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HomeMy WebLinkAboutAPA3214©~~~[L REPORT 78-28 Tundra disturbances and recovery following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, Northern Alaska USGS II~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3 8595 00003011 9 For conversion of-51 metric units to U.S./British customary units of measurement consult ASTM Standard £380, Metric Practice Guide, published by the American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. Cover: Oblique aerial photograph of Fish Creek Test Well No. 1 in 1949 (view west). Drill rig with canvas enclosure is in the center. Bulldozed and multiple pass trails extend away f;om· tbe' s-ite, and two drainage ditches in the. center drai'n the area into debris~littered pG.nds in the foreground. Camp Creek is in the background. (Photograph provided by U.S. Navy.] ARLIS ALASKA RESOURCES LIBRARY & INFORMATION SERVICES 3150C STREET, SUITE 100 ANCHORAGE, ALASKA 99503 CRREL Report 78-28 Tundra disturbances and recovery following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, Northern Alaska D.E. Lawson, J. Brown, K.R. Everett, A.W. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B.M. Murray, D.F. Murray and P.J. Webber j. ·-~Y ·;· . ...-.... ""----~ J LIBRAPY [_,; _---,J,-' :? ~'VICES December 1978 3l.3QC:j_;c: __ ::-., -~;,-,~ ~ _] ANCHOfL'-\GE, .. /;a_Lr\S:~A S J:..5Q3 Prepared for U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY By DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Public Inquiries Office u.s. Geologt~·E: - 423() u;£ve~~~~Y~ _Rnl. 1()1 An~g{};c~~~~ ·---. Est l 997 . --------------------- COLD REGIONS RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING LABORATORY _ CORPS OF ENGINEERS _ HANOVER, NEW HAMPSHIRE 03755 G-8 ~ '//)( 1 c75 nP•7g,z.) Unclassified SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered) REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM 1. REPORT NUMBER r GOVT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER CRREL Report 78-28 4. TITLE (and Subtitle) 5. TYPE OF REPORT a PERIOD COVERED TUNDRA DISTURBANCES AND RECOVERY FOLLOWING THE 1949 EXPLORATORY DRILLING, FISH CREEK, NORTHERN ALASKA 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER 7. AUTHOR(a) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s) D.E. Lawson, J. Brown, K.R. Everett, A.W. J ohfiSon, V. Komarkova, B.M. Murray, D.F. Murray and P.J. Webber 9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK AREA a WORK UNIT NUMBERS U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory DA Project 4A 1611 02AT24 Hanover, New Hampshire 03755 Scientific Area 02, Work Unit 002 11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE December 1978 U.S. Geological Survey 13. NUMBER OF PAGES Washington, D.C. 91 14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME lie ADDRESS(If dllferant from Controlling Office) 15. SECURITY CLASS. (of this report) Unclassified 15a. DECLASSIFICATION/DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE 16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report) Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abstract entered in Block 20, If different from Report) 18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Partially funded by the Directorate of Facilities Engineering, Office, Chief of Engineers. 19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse aida ll necessary and identify by block number) Arctic regions Tundra Environmental effects Vegetation Oil pollution Permafrost 20. ABSTRACT ("CimtiZiue ...,. ........ , .. tJftbl II,..,.,....,. -.lld&rUlty by block number) A 1949 drill site in the Naval Petroleum Reserve Number 4, Alaska, the Fish Creek Test Weill, was examined in August 1977 to determine the disturbance caused by drilling activities and to analyze the response and recovery of the vegetation, soils, permafrost, and surficial materials to that disturbance. Man-made disturbances include bladed and unbladed vehicular trails, a winter runway, excavations, pilings, remains of camp structures, steel drums and other solid waste, and hydrocarbon spills. The most intense and lasting disturbance to the vegetation, soils, and permafrost resulted from bulldozing of surface materials, diesel fuel spills, and trails developed by multiple passes of vehicles. Thermokarst subsidence and thermal erosion, caused by increased thaw of permafrost due to disturbance, DD FORM \JAN 73 1473 EDJTION OF 1 NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE Unclassified SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (Jnren Data Entered) Unclassified SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(When Data Entered) 20. Abstract (cont'd) resulted in the development of a hummocky topography and water-filled depressions at the drill site. Some ice wedges disturbed in 1949 are still melting. Soil disturbance ranges from minor modification to complete destruction of the soil morphology. The effects of hydrocarbon spills are still detectable in the soils. Little of the original vegetation remains in the intensely disturbed area, such as around the drill pad where a grass-dominated community prevails. After 28 years, the vegetation cover is closed over most mesic sites, shallow wet sites are well vegetated, and xeric sites, areas of diesel fuel spills and areas of severe erosion remain mostly bare. Pioneering plant species on bare, disturbed areas are members of mature vegetation assemblages from the undisturbed tundra which have high reproductive and dispersal capacities. A hypothetical model of natural revegetation and vegetation recovery is proposed. Vascular plants, bryophytes, and lichens were collected from the Fish Creek site area for the first time. Recommendations on cleanup and restoration of sites are presented. ii Unclassified SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(When Data Entere~ PREFACE This report was prepared by Dr. Daniel E. Lawson, Research Physical Scienli~t. and Dr. jerry Brown, Chief, l::arth Sciences Branch, Research Division, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and l:ngineering Laboratory; and by Or. KayP R. l:verdt of the Institute of Polar Studies, Ohio State University; Or. Albert W. john~on of S,lll Diego State University; Barbara M. Murray and Dr. David I. Murrdy oi th~· In- stitute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska; and Or. Vera Korn,1rkova dnd Or. Patrick ). Webber of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine ResecJrch, University of Colorado. (Authors aft1~r Lawson are listed alphdbelicc~lly.) This study was performed in cooperation with and prim,nily fund1~d by tlw U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Additional funding wa~ providt•d by LJA l'rOJP< t 4A1b1102AT24, Research in Snow, Ice and Fro/en Ground, Scienl1flc Art-d 02, Cold Regions l:nvironmental Interactions, Work Unit 002, Culd Regions f.n- vironmental Factors. Paul Sellmann of CRREL c1nd Or. Stephen Young of the CPntPr tor Nortlwrn Studies technically rPvit•wed this report. The authors wish to express their appreciation to tlw following llldividuc~l~ diHI organiLations. Or. Max Brewer and Or. G~·orgt• Cryc of thp USCS providt-d con- siderable encouragenwnt c1nd assistance throughout tlw planning diHI !'X<'culion of the study. Husky Oil Co., primary contrc~ctor for curn·nt t•xplur,JIIon in tlw Na- tional Petroleum Reserv1~. Alc1~ka, providt~d exu·IIPnt logi~l1< -,upporl. john Schindler of Husky Oil's Anchordge Office and Dr. V,d ZcHlnik, uses. RP'>tOil, Virginia, were extrenwly lwlptul in providing inform,Jiion. I h<' '>ludy WdS facilitated by the rnesenu· of several on-going U<RI:L prow<'' ,dong tlw hc~ul road and the Yukon RivPr. l·iPid parties associc1ted with lh!''><' I t·ckr,d Highwc~y Administration, Department of l:nergy and CRRI:L projpch dlong the road were used at Fish Creek. Methods, results and experit•nce devPlopPd from thew studies and research funded by the National Science Foundation were Pmployed. The information developed from the Fish Creek site is being disseminc~ted in conjunction with the US-USSR Environmental Protection Agreement's project Protection of Northern l:cosystems. As part of that proj~·ct, reporb and informa- tion on the introduction of plant species onto disturbed tundra sites are being ex- changed with organiLations based in Leningrad, Moscow, Norilsk, Y<~kutsk, and Magadan. A set of vascular plants collected on the sitP is bt-ing exchanged be- tween the University of Alaska Herbarium (ALA) c~nd the Komarov 13otanical In- stitute in Leningrad (LE) where there is both an intense inter~·st c1nd experli~P in the Alaskan arctic flora. The contents of this report are not to be used for advertising or promot1ont~l purposes. Citation of brand names does not constitute <1n <jffici,d endorsenwnt or approval of the use of such commercial products. iii CONTENTS Page Abstract ..................................................... · .. Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Introduction (J. Brown)........................................... 1 Location and background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Study objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The site (D.E. Lawson, J. Brown and K.R. Everett)..................... 3 History...................................................... 3 Regional and local setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Types of disturbance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Disturbance of permafrost, massive ground ice, and surficial materials (D.E. Lawson and J. Brown)................................... 14 Introduction................................................. 14 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Discussion and conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Soils and their reaction to impact and hydrocarbon spills (K.R. Everett). . . 25 Soils........................................................ 25 Anthropogenically disturbed soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Summary.................................................... 29 Floristics of the disturbances and neighboring locales (A.W. Johnson, B.M. Murray and D.F. Murray). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Vascular plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Bryophytes and lichens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Description of disturbance and recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Discussion and conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Geobotanicaf mapping, vegetation disturbance and recovery (V. Komarkova and P.J. Webber)................................. 41 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Description of mapping units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Predisturbance site status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Present site status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Analysis of disturbance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Proposed model of revegetation and vegetation recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Recommendations for future research (D.E. Lawson, J. Brown, K.R. Everett, A.W. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B.M. Murray, D.F. Murray and P.J. Webber)............................................... 52 Cleanup recommendations for the Fish Creek site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Restoration of new work areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Specific research recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Literature cited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Photo credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Appendix A. Results of pollen analyses (P.J. Webber). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Appendix B. Morphologic descriptions for selected soil profiles from Fish Creek site (K.R. Everett). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Appendix C. Alphabetical list of taxa of vascular plants collected at Fish Creek site (D.F. Murray). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 iv Page Appendix D. Alphabetical list of bryophytes and lichens collected at Fish Creek site (B.M. Murray). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Appendix E. Vascular plant composition and percentage cover in releves representative for the Fish Creek mapping units (V. Komarkova and P.J. Webber) ....................................... :....... 75 Appendix F. Selected environmental variables for releves representative for the Fish Creek mapping units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. Location map of NPRA and the Fish Creek site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2. Location map of the study area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3. Fish Creek camp, 7 September 1949. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4. Oblique aerial view of Fish Creek camp on 28 April1949.......... 5 5. Thawing moss for insulation, Fish Creek camp on 18 April1949. . . . . 6 6. Map of the Fish Creek site showing distribution of debris and other disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . facing pg. 7 7. Aerial photograph of the Fish Creek site obtained in 1977 from which the disturbance map was constructed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 8. Aerial photograph of Fish Creek site taken in 1948 prior to distur- bance................................................... 10 9. Bladed trail with berm....................................... 11 10. Bladed trail without berm.................................... 11 11. Multiple pass vehicle trails in center and left foreground of photo.. 11 12. Single pass vehicle tracks near Camp Creek..................... 11 13. Individual drums, some crushed, scattered randomly on ground sur- face. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 14. Groups of drums........................................... 11 15. Scattered wood, wood stack, individual drums, and a large drum pile litter the surface to the north of the drill pad............... 12 16. Concrete drill pad with pile supports, on and off that pad. . . . . . . . . 12 17. Photo of debris from drill pad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 18. Oblique aerial photograph showing several large wood piles with other debris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 19. Typical diesel fuel spill on 28 July 1977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 20. Isolated crude oil spills from rusted drum in seasonal shallow pond. 13 21. Beaded drainage, Camp Creek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 22. Trough formed by thermokarst subsidence due to man-induced dis- turbance above ice wedges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 23. Bladed trail with berm piles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 24. Cross section across Camp Creek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 25. Water depth in beads measured in Camp Creek, 29-30 July 1977.... 18 26. Profiles and cross sections along trench of bladed trail............ 19 27. Ice wedge uncovered from beneath vehicular trail............... 20 28. Sketch of vertical profile through the ice wedge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 29. Aerial photograph of Fish Creek camp area, with location of 100 X 100-m area indicated by four dots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 30. Detailed map of types of disturbance and the location of subsi- dence caused by melting of ice wedges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 31. Topographic map of 100 X 100-m grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 v Figure Page 32. Composite graph of thaw depths measured in 100 x 100-m grid on 30 July 1977................................................ 24 33. Thaw depth variations with relative intensity of disturbance....... 24 34. Idealized cross section of the principal landform units and their associated soil profiles at Fish Creek site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 35. Compression of surface by tracked vehicle, 27 July 1977. . . . . . . . . . 27 36. Schematic cross section of soil from track pictured in Figure 35. . . . 27 37. Hydrocarbon spills typical of main drill area at Fish Creek. . . . . . . . . 28 38. General aspect of 55-gal. drum dump areas peripheral to main drill site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 39. Bladed trail from the Fish Creek camp area to Camp Creek, 28 July 1977.................................................... 32 40. Turfy berm on the edge of trail shown in Figure 39. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 41. Thermokarst pond in bladed trail west of drill site occupied by al- most pure stands of Carex aquati/is with lesser amounts of Erio- phorum angustifolium and Eutrema edwardsii. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 42. Base area at site 2 adjacent to trail of Figure 41 covered by a gray- white precipitate on the surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 43. Debris field at site 3 covered by scattered drums, boards, etc. . . . . . 34 44. Site 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 45. Coke bottle nearly overwhelmed by vegetation at site 4 .. ~. . . . . . . . 35 46. Pile of about 100 drums, two to three high in the center, on high- centered polygon at site 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 47. "Luxuriance effect" of drums resulting in increased plant growth at site 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 48. Elongate stack of drums in two rows at site 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 49. Diesel fuel spill on sandy substrate at site 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 50. Diesel fuel spill at site 8 with Eriophorum scheuchzeri and Arc- tagrostis latifolia cover of about 10%.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 51. Scattered drums on high-centered polygon between two small lakes at site 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 · 52. Scattered drums on low-centered polygon where damage was mini- mal, site 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 53. Widely scattered drums on low-centered polygons with little effect on vegetation, site 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 54. Hydrocarbon spill, probably diesel fuel, located in area formerly oc- cupied by Carex aquatilis at site 11........................... 38 55. Site 12 consists of partly collapsed stack of barrels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 56. South side of drums at site 12 with complete vegetation cover, in- cluding Salix pulchra...................................... 38 57. Drums on low-centered polygons with increased wet meadow species between them site 13, view north. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 58. Low-centered polygon area where growth is suppressed, apparently due to oil spillage, at site 14................................ 39 59. Predisturbance vegetation of the Fish Creek test well site, 1948 ..... facing pg. 42 60. Vegetation of the Fish Creek test well site, August, 1977 ........... following Fig. 59 61. Mapping unit 2, one of the most extensive,includes areas dominated by Eriophorum vagina tum ssp. spissum tussocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 62. Low-centered polygons are common; these landforms usually sup- port upland tundra on rims and Carex aquatilis marsh in centers and troughs.............................................. 43 63. Salix rotundifolia-dominated snowpatch vegetation occurs in the lee of elevated ridges, bluffs, and stream banks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 vi Figure Page 64. Cassiope tetragona spp. tetragona-dominated communities are found in snowpatches with shorter duration of snow cover than the Salix rotundifolia communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 65. Subhygric communities dominated by Salix and Carex taxa occupy less well-drained sites than mapping unit 2 both on flat upland sur- faces and in drained lake basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 66. Carex aquatilis ssp. stans-dominated marshes are common along streams, on lake edges, in low-centered polygon centers, and in high-centered polygon troughs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 67. Salix rotundifolia is the mosf important plant in the vegetation oc- cupying disturbed snowpatch sites at Fish Creek, but few other plants associated with natural snowpatch vegetation are present. 45 68. Successional snowpatch vegetation is limited to the extensively damaged area near the creek neighboring the test well site. . . . . . . 46 69. Detailed map of vegetation in the area immediately adjacent to the Fish Creek Drill site, 1977 ................................... facing pg. 46 70. The chain of events subsequent to surface disturbance of tundra vegetation ............................................... facing pg. 48 TABLES Table I. Daily maximum and minimum temperatures for North Slope sites, 26-30July1977 ........................................... 7 II. Classification and description of disturbances . 8 Ill. Hydrocarbon contaminants from selected spills at Fish Creek site .. 28 IV. Key to vegetation mapping units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 vii SUMMARY During 1949, the Fish Creek Test Well 1 was drilled in the Naval Petroleum Reserve Number 4 as a stratigraphic test. The drill site has been unoccupied since that time. This study examined the disturbance caused by drilling activities and analyzed the response and recovery of the vegetation, soils, permafrost, and sur- ficial materials to that disturbance. The Fish Creek site (70°18'36"N, 151 °52'40"W) lies 28 km south of Atigaru Point and 26 km southwest of the westernmost branch of the Colville River. Equipment was freighted from Barrow to this site beginning on 31 January 1949, with camp construction beginning on 15 March and ending on 15 April. Drill rig construction began on 1 April. The well was spudded on 17 May and the full depth of the hole (2140 m) attained on 13 August. A production test was run from 10 September to 25 October. Site abandonment took place shortly after this time. The terrain of the Alaskan Arctic Coastal Plain, upon which the Fish Creek site is located, is flat to gently rolling and dominated by oriented lakes and drained lake basins. Permafrost occurs beneath the entire region; at the drill site it ap- parently extends about 180 m below the surface. Fine to medium sand of the Meade River Unit of the Gubik Formation of Quaternary Age underlies the Fish Creek site. The near-surface portion of this sediment has been reworked by eolian, fluvial, and lacustrine processes. Poorly drained to undrained lake basins surround the site. A mixture of high-and low-centered :Jolygons of low relief cover the drill site surface, whereas large, low-centered polygons dominate the lake basins. Man-made disturbances on the Fish Creek site include bladed and unbladed vehicular trails, a winter runway, excavations, pilings, remains of camp struc- tures, steel drums and other solid waste, and hydrocarbon spills. The intensity of disturbance decreases generally with distance from the drill pad. Vehicular trails and tracks resulted in the greatest areal extent of damage. The most lasting ef- fects on the vegetation, soils, and permafrost appear to be bulidozing of surface materials for trails and excavations, diesel fuel spills, and trails developed by multiple passes of vehicles. Disturbances at the Fish Creek site have resulted in degradation of the ice-rich permafrost. Analysis of the effects of natural thermal erosion in Camp Creek (unofficially named) indicate that massive ground ice (excess ice) extends to a minimum depth of 6 to 7 m beneath the site. Because the permafrost contains ex- cess ice, mainly in the form of ice wedges, increased thaw due to disturbance has caused thermokarst subsidence and, in some cases, thermal erosion. Thermokarst processes have in turn resulted in the development of a hummocky topography (maximum relief about 2m) and water-filled derressions in the immediate area of the drill site and along trails extending from the site. Partly vegetated thaw ponds and troughs containing freshly slumped materials indicate that melting of ice wedges triggered by the 1949 disturbance is still occurring. Thaw depths measured in a 100 X 100-m area around the drill pad suggest that thaw varies with the intensity of disturbance. Intensely disturbed areas (heavily trafficked or bladed) are thawed to a mean depth of 53 em. Less intensely disturbed and un- disturbed areas are thawed to a mean depth of 32 em, suggesting that thermal equilibrium and partial recovery may have taken place in the less intensely disturbed areas. viii The soils at the drill site are tentatively placed in two taxonomic orders: En- tisols (psamments and, provisionally, fluvents and aquents) and lnceptisols (aquepts and ochrepts). Histosols occur in the general area of the drill site, but they could not be examined in detail. Disturbances have resulted in the complete destruction of soil morphology in some areas. Soil horizons have been weakly re- established in disturbed areas over the last 28 years, although soils that were severely compressed by vehicles retain a compressed morphology. The effects of hydrocarbon spills of limited extent are still detectable chem- ically in the affected soils. Diesel fuel spills produced the most severe and lasting impact causing destruction of the vegetation and thaw beneath the spill to about twice its normal depth. Little recovery of the vegetation has occurred in 28 years. One hundred eighty-seven collections of vascular plants representing 158 taxa and about 500 collections of bryophytes and lichens were made from the Fish Creek site area. These collections, the first from the region, are housed at the Uni- versity of Alaska Herbarium. Significant northward extensions of range of the vas- cular plant species Carex atrofusca, C. marina, C. rupestris, C. williamsii, Betula nana, Arctous alpina, Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium uliginosum, and Erigeron humilis are recorded, with minor extensions of Carex vaginata, Potentilla hookeri- ana, Andromeda polifolia, Utricularia vulgaris, and Taraxacum phymatocarpum also recorded. A probable new species in the moss genus Barbula and two species previously unreported for Alaska, the moss Didymodon acutus, and the hepatic Lophozia collaris, were found on the berm of a bladed trail. The flora of the disturbed Fish Creek site and the undisturbed surrounding tun- dra differ only in frequency of occurrence and abundance of each species. For example, Ceratodon purpureus, Leptobryum pyriforme, Psilopilum cavifolium, gemmiferous Pohlia spp., and other mosses were more abundant at the drill site than in the undisturbed tundra. Weathered lumber, pilings, rotting canvas, turf over concrete pads and cement bags, 55-gal. steel drums, and areas of hydrocar- bon spills provide anomalous substrates for mosses and lichens. A limited num- ber of etiolated vascular plants are found on these substrates. Considerable disturbance to the plant communities, ranging from complete and presumably permanent disruption to relatively minor effects, occurred dur- ing occupation of the Fish Creek site. The most intense disturbances, such as those from concentrated vehicle traffic or bladed trails, significantly altered the vegetation. Areas with altered moisture relationships have been revegetated by local species different from those in the predisturbance vegetation on the site. Less intense disturbances have been substantially ameliorated in the last 28 years. The invasion of plant species on bare, disturbed areas repeatedly showed pioneers on wet substrates to include Eriophorum vaginatum, Saxifraga cernua, 5. nelsoniana, }uncus castaneus, }. biglumis, Draba /actea, Alopecurus a/pinus, Stel- laria laeta, Eriophorum angustifolium, Carex aquatilis and Eutrema edwardsii; on drier substrates, Arctagrostis latifolia, Poa arctica, Hieroch/oe a/pina, Luzula arc- tica, L. confusa, L. wahlenbergii and Trisetum spicatum soon dominate disturbed soils. Shrubby species are rarely seen as pioneers. Each of the above species has a high reproductive and dispersal capacity, either by seeds or vegetative propa- gules. These pioneering species are members of mature vegetation assemblages in the undisturbed tundra. Pioneering hepatics, mosses, and lichens are also members of the mature vegetation. The predisturbance vegetation and the present vegetation were examined, mapping units defined, and maps of the vegetation in 1948 and 1977 constructed. Little of the original vegetation remains in the intensely disturbed area surround- ing the drill pad. Vegetation in this area is now a grass-dominated community ix [Arctagrostis /atifolia, Poa arctica, Poa rigens (ap/igena)]. Areas of vehicular distur- bance adjacent to Camp Creek support Salix rotundifolia snow patch com- munities. Thermokarst troughs are dominated by pure stands of Carex aquatilis ssp. stans and Eriophorum angustifolium ssp. subarcticum. Vegetation response varies with the intensity and type of disturbance. Vegeta- tion cover is closed over most mesic sites after 28 years. Shallow wet sites are also vegetated. Xeric sites, areas of diesel fuel spills, and areas of severe erosion remain mostly bare today. The rates of natural revegetation and vegetation recovery following disturbance at the Fish Creek site are comparable to those found elsewhere in the Arctic. Secondary communities of "weedy" tundra plants, such as Braya humilis, which are a minor component of the undisturbed tundra vegetation, develop first on disturbed areas, but the replacement of these secondary communities by the natural communities of the undisturbed tundra may have begun. Less disturbed areas show a partial cover of the primary communities. A hypothetical model of natural revegetation and vegetation recovery, based in part on this study, is proposed. The intensity of disturbance, amount of ground ice, and site moisture are the primary factors controlling revegetation and recovery. Each pathway in the model represents a specific state of each of these factors. The Fish Creek site and similar sites in the Arctic should be used to study in detail the impact of man-made disturbance on the vegetation, soils, permafrost, surficial geology, and aquatic environment and their recovery after disturbance. Specific recommendations for cleanup, restoration and future research are pro- vided. X TUNDRA DISTURBANCES AND RECOVERY FOLLOWING THE 1949 ~XPLORATORY DRILLING, FISH CREEK, NORTHERN ALASKA D.E. Lawson, J. Brown, K.R. Everett, A.W. johnson, V. Komarkova, B.M. Murray, D.F. Murray and P.J. Webber INTRODUCTION ). Brown location and background During the period 1944 to 1953, 36 test wells were drilled within the Naval Petroleum Reserve Number 4* (Reed 1958) (Fig. 1). The region covered by those activities included the Arctic Coastal Plain and Foothills Provinces of the Arc- tic Slope. The entire region is located in the zone of continuous perennially frozen ground (per- mafrost) and covered by tundra vegetation. Dur- ing the period of petroleum exploration, con- siderable localized impacts to the surface ter- rain occurred as a result of the year-round ground access to the sites and a general unawareness of long-term and future en- vironmental concerns. Hok (1969) assessed the persistence of vehicular trails thrcughout much of NPRA. The present study was undertaken to examine in detail the nature of tundra response to disturbance and the recovery of the tundra at one drill site after an elapsed period of 28 years. The Fish Creek site (Fig. 1) was briefly visited on 2 August 1976 by M.C. Brewer (USGS- NPRA),). Brown, and G. Abele (CRREL) during a helicopter reconnaissance of winter trails. Dur- ing that visit and in subsequent discussions it was proposed that the Fish Creek site should be investigated in summer 1977 for the following reasons: *Redesignated National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA) by the Naval Petroleum Reserves Production Act of 3 April 1976, the abbreviation NPRA will be used hereafter.. 