjoldager,Jorgen,Ambient Ozone Measurements in.Norway 1~75-1979,
Presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Alr Pollutlon
Control Association,Montreal,Canada,June 22-27,1980.
ABSTRACT
Ambient ozone measurements have been carried out in southern
Norway (59-600 N)since 1975.During episodes in the summer
months,with meteorological conditions conducive to oxidant
formation,high concentrations of ozone (up to 200 ppb)have
occurred.During the episodes,land/sea breeze often prevails
for several days on the local scale.In some cases long range
transport of oxidants and oxidant precursors from the major
source areas in Great Britain and the European continent has
probably occurred,while in other cases local and mesoscale
formation and transport seem to dominate.Due to the variable
climate at latitudes around 60 0 N,both the total number of
episodes and the relative number of local/mesoscale and trans-
port episodes can vary considerably from one year to the next.
The highest ozone concentrations often occur during combined
local/mesoscale or mesoscale/transport episodes.The precursor
emissions from some stationary sources (e.g.the fertilizer
industry)have decreased over the last years,but the total
emissions of organics and oxides of nitrogen in southern
Norway have increased steadily,and will probaly continue
to do so over the next years.
Schjoldager,J¢rgen,Harald Dovland,Peringe Grennfelt,J¢rgen
Saltbones,Photochemical Oxidants in North-western Europe 1976-79,
A Pilot Project,Norwegian Institute for Air Research,P.O.Box
130,N-20001 Lill estr¢m,NoY'way,Apt'i 1 1981.
ABSTRACT
This pilot project was undertaken as a result of various activities
in Europe in the field of photochemical air pollution after 1970.Of
special importance was the OECD "Ad hoc Group of Experts on Photochemical
Oxidants and their Precursors in the Atmosphere",acting from 1973 to
1978.In 1978 the NOt'\"egi an Institute fat'Air't'eseat'ch (NILU)hosted a
planning conference on future research co-operation on long range transport
of photochemi cal oxi dants.The present study was the outgt'O\'1th of some
of the Y'ecommendati ons fy'om that confet'ence.Economi c SUppOY't has been
obtained from the National Swedish Environment Protection Board and the
NoY'wegi an Mi ni stry of Envir'onment.
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Schjoldager,Jorgen,On the occurrence of photochemical air pollution at
moderate.and low ~emperatures,Presented at the 74th Annual Meeting
of the Al r Poll utl on Control Associ ati on,Phil adel phi a,Pennsyl vani a
June 21-26,1981.'
ABSTRACT
The ozone measurements carried out in Norway at 59-60o N lati-
tude since 1975 generally confirm that high oxidant concentra-
tions are experienced during stagnating anticyclonic weather
situations with high temperatgre and low wind speed.However,
ambient temperatures of 10-15 e do not seem to inhibit ozone
generation.Two episodes with ozone concentrations of 80-95 ppb
at temperatures ~round laoe are discussed.In one case,long
range transport from central and eastern continental Europe
seemed to dominate,while the temPoratures along the air .
trajectories were not exceeding 15 C.In the other case,local
ozone production in stagnating air masses during the morning
hours seemed to be the major cause,w~th ?n irradiation time
of 4-6 hours at temperatures below 10 C.
Sierra Research Report prepared for Fairbanks North Star Borough,
Air Quality Trends in Fairbanks,Alaska,September 1982.
ABSTRACT
An analysis of 8-hour average ca~bon monoxide conce~tra
tions at two locations in downtown Fa1rbanks shows two d1~
tinctly different trends:a consistent,gradual decrease 1n
the seasonal average of daily maximum 8-hour concentr~
tions;and a slight increase,followed by a ~ecrease 1n
later years,in the seasonal peak concentrat1ons.
The trends were developed from data supplied by the
Fairbanks North Star Borough for monitoring sites near the
intersections of 2nd and Cushman and 4th and Lacey.Data
were collected at the two sites for a total of ten years;
however the 2nd and Cushman site was shut down in 1978
while the 4th and Lacey site first began operations in 1976.
In order to develop a long term air quality trend for
Fairbanks,data from the two sites were co~bined using a
least squares fit equation.Over 4,000 pa1rs of measure-
ments from the 1976/77 and 1977/78 winter seasons were used
to develop the equation.
54
00
Carbon Monoxide
\
------.•--.-•••--.__--0 -0 _.-.
Thomas,C.W.,Atmospheric Natural Aerosols and Fallout Particulates During 1973
at Richland,Washington and Point Barrow,Alaska.In:Pacific Northwest
Laboratory Annual Report for 1973 to the USAEC Division of Biomedical and
Environmental Research,Part 3.
ABSTRACT
Mea!'ure ...."ts 0'at"'osP .....r1 c .natural...aero!i!0 1 S_•."nA_.f'a 1.1 ou~._._..__...
.-----j.;;'-tl~l~-~-~t -RI ;h"·i a ~d~W~~-h I n9ton~n d Po 1 n t 6a r r ow,A1 aSk a are
.__.!_!p.C!L~_9.~._._tb.e C0!l~~!!...~r a.tJ O.I~_.o.CraclJ0'!Yc!1.cl~.S._~~s.C?cJ.a~e~__.I~.t!:~._.._"_
weapons t ..stln9 decreased tw o -to tenf'ol~during 1973 at
_.Ii.!s.!-l_and.,\~a!!!b
'
!,!,'1.!.'?l1_,-",.ef 1 ~c;.~ln 9 ..th..~a cl.<"O_t .h I !;!h..~~J.el d ..wea.~.~.n!L.,._.,.
testing during 1971 and 1972_Th~atmosPheric radlonucllde
concentrations rOrth ..period 1971-1973 decrea~ed with a ~~sldence
- -hal"f-ot:1;~·oi"i 1-';-;;~·s I ~1 f~-r-'t-~th~t ·-;;,e ~svr ed f'rom 1963-1966 ,The
time .variatlons In t.he atmosPh ..rlc concentratjOns:.Of'_.':'.l.v~,?nJ"'[lI~.2)8.__._
---a-~-d-P-I u t;;-~(;:'-';;·:E9·-at·-R-i~h·l'a,;-d ··~;;ri 'P-;;f n t Bar ;-ou'-'sin ce 196"Iv ..r e
tl<!P I Calor nvC 1 ea r "eapon s-pr orJvced r ad 1 OOVC 11~es,ex CePt ..f'.or._th e
-.-I~(;re~se i~·P':;::-i38-'';o'~~~~tra to:Ion f'r~;;"19'65 to'-19611 r esu·it.1 ng
f'ro",the burnuP Of'a nucl ...a,.91!'nerator a t _"6.km.,altJ.tude:,ln.~h.!!.,..·-sou"t he r~-'~e-;;'-l;'F h'';';:e-:--'r he P~:':2:3 a·'-co~·i:e~tr at IOn showed sea son a 1
varfatlon t~plcal or radfonuClldes 01 stratospheric origin,
--iTCh l-;;-;'d---;i;'f'111.er sa';;';;'i I!"s'cOl"i-e;;t:~-;;'d;:;;;'T;'~·i973';i~d··~~~1-;;ie-d-----
'or trac"elements showed concentrations of'nickel,zinC,.'_
~ar·sen-i c',--bro-;;ine,-M';;i;bd~nu;;;;a~dl-~a~r'';;h ic-;;"-;;'e';"-cha';~-cte~fs't-f;;"---'
or large contributions f'~om sovrces othe~than the earth 5-crust:;'·'Tk-';·b~omfne:'t'o':"le-';d··ratTo-Co ~is'i-w-;;·~'-';b~u't·~hat'-.;;ovi"d"-------
.2!.-!..~.!ct!..~_frOm avto",obJ..!.':_..~~_~~_.':!.!;!:~.__.__.._
Winchester,John W.and Robert A.Duce,Coherence of Iodine and Bromine in the
Atmosphere of Hawaii,Alaska,and Massachusetts,Tellus 18 (2),p.287-292,
1966.
ABSTRACT
Pre~!ousl~re~.;·~·t:;d-'.a~·~l~;.es 'or r ...ln'·s~o.;;·;-';erosols,and gas ,~o'"
___..HauULIJ •../\I a,,~.a t_~.nd..~~ss.a~fl v.s;.~~t~.._.a,,-d...!:'.!'.u.ary~!\l.S es 0 r ..An ta r c tic
and ·\lask4 !'""ow and Ice,are co:nPar.d.Both I and·8·;·--ap;;.;~;;·'t·~·~'-
....assoc 1 <l t._ad._til t~h ..ii:..roso 1 s.o'-.small.r part.I c 1 e sizes and 10 n9.r
r"sldence tl",es than Cl-rlch ae~oso·ls~·-In·m;st ~uftes·Of s'-m;l'~·~
tn!.!:e!s a,eluster:l"g .at_I~l3raPPr(ll'f'11at.l~0,1-0.,2L.and qr/Cl
eXCeeds the sea water ratio (3,Q x 0.001)seVeral-rold.Ae~os;i~
~(J llect.~do~e.L_2.p~'!..s ...a_wa.ter .Ln._H~W~.iJL h 0w ..v'!....._sI:!9'!'.Br:I C1
several-f'old lower than In gea mater'Th.latter partiCles .,;.;-;--.•....
..1 den t ..1 f'Jeel.a s."sea.s~.1 ~~a~ros.:qs .wi:'IereaS tne,B.~!1 ~"'.aerosols a r.
s",all.r In size and "'al<!be basicalill different In composltlon~It
.Issvgge.s t ..d tha t,B.!:,_'s ..d I !i.t ,11 ed.~.J r Om t h .gea SPr a Il .,j r oPtets,
Posslblll bll Phot.o che ..I1 c al oxidation to "r2,and th;;n "co'n-d·~nsed"
_o"!.t..!"...tn...sm~.l~.~r:p.art_'C:les,possl.,11l OH F'artlclpatln9 In t".
Ox I da t Ion 0'SOZ-to-sv 1 fa t":-··'I';d i ne'-;;'a~·;;n~a~e'-i-n';;I";1 iQ"r ----..--...
.reactions,and..t~e.!:_e_sult1ng.I and .sr:-r:.tch partIcles exhibit a
w °rId -wid e c:°ns t Ii nell 'n I / B r •P r ..c 1 pit a t IOn a na 1 Il s.S s"~I~---a'---··
_~!.l1l!_lar,const.a~E.~I~.JjB,r.,._.__._.__._,
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Winchester,John W.,William H.Zoller',Rober·t A.Duce and Carl S.Benson,
Lead and Halogens in Pollution Aerosols and Snow from Fairbanks,
Alaska,Atmospheric Envir'onment,Vol.1,Pergamon Press,pp.105-
119,1967.
~bstract-The composition of lead halide pollution aerosol particles was studied in the Fair-
banks area during January and February 1965;At this time of year the sun is above the.
horizon for less than 4 hr and prolonged cold spells (surface air temperature below -40°C)
are accompanied by strong (gradients of 2Q-30°C/lOO m)surface inversions which severely.
restrict the dilution volume for air pollutants.Indeed,these inversions virtually decouple the.
dense surface air-layer from the overlying air.Accurate quantitative information on the total'
output of all pollution sources is available because of the isolated location of Fairbanks and I
the limited,measurable sources of fuel supply.Thus,Fairbanks is a model locality for studying i
the production,movement,and chemical reactions of air pollutants in what amounts to a i
simple two-layer atmosphere.
Lead was determined by inverse polarography in aerosol particles collected on Millipore ;
filters.Measured values ranged from 6.0 pg of lead/m'of air in the city center,near the auto-
mobile traffic center,to 0.19 at the University of Alaska campus outside the city.These do not
represent maximum values because pollutant-concentrating conditions were relatively mild
during the sampling periods.
Halogens were determined by neutron activation analysis of material in the aerosols and in
ground-lying snows,and two components were revealed,a pollution component derived from
automotive ethyl fluid combustion and a low-level natural component.In the pollution aerosol
component.the weight ratio chlorine/lead averages close to the ethyl fluid value of 0.34,but
bromine/lead is up to four times less than the ethyl fluid value of 0.39.Bromidc-ehlorine of the
pollution in the snows is only 15-30 per cent of the ethyl fluid value and exhibits the lower
values further from the city center.These data support the interpretation that lead halide par-
tides,formed initially by combustion of ethyl fluid in gasoline,suffer loss of bromine by
oajc!atiOD and volatilization.The smaller particles,because of greater surface area per unit
mass,may suffer the most extensive bromine loss and may migrate farthest from the city
cmtef by virtue of their long atmospheric residence time.
56
Meteorology of Cold Regions Air Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics:
Large-scale meteorological features conducive to pollution events
Temperature inversions
City heat islands
Local wind regimes
Pollution transport and dispersion models
57
Benson,C.S.,and S.A.Bowling,The Sub-Arctic Urban Heat Island as Studied at
Fairbanks,Alaska,Climate of the Arctic,Proceedings of 24th Alaska Science
Conference,University of Alaska,1975.
ABSTRACT
Changes in ·surface properties and addition of man-made heat combine to make cities generally warmer
than their surroundings.This effect is known as the 'urban heat island.'The surface properties involved in
the changes are:Albedo and thermal properties (building materials w.soil),which affect response to solar
radiation;moisture (vegetation or wet soil vs.pavement or,in desert climates,the reverse situation of dry
land vs.irrigated areas),which affects latent heat exchange;surface roughness,which affects turbulent heat
exchange due to wind action;and atmospheric clarity (smog vs.clear air),which affects the infrared energy
exchange with the atmosphere.The arctic/sub-arctic heat island in winter is of considerable theoretical
interest in that solar radiation is negligible and moisture contrast is cancelled by a uniform snow cover and
dormant vegetation.Additionally,in the Fairbanks area wind speeds are generally very low,minimizing
roughness effects.Thus the Fairbanks heat island provides a natural laboratory for the study of the interac-
tion of added man-made heat and infrared (thermal)radiation in producing a heat island.
The Fairbanks winter heat island was studied prior to 1965 as part of the ice fog studies carried out at
that time by one of us.Considerable changes in land use have taken place since that time.Furthermore,the
effect'of a heat island on pollutant dispersal has become a pressing theoretical and practical problem.Pre-
liminary reconnaissance early in 1973 indicates that the heat island covers a larger area and is less sharply
defined near its core than was previously the case.These changes parallel,and are probably related to;an
increase in the area covered by ice fog.Even as early as 1962,however,the Weather Bureau (airport)tem-
perature at 135 m was found to be consistently higher than the mean of the other flatland stations (one at
130 m and one at 140 m),and frequently higher than either.This suggests the possibility that the airport
was actually within the Fairbanks heat island,or producing its own small heat island.On this basis,it will
be necessary to extend the traverses beyond the areas studied so far to obtain good background temperature3.
58
Benson,Carl and Gunter Weller,A Study of Low-Level ~4inds in the Vicinity
of Fairbanks,Alaska,Report to Earth Resources Company and Atlantic
Richfield Company (ARCO),by Geophysical Institute,University of
Alaska,1970.
ABSTRACT
In order to more ~dequ"tel)'understand the :lir pollution probl.clRS in Interior
'Ull....It:t it is necess:Jr;'to understand the charnctcristies of tcmpc1"nl:uro inver..ions
iUId l1ir £1"",in the l~wcse air 1~jers.In this paper we sumu."1riz~.3 cOlllll:tr:ttLv,;:study
of !nvcr.g!ons over F:Jirban~~and 10 other 5ub-nrctic :lnd :lretic stations to~ether with
tbe results of.IIIcmIUr'll!l':nts of row lovel \linds during .10101 temperature.o;in the
F:lirD:tnk:o area.Al th"llg!l surfo:ce inversions '\lere present at nll ::t:ltions more
th:tn 50Z of the eim~frDIII November to April,only three of the cleven st:ttions h~d
invcrsiol\sr~dients equal or greator th:m those me:u:ured ae Fairbanks.
In F:lirbanks.in 10 years o£records,surface inversions.were·present
(1)in more thl1n 60%of .i!!!night time soundings,year round.
(2)in more.thl1n 80%of day and night soundings during December and J~\U~ry.
(3)in morC!th~80%of night time soundings for 5 months of the year.
Our study ah_cd that during timc$of low temperature,lofor velocity,kat~~tic
winds D~C gener~ted on hl11slores by r~diationDl cooling ~d g~avitatiOl'lnl forces.
thIs results in D complex pattern of air fl_frolll h11ls 4nd valleys north,cast
and west 'of Fa1rb4nks,\lith the general drainage wind moving tvest (dOTlln river)in .
the T~an~Valley.Winds VCl!r over the city,as seen quite!clearly"in the ol-ienta-.
tion of smo~e ~d vapor plumes f~om.chimney~but velocit~cs ncar the surface ~t
.2 cater height arc gcner311yless th~0.5 III sec-l (1 mph).Periodic o$c111ations
such as internal gravitY vaves occur quite frequently in the in~crsion layer.4nd
aid in thl!mixint;of this layer.Strong vinds.which could reClove pollutants from
the a~ca whell 10'1 ecmpcratures occur,~re l1lmost entirely absent during those
pcriods.
Bilello,Michael A.,Survey of Arctic and Subarctic Temperature Inversions,
Technical Report 161,U.S.Army Materiel Command,Cold Regions
Research &Engineering Laboratory,Hanover,New Hampshire,October
1966.
ABSTRACT
A temperature inversion is defined meteorologically as a layer of air in which
the temperature increases with altitude.As noted in the Glossary of Meteorology
(1959).the principal characteristic of an inversion layer is-its marked stability,
which allows very little turbulent exchange to occur within it.
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Bowling,Sue Ann,A study of synoptic-scale meteorological features associated
with the occurrence of ice fog in Fairbanks,Alaska,Master of Science
Thesis,University of Alaska,1967.
ABSTRACT
A synoptic-scale investigation of Fairbanks ice fog indicates that two
distinct types of ice fog may be recognized.A type I event occurs when a
migratory,and generally rapidly intensifying,Siberian High moves eastward
into Alaska.This migration is preceded by the formation of a 700 mb ridge
in or slightly west of the Bering Strait,and by a junction in the low-level
circulation of the Siberian High with that of a migratory Pacific High.In
these events,Fairbanks temperatures aloft rise during the periods with clear
skies when radiative cooling decreases the surface temperature.This behavior
is attributed to advection of Pacific air combined with subsidence in the
Siberian air.Type II events,rare but prolonged and extremely severe,occur
when a Siberian High expands to cover northern Alaska after contact with a
migratory Pacific High.The 700 mb pattern in this case generally has a High
centered near the East Siberian Sea and a Low in southern Alaska.
Bowling,Sue Ann,Radiative cooling rates in the presence of ice crystal aerosols,
Ph.D.Thesis,University of Alaska,1970.
ABSTRACT
A method has been developed for computer calculation of radiative cooling
rates within an ice fog (crystal radii 1 to 7 ~,number density 100 to 1000
crystals cm-3 )or an ice crystal display (also called diamond dust;crystal radii
25 to SOD ~,number density .01 to 1 crystals cm-3).Mie scattering is assumed
for the nearly spherical ice fog crystals,while diamond dust crystals,which are
mainly flat plates,are considered black in the infrared.Elsasser's treatment
is paralleled,with some modifications,for water vapor and carbon dioxide.The
basic method is usable for almost any kind of cloud or fog,although the computer
calculations become quite lengthy if both scattering and the dependence of the
ice crystal parameters on wave number are considered.
60
Bowling,Sue Ann,Takeshi Ohtake and Carl S.Benson,Winter Pressure Systems and
Ice Fog in Fairbanks,Alaska,Jour.of Applied Meteorology,Vol.7,No.6,
December 1968.
ABSTRACT
The produ<,tion of the low temperatures which are responsible for ice fog in inhabited areas of interior
Alaska would appear to be a classic example of clear sky radiative cooling under nearly polar night condi-
tions.However,examination of the meteorological conditions associated with 15 periods of dense ice fog
at Fairbanks indicates that local radiative cooling is important only in producing the observed steep ground
inversion.The most rapid decreases in temperature at heights>1 km occurred with cloud cover and cold
air ad\'ection preceding the cold weather at the ground.The most common synoptic pattern (observed
for the 12 shortest e\'ents)consisted of the migration of a small high from Siberia across Alaska.Rapid growth
of the high was common,and the resulting subsidence was strong enough to counterbalance not only radiative
cooling,but further cold air advection as well.This resulted in an observed warming aloft during all but the
first 12-24 hr of the clear,cold weather observed at the ground.Three of the 15 events did not follow this
pattern.Two long and \·ery cold events were associated with warm highs in northeastern Siberia,continuous
belts of moderately high pressure extending from Siberia across the Bering Strait into Alaska,and advection
from Siberia and the Arctic Ocean.The remaining long but relatively mild event was associated with a warm
high north of Alaska and advection from Canada and the Arctic Ocean.
Bowling,Sue Ann,Carl S.Benson and Wallace B.Murcray,Quasi-Equilibrium .
Temperature Differences between Radiating Ice Crystals and the Surroundlng
Air,Jour.of Applied Meteorology,Vol.10,No.5,October 1971.
ABSTRACT
A previous attell)pt to calculate the temperature gradient around a growing ice crystal in ~Iear air started
\vith the radiation budget of the crystal plus the assumption that the measured frost p01O.t .temperat~re
(about 2C below air temperature)represented the crys~al.temperature.When the conduc~~Ity equatIon
for the air around the crystal is fully solved with the radIation bu~get as the ~o~ndary.~OnditiOn,however,
it is found that less than O.03C temperature difference can be sustamed by rad.Iattve coolmg o.f ~he crystals.
The most probable explanation of the difference between the tw~approaches IS that the hU~l?:ty :neasure-
ments are in error,and that the error has been generally recognIzed only at measured humIdities 10 excess
of 100%.
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Bowl;ng~S.A.and C.S.Benson,Study of the Subarctic
Fa1rbanks, Alaska,Environmental Sciences Research
EPA-600/4-78-027,June 1978.
ABSTRACT
Heat Island at
laboratory Report
"The heat island associated with the city of Fairbanks.Alaska was
studied as a means of isolating the effects of self-heating and modified
radiative transfer from other causes of heat islands.Minimal winter
insolation virtually eliminated the effects of variable albedo and the
daily temperature cycle;snow cover and dormant vegetation made differences
in evapotranspiration unimportant.and very low wind speeds minimized
the effect of surface roughness.
The observed steady-state heat island under clear skies and low wind
speeds was around 10oe.with transient values reaching l4°e.This high
value is probably due to the extremely steep ground inversions known to
exist in Fairbanks.as the heat island intensity correlated well with
the strength of the inversion between.2 and 60 meters elevation.The
depth of the mixing layer was less than 90 meters.but the temperature
structure at higher levels was disturbed.apparently by coherent lifting
of the stable air.The mean surface wind field was extremely complex in
both time and space.with strong vertical shears.horizontal eddies with
scales·from a few hundred meters to several kilometers.and seiche
oscillations at several scales superimposed on gravity drainage.Speeds
were generally too low for accurate measurement.
A self-heating term of 10KW person-l in winter and SKW person-l in
SUlllner was derived from the fuel inventory carried out as part of the
project.The winter value,applied in a simple model of a heat island
over a conducting and radiating city,gave realistic heat island values
·with wind speeds under 1 m sec-l •
62
Bowling,S.A.,Meterological Factors Responsible for High CO Levels in Alaskan
Cities,Geophysical Institute,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,
Report to EPA,1983.
ABSTRACT
High winter carbon monoxide levels in Anchorage,as in Fairbanks,are due to
intense nocturnal (ground-based)inversions persisting through the peri~ds of
maximum emissions and at times throughout the day.the problem is exacerbated by
the large amounts of carbon monoxide emitted during cold starts at low temperatures.
The Anchorage situation is unusual in that the nocturnal inversion develops most
often with a substantial north-south pressure gradient and easterly geostrophic
winds.The Chugach Range to the east sometimes produces a "wind shadow"effect
in the ci ty,and al most all the CO vi 01 ati ons exami ned occurred in these condi ti ons.
There is evidence that inversions are significantly stronger,and dispersion
conditions probably worse,near the mountain front than at the airport weather
observation.CO forecasting in Anchorage would require close cooperation between
the U.S.NOAA Weather Service and Municipality;improvement in communications
between the Fairbanks North Star Borough and the Weather Service is also essential
if the quality of the Fairbanks CO forecasts is to be improved.Measurements of
mixing heights in Fairbanks suggest that a mixing height of 10 m be considered
the maximum for worst case modeling of surface-source pollutants;values as low
as 6 m were observed.As an interim measure,similar values are recommended for
Anchorage.
Bowling,Sue Ann,Climatology of hi~h-latitude air pollution,Submitted to
J.of Clim.and Applied Meteorology,1~84.
ABSTRACT
High latitude communities frequently have severe air pollution
f
problems.The usual situation is the release of moderate amounts of
pollutants into an atmosphere with extremely poor dispersion.The
poor dispersl.on is in turn a direct result of the high latitude radiation
.-.~.
balance,which'in winter is characterized by very short·days and low
.~......
solar elevation.The result is a ground-based nighttime inversion which
continues through peak traffic hours (throughout the day in some places),
coupled with a complete lack of photochemical reactions.If development
in high latitudes is to proceed rat;onalJy~these meteorological condi-
tions must be properly accounted for.
63
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Carlson,R.F.,and John Fox,An Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide Transport Model for
Fairbanks,Alaska,Institute of Water Resources,University of Alaska,
Fairbanks,Alaska 99701,Report No.IWR-75,June 1976.
ABSTRACT
A comprehensive computer model of atmospheric carbon monoxide transport has
been developed for Fairbanks,Alaska.The model,based on a finite element method
computational scheme,accepts input from specified vehicle traffic parameters
including miles per day,number of cold starts,and total idle time.The carbon
monoxide concentrations are calculated for specified time intervals at numerous
points throughout the urban area.A test of the model against the data of January
22,1975,indicates a good correspondence.
Extremely high carbon monoxide concentration were calculated at an un-
measured point down wind of the business district.The model should prove useful
for a number of community needs including parking management,planning and zon-
ing,episode strategy planning,and carbon monoxide forecasting.
Carlson,Robert F.,and Charlotte Hok,Improvement of the Fairbanks
Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide Transport Model --A Program for Cali-
bration,Verification and Implementation,Completion Report IWR 80-
17,prepared for State of Alaska,Department of Transportation and
Public Facilities,Division of Planning &Programming Research
Section,October 1980.
ABSTRACT
In the early 70s,state,local and federal officials in Fairbanks,
Alaska,became concerned with the rising incidence of high carbon mon-
oxide episodes.Because of that concern,the Alaska Department of
Highways (forerunner of the Department of Transportation and Public
Facili~ies)and the Fairbanks North Star Borough requested that the
Institute of Water Resources undertake a study to develop a computer
model capability for understanding the transport of carbon monoxide and
other pollutants within the Fairbanks airshed.The work was completed
in Jllne of 1976.Two publications (Carlson and Fox,1976;Norton and
Carlson,1976)describe the initial development, documentation and
implementation ·of the computer model.The model,ACOS?(~tmospheric
Carbon monOxide Simulation.Program),describes the two-dimensional
~ehavior of poll~tants in t~e atmosphere via solution of the convection-
diffusion equation using the finite element method of numerical analysis.
64
Charlton,Robert B and Chan Park,Industrial Cloud,Fog,and Precipitation During
Very Cold Weather in Edmonton,PNWIS-APCA,Edmonton,1979.
ABSTRACT
The body of information in this paper is directed to engineers
who are involved in the environmental aspects of northern development.
Fog,cloud,and Drecipitatfon caused by the petrochemical
area of Edmonton,Alberta,were studied during the coldest days of two
winters.Typical morning temperatures were between -25 and -400 C.The
investigation included a comprehensive heat and vapor emission in-
ventory,field studies of local and microscale cloud physics,and
observations of cloud dispersal and precipitation formation.Results
were compared with studies of residential Edmonton,oil sands plants,
and power parks.
Emphasis was placed on the cloud microphysics of snow which
falls from cooling tower plumes.Since this-snow was nucleated by
drift droplets its development was different than that of natural
snowfall.Measured snowfall rates were found to be small compared
with those reported during warmer weather when cooling tower emissions
may trigger impending natural snowfall.
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Holmgren,B.,L.Spears,C.Wilson and C.Benson,Acoustic Soundings of the Fairbanks
Temperature Inversions,Climate of the Arctic,Proceedings of the 24th Alaska
Science Conference,Universlty of Alaska,1975.
ABSTRACT
In cooperation with the Wave Propagation Laboratory of NOAA in Boulder,Colorado,the Geophysical
Institute of the University of Alaska is operating an acoustic sounder to studythe dynamics of the formation
and dissipation of the Fairbanks inversions.The acoustic sounder is generally operated in a monostatic
.mode,with receiving and transmitting antennas collocated.In the monostatic mode the recorded back-
scatter is supposedly due only to small-scale temperature fiuctuations.The interpretation of the acoustic
records is augmented by vertical profile measurements of wind and temperature using a captive-balloon-
borne instrument package with telemetric link to the ground..
The Fairbanks inversions are quite complex,as indicated by the multi-layered structures of the acoustic
records.There may be as many as 10-20 separate,quasi-horizontal backscatter bands within the height
interval from the surface up to SOO m in situationswith well-developedinversions.During these mutli-Iayered
conditions the profile measurements using conventional wind and temperature sensors on a tethered balloon
show a conspicuously strong temperature gradient in the lowest few tens of meters,and a wind speed at the
2 m level that is less than the starting speed of our anemometer (::::::0.5 m S-I).Above this extremely stable
surface layer there is often a step-like build-Up of the inversion;between layers of small temperature gra-
dients,positive or negative,there are thin layers of sharp inversions.As for the winds aloft,one may typi-
cally recognize,in the lowest 500 m,two or more low-speed jets,often in diametrically opposed directions.
So far we have not been consistently able to relate the acoustic echo patterns to the simultaneously ob-
served "wind·and temperature profiles.Weare especially intrigued by the many thin backscattering bands
which appear in layers of great stability,and which cannot be related either to marked wind shear or sharp
temperature inversions.Although our present knowledge thus does not allow us to state unambiguously what
is causing a.ll the echo patterns,the acoustic soundings may still be used to deduce information on mesoscale
processes in the boundary layer.Some examples of mesoscale processes that maybe studied using acoustic
records are:1)the structure of surface inversions in connection with light or strong winds,2)the formation
of a.convective or mixing layer below a.capping inversion resulting from radiational heating of the surface,
3)the breakup of inversions due to increasing winds aloft and 4)the behavior of breaking waves associated
with positive and negative wind shear.When used on a real time basis,the acoustic sounder should be a
valuable tool for the local weather forecasts in Fairbanks,particularly for prediction of ice fog conditions.
Hoy1es,Michael .R.,A ~tudy.of W!nd Patterns in Anchorage,Alaska that
are Assoclated w1th V101atl0ns of the Carbon Monoxide Standards,
January 1980.
ABSTRACT
Anchorage and Fairbanks are nonattainment areas for carbon monoxide
and steps must be taken to insure that the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (N~AQS)for that pollutant be attained by 1987.The process to
be followed 1nvo1ves a study of the problem,selection of reasonable
contro:strategies,implementation of those strategies,and a monitoring
of the1r success.
Thi s report is part of that process.It is a stUdy of the
meteorolog~ca!o~curanc;~s coincident with violations of the carbon monoxideN~AQS ..Th1S 1S 1mportant for two reasons;to try and understand why the
v101at1ons occur and to provide support and justifications for the
assumptions used in the modeling of the problem.
66
Jayaweera,K.,Comments on "Potential Relief from Extreme Urban Air POllution ll,
J.Of Appl.Meteor.,Vol.12,No.5,p.88T.
ABSTRACT
Half-page response to a paper by Ewing (1972).Heat generated by cities is
unlikely to prevent inversions and air pollution.
Jayaweera,K.,G.Wendler and T.Ohtake,Low cloud Cover and the Winter Temperature
of Fairbanks,Climate Of the Arctic,Proceedinqs of the 24th Alaska Science
Conference,University of Alaska,1975.
ABSTRACT
The paper will discuss the effects of low level cloud cover on the changes of the temperature of Fairbanks.
Because Fairbanks is located in a"valley in the interior of Alaska,the results presented in this paper may be
applicable to similar locations in the Arctic land masses.The paper will be divided into three parts.
The first part will discuss the decrease of air temperature with time at various heights above Fairbanks,
after clearing of the sky.Graphs showing the temperature at 2.5 em,1,4,8,16 and 200 m at various times
will be shown in order to illustrate the cooling at various levels and the formation of surface inversions.
Energy balance computations will be presented which show that the radiation loss under clear skies is com-
pensated mainly by sensible heat (62%)and soil heat flux (32%)while condensation contributes only a
small 6%.
The second part of the paper will discuss the increase of the 1 m air temperature of Fairbanks when the
sky is completely cloud covered after a clear period.Here only cases of low clouds (below 7000 ft,cloud
base)and 100%cloud cover will be considered.The"increase in surface temperature is plotted as a function
of time with cloud base temperatures grouped in 5 C ranges varying from 0 to -25 C.The rate of increase of
temperature will be compared with the expression of Brunt and the discrepancies discussed.
The final part of the paper will discuss the theory and experiments behind the generation of artificial clouds
over an area under clear sky so as to inhibit radiative cooling.The results of the 1972/73 experiments show-
ing the number of occasions suitable conditions existed for forming artificial clouds and the radiation effects
of these clouds will be discussed.The small amounts of cloud cover that were produced during the experi-
ments were not sufficient to obtain any significant change in the hemispherical radiation or the ground tem-
perature but an indication of the radiative properties of these clouds were obtained using the Linke-Feussner
actinometer with a 5°angle of view.
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Norton,W.R.,and R.F.Carlson,User's Guide for Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide Trans-
port Model,Institute of Water Resources,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,
Alaska,Report No.IWR-76,June 1976.
ABSTRACT
In the ,,,inter months of Fairbanks,Alaska,a highly stable air temperature
inversion creates high levels of carbon monoxide (CO)concentrations.As an aid
to understanding this problem,a CO transport computer model has been created
which provides a useful tool when used in conjunction with other measurement and
analytic studies of traffic,meteorology,emissions control,zoning,and parking
management.The model is completely documented and illustrated with several
examples.Named ACOSP (Atmospheric co Simulation Program),it predicts expected
CO concentrations within a specific geographic area for a defined set of CO
sources.At the present time,the model is programmed to consider automobile
emissions as the major CO source and may include estimates of stationary sources.
The model is coded for computer solution in the FORTRb~programming language and
uses the finite-element method of numerical solution of the basic convective-diffu-
sion equations.Although it has a potential for real-time analysis and control,
at the present time the model will be most valuable for investigating and under-
standing the physical processes which are responsible for high CO levels and for
testing remedial control measures at high speed and low cost.
R~iter Elmar R Planetary-wave behavior and Arctic air pollution,Dept.of
-Atmos.Sci~~ce,Colorado State University,Ft.Collins,Colorado,1981.
ABSTRACT
An attempt was made to relate episodes of air pollution
containing vanadium at Barrow,Alaska,to the behavior of
planetary waves in middle and high latitudes.A stationarity
.index for planetary waves is defined as the ratio between
amplitudes computed from monthly mean maps and the mean
amplitudes computed on a daily basis and averaged over the
same month,regardless of phase angle.Longitude-time sections
of SOO-mb·height anomalies at various latitudes are related to
vanadium pollution episodes at Barrow.
68
Rezek,John F.and Rick Jurick,Tracer Gas fort4eteorological Analysis
in the Fairbanks Basin,Final Report,State of Alaska,Department
of Transportation and Public Facilities,May 1981.
ABSTRACT
The above EPA Maximum acceptable carbon monoxide (CO)level which
often occurs during prolonged temperature inversions has been a major
concern for the local governing agencies for several years.While
progress has been made in reducing the problem from its source,under-
standing of CO disposition and dispersion has not significantly advanced
due in part to the lack of good meteorological data.This study tested
the use of sulfer hexafloride (SF6)tracer gas to determine the wind
field and mixing layer height.The results indicate a high probability
of success for using SF6 as the trace element in a comprehensive study
toward that purpose.
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Schmidt,Manfred and Peter Fabian,Relationships b~twee~Tropospheric.
Ozone Concentration and the General Weather Sltuatl0n,Atmospherlc
Physics,Vol.53,No.1,February 1980.
ABSTRACT
The results of surface ozone records at five stations in the northern hemisphere (Tromso,Norderney.Lindau/
Harz,Zugspitze and Kairouan)are examined with respect to their dependence on wind directions and the
general weather situation in Europe.
At Kairouan/Tunisia below average concentrations are connected with wind directions from the South,i.e.
the interior oC Africa and the Sahara desert.At Middle European stations,mixing ratios above the mean
appear during periods oC prevailing air streams from the North Atlantic Ocean and North Sca (with exception
of Lindau,probably influenced by air pollution).
High ozone concentrations at Tromso/Norway were found on the average when weather situations with high
pressure regions over Northwest-and Northern Europe occured.These results probably point to a source of
tropospheric ozone within these high pressure systems.A possible explanation is discussed.
Wendler Gerd Relation entre 1a concentration en oxyde de carbone et lesco~ditio~s meteorologiques dans une communaute subarctique,J.Rech.
Atmos,IX,No.3,pp.135-142,1975.
ABSTRACT
An empirical formula was develO'pped to dest.'ribe the strength of the sllrface InversUn~
for a subarctic cOntmur~ity i'n Central Alaska.Besides the SeaS0'11 and the t'i11le of the d01/,
ooly cloudiness and wind speed were necessanJ to obtain good agreement (correlatioo factor
0.89).The «calculated II values of the inversion strength were correlated with the CO CO'flCen-
tratioo.I'll gpring and summer poor agreement was found,but in autumn and winter,when
the highest and partly dangerO'Il8 levels of co were obseroed,the agreement was good (corre·
latioo factors around 0.8).Hence,by forecasting tvind speed and cloudiness,the e:r:pected
CO cO'flCentration ca·n be estimated for Fairbanks in autumn and winter.
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Wendler,Gerd and Philip Nicpon,Low-Level Temperature Inversions in
Fairbanks,Central Alaska,Monthly Weather Review,Vol.103,No.1,
pp.34-44,January 1975..
ABSTRACT
Low-level inversions up to 200 m were investigated ona statistical basis for Fairbanks,Alaska,using
hourly data for the year March 1967 to February 1968.Surface inversions were found to be present for more
than 50%of the time.In winter (November to February)there is an inversion for more than 95%of the
time;maximum values of the inversion strength were 20°C in 200 m altitude difference.In summer (June
to August)inversions occur relatively seldom.For the rest of the year,inversions are normally established
at night,but are destroyed by day.
The strength of the inversion was analyzed and shown graphically as a function of different independent
meteorological parameters for the four seasons and annually.Although there are some differences depending
on the season,the strength of the inversions was observed to increase with a)negative net radiation,b)
decreasing cloudiness,and c)decreasing windspeed.Furthermore,during the winter a northerly wind
direction,probably of orographic origin,was associated with stronger inversions.Such graphical data for
a typical subarctic community should be useful in local forecasting and pollution control planning.
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Special Forms of Cold Regions Air Pollution:
ICE FOG
The references in this section include the following topics:
Characteristics of ice fog
Sources of ice fog
Meteorological conditions and transport pathways
Effects of ice fog on pollution dispersion and scavenging of
other pollutants
Radiative effects
Ice crystals and ice fog nuclei
Ice fog reduction and suppression.
72
AeResearch,Inc.,Baseline Ice Fog Visibility Study,Report for Fairbanks
North Star Borough,1 Vol.,1975.
ABSTRACT
For many years the effec-L.S of ice fog on t.he com:rumity
of Fairbanks,Alaska have been o1:::serv-ed to ~rsen..Many studies have ,~
l::ee..'1 :made to help better understand W.e ice fog pP..e.norrenon.Probably
't.;'-:e best kn.cwn a..1Jd rrost thorough investigation of ice fog was repor-~,
Tb.is asseSSITe.'1t :included a source i.."1veIltory,deter-
ni.:-..atian of distriblrdon,and est.i.rration of density.M::>re recent ~rk
has been devoted to particle fomation and size distri.but.ion,atnosp.'1e.ric
he~t balance and lor.o;r level air flO',.,:in the Fairbanks basin (Ohtake,Benson,
~\ieller,Bowling,et.al.).
Armstrong,W.C.,Effects of Thermal Discharges upon the Chena River,Institute of
Water Resources,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,Report No.:
OWRR-B-020 Alaska(2);W73-14864,April 1973,146 p.
ABSTRACT
The evaluation of'several thermal discharges in Fairbanks.
Alaska was carried out to determine their effects on the
physical parameters of the Chena River.a typical sub-Arctic
stream.In addition.the effectiveness of two discharge
schemes at the main thermal source was compared.The use of a
surface-spreading scheme at either source would result in a
heat dissipation rate per un1t area 2 to 10 times greater than
use of a submerged jet.The amount of ice cover downstream
from the discharges would be approximately 40%more using the
sUbmerged jet.The advantages of each discharge method are
discussed and two alternative cooling methods are suggested.
73
Benson,Carl ~.,Ice F?g:Low Temperature Air Pollution in Fairbanks,
Geophyslcal Instltute Annual Report 1964-65,pp.86-91.
ABSTRACT
General description of ice fog in Fairbanks,including water vapor
sources and amounts of other combustion products.
Benson,Car'l S.,Ice Fog:Low Temper'ature Air'Pollution,UniveY'sity of
Alaska,Geophysical Institute,UAG R-173,1965.
ABSTRACT
Stabl e pr'essur'e systems over'i nter'i or'Alaska sometimes pr-oduce pr'olonged,
extreme (below -40°C)col d spell s at the sur'face.The meteor'ol ogi cal conditi ons
r'esponsible fat'two such cold spells ar'e discussed in detail in Appendix A,
wher'e it is shown that the rate of r'adi ati ve cool i ng of the air'is enhanced by
suspended ice cr'ystals \'1hich ar'e themselves a r'esult of the initial cooling.
Radi ati on fogs for'med dur'i ng the onset of col d spell s ar'e gener'ally of
short duration because the air soon becomes desiccated.These fogs consist of
supercooled water droplets until the air temperature goes below the "spontaneous
freezing point"for water droplets (about -40°C);the fog then becomes an ice
cr'ystal fog,or simply "Ice Fog".During the cooling cycle water'is gr'adual1y
condensed out of the air until the droplets freeze.At this point there is a
sharp,discontinuous decrease in the saturation vapor pressure of the air because
it must be reckoned over ice rather than over water.The polluted air over
Fair-banks allows dr'oplets to begin ft'eezing at the r'elatively high temper-atur'e
of -35°C.Between -35 and -40°C the amount of water'vapor'condensed by fr'eezi ng
of supercooled water droplets is 3 to 5 times greater than the amount condensed
by lOC of cooling at these temperatures.This results in r-apid and widespread
formation of ice fog (Appendix B)which persists in the Fairbanks ara as long as
the cold spell lasts.The persistence of Fairbanks ice fog depends on a continual
sout'ce of moistuY'e (4.1 x 106 Kg H 0 pet'day)fy'om human activities 'tJithin
2thefog.
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Benson Carl S.Ice Fog Low Temperature Air Pollution,Research Report
i21,Col d'Regions Reseay'ch and Engi neey'i ng LaboY'atoY'y,Hanovey',New
Hampshire,1970.
ABSTRACT
Stable press,,"syst2flls over interior Alaska sOMetimes produced prolonged ..
ext1"etne (b.low -4Q·CI cold 'pells at ttl.surfac..Th....tearo)oglca)condItions
responslbl.for two such cold sp.lls are dlscuss.d fn d.Ul1 fn App.ndlx A,
wh.re It I ••hown that th.rat.of r.diativ.c.olln!'of th.aIr Is .nhanced by
su.pended 1c.cry.tals whIch are th.....ly••a ...sult of the Initial cooling.
Radiation foo.fa""",,durlng the on ••t of cold sp.lls are ~enerally of short
duratfonbecause the atr soan becomes desiccated.Thesll fogs ~o"sfst of super-
cooled watar droplets until the afr temDer"ature goes below the -spontaneous
f .....zing pafnt'for water dropl.ts (about .~O·Cl;the fag th.n bec_s an ic.
crystal fog.Or sflllllly ·Ice fog.·Ourln~the cooling cycle wat.r Is gradually
condensed out of the afr until the droplats f ...ez.,At thts paInt th....Is a
sharp,;:tfscont.fnuou'S dacrease in the uturation ViPor Drl!S5Ure of the afr because
it lIlUst be rKkoned 0'1411"fce rather than over wlter.The polluted atr over
Fairbanks allows dropl.ts to b.gfn f .....zlng at the relatively hIgh t:omp.ratur.
of -3S·Co Between -35 and -40·C the aJllOunt 01 water vapor condensed by fnezf 119
of supercooled-wi.ter droplets is 3 ta 5 tillles greater than the al1lOUnt condensed
by l·C of coolfng at the..t:omp.r.tu...s,Th1s results In rapfd and wfd.spread
fa.....tlans of Ice fog (Appendix Bl whfch p.rs1sts in the Fafrbanks a....as lang
as the cold .pell lasts.The pers1st'gc.of Fairbanks fc.fog dependS an •
contInual saurc.of illCllsture 14.1 •10 kg H~p.r dey)f hu.'lIan aet1Yltfes
wlth1n the fog.Ic.fog crystals are an ord.r of ....gnltud ll.r than di ....nd
dust,or ci,.,.,.s claud crystals,which In turn art .n order 0'gnftud.smaller
than c"""",n snow crystals (O.Ol,0.1 an~1 to 5 ...respectfvely).The dffferences
in size are show"to result.'F'OlI differences 1ft coal1ng rates over five orders
of ...gnitude.Most of the Ice fog crystals have settling r.tes whIch are slower
than th.upward velocity of afr over the city center.The upward air-movement
is caused by convection cells driven by the 6"C "helt island"over Fairbanks.
This caus.S a reduced precipftatlon r.te which perarits the densfty of fc.fog In
the cIty center to be ttl","tiNS great.r than that In the outlying .re...Th.
fnversions whIch occur durlno cold spells oyer Falrllanks begin at ground le••l
and are _0 the strongest and Ill)st p.rslstent In the world.They are ttl.....
times str0ft9er-than those fn the fnveMiion layer ov""Los Angeles.Thus,the
l ....lyino afr OYer FaIrbanks st'onatesand beC<l1llOs .Hect1Yely decouoled f,....
tfll.abftosphere abov••pel"'ftdttfnll htah concentrations 0'all pollutants.Tht
c.....ustlon 0'fu.1 01.gasolln.;and coal proyld••dally Inauts of 4.1 x 10.kg~;8.6 •103 ko 50 2;and 60,40 and 20 kg of Pb,Br and Cl respectiy.ly.
into a lens-1ft.·la)'e,.of afr resting Oft the surface with a total volunt less
than 3 x 109 ,,3.Th.aIr pollution ov.r F.lrbanks durIng cold spells Is furth.r
worseMd.because the mecbanisms for cleaning the fifr are Virtually 81 frninated
""ll.all actlYlties whIch DOlluta the air are Increas.d.
Benson,Carl S.,and Sue Ann Bowl i ng,Condensati on of Exhaust Pl urnes from Jet
Turbines Operating in Cold Air,Geophysical Institute Report,University of
Alaska,1978.
ABSTRACT
The
the
are
In
Since
there
12 pumpi ng stati ons.
petroleum fuel.
The proposed trans-Alaska oil pipeline involves
pumps will be powered by gas turbine engines which use
exhaust pl urnes wi 11 be ejected upward into a very col d ai r mass,
questions as to the amount of ice fog which will be produced at these sites,
order to estimate the seriousness of this problem,we have considered the
interaction between an exhaust plume,with assumed properties,and a cold strati-fied air mass.
75
Bowling,Sue Ann,Carl S.Benson and Wallace B.Murcray,Quasi-Equilibrium
Temperature Differences between Radiating Ice Crystals and the
Surrounding Air,J.of Applied Meteorology,Vol.10,No.5,
October 1971.
ABSTRACT
A previous attempt to calculate the temperature'gradient around a growing ice crvstal in clear air ~taited .
with the radiation .budget of the crystal plus the assumption that the measured frost point temperature
(about 2C below aIr temperature)represented the crystal temperature.When the conductivity equation!o~the air around the crystal is fully solved ",:ith the radiation budget as the boundary condition,however,
It IS found that less than O.~C tempera~ure dIfference can be sustained by radiative cooling of the crystals.
The most probable explanation of the dIfference between the two approaches is that the humidity measure-
ments are in error,and that the error has been generally recognized only at measured humidities in excessof100%.
Bowling,S.A.,and Carl S.Benson,Report on the Probably Effects on Ice Fog of
the Proposed Change from Electricity to Fossil Fuel for Heating the Airport
Terminal Building,Geophysical Institute,University·of Alaska,Fairbanks,
Alaska 99701,January 1982.
We have used available climatic data to estimate the increase in ice
fog which would result from each of the proposed heating plant plans.It
appears that the incidence of ice fog dense enough to effectively close the
airport would increase by 4 to 10%(7 to 14 hours per year)if the terminal
and fire rescue heating system is switched to oil.Changing the fire rescue
station only to oil would have about half that effect.and the Peger Road
complex would have about one-tenth of the impact of.the terminal/fire
rescue plant.Use of coal rather than fuel oil would in each case give
12%more added ice fog than would occur with fuel oil.
The amount of water which would be released by the proposed oil-fired
terminal plant is about 100 gm/sec (8.6 metric tons*/day)-comparable to
about a hundred idling cars.This would roughly triple the water output from
current and proposed stationary airport heating plants other than the
terminal and fire rescue station.
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Brown,Robena J.,Ice Fog (A Bibliography with Abstracts),National Technical
Information Service,Springfield,Virginia,November 1979,73 p.
ABSTRACT
The bibliography includes citations relating to ice
formation,modification.dispersal and forecasting,Problems
of white outs and thermal pollution effects in arctic regions
are discussed.(This updated bibliography contains 64
abstracts.6 of which are new entries to the previous
edi t ion.)
Clark,John P.,The Effect of Combustion Upon the Formation of Ice Fog in
the Greater Fairbanks Area,EM 694,Arctic Engineering,Submitted
to Dean Charle Sargent,Depay·tment of Civil EngineeY'ing,University
of Alaska,January,1963.
ABSTRACT
The scope of this report encompasses a study of the quantitative
effects of the exhaust discharge of heat engines upon the formation of
ice fog in the Fairbanks area.This study is based upon the total fuel
(gasoline,aviation gasoline,Diesel fuel,fuel oil,and coal)sales to
consumers in Fairbanks and the Fort Wainwright military base,from October
1961 to March 1962.The moisture discharge calculations are preceeded by
a discussion summarizing the conditions necessary for the formation of
ice fog.
77
Coutts,Harold J.and Ronald K.Turner,Research on control technology for ice
fog from mobile sources,Arctic Environ.Res.Station,College,Alaska,EPA-
600/3-78-055,May 1978,90 p.
Automotive generated ice fog is a form of air pollution
which results when exhaust water vapor freezes into minute
particles that form a dense fog.This study on control
techniques was conducted by the U.S.Environmental Protection
Agency at +~--A-rct k:8't'M-N>nmerrta-t Res-ea~Stat ioo.near
Fairbanks,Alaska.The major control technique evaluated was
the cooling of exhaust gases to below the dew point,thus,
condensing water vapor into a liqUid stream before ffnal
discharge.During the winter of 1974-1975.nine exhaust gas
cooler-condensers were Installed on.local vehfcles,and thefr
water vapor removal performances were evaluated.Based upon
these data,three cooler-condensers were fabricated,
installed,and evaluated more intensely durfng the winter of
i975-1976.The sizing criteria developed the first .winter were
inadequate because fee film formation decreased heat transfer
efficiency.Cooler-condensers must be designed to avoid or to
accommodate condensate freezing.An fee fog mass emission
reduction to 80%was attained with cooler-condensers on motqr
vehicles;however.the Increase fn visibility over roads was
not proportional because of the many other fee fog sources.
The overall impact of automotive ice fog control would be a
vfsibility increase of at least 70%fn areas where motor
vehicles create 50%or more of the ice fog.Control of
automobile-generated fee fog would also mean cleaner afr,but
perhaps more ice on the road.Cleaner air would result because
sulfur oxides and lead comoounds would be absorbed in the
condensate.
Csanady,G.T.,and T.M.L.Wigley,Ice Fog Clouds Formed hy Vapour Emissions in
Cold CliJ11ates such as the Upper r~acKenzie Valley,University of Haterloo Re-
search Institute,Task Force on Northern Oil Development Development Report
No.73-13.
The main conclusion of the report is that the formation of ice fog due to
the combustion of hydrocarbons is,for all practical purposes,unavoidable
in weather colder than about -400 C.At temperatures above -300 C,by contrast,
little or no ice fog formation may be expected.The size of opaque ice fog
clouds generated even by relatively small combustion sources is,for local
conditions,relatively large;a single typical incinerator operating for two
hours,may generate an opaque disk-like cloud of some 500 metres diameter.
Therefore,landing-strips should be located at considerable distances from
combustion sources and automobile traffic near airports should be minimized.
On the other hand,large scale effects of such combustion generated clouds
on weather,through influencing of the radiation balance,may be safely
ignored.
The meteorological phenomenon chiefly responsible for the unfavourable
behaviour of moisture rele9sed into the Arctic atmosphere is the occurrence
of ground based inversions,with the consequent suppression of turbulence
near ground level,and the very cold temperatures which develop under such
circumstances.These physi.cal processes all depend on the mechanics of the
planetary boundary layer with downward heat flux,the properti.es of which
are neither completely known nor very well understood.A study of planetary
boundary layer behaviour in the Mackenzie valley would be a logical continuation
of the present project.Such a study is likely to make an important
contribution toward the opening up of the Canadian Arctic.
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Gotaas,Yngvar and Cay'l S.Benson,The Effect of Suspended Ice Cy'ystals
and Radiative Cooling,J.of Applied r~eteor'ology,Vol.4,No.4,446-
453,1965.
ABSTRACT
Two periods of very low (below -40C)surface temperature at Fairbanks,Alaska,were studied in detail
as part of ice fog investigations during the 1961-1962 winter.The observed coolin~rates from the snow
surface up to 3000 m were too large to be satisfactorily explained by advection and/or by radiative heat
losses from the air and from the snow surface.The excess is shown to be due to radiation from ice crystals
suspended in air.
The ice crystals,formed by overall cooling of the air,act as heat sinks.It is proposed that heat flows from
the ai:to the crystals and is radiated away.This process results in strong temperature gradients in the air
immediately adjacent to the crystals.It may also account for the fact that humidity measurements show Jess
than saturation values during occurrences of ice fo~,light snowfall,or "diamond dust"crystal displays.The
air temperature values used :n determining humidity pertain to ambient air between the ice crystals,whereas
the air in contact with crystals has a lower temperature and is saturated with respect to ice.
Henmi,Teizi,Some Physical Phenomena Associated ','lith Ice Fog,t~aster's
Thes'is,Univer'sity of Alaska,College,1969.
ABSTRACT
To measur'e the humidity under'ice fog conditions in the vicinity
of Fairbanks,Alaska,an air sampling method was used which consisted of
extr'acti n~the water'vapor'by passi ng the ai r'thr'ough a dr'yi ng tuhe
containing magnesium perchlor'ate.To measur'e the volume of sampled air',
two glass bottles of 45 liter's capacity wey'e used,one containing ker'osene
and the other'havi ng ker'osene dr'awn into it by means of el ectr'i c pumps.
The results show that water vapor pressure under ice fog conditions lies
between ice and water'satur'ati on pressure.
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Hicks,James R.;Motoi Kumai,Ice fog modification by use of helicopters,U.S.
Cold Regions Research and Engirieering Lab.,Hanover,New Hampshire,Special
Report 162,September 1971,8 p.
ABSTRACT
The objects of the report are to increase the knowledge of the
physical and optical properties of ice fog and to develop
techniques for i~s dispersal.Two series of flight tests to
determine the effects of CH-47 helicopter downwash on ice fog
were conducted near Ft.Wainwright,Alaska,in January 1971.
During the first series,clearings were produced which were large
enough for helicopter operations.This series of tests was
conducted when the ice fog was in a dissipating state.The
second series of tests was conducted in a denser ice fog during
its developing stage.The same flight procedures were used,but
clearings were not produced.
Ho e Caotain Eugene R.,Ice Fog Conditions in the Alask~n Inte~ior,.
pp 'presented at the 203rd National Meeting of the Amerlcan Me~eorologlcal
Society at the University of Alaska,College,Alaska,June 1962.
ABSTRACT
Operation of jet aircraft by the Air Force at Eielson AFB.
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Huffman,Paul Jacob,Size Distr'ibution of Ice Fog Par'ticles Masters
Thesis,University of Alaska,College,1968.'
ABSTRACT
This thesis presents the results of a theoretical and experimental
i nvesti gati on of the si ze di stri buti on of ice fog par'ti cl es in the vi ci ni ty
of Fairbanks,Alaska.
The gener'al theor'y of atmosphet'ic ice crystal for'mation and gr'owth
is applied to ice fog and the predictions of this theory compared with
the exper'imental r'esul ts.Gener'al concl usi ons ar'e dr'awn concerni ng the
nature of the size distribution function.
A di scussi on of the scatted ng of el ectromagneti c r'adi ati on by ice
fog par'ti cl es is presented.The Tr'aber't formul a is used to estimate
visual range and these values compared with the measured visual range.
,Three ~ifferent m~thods,were used for collecting and photographing
lce fog partlcles.A dlScusslon is presented on the relative merits and
disadvantages of each method.
The experimental problems encountered are discussed and procedures
outlined which should pr'ove useful in the future for'this type of WQl"k.
Huffman,P.J.;Ohtake,T.,Formation and Growth of Ice Fog Par~icles.at Fair~anks,
Alaska,Air Force Cambridge Research Labs,L.G.Hanscom Fleld,I~ass.,Report
No.:AFCRL-71-0129,October 14,1970,10 p.
ABSTRACT
A mechanism is proposed for the formation of ice fog
particles in the city and environs of Fairbanks,Alaska.
Equations are developed for calcUlating the size distribution
resulting from growth by deposition of water vapor.The
equations are numerically solved with a computer for three
major types of ice fog sources:(1)automobile eXhaust,(2)
exhaust from heating plants,and (3)open water.The size
distribution produced by an individual source is determ~ned by
the cooling rate of water vapor injected into the environment.
The cooling rate is a function of the source characteristics
and the ambient temperature.The proposed mechanism adequately
represents the observed size distribution if the cooling rate
of the water vapor injected into the environment is not too
large (source types 2 and 3).Because of the large cooling
rate of water vapor injected into the atmosphere by source
type 1,the size distribution from this source is not
adequately represented by the model.In agreement with
observations,the computational results predict a decrease in
the size of ice fog particles with decreasing ambient
temperature for source types 2 and 3.
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Kumai,Motoi,A Study of Ice Fogs and Ice-Nuclei,U.S.AY'my Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory,Hanover,N.H.,June 1963.
ABSTRACT
This is a study of arctic whiteout,i.e.,ice fog,supercooled fog
and ice crystals in cold regions.Size and mass distribution,the rate
of precipitation,and the concentration of ice-fog crystals were measured
in Fairbanks,Alaska.Ice fog occurred at temperatures of -37C or lower
only over the populated area included in the city of Fairbanks,Fairbanks
International Airport,and Fort Wainwright in the Tanana Valley of Central
Alaska.
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Kuma;,Moto;,A Study of Ice Fog and Ice-Fog Nuclei at Fairbanks,Alaska,Part 1,
Army Col dReg;ons Research and Engi need ng Lah.,Hanover,N.H.,Report No.:
RR-150;AD-451 667,August 1964,33 p.
ABSTRACT
This study of arctic whiteout presents the results of
condensation nuclei counts;identification of nuclei in fog,
supercooled fog.and ice crystals;and the measurement of
concentrations and liquid-water contents of icefog crystals.
Ice fog occurred at temperatures of -37C or lower only over
the populated area of Fairbanks.The crystals formed at -40C
were predominantly spherical (2 to 15-mu in diam.).the
remainder being hexagonal and columnar (5 to 30-mu diam.).It
is suggested that spherical shapes were formed by the freezing
of supercooled fog droplets.growing into hexagonal forms by
sublimation of water vapor.Sintering of ice fog crystals was
found even at a temperature of -40C in ice fog.The residues
of Ice-fog crystals.supercooled fog droplets and ice crystals
were examined with an electron microscope and djffraction
method to investigate their nucleation.The nuclei sUbstances
and their sizes differed from those of snow crystals on the
Greenland Ice Cap and were mainly combustion by-products of
0.1 to 3-mu diameter.
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Kumai,Motoi,Electron Microscope Study of Ice-Fog and Ice-Crystal Nuclei
in Alaska,U.S.Army Cold Regiosn Research and Engineering LaboY'atory,
N.H.
ABSTRACT
Ice fog particles,supercooled fog droplets and ice crystals which
formed at temperatures between -10 o e and -42°C were collected on electron
microscope grids in the Fairbanks area,Alaska.After sublimation or
evaporation,the remaining residues of these specimens were examined by
the use of an electron microscope to investigate their nucleations.A
solid particle of 0.1 ~to 3 ~diameter was observed in the residue of
each ice fog particle,supercooled droplet and ice crystal which was
examined.The nucleus substances were combustion particles,clay minerals
and hygroscopic particles.The nuclei of ice fog particles which formed
at about -40°C ranged from about 0.1 ~to 0.5 ~in diamteter.The
nuclei of supercooled fog droplets formed at -10°C and ice crystals formed
at -20°C to -25°C were found to be larger than those of ice fog particles
and ranged from about 0.3 ~in diameter.
Shapes of ice fog particles formed at around -40 o e were mainly
spherical ice particles of 2 ~to 15 ~diameter,the remainder being
hexagonal and columnar particles of 5 p to 30 p diameter.Sintering of
ice fog particles,ice particles joined with a welding neck caused by
collision of the particles in the atmosphere,was found in ice fog even at
a temperature of -40°C.
Kumai,Motoi,and Harold W.O'Brien,Ice Fog Formation from the Cooling
Pond at Eielson Air Force Base,Alaska,Technical Note,U.S.Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,Hanover,New
Hampshire,Sept.1964.
ABSTRACT
Richardson (1964)estimated the amount of water vapor available for
ice fog formation at Eielson Air Force Base,Alaska,based on claculations
of the water output be oxidation of fuel in power and heating plants,
home heating appliances,internal combustion and jet engines and by
evaporation from the cooling pond.He estimated that under the given
conditions of air temperature,-34.4 e and water temperature,7.2 e,the
rate of production of water vapor form the cooling pond is 170,000 Kg/day.
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Kumai,Motoi; Harold W.OIBrien,A Study of Ice Fog and Ice-Fog Nuclei at Fair-
banks,Alaska,Part II,Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab,Hanover,
New Hampshire,Report No.:CRREL-RR-150,April 1965,19 p.
ABSTRACT
Studies on Ice fog and ice crystals have been conducted at
Fairbanks.Alaska,since 1962.USA CRREL Research Report 150,
Part I,pre~ented the results of the first study,conducted
during January and February i962,which was concerned with the
identification of nuclei of ice crystals,ice-fog crystals,
and supercooled droplets;counts of condensation nuclei;and
measurement of ice-fog concentrations and liquid water
content.The second study of the series,conducted during
January and February i963,is the subject of this report.This
investigation encompassed (i)a meteorological study of
conditions favoring the occurrence and persistence of Ice fog;
(2)observations of ice-crystal formation with water vapor and
hydrocarbon ice-forming nuclei provided by combustion products
from a power plant chimney and an automobile exhaust;(3)
design of a cascade impactor for use with a tethered blimp;
(4)studies of the size relationship between ice-fog crystals
and their nuclei;and (5)a comparison of size distributions
between some seeding agents and natural Ice-fog crystals,and
their nuclei.
Kumai,Mota;,Micospherules in Snow and Ice-fog Crystals,Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Lab,Hanover,New Hampshire,DA Task lT061102B52A02,RR 245,
March 1969,10 p.
Electron diffraction techniques were used In an electron
microscope examination of spherules found in snow crystals,
ice-fog crystals,fallout particles.and fly ash.The central
part of the residues of 1004 specimens of natural snow
crystals from Greenland.the United States,and Japan were
examined and 14 spherules 0.1 to 1.5 microns in radius were
found among them.The residues of 658 artificial ice-fog
crystals formed from water vapor In flue gases of coal-burning
electric power plants at Fairbanks.Alaska,were also
examined;nine spherules were found.Spherules similar to
those found in ice-fog residues were found in furnace-produced
fly ash fallout at Fairbanks,Alaska.The properties of
spherules and the mean mass of snow crystals from Greenland
are given.The electron microscope study indicated that less
than 0.7%of the i004 snow crystals contained spherules of
possible extraterrestrial origin,and that snow crystals are
formed mainly on clay mineral particles by heterogeneous
nucleation.
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Kumai,Motoi,Formation and Reduction of Ice Fog (Research rept.)Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Lab,Hanover,N.H.,Report No.:C~REL-RR-235,
March 1969,29 p.
ABSTRACT
During January and February of 1962,1963 and 1964.
Fairbanks.Alaska.and vicinity was the site of a series of
studies dealing with Ice fog and ice crystals.This report
presents the results of an investigation of the amount and
extent of air pollution and Ice fog in the area with special
emphasis on reducing ice-fog.by decreasing the water vapor
being emitted into the atmosphere.The major sources of wat~r
vapor at the two military installations in the region,Fort
Wa1nwright and Eielson AFB,are the heating and power plants
and their associated cooling ponds.In the populated areas
around Fairbanks.a high aerosol concentration of about
100.000 particles/cc exists.whereas in the uninhabited areas
the concentration is extremely low (about 300 particles/cc).
Much of the high concentration i~due to the burning of coal
for heat and power.Because the coal is of low grade it also
emits about 350.000 kg of water vapor into the atmosphere on a
day when the temperature is -40C.This water vapor condenses
on the aerosols and produces ice fog.Anthracite or
semi-bituminous coal would reduce the water vapor output to
only 1/5 of the amount produced by the low grade coal.Water
vapor from cooling ponds can be reduced by freezing the
surfaces of the ponds.
Kumai,Motoi,Formation and reduction of ice fog,U.S.Cold Reqions Research and
Engineering Lab.,Hanover,New Hampshire,Research Report ~35,March 1969,
21 p.
ABSTRACT
Studies dealing with ice fog and Ice crystals were conducted
dur i ng January and February of 1962,1963 and 1964 at
Fairbanks,Alaska and Vicinity.The results of an
investigation of the amount and extent of air pollution and
ice fog In the area are presented.with special emplasis on
reducing ice fog by decreasing the water vapor being emitted
Into the atmosphere.The major soul'ces of water vapor at two
military installations in the region,are the heating and
power plants and their associated cooling ponds.In the
popUlated areas around Fairbanks.a high aerosol concentration
of about 100,000 particles/cu em exists,while in the
uninhabited areas the concentration Is extremely low (about
300 particles/cu em.Much of the high concentration is due to
the burning of coal for heat and power.Because the coal is
of low grade.It also emits about 350,000 kg of water vapr
Into the atmosphere on a day when the termperature Is -40 C.
This water vapor condenses on the aerosols and produces ice
fog.Anthracite or semi-bituminous coal would reduce the
water vapor output to only one-fifth of the amount produced by
the low gr'ade coal.Water vapor from cooling ponds can be
reduced by freezing the surfaces of the ponds.
85
Kumai,Motoi;Russell,Jack D.,The Attenuation and Backscattering of Infrared
Radiation by Ice Fog and Water Fog,(Research rept.),Cold Regions Re-
search and Engineering Lab,Hanover,N.H.,Report No.:CRREL-RR-264,
April 1969,14 p.
ABSTRACT
Ice-fog crystals consisting of many spherical particles,and
some hexagonal plates and columns,were observed at ambient
temperatures of about -40C in the Fairbanks,Alaska,area
durihg mJd-winter.the concsntratiohs and the size
distributions of the ice-fog crystals were measured.The
attenuation and backscattering of Infrared radiation by
Ice-fog crystals were computed for optical wavelengths of 2.2
microns,2.7 microns,4.5 microns,5.75 microns,9.7 microns
and 10.9 microns using the Mle theory.The minimum attenuation
coefficients and backscattering functions of ice fog were
found to be at 9.7 microns wavelength 1"n the observed
wavelengths.Optical attenuation coefficients and volume
backscattering functions of water fogs were also computed
using the Mie theory.The minimum attenuation coefficients and
backscatterlng functions of water fog were found to be at iO.9
microns wavelength in the region of 2.2 microns,2.7 microns,
4.5 microns,5.75 microns,9.7 microns and 10.9 microns.Both
the attenuation coefficients and backscattering functions of
ice fog are within the same order of magnitude as water fog
for eqUivalent fog concentrations and wavelengths.
Leonard,L.E.;Seifert,R.;Zarling J.;Johnson,R.,Ice Fog Abatement and
Pollution Reduction at a Subarctic Coal-Fired Heating Plant,University
Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,Report No.:EPA-600j3-81-020,February 1981,
75 p.
ABSTRACT
An experimental cooler-condenser system was constructed at
the coal-fired heating and electric plant on the Fairbanks
campus of the University of Alaska to evaluate its potential
to reduce ice fog and other pollutant stack emissions In a
subarctic environment.This experiment advanced the work began
by Porteous and Wallis (i965)to a stage of field evaluation
for a less than full scale system.Flue gas was diverted from
the existing power plant stack through the experimental system
for test purposes.A cold water spray was directed into the
muzzle of the experimental stack counter-current to the
direction of flue gas flow to cool the gas.condense
combustion-produced water vapor and scrub the gas stream of
potential pollutants before they were released to the
atmosphere.Because of several factors,the system at this
stage of development proved ineffective for its main function
of ice fog reduction.Some of the problems could be prevented
by changes in the design of the system and some remain
inconclusive and not well understood.Results show that the
scrubbing function was more successful.Environmental
considerations such as process water treatment and disposal
presented no major obstacles,however,the potential to
recover waste from the system does not appear favorable.
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McFadden,Terry T.,Suppression of Ice Fog from Power Plant Cooling
Ponds,Ph.D.Thesis,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,
1974.
ABSTRACT
Ice fog generated at the Eielson AFB power plant cooling pond contri-
butes heavily to the total ice fog problem on the base.Several methods
for suppression were studied and two techniques were tested experimentally.
Experiments were also conducted to determine the magnitude of the various
modes of heat transfer within the pond's microclimate.Values of evapora-
tive and radiative heat loss during ice fog are presented.
Ice cover is shown to be an effective ice fog suppression technique.
Monomolecular films are also shown to be effective and offer some unique
advantages,such as ease of application and low overall cost.
The heat normally lost.to evaporation must be dissipated by other means
during suppression.With the ice .cover technique this is accomplished by
melting the ice cover.During suppression with monomolecular films,the
heat must be dissipated by increasing radiative and convective losses.
McFadden Terry,Suppression of ice fog from cooling ponds,Un1ted States Cold
Regions Research and Engineering L~h.,Hanover New Hampshlre,Report 76-43,
November 1976,78 p.
ABSTRACT
Ice fog generated at the Eielson AFB power plant cooling
pond contributes heaVily to the total ice fog problem on the
base.Several methods of ic~fog suppression were studied,and
two techniques were tested experimentally.Experiments were
also conducted to determine the magnitude of the various modes
of heat transfer within the pond's microclimate.Values of
evaporative and radiative heat loss during ice fog are
presented.Ice cover Is shown to be an effective ice fog
suppression technique.Monomolecular films are also shown to
be effective and offer some unique advantages,such as ease of
application and low overall cost.The heat normally lost to
evaporation must be dissipated by other means during
suppression.With the ice cover technique,this is
accomplished by melting the Ice cover.During suppression with
monomolecular films,the heat must be dissipated by increasing
radiative and convective losses.The simplicity of application
of monomolecular films,along with their Jower cost,combine
to make this technique attractive;however,the lower pond
temperatures and increased suppression effectiveness weigh
heavily in favor of'the Ice-cover technique.More exhaustive
testing will provide a better understanding of the problems
Involved in the ice cover method of suppression.