1. Since abandonment in 1949, the site had not received additional human modifications. Therefore, nearly a three-decade record of natural terrain and vegetation responses existed. 2. The site constituted one of the few remain- ing ones which had not yet been cleaned up as part of the present NPRA activities (U.S. Navy 1977). Therefore, there was an urgency to visit the site prior to cleanup in order to document precleanup conditions and provide recommen- dations on the value of the site for additional long-term research on tundra recovery. 3. A number of interdisciplinary scientists familiar with the Arctic Coastal Plain environ- ment were available in northern Alaska to under- take the initial investigation. In addition, logistics from the Husky Oil Co. base camp at Lonely, 90 km to the northwest, would also be available. This report presents the results of field site in- vestigations undertaken during the period 25 to 31 July 1977. Recommendations on followup studies and some related environmental re- search activities within the NPRA are also pro- vided. Study objectives The broad objectives of the Fish Creek in- vestigation were: 1) to document the en- vironmental disturbances to and recovery from the 1949 activities, 2) to interpret these observa- tions in a regional context, and 3) to provide recommendations on cleanup and future re- search activities at Fish Creek and other tundra sites where opportunities exist to further the knowledge of tundra response to disturbance ···--Arctic-... 0 ""' "' 0 Beaufort Sea ' ' oL_ ____ ~Io_o _____ 2~00km \ :;; - C i rc I e--· - -- -- - --- - -· - -· · ·----------' Figure 1. Location map of NPRA and the Fish Creek site. The boundaries of the Arctic Coastal Plain and Foothills Provinces are shown. and recovery. These analyses attempted to determine the extent of impact of drilling ac- tivities at the site and the response and recovery of the natural systems to that impact. For purposes of this report, the term "distur- bance" includes environmental impacts and responses that are either irreversible or recoverable over a long period of time. The ir- reversible responses include phenomena trig- gered by man, such as thermal erosion and ther- mokarst (Mackay 1970), and those caused by ---.... ___ 2 natural changes such as climate. "Recovery" constitutes the biological, pedological, and geological attributes and processes that return the system to some subjective approximation of its original condition. In this study, recovery is synonymous with natural restoration (Johnson and Van Cleve 1976). No artificial means of restoration, such as application of fertilizers or seeds, were used at Fish Creek. Therefore, recovery observed is due to natural processes. \ \ ·, THE SITE D.E. Lawson, J. Brown and K.R. Everett History The Fish Creek Test Well 1 (70°18'36"N, 151 °52'40"W) was drilled near the Fish Creek oil seep (Fig. 2) during 1949 as a stratigraphic test (Reed 1958). It is located 28 km south of Atigaru Point and 26 km southwest of the westernmost branch of the Colville River (Fig. 1 ). Equipment for camp construction and drilling, weighing 2239 metric tons, was freighted from Barrow to the Fish Creek site between 31 january and 4 April 1949 using 14 tractor-trains. Camp con- struction began on 15 March and was completed by 15 April. Unlike most camps constructed in NPRA prior to this time, the buildings at Fish Creek were set on short pilings and connected by boardwalks (Fig. 3). Eleven hundred and ten piles, which ranged in length from 1.5 to 6.1 m, were driven into the tundra using a steam point and driver. Buildings included 10 jamesway huts, two Quonset huts, five wanigans and a canvas-covered garage. Areas adjacent to camp buildings were bulldozed clear of snow and, in some cases, of the vegetation cover and upper- most soil layer (Fig. 4). A winter runway was also constructed adjacent to the camp, although its location on the ground was no longer obvious in 1977. Sections of the vegetation mat were thaw- ed and used for insulation in construction (Fig. 5); the remainder of the material was piled into berms around the margin of the site (Fig. 4). Drill pad and rig construction took place from 1 April to mid-May, and the well was spudded on 17 May using a National 50 rig (cover photograph). The full depth of the hole (2140 m) was attained on 13 August. The upper 920 m of the hole was then redrilled to perform a production test that began on 10 September and ended on 25 Oc- tober, yielding a total of 444 barrels of crude oil. Approximately 30 workers occupied the site un- til it was closed shortly after 25 October 1949. Surface support vehicles and equipment on site included Caterpillar D-6 and D-8 tractors with blades, 2 weasels, a T-9 crane (cherry picker), a Northwest crane, and an L VT for trips to the coast. 3 During the period of occupancy, water was hauled to the site in a water wanigan (capacity, 9464 liters) by a D-8 tractor with blade. The in- itial water source was a lake 1.0 km from the site, but after ice breakup, the small creek near the site (unofficially named "Camp Creek" dur- ing the 1977 study) was used (Fig. 2). Consump- tion of water totaled 3,615,070 liters, requiring an estimated 380 trips on bladed and unbladed trails across the tundra. Buildings were equipped with plumbing facilities, including a hot water boiler. Wastewater was piped from the camp area through insulated and heated pipes. The above information is based on Navy records, now archived at the U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California (U.S. Navy 1949). Figures 3-5 are reproduced from those records. Regional and local setting The Fish Creek site is located on the Alaskan Arctic Coastal Plain. The terrain varies from flat to gently rolling and is dominated by large oriented lakes and drained lake basins (Sell mann et al. 1975). Well-drained dune ridges separate poorly drained and undrained depressions. Per- mafrost underlies the entire region, its thickness ranging from about 150 to 650 m (Pewe 1975). At the Fish Creek site, resistivity and temperature surveys done in 1949 suggest that permafrost ex- tends about 180 m beneath the drill pad (U.S. Navy 1949). The active layer thickness is less than 1.5 min well-drained areas and less than 0.5 m in poorly-drained areas (Williams et al. 1977). This region is underlain by the uncon- solidated, marine Meade River Unit of the Gubik Formation of Quaternary Age (Black 1964). In the immediate area of the Fish Creek site, this unit consists of 20 m of well-sorted, fine to medium quartz sand with some chert and few accessory ·minerals (U.S. Navy 1949). Bluffs over 25 m high along Fish Creek, 5 km to the south, ex- pose these sediments (Fig. 2). Shales, siltstones, and sandstones of Cretaceous Age underlie the Gubik Formation (Robinson and Collins 1959). The surface of the Meade River Unit consists primarily of well-sorted fine to medium sand of eolian origin (Williams et al. 1977). Dune deposits containing abundant quartz with minor accessory minerals are massive to stratified with 70"19' 0 () 70"15' 0 • .. 151"56' Appro~timote--• Location of Oil Seep (Not Located 1977) 600 1200m 1----~---i 0 0 . . . : 0 \) 0 \J"(J~ t? 151"50' 0 .. ' ' N 0 :. LEGEND x Well head ® Fish Cr. sample localities -W•nter runway (Murray) ,--·\Approximate boundary of 1 B 8 D Murray main \ collection ~ Water source @o Lakes and ponds Figure 2. Location map of the study area. Location of Figures 7, 30, 59 and 60, the Murrays' main collection area, and bead measurement sections are shown. (A and 8 refer to bead measurement sections.) 4 Figure 3 . Fish Creek camp, 7 September 1949. }amesway huts on short pilings were connected by boardwalks; 55 -gal. drum piles in center of photo. Quonset hut used for mess hall is in left center of photo (U.S. Navy 1949). Figure 4. Oblique aerial view of Fish Creek camp on 28 April 1949. Bulldozed berms consisting of sediment and snow surround the camp. Bulldozed trails and drainage ditches, camp buildings, stacks of lumber, and several vehicles are also shown (U.S. Navy 1949). 5 Figure 5. Thawin g moss for insulation, Fis h Creek camp on 18 April 1 949 {U.S. Navy). l a r ge -s ca l e c r oss beddin g in p l aces (Wi l liams et a l 1977). The se surf ace m ate ri a l s h ave been reworked by fluvial processes (Black 1 95 1), a nd rece ntl y by l ac u st rin e p rocesses through the thaw-l a k e cyc l e (Britton 1 967). Thi s cyc l e co n- sists of repetitive stages of l ake fo rm ation a nd drainage. I t i s th e primary process of surf ace modifi cat ion res ultin g in act ive e ros io n of basin margins that m ay th e n cause l ake dra in age or coa l esce n ce of ad ja ce nt l a k es. In the v i c inity of th e drill si te, there a re a number of l arge t he r- m o kar st l a k es th at are dra in ed a nd part l y dr a in - ed Dra in ed l akes co nt a in l a rge (10-to 1 2-m ) l ow-centered po l ygons, o rth ogo n a l and no n or- thogon a l in shap e. The p ar tly dra in ed l akes are c h a r acte ri ze d by num e r ous bas in-co nc e ntri c p ea t ridge s se p a r a t e d by se dg e f e ns, many w ith we ll-d eve l ope d st rin g bogs. A number of these l a k e bas in s co nt a in o ne o r more l ow (seve ral- m ete r-high) mounds, which are be li eved to b e hydrostat i c in o ri gi n and possess we ll-d eve l oped hi g h-ce ntered polygons. Headward e r os ion by th e sma ll bea d ed stream, Camp Creek, a pp ears responsib l e for the drainage of at l east two of th e lak es. Inte rve nin g primary land surfaces a nd rid ges of stab ili zed sand d un es occ u r severa l m ete rs above the l ake bottom lowlands . It was o n such 6 a surf ace that the Fish C reek test was drilled in 1 949. These su rfa ces are covered by l ow re li ef, high-ce ntered polygons o r, more commo nl y, by a mi xt ure of both hi g h-a nd l ow-cente red polygons. The exte nt of natura l th e rm oka rst sug- gests these su rfaces a re in t ra n siti o n from a l ow -ce nte red po l ygon t e rr a in to o ne d o min a t ed by hi g h-ce ntered polygons. Tussock tu ndra is th e c h a racter i st i c vegetation of high-ce nte r ed polygons, whereas l ow -centered polygons d isp l ay a range of vegetation ac ross each po l ygona l e l e m e nt (ce nte r, rim , a nd tro ugh). Th e Fish Creek a rea was virtually u nkn ow n prior to 1 977 in t e rm s of v ege t at ion, f l orist ics, so il s, a nd c lim ate. Comparable inl and coastal sites which have b ee n studied in c lud e Atkasook to the west (Batz li and B r own 1976) and a n a rrow zo n e a lon g the TAPS haul ro ad t o th e east (Brown and Berg 1 977) Summers at Fis h Creek are appa re ntly wa rm e r a nd more compa r ab l e t o Atkasook than to those of the coasta l c lim a t es a t B a rrow , Lonely, Prudhoe Bay or Barter I sland (Brown et a l 1975). Dail y m ax imum a nd mini- mum tempe ratu res (°C) for seve ra l days dur i ng 1977 are li sted in T ab l e I. Table I. Daily maximum and minimum temperatures (0 C) for North Slope sites, 26-30 July 1977. 26 July 27 july 28 july 29 july 30 July Location Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Atkasook 5 12 4 24 9 22 11 26 18 25 Barrow 1 3 1 6 2 13 7 18 6 17 lonely 1 4 2 4 4 11 8 16 5 17 Fish Creek* 1 8 18 6 26 6 21 4 20 Prudhoe 2 6 1 7 3 23 10 23 8 18 Franklin Bluffs 0 15 -3 24 10 21 11 19 5 18 *Shielded minimum-maximum thermometer mounted on a post, temperatures at other sites from standard shelters. Types of disturbance The type and location of the major man-made disturbances on the Fish Creek site are presented in Figure 6; study sites are also indicated. This map was prepared by D.E. Lawson using aver- tical aerial photograph taken on 21 August 1977 after field investigations were completed. Field notes and sketches drawn in the field were used to construct this map. Figure 7 is the 1977 aerial photograph from which the map was con- structed. For comparison, the 1948 aerial photograph of the preconstruction condition of the site is shown in Figure 8. The disturbances are classified and described briefly in Table II, and specific types of disturbance are illustrated photographically in Figures 9-20. Comparison of the aerial photograph of the Fish Creek site taken prior to· construction in 1948 (Fig. 8) with that taken in 1977 (Fig. 7) shows 7 that disturbance is most intense immediately surrounding the drill pad and generally decreases in intensity, except along the major vehicular trails,· with distance from the camp area. Disturbances in Figure 7 have primarily resulted from the development of a hummocky topography and polygonal depressions that are filled with water, and from similar changes along the linear vehicle trails which extend from the site. In terms of area impacted by a given pro- cess, vehicular tracks and trails caused the greatest extent of damage to the surface. The preliminary results of this study suggest that the processes which cause the most lasting effects on the vegetation, soils, and geology of the Fish Creek site are, in order of importance: blading of the surface materials for trails and ex- cavations, diesel spills, and multiple pass trails. These results are discussed in the following sec- tions. Table II. Classification and description of disturbances. Trails and runways T b Bladed with berm. Prominent, nearly straight trench-like depression. Floors nearly level, vegetation covered, generally between 0.5 and 0.75 m below surrounding surface except deeper in water-filled thermokarst pits. Berms less than 0.5 m above sur- rounding surface generally vegetation-covered, sporadic-wind abraded areas near crest. Pronounced signature on air photographs (Fig. 9). T d Bladed with a ditch only. In most respects similar toT b· Lack of berm probably the result of marginal slump into trench (Fig. 10). T m Multiple pass trails. Anastomosing, commonly partially superimposed, parallel tracks. In upland tundra surface compression is generally <10 em. Thermokarst subsidence is a common adjunct in areas of polygonized tundra especially where track crosses ice wedge intersections or runs parallel to the wedges. Signatures on air photographs are variable (Fig. 11). T. Single pass trails. Isolated tracks. Surface compression generally <10 em. Weak signature on air photographs tending to fade in wet areas (Fig. 12). T, Winter runway. Linear feature confined to relatively well-drained margins of drained lake. Airphoto signature variable and weak. Excavations Eb Depressions with berm. Irregular, flat-floored shallow basins. Vegetation cover is similar to that in T b-Berm usually confined to one or two sides and rises to 1 m above floor. Berm composed mostly of scraped organic surface, generally grass-covered with a few bare spots. E, Ripped trenches. Narrow (±0.5-m) short linear ditch 0.5 to 1 m deep. Angular blocks of turf (overturned and commonly lacking vegetation) occur sporadically adjacent to ditch. Usually some marginal slumping. Ed Drainage ditches: Either linear or curvilinear features extending from drill area to adjacent drained lake basin. Similar toT b areas but may be wider (±4 m). Usually have prominent and discontinuous berms up to 1 m high (Fig. 18). Steel drums (55 gal.) Bd Dispersed as individuals. Individuals scattered randomly (2 to 10m between drums), commonly peripheral to drum stacks, in drained lake basin, or distributed along shoreline by seasonally high water. Usually lying on their sides (Fig. 13). B.. Dispersed in small groups. Defined groups of 10-100 drums several meters apart. Probably represent collapsed drum stacks and, if erect, supports for former storage platforms (Fig. 14). Be Collected and stacked. Well-defined stacks of drums (several to a hundred or more). Drums piled 3 to 4 high, 2 to 4 drums wide and up to 20 drums in length (Fig. 15). Pilings and structures P d Concrete drill pad. Concrete drilling pad approximately 15 x 7 m, elevated about 1 m above local tundra surface. Generally flanked by P P (Fig. 16). P1, Piles. Creosoted wooden pilings extending 0.5 to 1.5 m above local tundra surface. Generally in a grid form with individuals 1 to 2m apart. Served as platform supports. Most probably extend 1 or more meters into permafrost (Fig. 16, 17). Ph Boardwalks. Discontinuous lath-like wooden walkways 0.5 to 0.75 m above the local tundra surface. Such features rest on pile supports P1, or drums and have well-defined signatures on aerial photographs. Scattered boards and barrels are commonly associ a ted (Fig. 17). Other solid waste W. Nondegradable (bottles, cans, waste). Areas with diffuse boundaries covering up to several hundred square meters and com- monly associated with dispersed barrels Bd, B, or wood stacks W w (fig. 17, 111) W w Wood stacks. Conical or elliptical piles 1 to 2m high and cowring up to 70 m' (h;;h Creek) of broken and whole construction lumber. Prominent features from the air. May be associated with B.t, W.t or W, (Fig. 18). Wd Scattered wood. Individual pieces dispersed randomly on the landscape, commonly associated with Bd, PP and W. (Fig. 15, 16). W, Canvas tarps. Individual canvas tarps associated with W u or occurring sporadically on the tundra (commonly around pilings and structures). Vegetation may protrude through tears but is .tbst~nt bent>ath. W m Landing mats, sheet iron or other metal objects. Landing nMts commonly on ur .~~scattered pieces on the tundra. May also oc- cur assodated with B .. or P1, as storagt> platforms or in sta( ks associated with W,. Spills and effluents Sd Diesel fuel. Prominent irregular areas (0.1 to 10m') gt>nt>rally d<~rk brown to black, occasional tufts of grass. Characteristic die~t>l fuel smell from coves just below ~urface, commonly drtJurHI drum st<H·ks .tnd former generator areas (Fig. 19). S,.,. Crankcase oil. Prominent small areas (O.b to 1.4 m') commonly bl.tck or grt>yish-bl.tck in color. Strong odor of weathered oil on w<~rrn days. Generally free of vegetation but Senecio ~p. may bP co111111on. Sc Crude oil. Uncommon. Confined to the immediate an'<l of le.tking oil drurm .tml to let~ king 5-gal. cans on runway. faint odor of crude oil at shallow depth below suri.tu' (hg. 20). 8 ,- 1 I J ~ 8,149) .... tt~ -N- 0 50 -, I lOOm A-A' Camp Creek cross sect ion B-B' Bladed trail cross section ond profile c-c' Everett's soil profile J 10 or • Johnson's disturbed sites t • Bodies of water •8 Hyd1ocorbon sample sites of Everetl B M Benchmark ...... Measurement locations o n cross sections Figure 7. Aerial photograph of the li ~h Cree" ~i te oh l.!invcl in /9 ,'".-:-/t()tll 11hic h tht' cli>turh.ltH r' lll.lfl !fig. 6/ wa> comtructec/{p h uto ohtainecl hr· /. Mdl()t, (i ni\r't>tl\ cJ/ ,\/"'"'1. l./;\ugu't J<C:r !lhv huxe cl region lucJtc'> the cli>turi!C'cl .1rc>.1 ,nuunclthe cirri/ fJ,IIi.JtHI c .llllfl . .Jnc//uc,i/c'' liH' \.Jtllc' tc'giruJ in Figure 8.) 9 f-igure 8. !\erial photogrdph of 1--i~h Cree"-.>iiP ld"-en in /'J-W prio r t o c/1-,lur/)a flu' /13 ;\R -7 -1 -11-.!'J , /!! jul y I<J..J8}. {13oxt>c/ art'd -,hovn prccomlruclion cone/ilion-, in c dlllfJ .1 11cl clri// f-Jdcl diC'.J. fi ,LUm ' :- s h ows this area in I<J 7 7.) 10 Figure 9. Bladed trail with berm (Tb). A small ther- mokarst pit occurs near photo center. Vegetation cover is extensive. View northeast. Figure 10. Bladed trail without berm (T J. Large thermokarst pond adjacent to 0.4-m scale. Lack of berm may be due to consolidation and marginal slumping. View east. Figure 11. Multiple pass vehicle trails (T .,J in center and left foreground of photo. Steel drum stacks and groups, and other debris occur in background. 11 Figure 12. Single pass vehicle tracks (T J near Camp Creek. Tracks depressed generally less than 10 em. View north. Figure 13. In d, scattered randoml y on ground surface. Man- induced thermokarst trough in center. Croups of drums in background. Figure 14. Croups of drums (BJ. Dark gray pattern marks wet areas of thermokarst origin. Single pass vehicle trails occur 1n foreground. View southeast. Figure 76. Concrete drill pad (P,J with pile sup- ports (P,,}, on and off that pad. Wood, drums and other debris litter the surface. View west to Camp Creek. 12 Figure 15. Scatte red wood (W,J, wood stack (Ww), individual drums (8,), and a large drum pile {8 ,) (left center of photo) litter the surface to the north of the drill pad. The predominant type of vegetation associated with disturbed s ites at Fish Creek includes a number of grasses (A r c tagro stis l at i fo li a, Poa arct i ca, Poa rig e n s) which deter- mine its physiognomy. Grasses do not dominate in th e principal types of the surrounding natural vegetation. View north. Fi g ure 7 7. Photo of debris from drill pad. View north. Broken boardwalks (P,,), short piles (P,J, cans and bottles (W,J, drums, a nd wood cover the surface. Dark areas mark wet thermokarst pits. Figure 18. Oblique aerial photograph show in g several large wood piles (Ww) with other debris. Wet bladed drainage ditch parallels l eft margin of photo; a second occurs in upper p a rt of photo to right of wood stack. Carex aquati li s ssp. sta n s a nd Eriophorum a n gust if olium ssp. suba r ctic um inh abit the bladed drainage ditches. View west to dr ill pad area. Figure 19 . Typical diesel fuel spill (S,J on 28 july 1977. 13 Figure 20. Isolated crude oil spills (Sc) from rusted drum in seasonal shallow pond. Spill probably occurred many years after site abandonment. DISTURBANCE OF PERMAFROST, MASSIVE GROUND ICE, AND SURFICIAL MATERIALS D.E. Lawson and J. Brown Introduction The Fish Creek drill site is located on tundra overlying unconsolidated sediments which, ex- cept for a thin active layer (0.2 to 0.8 m thick in late July 1977) at the surface, are perennially frozen. Perennially frozen ground or permafrost is reported to extend to approximately 180m be- low the ground surface (U.S. Navy 1949). Wide- spread polygonal ground, and the beaded stream that flows through the area (Fig. 21), are indicators of the presence of substantial amounts of -massive ground ice in the upper part of the permafrost. Ice wedges, segregated ice, and pore ice were observed in the soils and near-surface sediments beneath the site. Pore ice, which originates by freezing of the soil and the water it contains in the unfrozen state, partly or completely fills cavities between the particles of sediment and acts as a cement binding these particles together. Segregated ice forms during the migra- tion of water into sediments while they are freez- ing (Taber 1929, Mackay 1971); this ice may vary in size from small lenses and layers to large bodies that are tens of meters thick and hun- dreds of meters square in area. In contrast to pore and segregated ice, wedge ice develops after the sediments are frozen as the resu It of the thermal fracturing of the uppermost part of the permafrost and the infilling of these thermal contraction cracks by meteoric water (Leffing- well1919, Lachenbruch 1962). A yearly cycle of cracking and infilling increases the dimensions of ice wedges, and the associated seasonal warming and heaving of the sediments in con- tact with the wedge ice produces a polygonal pattern on the surface. This pattern, however, only partly reflects the surface dimensions of the ice wedges and does not indicate their depth. As an extreme example, Lachenbruch (1966) reported near-surface permafrost com- posed of as much as 90% wedge ice. Similarly, buried ice wedges may also occupy large 14 volumes (Brown 1969). Perennially frozen sediments containing excess ice, such as ice wedges and segregated ice, are considered supersaturated: they contain more water in the form of ice than the sediments could hold if the water were in the liquid state. Because the formation of permafrost depends upon the temperature at the ground surface, processes that affect the thermal regime of the surface environment alter the permafrost significantly (e.g. Gold and Lachenbruch 1973). Usually, disturbance of the tundra surface raises the mean summer temperature at the ground surface and increases the depth of thaw (e.g. Brown et al. 1969, Mackay 1970, Viereck 1973). Loss of vegetation due to fire, removal of the upper soil layer by bulldozing, and compaction of the vegetation mat and upper soil layer by vehicles are examples of such disturbances. If the permafrost is supersaturated, the removal of this ice by in-situ melting results in thermokarst subsidence of the ground surface (Mackay 1970). The amount of subsidence that occurs can be equated to the quantity of ice lost by melting. If melting of the excess ice results from the flow of water over that surface, however, thermal ero- sion takes place. Both processes occur at the !'ish Creek site (Fig. 22 and 23). Thus, the extent and activity of man-induced thermokarst sub- sidence at this site indicates the effect of disturbance after 28 years. The-intensity of disturbance caused by natural and man-induced thermokarst and thermal ero- sion is directly related to the depth and areal ex- tent of ex.cess ice in the upper part of the degrading permafrost. At the Fish Creek site, the distribution and volume of this ice are unknown, and the depth to which excess ice occurs may be limited. Brown and Sellmann (1973) reported that the average depth below which excess ice does not occur is about 8 m in silts at Barrow, Alaska. Massive ice was encountered, however, at depths exceeding 18 m in the Canadian l ) I ! I l ' I ¥ -~ I I Figure 21. Beaded drainage, Camp Creek. Beads occupy depressions formed by melting of ice wedges; narrow, vegetation-filled channels con- nect individual beads. Figure 22. Trough formed by thermokarst sub- sidence due to man-induced disturbance above ice wedges . Scale (extending 0.8 m) stands at ice wedge intersection. Tipped pile right of pond in- dicates continued thawing and slumping of sedi- ment, soil, and vegetation mat. Planking lies a cross the trough in foreground. Figure 23. Bladed trail with berm piles. Distur- bance resulted in thermal and fluvial erosion from runoff. Water flows from top to base of photo, where it enters Camp Creek valley over a small delta. 