87
McFadden,Terry T.;Charles M.Collins,Ice fog suppression using reinforced thin
chemical films,U.S.Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab.,Hanover,
New Hampshire,Report 78-26,November 1978,27 p.
ABSTRACT
Ice fog suppression experiments on the Fort.Walnwright Power
Plant cooling pond were conducted during the winters of
1974-1976.Baseline information studies occupied a sizable
portion of the available Ice fog weather In .i974-1975.
Hexadecanol was added to the pond and dramatically improved
visibility by reducing fog generated from water vapor released
by the pond at -14"C.Although this temperature was not low
enough to create ice fog.the cold vapor fog created was
equally as devastating to visibility in the vicinity of the
pond.During the winter of 1975-1976,suppression tests were
continued by using films of hexadecanol,mixes of hexadecanol
and octadecanol,and ethylene glycol monobutyJ ether (EGME).
Suppression effectiveness at colder temperatures was studied,
and 1 imUs to the techni'ques were probed.A reinforcing grid
was constructed which prevented breakup of the film by wind
and water currents.Lifetime tests indicated that EGME
degrades more slowly than either hexadecanol or the
hexadecanol-octadecanol mix.The films were found to be
effective fog reducers at warmer temperatures,but still
permitted 20-40%of normal evaporation to occur.The vapor
thus produced was sUfficient to create ice fog at lower
temperatures,but this ice fog occurred less frequently and
wasmor~qUickly dispersed than the thick fog that was present
before apPlication of the films.
McFadden,Terry 1.;Collins,Charles M.,Ice Fog Suppression Using Thin Chemical
Films,Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab.,Fort Wainwright,
Al aska,Al askan Proj ects OHi ce,Report No.:EPA/600/3-79/007,January 1979,
55 p.
ABSTRACT
Ice fog suppression experiments on the Fort Wainwright Power
Plant cooling pond were conducted during the wint~rs of
1974-76.Baseline information studies occupied a sizeable
portion of the available ice fog weather in 1974-75.
Hexadecanol was added to the pond and dramatically improved
visibility by reducing fog generated from water vapor released
by the pond at -14C.Although this temperature was not low
enough to create ice fog,the cold vapor fog created was
equally as devasting to Visibility in the vicinity of the
pond.During the winter of i975-76,suppression tests were
continued usinQ films of hexadecanol,mixes of hexadecanol and
octadecanol.and ethylene glycol'monobutyl ether (EGME).
Suppression effectiveness at colder temperatures was studied
and limits to the techniques were probed.A reinforcing grid
was constructed that prevented breakUp of the film by wind and
water currents.Lifetime tests indicated that EGME degrades
much more slowly than either hexadecanol or the
hexadecanol-octadecanol mix.All the films were found to be
very effective fog reducers at warmer temperatures but still
allowed 20%to 40%of normal evaporation to occur.The vapor
thus produced was SUfficient to create some ice fog at lower
temperatures,but this ice fog occurred less frequently anp
was more qUickly dispersed than the thick fog that was present
before application of the films.
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National Technical Information Service Report,Ice Fog.1964-February,1982
(Citations from the NTIS Data Base),National Technical Information Service,
Springfield,Virginia,March 1982,77 p.
ABSTRACT
The bibliography includes citations relating to ice
formation.modification.dispersal and forecasting.Problems
of white outs and thermal pollution effects in arctic regions
are discussed.(This updated bibliography contains 67
citations.2 of which are new entries to the previous
edition.)
Nelson,William George,A Numerical Analysis of Ice Fog Produced by Automobiles
Oregon State University,Corvallis,Oregon,Thesis,1973,150 p.'
ABSTRACT
A ma~hematical model was developed and prOQr8mmed On a d.~ital
comput.er to Predict the concentration and size dfstribut'~n OT
ice f09 Particl~s ProdUced f~Om automobile exhaust in arctic
cOMditions.The predicted m~an diameter or the particles mas
2.3 micrOn.The model ~as t~en used to compute the effects or
exhaust compositon (wate~va~or and particulate content),exhaust
eas temperature,and rate of exhaust 9aS cool1n9 On partf~le size
and number.Removal Of soluble particles reduces 1ce particle
sf~e and increases Particle ~oncentrat'on.Soluble partiCle
nUCleated ice partiCles domf~at~when conditions are suen tha~
n'9h saturation rat.os in ~x~aust gas are not qv'ckl~reached.
The conditions ar~h'gh 'nit.al exhaust gas temperature.~'~h
ambient air temperatures.low 'nitial exhaust mater vapor,and
10m exhaust gas velocities.Ice ~articles produc~d bY an
automobile operat'~9 with be~zene as a ruel would h~ve mueh l~roPr
me~n d'ameters than those predueen by ~asol'ne-or methan~_powereA
automobiles.Ben~e"e would ~1so produc~rewer ice partlc'es.
89
Nelson,W.G.,Reduction of Ice Particle Production from Moist Plumes,University
of Alaska-Anchorage,3221 Providence Drive,Anchorage,Alaska 99504,79-9.2.
ABSTRACT
It is generally conceded that the major effect of ice fog is the"
impairment of visibility.After a review of the physics of ice fog
formation,the author,suggests methods to reduce the visibility
reduction caused by various sources and,discusses several experi-
mental attempts to reduce wet plume condensation and to increase the
size and reduce the number of nucleated droplets within the plumes.
This discussion of the physics of ice fog formation includes modes
of nucleation,growth,and freezing of droplets in wet plumes subjected
to cold ambient air.The effect of ambient temperatures and various
plume physical properties including temperatur~,water vapor content,
plume-ambient air mixing rates,and plume outlet diameter and velocity
are discussed.
The experimental attempts to reduce ice particle generation are
compared to predictions based upon the author's work in modeling ice
particle nucleation and growth in automobile exhaust plumes.
Ohtake Takeshi,Alaska Ice Fog,(A progress report of ice fog research),G~ophysical Institute,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,Inti,Conf.
on Low Temperature Sci.,Sapporo,105-118,1966.
ABSTRACT
This study began in the rail of 19G4 in the Fairbanks area of Alaska.It involves an inquiry
into the sources and role of water vapor in the ice fog,investigation or the reIati\'e concenmuions
of ic~-fog particles.ice nuclei and condensation nuclei.and examination of the characteristic~
of nuclei and crystals hy electron microscopy.\Vith the electron microscope it was four-.d that
most nuclei of icc cry~tals \~·hich developed frotn sublimation of \\;uter vapor \VE'rc located at tile
center of the ice crystals.In contrast.ice-fog particles re~ult from free:in~of supercooled wa:er
droplets which form by condensation of water vapor from mun-made sources of air po!lutio:l.sud!
us exhaust gases.open water surfaces on cooling pond.etc.The nuclei in these particles a:-e "ot
located in ;he center.Dense ice t.}g covering sma!!ar"ilS originated from open water where t:le
condensation nuclei'concentration we,s much lower than in the downto,-;n area.while thin but
wicl,'spre:lri ice f();!;was obser\'ed in the c!owntown area anti along the hil.::hway.D.::nse ice fog W;\,;
2.$sociatc-d \\·itn largt:SQurces of ffi,)isIUre regurdless of \\"hether or not nUl.:lei \\"~re abundu!:"L ·The
rt)le (..f it:e-fr.rming nu.:lei ;:nd a preEn1ini1:-y ~onsidcratlon of synopril"conditions \vhich t.'~..2$~:">':
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Ohtake,Takeshi,Fr'eezing of Water'Dr'oplets and Ice Fog P,henomena,PY'oc.
Intn.Conf.Cloud Phys.,Toy'onto,1968.
ABSTRACT
In arctic and subarctic continental cities,when the temperatures go down to about
-30°C,a sort of fog appears.This is ice fog,which is composed primarily of
ice crystals with some water droplets possibly mixed.Thuman and Robinson (1954a)
reported that the crystal forms were mostly equant solid particles with rudimentary
crystal faces which were termed "droxtals"and some hexagonal prisms.Our further
observations confirmed their results,except that we found the size of the droxtals
to be 3 to 10 microns rather than 13 to 19 microns as reported by them.Since the
hexagonal ice crystals occur in low concentrations and do not seriously lower
visibility compared with droxtals we will consider droxtals only.Thuman and
Robinson postulated that the droxtals arise from the freezing of supercooled
droplets.In order to form droxtals from direct freezing of supercooled water
droplets,it is necessary for the droplets to freeze before they evaporate.The
present paper inquires into the mechanism of formation of ice fog and attempts
to present evidence for the freezing of droplets.
Ohtake,Takeshi and Paul J.Huffman,Visual Range in Ice Fog,J.of
Appl.Meteor.,Vol.8,No.4,499-501,1969.
ABSTRACT
This article l?rese?'ts.the.result.s of an e},:perimental investigation into the relationship b tw "1~an~~and the SlZe dlStI1:but~on of Ice fog particles at Fairbanks,Alaska.An empirical functio:is ~::e~~':r~~asu::~~:~~~~~~:~:jis~~~t~~~b::~~::~~a~v%s~~f this function gives visual ranges that agree with
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Ohtake,Takeshi,Studies on Ice Fog,Final Report AP-00449 prepared for
National Center for Air Pollution control,Public Health Service,
Depay'thment of Heal th,Educati on and Wel faY'e,UAG R-211,Geophysical
Institute,Univey'sity of Alaska,1970.
ABSTRACT
In oy'dey'to claY'ify the mechanism of ice-fog foY'mation,vaY'ious
atmospheric factors in ice fogs such as size and concentration of ice-fog
cy'ystal s,condensation nuclei and ice nuclei,amount of wateY'vapoY',
temperature profile near the sources of ice fog,etc.were measured.
Nucl ei of the ice-fog cY'ystal s wey'e studi ed by use of an el ectt'on
microscope and electron-diffraction.The examination showed that most
nucl ei of i ce-fog cy'ystal s were combusti on by-pY'oducts and many i ndi vi dual
cy'ystal s call ected neaY'open water di d not have a nucl eus,especi ally at
temper'atuY'es belo\"l -40°C.Dust pay,ti cl as oY'pay,ti cl es fr'om air'poll uti on
aY'e not essential faY'foY'mation of ice fog;they meY'ely stimulate fY'eezing
of water'dY'opl ets at hi gher'tempeY'atur'es than the spontaneous fr'eezi ng
tempeY'atur'e.The essenti al factor'is to fi Y'st for'm many water'dY'opl ets
in the atmosphere through condensation of water vapor.
Ohtake,Takeshi,Unusual Crystal in Ice r....og,J Atmos Sc'V1 27• •1.,o.,
No.3,509-511,1970.
ABSTRACT
Photographs and drawings of unusual crystals observed in Fairbanks
during ice fog.
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Ohtake,Takeshi and Rudolf G.$uchannek,Electric Properties of Ice Fog
Crystals,J.of Appl.Meteor.,Vol.9,No.2,289-293,1970.
ABSTRACT
Electric properties of ice fog crystals were studied using uniform and nonuniform electric fields.It was
observed that natural and artificial ice fog_crystals had no significant net charge.An upper bound for the
net charges was derived.The observations are discussed in relation to the induced dipole moment and Weyl's
model of ice crystals.
Ohtake,Takeshi,Ice Fog and Its Nucleation Process,Proc.Conf.on Cloud Physisc,
Amer.Meteo.Soc.Ft.Collins,Aug.24-27,1970,pp.21-22,1970.
ABSTRACT
Impor/allt role of air p,,!Illti(HI /0 ice lIucleation was stndierl in COlljUIlCtioL with ice fog
r"nn;ltioll.N 111:1";11 iOIl of i(:c-fog crystals is tiue to hOI II heterOl!.Cllt'OIlS ~1l\(1 homogelleo'.Is
JlIH lea/ions.
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Ohtake,Takeshi,Studies on Ice Fog,Final Report AP-00449 for the
Environmental Protection Agency,June 1970.
ABSTRACT
Nuclei of the ice fog crystals were studied by use of an electron
microscope and electron-diffraction.The examination showed that most
nuclei of ice-fog crystals were combustion by-products and many indivi-
dual crystals collected near open water did not have a nucleus,
especially at temperatures below -40°C.Dust particles or particles
from air pollution are not essential for formation of ice fog;they
merely stimulate freezing of water droplets at higher temperatures than
the spontaneous freezing temperature.The essential factor is to first
form many water droplets in the atmosphere through condensation of water
vapor.
Ohtake,T.and K.O.L.F.Jayaweera,Ice Crystal Displays from Power Plants,
Weather,271-277,1972.
ABSTRACT
Photographs of ice fog and ice crystal displays in Fairbanks.
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Ohtake,Takeshi,X-ray Analyses of Nuclei in Individual Fog Droplets and Ice
Crystals,Geophysical Institute,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,
Atmospheric Aerosols and Nuclei,Proc.9th Intll Conf.on Atmos.Aerosols,
Condensation and Nuclei,Galway,Sept.1977,(pp.213-217,1981).
ABSTRACT
Chemical elements of nuclei in cloud droplets and ice crystals were examined by X-ray
energy spectrometry.All ice fog crystals collected in Fairbanks ice fog contained
Sulfer.Ice fog crystals formed at temperatures higher than -32°C had substantial
amount of Si and Al besides S.
Ohtake,T.,and F.O.Eaton,Removal Processes of Aerosols in Ice Fog,Geophysical
Institute,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska 99701,1982.
ABSTRACT
Fairbanks,Alaska,is frequently covered by ice fog when the air temperature
is lowered to -30°C or less.Although the ice fog is composed of minute ice
crystals which result from freezing of condensed water droplets,it is formed
usually in association with high emissions of air pollutants LInder a strong
temperature inversion and gives an impression as being harmful to human health.
Nucleation and diffusion of aerosols are considered to be major processes for
removal in ice fog.In order to estimate the major process of removal of the
aerosols by ice fog crystals,it has been necessary to acquire size spectra of
the aerosols,which have never been available.Even though complete studies of
ice fog crystals have been reported by Ohtake (1970),since the population of
Fairbanks has increased with additional housing,vehicles,etc.,the ice fog may
have different characteristics than those found in the studies carried out 13
years ago.In this paper,preliminary results of this study,started in the
winter of 1981,are reported.
95
Porteous,Andrew and Graham B.Wallis,A Contribution Towards the Reduction of
Ice Fog Caused by Humid Stack Gases at Alaskan Power Stations,ATMOS ENVIR,
1970,Vol.4,p.21-33.
ABSTRACT
The intermittent occurrence of ice fog formed by tne
freezing of clouds at super-cooled water at 20-40 C at U.S.
Air Bases in Fairbanks.Alaska causes severe visibility
problems.At these temperatures.water vapor nucleates and
freezes on grit particles to form minute ice crystals that
have no appreciable settling velocity.The principle sour~~
of water-vapor emissions at the bases are power station stack
gases.Dehumidification of the flue gases was experimentally
studied in a counter-current scrubbing apparatus to obtain
optimum droplet size for both moisture and grit removal in a
spray tower.In counter-current scrubbing,sprays of cold
water are directed into hot gas flows.with the water droplets
in effect forming an efficient counter-current heat exchanger.
Heat and mass transfer proceed simultaneously;the processes
are rate controlled.Based on the experimental results.
optimum droplet size for accomplishing both grid and moisture
removal was determined to be about 1000 micrometer diameter.
This permits initial flue gas velocities of 2.1 reciprocal
msec which are low enough to eliminate the risk of particle
entrainment.
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Politte,Francis E.,Minimum Ice Fog Visibility at Low Temperatures at
Eielson AFB,Alaska,1965.
ABSTRACT
Stati sti cal rel ati onshi p bet',yeen surface temperature and mi nimum
visibility in ice fog as an aid in forecasting runway visibility.(5
pages,typed).
Richardson,Gary L.;Ice Fog Pollution at Eielson Air Force Base,Masters
Thesis,University of Alaska,College,1964.
ABSTRACT
A problem old to the world is just beginning in Alaska.This
problem is the one of air pollution.London and Los Angeles are famous
for their killing smogs,and most all of the cities of the world with any
degree of industY·y ay'e becoming incY'easingly botheY'ed by this pr'obleiTI.
Al though Alaska is consideY'ed by most to be the last wildeY'ness fy'ontier,
many are begi nni ng to see gr'eat pr-omi se in the natur'a1 r-esources of the
ar-ea.The effect of this will be to bring industry and more people into
the area.Little study is required to convince one of the tremendous
problems this is going to bring unless considerable prior-planning is
done.DUY'ing a majot'ity of the year-combustion pay·ticles from industr-ia1
and domesti c souy'ces ar'e emi tted into the atmospher-e and ty'apped by a low-
level temper-ature inversion,thus not allowed to rise and dissipate.
Smoke,fog,or'ice cY'ysta1 pollution will r'esult,depending upon the
temperature.The reason for this problem being so critical in Alaska is
the fact that this inversion is present nearly nine months of the year,
while Los Angeles and other cities at lower latitudes would be troubled
for only relatively short periods of the year.It is for these reasons
that planners for the population and industrial growth in Alaska should
read this paper and evaluate for their use,the suggestions presented
heY'ei n.
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Sakurai,K.;T.Ohtake,On the condensation and ice nuclei contained in supercooled
droplet and ice fog particle,Journal de Recherches Atmospheriques,Clermont-
Ferrand,France,13(4),October/December 1979,291 p.
ABSTRACT
Ice fog particles are formed by the freezing of supercooled
droplets in the cold regions such as Alaska.Asahlkawa.and
northern Canada.The authors examined the elements composed of
condensation and ice nuclei by an X-ray energy spectrometer.
combined with a scanning electron microscope.The nuclei in
the supercooled droplet were composed of 5i.p.5.and Cl.The
nuclei in the ice fog particle were composed of Na.AI.51.p.
5.Cl.K.Ca.and Ti.these elements were found in ice
crystals that were collected at the South Pole by Ohtake
(1976)and at Barrow.Alaska.by Ohtake.Jayaweera.and
Sakurai (1978).In order to confjrm the condensation freezing
process of ~he ice fog phenomena.new droplets were produced
in a diffusion chamber on the nuclei that were contained in
the supercooled droplets collected on a slide glass by a vapor
method.The new droplets in a diffusion chamber were generated
in traces of the original supercooled droplets.Then.the
droplets were cooled in a cold chamber to examine the freezing
temperature.Consequently,the new droplets were generated on
the nuclei of .APPROX..7%of the original droplets when the
relative humidity in a diffusion chamber was 100%.These
droplets froze at a temperature of .APPROX ..-25"C or lower.
Walker,Kerry E.;Brunner,Walter,Suppression of Ice Fog from the Fort Wainw-
'right,Alaska,Cooling Pond,Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab.,
Hanover,New Hampshire,Report No.:CRREL-SR-82-22,October 1982,39 p.
ABSTRACT
Ice fog near the Ft.Wainwright cooling pond creates a
visibility hazard.Observations show a substantial reduction
in visibility along both private and pUblic roadways in the
path of the cooling pond's ice fog plume.This reduction in
'visibility increases as the ambient air temperature decreases.
Visibility was less than 215 m (700 ft)on the Richardson
Highway on the average of 8 days for each of the 3 data years.
Data collected during the winters of i979-80.i980-8i and
i981-82 statistically show that use of a monomolecular film
evaporation suppressant.hexadecanol (C16H330H),on the pond
to reduce ice fog is ineffective.There is an immediate need
for a driver warning systp.m when visibility is affected by the
ice fog.
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Weller,Gunter E.,(Ed.)Ice Fog Studies in Alaska:A Survey of Past,
Present and Proposed Research,Geophysical Institute Report UAG R-207,University of Alaska,March 1969.
ABSTRACT
Growing public interest in the practical problems posed by ice fog and
air pollution in and around Fairbanks has drawn attention to the need for a
'state of the art'report on the subject.A number of members of our
scientific staff have conducted investigations into various aspects of the
ice fog phenomenon since 1961 and the activity has been increasing,both in
scope and number of personnel involved.Besides the Geophysical Institute's
work,important contributions have also been made by several other
institutions.Partly with the object of keeping all participants mutually
informed about each other's past,present and proposed activities,but also
to summarize in a convenient form the present state of knowledge on the sub-
ject for the benefit of Federal,State and local authorities,the Institute
decided to produce this report,edited by Dr.Gunter Heller.
Wendler,Gerd,Heat Balance Studi~s During an Ice-Fog Period in Fairbanks,
Alaska,Monthly Weather Revlew,Vol.97,No.7,pp.512-520,1969.
ABSTRACT
·"h·uri occurs in Fairbanks when the. t loud near t e s ace,hhichisinawaysimilartoadenseCllTostraus.c ow the ice fog in the valley and the ot er
Ice fog,w b 1 w-35°C.The heat balance of two statlons,one b~l .te 1966/67.The valley station shows~:.~~t~:sr:b:~!",::'::..;'~O=~~;(;.':-:=o~~:ft:":"\ourf~.~a;::,'':~o:":~:'':::~:~:::~t~on b:;:'n~e:~e energy for compensa:i~n of thisti:.~e ~:::~~r~mostly due to the smaller amount of
o Biroh Hill the radiative 108S (124 cal cm-
2
day-).18 n~l[fi (102 cal cm-2 day-I)provides most of the energy.th~incoming long-wave radiation,and here the 8en!l~ble ea ux.
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Willis,Graham B.,A contribution towards the reduction of ice fog caused by
humid stack gases at Alaskan power stations,Department of Mechanical
Engineering,Glasgow University,Scotland Thayer School of Engineering,
Dartmouth College,New Hampshire,January 1970.
ABSTRACT
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Special Forms of Cold Regions Air Pollution:
ARCTIC HAZE
The references in this section include the following topics:
Possible sources of arctic haze
Long-distance transport and pathways
Composition and concentrations
Arctic haze monitoring network
Effects on climate.
101
"
B . L 1\R M H ff and S M Daggupaty The influence of mid-latitudearrle, •/"\.,• .0 ••,
pollution sources on haze in the Canadian Arctic,Atmospheric Environment,
Vol ~15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
Air pollution released at mid-latitudes is reaching the Norm American Arctic during winter and
early spring causing a reduction of visibility (Arctic haze).A three station network of aerosol monitors in the
Canadian Arctic yields information on the pollen,trace element (AI.Mn.V.Pb.Cu.Ni.Zn)and major ion
(SO;.NO;.Cl-,H',NH;.Na + )content of weekly samples of suspended paiticulate mailer as well as a
continuous record ofaerosol light scattering.Results for April 1979 to May 1980 at two locations.Mould Bay
and Igloolik are reported.Arctic haze is widespread and undergoes a distinct annual cycle reaching a maximum
in March-April.The cycling is caused mainly by annual variations in atmospheric scavenging rates of
pollutants along their path from mid·latitudinal sources to northern regions.Elemental ratios of the metals
Mn.Pb.Zn and Cu and of soot to nonsoil vanadium in Arctic aerosols are indicators of aerosol source region.
Observed variations in these ratios coupled with results of analyses of air parcel trajectories and surface
weather charts point to Siberia and North America as the predominant source of Arctic aerosols during
December 1979 and January 1980.respectively.European sources were prevalent in early spring 1980.
Aerosol light scattering (b )and sulphate concentrations are linearly correlated.The slope of the regression
line (II g-1 m 2 l is higher'fh'an expected for pure sulphate aerosols.From this it is inferred that sulphates
comprised about 30 "0 of the total aerosol mass.Winter Arctic aerosols arc acidic.It is estimated that in the
absence of calcareous wind blown dust they acidify snow to a pH of 5-5.2 between February and April.
Bodhaine,B.A.,J.M.Harris and G.A.Herbert,Aerosol light s~at~erin;.and
Condensation nuc1eai measurements at Barrow,Alaska,Atmospnerlc En~lronment,
Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
N.O.A.A:s Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change Program operates a background
monitoring station at Barrow.Alaska.Continuous measurements of aerosols.gases•.solar radiation and
meteorological parameters are made in an effort to understand their possible long term effects on climate.
The aerosol program consists of continuous measurements of integrated light scattering and condensation
nuclei (CN)using a four wavelength nephelometer and an automatic CN counter.
Light scattering data show an annual cycle with a maximum above 10-5 m-1 in March and a minimum of
about 10-6 m -1 in June.Condensation nuclei data show a semi-annual change with monthly mean
concentration ranging between 500 and 40cm-3 ,maxima in March and August,and minima in June and
September.Local aerosol sources have been identified by calculating CN concentration as a function of local
wind direction and presenting the results on a 36 point wind rose.Local sources are clearly identified to the
north.west and southwest of the observatory site and may be associated with local activities and population
centers.A clean air sector rnay be defined on the wind rose,and pollution episodes may be defined in terms of
short term variability of the CN concentration.
Large scale I~day back trajectories have been analysed for Barrow and it is found that light scattering and
condensation nuclei concentration are higher when trajectories originat::north of the station than when
trajectories originate south of the station.Anomalous trajectories from north of the station in August
coincide with an anomalous peak in condensation nuclei.
102
Borys"Randolf D.,and Kenneth 1\.Rahn,Long-range atmospheric transport of cloud-
active aerosol to iceland,1\tmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
1\BSTRACT
During a study of cloud-condensation nuclei (CCN).condensation nuclei (CN)and various
chemical constituents of the aerosol at Ira foss.Iceland.an episode of long-range transport of CCN and
pollution aerosol from Eurasia was observed.Thisair was enriched in CCN by factors of2-5 and in pollution
aerosol by factors of 5-1 0 compared to near-background air from the west Atlantic and Arctic.CCN spectra
of the aged European air were enhanced primarily in the largest particles,those active at the lowest
supersaturations.The CCN appeared to be explained largely by nonmarine SO;and some yet-unidentified
constituent of the aerosol.possibly organic mailer.From these results.one may predict that anthropogenic
CCN can be transported throughout the Arctic in a fashion similar to that already observed for SO;.
Carlson,Toby N.,Speculation of the movement of polluted air to the Arctic,
1\tmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
-Using arguments based on the idea that the motion 'of air parcels is adiabatic except for an
adjustment for diabatic (radiational)cooling.we are led to the hypothesis that the arctic aerosol comes from
regions north of the polar front.primarily over the Eurasian Continent during wintertime.
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Cavanagh.Leonar'd A••Com'ad F.Schadt and Elmer'Rob;nson.Atmospher';c
Hydr'ocar'bon and Car'bon Monox;de MeasuY'ements at Poi nt BarTow.
Alaska.EnviY'onmental Science and Technology,Vol.3.No.3.pp.
251-257.March 1969.
ABSTRACT
The concentr'ati ons of 10\'1 mol ecul ar'wei gilt hydr'oca y'bons and car'bon
monoxide in uncontaminated Arctic air masses have been analyzed at Point
Barrow.Alaska.Using gas chr'omatogY'aphic techniques.a vaY'iety of
organic compounds were regularly observed in these air masses.and the
folloiwng average concentrations were obtained:methane.16 p.p.m.;
butane.0.06 p.p.b.;acetone.1.0 p.p.b.;and n-butanol.190 p.p.b.
Carbon monoxide concentrations averaged about 90 p.p.b.Special
i nvesti gati ons confi rmed the unexpected py'esence of n-butanol in these
samples.Sources of these organics are postulated.
Daisey.J.M••R.J.McCaffrey and R.A.Gallagher,Polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons and total extractable particulate organic matter in the Actic
Aerosol •.Atmospheric Environment,Vol,15.No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
-Samples of total suspended particulate matter were collected in March and August 1979 at
Barrow,Alaska,a remote site in the Arctic.Ambient concentrations of extractable particulate organic matter
(POM).of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)and of 21 °Pb were determined.The samples were also
examined by optical and scanning electron microscopy.Average concentrations of POM and PAH were
similar to those reported for other remote sites in the northern hemisphere,but the concentrations were
considerably higher in March than in August.The presence of fly ash in the samples collected during the
March sampling period,as well as seasonal differences in the concentrations of the organic species and 2.oPb
and in meteorology indicate that the principal source of POM and PAH was fossil iuel combustion in the
mid-latitudes during the March sampling period.
104
Darby,Dennis A.,Lloyd H.Burckle and David L.Clark,Airborne Dust on the Arctic
Pack Ice,Its Composition and Fallout Rate,Earth Planet Sci.Lett.,24{2):
166-172,December 1974.
ABSTRACT
- Du ;;t--;;;;·i feC-ie-ci·i rom .s n-o-;'-;a '"Ple-~··~~·-t -he-Ar~tl~·p;ck-ice ----_.._--._-
approxlmatel~500 km north of Alaska Indicated lower fallout
..r ~t-';;·th·a-~;~-;';lo~;;i-;;-·~-;'-p·;;t e·~I-f o~--;;::.;t·,;;.-s ta·tT';~s--I,i 0 0··k;;,-t:-0--
the east 13.3 and l~mlcr09r a ms/sQ cm/~r,rpspectlvel~).
E It.he~the 1 owe ~freQu~n c!,:;·o f·s ov+.h ej..-l~i 0 f·f -~h 0r e)nita r ··su r i;;~
winds at the samPle ~Ites ofr Alaska or the unknown Influx or dust
.wI fI;"-uppe-r 1 eve l-·-a-I;:'masses co~i d·a~cov·~t for the·d If f e re n cel-~-·
dust fallcvt.The airborne dust COntribution to Arctic deep-sea
-se"'~rf';;-~ts-;;';·;:'t.h-or·-;Taska:-ho':;'-';~er-;-·;;o·~;;ted ·to-i$-~;less :..--.-------....
A ccnslderatlon or the cla~miner~109~and biogenOus Components
-ofj.rctj-c dvs·t--·ia.~-orS;9i·ob·a"i 0';-dl st-a"t sour';-e -for ·most of
the dust,especlall~the fraction Smaller t~an 2 micron.
-No"'-Cibv i·oiJs-i "dust'-;:l a leo;':;;'0·';e;;t.s·;;;e ";ed e t ec t ed (~t.h';dU~t ;----
_(Au ~~.~!_~.~~.t r ~.=..!:_). . ._.__.__..__._~__.~__._._
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Davidson,C.I.,Liyang Chu,Thomas C.Grimm,Margaret A.Nasta and Margaret
P.Qamoos,VIet and Dry Deposition of Trace Elements onto the Greenland
Ice Sheet,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.,1981.
ABSTRACT
-Trace element concentrations have been measured in the air and in fresh and older surface snow
during the summers of J978 and 1979 at Dye 3,south-central Greenland.These data have been used with
other information in the literature to calculate a total (wet plus dry)deposition velocity on the order of
O.5cms"1 for trace element transport to the ice sheet on an annual basis.The data suggest that dry
deposition contributes less than 25 \of the total transport for elements with large enrichment factors.
Crustal elements may be more significantly influenced by dry deposition.
Environmental Science and Technology Report,Arctic Haze,Vol.27,No.232A,June 1983.
ABSTRACT
invol~:~~asis on Arctic-wide sampling network and institutions and indiViduals
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G.Walther and A.W.Hogan,
aerosol,sulphur dioxide
Ocean,J.Aerosol.Sci.,
ABSTRACT
Hansen,W.J.Megaw,E.
summer tropospheric
the North Atlantic
Flyger,H.,N.Z.Heidam,K.
The background level of the
and ozone over Greenland and
Vol.7,pp.103-140,1976.
A description is given of airborne measurements over Greenland and the surrounding
seas of the concentration and size of Aitken nuclei and large nuclei.the concentration of doud
nucleiata supersaturation of 1'-/)0 the concentration of icc nuclei activated at _20e C.the cherni a
cal nature of the tropospheric aerosol.the concentration of sulphur dioxide and ozone.The
Aitken nuc1ei concentrations were gcnerall}']oganorrnally distributed in the rang~of less than
a 100 to 10'em-3 with strong peaks of nuclei concentrations appearing in widely distributed
thin layers superimposed on the background concentrations below 500 em -3.The geometrie
mean value was 960 cm-3•The particle size distributions of the Aitken nuclei fluctuated widely.
showing spectra of mono-,bi-and trimodal shapes.The parlicle size spt:Clra are grouped by
similarities in shape and their frequencies of occurrence are reported.The size spectra strongly
indicnte that formation of fresh nuclei by gas phase reactions is a common phenomenon in
summer tropospheric air over Greenland and adjacent seas.The large nuclei concentrations
wer.:generally log;..normalJy distributed in Ih~region 0.3-300 em -3 correlating in most cases
with the Aitken nuclei concentrations.The geometric mean was 9 cm-3.The size distribution
of the large nuclei covers the range 0.3-3 pm dia.and follows a pewee law above 0.4 ~m.
Ooud nuclei concentrations are reported for the North Sea and the North Atlantic only.the
concentrations were normally low.nearly 50%of the measured concentrations were below 12
cm-3•Peak concentrations of up to 500 cm-3 were measured during a cold front passage.
Ice nuclei concentrations were in the rang~of 0.01-0.1 1-1.Samples taken for analysis of p::J.rticu ...
tate sulphur compounds gave concentrations in the range 30-110·10-9 g S m-J over the nearby
se:lS and 35-220-10-9 g S m-..o\"er the ice cap.Measuremenls of sulphur dioxide gave concen-
trations in the range 50-725·\0-'g SO,m-3 over the nearby sea areas and 60-1950,10-'
g SOl m-3 in samples taken over the ice cap.A correlation coefficicnl between particulate
sulphur and sulphur dioxide of 0.92 was found for samples taken oyer (he sea areas.whereas
a negative correlation between samples from the ice cap arC:lS is dubious.Neutron activation
analyses .,;ere performed for e!ements with a potential contribution from ground surface,vol-
canoes and anthropogenic activities.The volumes of the samples (50-100 m 3 )were.,however.
too Jaw to give reliable results.
The mean concentration of ozone measured o ....er the ice cap was 34 ppb.higher with a
90l}~le ...el of confidence than the mt:::J.o concentration oj 30 ppb.measured over the nearby
seas.No correlation between ozone and altitude was found at a 95~,~level of significance.
Measurements of Aitken nuclei concentr;i.tions taken on the surface of the ice cap and showing
only $matl variations around 150 em -1.were s~rikingly different from the airborne measurcm~nts.
Air mass trajectories.-computed for selected events.show that'-the air sampled h::J.d Wllh,n
its recent history passedo\o'er Northern Can~da.Greenland or the ilrctic SC3S.
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Halter,Bradley C.,and James T.
carbon dioxide concentration
Environment,Vol.15,No.8,
Peterson,On the variability of atmospheric
at Barrow,Alaska during summer,Atmospheric
1981 •
ABSTRACT c
Atmospheric carbon dioxide data obtained at Barrow,Alaska for Ihe May-Seplember period of
;';'~"'crc studied 10 understand the causes of the day-Io-day and within-day variations.Sixteen instances of
:~~~~nge :n average CO 2 concentration of from 15 to SO ~o of the annual range (approx.14 ppm)were
,.;.cc.:,rl~d.Within-day variations of up to SO ~·o of Ihe annual range were noted.The variations were found 10
'"'c~ted to local and synoptic scale meteorology interacting with local and regional sources and sinks of
t (l;The results are consistent wilh an overall source of CO 2 in the tundra of the Alaskan North Slope and a
,.,r.,r·ieanl sink for CO 2 in Ihe ice-free areas of the seas bordering Alaska.The analysis provides an
:r;crrrctatlon of the Barrow CO2 record which can be used in the seleclion of representative data for
,;~J:'mg large scale Irends.
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Heidam,Niels Z.,On the Origin of the Arctic Aerosol:A Statistical
Approach,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,pp.1421-1427,
1981.
Abstract-Aerosol samples have been collected through two winter periods in Greenland.The particulates
have been analysed for elemental composition.and the data subjected to factor analysis.It is found that
70-85 '/~of the total variance can be explained in terms of three factors,which split the aerosol composition
into three corresponding types:crustal.marine and anthropogenic.The temporal variation of the factors is
calculated and related to the large-scale air movements of the period.It is shown that anthropogenic
pollution in North Greenland in the winter may be caused by long-range aerosol transport over the North
Pole.
Heintzenberg,Jost,Particle size distribution and optical properties of Arctic
haze:.Dept.of t~et.,Arrhenius Lab.,University of Stockholm,Sweden,lJo.
32(3),June 1980,p.251-260.
ABSTRACT
Simultaneous aerosol measurements with particle counters and
a multiwavelength integrating nephelometer were made at
Ny-Alesund.Sv~lbard (12"E.79"N).The measured integral
aerosol properties were used in an inversion procedure to
derive a consistent model of the particle size distribution of
Arctic haze.The obtained size distribution is compared With
the global·background aerosol size distribution.The light-
scattering coefficients and the total 'suspended volume of
particles were both found to be on the level of the global
background.
108
CHileman,B.,1983.Arctic haze.Environmental Science and Technology,Vol.17,
No.6,232-236.
ABSTRACT
The results of airborne measurements of Arctic haze,collected from a NOAA WP-3-D
Orion research aircraft on extended flights over the Arctic are reported.Con-
tinuous measurements were made of the sooty carbon component of the haze,radiation
fluxes above,within and below haze and cloud layers,and other physical and
chemical characteristics of the haze.The flights showed that the haze exists
at all latitudes in the northern polar regions and extends continuously up to
10,000 ft.,with discontinuous horizontal layers at greater heights.
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Heintzenberg Jest and Steinar Larssen,SOZ and S04 in the Arctic:Interpretation
of observ ati ons at three Norwegi an Arcti c-subarcti c stat;ens,Tell us,
1983.
ABSTRACT
Three years of 501 and SO:measurements (197&-81)at three Norwegian Arctic-Subarctic
stations (70,74.and 79°N)have been related to air mass trajectories.The average decrease in
non-marine SO;-concentrations with increasing latitude was found to agree well with the latitude
distribution of direct-or short-path return·flow frequency of trajectories from the Eurasian
source area.As expected from its reactive,short-lived character average SOl-concentrations
decreased much more rapidly than the frequency of source trajectories when moving into the
Arctic.
The seuonal variations in sulphur concentrations and source trajectories were less well
correlated.best at the southernmost station.From the study of all individual pollution episodes
(defined by ~2 times avenige sulphur concentrations)we deduced that an increasing fraction of
high sulphur levels could be -explained by long-path return flow,when moving deeper into the
Arctic.On Spitsbergen 50%of all pollution episodes occurred during return-flow that had
entered the Arctic between Novaja Zemlya and the Taymyr Peninsula.
•
Herron Michael,M.,Chester C.Langway,.Jr.,Herbert V.Weiss and James H.
Cragin,Atmospheric trace metals and sulfate in the Greenland Ice Sheet,
Geochimica et Cosmechimica Acta,Vol.41,1977.
ABSTRACT
Chemical analyses of surface snow and dated deep ice core samples from central Greenland
suggest that Zn,Pb and sulfate are presently being deposited there at two to three times the natural
rates.No recent increases in Cd or V concentrations were observed.Pre-1900 ice shows no measurable
effect of the activities of man and represents a good natural aerosol baseline.High enrichment factors
relative to average crustal material were observed for Zn,Pb.Cd and sulfate in all sample-s indicating
a natural source other than continental dust is responsible.A high temperature process or vapor
phase origin for these enriched elements,possibly volcanism_seems likely.
110
Heintbzenber g ,Jost,Chemical composition of Arctic haze
ergen,Sweden,No.33(2),April 1981,162-171.at Ny-Alesund,Spitzen-
ABSTRACT
Samples o.Arctic haze particles
Ny-Alesund.SpItsbergen (i2"E 79"N)d i we~e collected at
The 'Ilter samples were a~alYZed'w~~n~he:i~a~~nte:n~979.
partIcle-induced X-ray emission (PIX~)Th Y by
17 major ions and metals were det;r~fnede ~o~centrations o.
previous resUlts o'Arctic d n compared to
Simultaneous measurements o'th an Antarctic research.
were d t e aerosol size distributionChemic~~ecomp~s~~~~~~~~~~:s~~::nc~i~~r;:~t~~~Ul~:t Both the
;~~lu:~~~~hesiS that the Arctic winter aerosol ~s ~~~~~~;midlatitudeb~n~h~~~~;:~~~~~~:~~e:::~s~erosol originating·in
•
Heintzenberg,Jost,Size-Segregated Measurements of Particulate Elemental
Car~on and Aerosol Light Absorption at Remote Arctic Locations,Atmospheric
Env1 ronment,Vol.16,No.10,pp.2461-2469,1982.
ABSTRACT
-Size-segregated aerosol samples were takon during 2 winter pollution periods and in clean
summer air at different remote 1000tions in the European Arctic>74°N.By means ofa newly developed
ibtegraling sphere photometer these filter samples have ~n analysed for aerosol light absorption
coefficients and particulate elemental carbon (PEC).The relatively high PEC concentrations in winter
confirm other findings about the Arctic winter atmosphere having an aged continental aerosol burden.In
summer very low light absorption coefficients of 4.5 x 10-1 m-1 were measured.similar to upper
tropospheric background values.For the climatically important months of March-May the key optical
aerosol properties (extinction coefficient,single scattering albedo and absorption to backscatter ratio)were
determined.Based on the approach of J.M.Mitchell (1971,in Man's Impact on Climare.MIT Press.
Cambridge,MA)the Arctic haze aerosol is found tocontribute to atmospheric heating.even in the summer.A
first PEC size distribution was determined in a clean polar summer air.The results show systematic variations
in the PEC size distribution from urban to remote locations and seasonal variations in the sink region which
may be exploited to quantify aerosol removal process in long distance transport studies.
109
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Hoff,R.M.,W.R.Leaitch,P.Fellin and L.A.Barrie,Mass Size Distributions
of Chemical Constitutents of the Winter Arctic Aerosol,to be pUblished
J.Atmospheric Environment,1983.
ABSTRACT
Two fiela experiments.one from Novemlle,.24 •December 14,1981 and the
/second from February 19-27.1982.wer1l conducted at Iglool ik.Northwest
Territories.Canada.to study the composition and mass size spectrum of arctic
haze aerosol.In addItion.measurements were made of sulphur dioxide and.
sulphate.Mass size distributions were obta Ine<!for Cl-•NOj.
SO;.++Na+9 HH~and for elements Cl.Ha.V.Hn.I.Br.Thefig•
marine aerosol component at l arger particle sizes Is separated from the
anthropogenic aerosol component at smaller particle sizes.Anthropogenic
components (NH;.SO;.V.Mn)are found predomInantly on
sUb-micl"CIIIetre aerosols.Marine components (Cl-.Na+.1'Ig++)are
predOllllnantly supermicl":lll'.etre In size.Results for NOj and Br indicate
that a gas phase clllllPonent or precursor may exist In the arctic.Olfferent
transport during periods of the February experiment Indicates higher
concentrations for the haze aerosols and 502 when the trajectories'are from
Asia.502 was found In concentrations of 0.3 -4.3 .9/m3 and exceeded
sulphate in mass.Possible explanations for the S02/S0~concentration
ratio are given.
I sano,Kenj i,Makoto Komabayasi,Takao Takeda,Toyoaki Tanaka,Kunimoto Iwai,
j~iyuki Fujhvara,Concentration and nature of ice nuclei in rim of the
North Pacific Ocean,Tellus,XXIII,1971.
ABSTRACT
Simultaneous collections of ice nuclei in the air were made with instruments of the
same type at four sites in the rim of the North Pacific:College.Alaska;Blue Glacier,
\Vashington;Mauna Loa,Hawaii;and Nagoya.Japan.Ice nuclei were collecwd on
filter paper for counting of their number and also sheet meshes for examination vdth
electron microscope_
During the period of the collection from the beginning of February through the
beginning of :March,1968,three marked maxima of the concentrations of ice nuclei
effc('tive at -15°C appeared at each of the sites except Muunn.Loa.The peak values
were thc largest at Nagoya (5.3 nuclei/litre)'followed by College (2.i nuclei/litre)and
Blue Glacier (1.3 nuclei/litre).At the Mauna Loa.Observatory,no marked peak was
ob!o1crved.Neither a diurna.l variation nor any other variations with a.specific period
have been detected.The result of identification of materials of ice nuclei collected at
the four sites shows that clay and other Inineral particles constitute the main part of the
ice nuclei.
The results of the studies on the features of ice nucleus concentration,the trajectories
of air masses and the examination of iee nuclei suggest that the ice nuclei detected
originated from arid and semi-arid regions of the Asian Continent.
111
Jaenicke,Ruprecht,IIS chmutzige"Luft uber den Polen [Polluted air over the
poles.],Inst.fur Met.,Johannes Gutenberg University,Postfach,Mainz,
Germany,September "1981.
ABSTRACT
During 3 mo on an icebreaker in the Arctic,the
concentration of condensation nuclei in atmospheric air was
measured.The results indicate regional air pollution from
producers in the Arctic region.Air chemistry measurements of
undisturbed natural conditions can be conducted only if
influences from such local sources can be avoided.This has
implication upon air chemistry measurements in the Antarctic,
an area of recent German activities.
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Jaenicke,R.,and L.Schutz,Arctic aerosols in surface air,J.of the Hungarian
Meteorological Service,Vol.86,No.2,1982.
ABSTRACT
Arctic aerosols in surface air.During 3 months in summer 1980 measureme.nts of th~
arctic surface aerosol were performed.The measurements of the condensatIOn nuclei
concentration permit the conclusion that true arctic air has concentr~ti~ns below 1?0 ?m-3 •
Large portions of the European Arctic are polluted from sources wlthm the Arctic Itself.
The aerosol size distribution shows lower values than expected for background aerosols.
Under certain conditions,gas-to-particle conversion is not present and particles in the
range 1 ,am to 10 pm in radius ha....e been removed from the aerosol..
112
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Kerr,Richard,Global pollution:Is the Arctic haze actually industrial smog?,
Science,Washington D.C.,Report No.205(4403),July 20,1979,p.290-293.
ABSTRACT
The possibility that the Arctic haze may contain particles
derived from major pollutant courses in middle latitUdes.and
that these particles may have travelled distances exceedIng
10.000 km,is discussed on the basis of studies of the Arctic
Air-Sampling Network.Summer Arctic hazes are uncontaminated,
whereas during winter the Arctic haze consists largely of
droplets containing sulfate and organic matter with relatively
small amounts of heavy metals,such as vanadium and manganese,
found in urban-polluted air.Evidence for this is provided by
an analysis of the proportions of the atmospheric content of
sulfate at Point Barrow.Alaska,as compared with polluted
urban air over middle latitUdes.There is also evidence for
the long-range transport of Saharan dust over the AtlantIc to
Barbados,of Gobi Desert dust from Mongolia over the Pacific,
etc.Because of the small precipitation at Point Barrow in
winter (10 cm/yr),the removal of pollutants by rain or snow
would be slight.Data were obtained,suggesting Europe as a
possible source of pollutants for the wInter haze.
Kerr,Richard A~,Pollution of the Arctic atmosphere confirmed,Science,Washington,
D.C.,No.212(4498,May 29,1981,1013-1014.
ABSTRACT
New evIdence has helped form a consensus that.puring winter
and spring.pollutants travel 5000 krn and farther from
industrial areas in Europe,Asia.and perhaps North America
Into the Arctic,producing a pervasive haze there.Part of the
new evidence supporting Arctic air pollution comes from the
air-sampling networks at Canada's Atmospheric Environment
ServIce,Downsview,Ontario.Aerosols turned filters flannel
gray and sooty black only during winter and spring,as happens
at Barrow.Excess sulfate and vanadIum are attributed to
industrial sources in midlatitudes.Researchers now agree that
Arctic air can become dirty durIng winter and spring because
of an unusual combination of meteorological and geographical
circumstances.Although it borders on fUlly one half of the
Arctic and apparently makes a sizable contribution to the
problem.the SOViet Union continues to limit cooperative
stUdIes to the natural aerosols of its southern deserts.
113
lannefors,Hans,J?st Heintzenberg and Hans-Christen Hansson,A Comprehensi~e
study of physlcal and chemical parameters of the Arctic summer aerosol'
results from the Swedish expedition Ymer-80,Tellus,35B,40-54,1983.'
ABSTRACT
The Swedish icebreaker expedition Ymer-80 exploring the Norwegian part of the Arctic during
the summer of 1980 offered unique opportunities for a coordinated atmospheric research
program.Chemical and physical properties of the Arctic aerosol were studied using different
kinds of samplers and continuous monitors connected to a common air inlet.Local
contamination such as emissions from the ship and its helicopters were avoided using a
condensation nucleus counter to control the sampling.Emissions from Arctic settlements were
found to contribute only condensation nuclei and to have no significant influence on the aerosol
mass and chemical composition.Arctic summer grand average levels.especially those of
possible anthropogenic components i.e.soot,non-marine S.Ni.Cu.Zn and Pb.were lower by
one order of magnitude or more than late winter levels as found on Spitsbergen.but 011 the same
level as summer values in Northern Greenland.Most of the components varied over 1 to 2
orders of magnitude during the expedition.Sampling periods mainly influenced by sea spray
were characterized by high TSP and chlorine levels.A few cases.possibly influenced by
long-range transport from the European continent.were characterized by high asp'soot.sulphur
and heavy metal concentrations.The Arctic background aerosol composition was found to be
determined by the relative strength of active source and sink mechanisms in combination with
the sampling time resolution.
114
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Leighton,Henry,Influence of Arctic Haze on the Solar Radiation Budget,Atmospheric
Environment,1983.
ABSTRACT
. .-Comparil;on of reported measurements of the change in the direct and total hemispheric solar
lCTadlances at Barrow,Alaska between days with and without visible haze with values computed from aerosol
models with d!ITerent.imaginary parts of.the refractive index leads to the conclusion that the haze is only
:-v eakly abso~bJng.Usmg the value ofth.;smgle scattering albedo deduced from the comparison the reduction
10 the elTeclJve local planetary albedo of the Arctic due to Arctic haze is estimated to be about 0.03.
Miller,John i1.,A f'ive-year climatology of five-day back trajectories from
Barrow,Alaska,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
Jl.BSTRACT
The Air Resources Laboratories'trajectory model was used to calculate five-day back
traJeclories from Barrow.Alaska for the period from February 1975 to January 1980.Using a 300-2000 m
averaging layer.trajectories were produced four times a day over the five-year period.A simple typing
scheme was designed to indicate both direction and distance of air transport.Analysis of the five-year period
showed that most transport from distances beyond 2000 km takes place from November to March.',;,'ith an
anomalous peak in August.The direction of this transport is predominantly from the south.with a peak of
over-the-pole flow during the monlh of March.Trajectory direction and speed vary significantly from year
to year and season to season.
115
Mitchell,Jr.,Murray,J.,Visual Range in the Polar Regions with Particular
Reference.to the ~askan Arctic,JATP,A Supplement,1957.
ABSTRACT
The polar atmosphere often possesses a remarkably high optical transparency whkh can
be aJtributed to uery low dust and water.vapor contents.Below the tropopause,olld
especially in those regions which experience polar and Arctic frontal actit'ity,however,
exterrsive stratiform cloudiness usually det·elops.With afou.'notable e.~uptions,as u'1l4n
solid cloud masses ha.r:e recmtly been sounded to heights of 39,000 it (12,000 m)
over the Arctic Ocean,cloud systems can usualLv be surmounted rather easi(y by propeller
airertift.Especially in the /Carnur months and near coastlines,mountains in the Arctic
ar,_submnged in heavy cloudiness.
attar,Brynj u1 f,The transfer of ai rborne poll utants to the Arcti c regi on,
.n.tmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
Chemical analysis of the Arctic aerosol has shown that considerable amounts of air pollutants are
brought into the Arctic region in winter.particularly from sources in Europe and the eastern U.S.S.R.It is
pointed out that mercury and chlorinated hydrocarbons.which after initial deposition can be re-emltted to
the atmosphere by sublimation,must be subject to a systematic long term transfer from warmer to colder
regions.For mercury natural emission may have resulted in an equilibrium between amounts deposited on
the earth surface and ambient air concentrations.The heavier chlorinated hydrocarbons have probably not
yet reached this stage.Continued large scale use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons may therefore
lead to a long term increase ofenvironmental concentrations,also in countries where restrictions on the use of
these substances have led to a reduction of their concentrations in food and other biological materials.The
Arctic is also the place where the first signs of a climatic change due to the increasing content of carbon
dioxide and other pollutants in the atmosphere.may be detected.In order not to misinterpret any such
symptoms.a detailed knowledge of the composition of the Arctic aerosol and its possible influence on the
radia tIon balance is essential.and in view of the future oil exploitation ar.tivities in this region.the necessary
inves;igations should not be delayed for too long.
116
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Patterson,D.E.,and R.B.Husar,A direct simulation of hemispherical transport
of pollutants,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
The seasonal fate of pollutant emissions from eastern North America.Europe and East Asia
during J974 is examined via 850 mbar forward trajectories of 20 days duration.Simple pure-decay kinetic
scenarios are presented for atmospheric residence times of 5 and J0 days to illustrate the spatial extent of the
continental plumes.The 20-day cutoff scenario is segregated by source region.indicating mean flow.The
simulated potential impact at Barrow,Alaska indicates an annual pattern which resembles measured sulfate
and haze patterns,with an anomalous August peak,Apparently European,and especially North American.
plumes are unlikely to reach Barro""during May-September.but both appear to contribute to winter haze in
the Arctic,
Patterson,E.M.and B.T.Marshall,Radiative Properties of the Arctic Aerosol,
Atmospheric Environment,Vol.16,No.12,pp.2967-2977,1982.
ABSTRACT
Absorption coefficients of the Arctic aerosol have been measured by means of diffuse
transmission techniques using filter samples collected at Barrow,Alaska.These measurements show a highly
absorbing aerosol wit h an average winter absorption coefficient.17 ••of ~1.9 x 10-6 m-I.
W.e have used these absorption measurements,concurrent aerosol composition measurements.and
estimates of sizes and refractive indices for the individual aerosol components to model the radiative
properties of the Arctic aerosol.Our results show good agreement be!ween observed and modeled quantities
and indicate that the Arctic aerosol has optical properties that are quite similar 10 those of an aged pollution-
derived mid-latitude tropospheric aerosol.
Our results also indicate that particle growth with increasing relative humidity above the surface maycause
the overall climatic impact of the Arctic aerosol to be different from that expected solely on the basis of
measurements at the surface.
117
Peterson,James T.,Dependence of CO.SUB 2.,aerosol,and ozone concentrations
on wind direction at Barrow,Alaska,durinq winter,Air Resources Lab.,
NOAA,Boulder,Colorado,Letter 7(5),May 1980,p.349-352.
ABSTRACT
Measurements of CO.SUB 2.,aerosol scattering,condensation
nuclei,and ozone made continuously at the NOAA baseline
observatory at Barrow,Alaska.were analyzed in conjunction
.with low-level trajectories of .irflow arriving at Barrow
during periods from Jan.to March 1977 and 1978.Ozone
concentrations had no dependence upon wind direction,whereas
co.SUB 2.and aerosol values showed directional dependence:
higher values occurred with airflow from the Arctic Basin than
with th~t from the south.Aerosol analyses support the
hypothesis that Arctic haze results from advection of aerosols
to the Arctic from European or North American anthropogenic
sources.co.SUB 2.results suggest two possible sources for
the higher concentrations:transfer from the ocean through
annual sea ice to the Arctic atmosphere or advection from
mid-latitude anthropogenic sources similar to that for the
Arctic haze.
118
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Raatz,Wolfgang E.,Trends in cloudiness in the Arctic since 1920,Atmospheric
Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
-Long term (-50 year period)trends in cloudiness in terms of number of cloudy days per month
.at seven Arctic stations were investigated.Trends seem to be more pronounced in the Alaskan Arctic and
Greenland.and less pronounced in the Norwegian Sea.There was no evidence found for monotonic
increasing cloudiness which could have been related to a growing industrial activity.
Raatz,'Wolfgang,E.,On the Meteorological Characteristic~of Pollut:d Air
Masses at Barrow,Alaska,Submitted to Pure and Applled GeophyslCS,
1983.
ABSTRACT
Anthropogenic derived pollution episodes at Barrow,Alaska occur when
air masses under anticyclonic influence emanate from the Arctic Basin.
The high frequency of above-normal wind speeds and the only slightly above-
normal pressures c!laracteristic of these Arctic air masses suagest that
pollutants are transported to Barrow along the periphery of the Arctic
anticyclone within a zone of rapid transport.
119
Raatz,Wolfgang,E.,Observations of "Arctic Haze"during the "Ptarmigan"
Weather Reconnaissance Flights,1948-1961,Submitted to Tellus,May 1983.
ABSTRACT
114 "Ptarmigan"weather reconnaissance flights·over the Alaskan
Arctic during 1948-1961 were analy~ed for reports of "Arctic Haze"
(-400 reports).Arctic Haze can reduce horizontal visibility
significantly and is most frequently reported during late winter
and spring but is also found during early winter and summer.Haze
is-reported everywhere within the Alaskan Arctic at altitUdes
between the surface and 6 km.Anticyclonic surface pressure condi-
tions are characteristic-of Arctic Haze;"clear skies"weather
conditions were predominantly present with haze observations during
the winter months,"cloudy skies"were predominantly present \~ith
haze observatio~s during the SUlmner months.Ye hypothesize that
Arctic Haze has a dual character of origin:it is pollution-derived
during winter and early spring,and desert dust-derived during late
spring and summer.
Raatz,Wolfgang,E.,Glenn E.Shaw,Long-Range Tr.opos Pheric Transport of Pollution
Aerosols into the Alaskan Arctic,(in press:Climate and Applied Met.,1984).
ABSTRACT
A t~.eri••of cnea1cal cracers in pollution-derived ·aerosols
collected over a period of four years in the near-surface air at Barrow,
Alaska was used to investigate tropospheric ions-range transport of anthro-
pogenic pollution for.ll mid-latitudes into the Alaskan Arctic.This trans-
port takes place when the mid-latitudinal and Arctic atmospheric circulations
manifest quasi-persistent circulation patterns.Rapid transport of aerosols,
on the order of i-LO days,is dominated by quasi-stationary anticyclones
an~takes place along their peripheries where pressure gradients are rela-
tively strong.!he seasonal variation in concentration of the Arctic
POllutio~erived aerosol is explained by tne sea~onal variation in the
occurrence and position of mid-latitude blocking aneicyclones,of the
Arctic anticyclone,and of the Asiaeic ancicyclone.the positions of the
major anticyclonic centers are responsible for the fact that Soviet indus-
trial sources contribute to the Arctic pollution-derived aerosol predomi-
nantly during winter,European sources during spring,and that North American
and Far.Eastern industrial sources contribute little to the Arctic pollution
aerosols.
120
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Rahn,Kenneth A.,Randolf D.Borys and Glenn E.Shaw,The Asian Source of Arctic
Haze Bands,Nature,Vol.268,No.5622,pp.713-715,August 25,1977.
ABSTRACT
'ARCTIC haze'refers to turbid layers of air which are
found regularly over the pack ice north of Alaska during
periods of clear weather'.These layers are diffuse,hundreds
to thousands of kilometres wide,1-3 km thick,and can
occur as single or multiple bands of different heights
at nearly any level in the troposphere.They are invisible
from the ground,but may limit horizontal and slant visi-
bility within a layer to as little as 3-8 km.Their colour is
grey-blue in the wtisolar direction and reddish-brown in
the solar direction,suggestin,g that they are true aerosol
rather than ice crystals.
Rahn,Kenneth A.,Arcti c Ai r-Sampl ;ng Network,Arcti c Bull eti n,Vol.2,No.14,
1978.
ABSTRACT
The Arctic Air-Sampling Network
is now making its first attempts to
describe the quality of the at-
mospherein the Arctic.The data
compiled by this series of sampling
stations in several nations present a
coordinated impression of arctic
atmospheric chemistry.The inter-
national network hopes to develop a
thorough picture of arctic atmos-
pheric chemistry,which until recent-
ly has been only poorly characterized.
121
Rahn,Kenneth A.,The Eurasian Sources of Arctic Aerosol,Norwegian Institute
for Air Research,September 1979.
ABSTRACT
There is now considerable evidence that during winter
the Arctic atmosphere contains surprisingly large amounts of.
submiqron aerosol.High concentrations of sulfate,210Pb,and
trace elements such asV and Mn suggest strongly that much of
this aerosol is the product of aging of polluted air masses from,
midlatitudes,although some of it may be ~atural.The concen-
trations and compositions are similar for the aerosols of
northern Norway,Bear Island,Spitsbergen,and Barrow (Alask~),
suggesting a basic unity of the Arctic aerosol.
Rahn,Kenneth A.,Elinar Joranger,Arne Semb and Thomas J.Conway High winter
concentrations of S02 in the Norwegian Arctic and transport from Eurasia
Nature,Vol.287,No.5785,October 1980.'
ABSTRACT
Since 1u1y 1977,the Norwegian Institute for Air Research has
been studying trace gases and aerosols in the atmosphere at Bear
Island,an Arctic site located at 74°Nand 19°E.Although Bear
Island lies well north of the Arctic Circle,the warm Norwegian
Sea gives it aD annual mean temperature of -1.8 °C,consider-
ably warmer than at many other Arctic locations (Barrow,
Alaska,for example,is 350 Ian farther south but has an annual
mean of -12.2°C).In summer,Bear Island is surrounded by
open water;in winter there is open se3:.!9.the south and west and
pack ice to the north and east.Atmospheric samples are taken
20 m above mean sea level and 2 m above local ground:high-
.volume filters are taken three times a week and analysed for
various elements by atomic absorption,neutron activation and
wet chemistry;sulphate and SUlphur dioxide are measured daily
by a method similar to that of Johnson and Atkins1 ,using
low-volume (16 m J )prefilters for sulphate and KOH-impreg-
nated afterfilters for SO:z.The collection efficiency of this
method for SO:z has been tested extensively:Z.Results for the
high-volume samples have been reportedJ ;here we discuss the
SO:z data,which seem to indicate that during winter there is
efficient transport from Eurasian midlatitudes,due at least in
part to long atmospheric residence times in and around the
Arctic.
122
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Rahn,Kenneth A.,Atmospheric riverine and oceanic sources of seven trace con-
stituents to the Arctic Ocean,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,
1981 •
ABSTRACT
The Arctic atmosphere contains surprisingly high concentrations of aerosol during the winter
half-year.to the point that deposition to the Arctic Ocean becomes of interest.For lack of better information.
we assume that wet deposition dominates dry deposition in the Arctic to the same degree as in mid latitudes.If
so,most of the Arctic deposition should take place in winter,when anthropogenic contributions to the Arctic
aerosol are the greatest.Thus,anthropogenic influences should be seen in Arctic deposition;but to a lesser
extent than in the Arctic aerosol.Estimates of atmospheric deposition and riverine transpon of seven trace
species (AI,V,Mn.Cd,Pb.SO~-.NOj)to the Arctic Ocean suggest that riverine sources deposit more
material than atmospheric sources,that riverine fluxes are often comparable to oceanic fluxes.and that
atmospheric fluxes are usually much less than riverine or oceanic fluxes.Under certain circumstances,riverine
AI.Mn,Cd and NO;may significantly affcctthe oceanic·concentrations.Atmospheric and riverine sources of
SO;-and V are both unimportant.Pb was the only element considered here whose atmospheric flux equals
01 exceeds the riverine and oceanic fluxes into and out of the Arctic basin:the atmosphere should th us have a
major effect on Pb concentration in the Arctic Ocean.
Rahn,Kenneth A.,The Arctic Air-Sampling Network in 1980,Atmospheric Environment,
Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
Stations and participants in the Arctic air sampling network.
123
Rahn,Kenneth A.,The MnjV ratio as a tracer of large-scale sources of pollution
aerosol for the arctic,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
The ratio of noncrustal Mnjnoncrustal V is five times greater for Eurasian aerosol than for
eastern North American aerosol.When a decrease of this ratio during transport and aging is allowed for,the
aerosol ofthe Norwegian Arctic in winter is seen to be compatible with a Eurasian source and incompatible
with an eastern North American source.Winter aerosol of the North American Arctic seems to beaffected by
an additional source within Eurasia,with a still-higher Mn/V ratio.Chemical and meteorological evidence
suggests that this latter source area is in the central U.S.S.R.
Rahn,Kenneth A.,Relative importances of North America and Eurasia as sources
of Arctic aerosol,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
..._.--_.During winter.the Arctic atmosphere is filled with high concentrations ofaerosol which is largely
pollution-derived.This article reviews a series of meteorological.meteorological-chemical,observational,
and compositional arguments in an attempt to determine which.if any,of the two most likely sources of
Arctic aerosol.eastern North America and Eurasia,dominates.The majority. but not all.of the presently
available evidence indicates that Eurasia is the more important source.
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Rahn,Kenneth A.,and Niels Z.Heidam,Progress in Arctic Air Chemistry,1977-
1980:A Comparison of the First and Second Symposia,Atmospheric Environment,
Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
Introductory overview article on Arctic Haze in the volume of Atmospheric
Environment dedicated to Arctic air chemistry.
Rahn,Kenneth A.and Gl enn E.Shaw,Sources and Transport of Arcti c Poll uti on
Aerosol:A Chronicle of Six Years of ONR Research,Naval Research Reviews,
Vol.XXXIV,No.Three,1982.
ABSTRACT
T he polar regions are universally considered to be
desolate,remote regions whose air and water are
still clean and pure.From the earliest explorers to
modem travellers.all visitors to the polar regions at-
test to this view.After all,are not the poles literally
the ends of the earth.far removed from the last
traces of civilization's products?
Rahn,K.A.,and Douglas H.Lowenthal,Elemental Tracers of Distant Regional
pollution Aerosols,Science,Vol.223,132-139,1984.
ABSTRACT
A seven-element tracer system shows that regional pollution aerosols of both
North America and Europe have characteristic signatures that can be followed into
remote areas up to several thousand kilometers downwind.In aerosols of mixed
origin,regional contributions to the tracer elements can be resolved by least-
squares procedures.After transport of several hundred kilometers,secondary
sulfate can also be apportioned satisfactorily.Regional elemental tracers thus
offer a way to determine the sources of pollution aerosol in important areas such
as the northeastern United States,Scandanavia,and the Arctic.
12'5
Reiter,Elmar R.,Planetary-wave behavior and Arctic air pollution,Atmospheric
Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
An attempt has been made to relate episodes of air pollution at Barrow,Alaska,containing
vanadium,to the behavior of planetary waves in middle and high latitudes.A stationarity index for planetary
waves is defined as the ratio between amplitudes computed from monthly mean maps and the mean
amplitudes computed on a daily basis and averaged over the same month,irrespective of phase angle.
Longitude-time sections of 500 mb height anomalies at various latitudes are related to vanadium pollution
episodes al Barrow.
Rosen,H.,T.Novakov and B.A.Bodhaine,Soot in the Arctic,Atmospheric
Envi ronment,Vol..15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
·Substantial concentrations of graphitic carbon and its associated large optical absorption
coefficient are observed in the Arctic.The graphitic content shows a dramatic increase from late fall to early
spring,reaching levels that are comparable to those found in urban environments (i.e.,the peak values in
February are only about a factor of 10 less than the average levels found in New York City and a factor of
three less than those found in Berkeley,California,and Denver,Colorado).If one ignores the possible
contribution of natural burning processes which are expecled 10 be small during this lime of the year in the
northern hemisphere.this graphitic component can be attributed directly to anthropogenic activity.
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Shaw,Glenn Eo,Comparison of Arctic and Antarctic haze,Geophysical Institute,
University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,.September 1976.
ABSTRACT
Measurements made in 1976 In the American Arctic show
substantial levels of haze:up to 20 times the amount found at
the South Pole.From an aircraft.the haze usually appears to
be concentrated in thin layers that sometimes can be seen as
dark-colored bands against the sky near the horizon.
Trajectory analysis suggests that,at times,industrial
pollution from central Europe may be responsible for the haze
layers found in the Arctic.It Is also possible that-the haze
is caused by dust transported by winds from the Gobi Desert.
Shaw,Glenn E.,Arctic haze,Geophysical Institute,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,
Alaska,Report No.33(5),October 1980,p.219-221.
ABSTRACT
Arctic air can be.and has been.described as crystal
clear-at least in summer.During the winter months the
situation changes.and the northern.polar air ftlls with
pervasive haze.StUdies from aircraft show that the haze
concentra t ion i ncr'eases upward Trom the ground.reach i ng a
maximum at s9veral thousand meters of altitude.then decreases
above that.Sampling experiments indica~e that Arctic haze is
rich in elements associated with industrial pollution.such as
vanadium and manganese.Researchers suspect that the source of
the haze is Europe and.at times.northeastern U.S.Less
frequently,the haze has been composed of particles of crustal
material which apparently have come from the Gobi and other
great Asian deserts.
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Shaw,Glenn E.and Knut Stamnes,Arctic Haze:Perturbation of the Polar
Radi ati on Budget,Annals of the New York Academy of Sci ence,338,
533-540,1980.
ABSTRACT
Arctic haze refers to turbid air in the northern polar regions.It was first noticed
and commented on in 1956 by Murray MitcheH.Jr.;who more or less described it as
being an amorphous haze extending from the northern Alaskan coasts to the highCllt
polar latitudes.In the period 1971-75.Shaw and Wendler,%Shaw.'and Holmgren et
ai.4 measured anomalously high values of optical extinction through the atmosphere at
McCall Glacier in remote northeastern Alaska and at Point Barrow on the northern
tip of Alaska.The high values of extinction (haze opticai depth -0.1-0.2 at 500 nm
wavelength)were extremely puzzling,especially since the atmospheric optical
extinction underwent a seasonal variation in the opposite direction from what one
would expect:the values I)f optical extinction were large during the months
March-April.when the oceans and surface are covered with ice and snow,but were
smaUer in summer.This behavior is distinctly anomalous.since turbidity at most
locations is at its greatest in SUmmer"'1 and at its minimum in middle or late
winter.
Shaw,Glenn E.,Arctic Haze,Weatherwise,pp.218-221,1980.
ABSTRACT
Popular overview of the Arctic Haze problem.
128
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Shaw,G.E.!~ddy Diffusion Transport of Arctic Pollution from the Mid-Latitudes:
A Prel 1m1 nary Model ,Atmospher1 c Envi ronnient,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
Arctic haze.which here refers to aerosol particles ofsubmicron size permeating the atmosphere of
the northern polar regions,is a phenomenon showing strong and annually repeatable seasonal variations,
with maxima in winter and early spring and minima in summer.This paper describes an eddy diffusion model
which was constructed to understand that part of the haze (apparently its largest part)due to pollution
sources at the mid-latitudes.The model is applied to the transport of emitted anthropogenic sulfur.The
modeling has tentatively identified Arctic cloudiness amount as the controlling factor which gives rise to the
tenfold seasonal changes of Arctic air pollution;it also has provided.within a factor of 2,the correct
magnitude of the aerosol mass loading in the arctic regions and has allowed a rough estimate to be made of
the possible impact on Arctic:air quality as industrialization moves northward.
Future development of mining,petroleum extraction,smelting,refining,and manufacturing is expected to
double every 15-20 years,and in another 50 years arctic haze may be serious enough to cause significant
hea~ing of the atmosphere of the qorthern polar regions.
Shaw,Glenn E.,Atmospheric Turbidity in the Polar Regions,J.Applied Meteor.
Vol.21,No.8,August 1982.
ABSTRACT
Analysis is presented of 800 measurements of atmospheric monochromatic aerosol optical depth made
poleward of -650 latitude.The atmosphere of the sou·thern polar regio~appears to be uncontam~n~ted b':"t
is charged with a background aerosol having a mean size of 0.1 Itm radiUS,an almost ~on~tant mlxmg ratio
throughout the troposphere,a sea level optical depth (X =500 nm)of -0.025 and an mferred columnar
mass lolUiing of 4-15 X 10-1 g cm-Z..
At around the time of spring equinox the northern polar region (all longitudes)is invaded with Arctic
Haze,an aerosol showing a strong anthropogenic chemical fingerprint.The optical depth anomaly introduced
by this man-eaused haze is To "'"0.110 and the associatedeolumnar mass loading is -I.5 X 10-6 g em-.z,
Turbidity measured seven decades ago at the solar observatory at Uppsala (600 N),suggests that Arctic
optical depth has been rising at a rate of dT/dt "'"0.01 ±0.005 per decade.