15 regions of the Arctic (e.g. Mackay 1966) and was also observed at depths in excess of 25 m north of the Brooks Range along the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. The percentage by volume of ice measured in sediments of the supersaturated Lone ranges from about 40% to greater than 90% (e.g. Mackay 1966, 1970, 1971, Brown and Sellmann 1973; French 1974, 1975; Racine 1977). Black (1969) found that deposits of sand, silt, and silty-clay/silty peats of the Barrow unit of the Gubik Formation near Barrow, Alaska, con- tained 9% to 40%, 13% to 65% and 75% to 91% moisture by weight, respectively. Black (1969) concluded that ground ice in the Arctic Coastal Plain constitutes JO to 60% of the upper 10m of the permafrost. Sampling and drilling of the permafrost are required to determine precisely the volume and ext~nt of excess iu• beneath the Fish Creek site as well as the quanti- ty of ice that has melted because of disturbc~nce. An estimate of the volume of excess ice and the lower limit of this excess ice in perennially froLen sediments can be made indirectly in some cases by examining areas of natural and man-induced thermokarst subsidence. Following surface disturbance by the passage of a vehicle or the removal of the uppermost layer of the tun- dra by bulldoLing, permafrost degradation and preferential subsidence above ice wedges in the sediments beneath and adjacent to the disturb- ed Lone take place (e.g. Mackay 1970, Rick,nd and Brown 1974, hench 197S) (Fig. 10, 11, and 23). If it is assumed that no sediment is removed by other processes, the volume of the thaw ponds and troughs approximates the volume of ice melted from the ice wedge. Thus, an estimate of the volume of wedge ice contained in near- surface sediments to a depth equal to that of the thaw pond or trough can be calculated for a specific area if the location of all ice wedge polygons is known. The presence or absence of ice below the bottom of the ponds and troughs must, however, be determined by drilling. The thaw lake cycle (Britton 1 967) is a natural process that results in basin formation by melting of excess ice in the permafrost. Liv- ingstorw et al. (1958) estimated the volume of ice melted during the formc1tion of l:ast Oum,dik Lake (b9°50'N, 1 S5°27'W), a thaw lake IQ(:ated about 1S4 km southeast of the hsh Creek site rn the foothills of the Brooks Range. In order to mc~ke this estimate, they assunwd the~! tlw volume of the thaw lake basin equc~led thl' volunw of ice lost by melting due to the thc1w 16 lake cycle and that the volume of sediment in the basin equaled the volume present prior to lake formation. They calculated that about 70% by volume of the upper 28m of the permafrost at l:ast Oumalik Lake consisted of excess ice. Streams also induce thermokarst subsidence c1nd thermc1l erosion. Streams that have eroded lwadward into coc1stal lc~kes ,1nd subsequently drained them are often ch.nc~cteriLed by sh,1llow ponds connected by vegt'tc~ted slrt'!ltH troughs (f-ig. L~) ,md c1re referred to ciS b(~ddPd drc~inc~ge (Hopkins et ,d. 19S5). Be,His occur in pldcPs oc- cupit>d fornwrly by ice wPdgl'S, c~nd thus tlwir ckpth m,ly indicdte the lowPr limit of wt>dg(' in•. A topogrc~phic profih• from upl,1nd surf,ln's c~cross bec~ckd stn•ams m,ly provick ,m Pstimc~tP of thl' volunw of ice removed from tlw np,n- surfan~ wdinwnt. This assunws, howPvPr, th,lt headw.nd Prosion rPsults prim<Hily from tlwrm,ll Prosion ,md the~! lit!IP st>dinwnt is rPmovt>d by hydr,wlic Prosion. btimc~tion by this nwthod thPrPfon· yit>lds c1 mc~ximum vc~luP for this volunw. In this prelimin,ny study, tlw l'XIPnl cltld condi- tion of m,m-inducl'd disturb,HH"l' to tlw pt>r- mc~frost w,1s quc~litc~tively t•vc~luc~!t>d in tlw im- nwdic~IP vicinity of tlw drill site, c~nd tlw volunw c~nd ckpth of t•xu•ss in• n·movl'd by n,ltur,d <~nd m,m-induced tlwrmok,nst subsidPnn• pstim,ltl'd ell sPIPctl'd sites. Methods l"opogr,lphic cross wctions of tlw C11np CrPPk Vc~IIPy dtHI tlw trerHh of ,1 bi,HIPd trc~il, togPtlwr with point l'lt'Vdlions in d 100 X ·100-m grid around tlw drill pad, were nwasured using ,1 splf- leveling level. A reference mcHk (RM 2020b) on the drill site w,1s MbitrcHily c~ssigrwd Ml PIPv,llion of 17 m and used as a bench mark (BM1, Fig. 6). The volume of excess ice lost by melting was computed graphicc~lly from the cross sections. ThP c~djau•nt, dppcnently undisturbed surfaces were used c1s a plane of rderPnce and the loss of sedinwnt due to hydraulic erosion was con- sidered negligible. The 100 X 100-m area was taped off as a grid c1t 20-m intervals. Disturbance c~nd topographic maps of this area were drawn using this grid as d bc~w map. Maps were rdined by exc~rnining a 1977 aerial photograph obtairwd c~fter the iield work Wds compiP!ed. Depth of thc~w was tnedSLHed by probing to rdusc~l with d O.S-cm-diarn nwtal probe. Bec~ds ,md thaw ponds were sounded with c1 weighted line on the end of d rod to obtc~in Welter depths. 20.0 Tussock Tundra with Squirrel Burrows ----.... 19.0 18.0 ~ 17.0 15 l iii 16.0 15.0 14.0 13.0 Distance (m) (Looking North) Impacted Areo TussoCk Tundra ------ Figure 24. Cross section across Camp Creek. Ice-rich sediment about 5.25 m thick was removed by hydraulic and thermal erosion. Location shown on Figure 6. Discussion and conclusions The depth of beads in Camp Creek and a cross-sectional profile of the creek adjacent to the Fish Creek site were measured (Fig. 6). The depth of beads upstream and downstream from the location of the cross section and the depth of the valley indicate that the depth to which ex- cess ice has been removed is about 6 to 7 m (Fig. 25). Upstream (section A) in the presumably younger drainage, eight of the deeper beads averaged 1.5 m of water. Downstream (section B), 32 of the deeper beads averaged 1.3 m of water and ranged from 3 to 10m wide and 4 to 11 m long. The size of beads measured in section B increased generally with increase in depth. The depth of the beads in the valley probably represents the minimum depths at which ice wedges occur, but analyses of stream processes and drilling in the valley bottom are required to determine if this depth is actually the lower limit of excess ice. Slump and collapse of the steep- walled banks of the beads downstream left un- disturbed blocks of soil and vegetation on the pond bottoms, suggesting that excess ice may still be present in the valley sediments. These slumped materials indicate that lateral migra- tion of the stream, apparently as the result of thermal erosion, hydraulic erosion or both, is still occurring. The undisturbed condition of the blocks of soil and vegetation suggest hydraulic erosion has little influence on stream migration. 17 From tlw cross-sectional profile (Fig. 24), tlw quantity of ice and ~f:'diment removed by natural thermal and hydraulic erosion was estimated by assuming that the undisturbed tussock tundra represPnts the original surface into which Camp Creek was incised. The maximum depth from which both ice and sediment have been removed is approximated by the depth of the channel bot- tom. about 5.25 m. The area of the valley above the cross-~ectional profile is approximately 230 m '.This cross section is representative of a 70-m length of tlw creek valley upstream of its loca- tion. Thus, about 16,100 m 3 of sediment and ice has been removed from this part of the valley. If it is assumed on the basis of Black's (1969) estimate of the quantity of ice in the upper 10m of permafrost in the Arctic Coastal Plain that 45% of this quantity represents ice, 7250 m' of ice was removed. Thus, 8850 m' of sediment was either removed from the area or underwent con- solidation as the ice was removed. As an example of man-induced thermokarst subsidence at the Fish Creek site, profiles of a trail formed by bulldozing and multiple pas- sages of vehicles were obtained (Fig. 26). The elevations of the bottom of the trail, bottom of thaw ponds, original surface and standing water levels in the ponds, and thaw depths are shown. This trail crosses approximately 35 ice wedges between Camp Creek and the drill site. Each of these wedges has melted and formed thaw 1' .. \ I \ ~ l i ( 1 I I I 20 - 15 - ~ >. u ~ 10 - ~ CT ~ IJ... 5 - 0 0.8 r- I~ I 1.0 0.2 1.4 section A Bead Depth (B mea surements) m Mean Depth:I4B.I c 0"=31.8 ~ Sootloo B Bead Depth (30 mea surements) m Mean Depth: 116.5 c 0"=23.7 ~~ I I I 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 Bead Depth (m) Figure 25. Water depth in beads measured in Camp Creek, 29-30 )uly.1977. Locations of measurements are shown in Figure 2. ponds of different dimensions and shapes that depend upon the angle at which the trail in- tercepted the underlying ice wedges. The eleva- tion of the trench, including the bottom eleva- tion of the thaw ponds, ranges from 0.5 to 1.2 m lower than the undisturbed surface adjacent to the measured sections. A bulldozed berm lies next to some parts of the trail. It is generally less than 0.5 m higher than the undisturbed surface. Slumping and wind erosion as well as normal consolidation of berm materials are probably responsible for the absence and reduced size of the berm along parts of the trail. Characteristics of the shallow ponds in the flat-bottomed bladed trench suggest that they are in equilibrium with the seasonal thaw regime; however, the thaw depths suggest other- wise. Equilibrium is suggested by the complete vegetation cover and the stability of the sediments in the trench. Thaw depths in the adja- cent undisturbed materials are, however, usually less than those beneath ponds and the bottom of the trench and may indicate that an increase in seasonal thaw is occurring. The thaw depth for 27 ponds averaged 30.7 em (standard deviation a = 8.5) excluding the water column and 47.4 em (a = 19.3) including the water column. The depth of thaw in the trench adjacent to the berm 18 averaged 40.0 em (a = 12.7). The mean depth of thaw for the adjacent undisturbed sediment was 24.8 em (a = 4.1). The fact that excess ice was present in the Camp Creek valley to a depth of 6 to 7 m implies that ice wedges and lens ice re- main beneath the thaw ponds and trench. Thus, if the thaw depth is still increasing, the bottom of the trench will continue to subside. Precise profiling is necessary to determine if subsidence is occurring. Shallow cores of the sediments beneath the trench are required to ascertain the amount and nature of residual ground ice in these materials. Partly vegetated troughs and ponds contain- ing freshly slumped blocks of soil with vegeta- tion indicate that melting of ice wedges trig- gered in 1949 is still taking place in some areas. In an area traversed several times by vehicles, excavation of the organic cover between two such thermokarst ponds uncovered a 2.3-m-wide, V-shaped ice wedge (Fig. 27). This wedge lies beneath a soil containing interstratified silts and organics (1 0 em thick) and buried, decomposed organics (18 to 23 em thick) (Fig. 28). Fine-to medium-grained, well-sorted sand lies along the lateral margins of the wedge. A thin layer of ice and a crack in the soil cover at the crest of the wedge suggest that it was active and growing E ~ "-" 0 ~ ~ "- " 0 0 B I-1 (Cross-section Location) I -1.0 I-2 ---------I ' .... ------ -2.0 -3.0 Edge (E) 0 50 100 0 I-1 I I-2 -LO I Center (C) 50 100 --I-1 ---I Original Surface (0 Sl 2 34 56 7 8 a. Location of profiles and cross sections. urfoce ' ' 150 150 200 250 300 I-4 I -------------- 200 250 300 I-4 I-6 -,,, I rls I B' ------- Standing Water Depth 350 ~---,______________________ ------------- Measurement Location 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 19 20 21 -3.0~T-,L-r~~~~~--~_,-L.-,-~--~~,-~~~--------~---.Lo--~,-,L-.~-,L-~.--.~--~ 0 (Benchmark) I-5(263m) 50 ------,"-----/r------ Distance 100 150 Distance 200 (m) 250 300 b. Trench profiles (looking northeast). • 3"0 oL---L-4L----'----'-e---'--'12_----'---J Distance (m) c. Cross sections (looking northwest). 8 (m) 350 Figure 26. Profiles and cross sections along trench of bladed trail. Thaw depth and depth of standing ----water in thermokarst ponds are indicated. Location shown on Figure 6. 19 a. Flat-topped ice wedge exposed by hand trench- ing. Soil cover i s ab o ut 30 em. The th e rm o karst p o nds in the foreground and th e upper cente r of th e photo res ulted from ve hicula r disturbance of th e surfac e above this ic e w e dg e. Trough s were n o t observed in th e undisturb e d a rea s. l:xposed sca le is 0.85 m long . b. Detailed v i ew of dissec ted ice w e dg e. Bla ck m a t erial (1lJ-2J em thick ) overl y in g wedge is highly d ecompos e d o rganic s; s tratifie d organic s ilt overli es this mat e rial. W e ll-sorted, m e dium sand lies o n the lat e ra l margins of th e i ce wedge. Sa mple of o rga nic m a teria l for radi oca rb on dating and p o llen analysis wa s taken t o rig ht of >ca l c aho vr i ce. Figure 27. Ic e wedge (2 .3 m wide) uncovered from benea th veh i cular trail. V//'/"~ Fibrous, little decomposed organic material ~3 Finely stratified organic or organic silt Highly decomposed organics (black) CZ23'7J Loamy fine sand Figure 28. Sketc h of vert ical profile through the ice wedge (draw- in g by K.R . Everett). before excavation. D eco mpose d o r ganics l y ing above the i ce were sc::mpled for r a diocarbon and po ll e n a n a ly ses. A whol e pe at sa mplt~ yie l ded a radio ca rbon age of 2020 ±70 (lJIC 970) llP The r es ult s of th e pollen a nal yses a r c prese nt e d in Appendix A . Permafro st d eg r adat i on and seaso n a l thaw w e r e analyLed in d e t a il in a 100 X 100-m a rt •a sur- r ounding th e drill pad . Degradation i s most in - ten se so uth , W~'st and Pas t of the drill pc1d . but l ess inten se north a nd imnwdiatel y n ex t to tht• pad (Fig. 29). T h e a r eas of in((~n ~(~ disturbc~nu · 20 .Ire now wetter and c1 pp ea r dark gray in F i gur~~ ~9. Thaw pond s a nd trough s wh i ( h clt~ve l opecl .tbove melting i ce w e dges an~ l c1rgt·~t in thes e .~r eas. Th e tr o ugh s f o rm e d by nwltin g of i ce wedge polygons are r ea dily apparent (Fig . 29 a nd 30). These troughs do not appear on photos taken prior to disturbance (Fig . 8) a nd are a bsent today in undi s turb e d clrt•as acljdu·nt to tht• fi sh Creek site indi ca ting thdt tlwir form ,J ti o n r es ult e d fr o m di s turb<~n u ·s CdUS('cl by cc1 mp oc- c up a tion . Th e t y pP ~ of dl s turbdiH.(' c11HI their location in the 100 X 100-m area are s h o wn in area corner oosts Figure 29. Aerial photograph of Fish Creek camp area, with location of 100 X 100-m area indicated by four dots. Extensive thermokarst subsidence above ice wedges forming the polygonal pattern on the photo and the resultant hummock y topography are evident. White rectangle in photo center is drill pad. (P hoto by). Mellor, University of Alaska, 21 August 1977.) Figure 30. The most intense disturbance result ed from bulldozing, h eavy traffic, or both. All other types of disturbance affect the permafrost but to a lesser degree. The c hanges in relief in the 100 X 100-m area due to thermokarst are shown in Figure 31. Max- imum relief across the site is about 2.0 m . The absence of thermokarst troughs and ponds on the 1948 aerial photograph (Fig. 8) and the relief observed in undisturbed areas of the tundra to- day (e .g . Fig. 27) suggest that relief in the 21 100 X 100-m area prior to disturbance was prob- ably less than 0.5 m. In bulldozed areas and in those of heavy vehicular usage (e .g. just west of the drill rig pilings), the ground surface is hum- mocky and relief over short distances exceeds 1 m . Thaw ponds are generally less than 1 m deep. Berms appear reduced in height, probably as the result of melting of excess ice, consolidation of berm materials, and eolian erosion of the sand- size sediment of which they are composed. 0 I 0 \ \ \ \ o.____.._5 _ __:_;:10'---------"15_m. lOOm 0 \ \ • RMI,2 Reference marks D Well head 0 Outer perimeter stake locations, IOOx lOOm grid ' ' ' I -1' \ I ~'! I I J----1 \ \ \ \ 0 \ Center of thermokarst troughs and ponds Figure 30. Detailed map of types of disturbance and the location of subsidence caused by melting of ice wedges. Map symbols are defined in Table/. Location of map shown on Figure 29. Thaw depths measured at 69 points across the 100X100-m area (Fig. 31) range from 20 to 77 em, with a mean depth of 36.8 em (a = 11.0) (Fig. 32). These values do not vary systematically across the area. The depth of thaw is apparently related to the intensity of disturbance. Figure 33 shows the v,uiation in thaw depths of: 1) thermokarst troughs in areas of light disturbance, 2) dry areas -22 with light disturbance and without subsidence, 3) dry areas, including berms, with light distur- bance and without subsidence that are adjacent to intensely disturbed areas, and 4) areas of in- tense disturbance (bladed, vehicular traffic) with or without subsidence. The average depth of thaw in areas of most intense disturbance is 53 em, whereas less disturbed areas average about 30 em. The average thaw in less disturbed areas \ \-.01 ~(.30) _.../17 ·17.5 __::, .J\(.37) u-21 (.42)~ f.~l6.5~ -.35(.32) . -.01(.30) . ?) ,-.2~t34) +,22(.32)~ . r -.12Q (.36) !7 ~ ''1' ~""" ~8(.40) \~ 17 1:".16.5 6.5 -.08!.25) . IT \ 17~"":0)(.60) ~6.5 't,-99 ) . -.69 -.53!.44) ( 34) ~ 17 (.SO) 17 ·-.23 17.~ . ~~~~~"" ....19;.36) . '·:.~J~jt7 -.05° (.38) RMI,2 Reference marks• RM I used as BM and assigned value of 17m. 15m -""====--5 10 0 • Point of measurement with -·311 •20> elevation relative to RM I and (thaw depths, excludes water depth) -m Contour interval 0.5m Figure 31. Topographic map of 100 X 100-m grid. Elevation measurements shown relative to bench mark (RM1) that was assigned an elevation of 17 m; thaw depths at each point are shown in parentheses (30 July 1977). Linear pattern reflects depressions formed by melting of ice wedges. was comparable to that in undisturbed areas. suggesting that thermal equilibrium and partial recovery have occurred. The depth of thaw beneath troughs and ponds containing water plus the depth of the water in those depressions is approximately equal to the depth of thaw in adjacent sediments. This observation suggests that stagnant ponded water and saturated 23 sediments are thermally similar. The much larger thaw depths of intensely disturbed areas suggest that thermokarst sub- sidence may be continuing at a slow rate, however, precise profiling of the ground surface over a number of years is required to determine if subsidence is continuing. 1 I! I 'I II, ; !j i I I I I 14.0 12.0 10.0 ~ 8.0 ,... 0 c Q) ::J cr ~ 6.0 4.0 2.0 0 - t- r- f- 1- r- f- 1- f- Mean Thaw Depth: 36.8 em 0"=11.0 r-r r- I I I I I I I I I 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 Thaw Depth (em) Figure 32. Composite graph of thaw depths measured in 100 X 100-m grid on 30 July 1977. Location of measurements is shown in Figure 31. 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 20 40 6.0 5.0 4.0 ~ 0 >. 20 0 40 c: 5.0 ., ::J cr ., Jt 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 20 40 -~ Mean Thaw Depth: 31.1 em (7=6.0 A. 60 80 5.0 Thermokarst troughs ~ Dry areas without subsidence Mean Thaw Depth=49.8cm Mean Thaw Depth: 64.4 em 0"=12.5 0"=8.4 Mean Thaw Depth (all values): 53.0 em 0"=13.1 Mean Thaw Depth:29.0cm 0 0"=4.9 . 4 " D. B. 60 80 Mean Thaw Depth: 37.5cm 0"=4.1 c. 60 80 3.0 1- 2.0 ~ I 1-I I I I 1.0 0 20 40 60 80 Thaw Depth (em) Figure 33. Thaw depth variations with relative intensity of disturbance. Thaw depths are largest beneath bulldozed areas that were subject to heavy vehicular traffic and some blading (D); smallest thaw depths oc- cur in dry areas with less disturbance (A, B). Berms and dry areas adjacent to intense disturbances show in- crea.seclthaw depths ICJ. 24 SOILS AND THEIR REACTION TO IMPACT AND HYDROCARBON SPILLS K.R. Everett Soils In view of the botanical, physiographic and geological similarities between the Fish Creek site and the more intensively studied Atkasook (Meade River) site, it is not surprising that there is considerable similarity in. the soils as well. Tax- onomically two and probably three soil orders can be recognized: Entisols, lnceptisols and perhaps Histosols (Soil Survey Staff 1975). The soil profiles referred to in the following discus- sion are described in Appendix B. Their locations are shown in Figure 7 and in the idealized cross section of Figure 34. Entisols These sandy textured mineral soils that dis- play little or no morphologic or chemical dif- ferentiation (horizon development) are common- ly found on hydrostatic blisters in many of the drained or partially drained lakes (profile 3, Fig. 34) and on active and recently stabilized sand dunes along Fish Creek, located about 5 km south of the drill site (Fig. 2). Soils, which are best described as Entisols because of their mor- phology, are found sporadically in frost scars on the primary land surfaces (profile 9). The narrow, sedge-covered alluvial plain adja- cent to Camp Creek has very immature soils with Cree/r bluff-flood plain transition low-centered polygon tussock tundra bluff transition highly variable profile morphology. Casual in- spection of their morphology as it is exposed in the stream bank would suggest that they are organic soils; however, in most cases, the organic materials are composed predominantly of living and dead roots of Carex aquatilis (profiles 14A and 148, Fig. 34). Also, the organic content (expressed as percentage organic matter or organic carbon) of the soil is commonly too low (less than 18% organic carbon) to permit the soil to be classified as an organic soil (Histosol). Such soils are more realistically placed with the Entisols. These soils are not truly fluvents, as lit- tle sand has been added through successive flooding. Most of the sand is probably derived from the adjacent bluffs during winter as the result of wind erosion. The remainder may be in- troduced by snowbank sapping of the bluff dur- ing spring melt and thaw consolidation of bluff sediments as the stream valley expands laterally. I nceptisols This large and diverse group of mineral soils is well represented in the region and is the predominant type at the drill site. The ln-cep- tisols, developed under tussock tundra on the high-centered polygons and in areas on the upslope side of the low bluffs bounding the Drained Lake Sequence lake margin-strang moor-dune (icing mound) transition 3 Figure 34. Idealized cross section of the principal landform units and their associated soil profiles at Fish Creek site. View north. 25 drained lakes and the streams, are represented by profile 4. These soils show characteristics similar to soils occupying similar topographic poisitions at Atkasook. Profile 13C typifies a substantial part of the drill site area occupied by low-lying, flat-topped polygons and low- centered polygons. Soils represented by profiles 4 and 13C belong to the Great Group of Pergelic Cryaquepts. Soils immediately upslope from many escarp- ments and on the crests of old and stabilized dunes are sandy textured lnceptisols that belong to tlw Great Group of Cryochrepts (profile 1). Tlwre soils c~re moderately well-drained clnd displc~y ~onH' of the most pronounced horizon develupnwnt in the area. Areally they are quilt> restrictPd c~s cHP their counterparts at Atkc1sook. Highly disturbed soils with similar profilps occur bt>nec~th hummocky areas covered seasonally by snowbc~nks ,dong the front of many bluffs. Soils of the drained and partially drained lake basins do not show the primary charc1rteristics of orgc1nic soils, although at many locations in the polygon centers and in the flat areas be- tween tlw strings of aligned hummocks (str:inges), tlwy mc1y have up to 20 em of fibrous organic m,1terials overlaying sands. The organic ~urfacP horiton, which may meet tht>taxunumic critPri,l for an organic soil, lacks suiiicit>nt thickrwss. Tlwrefure. such soils cHP lnceptisub and d~·signatPd as Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts. In otlwr instances. the soil profile is similar to thow of tlw Camp Crt•Pk flood plain (profilt•s 14A. 1413). A relc~tively thick (18-to 36-cm). dark-culor~·d surface horizon which contains substanti,d amounts of highly oxidized orgc1nic matter oc- curs on many str",1ngPs and pronounced polygon rims. This horizon. or epipedon. overlies frou•n sands or, in sonw cc~sPs, fine gravelly sands. Tht>se soils are tent,ltrvelv classified as Humic Pergt•lic Cryaquepts (protriP 4). They are similar in morphology and share ,1nc1logous microrelit>f positions with Humic Pergelic Cryaqut>pts ell Atkasook. J-1 istosols Histosols art' those soils at Fish Creek whosP upper 40 em is composed of ~12% organic car- bon. They do nut appear to be common in the region. A dt>tailed analysis of the soil profiiP below the August frost tablt•, especially at sites located in low-centert•d polygons on prim,uy lc1nd suric~ces (e.g. profile 13C), is required to 26 determine their Pxtent. Such an analysis may reveal that the upper 40 em is mc1inly orgc1nic and that the mineral horiton is <H tu,dly c1 thin and tclxonomicc~lly allowc~bll· interruption. Hence, tlw soil of profill· 13C would then bl· con- sider<'d a Histosol rather thc~n cln lnc<'ptisol. Anthropogenically disturbed soils Man's effects on thP soils ell hsh Creek (and in permafrost regions gerwrcdly) c1ppear to lw of three types: 1. Impacts associated with tracked vehiclt>s. These imparts commonly begin with compres- sion of the orgc1nic surface hori;:on. The less decomposed the organic materi,d. tlw morP rapidly it will rebound. If the vehicle pclSSdge i~ repeatt>d or if the vehicle is heavy (e.g. Cater- pillar D-b or larger). compression c1nd compac- tion of the thawed mineral subhorizon~ occur~ andmc1y result in c1 permanent increc1se in derhi- ty. Paneling or thaw consolidation of the soil clnd thermokarst may result. Repeated vehicular movt•nwnt eventually produn•s mechanical abrasion of the surface 111 c~ddition to soil compression. rhe severity of c1brasion is dependl:'nt upon thP microrl:'lief. 2. Blc1ding of the active layer. Blading com- monly results in complete destruction of the physical c1nd morphologic ch<Hacteristics of the soil. ~ollowing removal of the insulating active layer. rapid thc1w consolidc1tion of the unch•rlying ice-rich soil occurs. Depending upon the regionc1l slope, it lllc!Y bl:' accompc1nied by exten- siv~· hydraulic Prosion. 