129
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Shaw,G.Eo,Evidence for a central Eurasian source area of Arctic haze in
Alaska,Nature,299,815-818,1982.
ABSTRACT
During winter when the polar oceans are froz~n,air musses
entering Alaska from the Arctic are ch~rged ~Ith suspen:ed
submicrometre purticles whose chemical signatures s ow
•d .of being derived from man-mude sources of poilu-~i:D~~Occ:asionaIlY,the aerosol loading is large enough ~o
d •'bUity and thus the phenomenon.has come to ereuee\'lSI .L_tr epl-ef ed to as "Arctic haze'.We report here uuee.song •~od~of Arctic haze in Alaska which were examined du:?ng
Febntaiy-April 1982 and which were foun~.to be pOSSibly
associated with air emissions I~central EUI'851L
Shaw,Glenn E.,On the Aerosol Particle Size Distribution Spectrum in Alaskan
Air Mass Systems:Arctic Haze and Non-Haze Episodes,J.Atmos.Sciences,
Vol.40,pp.1313-1320,1983.
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Aerosols in central Alaskan winter air mass systems were classified according to size by diffusive separation
and light-sCattering spectrometry.Particles entering central Alaska from the Pacific Marine environment had
number concentrations ranging from 300 to 2000 cm-J (geometric mean 685 cm-J )and unimodal size
spectra.with maximum in number concentration near I X 10-6 em radius.
Air masses entering Alaska from the Eurasian Arctic possessed a factor of two smaller aerosol number
concentrations'than Pacific Marine systems (e.g.•150-700 cm-.1;geometric mean 386 cm-J )but contained
a factor of two greater particle volume loading within the tine particle radius range -5 X 10-7 <r <I
X 10-'em.The particles in Eurasian Arctic air masses were bimodally distributed.with maxima in the
particle size spectra near r =.3 X 10-7 and 5 X 10-6 em.Sulfur was the predominant element in all cases
studied...
A particle depleted region was present in the size spectra obtained for Eurasian Arctic.air masses ..The
deficiency of particles in the 10-6 cm radius range is interpreted as being the result of themlal coagulation
taking place between sulfur-rich nuclei (produced at a rate cif 10-20 to 10-18 g cm-J S-I and in sizes r <10-6
em)and "large"(r ;...IO~'cm)imported primary particles.The primary particles are in the removal-resistant
Greenfield Gap (r"":,IO-'cm)and seem to originate in the central Eurasian region..''.,'.'
130
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Shaw,Glenn Eo,X-Ray Spectrometry of Polar Aerosols,Atmospheric Environment,
Vol.17,No.2,pp.329-339,1983.
ABSTRACT
Aerosols sampled in the Alaskan and Norwegian Arctic and in Antarctica (western Antarctica and
South Pole)were analyzed with scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry.
They were found to be predominantly submicron sulfur-rich particles.Large (1-3 Jlm)particles of crustal
material (showing signatures of AI and Si and conchoidal fracturing)or sea salt particles (signatures ofNa
and CI)were occasionally present and seemed to be coated with liquid or solid films of sulfur-rich
compounds,possibly in the form of very small freshly-nucleated sulfates that had attached by coagulation.
The sulfur coating may alter the cloud condensation nucleus spectrum.
The predominant X-ray peaks detected in the aerosol were from Na,Mg.AI.Si.S,Cl,K,Ca,Mn and Fe.
Factor analysis of the correlation matrix ofaerosol elemental composition suggested that it may not be valid
to think of the polar aerosol as a simple mixture of primary marine and primary crustal'components.
In the Arctic aerosol,Cu and CI seem anomalous;their proximity on factor diagrams suggests there
possibly may be a biogenic source orCI,since such a source has been suggested for copper by Cattell and Scott
(1978;Science 202,429-430)and Duce et al.(1972;Science 176,161-163).At the South Pole,CI and Si seem
anomalous on the factor diagram;the anomaly possibly being caused by emi~sions from Erebus Volcano.
Both Cl and Si were enriched in samples taken from the fuming vent at the summit of Mt.Erebus.The
anomalous behavior of Cl,Si and Cu may not be significant,however,because of the limited number of
experimental data.
Weschler,Charles J.,Identification of selected organics in the Arctic
aerosol,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.15,No.8,1981.
ABSTRACT
GC/MS and pyrolysis/GCjMS techniques have been used to identify organics in aerosol
samples collected at Barrow,Alaska.The major organics detected in the cyclohexane extracts included
saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons,phthalate esters,and polydimethylsiloxanes (dimethyl silicones).The
methylene chloride extracts contained primarily phthalate esters,while the major components of the acetone
extract were phthalic anhydride and4-methyl-3-pentene-2-one (both most likely artifacts),with lesser
amOunts of aliphatic acids.
Polydimethylsiloxanes have not been previously reported in airborne particulate matter (primarily
because of analytical restrictions).These silicones are totally synthetic materials and,together with the
general character of the organics detected in these samples,ofTer further evidence for the contribution of
distant sources to the Arctic aerosol.
131
Automobile.·Emissions and Their Control
The references in this sections include the following topics:
Effects of cold weather on automobile emissions
Effects of automobile emissions on ambient CO concentrations
Cold start and engine warm-up
Reducing CO emissions through the use of:
Alternate fuels
Automobile inspection and maintenance
Retrofit pollution control devices
Preheaters
Other devices
132
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation ~eport,A Review of Carbon.
Monoxide Emissions from Motor Vehicles durlng Cold Temperature Ope~atlon,
The Importance of Cold Start Emissions for Attainment of Ambient Alr
Quality Standards,March 1979.
ABSTRACT
1.Summarizes the available information regarding motor vehicle
emissions caused by extreme cold start conditions.
2.Presents methods which are currently available to reduce such
emissions.
3.Evaluates the extent to which emissions affect achievement of
ambient air quality standards for carbon monoxide,particularly
emphasizing Fairbanks and Anchorage,Alaska.
4.Recommends policies which need to be implemented to effectively
control cold start emissions.
5.~Outlines research needed.to adequately quantify cold start
emissions as they affect achievement of ambient air quality standards.
Ashby,H.A.,R.C.Stahman,B.H.Eccleston,and R.W.Hurn,Vehicle Emissions--
Summer to Winter,No.741053,prepared for Society of Automotive Engineers
Inc.,400 Commonwealth Drive,Warrendale,Pennsylvania 15096,1974.'
ABSTRACT
A test program was conducted to study the effect of ambient conditions
on exhaust emissions from a wide variety of automobiles.Twenty-six cars
ranging from pre-control production cars to catalyst-equipped prototypes,
including rotary,Diesel,and stratified charge cars,were tested at 20 0 SO'
75°,and 110°F."',
Ambient temperatures above and below 75°"F were found to have significant
effects on exhaust emissions.The Diesel and stratified charge cars were
affected less than production and catalyst-equipped cars by changes in ambient
temperature.
The use of air conditioners at the 110 0 F test temperature led to in-
creased emissions and fuel consumption.Hydrocarbon reactivity and aldehyde
"emissions were not affected by temperature and were lower from the catalyst
cars at all temperatures.
133
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Austin,I.C.,G.S.Rubenstein,L.D.Verrelli,and T.E.Moyer,Light Duty Vehic.le CO
Emissions During Cold Weather,Sierra Research and Alaska Dept.of Environmental
Conservation,SAE Technical Paper Series #831698,1983.
ABSTRACT
However,the low temperature CO emissions of cars certified at 3.4 grams
per mile CO are nearly 50%lower than vehicles certified to a standard of 15
grams"per mile.Comparable levels of low temperature CO control may be possible
with carburetors through the use of electric intake manifold heating grids.
Unless new regulations provide an alternative mechanism for encouraging the use C
of such systems,the achievement of the ambient air quality standard for CO in
areas which experience violations during cold weatheer may depend on the contin-
ued requirement for a 3.4 gram per mile standard.
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Bowditch,F.W.,The Carbon Monoxide Issue in Alaska,Motor VehicJe Manufacturers
Association,January 1982.C;
ABSTRACT
This paper was prepared by the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers
Association of the United States,Inc.(MVMA),to outline what is
known about carbon monoxide (CO)pollution in Alaska and to
explore what might be required in terms of emission control to
achieve the CO air quality standard (NAAQS).Data gaps and areas
in which further information would be useful also are identified.
Carbon monoxide was selected for the study because it is the
air pollutant of most.concern to the people of Alaska.Other
pollutants are of less concern.For example,ozone concentrations
is Alaska are among the lowest in the Nation,and Alaska is in
.compliance with the nitrogen dioxide air quality standard.The
carbon monoxide situation in Alaska is evaluated in this paper for
center city as well as residential locations,using available air
quality monitoring data.Future emission control requirements are
appraised by means of air quality projections and evaluation of
projection techniques.
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Chang,T.Y.,J.M.Norbeck and B.Weinstock,Ambient Temperature Effect
on Urban CO Air Quality,Atmospheric Environment,Vol.14,pp.603-
608,1980.
ABSTRACT
Abstract ~Changes in t.he ambient temperaturec:ausc changes'in vehicle emissions mainly during the cold-
start peno.d o~opera~lon.The inftuence that this effect has on the seasonal variation of urban CO
c:oncentratl?ns IS exanuned by means of a simple air quality model.For fixed meteorological conditions.themod~l.predicts that th~atmospheric CO concentr.uions at a center city measuring location will iUCfe3Se by
5-15/.for a decrease I~t~mperaturefrom 75·to 2S°F when ·none of the vehicles in that vicinity lire in the~old-start ~~e and will Increase by 55-7S~~when all of the ncarby vehicles are in the cold-start mode.An
Inverse vanallon of CO concentration with change in temperature is derived from a statistical analysis ofCO
data ~eported both fo.r midto~n.Ma~hattan (1975-1977)and for downtown Los Angeles (1976-1975).The
ma~D1tu~eoft~e.d~nved vanallon IS small for both cities and corresponds to the case where none of the
vehicles In.the "'~D1.ty of t~e measuring site arc in the cold-start mode.It therefore follows that the variation
of CO vehicle CInISSlons With temperature does not have an important effect on CO air quality at these two
urban centers.
.The high~t CO concentrations are observed during the'colder months in most Am~rican cities and thediffe~ences ID met,:"rc:'logic:a1 conditions between winter and summer that might contribute to this are
considered.S~me s:gndicant factors are that.in the winter.mul~iday episodes ofslowest dilution occur as well
as nocturnal tn~e~ions ofgr~terstability.From thcseconsiderations it is concluded that the meteorologicaJ
factors playa Slgmficant rolem the observation of high CO concentrations in urban areas during the colder
months..
Chapman,C.C.,1984.Vehicle analysis program,1983 results and overall history
and results.Fairbanks North Star Borough,60 pp.
ABSTRACT
This report summarizes the results of the eight years that the Vehicle
Emissions Analysis Program (VEAP)has been run (1973,1974 and 1978 to 1983).An
analysis of the data,individually for 1983,and over the history of the program
was made.Two major trends have been noted:
1)carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions from the average light duty
vehicle in the Fairbanks area have decreased with time,on the order of 45 to 70
per cent (by weight)from 1973 to 1983;
2)the number of vehicles in the Fairbanks area has increased at a rate of
approximately 10 per cent per year since 1973.
Reasons for the decrease in carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons include:design
changes in the gasoline engine (improved carburetion,smaller displacements,and
increased combustion efficiency);addition of emission controls that both improve
fuel/air mixtures and increase oxidation of combustion products.
In addition,a comparison of VEAP population samples was made with vehicle
registration information,in order to illustrate the similarity of the samples to
the overall Fairbanks area vehicle population.Proceeding from the assumption
that VEAP samples are representative of the Fairbanks area vehicle population,
failure rate curves were generated,based on carbon monoxide emitted at idle
versus model year group,vehicle type and engine size.
This report deals almost exclusively with data,results and conclusions
based on vehicles with warm engines being tested while unloaded.Any conclusion
referencing cold engine and/or loaded engine conditions is made on a subjective basis.
135
Coutts,H.J.,L.E.Leonard,K.W.MacKenzie Jr.,Cold Regions Automotive
Emissions,Dept.of Environmental Services,Fairbanks North Star
Borough,Geophysical Institute,University of Alaska,Arctic
Environmental Research Laboratory,U.S.Environmental Protection
Agency,August 1973.
ABSTRACT
In Fairbanks,Alaska,during February and March 1973,the emissions
of 631 vehicles wre analyzed at idle and a~ustments were made to reduce
CO and HC emitted.It was found that proper a~ustment of in-use vehicles
could result in approximately 34%reduction in CO and a 12%reduction in
HC produced at idle.Emission levels of propane and gasoline and diesel
fueled vehicles were measured and compared.'Various pollution control
devices are discussed and considered for cold weather use and conclusions
are drawn.Ice Fog is considered as it relates to CO emission control.
Coutts,Harold J.,Automotive Cold-Start Carbon Monoxide Emissions and
Preheater Evaluation,Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory,
Office of Research and Development,U.S.Environmental Protection
Agency.
ABS'I'!ACT
Fairbanks and Anchorage,Alaska,experience high wincertime ambient
levels ofc:arbol1 1III:lnoxide (CO)•.Emissious from s1:arting au:omobile engine~
in cold weather are thought to be a major source .0£CO.This research
projct develope4 a quantitative procedure for deeermining seart-up CO
emissious.The start-up emissions were measured as a funceiol1 of soak
t:tme at several low ambiaut temperatures.The performance of eng"ine
preheaters in reciuc1ng the start-up CO ae the various soak.timesanci
·temperatures was estimated.
The data scatter was too great to draw any firm conclusions,however,
the following general statements can be made.. .
·The length of cold-soak time appeared to have a stronger effect
:~0I1 colci:stut CO emissious than ci1d soak.temperatures in the range of
:0 to -30 C.Compareci to 110 preheat,continuous preheat during an .
:ove=ight cold-soak would reduce the cold-start CO emission by 20 to
;90%•.
i·.I This report was submitted in fulfillment of Interagency Agreement
:EPlr-79-D-F0847 by Alaskan Projects Office-U.S.A:rmy Cold Regions Research
,and Eng1neer1ng Laboratory uucier the sponsorship of the U.S.Environ-
·mental ProtectiOl1 Agency.This report covers a period from October 1979
t~.~ch.19~.O!...:"or~w~.C:":IIIpll'!.ted as of March 198.0.
136
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Coutts,H.J.,The 1978 Fairbanks Voluntary Motor Vehicle Emission Inspection
Program,Technical Report submitted to Fairbanks North Star Borough,
1979.
ABSTRACT
Fairbanks.Alaska has the distinction of suffering from air pollution
although it is located in a relatively under populated and pristine
state.The Fairbanks air pollution problem consists of three major
components.They are carbon monoxide (CO)ice fog and particulates.
Mobile sources (cars and trucks)are major contributors of these
and other pollutants.The other air pollutants are nitrogen oxides
and lead (Pb)(1).Pbs a particulate.is the major particulate that is
emitted from vehicles using leaded gasoline.
In Fairbanks CO and particulates (Pb and others)are the only
pollutants exced1ng the U.S.EPA health effects standards.Time will
take care of the Pb problemas leaded gasoline is slowly phased out.
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Coutts Harold J.,Automotive Cold-Start Carbon Monoxide Emission~and PreheaterE~aluation Special Report 81-32,U.S.Environmental Protectlon Agency,
U.S.Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,December 1981.
ABSTRACT
Fairbanks and Anchorage,Alaska,experience high wintertime ambient levels of
carbon monoxide (CO).Emissions from starting automobile engines in cold
weather are thought to be a major source of CO.A quantitative procedure for
determining startup CO emissions was developed.The startup emissions were
measured as a function of soak time at several low ambient temperatures.The
performance of engine preheaters in reducing the startup CO at the various
soak times and temperatures was estioated.The data scatter was too great to
draw any firm conclusions;however,the length of cold-soak time appeared to
have a stronger effect on cold-start CO emissions than did soak temperatures
(0 to -30°C).Compared to no preheat,continuous preheat during an overnight
cold soak can reduce the cold-start CO emissions by 20 to 90%.
137
Coutts~H.J.~Low Temperature Automotive Emissions and Inspection and
Maintenance Effectiveness~Final Report prepared for State of
Alaska~Department of Environmental Conservation~August 1983.
ABSTRACT
The Anchorage and Fairbanks areas often experience wintertime
ambient carbon monoxide levels that exceed the EPA Health Effects Standards.
Previous research has indicated that the problem is mainly caused by
exhaust emissions from automobile cold starts.This research was conducted
without the use of costly emissions testing equipment specified by the
Federal Test Procedures.
In the Sllri ng of 19B1 the Al aska Department of Envi ronmental
Conservation o~tained a Mobile Emissions Testing Facility from the EPA's
Ann Arbor laboratories and modified it to operate at low temperatures.
During the winter of 1981-82 14 light-duty.in-use vehicles were tested
at 0°.20°.30°and 70°F using the Federal Test Procedure.Goals of the
tests were 1)to determine the potential effectives of an Inspection and
Maintenance program at low temperatures and 2)to obtain low temperature
emission factors.
For the 11 vehicles in the 11M program.tuneups accomplished with
the use of exhaust gas analyzers were found to be effective in reducing
CO emissions at all test temperatures.In fact.for the vehicles tested.
maintenance yielded about the same percentage CO reduction at 20_30°F as
it did at 70°F.Maintenance was also shown to have a similar positive
effect on fuel economy at 20-30°F as at 70°F.The data also confirmed
previous research showing that low temperatures dramatically increase the
cold-start CO emissions.The CO emitted during 20-30°F cold starts (the
first 8.4 minutes of engine operation)average 11 to 20 times greater than
that from cold start at 70°F.Continuous exhaust sampling during the 2-
mi nute warmup peri ods at i dl e was conducted to estab11 sh choke curves for
some of the vehicles.At the 30-SOoF range the chokes did not completely
open during the 2-minute warmup period.
Coutts,H.J.,Low Temperature Automatic Emmissions and Inspection and Maintenance
Effectiveness~U.S.Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory~
72 Lyme Road~Hanover,New Hampshire 03755,Final Report~October 1983.
ABSTRACT
Fourteen late modei vehicles were tested under a
variety of conditions in order to determine the effect on
carbon ·monoxide (CO)emissions and fuel economy of three
factors:
(1)Extended idli~g times when vehicles are first
started in the morning.
(2).Changes in ambient temperature from OOF to
70 OF.
(3)Tune-ups for vehicles which fail a warm idle
emissions test,such as would be administered
during an inspection and maintenance program.
The first two factors are believed to play a role in
the carbon monoxide air quality problems experienced in
Anchorage and Fairbanks,Alaska~The third factor is one
potential approach for addressinq the CO problem.
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Coutts,H.J.,1983.Low temperature automotive emissions.Alaska Dept.of
Environmental Conservation,Report No.AK-AP-83-1 Vol.1 and Vol.2.Winter
1981-1982.
ABSTRACT
Fourteen late model vehicles were tested under a variety of conditions in
order to determine the effect on carbon monoxide (CO)emissions and fuel economy
of three factors:
(l)Extended i dl i ng times when vehi cl es are fi rst started in the morni ng.
(2)Changes in ambient temperature from O°F to 70°F.
(3)Tune-ups for vehicles which fail a warm idle emissions test,such as
would be administered during an inspection and maintenance program.
The first two factors are believed to playa role in the carbon monoxide air
quality problems experienced in Anchorage and Fairbanks,Alaska.The third factor
is one potential approach for addressing the CO problem.
The results of the test program support the following main conclusions:
(l)For driving trips longer than about 3-1/2 miles,extended idling during
warm-up does not affect trip average CO emission levels.For shorter trips,
extended idle times could increase trip average CO emission levels beyond what
they would be if the vehicles were started and immediately driven.
(2)Extended idles associated with short trips (less than 3-1/2 miles)can
reduce gas mileage by 10-25%.However,with average trips longer than about
7-1/2 miles,no significant fuel economy loss is associated with 2-6 minutes
extending idling after a cold start.
(3)Carbon monoxide emissions and fuel consumption increase significantly,
as ambient temperature decreases from 70°F to O°F.The grams per mile increase
in emissions appears to be about the same regardless of a vehicle's warm temperature
emission level.Fuel consumption increases by up to 60%at cold temperatures
during short trips.Most of the increase in emissions and fuel consumption occurs
during the first 3-1/2 miles of driving after a cold start.
(4)Tune-ups for vehicles which fail a warm idle inspection test appear to
achieve approximately the same percentage reduction in carbon monoxide emissions
at cold temperatures as at warm temperatures.However,the sample of vehicles
repaired was limited,and the extent of the repairs appears to have been broader
than normally occurs in an inspection and maintenance program.
(5)Tune-ups result in greater increases in fuel economy at cold temperatures
than at warm temperatures.Fuel economy improved by 6-16%at cold temperatures
after repairs,but only by 1/2 to 3-1/2%at 70°F.
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Coutts,H.J.,and Peacock,J.,An Evaluation of Automotive CO Emission Control
Techniques at Low Temperatures,Coutts Engineering Limited,Esther,Alaska,
and Technical Resources,Fairbanks,Alaska,Final Report,October 1983.
ABSTRACT
Tune-ups were found to be effective in reducing CO emission at 20F.However,
the minimal tune-ups conducted during the second winter were not as effective as
the complete tune-ups in the first winter's testing program.Only the second
winter's program had medium duty trucks and tune-ups on these vehicles were not
as effective as those on cars.
All retrofit devices did reduce the cold start CO emission.Compared to
gasoline,gasohol was able to reduce the cold start CO,but it was not effective
as the retrofit devices.
Eccleston,B.H.,and R.W.Hurn,Ambient Temperature and Trip Length--Influence on
Automotive Fuel Economy and Emissions,U.S.Dept.of Enerqy &Bartlesville
Ene~gy Research Center,Bartl esvill e,Okl ahoma 74003,SAE Technical Paper
Serles 780613,1978.
ABSTRACT
Experimental work was done to examine the interrelationships among automotive fuei
economy,ambient temperature,cold-start trip length,and drive-train component temperatures
of four 1977 vehicles.Fuel economy,exhaust emissions,and drive-train temperatures were
measured at temperatures of 20,45,70,and 100 0 F using the 1975 Federal test procedure
and the Environmental Protection Agency's nighway fuel economy test.Results showed that
vehicles used for short cold-start trips consume fuel at a much greater av~rage rate than
during long trips,and the effect is magnified with decreasing ambient temperature.
139
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Frizzera,A.,Vehicle Emission Analysis Program,for Environmental Services,
Fai rbanks North Star Borough,.Fai rbanks,Al aska,1978.
ABSTRACT
Details of test program and results.The test of 1,242 vehicles showed
that only 41%passed (specified CO and hydrocarbon levels).
Gilmore,Timothy M.,Acceptability Survey for Cold Start Automobile Emissions
Study,Report prepared for the Fairbanks North Star Borough,1978.
ABSTRACT
The .following report contains the results of a
public opinion survey on automobile engine
heating in the Fairbanks area.The primary pur-
pose of the study was to determine the average
person's auto usage habits:how often,at what
temperature,for how long,where,and what
type of engine heating devices are used.Ques-
tions were also framed to determine how often
and in what places people start their automobiles
in Fairbanks.
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Hoy1es,Michael R.,An Empirical Approach to Modeling Low Temperature Carbon
Monoxide Emissions,November 1980.
ABSTRACT
r;;'\.C~..
In Anchorage and Fairbanks,violations of the carbon monoxide (C)standards
occur only in winter with the motor vehicle accounting for approximately 85%of
the total emissions.Since CO emissions from this source are known to increase
as ambient temperature decreases,it would follow that higher emissions are the
main cause.There is reason,however,to doubt it's as simple as that.The
increase in emissions with decreasing temperature simply cannot account for the C
overall increase in concentration.This anomaly J11a.Y be due to erroneous emission
factors,as yet unquantified meteorological effects or a combination.
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Hoy1es,M.R.,and T.E.Moyer,The Facts of Cold Cold Temperature Effects on Carbon
Monoxide Emissions from Vehicles,Alaska Division,American Association for
the Advancement of Science,Fairbanks,Alaska,September 1979.
ABSTRACT
This paper is an up-to-date review and evaiuation of research
on the effects of cold temperatures on vehicle emissions,
specifically concentrating on carbon monoxide.Although estimates
of total CO emissions during a "typical"vehicle trip differ,all
researchers agree that the percentage is consistantly very high.
It is mainly during the first 4 to 8 minutes of operation after
a cold start,when-an engine is operated in choked condition,that
the bulk of the CO emissions are produced.This predominance masks
emissions from warmed vehicles in motion.
The significance of this effect is discussed in terms of short-
Comings of both analytical planning tools and control stratagies
for attainment of CO ambient standards.Ways to mitigate the
effect will include discussion of alternate technology such as
Honda CVCC engines,engine:pre-heaters,tuneups,and establish-
ment of cold weather standards and test criteria.This phenomenon
not only affects Alaska but has national significance.Future
research needs are also pointed out.
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Hoyles,M.R.,and T.E.Moyer,A Comparison of Emissions from Gasohol and Gasoline at
Low Ambient Temperatures,State of Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation,June 1980.
ABSTRACT
The primary ob.iective of this study was to determine the achievable reductions
in carbon monoxide exhaust emissions through the use of gasohol,under cold start
conditions.In addition,fuel consumption was compared between gasohol ann gasoline.
Hoyles,Michael R.and Thomas E.Moyer,The Significance of Engine Warm-up
time on Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Motor Vehicles,Presented at the
PNWIS-APCA Conference,Spokane,Washington,November 1981.
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to illustrate the necessity and signifi-
cance of modifying the methods used to model carbon monoxide (CO)emissions
from motor vehicles.Low ambient temperatures in.Alaskan cities dictate
this revision,however,this methodology also applies to more tempera te
regions.Three test cases will be used for illustrative purposes.The
effectiveness of some transportation control strategies in light of
these modifications will also be discussed.
142
Koehler,D.L,Cold Temperature Emission Factors,Bartlesville Energy Center,
U.S.Department of Energy,Bartlesville,Oklahoma,1980.
ABSTRACT
The objectives of this study are to determine emission rates during the
stationary and mobile modes of vehicle operation for different length idle periods
prior to proceeding into the FTP,conducted at 20°F,then to develop,for modeling
purposes,cold-start CO emission rates compatible with EPA Mobilel emission
factor format.Ancillary objectives include fuel economy results,documentatio
of choke behavior,and hydrocarbon (HC)and nitroqen oxides (NOx)data collection.
143
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Kailing,S.H.,P.E.,Evaluation of an Autotherm Energy Conservation
System,Final Report for State of Alaska,Department of Transportation
and Public Facilities,Division of Planning and Programming,Research
Section,.July 1982.
ABSTRACT
In early 1981,Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOTPF)
was approached by Alaska Department of Envi ronmental Conservati on (ADEC)
regardi ng eval uati on of the AUTOTHERM Energy Conservati on System because
of its potential for reducing vehicle emissions and saving energy.ADEC
had been in contact with-representatives of AUTOTHERM,Inc.in Barrington,
Ill;no;s,and seven sample systems were supp 1i ed to DOTPF Research in
.Fairbanks for testing purposes.
Additional test systems went to ADEC in Juneau and the Alaska State
Troopers in Anchorage.This report covers only those systems evaluated by
DOTPF in Fairbanks.
Leonard,L.E.,Cold Start Automotive Emissions in Fairbanks,Alaska.
Interim Report prepared for State of Alaska Department of Highways
and U.S.Department of Transportation,Feder'al Highway Administration,
1975.
ABSTRACT
Measur'ements of the col d start and warm-up emi ssi ons of mor'e than
one hundr'ed in-use motor vehi cl es in the Fai rbanks area wer'e performed
during the winter of 1974-75.It was found that,for densely populated
areas of the city where large numbers of vehicles ar'e star'ted and allowed
to war'm up daily,the major portion of the carbon monoxide (CO)emitted
to the ambi ent f s produced duri ng the col d star't and war'm-up phase of
vehicle operation.In some areas the cold star't CO contribution could be
as much as 76%of the total.It was also found that none of the pollution
control devices pr'esently in common use were effective in r'educing the
cold start CO emissions.Thus,for the cold start phase of oper'ation the
01 der'vehi cl es wer'e not greater emi tters of CO than were the newer'vehi cl es.
This investigation also shows that the most effective way of r'educing
cold start emissions on a per vehicle basis is to utilize smaller engine
si ze,as evi denced by the si gni fi cantly lower'CO emi ssi ons pr'oduced
dur'i ng col d start by the forei gn vehi cl es tested when compar'ed to the
American vehicles.
144
Leonard,L.Eo,Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Moving Vehicles in Fairbanks,
Alaska Vol.3,Prepa red for State of A1 ask a Department of Hi ghways
in cooperation with U.S.Department of Transportation,Federal
Highway Administration,UAG R-252,Geophysical Institute,University
of Alaska,August 1977.
ABSTRACT
I.This report is the third and final volum~in a series constituting the
If1nal report on a research project which has investigated carbon monoxide
/(CO)emissions from motor vehicles in Fairbanks,Alaska.This volume(Vo~.3)presen~s t~e findings of that part of the study dealing with
vehlcles operat1ng 1n the moving mode ..Two investigations were performed:
1...Driving.c~cles.were developed which are representative of actual
dr1v1ng cond1t10ns 1n the urban area of Fairbanks.Development of two
cycles was necessary to demonstrate the effect of traffic control
strategies implemented during the summer of 1975.Therefore.the cycles
presented here describe traffic conditions both before and after im-
plementation of the new controls,with accompanying qualitative discussion
of the effect on CO emissions.In an effort to retain consistency and
ease comparison,the cycles developed here were modeled after the CVS-3
cycle used in the Federal Test Procedure.
2.CO e~issions from in:use vehicles operating in the moving mode were
measured 1n order to prov1dequantitative modal emission data for use in
conjunction with the driVing cycles.Quantitative emissions data for the
/
steady-state mode of operation are presented;however.limitation in the
res~onse time of the CO ana~yzer used in testing precluded acquisition o.f
re11ab~e data for the trans1ent (Acceleration and Deceleration)mode of
loperat10n.
Leonard,L.E.,T.Scarborough and H.Black,Evaluation of automotive engine
preheaters as a technique to control cold start carbon monoxide
emissions,Scarborough &Associates,September 1978.
ABSTRACT
In an effort to gain a better understanding of the factors affecting
ambient carbon monoxide (CO)pollution in the Fairbanks area.a research
project was undertaken aimed at evaluating vari~us techniques to control
cold start CO emissions from.automobiles.Test1ng ~as perform~d outdoors
using in-use vehicles of var10US types and ages dur1ng the per10d of
February through March,1978 at Fairbanks,Alaska.The work was carried
out in three phases:
I.Vehicle selection phase,where warm idle and cold start CO
emissions were measured to gather baseline data.
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II.
III.
Environmental phase.where data were gathered to define the
parametric relationship of environmental factors (cold soak
time and ambient temperature)affecting the mass of CO produced
during cold start.
Evaluation phase.where four types of engine pre heaters (electric
immersion heaters,electric thermo-siphons.waste heat storage
units,and automatic engine starters)were evaluated for their
effectiveness as cold start CO emission control devices.
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Marshall,W.F.,B.H.Eccleston,Emissions at Off-Ambient Temperatures Dept of
Energy,Bartlesville,Oklahoma,SAE Technical Paper Series 8005;2,1980.
ABSTRACT
Data on exhaust emissions were obtained from a group of 1970 model-year
vehicles operating over a range of ambient temperatures.The work is providing
a baseline against which current-production vehicles can be compared,thus
enabling a more complete assessment of automotive emissions reduction achieve-
ments.
The vehicle fleet represented the 1970 model-year nationwide mix.The 25
cars were tested at 25°,50°,75°,and 100°F over the Environmental Protection
Agency urban Federal test procedure,highway fuel economy test,and New York
City driving cycles.
Both temperature and driving cycle were found to have significant effects
on exhaust emissions.The conditions which yielded the greatest adverse
effects on emissions were:1)low temperature--urban driving cycle,and 21
high temperature--New York City driving cycle.!The data also indicate that
the use of air conditioners causes increased emission levels.
146
McMullen,Vehicle Emission Analysis Program~Report for Fairbanks North Star ~C
Borough,17 pp.,AEIDC Reprint 00745.19~1.~
ABSTRACT
In 1981 the ~airbanks North Star Borough (Borough)operated its
Vehicle Emissions Analysis Program (VEAP)as a continuing effort both to
~btain data on i;-service-emissions of vehicles in Fairbanks,and to
educate the pUblic on the benefits of tuning for.low emissions and fuel
economy.
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McMullen.K.,Vehicle Emissions Analysis Program,Report for Fairbanks North St§)C
Borough,21 pp •.,AEIDC Reprint 00748,1982.
.,.
ABSTRACT
c
In 1982 the Fairbanks North Star Borough (Borough)operated its
yehfcle ~missions ~alysis ~rogram (VEAP)Sept.7.thru Oct.29,as a con-
tinuing effort both to obtain data on in-service emissions of vehicles in
Fairbanks,and to educate the public on the benefits of tuning for low
emissions and fuel economy.
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Olle,Odsell,Influence of Ambient Temperature and Cold Start on Automobile Fuel
Consumption,VTI RAPPORT,Natioonal Road &Traffic Research Institute,S-
58101 Linkoping,Sweden,1981.
ABSTRACT
Ambient temperature has a significant influence on automobile fuel consumption,
both with warmed-up car and during cold start.As a great percentage of all
trips made by car covers less than 8-10 km,the cold start fuel consumption is of
vital importance for the car owner.However,car manufacturers have during recent
years concentrated on lowering the fuel consumption during standardized driving
cycles,like CVS,HOC,and ECE.These cycles do not take into account cold start
or driving at low temperatures,and therefore there is still a lot to be done in
this field.
The report describes how ambient temperature affects fuel consumption with
warmed-up car and durinCJ cold start.A formula is presented,that can be used
for estimates of the fuel consumption as a function of ambient temperature and
trip length after cold start.Finally some possibilities of reducing the cold
start fuel consumption are presented.
Ostrouchov,Nicolas,Effect of Cold Weather on Motor Vehicle Emissions
and Fuel Economy,Society of Automotive Engineers Technical Paper
Series,1978.
ABSTRACT
The effect of soaking temperature on
exhaust emissions has been studied using a
variety of automobiles representing three
different emission control levels and testing
them at ambients of 20°C down to _30 oC(60 oFoto-22 F).
It was found that emissions of the three
gaseous pollutants demonstrated a mild power
relationship with ambient (soaking)temper-
atures.All regulated pollutants and fuel
consumption were higher at _30°C than at
20°C:hydrocarbons (HC)-3.5 to 9.2 times;
carbon monoxide (CO)-2.4 to 6.4 times;
148
oxides of nitrogen (NO)-only 1.1 to 1.4
times;and fuel consum~tion 1.2 to 1.8 times
higher.Analysis of the data has indicated
that HC and CO emissions from the cold start
phase of the Federal test were the most
sensitive to soaking temperature.With NO
emissions the soaking temperature sensitivtty
was fairly constant throughout the three
phases of the Federal test.
The data also indicate that the temper-
ature sensitivity of both fuel economy and.
to a lesser extent.emissions is a function
of inertia weight.
Ostrouchov,Nicolas,Effect of Cold Weather on Motor Vehicle Emissions
and Fuel Consumpti on -II,SAE Techni cal Paper Series,1979.
ABSTRACT
The effect of soaking temperature on .
exhaust emissions and fuel consumption was
investigated using a variety of automobiles
representing different emission control levels
including diesel engine powered vehicles.
Tests were performed at soaking and ambient
temperatures of 20 0 C down to -200 e (6S oF to
_4 0 F).
It was found that emissions and fuel
consumption are dependent on soaking tempera-
ture.Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emis-o 0sionswerehigherat-20 C than at 20 C:
hydrocarbon (HC),1 to 4 times;carbon
monoxide (CO),lover 3 times.The smallest
increase of 1 to 1.04 time belonged to vehi-
cles equipped with diesel engines.Nitrogen
oxides (NO )emissions were higher or lower
at -20°C d~an at 20 0 C depending on emission
control technologies -0.75 to 1.11 times.