3. The addition of foreign substances to tlw surface. The effects of foreign substances on tht• tundra depend upon the nature of the substc1nn• itself. the volume spilled, c1nd tlw condition of the tundra surface at thP time of spillclge. Among the most common substances spilled on tundra are unrefined and refirwd hydroc<ubons (crude oil c1nd diest•l fut•l). The re~ults of such spills may rangt' from a slight, short-term disrup tion of vegetation to its complete rPmoval. Los> of vegetation occurs following tlw spillc1ge o1 diewl fuel and commonly results in a significant increase in active layer thickrwss. Single or multiuse vehiciP trc1ils are nunwrou~. Most, such as that illustrated in Figure 35. c!p- pear to have been ust•d during the thaw period, and this usage has resulted in the developnwnt of sporadic thermokarst pits where trc1ils in- te~sect ice wedges. The surface cornJHes~ion seen in f-igure 35 is represented diagramaticc~lly Figure 35. Compression of surface {tussock tundra) by tracked vehicle, 27 july 1977. Scale is 0.75 m long. in Figure 36 (a l so profile 13C and 13T). The prin- c ip a l effects appear to be compression and some thaw conso lid ation of the mineral B2 and A1 b horizons While the bulk density data for the upp e r horizons (01 and A1) are not signifi- ca ntly different between the track and the nonimpacted surroundings, the increase in moisture in the track is probably significant. More samp l es would be required to substantiate this. Typical of most tracks, the so il profile re- mains essent i ally unaltered except for horizon thickness. Figures 10, 11 and 12 illustrate the effect of repeated surface traffic by large tracto rs and sleds and of blading of the surface to permit easy movement of sledges on the frozen so il. Subsequent thaw consolidation of apparently homogeneous subso il materials prod u ced a relatively flat-floored depression in which soil development began anew. Profile 11 approx- imates the soils developed on the "f lood plain ," or subsidence plain , of Camp Creek. The micro- morphology of the depression is different from that of the adjacent (primary) l and surface. Ther- mokarst depressions exist but appear to be static and in adjustment with the depression. Within the area of the drill si te i tself, blading of many square meters of the surface produced soil and surf ace characterist i cs sim ilar to the bladed trail (Fig 9) The bladed material was pushed into piles which now rise a meter or more above the depression . These materials con- stituted the or ig inal active laye r with soils similar to profiles 13C a nd 4. Th e ir e l evated posi- tion and i n c reased drainage permitted relatively r apid oxidation of the organic materials and the production of a thick organic-rich mineral so il with well-developed struct ure (profile 12). Repeated vehicular im pact on the sandy mineral so ils of the bluff crest and face (Perg e lic Cryochrepts -profile 1) co mpl etely destroyed their morphology . In the 28 years since imp act, leaching, oxidation and limited acc umulati on of organic matter produced a soil (profile 10) simi l ar to that of the stabilized frost scar (profile 9). Hydrocarbon impacts Hydroca rb on sp ills associated with the Fish Creek drill site are of three types: 1) crude o il , probably produced on site, 2) crankcase oil, and 3) diesel fuel. In the 100 X 100-m grid which en- compasses most of the "wo rkin g" drill site (Fig . 30), diesel spills acco unt for 26m' of the 44 m' affected by hydrocarbons. When spent drum dumps and other disposal sites beyond the 100 X 100-m grid are examined, an additional 0 4 NONTRACKED ~ } Bulk Density= 0.16 g/cm3 ~\\ Moisture=l74% 8 E' 12 ~ .<:: 16 a. "' 20 0 24 28 B 2 ~\\._ TRACKED t } Bulk Density= ~.15 g/cm3 .,, \\ "'"'"" . ",. ~-.,, 32 Figure 36. Schematic cross section of soi l from track pic- tured in Figure 35. 27 Figure 37. Hydrocarbon spills typ i cal of main drill area at Fish Creek. Linear dark areas in foreground are crankcase spills. Area in near center ground is a diese l fuel spill. Figure 38. General aspect of 55-gal. drum dump areas peripheral to mai(] drill site. Larger diesel fuel spills, up to 54 m 2, are assoc iated with some drum piles. Table Ill. Hydrocarbon contaminants (diesel fuel) from selected spills (1949) at Fish Creek site.* Wt of soil Wtof Extract Presence Depth extracted extract (gram wt by gas Color of Sample (em) (g) (g) of soil) chromatography ex tract 01 0-15 40.0 1.020 0.026 +++ orange 01 5·33 39.2 0 .576 0.015 +++ orange 02 0-10 44 .4 0 .106 0 .002 + yellow 02 10-25 67 .3 0 .237 0 .004 ++ yel low 02 25-41 50.9 0.094 0 .002 ++ y e llow 03 0-10 41 .2 0 .388 0 .009 ++ ye ll ow 03 10-25 49.3 0 .248 0 .005 +++ o range 03 25-41 58.4 0 .054 0 .001 yel low *Ana lyses performed by Alan Se xsto ne, University of Louisville, Loui sv ille, Kentu cky, November 1977 . All samples extracted for 4 hours with 250 ml diethyl ether in So x hl ett extracto r. + + + heavy contamination + + contamination + some components present -no resolvable components area of approximately 112m 2 is affected . Of this total , 100 m 2 is affected by diesel spills . The locations of hydrocarbon spills sampled for analysis are shown on Figure 6. Most of the drill site spills are small (<10m 2 ) (Fig. 37). Those associated with drum dumps (Fig. 38) are larger; one of 50 m 2 was observed. Most of these spills are believed to be the result of leakage from the spent drums . A few spills, such as that pictured in Figure 20, apparently resulted from the decay of full or nearly full drums of crude oil. Some spills, such as that of Figure 11, . 28 probably occurred many years after abandon- ment of the site. Most of the crude oil and crankcase spills, ex - cept in areas of heaviest impa ct, show some signs of significant vegetation recove ry (some nearly complete). The areas of diesel spills, suc h as shown in Figure 19, show relatively littl e recovery of vegetation and significant depres- sion of the permafrost beneath the spill. Soils in these areas still possess a strong odor of diesel fuel to depths of at least 40 em . Thaw in some cases reached 70 em, nearly twice the thaw in adjacent unaffected areas. Eight samples from three diesel spill sites were collected and the ether extractable hydrocarbons were analyzed by gas chromatography; the results are sum- marized in Table Ill. These data, although in- complete, indicate that the refined fractions penetrate deeply and retain a toxic component for at least 28 years. Summary With respect to landform units, the soils o(the Fish Creek site are generally comparable in mor- phology and site position to those of the Atkasook area. In both areas, the soils have developed in or on sandy textured mineral materials that are neutral to moderately alkaline in reaction. Near-surface organic horizons are slightly acidic. The Fish Creek soils have been tentatively placed within two taxonomic orders: Entisols (psamments, fluvents, and aquents - the last two are provisional), and lnceptisols 29 (aquepts and ochrepts). Soils representative of the order Histosols occur within the general area of the drill site but were not described because shallow drilling could not be done. Disturbances associated with the test well drilling have resulted in complete destruction of soil morphology in some areas. Weak reestab- lishment of horizons has taken place in the last 28 years, especially in the better drained materials. Soils that were severely compressed during drilling operations still retain a com- pressed morphology. In a few instances, the scraping of organic horizons into mounds or ridges a meter or more in height resulted in in- creased drainage and oxidation of the organic materials. These soils have been placed in the humic subgroup of the aquepts. The effects of the spilling of limited amounts of hydrocarbons, particularly diesel fuel, can still be detected within the affected soils. I i FLORISTICS OF THE DISTURBANCES AND NEIGHBORING LOCALES A.W. Johnson, B.M. Murray and D.F. Murray Introduction Plant succession in arctic areas is poorly understood for several reasons, among which are the relative inaccessibility of much of the landscape, the absence of large-scale and repeated disturbances such as fire and agriculture, the lack of long-term observations of permanent quadrats, and the lack of clearly defined groups of species characteristic of dif- ferent stages in a sere. Some arctic investigators, starting with Griggs (1934), have pointed to the general weediness of the arctic flora as a basis for suggesting that the concepts of succession and climax may not apply to arctic areas in general, whereas others (e.g. Benninghoff 1963) have suggested that frost heaving prevents stability from occurring. Whether or not these generalizations have merit, the literature on plant succession in the Arctic is limited. The Fish Creek drill site provides an opportuni- ty to document plant succession on disturbed areas of known age. It is assumed that the Fish Creek site was undisturbed by man until it was occupied in early 1949 and that the period of disturbance was coincident with the relatively brief occupation of the site during 1949. Thus, the site can be used as an index of the natural recovery that can be expected in 28 years in regions with similar characteristics that suffer light to heavy disturbance. Landscape changes in the Arctic can, for con- venience, be categorized as follows: 1. Large-scale modifications which are related to major physiographic processes such as the draining of lakes, abandonment of stream chan- nels and marine transgressions. The time scale involved here is of an order of thousands of years for landscape change. 2. Medium-scale changes which result from erosion and deposition, and catastrophic events such as overgrazing, fires, floods, and soil/ice melting. The time scale involved for changes in the landscape at this scale is probably hundreds of years. 30 3. Small-scale changes which result from animal disturbance, annual frost heaving, plant senescence, vehicle passage, and other distur- ance on a· microtopographic scale. The time scale for recovery is probably measured in tens of years. The impact of man on landscapes in the Arctic belongs mostly to types 2 and 3. Whether medium-scale or small-scale changes occur is probably based on the degree to which the equilibrium between the atmosphere and the soil/ice interface is upset. For example, if this equilibrium is seriously changed such that large- scale melting of ice occurs, a type 2 change will probably take place. Although artificial draining of lakes, modification of stream gradients, or alteration of drainage channels can set in motion type 1 changes in the Arctic, they are un- commonly set in motion by man. Vascular plants A total of 187 collections of vascular plants representing 158 taxa were made by D. F. Murray from the immediate vicinity of the Fish Creek Test Well 1, from the environs beyond the area of disturbance, and from two sites several kilometers apart on the bluffs of Fish Creek (Fig. 2). Appendix C lists taxa identified at these sites. These collections are now part of the permanent collection at the University of Alaska Her- barium. Although our knowledge of the flora of the Arctic Coastal Plain is improving, maps of plant distribution prepared by Hulten (1968) show no information for the region southeast of T eshek- puk Lake. Some surrounding areas have been well collected: sites at Barrow, Meade River (Atkasook), lkpikpuk River, Colville River and on the Colville River delta have been studied. Most of the taxa collected at Fish Creek in 1977 are quite expected and fall within the ranges out- lined by Hulten. This collection fills a gap in our knowledge of the distribution of flora on the Arctic Coastal Plain. i \ . i This study also provides new information on the range of certain plant species. Minor north- ward extensions of range are recorded for Carex vaginata, Potenti/Ja hookeriana, Andromeda polifolia, Utricularia vulgaris, and Taraxacum phymatocarpum. Significant extensions north- ward are recorded for Carex atrofusca, C. marina, C. rupestris, C. wifliamsii, Betula nana, Arctous alpina, Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium uliginosum, and Erigeron humilis. Puccineflia andersonii is a poorly known taxon in Alaska; its determination is therefore tentative. Bryophytes and lichens Approximately 500 collections of bryophytes and lichens were made by B.M. Murray from the immediate vicinity and environs of Fish Creek Test Well 1 and from the sandy bluffs of Fish Creek a few kilometers to the south (Fig. 2). Most specimens were taken from the disturbed site. Appendix D lists the mosses and lichens col- lected at the Fish Creek site that have been iden- tified. Some collections require further work or study by specialists, especially the moss families Bryaceae and Mniaceae and the genus Oicranum. Collection numbers follow the species name and are preceded by S if they came from the Fish Creek Test Well1 site, by C if they were from the general area around the site, and by B if from the sandy bluffs of Fish Creek. Some species were collected at sites examined by A.W. Johnson, and these are indicated by the initials AWJ and the site number. Also, brief notes describe the habitats where each species was found. These collections, the first from the area, are housed in the University of Alaska Herbarium. Specimens obtained from the immediate en- virons show that the flora of the Fish Creek site is similar to that of the surrounding undisturbed tundra. Only the frequency of occurrence and the abundance of species differ between disturb- ed and undisturbed sites. Mosses such as Ceratodon purpureus, Leptobryum pyriforme, Psilopilum cavifolium and gemmiferous Pohlia spp. were more abundant on the Fish Creek site than in the surrounding tundra. Several unique substrates and habitats at the Fish Creek site support lichens and mosses but only a limited number of etiolated vascular plants. Moss mats, consisting primarily of Pohlia spp., Bryum spp. and a few hepatics that are shade-tolerant, occurred beneath piles of drums. This soil is enriched because the drum piles have obviously provided shelter for ptarmigan, 31 microtines, and foxes. Lumber, pilings, concrete pads, cement bags, rotting canvas, and airplane fabric provide substrates different from those of the natural environment. Most species of moss and lichen found on such materials also occur on soil, organics, or the bark of shrubs in the sur- rounding tundra. One lichen, Cetraria orbata (App. C), has previously been postulated as being adventive on felled uti I ity poles on Amchitka Island (Weber et al. 1 969). If this is true, then this lichen is probably the only adventive species at the Fish Creek site. The following is a list of mosses and lichens found on the anomalous substrates that resulted from the operations at the Fish Creek site. On weathered wood: Campylium arcticum, C. ste/Jatum, Ceratodon purpureus, Alectoria sp., Caloplaca spp., Cetraria orbata, C. pinastri, C. sepincola, Parmelia olivacea. On airplane fabric (moist): Bryum spp., Ceratodon purpureus, Drepanoc/adus revolvens, D. uncinatus, Oncophorus wahlenbergii, Pohlia cruda, Tetraplodon paracloxus, Peltigera lepidophora. On rotting canvas: Bryum spp., Cafliergon giganteum, Campylium arcticum, Ceratodon pur- pureus, Drepanoc/adus uncinatus, Leptohryum pyriforme. On turf over the concrete pad and on cement bags: Anastrophy/Jum minutum, Bryoerythr- phyllum recurvirostrum, Bryum sp., Campylium ste/Jatum, Ceratodon purpureus, Distichium capi/Jaceum, Leptobryum pyriforme, Tortula ruralis. In drums in refuse piles: Campylitun stellatum, Leptobryum pyriforme, Caloplaca sti/Jicidiorum. On bare soil containing spilled oil: l3ryum sp., Ceratodon purpureus, Leptobryum pyriforme. Description of disturbance and recovery Disturbed areas thought to be more or less typical of the Fish Creek site were chosen sub- jectively by A.W. johnson for analysis. The following information was recorded: 1) probable predisturbance vegetation, 2) nature of distur- bance, 3) present species composition, and 4) present species cover. D.F. Murray and B.M. Murray also collected plants concurrently on the same sites. Photographs were taken of all sites, many of which appear in this report. The location of the disturbed sites is shown in Figure 6. Figure 39. Bladed trail from the Fish Creek camp area to Camp Creek, 28 july 1977. Site 1, view east. Site 1. Trail from Camp Creek to Fish Creek drill site This site is a trail that was run over many times by heavy tracked vehicles. The trail is about 1 m below the surrounding vegetation , which prima- rily consists of sedge tussocks on high-centered polygons (Fig. 39). The upper rim of the resulting trough or trench is typically covered with Carex aquatilis (75%), with smaller amounts (usually less than 5% each) of Chrysosplenium tetran- drum, Cerastium beeringianum, Poa alpigena, Arctagrostis latifolia, Salix lanata ssp. richard- sonii, Salix g/auca, }uncus big lumis, Eutrema ed- wardsii, Bistorta plumosa, Cardamine digitata, Stellaria laeta, Astragalus a/pinus and }uncus castaneus. Rarely, tussocks of Eriophorum vaginatum had become established on these rims. Some of these tussocks have been invaded by Vaccinium vitis-idaea . On the banks of the trough, an assemblage of plants adapted to somewhat drier conditions oc- curs (Fig. 40). On these sites, Arctagrostis latifolia dominates and is accompanied by Salix lanata, Equisetum arvense, Carex aquatilis, Trisetum spicatum, Hieroch/oe alpina, Cerastium beer- ingianum , Papaver lapponicum, Salix phlebophylla, Oxytropis arctica, Bistorta plumosa, Bistorta vivipara, Sa x ifraga nelsoniana, Luzula arctica and Salix reticulata. The sides of the trench are by no means uniform from place 32 Figure 40. Turfy berm on the edge of trail shown in Figure 39. to place and considerable variation in the vegetation exists. The bottom of the trail is wet except along the ridge bordering Camp Creek where it comes upon higher and drier ground . In a few places between this ridge and the Fish Creek drill site, the bottom of the trail contains plants typical of open standing water, such as Utricularia vulgaris, Hippuris vulgaris, Ranunculus pallasii and Arc- tophi/a fulva . On somewhat drier areas, Eriophorum angustifolium may form nearly pure stands covering up to 100% of the area. Dupon- tia fisheri, Carex aquatilis, Saxifraga cernua, Draba lactea and Ranuncu l us gmelinii occur in amounts of less than 5% each. Some areas with deep thermokarst subsidence and standing water contain no rooted emergent species . Site 2 . Trail from Camp Creek to Fish Creek drill site At a point approximately 100 m west of the Fish Creek drill site, the trail goes through a lower, wetter, sedge meadow. In this area trail banks and bottoms are covered by almost pure stands of Carex aquatilis with lesser amounts of Eriophorum angustifolium and Eutrema edward- sii . Many open water areas occur in the bottom of the trail , and it is here that the true aquatic plants are most common (Fig . 41 ). Figure 41. Thermokarst pond in bladed trail west of drill site occupied by almost pure stands of Carex aquatilis with lesser amounts of Eriophorum angustifolium and Eutrema edward- sii. Site 2, view west. Occasionally bare areas occur on the upper rims of the depressed trail. Some of the bare spots appear to be due to a dense, tough, and fibrous organic mat which is inhospitable to the establishme nt of plants. Some of the bare areas have a gray-white precipitate (salts?) on the sur- face. Coch/earia officina/is is co mmon (Fig. 42). Site 3 . Debris field This site is divided into a small upland portion and a larger, lower area adjacent to it. On the l ower portion, drums are scattered randomly, covering about 25% of the surface . Although holes were punched in most of the drums, it does not appear that petroleum products were spilled. Scattered boards, wooden barrels, and other primarily wooden debris cover about 10% of the surface of the upper part (Fig 43). The lower portion was probably covered by Eriophorum tussock heath on high-centered polygons, but it has been almost entirely re- pla ce d by species characteristic of other plant commun ities. The upper portion may have been a small sand dune superimposed on high- centered polygon terrain, as it is now drier and supports plants adapted to dry conditions. The upper portion of site 3 is covered by Arctagrostis latifolia (50%), Poa arctica (30%), Luzula arctica 1 %), Stellaria laeta (1 %), Eriophorum vaginatum 33 Figure 42 . Base area at site 2 adjacent to trail of Figure 41 covered by a gray-white precipitate on the surface. (1 %), Lu z ula wahlenbergii (1 %), Luzula confusa (1 %), Salix phlebophylla (1 %), Salix rotundifolia (1 %), and scattered individuals of the following: Bistorta p/umosa, Senecio congestus, Oeschamp- s ia caespitosa, Senecio atropurpureus, Poa rna/acantha, Trisetum spicatum, Saxifraga nelso- niana and Hierochloe a lpina (Fig 44). On the lower portion, the cover of Arctagrostis latifo/ ia is reduced to 5%, while Eriophorum vaginatum (5%), Luzula confusa 10%), and Carex bigefoWii (5%) are indicative of the wetter nature of the site. Other species which are present in trace amounts include Poa arctica, Bistorta plumosa, Hierochloe alpina, Senecio atropurpureus, Luzula arctica, Saxifraga nelsoniana, Equisetum arvense, Stellaria laeta, Cassiope tetragona, Ledum decumbens, Vaccinium vit is-idaea and Saxifraga cernua. Bare soil accounted for about 5% of the area. The effects of the oil drums on the composi- tion and vigor of certain spec i es can be seen rather clearly in this site. In deep shade under drums, Stellaria laeta and Saxifraga cernua are common and often etiolated. Against the north sides of drums Cassiope tetragona is present, probably associated with the later melting of snow . Ledum decumbens and Vaccinium vitis- idaea grow only on the south sides of the drums. Against the flat drum ends, particularly those Figure 43. Debris field at site 3 covered by scat- tered drums, boards, etc. facing west or so uthw est, Salix glauca and S. pulchra show vigorous, taller growth. Between drums, particularly those which are 1 m or less apart, bare soi l s can be seen, but where plants occur, they tend to be taller, et iol ated, a nd somew hat "beh ind " in their phenology from t hose not under the influ e n ce of th e drums. Site 4. Drum field Site 4 is covered by 91 steel drums scattered ove r an area of abo ut 10,000 m'. A few sma ll g roup s of drums are present. In addit ion to the drums, the a r ea has se r ved as a general dumping ground for ca n s, bottles and wooden objects, most of which are scattered throughout the a rea . It i s probable in this case that the drums were used as collectors of the r efuse, hauled to this site, and the material t hey co nt a in ed dumped This site is a n a r ea of high-c e ntered polygons which were not badly disturbed during the dumping activity. The general c har acter of th e vegetat ion has probably not changed since the camp was occupied. Around a few of the drums, bare areas occur, possibly due to sp ills of diesel oil. The plants now growing on the site are those normally associated with high-centered poly- gons; species that do well o n disturbed so il s are no t ab undant. 34 Figure 44. Site 3. Arctagrostis latifolia, Poa arc- tica , Luzula wahlenbergii, Luzula co nfusa , Salix ph e lbophylla and Salix rotundifolia dominate the upland part of this site. This site is interesting in that many of the cans, bottles, and wooden objects have been nearly overwhelmed by plant growth (Fig . 45). In general , it appears that from 25 to 75 mm of ver- tical accumulation ha s occurred since 1949. The disturbance in this case was probably relatively I ight. Site 5. Drum field Site 5 includ es a compact stack of abo ut 100 drums piled hapha za rdly two or three high in the center (Fig. 46). The drums were placed on a high-cente red polygon which probably included the typical tussock-heath vegetation on the center and wetter vegetat io n dominated by Carex aquatilis and Eriophorum vaginatum in the troughs. West of the edge of th e stack, for a distance of about 2 m, the vegetatio n is dominated by Arctagrostis latifolia , Lu zula arc- tica , Luzula confusa and Poa arctica. Th e cover of these species is complete Plants n ea r the drums show a "lu x urian ce effect," probably because of infrared radiation r e fl ected from the drums and reduced wind effects (Fig 47). As noted in many other sites, willows, primarily Salix pulchra, and dwarf birches (Betula nana) may grow as tall as 1 m against the ends of the drums . Sa x ifraga cernua an d S. nelsoniana are common between and under the shad ed edges Figure 45. Coke bottle nearly overwhelmed by vegetation at site 4. Figure 47. "Luxuriance effect" of drums resulting in increased plant growth at site 5 . of drums. I t is probable that a strong fertilizer ef- fect occurs around the drums because rodents and their predators commonly use these areas for cover. Site 6. Drum field This site includes an elongate stack of drums which have been piled in two rows and up to four drums high , with a total of about 120 to 150 35 Figure 46. Pile of about 100 drums, two to three high in the center, on high-centered polygon at site 5. Figure 48. Elongate stack of drums in two rows at site 6 . drums in the stack (Fig. 48). The predisturbance vegetation was probably sedge tussock heath on high-c e nte red polygons. The drums li e ac ross two troughs which are st ill occupied by Carex aquatilis and Eriophorum angustifolium East of the drums, plant cover is comp l ete, with the following species noted: Eriophorum vaginatum (10%), Carex aquat ilis (40%), Arctagrostis latifolia (10%), Salix pu/chra (10%), Eriophorum a. General view sho w ing absence of vegetation and well-defined spill margin. b . Closeup of spill margin showing rapid loss of vegetation. Coin for scale. Figure 49. Diesel fuel spill on sandy substrate at site 7. scheuchzeri (1 %), Carex bigelowii (5%) and traces of Saxifraga nelsoniana, Eutrema edward- sii, Saxifraga hirculus, Poa arctica, Luzula arctica, Eriophorum angustifolium and Saxifraga cernua. On the west side of tbe drums, the same mixture of species occ urs with the major difference be- ing that Arctagrostis latifolia dominates the vegetation close to the drums. The luxuriance ef- fect previously mentioned was observed here, particularly on the west side of the drums. Site 7. Diesel fuel spill This small area, measuring about 9 m ', is an apparent diesel fuel spill on a sandy substrate (Fig. 49a) with a noticeable smell of oil. The plant cover of about 5% consists of Arctagrostis latifolia, Dupontia fisheri, Poa arctica, Care x aquatilis and a single-headed Eriophorum (E. scheuchzeri?). The C. aquatilis shows a transition from upright plants at the edge of th e spill to stunted and contorted plants on the spill (Fig . 49b). Plants both on and off the spill were in flower . Site 8. Diesel fuel spill This apparent fuel spill measures about 16m '. Plant cove r is about 15% with th e following species recorded: A rctagros tis latifolia (5%), Eriophorum scheuchzeri (5%), Poa arctica (3%), Festuca brachyphylla (2%) and traces of Luzula 36 confusa , Eriophorum angustifolium, Carex aquatilis and Eriophorum vag inatum (Fig. 50). Site 9. Drum field This area was lo cated on a small high- centered polygon b e tween two small lakes (Fig. 51). Wood and metal debris covered about 20% of the area, but apart from the physical presence of the debris , not much d amage was done to the vegetation. Plant cover includ ed Eriophorum vaginatum (40%), Ledum decumbens (25%), Carex bigelowii (5%), Salix pulchra (5%), and traces of Lu z ula confusa, Senecio atropu rpureus, Betula nana, Pedicularis langsdorffii and Stellaria laeta. Moss cover devoid of high e r plants was about5%. Site 10. Drum field Site 10 is located on a small low-centered polygon . Eight oil drums are scattered over the area and damage is light (Fig. 52). The polygon ridges are covered by Eriophorum vaginatum (30%), Ledum decumbens (10%), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (1 %), Carex bigelowii (20%), and Betula nana (5%). Traces of Cassiope tetragona, Senecio atropurpureus and Empetrum nigrum are also present. The polygon centers are dominated by Carex aquatilis (80%), and Eriophorum angustifolium (20%), Andromeda polifolia, }un- cus biglumis, Pedicularis langsdorffii and Salix Figure 50. Diesel fuel spill at site 8 w i th Eriophorum scheuchzeri and Arctagrostis latifolia cover of about 10%. Figure 52 . Scattered drums on l ow-cente red po l ygon where damage was minimal, s i te 10. reticulata occur in trace amounts. Chr yso - splenium tetrandrum was found in one oil drum. Site 11. Drum field This area of low-centered polygons is covered by 65 drums scattered in the cente rs of the polygons (Fig. 53). Except for the physical 37 Figure 51. Scattered drums on hig h-centered polygon between two small l akes at site 9 . Little damage occu rred to the vegetation here. View east. Figure 53. Widely scattered drums on low- centered pol ygons with little effect on vegeta - tion, site 11. presence of the drums, no effects on the com- position of the vegetation were observed, except as follows. Near two drums a hydrocarbon- soaked area occurs in what had appa re ntly been Carex aquatilis meadow. No plants are growing there today (Fig. 54). A strong odor of oil, prob- ably diesel fuel, is present in the soil. Figure 54. Hydrocarbon sp ill, probably diesel fuel, located in area formerly occupied by Carex aquatilis at si te 11. Figure 56. South side of drums at site 12 w ith comp l ete vegetation cover, in cluding Sa li x pulchra. Site 12. Drum field This site includes 49 drums arranged east-west in two rows, with scattered drums around the rows (Fig. 55). The vegetation had been typical sedge tussock heath on high-centered polygons. A pronounced north-south effect is seen here; the north side of the drums exhibits no more than 20% cover by vascular plants, but the rest 38 Figure 55. Site 12 consists of partly collapsed stack of barrels. Vegetation cover is only 20% on the north side of the drums . Figure 57. Drums on l ow-centered po l ygons w i th increased wet meadow species between them, si te 13, view north. of the area is covered by mosses and hepatics. The vascular plants include Arctagrostis latifolia, Saxifraga nelsoniana and Eutrema edwardsii . On the south side of the drums, the cover consists entirely of vascular plants, which include Salix pu/chra (Fig. 56), Carex aquatilis, Eriophorum angustifolium, Saxifraga cernua, Saxifraga nelson- iana and Poa arctica. No evidence of spilled oil was seen. Figure 58. Lo w -ce ntered polygon a rea where g rowth is suppressed, apparentl y due to oil spi llage, at site 14 . Carex aquat ili s on margins of "sp ill." Site 13. Drum f i e ld Sixty-two drums are l ocated in an area of l ow-centered po l ygons, primarily on the po l ygo n ridges. The o nly n ot i ceab l e effect of these drums is that of a sli ght in c rease in wet meadow species between and around them (F ig. 57). Drums p l aced closely together ge ne r a ll y supp ress the growth of all plants. Si te 14. Drum field This site consists of a large l ow -cente red polygon partially covered by 29 oi l drums. The vege t at ion of the l ow centers is primarily (80 %) co mposed of Carex aquatilis and a s in gle-h eaded Eriophorum (r u sseo lum ?). Apparently, oi l l eaked from the drums subsequent to thei r being placed in the polygon, because the plants arou nd t h e d rum s a re supp ressed and the surf ace has a n o il- soaked appea ran ce (Fig. 58). Plant cove r h as been reduced to l ess t h a n 10% around the southe rn gro up of 7 drums, and to a bout 50% aro un d the northern group of 22 drums. Discussion and conclusions During the relatively short time that the Fish Creek drill si te was occ upi ed, cons id e rabl e disturbance, due prima r ily to vehicu l ar traffic, occu rr ed to the plant communities of the area. The physical disturbance resulting from co n- struction and occupation of the Fish Creek site 39 spanned a b road spect rum of vegetation im- pacts ranging from co mpl ete a nd permanent disruption to relative l y mino r effects. For exam- p l e, m any of the veh i c l e tracks still evide nt have not broken the su r face of the orga ni c mat and, apart from co n st itutin g sca r s vis ibl e primarily from the air, appare ntl y did n ot c h a nge the vegetation significantly . Where vehicular traffic was co ncentrated, h oweve r, compress ion of the vegetation a nd soi l , m e ltin g of buried ice, ther- mokarst subsidence, a nd thermal a nd m ec ha ni- ca l e ros ion substan ti a ll y in te r r upted the ot h e r- wise co ntinuou s vegetat ion cove r . In addition to these effects, spi ll s of var ious petroleum pro- ducts have h ad se ri o u s a nd l ong-lastin g in- hibiting influ ences on t he vegetation (K.R . Everett, this report). A ge nerali zatio n that eme rges from most studi es of arctic plant eco l ogy i s that, within discrete areas, species distributions refl ect a moisture gradient. Relatively little ev iden ce is availab l e from the Arctic that su ggests the oc- curre n ce of "c onditioning" c ha nges of so il s, wh i c h C ro cke r a nd Major (1955) demonstrated at Glacier Bay for su ccessio n on recently exposed substr ates. It should be n oted that littl e effort h as b ee n directed at this problem in th e Arctic. Although it has been shown that Vaccinium vitis- ida ea and Ledum de c umb e ns grow from the top s a nd sides of Eriophorum vaginatum tussocks, for examp l e, neither of these shrubby species re- q ui res E. vagi natum . The r e l at io nship is probably an indirect one in w hi ch the l atte r creates a mo isture regime favored by t he shrubs. At l east amo n g the higher plants , little ev iden ce suggests direct rela tion ship s amo n g the species. An ex - cept ion is the probable hem iparas ite status of so m e species in the ge nu s Pedicularis. Thus, n ea rly any species from the vascular flora finds new ly exposed soils within its growth require- m e nts , if the moisture c h a racte ri stics of the site are a lso within its tolerances . Despite this observation, howeve r, it is evi- dent from the Fish Creek st udy that invasion of species on bare substrates i s not a random phenomenon. Certain species a re rep ea t ed ly see n as pioneers in these a reas. On wet substrates at Fish Creek, Eriophorum vaginatum, Saxifraga cernua , S. nelso niana , }uncus casta neus, }. biglumis, Draba lactea , Alopecurus a/pinus, Stellaria laeta , Eriophorum angustifo lium, Carex aquatil is and Eutrema ed- wards ii are frequent invad e rs . On drier substrates Arctagrostis lati fo lia , Poa arctica, Hieroc hloe alpina, Luzula arctica, L. confusa, L. I ! I wahlenbergii and Trisetum spicatum soon dominate disturbed soils. On the other hand, most shrubby species such as Vaccinium spp., Ledum decumbens, Cassiope tetragona, Betula nana and Salix ssp. are rarely seen as pioneers. Why some species in the Arctic play a pioneer role and others do not probably relates to their reproductive and dispersal capacities. The species listed above are either those that seed heavily or have superior vegetative reproductive systems. The rushes are, in general, examples of the former and the sedges of the latter. All pioneer species are members of mature vegeta- tion assemblages; indeed some, like Eriophorum angustifolium, E. vaginatum and Carex aquatilis, dominate the vegetation over large parts of the Arctic. Others, like various species of Draba, Sax- ifraga and Luzula, are relatively inconspicuous in the mature vegetation and become abundant only when disturbance allows their temporary ascendancy. Such fluctuating abundance sug- gests different competitive abilities among these species. This discussion does not consider the role in succession of hepatics, mosses, and lichens. The observations by B.M. Murray on these groups suggest the importance of different species among them as pioneers. on anthropogenic habitats, as well as their roles in more mature vegetation. The observations on plant succession at Fish Creek support the following tentative conclu- sions: 1. The most intense (type 2) disturbance has significantly changed predisturbance vegetation both quantitatively and qualitatively. In those cases where moisture relationships have been substantially altered, the sites have been recolonized by species different from those believed to have characterized the predistur- bance vegetation. Where chemical pollution of the site occurred, or on dry sites, the vegetation has been slow to recover, either because of toxic effects or because moisture relationships of the soils have been modified. · 2. Less intense (type 3) disturbances have been substantially ameliorated in the 28 years of recovery. In most cases, simple removal of drums, wood and other objects would enable more or less complete recovery of the disturbed areas. 40 3. Invasion of disturbed sites is primarily by those species which have a high reproductive and dispersal capacity, either by seeds or vegeta- tive propagules. 4. Plants that behave as pioneer species on disturbed areas of the Fish Creek site belong to the mature vegetation; some of them become temporarily more abundant on disturbed sites than usual in more mature habitats. Although a group of often-encountered opportunistic species occurs, it is not clearly segregated from the species dominating the mature vegetation. Public Inquiries Office 1 U.S. Geological Survey "-, 4230 University Drive, Rm. JOI Anchorage, AK 995084664 .,......,-• Property of Po6Uc Inquiries Offici U.S. Geological Survef GEOBOTANICAL MAPPING, VEGETA- TION DISTURBANCE AND RECOVERY V. Komarkova and P.J. Webber Introduction Preliminary geobotanical investigations pro- vide a test for hypotheses and methods arising from investigations at Atkasook (Komarkova and Webber 1977) and along the Haul Road (Batzli and Brown 1976, Brown and Berg 1977). The Fish Creek area was found to be similar, floristically and vegetationally, to the Meade River area near Atkasook, Alaska, enabling review and utiliza- tion of the mapping vegetation units developed there. The Meade River flora belongs to Young's zone 3 or is perhaps transitional between his zone 3 and 4 (Young 1971, Komarkova and Web- ber 1977); the flora in the Fish Creek area belongs to the arctic floristic zone 3 of Young. A qualitative comparison of similar habitats in the Meade River and Fish Creek areas indicates that the composition of these two floras is almost identical -of the 106 vascular plants identified in the Fish Creek releves, only four do not occur at Meade River. Both areas belong to the low arctic tundra subzone of Alexandrova (1970), and although landforms and vegetation types are similar, they appear to be somewhat less distinctly differentiated at Fish Creek than at Meade River. This lack of distinction may reflect different overall age and surface history in these two areas. It is interesting to note that the flora and vegetation of the Meade River area extend this far east. Based on our experience along the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay haul road, it seems probable that this vegetation and landform- substrate complex disappears just east of the Fish Creek, west of the Colville River. Methods The response and recovery of vegetation to the original disturbance at the Fish Creek site was studied by comparing the predisturbance and present vegetation status. A predisturbance vegetation map of the site was based on 1948 black and white aerial photography. A map of the present site status was based on the 1977 black and white aerial photography and on our 41 field survey. The vegetation present at the site and in the immediate vicinity was mapped onto recent aerial photographs while in the field. Sub- sequently, this field map was compared with the predisturbance aerial photographs. It was con- cluded that· no observable changes in the distribution of the mapping units occurred in the area of undisturbed vegetation surrounding the test well site between 1948 and the time of our field survey. Our field notes were transferred on- to the predisturbance photograph, and the map was then extended into the undisturbed area. The present vegetation mapping units were developed by the authors for the Meade River area near Atkasook during the Research on Arc- tic Tundra Environments (RATE) project (Batzli and Brown 1976). Most of the units employed at the Fish Creek site appear on a small-scale (1 :20,000) Atkasook vegetation map, while some units from a large-scale (1 :6,600) Atkasook vegetation map are also included. Descriptions of each mapping unit, the mapping method, and the mapping unit naming procedure will appear along with these two Atkasook maps (Komar- kova and Webber, in prep.). In general, the present mapping method cor- responds to Kuchler's comprehensive method of vegetation mapping (Kuchler 1967). A combin- ation of floristical and physiognomical delimit- ation of the mapping units was employed. The mapping units 3, 4 and 7 represent vegetation complexes associated with low-centered polygons, high-centered polygons, and strang- moors. The vegetation was described according to the Braun-Bianquet method of vegetation analysis (Westhoff and Van der Maarel 1973). Any vegetation sample, or releve, consists of a cover estimate for each plant taxon present in a subjectively selected, uniform vegetation stand. A representative releve illustrates the plant com- position of each mapping unit and its environ- ment. More releves are used when a mapping unit consists of several distinct vegetation types. J 151° 53 1 4011 w 70°191 0011 N UT w •Pre-1949 B Evergreen dwarf scrub, ridge -~~LJT 1-Seasonal short grass~ upland Stream ~ Vegetation complex, high-centered polygon ~ Vegetation complex, low-centered polygon 0 Evergreen and deciduous dwarf scrub, snowpatch ~ Deciduous shrub savanna, lowland lcasl Deciduous shrub savanna, strange in strangmoor EJ Seasonal short grass, marsh 0 Water Figure 59. Predisturbance vegetation of the Fish Creek test well site, 1948. Mapping units are described in Table IV. 151° 51 1 10 11 w 70°19 1 ...,r,r _ _;;-..,ol;'l'"'' I 0011 N 70°18 1 1011 N 151° 51 1 10 11 w I UT 70°18 1 === Principle post-1948 10 11 N 151° 53' 4011 N •3 Relev~ sites B Evergreen dwarf scrub, ridge G Vegetation complex, high-centered polygon ~ Vegetation complex, low-centered polygon 0 Evergreen and deciduous dwarf scrub, snowpatch ~ Deciduous shrub savanna, lowland l casl Deciduous shrub savanna, strange in strangmoor 8 Seasonal short grass, marsh 0 Water Man-disturbed ground 0 0.3 km 70° 18' 10" N 151° 51' 10" w Figure 60. Vegetation of the Fish Creek test well site, August 1977. Mapping units are described in text. Rectangle indicates location of Figure 69. Figure 61. Mapping unit 2, one of the most exte n- s ive, includes areas dominated by Eriophorum vaginatum ssp. sp i ss um tussocks. cente r polygons a r e si mil a r in vegetation com- posit i o n a nd limited in exte nt at both Fish C reek a nd Meade Ri ver. Mapping unit 4 -vegetat ion complex, /ow-centered polygon Like the preceding mapping unit, this unit i s defined by the presence of a landform, in this case, low-centered polygons (Fig. 62). The mosaic of vegetation types suppo rted by l ow -centered polygons usually consists of about 75% mars h (mapping unit 8) communit ies in polygon centers and troughs, and 25% upl a nd tu ndra (m app in g unit 2) com muniti es on eleva t ed polygon rims. Occasionally in habitats w ith a large amount of moisture, vegetation of m ap pin g unit 6 occ urs o n the rim s. Low ce nter polygons are distributed in a variety of f l at, hygric hab ita t s both in drained l ake basins and uplands. At Fish C reek a nd Meade River, t his mapping unit cove rs a l arge percentage of the mapping area. Mapping unit 5 -evergreen dwarf scrubs, deciduous dwarf scrub, snowpatc h Snowpatc h es a re small in a real exte nt in the low arctic landscape of Meade River a nd Fish Creek. However, a r ctic snowpatches support seve r al disti n ct vegetation types , p r obab l y as 43 Figure 62. Low-centered polygons are common; these la ndform s usually support upland tundra on rims and Carex a quatilis marsh in centers a nd troughs (mappin g unit 4). the resu lt of the steep e n vi r o nm e nta l gradient of the duration of snow cove r . Two snowpatch commu nities w hi c h are most imp o rt a nt at Fish C reek in c lud e a com munity dominated by Sa li x rotundifolia (releve 2, Fig . 63) which occ urs in the l o nge r-l ast ing snowpatc h es and a comm unity dom in ated by Cassiope tetragona ssp. tetragona (releve 5, Fig. 64). Snowpatch commu n ities are fo un d freq u e ntl y o n in clined streamba n ks a nd on the l ee side of e levated ridg es a nd bluffs. Mapping unit 6 -deciduous shr ub sava nna , lowla nd Thi s mapping unit occupies lowland a reas that may be polygonized . The stands a re usually dominated by Salix pulchra and Carex aquatilis spp. stans (releve 4, Fig . 65), but stands with Salix lanata ss p . richardsonii and Carex bigelowii ss p . bige/owii (releve 13) are also commo n . At Meade River a nd Fish Creek this mapping unit is relativ e ly large in extent. With r espect to the disturban ce at Fish Creek, it appears that co m- mun it ies with Salix pul c hra and Carex aquatilis ssp . stans develop or replace parti a lly de stroyed co mmunities on disturbed surfa ces if the moisture increased as th e result of disturbance. Some of the comm uniti es in this unit nea r the test well site may be secondary. Figure 63. Sa l ix rotundifolia -do minated snowpatch vegetation occurs in the lee of elevated ridges, b lu ffs, and strea mbanks (map- ping unit 5). Figure 64. Cassiope tetragona ssp. tetragona- dominated commun1ttes are found in snowpatches with shorter duration of snow cover than the Salix rotundifolia communities {map- ing unit 5). 44 Figure 65. Subhygric communities dominated by Salix and Carex taxa {mapping unit 6) occupy less well-drained sites than mapping unit 2 both on flat upland surfaces and in drained lake basins . Mapping unit 7 -vegetation complex, strangmoor Strangmoors develop in poorly drained ·habitats around lakes and in drained l ake basins. Their vegetation is usu a lly composed of two dif- ferent communities. Carex aquatilis marsh (map- ping unit 8) covers most of the surfa ce of a strangmoor (85%), whereas the e levated "s trings " of these bogs support a comm unity dominated by Salix pulchra, Carex aquatilis ssp. stans, and Sphagnum ssp. (15% of the surface, releve 10). Strangmoors cover a small percent- age of the area at Fish Creek and at Meade River. Mapping unit 8 -seasonal short grass , marsh These communit ies are found in the shallow marshes of polygon centers and troughs , of hi gh -centered polygon troughs, on l ake edges, and along ~treams . Their plant co mposition varies with the moisture and nutri ent status of the marshes. Several distinct vegetation types Figure 66. Carex aquatilis ssp. stans-dom inated marshes (mapping unit B) are common a lon g streams, on lake edges, in /ow-centered polygon centers, and in high-centered polygon troughs . are recognized; the three vegetation types represented here are: the most common Carex aq uat ilis ssp. stans-dominated co mmunity (Fig . 66), which occurs in polygon centers and on lake margins (releve 11 ), the Carex aquatilis ssp. stans- dominated streamside community (releve 3), and the relatively rare }uncus and Carex taxa- dominated marsh community (releve 12). Mapping unit 8 covers a high percentage of the area of Fish Creek and Meade River. Mapping unit 9 -water The water mapped in the Fish Creek area belongs to lakes and ponds; the streams are too narrow to be mapped at this scale. Arctophila fulva occurs in shallow water in some of the lakes. Mapping unit 10 -seasonal s hort grass , deciduous dwarf scrubs, man-disturbed ground This mapping unit represents all disturbance- associated vegetation in the study area. The 45 Figure 67. Salix rotundifolia is the most important plant in the vegetation occupying disturb e d snowpatch sites at Fish Creek, but few other plants associated with natural snowpatch vegeta- tion are present. subordinated types a nd successio n a l stages distinguished within thi s vegetation are too small in exte nt to be mapped indi v iduall y. The main co mpon e nts of the pre dominant type of disturbance-assoc iated vegetation oc- c uring in mesic habitats on the Fish Creek site are grasses (Arctagrostis /atifolia , Poa arctica, and Poa rigens) which a re l ess common in the surrounding natural tundra vegetation (releve 15, Fig. 15). The disturbed area at Fish Creek covered by this vegetation is today limited to the immediate vicinity of the drill pad. Similar vegetation was observed in areas disturbed for a comparable length of time in the Meade River area and elsewhere in the Arctic (e.g. Hernandez 1972a, 1972b, 1973, Younkin 1973, Druzhinina and Zha r kova in press, Matveyeva in press, Yurtsev and Korobkov in press, Komarkova and Webber in prep .). Salix pulchra and Carex aquatilis ssp . stans-dominated comm unities may develop in disturbed sites if the moisture is in- creased as a result of disturbance. Figure 68. Successional snowpatch vegetation is limited to the extensivel y damaged area near the c reek n eighboring the test well site. Natural revegetation of disturbed snow- patches in the last 28 years has resulted in the development of a mostly continuous vegetation cover in which Salix rotundifolia is the predomi- nant plant (releve 14, Fig. 67). Salix rotundifolia is also dominant in one snowpatch community (releve 2, Fig 63), but few other snowpatch- associated plants occur in this success i onal vegetation . Successional snowpatch vegetation does n ot occur at the well site but is evident at sites of extensive damage near Camp Creek (Fig. 68) On the drill site (Fig . 19, 41), pure stands of Carex aquatilis ssp. stans and Eriophorum angust ifolium ssp. subarcticum grow in troughs and other disturbed wet habitats, possibly of thermokarst origin. Salix pulchra colonizes a number of habitats associated w ith deep vehicle tracks. Several conspicuous vegetation types occur at the Fish Creek site, but they were too sma ll in extent to be mapped. Two important types are described below. Seasonal sho rt grass, arctic ground squirrel mound Arctic ground squirrel mounds represent habitats and support vegetation distinctly dif- ferent from others in the Arctic. The mounds are elevated above the surrounding surf aces; they u sually occur on elevated bluffs and ridges. The mound habitats are xeric and wind-exposed. Snow cover is sha llow and short in duration, but 46 depth of thaw is greater than in most other arctic habitats. Continuous activity of arctic ground squirrels during the grow in g season prevents development of a continuous vegetation cover and increases the available nutrient supply. The vegetation on these mo u nds is different from the man-disturbed sites, although it also consists of plants occurring in the natural tundra vegeta- tion. The most common plants at the Fish Creek mounds include Polemonium boreale ssp . boreale, Poa glauca, and Koeleria as iatica (releve 8). Seasonal open submerged meadow, stream This type of predom in ant l y submerged vegetation occurs in the creek close to the drill site. Sparganium hyperboreum and Hippuris vu lga ris are the most important vascular plants (re l eve 7). This vegetation type was observed in the Meade River area. Predisturbance site status The predisturbance black and white aerial photographs and vegetat i on map (Fig. 59) in- dicate the site had been little disturbed prior to 1949. Only occasional vehicle tracks crossed the area. There is no evidence that the p red isturbance vegetation types were different from the vegeta- tion types in the area surround in g the s ite today . The vegetation types assumed to have occurred on the Fish Creek site and in its c l ose vicinity prior to disturbance include: a l arge area of upland tundra (mapping unit 2), which was also present on the low-centered polygon rims (map- ping unit 4) and on the high-centered polygon centers (mapping unit 3); Salix, Carex subhygric meadow (mapping unit 6) in shallow depressions on the edges of the drained lake basin and in its center; Carex aquatilis marsh (mapping unit 8) in the low-centered polygon centers and troughs, in the high-centered polygon troughs and in l arger ponds; and li chen heath (mapping unit 1) on elevated, relatively xeric ridges. Additional sites disturbed at the time of construction and operat ion are l ocated by the creek where both mapping unit 1 and 5 communities occurred prior to the d isturb ance; snowpatches were not represented at the drill site. Present site status The current status of the undisturbed vegeta- tion su rr ounding the site (Fig. 60) appears to be unchanged since the 1949 activities, except for "-----·----IIJJiflil~'';:t·. J [I8J Evergreen dwarf scrub, ridge [ill Seasonal short grass, upland [EtlJ Vegetation complex, high-centered polygon [£LJ Vegetation complex, low-centered polygon []] Evergreen and deciduous dwarf scrub, snowpatch I SCI Deciduous shrub savanna, lowland ~ Seasonal short grass, marsh ~ Water [QJ Man-disturbed ground 0 0.10 0.20 km ~~-L~~--~--------~ I ' Sites of intensive disturbance----· _ ----------- )---\ Thermokarsting ., __ Stream ===== Multiple pass post-1948 vehicle tracks { Pre -disturbance mapping ......... -< ... unit boundaries • Oi I well dri IIi ng pad 15 Releve sites "' Figure 69. Detailed map of vegetation in the area immediately adjacent to the Fish Creek Drill site 1977. Location shown on Figures 6 and 60. Square locates 100 x 100-m grid of Figure 30. ' "' \ ~.,-••. ~ .. ~·.··-.