Analysis of the data has indicated that HC
and co emissions from the cold start phase
of the Federal test were the most sensitive
to soaking temperature.With NO emissionsx .
the soaking temperature sensitivity was fairly
constant throughout the three phases of the
test.
It appears that temperature sensitivity
of fuel consumption in vehicles equippped with
diesel engines and lean burn gasoline engines
is considerably lower in comparison to the
vehicles equipped with other control techno-
logies,and is higher at _20 0 C than at 20°C:
for diesel engines and lean burn -1.15 times;
for other vehicles -1.55 times.The data also
indicate that the temperature sensitivity of
fuel consumption is a function of inertia
weight.
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Ostrouchov,N.,Vehicle Emissions and Fuel Consumption fn Canadian Wintr~mperatur~s,For Presentation at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the er
lr Pollutlon Control Association,Montreal,Quebec,June 1980.
ABSTRACT
.Over-t!1e winter-per-iods since 1972 Envir-onment Canada
englneer-s,In co-oper-ation with vehicle manufactur-er-s and the
U.S.EPA,have investigated and r-epor"ted on the effect of low
temper-atur-e on motor vehicle emissions (CVS-CH)and fuel C9n-
sumpt Ion for-a var-i ety of pr-e-cont rol car-s and car-s wi th
cur-rent and advanced emission contr-ol systems:1972/73 - 5
cars~197517~13 cars,1978/79 - 9 car-so In 1979/80
studies ~ont Inued including 3 new advanced technol.ogy cars
and st.udles on the effect of using a block heater.The
objectives of this paper are to summarize and discuss the
~o'!;t interesting r-esults of the studies and to draw the
Important conclusions from the research to date.
149
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Ostrouchov,N.,and J.Polak,Automobile Emissions and Fuel Economy at
Low Ambient Temperatures,Technology Development Report EPS 4-AP-78-1,
Fisheries and Environment Canada,Environmental Protection Service,
Air Pollution Control Directorate,August 1978.
ABSTRACT
.
In January 1975,the Emission Testing Laboratory of the Air Pollution
Control Directorate,Environment Canada initiated a second program to investi-
gate further the effect of cold ambient temperature on exhaust emissions and
fuel consumption.The effect has been studied using a variety of automobiles
representing three different emission control levels and testing them at ambients
of 30°C down to -30°C.
It was found that emissions of the three gaseious pollutants demonstrated
a mila power relationship with ambient (soaking)temperatures.All regulated
pollutants and fuel consumption were higher at -30°C than at 20°C:hydrocarbons
(HC)-3.5 to 9.2 times;carbon monoxide (CO)-2.4 to 6.4 times,oxides of
nitrogen (NO x ) -only 1.1 to 1.4 times;and fuel consumption 1.2 to 1.8
times higher.Analysis of the data has indicated that HC and CO emissions
from the cold start phase of the Federal test were the most sensitive to soaking
temperature.With NO x emissions the soaking temperature sensitivity was
fairly constant throughout the three phases of the Federal test.
The data also indicate that the temperature sensitivity of both fuel
economy and,to a lesser extent,emissions is a function of intertia weight.
Sierra Research~Automotive Retrofit Devices for Improving Cold Weather Emissions
and Fuel Economy,Report prepared for U.S.Army Cold Reqions Research &
Engineerinq Laboratory,1982.
ABSTRACT
Th"!r"!are several prorlucts ~/hi ch hav"!the potenti al to r"!rluce carhon 1110noxi rle
(CO)emissions anti fuel consumption in co1ti temperatures,anrl which have previously
not !'leen e'lal uaterl by the U.S.Army Col d Re9i ons Research anrl En9i nee";n9 Lahoratory
(CRREL ).
Monolithic replacement catalysts and the Dresser EconoMizer intake manifolrl
qaskets are estimaterl to he capable of reducinQ cn emissions durinq low temperature
rlriving conrlitions by aoproxil"1ately 25%.Although Monolithic replacement catalysts
will not eFF"!ct fu"!l economy,the Economizer Ilask"!ts l"1ay improve fllel econol'ly by
5%to lOt.
Greater CO control could probably be achieved through the-use of two rlevices
currF'ntly produced or under rleve10pment for use in a limit!!rl nwqher of ne·.t
vehicles.These rlevices,start catalysts and electric intake manifolrl neaters,
coulrl be marketerl as retrofit rlevices with minimal desion changes.they offer
th"!potential for reducing cold start CO emissions hy more than 50~.
Two other prorlllcts offer limiterl potential to provide CO anrl fuel consurlPtion
reductions at relatively low cost.One of these products is ARCO Graphite rlotor
oil.
The other product that oFfers SOf'lP.potenti .3l for rf'rlucinCl low te"lnerature CO
eMissions is a rlevice for remotely adiustina snark timinn.
Each of the six products rliscussed ahovf'is recommennerl for evaluation by ~RREL.
150
Sierra Research,Memo Report:
and Maintenance Programs
GEstimatedEmissionsBenefitsofVehicleInspection
in Alaska,JUly 1983.
ABSTRACT
The results of our analysis lead us to three major conclusions:(
(1)At tempera-tures below 30°C.,the proper identification and repair of
the 25%of the Alaskan vehicle population with the highest idle CO emissions is
estimated to reduce fleet average carbon monoxide emissions by 5-15%during the
first year of an liM program,depending on trip length.During the first few
miles of driving after a cold start,the emissions reductions are only approximately C
one-third the levels associated with longer trips and a mixture of cold and hot starts.
(2)The emissions reductions due to liM repairs are not affected by the
length of time a vehicle is left idling after a cold start.
(3)A simple idle emissions test will identify many vehicles with high cold-
start,cold temperature emissions.However,underhood inspections and functional
checks are necessary to identify more cars wi th emi ssi on probl ems,and to gui tie C
mechanics in the proper repair of failed vehicles.
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Sierra Research,Memo Report:The Potential for Reducing Cold Weather CO
Emissions with Gasohol,March 1983.
ABSTRACT
Alcohol-gasoline blends,such as Gasohol,have
demonstrated the ability to reduce cold weather CO emissions
by about 15-20%during limited testing that has been
performed.However,Gasohol degrades cold weather
driveability and reduoes the reliability and durability of
many vehicles.
The driveability degradation may result in drivers
using extended idle periods.This would offset the CO
emissions benefit observed under laboratory tests during
which vehicles were idled for an identical period of time
with a~d without Gasohol.Also,.since driveability problema
often ~nduce owners to seek repa~r and adjustment of their
vehicles,the laboratory test benefits of Gasohol are likely
to be further offset by the readjustment of chokes and idle
air/fuel ratio that would be done in an attempt to correct
driveability problems.The net wreal world w effect of a
switch to Gasohol is therefore difficult to forecast.It
will likely be less than the benefit measured during
laboratory tests.
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Sierra Research,Proposed Emission Cutpoints for the Anchorage Inspection
and Maintenance Program,prepared for Municipality of Anchorage,
Department of Planning,June 1983.
ABSTRACT
Based on an analysis of data from existing Inspection
and Maintenance (liM)programs in other cities,cutpoints
have been developed for possible use in an IIM program for
the municipality of Anchorage.The proposed cutpoints have
been designed to achieve a "stringency factor"of 30%.In
other words,about 30%of the vehicles,those with the
highest emissions,will initially fail an emission test
under the cutpoints which have been proposed.If the
emission reductions associated with the repair of failed
vehicles last for more than one year,or if the presence of
tqe liM program induces vehicle owners to have more frequent
tuneups,then the failure rate will be lower.
Spindt,R.S.,and F.Peter Hutchins,The Effect of Ambient Temperature
Variation on Emissions and Fuel Economy --An Interim Report,SAE
Technical Paper Series,1979.
ABSTRACT
This paper summarizes the emission and
fuel economy data obtained when ten dissimilar
cars were run using the 75 Federal Test and the
Highway Fuel Economy Test Procedures.The soak
and test temperatures used for the modified
standard procedures varied from 0 to IIO°F.
The influence of the cars'air conditioners
was also determined.
The purpose of the program was to deter-
mine how well the emissiun control equipment
designed to be effective at normal FTP test
temperatures would work at temperatures ranging
between 0 to IIGoF.
152
Stone R.K.and B.H.Eccleston,Vehicle Emissions vs.Fuel Composition API-Bureau~f Mines--Part II,Chevron Research Company,Richmond,California &U.S.
Bureau of Mines,Bartlesville,Oklahoma,American Petroleum Reprint No.41-
69,1969.(
ABSTRACT
The API and the U.S.Bureau ot MInes cooperatIvely have
studIed the Influence of fue.l volatility and tront-end olefIn
on vehlcu~ar exhaust andtuel system emIssions.ExperImental
work was done wIth slxte~n 1966 and 1968 model vehIcles among
whIch there were broad differences In engIne size,vehicle
weight,and fuel systems.Six dIfferent gasollnes were tested.
Both exhaust and evaporative emissions,Including hot soak
losses,were measured in operating the .vehicles on an al'-
weather chassis dynamometer to simulate city driving at tour
temperatures ranging trom 20-95°F.Additional to the measure-
ment of hydrocarbon concentratIon arid composition,photochemical
behavior of the emissIons was studied using a laboratory photo-
Irradiation (s~og'chamber.
Results showed that volatility reduction reduced both the
quantitative total of exhaust and evaporative losses and the
photochemical effect from these emlsslo~s.Replacing the olef;n
In the front end of the fuel wIth no change In volatility did
not change the quantity of total hy,drocarbon emissIons but dId
reduce the photochemical effect of these emissions.The reduction
In photochemical effect by oletln replacement was greater than
the reduction from lowering fuel volatility to the lowest level
considered In thIs stUdy.
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Taylor,G.W.,Winter Testing of Automobile Idle Exhaust Emissions in
Edmonton,A~berta,Surveillance Report EPS 5-AP-73-14,Environment
Canada,Envlronmental Protection,September 1973.
ABSTRACT
The data presented in this report are the result 0;a six month a~omobile idle
emissi?n testing prog~m carried out by the Alberta Motor Association under contract with
Environment Canada Tests wereperfo mec!.•.•r on over 3500 vehicles and emission distribution
graphs were prepared from thti results of 2300 of those tested.
A seven car control fleet was ~Iso operated to assess any influence that cold am-
bient temperatures might have on idle emission conc:entratior,o,The results indicated that
because of fluctuations in the vehicles'state of tu.ne and warm-up times,it.was not possible to
isolate any apparent effect of ambient temperature on idle emission levels Ho"--th .•"~'''',e engIne
temperature was postulated to be the primary idle emission-related parameter,with ambient
temperature having only nominalinfluenc:e.For this reason,it is recommended that any vehicle
inspection program.ensure that cars being tested are fUlly warmed up by setting minimum
pre-test operating times.
The results produced are believed to give a reliable indication of the idle COJ1o
centrations of emissions from cars in Alberta·however because the I.' ,samp e was not wholly
representative there may be slight biasing of the tOtal vehicle population results towards lower
emission levels.
The program further indicated that it is feasible to operate a mobile idle emission
testing unit all ·year round without fear of inaccuracy of measurement or exc:issive program
down time.•
Turner,R.K.,and H.J.Coutts,Fairbanks,Alaska Autmotive Retrofit Evaluation
Study,U.S.Environmental Protection Aqency,Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory,Arctic Environmental Research Station,College,Alaska 99701,
Working Paper No.29,CERL-004,December 1975.
ABSTRACT
During the winter of 1974-1975.automotive retrofit pollution control
devices were installed on 18 domestic in-service automobiles to evaluate
their winter performance for carbon monoxide emi.ssion reduction,drive-
ability and fuel economy_The retrofit devices were (1)air bleed to
intake manifold,(2)exhaust gas recirculation plus air bleed,and (3)
catalytic converters.The emissions were measured at idle and at 2500
no-load rpm.
The air bleed devices initially functioned on 8 out of 11 installations.
For the 8-month study,the overall carbon monoxide reduction was 44 percent.
Fuel economy increased 2 to 3 percent.The exhaust gas recirculation plus
air bleed devices were successful on 3 out of 4 installations.A 30 percent
overall reduction in carbon monoxide was attained.Fuel economy increased
about 1 percent••The average carbon monoxide reduction for catalytic con-
ver.ters was 62 percent.These devices worked on all four test vehicles.
Fuel economy was not expected to be affected.
Conclusions indicate that,technically,the retrofits work,but the
practicality of a mandatory retrofit program for the Fairbanks area is in
question.
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Verrelli,L.D.and T.E.Moyer,Cold Start Automobile Emission and Inspection/Maintenance
Effectiveness,Department of Environmental Conservation,State of Alaska,
Fairbanks,Alaska,Air Pollution Control Association,Pacific Northwest
International Section,Vancouver,British Columbia,November 1982.
ABSTRACT
This paper is about cold climate automobile emissions.their causes.effects.remedies and
difficulties in characterizing.Greatest emphasis is placed on discussing the effectiveness of
inspection aud maintenance on reducing emissions generated during a cold start.as determined in the
Mobile Emission Test Facility (METFac).a unique automotive testing laboratory.Modifications made to
the standard testing procedure are detailed as are modifications III&de to the test equipment itself for
c01llpatibil1ty with the low test temperature and 29 0 F.
A brief discussion on the dynamics of cold scarts will be included as background to previous cold
temperature work that has led up to this program.Row the data will be used 1s detailed.especially
in the context of S~submittals.Importantly,proposals for long term solutions are idealized as
they pertain co the Clear Air Act Amendments and/or possible changes in EPA administrative practices.
Plans for winter 1982-83 research are outlined to build on the data base and investigate alternative
cold stArt control methods.
Voelz,F.L.,Fairbanks Alaska -1974 Motor Vehicle Emissions Inspection Results,
Atlantic Richfield Company,June 1976.
ABSTRACT
During the period October 15 -November 9,1974,the Environmental Services
Department of Fairbanks,North Star Borough Alaska conducted a public vehicle
exhaust emissions testing program.Tailpipe hydrocarbon (HC)and carbon monoxide
(CO)emissions were measured for each vehicle inspected at no load engine speeds
of idle and 2500 RPM.Approximately 500 vehicles participated in the program with
24%of those tested being imports.Testing was conducted in one shopping center
parking lot located in the CBD.
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Other Fonns of Ai r Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics:
Wood smoke
Pollen
Dust
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Anderson J.H.,Aeropalynology Research in Alaska -Review and Outlook,Institute
of Arctic Bioogy,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska,Paper presented
at 34th Alaska Science Conference,Whitehorse,Yukon,1983.
ABSTRACT
Results mostly from.Juneau,Pa~1'lte!",and Fairbanks ara reviewed.
Six pollen.and spore calendars are presented showi."1g the seasonal course
of aeropalynological activity.Diurnal v9.!"iations in airborne pollen arrl
spores are illust:rated.A prototype standard pollen calendar for birch
in "Fairbanks is presented.Data from four years of sampling L"1 Fairbanks
are comparatively anal~ed to demonstI~te significant year-to-year varia-
tions in s1."'C as ropalynological.parameters.
Continuing research needs and possiblB directions ar~be~eiits are
mentioned at seve ral points,and plans fo:-tha 198h sample se';!son are
outlined.Sa.."Ttpli.'1g will be extended to ;,~~1itahorse in 1984 e'ren if only
a min~~al program can be sustained.
Chapple,T.,Juneau Mendenhall Valley Carbon Monoxide Study,Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation,Project Summary Report,January 21,1983 -March
14,1983.
ABSTRACT
High particulate matter pollution from residential wood burning activities
raised a concern for the potential existence of unhealthy exposures of carbon
monoxide as generated by both residential and vehicular activities.
A study was designed and implemented whereby eight temporary monitoring sites
(9 monitors)were established and operated for a selected a-hour evening period
of an eight week time span beginning mid-January 1983.Although exposures
were found to be generally of low magnitude due to above normal temperatures
and other controlling factors,two specific periods exhibited carbon monoxide
concentrations to a maximum of 6.5 parts per million.Highest values were
reported along major traffic corridors.However,corridor sites which were
also subject to a significant residential impact component yielded the maximum
values for the study period.
Residential impacts were found to be a major component and,for many areas,
the controlling factor.Control strategies being implemented to reduce parti-
culate emissions from residential wood burning devices Should also be successful
in maintaining carbon monoxide levels below the 9 part per million a-hour
ambient standard.
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Cooper,J.A.,and C.A.Frazier,Preliminary Source ApportionMent of Winter
Particulate Mass in Juneau,Alaska,Final Report,Vol.I,prepared for Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation,3220 Hospital Drive, Juneau,Alaska
99811,June 13,1983.
ABSTRACT
Thi 5 stuny usen chel11i cal mass bal ance(CMR}rpceptor model methods to tluanti-Fy
thp contributi on of resi denti al wood combusti on (RWC)emi ssi ons to the Juneau-
Mendenhall Villley.This method uses chemicalfinqerprints to identify each (!la,jor
source contribut'inq to suspenned particulate 1e·vp.ls.Tl1e lean <lnd broil'lin!",for
example,are commonly associaten with the automotive exhaust fingerprint clue to
the cOll1husti on of 1eaded qasol i 11e.On the other hand,al umi nUJll,sil icon,calci-
/Jill,titaniufll,fl'Ian(lanesp,iron,ptc,arp associaterl with crustal sources such as
road and Windblown rl/Jst,while fine particle or('anic carbon,potassium,anrl zinc
ilre associ<ltprl with a RWC finqernrint.
The results froJll this stucly clearly show that RWC sources contributed between
100 ancl 230 IIQ/fl'I3 of fine particulate Jll<lSS on colrl,calfl'l clays anrl are respon-
sible for he tween 40%anc1 90%of the TSP,dependinq mainly on the relative contri-
bution of crustal dust sources slJch as road and parkinq lot dust.The rlust con-
tributions \~ere much more variable ranging frofl'l less than detection limits to
over 300 119/111 ,c1epenc1inq mainly on qroun~conditions (dry,snow,or rain).
RWC impacts were highest at the Floyd Dryden site and lowest at the Municipal
Buildino site,while transportation source contributions were highest at the
Super Bear site.
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Joy,Richard and Pat Fisher,Ambient total suspended particulate (TSP)levels in
the vicinity of a dirt track raceway,Fairbanks North Star Borough
Environmental Services Department.
ABSTRACT
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Ambient particulate levels have been monitored near a dirt track raceway.
Weather conditions and track use are analyzed to determine the main
parameters influencing dust generation.
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Laroe,Steve,Fuel Wood Utilization in the Fairbanks North Star Borough,Interior
Wood Cutters Association,1982.
ABSTRACT
A total of 1148 questionnaires were sent in a random sample taken
from a total available universe of 17,840.Responses were received from
641 of these samples,with 526 of those containing useable replies.'From
these 526 replies,the conclusions stated in this report were drawn.The
standard deviation is 116.5 and the standard error for a significant
(19 out of 20)conclusion is 3.78 percentage points.This figure means
that each percentage stated in the report can .vary ±3.78 percentage points
and still be within two standard deviations from the mean and have a 95%
probability of being ac~~rate.
McCandless,Robert G.,Wood Smoke and Air Pollution at Whitehorse,Yukon
Territory,1981-1982.Environmental Protectio~Service,Regional
Program Report 82-16,December 1982.
ABS.TRACT
An ever~increasing number of homes in northern Canada rely on
wood stoves for heating,alone or in combination with oil furnaces or
electric heating.However,wintertime air conditions in the north are
particularly stable and conducive to air pollution.The Environmental
Protection Service,Yukon Branch,has responded to inquiries from the
public by monitoring air conditions in a neighbourhood of Whitehorse.
This report includes data from two winters'monitoring of total
suspended particulate matter from Riverdale.On those days which had
low temperatures in combination with calm or low wind conditions,
le'lels of suspended particulate matter exceeded national guide.lines.
Also,measured levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or PAH in
that particulate matter.at times exceeded those reported from monitor-
i ng surveys conducted in industri al ci ties.Since several of these
compounds are known to have carci nogenic properties,these level s are
of interest from an environmental health standpoint.This report
recommends action by government to inform the public about possible
health risks associated with air pollution from wood combustion,and
preventative techniques available to reduce this air pollution.
159
Residential Wood Combustion
NEA,Inc.,Quantification of Impact of Residential Wood Combusion.on Particulate
Concentrations in Whitehorse,Y.T.,Using Chemical Receptor Modelling
Techniques,Final Report prepared for Dept.of Environment,Ottawa.(NEA,
Inc.,10050 S.W.5th Street,Suite 380,Beaverton,Orego,97005,1983.
ABSTRACT
Four high-volume TSP filters have been analyzed for their radio-carbon
content and thirty dichotomous filters have been analyzed by x-ray flourescence.
The resulting ambient elemental profiles were interpreted by chemical mass balance
methods to determine the major sources responsible for the Riverdale (a suburb of
Whitehorse,Y.T.)winter haze.On the average,95%of the particulate material
was in the fi ne parti cl e fracti on,i.e.,"1 ess than 2.5 }..1m.The S,K,Br,and
Pb were predominantly in the fine fraction while the only element consistently
dominated by coarse particles was Ca.
The best estimate of the source contributions based on the current data are
as follows:
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Di sti 11 ate Oi 1
Transportation
Road Dust
<9.3%(11.40 }..Ig/m 3 )
1.1%(1.33 }..Ig/m 3 )
<0.3%«0.36 }..Ig/m 3 )
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SENES Consultants Ltd.,Pollution from Woodstoves in Riverdale,Yukon Territory.
499 McNicoll,Ave.-,Willowdale,Ontarior,Canada,M2H 2CG,1983.
ABSTRACT
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This report presents data analysis and interpretation of the effect of wood
stove emissions on air quality in Riverdale,Yukon during the 1982-1983 heating
season.The variables assessed included Total Suspended Particulates (TSP),
Total Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (Total PAH),Individual PAH,Carbon Monoxide
(C),Wind Speed,Sunshine,Vertical Potential Temperature Gradient (!:IT/!:lZ),
and Temperature Range over 25 hours (Tmax-Tmin).
The use of wood as a heating fuel in Riverdale has been increasing since
1980.This has lead to increased emissions of fine particulates and polyaromatic
hydrocarbons.Under poor dispersion conditions which are prevalent about half
the time in Riverdale during the wood burning season,pollutant levels become (
elevated.As a result,concentrations of TSP and PAH in Riverdale are amongst
the highest measured in Canada and the United States.Control measures such as
switching to an alternate fuel or to more efficient wood-burning equipment could
reduce pollutant concentrations to acceptable levels.
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Air Pollution Monitoring Efforts
The references in this section include the following topics:
Pollution surveillance,monitoring and surveys in
the cold regions
Air emission inventories
Air quality baseline studies
160
Ai r Poll ution Control Di rectorate Report,Nati ona1 ai r poll uti on surveil 1ance,
annual summary for 1978,Envi ronment Canada,Ai r Poll uti on Control 0;rectorate,
Ottawa,Canada,Report EPS S-AP78-26,September 1979,62 p.
ABSTRACT
Data on measured pollutants from a network of 63 stations in
54 cities across Canada from St.Johns.Newfoundland.to
Vancouver and Victoria.B.C .•and two stations in the Arctic
(Whitehorse.Y.T .•and Yellowknife.N.W.T.)are tabulated for
each month of 1978 and for the year.The elements measured
inclUde SO.SUB 2 .•CD.NO.SUB 2 ••O.SUB 3 .•and COH (the
soiling index);suspended particulates;lead;dustfall;
sulfationrate;and acombinatidn of SO.5UB2.and suspended
particulates.The methods of measuring or calculating
parameter units used In tables and methods of data
presentation are "described in French and English in the
introduction.Coordinates of stations and elements measured at
each are tabulated.and the locations are shown on a map of
Canada.The larger cities have many stations in various
locations for urban pollution studies:16 stations in
Montreal;14 in Toronto;12 in Edmonton;11 in Calgary;10 in
Winnipeg;seven in Vancouver;,five each in Windsor,.Hal Hax.
and Quebec;etc.These urban sites sample most or all of the
pollutants.whereas most of the smaller towns measure only
50.5UB2 .•COHo suspended particulates.and lead.For most of
the elements or Indexes.the frequencies or percentages
(centiles)from 10 to 99.9%and maximum values are tabulated
for 2-and 24-hr periods.as well as the means and standard
deviations for each month.
Bennett,F.Lawrence,P.E.,An Air Emission Inventory Computer Program
Final Report submitted to Fairbanks North Star Borough,Departme~t
of Environmental Services,December 1974.
ABSTRACT
This report describes a computer program that has been developed to
assist the Fairbanks North Star Borough in cataloguing and summarizing
air emissions data.The project was carried out under an agreement with
the Borough dated July 22,1974.
,The report contains a short description of each of the two programs'
that were written,together.with a summary of a preliminary analysis of
point source air emissions data that were processed using one of the
programs.Th~major portion nf the reoort consists of a users'manual
that wi1'lassist borough personnel in ~mplementing the program.
161
CAN SAP Data Summary,UDC:551.57B.B,Environment Canada Atmospheric
Environment Service,1981..,
ABSTRACT
This publication contains the data for the year 1981.Beginning with these
data,a new format for the presentation has been initiated~The data summary
··for the years 1977-1980 are available in this format and can be obtained from
the Atmospheric Environment Service for a nominal charge.Commencing with the
1982 data,there will be an annual charge for the CANSAP data publications.
Each year the publications will be two 6-month data summaries and an annual
report.The annual report for 1981 is in preparation.
The precipitation chemistry data presented in this document were generated by
the Canadian Network for Sampling Precipitation (CANSAP).The samples are
collected over the period of a month using precipitation collectors that
sample only precipitation and exclude dust and other types of dry fallout when
precipitation is not occurring.Most of the sampling sites shown on the map
are located at Atmospheric Environment Service Weather Observing Stations.
The samples are analyzed by the Water Qual ity Branch Laboratory at the Canada
Centre for Inland Waters in Burlington (Ontario).The data are archived in
the National Water Quality Data Bank (NAQUADAT)and are published by the Air
Quality and Inter-Environmental Research Branch of the Atmospheric Environment
Service.Precipitation chemistry data from the stations in the WMO Regional
Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network are also included since they are
completely compatible with that from CANSAP.
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Coutts,Harold J.,A Study of Winter Air Pollutants at Fairbanks,Alaska,
Corvallis Environmental Research laboratory,Office of Research and
Development,U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,Corvallis,Oregon
97330,September 1979.
ABSTRACT
It has been well docUlllented for the past ten years that Fairbanks,Alaska
has an air pollution problem with carbon monoxide (CO),particulates and ice.
fog,but there are other pollutants that have not been routinely monitored.
In addition,the theory has been raised that the low t8lllperatun and low
insolation at this latitude may enhance conversion of precursory pollutants
into their more .toxic forms,e.g.,nitric oxide into nitrogen dixide.
Consequently an air pollution monitoring program was initiated by the
'Arctic Envirorwental Research Station (AERS).Ambient mnitoring was done
throughout the winters of 76-77 and 77-7B at the old downtown Fairbanks Post
Office and also on the AERS roof during the winter Of 76-77.[ndoo....outdoor
IlIOnHoring was done at the new State Building during January 1979.Lead data
obtained by the Fairbanks North Sur Borough is also presented.
Pollutants measured during the first winter were nitric oxide (NO),
nitrogen dioxide (N02),sulfur dioxide (S0 2),total suspended particulates
(TSP),sulfate (SOi),nitrate (NOS),and lead (Pb).During the second winter,
only the gilSeous for;;:swe ...measured.At the State Building NO,H02'and CO
were measured.
High values,compared to those measured in the contiguous states,were
•topnd for NO and Pb.Most 50 2 levels were below the analyzer sensitivity of
0.004 pplll.The health effects of the Aleasured levels of NO are not known,but
Pb levels exceeded EPA standards.More monitoring for Pb is needed and,if
the high concentrations are found to be area wide,then local authorities may
want to consider restrictions on use of leaded ga.oline during the wintel'
months.
The garage under the new State Building with attendant air infiltration
appeared to be responsible for higher'indoor than outdoor CO levels.There
was no evidence found that the natural enviroMent hastened the transfol'lll8tion
of NO and S02 to their more toxic fONI.
Crow W.,B.Lambeth,R.Evans,and Radian Staff,Air Quality &Meteorological
Study at Prudhoe Bay,April 1,1979 to March 31,1980,Radian Corporation,
8501 Mo-Pac Blvd.,P.O.Box 9948,Austin,Texas 78766,DCN #81-120-235-54,
January 1981.
ABSTRACT
This report documents the results of a comprehensive one-year air ouality
and meteorological monitoring study conducted by Radian Corporation on behalf of
the Prudhoe Bay Unit Operators.The purpose of the sturly was to obtain valid
baseline air quality and meteorological data for Prudhoe Bay.
Elements of the monitoring proqrarn included network design,system fabrica-
tion,installation,operation,and data validation and reporting.In addition,
an extensive quality assurance program was implemented to substantiate the vali-
dity of the data reported throughout the course of the program.
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Fairbanks North Star Borough,Report No.74-001,Particulate Snow Survey,
f4arch 1974.
ABSTRACT
The Environmental.Services Depart1lleJlt of the Fairbanks North Star
Borough has completed a snow survey to determine the impact of MUS's power
plant particulate emissions on the snow pack as dustfall in the residential
area south of the plant.In addition to the immediate area surrounding MUS,
snow samples were taken in otner areas of the Fairbanks basin.
The snow pack in the Fairbanks area served as a dustfall collection
filter as it contained the dustfall from the first snow fall in October 1973,
until the samples were collected in March 1974,.which covers a tilDe span of
near 160 days - a time during which power plant activity is at its lIIllX111rU1ll.
Each snow sample was carefUlly collected wi~h a snow corer and sampled .
~rom.the top of the snow pack to wi th.in 1/2"of the ground surface.These
samples were analyzed for the amount of dustfall content,and the specific
electrical conductance and pH of the snow lIIelt.
Fairbanks North Star Borough Report,Carbon Monoxide Levels in Fairbanks,Alaska,
Winter of 1977-78.
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ABSTRACT C
Ambient air quality sampling was begun in Fairbanks in 1969 by the
Arctic Health Research Center.The results of this preliminary
monitoring indicated that high carbon monoxide levels were occurring C
during the winter months.During the winter the Fairbanks area ex-
periences severe temperature inversions,which result in a trapping
of pollutants near the surface of the ground and in an absence of
vertical dispersion of the pollutants.Due to the loc~tion of the
hill s surrounding the city and the absence of wind during the winter-
time,there is very little horizontal dispersion as well.Therefore,C
the carbon monoxide,which in Fairbanks is generated almost totally
by the automobile,just sits and builds up concentrations over town.
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Gamara,K.E.and R.A.Nunes,Air Quality and Meteorological Baseline Study
for Prudhoe Bay,Alaska,June 1974 -June 1975,Technical Report No.217,
Metronics Associates,Inc.January,1976.
ABSTRACT
Environmental monitoring and sampling extended over a twelve-month
period from 21 June 1974 to 21 June 1975 and encompassed acquisition of
·selected air quality and meteorological information.Specifically,the
following parameters were either measured .directly or derived indirectly
froD related parameters:wind speed,w~nd direction,ambient air tempera-
ture,total insolation,ultraviolet radiation,total hydrocarbons (THe),
~ethane (CH 4),non~methane hydrocarbons,carbon monoxide (CO),sulfur di-
oxide (5°2 ),hydrogen sulfide (HZS),total sulfur (IS),nitric o:dde (NO),
nitrogen dioxide (NO Z)'nitrogen oxides (NOg ),ozone (03)'and total sus-
pended particulates.
Gilmore,Timo~hy M.,Thomas R.Hanna,Applicability of the Mass Concentration
Standards for Particulate Matter in Alaska Areas,J.Air Pollute Control
Assoc.,V.25,p.535-539,May 1975.
ABSTRACT
lJiqh nart.icnlato .~,~...t·~~ma~ter c~ncen :at10ns have been measured in several
communities in Alaska us~nq h1gh volume air samplers.Because of
th:se.measurements,~nchora~e and Fairbanks have been classified
P~1or1tyl fo:par~1culate matter.A possible method for relatinqh~uh volume a1r samp~er data to ambient air particulate matter
standards ~ased on S1ze distribution is presented.The results
pres:oted 1ndica~ethat mass conce~tration data alone do not provide
an 1ndex.of poss1ble health hazard 1n Alaska and probably other ruralareas..
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Gilmore,Timothy M.,and Thomas R.Hanna,Regional Monitoring of Ambient Air
Carbon Monoxide in Fairbanks,Alaska,J.Air Pollute Control Assoc.,Vol.24,
p.1077-1079,November 1974~
ABSTRACT
A _ethod e.ploying the thed fill of l"ylar bags was use~to l?bt:ain
a~erage carbon Bonoxide concentration values for ten locat10ns 1~the
Pairbanks Alaska area.The method is shown to be accurate,rel1a~le
and inexp~nsive.'The correlation coeffici:n.t between the bag sam"I1n~
aethod and a continuous carbon lIIonox1de analyzer was.O.9Q5.
correlation of carbon lIIonoxide .data frolll several locat1ons t~a
reference in downtown Fairbanks'shoved a aeneral decrease v1th
distance fro.the ref~rence analyzer.
Jenkins,T.F.,R.P.Murrman and B.E.Brockett,Accumulation of
.Atmospheric Pollutants Near Fairbanks,Alaska,During Winter,
Special Report 225,CRREL,Hanover,New Hampshire,April 1975.
ABSTRACT
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Concentrations of hydrocarbons,carbon monoxide,carbon dioxide,condensation nuclei and nitric oxide were
monitored near Fairbanks,Alaska,at a selected location not under the direct influence of a local pollution source.
The measurements were made continuously over a period of weeks dUring January and February 1973,the period C
when atmospheric pollution would be expected to be most severe.Accumulation and dissipation of the pollutants
was found to be related to atmospheric inversion conditions,wind speed and daily traffic patterns.Maximum hourly
average concentrations of hydrocarbons,carbon monoxide,carbon dioxide and condensation nuclei were 9.7 ppm,
22.1 pp,482 ppm and mo.re than 104 N/cm 3 respectively.Comparative background levels are reported to be
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Lafleur~R.J.,E.P.Wintuschek,J.H.Emslie,Cold Weather Carbon Monoxide Survey
at Whitehorse,Yukon Territory.Presented at 1976 Annual Meeting of the
Pacific Northwest International Section;Air Pllution .Control Association,
Anchorage,Alaska,September 15-17,1976.(Environment Canada,Environmental
Protection Service,Room 225,Federal BUilding,White Horse,Y.T.,Y1A 2B5)
1976.
ABSTRACT
An assessment of the winter-time carbon monoxide (CO)concentrations at
ground level in the City of Whitehorse,Yukon Territory is presented herein.The'
measurements were carried out during the cold weather months over a three-year
period (1974-76)utilizing a combination of continuous monitors togetheer with a
network of integrating samplers.During cold weatheer months very stable
atmospheric conditions,attendant intense inversion gradients,and limited
ventiiation within the valley setting of this city combine to result in CO
concentrations that exceed the federal National Air Quality Objectives but only
infrequently.During a twelve week measurement period in 1974,the Maximum
Acceptable 8-hour average of the federal National Air Quality Objectives was
exceeded on 6 separate days.The occurrence of maximum concentrations coincide
with the previously mentioned stable atmospheric conditions together with low
ambient temperatures when motorists allow continued idling of vehicles during
daytime use.The data from this study substantiates earlier findings of work
carried out at Fairbanks,Alaska having comparable meteorological conditions,
although the pollution problem is not as severe as at the Alaska location.The bag
sampling system was provent to be a reliable and inexpensive integrating method
for field sampling of CO.
166a
National Atmospheric Deposition Program,NADP Report:Precipitation
Chemistry;First Quarter 1981.Natural Resource Ecology
Laboratory,Colorado State University,Fort Collins,Colorado,
169 pp.19A3.
ABSTRACT
Data on calcium,nitrate pH,sulfate and weekly precipitation for about
80 U.S.stations are presented.The only Alaskan station is at Denali (McKinley).
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Norbeck,J.M.,and T.Y.Chang,An Analysis of Ambient CO Concentrations
in Alaska,Engineering and Research Staff,Research,Ford Motor
Company,June 1982.
ABSTRACT
The Alaskan cities of Fairbanks (population:25,600)and Anchorage
(population:205,000)have reported some of the highest ambient carbon
monoxide (CO)concentrations in the United States.For example,the CO
monitoring site at Benson and Spenard Sts.in Anchorage recorded the
highest 8-hour average CO concentration in the United States in 1980 of
27.4 ppm.These high CO concentrations in Alaska occur only in winter.
During other times of the year the ambient CO concentrations in Alaska
are significantly lower than those observed in other cities in the United
States that have comparable high values.Recent calculations by the
Alaskan Departrpent of Conservation (ADEC)(l),the Fairbanks North Star
Borough (FNSB)(2),and the Municipality of Anchorage(3)have fndicated
that both Fairbanks and Anchorage will have difficulty meeting the primary
National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS)for CO (9 ppm 2nd maximum 8-
hr average CO concentration)by 1987 without the implementatin of other
emission control programs (e.g.,inspection maintenance,conversion to
gasohol fuel,etc.).These cal cul ati ons were done usi ng a simplifi ed
total tonnage rollback model,which has been shown to underpredict the
improvement expected in air quality (4),and EPA emission factors that
were based on early estimates of future performance of emission control
systems (MOBILE 2)(5).The most recent EPA surveillancedata(6).ofin-
use vehicles indicated that these initial estimates resulted in future
year emission factors being too high.
167
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Sierra Research,Carbon Monoxide Air Quality Trends in Fairbanks,Alaska,prepared
for Fairbanks North Star Borough,September 9,1982.
ABSTRACT
An analysis of 8-hour avera~e carbon [TJonozide concentrations at two locatfons
in downtown Fairbanks shows two distinctly different trends:a consistent,gradual
decrease in the seasonal ·avera~e of daily maximum 8-hour concentrations;and a
slight increase,followed by a decrease in later years,in the seasonal peak
concentrations.----
Schweiss,Jon W.,Anchorage Carbon Monoxide Study,U.S.Environmental Protection
Aqency,Region la,Printed Report,November 1983.
ABSTRACT
Typically,levels of ambient carbon monoxide (CO)vary widely among the four
existing permanent monitoring sites aistributed throughout the city of
Anchorage.An ambient air sampling program was designed and implemented to
clarify ana define,if possible,the relationship of carbon monox1de (CO)
levels reported from these permanent sites and levels occurring elsewhere in
the city.Integrated bag sampling was conducted on weekdays at approximately
50 sites during the interval spanning November 22,1982 and February 11,
1983.Samples collected from each site were analyzed by the non-dispersive
infrared (NDIR)method.Comparisons were then made between data arising from
the study sites and the four permanent monitoring sites.A comprehensive
quality assurance program was developed and ordered to the study to ensure the
collection of data that were of known and appropriate accuracy,precision,
representativeness,comparability and completeness.
In largely fulfilling the purpose of the study,the primary conclusions
arising from analysis of the study data were twofold:1)The permanent
monitoring network does not adequately characterize either the absolute
magnitude of CO levels or the frequency of standards exceedances encountered
at an array of locations elsewhere in the study area,and 2)The basic or
immediate representativeness of each permanent monitoring site has been
established.
i 68
TRW Systems Groups Redondo Beach,Califoria s Air Emission Inventory State of
A1aska s Report No.TRW-18425.002 s 77 p.August 1971.
ABSTRACT
The results of a st.atewide air emission inventory performed
state of Alaska are presented.These results are intended to
support the preparation of the 5tate·s air quality implementation
plan.The data were obtained from a variety of sources includina
questionnaires returned frOM industrial,co.mercial and governmental
oraanization.The calculation·of emission of particulates,50 (x),CO,
hydrocarbons and NO (x)f~o~area sources and point sources
represen ting e.issions in e:rcess.of 5 tons per year,were perfoned.
The report includes the following:description of the four air
quaIl ty regions in Alaska;a summary and tabulation for each of tbe 5
pollutants for Anchoraqe,Fairbanks,and the air quality regions;data
on fuel Qsaqe,fuel parameters,and refuse disposal rates and;a
su~mary of the methodology used to identify e.ission sources.
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Effects of Cord Regions·Air Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics:
Health effects in the cold regions
Effects on biota
Acid rain
Other environmental consequences
170
Brydges,ThomasG.and Gar,y E.Glass~Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary
Air Pollution,State of Knowledge Survey,Aquatic Impact Assessment,
United States-Canada,Work Group I,Supplemental Document I,August 1981.
ABSTRACT
..
A state-of-the-knowledge survey was conducted to meet the requirements
of •.the Phase I Work Plan of the U.S .-Canada Transbouudary Air Pollution
Agreement.Summary sheets calling for results of significant studies were
sent to about 1,000 scientists and government department heads in the United
States and Canada.Over 400 responses were.received including 300 from
principal investigators Who returned one or more pertinent reports of
significant findings.
The information obtained from the survey is reported here in four major
sections:(1)catalogue of expertise and directory;(2)aquatic;(3)
terrestrial;and (4)acnospheric.Each section includes a keyword and author
-index.
There are 784 abstracts,annotations,summaries,and progress reports
that identify and assess physical and biological consequences possibly
related to transboundary air pollution (including acid precipit~t~qn).rhis
research information will be used to bring forward the most up-to-date
findings to the decision makers of public policy and for the protection of
the environment in North America.
Galloway,J.No,et al.,The Composition of Precipitation in Remote Areas of the
World,J.of Geophysical Research,Vol.87,8771-8786,1982.
ABSTRACT
The Global Pr'ecipitation Chemistry Project Collects precipitation
by event to determine composition and processes controlling it in five
remote ar·eas.Compositions (excluding seasalt)at St.Geor'ges,Bermuda,
and Poker'Flat,Alaska,were primarily controlled by anthropogenic
processes;compositions and acidities at San Carlos,Venezuela,Katherine
Australia,and Amsterdam Island were controlled by mixtures of natural or·'
anthr'opogenic processes.Precipitation was acidic;average volume-weighted
pH values were 4.8 for Bermuda;5.0,Alaska;4.9,Amsterdam Island;4.8,
Australia;4.8,Venezuela.Acidities at Bermuda and Alaska were from
long-range transport of sulfate aerosol;at Venezuela,Australia,and
Amsterdam Island,from mixtures of weak organic and strong mineral acids
primarily H2S04.Relative proportions of weak to strong acids were '
largest at Venezuela and lowest at Amsterdam Island.Weak and strong
acids were from mixtures of natural and anthropogenic processes.Once
contributions from human activities wer'e removed,the lower limit of
natural contributions waspY'obab1y ;>pH 5.
171
•
-r;:;-or:d;;-to···b-ette,.d.te~~I "e-··i·h~-eh·~;-":ete;';f stiC~·'-';d·~',r ~~t:s-~~-"-'"
_J!u.!ttol,!,!I_"!.f ..a!:S ~l!=jl.C?~~_U!..g~.U,It...!:.~n£!I'l_~!:!.H ..~I'!LP.!.-!;!...!.!L!.2LQ.L.a n.9-._
Polo"lu~(2101.th.~~"uel'des~alOn9 with their long-lived
__~!"!cl.~_<;:.:!ssCl."...-!:..a.~J.\L'"_.!22 il!.•_\II'!_"~.._IIl"~.s"''':.f!.'L.!!L U c Ite.~!lL_!.n-l:l.Cl"!It .01 n.d .._..
muscle or ca,.lbou and othe,.~retfc a"lmals.a"d I"Eskimo place"ta.
_.:.T.!!..!....RILl 226i...tJ!~JL~,?~c::.e".~J:at ~o"s.....l!..L~~_}LS!L o!_.tl!.'~_~~.h!!':.'''.U.C;:l fdet.s ,.._
ca""ot be the direct source Of t.he other "uclldes.In ca,.fbou bone
_.~_I!.!.-~~_.L;!l.O_I_was f .IL!...ad L'!.!:"'~.!..~'L!..."!':'J.1JbrJ u"'..w,~n ...!h~_"'b __.L?tO J.atl~..c_.
averaged about 11.7 PCl/g ash.twfce the pb (2101 f"reindeer bone.
Tile Pb (2101 co"te"t or Illusc1eor bothspeCfes was IOPCf/kg(wetl.---By"i:ol'l i r ast~-"th;""-P;;_.(21 olc;~t-;n t··was"'~~c:.;";;.;e-;;te;:''';'''~b,;,:;t"·200 . --....
_~5;~9'.A_::leffnfte seasOnal decre.se waS noted In the had In
musc I e du-r I "9 the 's;c 0 n d h'ili,.;;tk e--~,,~;;-.-5f'~1 I ar va'~"1 a t:t~-;:';-;;;r~.
_'!!..q,-=~te~_f~!:_~~.!'.!U..um __L,,!_"!.I,/~<;:_1 e_.!.!'_d_~~~~_!!LbCl"!"..!.!t!.....h f~!'t
levels 10 ca,.fbou a,.-att,.lbuted to the hIgh fallout C;;els ''0--;'_-....
_.._t ..hes~_..oucpd!.~__!.!L.lJcl!!."-s ,_~h Itl r ..w!."t~.!:_!~!"age.,wh'cll C;~_'!~a-'.n!l.rI ___
dry wel9htl 6 PCI and 12 pCI Pb (210)/g~The othe,.a~f~als
__e ..~!:'l'?J t~d ~.1',:,!-ct!,.bl~l_o",-~."_co",cen tra~-,-!?!!.s_!1L.~~l'!e__an~._lIly~cle~.__._..._
Nolr,~Il'eh consu~e~la,.ge quaotftles Of carfbOu,exhibIted
_:C!.UV -'~!!'!LL~_..~_C)~_!.-o_LL-"'C~_l.g _ash ,._~~o.Y.t._t.~_LCI..~!ll_.r.:ve.~_J.IL_!!~m_e.__._.._
~sklmo bo~e.The Po IllOI cOotent of wolf mUscle was about the
.._sa!"..!._ali_.._!-hat._~!-£!c!".fb_o.u,_l9.0 PCI/kg.but the pb (liD)was o~l\f
.about 1 PC f Ik g.S I';liar ,but 1 es~-d"ra";'~-iT~;"'d trfe;,;~-;;ces;·-";;;'_~e-·--_.
_..~_b~..!.!:.y!'o;i ..Ln.s.s.kJ "!.o_~1 ~C;.!..'.!ta ..._.~~..~!!"~_~.!....l!..L.IL'"ta~e __sno.lU _~..~;_~.~..k l.!"..os__
could acqul,.e sufffcient or the long-lfvltd pb (liOI to double the
_to~s~e 1.!~.!J_r_adl!~o I'l d0.li~.._Lr:~t:!.'--l?~.!.~a.~_~c!.!U~s te,.n !!._,_._
However.despfte the high co"'cent~atlo~s·of Po 12101 fn ",eat,
..~.!,._e.c:~..~_!-ak_~_a.:c-=o~!!_t.s ....!..~~_~1 If-!...r_!!a.:!-.'--~.!.J_ld.SIli!_l.!...f..'!yeas.!.-t!L..
tot.al dos ...
Joy,Richard W.,Timothy Tilsworth,and Darrel D.Williams,Carbon Monoxide
Exposure and Human Health,Institute of Water Resources Report No.61,
University of Alaska,February 1975.
ABSTRACT
A literature review of the effects of both chronic and acute exposure to
carbon monoxide has been prepared.This was felt to be necessary in view of the
fact that:
1.No comprehensive and up-to-date revi ew of this subj ect exi sts,and
2.A controversy currently exists as to whether or not the carbon
monoxide levels in the Fairbanks air are detrimental to human
health,and whether or not the ambient air standards for carbon
monoxide established by the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA)are appropriate.
199 abstracts of the literature reviewed are contained in the appendices of
this paper.These abstracts are provided as a source of additional information
for readers possessing a technical knowledge of the subj ect.A summary of the
literatute reviewed is presented herein.
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Koerner,R.M.and D.Fisher,Acid Snow in the Canadian high Arctic,Nature,
Vol.295,1982.
ABSTRACT
Increasing levels of add sulphates in precipitation have recently
been discovered in locations as far north as Barrow,Alaska and
Bear Island (~4°Nand 190 E)in the Norwegian Seal.....The
high sulphur concentrations are attributed to mid-latitude
Eurasian sourcesl •We present here acid concentrations (each
representing several years of snow accumulation)in ice from
part of a 337-m surface-to-bedrock core on northern Ellesmere
Island"(81 0 N,13°W)representing the past 5,000 yr and
compare these with significantly higher add concentrations in
snow deposited over the past 25 yr at the same location showing
seasonal variations in the concentrations which together consti-
tute a significant trend of in(reasing add levels over the past
25 yr..
Legrand,Michel R,Alberta J.Aristarain and Robert J.Delmas,Acid
Titration of Polar Snow,Anal.Chern.54,1336-1339,1982.
ABSTRACT
The ackftty (or alkalinity)of polar precipitation Is a parameter
of great Interest In the Invesitgatlon of &everal global gea-
chernlc:al problems.This paper describes the comamlna-
t1on-free sampling and sample handling techniques used and
a titration method suitable for determining the ultralow acidity
levels of·polar precipitation.Test experiments "!Iere per-
formed to evaluate the accuracy (=0.2 ~equlv L-1)of the
method In the 0-10 ~equlv L-1 acidity and alkalinity ranges.
These first acidity determinations of Antarctic snow and an-
cient Ice samples .Illustrate the value of the developed pra-
cedure,which could be particularly useful for nearly neutral
unbuffered natural water samples such as cloud and rain
water COllected In remote 10caOons.
173
Nor'ton,Stephen A.,John J.Akielaszek,Ter'roy A.Haines,Kenneth L.
Stromborg,Jerry R.Longcore,Bedr'ock Geo 1ogi c Control of Sensiti vi ty
of Aquatic Ecosystems in the United States to Acidic Deposition,
ABSTRACT
The effects of acidic precipitation on the chemistry of aquatic
ecosystems are a function of different geologic conditions,hydrologic
characterstics of the terrain (i.e.,overland flow versus groundwater'
flow,soil por'osity/permeability,residence time of water in the soil),
distribution and amounts of precipitation through time,type of precipitation,
thickness of soil,types of soils (residual,glacial [till,ice-contact
stratified,etc.],aeolian,lacustrine,alluvial,etc.),age of soil,
vegetation types,and changing land use.Recently acidified clear water
lakes and streams generally occur onlywher'e precipitation pH is less
than that predicted by C02-H20 equilibria (pH 5.4-5.7,depending on
temperature).Aci difi ed 1akes in Scandi navi a,Scotl and,and the Adir'ondack
Mountains of New Yor'k occur only where precipitation pH is 1ess than 4.7
(Wright et al.,1980).Charlson (1982)has suggested that natural
emissions of S compounds may r'esult in precipitation with a pH as low as
4.5,but only very locally.
Overrein,Lars,N.,Hans Martin Seip and Arne Tollan Acid precipitation
effects on forest and fish,Final Report of the'SNSF project 1972-1980
December 1980.'
ABSTRACT
The Norwegian interdisciplinary research pro-
gramme "Acid Precipitation -Effects on Forest
and Fish"(The SNSF-project)was launched in
1972 in response to wide-spread concern,
especially in Scandinavian countries,that acid
precipitation was causing changes to .the natural
environmen t.
A major hypothesis has been that anthropo-
genic release of sulphur oxides and other pollu-
tants may alter geobiochemical and biochemical
cycles with consequences for the biota.The
main research efforts were directed towards
possible threats to forest and freshwater fish.
The final project repon presented here is
based on nearly 300 previously published
SNSF-reports and publications in various inter-
national journals.
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Ottar,B.,Long Range Transport of Air Pollution and Acid Rain Formation,Norwegian
Tnst.Air Res.,Lillestrom,Norway,1980.
The increasing acidification of the precipitation in .Europe
was first pointed out in 1968 by Oden,who related this to the
acidification observed in rivers and lakes in Scandinavia and
the increasing use of fossil fuels with a high content of
sulfur.It was shown that extensive exchange of air pollutants
took place between the European countries,and in orographic
precipitation areas frequently exposed to polluted air masses,
exceSsive amounts of acid precipitation were observed.Later
studies have shown that the air pollutants from Europe also
find their way into the Arctic region.particularly in the
winter.The main acid component of the precipitation is
sulfuric acid with an addition of 20 to 50 percent of nitrate
and ammonium ions on an equivalent basis.The sulfate content
Is largely explained by the sulfate In the aerosol phase.The
content of nitrate and ammonium ions Is explained by the
uptake of gaseous nitric acid and ammonia from the atmosphere.
Atmospheric dispersion Is discussed in relation to the methods
used to describe the chemical transformations and the dry and
wet deposition processes.
Rahn,Kenneth A.,E1inar Joranger,Arne Semb and Thomas J.Conway,High
Winter Concentrations of S02 in the Norwegian Arctic and Transport
from Eurasia,Nature,Vol.287,No.5785,pp.824-826,October 1980.
ABSTRACT
Since July 1977,the Norwegian Institute for Air Research has
been studying trace gases and aerosols in the atmosphere at Bear
Island,an Arctic:site located at 74°N and 19°E.Although Bear
Island lies weD north of the Arctic Circle,the warm Norwegian
Sea gives it an annual mean temperature of -1.8 °C,consider-
ably warmer than at many other Arctic locations (Barrow,
Alaska,for example,is 350 km farther south but has an annual
mean of -12.2°C).In summer,Bear Island is surrounded by
open water;in winter there is open seaJg the south and west and
pack ice to the north and east.Atmospheric samples are taken
20 m above mean sea level and 2 m above local ground:high-
volume filters are taken three times a week and analysed for
various elements by atomic absorption,neutron activation and
wet chemistry;sulphate and sulphur dioxide are measured daily
by a method similar to that of Johnson and Atkins!,using
low-volume (16 m3)prefilters for sulphate and KOH-impreg-
nated-afterfilters for SOl'The collection efficiency of this
method for SOl has been tested extensively.Results for the
high-volume samples have been reported3 ;here we discuss the
SOl data,which seem to indicate that during winter there is
efficient transport from Eurasian midlatitudes,due at least in
part to long atmospheric residence times in and around the
Arctic..
175
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Rancitelli,L.A.,Trace Element Content of Alaskan Caribou andLichen~In:Pacific
Northwest Laboratory Annual Report for 1971 to the USAEC Division of Biology
and Medicine,Vol.II:Physical Sciences,Part 2,Report BNWL-165l,May 1972.
ABSTRACT
-T 0 e ~;id a h ~;;;;';h-&·~f5~sr.-,,-;;o'~s I b 1 ;--'(;;'--;;d i~~;:;.;nde·~;-;;;po 0 ';t--
__thJ:.q~~h_.t.!:!!_.~1..~J5.K~!!.....f~od._!;..~_~.!.I1 .._a ~_~ud~_wa!ll.cq~_du.c:t_~d ..oLJ5 . _
elements In lIchen and carfbou,I"Cluding stlver,arsenIc,bromfne,
__cob_IL~~I chro",I u"',ceSJ.."!.!!!.L I "0n...._"!.!'::.c<u,!.\!....~o_t!ls!!.f ",..'!!.!__~~qJ "'_~I-I _
r~bfdfulll'antImony,scandium,sel~ftfum,and ztnc,The ~e~su,.ement;-
___.~~ma~~_.\)!;!_!.!,_s!.!:\1"!~.~!-!.L'!.!!'~_~!'G1".AcHva tJ()'La nal Y!!.!~_I.!~L':'!L~OQ_mS _.
allquots 0'carIbou liver,mUscle "nd ktdne",tIssue and llche"--.
__~~..!!!.!.~.es _~.~fc;!'..__w".r~~_~m-'J ~.~.~-"e~~sl.Y_ana 1 yzed..:'Or the f r r ad f Onucl f de
content.PreltmlnarY reSults 0'the'trace ~'i~",'ent"'~n"l-\ises 0""--'
__7~.fb().~r~vealed SOme trace elelllent p.atterns sImi lar to those
obser vedf ':;-mar;..n·..·-;3nd·-aquat"j c or;'"i;.-j sm~:--if-"ace -e i;,-;;.·n-t c';;iit"e-;;t
_<!~..!!LJ..s_!!l.YI!l!!..,.
Schofield,Edmnd Some Considerations on the possible Effects of Local and
Global Sourc~s of Air Pollution on Lichens Grazed by Reindeer and Caribou,
Alaska University,Fairbanks,Alaska,1972,p.90-94.
Consfderable evidence shows that local sources of air
pollution elfmlnate most ltchens from the immediate vicinities
of urban and industrialized areas In temperate regions.
Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide appear to be transported
hundred of kilometers from Britain and.central Europe to
Scandinavia.While there appear to be no reliable data or
observations that link pollutants transported on a global
scale to the deterioratton of lichens there (primarily because
the possibl Ii ty has not been pursued).all of the ingredients
necessary for lichen damage are present.Scattered comments
and circumstantial evidence in the literature suggest that
global pollution --In addition to local pollution will
adversely affect lichens grazed by reindeer and caribou.The
accelerated industrialization of the Arctic makes this
posslbil ity of more than academic interest.The effects of
S02 on algal chlorophyll.osmotic effects on lichens.effects
of temperature Inversions and ice fogs on lichens.global
versus local pollution.and possible consequences for reindeer
and caribou in the Arctic are discussed.
176
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Schofield,Edmund and Wayne L.Hamilton,Probable Damage to Tundra Biota Through
Sulphur Dioxide Destruction of Lichens,8io1.Conserv.,Report No.2(4),
July 1970,pp.278-280.
Lichens,parttcularly the rr'uttcose members of the genus.
Cladonta,are Important components of many arcttc ecosystems
and form a princ.tplecomponent of the forage of tndigenous
caribou.The Nanamtut Eskimos.in turn,depend on thecartbou
for food.clothing.and other necp.ssities.The lichens,
particularly the caribou forage ltchens,are extremely
sensitive to SUlfur dioxide.Atmospheric pollution from
recent oilfield development In Arctic North America therefore
seems ltkely to eliminate Itchens from large areas.This
threat ts intensified by the cl Irllatic conditions on the Arctic
Slope Which'make air pollution more serious there than in most
other places.Probable future oilfield development in
Greenland and the SOViet Unton indicates that SUlfur dioxide
pollution wtll become an increasingly serious threat to
remaining arctic ecosystems.Uncontrolled burntng of crude
oil,.uel oil,and natural gas should be avoided and adequate
sulfur extraction facilities should be installed to protect
these ecosystems.
Shaw,Roderick W.and Henning Rodhe,Non-photochemical Oxidation of S02
in Regionally Polluted Air During Winter,Report CM 53,Depay·tment
of Meteor'ology,University of Stockholm',March 1981.
ABSTRACT
An examination of median concentrations ~f S02 and sUl~hate
in air being transported from source reglons Tn ~he ~n1~ed
Kingdom and continental Europe to southern Scand1nav1a 1n the
absence of precipitation indicated that even in wintertime there is
an increase of SUlphate with travel time.Comparisons of the o~
servations with predictions bya simple transport model emploYlng
gas phase oxidation by OH and liquid phase oxidation by H202indicatedthatanadditionalrateofoxidationof502ofabout
twenty times that of OH and H202 ,is needed to explaTn the ob-
servations.For summertime condTtions,with its higher concen-
trations of the'photochemically produced OH and H202 molecules,
the need for an additional oxidation mechanism wa~Tess evident.
Liquid phase oxidation by ozone was examined as a possible p~
cess in wintertime.It appears that thi.s process could account
for the estimated production of SUlphate,if the pH of cloud
water can'be maintained above a lower limit which varies from
4.6 to 5.5 depending upon Cloudiness,cloud water content and
ambient ozone concentration.In view of some of the measurements
reported in the lfteratureof cloud water pH,the results from
this study indicate that it is rather doubtful that ozone can
be an effective enough oxidant for sulphur in wintertime.How-
ever a more definite conclusion'must await a more detailed
examination of the meteorological and chemical aspects of the
problem including field measurements of cloud liquid water
content,chemical composition and modelling of the cycling of
the air parcel in and out of clouds.
177
Shewchuk,S.R.,An acid deposition perspective for the Northwest
Territories,Dept.of Information,Government of the Northwest
Territories,Yellowknife,NWT XIA 229 ($5.00/copy).
ABSTRACT
Acid deposition in the form of a wet and dry fallout from the atmosphere was
reviewed for the Northwest Territories (NWT).Wet deposition at four sites in the
Arctic is·well documented.There is a great deal of variability in these data on a
regional.basis.Dry deposition is thought to be a significant atmospheric fallout
mechanism in the NWT.Several studies ofair pollution ·impacts have shown that air
quality in the NWT is affected by long-range transport from continental sources.
Most air pollutants impact on the Arctic in an episodic manner.
Due to lack of buffering elements,areas on the Precambrian Shield are highly sensi-
tive to acid deposition.In general,most of the western portion ofthe District of
Mackenzie has a low sensitivity to acid deposition.The possible impact of increased
acid deposition on the Arctic Islands is not addressed due to lack of baseline data.
This issue must receive increasing attention due to the extent and persistence of an
Arctic haze atmospheric layer present in late winter and early spring.
Within terrestrial systems,sensitivities of higher plants to acid deposition are not
well understood.It is generally believed that for low levels of acid input plant com-
munities receive little impact.However,lichen communities which are present on
extensive areas in theNWT are known to be highly sensitive to even low levels of air
pollutants.Hence.the impact of increased heavy metal and acid loading on lichen
communities is considered an important issue.for this region.
Firm data is sparse for the Northwest Territories on aquatic system sensitivities;
however.most of the freshwater lakes on the extensive Precambrian Shield are
probably highly sensitive to acid deposition.
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Whelpdale,D.M.and L.A.Barrie,A~mospheric monitoring ne~work operatio~s and
results in Canada,Atmos.Env1 ron.Serv.,4905 Duffer1 n St.,Downsv1 ew,
Ontario,Canada,M3H 5T4,Water Air Soil Pollution Vol.18,No.1,2,3,
1982,pp.7-23.
Atmospheric monitoring activities In Canada relevant to the
long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants and the "acid
rain"problem are reviewed.Particular aspects examined are
network objectives.station density and location.sampling
protocol.and quality assurance.Results from a number of
these networks are presented for the purpose of outlining the
nature and extent of air and precipitation contamination by
pollution released in eastern North America.Examples
discussed include:the spatial distribution of acidic wet
deposition.the temporal variation of acld~related sUbstances
in both air and precipitation.an episode of long-range
transport.and the impact of acidic emissions on the Arctic
atmosphere.Acidic wet deposition is greatest In Canada east
of the Manitoba-Ontario border.In 1978.It ranged from 18 to
46 mmol H super(+)m super(-2)yr super(-I)In the southern
half of eastern Canada.with maxima In southern Ontario and
southwestern Quebec.Western Canada receives less acidity In
precipitation.but areas of some concern are the Pacific Coast
and to a lesser extent northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Acidic emissions from mid-latitude sources which reach the
Arctic in winter cause an Increase in the acidity of snow from
a pH of approximately 5.6 In the summer to values of 4.9 to
5.1 in l1anuary through March.
Wilson,Eedy"Environmental Cause/Effect Phenomena Relating to Technological
Development in the Canadian Arctic,National Research Council of Canada,
Environmental Secretariat,Publication NRCC 13688,136 p.April 1974.
ABSTRACT
_":.h~n.y ~.!"_on ",~.rL1!a.l-~"u !!!L!i+:"(;.~..Ln.,!,_~r..'::.!'.J a.'!'.!0 D s hi '"!LO \'>s."r.v ~rl_llS •.a._
Con~equenc ..Of man-mediated disruptions In ca"adlan Arctic
_r.~~!.onSL..re _svm.max...!%"d L .Su 1 ~I,lr_._dl ox..!de .Poll ~t t 01).hllS_..(l"$trOl.lecL ......
vegetation In Soutker"Canada.LIchens are Partlcularll.l
vulnp.rableand hav"no defenSe m...,hanlsm against pollutants._
In Falrhanks,lce '09s and s~ag"a"t air ~olljct v"r~high
.cO"Centratlons of pollutants,with the worst condltlo"s arising
-r-~-;;;-i;'ss I 1 (ue 1 c;;~-b;:"~-t ,;;'"'a~d -~';h-i ~i.;~~k ~-z,~t."--i'"-Yel i-~';'k'n I -r-;.-,.-
(Mackenzlel thermal Inversions cauSe high local deposition of
--al"s~;;I c -,i r I~'f;:;~-i ro~--;;';;';l t.~I""f~~e;;;--'Co n~;~-t rat-I on~a~~e r';po~t~d--
as high a~3 PPm.~OgS causi ~roblemsln the Edmonton (Albel"ta)
~-.1,-;-;-Stab i..s';';k ;;-~-i o~-ds -d,.1 ft...d no';'t-i,-(r Om ·;;--·so~·t-"'"r·~·f'o~e;;'i:.,--
_(!.r_!....a".d....r:::~_cllJ~..':.~t..h~_~o la !"_....!".:<:i.!..~~!.'!,,~.b Y._.2.?!;__S '",1_1 a r:_~r~b l.!."!~__,,_,__
can occur wIth the plume»O(Industrial or thermoelectric stacks.
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Control Measures and Plans
The references in this section include the following topics:
Impact analysis and impact statements
Clean air acts and laws
Air quality implementation plans
Alternative transportation control measures
Air quality demographic and attitudinal surveys
i79
Aamot,Haldorw.C.,Management.of Power Plant Waste Heat in Cold.Regions,Cold
Regions Research Lab.,New Hampshire,NTIS Report AD/A-003 217,December
1974,(95).
SPECIAL REPORT:THE BASIC POSSIBLE METHODS OF WASTE HEAT
DISPOSAL AND AVAILABLE HEAT SINKS ARE DISCUSSED.ALTERNATIVES
FOR WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION ARE DESCRIBED.AS WASTE HEAT IS A
LARGE.FREE RESOURCE AND AS BETTER UTILIZATION REDUCES THE
DISPOSAL PROBLEM.THE ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF THE PROMISING
ALTERNATIVES FOR WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION ARE EVALUATED.AND THE
BEST ALTERNATIVE IS CHOSEN FOR DETAILED ANALYSIS.A DESIGN FOR
FAIRBANKS.ALSK..IS DESIGNED AND EVALUATED BASED ON THE MOST
PROMISING CONCEPT.THE DESIGN OF A HEAT PUMP SYSTEM USING
POWER PLANT COOLING WATER TO HEAT HOMES IN FAIRBANKS SHOWS
THAT.COMPARED WITH aIL BURNING AND ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
HEATING.WASTE HEAT DISPOSAL FROM THE PLANT IS REDUCED.AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL IS IMPROVED.OVERALL ENERGY NEEDS ARE
REDUCED.AND OPPORTUNITI ES FOR FUEL SUBSTI TUTION ARE
INCREASED.
Air Pollution Control Directorate Report,Clean air act,annual report 1974-1975,
Environment Canada,Air Pollution Control Directorate,Ottawa,Canada,May
1975,39 P +42 p.
ABSTRACT
Canada's federal and provincial efforts for FY 1915 (ending
March 31.1975);air quality objectives,inspection.
protection.technical and advisory services.regUlation of
fuels.additives.and mobile sources;Atmospheric Environment
Service work.and pertinent data for 1970-1975 concerning the
control of pollution under the Clean Air Act of Nov.1.1971
are presented in detail with much tabUlar data.A map shows
the Canadian National Air Pollution Surveillance network as of
Sept.1974;another map shows the 15 official WMO background
a1r pollut10n stations 1'n Canada.Alaska,northern U.S.A.,and
one station at sea-all parts of a global pollut1on network.
The natural suspended particulate network includes equipment
in commercial downtown core areas;that for SO.SUB 2.
eqUipment,in 20 cities;for CO.SUB 2.,in six.and for ozone.
seven stations-all told.there are 432 instruments at 147
stations in 45 cities.and this includes 172 continuous
gaseous pollutant monitors.Mobile stations and stratospheric
chemistry studies are described.Considerable expansion of the
network took place in 1974-1975.
180
Benson.Carl S••Role of Air Pollution in Arctic Planning andDeve1opment,Po1ar
Record,Vol.14,783-790.1969.
ABSTRACT
The role of air pollution in arctic planning and development
is discussed.Low temperatures combined wi th strong sl.,rface
inversions in wind-sheltered lowlands in the arctic areas
produce exceptionally stable air masses which are easily
polluted.Also the presence of the impermeable permafrost
layer over much of the Arctic prevents the dispersal of man s
waste products and facilitates pollution of water and land.
Ice fog is low-temperature air pollution.occurring whenever
cold air '(minus .35 deg C or below)is calm and accompanied by
a continuing source of water vapor.Sources of air pollution
in Fairbanks.and the pollutant interaction with the
atmosphere are reviewed.Conditions in Fairbanks are compared
with those in los Angeles for perspective.Water vapor is the
greatest pollutant.contributing to the ice fog.Its sources
are combustion products,power plant cooling waters,and
commercial and domestic sources.Carbon dioxide.sulfur
dioxide,lead In salts,and bromine and chlorine in salts are
other pollutants found in the air.The future planning and
development of communities in the Arctic regions must take
into account the atmospheric environment in order to avoid the
pollution problems of Fairbanks.
Department of Environmental Conservation,State of Alaska,Revisions to the State
Air Quality Control Plan,Vol.II,Analysis of Problems,Control Actions,
Vol.III,Appendices,January 1980.
ABSTRACT
The complete State of Alaska Air Quality Control Plan is contained in
three volumes.The first volume is oriented towards informing the
genera1.pub1icof the overall state air quality control policies and
objectives,and includes a review of existing and projected air quality
throughout the state.The second volume includes the specific details
for (1)achieving ambient and emission standards where noncompliance
exists,(2)identifying specific air monitoring objectives and details,
and (3)ensuring compliance with regulations by emission point sources.
The second volume also includes the full text of the revised air quality
control regulations,along with the details of how the Department will
develop and carry out a Prevention of Significant Deterioration program
in those areas of the state with air quality cleaner than the Ambient
Air Qnality Control Standards.The third volume includes the appendi-
cies to Volume II.
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Egan,W.A.,and M.C.Brewer,State of Alaska Air Quality Control Plan,State of Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation,Vol.1,Plan,Vol.II,Appendix,April
1972.
ABSTRACT
The complete Plan is in two volumes,entitled PLAN and APPENDIX.
Volume I,PLAN,is divided into six sections:Section I is INTRO-
DUCTION.Section II is STATE AND LOCAL PROG~~S,and provides a
regional description of the State,resources existing and required
for the program.a guideline for program development and a develop-
ment schedUle;Section III is AIR SURVEILLANCE,and describes the
existing air quality data and ~ampling conducted thus far,in
add~tion to a description of the projected air surveillance net-
work and evaluations of control strategies.Section IV is CONTROL
STRATEGIES.and presents an evaluation of known air quality problems
for each region,and proposed control strategies for each region.
Sec~ion V is AIR EPISODE PLANS,and presents the abatement measures
expected to be carried out if and when air contaminant concentra-
tions reach episode levels.Section VI is REFERENCES and presents
the references specifically noted throughout the preceding sections.
Volume II,APPENDIX,provides supporting documentation to Volume I,
PL~~,including emission inventory,Alaska Statutes,State and
local program regulations,pUblic hearing summary.resource infor-
mation,permit forms,and control strategy calculations.
Environmental Protection Agency.Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the
Energy Company of Alaska Topping Plant at North Pole,Alaska,EPA,Region X,
1200 Sixth Ave.,Seattle,WA,1976.
ABSTRACT
DEIS,including description of existing environmental and proposed project,
likely impacts of proposed project and alternatives to the proposed action.The
section on air Quality impacts includes likely S02,N02 CO etc.emission rates.
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Fairbanks North Star Borough Report No.74-002,Air Quality Forecast Plan,
February,1974.
ABSTRACT c
.In order to keep up \'/ith the many reques·ts for information,the
Fai rbanks tlorth Star Borough Department of Envi ronmenta 1 Servi ces has
initiated a forecast service \'Ihich is available from Ilovember 1st to
~1arch 31st.This service \'/il1 describe air quality conditions in
general terms and will relay air stagnation i~formation from the Fairbanks
Weather Service Office.