· .. .: -~ ; __ ~ f several additional vehicle tracks made prior to site occupation. The extent of the damage caused by drilling activities is mainly limited to the area in the immediate vicinity of the test well and to the area between the drill site and Camp Creek (Fig. 69). The vegetation of the disturbed site has been included in one mapping unit simply for the pur- pose of mapping; however, a variety of distur- bances of varied intensity and habitat resulted in many different vegetation responses at the -site. A detailed investigation will be necessary to analyze these responses; some of these have been discussed previously in Floristics of the Disturbances and Neighboring Locales. The vegetation response varies with the inten- sity and type of disturbance throughout the site. For instanc~. crude oil and fuel spill sites show today as bare surfaces, bryophyte-covered sur- faces, and closed vegetation cover. Whether these resu Its are due to the differences in en- vironmental conditions or the type and quantity of spilled substance remains to be evaluated. Minor effects of tracks included compression of the vegetation cover and accelerated removal of litter and standing dead plants. Some surfaces disturbed mechanically are still bare today (mostly xeric sites), whereas others show con- tinuous vegetation of variable composition. The degree of thermokarst development influences vegetation succession due to the deepening and warming of the active layer. The drum and wooden debris piles create several interesting effects by providing new microclimates and niches. On the south sides of wooden boxes and drums, dwarf shrubs become tall and erect. Between drums and under aban- doned wooden walkways, shading is increased and herbaceous plants become etiolated. Such microsites serve to increase the floristic diversity of the region. Debris such as strips of wood and metal and wire cables become overgrown by plants and organic accumulation. Analysis of disturbance No overall change of landforms at the site of the Fish Creek disturbance was apparent in the field or on the predisturbance (Fig. 59) and postdisturbance (Fig. 60) vegetation maps. The changes are apparent only at a more detailed scale (Fig. 69). Comparison of the distribution of vegetation units on the site prior to and following distur- bance shows that the vegetation units on the site 47 prior to disturbance occur at the site margin to- day. Little of the original vegetation, however, remains in the intensively disturbed area. Mapping units 1, 2, and 6, which were the main vegetation mapping units at the site prior to the disturbance, do not occur there today. A fair cor- respondence exists between the present distribu- tion of these units (except for mapping unit 1) along the margins of the disturbed site and their distribution on the site prior to the disturbance. Several patches of mapping unit 1 vegetation at the site margin could not be located. The vegeta- tion of mapping unit 1 and perhaps some areas of mapping unit 2 may have been replaced by xeric to mesic stands of Salix pulchra, Carex bigelowii ssp. bigelowii, and Carex aquatilis ssp. stans. The stands of Carex aquatilis marshes located close to the site are similar in extent to- day as prior to disturbance. The primary vegetation type at the site is a grass-dominated community which has been described previously under mapping unit 10. This vegetation type developed in places former- ly occupied by mapping units 1, 2, and 6 and possibly, in a few instances, in previous Carex aquatilis marshes. Many small wet habitats on the site today are, apparently, the resu It of disturbance and thermokarst development. They are now vegetated by Carex aquatilis ssp. stans, Eriophorum angustifolium ssp. subarcticum, and a few other plants. Hernandez (1973) reported that Arctophila fulva and Carex aquatilis colo- nized wet sites, originally bladed to permafrost, on summer seismic lines in the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula region, Northwest Territories. It ap- pears that the degree of thermokarst develop- ment following disturbance was noticeably less in the well-drained, relatively xeric sites, which were occupied by the lichen heath ridges covered with mapping unit 1 vegetation prior to disturbance. The old drained lake basin or drainage area between the drill site and the creek was only · partly disturbed; hence, most of its vegetation is probably similar to that prior to disturbance. G rass-d om in a ted, dis tu rbance-assoc i a ted vegetation developed in places previously oc- cupied by low-centered polygons and com- munities from mapping units 6 and 8. Shrubby communities dominated by Salix pulchra develop on the sides of multiple-pass vehicle tracks. The sandy disturbed site located by Camp Creek supports a type of disturbance-associated vegetation not located on the drill site. This vegetation develops only in disturbed snow- patches (mapping unit 10) and its development depends on continued snowpatch conditions after disturbance (Matveyeva 1977). It does not occur in habitats occupied by other mapping units prior to disturbance. The disturbance in mesic habitats by the creek was limited, whereas the damage to mapping unit 1 communities was more extensive. However, no disturbance- associated vegetation developed in the xeric- habitats. They remain largely bare except for oc- casional clumps of several pioneering plants, most of which occur in the disturbance- associated vegetation at the drill site. Vegetation cover is closed over most of the mesic sites after 28 years, but xeric sites and other special cases, such as areas of diesel fuel spills, remain bare today. Shallow wet sites, which developed as a result of the disturbance, are usually well vegetated today. Vegetation cover in successional snowpatches is in- termediate between that in the xeric and mesic sites. In general, the disturbance at the drill site ap- pears to have resulted in a greater uniformity of environmental conditions (mainly moisture), landforms, and vegetation than existed prior to disturbance. This change may be the result of leveling of much of the surface during camp construction and drilling. Proposed model of revegetation and vegetation recovery Figure 70 depicts a hypothetical sequence of events which may follow surface disturbance of tundra vegetation in the absence of further disturbance and significant climatic and other environmental changes (after Webber and lves 1978). Ultimately a stable vegetation is formed, but it will not be an exact replica of the original co.mmunities because of climatic variations and the time necessary to develop the natural tun- dra. Also, the present tundra vegetation may be a relict of more favorable climatic conditions of the past, and thus may not be in equilibrium with the present climate (Webber and lves 1978). Each pathway of natural revegetation and vegetation recovery in Figure 70 (A-H) characterizes a specific set of environmental conditions. These environmental conditions are defined primarily by the intensity of distur- bance, amount of ground ice near the surface, and site moisture, which are the primary factors 48 controlling natural revegetation and vegetation recovery of tundra vegetation (e.g. Matveyeva 1977, Hok 1971, Brown et al. 1969, Kevan 1971, Rickard and Brown 197 4). In the presence of in- termediate or more complex conditions, the suc- cession probably proceeds on a combination of pathways. The proposed sequence of revegetation and recovery is summarized below. Pathways A and B Partial loss of vegetation cover occurs on sites with much ground ice. Massive subsidence and thermokarst result in complete loss of vegeta- tion. The organic surface horizon may be lost during subsequent erosion; in this case, the vegetation succession will follow the same pathways (E, F) as when the vegetation cover and surface organic horizon are lost in the presence of ground ice. If the organic horizon is preserved the primary succession in mesic sites temporari- ly results in a semiequilibrium disturbance- associated plant community and, finally, in an equilibrium community, possibly related to the original community. The time necessary to reach this new equilibrium is considerable, but always shorter in the presence of the preserved organic surface horizon than in its absence (pathways E and F), providing that the site moisture condi- tions remain unchanged. The equilibrium is reached earlier in mesic (pathway B) than in xeric sites (pathway A). Pathways C and D Partial loss of vegetation cover on mesic sites with little ground ice (pathway D) results in secondary succession, recovery, increased plant cover, maturation and a vegetation equilibrium similar to the original. The length of time needed for the recovery depends upon the severity of the vegetation loss. The recovery is delayed in xeric sites (pathway C). Pathways E andJ Complete loss of vegetation cover and the organic surface horizon and further disturbance by surface subsidence and thermokarst in the presence of much ground ice are the least favorable circumstances for natural revegeta- tion and vegetation recovery. The processes and sequence of events are the same as for pathways A and B, but the time necessary to reach the final stage is considerably longer in both mesic (pathway E) and xeric (pathway F) sites. Denuded I I I I • 1-- i I I I / Reduced albedo * I Increased active layer Sites with much ground ice ~ Massive subsidence and thermokarst, complete loss of vegetation cover A I Xeric sites Primary succession, colonization Establishment of pioneer vegetation Primary succession, maturation Primary succession, further progress ! I B Mesic sij Primary succession, colonization Primary -succession, maturation Primary succession, further rogress Temporary, new semi- equilibrium, closed vege- tation cover, disturbed sites-associated well- structured community, dominated by different plants than the surround- ing tundra Primary succession, replacement of domi- nant plants by those dominating the sur- rounding tundra I Releve 1 Temporary, new semi- equilibrium, closed vege- tation cover, disturbed sites -associated, well- structured community, dominated by different plants .than the surround- ing tundra I Primary succilssion, rel)lacement of domi- nant plants by those dominating the sur- rounding tundra New equilibrium, similar to original or unlike it New equilibrium, similar to original or unlike it Sites with little ground ice Xeric c sites Secondary succession, recovery Increase in plant cover Secondary succession, maturation New equilibrium, similar to original D M-;sic s1tes I Secondary succession, recovery Secondary succession, maturation· New equilibrium, similar to orfginlll Releve 2 Surface disturbance Complete loss of vegetation cover and of the surface organic horizon Redu i albedo Increased active layer I Sites with much ground ice E Xeric sites Primary succession, colonization Establishment of pioneer vegetation Primary succession, maturation Primary succession, colonization Establishment of pioneer vegetation Primary succession, further progress Temporary new semi- equilibrium, closed vege- tation cover, disturbed sites -associated well- structured community, dominated by different plants than the surround- ing tundra Primary succession, replacement of domi- nant plants by those dominating the sur- rounding tundra Primary succession, maturation New equilibrium, simi- lar to original or unlika it Sites with little ground ice G Xeric sites Primary succession, colonization H Mesic sites I Primary succession, colonization Establishment of pioneer vegetation Primary succession, maturation Primary succession, further progress Temporary new semi- equilibrium, closed vege- tation cover, disturbed sites -associated, well- structured community, dominated by different plants than the surround- ing tundra Establishment of Releve3 Primary succession, maturation Primary succession, further progress .Temporary newsemr:-~ equilibrium, closed 1vegeta- tion cover, disturbed sites -associated, well- struc~ured community, dominated by different plants than the surround- ing tundra Primary succession, replacement of domi- nant plants by those dominating the sur- rounding tundra Relevt! 4 Primary succession, replacement of domi- nant plants by those dominating the sur- rounding tundra New equilibrium, simi- lar to original or unlike it Figure 70. The chain of events subsequent to surface disturbance of tundra vegetation. Based primarily on the Fish Creek site data as well as data from the Atkasook, Alaska, area and from the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road. Time scale (yearsl 0 10 30 Fish Creek example no. (relevel 100 300-5000 xeric sites may never be revegetated by natural processes. Pathwar:s G and H Removal of the vegetation cover and of the surface organic horizon occurs on sites with lit- tle ground ice. The length of time necessary for natural revegetation and vegetation recovery is shorter than for areas of massive subsidence and thermokarst (pathways E and F) but longer than in areas where the organic horizon is preserved (pathways A and B). The processes and the se- quence of events are the same as pathways A and B. The recovery is delayed in xeric sites (pathway G) in comparison with mesic sites (pathway H). The following is a list of vascular plants and an estimate of their percentage cover to il- lustrate each stage of revegetation and vegeta- tion recovery at the Fish Creek site ( + indicates less than 1 % ). 1. Vegetation that was in a multiple pass trail where tussocks had been comminuted by the vehicle tracks; this list corresponds to mapping unit 2 with the addition of plants characteristic of disturbance or pioneer situations (see mapping unit 10): Eriophorum vaginatum ssp. spissum (40), Ledum palustre ssp. decumbens (5), Stellaria edwardsii (5), Carex bige/owii ssp. bige/owii (3), Luzula confusa (3), Poa arctica (2), Polytrichum juniperinum (2), Salix phelbophylla (2), Salix pulchra (2), Aulacomnium turgidum (1), Bistorta plumosa (1 ), Cassiope tetragona ssp. tetragona ( + ), Luzula arctica ( + ), Saussurea viscida ( + ), Tephroseris atropurpurea ( + ), Vac- cinium vitis-idaea ssp. minus ( + ). 2. Vegetation that may be partly disturbed and recovered, with secondary succession: Salix pulchra (50), Eriophorum vaginatum ssp. spissum (30), Salix reticulata (3), Arctagrostis /atifolia (4), Carex aquatilis ssp. stans (3), Poa arctica (3), Bistorta vivipara (2), Betula nana ssp. exilis (2), Bistorta plumosa (1 ), Stell aria Ia eta ( + ), Pyrola grand if/ora ssp. grand if/ora ( + ). 3. Vegetation in subxeric, completely scraped trails over mapping unit 1: Dryas integrifolia ssp. integrifolia (30), Astragalus a/pinus var. a/pinus (5), Parrya nudicaulis ssp. septentrionalis (5), Poa glauca (5), Equisetum arvense (3), Carex bige/owii ssp. bigelowii (2), Draba cinerea (2), Erigeron eriocephalus (2), Poa arctica (2), Salix reticulata (2), Salix rotundifolia (2), Arctagrostis latifolia (1), Festuca brachyphylla (1), Papaver radicatum ssp. radicatum (1 ), Salix lanata ssp. richardsonii (1 ), Silene acaulis ssp. arctica (1 ), Trisetum spicatum 49 ssp. spicatum (1 ), Carex fuliginosa ssp. misandra ( + ). 4. Disturbance-associated plant community (dominant in most disturbed sites at Fish Creek), releve 15: Arctagrostis latifolia (30), Poa arctica (25), Poa rigens (15), Stellaria edwardsii (8), Carex bige/owii ssp. bigelowii (5), Salix reticulata (5), Luzula confusa (3), Bistorta plumosa (2), Eriophorum angustifolium ssp. subarcticum (2), Carex aquatilis ssp. stans (2), Saxifraga cernua (2), Luzula arctica (1 ), Saxifraga nelsoniana (1 ), Trisetum spicatum ssp. spicatum (1), Salix g/auca ssp. acutifolia (1 ), Salix phlebophylla (1 ), Draba alpina ( + ). The relationships between the intensity of disturbance, amount of ground ice, and the moisture of the site are considerably more com- plex than depicted in Figure 70. The sequence of events shown in the diagram assumes constant environmental conditions; that is, a mesic site re- mains mesic during the entire process of vegeta- tion recovery. In reality, these conditions are changing as the result of the conditions, pro- cesses, and stages involved. For instance, the degree of subsidence and thermokarst after the thaw of permafrost influences site moisture. Thick organic layers in peaty sites may become dry and the reestablishment of plants is therefore delayed (Deneke et al. 1975). Several other factors not included in Figure 70 influence events following surface disturbance. Strang (1973) found in the Mackenzie Valley that· thawed material tended to remain in place on slopes of less than 5%, whereas a combination of thermal and mechanical erosion resulted from removal of vegetation and organic layers on slopes steeper than 5%. The season of the disturbance may be important. For instance, Hok (1969) and Hernandez (1973) reported that vegetation is more susceptible to disturbance in summer than in winter. Bellamy et al. (1971) pointed out that wet sedge meadows are af- fected by a single pass of a tracked vehicle in summer. Conclusions Primary succession in mesic sites results, in 28 years, in secondary communities of "weedy" tundra plants (native plants associated with disturbed sites). The "weedy" plants are minor in occurrence in tundra vegetation. These com- munities will probably be replaced by normal tundra communities at a later stage of succes- sion. - Colonization of disturbed sites at Fish Creek is assumed to occur in two stages similar to those described by Lambert (1972). The first stage in- volves habitation by secondary weedy plants, and the second, reestablishment of the natural community through gradual expansion of un- disturbed vegetation. Only the first stages of replacement of sec- ondary "weedy" communities by plants domi- nant in the surrounding natural vegetation were, however, observed at the Fish Creek site. Several plants dominant in the surrounding natural vegetation (Salix pulchra, Eriophorum vaginatum ssp. spissum, Carex aquatilis ssp. stans) were found established in and possibly replacing the grass-dominated, disturbance-associated vegeta- tion, but their cover was low. In disturbed sites with an extensive cover of these plants, the ex- tent of disturbance was small. These secondary "weedy" communities were observed elsewhere in the Arctic. Equivalent communities occur in most of the disturbed sites associated with coal mining and dwellings near Atkasook, Alaska (Komarkova and Webber, in prep.) Mining was discontinued in 1944 and .grass-dominated, disturbance-associated com- munities have developed near the mine since that time. Poa rigens and Poa arctica show a high cover there and at Fish Creek, although Arc- tagrostis latifolia is important only at Fish Creek and Elymus mol/is ssp. villosissimus only at Atkasook. Secondary shrubby communities (dominated by Salix· alaxensis ssp. alaxensis, S. lanata ssp. richardsonii, and S. glauca ssp. acutifolia) associated with a riverbank habitat (absent at Fish Creek) are also present at the Atkasook site. Bliss and Wein (1972a) and Hernandez (1972a, 1972b) observed that the native plants Calamagrostis canadensis, Arctagrostis latifolia, Chamaenerion angustifolium, and Tephroseris palustris ssp. congesta pioneer natural distur- bances in the Mackenzie Delta region. Accord- ing to Hernandez (1973), summer seismic lines, bladed to permafrost in 1965 in the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula region, Northwest Territories, show natural plant recolonization. Arctagrostis latifolia, Calamagrostis canadensis, Poa arctica, and Luzula confusa are among the most typical and abundant plants on disturbed upland mesic sites. They occur in the surrounding natural tun- dra as single culms and compose less than 1% of the total vegetation cover (Hernandez 1972a, 1972b, 1973, Younkin 1973). This distribution is 50 also found on the Fish Creek site. Similarly, dwarf scrubs, although abundant in the sur- rounding communities, were rarely observed in the secondary communities in the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula region and at Fish Creek. Many plants of Fish Creek also occur in an- thropogenic habitats in the Vorkuta region in the Siberian Arctic (Druzhinina and Zharkova 1977), on the western Taimyr Peninsula (Matveyeva 1977) and on the southeastern Chukotka Penin- sula (Yurtsev and Korobkov 1977). As in the Alaskan Arctic, a group of almost obligate apophytes occurs on disturbed sites throughout the Siberian Arctic, and some plants (e.g. Artemisia tilesii, Poa rigens, P. arctica, Arc- tagrostis latifolia, A. arundinacea) occur in these sites in both areas. Secondary communities are common in the Vorkuta region because the disturbance is widespread, and as with Fish Creek, these are dominated by grasses (Druzhinina and Zharkova 1977). fv\atveyeva (1977) found plants typical of zonal associations practically absent in the recovering vegetation cover of intrazonal communities; again this is similar to Fish Creek. The source of the vegeta- tion cover of the Taimyr disturbed sites are herb- grass communities from south-facing riverbanks because moisture and thermal conditions in the soil of the disturbed and riverbank sites are similar. The successional stages at the Fish Creek crude oil spill sites are similar to those reported by Deneke et al. (1975) for natural oil seeps at Cape Simpson, Alaska. Pioneer mosses and lichens are followed by clumps of Carex and Eriophorum and finally by an Arctagrostis com- munity. Deneke et al. (1975) concluded that the revegetation of spill areas is governed primarily by moisture availability because it leaches hydrocarbons. Plice (1948) determined that the degree of soil saturation by the spilled substance is inversely related to soil moisture, but is also dependent on the amount of the spilled sub- stance, topography, and soil texture. The rates of natural revegetation and vegeta- tion recovery following surface disturbance at Fish Creek are comparable to those found elsewhere in the Arctic. Secondary succession or recovery from nondisruptive damage is fre- quently quite complete after 5 to 10 years in the Arctic (Webber and lves 1978). According to Johnson (1969), disturbed areas are invaded within five years, whereas in areas of ther- mokarst subsidence, irreversible destruction of 1.~ . . . tundra may occur. Some sites with high ice con- tent, thermokarst subsidence, and erosion have not been revegetated after 20 years (Hok 1969). Comparable sites at Fish Creek include those with severe erosion on xeric surfaces and those covered by diesel fuel spills. Trails up to 10 years old resulted in a reduction of plant cover from 95-100% to about 5% with little evidence of reinvasion (Bliss and Wein 1972b). Andreev (1972) reported that, in the Siberian Far North- east, hummocky marsh Carex-Eriophorum tun- dras are restored approximately 8 to 10 years after disturbance by different plant com- munities. Hernandez (1974) concluded that plant establishment on exposed mineral soil in low shrub-heath communities usually begins during the first summer after disturbances and that ground cover is about 50% within 6 to 10 years. 51 - RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH D.E. Lawson, J. Brown, K.R. Everett, A.W. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B.M. Murray, D.F. Murray and P.J. Webber Cleanup recommendations for the Fish Creek site The following recommendations were made following the Fish Creek study. 1. Accomplish removal of barrels and other debris with minimum surface disturbance and disruption of vegetation. 2. Stockpile barrels and debris outside the 100 X 100-m grid and establish permanent corner posts with red flagging for future reference. 3. Leave partially buried wood, canvas, and metal in place (if not conspicuous) in order to provide long-term reference for organic matter accumulation and growth rate of plants. Leave in place the cable that stretches from the drill site across the bladed trail to Camp Creek. 4. Leave representative clusters of barrel.s as shelter for enhanced vegetation growth and microclimate studies. Three sets of barrels on the northeast side have been flagged with red tape and these should be left for long-term observations of willow growth. 5. Do not level or modify any mounds or debris. Leave the site topography as is. 6. Leave the four wooden piles that are flagged with red tape on the present drill pad for reference. Restoration of new work areas During the course of the Fish Creek study, several sandy work pads located elsewhere in the NPRA and which were used in 1976 and 1977 were visited. These sites provide an opportunity to follow natural revegetation and terrain modification employing natural materials and processes. The following recommendations are intended to explore these possibilities without impairing long-term restoration of these sandy sites by the use of domestic seed mixtures that are not I ikely to succeed. 1. Shape and slope the edge of work pads on- to the tundra surface in order to encourage the 52 development of a natural moisture gradient. Fill in mud pits located on the pad with available sand. 2. Avoid the use of domestic seeds or hay mulches for revegetation. The preliminary results of this study suggest that natural revegetation will occur in a relatively short period of time where adequate moisture exists. If some revegetation seems necessary for short- term visual enhancement or to reduce wind ero- sion of sandy pads, experimental plantings with the following dune species, which have excellent root binding capabilities, are recommended: Willow cuttings: Salix alaxensis Salix niphoclada Salix glauca Grasses as small clones: Poa arctica Festuca rubra Leymus (Eiymus) mol/is Bromopsis pumpelliana Carex obtusata These plantings should be watered frequently during at least the first growing season. Vegetation The Fish Creek site and other drill sites in NPRA should be used to study natural revegeta- tion and vegetation recovery following distur- bance. These studies will be extremely valuable for developing an understanding of the pro- cesses involved in the arctic tundra following disturbance. Few sites exist which were dis- turbed at some known time and remain without further disturbance. None have been subject to intensive research. Documentation available on Fish Creek activities can be utilized to reconstruct in detail the kind, intensity, and duration of disturbances in habitats at the site. These investigations have two main objectives and benefits: 1) a prediction of the response to disturbance of arctic tundra ecosystems in dif- ferent environmental settings with time, and 2) recommendations for artificial revegetation and restoration of man-disturbed environments. A long-term biological monitoring study at the Fish Creek site would contribute significantly to an understanding of long-term changes in arctic tundra ecosystems. Soils Soil development on disturbed areas of the Arctic has not been documented. A quantitative analysis of soil formation with time coula be conducted at Fish Creek and at other disturbed sites. Features at the Fish Creek site (e.g. the buried cable and pilings) can be used as markers to monitor rates of organic accumulation under different site conditions. Microbiological and soil chemical analyses of diesel fuel spill areas should also be conducted to determine the current biological-chemical state of the soil. Fertilizer amendments designed to stimulate microbial recolonization could be added to selected subareas as a precursor to natural. revegetation, a process largely ineffec- tive at the diesel fuel spill areas over the last 28 years. Permafrost and surficial geology The effect of disturbance on surface and sub- surface materials and processes in the Arctic is poorly understood. Few well-documented data sets and analyses exist on thermokarst and ther- mal erosion in the Alaskan Arctic. A quantitative analysis of the type, rate, and extent of disturbance-induced processes should be made at Fish Creek, other previously disturbed sites, and future drill sites. In particular, the effect of disturbance on permafrost, massive ground ice, and predisturbance surficial processes should be evaluated. Shallow drilling to ascertain ground ice types and distribution needs to be performed before and after the thaw season. This research 53 should be integrated with the analyses of soil, aquatics, and vegetation. Aquatic environment Although our investigations did not include the response and recovery of tundra ponds, the long-term response of the aquatic ecosystem to oil and other hydrocarbon spills should be ex- amined at Fish Creek. Specific research recommendations Some specific recommendations for future research are: 1. Observe the vegetation and permafrost response to cleanup at early PET 4 sites and at newly established sites in NPRA. 2. Establish rates of accumulation of organic matter over debris such as the cable, wood, tarps, and barrels. 3. Examine natural succession from the 1949 investigation to post-cleanup conditions at Fish Creek. 4. Conduct plant population studies of enhanced Fish Creek habitats in disturbed areas. 5. Evaluate the effect and fates of old crude oil and diesel spills on terrestrial and aquatic habitats. 6. Evaluate the reestablishment and rate of development of natural soils after 30 years. 7. Estimate the quantity of ice removed by thermokarst development and thermal erosion following disturbance at Fish Creek. 8. Develop regional extrapolations for sur- face protection and for mapping of terrain sen- sitivity and recoverability by examining and monitoring other early PET 4 sites and new sites in NPRA. 9. Observe vegetation and soil thaw response to recent snow roads and trails in the vicinity of new drill pads. LITERATURE CITED Andreev, V.N. (1972) Study of anthropogenic Pfi<'< ts on tun- drd vegetation in coiHH'ction with tlw gerwrdl trt'nd in tundrd bionw dt>vt>lopnwnt. Procpeding.\, fifth Sym- posium on Biological Prohlem~ of the North. Mdgdddn, p. 17.!-17'!. CRR~L !Jr,lft 1r,lllsidtion SS7, 197b, 12 p. AIPxdndrov,I (Aieks,llldrovd), V.IJ. (1970) 11w V<'g<'ldtion of tlw tundrd /.OIH'S in tlw USSR dnd ddtd ,rbout its pro- ductivity. In Productivity and Comervation in Northern Circumpolar Lands (W.A. f ullt•r diHI P.C. Kt-van. his.). lntt>rn,ltiondl Union Ndtur.. MorgPs, Swit?.Prl,llld, Publ. NS lb. p. 'l.l-114. Bdt?.li. C.O. ,111d J. Brown (197b) RA a -tlw influenn• of gr,uing on drctic tundr,I PcosystPms. Arctic Bulletin, vol. 2. p 1 S.l-1 bO. Bt>ll,uny, D .. J. Rddforth dnd N.W. Rddforth (1971) I err,Iin, traffic diHI tundrd. Nature, vol. 2.!1. p. 429-4.!2. Benninghoff. W.S. (1lJb.l) Rt>ldtionships lwtwt-Pn vt>gP!dtion dnd frost in soils. In Prou•pcfings, I ir;t Int. Con f. on Per- mafrost, Nationdl Acadpmy of Scienu•!:, Wdshington. IJ.C.. p. 9-12. Black, R.f. (19';1) lolidn dt-posits of Aldskd. Arctic, vol. 4. p. 1!9-111. Bldck, R.f·. (1'lb4) Cubik formdtron of Qudlt'rn<Hy dgP in north..rn Aldskd. U.S. Ct>ologi< ,d Survt>y Proft-ssiondl Paper .!02-C. p. S<J-91. Black. R.r. 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J. dnd R. lkrg (1'!77) lnvrronmPnt,tl <'ngrrwt•ring in- vPstigdlions dlong tlw Yukon Rivl'r-l'rudhoP lldy H,llll Rodd, Aldskd. Annudl Rl'port to I HWA. 1 '; July 1977. CRRlL. Brown, ). ,111d I'.V. SPiimdnn (1'!7.!1 l't•nn,tirost dnd todStdl pldin history of An· tit Al.t,k,l. Art tic lnstituiP of North Anwricdn 1 <'t illlit ,II i'dJH'r No. 2S, p .. ll-47. Brown,) .