Fairbanks North Star Borough,Department of Planning and Zoning,Fairbanks
North Star Borough Parking Management Study,March 1977.
ABSTRACT
On JUly 27,1972,the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)informed the
State of Alaska that"it must submit a Transportation Control Plan to reduce
carbon monoxide by February 15.1973.When the state did not submit a plan,
EPA pUblished a proposed Transportation Control Plan forthe Northern Alaska
Intrastate Region on July 16,1973.The area encompassed by the plan included
the City of Fairbanks.the Fairbanks North Star Borough;and the Basin in the
State of Alaska.Essentially.the plan contained provisions for:(1)anti-idling,
(2)parking management.(3)inspection/maintenance,(4)air bleed retrofit,(5)
traffic flow improvements.and (6)highway cut-offs.·
The purpose of the parking management element of the plan was·twofold:
(I)achieve the photochemical oxidant and/or carbon monoxide standards by
reducing areawide growth in VMT.and (2)ensure that the automobile
congestion·generated by a parking area did not cause a violation of carbon
monoxide standards.Specifically.it addressed a review of parking facilities with
ten or more spaces.the provision for heated facilities or headbolt heaters.and
revie\\'/permit procedures..The EPA's regulation was to be effective by August
15.1973:the date was later postponed to January I.1975."
183
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Fairbanks North Star Borough,Fairbanks,Alaska,Air Quality Attainment
Plan for the Fairbanks/North Pole area,February 1979.
ABSTRACT
.This p~an (1)defines th~n~ture and extent of air quality problems in
Falrbanks,(2)provldes a 11stlng of potential strategies that could be
~sed.I~c1udes detailed traffic data for Fairbanks and air emissionlnventorles.
Fairbanks North Star Borough,Air Quality Attainment Plan,Volume 2,IIA Decision-
Making Guide ll
,May 1982.
ABSTRACT
The urban area of the Fa;rba rKS North Star Borough has been
designated as being in nonattainment of the national ambient
air quality standard for carbon monoxide.Federal law requires
that all nonattainment areas be brought into compliance by
December 31,1987.Furthermore,the Clean Air Act specifies
the method by which a suitable attainment plan must be prepared
and adopted.This document,along with Volume 1 of the Borough's
Air Quality Attainment Plan,has been prepared according to the
guidelines shown in the Clean Air Act and to guidance documents
written by the U.S.EPA.
This volume of the attainment plan contains a technical analysis
of the potential air quality control measures and strategy
packages.It is designed to provide local decision-makers with
adequate information to allow them to select the most suitable .
package of control measures which will allow the Fairbanks area
to achieve attainment by 1987.Because it is a purely technical
document no public testimony has been used in its preparation.
The information contained herein should be integrated by the
decision-makers with subsequent public comments in the final
selection of the appropriate strategy package.
184
Gallagher,James R.,Analysis of alternative transportation control measures
for Fairbanks,Alaska,March 1982.
ABSTRACT
This document presents separate task assignments to be incorporated into
the Fairbanks North Star Borough's "Analysisof Alternative Transportation
Control Measures for Fairbanks.Alaska."GCA has prepared these separate
components based upon the information provided by the Borough from available
reports,a parking survey conducted by the Borough,and draft versions of the
final documents.
Gallagher,James R.,Analysis ?f Alternative Transportation Control Measures
for Fairbanks,Alaska,F1na1 report prepared for Fairbanks North StarBorough,March 1982.
ABSTRACT
Details of ~us.use and resulting reduction·.management and em1SS1on reductions,and em1.ss1.on 1n em1ssions,parkingcontrolpackages.
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Gegen,E.W.,Air Poll ution Emi ssi onsand Control Technology :Arctic Mi ni ng,
Canadian Environmental Protection Service,Canadian Air Pollution Control
Directorate,Report 3-AP-76-4,Novemberl976.
SPECIAL REPORT:THE POTENTIAL FOR AIR POLLUTION FROM
CANADIAN ARCTIC MINING OPERATIONS IS EVALUATED.ESTIMATED
EMISSIONS FROM MINES OPERATING IN THE AREA DURING 1973 SERVE
AS A BASIS FOR ESTABLISHING TYPE,SOURCE,AND MAGNITUDE OF
EMISSIONS AND FOR DEFINING THE BEST PRACTICABLE TECHNOLOGY TO
CONTROL SUCH EMISSIONS,SO THAT GUIDELINES REGULATING PRESENT
AND FUTURE MINING OPERATIONS MAY BE PROMULGATED TO MINIMIZE
THEIR IMPACT ON THE ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT.(6 OIAGRAMS,1 MAP,5
TABLES)
186
Hellenthal,Marc L,AnchorageAir Quality Demographic and Attitudinal
Survey,prepared for State ofAl aska Department of Environmental
Conservation,January 1983.
ABSTRACT
This report is an analysis of a survey of Anchorage residents measuring
their'pUbl ic attitudes toward and awareness of,air pollution.Research
often i nvo Ives est imat i ng,the character i st i cs of a des i gnated
population.Because of the costs of conducting a census of al I items in
a population and the,adequacy of sample results,sample statistics were
used to make statistical inferences concerning popUlation parameters.
Three hundred and eighty-six (386)Anchorage residents legally licensed
to operate an automobile or truck (pickup)in the State of Alaska were
interviewed between December 4th and 8th,1982.Additionally,a four
question addendum was fielded on December 11th.Interviewing was
conducted by telephone on a ra~dom digit basis.AI I legally licensed
Anchorage"residents --from Girdwood to the Knik River Bridge --who are
accessible by telephone,had an equal chance of being interviewed.
Hellenthal,Marc Eo,Fairbanks Air Quality Demographic and Attitudinal Survey,
prepared for State of Alaska Department of Environmental ConservationJanuary1983.'
ABSTRACT
This,report is an analysis of a survey of Fairbanks -area-wide residents
measuring their pUbl ic attitudes toward and awareness of,air pot lution.
Research often involves estimating the characteristics of a designated
population.Because of the costs of conducting a census of all items in
a popUlation and the adequacy of sample results,sample statistics were
used to make statistical inferences concerning population parameters.
Three hundred and ninety-five (3951 Fairbanks NOTth Star Borough
residents legally I icensed to operate an automobile or truck (pickup)in
the State of Alaska were interviewed between December 4th and 8th,1982.
Additi6nally,a four question addendum was fielded ~n December 18th.
Interviewing was conducted by telephone on a random digit basis.AI I
legally I icensed Fairbanks North Star Borough residents --from Salcha
to Ester who are accessible by telephone,had an equal chance of
being interviewed.
187
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Mi durski,Theodore,Analysi s of Alternative Transportation CohtrolMe~sure
for Fairbanks,Alaska,FinaT Report U.S.Environmental Protectlon
Agency,Region 10,November 1979.
ABSTRACT
The Fairbanks North Star Borough has been declared a nonattainment area
for carbon monoxide.The purpose of this study is to identify and analyze
the economic,social and institutional impacts resulting from several poten-
tial CO control strategies.The strat~gies evaluated include:cold-start
emission controls,gasohol,inspection/maintenance program,carpooling pro-
gram,transit improvements,traffic flow improvements,parking management,
idling ordinance,restricted delivery hours,and a national low temperature
standard.
Moyer,T.,State of Alaska Proposed Revisions to Air Quality Control Plan,State
of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation,Vol.I,December 1977.
ABSTRACT
The complete State of Alaska Air Quality Control Plan will be contained
in two volumes.The first volume,a draft of which is the following
proposed document,will be oriented towards informing the general public
of the overall state air quality ~ontrol policies and objectives,and
will include a review of existing and projected air quality throughout
the state.The second volume will include the more specific details for
(1)achieving standards where noncomplianc~exists (both ambient and
emission standards),(2)identifying specific air monitoring details
and objectives,and (3)Insuring compliance with regulations by emission
point sources.The second volume will also include the full text of the
soon-to-be-revised air quality control regulations,along with the details
of how the Department will develop and carry out a Prevention of Signif-
icant Deterioration program in those areas of the state with air quality
cleaner than the Ambient Air Quality Control·Standards.
188
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Pollution Control Commission and Fairbanks North Star Borough,Report No.73-002,
Air Quality Improvement Plan,November 1973.
ABSTRACT
The subarcti c continental cl imate imposes frequent surface inversions
upon airsheds \1ithin the Fairbanks North Star Bo'rough,such that in the
absence of air circulation,all natural drainages within the Borough have
similar stagnation potential.(Figure 1.1).Recognition of a deterioration
of ai r qual ity in the Fairbanks area during this stagnation usually stems
from the visible phenomenon,ice fog.Ic;e fog has plagued the Fairbanks
community for many years.This phenomenon was first discussed as a cold
weather air pollutant "by Benson of the University of Alaska.Soon after
Benson1s exhaustive efforts to characterize ice fog were published in 1965 [1],
air quality measurements were made by the National Air Surveillance Network
(NASN)[2]and the Arctic Health Research Center [3].
Tigue,John E,and Larry K.Carpenter,Air Quality Impact Analysis of a Proposed
North/South Runway at Anchorage International Airport,FAA,NTIS Report AD-
A020,December 1975.
SPECIAL REPORT:THE POTENTIAL AIR QUALITY IMPACT OF A
PROPOSED RUNWAY AT ANCHORAGE INT'L AIRPORT IS ASSESSED.AIR
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS FOR 1978 ARE PROJECTED.AND THE AIRPORT
VICINITY AIR POLLUTION MODEL IS USED TO CALCULATE THE AIRCRAFT
IMPACT ON AIR QUALITY FOR CASES WITH AND WITHOUT THE PROPOSED
RUNWAY.THE ADDITION OF THE PROPOSED RUNWAY DOES NOT
SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT THE AIRPORT VICINITY AIR QUALITY.AREAS
OF CONCERN DO EXIST ON THE AIRPORT ITSELF.BUT THE IMPACT ON
COMMUNITIES SURROUNDING THE AIRPORT IS MINIMAL.
189
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TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quali ty Impl ementati on Pl an
for the'State,of Alaska,Vol.I:Control Strategy,Report APTD-0926,
December 1971.
ABSTRACT
---!..h.!....!L9!"_'!!.!J:.~JI.!lLC::!.n.".!:.AL._l!91L~!:!...4!~~t.~~1_V'-d..-£.~'-~.!tl..'!~·--"-_
Int~astat.al~~~alf'~con~~ol ~eglonso'Alaska we~e analyzed
_~~~_C!.!.'P,~.1!.!!'..'.~_,~C)P0J!.~_~"',!.I_Lc1 I "!.Il!~1 o!!w t •~~J,L,~.h.!..r.lI,c:._t.ttr...!.s~Jc._~_1.!!!c!_
exlst.ln~al~~uall'~.RegIonal 9~owt.h and po,entfal ~ew PoPulatIon
_.!!'lY.!,_~.es-,W!~~~,~oJ er:t!c;l__!.o~_l!!~c:.h~',_.th.!t~3our_~~!..~~.~o~_t~0 1 _
st~ate9tes a~e P~opoS.d fo~SUlfu~and nft~09.n oxfdes.
2ll~t I c~!.!-_~!_~_~ca~bon ...!!!_~,~,'!.tq!t.~__Su~g_e_s_~!t~_S;V~~e9.Jes -!!"~~_4q~_
al~Monito~ln9 studIes,p~ocess and boile~emfsslon limitatfons,a
P.~mtt sYstem to ~e9ulate Const~uc'ion and mOdi,lcation of new
,ae i l'ft fe's-;-t.-;-a';r-fe-co-;v~~ei--Ch-a-;;;~~-~dstiltet --P.~r;;g-~nd---·-
..!i_wee~!_I!~...,,.._
TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.I:Control Stategy Appendices,Report APTD-0970,
December 1971.
ABSTRACT
Supportiv~data and calculations 'Or thp COntrol me4sure5 are
p r"s"n ted ~.,F"P ..n d i c"sin ~i v de:--..st -I ,;.a t ion ;;f'air q u II 1 I t'4 C ~~;e d
~by particulate emission In AnChor~ge:variatlnns In F"artlculate
Concentrations with wlnd~rain,and temDerature;seaSOnal
.variations in Particulate concentrations In Anchoraqe:description
Of'Anchora3~road surf'aces:CQgt of Pdvlng ~nd m~intllining;
estimatiOn 0;~ir ~uallty due to partlcul~tes ~nd carhon monOxide
in Falrban~s;mo~~r ~ehi~ie emissiOnS In FairbankS:esii~~tt~n ~;
the reduction in carbon monoxld~automohile -missions:emissions
from rue I combustion:deScriPtion of'reJ~ctedcontroj measures:
estimate of'carbOn mOnoxide reduction ~ue to automatlr.sl~nal
-control;a~d estimates 0;~roun~level concentration Of'sUI~u;
_~~.!.'~,!!;,_CO ",a_nd _Pa rt,I c.u I a tes'
190
TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.II:Compliance Schedule,Report APTD-0950,
December 1971.
ABSTRACT
.Cont~ol measu~es ro~Pa~tlcul.tes Include the ~equI~ement that,.ll
---por;'t'SQurc-;'-s •PP1!:l ~e no n ',,'t;r;-;va I i ab-l--;-Co ~t~Oi~ech ;'-;1'0911 to-.----
.~educe e~ls51ons.All ~ou~ces emfttlng r~om 5 to 100 tOns/y~
.uncont;;l"ied mus~;gT~t'e·;'--';I~the-·a·pp-;op';fai.··a;.~l:Y;-.·"d sou-;ces--
mhlch .~ft 100 tOns o~mo~~/Yr must apPlv 'o~a pe~mft autho~ltw to
--c"O~it~u ct-;-;Cid'l rY';---;';-~pe,.a~'Ai CC 0 m;'lTa~-c-;'''-eh it-d'"f;'s -mustb-.-·-----
Submitted on o~be'0~8 the p"escrlbed date r0,.submfttal 0'the
,I ~st s'em I =a;;;u;r--;;;Po,.t.A1 so.a se~j 85 0'sP.c~stUdf es w Hl
-E..!_c;..~_~d.uc t !r:!.2E...i ~c f.!i~a t ~_~!J.!-.Ll'l~_()i._~~~,~.~!:t.!.!=~.l.te_--,".':.0 b ~'!• _
Including ~oad su~'acfng and a plantlns P~os~am on ~ll lands '~om
wI,f ch ,9r.~\J~,~pover has been r!.!!!E~!.~~~,..?O~.oLl,ba_ck_.I.~_c.~!!,~n.~__._
monoxide emlssfons In ,af,.banks required bY the Natfonal Ambient
Afr QualftY standards Is expected to be met by the rederal Motor
vehicle Program.p~ohfbftlon 0'unattended cars le,t Id'lfns,and
~~mpletl~.o~bypass ~oadway~, _
TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.III:Permit System,Report APTD-0971,December 1971.
ABSTRACT
....B.!~.l!itr.~.;.J on_~~Lf'_!.r.~..LL.~.~,~.!.r_~I!!.!!.I1!:.~._..~...':.L~~_t.-!J_!E!.Q.J._Ln<;.lY.9...L.'1~
gufdelines for minimum re~uir~ments for various t~pes 0'Process
and fuel burning e~ufpment.AlsO desc~fbed are cOnditional permits
t~-;;~-;a t-;-;-ex~-mPt f-~~;:-io,;~-'-~'~d--;-~~;;~~-~f ~~---~-f-;;~~f't-';p-p l-~~t'f-~~'s-t----
~a r -'.l!~.s-L_sou.r c e __!!i_~r v '!.,i,l J~.~~!..L_~.!L~_y'.a 1~._c;_~n ~r:.~_t_~,;i~~J.~.li~!U!...L __._
and data management.state and local resPonsibilities are ~fven.
191
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TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.III:Permit System Appendices,Report APTD-0972,
December 1971.
ABSTRACT
The fo.lJ,..~.1Il f n9 t.PIII_~..~_~.rt ned:s.t.a t.I OJ!.!.r.J:LsC?\H·..~!_L!!..~!l!25!\o!!.'£!t..I
1II0dfffca t i o n,own~p/opepat.of"exlstfng soupce,and aff'PollutIon
__~0 n t r:.C?J_..!l.~~..h.!2..r...L~,-_~1 ~~......!!:'c ~I,lg!..cL ~!:_!.._!,J.!__!"e~J s~!:~J,1~,,_f C)f'_~ai1 !l-__
-t.he fOPIII fo,.the applIcation fo,.aut.holofty to constf'uct and/op
_~pmf t_tO_C)!'".'!~!l_:t!t!..__.-----------------------------------
TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.IV:Emerqency Episode Plan,Report APTD-0973,
December 1971.
ABSTRACT
_-!.h~edted ...fOP the thp!~.._J':y.~_l!_.?_t:_~~0l...1utfon epIsodes -
alef't,wa,.nfng,and eme,.gencY -apl!!qescrfbed.The alert level
marks the threshold a'wt"ch selective contf'Olactlon Isto be
--I nIt I a ted ;--r he lila,.n in-;ie~eC Ind I c~tios-"---h .al tj,-h-~-;a;,'d ~h I ch--------
requIres the curtaIlment of Certain fndqstplal actIvItIes
accord I ng-to~·pr,;4-~__;;_an;~d--~-chedu i.-.--n8-em;;~;enc;-1 e~-&l -def f ~-;,-s----
a threshOld of aIr pOllutfon whiCh constItutes a sUbstantfally
da~gej.o~s health h-ii.rd.The'st-ages-.;-;-SPeC(rfcal ii:i--deif~-ed-;""h
rupe=--~~~.....!'...o_!.~~_J_o,,_l!.~..!.!..!.__~i~...!'~!..~~.Ltes_~capbon mOno,~_~~fO.J._!..~~._
Sulfur dloxfde.Also measures ape establIShed to allevIate the
danger of each of these th,.ee pollutants at the tnf'.e ePfsode
-1 e~'e-ls;---of.;;:at I o~a-i-'Pr 0 ced~f'es r;.;cl-u'dT;g-wea t h eP;-ro~castI n~-r-·---
__~a1 I tl.!_da1:a a=_quf s.!.t..!..~--!_~=.!..:_~__I~f epI ~~~~ag!.~.epf..:;s:.:o:.:d:..:e=---_
actIOn plan ImPlementatIon,and Source surveIllance ape detaIled.
192
TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.IV:Emergency Episode Plan Appendices,
Report APTD--0974,December 1971.
ABSTRACT
TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.V:Surveillance System,Report APTD-0975,
December 1971.
ABSTRACT
__.El<~tt~_!La.!.!'~C!J..!.!l~J.~~_d.at~._~~:t:"-~r!n~--!·-....?g.ra'!'s_ar:"_A"~.~!:..f_t?!,_d_._
sePa ..atel~FO ..the Cook 1nl ..t AI"Qual1t~Cont ..ol R ..glon,Fa.I ..banks
_.__N'?.r~..._S~.!L .._eo "_<;l ~gh I ..~n<lt ...~.r::~ma I "Ii!!.._'?f:_t!'l"_sta te!_1'1!"i",um .._-..-----
fede"al ..equl ....m.nts fo ..al ..quallt~sv ..v ..llla n ce In "a e ...of t .....s e
.a ..eas..I.lL g ..:t.ai 1l!!4 I :.an da"ur".y..Il.ta nee .s~st"m tOme_et_tn'"'Is..--------
p ..oposed.samPle collection t ..c"'nlqu~s and met"'ods of data
lI.a ndlJ.!'lLa..!1.cLaJl.at~sl~__w"'J.c'"_a,:~_t'?_t!e_.c °I)s Ls!,..'!L~_h ~<?,!gh o~~.~h "-•__
state a ..e d ..sc"lbed.AlSO d ..talled a ...exPe ..lmental met ...ods ~o ..
stud~lng efrects of avtomotlv ..t ..afr1c on total suspended pa..tlel&s
pa ..t I cl e'5 j ze -d-'st';~b~t f;;;';as;f~~~-t.jon .~(sa';;;'i-e..-;i';~';t-';'~~~~-d----
v ~r:.!a t Ion In _du_s_~_2 a 1 1.III !.th _.samp I}n",e lev &.!'t'?I'!_~...__.....--_...----
193
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TRW Systems Group,Redondo Beach,California,Air Quality Implementation Plan
for the State of Alaska,Vol.VI:Resources,Report APTD-0976,December 1971.
ABSTRACT
2!:e a,S a f'r!...~s fbi.!f t.~f t.h.f n t.ne s to ate w f de a f r Po 11 u t f 0 n co 0 t r 0 1
Program are outlined,fnClvdfng mana.e~ent,engineerfng,
_~nfo"'~~..!.me.!!_~t and te~hnf~al servL!=e~.Lan!i__",~ol,,~tr·and ...ey-nu_n~~~~_
'or ~hese t.asks are estimated.Exfsting manPower and r.y.nue
--!:'..!~~l""c_~_~_.'ro_n·LY_~!'~~.~.s st~te.l~ca!.t_~fJ~!:J...Y_~t.agen..cf.s ar._
surve~ed;speci,ic proJectfons concernfng requfred p.rs~nn.l and
---5!.~.Lt~Leql!.f Pmen tar.desc r i bed_!.__.T a.x a t f 21!..L_!,"e r mf t f'e._~~.n a 1t f es L_
state assistance.and ,ederal assfstance are reyenue SourceSt
194
General Summaries and Overviews
The references in this section.include the following topics:
General summaries of air pollution and its associated problems in
the cold regions,specifically Alaska.
195
Al aska Air Qual ity,1981.
Unidentified manuscript discussing carbon monoxide,nitrogen,dioxide,
acid rain and ozone levels in Alaska.
Benson,Carl,S.A.Bowling and G.Weller,Urban climates in Alaska,
Environments,Vol.15,No.2,1983.
ABSTRACT
Summary of the winter climate,meteorology,heat island,-ice fog and
air quality in Fairbanks,with some reference to Anchorage and Prudhoe Bay.
196
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Benson,Carl S.;Kenneth R.Rizzo,Air pollution in Alaska,University of Alaska;
National Weather Service Forecast Office,Fairbanks,Alaska,No.33(5),
October 1980,p.211-215.
ABSTRACT
More than three-fourths of Alaska's popUlation is clustered
tightly around two urban centers:Anchorage and Fairbanks.
Natural regenerative processes there are too sluggish to'
permit rapid recovery from man-made disturbances.In
Fairbanks,·impermeable permafrost complicates the disposal of
human waste products.Especially in winter,the air over
Fairbanks and many smaller Alaskan communities is
exceptionally stable and prone to stagnation and,therefore,
vUlnerable to air pollution with even a relatively modest
input of pollutants.The high potential for air pollution in
Alaskan lowlands results from a combination of very low winds
and strong temperature inversions,which are frequent and
persistent in the colder months of the year.The inversions
trap pollutants below them and prevent effective dilution of
the pollutants by mixIng with higher air layers.This type of
low temperature air pollution occurs also in Whitehorse.Yukon
Territory.and in the areas of increasing development of
Canadian oil sands in northern Alberta.Another type of air
pollution exists in the fjords of southeastern Alaska.·such as
at Glacier Bay National Monument.Air pollution has surfaced
on the Arctic coast of Alaska with the petroleum development
at Prudhoe Bay.One of the most striking examples of this is
the exhaust plumes 'extending for 20 mi or more across the
Arctic tundra and adjacent .Arctic Ocean.These plumes can be
seen on satellite photographs.•
Bigler,S.G.;K.Mackenzie,R.A.Willis,Air pollution conditions in Fairbanks,
Alaska,World Meteorological Organization,Geneva,WMO-No.368,1974,p.188-
195.
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Meteorological conditions affecting air pollution in the
Fairbanks.Alaska area are reviewed.Nighttime temperature
inversions formed by radiational cooling of the land surface
are present on most summer nights but are usually destroyed by
the warm afternoon sun.Ice fog is a visible indicator of C
winter inversions When the temperature is colder than about
-30 C.The ice fog results from the combination of water
vapor and man-made pollution generated by combustion
activities.Carbon monoxide concentrations in Fairbanks
exceed National Ambient Air Ouality Standards about 72%of the
days during the November-March period.Particulate levels at
downtown sites average 275 micrograms/cu m during the winter.
and the geometric mean diameter of the particles is about 2.8 C~
micron.The annual average airborne lead concentration for
Fairbanks is 3.i7 micrograms/cu.,ranking third highest in
the United States.
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197
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Gosink,Thomas A.and Carl S.Benson,Aspects of Far Northern Air Pollution
with Particular Reference to Fairbanks,Alaska,Geophysical Institute
Report UAG R 291,University of Alaska,July 1982.
ABSTRACT
This report provides an insight into the principal meteorological
factors influencing air pollution in Fairbanks,gives an up-to-date review
of the principal components found in local air p~llution,and identifies
areas in which further research is necessary
Hickey,John L.S.,The Air of Anchorage--Today and Tomorrow,A1aska Med.,9(i)
March 1966,B p.
Air sampling results obtained in Anchorage since 1953 are
discussed particularly in relation to possible corrective
measures.while present knOWledge obtained in other areas and
how it might be appl ied for prevention of future pollution in
this area are also considered.High particulate loadings were
recorded for several months after the volcanic eruption of
Mount Spurr,in vUly 1953,with a fairly rapid reduction in
ash and fallout in the following years.Summer
dust-suppressing measures and street paving are recommended.
The Slight seasonal difference in organic pat'ticulate
indicates that the bulk of the organic load may be due to
year-roun activities (industry.power generation.automobiles,
incineration)rather than to heating.Pollution from vehicle
exhausts may become a problem In Anchorage sooner than it
might in a city of comparable size in a warmer climate because
of the widespread practice of leaving engines idling during
long periods in the winter.Use of electricity and gas in
domestic and commercial heating systems causes much less air
pollution than use of oil or coal.Control of open burning is
recommended.Regardless of the degree to which Anchorage
experiences ice fog,it is clear that Its formation requires
not only a low temperature but water vapor in th air and
particUlate nuclei.Particulate matter and pollutants in the
air are presented tabularly.
198
Ho1ty,Joseph G.,Air Quality in a Subarctic Community Fairbanks,Alaska,
Arctic,Journal of the Arctic Institute of North America,Vol.26,
No.4,December 1973.
ABSTRACT.Expanding population centred around Fairbanks has brought concern
that air pollution in the area may become intolerable.The atmosphere of the lower
Chena River Valley is extremely stable during much of the year.Temperature inversions
are believed to be among the steepest in the world.Inversions at '-35°C.or below are
characterized bya dense layer of "ice fog."This study found that pollution levels
doubled or tripled during periods of extreme cold inversions.Some pollutants ap-
proached national urban averages,while total suspended matter and carbon monoxide
averages exceedt:d ambient standards.Since air contaminants as well as ice fog increase
with human habitation,the possibility of pollution reaching hazardous proportions in
this subarctic community should be viewed with urgency.
Judkins,C.P.and J.C.Emerson,Air Pollution in the Cook Inlet Basin,ALASKA
MED,No.10{i),March 1968,p.45-47.
The city of Anchorage and the surrounding area of the Cook
Inlet Basin have a fairly high air pollution potential.
According to the meteorological studies by the U.S.Weather
Bureau.temperature inversions are common.In winter.ice fog
is often formed.A warning is given that with an increase in
air pollutant sources,the danger of serious air pollution
incidents during the winter inversion periods will become more
pronounced.While the air pollution problem today is minimal,
steps have been taken to preserve fresh air.The Tri-60rough
Air Resources Management District has been formed to encompass
three boroughs with a total of 136,000 inhabitants in 39.800
sq.miles.The Greater Anchorage Area Borough has been
authorized to apply for funds with which to perform research
and studies necessary to the establishment of air pollution
control standards.This development project will be directed
by an engineer who will be assisted by a sanitarian and a
chemist.The project is unique In that it will be conducted
from a preventative rather than a corrective approach.Three
to four years will be needed to define the existing air
quality through sampling,to def inethe ventilation system of
the Tri-Borough District,and then to define what emissions
may be allowed or reduced.HH
199
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Kingsle~,Kay,A Look at the Future of Hazardous Contamination of the Circumpolar
Envlronment,Arch.Environ.Health,Vol.17,p.653-661,October 1968.
ABSTRACT
Cu~~ent ~nd"potentlal contam'natjon 0't~e c,~c~~pola~envl~o~ment
--bY-mT';-'~g'"Olnrl mf;:;e.:'~Tp;;-oc ..;s'i;;-s oPe~atf ons'f;;-~;Vi~~ed',-~--t:;'~-m"~-----
_._c)i-~I ~;.!?!,IcalL_~!'..!"!I ~aJ l..~_I'I5!_~~g '_~n ~=-U_d..!__w~s.!._~~_R!.())ogl ~a !._
wastes in t~e 'o~m 0'bOlcte~Ial.v'~al.and zoonot'c entlt'es OlFe
__":Olf'_!'o,!,?U _of _c~.!!_.!-~,".L"~~!n9__"t."--IJ~!,.!:m_a!'"0!i_~L as _e1'I de ll_c:ed ,bid _~~.!_._
~ecove~!d 0'vIable bacte"ia ~~esent 'n pe"'ma'rost.ChemIcal
~"~-!I__F.'.!.r:~'cu._~r.~X.,~enJ~__~~un~~__<!!.~~ar_g_!.c:!..~~__~t'~_~J,-r _
'rom ,"Ine~al P~oc.s51ns op.,.a~Ions~,pose a part'eulaF haza~d 'n
v'.w 0'the aFet'c me teo''0109'cal condItions w~Ieh ravo"
-tem~-';ra:t.V;;'I-;;-v..;,s I;n-~;;d--l~w ';;I-;;-;;;;';;;nt-~---A~-se"I'~-Ill;t;-F level
Inc~eas~s or '~om 0.0\-0.25 PPm are c'ted 'or 'ndustrlOlI areas.
Do';;;;ti c-;re-;ar:a:tlons";;:'ch -a~-c~rbo-;;-(;trac",l;;F-"de'a';db;;;%-en';--~-
Pose hOlzards under the pOor vent'lat'ng eond'~'onS 0'arctic---;;O~-sl ;;9:-"0 d nro~s e mfSSTO-;';-sco-;u'-;;t;;-g;idehld d e sa-~d -h'9hc.:e'-r;...:;.------
41'phat,c alcohols are c'ted 'n connect,on w'th petrochem'cal-ope;'-at'ons;"'Sul-fu;:-d'·ox,dlt--fsgfve~o-i(I napPl"ecfable-.;.uant.Tt.f.-s----
'n gOld or-roast'ng in the Arctic.Pest'c,des also contam'nate
-to:he'A j.ctfc-;-Ow 1,;";;-iC;-.';-sp~aYl;g-orT"5"c-ttc,"Ci"S ·"o'c 0 n ir;oC t-h -;--------
~F01"'~Summer 'nspct pOPulat'on 0'the ArctiC.Rad'onvcl'de-ll/&Sites·~'the Af'cti c r"Sul to I"FOOl ~-inT ng'ar.d 5",-1 tf ng o"-rat';':;n-s-.-n-d"""'-
_,.,ete~::~)_~,~..!..~~'strlbutfon 0'",~~e5 'rom at.".!'...!:.Pa,.ts 0'th-,_
glob".
200
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136,137,138A,139,163
INDEX OF FIRST AUTHORS
Aamot,H.
Aeresearch,Inc.
Alaska Dept.of Environmental Conservation
Anderson,J.H.
Armstrong,W.C.
Ashby,H.A.
Austin T.C.
Barrie,L.A.
Bennett,F.L.
Benson,C.S.
Bigler,S.G.
Bilello,M.A.
Bodhaine,B.A.
Borys,R.D.
Bottenheim,J.W.
Bowditch,F.W.
Bowling,S.A.
Brown,R.J.
Brydges,T.G.
Carlson,R.F.
Carlson,1.N.
Cavanagh,L.A.
Chang,T.Y.
Chapman,C.C.
Chapp 1e,-1.
Char1 ton,R.B.
Clarke,J.P.
Cooper,J.A.
Coutts,H.J.
Crow,W.
Csanady,G.T.
Da i sey,J.M.
Darby,D.A.
Davi dson,C.1.
Duce,R.A.
Eccleston,B.H.
Egan,W.A.
Environment Canada
Environmental Protection Agency
201
Page(s)
180
73
133,181
157
73
133
134
102
161
58,59,74, 75,181,196,197
197
59
102
103
46
134
60, 61,62,63,76
77
171
64
103
104
135
135
157
65
77
158
78,
163
78
104
105
106
46
139
182
161, 162,180
182
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Fairbanks North Star Borough
Flyger,H.
Frizzera,A.
Gallagher,J.R.
Gall oway,J.N.
Gegen,E.W.
Gamara,K.E.
Gilmore,1.M.
Gosink,T.A.
Grosjean,o.
Gotaas,Y.
Halter,B.C.
Heidam,N Z.
Hei ntzenberg,J.
Hellenthal,M.E.
Henmi,T.
Herron,r4.
Hi cks,J.R.
Hickey,J.
Hil eman,B.
Hoff,R.M.
Ho 1mgren,B.
Hol ty,J.G.
Ho 1 tzma n,R.B.
Hoppe,E.R.
Hoyl es,M.R.
Huffman,P.J.
Jaenicke,R.
Jayaweera,K.
Jaworowski,Z.
Jenkins,T.F.
Joy,R.
Judkins,C.P.
Kailing,S.H.
Kerr,R.
Kingsley,K.
Koehler,o.Eo
Koerner,R.M.
Kumai,M.
Lafleur,R.J.
Lannesfors,H.
Laroe,S.
Legrand,M.R.
Leighton,H.
Leonard,L.E.
Page(s)
164,183,184,189
107
140
185
171
186
165
140,165,166
47,198
48
79
107
108
108,109,11 0
187
79
110
80
198
1l0A
111
66
199
172
80
66,141,142
77,81.
112
67
50
166
158
199
144
113
200
143
173
82,83,84, 85,86
166A
111
159
173
115
86,144,145
202
MacKenzie,K.W.
Marshall,W.F.
McCandless,R.G.
McFadden,T.
McMull en,K.
Midurski,T.
Miller,J.M.
Mitchell,Jr.,M.J.
Morachevsky,V.G.
Moyer,T.
National Resource Ecology Laboratory
Nelson,W.G.
NEA,Inc.
Norbeck,J.M.
Norton,S.A.
Norton,W.R.
NTIS
Page(s)
49
146
159
87,88
147
188
115
116
49
188
167
89,90
159A
167
174
68
89
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Ohtake,T.
011 e,O.
Ostrovchov,N.
Ottar,B.
Overrein,L.N.
Patterson,C.C.
Patterson,D.E.
Peake,E..
Peterson,J.T.
Pol itte,F.E.
Porteous,A.
Raatz,W.E.
Rahn,K.A.
Rancite1li,L.A.
Rasmussen,R.A.
Reichart,P.
Reiter,E.R.
Rezek,J.F.
Richardson,G.L.
Rogen,H.
Sakurai,K.
Schjo1 dager,J.
Schmidt,M.
Schofield,E.
Schweiss,J.W.
Senes,Consultants,Ltd.
Shaw,G.E.
Shaw,R.W.
Shewchuk,S.R.
Sierra Research
Spindt,R.S.
Stone,R.K.
203
90, 91, 92, 93,94,95
148 roo
148, 149,150
\,j
116,175
174
50
117 C
50
118
97
96
119,120 C
121 ,122,123,124,125,175
176
51
51
68,126
69
97
126
98
52,53,54
70 (
176,177
168
159A
127,128,129,130,131
177
177A
54,150,151 ,152,168
152
153
C
Taylor,G.W.
Thomas,C.W.
Ti gue,J.E.
TRW Systems Group
Turner,R.K.
Verrelli,L.D.
Voelz,F.L.
Walker,K.E.
We 11 er,G.E.
Wendler,G.
Weschler,C.J.
Whelpdale,D.M.
Willis,G.B.
Wi 1 son,E.
Winchester,J.W.
204,'
Page{s)
154
55
189
169,190, 191,192, 193,194
154
155
155
98
99
70, 71,99
131
178
100
178
55,56