• R.K. Haugen and S. Parrish (1975) Selected climatic and soil thermal characteristics of the Prudhoe Bay region. In Ecological Investigations of the Tundra Biome in the Prudhoe Bay region, Alaska (J. Brown, Ed.), Biological Papers of the University of Alaska. Special Report no. 2, p. 2-11. Brown. J .. W. Rit k,ml ,1nd IJ. Vil'tor (1lJh'J) llw pff<'t t of disturbdn<P on IH'rm,Ifrost ll'rrdin. CRRIL SpP< i,d Rt>p<Ht 1.!1!. AIJ b'J<J !27. 54 Crocker, R.L. dnd ). Mdjor (1<JSS) Soil dPvPiopnwnt in rPidtion to vegetdtion dnd suri,Iu' dge dl Brady Cldcier, Alaska. journal of tcology, vol. 43, p. 427-441!. Deneke, f.) .. B.H. 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Younkin, W.E. (1973) Autecology studies of native species potentially useful for revegetation, Tuktoyaktuk region, N.W.T. In Botanical Studies of Natural and Man-Modified Habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, Eastern Mackenzie Delta Region and the Arctic Islands (l.C. Bliss and R.W. Wein, Eds.), Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa, Canada. ALUR Report 72-73-14, p. 45-76. Yurtsev, B.A. and A.A. Korobkov (in press) An annotated list of plants inhabiting sites of natural and anthropogenic disturbances of tundra cover: Southeasternmost Chukchi Peninsula. Biological Papers of University of Alaska. ! !. PHOTO CREDITS The photograph in Figure 9 was taken by D.F. Murray. Fig- ures 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 35, 37 and 38 were photograph- ed by K.R. Everett, Figures 39 to 58 by A.W. Johnson, and Figures 62 to 68 by V. Komarkova. All other photos are from CRREL files. 56 APPENDIX A. RESULTS OF POLLEN ANALYSES (P.J. WEBBER). Table AI. Percentage pollen data from just above an excavated ice-wedge, from recent moss polsters and from soil samples at the Fish Creek site. Ridge Upland Man-disturbed ground Landform Upland Lowland Snowpatch Strangmoor (profile 3) (profile 4} (profile 12} Sphagnum/ Rhacomltrlum I Aulacomnlum Aulacomnlum Hylocomlum Sphagnum Sol/ Soli Soli Soli So/f Soli Soil Soli Source lce-wedg_e polster polster polster polster 0-2.5cm 2.5-6.0cm 0-2.5 em 2.5-6.0cm 6.5-S,Ocm 0-6.5 em 6.5-10.5 em 10.5-16.5 em Coniferous trees Larix 3 6 3 Plcea 3 1 15 0.5 0.5 3 Pinus 1 7 Woody dicotyledons Alnus 13 13 17 11 16 7 27 7 14 11 14 23 29 Betula 76 7 36 15 10 48 15 78 71 73 53 47 39 Ericaceae 13 89 5 34 4 3 11 14 20 29 57 23 Myrica 1 2 1 1 2 U1 Rubus 1 2 2 1 1 'l Salix 2 52 22 16 44 4 18 3 2 5 13 16 18 Herbaceous dicotyledons Artemisia 0,5 1 4 Asteraceae 2 5 3 0.5 1 1 1 Brasslcaceae 0,5 0.5 3 Caryophyllaceae 0.5 Ro5aceae 0.5 4 12 8 4 15 1 1.5 Saxlfragaceae 1 7 4 4 0.5 Monocotyledons Cyperaceae 81 83 111 56 79 111 170 21 74 55 119 163 142 Poaceae 1 21 13 23 11 19 6 2 2 1 9 5 8 Pteridophytes and mosses Fl/icales 7 0.5 0.5 3 Lycopodium 1 0.5 3 Selaglne/la 3 Sphagnum 4 15 0.5 j Table All. Percentage pollen data based on all pollen taxa. Ridge Upland Man-disturbed ground Landform Upland Lowland Snowpatch Strangmoor (profile 3) (profile 4) (profile 12} Sphagnum/ Rhacomitriumf Aulacomnium Aulacomnium Hylocomium Sphagnum Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil Sol/ Soil Source Ice-wedge polster polster polster polster 0-2.5 em 2.5-6.0cm 0-2.5 em 2.5-6.0cm 6.5-B.Ocm 0-6.5 em 6.5-10.5 em 10.5-16.5 em Coniferous trees Larix + 3 2 Picea 2 + 1 5 + + + + Pinus 1 + 3 + Woody dicotyledons Alnus 6 5 8 6 9 3 9 6 7 8 6 7 11 Betula 39 3 17 8 6 21 5 58 37 40 21 15 15 Ericaceae 7 33 2 18 2 1 9 8 10 11 18 9 Myrica 1 + 1 1 Rubus + 1 1 + IJI Salix 19 10 8 25 2 6 3 3 5 5 7 co Herbaceous dicotyledons Artemisia + + 1 Asteraceae + 3 + + +. + Brassicaceae + + Caryophyllaceae 2 + Rosaceae + + 2 7 4 2 5 1 + Saxifragaceae 4 2 + Monocotyledons Cyperaceae 42 30 51 29 44 49 59 16 39 32 47 51 53 Poaceae 1 8 6 12 6 8 2 1 1 4 2 3 Pteridophytes and mosses Filicales 3 + + Lycopodium + + + Selaginella + + Sphagnum + + 2 5 + + + + Table Alii. Absolute pollen data based on numbers of grains per gram over dry weight of the original material (see Table AI). Ridge Upland Man-disturbed ground Landform Upland Lowland Snowpatch Strangmoor (profile 3) (profile 4) (profile 12) Sphagnw'n I Rhacomitdumf Aulacomnium AiJiacomnium Hylocomium Sphagnum Soil Soil Soli Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil Source Ice-wedge polster polster polster polster 0-2.5 em 2.5-6.0cm 0-2.5 em 2,5-6.0cm 6.5-B.Ocm 0-6.5 em 6.5-10.5 em 10.5-16.5 em Coniferous trees Larix 255 557 1127 247 Picea 1764 255 188 155 504 451 1241 274 1410 530 Pinus 504 255 23 530 Woody dicotyledons Alnus 6300 3317 3156 2066 1318 23 280 7553 12632 16553 3843 10807 15376 Betula 38553 1786 6684 2817 823 149 155 79055 64064 88973 14547 22083 20677 Ericaceae 6552 22710 928 6385 11 31 11581 13084 22347 I 7960 26781 12194 Myrica 504 255 2014 1353 1655 549 Rubus 186 2014 2256 2483 274 Salix 1260 13269 4085 3005 3623 11 186 3525 2256 6621 3568 7518 9543 U1 Herbaceous dicotyledons 1..0 Artemisia 252 186 188 1879 Asteraceae 510 186 939 31 504 1353 274 470 530 Brassicaceae 252 451 1591 Caryophyllaceae 11 504 Rosaceae 252 255 743 2254 659 11 155 1007 1804 1655 274 Saxifragaceae 186 1315 329 504 Monocotyledons Cyperaceae 40821 21179 20608 10516 6506 345 1739 21652 67222 70351 32663 76585 75287 Poaceae 756 5358 2414 4319 906 57 62 2014 2256 2069 2470 2349 4242 Pteridophytes and mosses Filicales 188 23 504 902 414 823 Lycopodium 186 188 1007 451 2483 274 Selaginella 274 470 Sphagnum 504 255 186 188 11 55 451 274 470 530 APPENDIX B: MORPHOLOGIC DESCRIPTIONS FOR SELECTED SOIL PROFILES FROM FISH CREEK SITE (K!.R. Everett) Profile 1 Pergelic Cryochrept Topography Upland-bluff adjacent to camp Microrelief Drainage Vegetation A1 0-4 em A12 4-12 em creek-slope angle -0%. Large diameter 8-to 10-m flat poly- gons with small (< 50-cm) diam low hummocks. Moderately well to well drained. Salix phlebophylla, Cassiope tetra- gona, Bistorta sp., Andromeda poli- folia, scattered Carex spp. Coverage 80%. Dark reddish brown (5 YR 2.5/1 )* organic fine sandy load (Fig. 81 ), friable, weak coarse sub-angular blocky structure, roots are common. Abrupt wavy/ruptic boundary. Dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2) loamy fine sand, friable, weak medium sub- angular blocky structure, roots com- mon. Abrupt wavy/ruptic boundary. *Colors follow Munsell notation. 821 12-19 em 822 12-24 em 8C/8Cg 24-46 em 0 4 8 E ~ 12 .s::; Q. 16 "' 0 20 24 28 61 Dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) medium sand, friable, structureless, roots few. Abrupt wavy boundary. Olive brown (2.5 YR 4/4) medium to fine sand, friable, structureless, roots few. Abrupt wavy boundary. Olive brown (2.5 YR 4/4) fine sand, sporadic small inclusions of black (1 0 YR 2/1) organic sand, friable, structureless, weak coarse dark yel- lowish brown (1 0 YR 4/4) mottles. Frost. All ( Al2 822 822 8C/8Cg Figure 87. Soil Profile 7. , I I!! il1j I' I r II I I il 11 ~ I'! 1' 1:1 i '! II ;I ,II I I rl Profile 3 Pergelic Cryaquept (provisional) Topography Low broad mounded area in drained lake basin, old sand dune area or hydrostatically uplifted area. Microrelief Low high-centered polygons (8-to 1 0-cm diam), trough depth 1 0 to 30 em, small (<50-cm) hummocky poly- gonal cells (10-15 em high). Drainage Moderately well-drained. Vegetation Dryas integrifolia mats, Silene acaulis, some scattered Carex ssp., and cas- siope tetragona in troughs and inter-hummock cracks. Al Very dark brown (1 0 YR 2/2) or- ganic loam, friable, weak medium granular structure, roots common. Abrupt ruptic boundary. pH 6.7/' organic carbon 16%. Cl Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4) fine sand, 6-15 em friable, structureless, flecked with very dark greyish brown (1 0 YR 3/2) organic fine sand, roots common, pH 7.5, organic carbon 1%. Abrupt smooth boundary. C2 Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4) fine sand, 15-38 em friable, structureless, sporadic fine inclusions of dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2) organic material, roots few, pH 7.9, organic carbon 0.8%. Abrupt wavy boundary. C3 Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4) fine sand, 38-71 em friable, structureless, roots absent, pH 8.0, organic carbon 1%. *Laboratory determination of pH in 1:1 soil/water mixture. Other pH values are field determinations in 1 :5 soil/water mixture. l Profile 4 Humic Pergelic Cryaquept Topography Flat area approximately 10m from low ridge crest above string bog. Microrelief Well-developed sedge tussocks (Erio- phorum vaginatum?) 15 em+ high. Drainage Poorly drained. Vegetation Eriophorum vaginatum (?),Salix phlebophy!la, Salix sp., mosses and lichens, scattered Saussurea angusti- folia, Bistorta sp. and Cassiope tetragona. Remarks See Profile 9. Al Dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2) organic 0-6 em fine sandy loam, friable, structureless or moderate medium granular structure,. roots common, pH 6, organic carbon 11%. Abrupt wavy boundary. AB Very dark greyish brown (1 0 YR 3/2) 6-15 em fine sandy loam mixed with dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2) organic loam and sporadic thin streaks of black (10 YR 2/1) organic material, friable, breaks to weak medium and coarse granular structure, roots common, pH 5.2, organic carbon 9%. Abrupt wavy boundary. Alb Black (1 0 YR 2/1) highly decomposed 15-22 em (sapric) organic silt loam, friable, structureless, slight enmixture from AB horizon, pH 5.5, organic carbon 19%. Frost. 62 Profile 9 Taxonomically unassigned Topography Level area approximately 50 m Microrelief Drainage Vegetation Remarks A1 0-3 em B2 (?) 3-10 em Cg 1041 em Profile 10 back from stream bluffs and 150 m from camp. Frost scar in transition area between reticulate microrelief {profile 1) and tussock/low-centered polygon micro- relief (profile 4). Poorly drained. Not recorded. Scar is apparently stable. Black (1 0 YR 2/1) organic silt, friable, weak fine granular structure, roots common, pH 5.1. Abrupt wavy to ruptic boundary. Dark brown (1 0 YR 3/3) very fine sand, friable, roots common, pH 5.8. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2) fine sand, friable, common fine distinct dark yellowish brown (1 0 YR 4/4) oxidation mostly between 10 and 18 em, few roots, pH 5.4. Frost. Perge/ic Cryopsamment Topography Low solifluction bench area adjacent to Camp Creek. Microrelief Flat to rutted and uneven, 5-20 em. Drainage Well-drained to moderately well- Vegetation Remarks A1 0-3 em B2 3-9 em c 9-29 em drained. Si!ene acaulis, Dryas intergrifolia, scattered Carex sp. and grasses, sporadic coverage of other vascular plants. Coverage 20-80%. Black (1 0 YR 2/1) fine sand, friable, structure less, roots common, pH 7 .4. Abrupt ruptic boundary (horizon is 9-10 em thick in nonimpacted area). Dark brown (1 0 YR 4/3) fine sand, friable, structureless, roots few to absent, pH 7.9. Abrupt wavy to ruptic boundary. Dark greyish brown {2.5 Y 4/2) fine sand, friable (some lenses of coarse and medium sand), moderate medi- um prismatic structure (cf. Meade River), pH 8.4. 63 Profile 11 Pergelic Cryaquent (provisional) Topography Thaw consolidated center of water haul road track {bladed) approxi- mately 61 em below surrounding un- bladed tundra. Microrelief Drainage Vegetation Remarks Oi/C 0-2 em C1 2-11 em IIC2 11-24 em IIIC3 24+cm None present. Very poorly drained. Carex sp., sporadic Salix sp. encroach- ing from sides. Bladed haul road (1949) -continua- tion of water haul road (profile 1 0) Very dark greyish brown (1 0 YR 3/2) and very dark brown (1 0 YR 2/2) fibrous sedge fragments and roots in medium sand, pH 6.4, organic carbon 4%. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark grey (5 Y 4/1) fine sand, wet, friable, weak diffuse dark grey (1 0 YR 4/1) mottles and strong prominent dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/4) oxidation rings around some roots, pH 6.6, organic carbon 0.3%. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark grey (4 Y 4/1) fine sand, wet, friable, structureless, few strong prominent dark reddish brown (5 YR 2/4) oxidation rings around some roots, roots abundant, pH 6.8, organic carbon 0.3%. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark grey (5 Y 4/1) medium sand, wet, friable, structureless. Boundary not observed as water fills pit to 20 em. Frost at 71 em. ':I Profile 12 I' ' :I Humic Pergelic Cryaquept ljl Topography Mound built of bulldozed active :11 1 layer material in 1949. Drainage Well-to moderately well-drained. 1f,'t 11l' Vegetation Arctagrostis latifolia 80% coverage. !I: Remarks Sporadic salt concentrations on ex-:1: posed surface. ~I il 'i' A1 Very dark greyish brown (1 0 YR 3/2) II 0-17 em fine sandy loam, friable, medium and coarse subangular blocky structure, 'J: coarse roots abundant, pH 6.7, organic !I! carbon 6%. Abrupt wavy boundary. 1: A12 Dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2) fine 17-27 em sandy loam, friable, weak medium I subangular blocky structure, roots li abundant, pH 6.9, organic carbon 6%. Abrupt smooth boundary. II A13 Black (1 0 Y R 2/1) to very dark brown I 2742 em (1 0 YR 2/2) organic sap ric, fine sand, friable, breaks to weak coarse sub- angular blocky structure, thin (~ em) lens of yellowish brown (1 0 YR 5/4) fine sand, roots abundant, pH 6.5, organic carbon 11%. Frost. Profile 13C Pergelic Cryaquept (provisional) Topography Polygonized upland -appears to be degenerating. Microrelief Weakly developed high-centered polygons 8 to 10m in diameter. 10 to 30 em relief difference. Vegetation Eriophorum vaginatum tussocks. Drainage Poorly drained. Remarks See profile 13T. 01 Dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) fibrous 0-3 em mat of moss and roots. Abrupt smooth boundary. A1 Black (1 0 YR 2/1) organic silt 3-5 em loam, friable, weak fine granular structure, roots abundant. At ap- proximately 4 em is a dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) band of oxidized iron. Abrupt smooth boundary. B2 Very dark grey (1 0 YR 3/2) fine 5-18 em sandy loam, friable, breaks to very weak medium subangular blocky structure, approximately 10% or- ganic fragments, fine roots abund- ant. Abrupt smooth boundary. A1b/Oe1 Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2) hemic 18-23 em organic loam, 75% fibers that break down easily, roots common. Frost. -64 E ~ .<::. Ci ., Cl Profile 13T Taxonomically unassigned Microrelief Approximately 15 em below unaf- fected area. Remarks See profile 13 C. Tussocks appear to have been generally eliminated or if present still retain their compressed form. Profile includes a compressed tussock. 01 Dark yellowish brown (10 YR 3/4) 04 em fibrous organic (sedge) and very dark brown (1 0 YR 2/2) fibrous and granular organic matter. Abrupt wavy boundary. A1 Black (10 YR 2/1} organic silt loam, 4-7 em compact, somewhat friable, weak fine granular structure, few roots. Abrupt wavy boundary. B2A/1 b Very dark greyish brown (1 0 YR 3/2} 7-15 em fine sandy loam. Horizon corres- ponds approximately to 5-to 18-cm horizon of profile 13C. Lower 1 em to 12-23 em horizon. Frost. 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 NONTRACKED ~ } Sulk Density = 0.16 g/cm3 ~\ \ Moisture =174% 82 ·~?\\.._ TRACKED ~ ~' } Bulk Density= 0.15 g/cm3 .,. \\ ., ""'''""""' L-.,. Figure 82. Soil Profile 7 3T. Compression due to ve- hicular traffic. 1~ .. . . . . Profile 14A Pergelic Cryofluvent (provisional} Topography Flood plain approximately 10m from base of stream bluff. Microrelief Drainage Vegetation Oil 0-5 em Oi2(C2) 5-20 em Oi3(C3) 1846+ em None. Very poorly drained. Carex sp. Dark brown (1 0 YR 3/3) fibrous organic matter and roots, 30%+ fine sand, wet, friable. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2) · coarse fibrous organic sand, fiber content 60% by volume, breaks down easily to <20% by volume, pH 5.4. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark brown (2.5 Y 4/2) as above, weak fine platy structure, roots common. Boundary not observed due to flooding of pit. Frost esti- mated to 25 em. 65 Profile 148 Pergelic Cryofluvent (provisional} Topography See Profile 14A. Approximately 13 m from Camp Creek and about same distance from 14A. Microrelief Drainage Vegetation Oil 04cm C1 4-11 em C2 11-17 em C3 17-23 em C4(JIC4) 23-25 em None. Very poorly drained. See Profile 14A. Dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/2-2/2) coarsely fibrous organic, breaks down with difficulty. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2) coarsely fibrous organic sandy loam, fiber content 30% by volume, breaks down with difficulty to 10-20%, roots common, pH 5.3. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2) fibrous organic loam, fiber content 30%, breaks down with some diffi- culty to< 10%, roots common, pH 5.4. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2) loamy fine sand, 15-20% fibrous or- ganic matter, breaks down easily to < 1 00;6, roots few, pH 5.1. Abrupt smooth boundary. Dark grey (5 Y 4/1) fine and medi- um sand, sedge fibers and few living roots <1 0% by volume, pH 5.6. Frost. : .. APPENDIX C: ALPHABETICAL LIST OF TAXA OF VASCULAR PLANTS COLLECTED AT FISH CREEK SITE (D.F. Murray) Alopecurus a/pinus Sm. ssp. a/pinus 6588 Andromeda polifolia L 6597 Androsace chamaejasme Host ssp. /ehmanniana {Spreng.) Hult. 6605 Androsace septentrionalis L. 6626, 6663 Anemone parviflora Michx. 6618 Anemone richardsonii Hook. 6640 Antennaria alp ina (L.) Gaertn. 6554, 6672 Arctagrostis /atifo/ia (R.Br.) Griseb. ssp.latifo/ia 6538, 6692 Arctophila fu/va (Trin.) Anderss. 6558 Arctous a/pina (L.) Neid. 6608 Armeria maritima (Mill.) Will d. ssp. arctica {Cham.) Hult. 6621 Arnica frigida C.A. Meyer 6687 Artemisia arctica Less. ssp. arctica 6599 Artemisia borealis Pall. 6681 Artemisia tilesii Ledeb. ssp. ti/esii 6670 Aster sibiricus L. 6686 Astragalus a/pinus L. 65 36 Astragalus umbellatus Bunge 6616 Betula nona L. ssp. exilis (Sukatsch.) Hult. 6516 Bistorta p/umosa (Small) Greene 6546 Bistorta vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray 6572 Braya humilis (C.A. Meyer) Robins. ssp. arctica (Bacher) Rollins 6530, 6684 Bromopsis pumpelliana Scribn. ssp. arctica (Shear) Love & Love Ca/amagrostis purpurascens R.Br. 6682 Caltha pa/ustris L. .ssp. arctica (R.Br.) Hult. 6701 Campanu/a unif/ora L. 6638 Cardamine digitata Richards. 6584 Cardamine pratensis L. ssp. angustifo/ia (Hook.) Schulz 6634 Carex aquatilis Wahlenb. (including C. stans Drej.) 6537, 6604 Carex atrofusca Schkuhr 6649 Carex bige/owiiTorr. (including C. /ugens Holm.) 6526,6559, 6594,6600,6648 Carex chordorrhiza Ehrh. 6602 Carex g!areosa Wahlenb. ssp. glareosa 6574 Carex /achenalii Schkuhr 6573 Carex marina Dewey 6650 Carex maritima Gunnerus 6571,6664 Carex membranacea Hook. 6614 Carex misandra R. Br. 6529 Carex nardina E. Fries 6646 Carex rariflora {Wahlenb.) J .E. Sm. 6601 Carex rotundata Wahlenb. 6603 Carex rupestris Allioroi 6697 Carex saxatilis L. ssp.laxa (Trautv.) Kalela 6575 Carex scirpoidea Michx. 6532 Carex vaginata Tausch 6586 Carex willamsii Britton 6613 Cassiope tetragona (L.) D. Don 6583 Castilleja caudata {Pennell) Rebr. 6693 Cerastium beeringianum Cham. & Schlecht. 6534, 6569 Chrysanthemum bipinnatum L. ssp. bipinnatum 6596, 6662 Chrysanthemum integrifo/ium Richards. 6653 Chrysosp/enium tetrandrum (Lund) T. Fries 6542 Cochlearia officina/is L. ssp. arctica {Schlecht.) Hult. 6520, 6560 67 Comarum palustre L. 6625 Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv. 6632 Descurainia sophioides (Fisch.) Schulz 6661 Draba borealis DC. 6522 Draba cinerea Adams 6535, 6689 Draba corymbosa R.Br. ex DC. 6688 Draba glabella Pursh. 6690a Draba lac tea Adams 6521, 6577 Dryas integrifolia M. Vahl 6533 Dupontia fisheri R.Br. ssp. fisheri (=D. pelligera Rupr.) 6567 Empetrum nigrum L. ssp. hermaphroditum (Lange) Bacher 6611 Epi/obium /atifo/ium L. 6565 Equisetum arvense L. 6541 Equisetum variegatum Schleich. 6703 Erigeron eriocepha/us J. Vahl 6620 Erigeron humilis Grah. 6669 Eriophorum angustifo/ium Honck. ssp. subarcticum (Vassiljev.) Hult. 6557 Eriophorum scheuchzeri Hoppe 6519, 6545, 65 63 Eriophorum triste (T.Fr.) Hadac & Love 6691 Eriophorum vaginatum L. 6564 Eritrichum aretioides (Cham.) DC. 6673 Erysimum pallasii (Pursh) Fern. 6671 Eutrema edwardsii R. Br. 6423 Festuca baffinensis Polunin 6685 Festuca brachyphylla Schultes 6525 Festuca rubra L. ssp. richardsonii {R. Br.) Hult. 6589 Gastrolychnisapetala (L.) Tolm. & Kozh. 6561 Gentianella propinqua (Richards.) Gillett 6665 Hieroch/oe· a!pina (Sw.) Roem. & Schult. ssp. alp ina 6552 Hieroch/oe paucif!ora R. Br. 6595 Hippuris vulgaris L. 6641 ]uncus arctica Willd. ssp. alaskanus Hult. 6677 ]uncus biglumis L. 6657,6676 ]uncus castaneus Sm. ssp. castaneus 6543 Kobresia myosuroides (Viii.) Fiori & Paol. 6590 Kobresia sibirica Turcz. 6647 Koeleria asiatica Domin 6645, 6660 Ledum palustre L. ssp. decumbens (A it.) Hult. 6582 Lupinus arcticus S. Wats. 6639 Luzula arctica Blytt 6550 LuzuJa confusa Linde b. 6551 Luzula kjellmaniana Miyabe & Kudo 6549 Luzula wahlenbergii Rupr. ssp. wahlenbergii 6570 Lycopodium selago L. 6581 Minuartia rubella (Wahlenb.) Graebn. 6591 Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill 6652 Oxytropis arctica R.Br. 6544 Oxytropis borealis DC. 6666 Papaver lapponicum (Tolm.) Nordh. ssp. occidentale (Lundstr.) Knaben 6531 Papaver macounii Greene 6527, 6654 Parnassia kotzebuei Cham. & Schlecht. 6576 Parrya nudicaulis {L.) Regel ssp.septentrionalis Hult. 6637 Pedicularis capita to Adams 6617 Pedicularis langsdorffii Fisch. ssp. arctica (R.Br.) Pennell 6633 Pedicularis sudetica Willd. ssp. a/bo/abiata Hult. 6598 Petasites frigidus (L.) Franch. 6636 Phippsiaalgida (Soland.) R.Br. 6518 Poa alpigena (E. Fries) Lindm. 6698 Poa glauco M. Vahl 6592, 6630 Poa malacantha Komarov 6517, 6566, 6628 Poa sp. 6667 Polemonium acutiflorum Willd. 6587 Polemonium boreale Adams ssp. boreale 6619 Potentilla hookeriana Lehm. ssp. hookeriana Potentilla hyparctica Malte 6699 Puccinellia andersonii Swallen 6675 Pyrola grandiflora Radius 6606 Ranunculus gmelinii DC. 6696 Ranunculus nivalis L. 6700 Ranunculus pal/asii Schlecht. 6578 Ranunculus pedatifidus Sm. ssp affinis (R.Br.) Hult. 6528, 6658 Rubus chamaemorus L. 6607 Salix alaxensis (Anderss.) Cov. ssp. alaxensis 6679 Salix arctica Pall. 6622, 6643 Salix brachycarpa Nutt. ssp. niphoclada (Rydb.) Argus 6680 Salix glauco L. var.glauca 6623,6668 Salix lunata L. ssp. richardsonii {Hook.) Skvortz. 6539 Salix phlebophyl/a Anderss. 6556 Salix planifolia Pursh ssp.pulchra (Cham.) Argus var.pulchra 6540 Salix reticulata L. 6612 Salix rotundifolia Trautv. 6642 Saussurea angustifolia (Willd.) DC. 6651 Saxifraga caespitosa L. 6655 Saxifraga cernua L. 6585 Saxifraga hieracifolia Waldst. & Kit. 6624 Saxifraga hirculus L. 6553 Saxifraga nelsoniana D. Don 6548 Saxifraga nivalis L. 6694 Saxifraga rivularis L. (including S. hyperborea R. Br.) 6579 Senecio atropurpureus (Ledeb.) Fedtsch 6547,6593 an un- usual branched form Senecio congestus (R.Br.) DC. 6568 Silene acaulis L. ssp. acaulis 6659 Sparganium hyperboreum Laest. 6702 Stellaria edwardsii R.Br. 6562 Stellaria laeta Richards. 6555 Taraxacum alaskanum Rydb. 6695 Taraxacum phymatocarpum j. Vahl 6683 Taraxacum sp. 6635, 6674 Tofieldia pusilla (Michx.) Pers. 6610 Trisetum spicatum (L.) Richt. ssp. spicatum 6524 Utricularia vulgaris L. ssp. macrorhiza (LeConte) Clausen Vaccinium uliginosum L. ssp.microphyllum Lange 6615 Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. ssp. minus (Lodd.) Hult. 6609 Valeriano capitata Pall. 6644 Wilhelmsia physodes {Fisch.) McNeill 6656, 6678 -68 APPENDIX D: ALPHABETICAL LIST OF BRYOPHYTES AND LICHENS COLLECTED AT FISH CREEK SITE (B.M. Murray) Bryophytes Hepatics (Th!l hepatics were identified by H. Inoue, National_?cience Museum, Tokyo, Japan.) Anastrophy!lum cavifo/ium (Buch & Arnell) Lammes (= Lophozia cavifo!ia) S: 77-881,897,980 AWJ-3,4,9 Upland and high-centered polygons Anastrophy!lum minutum (Schreb.) Schust. S: 77-868,873,927 AWJ-3 Under drums, boards and on turf over concrete pad. Aneura pinguis (L.) Dum. S: 77-829,897,904. C: 77-1045,1046 AWJ-1,4 On side of berm of bladed trail, in burrow area and in Cassiope heath near stream. Anthe!ia juratzkana ( Limpr.) Trev. C: 77-1093,1228,1232 Stream bank. Arne!lia fennica (Gott.) Lindb. C: 77-1060 Cassiope heath on ridge. 8/epharostoma trichophy!lum (L.) Dum. S: 77-794,892,904,934,980,994,1104. C: 77-1044, 1209 AWJ-4, 9, 12 Sheltered under drums and on tussocks, hummocks, heath, upland and polygons. Cepha!ozia p!eniceps (Aust.) Lindb. S: 77-799,895,904,1007. C: 77-1044. AWJ-1,4, 14 Top of berm of bladed trail, wet meadow and in heath near stream. Cepha!ozie/la arctica Bryhn & Douin S:· 77-1024 On bare sandy soil, oil spill area. Dip!ophy!lum taxifolium (Wahlenb.) Dum. S: 77-897 AWJ-4 High-centered polygons. Lophozia co/loris (Nees) Dum. S: 77-812 AWJ-1 On berm of bladed trail. According to H. Inoue (in /itt., April 1978) this species is new to Alaska. Lophozia ehrhartiana (Web.) Inoue & Steere(= L. a!pestris) C: 77-1046 Cassiope heath near stream. Lophozia grandiretis (Lind b.) Schiffn. S: 77-861,973 AWJ-3, 8 Upland and berm at edge of bladed trail. 69 Lophozia heteroco!pa (Thed.) M.A. Howe C: 77-1229 Stream bank. Lophozia opacifolia Culm. S: 77-914. C: 77-1224. AWJ-4 High-centered polygons and ridge. Lophozia quadri!oba (Lindb.) Evans S: 77-915,1023. C: 77-1231 AWJ-4,9 High-centered polygons, wet sedge meadow, and stream bank.· Lophozia ventricosa (Dicks.) Dum. C: 77-1210 Heath. Lophozia ?wenzelii (Nees) Steph. S: 77-973 AWJ-8 Berm at edge of bladed trail. Mannia fragrans (Balbis) Frye & Clark C: 77-1239. B: 77-1146,1165 River banks and steep sandy bluff. Marchantia po/ymorpha L. S: 77-822,845, 880, 990, 1024 AWJ-1,3, 10 Bladed trail, wet sedge meadow, bare sandy soil in oil spill area. Marsupe/la arctica (Berggr.) Bryhn & Kaal. S: 77-8l1 AWJ-1 On berm of bladed .trail •. Odontosch/sma macounii (Au.st.) Underw. C: 77-1046, 1125 Cassiope heath near stream and center of low-centered poly- gon, wet sedge meadow. Pre/ssia quadrata (Scop.) Nees C: 77-1096 North-facing bank near stream. Ptilidium ciliare (L.) Hampe S: 77-786,827. C: 77-1210,1230 AWJ-1 Side of berm of bladed trail, among tussocks, heath, and stream bank. Riccardia !atifrons Lind b. C: 77-1114 Wet sedge meadow. Scapania degenii Schiffn. ex K. Muell. S: 77-997 AWJ-12 Sedge tussock-heath on high-centered polygons. Scapania parvifolia Warnst. C: 77-1210 Heath. Tritomaria quinquedentata (Huds.) Buch S: 77-958, 994 AW]-6, 12 Sedge tussock-heath on high-centered polygons. Mosses Aplodon wormskjo!dii (Hornem.) R.Br. S: 77-796 Bladed trail (AW]-1, 2), in erosional ditch or melting ice- wedge. Au/acomnium acuminatum (Lindb. & Arnell) Kindb. C: 77-1027. B: 77-1190 Heath and bluff. Au/acomnium palustre (Hedw.) Schwaegr. S: 77-783,806,878,885. C: 77-1066,1081,1100. AWJ-3,4 Wet sedge meadow, heath, sandy burrow area, berm of bladed trail (AJW 1, 2). Au/acomnium turgidum (Wahlenb.) Schwaegr. S: 77-779,783,786,878,884,890,977,998,1002. C: 77-1120. B: 77-1190. AW J-3, 4, 9, 12, 13 Tussocks, wet sedge meadow, heath, bluff. Barbuto sp. nov.? S: 77-813B, det. R.H. Zander, 1978 AWJ-1 On berm of bladed trail. I have collected this taxon also in the Brooks Range near Galbraith Lake and the Alatna River. Bartramia ithyphyl!a Brid. C: 77-1059, 1161 Heath. Brachythecium spp. Several collections have not yet been identified. Bryobrittonia !ongipes (Mitt.) Horton(= B. pel!ucida) S: 77-849. B: 77-1163 AWJ-2 Wet meadow in bladed trail and low, periodically flooded river bank. Bryoerythrophyl!um recurvirostrum (Hedw.) Chen S: 77-810,815. C: 77-1088 AW]-1 Berm and side of berm of bladed trail and rich grassy knoll with ground squirrel burrow. Bryum spp. Most Bryum collections have not yet been identified. Many are sterile and difficult to determine. Bryum cryophi/um M~rt. S: 77-1010 AW]-14 Wet meadow. Cal!iergon spp. Several collections have not been identified. Calfiergon giganteum (Schimp.) Kindb. C: 77-944,1092 In stream. Calliergon richardsonii (Mitt.) Kindb. ex Warnst. S: 77-855. C: 77-1105 Wet meadow, including bladed trail (AW]-1). Campy!ium arcticum Williams S: 77-767,854, 928. B: 77-1187 Wet meadow, including trail (A W J -1) and on wood and rotting canvas. Campy/ium stel/atum (Hedw.) C. ]ens. S: 77-758,853,985,1013,1017. C: 77-1107,1238 AW]-10 Wet meadow, including bladed trail (AW]-1, 2) and heath. In garbage dump and on concrete from cement bag dump at site. 70 Catoscopium nigritum (Hedw.) Brid. C: 77-1115 Wet sedge meadow. Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Brid. S: 77-756,762,766,771,874,876,880,924,925,935, 964,993,1016. C: 77-1075,1086 AW]-3, 12 Frequent at Test Well on bare soil where oil was spilled and on various substrates (wood, airplane fabric, rotting can- vas, turf over concrete, concrete); also in heath and rich grassy knoll with ground squirrel burrow. Cinclidium spp. Several collections have not yet been identified. Cinc/idium subrotundum Lind b. S: 77-782, 787 Tussock and wet sedge meadow. Cirriphyl/um cirrosum (Schwaegr. ex Schultes) Grout B: 77-1180 Bluff. Climacium dendroides (Hedw.) Web. & Mohr C: 77-945 Periodically flooded stream bank. Conostomum tetragonum (Hedw.) Lindb. C: 77-1041 Depression in heath. Cyrtomnium Collections have not yet been identified. Desmatodon heimii (Hedw.) Mitt. S: 77-816 Side of berm of bladed trail (AW]-1, 2). Dicranel!a crispa (Hedw.) Schimp. S: 77-817 Side of berm of bladed trail (AW J-1., 2). Many Dicranum specimens have only been tentatively identified as yet and are not reported here. Dicranum e/ongatum Schleich. ex Schwaegr. C: 77-1077,1225 Ridge and sedge-forb meadow. Dicranum groen/andicum Brid. S: 77-858,893,1022 AW]-3,4,near9 Wet sedge meadows, often in Sphagnum hummock. Dicranum scoparium Hedw. S: 77-886 AWJ-4 Heath. Didymodon cf. acutus (Brid.) K. Saito S: 77-825,det. R.H.Zander, 1978 AW]-1 Side of berm of bladed trail. Distichium capil/aceum (Hedw.) B.S.G. S: 77-818,831,847,1014. C: 77-1034,1057,1100. B: 77-1129, 1148,1180,1182 Side of berm and wet meadow of bladed trail (AW J -1, 2), heath, rich grassy knoll with groun<;l squirrel burrow, and sandy bluffs and terraces. Also on concrete at cement bag dump. Distichium hagenii Ryan ex Philib. S: 77-824 Side of berm of bladed trail (AW]-1, 2) at animal burrow. Ditrichum flexicau/e (Schwaegr.) Hampe B: 77-1153 Sandy bluff. Several Drepanoc/adus collections have not yet been identi- fied. Drepanocladus revolvens (Sw.) Warnst. S: 77-764,784,839,844,894,900,899. C: 77-1102,1105,1108,1116. B: 77-1175 AWJ-4, 10 Wet sedge meadows, including bladed trail (AW J -1, 2) and on airplane fabric. Drepanoc/adus uncinatus (Hedw.) Warnst. S: 77-761,828,923,929,991. C: 77-947,1072,1213. B: 77-1188,1190 AWJ-12 Stream bank, heath and bluff. At Test Well site in areas with animal droppings and burrows and on woQd, air- plane fabric, and wet canvas. Encalypta afpina Sm. S: 77-824 Side of berm of bladed trail (AWJ-1) in burrow area. Enca!ypta procera Bruch B: 77-1142,1145,1147 Steep sandy bluff. Encalypta rhaptocarpa Schwaegr. C: 77-1062,1079. B: 77-1129; 1139 Heath and sandy burrow area and sandy bluff. Fissidens osmundoides Hedw. S: 77-987. C: 77-1069,1113,1122 AW)-10 Wet sedge meadow and sedge-forb meadow. Funaria arctica (Berggr.) Kind b. S: 77-809,826. B: 77-1197 On berm and side of berm of bladed trail (AW J-1) in bur- row area and in slump on sandy bluff. Hy!ocomium splendens (Hedw.) B.S.G. S: 77-886. C: 77-1026,1050,1070,1073,1202 AWJ-4 Heath. Hypnum collections have not yet been identified. Leptobryum pyriforme (B.S.G:) Wils. S: 77-766, 795,820,840A,930,965, 1012,1015. B: 77-1193, 1199 AW)-7 Wet meadow and berm of bladed trail (AWJ-1, 2) on soil at oil spill, in garbage drums, on concrete at cement bag dump, on wet and rotting canvas and on sandy bluff and in slump at bluff. Meesia triquetra (Richt.) Aongstr. S: 77-784,835. C: 77-1105,1117 Wet sedge meadow, including bladed trail (AW J -1, 2). Meesia uliginosa Hedw. C: 77-1097 Wet meadow, center of low-centered polygon. Mnium collections have not yet been identifi~:d. Myurelfa julacea (Schwaegr.) B.S.G. C: 77-1115 Wet sedge meadow. Myure!fa tenerrima (Brid.) Lindb. C: 77-1057 Heath. Oncophorus wahlenbergii Brid. S: 77-786,894,900,986,1008. C: 77-1069,1101,1119, 1227 AWJ-4, 10,14 Tussocks, wet sedge meadow, sedge-forb meadow, and heath. Orthothecium chryseum (Schwaegr. ex Schultes) B.S.G. C: 77-1111 Hummock in wet sedge meadow. 71 Orthothecium strictum Lor. B: 77-1181 Heath. Paludella squarrosa (Hedw.) Brid. C: 77-945,946, 1235 Heath and periodically flooded stream bank. One specimen of Philonotis from heath has not yet been identified. Several specimens of Pohlia have not yet been identified. Pohlia bulbifera (Warnst.) Warnst. S: 77-870 AWJ-3 Under boards, much microtine sign. Poh/ia cruda (Hedw.) Lindb. S: 77-760,8698,933 AWJ-3 Under barrels, some microtine sign and on airplane fabric. Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lind b. S: 77-779 In crack in melting ice-wedge polygon. Pohlia proligera (Kindb. ex Limpr.) Lind b. ex Arnell S: 77-869 AWJ-3 Under boards, much microtine sign. Polytrichastrum a/pinum (Hedw.), G.L. Smith S: 77-830, 865, 913, 963, 1005 AW)-3,4,6,14 Side of berm of bladed trail (AWJ-1) near animal burrows and wet meadow. Polytrichum commune s. lat. C: 77-949 Periodically flooded stream bank. Polytrichum hyperboreum R.Br. S: 77-913,963 AW):4, 6 Heath. Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw. S: 77-877,999. C: 77-1078 AWJ-3, 12 Heath and sedge-forb meadow. Polytrichum strictum Brid. S: 77-864, 893 AW)-3, 4 Heath, in depressions. Psilopilum cavifolium (Wils.) Hag. S: 77-798,823,879,902,942. B: 77-1192,1198 AWJ-3, 4 Top and side of berm .of bladed trail (AW)-1, 2), under wood, .. on bluff and in slump. Frequent at Test Well site. Rhacomitrium lanuginosum (Hedw.) Brid. S: 77-886.C: 77-1026 AWJ-4 Heath. Rhytidium rugosum (Hedw.) Kindb. S: 77-884. C: 77-1026,1071,1089. B: 77-1189 AW)-4 Dominant moss on rich grassy knoll with ground squirrel burrow, also in heath and on bluff. Scorpidium scorpioiodes (Hedw.) Limpr. S: 77-785. C: 77-943,1092,1098,1099,1110 Wet sedge meadow and in stream. Sphagnum aongstroemii C. Hartm. S: 77-774 Forming lawn in wet meadow. Sphagnum balticum (Russ.) Russ. ex C. )ens. S: 77-912 AWJ-4 Among tussocks in heath. Sphagnum capi!lifolium (Ehrh.) Hedw. var. tenel/um (Schimp.) Crum (= S. capillaceum var. tenel/um) S: 77-791, 901, 911, 979. C: 77-950, 954 AWJ-3,9 On hummocks, centers of high-centered and ice-wedge poly- gons and on stream bank. Sphagnum fimbrlatum Hook. & Wils. S: 77-907,909,1001,1011,1021. C: 77-1124,1223 AWJ-4, near 9, 13,14 Hummocks in wet sedge meadows and on ridge. Sphagnum girgensohnii Russ. S: 77-910, det H. Crum, 1978 AWJ-4 Hummock in wet sedge meadow Sphagnum imbricatum Hornsch. ex Russ. S: 77-776 Edge of tundra pool. Sphagnum squarrosum Crome S: 77-787, 790, 805, 1020 AW)-near 9 On berm of bladed trail (AW )·1, 2) and on hummocks in wet sedge meadow. Sp/achnum sphaericum Hedw. S: 77-841 On dung in bladed trail, wet meadow. Sp/achnum vascu/osum Hedw. S: 77-8408 On dung in bladed trail, wet meadow. Tetraplodon mnioides (Hedw.) B.S.G. S: 77-887, 992. C: 77-1203 AWJ-4, 12 Heath. Tetraplodon pa!lidus Hag. S: 77-786, 840 AWJ-1,2 On dung on tussock and in wet meadow of bladed trail. Tetrap/odon paradoxus (R.Br.) Hag. S: 77-764,778,786, 840A On dung on tussock and in wet meadow of bladed trail (AWJ-1, 2), also on airplane fabric and in crack of melt- ing ice-wedge. Thuidium abietinum (Hedw.) B.S.B. C: 77-1050,1081,1089,1200. B: 77-1179 Heaths and animal burrow areas. Tomenthypnum nitens (Hedw.) Loeske S: 77-840A,842. C: 77-951,1032,1050,1100,1201, 1214. B: 77-1190 Wet meadow of bladed trail (AW J-1, 2), heath, stream bank, bluff, and margin of low-centered ice-wedge polygon.' Tarte/la fragilis (Drumm.) Limpr. C: 77-1118,1205. B: 77-1178,1183 Wet sedge meadow, heath, and bluff. Tortula ruralis (Hedw.) Gaertn., Meyer & Scherb. S: 77-927. Co/.i 77·1085. B: 77-1128,1143 On turf over concrete, rich grassy knoll with ground squirrel burrow, and sandy bluff and blowouts. Lichens Several Alectqr/a collections have not yet been identified. A tectoria nigricans (Ach.) Nyl. --... S: 77-899,908. B: 77-1137 72 AWJ-4 Heath and sandy bluff. Alectoria nitidu/a (Th. Fr.) Vain. S: 77-899 AWJ-4 Heath. A/ectoria ochro/euca (Hoffm.) Mass. S: 77-862,889,1004. C: 77-1031,1067 AWJ-3,4, 13 Heath and sedge-forb meadow. Asahinea chrysantha (Tuck.) W. Cui b. & C. Cui b. C: 77-1027 Heath. Several Caloplaca collections have not yet been identified. Ca/op/aca stillicidiorum (Vahl) Lynge S: 77-937,938 On board and on turf over oil drum. Cetraria cucu//ata (Bell.) Ach. S: 77-801,862,889,924,981,1000,1004. C: 77-1029,1065,1067,1071,1218. B: 77-1143,1185 AWJ-3,4,9, 12, 13,14 Berm of bladed trail (AW J-1, 2) heath, sedge-forb meadow, rich grassy knoll with ground squirrel burrow, bluff; also on wood at Test Well site. Cetraria delisei (Bory ex Schaer.) Th. Fr. C: 77-1042,1220 Heath, in depressions. Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. S: 77-802,862,886,889,924, 1000. C: 77-1033,1071,1219 AWJ-3,4, 12 On berm of bladed trail, heath, rich grassy knoll with ground squirrel burrow, also on wood at Test Well site. Cetraria nivalis ( L.) Ach. C: 77-1029,1217. B: 77-1186 Heath and bluff. Cetraria orbata (Nyl.) Fink S: 77-753A, determination verified by T.L. Esslinger. On exposed board. It is interesting that Weber, Erdman and Krog (1969) in reporting C. cifiaris (C. orbata) from Amchitka Island, said, "On a felled uti I ity pole; possibly an adventive species introduced during World War II occupation." Cetraria pinastri (Scop.) S. Gray S: 77-754 On exposed board, totally sorediate thallus. Cetraria sepinco/a (Ehrh.) Ach. S: 77-753B, det. T.L. Esslinger. On exposed board. Cfadina spp. which were very rare, have not been identified. Most Cladonia collections have not yet been identified. Cladonia chlorophaea (Fioerke ex Somm.) Spreng. S: 77-867 AWJ-3 Heath. Cladonia elongata (jacq.) Hoffm. S: 77-921 AWJ-4 Heath. C/adonia pleurota (Fioerke) Schaer. S: 77-972 AWJ-8 Berm of bladed trail (AWJ-1,2). Cladonia pocil/um (Ach.) 0. Rich. S: 77-1025. C: 77-1058,1083,1090,1208. B: 77-1159 Heath, bluff and burrow areas. 1~-- I Coriscium viride (Ach.) Vain S: 77-1019 In Sphagnum fimbriatum hummock, wet sedge meadow. Cornicu!aria divergens Ach. S: 77-1004. C: 77-1031,1065 AWJ-13 Heath. Dactyl ina arctica (Hook.) Nyl. S: 77-862,889,981,1000,1004. C: 77-1067,1071,1218 AWJ-3,4,9, 12, 13,14 Heath and sedge-forb meadow. Dactyl ina ramu/osa (Hook.) Tuck. C: 77-1048 Heath near stream. Lecanora epibryon (Ach.) Ach. ,C: 77-1052. B: 77-1144,1172,1184 Heath, bluff, and overbank deposits. Lobaria !inita (Ach.) Rabenh. C: 77-1030,1070,1214 Heath. Masonhalea richardsonii (Hook.) Karnefelt (=Cetraria richardsonii) C: 77-1084,1214. B: 77-1151 Heath, rich grassy knoll, in sheltered site and on steep sandy bluff. Nephroma arcticum (L.) Torss. C: 77-1103 Margin of low-centered ice-wedge polygon. Nephroma expal!idum (Nyl.) Nyl. C: 77-1082,1206 Heath and sandy burrow area. Ochro!echia frigida (Sw.) Lynge f. the/ephoroides (Th. Fr.) Lynge S: 77-859,879. C: 1051 AWJ-3 Heath and under boards in area of microtine sign. Ochro/echia upsa!iensis (L.) Mass. C: 77-1054 Heath. Pannaria pezizoides (G. Web.) Trev. S: 77-888. C: 77-1095,1234 AWJ-4 Heath and stream bank. Parme!ia o/ivacea (L.) Ach. S: 77-7538, det. T.L. Esslinger. On exposed board. Peltigeraaphthosa (L.) Willd. S: 77-788. C: 77-1032 Tussocks and heath. Peltigera !epidophora (Nyl.) Vain. S:·'-77-765 On airplane fabric. Pe/tigera /eucophlebia (Nyl.) Gyeln. S: 77-917 AWJ-4 Heath. Peltigera ma!acea (Ach.) Funck S: 77-857' 917 AWJ-3,4 Heath. Pe!tigera cf. spuria (Ach.) DC. B: 77-1149 Steep sandy bluff. 73 Pertusaria bryontha (Ach.) Nyl. C: 77-1208 Heath. Solorina bispora Nyl. C: 77-1215. B: 1150 Heath and steep sandy bluff. So/orina octospora Arn. C: 77-1049 Heath, near stream. So/orina spongiosa (Sm.) Anzi C: 77-1056 Heath. Sphaerophorus g/obosus (H uds.) Vain. S: 77-862. C: 77-1026 AWJ-3 Heath. Stereocaulon specimens have not been identified. Thamno!ia S: 77-803,889,924,981,1000. C: 77-1028,1217. B: 77-1185 AWJ-4, 9, 12, 14 Berm of bladed trail (AW J-1, 2), heath, and bluff; also on wood at Test Well site. Specimens have not yet been tested with ultraviolet light to determine whether they are referrable to T. vermicu- /aris or T. subuliformis. , APPENDIX E: VASCULAR PLANT COMPOSITION AND PERCENTAGE COVER IN RELEVES REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE FISH CREEK MAPPING UNITS {V. Komarkovaand P.j. Webber) Mapping unit number -::,---------,,---2--:---=-----5--=----:--:----=----,-6.,.-------=--'7:----~-8-----,--=-....,...,,---'-0~---:--Area too small for a mapping unit Evergreen Seasonal Evergreen Deciduous Deciduous Deciduous Seasonal Deciduous Seasonal Seasonal Seasonal open Vegetation classification ---------------'d'-'w'-'a:;;r::.;f..::.s..:.c::.;ru.:..:..b short grass dwarf scrub dwarf scrub shrub savanna shrub savanna short grass dwarf scrub short grass short grass submerged meadow Landform Ridge Reteve 6 9 A!opecurus a/pinus ssp. a/pinus • Alsinanthe rossii (R.Br.) Love & • Love(= Minuartia rossii (R.Br.) Graebn. Androsace chamaejasme Host ssp. • /ehmanniana (Spreng.) Hulten Androsace septentrional is L. • Antennaria monocephala DC. ssp. • angustata (Greene) (= Anten- naria angustata Greene) Arctagrostis arundinacea (Trin.) • Beal Arctagrostis /atifolia ( R .Br.) Griseb., s.str. I= Arctagrostis /atifolia (R.Br.) Griseb. var. /atifolia] Arc tophi/a fu/va (Trin.) Anderss. Arctous alp ina ( L.) N iedenzu ssp. rubra (Rehd. & Wils.) Hulten [=Arctostaphylos rubra (Rehd. & Wils.) Fern.] Artemisia arctica Less., s.str. Astragalus a/pinus L. var. a/pinus Astragalus umbellatus Bge. Betula nona L. ssp. exit is (Sukacz.) Hulten Bistorta p/umosa (Small} Greene [= Po/ygonum bistorta L. ssp. p/umosum (Smali) Hulten] Bistorta vivipara ( L.) S.F. gray, s.str. (= Po/ygonum viviparum L.) Caltha minor Mill. ssp. arctica (R.Br.) Love & Love (=Caltha arctica R.Br.l + Present but less than 1%. • Absent. -Single plants only. • • • • • + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 10 • + • Up/and 1 • • • • • + • • • • • • + 2 • Strange in Man-disturbed Arctic ground ---: 2 _s-'n"'-o'-w-'p'--a __ t_c_h 5 -=-__ 4 .:::L_:_o_w_la __ n_d_ 1 :-: 3 :-Strangmoor Marsh ground 15 _s_,.q_u'-ir.c.rec.c.l_m_;:_o.;;.uc..:.n_d ___ S;:...::.:.tr..:.e 7 .:::am.;_;_ __ _ 10 3 11 12 14 8 • • • 2 • • • • • + • • 4 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 • • • • • • + • • + • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 • • • • • • 18 • • • 3 12 4 • • + • • • • • • • 30 • • • • • • 2 • • • • + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • + • • • • • • • 2 J 2 5 6 7 8 70 Mapping unit number Vegetation classification Evergreen Seasonal Evergreen Deciduous Deciduous Deciduous Seasonal Deciduous Seasonal dwarf scrub short grass dwarf scrub dwarf scrub shrub savanna shrub savanna short grass dwarf scrub short grass Landform Ridge Relev'd 6 9 Cardamine nymanii Gandoger [= Cardamine pratensis L. ssp. angustifolia (Hook.) O.E. Schulz] Cardamine richardsonii Hulten (= Cardamine hyperborea O.E. Schulz, p.p.) Carex aquatilis Wg. ssp. stans (Drejer) Hulten • • • Carex atrofusca Schkuhr • Carex bigelowii Torr. ssp. bigelowii • Carex chordorrhiza Ehrh. • Carex fuliginosa Schkuhr ssp. misandra (R.Br.) W. Dietr. (= Carex misandra R.Br.) Carex lachenalii Schkuhr (= Carex tripartita All.) Carex membranacea Hook. Carex nard ina Fr. ssp. hepburnii (Boott) Love, Love & Kapoor • • • Carex rariflora (Wg.) Sm., s.str. • Carex rotundata Wg. • Carex rupestris All. 3 Carex saxati/is L. ssp.laxa (Trautv.) • Kalela, s.str. Carex scirpoidea Michx. ssp. • stenochlaena (Holm) Love & Love Carex vaginata Tausch ssp. vaginata • Carex williamsii Britt. • Cassiope tetragona (L.) D. Don ssp. tetragona Cerastium beeringianum Cham. & • Schlecht. var. grandiflorum (Fenzl) Hulten Comarum palustre L., s.str. • [= Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop.] + Present but less than 1%. • Absent. -Single plants only. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 25 • • Upland 7 • + • • 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • 3 • • Snowpatch 2 5 • • 3 • • • • + • • • • • • • • • • • • + • • + • • • • • • • • • + • • 75 • • Lowland 4 73 • + 5 • 15 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • + 20 1 35 • + • • • • • • • • • • 4 • • Strange in Man-disturbed Strangmoor Marsh ground lD 3 77 7 2 74 • 35 • 6 • + • • • • • • • • + 6 • • • • • • • • 60 70 8 • • • • • • + • + ••• • • 5 • • • • • • 4 • 5 • 2 • ••• • • • ••• • • + • • • • •• 3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • + • • + • 75 • • 2 • 5 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Area too small for a mapping unit Seasonal Seasonal open short grass submerged meadow Arctic ground squirrel mound __ S=tr-=e;.a:.:.m;_ __ _ 8 7 • • • • • • • • 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • 3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • :-------~---------------------------------------------------------· ---- 2 Mapping unit number Vegetation classification Evergreen Seasonal dwarf scrub short grass Ridge Landform Releve 6 9 Deschampsia brevifolia R.Br., s.str. • Draba alp ina L. s.str. (= Draba • pilosa DC.) Draba cinerea Adams, s.str. • Dryas integrifolia M. Vahl ssp. 60 integrifol ia Dupontia psilosantha Rupr. • [= Dupontia fisheri R.Br. ssp. pilosantha (Rupr.) Hulten] Equisetum arvense L. • Erigeron eriocephalus J. Vahl • [=Erigeron uniflorus L. ssp. eriocephalus (J. Vahl) Cronq. Erigeron humilis Grah. • Eriophorun angustifolium Honck. ssp. subarcticum (V. Vassil.) Hulten Eriophorum russeolum Fr. ssp. russeolum Eriophorum scheuchzeri Hoppe Eriophorum vaginatum L. ssp. spissum (Fern.) Hulten Eutreme edwardsii R.Br. Festuca brachyphylla Schult. & Schult. Gastrolychnis apetala (L.) Tolm. & K.ozh., s.str. ssp. uralensis (Rupr.) Love & Love [=Mel- andrium apetalum (L.) Fenzl ssp.arcticum (Fr.) Hulten, p.p.] Hierochloepauciflora R.Br. Hippochaete variegata (Schleich.) Bruhin ssp. variegata (= Equi- setum variegatum Schleich. ssp. variegatum) Hippuris vulgaris L. + Present but less than 1%. • Absent. -Single plants only. • • I!• • • • • • • • • • .. 30 • • • • • • • • + • • • • Upland 1 • • • • • • • • • • • 60 + • • • • • 5 6 7 8 Evergreen Deciduous Deciduous .Deciduous Seasonal dwarf scrub dwarf scrub shrub savanna shrub savanna short grass 2 • • • • • 2 • 2 • • • • • • • • • • Snowpatch 5 • + • 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4 • • • + • • • • • • • 30 • • • • • • Strange in Lowland Strangmoor 13 10 • • • 18 • • • 2 • • 2 • + • • • • • • 5 • • • • + • • 4 • • • • • Marsh 3 11 12 • • • • • • • • • • • 8 2 • • •• ••• • • • + 2 • 3 + • • 4 • • • • • ••• •• + • • • • + ••• 10 Area too small for a mapping unit Deciduous Seasonal Seasonal Seasonal open dwarf scrub short grass shor.t grass submerged meadow Man-disturbed Arctic ground ground 14 15 + • • 2 • • + • + • • • • • • 3 • • + • • • • • • 2 • • • • • • • • • squirrel mound ___ S_tr-=e=-a_m __ _ 8 7 • • 2 5 • • 2 • • • • • • + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 10 J 2 5 6 7 8 70 Area too small for a mapping unit Mapping unit number Vegetation classification Evergreen Seasonal Evergreen Deciduous Deciduous Deciduous Seasonal Deciduous Seasonal Seasonal Seasonal open dwarf scruh short grass dwarf scrub dwarf scrub shrub savanna shrub savanna short grass dwarf scrub short grass short grass submerged meadow Ridge ~.andfprm Releve 6 9 }uncus albescens Fern. [=}uncus tri{jlumis L. ssp. albescens (Lange) Hulten] }uncus biglumis L. Kobresia myosuroides (Viii.) Fiori & Paol. Koeleria asiatica Domin Ledum palustre L. ssp. decumbens (Ait.) Hulten Luzula arctica Blytt Luzula confusa Lindeb., s.str. Luzula kje/lmaniana Miyabe & Kudo, s.str. (= Luzula tundri- cola Gorodk.) Nardosmia frigida (L.) Hook. [ = Petasites frigid us ( L.) Fr.] Oxytropis gorodkovii jurtsev {= Oxytropis nigrescens (Pall.) Fisch. ssp. pygmaea (Pall.) Hulten] Papaver radicatum Rottb., s.str. ssp. radicatum (=Papaver radi- catum Rottb. ssp. occidentale Lundstr.) • • 4 • • • • • • 3 • Parnassia kotzebuei Cham. & • Schlecht., s.str. Parrya nudicaulis (L.) Rgl. ssp. • septentrionalis Pedicularis capitata Adams Pedicularis lanata Cham. & • Schlecht. ssp.lanata (= Ped- icularis kanei Durand ssp. kanei) Pedicularis langsdorffii Fisch. ssp. • arctica (R.Br.) Pennell Pedicularis sudetica Willd. ssp. • albolabiata Hulten Poa arctica R.Br., s.str. + Poa glauco M. Vahl • +Present but less than 1%. • Absent. -Single plants only. • • • • • + • 2 • • • • 2 • • • + • Upland 7 • • • • 8 + • • • • + • • • • • • • Strange in Man-disturbed Arctic ground ---~S:.;.n:.;.o:..:w.:.!p:.;a:.;t:..:c:.;.h ___ .::L:.:o.:.:w.:.:la::.n;_:d:..__ ..:S::.:t:.:.r.:.an:..::g=c;m:-:-::.o..:o.:..r_ .~M:.:;.,a;::rs::.:h= --:;-;-.:e.g;..cro:..:u:.;.n:..:d'--:;-;:---squirrel mound Stream 2 5 4 73 70 3 77 72 74 75 8 _ __;:..:.:...;7.:::.;.; __ _ • • • • • • • • 4 • • • + • • • • • • • • • • + + + • • + • • + • + • + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • + • • + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • + • • • • 3 • + 5 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 • • • • • • • • • + • • • 2 + + • + • 1 2 • • • • • 1 3 • • • • • • • • • • 25 • • .. 2 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 15 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~~~--~---------··----~--- 2 Mapping unit number Vegetation classification Evergreen Seasonal dwarf scrub short grass Ridge Landform Releve 6 9 Poa rigens Hartm. [= Poa alpigena (Fr.) Lindm.] Polemonium boreale Adams ssp. boreale Potentilla robbinsiana Oakes ssp. hyparctica (Malte) D. Love (= Potentilla hyparctica Malte) Pyrola grandif/ora Radius ssp. grandiflora • • • • Ranunculus nivalis L., s.str. • Ranunculus affinis R.Br., s.str. • [ = Ranunculus pedatifidus Sm. var. Leiocarpus (Trautv.) Fern.] Salix glauco L. ssp. acutifolia Hulten (=Salix seemanii Rydb.) Salix lanata L. ssp. richardsonii • (Hook.) Skvortsov Salix phlebophy/la Anderss. • Salix polaris Wg., s.str. • Salix pulchra Cham.[= Salix plani-• folia Pursh ssp. pulchra (Cham.) Argus] Salix reticulata L. • Salix rotundifolia Trautv. Saussurea angustifolia Willd., s.str. Saussurea viscida Hulten var. yukonensis (Pors.) Hulten Saxifraga cernua L. Saxifraga foliolosa R.Br., s.str. var. follolosa • • • • • Saxifraga hieraciifolia W. & K., s.str. • Saxifraga nelsoniana D. Don, s.str. • [Saxifraga punctata L. ssp. nel- soniana (D.Don) Hulten) Saxifraga propinqua R.Br. [= Saxi-• fraga hirculus L. var. propinqua (R.Br,) Simm.] Silene acaulis (L.) ssp. arctica Love & Love +Present but less than 1%. • Absent. -Single plants only. • • • + • • • • 15 • • • + • • + • + Upland 1 • • • + • • • • 4 • 6 • • • + • • • + • • 5 6 7 Evergreen Deciduous Deciduous Deciduous dwarf scrub dwarf scrub shrub savanna shrub savanna Strange in Snowpatch 2 5 • • • • • • • • • + 75 • • • • • 2 • • • • • + • • .. • • • • • 3 + • • • 3 • • Lowland 4 13 • • • 3 • • • • • • 55 3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7 • 3 • 8 • • • • • • • + . • Strangmoor 10 • • • 3 • • • • • • 25 6 • • • • • • • • 8 10 Seasonal Deciduous Seasonal short grass dwarf scrub short grass Man-disturbed -·----; Area too small for a mapping unit Seasonal Seasonal open short grass submerged meado~ Arctic ground ~M:;,.a::r:.;;.sh~---~.,.;g~r-=o.::u.:.:n.::d_...,.., __ squirrel mound Stream 3 11 12 74 15 8 ----=..:c....:.7.:.:c..;. __ • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• ••• • • • • •• • • • • • 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • + • • • • • •• • • + • • • • • • • • • • • • + 6 25 + • • • • + • + 15 • • • • • • • • 5 • • • 2 • • • • • 25 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • J Mapping unit number 2 5 6 7 8 10 Area too small for a mopping unit Evergreen Seasonal Evergreen Deciduous Deciduous Deciduous Seasonal Deciduous Seasonal Seasonal Seasonal open Vegetation classification dwarf scrub short grass dwarf scrub dwarf scrub shrub savanna shrub savanna short grass dwarf scrub short grass short grass submerged meadow Landform Stronge in Man-disturbed Arctic ground Ridge Upland Snowpatch Lowland Strangmoor Marsh ground squirrel mound Stream Relev~ 6 9 1 .2 5 4 13 10 J 11 12 14 15 8 7 Sparganium hyperboreum Laest, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 25 Stellaria edwardsii R.Br. • • + • • • • • • • • 8 • • Stellaria /aeta Richards. • • • • + + • • • • • + • • • Ste/laria monantha Hulten • • • • • • • • • • • • • + • Taraxacum ceratophorum (Ledeb.) • • • + • • • • • • • + • + • Dt. Tephroseris atropurpurea ( Ledeb.) • • + • + • + + • • • • • • • Love & Love ssp. frigida (Richards.) Love & Love [=Senecio atropurpureus (Ledeb.) B. Fedtsch. ssp. frigidus (Richards.) Hulten] Tofieldia pusilla (Michx.) Pers. • • • • • • • + • • • • • • • Trisetum spicatum (L.) Richt. • • • 2 • • • • • • • 5 • 0:> ssp. spicatum 0 Tryphane rubella (Wg.) Rchb., • • • • • • • • • • • • • + • s.str. [ = Minuartia rubella (Wg.) Hiern) Vaccinium gaultherioides Bigel. • • • • • + • • • • • • • • • (= Vaccinium ufiginosum L., p.p.) Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. ssp. • • 4 • + • • + • • • • • • • minus (Lodd.) Hulten Number of taxa 11 20 21 19 24 17 21 20 7 8 23 39 17 19 5 + Present but less than 1%. • Absent, -Single plants only. ----------------~------~------~- APPENDIX F: SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES FOR RELEVES REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE FISH CREEK MAPPING UNITS (V. Komarkova and P.J. Webber) Mapping unit number 2 5 6 7 8 70 Area too small for a mapping unit Vegetation classification Evergreen Seasonal Evergreen Deciduous Deciduous Deciduous Seasonal Deciduous Seasonal Seasonal Seasonal open dwarf scrub short grass dwarf scrub dwarf scrub shrub savanna shrub savanna short grass dwarf scrub short grass short grass submerged meadow Landform Strange in Man-disturbed Arctic ground Ridge Upland Snowpatch Lowland Strangmoor Marsh ground squirrel mound Stream Relev~ 6 9 7 2 5 4 73 70 -37TT2 74 75 8 7 Elevation (n'l.s.m.) 6 16 16 8 8 16 8 16 8 16 16 8 16 16 8 Slope aspect N NW SE s Slope inclination (0 ) 2 0 0 15 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Scale (0·10) Moisture site 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 7 88.5 8 4 5 3 10 Temperature 5 5 5 3 3 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 5 6 2 Snow 3 4 5 8 8 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 5 2 7 Wind 6 6 6 3 3 5 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 7 0 Surface age 6 7 7 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 1 1 2 1 Stability 5 6 8 4 6 7 5 6 3 3 5 3 4 I 1 2 Cryoturbation 5 8 7 3 4 6 4 8 2 2 4 0 0 Cover(%) 00 Vegetation 75 80 92 90 98 95 90 95 80 75 85 75 90 60 40 --" Shrubs 1 0 6 0 0 55 7 25 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Herbs 65 55 75 90 85 60 80 65 75 75 35 75 85 60 35 Cryptogams 25 35 30 10 45 18 40 40 5 8 65 3 8 5 10 Litter 6 15 18 10 10 18 15 25 35 25 15 15 35 10 8 Rock 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bare soil 15 18 3 3 2 3 8 5 10 40 15 25 10 55 90 Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 50 10 0 0 0 100 Height (em) Shrubs 8 0 15 0 0 20 25 20 0 0 0 7 10 0 0 Herbs 2 4 15 7 10 15 18 18 30 25 15 15 20 12 25 Cryptogams 1 2 4 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 1 4 Biomass scale (0-10) Overall 3 3 4 3 4 5 3 4 4 4 2 2.5 3 3 3 Shrubs 1 0 1 0 0 5 2 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Herbs 4 4 7 4 5 5 4 4 7 6 2 2.5 3 4 3 Cryptogams 2 3 3 1 5 4 3 4 1 1 4 1 2 2 i A facsimile catalog card in Library of Congress MARC format is reproduced below. Lawson, D.E. Tundra disturbances and recovery following the 1949 explora- tory drilling, Fish Creek, northern Alaska I by D.E. Lawson, J. Brown, K.R. Everett, A.W. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B.M. Murray, D.F. Murray and P.J. Webber. Hanover, N.H.: U.S. Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory; Springfield, Va.: available from National Technical Information Service, 1978. x, 91 p., illus.; 27 em. ( CRREL Report 78-28. ) Prepared for U.S. Geological Survey by Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory under DA Project 4A161102AT24. Bibliography: p. 54. Lawson, D.E. Tundra disturbances and recovery following ..• 1978 (Card 2) 1. Arctic regions. 2. Environmental effects. 3. Oil pollution. 4. Permafrost. 5. Tundra. 6. Vegetation. I. Brown, J. II. Everett, K.R. III. Johnson, A.W. IV. Komarkova, V. V. Murray, B.M. VI. Murray, D.F. VII. Webber, P.J. VIII. United States. Army. Corps of Engineers. Hanover, N.H. IX. Series: CRREL Report 78-28.